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 1863 
 
 v.3 
 
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 Printed &'Publi.sh< 
 
A 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, 
 
 ACCORDING TO THE GREAT NATURAL DIYISIONS OF THE GLOBE; 
 
 WITH 
 
 ANALYTICAL, SYNOPTICAL AND ELEMENTARY TABLES; 
 
 OR, 
 
 UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 BY M. MALTE-BRUN, 
 
 EDITOR OF THE “ANNALES DES V 0 Y A G E S,” ETC. 
 
 WITH ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS, 
 
 BY JAMES G. PERCIVAL. 
 
 A NEW EDITION: 
 
 CONTAINING RECENT GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES, CHANGES IN POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY, AND OTHER 
 
 VALUABLE ADDITIONS; 
 
 COMPILED FROM THE LATE FRENCH EDITIONS OF MALTE-BRUN, BY MM. HOOT AND LAVALL^E, AND OTHER LATE AUTHORITIES. 
 
 BY W. A. CRAFTS. 
 
 BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED WITH STEEL ENGRAVINGS AND FINE COLORED MAPS. 
 
 IN THREE VOLUMES. 
 
 T©L. III. 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 PUBLISHED BY SAMUEL WALKER, JR. 
 
 1 8 6 3 . 
 
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1863, by 
 Samuel Walker, Jr., 
 
 In the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT 
 
 qf^'o 
 
 v.3 
 
 The Geography of M. Malte-Brun has long been acknowledged as the most complete work of 
 its kind. It not only acquired a high reputation in the original French, but when translated into 
 English was admitted by the best critics to be superior to any English work. Its completeness 
 and general arrangement have been highly commended ; but it is the execution of the work, the 
 animated and attractive style in which it is written, that makes it especially worthy of praise. 
 It is not a dry treatise, but so abounds in interesting description and lively statement even of 
 philosophical views, that it enlists the attention as closely and pleasantly as works of simply an 
 entertaining character, while it is none the less a thorough and scientific work. 
 
 The first American edition was issued under the supervision of James G. Percival, who was 
 distinguished for his literary and scientific attainments. He revised the translation with care, 
 corrected errors, and added numerous notes to explain or modify the text, or further to illustrate 
 the subject. His notes on the geological portions of the work are especially full and important. 
 
 That edition has for some years been out of print, and the demand for the work, from time to 
 time, among those who know its value, has induced the publisher to issue a new and superior 
 edition, beautifully illustrated, and containing much additional matter, designed to adapt it to the 
 present state of the science, and to the taste and wants of the American public. 
 
 The additions will be found in an Appendix, and embrace recent Explorations and Discoveries, 
 including those of Dr. Kane and the late English Arctic Expeditions ; new facts in Physical 
 Geography developed by late researches ; changes in Political Geography ; statistics of Population, 
 Agriculture, Commerce, Manufactures, Mineral Products, etc. They are compiled chiefly from the 
 late French edition of Malte-Brun, edited by M. Huot, an accurate and learned writer, and the still 
 later edition of M. Theophile Lavallee, who is highly esteemed as a scholar, and the author of a 
 History of France. The statistics are taken from the most reliable authorities. 
 
 The work contains a series of finely colored maps, and is illustrated with numerous engravings 
 on steel, embracing views of the principal cities of the world, places celebrated in history, and 
 remarkable scenery. The illustrations are executed in the highest style of the art, and render 
 the work one of the most beautiful, as it is one of the most useful, works ever published in this 
 country. 
 
NOTE 
 
 The Appendix will be found arranged in the same order as the body of the work. To avoid a 
 multiplication of notes, no special reference is made on the pages of the text to the Appendix, 
 but all additions, corrections, and changes may be found by turning to the corresponding 
 “Book” in the Appendix. 
 
CONTENTS OF VOL. HI. 
 
 BOOK CXXII. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Germany. — Sixth Section. — Kingdom of Wirtemberg. — Grand 
 Dutchy of Baden. — Principalities of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, 
 Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Lichtenstein. 
 
 Present and Former Divisions compared, 1 
 
 Kingdom oe Wirtemberg — G eology — Climate, .... 1 
 
 Fossil Bones — Lakes — Ancient Inhabitants, 1 
 
 House of Wirtemberg — Productions — Game — Manufactures 
 
 — Spirits, 2 
 
 Commerce — Inland Trade, 2 
 
 Revenue — Expenditure — Emigration — Aurora Borealis, . . 2 
 
 Army, 3 
 
 Population — Privilege of bearing Fire-arms — Liberty of the 
 
 Press, 3 
 
 Education, 3 
 
 Orders of Knighthood — Constitution, 4 
 
 Religious Liberty— General Assembly— Conservative Council, 4 
 
 Divisions of the Kingdom — Towns — Stuttgard, 4 
 
 Ludwigsburg — Ellwangen, 5 
 
 Hohenstaufen — Reutlingen — Tubingen, University — Ulm, . 5 
 
 Biberach — Antiquities — Crimes, 5 
 
 Grand Dotchy of Baden, 5, 6 
 
 Extent and Surface — Mountains — Geological Formation — 
 
 Lakes and Ponds, 6 
 
 Climate — Forests, 6 
 
 Natural Productions — Mines — Agricultural Produce — Man- 
 ufactures, 6, 7 
 
 Commerce — House of Baden, its Antiquity — Population, . . 7 
 
 Religion, 7 
 
 Government — Conscription — Code — Weights and Meas- 
 ures, ... 7, 8 
 
 Ranks — Education, 8 
 
 Crimes — Finances — Army — Political Divisions, 8 
 
 Language — Towns — Manheim, 8 
 
 Population — Heidelberg, University, 9 
 
 Castle — Famous Tun — Other Towns — Carlsruhe, .... 9 
 
 Supposed Origin of Pforzheim, 9 
 
 Roman Town — Rastadt — Baden — Marshal Turenne — Offen- 
 
 burg — Friburg — Brisach, 10 
 
 Southern District — Willingen — Constance, 10 
 
 Martyrdom of Huss and Jerome of Prague, 10 
 
 Administration — Freedom of Trade, 10* H 
 
 Principalities of Hohenzollern — H ohenzollern-Hech- 
 ingen, 11 
 
 Hechingen — Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen — Town of Sigma- 
 
 ringen, 11 
 
 Town of Lichtenstein, H 
 
 Principality, 11 
 
 BOOK CXXIII. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Germany. — Seventh Section. — Kingdom of Bavaria. 
 
 Political Limits — Basins, 12 
 
 Mountains — The Spessart — Rocks, 12 
 
 The Rhcene-Gebirge — The Fichtel-Gebirge — The Bcehmer- 
 
 Wald— Length, 13 
 
 Formations on the North and South of the Danube, ... 13 
 
 Fossil Bones — Lakes, 13 
 
 Mineral Springs — Climate — Ancient Inhabitants, . . 13, 14 
 
 Hermunduri — Narisci — Vindelici, 14 
 
 Roman Colonies — Bavaria during the Middle Ages — Chiefs 
 
 or Dukes, 14 
 
 Thassilo — The Country divided into Counties by Charle- 
 magne — Luitpold, the First Margrave, 14 
 
 Soil — Agriculture, 15 
 
 Domestic Animals — Oxen — Hogs — Horses — Sheep, ... 15 
 
 Bees, 15 
 
 Horticulture — Wines — Woods and Forests, 16 
 
 Quarries and Mines — Iron, 16 
 
 Manufactures — Commerce, 16, 17 
 
 Corn Trade — Population, 17 
 
 Religion — Inhabitants, 17 
 
 Education — Constitution, 17 
 
 General Assembly of Two Chambers, 18 
 
 Orders of Knighthood — Army — Finances, 18 
 
 Political Divisions — Circle of the Isar — Munich, 18 
 
 Royal Palace — Public Collections, 19 
 
 Places of Education — Charitable Institutions, 19 
 
 Academies — Trade — Landshut, University, 19 
 
 Library, Collections, &c. — Freysingen — Circle of the Lower 
 
 Danube — Passau, 20 
 
 Trade, Population, &c. — Fresh water Pearls — Straubing, . 20 
 
 Bodenmais — Circle of the Regen — Ratisbon — History, . . 20 
 
 Population, &c. — Kepler’s Monument — Don John of Aus- 
 tria, 20, 21 
 
 Amberg — Ingolstadt — Abensberg — Eichstedt — Circle of the 
 
 Upper Maine, 21 
 
 Bayreuth — Bamberg, 21 
 
 Hoff — Caverns at Gailenreuth — Fossil Bones — Circle of the 
 
 Rezat, 21, 22 
 
 Anspach — Erlangen, University, 22 
 
 Fiirth — Nuremberg, 22 
 
 Commerce — Inventions, 23 
 
 Ncerdlingen — Circle of the Lower Maine — Wurzburg, Uni- 
 versity, 23 
 
 Vineyards, 23 
 
 Aschaffenburg — Circle of the Upper Danube — Augsburg — 
 Population — Buildings, 23 
 
11 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Bishops — Industry — Commerce — Neuburg — Tomb of La 
 
 Tour d’Auvergne, 24 
 
 Battle of Blenheim — Memmingen — Kempten — Lindau — Cir- 
 cle of the Rhine, 24 
 
 Soil — Climate — Mineral Productions, 24 
 
 Ancient Inhabitants — Spire, 25 
 
 Other Towns — Landau on the Queich, 25 
 
 Statistical Table of the Kingdom of Bavaria Proper, and of 
 the Bavarian Possessions on the Rhine, according to the 
 
 Latest Authorities, 26 
 
 Circle of the Isar, 27 
 
 Circles of the Lower Danube — Circle of the Regen, . 27 
 
 Circle of the Upper Maine, ... 27 
 
 Circle of the Rezat, 27 
 
 Circle of the Lower Maine, 28 
 
 Circle of the Upper Danube, 28 
 
 Circle of the Rhine, 28 
 
 Budget in 1825, 28 
 
 BOOK CXXIV. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Germany. — Eighth Section. — Territories and Free Towns of Bre- 
 men , Hamburg , Lubcck, and Frankfort on the Maine. 
 
 Hanseatic Towns — Origin of Suburbs, 
 
 Origin of the Hanseatic League — Bremen, 
 
 Manufactures — Herring and Whale Fisheries, 
 
 Territory — Government, 
 
 Military Force — Hamburg — Population, 
 
 Losses in 1813 — Public Buildings — The Binnen-Alster, 30, 
 Places of Education — Mendicity — Vaccination — Life In- 
 surance, 
 
 Classes of Inhabitants — Jews — Right of Citizenship — Gov- 
 ernment — Military Force, 
 
 Revenue — Manufacturing Industry — Foreign Trade — Whale 
 
 Fishery, 31, 
 
 Port — Territory — Lubeck — History, 
 
 Government — The Town — Useful Institutions, Places of 
 
 Education, &c 
 
 Revenues — Military Force — Manufactures — Travemunde — 
 
 Frankfort on the Maine, 32, 
 
 Territory of Frankfort — Public Buildings, 
 
 Origin of its Name — Reformation — Quarter of Wollgraben — 
 
 Useful Establishments, 
 
 Government — Religion, 
 
 Finances — Military Force — Manufactures and Commerce, . 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 Tables — Commerce of Bremen in 1825, 34 
 
 Table of Grain Exported from Hamburg, from 1815 to 1825, 34 
 Different Commercial Tables, 34 
 
 BOOK CXXY. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Germany. — JYinlh Section. — Description of Bohemia. 
 
 Kingdom of Bohemia — Its Basin the Bed of an Ancient Cas- 
 pian Sea, 
 
 Mountains — Geological Formation, 
 
 Volcanoes, 35, 
 
 Earthquakes — Mineral Springs, 
 
 Rivers — Lakes, Ponds and Marshes — Climate, 
 
 Winds — Rain — Ancient Inhabitants — Boii, 
 
 Marcomanni, 
 
 Slavi — Historical Recollections, 
 
 Progress of Civilization, 37, 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 36 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 Constitution — Political Organization of the Kingdom — The 
 
 States, 
 
 Privileged Towns — Protected Towns — Religion, .... 
 
 Moral and Political State of the Jews, . 
 
 Protestants — Convents — Ecclesiastical Dignitaries, . . . 
 Population — Nations which make up the Population — Ger- 
 mans, 
 
 Bohemians or Tchekhes — Bohemian Language — Physical 
 
 Constitution, 
 
 Character of the Inhabitants, 
 
 Dress — Food of the People, 
 
 Agriculture — Domestic Animals, 40, 
 
 Culture of the Vine — Fruit Trees — Flax and Hops — Forests 
 
 — Bees — Game — Fish, 
 
 The Silurus — Mines, 
 
 Mineral Waters — Waters of Tceplitz, 41, 
 
 Sedlitz Waters — Precious Stones, &c 
 
 Manufactures— Commerce, 
 
 Industry of the Jews — Exports — Means of Transportation — 
 
 Towns, 
 
 Prague, 42, 
 
 Its Antiquity — Other Towns, 
 
 Public Instruction — Charitable Institutions, .... 43, 
 
 Finances — Army, 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 39 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 40 
 
 40 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 42 
 42 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 44 
 
 BOOK CXXYI. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Germany. — Tenth Section. — Description of Moravia and Austrian 
 Silesia. 
 
 Moravia — Different Rocks — The Alt Vater 45 
 
 Austrian Silesia — The Gesenke-Gebirge — Ancient Mines — 
 
 Geology, 45 
 
 Ancient Inhabitants — Quadi, 45 
 
 Burii — Moravia erected into a Kingdom — Slavonians, ... 46 
 
 Slavonic Language, 46 
 
 Dialects — Germans — Other Nations — Religion, 46 
 
 Climate — Productions — Minerals — Revenue, .... 46, 47 
 
 Territorial Divisions — Government — Towns in Moravia — 
 
 Briinn — Public Buildings, 47 
 
 Public Walks — Useful Institutions — Neighbourhood — Wal- 
 
 lacks — National Dance, 47 
 
 Southern Frontiers of Moravia, 47, 4S 
 
 Towns in the Moravian Mountains — Iglau — Trebitsch, . . 48 
 
 Ingrowitz — Olmiitz — Public Buildings — Trade — Ancient 
 
 Name, 48 
 
 Kremsier — Austrian Silesia — Troppau, 48 
 
 BOOK CXXYII. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Germany. — Eleventh Section. — Archdutchy of Austria . 
 
 Position, 49 
 
 Superficial Extent — Mountains — Geological Structure- 
 
 Mountains of Salzburg, 49 
 
 Vegetation, 49 
 
 Lakes — Rivers — Ancient Inhabitants, 50 
 
 Ancient Towns — Name of Austria, its Origin — Blending of 
 
 Nations, 50 
 
 Language — Climate — Diseases — Agriculture, 50 
 
 Wines — Animals, 50, 51 
 
 Industry — Manufactures — Commerce, 51 
 
 Religion, 51 
 
 Constitution — The States — Courts of Justice — Censorship, 51, 52 
 
 Revenue — Neighbourhood of Vienna, 52 
 
 Vienna — The City — Public Squares, 52 
 
 Public Buildings — Palaces — Arsenals, ..... 52, 53 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 m 
 
 Number of Houses, &c. — Principal Churches, 53 
 
 Suburbs, 
 
 Places of Instruction, 63 
 
 Charitable Institutions — Houses of Correction — Places of 
 
 Amusement — Manufactures, 54 
 
 Commerce, 54 
 
 Manners — Sieges of Vienna, 54 
 
 Antiquities — Environs — Schcenbrunn — Laxenburg, .... 55 
 
 Villages — Towns — Baden- — Neustadt, 55 
 
 Visit to the Schneeberg, 55 
 
 Towns seen from the Schneeberg, • . 56 
 
 Towns in Upper Austria— Lintz — Steyer— Ens, 56 
 
 Gmunden — Benedictine Convent of Garsten — Hallstadt, . . 56 
 
 Salzburg — Character of the Austrian People — Revenue, 56, 57 
 
 BOOK C XXVIII. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Germany. — Twelfth Section. — County of Tyrol, and Dutchy of 
 Stiria. 
 
 Comparison between Tyrol and Stiria, 
 
 Acquisition of Tyrol by the Dukes of Austria — Boundaries 
 and Extent — Appearance of the Country — Direction of the 
 
 Mountains, 
 
 Glaciers and Rivers — Rocks, 
 
 Lignite — Tertiary Deposits — Plants, 
 
 Mineral Springs — Animals — Ancient Inhabitants — Metals 
 
 and Minerals, 
 
 Agriculture — Vineyards — Fruit Trees — Forests — Popula- 
 tion — Industry, 
 
 Character of the Tyrolese — Religion — Constitution — Mili- 
 tary Force — Revenue, 
 
 Towns and Villages — Innspruck, the Capital, 
 
 Hall — Schwatz — Botzen — Trent — Roveredo, 
 
 Stiria — M ountains — Rivers, 60, 
 
 Ancient Inhabitants — Character of the Inhabitants — Religion, 
 
 Climate — Agricultural Produce, 
 
 Mines — Constitution of Government — Towns and Villages, . 
 
 Zell — Bruck, 
 
 Graetz — Radkersburg 
 
 Marburg — Cilly, 
 
 District of Voitzberg — Population of Stiria, 
 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 59 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 60 
 60 
 61 
 61 
 61 
 61 
 62 
 62 
 62 
 63 
 
 BOOK CXXIX. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Germany. — Thirteenth Section. — Kingdom of Illyria Described . — 
 Austria and Germany Concluded. 
 
 Kingdom of Illyria, 64 
 
 Ancient Inhabitants, 64 
 
 Historical Notice — Boundaries, Superficial Extent — Soil — 
 
 Mountains, 64 
 
 Cavern at Adelsberg, 64 
 
 Cave of Magdalena — Lake of Cirknitz, 65 
 
 Metals — Rivers — Climate — Agriculture — Industry, .... 65 
 Population — Religion — Language — Government and Reve- 
 nue — Towns and Villages — Klagenfurt, the Capital of 
 
 Gottschee — Government of Trieste — Trieste, 66 
 
 Capo d’Istria — Rovigno — Pol a, 66 
 
 General View of the Austrian Empire, 66, 67 
 
 General View of Germany — Comparison between its Former 
 
 and its Present Constitution, 67 
 
 Northern and Southern Germany, 68 
 
 State of the Sciences, 68 
 
 Education — Gymnastics — Literature and Music — Population 
 — Improvements Demanded, 68 
 
 Statistical Tables of the German Provinces under the Austrian 
 Empire. 
 
 Kingdom of Bohemia, 68, 69 
 
 Moravia, and Austrian Silesia, 69 
 
 Archdutchy of Austria, 69, 70 
 
 County of Tyrol, 70 
 
 Dutchy of Stiria, 70 
 
 Kingdom of Illyria, 71 
 
 Number of Horses, Cattle, &c. — Increase of Population — 
 Population of German Austria per square mile, in 1825 — 
 Proportion between the Numbers of the Two Sexes — 
 Sentences pronounced by the Supreme Criminal Court at 
 Vienna, from 1806 to 1809 — Amount of Capital Crimes 
 committed in the Austrian Empire — Number of Trials — 
 Number of Children who frequent the Schools — Number 
 of Journals and Newspapers published in Germany in 1826, 71 
 
 BOOK CXXX. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Boundaries and Extent, 
 
 Mountains — Jura — Rocks that compose it — The Alps — Ap- 
 pearance, 
 
 Granitic Rocks — Glaciers, 72, 
 
 Avalanches, 
 
 Rivers — Lakes — Fish — Metals and Minerals, 
 
 Mineral Springs — Vegetation — Wild Animals, 
 
 Combats between the Bear and the Bull — Chamois and Great 
 
 Eagle of the Alps — Ravens 73, 
 
 Ancient Inhabitants — Greek Colonies, 
 
 Helvetii defeated by Caesar — First Foreign Invasion — Bur- 
 gundian Kings — Religion, 
 
 Other Invasions — Helvetia under the protection of the Ger- 
 man Empire, 74, 
 
 Religion — Languages, 
 
 Manners and Character of the Swiss, 
 
 Dress — Agriculture — Domestic Animals, 
 
 Commerce — Canton of Schaffhausen — Canton of Thurgau — 
 
 Canton of St. Gall — Canton of Appenzell, 
 
 Canton of Zurich — Canton of Aargau — Canton of Basle — 
 
 Basle, 
 
 Canton of Soleure — Canton of Berne — Berne, 
 
 Canton of Lucerne — Canton of Zug, 
 
 Canton of Schweitz — Canton of Glaris, 
 
 Canton of Uri — Canton of Underwalden — Canton of Friburg 
 
 — Canton of Vaud, 77, 
 
 Canton of Geneva — Lake, 
 
 Geneva — Canton of the Valais, 78, 
 
 Canton of Tesino — Canton of the Grisons — Canton of Neu- 
 
 chatel, 
 
 Helvetic Confederation — Political Constitution, 
 
 Army — Finances, 
 
 Statistical Tables of Switzerland. 
 
 Population of the Principal Towns, and Contingents of the 
 Twenty-two Cantons, classed according to the Order and 
 
 Rank they hold in the Confederation, 
 
 Population, Surface and Convents of Switzerland, . . . . 
 
 Number of German, French and Italian Newspapers, pub- 
 lished in Switzerland in 1826, 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 80 
 
 72 
 
 72 
 
 73 
 73 
 73 
 
 73 
 
 74 
 74 
 
 74 
 
 75 
 75 
 
 75 
 
 76 
 
 76 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 77 
 
 77 
 
 78 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 79 
 
 79 
 
 79 
 
IV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Number of Strangers whose Passports were examined at 
 Geneva in 1825, 80 
 
 BOOK CXXXI. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Italy. — First Section. — Physical Geography of Italy. 
 
 General Remarks, 81 
 
 Limits of Italy — Mountains 81 
 
 Capes — Plains — Rivers, 81, 82 
 
 Lakes — Mineral Springs — Climate, 82 
 
 Vegetation, 82 
 
 Animals — Fish, 82, 83 
 
 Cuttle Fish, Nautilus, &c. — Winds, 83 
 
 Geological Constitution — Diminution of the Sea by Alluvial 
 
 Deposits, 83 
 
 Fossil Bones, 84 
 
 The Appennines — Travertine — Calcareous Incrustations, . 84 
 
 Calcareous Deposit from the Waters of San Filippo — Volcanic 
 Phenomena — Salsa at Sassuolo — The Solfatara, .... 84 
 
 The Grotto del Cane — The Lucrine Lake — Monte Nuovo — 
 
 Vesuvius, 85 
 
 Minerals — Islands — Sicily — Capes — Rivers, 85 
 
 Rocks — Mount iEtna, 85 
 
 Mud Volcanoes — Vegetation — Animals, 86 
 
 Separation of Sicily from the Continent, 86 
 
 Scylla and Charybdis — Malta, 86 
 
 Comino — Gozzo — Pentellaria — The iEgades — The Lipari 
 
 Islands, 86, 87 
 
 Lipari — Volcano, 87 
 
 Stromboli — Islands in the Gulf of Naples — Capri — Ischia, . 87 
 
 Procida — The Pontian Islands — Island of Elba, . . . 87, 88 
 
 Sardinia — Mountains, 88 
 
 Rivers — Climate — Vegetation — Quadrupeds, 88 
 
 Birds — Insects — Reptiles — Neighbouring Islands, . . 88, 89 
 
 BOOK CXXXII. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Description of Italy. — Second Section. — Lombardo- Venetian King- 
 
 dom. 
 
 Ancient Inhabitants, 90 
 
 Longobardi — Fall of their Kingdom — Lombard Republics, . 90 
 
 Guelphs and Ghibelines, 90, 91 
 
 Decline of the Lombard Republics, 91 
 
 Republic of Venice, 91 
 
 Former Government — Italian Republic — Kingdom of Italy — 
 Limits of the Lombardo- Venetian Kingdom — Climate, . . 91 
 
 Valley of the Po — Agriculture — Ancient Recollections, . . 92 
 
 Industry — Constitution — Government of Milan — Milan — Pop- 
 ulation — Corsi, 92 
 
 Cathedral — Other Churches, 92 
 
 Etymology of Mediolanum — Public Buildings 93 
 
 Theatres — Puppets — Their Antiquity, 93 
 
 Public Walks, 93 
 
 Useful Institutions — Great Men, 93, 94 
 
 Monza — Pavia, 94 
 
 Lodi — Como — Bergamo — Cremona, 94 
 
 Brescia — Mantua — Government of Venice — Pellagra, . 94, 95 
 
 V erona, 95 
 
 Padua, 95 
 
 Vicenza — Treviso— Belluno — Udina — Lagoons — Venice, . 96 
 
 J ublic Buildings — Church of St. Mark, 96 
 
 Square of St. Mark, 96 
 
 Ducal Palace — Churches — Naval Arsenal, 97 
 
 Education — Gondolieri, 97 
 
 Libraries — Manners — Island of Torcello, 97 
 
 BOOK CXXXIII. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Description of Italy. — Third Section. — Sardinian Monarchy . — 
 Principality of Monaco. 
 
 Ancient Inhabitants, 98 
 
 Savoy — Origin of its Dukes — Language, 98 
 
 Religion — Legislation, 99 
 
 Towns, 99 
 
 Mount Cenis — The Simplon — Vercalli, 99 
 
 Turin— Royal Castle — Churches, 99,100 
 
 Other Towns, 100 
 
 Genoa — Fortifications — Streets — Terraces — Churches — 
 
 Hospitals, 100 
 
 Public Walks — The Exchange — Manners — The Mezzaro — 
 
 Industry, 101 
 
 Gulf of Genoa, 101 
 
 Principality of Monaco — Island of Sardinia 101 
 
 Character of the Sardinians — Towns — Cagliari, 102 
 
 BOOK CXXXIV. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Description of Italy. — Fourth Section. — Dutchies of Parma, Mo- 
 dena, Massa and Lucca. — Grand Dutchy of Tuscany . — Republic 
 of San Marino. 
 
 Ancient Inhabitants — Senones — Etymology of Picenum, . . 103 
 Etymology of Sabini — Dutchy of Parma — Its Princes — Posi- 
 tion of the Dutchy — Parma — Farnese Palace — Theatre of 
 
 Vignola — Cemetery, 103 
 
 Guastalla — Placentia — Origin of its Name, .... 103,104 
 Celebrated Men — Neighbourhood of Placentia — Industry, . 104 
 
 Town of Massa— Carrara, 105 
 
 Dutchy of Lucca — Industry — Town of Lucca — Grand Dutchy 
 
 of Tuscany, 105 
 
 The Maremma, 105 
 
 Tuscany erected into a Dutchy, 106 
 
 Rivers — Pisa — Cathedral — Baptistery 106 
 
 Leaning Tower — Campo Santo, 106 
 
 Florence — Churches— Ducal Palace— Florentine Gallery, 106, 107 
 
 Other Towns, 107 
 
 Arezzo — Cortona — Sienna, 107 
 
 Piazza del Campo — Society of St. Catherine, 107 
 
 Volterra — Leghorn — Ophthalmia — Piombino, 108 
 
 Island of Elba — Condition of Tuscany, 108 
 
 Republic of San Marino, 108 
 
 BOOK CXXXV. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Description of Italy. — Fifth Section. — Description of the States of 
 the Church. 
 
 Spiritual and Temporal Power of the Pope, 109 
 
 Origin of his Temporal Power, 109 
 
 Late Events, 109 
 
 Extent and Divisions of the Roman States, 110 
 
 Rome — Appearance of the City — Carnival — Horse Races — 
 
 Moccoletti, 110 
 
 Police — Marriages — Monopolies — Lotteries — The Caval- 
 
 letto, 110, 111 
 
 The Strappado — Punishment of Death, Ill 
 
 Government, Ill 
 
CL NTENTS. 
 
 v 
 
 Religious Ceremonies — Certificate* of Communion, . . .111 
 
 Cicisbei — Arts and Sciences, 112 
 
 Education — Ancient Monument*, 112 
 
 The Pantheon — The Coliseum, 112 
 
 The Vatican, 113 
 
 Quirinal Palace — The Capitol — The Forum, 113 
 
 Church of St. Peter, 113,114 
 
 The Baldacchino, 114 
 
 Ancient Church — Palaces, 114 
 
 Neighbourhood of Romo — Pontine Marshes, . . . 114, 115 
 
 Ostia, 115 
 
 Spoleto — Perugia — Bologna, 115 
 
 Ferrara — Ravenna — Faenza — Rimini — Ancona, 115 
 
 Loretto — The Casa Santa — Detached Districts, 116 
 
 Other Towns — Girgenti — Manners of its Ancient Inhabitants 
 — Public Buildings — Sciacca — Ruins of Selinus, .... 437 
 
 Mazzara — Marsala — Trapani, 434 
 
 Ruins of Segesta, 132 
 
 Alcamo — Montreale — Palermo — Its Two Principal Streets — 
 
 Gates — Royal Palace, 132 
 
 The Vic aria, 133 
 
 Useful Institutions — Moorish Palaces— Cathedral— Catacombs 
 
 of the Capuchins, 133 
 
 St. Rosalia — Festival of St. Rosalia, 133 
 
 Public Walks, 134 
 
 Neighbourhood — Termini — Islands, 134 
 
 Character of the Sicilians — Manners — Elementary Education 
 
 neglected, 134 
 
 Religion — Peasantry — Conversazioni — Society,. . . 134,135 
 
 Corruption — Police, 435 
 
 Manner of Computing Time — Destinies of Italy, .... 135 
 
 BOOK CXXXVI. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Description of Italy. — Sixth Section. — Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 
 
 f 
 
 Ancient Inhabitants — Origin of' their Names, 117 
 
 Samnium, 117 
 
 Campania — Vesuvius in the time of Strabo, 117 
 
 Lucania — Sybaris, 118 
 
 Brutii — Sicily — Foundation of the Dutchy of Benevento, . . 118 
 
 Aversa ceded to the Normans, . 118 
 
 Norman Princes — Usurpation of Henry VI., . . . . 118,119 
 
 House of Anjou — Sicilian Vespers, 119 
 
 San Germano — Monte Cassino — Dance of the Reapers, . .119 
 
 Charity — Mendicants, 120 
 
 Bandits — Costume, 120 
 
 Mola — Gaeta — Capua — Naples, 120 
 
 Manners of the People, 121 
 
 Lazzaroni — Mendicity, Theft, 121 
 
 Advantages of the Revolution at Naples — Education,. . .121 
 
 Manners of the Rich — The Chiaja — Squares — Streets, . . 121 
 Theatres — Palaces — Churches — Hospitals — Industry, . . . 122 
 
 Environs of Naples — Pompeii, 122 
 
 Herculaneum — Naples as seen from Camaldoli, 122 
 
 Pausilippo — Pozzuoli, 123 
 
 Temple of Serapis — Traces of Pholades — Explanation of the 
 
 Phenomenon, 123 
 
 Tomb of Virgil — Salerno, 123 
 
 Avellino — Aquila — Chieti, 123, 124 
 
 The Theatines, Origin oftheir Name — Mount Gargano — Fog- 
 
 gia — Cannoe, 124 
 
 Terra di Bari — Altamura — Trani — Bari — Terra di Otranto — 
 Brundusium — Otranto — Taranto, 124 
 
 Purple — The Tarantula 125 
 
 Potenza — Calabria — Cosenza, 125 
 
 Crotona or Cotrone — Pizzo, ... 125 
 
 Gierace — Reggio, 125 
 
 Earthquake of 1783 — Effects of the Catastrophe, .... 126 
 
 Vegetation of Calabria — Bretian Pitch, 126 
 
 Animals — Quadrupeds — Fish — Sword Fish 126, 127 
 
 Manners and Character of the Calabrians — Condition of the 
 
 Peasants — Zingari or Gypsies, 127 
 
 Extent of the Neapolitan Territory — Luminous Phenomenon, 
 
 Fata Morgana, 127 
 
 Sicily — Constitution, 127 
 
 Present State of the Island — Productions — Improvements 
 
 required, 128 
 
 Convents — Nobles — Roads, 128 
 
 Climate— Agriculture, 128 
 
 Messina — Port — Public Buildings, 128, 129 
 
 Places of Education, &c. — Taormina, 129 
 
 Etna — Gigantic Chestnut Trees, . 129 
 
 Catania — Ravages of Earthquakes, 129, 130 
 
 Convent of Benedictines — Antiquities — University — Knights 
 
 of Malta — Industry and Commerce, 130 
 
 Ancient Syracuse — Fountain of Arethusa — Catacombs, . .130 
 The Ear of Dionysius — Modern Syracuse, 130, 131 
 
 Statistical Tables of Italy. 
 
 Lombardo — Venetian Kingdom, 433 
 
 Kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia — Principality of Mo- 
 naco, 136—138 
 
 Dutchy of Parma — Dutchy of Modena, 138 
 
 Dutchy of Massa — Dutchy of Lucca, 138 
 
 Grand Dutchy of Tuscany, 439 
 
 Republic of San Marino — States of the Church, 139 
 
 Places of Education, Religious Houses and Hospitals, . . . 139 
 Statistics of the Population of Rome from 1816 to 1825, in- 
 clusive, 
 
 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 140, 141 
 
 BOOK CXXXYII. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Physical Geography of the Spanish Peninsula . — History of the 
 Ancient People that inhabited Spain and Portugal. — Mussulman 
 Conquest. 
 
 Extent and Surface, 442 
 
 Mountains — Pyrenees — Rocks, 442 
 
 Iberian Range — Fossil Bones — Rocks — Carpetano-Vettonic 
 
 Range— Rocks, 142, 143 
 
 Lusitanian Range — Marianic Range, . .• 443 
 
 Rocks — Cuneic Range — Rocks — Bretic Range — Perpetual 
 
 Snow, • . 143 
 
 Rocks — Rock of Gibraltar — Parameras, 143, 144 
 
 Basins — Basin of the Tagus, 444 
 
 Basin of the Guadiana — Basin of the Duero, 144 
 
 Basin of the Guadalquivir — Salt Formation, .... 144, 145 
 
 Basin of the Ebro, 145 
 
 Other Smaller Basins — Basins of the Guadalaviar — Of the 
 Jucar — Of the Segura — Of the Minho — Of the Mondego, . 145 
 Four Divisions from Declivities of Surface — Cantabrian — 'Lu- 
 sitanian — Ba:tic — Iberian — Six Regions of Vegetation, . 146 
 
 Central or Celtiberian Region, 443 
 
 Baetic Region — Iberian Region, 446 
 
 Lusitanian, Galician and Cantabrian Regions, 443 
 
 Balearic Islands — Fromentera — Ivica — Majorca, . . . 146, 147 
 
 Minorca — Natural Productions, 147 
 
 Ancient Inhabitants, 147 
 
 Origin of the word Spain — Ancient Inhabitants — Celtiberi — 
 
 Their Manners, 147, 148 
 
 Earliest Colonies, 148 
 
 Spain a Roman Province — Lusitania — Bcetica — Tarraconen- 
 
 sis — Inhabitants of Lusitania, 443 
 
 Inhabitants of Bsetica — Inhabitants of Tarraconensis, . . 443 
 
 Manners of the Ancient Spaniards, 449 
 
 Dress — Spain in the Middle Ages, 449 
 
 Spain under the Moors, 149, 459 
 
 Conquest of the Kingdom of Granada, .... . .150 
 
 Expulsion of the Moors, 459 
 
 r 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 ■ 
 
 I 
 
VI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 BOOK CXXXVIII. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Spanish Peninsula. — Kingdom of Portugal and Algarva. 
 
 General Remarks, 
 
 Position — Political Limits — Natural Limits — Extent and 
 
 Population, 
 
 Climate — Seasons and Temperature, 151, 
 
 Climate of Lisbon and the Provinces — Storms — Salubrity of 
 
 Portugal, 
 
 Diseases — Earthquakes, 
 
 Mineral Wealth — Agriculture, 
 
 Cattle — Oil — Fruits — Wines, 
 
 Domestic Animals — Wild Animals, 
 
 Fish — Religion — Clergy — Character and Manners, .... 
 Physical Appearance — Amusements — Language, . . 154, 
 
 Literature and Sciences — Fine Arts — Education, .... 
 Government — Origin of the Cortes — Their Prerogatives — 
 
 Constitution of 1821, 
 
 Province of Estremadura — Lisbon, 
 
 Population — Squares — Public Buildings, 
 
 Places of Education — Scientific Institutions — Police — Neigh- 
 bourhood of Lisbon — Aqueduct of Bemfica — Convent of 
 
 Mafra — Campo Grande, 156, 
 
 Other Towns, 
 
 Province of Beira — Coimbra — Province of Entre Douro e 
 
 Minho — Braga — Oporto, 
 
 Province of Tras-os-Montes — Province of Alentejo, . . . 
 
 Evora — Province of Algarva — Portuguese Foreign Posses- 
 sions, 
 
 Commerce of Portugal, 
 
 Statistical Tables of Portugal, 159, 
 
 BOOK CXXXIX. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Spanish Peninsula. — Kingdom of Spain. 
 
 Origin of the Spanish Monarchy — Population of Spain, . . 
 Religion — Physical and Moral Character of the Spaniards . 
 Language and Literature — Sciences and Arts, . . . 161, 
 
 Government — Revolution of 1820, 
 
 Power of the Crown, 
 
 Agriculture — Produce, 
 
 Vineyards, 
 
 Sheep — The Mista — Shepherds, . . 
 
 Sheep-Shearing — Oxen — Hogs, 163, 
 
 Horses — Mules — W ild A nimals — Locusts — Fish 
 
 Territorial Divisions, 
 
 Kingdom of Navarre — Pampeluna, 164, 
 
 Vasconian Provinces — Province of Guipuscoa, 
 
 St. Sebastian — Province of Biscay — Bilboa — Province of 
 
 Alava — Vittoria, 
 
 Principality of the Asturias — Oviedo — Kingdom of Galicia — 
 St. Jago de Compostella — Orense — Lugo, .... 165, 
 
 Ports in Galicia — Ferrol — Corunna — Kingdom of Leon — 
 Town of Leon — Valladolid — Salamanca, • . . . 166, 
 
 Old Castile, 
 
 Santander — Burgos — Soria — Segovia — Trajan’s Aqueduct — 
 
 The Alcazar, 
 
 St. Ildofonso, 
 
 Avila — Kingdom of Arragon — Tarazona — Huesca, .... 
 
 Saragossa, 
 
 Catalonia — Character of the Catalonians — Junquera — Figue- 
 
 ras — Gerona, 168, 
 
 Urgel — Linda — Montserrat, 
 
 Manresa — Cardona — Mines of Rock Salt — Solsona — Vich, . 
 
 Mataro — Barcelona — Pub.ic Buildings — Fort of Monjuich— 
 
 Barcelonetta, 170 
 
 Falls of St. Michael— Road to Tarragona — Roman Remains — 
 
 Tarragona — Reuss 170 
 
 Tortosa— Kingdom of Valencia — Character of the Valen- 
 
 cians, 171 
 
 Language — Costume — Towns — Pefiiscola — Pope Luna — 
 Valencia — Public Buildings — Police — Education, . . . 171 
 
 Neighbourhood of Valencia — Alicante — San Felipe, . . .172 
 
 New Castile — Province of Cuenca — Province of Guadalax- 
 ara — Province of Madrid — City of Madrid — Climate, . .172 
 
 Squares — Bull-fights, 172,173 
 
 King of Spain and the Indies — New Palace — Arsenal — Royal 
 Library — Royal Museum — Charitable Institutions, . 173, 174 
 
 Public Walks — Bridge over the Manzanares — Industry — En- 
 virons of Madrid — Alcala — The Escurial, .... 174,175 
 
 Manners of the People of Madrid — Province of Toledo — 
 
 Toledo — Aranjuez, 175 
 
 Province of La Mancha — Estremadura, 175 
 
 Character of the Inhabitants — Chief Towns of the Districts — 
 
 Plasencia — Alcantara, 175, 176 
 
 Caceres — Merida — Antiquities, 176 
 
 Badajos, 176 
 
 Andalusia — Nuevas Poblaciones, 176, 177 
 
 Character of the Andalusians — Kingdom of Jaen — Baexa — 
 
 Jaen — Kingdom of Cordova, 177 
 
 Lucena — Cordova — Mosque, 177 
 
 Province of Seville, 178 
 
 Seville — Wonders of Seville, 178 
 
 The Giralda — Ruins of Italica — Province of Cadiz, . . 178,179 
 
 Xeres — Cadiz, 179 
 
 Fortifications — Buildings — Isle of Leon, 179 
 
 Medina Sidonia — Kingdom of Granada — Province of Mal- 
 aga, 179, 180 
 
 Ronda — Marbella, 180 
 
 Malaga — Vineyards — Antequera, 180 
 
 Lovers’ Mountain, 180 
 
 Province of Granada, 181 
 
 Alhama — Santa Fe, 181 
 
 Granada — The Alhambra, 181 
 
 Guadix — Province of Murcia — Lorca — Murcia — Cartha- 
 
 gena, 181,182 
 
 The Baleares — Ivica, 182 
 
 Manners — Costume — Marriages, . . 182 
 
 Fromentera — Cabrera — Majorca, . . 182, 183 
 
 Dress — Minorca — Port Mahon, 183 
 
 Commerce and Industry of Spain — Foreign Trade, .... 183 
 
 Republic of Andorra — Origin 184 
 
 Government, 184 
 
 Statistical Tables of Spain, 185 — 188 
 
 BOOK CXL. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 France. — Historical Notice. 
 
 Ancient Inhabitants — Character of the Gauls, 189 
 
 Division of Gaul under the Romans, 189 
 
 First Narbonnaise — Second Do. — Maritime Alps — Novem- 
 
 populania — First Aquitaine, 190 
 
 Second Aquitaine — Viennoise — Great Sequanaise — First Ly- 
 
 onnaise — Second Do., _ • . 190 
 
 Third and Fourth Lyonnaise — First and Second Belgium, . 190 
 First Germany — Celtic Language — Government of the Celts, 191 
 
 Manners, 191 
 
 Marriages — Worship — Priests, 191, 192 
 
 Mistletoe — Chief of the Druids — Druidesses, ...... 192 
 
 Influence of the Roman Conquests — Christianity substituted 
 
 for Druidism, 192 
 
 Burgundians and Visigoths — Franks — France after the 
 Death of Clovis, . . 192, 193 
 
 151 
 
 151 
 
 152, 
 
 152, 
 
 152 
 
 153 
 
 153 
 
 153 
 
 154 
 
 155 
 
 155 
 
 155 
 
 156 
 
 156 
 
 157 
 
 157 
 
 157 
 
 157 
 
 158 
 
 158 
 
 160 
 
 161 
 
 161 
 
 162 
 
 162 
 
 162 
 
 162 
 
 163 
 
 163 
 
 164 
 
 164 
 
 164 
 
 165 
 
 165 
 
 165 
 
 166 
 
 167 
 
 167 
 
 167 
 
 168 
 
 168 
 
 168 
 
 169 
 
 169 
 
 169 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 Vll 
 
 France under Charlemagne — France under Hugh Capet and 
 
 his Successors, 193 
 
 State of France under Philip of Valois and his Succes- 
 sors, 193, 194 
 
 France under Henry IV. and Louis XIII., 194 
 
 France under Louis XIV. and XV. — French Revolution — 
 France divided into Departments — Reign of Terror — Mont- 
 belliard and Mulhausen united with France — The Rhine 
 made the Boundary of France — Nice and part of Switzer- 
 land united with France, 194 
 
 French Empire — Piedmont united with the Empire — Part of 
 Italy, the Valais, Holland, and the North-western Part of 
 Germany, to the Shores of the Baltic, added to the Empire, 195 
 France confined within its Former Limits — Return of Napo- 
 
 leon — Loss of Saar-Louis — Position of France, .... 195 
 
 Dimensions — Superficial Extent — Population, 196 
 
 Corsica — Ancient Names and Inhabitants, 196 
 
 History and Revolutions of Corsica — King Theodore, . . .196 
 Pascal Paoli — Corsica ceded to France, 197 
 
 BOOK CXLI. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 Physical Geography of France. 
 
 Mountains, jgg 
 
 Franco-Celtic Group — Ceveno-Vosgian Chain, jgg 
 
 Armorican Chain — Basins and Rivers — Garonne, .... igg 
 
 Rhone, igg 
 
 Loire — Seine — The Barre, jgg 
 
 Germanic Basin — Rhine — Meuse, 199, 200 
 
 Scheldt — Somme — Orne — Ranee — Vilaine, 200 
 
 Charente — Adour — Aude — Argens — Lakes and Lagoons, . 200 
 
 Capes — Gulfs and Bays — Gulf of Lyons, 201 
 
 Islands, 201 
 
 Corsica — Geology of France — Preliminary Remarks — Gran- 
 ite Rocks 201,202 
 
 Old Sandstone — Saline Deposits — Jura — Limestone — Cnaik 
 
 Formation, 202 
 
 Ancient Reptiles — Tertiary Deposits — Small Inland Seas — 
 
 Lakes, 202 
 
 Ancient Quadrupeds, 203 
 
 Basins in Auvergne, 203 
 
 Fossil Animals — Geology of Corsica — Substances used in the 
 
 Arts — Granite and Porphyry, 203 
 
 Marble, 204 
 
 Slate, and Stones for Building — Brick and Porcelain — Clay — 
 
 Flint — Millstones — Chalk, &c., 204 
 
 Metals — Mineral Substances not Metallic, 204 
 
 Value of the Mineral Products — Mineral Springs — Atmos- 
 pheric Phenomena, 205 
 
 Winds — Rain, 205 
 
 Temperature — Regions of different Plants, 205 
 
 Influence Of the Sea, 206 
 
 Height of the Soil — Plants Indigenous to France — Plants 
 
 Naturalized in France, 206 
 
 Forest Trees — Cork-Tree — Pine — Cherry of the Vosges — 
 
 Mulberry — Plum, 206 
 
 Garden Vegetables — Vines — Soil of France, 206 
 
 Mountainous Regions — Sandy Plains — Chalky Plains — Pro- 
 ducts of the Soil, 207 
 
 Natural Vegetation — Wild Animals — Quadrupeds,. . . . 207 
 Birds — Birds of Passage — Partridges, &c., .... 207, 208 
 
 Reptiles — Saurian and Batrachian Orders, 208 
 
 Tortoises — Fish, 208 
 
 Cetaceous Animals, 208 
 
 Snails — Mollusca — Crustacea — Insects — Domestic Animals, 209 
 
 Horses, 209 
 
 Asses — Oxen — Sheep, 209, 210 
 
 Pigs — Poultry, 210 
 
 Importation of Animals, . 210 
 
 BOOK CXLXI. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Kingdom, of France. — First Section. — Southern Region. 
 
 Division into Five Regions, 211 
 
 Department of Corsica — Ajaccio, 211 
 
 Bastia — Mariana — Other Towns — Department of the Var, 211, 212 
 
 Antibes — Frejus — St. Tropez, 212 
 
 Toulon, " * ‘ 212 
 
 Pass of Ollioules — Brignolles — Draguignan — Grasse — De- 
 partment of the Lower Alps — Castellane — Digne, . . . 213 
 
 Sisteron — Antiquities, 213 
 
 Department of the Mouths of the Rhone— Aix— The" Orbi- 
 
 telle — University, 213 
 
 Procession on Corpus-Christi Day — Marseilles, . . . . * 214 
 
 Island of Carmague — Arles, . . 214 
 
 Department of Vaucluse — Avignon, 214 
 
 Apt — Carpentras — Fountain of Vaucluse, 215 
 
 The Sorgues — Orange, 215 
 
 Department of the Drome — Montelimart — Valence — De- 
 partment of the Higher Alps — Gap, 215, 216 
 
 Brianqon, 216 
 
 Department of the Isere — Road from Briamjon to Grenoble — 
 
 Grenoble — University, 216 
 
 Sassenage — The Great Chartreuse, 216, 217 
 
 Offering of Omelets — Pont de Beauvoisin — Vienne — Histor- 
 ical Details, 217 
 
 Department of the Ardeche — Etymology of the word Hel- 
 
 via — Volcanic Mountains, 218 
 
 Pont de la Beaume — QJienavari — Rochemaure — Giants’ 
 
 Causeway — The Gueule d’Enfer, 218 
 
 Bridge of Arc, 218 
 
 Domain of Ubas — Volcano of Prasoncoupe — Volcano of Lou- 
 
 baresse, 219 
 
 L’Argentiere — Temple of Mithra — Villeneuve de Berg, . . 219 
 
 Privas — Annonay, 219 
 
 Character of the People — Climate — Department of the Upper 
 
 Loire, 220 
 
 Extinct Volcanoes — Mineral Products — Le Puy, .... 220 
 
 Miraculous Image of the Virgin, 221 
 
 Department of the Lozere — The Pas de Souci — Mende, . . 221 
 
 Chateauneuf de Randon — Luc, 221 
 
 Department of the Gard — Alais — Uzes — Pont St. Esprit — 
 
 Roquemaure, 221, 222 
 
 Nimes — Roman Monuments — Maison Carrhe — Amphithea- 
 tre, 222 
 
 Beaucaire — Fair — Aigues-Mortes, 222, 223 
 
 Products of the Department — Department of the Herault — 
 
 Ganges — Lodeve, 223 
 
 Montpellier — University — Celebrated Men — Medical School 
 
 — Antiquities, 223 
 
 Botanical Garden — Lunel — Cette, 223, 224 
 
 Beziers — Department of the Tarn, 224 
 
 Alby — Trembling Stone — Grotto of St. Dominic, . . 224, 225 
 
 Department of the Upper Garonne, 225 
 
 Toulouse — Antiquities — The Capitole— Gay Science, Floral 
 
 Games, 225 
 
 Muret — St. Gaudens — Bagneres de Luchon, 226 
 
 Department of the Aude — Castel-Naudary, 226 
 
 Carcassonne — Narbonne, 226 
 
 Department of the Eastern Pyrenees — Perpignan, . • . . 227 
 Ceret — Port Vendre — -Department of the Arriege, .... 227 
 Foix — Pamiers — St. Girons — Department of the Upper Pyre- 
 nees — Shepherds, 227, 228 
 
 Tarbes — Bagneres de Bigorre — Campan — Cauterets — Cas- 
 cade of Gavarnie, 228, 229 
 
 Department of the Lower Pyrenees — Isle of Pheasants, . . 229 
 
 Pau — Castle of Pau, 229 
 
 Oloron — Orther — Bayonne, 229, 230 
 
 Department of the Landes — Dax — Thermal Springs, . . . 230 
 
 St. Sever — Mont de Marsan, 230, 231 
 
 Department of the Gironde, 231 
 
 Bazas — Langon — Bordeaux — Port, . . 231 
 
 Castle of Ha — Squares — Public Buildings, ... . 232 
 
Vlll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Industry and Commerce — Blaye — Liboume— La Reole, 232, 233 
 
 Department of the Lot and Garonne, 233 
 
 Marmande — Tonneins — Agen, 233 
 
 Nerac — Department of the Gers — Condom — Auch, . . 233, 234 
 
 Lectoure — Last Count of Armagnac, 234, 235 
 
 Department of the Tarn and Garonne — Moissac, .... 235 
 
 Montauban — Department of the Aveyron, 235 
 
 Spontaneous Combustion of Coal, 235 
 
 Rhodez, 236 
 
 St. Afrique — Department of the Lot — Figeac — Singular Cer- 
 emony, 236 
 
 Cahors — Former Privileges of the Bishop, 237 
 
 Gourdon — Department of the Dordogne, 237 
 
 Sarlat — Bergerac — Perigueux, 237, 238 
 
 Brantome, 238 
 
 BOOK CXLIII. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Kingdom of France. — Second Section. — Western Region. 
 
 Department of the Charente, 239 
 
 Angouleme — Confolans, 239, 240 
 
 Jarnac — Cognac — Department of the Lower Charente, . 240 
 
 Saintes — St. Jean d’Angely, . 240 
 
 Rochefort — La Rochelle, 240, 241 
 
 Department of La Vendee, 241 
 
 Fontenay le Comte— Les Sables d’Olonne, 241 
 
 Bourbon Vendee — Department of the Two Sevres, . . . .242 
 
 Niort — Parthenay — Thouan, 242 
 
 Department of the Vienne — Civray — Poitiers, . . . 242, 243 
 
 Chatellerault — Loudun, 243 
 
 Department of the Maine and Loire — Saumur — Baug6, 243,244 
 
 Angers — Pont de Ce, 244 
 
 Beaupreau — Cholet — Department of the Lower Loire — Soil 
 
 and Industry of the Department, 244, 245 
 
 Nantes — Public Buildings — Commerce, 245 
 
 Paimbceuf — Ancenis — Department of Morbihan — Vannes, . 246 
 
 Peninsula of Rhuys — Islands — Quiberon, 246 
 
 Carnac, Druidical Monument — Lorient — Port Louis, . 246, 247 
 
 Ploermel — Pontivy — Department of Finisterre, 247 
 
 Q,uimperl6 — Quimper, 247 
 
 Concarneau — Chateaulin — Carhaix, 247, 248 
 
 Brest, 248 
 
 Landernau — Morlaix — St. Pol de Leon — Department of the 
 
 North Coast, 248,249 
 
 Laudeac — St. Brieux, 249 
 
 Dinan — Department of the Ule and Vilaine, 249 
 
 St. Malo — Fougeres, 250 
 
 Montfort sur Meu — Rennes, 250 
 
 Public Buildings— Vitr6, 250,251 
 
 Department of the Mayenne — Laval, 251 
 
 Chateau Gonthier — Mayenne,' 251, 252 
 
 Department of the Sarthe — Mamers — Le Mans — Cathedral, . 252 
 
 St. Calais — Chateau du Loir, 252.253 
 
 La Fleche — Military School, .... 253 
 
 BOOK CXLIV. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Kingdom of France. — Third Section. — Central Region. 
 
 Department of the Indre and Loire 254 
 
 Former Prosperity of Touraine, 254 
 
 Tours — Cathedral — Collections, 254, 255 
 
 Amboise — Chateau-Renault, 255 
 
 Langeais — Chinon — La Haye-Descartes, 255 
 
 Loches — Department of the Loir and Cher — Blois, .... 256 
 Chambord — Romarantin — Vendome, . . ... 256, 257 
 
 Department of the Eure and Loir — Nogent le Rotrou, . . 257 
 
 Dreux — Burgh of Anet — Maintenon, 257 
 
 Chartres — Collections, 257 
 
 Chateaudun — Department of the Loiret — Orleans, .... 258 
 
 Scientific Institutions, 258 
 
 Commerce and Manufactures, 258, 259 
 
 Pithiviers — Montargis — Quality of the Soil in the Depart- 
 ment — Department of the Nievre, 259 
 
 Cosne — Pouilly— La Charity — Clamecy, 259, 260 
 
 Chateau-Chinon — Nevers — Industry, 260 
 
 Department of the Allier — Moulins, 260 
 
 Souvigny — Bourbon l’Archambault, 261 
 
 La Palisse — Vichy — Mont-Luqon — Neris les Bains, . . . 261 
 
 Department of the Creuse — Aubusson, 261, 262 
 
 Gueret — Department of the Cher — St. Amand 262 
 
 Bourges — Public Buildings, 262,263 
 
 Antiquity of Bourges, 263 
 
 Mehun — Department of the Indre, 263 
 
 Levroux — Chateauroux, 263, 264 
 
 La Chatre — Department of the Upper Vienne, 264 
 
 Bellac — Limoges, 264 
 
 Antiquity of Limoges — Rochechouard, 265 
 
 Department of the Correze, 265 
 
 Uzerche — Tulle — Brives la Gaillarde, 265,266 
 
 Ussel — Department of Cantal, 266 
 
 Industry — Maurs — Aurillac, 266, 267 
 
 Vic en Carladez — St. Flour — Chaudes-^igues, 267 
 
 Murat — Department of Puy de Dome, 267 
 
 Appearance of Mont-Dor — -Trou de Soucy, 268 
 
 Lake Pavin — Puy de Sancy — Its height — Valley of Enfer, . 268 
 Valley of Mont-Dor — Cascade of the Serpent — Great Cas- 
 cade — The Capuchin— Village of Bains, 268 
 
 Lake Chambon — Issoire — Vic le Comte, 269 
 
 Billom — Mountain of Gergovia, 269 
 
 Pont du Chateau — Clermont— Squares, 269,270 
 
 Scientific Institutions — Fountain of St. Allyre, 270 
 
 Industry of Clermont — Its Antiquity— Neighbourhood— Mont- 
 
 Ferrand, 270 
 
 Valley of Royat — Granaries of Caesar — Puy de Dome, . . 271 
 
 Puy de Nadailhat — Puy de Pariou — The Great Sarcouy, . . 271 
 
 Pont-Gibaud — Volvic, 271 
 
 Riom — Aigue Perse — Thiers, 272 
 
 Ambert— Wealth of the Department— Poverty of the Inhabi- 
 tants, 272,273 
 
 BOOK CXLV. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Kingdom of France. — Fourth Section. — Eastern Region. 
 
 Department of the Loire, 274 
 
 Rive de Gier — Rail-road, 274,275 
 
 St. Etienne, 275 
 
 Montbrison — Roanne, _ _ • 275 
 
 Department of the Rhone — Tarare — Beaujeu, ... 2*5,276 
 
 Ville-Franche — Lyons, 276 
 
 Origin and Antiquities — Confluence of the Rhone and the 
 
 Saone, 276 
 
 Squares, . . . 276 > 2 ‘ 7 
 
 Historical Recollections, • ‘ 
 
 Industry — Edifices, 2*7,278 
 
 Scientific Societies — Charitable Institutions, ...... 278 
 
 Celebrated Men — Department of the Ain, 278 
 
 Trevoux — Bourg en Bresse — Belley, 2*9 
 
 Nantua — Gex — Ferney — Department of the Saone and 
 
 Loire — Macon, *279 
 
 Tournus — Charolles — Chalons sur Saone, 279, 280 
 
 Autun — Department of the Cote d'Or — Vineyards, .... 280 
 
 Nolay — Beaune — Jean de Losne — Dijon, 280,281 
 
 Auxonne, 281 
 
 Montbard— Chatillon sur Seine — Department of the Yonne,. 281 
 
 Avallon — Vermanton — Chablis, 282 
 
 Auxerre, • • 232 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 IX 
 
 Joigny— Sens, 283 
 
 Festival of Fools, 283 
 
 Tonnerre — Department of the Upper Saone, . . . . 283,284 
 
 Fougerolles — St. Loup — Luxeuil — Lure, . 284 
 
 Vesoul — Frais-Puits, 284, 285 
 
 Neighbourhood of Vesoul — Gray — Department of Jura, . .285 
 
 Dole, 285 
 
 Poligny — Arbois, 286 
 
 Salins, 286, 287 
 
 Lons le Saulnier, 287 
 
 Ancient Customs — Septmoncel, 287 
 
 St. Claude — Abbey — Industry, 288 
 
 Department of the Doubs — Pontarlier, 288 
 
 Besan^on — Beaume les Dames, 289 
 
 St. Hippolyte — Montbelliard — Department of the Upoer 
 
 Rhine — Befort, 289, 290 
 
 Huningen — Mulhausen, 290 
 
 New Brisach — Colmar — Department of the Lower Rhine — 
 
 Schelessat, 290, 291 
 
 Strasburg, 291 
 
 Edifices — Places of Instruction — Celebrated Men, .... 291 
 
 Neighbourhood — Antiquity — Peasantry — Dress, 292 
 
 Haguenau — Saveue — Seitz — Weissemburg, 292 
 
 BOOK CXLYI. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Kingdom of France. — Fifth Section. — Northern Region. 
 
 Department of the Moselle, 293 
 
 Bitche — Sarregue mines — Thionville, 293 
 
 Sierck — Longwy — Metz — View of the Town — Court of Jus- 
 tice — Cathedral, 294 
 
 Antiquities, 294 
 
 Metz in the Middle Ages — Useful Institutions, . . . 294, 295 
 
 Department of the Meuse — Etain — Verdun, 295 
 
 Bar— St. Mihiel, 295 
 
 Department of the Vosges — Domremy — Joan of Arc — Neuf- 
 
 Chateau, 296 
 
 Appearance and Riches of the Vosges, 296 
 
 Epinal — Remiremont, 297 
 
 St. Die — Department of the Meurthe — Cirey, . . . 297, 298 
 
 Dieuze — Luneville, 298 
 
 Road from Luneville to Nancy — Nancy — Edifices, . . 298, 299 
 
 Useful Institutions — Industry — Pont a Mousson, .... 299 
 
 Toul — Department of the Upper Marne — Bourbon les 
 
 Bains, 299, 300 
 
 Langres — Eponina and Sabinus, 300 
 
 Chaumont — Joinville — Vassy — Department of the Aube — 
 
 Clairvaux, 300, 301 
 
 Bar sur Aube, 301 
 
 Brienne — Bur sur Seine — Troyes, 301 
 
 Public Buildings, 302 
 
 Arcis sur Aube — Department of the Marne — Vetryle Brul6, 302 
 Vitry le Francois — Sezanne — Montmirail — Epernay, . . . 303 
 
 Chalons sur Marne, 303 
 
 Courtisou — St. Menehould, 304 
 
 Rheims — Antiquities — Public Buildings, 304, 305 
 
 Department of the Ardennes 305 
 
 Rethel — Sedan — Principality, 305, 306 
 
 Mezieres — Charleville — Fumay, 306 
 
 Givet and Charlemont — Department of the Aisne, .... 307 
 
 Guise — St. Quentin, 307 
 
 La Fere — St. Gobain — Laon, 307, 308 
 
 Soissons — La Fert6-Milon — Chateau-Thierry, . • . . . 308 
 Department of the Seine and Marne — La Fert6 sous-Jouare 
 
 — Meaux, 308, 309 
 
 Melun — Fontainebleau — Nemours, 309 
 
 Montereau — Provins, 310 
 
 Department of the Oise — Senlis, 310,311 
 
 Creil — Compiegne, 311 
 
 Noyon — Clermont-Oise, 312 
 
 Beauvais — Department of the Seine and Oise, 312 
 
 Pontoise — Mantes — Rosny, . . 313 
 
 Meulan — Poissy — Forest of St. Germain — St. Germain, 313, 314 
 Marly — Rueil — Argenteuil — St. Cloud, ... ... 314 
 
 Meudon — Sevres — Versailles, 314 
 
 Palace — The Trianons — Expense of the Palace at Ver- 
 sailles, 315 
 
 Useful Institutions — Neighborhood of Versailles — Montfort- 
 l’Amaury — Rambouillet — Dourdan — Etampes, . . . 315, 316 
 Corbeil — Riches of the Department — Department of the 
 
 Seine — Paris, 316 
 
 Early Extent — Enlargement of Paris by Charles VI. — By 
 
 Francis I., 317 
 
 By Henry IV.— By Louis XIII. and XIV., ...... 317 
 
 By Louis XV. — Monuments of the Reigns of Louis XIV. 
 
 XV. and XVI., 318 
 
 Under the Consular and Imperial Governments — Quays — 
 
 Bridges, 318,319 
 
 Fountains — Markets — Cemeteries — Monuments — The Ex- 
 change — Since the Restoration, . 319 
 
 Population — Under Philip the Fair — Under Louis XI., 319, 320 
 
 Under Henry II. — Under Henry IV. — Under Louis XIV. — 
 
 Religious Edifices, 320 
 
 Scientific Institutions, Schools, &c. — Neighbourhood of 
 
 Paris — St. Denis, 320, 321 
 
 Vincennes — Arcueil — Fontenay aux Roses — Sceaux — De- 
 partment of the Eure, 321 
 
 Vernon — Evreux — The Andelys, 321, 322 
 
 Valley of Fleury — Louviers — Quillebeuf, 322 
 
 Pont- Audemer — Bernay — Department of the Orne — Argen- 
 
 tan, 322, 323 
 
 Mortagne — Seez — Alenqon — Domfront, 323 
 
 Department of the Channel — Avranches — Coutances, . 324 
 
 Cherbourg — Port, 324, 325 
 
 St. Lo — Department of Calvados, 325 
 
 Isigny — Bayeux — Falaise, 326 
 
 Caen — University, 326, 327 
 
 Lisieux — Honfleur, 327 
 
 Department of the Lower Seine — Havre — Fecamp — Lille- 
 
 bonne, 328 
 
 Caudebec — Rouen — Edifices, 328, 329 
 
 Elbeuf — Gournay — Aumale — Dieppe, 329 
 
 Department of the Somme — Abbeville, 330 
 
 Amiens — Peronne — Montdidier, 330, 331 
 
 Department of the Straits of Calais — Montreuil — Bou- 
 logne, 331 
 
 Calais — Guines — Ardres — Bethune, 331, 332 
 
 Arras — Department of the North, 332, 333 
 
 Cambray — Landrecy — Avesnes — Maubeuge, . . . 333, 334 
 
 Valenciennes — Anzin — Famars — Denain, 334 
 
 Cond6 — St. Amand — Douay — Lille, 334, 335 
 
 Armentieres — Hazebrouck — Bergues — Gravelines, . 335, 336 
 
 Dunkirk, 336 
 
 Roads — Canals, 337 
 
 Money, 337 
 
 Statistical Tables of France , 338 — 355 
 
 BOOK CXLVII. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Description of the Scandinavian Peninsula.— First Section . — ■ 
 Kingdom of Norway. 
 
 Language of the Scalds — Scandinavian P oems, 356 
 
 Creation of the World and of Man— The Olympus of the 
 
 North, 356 
 
 Destruction of the Universe, 357 
 
 Resurrection of the World— Origin of this Cosmogony- 
 Runic Alphabet — Origin of the Scandinavians, . . 357 358 
 
 Ancient Names, 358 
 
 Ancient Inhabitants — Ancient Manners 358 
 
 Ancient Names of Norway — Historical Notices, . . . 359 
 
 Government, &c., •• 359 
 
 
X 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Present State of Norway, 360 
 
 Summer Occupations — Winter Occupations, 360 
 
 Character of the Norwegians — Dress — Manners of the 
 
 Towns, 360, 361 
 
 Mountains — Rivers, 361 
 
 Geological Constitution, 362 
 
 Mineral Wealth — Vegetation, 362 
 
 Animal Kingdom, 363 
 
 Climate, 363 
 
 General Appearance — Cities and Towns — Hammerfest — 
 
 Tromscee, 363, 364 
 
 Drontheim — Bergen, 364 
 
 Christiansand — Arendal, 365 
 
 Frederikstad — Kongsberg — Christiania, 365 
 
 Frederikshald — Norwegian Archipelago, 365, 366 
 
 Industry in Norway, 366 
 
 BOOK CXLYIII. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Description of the Scandinavian Peninsula. — Second Section . — 
 Description of Sweden. 
 
 Laplanders, 307 
 
 Westro-Bothnia — Jemtia or Jemtland — Helsingia — Nericia 
 
 — Dalecarlia — Gothia or Gothland — Rivers, 367 
 
 Lakes — Canals, 367, 368 
 
 Roads — Islands — (Eland — Gothland — Hven — Geology, . . 368 
 
 Rocks and Veins — Diluvium, 369 
 
 Animals — Vegetation, 369 
 
 Agriculture — Climate, 370 
 
 Seasons — Cities and Towns — Lulea, 370 
 
 Umea — Manners of the Laplanders — Manners of the North- 
 ern Swedes, 370 
 
 Herncesand — Gefle — Fahlun — Manners of the Dalecarlians 
 
 — Manners of the Helsingians, 370, 371 
 
 Upsal — University, 371 
 
 Cathedral — Curiosities in the Cathedral, 371 
 
 Stockholm — Surrounding Country — Suburbs — Harbour, . . 372 
 
 Royal Palace, 372 
 
 Squares — Churches — Cathedral, 372, 373 
 
 Useful Institutions — Environs — (Erebro — Carlstad, . . . 373 
 
 Linkoeping — Jcenkoeping — Gottenburg, 374 
 
 Uddevalla — .Halmstad — Lund — Malmce — Christianstad, . . 374 
 
 Carlscrona — Calmar — Union of Calmar, 374, 375 
 
 Wisby — Manners of Southern Sweden — Fetes and Amuse- 
 ments, 375 
 
 Education— Police — Taxes, 375 
 
 Navy — Laws — Government — Senate, 375, 376 
 
 Council of State — States-General — Industry and Trade, . 376 
 Ameliorations, 377 
 
 Statistical Tables of the Swedish Monarchy, . . . 378 — 380 
 
 BOOK CXLIX. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Description of Denmark and of the Faroe Isles. 
 
 Limits of Denmark, 381 
 
 Diminution of the Baltic Sea, 381 
 
 Geology — Fossil Vegetables, 381, 382 
 
 Fiords — Lakes, 382 
 
 Canals, 382 
 
 Dimensions of Denmark — Climate — Seasons — Vegetation — 
 
 Forests, .... 383 
 
 Meadows — Cultivation, 383 
 
 Wild Animals — Domestic Animals, 384 
 
 Fish — Commerce, ... 384 
 
 Language — Danish Character 384, 385 
 
 Inhabitants of Holstein — Education, ... ... 385 
 
 Learned Men, 385 
 
 Artists — Government, 386 
 
 Revolution of 1660, 387 
 
 Establishment of Absolute Power, 388 
 
 Present Form of Government, 388 
 
 Orders — Privileges of some Provinces — Liberation of the 
 
 Peasantry, 388, 389 
 
 Aspect of the Danish Coasts — Sound Duties — Zealand — 
 
 Copenhagen 389 
 
 Disasters of Copenhagen — Its Quarters, 389 
 
 Literary Establishments — Industry and Trade, 390 
 
 Police — Environs of Copenhagen — Elsineur, 390 
 
 Islands — Bornholm — Mceen— Funen — Langeland — Laaland 
 — North Jutland— Aalborg — Viborg — South Jutland, 390, 391 
 
 Sleswick — Flensborg, 391 
 
 Islands on the Western Coast — Islands on the Eastern Coast 
 
 — Dutchy of Holstein, 392 
 
 Gluckstadt — Kiel — University, 392 
 
 Rendsburg — Preetz — Probsty of Preetz, 393 
 
 Ploen — Itzehoe, 393 
 
 De Brut-Kamp — Obelisk — Elmshorn — Pinneberg, . . 393, 394 
 
 Altona — Destruction in 1713, 394 
 
 Dutchy of Lauenburg — Ratzeburg — Lauenburg, .... 395 
 Foeroe Islands — Thorshavn, 395, 396 
 
 Statistical Tables of the Danish Monarchy, 397 
 
 BOOK CL. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Belgium, or the Netherlands. 
 
 History and Inhabitants, 398 
 
 Government of the Late Kingdom of the Netherlands, 398, 399 
 
 Recent Changes, 399 
 
 Mountains — Rivers, 400 
 
 Lakes and Marshes — Geological Constitution, . . . 400, 401 
 
 Configuration of the Surface in Belgium — Minerals,. . , 401 
 
 Climate and Cultivation, 401, 402 
 
 Manufactures — Iron, &c. — Woollen — Linen — Lace — Cot- 
 ton, 402 
 
 Breweries, &c. — Foreign Trade — Roads and Canals, . . 402 
 
 Religion — Cities — Antwerp — Cathedral, 403 
 
 Malines — East Flanders — Ghent, 404 
 
 Alost — Oudenarde — West Flanders — Bruges, . . . 404, 405 j 
 
 Ostend — Ypres, 405 
 
 Courtray — Fields of Battle, 405 
 
 Fontenoy — Fleurus — Steenkerke — Jemappe — Tournay, . 406 
 
 Tomb of Childeric I. — Mons, 406 
 
 Dinant — Namur, 407 
 
 Nivelles — Waterloo — Brussels, 407 
 
 Squares, 408 
 
 Churches — Fountains — Population of the Different Quar- 
 ters of the City, 408 
 
 Scientific and Benevolent Establishments Prome- 
 nades, 408, 409 
 
 Louvain — University — Tirlemont, 409 
 
 Tongres — Maestricht — The Mosasaurus, 409 
 
 Maaseyk — Wert — Venloo, 410 
 
 Ruremonde — Limburg — Venders — Spa — Liege — Grand- 
 
 Dutchy of Luxemburg, 410, 411 
 
 St. Hubert — Bouillon — Arlon — Luxemburg, 411 
 
 BOOK CLI. 
 
 EUROPE CONTINUED. 
 
 Holland, or the Seven United Provinces. 
 
 Glance at the History of Holland, 412 
 
 Government — Ancient Physical State, 412 
 
 Surface — Rivers, 413 
 
Lakes — Marshes, 
 
 Gulfs or Bays — Canals — Islands — Geology, .... 413, 
 
 Climate and Cultivation — Language, 
 
 Ancient Inhabitants — Territorial Divisions, .... 414, 
 
 Cities — Groningen — University, ... 
 
 Leeuwarden — Harnngem— Assen — Coevorden — Zwol, . . 
 
 Campen — Deventer — Zutphen — Arnhem — Nimeguen, . . 
 
 Utrecht — University, 417, 
 
 Amersfoort — Islands in the Zuyderzee — Texel — Camper- 
 
 down, 
 
 Willems-Ord — Medenblik — Horn, 
 
 Alkmaar — Saardam — Broek, . 
 
 Amsterdam — The Amstal, 
 
 Streets, 
 
 Public Buildings — The Stadthouse, 
 
 Commerce and Industry, 421, 
 
 Haarlem — Invention of Printing, 
 
 Leyden — University, 
 
 The Rhine at Leyden, 
 
 The Hague — Public Buildings, 
 
 Environs of the Hague, 
 
 Delft — Rotterdam, 
 
 Dordrecht or Dort, 
 
 Middleburg — Flushing — Bergen op Zoom — Bois le Due, . 
 
 Breda — Character of the Dutch, 
 
 Manners of the Dutch, 
 
 Statistical Table of the Belgian Provinces, 
 
 Statistical Table of the Dutch Provinces, . 
 
 Dutch Colonies, 
 
 Statistical Tables connected with the Late Kingdom of the 
 Netherlands, embracing both Dutch and Belgian Prov- 
 inces, 430. 
 
 BOOK CLII. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 i 
 
 Kurope Continued — Great Britain — England — First Section — 
 Civil Geography — Early Inhabitants — Roman Conquests — 
 Saxon Invasion — Normans — History, Progress and Settlement 
 of the Constitution. 
 
 Early Inhabitants, ... 433 
 
 Roman Invasion, B. C. 55, 433 
 
 Intercourse with Gaul — Towns, Houses, &c. — Married 
 
 State, 434 
 
 Appearance — Method of Fighting, 434 
 
 Money — Hospitality — Government, 434 
 
 Power of the Priests — Effects of the Roman Conquest, . . 435 
 
 Government of Agricola, 435 
 
 Northern Tribes, Caledonians— Number of Tribes — Roman 
 
 Provinces, 435 
 
 Monuments of the Romans. Prretentura of Agricola — Val- 
 lum of Hadrian, 436 
 
 Vallum of Antoninus, 436 
 
 Wall of Severus, 436 
 
 Britons under the Romans, 437 
 
 British Soldiers in the Roman armies — Corn, 437 
 
 Towns, &c. — States — Advances in Civilization, .... 437 
 
 Scots and Piets — Saxons, Angles and Jutes, 438 
 
 Saxon Conquest — Chorography — Kingdom of Kent — King- 
 dom of Sussex, 438 
 
 Wessex — Essex — East Anglia — Bernicia, .... 438, 439 
 
 Deira — Mercia — Octarchy — Divisions of the Country, . . 439 
 
 Sheriffs — Accessions made in the Norman Period — Wales 
 — Counties — Ridings — L athes — Rapes — Hundreds and 
 
 Tithings, 439 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Language, Similitude to the English, . . . 439 
 
 Anglo-Saxon and English Words, 440 
 
 Population during the Anglo-Saxon Period — Domesday 
 
 Book, 440 
 
 Barbarism of the Saxons — Arts, Trade, &c 440 
 
 Houses — Government, . 441 
 
 xi 
 
 Governments, 44X 
 
 Juries — Norman Conquest, 441 
 
 Henry the Third — The Edwards, 442 
 
 Wretched Condition of the People, 442 
 
 Famine in the time of Edward the Second, 442 
 
 Pestilence in 1349 — Poll-Tax, 442, 443 
 
 Parliaments, 443 
 
 Parliament — Rise of the Towns, 443 
 
 Elective Franchise extended by Henry the Eighth, . . . 443 
 
 House of Lords, 444 
 
 Abuses abolished — Statute of Treasons — Architecture — 
 
 Churches, 444 
 
 Clocks — Woollen Manufactures, 444, 445 
 
 Foreign Merchants — Richard the Second, 445 
 
 Dependents of the Great — Deposition of Richard the Sec- 
 ond, 445 
 
 Period from the Accession of Henry the Fourth to the Ac- 
 cession of Henry the Seventh — Religious Persecution, 
 Wealth of the Church — Power of the Commons, . 445, 446 
 
 Electors, 446 
 
 Irregularity of Elections — Corrupt Practices of Sheriffs — 
 
 Wages of Members of Parliament, 446 
 
 Defects in the Government — Dispensing Power — High Con- 
 stables — Decreased Population, 447 
 
 Decline of Villeinage — Commercial Regulations, .... 447 
 
 Population of 1485 — Period of the Tudors, 447 
 
 State of the A nstocracy, 448 
 
 Wise Laws of Henry the Seventh, 448 
 
 Star Chamber, . 448 
 
 Reformation, Law of the Six Articles, 449 
 
 Suppression of Monasteries, 449 
 
 Abject State of Parliament — Elizabeth, 450 
 
 Commerce under Elizabeth — Trade to India — Flemish Em- 
 igrants, 450 
 
 Poor Laws, 451 
 
 Progressive Extension, 451 
 
 Work-houses — Bad Effects of the Poor Laws, 451 
 
 Roads, 452 
 
 Naval Power in the time of Elizabeth — The Stuarts, . . . 452 
 
 Canons of the Clergy — Proceedings of the Lower House, 453 
 
 Unjust Acts of James’s Reign, 453 
 
 Charles the First, 453 
 
 Nineteen Propositions, 454, 455 
 
 Major-Generals, 455, 456 
 
 Declaration and Bill of Rights — Appropriation of Sup- 
 
 Duration of Parliaments, 457 
 
 Law of Treason — Liberty of the Press, 457 
 
 Act of Settlement — Reports of Parliamentary Speeches, . 457 
 
 Settlement of the Constitution, 458 
 
 Parties — Whigs and Tories, 459 
 
 Religious Liberty, 459 
 
 Resources of England — Commercial Resources, .... 459 
 
 Inland Navigation, 460 
 
 Roads — Piers, Moles, &c 460 
 
 BOOK CLIII. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued — England and Wales — Second Section — Phys- 
 ical Geography — Extent — Climate — Coasts — Rivers — Moun- 
 tains — Productions. 
 
 Superficial Extent, 462 
 
 Trigonometrical Survey, 462 
 
 Climate, 462 
 
 Seasons — Spring, 463 
 
 Summer — Autumn, 463 
 
 Difference of the Climate in the North and the South, . . 464 
 
 Quantity of Rain in Different Parts of England — Annual 
 
 Rains in the Midland Counties, 464 
 
 Counties in the North-West — Neighbourhood of London- 
 General Results — Annual Quantity of Rain in England, 464 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 413 
 
 414 
 
 414 
 
 415 
 
 415 
 
 416 
 
 417 
 
 418 
 
 418 
 
 419 
 
 419 
 
 420 
 
 420 
 
 421 
 
 422 
 
 422 
 
 423 
 
 423 
 
 424 
 
 424 
 
 425 
 
 426 
 
 427 
 
 427 
 
 428 
 
 429 
 429, 430 
 
 430 
 
 432 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Temperature — Temperature of Liverpool — Temperature of 
 Dover — Temperature of Lancaster — Temperature of 
 
 London, 
 
 London and the West of England — Extremes of Cold and 
 
 Heat — Winds, 
 
 Prevalent Winds near London — Deviation at Liverpool, 
 
 Coasts — Coast of Cumberland — Lancashire, 
 
 Estuary of the Ribble — Cheshire, North Wales, . . . . 
 
 Menai Straits — Holyhead — Cardigan Bay, 
 
 Pembrokeshire Coast — Milford Haven — Bay of Swan- 
 sea, 466, 
 
 Monmouthshire Coast — Bristol Channel, 
 
 Southern Coasts — Southern Coast of Cornwall, 
 
 Eddystone Rock — Devonshire, 
 
 Isle of Wight, 
 
 Southampton Water — Spithead — Sussex — Kent, .... 
 
 Downs — Goodwin Sands — Isle of Thanet, 
 
 Essex, 
 
 Suffolk, 
 
 Lincolnshire, 
 
 Yorkshire, 
 
 Durham — Northumberland, 470, 
 
 Resemblance between the British and the Opposite Shores 
 
 on the Continent, 
 
 Rivers — Thames, 
 
 Feeders — Severn, 471, 
 
 Rivers that communicate with the Washes, ...... 
 
 Humber — Trent, 
 
 Feeders of the Trent, 
 
 Streams flowing into the Humber from the North — Basins 
 of the Principal Rivers — Basin of the Thames, .... 
 
 Basin of the Severn — Bristol Channel, 
 
 Basin of the Wash, 
 
 Basin of the Humber — Basin of the Mersey, 
 
 Lakes, 
 
 Northern Lakes — Derwent Water, 
 
 Bassenth waite Water — Crummock Water — Buttermere, 
 
 Winandermere — Mountains, 
 
 Northern Range, 475, 
 
 Malvern Hills — Cambrian Mountains, 
 
 Cader Idris — Mountains in Devonshire, 
 
 Plains, &c. — Wealds — Yale of York, 
 
 Forests, 
 
 Plants, 
 
 Oaks, 
 
 Soil, 
 
 Geology — London Clay — Organic Remains, 
 
 Wells — Chalk, 
 
 Camden’s Account of the Mole, 
 
 Fossil Remains — Economical Purposes — Maries, .... 
 
 Agricultural Character — Oolites, 
 
 Position — Purbeck and Portland Stone — Great Oolite — Or- 
 ganic Remains, 480, 
 
 Alum — Coal, 
 
 Coal Districts in England, 
 
 Great Northern District, 
 
 Great Coal-Field of Northumberland and Durham — Quan- 
 tity of Coal, 
 
 Calculation by Dr. Thomson — Waste of Coal — Dangers to 
 
 which the Miners are exposed, 482, 
 
 History of the Northern Coal Trade, 
 
 Number of Individuals employed in the Coal Trade, . . . 
 
 Other Coal-Fields — South Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire and 
 Derbyshire Coal-Field — Manchester or South Lancashire 
 
 Coal-Field, 
 
 Whitehaven Coal-Field, 
 
 Central District — Dudley, or South Staffordshire Coal-Field, 
 North-Western District — Coal in Flintshire — Plain of 
 
 Shrewsbury — Coalbrook-dale — Clee Hills, 
 
 Billingsley — South-Western Division — Great Coal-Field of 
 
 South Wales, 
 
 Forest of Dean Coal — Sommersetshire and Gloucestershire, 
 Metals, Copper and Tin— Veins — Length and Depth of the 
 
 Veins, 
 
 Breadth of the Veins — Number of Mines — Management of 
 
 the Mines — Ignorance of the Miners, 
 
 Character of the Miners, 
 
 Consequences of the Ignorance of Geology, 
 
 465 
 
 465 
 
 465 
 
 466 
 466 
 
 466 
 
 467 
 467 
 
 467 
 
 468 
 468 
 
 468 
 
 469 
 469 
 
 469 
 
 470 
 
 470 
 
 471 
 
 Animal Kingdom, 
 
 Deer — Game — Bustard — Migratory Birds — Turtle Dove 
 
 Nightingale — Woodcock, 
 
 Starling— Fish — Herring Fishery— Mackerel— Pilchards, . 
 
 Oysters — Domestic Animals — Horse, 
 
 Suffolk Horses — Black Cart Horse, 
 
 Oxen — Devonshire Oxen, and Other Varieties, 
 
 Long and Short Horned Cattle — Sheep — Long Woolled 
 
 Sheep, 
 
 Short Woolled — Number of Long and Short Woolled 
 
 Sheep — Quantity of Wool, 
 
 Pi g s » 490, 
 
 BOOK CLIY. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued — England — Section Third — Topographical 
 Divisions — Towns, fyc. 
 
 488 
 
 488 
 
 489 
 489 
 
 489 
 
 490 
 
 490 
 
 490 
 
 491 
 
 471 
 
 471 
 
 472 
 472 
 
 472 
 
 473 
 
 473 
 
 473 
 
 474 
 474 
 
 474 
 
 475 
 475 
 
 475 
 
 476 
 476 
 
 476 
 
 477 
 477 
 
 477 
 
 478 
 478 
 
 478 
 
 479 
 
 479 
 
 480 
 480 
 
 481 
 
 481 
 
 481 
 
 481 
 
 482 
 
 483 
 
 483 
 
 484 
 
 484 
 
 485 
 485 
 
 485 
 
 486 
 486 
 
 486 
 
 487 
 
 487 
 
 488 
 
 Divisions. Anglo-Norman Islands, 
 
 Jersey — Guernsey — Alderney — Scilly Islands, ... 
 Cornwall — Agriculture, Industry — Natural Produc- 
 tions, 492 , 
 
 Minerals, 
 
 Falmouth — Parliamentary Representation — Devonshire, 
 
 Dartmoor — North Devon — Minerals, 493, 
 
 Industry — Towns — Plymouth — Trade — Exeter, .... 
 
 Dorsetshire, 
 
 Isle of Purbeck — Isle of Portland — Dorchester, . . 494, 
 Poole — Somersetshire — Agricultural Produce, Minerals, 
 
 &.c. — Canals, 
 
 W ells — Bath, 
 
 Buildings, Charitable Institutions — Bristol, 
 
 Eminent Men — Gloucestershire, 
 
 Gloucester, 
 
 Industry and Manufactures — Mineral Waters — Stroud, . . 
 
 Cirencester — Berkeley — Wilts — Face of the Country, Soil, 
 
 Rivers, &c 
 
 Towns — Salisbury, 
 
 Amesbury — Stonehenge — Representation, Industry — 
 
 Hampshire, 
 
 Forests — Isle of Wight, 498, 
 
 Southampton — Portsmouth, 
 
 Harbour — Naval Manufactories, 
 
 Fareham — Gosport — Winchester 499, 
 
 Cathedral — College — Isle of Wight — Towns, 
 
 Newport — Carisbrook Castle — Sussex — Soil and Products, 
 
 Rivers — Towns. Chichester, 500, 
 
 Horsham — Lewes — Hastings^ — Brighton, 
 
 Eminent Men — Kent, 
 
 Dover, 501, 
 
 Pile of Bones — Hythe and Romney — Sandwich — Deal, . . 
 
 Canterbury — Early History — Cathedral, 
 
 Diocese — Privileges of the Archbishop — Rochester — Chat- 
 ham, 
 
 Military Academy — Greenwich, 
 
 Greenwich Hospital — Observatory — Gravesend, .... 
 
 Middlesex — Canals — London, 503, 
 
 Trade — History of London, 
 
 Streets Lighted for the First Time — First Printing Press, . 
 
 Silk Manufacture, 
 
 Plague — Fires — Municipal Divisions, 
 
 Form, Buildings, &c 
 
 Squares — Public Buildings, 505, 
 
 Palace of St. James — Churches, 
 
 Bridges, 
 
 Thames Tunnel — Parks — Theatres, 
 
 Scientific and Useful Institutions — Benevolent Institutions 
 
 — Number of Houses, Streets and Squares, 
 
 Police — Environs of London, 
 
 Chelsea — Surrey, 
 
 Mineral Products — Products of Industry — Guildford — Kew 
 
 — Richmond, 
 
 Berkshire — Windsor — Reading, 508, 
 
 492 
 
 492 
 
 493 
 493 
 
 493 
 
 494 
 494 
 
 494 
 
 495 
 
 495 
 
 495 
 
 496 
 
 496 ! 
 
 497 
 497 
 
 497 
 
 498 ! 
 
 498 
 
 499 
 499 
 
 499 
 
 500 
 500 
 
 500 
 
 501 
 501 
 
 501 
 
 502 
 502 
 
 502 
 
 503 
 503 
 
 503 
 
 504 
 504 
 
 504 
 
 505 
 505 
 
 505 
 
 506 
 
 506 
 
 507 
 507 
 
 507 
 50S 
 
 508 
 
 508 
 
 509 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 xui 
 
 Newbury — Abingdon — Wantage — Whitehorse -vale, . . . 509 
 
 Oxfordshire — Soil — Streams and Rivers — Products — Ox- 
 ford — Antiquities — Historical Associations, ... . 509 
 
 University, 509, 510 
 
 Usefhl Institutions, 510 
 
 County, 510 
 
 Buckinghamshire — Soil — Inland Navigation — Towns, . . 511 
 
 Buckingham — Eton — Eminent men, 511 
 
 Hertfordshire — Hertford — Ancient Inhabitants of the Coun- 
 ty, 511 
 
 St. Albans — Battles, 512 
 
 County — Eminent Persons — Essex, 512 
 
 Coriander, Carraway and Teasel — Potatoes — Minerals, . . 512 
 
 Industry — Chelmsford — Colchester, 513 
 
 Harwich — Other Places, 513 
 
 Suffolk — Soil — Domestic Animals, 513 
 
 Minerals — Ancient Trade — Sudbury — Ipswich, .... 514 
 
 Bury St. Edmunds — Cambridgeshire — Newmarket — Cam- 
 bridge, 514 
 
 University, 515 
 
 Buildings — Colleges, 515 
 
 Ely — County, 516 
 
 Norfolk — Rivers — Agriculture — Face of the Country, . . 516 
 
 Turnips, 517 
 
 Norwich, 517 
 
 Industry, 517 
 
 Yarmouth — King’s Lynn, 518 
 
 Feast of Reconciliation — Eminent Persons — Lincolnshire — 
 
 Name and Early Inhabitants — Superficial Extent — Popu- 
 lation — Nature of the Country — Divisions, 518 
 
 Holland — Water Fowl, 519 
 
 Kesteven — Lindsey — Products — Rivers — Canals, .... 519 
 
 Boston, 519 
 
 Lincoln — Cathedral 520 
 
 Other Towns, 520 
 
 Number of Churches — Eminent Men — Newton — Yorkshire, 520 
 
 Ridings — North Riding, 521 
 
 East Riding — West Riding, 521 
 
 Country — Rivers, 521 
 
 York — Minster, 522 
 
 Leeds — Markets, 522 
 
 Bradford — Wakefield, 523 
 
 Huddersfield — Halifax, 523 
 
 Sheffield, 523 
 
 Hull — Old and New Docks, . 524 
 
 Durham — Boundaries, Aspect of the Country, &c., . . . 525 
 
 Durham, 525 
 
 Neville’s Cross — Sunderland— Bishop- Wearmouth, . 525, 526 
 
 Monk-Wearmouth — South Shields — Life-Boat, .... 526 
 
 Holy Island, 526 
 
 Northumberland — Boundaries — Extent — Face of the Coun- 
 try — Soil and Products, 526, 527 
 
 Agriculture, 527 
 
 Minerals — Rivers — Salmon — Newcastle, 527 
 
 Manufactures, Trade, &c., 528 
 
 Charitable and Useful Institutions — The Tyne — North 
 
 Shields — Tynemouth, 528 
 
 Other Towns — Alnwick — Manner of making Freemen, . . 528 
 
 Berwick-upon-Tweed — Cumberland — Boundaries, .... 529 
 
 Soil — Mountains, 529 
 
 Carlisle, 529 
 
 Cathedral — Trade and Industry — Other Towns — White- 
 haven, 530 
 
 Workington — Isle of Man, 530 
 
 Ports — Westmoreland, 530 
 
 Minerals — Towns — Appleby — Kendal, 531 
 
 Lancaster Canal — Lancashire — Boundaries — Soil — Prod- 
 ucts, 531 
 
 Rivers — Towns — Lancaster — Castle, 532 
 
 Liverpool, 533 
 
 Progress of its Commerce, 533 
 
 Contraband Trade with Spanish America — Slave Trade, . 534 
 
 Public Buildings, Exchange, &c. — Town-House — Literary 
 
 Institutions, 534 
 
 Lyceum — Benevolent Institutions — Docks, 534 
 
 Manufactures — Manchester, 535 
 
 Communications — Cotton Manufactures, 535 
 
 Means of Instruction — Societies, 535 
 
 Situation — Liverpool and Manchester Railway, .... 536 
 
 Chat Moss, 536 
 
 Other Towns — Bolton — Face of the Country — Natural Prod- 
 ucts — Blackburn — Cheshire — Boundaries — Early His- 
 tory, 537 
 
 Brine Springs — Rock Salt, 537 
 
 Other Products — Agricultural Products — Chester, . 537, 538 
 
 Canals — Buildings, 538 
 
 Macclesfield — Nantwich — Grand Trunk Canal — Derby- 
 shire, 538 
 
 Derby — Industry, 539 
 
 Buildings — Chesterfield — Eminent Men, 539 
 
 Nottinghamshire — Soil — Face of the Country, 540 
 
 Agricultural Products — Minerals — Rivers — Canals, . . . 540 
 
 Nottingham, 540 
 
 Situation — Benevolent Institutions, 541 
 
 Mansfield — Leicestershire — Boundaries — Early Inhabitants, 541 
 
 Face of the Country — Cheese — Minerals — Leicester — An- 
 cient and Present Population of the County, .... 542 
 
 Rutland — Northamptonshire, 542 
 
 Agricultural Products — Rivers, 543 
 
 Canals — Northampton 543 
 
 Peterborough — Huntingdonshire, 543 
 
 Huntingdon, 544 
 
 Bedfordshire — Face of the Country — Minerals, .... 544 
 
 Early Inhabitants — Roman Works — Bedford, .... 544 
 
 Eminent Men — Woburn — Warwickshire, . . .... 545 
 
 Soil — Minerals — Rivers — Canals, 545 
 
 Warwick, 546 
 
 Castle — Coventry, 546 
 
 Manufactures, 546 
 
 Birmingham, 547 
 
 Education — Benevolent Institutions, 547 
 
 Progressive Population — Stratford on Avon — Staffordshire 
 
 — Situation — Aspect of the Country, 547 
 
 Rivers, 547, 548 
 
 Potteries — Earthenware, 548 
 
 Wedgewood, 548 
 
 Stafford, 549 
 
 Lichfield — Newcastle under Line — Wolverhampton, . . 549 
 
 Salop or Shropshire, 549 
 
 Minerals — Products of Industry, 550 
 
 Coalbrookdale — Shrewsbury, 550 
 
 Trade — Battle of Shrewsbury — Worcestershire, .... 550 
 
 Face of the Country — Products — Kidderminster, .... 551 
 
 Trade, 551 
 
 Herefordshire — Agricultural Products — Fruits — Face of the 
 
 Country, 551 
 
 Hereford — Other Towns — Monmouthshire, 552 
 
 Soil — Minerals 552 
 
 Japanned Goods — Eminent Men, 552, 553 
 
 Chepstow — Curiosities — Wales — Limits — Extent — Popula- 
 tion, 553 
 
 Aspect of the Country — Mountains, 553 
 
 Roads, 554 
 
 South Wales — Glamorganshire — Calcareous Basin, . . . 554 
 
 Brecknockshire — Caermarthenshire — Pembrokeshire, . . 555 
 
 Cardiganshire — Radnorshire, 555 
 
 North Wales, Merionethshire, 555, 556 
 
 Denbighshire — Flintshire — Caernarvonshire — Snowdon, . 556 
 
 Anglesea— -Menai Straits — Suspension Bridge, .... 557 
 
 Administration of Justice — Ecclesiastical Government — 
 
 Cardiff — Cardiff Canal, 557 
 
 Iron Works of South Wales — Merthyr Tydvil, .... 558 
 
 Landaff — Swansea — Caermarthen, 558 
 
 Pembroke — Milford Haven — St. David’s, 558, 559 
 
 Cardigan — Brecon, • . 559 
 
 Radnor — Montgomery — Denbigh, 559, 560 
 
 Flint — Caerwys, Bards — Holywell, 560 
 
 Caernarvon — Beaumaris — Amlwch — Holyhead, . 560, 561 
 
 Manners — Customs — Superstitions — W elsh Raptures — 
 
 Witchcraft, 561 
 
 Spirits of the Mountains — Elves and Fairies — Family 
 Pride, ... . . 561 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 
 BOOK CLV. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued — Description of the British Islands — Second 
 Section — Scotland. 
 
 Extent — Situation, 562 
 
 Hills in the South — Boundary between Scotland and Eng- 
 land, 562 
 
 Valleys — Grampians — Parallel Chain, 562, 563 
 
 Sidla Hills — Ochils — Campsie Hills — Northern Chain — 
 Rivers and Valleys in the Grampian and Northern Chain, 563 
 
 Rivers, 564 
 
 Resemblance between the Tay and the Tiber — Islands, . 564 
 
 Currents — Coasts, 564, 565 
 
 Western Coast, 565 
 
 Depth of Water — Northern Coast — Mineral Kingdom, . . 565 
 
 Coal — Annual Consumption of Coal — Iron — Lead, . 565, 566 
 
 Silver — Materials for Building — Marble, . 566 
 
 Precious Stones — Products of Agriculture, 566 
 
 Antiquities, 567 
 
 Early Inhabitants — Middle Ages, 567 
 
 Independence of Scotland — James the First — James the 
 Second — James the Third — James the Fourth, .... 568 
 
 James the Fifth — Reformation, 568 
 
 Revenues of the Church — Scottish Parliament, . . 568, 569 
 
 Change introduced by James the First, 569 
 
 Lords of the Articles, 569 
 
 Causes of the Change — Effect of the Change — Changes 
 introduced after the Union of the Crowns, . . . 569, 570 
 
 Heritable Jurisdictions, 570 
 
 Supreme Courts of Scotland — Court of Session — Justiciary 
 
 and Sheriff Courts — Ecclesiastical Polity, 570 
 
 Ecclesiastical Divisions — Education, 571 
 
 Past State of Parliamentary Representation, 571 
 
 BOOK CL VI. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued — Scotland — Section Second — Civil Divisions — 
 Topographical Details. 
 
 Population, 572 
 
 Wigtonshire, 572 
 
 Stewartry of Kirkcudbright — Minerals — Rivers, . . 572, 573 
 
 Kirkcudbright — House Societies — Dumfries-shire — Rivers, 573 
 
 Minerals — Dumfries, 573, 574 
 
 Annan — Roxburghshire, 574 
 
 Soil — Kelso, 574, 575 
 
 Jedburgh — Melrose — Hawick, 575 
 
 Selkirkshire — Minerals — Selkirk, 575 
 
 Berwickshire — Lammermoor — Merse — Towns, .... 576 
 
 Pease Bridge — Haddingtonshire — Heights, 576 
 
 Soil and Climate — Minerals — Agricultural Improve- 
 ments . 576, 577 
 
 Towns — Dunbar — North Berwick, 577 
 
 Eminent Men — Mid-Lothian — Surface — Rivers, . . 577, 578 
 
 Minerals — Edinburgh, 578 
 
 Castle, ... 578 
 
 Holy rood House — Modern Works, 579 
 
 New Town — Register-Office — North Bridge, 579 
 
 Regent Bridge — University — Increase in the Population — 
 
 Trade and Industry, 579 
 
 Leith, 580 
 
 West-Lothian — Minerals, 580 
 
 Towns — Linlithgow, 580, 581 
 
 Lanarkshire — Coal — Iron and Lead, 581 
 
 Artificial Navigation — Monkland and Ardrossan Canals — 
 
 Surface and Population — Glasgow, 581 
 
 Progress of its Trade, 582 
 
 Useful Institutions, 582 
 
 Public Buildings, 582, 583 
 
 Other Towns — Peebles-shire, 583 
 
 Soil and Minerals — Renfrewshire — Rivers, 
 
 Minerals — Towns — Paisley — Manufactures, ....!* 
 
 Port-Glasgow — Greenock — Ayrshire, 
 
 Manufactures — Towns — Ayr, 
 
 Kilmarnock — Troon — Ardrossan, 
 
 Stirlingshire, 
 
 Soil and Minerals, 
 
 Stirling — Bannockburn, 
 
 Clackmannanshire, 
 
 Millstones — Coal — Towns — Clackmannan — Alloa, . . . 
 
 Industry — Kinross-shire — Loch Leven — Leven, . . 588, 
 
 Kinross — Fife — Natural Divisions, 
 
 Minerals — Limestone — Towns — Cupar 589, 
 
 St. Andrews — University, 
 
 Kirkaldy — Dunfermline, 590, 
 
 Antiquities — Small Towns on the Forth — Forfarshire or 
 
 Angus-shire — Surface — Natural Divisions, 
 
 Strathmore — Minerals, 59], 
 
 Streams — Towns — Dundee 
 
 Manufactures — Arbroath — Harbour — Bell-Rock Lighthouse, 
 
 Montrose, 
 
 Brechin — Forfar — Kincardineshire — Minerals, 
 
 Rivers — Lakes — Stonehaven — Aberdeenshire, 
 
 Divisions — Agriculture — Cattle — Fisheries 
 
 Minerals — Town of Aberdeen, . . 
 
 New Aberdeen — Trade and Industry, 
 
 Newburgh — Peterhead — Fraserburgh — Highlands, . 595, 
 
 State of Society before 1745, . 
 
 Tacksmen — Cotters — Consequences of the Rebellion 
 
 in 1745, 
 
 Houses, 
 
 Buteshire — Climate — Minerals — Agriculture — Fisheries — 
 
 Industry, 
 
 Rothesay — Arran — Cumbraes — Inchmarnock — Pladda, . . 
 
 Dumbarton — Manufacture — Castle — Imprudence of the In- 
 habitants, 
 
 Dumbartonshire — Soil — Minerals — Rivers and Lakes, . . 
 
 Manufactures — Argyleshire — Aspect of the Country, . . 
 
 Roads and Canals, 
 
 Hebrides — Position — Number — Population — Surface — In- 
 habitants — Civil Distribution — Physical Features — In- 
 verary, 
 
 Perthshire, 
 
 Mountains — Lakes — Rivers — Soil, 600, 
 
 Wood — Minerals — Perth, 
 
 Manufactures — Commerce, 
 
 Inverness-shire — Population — Face of the Country — Glen- 
 
 more — Lakes, 601, 
 
 Rivers — Spey — Mountains — Divisions — Sterility — Min- 
 erals, 
 
 Public Works — Forts — Military Roads — Caledonian Canal, 
 
 Dimensions — Locks — Inverness — Banff, 
 
 County — Rivers — Minerals — Cupmoss — Moray or Elgin- 
 shire — Natural Divisions, .... 
 
 Minerals — Rivers — Elgin, 
 
 Forres — Nairnshire — Town of Nairn — Ross and Cromarty, 
 
 Aspect of the Country — Rivers — Agriculture, 
 
 Minerals — Towns — Ullapool — Cromarty, 
 
 Lewis — Stornoway — Sutherlandshire — Coasts — Interior, 
 Rivers and Lakes — Caves and Minerals — Fisheries — Towns 
 
 — Caithness, 605, 
 
 Rivers and Lakes — Fisheries — Agriculture, 
 
 Roads — Wick and Thurso, 
 
 Orkney and Shetland — Extent — Orkneys — Principal Islands, 
 
 Mainland or Pomona, 
 
 Kirkwall — Shetland — Towns, 607, 
 
 583 
 
 584 
 
 584 
 
 585 
 
 586 
 
 586 
 
 587 
 
 587 
 
 588 
 
 588 
 
 589 
 
 589 
 
 590 
 
 590 
 
 591 
 
 591 
 
 592 
 592 
 
 592 
 
 593 
 
 593 
 
 594 
 594 
 
 594 
 
 595 
 
 596 
 596 
 
 596 
 
 597 
 
 597 
 
 598 
 
 598 
 
 599 
 
 599 
 
 600 
 
 600 
 
 600 
 
 601 
 
 601 
 
 601 
 
 602 
 
 602 
 
 602 
 
 603 
 
 603 
 
 604 
 604 
 
 604 
 
 605 
 605 
 
 606 
 
 606 
 
 606 
 
 607 
 
 607 
 
 608 
 
 BOOK CLVII. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued — Description of Ireland — Boundaries — Nature 
 of the Country — Harbours— Rivers — Islands, fyc. 
 
 Situation — Boundaries, 609 
 
 Coasts — South-eastern — Dublin Bay, 609 
 
 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Howth Harbour — Kingstown Harbour — Dalkey Island, 609, 610 
 Wexford Harbour — Southern Coast — Saltee Islands — Wa- 
 terford Harbour — Dunmore Harbour, 610 
 
 Tramore Bay — Dungarvan Bay — Youghal Bay — Ballycotton 
 Bay — Cork Harbour — Great Island — Hawlbowling and 
 
 Spike Island — Kinsale Harbour, 610 
 
 Clognakilty and Castlehaven Harbours — Baltimore Har- 
 bour — Cape Clear Island, 610, 611 
 
 Sherkin Island — Crookhaven — Brow Head — Mizen Head — 
 Dunmanus Bay — Bantry Bay — Whiddy Island — Bere- 
 
 haven, 611 
 
 Western Coast — Dursey Island — Kenmare River — Skelig 
 Islands — Valentia Island — Dingle Bay — Blasquet Islands 
 
 — Smerwick Bay — Tralee Bay, 611, 612 
 
 Shannon River — Inniscattery Island — Malbay — Galway 
 
 Bay — Arran Islands, 612 
 
 Cashin, Kilkeeran, Birterbuy and Roundstone Bays — Clew 
 Bay — Clare Island — Newport — Westport — Achil Island, 612 
 Blacksod Bay — Broadhaven — Killala Bay — Sligo Bay — 
 Donegal Bay — North Arranmore Island — Tory Island — 
 
 Northern Coast — Horn Head — Sheep Bay, . . . 612, 613 
 Mulroy Bay — Lough Swilly — Lough Foyle — Malin Head — 
 
 The Skerries — Ballycastle — Rathlin Island, 613 
 
 North-East Coast — Fair Head — Tor Point — Olderfleet Har- 
 bour — Belfast Lough — Copeland Islands — Donaghadee — 
 
 Strangford Lough, 613 
 
 Carlingford Lough — Dundalk Bay — Drogheda Harbour — • 
 
 Island Magee — The Gobbins — Extent — Surface, .... 614 
 
 Mountains — Rivers — Shannon, . 614 
 
 Barrow — Suir — Nore — Blackwater — Lee — Bandon, . . 615 
 
 Lakes — Lough Neagh — Lough Erne — Lough Corrib, 615, 616 
 Lough Mask — Lough Garra — Lough Conn — Lough Lane — 
 Lough Derg — Woods — Bogs — Central Band, .... 616 
 
 Species of Bog — Fibrous Bog — Fluid Peat, 617 
 
 Black Bog — Bog Strata, 617 
 
 Surface of Bogs, 618 
 
 Geology — Flcetz Limestone — Granite — Mica Slate — Basalt, 618 
 Chalk — Mulattoe — Lias Limestone — Dykes — Granite, . 619 
 
 Copper — Lead — Iron — Antimony — Coal, 620, 621 
 
 Mineral Springs — Names — Erin, 621 
 
 Scotia — Celtic Remains — Round Towers, 622 
 
 Colonization — Partholan — Milesius — Heber and Heremon, 622 
 
 Ollamh Fodlah — Leah Quin — Leah Mowa — Provinces — 
 
 History — St. Patrick — Declan — St. Kieran, 622 
 
 Danes — Turgesius — Brian Boru — Cardinal Paparon, . . . 623 
 
 Henry II. — Dermod M’Morrough — Strono-bow, 623 
 
 Hugh De Lacy, 623 
 
 John, Earl of Morton — Division into Counties, — The Pale, 624 
 
 Edward Bruce— Statutes of Kilkenny, 624 
 
 Richard II. — Art. M’Murcha — Cumrick — Black-rent, . . . 625 
 Brotherhood of St. George — Henry VII. — Lambert Simnel, 625 
 
 Perkin Warbeck — Poynings’ Laws, 625 
 
 Henry VIII. — O’Neil — Philip and Mary — Elizabeth, . . . 626 
 
 James I. — Charles I. — Strafford — Sir Phelim O’Neil, . . 627 
 
 Cromwell — Charles II. — James II 627 
 
 Penal Code — Thurot, 627 628 
 
 Octennial Act — Volunteers, 628 
 
 Grattan, 628 
 
 Regency Question— Catholic Emancipation, 629 
 
 United Irishmen— French Invasion — Rebellion, .... 629 
 
 Representation— Executive— Judicial Officers, 630 
 
 Lord Lieutenants — Grand Juries — Constabulary — Ecclesi- 
 astical State, 
 
 Parishes — Tithes, 631 
 
 Ministers’ Money — Roman Catholic Establishment, . 631, 632 
 
 Presbyterian Establishment— Population, 632 
 
 Occupations— Appearance and Character, .... . 632 
 
 Education — University — Maynooth College — Royal’ 
 Schools 633 
 
 Diocesan Schools — Erasmus Smith’s Schools — Charter 
 
 Schools — Education of the Poor, 633 
 
 Sunday Schools 634 
 
 Agriculture, 634 
 
 Grazing, 6 34 
 
 Hogs — Dairies — Butter — Cheese — Orchards, 635 
 
 Cider — Tobacco — Fisheries, 635 
 
 Manufactures — Woollen, 636 
 
 Linen, 637 
 
 Linen Board — Flax Seed, 637 
 
 Silk, 637 
 
 Cotton — Iron — Distilleries, 638 
 
 Beer — Circulating Medium, 638 
 
 Coinage, 638 
 
 Banks, 639 
 
 Roads, 639 
 
 Inland Navigation — Grand Canal, 640 
 
 Royal Canal — Newry Canal — Lagan Navigation 640 
 
 Boyne Navigation — Limerick Navigation — Commerce, . . 640 
 
 Cities and Towns, 641 
 
 Dublin, 641 
 
 Kilkenny, 642 
 
 Drogheda, 643 
 
 Dundalk— Wexford — Carlow — New Ross — Portarlington, . 643 
 
 Belfast — Lisburn — Newry, 643, 644 
 
 Londonderry — Armagh — Coleraine, 644 
 
 Carrickfergus — Downpatrick — Enniskillen — Cork — Lim- 
 erick, 644 
 
 W aterford — Dungarvan — Clonmel — Cashel, 645 
 
 Youghal — Kinsale — Bandon Bridge, 645 
 
 Fermoy — Mallow — Tralee — Ennis — Galway, . . . 645 646 
 Sligo — Tuam — Athlone, 646 
 
 Statistical Tables, 647 — 662 
 
 Tables of Mathematical Geografht. 
 
 I. Comparison of French and English Weights and Mea- 
 
 sures, Old Weights and Measures of France, . . 663 
 
 II. Synoptical Table of the Planetary System, . . . 664 
 
 III. Table of Climates, 665 
 
 IV. Table of the Decrease of the Degrees of Longitude, 
 
 according to the Ancient or Nonagesimal Gradua- 
 tion, the Earth being supposed to be spherical, . 665 
 V. Table of the Decrease of the Degrees of Longitude, 
 according to the New or Centesimal Graduation, 
 the Earth being considered as spherical, .... 66 f 
 
 VI. Table of the Decrease of the Degrees of Longitude, 
 
 according to the New or Centesimal Scale, the 
 Earth being supposed to be a spheroid, flat- 
 tened 665 
 
 VII. Table of the Increase of the Degrees of Latitude, 
 
 according to the New or Centesimal Scale, the 
 Earth being supposed to be a spheroid flat- 
 tened 00g 
 
 VIII. Comparative View of Linear Measures, called (or 
 
 equivalent to) Feet, 666 
 
 IX. A Comparative View of the Agrarian Measures 
 used in the principal States of Europe, in ancient 
 French square feet, (pieds de roi,) compared with 
 the Arpent fixed by the Government for measur- 
 ing the Waters and Forests, and with the Hectare, 
 or New Agrarian Measure of France, .... 666 
 
 X. A Comparative Table of Itinerary and Topographical 
 
 Measures 667 
 
 XI. A Table of the different Measures of Antiquity, . . 668 
 
 XII. Comparative View of Principal Winds, 668 
 
 XIII. Table of the Decrease of Temperature, according to 
 
 the Altitude, 669 
 
 XIV. Table of the most Remarkable Heights in different 
 
 parts of the World, expressed in English feet, . . 669 
 
t 
 
BOOK CXXII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 1 
 
 BOOK CXXII. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued. — Germany. — Sixth Section. — Kingdom 
 of Wirtemberg. — Grand dutchy of Baden. — Principalities 
 of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Hohenzollern- Sigmaringen 
 and Lichtenstein. 
 
 The countries we are about to examine, are more ex- 
 tensive than the petty states which were last described, a 
 but they were not less subdivided, before Baden was erected 
 into a grand dutchy, and Wirtemberg and Bavaria into 
 kingdoms. The circle of Franconia comprehended the 
 margraviates of Anspach and Bayreuth, as well as the free 
 territory attached to the town of Nuremberg. The dutchy 
 of Wirtemberg, the margraviate of Baden and the imperial 
 towns of Ulm and Augsburg, made up the circle of Suabia. 
 Lastly, the circle of Bavaria was formed by the electorate 
 of Bavaria, the bishoprics of Salzburg, Passau and Frey- 
 singen, and the possessions of the free town of Ratisbon. b 
 
 The changes in the territorial divisions in that part of 
 Germany, as well as in other countries, were occasioned 
 by the preponderance which France possessed in Europe, 
 under the reign of Napoleon. In consequence of the treaty 
 concluded at Presburg in 1805, the government of these 
 ancient circles and free territories was changed ; the small 
 principalities of Lichtenstein and Hohenzollern retained 
 their privileges, but Baden was raised into a grand dutchy, 
 and Bavaria and Wirtemberg were made kingdoms, within 
 the Germanic confederation. Some alterations in the limits 
 of these states have been necessarily occasioned by the last 
 treaties, and they have acquired, from their new organiza- 
 tion, a greater influence than they possessed under the pro- 
 tection of France. Bavaria, which is still a powerful king- 
 dom, holds, after Prussia, the first rank in the confederation. 
 It shall be described in the next book. 
 
 The kingdom of Wirtemberg is situated between Bavaria 
 and the grand dutchy of Baden. Roesch considers its 
 greatest length to be equal to three hundred and forty-eight 
 geographical miles ; it is not less than five thousand eight 
 hundred and twelve English square miles in superficial ex- 
 tent.® The greater portion of it is covered with hills, or in- 
 dented with vallies, the largest of which is watered by the 
 Neckar. A branch of the Schwarz-Wald, or Black Forest, 
 
 a The original states, that the countries which are now to be described 
 occupy together a greater extent of surface than the small states whicli 
 have been already enumerated. Two of these states (Wirtemberg 
 and Bavaria) are larger than any in the preceding book, but Saxony is 
 more extensive than Baden. The three principalities are among the 
 smallest states in Germany. — P. 
 
 b It is not true that the circles of Suabia and Bavaria were made up of 
 or formed by the states above mentioned ; but only that those states were 
 among the most important comprehended in the circles. The great num- 
 ber of immediate small states, scattered over every circle in Germany, and 
 equally independent in theory with the largest, is too well known to need 
 any special enumeration. Such states were particularly numerous in 
 Suabia.— P. J 
 
 VOL. HI.— NO. 42 
 
 forms for the distance of seventy miles,' 1 the western limit of 
 the kingdom. The chain of the Schwarz-Wald, being 
 composed of granite rocks, is consequently of a higher eleva- 
 tion 6 than the Rauhe-Alb, another range, formed by lime- 
 stone of secondary formation ; the latter has been called 
 the Suabian Alps by French geographers. These two chains 
 are branches of a single range that commences at the banks 
 of the Rhine, opposite Bale, and forms by its bifurcation 
 the natural boundary of Wirtemberg on the south-west. 
 The elevation of some of the principal mountains in Wirtem- 
 berg may be mentioned ; the Katzenkopf or Cat’s Head, is 
 more than 3000 feet above the level of the sea ; f the Storn- 
 berg is 2776, the Rossberg 2689, the Hohenzollern 2621, 
 the Kniebis 2565, the Teck 2327, the Stuifenberg 2315, 
 and the Neufien 2263.® h The climate is in general mild 
 and temperate, but on the heights and in the forests which 
 extend along their declivities, the atmosphere is cold, and 
 the winters are of longer duration. The rivers that rise 
 from the mountains are the Neckar, together with the 
 Enz, the Fils, the Rems, the Kocher and the Jaxt, all of 
 which are feeders of the Neckar, and the Danube, together 
 with several small rivers, such as the Riess, the Roth and 
 the Iller. 1 The fossil bones of elephants and other antedi- 
 luvian animals have been discovered in the valley of the 
 Neckar, in the neighbourhood of Canstadt. The Federsee 
 is the largest lake in the interior of Wirtemberg ; we shall 
 not mermon the lake of Constance, which forms merely the 
 southern limit of the kingdom. 
 
 Ammianus Marcel!inus k and other ancient writers make 
 mention of the Alemanni, who inhabited the country be- 
 tween the Upper Danube, the Upper Rhine and the Maine. 
 That country forms, at present, the grand dutchy of Baden 
 and the kingdom of Wirtemberg. The Alemanni, or the 
 Alemanni or Alambani, as they are sometimes called by the 
 ancients, were the ancestors of the people that now inhabit 
 the states governed by the king of Wirtemberg. Agathias 
 and Jornandes, 1 who lived during the reign of the emperor 
 Justinian, have left us much valuable information concern- 
 ing these barbarous tribes. The first explains the meaning 
 of their na/ne, and tells us that Alemanni signifies a junction 
 
 c “ Its superficial extent is estimated by Roesch at 348 [Germ.] geogra 
 phical square miles, or 967 [Fr. sq.] leagues.” 
 u “ 28 leagues.” 
 
 e Such is the language of the original, but it does not necessarily follow 
 that a chain of primitive formation should be higher than one of secondary 
 formation ; many instances to the contrary occur. — P. 
 
 f See Wurtembergisc.he Jahrbucher fur vaterlandische Geschichte, by 
 Memminger, 1823. 
 
 s Stein’s Geography, (in Germ.') 
 h The measures here given are those of the original. 
 
 1 These three rivers enter the Danube from the south, and consequently 
 
 rise from the Alps, and not from the mountains previously mentioned P 
 
 k Rer. gest. XXVIII. 5. 1 De Reb. Goth. 17. 
 
 1 
 
2 EURC 
 
 or union of different nations in Germany ; in short, it seems 
 to be derived from all and maim, two words nearly the same 
 both in German and English. The Alemanni were proba- 
 bly descended from the Suevi. Their government was 
 monarchical, or at all events, they chose a chief when they 
 began a war ; their religion was the same as that of the 
 other Germans, but they were distinguished from them by 
 the greater ferocity of their manners. Their hatred against 
 the Romans, excited them to many acts of cruelty, which 
 were committed against their prisoners. Caracalla defeat- 
 ed them, but could not make them submit to his authority, 
 and it was only by means of bribery that some were gained 
 over to his service. They made themselves masters of the 
 forts, which the Romans had built on the Rhine, and laid 
 waste part of Gaul about the middle of the third century. 
 They were afterwards driven back into Germany, and then- 
 country desolated, by Maximin. Their history indeed ex- 
 hibits a succession of victories and defeats, until nearly the 
 end of the fourth century, 1 when they submitted to Max- 
 entius/ 
 
 Wirtemberg was formed into a county in the circle of 
 Suabia about the middle of the eleventh century. 0 The 
 Emperor Maximilian changed it into a dutchy in the year 
 1495. Many of the inhabitants embraced the reformation 
 under Ulric the Eighth, who took an active part in the 
 league of Smalkalden. The number of protestants at pre- 
 sent in the kingdom is estimated to be more than a million. 
 
 The kingdom of Wirtemberg abounds in mines, slate, mar- 
 ble, and different kinds of limestone that are used in building ; 
 it is also well supplied with coal, sulphur, salt and mineral 
 springs. The land yields good harvests, and more than a 
 half of it is in cultivation ; the vineyards take up nearly 
 a fiftieth part, the meadows about a seventh, and the forests 
 occupy the rest of the country. The landed proprietors 
 rear a great number of horses, oxen, pigs and sheep me- 
 rinos have been introduced, and are found to succeed. 
 
 The woods and the fields were so much overrun with 
 game, that government found it necessary in 1817 to en- 
 courage the destruction of hares, rabbits and other kinds of 
 game by which the crops were injured. The kqppers of 
 the forests are obliged to recompense the farmers for any 
 injury that these animals may occasion. Two persons are 
 appointed in every village, d and their sole occupation is to 
 destroy game. 
 
 There are many manufactories in Wirtemberg, but none 
 of them are very important. The articles manufactured in 
 the plains or low districts are cotton, linen and woollen 
 stuffs ; many wooden clocks are made in the high country ; 
 and paper mills, tanneries and iron works may be seen in 
 the vallies. 
 
 But another and very important trade consists in spirits ; 
 there are not fewer than thirty distilleries in the district of 
 Heilbronn, two hundred and twenty-six in that of Bahling- 
 en, and sixty-three in that of Biberach. The spirits made 
 
 )PE. [BOOK. CXXII 
 
 in these distilleries, are not obtained from wine, potatoes or 
 grain, but extracted from the fruit of the small cherry trees 
 that increase so rapidly on the mountains in the Black Fo- 
 rest. That spirituous liquor is generally known by the name 
 of kirschen-wasser. The quantity consumed in the country, 
 and exported every year, is sold for 130,000 florins, or 
 .£ 13,000.° It furnishes the means of subsistence to more 
 than a hundred and twenty families among the lower orders 
 of society. In whatever estimation this liquor may be held 
 by connoisseurs, it is not the less certain that the inhabitants 
 of the Schwarz- Wald ought to raise a monument in me- 
 mory of Thomas Leodgar, who invented it, and to whom 
 the people are indebted for their wealth. * 
 
 The foreign commerce of the kingdom consists chiefly 
 the exportation of its wood, wines, grain, dried fruits, 
 leather, linen and kirschen-wasser, and also of the 
 wooden clocks that are made in the high districts. The 
 countries to which most of these exports are sent, are Swit- 
 zerland, France, Bavaria and Austria. It receives in ex- 
 change, cloth, oil, fine wool, raw silk and silk stuffs, tobac- 
 co and colonial produce. 
 
 As to the inland trade, it is believed to be protected by 
 excluding foreign competition by means of prohibitory du- 
 ties, and by the monopoly which government has imposed 
 on certain articles. Thus, the cotton cloth/ known by the 
 name of the Chinese city in which it is made, cannot enter 
 the kingdom ; unwrought iron cannot be exported from it, 
 and salt and tobacco are sold exclusively by government. 
 For the purpose of encouraging commerce, a uniform system 
 of weights and measures, founded on the decimal division, 
 has been established. The management of the roads is com- 
 mitted to government, and some attempts have lately been 
 made to improve them. Commercial communications are 
 likewise facilitated by navigable rivers. 
 
 M. Memminger K estimates the value of all the merchan- 
 dise in the kingdom, at thirty-three millions of florins, or 
 three millions three hundred thousand pounds sterling ; the 
 natural products, according to the same author, amount to 
 sixteen millions of florins, and the manufactured products 
 to seventeen millions. The value of the exports amounts 
 to more than sixteen millions of florins. 
 
 According to Hassel, the revenue in 1821 was not less 
 than 8,300,000 florins/ from which if the sum derived 
 from the domains and forests be deducted, 5,681,000 re- 
 main, the amount of all the taxes and contributions, that 
 are imposed on the people ; so that on an average, every 
 individual in the kingdom, pays annually four florins or eight 
 shillings in the shape of taxes. The expenditure amounted 
 to 7,900,000 florins, 1 including the interest and extinguish- 
 ment of the national debt, which at that time was estimated 
 at 20,000,000 florins. But it must have considerably in- 
 creased within the short period of two years, for, if a report 
 made to the chambers in 1823 be correct, it was then equal 
 to 25,679,616 florins. The revenue, although sometimes 
 
 “ “ A. D. 388.” 
 
 b The dates in the text do not correspond with the common authorities. 
 Maximin died A. D. 238, and Maxentius A. D. 312. — P. 
 c Moreri’s Dictionary, art. Wirtemberg. 
 
 <* “Commune” — Germ, gemeinde. 
 
 6 “ The annual produce is valued at more than 130,000 florins.” — The 
 florin in Wirtemberg is 2s. Ad. sterl. Ed. Encyc. . 
 f Nankeen. 
 
 g Wurtembergisclie Jahrbucher, &c. 1821 
 
 h The following details are subjoined : Florins. 
 
 Domains 2,268,000 
 
 Direct taxes 2,000,000 
 
 Florins. 
 
 Indirect taxes 2,553,000 
 
 Forests 351, 000 
 
 Saltpetre and salt 94,000 
 
 Post office ........ 69,000 
 
 Different receipts 404,000 
 
 Receipts in arrear 561,000 
 
 Total . . 8,300,000 
 
 1 Some of the items may be mentioned : for the civil list, 666,000 florins ; 
 for the ordinary appanages of the royal family, 309,000 ; for the war de- 
 partment, 1,855,000. 
 
book, cxxn.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 higher than in 1821, has more frequently been lower; in 
 1824. one of the most prosperous years, it exceeded 
 10,028,000 florins.* b 
 
 The harvests have more than once so completely failed, 
 that government has been obliged to remit the taxes in se- 
 veral districts ; the same cause has induced many indivi- 
 duals to emigrate to America and the southern provinces 
 of Russia. Stein 0 assures us that no less than twelve thou- 
 sand persons emigrated during the first four months of the 
 year 1817. But it must be admitted that a considerable 
 number were influenced by religious notions ; the aurora 
 borealis, which appeared in Wirtemberg, during the month 
 of February fn the same year, was considered a sign or an 
 injunction of the Lord, by which the people were com- 
 manded to leave the country. 
 
 It was determined in 1819 that the army should consist 
 of nineteen thousand men in time of war, and six thousand 
 in time of peace, exclusively of three hundred and seventy 
 gendarmes. The contingent, which the state furnishes to 
 the confederation, amounts to fourteen thousand men. It 
 ought to be mentioned that a law was passed nineteen 
 years ago, rendering it imperative on every bachelor from 
 the age of twenty to forty, to enter the militia, which is 
 made up of sixty cohorts, and each cohort of a thousand 
 men. d Those who have attained the age of forty, form a 
 corps of reserve. 'The time fixed for the military service is 
 ten years for the cavalry, and eight for the infantry. Offi- 
 cers were entitled to inflict corporal punishment on the 
 soldiers, a privilege which has often been abused in the 
 German armies. Government considered that a method 
 of punishment so humiliating to private soldiers, was not 
 tolerated in despotic countries ; it was therefore abolished 
 about twelve years ago ; at present, no man in the army 
 can be punished without the sentence of a court martial. 0 
 It was fixed by a law passed in 1812/ that the widows of 
 sub-officers and soldiers, who had been slain in the field of 
 battle, should be entitled to a pension equivalent to the pay 
 of their husbands ; their children too may be brought up at 
 the royal orphan-houses at Stuttgard and Ludwigsburg, if 
 their relatives are unable to maintain them. 
 
 Some notion of the number of inhabitants in Wirtemberg 
 may be formed from the military force. Hassel estimated 
 the population in 1822, at one million four hundred and 
 forty-six thousand individuals, consisting principally of 
 Germans, W ends/ and Jews. 1 * But the number of inhabi- 
 tants has increased since that period, and it appears from 
 the excess of the births above the deaths, that the popula- 
 tion amounted in 1826 to 1,517,770 souls, from which it 
 follows that the average number of individuals for evet'y 
 English square mile, is upwards of two hundred and sixty- 
 one,* a number that places Wirtemberg on a level with the 
 most populous states in Europe. 
 
 a “ The revenue has sometimes been higher than in 1821, as in the year 
 1824, when it amounted to 10,028,000 florins ; but it has occasionally been 
 lower.” 
 
 b Allgem. Deutsche Justiz-Kammer, &c. February, 1825. 
 
 c Stein’s Geography, (in Germ.) 
 
 d “ There is a law by which all bachelors, from eighteen years to forty, 
 are enrolled m a general militia, consisting of sixty cohorts, each of one 
 thousand men.” 
 
 e “ Corporal punishment in time of peace, was abolished, about ten years 
 since, by a royal ordinance. This degrading penalty, which is not even 
 tolerated in despotic countries, can now be inflicted only in extraordinary 
 cases, and by sentence of a court martial.” 
 
 f “ By a royal ordinance of 1812.” 
 
 s Vaudois, in the text of the original ; Wendes, in the Table of Errata. 
 Waldenses. (Hassel.) 
 
 11 In the above number are included 703,500 males and 740,600 females. 
 
 OF GERMANY. 3 
 
 The law by which many, before the year 1817, were pre- 
 vented from having fire-arms in their possession, lias been 
 wisely modified. That privilege is granted at present not 
 only to landed proprietors, their stewards, the officers of 
 government, the magistrates and the huntsmen appointed 
 by the districts/ but also to the tenants of isolated houses, 
 and the proprietors of manufactories and storehouses. 
 Each district may dispose of a certain number of guns, that 
 are entrusted to the mayor, who gives them to any that 
 wish to destroy noxious animals, or to guard their property 
 against the depredations of thieves. 
 
 The press is not wholly free in the kingdom of Wirtem- 
 berg ; but the restrictions imposed on it, indicate on the 
 part of government, rather the desire of diffusing instruc- 
 tion and the light of knowledge, than the dread of any 
 imaginary abuses, that may arise from a privilege which 
 has now become necessary to the inhabitants of a civilized 
 state. According to a law passed on the 30th January, 
 1817, any work may be published that contains nothing 
 contrary to religion and the public tranquillity. The jour- 
 nals are equally free in time of peace, but during war, they 
 must be examined by censors. It is the duty of the crown 
 lawyers to prosecute the authors of blasphemous and im- 
 moral works, or of writings which tend to calumniate pri- 
 vate characters, or to attack the conduct of the king and 
 his ministers, or that of the members of the chambers, or of 
 the representatives of foreign powers. 
 
 Government deserves to be commended for its zeal in 
 diffusing knowledge among the different classes of the com- 
 munity. There is hardly a town of any size in the king- 
 dom without a gymnasium, and not a small one without one 
 or more schools. These institutions are attended by chil- 
 dren from six to fourteen years of age, and schools of art 
 are open for the instruction of mechanics. 1 A gratuitous 
 school has been established in every village, and school- 
 masters repair twice or thrice a-week to the remote ham- 
 lets, where the pupils assemble in each other’s houses. It 
 may be affirmed, indeed, that almost all the children among 
 the lower ranks of society are taught to read, write and cast 
 accounts. The different seminaries are under the inspec- 
 tion of the clergymen and curates, but the scholars must 
 be examined every year by professors, who are sent from 
 Stuttgard and Tubingen. The schools for the lower or- 
 ders"* are annually increasing ; thus there were not more 
 than two hundred and sixty in 1823, and the number of 
 pupils did not exceed ten thousand and sixty-four ; but in 
 1825, the number of schools amounted to three hundred 
 and forty-two, and the scholars to fourteen thousand and 
 eighty-seven. The masters of the different public schools 
 are mostly selected from the seminaries at Esslingen and 
 Ehringen, which may be considered normal schools. Cler- 
 gymen superintend some places of education," but in ge- 
 
 The tables of Hassel enable us to arrive at 
 the number of the different classes. 
 
 an approximation concerning 
 
 Nobles ..... 
 
 1,700 
 
 Burgesses and householders,* 
 
 1,193,300 
 
 Artisans, ..... 
 
 108,000 
 
 Husbandmen and vine-dressers, 
 
 101,000 
 
 Day labourers and servants, 
 
 42,000 
 
 * “ Rentiers,” tenants. 
 
 Total 1,446,000 
 
 ■ “ 1569 per sq. league.” k “ Communes.” 
 
 1 “ All the towns of any importance possess a gymnasium, and the 
 smaller towns institutions of a lower order. Each primary school is con- 
 nected with a school of arts and trades. These institutions are attended 
 by children from six to fourteen years of age, and Sunday schools are open 
 for apprentices, till they have reached the age of eighteen years.” 
 m “ Schools of industry ” " “Private seminaries ” 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 4 
 
 neral, those who devote themselves to the noble career of 
 instructing youth, are educated and trained by men of 
 distinguished merit. The sons of the lower orders, if they 
 are desirous of following the ecclesiastical profession, and 
 show any talent, for it is a matter of indilference whether 
 they be catholic or protestant, are educated at the expense 
 of government. 
 
 Two orders of knighthood have been instituted in the 
 Kingdom of Wirtemberg, and the honour, which the prince 
 may thus confer, was intended as a reward for civil services 
 and military merit. The officers, who receive this distinc- 
 tion, wear a gold medal, and the soldiers a silver one. a Vir- 
 tutis amicilmque jadus is the motto on the cross of the Gol- 
 den Eagle, which was founded in 1702. The members 
 are foreign princes or officers of high rank, and according 
 to the statutes of the order, an intimate union must subsist 
 between them ; they must assist each other in the field of 
 battle if it be in their power, and perform good offices to one 
 another in the ordinary occurrences of life. The number 
 of knights is limited to fifty, but as none can be admitted 
 that are not sprung from an ancient and noble family, the 
 order of Merit was instituted in 1806 for those who cannot 
 receive the decoration of the Golden Engle. The members 
 wear a medal with the inscription Bene merentibus, and they 
 are divided into grand crosses, commanders and knights. 
 These honorary distinctions, the influence of wealth, and 
 the importance of civil employments, have contributed to 
 form several distinct classes in the kingdom. 
 
 The dukes of Wirtemberg shared, from the commence- 
 ment of the sixteenth century, the rights of sovereignty with 
 the assembly of the states, which was formed by the- four- 
 teen highest ecclesiastics and eighty-nine deputies from the 
 towns and districts. When Napoleon raised the dutchy 
 into a kingdom, the assembly was dissolved. But after the 
 deliverance of Germany, to use a German phrase, or more 
 correctly, after the establishment of the new Germanic con- 
 federation, the districts and the nobles claimed their privi- 
 leges and a national representation, by which the power of 
 the crown might be confined within proper bounds. Ac- 
 cording to the constitution, the king is of full age at eighteen 
 years ; his person is inviolable ; he may be either a Ca- 
 tholic or a Protestant ; to him only belongs the ratification 
 and execution of the laws, the right of administering jus- 
 tice, and of making peace or war, and the command of 
 the army. 
 
 Liberty of conscience and equality among the different 
 Christian communions have been solemnly sanctioned by 
 (he constitution, and a very important privilege has thus 
 been conferred on the different sects in the kingdom. No 
 legislative enactment can be put in force, until it has been 
 approved by the general assembly of the districts ; the same 
 body fixes the amount of the taxes, and regulates the con- 
 tributions ; lastly, individual liberty has been guaranteed, 
 and the confiscation of property abolished. 
 
 The assembly consists of thirteen members, who are 
 chosen for life among the nobles, whose annual income 
 amounts to at least fifty thousand florins, and of six Protest- 
 nut ecclesiastics, a Catholic bishop, two Catholic clergymen, 
 and four lawyers. b The deputies elected by the people 
 must have an income of eight thousand florins. A deputy 
 is elected in the towns, for every two hundred inhabitants. 
 
 a “ The honorary distinctions intended as a reward for civil services and 
 military merit, consist of two orders of knighthood, and a gold medal for 
 the officers and a silver modal for the soldiers.” 
 
 [BOOK CXXU 
 
 The deputies are appointed for six years, and that period 
 can only be abridged by an extraordinary dissolution. A 
 fund has been established out of which the expenses of the 
 assembly, and even the travelling expenses of the members 
 are defrayed. The deputies of the districts are elected by 
 the land proprietors, but no one can exercise his elective 
 privileges until he has completed his twenty-fifth year. 
 Three members are chosen by the upper chamber, and as 
 many by the lower, and out of that number, the king no- 
 minates the speakers of the two houses. 
 
 Government has shown itself favourable to the represen- 
 tative, system, and in order to preserve the. principles on 
 which it depends, a conservative council has been created. 
 It consists of lawyers and magistrates, one half of whom are 
 appointed by the king, and the other by the lower chamber. 
 The council passes judgment on the public functionaries 
 and deputies, that are accused of acting unconstitutionally. 
 It judges concerning the differences that may arise between 
 the ministers and the districts concerning the interpretation 
 of the constitution. The districts may accuse the king’s 
 ministers, but the latter cannot make a public functionary 
 resign his situation for a lower office, much less deprive him 
 of office, unless lie be guilty of a crime, or unfitted for the 
 discharge of his public duties by want of capacity. 
 
 The kingdom of Wirtemberg is divided into four circles, 
 which bears the names of the rivers that water them, or of 
 the principal mountains that form the western boundary of 
 the state. Thus, the circles of the Neckar and the Jaxt 
 are situated on the north, that of the Schwarzwald or Black 
 Forest on the west, and that of the Danube on the south. 
 Twelve provincial and sixty-four subordinate courts of jus- 
 tice have been instituted in these four great divisions of the 
 kingdom. There are a hundred and thirty towns in Wir- 
 temberg, a hundred and twenty-eight burghs, one thousand 
 one hundred and fifteen villages, and two thousand four 
 hundred and ten hamlets. 
 
 Stuttgart or Stuttgard, the capital of the kingdom, rises in 
 the middle of a fruitful valley, surrounded with hills and 
 vineyards, on the banks of the Nesenbach. The town has 
 been lately enlarged, and it contained in the year 1823,* 
 one thousand nine hundred and eighty houses, and twenty- 
 seven thousand seven hundred and eighty inhabitants, ex- 
 clusively of the garrison.* 1 The streets are broad and straight ; 
 two of them are remarkable l’or their regularity, and the 
 number of fine buildings. Stuttgart is the seat of the su- 
 preme courts in the kingdom, and the king possesses two 
 palaces, of which the more modern has been much admired 
 for its architecture and the magnificence of its interior; a 
 collection of natural history is contained in the other. Among 
 the buildings that ought to be mentioned, are the principal 
 church, the chancery and the opera. The useful institu- 
 tions are a library containing more than 200,000 volumes, 
 a collection of twelve thousand bibles and a great number 
 of manuscripts ; a museum of arts, an academy of painting 
 and sculpture, and a botanic garden. The commerce of 
 the capital consists principally in cloth and linen. 
 
 The small town of Esslingen may vie with Stuttgart in the 
 beauty of its situation ; it is encompassed by vineyards and fo- 
 rests, and watered by the Neckar, and was formerly among 
 the number of free cities ; it contains at present a court of 
 justice, and its population amounts to 5600 inhabitants. 
 
 b “ Four monikers of the different learned societies in the kingdom.” 
 
 c In the original, the date 1823 is confined to the population. 
 
 d Hoffmann Umriss zurErd und Staatcnkunde, &lc. 
 
book cxxii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 If we follow the winding course of the Ncckar, we remark 
 on its left bank, and at the distance of eight miles a to the 
 north of Stuttgart, the town of Ludwigsburg, a royal resi- 
 dence, peopled by six thousand individuals, and containing 
 a fine castle, an orphan hospital, a house of correction, and 
 several cloth manufactories. b At the distance often leagues 
 in the same direction," and on the opposite bank of the river, 
 may he observed a larger town, that of Heilbronn ; it was 
 formerly a free city and a commandery of the Teutonic 
 Order ; it is enriched by the produce of its vineyards and 
 distilleries, by its lead works and the navigation of the 
 Neckar. Hall, which lies ten leagues to the east of the 
 last place, has been called Suabian Hall ( Schwabisch-Hall ,) 
 to distinguish it from many others of the same name. Situ- 
 ated on the banks of the Kocher, surrounded with rocks, 
 and peopled by more than G400 inhabitants, it owes its ori- 
 gin to the abundant saline springs in the vicinity. 
 
 Ellwangen on the Jaxt, the metropolis of a circle, and 
 the seat of a theological university, cannot be compared in 
 other respects with Gmiind, a town on the Rems, with a 
 population of six thousand individuals, and well known for 
 its different manufactures, particularly for the skill which its 
 artisans have attained in working the precious metals. 
 Gesslingen or Geisslingen carries on a trade in different 
 articles, made of ivory, bone and wood ; the quantity ex- 
 ported may be equal in value to 90,000 florins. Four 
 thousand five hundred inhabitants make up the population 
 of Goeppingen, a town watered by the Fils. It has manu- 
 factories of cloth and pottery. The mineral waters of 
 Ueberkingen, situated in a romantic country at no great 
 distance from the last town, are visited every year by many 
 strangers. 
 
 The neighbouring village of Hohenstaufen stands on a 
 height, that commands an extensive view. The old castle, 
 now in ruins, still towers above the village ; it was for a 
 long time the residence of the emperor Barbarossa. The 
 last descendant of the family of Hohenstaufen, was young 
 Conrad, d who, for having attempted to ascend the throne 
 of Sicily, a country over which his father had reigned, but 
 which the Pope had made over to Charles of Anjou, pe- 
 rished on the scaffold at Naples in 1269.® 
 
 Reutlingen, formerly a free town, and at present the me- 
 tropolis of the circle of Schwarzwald, contains nine thou- 
 sand inhabitants. It possesses a lyceum, its vineyards 
 cover the sides of the Alp and the Georgenberg, and it 
 carries on a trade in leather, lace and cutlery. 
 
 Tubingen, at the confluence of the Neckar and the 
 Steinach, has been entitled the second capital of the king- 
 dom. The population amounts to seven thousand indivi- 
 duals ; it has a university, attended by eight hundred stu- 
 dents, a public library, containing sixty thousand volumes, 
 a faculty ot theology, a seminary for Lutheran clergymen, 
 an observatory, and a veterinary school. The town can- 
 not be commended for its appearance ; the streets are 
 crooked and narrow, the houses are gloomy and ill built. 
 
 Ulm, peopled by eleven thousand inhabitants, has a bet- 
 
 OF GERMANY. 5 
 
 ter claim to the rank of second capital. It was formerly a 
 free and imperial town, and its population was at one time 
 more considerable, for it contained in 1808 more than 
 fourteen thousand individuals. Its situation on the fron- 
 tiers of Bavaria, at the confluence of the Blau and the 
 Danube, the fortifications that defend it, its manufactures 
 and transit trade, by which its declining commerce is still 
 supported, put it on a level with the principal towns in 
 Wirtemberg. Its fortifications, it must be admitted, are 
 not as formidable as when the French made themselves 
 masters of it, but it is equally certain that it might be ren- 
 dered a much stronger place than it is at present/ As it 
 did not oiler any resistance to the French armies, its build- 
 ings were not injured ; the most remarkable are the town- 
 house, the public library, and the church of Munster,® a 
 building that cannot be too highly commended on account 
 of its proportions and rich Gothic architecture/ The trade 
 of the town may have fallen ofi, but it possesses other claims 
 to distinction. The pastry known by the name of Ulm 
 bread, its asparagus, and the snails fattened in the vicinity, 
 are duly appreciated by gourmands ; could it be believed, 
 that more than four millions of these animals are annually 
 exported 1 
 
 Biberach on the banks of the Riess, a town peopled by 
 five thousand inhabitants, carries on a trade in paper and 
 linen. 
 
 The kingdom of Wirtemberg has been often visited by 
 antiquaries. Several ancient monuments' are situated in 
 the southern part of the country. The ruins of air aque- 
 duct about three leagues in length, may be observed in the 
 neighbourhood of Rothenburg on the Neckar. The Devi Vs 
 Wall , which rises on the banks of the Danube, and of 
 which traces have, been discovered at no great distance 
 from Ellwangen, forms only a part of the remains of a vast 
 line of fortifications constructed by the Romans/ The re- 
 mains of Roman earthen works, from which a great many 
 vases have been collected, may still be seen between 
 Weiblingen and Endersbach, not many miles from Stutt- 
 gart. An altar and several basso-relievos have been found 
 in the same part of the country. The names of several 
 places are connected with ancient recollections. Beinstein 
 or Beystein signifies near the stone, and a monument was 
 erected there by the Romans. Kalkofen, where Roman 
 potteries were discovered a few years ago, has always 
 borne the same name, which signifies a limekiln. 
 
 We abstain from making any reflections on the morality 
 of the people of Wirtemberg ; it may be remarked, how- 
 ever, that the number of criminal prosecutions in the dif- 
 ferent courts, during the year 1823, has been published in 
 a German journal , 1 and the prevalence of crime must ne- 
 cessarily be inferred from the result. According to the 
 same document, the number of persons prosecuted for 
 crimes during the same year, was not less than eight thou- 
 sand five hundred and sixty-six. It appears from the popu- 
 lation at the time, that the individuals accused were to the 
 rest of the inhabitants as one to a hundred and sixty-nine. 
 
 a “ 3 leagues.” 
 
 b “A royal cloth manufactory.” 
 c “ 7 leagues N. of Ludwigsburg.” 
 d Conradin of Swabia. 
 
 6 J. F. Ammermuller, Hohenstaufen, ein Lesebuch. [F. Yon Rau- 
 mer, Geschichtc der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeit. 6 Bden.] 
 
 f Its fortifications are now completely levelled, but the German diet 
 appears inclined to convert it into a national fortress. Convers. Lex. art 
 Ulm. — P. 
 
 e Munsterkirche, the minster-church. 
 
 h Kurzgefasste Beschreibung der Reichsstadt Ulm. Fabri, Handbuch 
 der Neuesten Geographie. 
 
 1 “ Tombelles” — tumuli? 
 
 k The Devil’s Wall ( Tevfelsmaucr ) is the name given in Germany to 
 the remains of a wall constructed by the Romans between the Danube and 
 the Rhine, about 80 German miles in length, and which has been traced 
 throughout the greater part of its extent. — P. 
 
 1 Allgemeine Handl. Zeit. March, 1825, p. 147. 
 
 — 
 
G EURC 
 
 To what can so frightful a state of society be attributed, 
 unless to the remissness of government and the imperfection 
 of the laws ? 
 
 Political commotions, changes in dynasties and govern- 
 ments, the long residence of foreign armies, the corruption 
 of morals, the ordinary consequence of wars and revolu- 
 tions, the destruction of trade, and the difficulty of pro- 
 curing the means of subsistence for the lower orders, tend 
 to increase ciimes in a country. It is then that wise legis- 
 lators see the necessity of a new code adapted to the new 
 wants of society. It is then that the laws must be simple, 
 precise and distinct ; it is then, above all, that the diffusion 
 of education among the lower ranks, serves as a barrier 
 against immorality. The government of Wirtemberg has 
 experienced the advantages, that may be derived from the 
 instruction of the people ; it will without doubt finish what 
 it has so successfully begun. 
 
 The grand dutchy of Baden forms a long and narrow 
 tract that extends along the right bank of the Rhine, from 
 the lake of Constance to the country beyond the mouth of 
 the Neclcar. It is bounded by the Rhine on the south and 
 the west, by Bavaria and the grand dutchy of Hesse on the 
 north, and by the kingdom of Wirtemberg and the princi- 
 palities of Hohenzollern on the east ; its irregular frontiers 
 on the south-east are also contiguous to the same principa- 
 lities. It is unnecessary to mention the ancient people that 
 inhabited the country ; they were the Jllemanm, of whom 
 some account has been already given in the description of 
 Wirtemberg. 
 
 The length of the grand dutchy may be equal to a hun- 
 dred and sixty-two miles ; the breadth to thirty-eight in the 
 northern districts, seventy-six in the southern, and ten near 
 the centre. a Crome estimates the superficial extent at two 
 hundred and seventy-four German square miles, which be- 
 ing reduced into English measure, makes the whole surface 
 not less than three thousand two hundred and eighty-eight 
 square miles. b 
 
 The greater part of the country, particularly from the 
 centre to the southern extremity, consists of high mountains 
 and fruitful valkes ; the plains are comparatively insignifi- 
 cant both in number and extent. The mountainous 
 country forms the highest part of the Schwarzwald or 
 Black Forest. The most elevated summit or the Feldberg 
 reaches to the height of 4G10 feet above the level of the 
 sea ; the lowest or the Winterhauch does not exceed 1640.° 
 The Storenberg, the Rosskopf, the Poelle and the Tod- 
 nauerberg have become celebrated in military history, on 
 account of the fine retreat made by General Moreau in 
 1796. The Herberg and part of the Odenwald, two 
 chains, in which the Kniebis is one of the most elevated 
 points, extend to the northern extremity of the dutchy. 
 
 The heights of the Black Forest, nearest the Rhine, are 
 composed of granite, and those in the direction of Wirtem- 
 berg, are formed by sandstone and other rocks, belonging 
 to what Werner and his disciples have termed the transition 
 
 )PE. [BOOK CXXII. 
 
 formation ; of the same period is the chain that extends 
 northward to the banks of the Neckar, and it appears too 
 that trapp rocks and others of a volcanic origin, have been 
 observed in those mountains. A belt of secondary lime- 
 stone extends along the western declivities of the Schwarz- 
 wald ; but the land beyond it on the banks of the Rhine, 
 from Bale to Manheim, belongs to the tertiary formation, or 
 to the one succeeding the formation of chalk, and cotem- 
 poraneous with that in the neighbourhood of Paris. 
 
 The Bodensee or the lake of Constance, forms part of 
 the boundary of the grand dutchy. The others, which 
 have been incorrectly denominated lakes, are rather large 
 ponds, almost all of which are situated in the mountainous 
 country, and at a considerable elevation ; that of Schluch on 
 the Feldberg, is at the height of 2287 feet ; that of Echner 
 and several others are at least 1467 feet above the level of 
 the sea/ 
 
 The climate is mild and agreeable in the lower districts, 
 or on the banks of the Rhine, the Maine and the Neckar ; 
 but the winters are very rigorous in the mountains and par- 
 ticularly in the chain of the Schwarzwald ; even in summer 
 the air is always keen, and the snow seldom melts in the 
 highest region. 
 
 The forests in the grand dutchy of Baden occupy a sur- 
 face of one million five hundred and eighty thousand acres ; e 
 one million three hundred thousand are cultivated, two 
 hundred and nine thousand are waste, three hundred and 
 thirty-five thousand are in meadow and pasture, seventy- 
 four thousand are planted with vines, and a hundred and 
 fifty thousand belong to the different towns, burghs and 
 villages/ The mountains are covered with thick forests 
 of oaks and pines, but the low grounds and the vallies pro- 
 duce varied and abundant harvests. Crops of poor oats 
 and potatoes can hardly be raised m the high country, and 
 the cherry does not ripen before September ; but the spec- 
 tacle is very different in the plains and vallies ; the vine, the 
 almond, the chestnut and various other fruit trees, different 
 kinds of grain, hemp, flax and the plants most useful to man, 
 grow luxuriantly, and diffuse wealth and plenty over the land. 
 
 Different products are obtained ; their number and im- 
 portance depend on the nature of the country. Many 
 animals haunt the forests, game abounds in the fields, and 
 a considerable revenue is derived from the fishings on the 
 Rhine and the lake of Constance. Salmon are not uncom- 
 mon, and the carp of the Rhine, some of which weigh more 
 than forty pounds, are considered a great delicacy by the 
 wealthy. But though not so well known as those that have 
 been last mentioned, the ablet s ( Cyprinus alburnus, Linn.) 
 is perhaps a more valuable fish. The scales of the ablet have 
 given rise to a branch of commerce; they are exported 
 into Saxony, France and Switzerland, and used in giving a 
 lustre to imitation pearls, by which it is difficult to distinguish 
 them from real. 
 
 The mineral riches of the country, though not great, 
 consist at least of many different kinds. About 12,000 
 
 » “ Length about 65 leagues — breadth in the north 11 leagues, in the 
 south 31, and in tire middle 4.” 
 
 b “761 geographical leagues, Fr. measure.” 
 
 c We may mention the heights of some other mountains in the dutchy, 
 as they are marked in the tables of Hassel. 
 
 Rosskopf ....... 3633 feet. 
 
 Blaucn 3597 
 
 Stockberg 3358 
 
 Egarten 2898 
 
 Hohckopf 2560 
 
 Kaltenbronn 2400 
 
 Kaiserstuhl 2050 
 
 Katzenbuckcl 1780 
 
 [The measures in this note, and the two in the text, are those of the 
 original.] 
 
 d These measures are those of the original. 
 
 « “ Arpents” — Forests 1,580,622 morgen , vineyards 74,000 jauchart. 
 (Hassel, 1822.)— P. 
 
 f “ to the communes.” — The grand dutchy is divided into circles, 
 
 the circles into districts, and the districts into communes ( gemeinden .. 
 (Hassel.) 
 
 s “ Ablette,” Eng. blay or blcalc. 
 
hook cxxn.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 quinta's of iron, 700 of lead, and nearly 500 marks of silver, 
 are annually extracted. The other products are copper, 
 zinc, arsenic, alum, sulphur, coal, and nearly 4000 quintals of 
 salt. Coarse and fine potter’s clay, slates, marble and ala- 
 baster are found in several places ; even gold might be 
 mentioned among the metals, for particles of gold are col- 
 lected in the alluvial deposits that are watered by the Rhine. 
 A hundred and twenty individuals are employed in seeking 
 it, but the quantity collected every year, does not exceed on 
 an average ,£700/ 
 
 That part of the Black Forest, situated within the grand 
 dutchy, may rival that which belongs to Wirtemberg, for its 
 kirschen-ioasser. Several vineyards are noted both for the 
 quantity and quality of the wine produced by them ; the 
 most noted are those of Constance, on the banks of the 
 ’ake, and next to them the vineyards of Margraff and the 
 Bergstrasse. The domestic animals, with the exception of 
 the horse, are of a good kind and very numerous. Many 
 inhabitants artfemployed in weaving or manufacturing hemp 
 and flax. The raw . and spun hemp exported every year 
 from the territory of Ettenheim, amounts in value to 30,000 
 florins ; and the hardware trade in the district of Pforzheim, 
 occasions a circulation of 1,700,000. Many wooden clocks 
 and other articles, which it is unnecessary to enumerate, 
 are made in the Schwarzwald. It may suffice ft) state that 
 notwithstanding the stagnation of commerce, there were a 
 few years ago in the grand dutchy of Baden nearly 75,000 
 workmen employed in different branches of labour. 
 
 The transit trade is very active ; the exports are also 
 considerable ; they consist chiefly in timber, which is sent 
 to Switzerland, France and the Netherlands. The other 
 exports are wines, corn, hemp, dried fruits, kirschen-was- 
 ser, tobacco, mineral water and hardware goods ; the 
 country receives in exchange French wines, salt, different 
 manufactures, colonial produce and a number of horses. 
 
 Some genealogists have maintained that the family of 
 Baden was sprung from the Gothic kings ; others affirm it 
 to have descended from Etichon, duke of Alsace in 684. 
 But it is certain that the lordship of Baden was erected into 
 a margraviate by Henry the Fowler, about the commence- 
 ment of the tenth century. Hermann, the son of Berthold,and 
 the first prince whom the chroniclers mention, flourished du- 
 ring the eleventh century; he derived from Judith, his first wife, 
 the heiress of Baden, the principality from which his successors 
 took the title of margraves. But the marquisate was go- 
 verned by several families that became successively extinct. 15 
 The country was made an electorate in 1802, and some 
 years afterwards, it was erected into a grand dutchy. 
 
 It has been already observed that the population in Ger- 
 many is annuajly increasing ; the same remark may be still 
 more applicable to the grand dutchy of Baden, than to many 
 other states in the same country. The number of inhabi- 
 tants was estimated by Stein in 1813, at 1,001,630, and 
 by Hassel in 1822, at 1,040,700. But the increase has 
 been still greater since that period. According to M. Adrian 
 
 OF GERMANY. 7 
 
 Balbi, c the population in 182b, was not less than 1,130,000. 
 Stein remarks in his geography, that the women were much 
 more numerous than the men in 1813 ; indeed it appears 
 from his calculations that the excess was equal to 31,343. d 
 The same writer attributes the disproportion to the ravages 
 of war, and to the fact that many young men migrated to 
 foreign countries in order to avoid the conscription. But 
 it is not likely that these were the only causes, because Has- 
 sel has shown that there were 27,400 more women than 
 men in the country during the third year after the peace, 
 and because nearly the same proportion subsisted at a still 
 later period in the year 1826. The blessings of peace, 
 which Europe has so long enjoyed, are not then the sole 
 causes of the increasing population ; it must be partly at- 
 tributed to the diffusion of wealth, 6 and to such discoveries 
 as vaccination ; for during twenty years, the augmentation 
 had not been sensibly diminished by all the evils of war. 
 
 As to the difference in the number of the two sexes, it must 
 be in a great degree occasioned by the frequent migrations 
 that take place among the working classes, an important 
 element, which does not appear to have entered into the 
 calculations of statistical writers. It is difficult to believe 
 that the men averse to the military life, are so numerous as 
 Stein supposes, or that the habits of the people in Baden 
 are so peaceful ; they cannot be reproached for want of 
 valour ; besides, fear prevents very few in any country from 
 entering the army. 
 
 The reigning family of Baden adheres to the Augsburg • 
 confession, but nearly two thirds of the population are Ca- 
 tholics ; the other inhabitants are mostly Lutherans and 
 Calvinists ; the latter, however, are not more than a fourth 
 part of the former ; there are, besides, some Mennoitites 
 and Jews, the last of whom enjoy all the rights of citizens/ 
 Several convents for women still remain in the grand dutchy, 
 but the purpose for which they were erected has been al- 
 tered ; they now serve for places of education. By a law 
 passed in 1811, no person can take the vows before the age 
 of twenty-one ; the period during which the vows last, is 
 limited to three years, at the end of which time, the nuns 
 may return to the world, and participate in its duties and 
 enjoyments. Silence, austerity, and almost all the obliga- 
 tions mentioned in the rules of different monastic orders, 
 have been abolished. 
 
 The government of the grand dutchy was purely mo- 
 narchical ; but the sovereign published a decree on the 16th 
 of March, 1816, in which, after having announced his de- 
 sire of securing the happiness, tranquillity and liberty of his 
 subjects, he declared that these intentions could only be 
 accomplished by granting them a constitution, in which the 
 rights of the prince and the people might be more accu- 
 rately determined. According to the constitution/ the 
 duke possesses the right of making peace or war, proposing 
 laws, and levying contributions, dispensing mercy to crimi- 
 nals, conferring titles of nobility, and lastly, of approving or 
 forbidding the establishment of religious societies. The 
 
 a “ Annual amount, 15,000 francs.” 
 
 *> Dictionnaire de Moreri, art. Baden. 
 c Tableau de la Balance politique du Globe. 
 d Handbuch der Geographie und Statistik. 
 
 ‘ “ New institutions” — abolition of feudal services, more equal division 
 of landed property, extinguishment of mortmains, greater personal liberty 
 and freedom of trade and commerce, and the numerous other improvements 
 in the social state which have arisen from the convulsions of the French 
 revolution, and of which the diffusion of wealth may be considered as one 
 among many beneficial consequences. — P. 
 
 f The increase in the population being nearly the same in the different 
 
 — " ~ ■ - - - — — 
 
 sects, the following table, given by Hassel for 1822, may still serve to show 
 their numerical importance. 
 
 Catholics, 705,850 
 
 Lutherans, 248,900 
 
 Calvinists, 69,100 
 
 Mennonites and other sects, .... 1,450 
 
 Jews, 15,400 
 
 Total . . 1,040,700 
 
 e The constitution was published, Aug. 22, 1818. — P. 
 
8 EUROPE. [ IJOOK CXXII. 
 
 states consist of two chambers, which must be convoked at 
 least once every two years ; they fix the amount of the 
 taxes and contributions, assist in enacting laws, and have 
 the privilege of proposing whatever may contribute to the 
 prosperity of the state. 
 
 The conscription has not been abolished; but the Napo- 
 leon Code, which was introduced into the country, has been 
 superseded by the Roman law, and the ancient customs 
 that were established in the dutchy before the French 
 conquest. A new system of weights and measures, ac- 
 cording to the decimal divisions, may be considered the 
 only benefit that the country has derived from its connexion 
 with France. 
 
 The inhabitants are divided into four classes ; the nobles, 
 knights, burgesses and peasants. The nobles possess ba- 
 ronies and estates, to which different privileges are attached. 
 The knights are the members of the three orders of knight- 
 hood instituted by the prince. The burgesses hold pro- 
 perty or civil offices in the different towns ; a none can enjoy 
 the rights of citizens, who cannot read, write and manage 
 their own affairs. 
 
 Government has promoted education by different institu- 
 tions, of which the inhabitants are daily reaping the advan- 
 tages. It maintains two universities, those of Heidelberg 
 and Freyburg; it has founded four lyceums, one at Con- 
 stance, another at Baden, a third at Carlsruhe, and a fourth 
 at Manheim ; it has contributed to the establishment of 
 other schools, as the institution for the deaf and dumb, the 
 academy of architecture, and the two commercial seminaries 
 at Manheim and Carlsruhe. There are besides in the prin- 
 cipal towns, ten gymnasiums and fifteen schools, in seven 
 ofnvhich Latin is taught, and also a school of theology for 
 the Catholics at Mersburg, and another for the Protestants 
 at Carlsruhe. But in the year 1815, government found it 
 advisable to impose some restrictions on the power that a 
 parent has of educating his children ; according to an enact- 
 ment made in that year, the sons of burgesses, merchants 
 and peasants, who have no reasonable expectations of re- 
 ceiving a patrimony, equal at least to 8000 florins, are not 
 permitted to study the law, or to choose the profession of 
 the bar, unless, indeed, they distinguish themselves in such a 
 way as to afford indications of future talent or eminent suc- 
 cess. The measures of government were rendered neces- 
 sary by the difficulty experienced in finding employment for 
 the lawyers and attorneys in the country, as their number 
 was three times greater than that required for conducting 
 all the business of the different courts. 
 
 If the number of criminals in the grand dutchy be com- 
 pared with those in the kingdom of Wirtemberg, a very 
 great difference will be found in that respect at least, be- 
 tween the two contiguous countries. According to the 
 
 a “ The population is divided into four classes, lords ( seigneurs ,) knights 
 ( chevaliers ,) burgesses or citizens ( bourgeois ,) and peasants. The lords 
 consist of all those who possessed principalities or counties in the country, 
 and who still retain many peculiar privileges. The knights are the mem- 
 bers of the nobility who possess seignoriaf estates, and the members of the 
 three orders of knighthood instituted by the prince. The citizens arc those 
 who hold property, rents or office.” — The inhabitants of Baden consist of 
 three classes, nobles (die Adel,) citizens (burger,) and peasants (bauern.) 
 The former arc divided into two ranks, mediatized or peers (standesherrn) 
 or such as have the privilege of sitting personally in the upi>er house of the 
 parliament or assembly of states, and such as possess seignorial estates 
 (rittergxiter) and are represented in the upper house by deputies. (Has- 
 sel.) — P. 
 
 b Revenue. 
 
 1821 9,651,827 florins. 
 
 1822 9,597,938 
 
 reports which we have examined, the number of persons 
 who are prosecuted annually for crimes, varies from six to 
 seven hundred ; so that the proportion between those ac- 
 cused of crimes and the other inhabitants, is as one to six- 
 teen hundred. 
 
 It appears from the report made to the chambers in 
 1825, concerning the administration from the year 1821 
 to 1823, inclusive, that the mean term of the revenue may 
 be estimated at 9,586,000 florins ; according to the reports 
 relative to the expenditure, it may amount to 9,497,OOO. b 
 The national debt was equal in 1820 to 19,000,000 florins, 
 and the expenses of the civil list to 2,000,000. 
 
 The grand dutchy of Baden is obliged to furnish a con- 
 tingent of ten thousand men to the Germanic confederation. 
 The army consists of an effective force equal to eleven thou- 
 sand men, and a reserve amounting to seven thousand. 
 The Jews in the country, having been long averse to the 
 military service, the individuals amongst them, on whom the 
 conscription falls, are each permitted to deposit 400 florins 
 at the office of the war department, and these sums are given 
 to substitutes, who are always very willing to enter the army 
 on such conditions. 
 
 There are seven principalities and two counties in the 
 grand dutchy, and the noble proprietors of these states en- 
 joy manyimportant privileges. The country is divided into 
 six circles, bearing the names of the different rivers and the 
 lake of Constance, 0 and containing a hundred and eight 
 towns, thirty-six burghs, two thousand four hundred and 
 twenty-seven villages and hamlets, a hundred and fifty-four 
 thousand seven hundred and ten houses, which, according 
 to the lowest calculations, were valued in the different in- 
 surance offices' 1 some years ago, at three hundred and fifty 
 millions of florins. 
 
 The inhabitants of Baden speak a harsh and guttural 
 dialect, that appears to be composed of ancient German 
 and Slavonic ; but it is different in different districts, parti- 
 cularly at the two extremities of the country ; thus, it is 
 easy to distinguish by their pronunciation the natives of the 
 Schwarzwald from those of the Odenwakl. 
 
 Wertheim, a town situated at the confluence of the Maine 
 and the Tauber, is a mediate possession of the prince of 
 Loewenstein under the sovereignty of the grand duke of 
 Baden. It is encompassed with walls and adorned by two 
 castles ; it contains 3500 inhabitants, who carry on a trade 
 in leather, spirits and wines ; the conveyance of goods on 
 the Maine forms an important part of their commerce. 
 
 Manheim or Mannheim, the largest town in the grand 
 dutchy, has thrice within a century and a half, experienced 
 the fatal effects of war. Devastated by the Bavarians in 
 1622, it had hardly recovered from its losses before it was 
 included in the destruction of the Palatinate, a decree that 
 
 1823 
 
 
 9,508,955 
 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 
 1821 
 
 ...... 
 
 9,849,287 florins. 
 
 1822 
 
 . . .... 
 
 9,323,624 
 
 1823 
 
 
 9,320,444 
 
 See the German 
 
 w'ork entitled Hcrtha, 1825. 
 
 
 c The following are the names of the circles, beginning at the nortn 
 
 east. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chief Toxrns 
 
 1°. Circle of the Maine and Tauber, 
 
 . . Wertheim. 
 
 2°. 
 
 — Neckar, 
 
 . . Manheim. 
 
 3”. 
 
 — Murg and Pfinz, 
 
 . . Durlach. 
 
 4°. 
 
 — Kinzig, 
 
 . . Oflenburg. 
 
 5°. 
 
 — Treisam, 
 
 . . Freyburg. r 
 
 6". 
 
 — Lake (Germ. Seekreis,) . 
 
 . . Constance. 
 
 d “ The general insurance office.” 
 
OF GERMANY. 
 
 book cxxii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 disgraces for ever the administration of Louvois. The fury I 
 of the French soldiers could not be restrained ; almost all 
 the houses were demolished, and the generals of Louis the 
 Fourteenth saw their men plunder the tombs of the pala- 
 tines. Rebuilt by its princes, it was bombarded in 1795 by 
 the republican armies of France, and a great many ol its 
 buildings were reduced to ashes. But its advantageous 
 situation at the confluence of the Neckar and the Rhine, 
 the activity of its commerce, and the importance of its manu- 
 factures, which consist in linen and woollen stuffs, and 
 jewellery made chiefly of the alloy, that is known by the 
 name of JWanhcim gold, have contributed to restore it to its 
 ancient prosperity. Its population amounts, according to 
 Hassel, to 21,525 persons. The streets are broad and 
 straight ; there are six squares, two fountains, a ducal castle, 
 a large building which contains the exchange, and seven 
 churches ; the finest of the churches forms a part of the 
 ancient residence of the Jesuits, which still attests their for- 
 mer wealth and power. The observatory, enriched with 
 every useful instrument for astronomical purposes, might be 
 considered an ornament to any town. It possesses besides 
 a theatre of anatomy, a school of midwifery, a botanical 
 garden, a museum of natural history, a library, a gallery of 
 paintings, and a collection of antiquities. 1 It is unnecessary 
 to mention its lyceum, but it may be observed that a me- 
 teorological society has been instituted, and some of the 
 members have distinguished themselves by their researches 
 in a department of knowledge which is still in its infancy. 1 * 
 
 Heidelberg is situated ten leagues to the south-east of 
 Manheim, at the foot of a mountain on the south bank of 
 the Neckar. The town was founded in the twelfth century ; 
 it contains at present 10,500 inhabitants. The houses are 
 generally well built, and some of the squares have been 
 much admired. Nearly seven hundred students attend its 
 university, which ranks with the most ancient in Germany ; c 
 indeed one cannot observe without interest the different es- 
 tablishments for the instruction of youth, the botanical gar- 
 dens, the numerous museums, the collections of philosophi- 
 cal instruments, and the valuable libraries. The most cele- 
 brated scholars in Europe resorted to Heidelberg during the 
 sixteenth century. It was the residence of Olimpia Fulvia 
 Morata, who was not less distinguished by her virtuous and 
 exemplary life, than by the extent of her learning, and the 
 superiority of her genius. Compelled to take refuge in 
 Germany, on account of her attachment to protestantism, 
 she filled the chair of ancient languages in the university of 
 Heidelberg, and was considered a prodigy of learning, al- 
 though not more than twenty-nine years of age at the time 
 of her death. d Francis Junius was one of the celebrated 
 men that have been born in the town ; he wrote several 
 valuable works on the ancient languages of the north, and 
 on antiquities. 
 
 A castle is situated on the hill that commands Heidel- 
 berg ; there too may be observed the famous tun, which 
 was substituted for the one broken by the French during 
 the reign of Lewis the Fourteenth. It contains 130,000 
 gallons, 6 and the weight of the iron that encircles it, is up- 
 
 a The four last are contained in the right wing of the ducal palace. — P. 
 b Die sternwarte zu Mannheim beschrieben vom staatsrath Kuber. 
 c Founded in 1386. 
 
 A Musee des Protestans cclebres, tom. II. Notice de Renee de France. 
 ' “ 440,000 litres.”— 600 hhds. Ed. Encyc. 
 
 f “ The fortifications of Philipsburg are now dismantled ; it was taken 
 by Louis of Bourbon [in 1644,] and by Louis, dauphin of France, [in 
 1688.]” It is not stated in the original that the ramparts were destroyed 
 VOL. ni.— NO. 42 i 
 
 wards of 1 2,000 pounds. The first hot houses in Europe 
 were built near the same castle ; from its walls may be seen 
 the finest country in the ancient palatinate, and the fruitful 
 vineyards of Heidelberg and Weinheim, the latter a small 
 town of 4500 inhabitants, situated near the frontiers of the 
 grand dutchy of Hesse. 
 
 The ramparts of Philipsburg were destroyed by Louis of 
 Bourbon, and the place was taken forty years afterwards 
 by Louis, dauphin of France/ The castle, formerly inha- 
 bited by the sovereign bishop of Spire, is situated in the 
 pleasant town of Bruchsal, which contains a population of 
 six thousand individuals. Durlach, situated in a fertile plain 
 on the Pfmz, is peopled by four thousand inhabitants. 
 
 Carlsruhe or Karlsruhe, the capital of the grand dutchy 
 and the chief town of a district, is situated at the height of 
 three hundred and seventy feet above the sea. It is built 
 with much regularity ; the streets are straight, all of them 
 terminate in front of the ducal castle, and diverge from 
 each other in the form of a fan. That singular arrange- 
 ment has a very fine effect when the town is illuminated. 
 The gardens and woods that extend behind the castle, form 
 agreeable public walks, and the residence of the prince 
 must be admired by every one for its elegant yet simple ar- 
 chitecture. There are different collections in the town, 
 but the most valuable are the ducal library and museum of 
 the prince. The buildings are finer than in most places of 
 the same size ; the Lutheran and Catholic churches are 
 considered the best works of the celebrated architect 
 Weinbrenner. The theatre is a light and elegant building, 
 and if our limits would permit, it might be worth while to 
 describe some of the private houses on account of their ar- 
 chitecture. The population of Carlsruhe amounts to six- 
 teen thousand individuals ; as it is the residence of the 
 court, it cannot be supposed a place of trade, still however 
 it has been long known for its different articles of luxury, 
 such as jewellery, watches, household furniture and car- 
 riages. 
 
 Reuchlin, one of the most remarkable men that flourished 
 in the sixteenth century, both for his erudition and his 
 opinions concerning the reformation of Christianity, at- 
 tempted to prove that Pforzheim, his native town, was 
 founded by Phorcys, the Trojan auxiliary of Priam. Other 
 learned men, who lived during the same period, maintained 
 that the town was formerly called Orcynheim, from the 
 name of the vast forest mentioned by Julius Caisar, and 
 which ancient writers designated the Sylva Hercynia or 
 Orcynia. It has been affirmed, on the authority of these 
 fanciful etymologies, that the town which the Romans call- 
 ed Porla Hercynia,, was no other place than Pforzheim. 5 
 Its antiquity may be considered doubtful ; indeed it is very 
 probable that it was not known to the ancients. Pforz- 
 heim is situated at the foot of the Schwarzwald, and at the 
 confluence of the Enz, the Nagold and the Wurm ; its 
 population, according to Hassel, amounts to six thousand 
 five hundred individuals. It contains a house of correction 
 and an orphan hospital ; it carries on an important trade 
 in timber/ 
 
 by Louis of Bourbon ; on the contrary, its fortifications were strengthened 
 by the French, who retained possession of it till 1676. Moreri. — P. 
 
 e “ These forced etymologies do not prove, as some have pretended, that 
 this town must have been called Porta Hercynice by the Romans.” 
 
 h There are twenty-one manufactories of jewellery in Pforzheim, and 
 the value of the goods sold yearly is equal to 600,000 florins. Convers. 
 Lex. — P. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 10 
 
 The ruins of a Roman town were discovered between 
 Durlach and Ettlingen in the year 1802; but antiquaries 
 have not yet agreed as to the name of the place. 
 
 Rastadt, on the banks of the Murg, owes its celebrity to 
 the congresses that have been held within its walls, and to 
 the massacre of the deputies of the French republic. It 
 contains two thousand lour hundred inhabitants. A ducal 
 castle, the principal edifice, may be remarked not only for 
 its romantic site, but for the Turkish trophies, and other col- 
 lections, which have been placed in it. The trade, which 
 it has long enjoyed, may be considered great in proportion 
 to the number of its inhabitants ; its cutlery and snuff-boxes 
 are exported to different parts of Germany. 
 
 Baden or Baaden, a a place about six miles from Rastadt, 
 has derived its name from its mineral springs and its baths, 
 which were well known and frequented in the time of the 
 Romans. The antiquities that have been found in the vi- 
 cinity, form a valuable collection. The town is peopled 
 by about three thousand inhabitants. None of the buildings 
 can vie with the ancient college of the Jesuits. 
 
 A road from Baden to Offenburg passes through the vil- 
 lage of Sassbach, where the traveller cannot see without 
 emotion an old and decayed walnut tree, for it was there 
 that Turenne expired on the twenty-seventh of July, 1675. 
 The virtues and military glory of that great man are ap- 
 preciated by all ; they are admired in other countries as 
 much as in France. A detachment of veterans is stationed 
 m the village ; to observe their sergeant describe the en- 
 gagement, and show the cannon ball that put a period to 
 the hero’s career, one might imagine that Turenne had 
 died in the last campaigns of Germany. 
 
 The small town of Offenburg contains about 3000 inha- 
 oitants, and the lands belonging to it are fruitful in vine- 
 yards. The population of Lahr or Lohr has much in- 
 creased of late ; it may amount at present to nearly five 
 thousand inhabitants. b The cause of its prosperity must 
 be ascribed to its trade, which is becoming greater every 
 year. Friburg or Freyburg stands on the banks of the 
 Treisam, at the foot of the mountains of the Black Forest. 
 Peopled by ten thousand five hundred inhabitants, possess- 
 ing a gymnasium, a university that is still well attended, and 
 different scientific collections, it has been considered one of 
 the most important towns in the grand dutchy. Many of 
 the houses are well built, and the cathedral has been re- 
 marked for its architecture and lofty tower, which rises to 
 the height of five hundred feet. 
 
 Brisach or Old Brisach, or as the Germans call it, Jllt- 
 Breisach, is supposed to have been founded by Drusus ; if 
 that opinion be correct, it was probably the ancient capital 
 of the Brisagavi, a German tribe, subject to the Alemanni. 
 The fortifications of Brisach were destroyed by Maria 
 Theiesa. It contains about two thousand five hundred in- 
 habitants ; although watered by the Rhine, it is not a place 
 of much trade. 
 
 It may be readily inferred from the nature of the coun- 
 try, which is principally occupied by the mountains of the 
 Black Forest, that few towns of any consequence are situ- 
 ated in the southern part of the grand dutchy. The only 
 two that can be mentioned are Willingen and Constance. 
 But before wc pass the chain of the Schwarzwald, it may 
 be stated, that the thermal springs near the small village of 
 Badenweiler 0 have been known for nearly two thousand 
 
 a Germ. Baden , Du. Baaden, Fr. Bade. 
 
 0 “-1,700.” c “ Situated ut the foot of Mount Blaucn .” 
 
 [BOOK CXXII. 
 
 years. A considerable establishment was founded there 
 by the Romans ; the remains of their works are still appa- 
 rent, occupying an extent of two hundred and twenty leet 
 in length, and eighty in breadth. 
 
 Willingen is situated near the confines of Wirtemberg, 
 in a lofty valley on the banks of the Biig ; it contains a po- 
 pulation of three thousand three hundred individuals. 
 Another town, Constance or Konstanz/ more important 
 than the last place from the number of its inhabitants, and 
 better known from the council that was held within its walls 
 in the year 1451, is situated in the same circle. Con- 
 stance gives its name to the lake on which it stands. The 
 two most zealous precursors of the reformation, John IIuss 
 and Jerome of Prague, were condemned to death 'by a de- 
 cree of the council. Indignant at the corruption of the 
 clergy, they chose rather to be burnt alive than to recant 
 their opinions on the necessity of abolishing abuses. 
 
 The following remarkable passage for the time, may be 
 found in the treatise on the church, a work written by Huss 
 in the year 1413. “ The church may be defined a mys- 
 
 tical body, of which the head is Jesus Christ, and the mem- 
 bers, the just and the predestined. The latter cannot be 
 separated from the church by an unjust excommunication ; 
 their spirit beareth witness to his spirit that they are the chil- 
 dren of God 
 
 The sovereign pontiff, the cardinals, the bishops, belong to 
 the body of the church, but the sovereign pontiff is not the 
 head of it. The church would exist, although there were 
 neither pope, cardinals nor bishops. Popes, cardinals, bi- 
 shops and priests cease to be members of the church by the 
 commission of sin. Whatsoever ye bind on earth, says our 
 Saviour to his apostles, shall be bound in heaven; whatso- 
 ever ye loose on earth, shall be loosed in heaven. If the 
 popes, as the successors of the apostles, claim the same 
 power, it can only be exercised through Jesus Christ, for 
 as it requires an infinite power to justify a sinner, it must 
 be the attribute of the divinity. No sins can be remitted, 
 without repentance on the part of the sinner ; absolution 
 of itself therefore cannot he sufficient. The faithful, with- 
 out doubt, owe a reasonable obedience to their bishops ; 
 but Christians have a surer guide for their conduct than the 
 word of man ; they have the word of God, contained in the 
 Old and New Testaments.” 
 
 A turret, in the ancient convent of the Franciscans, 
 served as a prison for Huss, who was burnt in the suburbs” 
 of Constance. Jerome of Prague shared the same fate ; 
 as undaunted as his friend ; it is said when the executioner 
 endeavoured to kindle the funeral pile behind him, the mar- 
 tyr desired him to set fire to it in front, adding, that had he 
 been afraid of death, he might have escaped from his judges. 
 
 Constance, formerly a free and imperial town, is ill peo- 
 pled in proportion to its size ; it contains only four thousand 
 five hundred inhabitants. The streets and houses are well 
 built ; the finest edifices are the ducal castle and episcopal 
 palace. Its academy, gymnasium and lyceum are richly 
 endowed. The trade of Constance was formerly more 
 considerable than at present ; it consists of wine and grain, 
 linen and wood. 
 
 The government of Baden may be commended for its 
 enlightened views, to which the prosperity of the state must 
 in a great measure be attributed. Judicious retrenchments 
 have been proposed and enforced. The public funds are 
 
 ll Germ. Costnitz, Koslanz or Konstanz. 
 c “ In the suburb of Bruel.” 
 
book cxxii.j DESCRIPTION 
 
 not wasted in encouraging a spirit of speculation, as fatal 
 to national welfare, as gambling is to individual happiness. 
 But although such projects are always opposed, the admi- 
 nistration is not averse to any plan by which the wants of 
 the people may be diminished. An inhabitant of Carlsruhe, 
 animated by that philanthropic zeal which can excite men 
 to good and generous actions, persuaded his townsmen in 
 1824 to raise a fund for the loundation of a workhouse, 
 where every artisan without employment might find occu- 
 pation, and every unfortunate person, skilled in any branch 
 of industry, might obtain the means of subsistence. 51 The 
 government promoted the accomplishment of the plan, and 
 unless it had done so, the efforts of the inhabitants might 
 have been unavailing. The public authorities have also 
 approved and encouraged the measures taken by a number 
 of wealthy merchants, clergymen and other citizens, to as- 
 sist and find employment for the poor throughout the 
 country. 
 
 Other interests of a more general nature have not es- 
 caped the attention of government. By a treaty made in 
 1824, between the grand dutchies of Baden and Hesse, 
 the utmost freedom of trade was established, and conse- 
 quently with all the states in the confederation. 15 The ob- 
 ject of the treaty was to extend the commercial intercourse 
 of the two principalities with foreign countries, and to faci- 
 litate the circulation of commodities by removing the re- 
 straints which shortsighted statesmen have judged neces- 
 sary for the prosperity of nations. Although the effect of 
 these changes has been to unite the interests of the two 
 grand dutchies, similar changes have not been introduced 
 into other countries — still it is no uninteresting spectacle to 
 see these secondary powers set the world an example of 
 that harmony which renders unnecessary expensive reve- 
 nue establishments on the frontiers and coasts of different 
 countries, establishments that tend only to encourage fraud, 
 and prevent the inhabitants of civilized nations from enjoy- 
 ing the mutual advantages of their industry. 
 
 The principalities that remain to be mentioned, are not 
 of much importance ; they may be therefore briefly de- 
 scribed. According to some genealogists, the family of 
 Hohenzollern has existed for more than a thousand years. 
 But so many families in Germany claim a like antiquity, 
 that their ancient origin excites neither interest nor surprise. 
 The filiation of the family may be traced from Frederick 
 Count of Hohenzollern, who flourished in the thirteenth 
 century. The same house was afterwards divided into 
 two branches, 0 and their possessions were erected into prin- 
 cipalities during the seventeenth century at the diet of Ra- 
 tisbon. The two families are distinguished by the names 
 of the towns in which they reside — Hechingen and Sigma- 
 ringen. Their territories are surrounded by the kingdom 
 of Wirtemberg and the grand dutchy of Baden. 
 
 The principality of Hohenzollern-Hechingen may be 
 about sixty-four square miles in superficial extent ; d the 
 population amounts to fifteen thousand inhabitants, almost 
 all of whom are Catholics. The country abounds with 
 sandstone, and calcareous rocks containing organic re- 
 
 OF GERMANY. 11 
 
 mains. It is traversed by a part of the chain that extends 
 from the Black Forest to the eastern extremity of Wirtem- 
 berg. The Zollerberg, one of the highest summits, is not 
 more than 2G00 feet 0 above the level of the sea. The 
 most of the heights are covered with trees. The revenues 
 of the state are equal to 120,000 florins, and the contin- 
 gent for the confederation amounts to a hundred and forty- 
 five men. 
 
 Hechingen, the capital, is situated on a hill, the base of 
 which is watered by the Starzel ; it contains about 2600 
 inhabitants. The old castle of Hohenzollern rises on one 
 of the heights in the neighbourhood. It was built in the 
 fifteenth century on the site of the one which was destroyed 
 by Henrietta, countess of Wirtemberg and Montbelliard. 
 The building was founded with much pomp and solemnity ; 
 Nicholas/ count of Hohenzollern, Philip, duke of Burgun- 
 dy, Albert, elector of Brandenburg, Charles, margrave of 
 Baden, and Albert, duke of Austria, carried silver trowels 
 and hammers, and laid the foundation stone in 1460. A 
 valuable collection of armour may still be seen in one of 
 the halls. 
 
 Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen lies to the south of the last 
 principality; its surface and population are greater ; Crome 
 makes out the former to be equal to three hundred and 
 twelve English square miles, and Hassel supposes the latter 
 equal to thirty-eight thousand inhabitants. 5 The soil be- 
 longs to what German geologists have termed the second- 
 ary and tertiary formations. The country for the most 
 part is unfruitful, but some of the vallies yield rich harvests. 
 The revenues amount to 300,000 florins, and the prince 
 furnishes a contingent of 370 men to the confederation. 
 
 Although Sigmaringen h on the Danube is the residence 
 of the prince, it contains only eight hundred inhabitants. 
 Haigerloch, the only town in the principality, for all the 
 other places are burghs or villages, stands on a hill, at the 
 foot of which flows the Eyach. The population amounts 
 to 2000 individuals. 
 
 Lichtenstein, 1 one of the smallest principalities in Ger- 
 many, does not contain more than five thousand eight 
 hundred persons, who inhabit a surface of thirty-six square 
 miles/ The revenue does not exceed 50,000 florins/ and 
 the state furnishes a contingent of fifty-five men. It is si- 
 tuated on the banks of the Rhine, at the distance of nearly 
 fifteen miles 111 from the lake of Constance. The house of 
 Lichtenstein is descended from Azo IY. of Este, who 
 died in the year 1037. It possessed seventy-three seignio- 
 ries during the succeeding centuries / and it still possesses 
 under the sovereignty of Austria and Prussia two conside- 
 rable principalities, those of Troppau and Jaegerndorf, to- 
 gether with other territories in Silesia and Austria, of which 
 the total population is not less than 324,000 inhabitants, 
 and of which the revenues amount to 1,500,000 florins. 0 
 The prince is thus enabled to maintain the rank of his an- 
 cient family. p 
 
 Vadutz, a burgh on the banks of the Rhine, contains 
 seven hundred souls. The castle of Lichtenstein, where 
 the prince resides, rises in its immediate vicir.it) 1 ’. 
 
 a M. Sommelatt was the founder of this excellent institution. See his 
 memoir, entitled • Einladung an alle menschenfreunde und patriotenBadens. 
 b Extra Beylage zu No. 258 der Carlsruher-Zeitung. 
 c In the 16th century. d “ Superficial extent 14 leagues.” 
 
 e 2620 (Hassel.) f “ Josse Nicolas” — died 1488. 
 
 e “ Its surface, according to Crome, is equal to 52 square leagues, and 
 its population, according to Hassel, to 38,000 souls. The inhabitants pro- 
 fess the Catholic religion.” 
 
 11 Germ. Siegmaringen. 
 
 “ Liechtenstein, M. B. Hassel. 
 k “ 6 square leagues.” 
 
 1 Revenue hardly 30,000 gulden. (Hassel.) 
 m “ 5 leagues south of the lake of Constance.” 
 
 “ Mich. Reinhard, Breviarium Hist. Licht. 
 
 0 Stein’s Geography, (in Germ.) 
 p “ The prince, as well as his subjects, are Catholics.’ 1 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 12 
 
 [BOOK CXXIII. 
 
 BOOK CXXIII. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued . — Germany. — Seventh Section. — King- 
 dom of Bavaria. 
 
 The ancient dutchy of Bavaria, one of the largest of the 
 German principalities, was the one, according to Hassel, 
 that maintained the most numerous army. Having since 
 been erected into a kingdom, it obtained by the last treaties 
 additional territory, but the inhabitants have derived more 
 important advantages from an enlightened and economical 
 government. It is bounded by the kingdom of Saxony, 
 ducal Saxony, and electoral Hesse, on the north ; by the 
 grand dutchies of Hesse and Baden, and by the kingdom 
 of Wirtemberg, on the west ; and by the states of the Aus- 
 trian empire on the south and east. The superficial ex- 
 tent of the territory on the east of the Rhine is reckoned 
 equal to 1359 German geographical square miles, or not 
 less than 22,662 English square miles, 3 but if the recent 
 additions on the left bank of the Rhine be included, it will 
 amount to 1499 German or 25,002 English square miles. b 
 Adhering to the same plan that was followed in the account 
 of Prussia, the whole territory between Austria and Wir- 
 temberg, shall be considered as forming the kingdom of 
 Bavaria proper ; after having made some remarks on its 
 physical geography, and entered into the statistical details 
 connected with it, we shall proceed to examine separately 
 the Bavarian province on the banks of the Rhine. 
 
 Bavaria proper comprehends almost the whole country 
 enclosed by the Rauhe-Alb and the Spessart on the west, 
 by the Rhcene-Gebirge, the Thuringer-Wald, the Franken- 
 Wald and the Fichtel-Gebirge on the north, by the Bcehmer- 
 Wald on the east, and by different heights connected with 
 the Alps on the south. That extensive region is naturally 
 divided into two parts or basins ; the Regnitz waters the 
 first or the northern which forms the basin of the Maine. 
 The mountains which enclose it on the south, consist of 
 two chains or branches that extend from the place where 
 the Regnitz rises ; the one, or the Frank-Hoehe, bends to 
 the right, and unites with the Fichtel-Gebirge ; the other, 
 or the Steiger-Wald, reaches nearly to the chain of the 
 Spessart, from which it is only separated by the course of 
 the Maine. The principal declivity of the basin is from 
 south to north, and the Regnitz follows the same direction, 
 before it unites with the Maine. The southern basin or the 
 .arger of the two is traversed by the Danube, and is formed 
 by the Frank-Hoehe and Steiger-Wald and the other 
 
 mountains that have been already mentioned. The heights 
 that rise on the north of the river are much less important 
 than those on the south, and consequently the streams it 
 receives on the left, are by no means so large as the feeders 
 that enter on the right or opposite bank. The three largest 
 rivers on the left side are the Altmiih], which descends 
 from the Steiger-Wald, the Nab, which flows from the 
 Fichtel-Gebirge, and the Regen, which has its source in 
 the Boehmer-Wald. The rivers, like the mountains on the 
 right bank, are more important ; the largest are the Iller, 
 the Lech, the Isar or Iser, and the Inn, all of which have 
 their sources in the Alps. The principal declivity in the 
 basin inclines to the north-east ; the different ramifications of 
 the mountains enclose wide rallies or low and humid plains. 
 The most extensive of these plains, or the one between Ra- 
 tisbon and Osterhofen, is about forty-five miles' in length, 
 and nearly as many in breadth. 
 
 Thus, the basin of the Danube marks distinctly the se- 
 paration of two great mountain ranges, that of the Alps on 
 the south of the river, and that of the Hercynio-Carpathian 
 mountains on the north ; a separation which we have al- 
 ready had occasion to observe in the chapter on the physi- 
 cal geography of Europe.* * 1 It is unnecessary to mention a 
 second time the height of the Alpine summits, which, like 
 the Watzmann and the Hochvogel, rise above the moun- 
 tains in the south of Bavaria ; e but it may be remarked 
 that the Boehmer-Wald and the Fichtel-Gebirge on the 
 eastern limits, vary in height from three thousand to up- 
 wards of five thousand feet/ 
 
 The general arrangement of these mountains has been 
 described in a former book ; £ but it may be requisite to 
 give a more minute account of the Spessart, Rhoene- 
 Gebirge and Boehmer-Wald in order to complete the phy- 
 sical geography of Bavaria. 
 
 The chain of the Spessart commences on the banks of 
 the Maine, at the place where the course of the river sepa- 
 rates it from the chain of the Oden-Wald. The extremity 
 nearest to the Maine bears the name of Engelsberg ; it ex- 
 tends to the north, giving off branches to the south-west 
 and south-east, and joins the Rhoene-Gebirge ; different 
 streams, most of which are tributary to the Maine, descend 
 from these heights. The mean elevation of the chain is 
 about thirteen hundred and thirty-six feet ; some of the 
 mountains, however, are considerably higher ; the Hohe- 
 
 a “ 3,778 leagues.” 
 
 b “ 4,167 leagues.” — The English sq. miles in both these instances, are 
 obtained by multiplying the French leagues by six, and are of course much 
 too small. Present superficial extent 3'2,000 sq. miles. (Morse .) — P. 
 
 ' “ 15 leagues.” <t Book XCIV. 
 
 e See the Table of Altitudes, Book XCIV. 
 
 1 As these mountains have not been mentioned in the general table of 
 
 altitudes, the heights of the loftiest summits may be 
 here to the measurements of Hassel. 
 
 Hohe-Staufen near Reichenhall, 
 
 Grunten near Sonthofen, .... 
 Ochsenkopf or Ox’s Head (Fichtel-Gebirge 1 
 Kmssein, .... (idem) 
 e Book CXVI. 
 
 now stated. We ad- 
 
 . 5,408 feet. 
 
 4,160 
 3,394 
 3,060 
 
-- ■■ ■ - ■ . — ■ . . ■ ■ 
 
 book cxxm.] DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. 13 
 
 Wart rises to the height of two thousand feet, and the 
 Geyersberg, the loftiest in the range, to two thousand and 
 eighty. a 
 
 Volcanic rocks are observed in the Spessart, but the 
 most frequent are granite, gneiss, sienite and porphyry, 
 which serve as a support for sandstone, limestone and beds 
 of clay. Veins of copper, cobalt, lead and iron are found 
 in the primitive, but ottener in the secondary rocks. As to 
 the form of the mountains, the most of them are rounded, 
 and their gentle declivities extend to a considerable dis- 
 tance ; it is only in the neighbourhood of Aschaffenburg, 
 that the stranger observes steep rocks and pyramidical sum- 
 mits. 1 ' 
 
 The Rhcene-Gebirge is more extensive than the Spes- 
 sart ; it unites on the west with the chain of the Vogels- 
 berg, and on the east with that of the Thuringer-Wald. Its 
 mean elevation exceeds that of the Spessartfand it furnishes 
 two feeders to the Maine, — the Sinn and the Saale. Granite 
 rocks rise at the western extremity, on the declivities of 
 which lie rocks of secondary limestone, and above these 
 various deposits of basalt. 
 
 The Fichtel-Gebirge, which connects the Rhcene moun- 
 tains with the Bcehmer-Wald, consists chiefly of granite ; 
 the highest point in the range is the summit of the Ochsen- 
 kopf. Two small rivers descend from the Fichtel-Gebirge, 
 to form the Maine ; the inhabitants call one of these 
 streams the White Main ; the other, or the Red Main, 
 flows to it from the south. The bed of the former at 
 Culmbach has been found to be a hundred and thirty-six 
 feet higher than the bed of the latter at Bayreuth. The 
 declivity in the basin of the Maine from east to west is con- 
 siderable ; from Bayreuth to Wurtzburg, a distance of 
 nearly sixty miles, c it is upwards of six hundred feet. d 
 
 The chain of the Boehmer-Wald joins the Fichtel- 
 Gebirge ; it commences at the sources of the Eger, and 
 terminates at the Moravian mountains, which shall after- 
 wards be more fully mentioned. The Boehmer-Wald may 
 be about two hundred miles in length ; its breadth on the 
 north-west may vary from fifteen to twenty near the centre, 
 and from twenty-four to more than thirty on the south.® 
 It rises gradually from the northern extremity to the neigh- 
 bourhood of Waldmunchen ; the highest point is situated 
 near Swiesel, and the chain becomes gradually lower, until 
 it unites with the Moravian mountains. The most elevated 
 summits are the Arber, the Rachel and the Dreysel. fg 
 The range is very steep on the side of Bavaria, but much 
 less so towards Bohemia. Several branches extend from 
 it into the former country, the most important of which are 
 the Greiner-Wald and the Bayer-Wald ; the first rises near 
 Waldmunchen, and the Regen, a feeder of the Danube, 
 flows along its southern declivities ; the second reaches 
 from Mount Rachel to the neighbourhood of Ratisbon, and 
 separates the course of the Danube from that of the Regen. 
 The last is not the only river that has its source in the 
 
 *■ “ Mean height about 400 metres — Hohe-Wart 600 metres — Geyers- 
 berg 624 metres.” 
 
 b See the topographical essay on the Spessart by M. Behlen, (in Germ.) 
 
 c “ Nearly 30 leagues.” 
 
 d See the Astronomical and Geographical Correspondence of Baron 
 Yon Zach, vol. XIII. 
 
 e “ Length 85 leagues ; breadth on the northwest 6 leagues, in the cen- 
 tre 8 leagues, on the south 13 leagues.” 
 
 ' f The last mountain is about two thousand eight hundred and eighty- 
 four feet above the level of the sea. [Height 449 toises, or 2694° feet 
 Fr.— M.B.] 
 
 e Dreisessel, height 2798 feet. (Hassel.) 
 
 h “ 13 or 14 feet high.” 
 
 Boehmer-Wald, and follows the declivities in the basin of 
 the Danube. Several of the streams which form the Nab, 
 flow from the same range and that of the Fichtel-Gehirge, 
 and the Ilz rises from the base of mount Rachel. The 
 basis of the Boehmer-Wald is composed of granite, which 
 supports masses of gneiss and micaceous schistus. One 
 may observe on these heights deep cavities and numerous 
 marshes ; the naked summits resemble needles or pyramids, 
 and the forests that stretch along the declivities afford shel- 
 ter to the lynx and the bear. 
 
 Two distinct geological formations are separated in Ba- 
 varia by the course of the Danube. The country on the 
 north of the river, including the basin of the Regnitz and 
 the Maine, is of secondary formation, comprehending ooli- 
 tic limestone, muschel-kalk, zechstein and other analogous 
 rocks, as well as variegated sandstone, quadersandstein and 
 other quartzose deposits. Vast tertiary deposits extend on 
 the south of the river, from the lake of Constance to the 
 confluence of the Inn and the Danube ; they rest on rocks 
 of earlier formation, which are supported by the granite 
 that belongs to the chain of the Alps. 
 
 The alluvial lands on the north of the river are of an earlier 
 formation than those in southern Bavaria ; geologists have 
 discovered in them the bones of the animals that inhabited 
 our planet at a time when its climate and productions ren- 
 dered it unfit for the residence of man. Fossil bones of the 
 tapir and rhinoceros have been found in the valley of the 
 Regen, crocodiles have been discovered in the calcareous 
 schistus in the valley of the Altmuhl, and the remains of 
 elephants, which must have been much larger than any 
 that exist at present, 11 have been collected near Schweinfurt 
 and Arnstein in the valley of the Maine. Some caverns in 
 the Steiger-Wald are filled with the bones of lions and hye- 
 nas ; the remains of animals now wholly extinct may be 
 observed in other places ; in short, it is difficult to mention 
 a more interesting country than Bavaria to those who are 
 engaged in the most attractive department of natural history. 
 
 The highest and most southern portion of Bavaria is ex- 
 posed to the influence of the Alps. The lakes are nume- 
 rous, and some of them are large ; thus, besides the lake 
 of Constance, a very small part of which is situated in the 
 kingdom, eight others of considerable extent might be men- 
 tioned. The largest are the A miner, the Worm and the 
 Chiem. A river of the same name issues from the first, 
 and throws itself into the Isar. The Alza, a feeder of the 
 Inn, flows from the Chiem. The others that may be enu 
 merated, are the Staffel, the Kochen, the Wale hen, the 
 Tegern and the Bartholomseus or royal lake. These 
 lakes, and many more of a smaller size, are not without 
 their value to the inhabitants ; several fisheries have been 
 established on them, and a lucrative branch of industry has 
 thus been produced. 1 
 
 The most frequented mineral springs in Bavaria are 
 those of Sichertsreuth k in the picturesque country of the 
 
 ■ The following, according to the most authentic maps, are the dimen 
 sions of these lakes : — 
 
 Eng 
 
 Miles. — Tr. 
 
 Fr. leagues. 
 
 Eng. ffiles.- 
 
 -Tr. 
 
 Fr. leag 
 
 Ammer . . . 
 
 10 . . 
 
 . 4 . 
 
 . . 2 i 
 
 
 . 1 
 
 Wurm . . . 
 
 in . . 
 
 . 41 . 
 
 . . 2j 
 
 
 . 1 
 
 Chiem . . . 
 
 9 . . 
 
 . 3[ . 
 
 . . 34 
 
 
 • 14 
 
 Staffel . . . 
 
 4 . . 
 
 • D • 
 
 . . 1J 
 
 
 . A 
 
 Kochen . . . 
 
 4 . . 
 
 . lj . 
 
 . . 24 
 
 
 . 1 S 
 
 Walchen . . . 
 
 5 . . 
 
 . 2 . 
 
 . . 2| 
 
 
 . 1 
 
 Tegern . . . 
 
 4 . . 
 
 . 1§ . 
 
 . . 14 
 
 
 
 Bartholomseus 
 
 4 . . 
 
 . li . 
 
 • • D 
 
 
 • 4 
 
 k Or Alexander sbrunnen. (Hassel.) 
 
14 EUROPE. fiiooKcxxm. 
 
 Fichtel-Gebirge, the baths of Kissingen situated in a valley 
 watered by the Saale, about thirty-two miles north from 
 Wurtzburg, the acidulous and ferruginous springs of Bock- 
 let and Briickenau, in the same part of the country, and 
 those of Hardeck in the southern part of the kingdom, from 
 which Munich is supplied with mineral water. 
 
 The climate on the whole is temperate and salubrious ; 
 the elevation of the soil, and the neighbourhood of the 
 mountains occasion however considerable modifications in 
 the temperature. The air is keen in the countries to the 
 south of the Danube, the winters too are long and severe ; 
 but that region is the highest of any in Bavaria, and the most 
 exposed to the influence of the eternal glaciers on the Alps. 
 The prevalence of the north-east winds renders the climate 
 cold and dry throughout the Bcehmer-Wald. Much rain 
 falls in many places during the spring, and the heat of sum- 
 mer is sometimes excessive in valiies having a south exposure. 
 The autumn, in general, is the finest season in the year. 
 
 Before we make any remarks on the natural productions, 
 agricultural wealth and commerce of Bavaria, it may be 
 proper to give some account of the ancient people, who oc- 
 cupied the country. It was formerly inhabited by two na- 
 tions that were separated from each other by the Danube. 
 The Hermunduri possessed the lands on the north of the 
 river, and the country on the south was peopled by the 
 Vindelici. The Narisci, a people less important than 
 either of the two former, were settled in the country that 
 extends from the declivities of the Boehmer-Wald or Bo- 
 hemian forest a to the banks of the Danube, and from the 
 month of the Nab to that of the Hz. 
 
 The Hermunduri, according to Tacitus, adored Mars 
 and Mercury ; they were often engaged in contests and 
 bloody wars with the Catti, their northern neighbours. 
 Their enemies were devoted to the gods, and if they proved 
 victorious, all the vanquished, men and horses, were slaugh- 
 tered without remorse. b The same people yielded however 
 to the arms of the Romans, and became their most faithful 
 allies. Thus they were the only German people that were 
 permitted to travel freely through the neighbouring colo- 
 nies. While, continues the historian, other nations are 
 only allowed to see our arms and camps, our town and 
 country houses are open to the Hermunduri. 0 
 
 The Narisci, who, according to Tacitus, inhabited a 
 country in the neighbourhood of the last people, were not 
 inferior to them in bravery and courage. d The ancients 
 have left us but little information relative to the Narisci ; 
 nothing remarkable concerning them is mentioned by 
 Ptolemy or Dion Cassius ; it may however be observed 
 that the first of these writers calls them the Varisti, and the 
 second the Narislce. 
 
 The Vindelici were scattered over the country which 
 extends from the lake of Constance to the confluence of 
 the Inn and the Danube ; the last river served them for a 
 boundary. According to D’Anville,® the Vindelici were so 
 called from two rivers, the Vindo or the modern Wertach, 
 and the Licus or the modern Lech. As they were settled 
 on the banks of these rivers from the remotest antiquity, 
 such an etymology does not appear improbable. The Vin- 
 delici were subdued by the Romans, who, after their subju- 
 
 a Sylra Gabrita , Ptolcm. lib. II. cap. II. Strabo calls the same forest 
 Stjlva Gabreta. 
 
 b Tacitus, Annal. lib. XIII. sect. 57. 
 
 ' Tacitus, De Moribus Germanorum, sect. 42. 
 d Tacitus, De Moribus Germanorum, sect. 41. 
 
 gation, called the country Vindelicia ; it was at a later 
 period joined to Rhaetia ( provincia Rhcclia ,) where several 
 Roman colonies were settled. 
 
 The most important of these settlements appears to have 
 been the Augusta Vindelicorum or the present Augsburg, 
 which according to different documents formed Oppidum 
 Augusti, or the town of Augustus/ Cambodunum, e ano- 
 ther place of some consequence, was probably built on the 
 site of Kempten. Ratisbon on the Danube, the German 
 Regensburg, was the ancient Regina, a name derived from 
 the Regen, opposite the mouth of which it is situated. 
 Passau was the former Batava Castra, and Neu-Oetting 
 near Muhldorf seems to have been the Puns CEni, an 
 opinion confirmed by the remains of a Roman way situated 
 in the neighbourhood. 
 
 Bavaria is the most ancient dutchy in Germany ; it has 
 retained its name, title, and even part of its constitution, 
 since the fifth century. The Germans call it Bayern, a 
 name which has probably some connexion with that of the 
 Boii, an ancient people, who were driven into Bohemia by 
 the Romans, and who left that country about the middle 
 of the fifth century along with the barbarians that have been 
 denominated Ostrogoths. 
 
 Aldiger or Aldeger is believed to have been the first 
 chief or duke of the Bavarians ; he formed the design in 
 common with other German princes, of accompanying 
 Clovis, and sharing his conquests ; but after the victory at 
 Tolbiac, Clovis confined the Germans within their former 
 limits, and compelled the Bavarians and their chief to ac- 
 knowledge his authority. To diminish the chances of a 
 successful revolt, a colony of Franks was settled in that 
 part of Germany, which has since been called Franconia, 
 and the dukes of Bavaria were made tributary to its sove- 
 reigns. The Bavariaps began to embrace Christianity in 
 the time of Theudo the Third, the grandson of Aldiger ; 
 in the sixth century, after the vast monarchy of the Franks 
 was divided, they submitted to the kings of Austrasia. 
 
 The weakness of the last Merovingian kings enabled the 
 Bavarians to shake otf the yoke ; the country retained its 
 freedom until about the year 786, but at that period, Thas- 
 silo, a Bavarian duke of the Agilolfingian family, excited a 
 rebellion in different parts of Germany, which was not 
 quelled until Charlemagne marched against him, and forced 
 him to acknowledge his sovereignty. Thassilo having re- 
 volted a second time in the following year, was cited before 
 the diet at Ingelheim, accused of high treason, and con- 
 demned to death. But his punishment was commuted by 
 Charlemagne, who deprived him of his dominions, and 
 confined him first in the abbey of Lauresheim, and after- 
 wards in the monastery of Jumiege. Thassilo, although a 
 weak prince, became an excellent monk, and died with a 
 great reputation for sanctity. 
 
 Charlemagne having made himself master of Bavaria, 
 divided it into several counties, and appointed rulers and 
 princes over them. The government of the same country 
 was again changed after the division of the monarchy be- 
 tween the sons of Lewis I. ; h it fell, with all Germany, to 
 the lot of Lewis the German, who chose Ratisbon for the 
 place of his residence. The dominions of Lewis were 
 
 c Geographic anciennc, tom. I. p. 47. 
 
 r “ which in commercial transactions is still designated bj the name 
 
 of ^lieo'uste.” (Ital. Augusta.) 
 
 6 Caynpodunum, Strabo. 
 h Louis the Debonnaire. 
 
book cxxm.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 divided among his children, and Carloman became king of 
 Bavaria. Arnold, a the natural son of Carloman, succeed- 
 ed his father, and was elected king of Germany. 
 
 Luitpold or Leopold was probably the first who was 
 named Margrave of the country by the German kings in 
 the ninth century. The dignity of count or duke of Bava- 
 ria was not hereditary, the emperors conferred it on dif- 
 ferent princes until the thirteenth century ; at that time 
 Lewis the Old, of the house of Wittelsbach, duke of Lower 
 Bavaria, and count palatine of the Rhine, left two sons, 
 Rudolph and Lewis, who were the founders of the Pala- 
 tine or Rodolphine, and the Bavarian or Ludovician fami- 
 lies. The lineal descendants of the Ludovician branch, 
 retained the dutchy of Bavaria, which was raised into an 
 electorate in 1G18, till it became extinct in the year 1777, 
 and a collateral descendant of the palatine l5mily b is at pre- 
 sent seated on the throne of Bavaria. 0 
 
 The soil in the higher parts of the kingdom, is of an or- 
 dinary quality, but the low plains and vallies are very pro- 
 ductive. The soil in the northern districts is for the most 
 part light ; in the south it is heavy and fruitful. The Ba- 
 varian government is desirous of encouraging agriculture, 
 but it will be necessary in the first place to overcome the 
 ignorance and indolent habits of the peasantry, which are 
 obstacles to every sort of improvement. 
 
 Nearly a- third part of the territory on the Isar, the 
 lower Danube and the Regen, is still uncultivated ; within 
 the last few years, marshes have been drained at the ex- 
 pense of government, and waste lands have been rendered 
 arable. But as these operations are attended with a consi- 
 derable outlay of capital, their accomplishment is retarded, 
 although their utility has been always admitted. The dif- 
 ferences, which are obvious in the productiveness of the 
 same sort of land in a country under the same government, 
 can only be attributed to the knowledge or ignorance of the 
 agriculturists. A more improved system of cultivation than 
 any other in Bavaria, may be observed in the circles of the 
 Rezat, the upper Danube, and the upper and lower Maine ; 
 in the same circles too, the harvests are the most abundant. 
 The produce, it must be confessed, is not so great as in 
 lower Saxony and Flanders ; still the inhabitants are in- 
 dustrious and not ignorant of their true interests. The 
 above mentioned circles are the wealthiest in Bavaria, and 
 the rich harvests that are reaped in them compensate in 
 some degree for the deficiency in other parts of the country. 
 
 The circles of the upper and lower Maine, yield not only 
 different kinds of grain, but wine and fruits. Agriculture, 
 which was formerly neglected in the mountains of the Spes- 
 sart, has made great advances of late years. Potatoes and 
 bread form the principal food of the inhabitants. The har- 
 vests in some other districts, as well as on these mountains, 
 hardly suffice for the annual consumption ; it ought, how- 
 ever, to be mentioned, that government makes use of every 
 means by which knowledge can be diffused among the 
 people, and the Bavarians may ere long be sensible that 
 the elements of their prosperity depend on the cultivation 
 of their country. 
 
 The rearing of cattle forms, after agriculture, the princi- 
 pal source of territorial wealth ; the meadows that extend 
 along the banks of the rivers are well adapted for this pur- 
 
 * Arnou.lt (M. B.) Arnov.l (Moreri. Beauvais.) Arnulph (Conv. Lex.) 
 
 b Of the house of Birkcnfeld. 
 
 c Historisch-Statistische Uebersicht ssemmtlicher Provinzen und Be- 
 Htandtheile des Kcenigreichs Baicrn, by J. Marx, baron of Lichtenstern. 
 
 d More than eighteen thousand landed proprietors, farmers and pea- 
 
 OF GERMANY. 13 
 
 pose. It may be remarked, that in those districts, where 
 agriculture has arrived at a certain degree of perfection, 
 care has been taken to improve the different breeds. Thus 
 it appears that one branch of industry cannot be established 
 without creating another. The plan of artificial irrigation 
 practised with so much success, not only in the circle of the 
 Rezat, but in those of the upper and lower Maine, has pro- 
 duced verdant and luxuriant meadows, in which numerous 
 docks and herds are fattened. It must be admitted that 
 the breed of cattle might be still much improved, for it is 
 obvious that little attention has hitherto been bestowed by 
 the Bavarians on the form and proportions of these animals. 
 If the oxen on the declivities of the Alps rival in symmetry 
 any in the Swiss Cantons, it is equally true that the produce 
 ol the dairy and the rear ing of cattle make up the chief 
 wealth of the people in the elevated country that extends 
 to the south of Munich. Many goats are fed in tlie same 
 districts and in most of the mountains which bound the 
 kingdom. The hog is fattened in almost every part of Ba- 
 varia, and in many places, the fiesh of that animal forms 
 the principal sustenance of the people. 
 
 The remarks that have been made concerning the Ba- 
 varian oxen, are much more applicable to the horses ; the 
 inhabitants appear to have been still less successful in im- 
 proving the breed of that useful animal. The number of 
 horses was considerably diminished during the last wars, 
 and it has not been sufficiently increased since the peace. 
 Although horses are seldom used for agricultural purposes, 
 it must nevertheless be confessed that the government, by 
 neglecting to multiply and improve them, renders itself, in 
 the event of a war, dependent on foreign powers. 
 
 The landed proprietors pay great attention to their sheep ; 
 the native breed has been crossed with the Merinos, and 
 other experiments have been conducted with much sagacity 
 and Corresponding success. If there he a greater demand 
 for the cloth and woollen manufactures of Bavaria, it must 
 be attributed to these causes. 
 
 The peasants in some districts have found the manage- 
 ment of bees a very profitable employment, but that branch 
 of rural economy was formerly more flourishing than at 
 present, although the use of wax has now become more 
 common. The circles of the Rezat and the upper Danube 
 are most favourable for bees. 
 
 It may, on the whole, be concluded that the Bavarians 
 have been surpassed by the inhabitants of other countries 
 in two important branches of rural industry, in rearing cat- 
 tle and other domestic animals, and in their method of hus- 
 bandry. But it is rather to the quality than the quantity 
 of live stock that their attention ought to he directed, for it 
 appears from a statistical work published a few years ago, 
 that the proportion of cattle to surface was as one for every 
 five acres ( arpens ) of land. What has been stated con- 
 cerning the system of agriculture may now be repeated ; 
 in both cases the ignorance and even superstition of the 
 country people are the principal obstacles to improvement. 
 So long as the peasants and farmers, neglecting the best 
 means of curing or arresting the progress of contagious dis- 
 orders among the lower animals, lead their diseased cattle 
 to distant pilgrimages, it is vain to expect any amendment 
 in whatever appertains to rural economy. d 
 
 sants,* * went on a pilgrimage with their cattle to Griesbach in 1820, and 
 nearly thirty thousand performed the same journey in the following year. 
 See the work entitled : Ueber den Zustand des Kmnigreichs Baiern, by 
 M. Rudhart, director of the government of Ratisbon, 1825. 
 
 * “ More than 18,000 cultivateurs.” 
 
16 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXIII. 
 
 The art of gardening has made some advances of late 
 years, at least a considerable portion of ground has been 
 laid out in nurseries and flower gardens ; but it ought not 
 to be inferred that horticulture has arrived at the same de- 
 gree of perfection which it has attained in other countries. 
 The culture of vegetables and culinary plants is principally 
 confined to the neighbourhood of large towns. 
 
 It has already been observed that the vine is cultivated in 
 the circles of the Rezat and the lower Maine. The wines 
 of Franconia are produced in the latter circle, and the best 
 vineyards are those on the Leiste and the Steinberg, and 
 those in the vicinity of Saleck and Wurtzburg. The wines 
 next to them in repute are those of Calmuth, Eiweilstadt, 
 Sommerach and Eschendorf, and also those produced from 
 the vineyards on the lake of Constance. It may be re- 
 marked that the culture of the vine is well understood in 
 Bavaria. 
 
 The woods and forests are committed to the Bavarian 
 government, and the care a of them furnishes employment 
 to several thousand individuals. The most ordinary trees 
 are the oak and, the beech ; the first grows luxuriantly, 
 and the second which is much more common, reaches- in 
 some places to the height of more than a hundred feet. 
 The birch, the ash and several coniferous trees have been 
 planted. The most extensive forests in Bavaria are those 
 situated on the Spessart and the Rhoene-Gebirge, those of 
 Zwiesler, Mitten, Kulwald, Retzer and Lorenz, and those 
 in the neighbourhood of Kempten. Their superficial ex- 
 tent has been estimated at five millions six hundred and 
 fifty-nine thousand acres ( arpens .) It is calculated that 
 
 they occupy a twenty-ninth part of all the land in the king- 
 dom, which gives the proportion of nearly eight acres par- 
 pens) for every family. b 
 
 The ignorance of the country people is not the only 
 obstacle to the measures contemplated by government for 
 advancing the welfare of the landed interest. The plans 
 proposed by government have been counteracted by differ- 
 ent feudal institutions, tithes, baronial rights, the privilege 
 of hunting, and different services exacted from the peasant- 
 ry. These and other customs equally antiquated, have 
 hitherto been maintained by those who profit by them. It 
 is in vain that every man has been permitted by a recent 
 law to use his property as he pleases ; so long as feudal 
 burdens continue, so long as the greater portion of the in- 
 habitants are degraded by servile duties, land must be al- 
 most an illusory possession. The freedom of agriculture 
 has been proclaimed in vain ; if the woods are under the 
 management of persons appointed by the government, if 
 the culture of the vine is subject to regulations that emanate 
 from the same quarter, if the nobles are permitted to exa- 
 mine whether the. lands of the other proprietors are well or 
 ill cultivated, and to propose alterations, agriculture will 
 continue in its infancy. 
 
 Many changes must be introduced before the country 
 can be improved ; the land must be more equally divided ; 
 the waste lands, and part of the forests, which are too ex- 
 tensive, must be freely granted to those who undertake to 
 bring them into cultivation ; nay, the new proprietors must 
 be exempt from every tax and contribution for a greater or 
 
 * “ Exploitation” — preparation for use or sale. 
 
 b See the work of M. Rudhart : — Ueber den Zustand des Koenigreichs 
 Baiern. 
 
 c See the letter addressed to the provincial states in 1822, on the pro- 
 posed law relative to agriculture, by M. Hazzi, counsellor of state, (Li Ger- 
 man.) 
 
 less period according to circumstances, and even premiums 
 should be granted them for their encouragement. Such 
 of the pastures as are too poor to be of much use in fatten- 
 ing cattle, should be improved by cultivation. The right of 
 pasturing on the property of others, or of passage over it, 
 should he abolished. The inhabitants should be encou- 
 raged to provide the best sort of food for their cattle, and 
 to prevent them from being exposed day and night to 
 the inclemency of the weather. The woods in the fertile 
 meadows which are suffered to remain only because they 
 serve to shelter game, should be removed. The legislature 
 should not fix the minimum of landed property that a man 
 can possess, nor hinder any one from building a house on 
 his land, if it does not amount to a certain number of acres. 
 It is obvious that until these reforms shall be introduced, the 
 country can never be in such a state of prosperity as it 
 might be expected to attain, considering the nature of the 
 soil and the industry of the inhabitants. 0 
 
 Many quarries, containing different kinds of stone, d are 
 worked in the country ; there are also mines of coal, lead 
 and copper ; but all these minerals are of little value, if 
 compared with the products of the salt works and iron 
 mines. The most abundant saline springs are those situ- 
 ated in the circle of the Isar, and those of Reichenhall, 
 Traunstein and Rosenheim ; they yield annually about 
 four hundred thousand quintals of salt ; the mine at 
 Berchtesgaden furnishes more than a hundred and fifty 
 thousand, another at Orb twenty-four thousand, and a 
 third at Kissingen, sixteen thousand ; but in order to sup- 
 ply the wants of the population, government, in consequence 
 of a special treaty, receives every year from Hall two hun- 
 dred and sixty thousand quintals of salt, which, after the 
 necessary process of purification, is reduced to a hundred 
 and ninety thousand. 
 
 The iron mines in the territory of Amberg yield from 
 forty to fifty thousand quintals, those in the circle of the 
 Upper Maine from eighty to ninety thousand, those in the 
 circle of the Isar near the heights of Kressen, about a hun- 
 dred and twenty thousand, and those in the other parts of 
 the country about twenty thousand ; so that the whole pro- 
 duce throughout the kingdom amounts to nearly three 
 hundred thousand quintals.® The circle of the Upper 
 Maine is the only one in Bavaria proper in which coal is 
 worked, but the quantity obtained does not exceed 35,000 
 quintals, or not much more than a third of what is extract- 
 ed in the circle of the Rhine/ 
 
 The different branches of manufacturing industry are in 
 a still less advanced state than agriculture ; there are how- 
 ever sixteen iron works, several manufactories of iron wire, 
 and two of fire arms. The moderate degree of perfection 
 to which some of the arts have attained, has been partly the 
 effect of rewards and encouragements given by govern- 
 ment. Coarse linen can only be manufactured in the 
 country ; all the fine linens are imported. The same may 
 be said of woollen stuffs and different kinds of cloth, which 
 form a considerable branch of importation. Cotton goods 
 and hosiery are manufactured in different parts of Bavaria 
 for home consumption. 6 
 
 It may be allowed that in some articles, the Bavarians 
 
 J “ Millstones and whetstones.” 
 
 c 316,400 quintals (centnem.) Hassel. 
 
 f Coal in the circle of t he Rhine, 85,000 quintals ; in that of the Upper 
 Maine, 33,000. (Hassel.) 
 
 s The linens, woollens, cottons and hosiery, manufactured in Bavaria, 
 are principally consumed in the country. (Hassel.) — P. 
 
book cxxm.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 have acquired a decided superiority over their neighbours ; 
 thus the different kinds of leather which they manufacture, 
 are exported, and Saxony is partly supplied with paper 
 from the same country. The musical, surgical and mathe- 
 matical instruments made at Munich, are sold in many 
 parts of Germany, and the playing cards of Nuremberg are 
 exported into different countries in Europe and America. 
 The glass, porcelain and earthen works in the kingdom, 
 suffice for the supply of the inhabitants. The cambric and 
 lace manufactures are too insignificant to require nqtice. 
 It ought to be mentioned that the administration, anxious 
 to correct gradually all the abuses connected with the an- 
 cient government, encouraged industry by abolishing in 
 1827 (lie offices of wardens and masters in the different 
 corporations. 
 
 It follows from what has been already said, that the com- 
 merce of Bavaria cannot be very important. Fortunately 
 for the country, its situation enables the inhabitants to com- 
 municate with different states, and by this means puts them 
 in possession of a considerable carrying trade. 
 
 There is only one navigable canal in the kingdom, which 
 opens a communication between the Rhine and the valley 
 of Franconia. Another canal, which was begun by 
 Charlemagne, in order to connect the Rhine and the Da- 
 nube, and which has since been recommenced at different 
 times, is not likely to be ever finished. 1 Commercial trans- 
 actions are facilitated by the course of the principal rivers, 
 such as the Danube, the Rhine, the Maine, the Regnitz, the 
 Inn and the Salzaeh, by numerous and well kept roads, 
 that extended in 1812 more than a thousand and eighty 
 German miles, or nearly lour thousand three hundred and 
 ten English miles, b and lastly by the posts, which although 
 expensive, are very expeditious. 
 
 The corn trade was in a flourishing state a few years 
 ago ; it has since been destroyed by the restrictions im- 
 posed 01 ^ it by government. It may excite surprise that 
 so few statesmen are acquainted with the most elementary 
 truths of political economy. It is not wonderful that the 
 vulgar confound corn merchants with forestallers, eager 
 only to occasion famine or to enrich themselves at the ex- 
 pense of the people", but it is painful to confess that the same 
 prejudices are common to them with men called to the go- 
 vernment of kingdoms. It might almost be inferred that 
 Smith, Say, Condillac and other great economists, had 
 written in vain, if such men are ignorant that products of 
 every kind belong to commerce, and that commerce must 
 be free in order to be advantageous to the community. 
 
 The Bavarian ministers have at last begun to encourage 
 inland navigation, and vessels constructed at the expense of 
 the state, now sail on the Danube ; the example of govern- 
 ment will without doubt be imitated by capitalists ; the Isar 
 and the Maine covered with vessels of the same sort, or 
 with steam boats, will one day facilitate the transportation 
 of agricultural products, which under a better system must 
 form the principal wealth of the country.' 
 
 Less accurate information has been obtained concerning 
 the population of Bavaria, than of any other state in Ger- 
 many ; a census however was made in 1822, and accord- 
 ing to it, the number of inhabitants amounted to 3,566,300. 
 Hassel cannot be supposed to have been ignorant of that 
 
 I OF GERMANY. 17 
 
 a census ; still in his statistical tables of the same year, he es- 
 timates the population at 3,630,800. d An author, well 
 known for his accuracy, has concluded from new data and 
 other calculations that the number in 1827 was equal to 
 3,940,000.® If these different results be correct, the po- 
 pulation in Bavaria must have increased in a very rapid 
 progression, for the difference in five years exceeds 350,000 
 individuals. The inhabitants in the circle of the Rhine are 
 included in the numbers that have been now stated ; but 
 the population of Bavaria proper amounted probably in 
 1827 to 3,510,000 individuals, and at least four fifths of 
 them were catholics. 
 
 The tables at the end of this book are so full as to ren- 
 der further details unnecessary : one observation may how- 
 ever be made, and it is that no civil restrictions on account 
 of religion are imposed on the people in Bavaria. Catho- 
 lics, Lutherans and Calvinists enjoy the same rights ; go- 
 vernment never interferes in questions connected with the 
 k forms of worship or the religious opinions of the different 
 sects. According to the last concordate, the kingdom is 
 divided into two archbishoprics, the one at Munich, the 
 other at Bamberg, and into six bishoprics, those of Pas- 
 sau, Ratisbon and Augsburg, and the suffragan bishoprics 
 of Eichstedt, Wurtzburg and Speyer. The protestants ac- 
 knowledge the general consistory at Munich as their high- 
 est ecclesiastical court ; and the Israelites are under the 
 authority of their rabbis, whose nomination must be ap- 
 proved by government. 
 
 The Bavarians have retained some characteristic traits 
 of the different people from whom they are descended. 
 The inhabitants of ancient Swabia are sober, but ignorant 
 and superstitious ; the Franks or the people of ancient 
 Franconia, are lively, cunning and enterprising ; the Bava- 
 rians proper, sprung from a mixture of the Vindelici and 
 the B'oii, are grave, loyal, faithful to their engagements, 
 constant in their affections, attached to the ceremonies ra- 
 ther than the duties of religion, and ready to make any sa- 
 crifice for their country, if the priest commands it in the 
 name of the Divinity. 
 
 The state of society is not so unexceptionable as might 
 be imagined ; the vices in the great towns are but too evi- 
 dent, and they may be easily accounted for ; but the num- 
 ber of natural children in the country and even in the 
 mountainous districts, announces a degree of corruption, 
 that may perhaps be chiefly attributed to the ignorance of 
 the inhabitants. 
 
 Government, convinced of that important truth, has at 
 length made some attempts to provide for the instruction 
 of the people. An elementary school has been established 
 in every parish ; the time may come when there will be 
 one in every village, and when even the inhabitants of the 
 hamlets may participate in the benefits of education. The 
 higher orders of society possess greater advantages in this 
 respect ; lyceums, colleges and universities have been esta- 
 blished in several towns, but their number is not sufficient 
 for the wants of the middling classes, which in Bavaria may 
 rank among the most enlightened of Europe. 
 
 What has been said of the character and education of 
 the Bavarians, leads us naturally to consider their constitu- 
 tion, for it is found that knowledge may be most easily dif- 
 
 a It is not stated in the original that it has ever been recommenced. 
 “ Scarcely a trace exists of the canal dug by Charlemagne, in order to con- 
 nect the Rhine and the Danube.” (Hassel.) — P. 
 
 b “ 1793 leagues.” — The extent in English miles in the translation, is 
 
 VOL. HI.— NO. 42 3 
 
 too small for the common German mile of 15 to a degree. It should be 
 nearly 5000. — P. 
 
 c Wochenblatt des Landwirthschaft. Vereins in Baiem, 1823. 
 d Statistischer Umriss der ssemmtlichen Europseischen Staaten, 1823. 
 e M. A. Balbi, Balance politique du globe. 
 
 J 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 18 
 
 fused among the people under constitutional governments. 
 According to the constitutional act passed on the twenty- 
 sixth of May, 1818, Bavaria forms an indivisible kingdom ; 
 the domains of the state cannot be alienated, the crown is 
 hereditary, and the person of the king inviolable. There 
 is no civil list,* the king determines the expenses of his 
 household, b and the princes receive for their appanage a 
 sum that has not hitherto exceeded 150,000 florins. The 
 revenue of the queen mother has been fixed at two hun- 
 dred thousand, and each princess receives a hundred thou- 
 sand for her dowry. 
 
 The general assembly of the states consists of two cham- 
 bers. The princes of the royal family, the great officers of 
 state, the two archbishops, some of the nobles, a bishop no- 
 minated by the king, and the president of the protestant 
 consistory, are members of the upper chamber. The king 
 has it besides in his power to appoint hereditary members 
 or members for life ; the number of the latter cannot ex- 
 ceed a third of the former. 0 The chamber of representa- 
 tives consists of a hundred and fifteen members ; d fourteen 
 are chosen by the nobles,® as many by the clergy, 1 twenty- 
 eight by the burgesses, and fifty-six by the landed proprie- 
 tors ; the universities appoint the remaining three, who 
 must belong to the Catholic, Lutheran or Calvinistic com- 
 munions, and who cannot be elected before the age of 
 thirty. The number of representatives is proportioned to 
 that of families, so as to allow one of the former to seven 
 thousand of the latter : the members are chosen every six 
 years. The executive power is in the hands of the king, 
 and the ministry consists of five members. 5 According to 
 the fundamental law of the state, no one can be imprisoned 
 or condemned but by the sentence of a judge, all the citi- 
 zens are eligible to the different offices of state, and all are 
 obliged to enter the military service. h 
 
 It may be superfluous to make any remarks on the merits 
 or imperfections of the constitution, since at the time it was 
 enacted, the necessity of some modifications was acknow- 
 ledged. While some writers hailed it as the dawn of free- 
 dom in Bavaria, others considered it very imperfect. “ The 
 Bavarians,” says M. Hazzi, 1 “ can derive but little advan- 
 tage from the abolition of personal slavery, while a magis- 
 trate, in the plenitude of his power or caprice, can inflict 
 corporal punishment on the burgesses and peasants, and 
 while an officer can degrade his soldiers in the same man- 
 ner. The condition of the husbandmen can never be im- 
 proved, so long as compulsory labour, different sendees and 
 every sort of feudal burden, are imposed on them. It is of 
 little use that a vague law entitles any individual to pur- 
 chase exemption from such hardships, since there is no law 
 by which the purchase money has been fixed. Religious 
 liberty has been declared a fundamental principle of the 
 constitution, but the Mennonites, Moravians, Anabaptists 
 and Jews, all those, in short, who are neither Catholics, 
 
 c 
 
 a The amount of the civil list has been fixed at 2,745,000 florins. (Has- 
 sel, 1822.) ll “The allowance ( ■pin-money) of his queen.” (M.B. Hassel.) 
 
 c “ That of councillors of the kingdom ( Rcichsruthe 4 consists of the 
 princes of the royal family (of full age,) the four great dignitaries of the 
 crown ( Kronbeamten ,) the two archbishops, the heads of the principal 
 noble families ( standesherrn ,) one of the bishops appointed by the king, 
 the president of the protestant consistory, and such other persons as the 
 king may designate, either as hereditary members or as councillors for life; 
 but the number of the latter (councillors for life) cannot exceed a third of 
 the hereditary members.” 
 
 d The number in 1818. But the number varies with the population. 
 The rule of apportionment is $ to the possessors of seignorial estates, £ to 
 the other landed proprietors, £ to the clergy, J to the cities and market 
 towns, and 1 member to each of the three universities. — P. 
 
 [BOOK CXXIII. 
 
 Calvinists nor Lutherans, are deprived of political privi- 
 leges. A Bavarian is not permitted to emigrate without 
 the consent of government, and then it must be to one of 
 the confederated states ; if he does so of his own accord, 
 his property may be confiscated.” 
 
 The king is grand master of the five orders of knight- 
 hood in Bavaria, viz. those of Saint Hubert, Saint George 
 and Saint Michael, the military order of Max-Joseph, and 
 the civil order of Merit. 
 
 The Bavarian army corresponds with the rank which 
 the state holds in the Germanic confederation. The con- 
 scription still exists, and the military force of the kingdom 
 consists of fifty-four thousand men, besides a numerous re- 
 serve, and a national guard ( lundwehr .) The contingent 
 to the confederation has been fixed at thirty-five thousand ; 
 the period of military service is limited to five years. The 
 troops for the protection of the country are trained after the 
 manner of the French gendarmes. k A military establish- 
 ment so disproportionate to the number of inhabitants, can 
 only be maintained by measures so severe as to be hardly 
 supportable except in time of war. Every able-bodied 
 man must enter the army, either in the active service, the 
 reserve, or the national guard. 
 
 The revenue of Bavaria amounts to about 35,000,000 
 florins, and the national debt to more than 110,000,000.' 
 These results are not very satisfactory, but what has been 
 lately gained by economy and retrenchments not only in 
 the expenditure of the state but of the court, cannot fail to 
 improve the finances of the kingdom. The promises of go- 
 vernment, which have been already realized in this respect, 
 may be considered a pledge that others made from the 
 throne at the opening of the session in 1828 will also be ful- 
 filled. The sovereign has publicly declared his intention 
 to establish provincial councils, to render the administration 
 of government and of justice less expensive, to apportion 
 the taxes and imposts more uniformly, to enter into com- 
 mercial treaties with neighbouring nations, to rend<*r public 
 the debates and proceedings in the different courts and as- 
 semblies, and lastly, to introduce a new penal code adapted 
 to the presents wants of society. Such resolutions are the 
 best guarantee of the future prosperity of the kingdom. 
 
 Bavaria is divided into eight circles, namely, those of the 
 Isar, the Lower Danube, the Regen, the Upper Maine, the 
 Rezat, the Upper Danube, the Lower Maine and the 
 Rhine. The last circle shall be described separately, as it 
 forms no part of Bavaria Proper. 
 
 Munich, m the capital of the circle of the Isar or Iser, is 
 also the capital of the kingdom. It rises in the middle of 
 an extensive plain between the heights of the Isar and the 
 Galgen. It occupies nearly the same extent of ground as 
 Vienna, if the subutbs of the latter be not taken into ac- 
 count, and it has been considered one of the finest cities in 
 Germany. It stands on the Isar, at the height of more 
 
 e Possessors of seignorial estates ( gutsbesitzer .) 
 f Nine by the Catholics, and five by the Protestants. 
 
 " ■> The two great central authorities ( centralbchordcn ) are the ministry, 
 consisting of five members, (viz. the ministers of foreign affairs, of justice, 
 of the interior, of finance, and of war,) and the council of state. — P. 
 
 >i See Hasscl’s Geography, (in Genu.) 
 
 ■ See his work entitled : Uebcr die Standpunctc der Baierischen Ver- 
 fassungs-Urkunde von 1818. See also the Bulletin Universal des Sciences 
 et de 1’ Industrie, Section des Sciences Geographiques, Ier Cahier, 1825. 
 
 k “ The gendarmerie, for the security of the country, consists of 1693 
 men.” 
 
 1 See for the budget of 1820, Allgem. Justiz-Kammer, &c. 1S25. 
 m Mimchen (Germ.) 
 
BOOK CXXIII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 than nineteen hundred feet* above the level of the sea. It 
 cannot he called a regularly built town ; modern houses are 
 placed near edifices which have stood for more than four hun- 
 dred years ; it must be admitted however that several streets 
 are broad, straight and well paved. The number of houses 
 amounts to three thousand one hundred and eighty, and 
 the population to sixty-five thousand individuals. The 
 public squares contribute chiefly to the embellishment of 
 the town ; the most remarkable are those of Max-Joseph, 
 Anger and Maximilian, the Place of Arms and the Pro- 
 menade, the last of which is surrounded with trees and ar- 
 cades. The public buildings are the royal palace, the 
 palaces of Max and William, the house in which the cham- 
 bers meet, another that serves as a residence lor the minis- 
 ter of the interior, the town-house, the new mint, the two 
 principal theatres, and the academy of sciences, formerly 
 the college of the Jesuits, and the finest of any that the 
 order possessed in Europe. 
 
 The royal palace may be styled a model of architecture ; 
 it is highly magnificent in the interior, and so extensive, 
 that it was a common saying in former times, that all the 
 kings in Christendom might reside in the palace of Mu- 
 nich. Many valuable curiosities are to he seen in the court 
 chapel, among others a painting by Michael Angelo, the 
 small altar at which Mary Stuart performed her devotions, 
 when in prison, a reliquary adorned with ancient cameos, 
 a pearl of the greatest beauty, known in Europe by the 
 name of the palatine pearl, and lastly a piece of native 
 gold, weighing more than twenty-two pounds. Among the 
 collections in the royal palace, are the cabinet containing a 
 hundred and thirty miniatures, which have been valued at 
 more than £ 30, 000, b and the Maximilian gallery, in which 
 there are several paintings by the greatest masters. 
 
 It may be sufficient to mention one of the twenty-two 
 churches, that of St. Mary, otherwise called Frauen-Kirche 
 or the church of Our Lady ; not fewer than thirty altars 
 are contained in it ; its finest ornaments are several valua- 
 ble paintings and a mausoleum of the emperor Lewis of Ba- 
 varia. The two steeples of the same building rise to the 
 height of three hundred and thirty feet ; it may be easily 
 mferred that they command an extensive view ; hence most 
 strangers who visit the town ascend them. 
 
 The public collections of Munich are highly valuable ; 
 more than thirteen hundred paintings by celebrated masters 
 are contained in the royal gallery and there is a fine collec- 
 tion of drawings and mosaics in the ancient convent of the 
 Theatins. The number of volumes in the royal library ex- 
 ceeds four hundred thousand, and amongst them are eight 
 thousand five hundred manuscripts, and more than twenty 
 thousand volumes, published when the art of printing was 
 still in its infancy. One of them is a bible by Guttenberg 
 and Faust, printed in the year 1450. More than ten thou- 
 sand Greek and Roman gold coins form part of the cabinet 
 of medals ; the museum of natural history, the botanic gar- 
 den, the observatory, and the schools of chemistry and ana- 
 tomy, contain whatever is useful in such institutions. 
 
 Among the public seminaries in Munich, are the royal 
 institute consisting of four different schools, the philological 
 school, the school of medicine and surgery, the central ve- 
 terinary school, the seminary set apart for poor students 
 from all the towns in the kingdom, the school for cadets and 
 that for the pages of the king, the Maximilian boarding 
 
 a “Elevation 1920 feet”— 1569 Fr. feet (Table of Altitudes, Book 
 CXIV. of the original.) 
 
 19 
 
 school 0 for the daughters of the nobles, and different ele- 
 mentary and gratuitous schools. 
 
 It might be easy to enumerate several establishments for 
 the relief of the indigent, hospitals for the old and infirm of 
 both sexes, and others for orphans, foundlings and lunatics. 
 It may be remarked too that most of these establishments 
 were founded by pious and philanthropic inhabitants of the 
 town ; some have existed for nearly four hundred years, and 
 since that period, virtuous citizens, guided by the purest 
 philanthropy, have used their utmost efforts to mitigate 
 wretchedness and misfortune, without being in any way as- 
 sisted or encouraged by government. Now, that their ex- 
 ample is followed by the state, the means of relief are 
 greater, the repression of mendicity more effectual ; indeed 
 travellers have declared that fewer mendicants are to be 
 seen in Munich than in any other town of the same size in 
 Germany. It rarely happens that the children of the lower 
 orders accustom themselves early to indolence, by depend- 
 ing for a subsistence on the alms which their importunity 
 extorts. The children who are found begging in the towns 
 or in the country, are removed from that degrading state, 
 the source of so many vices, and educated at the public ex- 
 pense, until they are able to support themselves by their la- 
 bour. Houses of correction have been built for the con- 
 finement of vagrants ; in short, it may be sufficient to termi- 
 nate the account of the charitable institutions in the capita], 
 by stating that the plan proposed by Count Rumford, an 
 individual to whom humanity is so much indeb*ed, has been 
 realized at Munich. Food is gratuitously provided for six 
 hundred persons, in an edifice erected for the purpose. A 
 secret passage leads to the interior of the building ; those 
 who wish to conceal their poverty from their fellow citizens 
 enter it, and receive, without being seen, a sufficient quanti- 
 ty of wholesome provisions. It has been affirmed that res- 
 pectable individuals, victims to the vicissitudes of fortune, 
 are thus better enabled to endure the hardships of poverty. 
 
 The two most celebrated academies at Munich, are the 
 academy of arts, and that of sciences. The latter is divid- 
 ed into three classes ; the first, or that of philology and phi- 
 losophy, consists of six members and one associate ; the 
 second, or that of the mathematical and physical sciences, 
 consists of thirteen members and two associates ; and the 
 third, or that of history, consists of eight members. Each class 
 has its secretary and honorary members. The king is the 
 patron, and there is besides a general secretary of the whole 
 academy. The academy of arts consists of a director, a 
 secretary, and eight ordinary, thirty honorary and forty cor- 
 responding members. 
 
 The residence of the court at Munich is the means of 
 furnishing employment to many inhabitants ; others are 
 provided for by government offices. The manufactures of 
 the town, are cloth, leather, hardware goods, jewellery and 
 tapestry, the last of which has been considered little inferior 
 to that of the Gobelins. Although there are several fairs 
 every year, and corn markets every week, the trade of Mu- 
 nich has not risen to much importance. The castle of 
 Nymphenburg, a royal residence at a league to the north- 
 west of the capital, is built after the model of the one at Ver- 
 sailles, and the grounds are laid out with great taste. 
 
 Landshut on the Isar, is, after Munich, the finest town in 
 Bavaria ; its name signifies the hat of the country,* 1 and it 
 was in feudal times a place of protection for the people 
 
 b “ 600,000 francs.” 0 The Maximilian Institute. 
 
 d Q,u. land, country, and hut, guard. — P. 
 
20 EUROPE. [book cxxm 
 
 against the exactions of’ the barons. It stands on the decli- 
 vity of a hill, commanded by the castle of Trausnitz, built 
 by the ancient dukes of Bavaria, and now changed into an 
 observatory to which a botanical garden has been attached. 
 The finest buildings in Landshut, are the university attend- 
 ed by six or seven hundred students, the chancery, the 
 townhouse and St. Martin’s church, of which the steeple ri- 
 ses about four hundred and twenty feet above the ground. 
 The places of charity are two hospitals and two poor houses. 
 The public library consists of a hundred thousand volumes. 
 A collection of coins and medals, another of mathematical 
 and philosophical instruments, and a museum of mineralogy 
 belong to the university. A theatre of anatomy, as well as 
 a school of medicine and surgery, are open to those who 
 study the medical profession. The town possesses little or 
 no trade ; there are not more than five manufactories, and 
 none of them are of any consequence. It was probably on 
 that account that government determined to transfer the 
 university from Ingolstadt to Landshut. The population 
 does not exceed eight thousand five hundred inhabitants. 
 
 Freysingen, situated on the Isar, at an equal distance from 
 Munich and Landshut, contains a castle, a fine cathedral, 
 a normal school, and an institution for the deaf and dumb ; 
 it is peopled by three thousand six hundred individuals. 
 
 It is only necessary to mention those towns which are 
 worthy of notice from their importance, the recollections 
 connected with them, or the monuments they contain. It 
 ought to be remarked that Bavaria differs from the petty 
 principalities that have been described, inasmuch as it con- 
 tains several large and flourishing cities ; as to the towns of 
 two or three thousand inhabitants, we have not thought it 
 necessary to enter into a description of them, and have pre- 
 ferred adding a list of them with their population to the sta- 
 tistical tables at the end of the chapter. 
 
 The principal places in the circle of the Isar have been 
 already mentioned ; some account shall now be given of 
 the other departments. Passau, the chief town in the circle 
 of the Lower Danube, is situated in a very romantic countiw 
 at the confluence of the Ilz, the Inn and the Danube. It is 
 in all probability the most ancient city in Bavaria ; it consists 
 of four quarters, Passau or the town properly so called, 
 Innstadt on the right bank of the Inn, Ilzstadt on the right 
 bank of the Ilz, and the suburb of Anger, defended by the 
 castles of Oberhaus and Unterhaus, and also by eight 
 forts, formerly known by the names of eight French gene- 
 rals. The suburbs of Innstadt and Ilzstadt communicate 
 with the town by bridges. The principal buildings in Pas- 
 san are an episcopal palace, a large cathedral and three 
 parish churches, one of which, St. Mary of the Capuchins, 
 was famous for its miracles. It has besides two public 
 schools, a gymnasium, an infirmary, an orphan hospital and 
 five others. a Although advantageously situated for com- 
 merce, it possesses an inconsiderable trade, which consists in 
 silk, wine and grain. The town is on the whole well built, 
 and the population, including that in the different suburbs, 
 amounts to ten thousand five hundred inhabitants. Passau 
 was the place where Charles the Fifth and Maurice of Saxo- 
 ny concluded a treaty, by which the Reformation was con- 
 firmed in Germ a ny. b The rural palaces of Frcudenheim, 
 Lcewenhof and Rabengut are situated in the neighbourhood. 
 
 Of the many pearl fisheries on the Ilz, some are not far 
 from Passau ; these pearls are produced by a fresh water 
 
 1 “ It possesses a seminary, a gymnasium, an infirmary, an orphan asy- 
 hnn and five hospitals.” 
 
 muscle, the A hja margaritifera of Linnseus. The animal 
 having no other means of resistance, says the Swedish na- 
 turalist, forms the pearls to defend itself against the attacks 
 of a formidable enemy ; an aquatic worm perforates its 
 shell and feeds on it ; the only way by which it can escape, 
 after an opening has been made, is by filling it by a calca- 
 reous secretion from its body. If the secretion be too great, 
 it forms a tubercle that may be easily detached from the 
 shell. The finest pearls are round and of a white colour. 
 
 Straubing, a town of eight thousand inhabitants, is ad- 
 vantageously situated on a height near the banks of the 
 Danube. It was the Caslra Augusta of the Romans ; it 
 carries on at present a considerable trade in earthen ware ; 
 its crucibles are exported into different countries. The prin- 
 cipal edifices are a castle, seven churches, one of them with 
 a steeple two hundred and forty feet 0 in height, four hospitals 
 and a townhouse. The places of education are a gymnasium 
 and several schools. The fine abbey of Ober-Adtaich, fa- 
 mous for its valuable library, is situated in the vicinity. 
 
 The burgh of Bodenmais is known to mineralogists from 
 the minerals collected in the neighbourhood, and to land- 
 scape painters from the cataracts on the Riss and the Mos- 
 bach. The importance of the place depends on its mines 
 and vitriol works ; the latter furnish every year a supply of 
 nearly two thousand quintals. 
 
 Ratisbon, the chief town in the circle of the Regen, was 
 formerly the capital of Bavaria, and the residence of the an- 
 cient German kings of the Carlovingian race. Having been 
 erected into a free and imperial city by the emperor Frede- 
 rick the First, it was afterwards restored to Bavaria in the 
 year 1486. It became a second time independent in 1502, 
 and continued so until the year 1803, when it was granted 
 to the Prince Primate. Lastly, when the grand dutchy of 
 Frankfort was founded, it and its territory were included in 
 the dominions of Bavaria. The town had been the seat of 
 the imperial diets from the year 1662 to that period. Many 
 of the houses were formerly built with wood, and it was seven 
 times almost reduced to ashes between the years 891 and 
 1642. Two ecclesiastics were burnt at Ratisbon in 1418, 
 because they maintained that John Huss had been unjustly 
 condemned to death by the council of Constance ; but jus- 
 tice was done to the memory of these two victims of intole- 
 rance and fanaticism, when the greater part of the popula- 
 tion embraced the Augsburg confession in 1542. A famous 
 battle between the French and the Austrians, which lasted 
 five days, and in which Napoleon received a slight wound 
 in the heel, was fought under its walls in 1 809. The town 
 suffered much on that occasion ; a hundred and thirty-four 
 houses were consumed, and the loss sustained is said to have 
 amounted to one million five hundred thousand florins. 
 
 The town is called Regensburg by the Germans ; it con- 
 tains 26,000 inhabitants, and is encompassed with walls, but 
 not defended with fortifications. There are not fewer than 
 twenty-eight churches ; the cathedral, which is the finest, 
 was built in 1400. It is unnecessary to mention the hospi- 
 tals and different seminaries for the education of youth. 
 The museums and scientific collections are worthy of its 
 importance ; it possesses a valuable gallery of paintings, and 
 not less valuable libraries. The principal buildings are the 
 palace of the prince of Tour and Taxis, and the town- 
 house where the Germanic diets assembled ; there is a bridge 
 of fifteen arches across the Danube, a thousand and ninety- 
 
 b See Sleidan’s History of the Reformation. 
 
 <= “270 feet.” 
 
BOOK CXXIII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 21 
 
 one feet in length. A monument has been erected in ho- 
 nour of Kepler rvho died in the town. It seems as if the 
 contending armies had spared this tribute to the memory of 
 the man who determined the revolutions and orbits of the 
 heavenly bodies ; it was finished in 1 SOS, and received no 
 injury in the following year, during the engagement by 
 which Ratisbon so severely suffered. The streets are nar- 
 row and crooked, but clean and well paved. The houses 
 are very high', and built in the German style. The manu- 
 factures are neither numerous nor important ; vessels are 
 built for the navigation of the l iver, and the principal trade 
 consists in the transportation of goods. 
 
 Ratisbon was the birth place of Don John of Austria, the 
 natural son of Charles the Fifth, and one of the greatest ge- 
 nerals that flourished in the sixteenth century ; he gained 
 the battle of Lepanto, kept the Netherlands under the do- 
 minion of Spain, and was at last poisoned by his brother, 
 that suspicious tyrant Philip the Second, who feared that he 
 might become sovereign of Flanders. 
 
 Stadt am Hof, or the town of the court, may be consi- 
 dered a suburb of Ratisbon, as it is only separated from it 
 by a bridge. It was reduced to ashes in 1809, but it has 
 since been rebuilt and improved ; the population amounts to 
 fifteen hundred inhabitants. 
 
 Amberg is situated about twelve leagues to the north of 
 Ratisbon, and is watered by the Vils, a river that throws it- 
 self into the Nab. It is surrounded with walls, which are 
 flanked by seventy turrets ; the streets are straight, broad 
 and well built. The public buildings are the royal castle, the 
 college, the arsenal and the town house, the last a Gothic 
 edifice. It contains ten churches, six hospitals, an infirma- 
 ry, several seminaries, a normal school, a library, and 
 eight thousand inhabitants. Sixty workmen are employed 
 in making arms, and five thousand four hundred quintals of 
 iron are obtained every year from the mines in the vicinity. 
 The Vils is navigable for the small vessels that descend to- 
 wards the Danube. Thus, the facility of communication with 
 Ratisbon and other towns, and its manufactures of cotton 
 stuffs, tobacco, earthen ware and playing cards, render 
 Amberg a place of considerable trade. It was on the 
 plains which surround the town, that the arckduke Charles 
 compelled the French army under General Jourdan to re- 
 treat to the Rhine in 1796. 
 
 Ingolstadt on the right bank of the Danube, was formerly 
 one of the most important towns in Bavaria, but its popula- 
 tion at present is not, according to Hassel, greater than that 
 of Amberg ; a its fortifications were destroyed in 1800. A 
 Latin school has been opened since the university was 
 transferred to Landshut. 
 
 Abensberg on the right bank of the same river, was the 
 ancient Musina, a city of the Vindelici ; several Roman 
 antiquities are still found near its walls. Although a small 
 place of twelve hundred inhabitants, it is encompassed with 
 walls, which are flanked with thirty-two round and eight 
 square turrets. It was formerly the residence of the counts 
 of Abensberg, and a castle that belonged to them, may still 
 be seen in the town. 
 
 Eichstedt, a walled town on the banks of the Altmuhl, is 
 situated in a narrow but agreeable valley. There are four 
 suburbs, three public squares and as many large streets ; it 
 was the chief town in the principality, that was ceded under 
 the sovereignty of Bavaria to Eugene Beauharnois. The 
 
 a “ Its population, according to Hassel, is equal to that of Amberg.” 
 
 b “ Elevation 608 feet.” c A. D. 804. (Busching.) 
 
 castle may be considered the finest edifice ; next to it are 
 the cathedral, which contains the tomb of the martyr Wili- 
 bald, and the church of Walpurg; these two churches and 
 four others of less importance belong exclusively to the ca- 
 tholics. The town possesses a gymnasium, different schools, 
 a public library and several collections ; it is peopled by 
 more than eight thousand inhabitants. The land in the 
 neighbourhood of Eichstedt is fruitful, and produces corn, 
 hops, flax and fruits ; few cattle are reared, but the country 
 abounds with game, and the rivers are well stocked with 
 fish. Iron mines, marble, and other quarries, are worked 
 in the mountains. 
 
 Bayreuth, the metropolis of the circle of the Upper Maine, 
 is built on the banks of that river, in a pleasant valley, formed 
 by branches of the Fichtel-Gebirge. The elevation of the 
 town may be about six hundred and forty feet b above the 
 level of the sea. The streets are broad, regular and well 
 built ; it is surrounded with old walls and three suburbs, one 
 of which is the small town of St. George. The finest build- 
 ings are the old castle of Sophienburg, and the new palace. 
 Although the population consists of fourteen thousand inha- 
 bitants, there are not more than a thousand catholics ; the 
 latter have their church, and the Jews their synagogue. 
 Bayreuth contains several hospitals, a gymnasium, a theatre 
 and different manufactories. 
 
 Bamberg, a town watered by the Regnitz, has been in- 
 correctly considered the ancient Bergium, a place mention- 
 ed by Ptolemy ; it is certain that Bamberg was not built 
 long before the tenth century ; c it was the residence of the 
 counts of the same name. The population amounts to 
 nearly thirty thousand souls ; in point of situation and archi- 
 tectural beauty, it may vie with any other town in Bavaria. 
 The houses are built of free stone ; it is divided into three 
 parts by two fine br idges ; and the highest quarter rises 
 majestically in the form of an amphitheatre crowned by 
 several hills. The castle of Petersberg has been much ad- 
 mired ; among the other buildings, may be mentioned a fine 
 church, that contains the tombs of the emperor Henry the 
 Second and Cunigunda his wife, twenty-three other chur ch- 
 es, fifteen chapels, three hospitals, an infirmary and a house 
 of correction — a very large edifice. A public library, a 
 collection of natural histor y, and the archieves of the coun- 
 try are deposited in the castle of Petersberg. Bamberg 
 offer's a singular contrast with Bayreuth, in as much as it 
 does not contain a thousand protestants. The places of 
 education are numerous ; the lyceum is attended by fifty 
 pupils ; the gymnasium by two hundred and fourteen, while 
 the number of masters is not less than six. There are be- 
 sides an ecclesiastical seminary, a normal school for thir ty 
 or forty pupils, a school of medicine and surgery, and ano- 
 ther of midwifery. Bamberg was the birth place of Came- 
 raiius the philologist. Although it possesses no great com- 
 merce, there are about fourteen hundred master workmen of 
 different kinds, eleven hundred journeymen and three hun- 
 dred apprentices, besides five booksellers, four apothecaries, 
 and fifty-six breweries. d 
 
 Hoff,® at a short distance from the eastern frontier of the 
 kingdom, is watered by the Saale ; it contains several 
 schools, a rich hospital, a library and eight thousand inhabi- 
 tants. Kulmbach, a pleasant town in the same department, 
 is surrounded with walls, and situated on the banks of the 
 White Maine. The streets are irregular but well paved, 
 
 d Jaeck, Bamberg wie es einst war, wie es jetzt ist. 
 
 e Hof, Stadt zum Hof. f Culmbach. 
 
 J 
 
22 ' EUROPE. [kook cxaiii 
 
 and the market place is remarkable for its size. Like every 
 other town of any consequence in the circle, it contains a 
 sufficient number of hospitals and charitable institutions. 
 The population amounts to little more than four thousand 
 five hundred inhabitants. Plassenburg at no great distance 
 from the last town, stands between two lofty mountains ; it 
 may be mentioned on account of its fortress, now a state 
 prison, and the station of a considerable garrison. 
 
 Some account may be given of Gailenreuth, a village in 
 the same circle, situated on the west bank of the YVeissent, 
 in the basin of the Regnitz, and famous for its natural 
 caverns, tilled with fossil bones, which have recently excited 
 the attention of naturalists. The largest of these caverns 
 lies in a vertical rock, and bears the same name as the vil- 
 lage ; the entrance is about seven feet in height, and opens 
 into a'grotto nearly eighty feet in length, which communi- 
 cates by an aperture not more than two feet high, with a 
 second cavity nearly a hundred and thirty feet long, and 
 forty broad. The height of the second cavity near the 
 aperture is about eighteen feet, but it descends gradually un- 
 til it becomes so low as five. A narrow passage at the far- 
 ther extremity communicates with several others which lead 
 to a third grotto about thirty feet in diameter, and five or six 
 in height ; the earth on the lloor of this grotto is filled with 
 the teeth and jaw bones of different animals. There is a 
 cavity at its entrance, into which one can descend by a lad- 
 der, and pass from it to a vault fifteen feet in diameter, and 
 thirty in height, that communicates with a chamber covered 
 with bones. A natural arcade below it leads to another 1 
 cavern more than forty feet from the ground to the roof. a 
 This chamber terminates in a cavity or pit about eighteen 
 or twenty feet in depth, and a passage from it communi- 
 cates with a cave about forty feet in height, and almost filled 
 with bones. Passages lead from the last cave to one about 
 twenty-five feet long and twelve broad, to another twenty 
 feet high, and lastly to a third eighty feet in breadth and 
 twenty-four in height, which contains more bones than arty 
 of the preceding. But this is not the end of the labyrinth ; 
 the stranger has to advance to the sixth and last cavern. 
 All these subterranean chambers form a figure not unlike a 
 semicircle. The fissures thut’are perceived in the calcare- 
 ous rock, may perhaps be passages to other caverns ; thus, 
 it was found in 1784, that one of these fissures communica- 
 ted with a chamber, filled with the bones of hyenas arrd 
 lions. It has been remarked that the cleft was much too 
 narrow for the entrance of these animals. The chamber 
 terminates in a sort of arcade, and I observed in it, says M. 
 Cuvier, an incredible number of bones and skulls. 1 * It has 
 been ascertained that the animals of which these are the 
 remains, were bears, hyenas, tigers, wolves, foxes, gluttons, 
 polecats, and some herbivorous animals, such as different 
 kinds of deer. But the carnivorous animals are in so great 
 a proportion, that out of a hundred bones, three in general 
 will belong to hyenas, five to wolves or foxes, two to tigers, 
 three to gluttons and eighty-seven to bears. All these ani- 
 mals, different in their figure and dimensions from those of 
 the present day, attest the past existence of a former world. 
 If it he wished to determine why the bones of so many ani- 
 mals are collected in these places, it may be supposed either 
 that they were the dens of wild animals that brought their 
 prey into them, or rather that an enormous number of car- 
 
 a “ 40 feet in length.” 
 
 b Reeherehes sur les ossemens fossiles, tome IV. p. 295. 
 c Erlangen is divided into the old and new towns ; the latter was 
 
 nivorous animals, with others of a different class, were accu- 
 mulated in the cavities by an irruption of the wafers. 
 
 More manufacturing and trading towns are situated in the 
 circle of the Rezat than in any other in Bavaria. Ansbach, 
 the metropolis, which was formerly called Onolzbach, is 
 now more generally known by the name of Anspach. 
 The town is surrounded with walls, and watered by the 
 Rezat. There are eighteen public buildings, of which the 
 principal are the castle and chancery. The population 
 amounts to seventeen thousand inhabitants, and the number 
 of catholics does not exceed three hundred. The places 
 of instruction are a gymnasium and several elementary 
 schools. Anspach is not a town of much trade ; the manu- 
 factures are leather, linen and woollen stuffs. 
 
 Erlangen or Christian Erlangen c on the Regnitz, is enclo- 
 sed by walls, and divided into the old and new town ; the 
 streets are broad and regular. It possesses, besides the 
 only protestant university in the kingdom, many seminaries 
 in which different branches of education are taught. The 
 imperial academy of natural history was founded in the 
 year 1G66 ; the other institutions of the same sort are a 
 physical society, another of medicine, d and a third of agri- 
 culture and rural economy. It has excited surprise that so 
 many useful institutions are contained in a town of twelve 
 thousand inhabitants. 
 
 The trade and manufactures of Erlangen are of consider- 
 able importance, but in that respect it is inferior to Fiirth, 
 a well built town on the same river. The Jews form about 
 the fourth part of the population, which is equal to sixteen 
 thousand eight hundred individuals. They maintain at 
 their own expense a separate tribunal, an university, two 
 printing offices, three schools, an hospital and four sjma- 
 gogues ; such facts form the best answers that can be made 
 to those who maintain that the Jews can never become 
 good or useful citizens ; indeed, in many places where the 
 Jews participate in the rights of citizens, they may bear a 
 comparison with the Christians who despise them. Fiirth is 
 one of the most industrious towns in Bavaria ; it carries on 
 a great trade in mirrors. 
 
 Nuremberg or Nurnberg stands in the middle of a fruit- 
 ful though sandy plain, and is divided into two parts by the 
 Pegnitz. It is surrounded with an outer and an inner wall, 
 both of them flanked with towers, which renders it not un- 
 like two towns. The streets are irregular, but broad and 
 well paved ; although the old castle cannot at present be 
 called a fortress, still it and almost all the other buildings in 
 Nuremberg, call to mind those ancient towns which served as 
 a residence to the princes or barons w r ho flourished in feu- 
 dal times, and whose power depended on the weakness of 
 their neighbours. The paintings that cover the outer walls 
 of many houses in Nuremberg give it a singular aspect. 
 'Phe townhouse is remarkable for the pictures and curiosi- 
 ties it contains ; among other articles, one may observe the 
 glass out of which Luther used to drink. Some of its 
 eight churches are adorned with fine paintings ; the painted 
 windows in the cathedral are admired, and those in the 
 church of St. Clara are remarkable for their antiquity, 
 dating back to the year 1278. A well five hundred and 
 thirty-six feet in depth is situated in one of the courts belong- _ 
 ing to the castle, an old building in which may be seen a 
 valuable collection of paintings. The town is adorned 
 
 founded in 1G86 by Christian Ernest, Margrave of E ryreuth, and is from 
 that circumstance called Christian Erlangen. — P. 
 d “ A physical and medical society.” 
 
book cxxm.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 with several fountains ; it possesses a great many schools, a 
 gymnasium, different literary and scientific societies and 
 seven public libraries. The commerce of Nuremberg must 
 be considerable, since by means of it three hundred and 
 fifty mercantile houses are supported ; not fewer than four 
 hundred and eighty-seven different articles are made or 
 manufactured within its walls. 3 It has been supposed that 
 it carries on a greater trade in cutlery than any other town 
 in Germany ; it contains two exchanges, a bank and a 
 mount of piety. The catholics make up a twentieth part 
 of the population ; the total number of inhabitants has been 
 estimated by Hassel at thirty-one»thousand six hundred and 
 sixty-five. Nuremberg was the birth place of Albert Du- 
 rer, the celebrated painter, and of other distinguished men ; 
 indeed if the inventions to which it has given origin be con- 
 sidered, it is entitled to the gratitude of the human race. Pe- 
 ter Hele invented watches there ; Rudolph, the drawing 
 dates for iron wire ; John Lobsinger, air guns ; Christo- 
 pher Denner, the clarinet ; Erasmus Ebener, the alloy 
 known by the name of brass ; Martin Behaim, the terres- 
 trial sphere, which without doubt contributed to the discove- 
 ry of America ; lastly, John Muschel improved different mu- 
 sical instruments. 
 
 The other towns in the same circle might be considered 
 insignificant after Nuremberg. Schwabach on the river of 
 the same name, is noted for its needles and cotton cloths ; it 
 contains nine thousand five hundred inhabitants. The small 
 town of Bayersdorf on the Regnitz, carries on a trade in 
 cutlery and hardware goods. Rothenburg is built in the 
 Gothic style ; it contains a fine townhouse, a library, valu- 
 able from its rare manuscripts, and a population of eight 
 thousand persons. Dinkelsbuhl, encompassed with high 
 walls, flanked with towers, is built like the last town, and 
 peopled by seven thousand inhabitants. 
 
 Noerdlingen is well known in Germany for its bacon 
 and geese ; more than thirty thousand-of the latter are annu- 
 ally exported. It is built on the Egger, and surrounded 
 with ditches, ramparts and towers. St. Magdalen is the 
 largest church in the town, and its steeple reaches to the 
 height of three hundred and forty-three feet. The number 
 of inhabitants amount to seven thousand six hundred, and 
 their trade consists in the produce of their manufactures, 
 such as linen, worsted stockings, fustians and horse covers. 
 
 The circle of the Lower Maine is formed by the former 
 grand dutchy of Wurtzburg, the province of Aschaffenburg, 
 different parts of the territory of Fulda , and several districts 
 ceded by Hesse. 
 
 Wurtzburg, b the capital, contains about twenty thousand 
 inhabitants ; once an imperial town, it was afterwards sub- 
 ject to a bishop, one of whose prerogatives was to have a 
 naked sword carried before him. The fortifications have 
 fallen into decay, but the town is still defended by a high 
 wall and a deep ditch. The Maine divides it into two parts ; 
 that on the right bank of the river is the old town of Wurtz- 
 burg; the other on the left bank is called the quarter of the 
 Maine. A fine bridge of eight arches, and five hundred 
 and forty feet in length, forms a communication between 
 the old and new towns. The fortress of Marienberg in the 
 
 i OF GERMANY. 23 
 
 quarter of the Maine, rises on a rock about four hundred 
 feet in height, and on the same hill are- the ruins of an an- 
 cient building, which is supposed to have been a temple con- 
 secrated to Freya, the Venus of the Scandinavians. The 
 old town, though irregularly built, is adorned by several 
 fine buildings; such are the royal castle and the cathedral, 
 the largest of its thirty-three churches, which is remarkable 
 for many curious monuments, and also lor a pulpit of the 
 most finished workmanship. The great hospital of Julius, 
 twelve other hospitals and several charitable institutions, dif 
 ferent libraries and scientific collections, numerous schools, 
 an university, which was founded more than four hundred 
 years ago, 0 and considerable trade, particularly in wine, 
 render the town one of the most valuable acquisitions which 
 Bavaria has lately obtained. 
 
 The vineyards in the neighbourhood of Wurtzburg have 
 been celebrated since the thirteenth century. The Leiste 
 is the most esteemed among the wines of Franconia ; the 
 Stein wine is produced on an estate that belongs to the hos- 
 pital of Julius ; it is sold in the country for four shillings the 
 bottle. d Another sort not less prized is known by the 
 name of the Holy Spirit ; it is produced in the vineyards of 
 Harpe, which belong mostly to the chapter of Hauch. The 
 wines of Schalksberg and Calmus are little inferior to any 
 that have been mentioned. 
 
 Karlstadt® on the Maine, carries on a considerable trade 
 in wines. Schweinfurt on the same river, a town of seven 
 thousand inhabitants, possesses an arsenal, a gymnasium, 
 and several elementary schools. It is abundantly supplied 
 ■with water from thirty-seven public fountains. The excel- 
 lent wine of Saleck constitutes the trade of PJammelburg, 
 a small town on the Saale. The five (*housand inhabitants 
 of Kitzingen are mostly engaged in conveying goods to the 
 south of Germany. The town is remarkable lor a bridge 
 across the Maine, which leads to the suburb of Etwashaus- 
 en. The number of arches amounts to fifteen, and it is 
 not less than a thousand l'eet in length. As it does not ex- 
 ceed sixteen feet in breadth, its length* appears so much the 
 more considerable. 
 
 Aschaffenburg is situated on the banks of the Maine, at 
 the foot of the western declivity of the Spessart. Its im- 
 portance depends on its schools and scientific collections, 
 not on the number of its inhabitants, which does not ex- 
 ceed six thousand. A large castle in the middle of a park 
 is its finest edifice. It was a place of residence during the 
 summer for the electors of Mayence. It possesses at pre- 
 sent a trade in leather and beet sugar ; it is besides the de- 
 pot of the merchandise that descends the Maine, and of the 
 timber obtained from the forests on the Spessart. 
 
 The circle of the Upper Danube derives its importance 
 from the number of its towns, and the different branches of 
 industry in which their inhabitants are engaged. More 
 paper-mills are contained in it than in any other department 
 in Bavaria. 
 
 Augsburg, the capital, although inferior to Munich, is the 
 second town in the kingdom. Having already made some 
 mention of its antiquity, it may now be more minutely des- 
 cribed. It stands on a large and fertile plain between the 
 
 a “ 487 manufactures de differens products.” 
 b Wurzburg, (Germ.) 
 
 c Instruction is there committed to thirty-one professors and four teach- 
 ers. The number of students in the winter session of 1825 and 1826, 
 amounted to six hundred and seventy-six, viz. foil* hundred and ninety- 
 seven Bavarians and a hundred and seventy-nine foreigners, distributed 
 among the different faculties, as follows • 
 
 Theology - -- -- -- - 144 
 
 Law - -- -- -- - 213 
 
 Medicine ----- ... 158 
 
 Philosophy ------- 161 
 
 d “ When old, it is sold for more than five francs the bottle.” 
 
 6 Carlstadt. 
 
24 EUROPE. I book cxxm. 
 
 Lech f.nd the Wertach, which join each other below its 
 ramparts, and carry their united streams to the Danube. 
 The number of inhabitants is estimated at thirty-three thou- 
 sand ; as in other ancient towns, the streets are narrow and 
 irregular ; a few only are straight, and among these that of 
 the May is the finest in Augsburg. The fountains which 
 embellish it contribute to render it more salubrious. The 
 principal squares arc those of the May, Caroline and the 
 new market place. The townhouse is admitted to be the 
 largest and most regularly built of any in Germany ; the 
 golden hall, a chamber in the same building, is a hundred 
 feet in length, and nearly fifty in breadth. * 1 It was in the 
 ancient episcopal palace, now changed into government of- 
 fices, that the confession of Augsburg was read before 
 Charles V. in 1530. The cathedral is considered a finer 
 building than any of the other twelve churches, b six of which 
 belong to the Catholics and six to the Lutherans. One 
 church, however, that of St. Ulric, cannot be too highly 
 commended for its bold and lofty arches ; the Lutherans 
 and Catholics perform their rites in it alternately. The 
 church of the Franciscans is remarkable for the size of its 
 organ ; the other public buildings are the arsenal, the mar- 
 ket and the theatre. Augsburg is still the residence of a 
 bishop, but he does not enjoy the same power as formerly ; 
 the diocese was once richer than any other in Christendom, 
 and the bishops of Augsburg were entitled princes of the 
 empire. Hartmann® bequeathed to the bishops, in the thir- 
 teenth century, his riches and the county of Wittislingen.* 1 
 It became afterwards more important, but was reduced at 
 last like almost all the other chapters in Germany. Augs-' 
 burg has its gymnasium, different seminaries, a polytechnic 
 school, a public library and a fine collection of paintings, 
 most of them by German masters. The capital belonging 
 to hospitals and charitable institutions, was equal in 1807 to 
 6,000,000 florins. Although the manufactures of Augs- 
 burg were formerly in a. more flourishing condition than at 
 present, its trade is still very considerable ; indeed its manu- 
 factories of every sort,* and its many mercantile houses, ren- 
 der it a central point in commercial Europe. 
 
 Neuburg on the Danube, is peopled by seven thousand 
 inhabitants ; it is encompassed by walls, and commanded 
 by a castle, built on an eminence. The barracks, three 
 churches, a lyceum and several hospitals are the principal 
 public buildings, but the most interesting monument is the 
 tomb of La Tour d’ Auvergne, who was killed in the year 
 1 800, on the road between Neuburg and Donauwoerth, a 
 small town of two thousand five hundred inhabitants, where 
 Lewis the Severe ordered his wife Mary of Brabant to be 
 beheaded, and which is famous for the victory gained over 
 i the French and Bavarians in 1704 by the English and 
 Austrians, under the command of Marlborough. That 
 bloody engagement took place near the village of Blen- 
 heim, and about eighty years afterwards® an immense 
 quantity of bones were dug up by labourers, while they 
 
 a “ 92 feet long, 48 broad.” 
 
 b “ The cathedral is the finest of its twelve churches.” 
 c Hartmann, Count of Dillingcn. 
 
 <■ The town of Dillingcn, the county of Wittislingen, and other pos- 
 sessions. (Busching.) — P. e “A. D. 1780.” 
 
 f Kempten, under the empire, consisted of two contiguous towns, viz. 
 the free imperial town of Kempten ( Reichs-Stadt ,) and the abbey town 
 ( Stifts-Stadt ,) immediately dependent on the sovereign abbey of Kemp- 
 ten. — P. 
 
 g Lindau stands on an island in the lake, and from that circumstance 
 ] has been called Swabian Venice. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 h The sovereign abbey of Lindau, consisting of an abbess and twelve 
 nuns, all of noble family. — P. 
 
 were employed In making a road. Tallard had obtained 
 the command of the French army by intrigue, while Yillars 
 might have led it to victory ; at all events, its fate was 
 avenged by the French both in 1796 and in I860. 
 
 Memmingen, formerly an imperial town, is watered by 
 the Ach ; it contains eight thousand inhabitants. The 
 townhouse, the arsenal and the chancery are the most re- 
 markable buildings. It possesses a lyceum, a public library, 
 a musical school and different seminaries. Heiss, Sichel- 
 bein and other artists were born in the town ; its trade, 
 which is at present considerable, consists in hops, linen, 
 serge and different kinds <71 cloth. 
 
 Kempten rivals the last town in industry and commerce. 
 It is situated on the banks of the Iller, and surrounded with 
 hills. It was founded before the eighth century. Hilde- 
 gard, the wife of Charlemagne, gave to the chapter of the 
 town all the wealth which was left her by her mother. A 
 part of the town is dependent on the convent, which still 
 bears the name of the empress/ and in that quarter many 
 hospitals, charity-schools and other benevolent institutions 
 are situated. 
 
 Lindau, formerly a free and imperial town, is situated on 
 the lake of Constance. Its population amounted at one 
 time to six thousand inhabitants ; it does not exceed at pre- 
 sent three thousand five hundred. The harbour, or rather 
 the Maximilian basin, may contain three hundred vessels. 
 Because many of the houses are built on piles, the town has 
 been called Little Venice. s The castle, which commands it, 
 was for a long time inhabited by nuns. h 
 1 The different circles that have been described are govern- 
 ed by commissioners, and the police is subject to the authori- 
 ty of other commissioners. 1 Each circle is also subdivided 
 into different courts or justices, as they are called in the 
 country, and all of them have their chief towns. As seve- 
 ral of these courts are more or less dependent on priv ileged 
 nobles, they are therefore styled mediate or seigniorial 
 courts ; k their decisions may be revoked by the supreme 
 tribunal at Munich. 
 
 The Rhenish possessions of Bavaria constitute the circle 
 of the Rhine; it is mostly formed by the former French 
 department of Mont-Tonnerre, and by some districts in 
 the departments of the Sarre and the Lower Rhine. It is 
 equal in superficial extent to a hundred and forty German, 
 or to nearly one thousand six hundred and eighty English 
 square miles. 1 The country is bounded on the north and 
 west by the Prussian province of the Lower Rhine, and by 
 some districts belonging to the dutchv of Saxe Coburg-Go- 
 tha and the landgraviate of Hesse Homburg, on the south 
 by F ranee, and on the east by the grand dutchies of Ba 
 den and Hesse Darmstadt. 
 
 The northern extremity of the Vosges occupies a great 
 part of the surface. According to Hassel, the summit of 
 Wandelstein is 2000 feet above the level of the sea, but it 
 is much lower than the Donnersberg or Mont-Tonnerre. m 
 
 * Each circle is governed by a Commissary-general ( General '/commissar,') 
 assisted by a council ; the commissioners of police are subject to him. 
 (Hassel.)— P. 
 
 k The circles are divided into Landgerichte and Mediatgerichte or ju- 
 risdictions either independent of or dependent on privileged nobles, and 
 these arc subdivided into communes or districts (gemeinden) both in towns 
 and in the country ( stadt and rural-gemeinden .) — (Hassel.) — P. 
 
 1 “389 sq. leagues.” The English square miles are obtained by multi- 
 plying the German square miles by 12, which is much too small for the 
 German geographical square mile. — P. 
 
 nl Thunder Mountain. Height 2400 Fr. feet. (Table of European 
 Altitudes.) 
 
jjooiv txxiii.J DESCRIPTION 
 
 The mountainous districts are composed of red sandstone 
 and other rocks of secondary formation ; but between them 
 and the Rhine, which forms the natural boundary of the 
 country, a long belt of limestone* extends from north to 
 south, on which rest deposits of tertiary formation through 
 which the river flows. Almost all the mountains in the 
 circle are well wooded, but the southern declivities of the 
 branches which project from the principal chain, are co- 
 vered with vineyards. The largest forests are that of Bien 
 which is about fifteen miles in length, and nearly two in 
 breadth, b and that of the Harth, which contains more than 
 thirty thousand acres ( arpens .) The rivers that water the 
 country, flow either towards the north and the east, and enter 
 the Rhine, or towards the south, and unite with the Sarre. 
 The climate is wholesome, but colder on the mountains and 
 western declivities, than on the eastern declivities or in the 
 plains that extend along the Rhine. 
 
 The country abounds in clay, well adapted for bricks 
 and coarse earthen ware, in marble, coal, rock salt and 
 different metals ; it yields annually thirty-three thousand 
 quintals of iron, eighty-five thousand of coal, and six hun- 
 dred and seventy-two of mercury. 
 
 The eastern declivity of the mountains was inhabited 
 during the time of Caesar by the Nemetes, and their lands 
 extended to the Rhine. The JWediomatrici, occupied the 
 western declivities ; but as they possessed besides, nearly 
 all the territory which now forms the department of the 
 Moselle, they shall be mentioned more fully in the account 
 of France. Little is known concerning the Nemetes; it 
 is certain, however, that a little before the war carried on 
 by the Romans against Ariovistus, they settled on the left 
 bank of the Rhine, which they had compelled the Medio- 
 matrici to abandon ; they inhabited before that period the 
 right bank of the same river. Tacitus does not consider 
 them as Gauls ; without doubt, says the historian, the Van- 
 giones, the Triboci and the Nemetes are of German origin. 0 
 It appears from the same author, that they served as auxi- 
 liaries in the Roman armies. d 
 
 The circle of the Rhine is not governed in the same 
 manner as the other Bavarian provinces ; with the exception 
 of some modifications that have been made in it, the system, 
 which was established by France under the imperial govern- 
 ment, has been retained. It is divided into four departments, 
 which are subdivided into thirty-two districts.® Speyer or 
 Spire, the capital, is watered by a small river of the same 
 name, at a short distance from the Rhine. It is surround- 
 ed with walls, and five gates form the entrances to the town. 
 The principal edifices are the townhouse and the cathe- 
 dral, the last of which contains the ashes of eight emperors 
 and as many empresses ; the monuments erected to their 
 memory, are now in ruins. It possesses fifteen catholic 
 and two protestant churches ; yet out of its six thousand 
 four hundred inhabitants, there are not more than sixteen 
 hundred catholics. Some authors believe it to have been 
 founded before the Christian era/ The same writers pre- 
 end that Spira and Nimidoa were its ancient names, and 
 
 OF GERMANY. 2b 
 
 that it was the chief city of the Nemetes ( civitas Nemelum.) e 
 It cannot be denied that it was one of the cities of the em- 
 pire at the commencement of the middle ages, and there is 
 reason to believe that it was the metropolis of a bishopric in 
 the year 348. But this bishopric had been suppressed be- 
 fore the reign of Dagobert the First, since that prince re- 
 stored it and conferred it on his chaplain Athanasius. If 
 the streets and buildings do not appear to be so ancient, it 
 must be recollected that it was destroyed by the French 
 during the war in the Palatinate. 
 
 The other towns in the circle are not very important. 
 F rankenthal, the name of which serves to recal the ancient 
 kingdom of Franconia, contains only four thousand inhabi- 
 tants, but it possesses a greater trade than any other town 
 in the province. Grunstadt, situated in a fruitful district, 
 watered by the Liss, was the birth place of Olbein, the cele- 
 brated painter/ Kaiserslautern, which contains a gymna- 
 sium, a normal school, and four thousand six hundred in- 
 habitants, is more memorable from the battles fought by 
 the French and Prussians in the year 1793 and 1794. 
 Pirmassenz, the scene of a destructive combat at the same 
 period, is well built ; it possesses a fine castle, and its popu- 
 lation amounts to five thousand individuals. Deux-Ponts 
 or Zwey-Briicken, which contains six thousand inhabi- 
 tants, is agreeably situated on the Erlbach ; the streets are 
 clean, straight and well paved. It is adorned by a fine 
 castle, but the one that belonged to the ancient dukes of 
 Deux-Ponts, is wholly destroyed. Landau on the Queich, 
 a town fortified by Yauban, although reserved for the con- 
 federation, is at present the station of a Bavarian garrison. 
 The fortifications form a regular octagon ; two gates only 
 lead to the town, and the population is the same as that of 
 Deux-Ponts. The streets are regular ; the barracks, pow- 
 der magazines and storehouses. are bomb proof. Germers- 
 heim, situated also on the Queich, and not far from the Rhine, 
 may be mentioned on account of its old fortress, where the 
 emperor Rudolph of Hapsburgdied, and also on account of a 
 gold washing which has been established in the neighbour- 
 hood, on the banks of the river. Several burghs and vil- 
 lages of some importance from their population, shall be 
 enumerated in the tables at the end of the book. The 
 trade of the circle is not without activity, but it might be 
 much improved if the canals of Frankenthal and Deux- 
 Ponts, which have been neglected by government, were 
 finished and kept in good repair. 
 
 It was thought unnecessary to enter into minute details 
 concerning the places of education and the scientific insti- 
 tutions in the different towns in the circle ; it may be re- 
 marked, however, that the diffusion of knowledge has been 
 more promoted by the Bavarian than by the former French 
 government. The population of all the towns in the circle, 
 and in the other Bavarian provinces, has not been stated, 
 but the reader may be referred to the following tables, in 
 which will be found the most important facts relative to the 
 statistics of the kingdom. 
 
 a “ Calcaire ancicn.” 
 
 b “ Length 5 leagues, breadth l a league.” 
 c De Moribus Germanovum, XXVIII. 
 d Annals, Book XII. sect. 26. 
 e “4 districts, 32 cantons.” 
 
 VOL. lit NO. 43. 4 
 
 • 
 
 f Corneille, Dictionnaire Geographique. — Dumont, Voyage sur les bords 
 du Rhin. 
 
 g Speyer, Spira , Civitas Nemetum, Ncmidova. (Busching.) — P. 
 h “ Du peintre Olbein.” — Hans Holbein was a native of Bale. — P. 
 
26 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXII1. 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 Occupations of the Jews. 
 
 Out of 10,663 Jewish families, those engaged in commerce 
 amount to ...... 
 
 In different trades ...... 
 
 In agriculture ...... 
 
 Kingdom of Bavaria Proper and of the Bavarian possessions 
 on the Rhine , according to the latest authorities. 
 
 Number of Towns, <f-c. according to the Surface. 
 
 Number of towns in every 6J German square miles 
 
 burghs in every 3j German square miles 
 
 villages in every German square mile 
 
 hamlets, idem ..... 
 
 houses, idem ..... 
 
 10,242 
 
 169 
 
 252 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 435 
 
 The Population of Bavaria Proper and the Rhenish pro- 
 vince amounted in 1827 to 3,960,000 individuals, or on an 
 
 average to 2,628 for 
 
 every German, or 
 
 220 for every 
 
 English square mile.® 
 
 
 
 Number of families 
 
 
 875,560 
 
 Noble families 
 
 , , 
 
 1,384 
 
 having seigniorial estates 
 
 878 
 
 without landed property 
 
 506 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 Number of Families 
 
 
 Seigniorial 
 
 for every German 
 
 
 Estates, b 
 
 Square Mile. 
 
 Circle of the Isar 
 
 227 
 
 377 
 
 the Lower Danube 
 
 153 
 
 499 
 
 the Regen 
 
 179 
 
 444 
 
 the U pper Maine 
 
 100 
 
 566 
 
 the Rezat 
 
 64 
 
 781 
 
 the Lower Maine 
 
 77 
 
 622 
 
 the Upper Danube 
 
 78 
 
 610 
 
 the Rhine 
 
 0 
 
 809 
 
 Division of the Inhabitants according to their Origin. 
 
 Germans 
 
 • 
 
 3,880,000 
 
 Jews 
 
 . 
 
 56,500 
 
 French . 
 
 . 
 
 . 3,500 
 
 Division of the Inhabitants according to their Religion. 
 
 Catholics ....... 2,710,000 
 
 Lutherans ....... 1,100,000 
 
 Reformed or Calvinists ..... 78,000 
 
 Mennonites and other Dissenters .... 1,000 
 
 Jews ....... 56,000 
 
 Distribution of the Population. 
 
 Inhabitants in the towns of the first and second class 563,000 
 
 in the small towns and in the country 3,377,000 
 
 Towns, (pe. according to Hassel. 
 
 Number of towns ..... 229 
 
 burghs ..... 399 
 
 parochial villages .... 2,920 
 
 small villages and hamlets . . . 28,449 
 
 taxed houses, about .... 652,000° 
 
 Mortality in different parts of the Kingdom. 
 
 At Nuremberg . . . . . . 1 in 40 
 
 At Augsburg . . . . . . 1 in 35 
 
 In the Circle of the Isar . . . . . 1 in 29 
 
 In the Circle of the Upper Maine . . . 1 in 38 
 
 Mean Number of Capital Punishments. 
 
 The proportion in all the Bavarian possessions, is as one to twenty thou- 
 sand individuals. 
 
 Churches. 
 
 Catholic churches 
 Lutheran churches 
 Reformed churches 
 
 Places of Education , in 1822. 
 Universities ..... 
 
 Lyceums ..... 
 
 Gymnasiums ..... 
 
 Colleges ...... 
 
 Preparatory or special schools 
 
 Houses of education .... 
 
 Institutions for the higher branches of education 
 Boarding schools for girls .... 
 Normal schools ..... 
 School for foresters .... 
 
 Schools of law ..... 
 Veterinary schools .... 
 
 Schools of midwifery .... 
 
 Polytechnic schools 1 * .... 
 
 Military schools ..... 
 Primary schools ..... 
 
 Teachers and pupils. 
 
 Inspectors of schools .... 
 
 Teachers ..... 
 
 Pupils of all classes, about 
 
 Fiefs dependent on the Crown. 
 Principalities ..... 
 
 Counties ...... 
 
 2,773 
 
 1,036 
 
 138 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 35 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 5,394 
 
 286 
 
 7,114 
 
 498,000 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 Division of the soil in 1826, in hundredth parts of the surface. 
 
 Cultivated Lands. Forests. 
 
 Waste Lands. 
 
 Circle of the Isar 
 
 35 
 
 31 
 
 
 34 
 
 Lower Danube 
 
 50 
 
 29 
 
 
 21 
 
 Regen 
 
 47 
 
 30 
 
 
 23 
 
 Upper Maine 
 
 60 
 
 29 
 
 
 11 
 
 Rezat 
 
 70 
 
 22 
 
 
 8 
 
 Lower Maine 
 
 58 
 
 32 
 
 
 10 
 
 Upper Danube 
 
 50 
 
 25 
 
 
 25 
 
 Rhine 
 
 57 
 
 36 
 
 
 7 
 
 Division of 
 
 the Forests in Acres (Arpens.) 
 
 
 
 
 To Towns, 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Forests be- 
 
 Burghs, Vil- 
 
 To Indi- 
 
 number 
 
 
 longing to 
 
 lages and 
 
 viduals. 
 
 of acres 
 
 
 the State. 
 
 Foundations, e 
 
 
 (arpens.) 
 
 Circle of the Isar 
 
 521,560 
 
 101,096 
 
 813,553 
 
 1,436,209 
 
 Lower Danube 
 
 173,533 
 
 783 
 
 481,253 
 
 655,569 
 
 Regen 
 
 258,010 
 
 126,661 
 
 411,733 
 
 796,404 
 
 Upper Maine 
 
 416,545 
 
 100,342 
 
 197,529 
 
 714,416 
 
 Rezat 
 
 225,386 
 
 151,243 
 
 165,067 
 
 541,696 
 
 Lower Maine 
 
 233,601 
 
 337,524 
 
 190,576 
 
 761,701 
 
 Upper Danube 
 
 217,627 
 
 160,699 
 
 374,849 
 
 753,175 
 
 Rhine 
 
 366,067 
 
 268,550 
 
 70,089 
 
 704,706 
 
 2,412,329 
 
 1,246,898 2,704,649 
 
 6,363,876 
 
 * Reckoning the German square mile at only 12 English. “ 950 per sq. 
 league” Fr. The population per Eng. sq. mile should be 125 nearly. — P. 
 
 b By a comparison of the number of seigniorial estates with the number 
 of families in the different circles, it will be perceived that in those circles 
 where the number of such estates is the greatest, the population is least 
 considerable, unless, indeed, the natural effect of such estates be counter- 
 balanced by particular circumstances, as in the Circle of the Isar, the only 
 exception to the rule. The relative population in the Circle of the Rhine 
 is greater than in any other, and in that circle there are no privileged pro- 
 prietors. 
 
 c 484,000 of these houses, and 447,500 buildings connected with them, 
 were insured against fire in 1824, for the sum of 385,739,235 florins. 
 
 d Realschulen (Germ.) This term ( Realschule ) was first applied to a 
 school established in Berlin in 1747, by Hecker, pastor of T rinitv Church 
 in that city, the object of which was not only to teach the ordinary branches 
 of literature, but to prepare youths for the active pursuits of life and the 
 mechanical and liberal arts. — P. 
 
 e “To communes (gemeinden) and foundations.” See note ( k ) p. 704. 
 
BOOK CXXIII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 27 
 
 Details relative to each Circle, taken from HasseVs Tables 
 for 1822 . 
 
 A. CIRCLE OF THE ISAR, 
 
 DIVIDED INTO TWENTY-SEVEN COURTS OR JUSTICES. 
 
 Surface in German 
 Square Miles. 
 
 310 
 
 Towns. 
 
 15 
 
 Population. 
 
 500,600 
 
 Burghs. 
 
 41 
 
 Families. 
 
 109,046 
 
 Villages. 
 
 3,271 
 
 Population for every Ger- 
 man Square Mile. 
 
 1,611 
 
 Hamlets. 
 
 7,985 
 
 Division of the Inhabitants according to their Religion. 
 Catholics ...... 477,300 
 
 Lutherans ...... 20,500 
 
 Jews ....... 2,800 
 
 Places of Education. 
 
 University ...... 1 
 
 Lyceum ...... 1 
 
 Normal school ...... 
 
 Seminaries ...... 2 
 
 Boarding schools for girls ..... 2 
 
 Population of the Principal Towns, that have not been described. 
 
 Trauenstein ...... 3,330 
 
 Landsberg 
 Laufen 
 Reichenhall 
 Rosenheim 
 
 Wasserburg 
 
 2,739 
 
 2,539 
 
 2,395 
 
 2,240 
 
 2,100 
 
 B. CIRCLE OF THE LOWER DANUBE, 
 
 DIVIDED INTO NINETEEN COURTS OR JUSTICES. 
 
 Surface in German 
 Square Miles. 
 
 197 
 
 Towns. 
 
 12 
 
 Population. 
 
 355,200 
 
 Burghs. 
 
 46 
 
 Families. 
 
 77,157 
 
 Villages. 
 
 2,048 
 
 Population for every Ger- 
 man Square Mile. 
 
 1,800 
 
 Hamlets. 
 
 7,028 
 
 Division of the Inhabitants according to their Religion. 
 Catholics ....... 349,500 
 
 Lutherans ...... 1,600 
 
 Jews ...... 4,100 
 
 Gymnasiums 
 Different seminaries 
 
 Places of Education. 
 
 Population of the Principal Towns, that have not been described. 
 
 Deggendorf ...... 2,557 
 
 Burghausen ...... 2,042 
 
 C. CIRCLE OF THE REGEN, 
 
 DIVIDED INTO TWENTY COURTS OR JUSTICES. 
 
 Surface in German Population for every 
 
 Square Miles. Population. Families. German Sq. Mile. 
 
 194 364,800 79,422 1,874 
 
 Towns. Burghs. Villages and Hamlets. 
 
 28 66 3,160 
 
 Division of the Inhabitants according to their Religion. 
 
 Catholics .... 
 
 Lutherans .... 
 
 Jews ..... 
 
 Places of Education. 
 Lyceums ... 
 
 Gymnasiums . . . 
 
 Colleges 
 
 Polytechnic school ( Realschule ) 
 
 Preparatory schools , . 
 
 Normal school . . . 
 
 Different schools . . . 
 
 320,600 
 
 37,000 
 
 7,200 
 
 Population of the Principal Towns, that have not been described. 
 Neumarkt ...... 4,075 
 
 Sulzbach 
 
 Kelheim 
 
 3,690 
 
 2,509 
 
 D. CIRCLE OF THE UPPER MAINE, 
 
 DIVIDED INTO THIRTY-FOUR COURTS OR JUSTICES. 
 
 Surface in German 
 Square Miles. 
 
 186 
 
 Towns. 
 
 37 
 
 Population. 
 
 475,100 
 
 Families. 
 
 103,488 
 
 Population for every 
 German Sq. Mile. 
 
 2,548 
 
 Burghs. 
 
 72 
 
 Villages and Hamlets. 
 
 2,271 
 
 Division of the Inhabitants according to their Religion. 
 
 Catholics 228,800 
 
 Lutherans ...... 201,300 
 
 Calvinists 
 
 Jews 
 
 Places of Education. 
 
 Lyceum 
 
 Gymnasiums 
 
 Colleges 
 
 Preparatory Latin schools 
 Normal school 
 
 200 
 
 8,000 
 
 Population of the Principal Towns, that have not been described. 
 
 Kronach 
 Wunsiedel 
 Forchheim 
 Selb 
 
 Munchberg 
 Lichtenfels 
 Weiden 
 
 3,885 
 
 3,845 
 
 3,535 
 
 2,730 
 
 2,700 
 
 2,620 
 
 2,600 
 
 E. CIRCLE OF THE REZAT, 
 
 DIVIDED INTO TWENTY-NINE COURTS OR JUSTICES. 
 
 Surface in German 
 Square Miles. 
 
 143 
 
 Towns. 
 
 42 
 
 Population. 
 
 530,800 
 
 Families. 
 
 115,409 
 
 Population for every 
 German Sq. Mile. 
 
 3,702 
 
 Burghs. 
 
 55 
 
 Villages and Hamlets. 
 2,004 
 
 Division of the Inhabitants according to their Religion. 
 
 Catholics 
 
 Lutherans 
 
 Calvinists 
 
 Jews 
 
 Places of Education. 
 
 University . . 
 
 Gymnasiums . . 
 
 Colleges . . 
 
 Preparatory Latin schools 
 Different seminaries 
 Normal school 
 
 109,700 
 
 410,000 
 
 100 
 
 11,000 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 Population of the Principal Towns, that have not been described. 
 
 Weissenburg 
 
 Windsheim 
 
 Roth 
 
 Lauf 
 
 CEttingen 
 
 Altdoif 
 
 Neustadt on the Aisch 
 
 Feuchtwang 
 
 Gunzenhausen 
 
 Herrsbruck 
 
 Iphofen 
 
 Wemding 
 
 W assertrudingen 
 
 Uffenheim . 
 
 Herrogenaurach 
 
 Pappenheim 
 
 5,005 
 
 3.565 
 3,185 
 3,160 
 3,065 
 3,060 
 3,040 
 2,855 
 
 2.565 
 2,520 
 2,482 
 2,330 
 2,250 
 2,100 
 2,000 
 2,000 
 
28 EUROF 
 
 F. CIRCLE OF THE LOWER MAINE, 
 
 DIVIDED INTO FORTY-SEVEN COURTS OR JUSTICES. 
 
 Surface in German Population for every 
 
 Square miles. Population. Families. German Sq. Mile. 
 
 155 491,100 105,733 3,154 
 
 Towns Burghs. Villages and Hamlets. 
 
 44 55 1,188 
 
 Division of the Inhabitants according to their Religion. 
 
 Catholics . ..... 407,300 
 
 Lutherans . ..... 75,000 
 
 Tews . . ... . . . 8,800 
 
 Places of Education. 
 
 University ...... 1 
 
 Lyceum ...... 1 
 
 Gymnasiums ...... 3 
 
 Colleges ...... 3 
 
 Preparatory schools ..... 6 
 
 Boarding schools ..... 3 
 
 School for foresters ..... 1 
 
 Normal school ..... 1 
 
 Population of the Principal Towns, that have not been described. 
 
 Lohr ..... . 3,780 
 
 Orb 3,549 
 
 Amorbach ...... 3,375 
 
 Heidingsfeld ...... 2,995 
 
 Miltenberg ...... 2,880 
 
 Ochsenfurt ...... 2,468 
 
 Hassfurt ...... 2,439 
 
 Gerolzhofen ...... 2,380 
 
 Mellrichstadt 2,290 
 
 Neustadt on the Saale ..... 2,221 
 
 Arnstein . . . . . . 2,135 
 
 Dettelbach . . . . . . 2,132 
 
 G. CIRCLE OF THE DANUBE. 
 
 DIVIDED INTO THIRTY-TWO COURTS OR JUSTICES. 
 
 Surface in German Papulation for every 
 
 Square Miles. Population. Families. German Sq. Mile. 
 
 171 510,100 111,126 2,970 
 
 Towns. Burghs. Villages and Hamlets. 
 
 23 . 47 1,778 
 
 Division of the Inhabitants according to their Religion. 
 Catholics ...... 483,300 
 
 Lutherans ...... 25,800 
 
 Calvinists ...... 900 
 
 Jews ....... 2,100 
 
 Places of Education. 
 
 Lyceum ...... 1 
 
 Gymnasiums ...... 4 
 
 Boarding schools ..... 2 
 
 Ecclesiastical seminary ..... 1 
 
 Preparatory Latin schools .... 7 
 
 Population of the Principal Towns, that have not been described. 
 Neuburg ...... 6,900 
 
 Lauingen ...... 5,460 
 
 Kaufbeuren ...... 4,705 
 
 Gunzburg ...... 3,805 
 
 Gundelfingen ...... 3,675 
 
 Dillingen ...... 3,610 
 
 Hoechstedt ..... 3,150 
 
 Burgau ...... 2,285 
 
 Friedberg ...... 2,144 
 
 Mindelheim . . . . . . 2,115 
 
 Fussen ...... 2,000 
 
 II. CIRCLE OF THE, RHINE, 
 
 DIVIDED INTO TWELVE DEPARTMENTS AND THIRTY-ONE DISTRICTS. 0 - 
 
 Surface in German Population for every 
 
 Square Miles. Population. Families. German Sq. Mile. 
 
 140 403,100 b 87,815 2,878 
 
 'E. [BOOK CXX11L 
 
 Towns. Burghs. Villages and Hamlets. 
 
 28 16 665 
 
 Division of the Inhabitants according to their Religion. 
 
 Catholics .... . 120,000 
 
 Lutherans ...... 207,690 
 
 Calvinists ....... 60,000 
 
 Mennonites ...... 710 
 
 Jews ....... 6,700 
 
 Places of Education. 
 
 Lyceum ... . . 1 
 
 Gymnasiums ...... 2 
 
 Colleges ...... 5 
 
 Preparatory Latin schools .... 5 
 
 Normal school ...... 1 
 
 Population of the Principal Towns, that have not been described, and of 
 some large Burghs and Villages. 
 
 TOWNS. 
 
 Neustadt on the Hardt .... 4,805 
 
 Durkheim (Id.) ..... 3,790 
 
 Deidesheim ...... 3,015 
 
 Kirchheim-Poland ..... 2,510 
 
 Bergzabern ...... 2,324 
 
 Wachenheim ...... 2,200 
 
 Annweilder ...... 2,196 
 
 He.r.burg ...... 2,157 
 
 Otterberg ... . 2,000 
 
 BURGHS. 
 
 Edenkoben . .... 4,025 
 
 Mutterstadt ...... 2,140 
 
 VILLAGES. 
 
 Hassloch ...... 3,560 
 
 Kandel ...... 3,097 
 
 Herxheim ..... 2,868 
 
 Kalsburg ...... 2,100 
 
 Leiinersheim ...... 2,029 
 
 BUDGET 
 
 OF THE KINGDOM OF BAVARIA IN 1825, ACCORDING TO THE ACCOUNTS 
 PRESENTED TO THE CHAMBERS. 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 Direct taxes ..... 8,900,000 florins. 
 
 Indirect taxes ..... 9,100,000 
 
 Revenue from the royal fiefs, &c. . . 5,160,000 
 
 Royal duties ..... 3,950,000 
 
 Receipts in arrear .... 1,590,000 
 
 Different receipts , . . . . 2,600,000 
 
 31,300,000 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 Sinking fund ..... 8,354,000 florins. 
 
 Charges of the household and the court . . 2,745,000 
 
 chambers . . . 52,600 
 
 Administration of the household and foreign affairs 570,000 
 
 justice . . . 1,732,000 
 
 the interior . . . 1,300,664 
 
 finances ... 1,011,600 
 
 Public instruction .... 735,148 
 
 Clergy 1,251,172 
 
 Hospitals ..... 118,851 
 
 Roads and bridges .... 1,300,000 
 
 Army ... ... 7,880,000 
 
 27,051,535 
 
 Royal establishments .... 4,195,936 
 
 31,247,471 
 
 National debt. 
 
 In 1820 it amounted to . . . . 110,876,084 florins 
 
 In 1824 to 110,781,740 
 
 Reduction in four years . . . 94,344 
 
 ° “ 12 commissariats, 31 cantons.” See note (') p. 705. 
 b According to M. Kolb : Neu. Geog. Ephemer. Weimar, 1825. The 
 population of the circle amounts to 448,917 inhabitants and 89,000 families. 
 
 In general, to ascertain the population of Bavaria in 1827, it is necessary 
 to add a twelfth to the numbers given by Hassel for 1822, a rule, which 
 mav be followed in the detailed account of each circle. 
 
book cxxiv.] DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 BOOK CXXIV. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued. — Germany. — Eighth Section. — Territories 
 and Free Towns of Bremen, Hamburg, Lubeck and 
 Frankfort on the Maine. 
 
 An account shall be given in the present book, of the 
 territories and towns that have continued free, notwithstand- 
 ing all the changes introduced into the political divisions of 
 Germany, by the ambition of conquerors, and the intrigues 
 of cabinets. Before we cross the mountains, which sepa- 
 rate Bavaria from Bohemia, before we describe the pro- 
 vinces of the Austrian empire, it is necessary to examine 
 the remains of that federative power, which possessed for 
 several centuries, so much influence in the affairs of Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Industry and commerce are so favourable to civilization 
 by the wealth they diffuse, and by the spirit of independ- 
 ence they produce, that wherever they exist, wherever they 
 flourish, freedom triumphs sooner or later over every ob- 
 stacle. In the middle ages, the principal towns in Germany, 
 subject to the empire, were governed by bishops, dukes and 
 counts, who often endeavoured to destroytheir independence. 
 Worms and Cologne proved their attachment to the emperor 
 Henry the Fourth, by embracing his cause against the au- 
 thority of their bishops. a Their conduct determined the 
 crown to increase the number of freemen by granting to the 
 working classes in those cities, the right, which at the time 
 was considered a privilege, of being exempted from the 
 custom then prevailing, by which the bishops and lords, 
 who possessed the temporal authority, inherited the movea- 
 ble property of the lower orders, or at least as much of it as 
 they pleased. Other towns obtained successively the same 
 advantages ; not long afterwards, they purchased the right 
 of choosing their own magistrates, and also of sending depu- 
 ties to support their interests in the Germanic diets. b 
 
 These immunities or privileges, which distinguished the 
 imperial towns from the other cities, were at first only con- 
 ferred on the persons who inhabited within their walls. But 
 the peasants, being naturally anxious for some security 
 against the oppression of their lords, bought the right of 
 settling under the walls, between the ditches and palisades ; 
 they were therefore called pfahlbiirger or burgesses of the 
 palisades, and their houses, crowded round the walls, were 
 in course of time denominated suburbs. 0 d The towns ex- 
 tended gradually the limits of their jurisdiction to a consi- 
 derable distance from their ramparts. As many as settled 
 in their territory, enjoyed the privileges of citizens, under 
 the name of ausburger, or outer burgesses ; hence the ori- 
 
 a Schmidt, tome III. page 239. b Ibid., tome VI. p. 31. 
 
 c Pfahlburg (Germ.,) whence the French faubourg. 
 d Schmidt, tome IV. VI. Pfeffel, page 402. Ducange, Glossar. 
 e Forty vessels, on board of which were 12,000 soldiers. “Montes pat- 
 12, 000 soldats.” M.B. “ Garnis de douze mille homines de guerre.” Moreri. 
 
 gin of free towns, possessing territories equally free, and 
 forming small independent states. So many advantages 
 made the nobles still more jealous of the imperial cities. If 
 it be difficult to obtain freedom, it is still more so to preserve 
 it. Although the towns rivalled each other in commerce 
 and industry, they found it necessary to unite and to form 
 a sort of federative state, that they might be better able 
 to resist the power of the bishops and lords, who denied 
 their rights to be valid, because they had been acquired by 
 purchase. Compelled by the usurpations and oppressive 
 authority of the independent nobles in Germany, more than 
 sixty towns formed a confederation on the Rhine m the 
 year 1255. 
 
 The origin of the Hanseatic league, may be attributed to 
 similar causes, although its object was to promote the com- 
 merce of some imperial towns. The old German word 
 hanse, which signifies an alliance, did not merely indicate 
 the intention of facilitating commercial transactions between 
 the different towns, but of resisting the princes on the 
 coasts of the Baltic, and maintaining a free navigation on 
 that sea. The league dates from the year 1164, and Bre- 
 men was the first town that planned and executed the pro- 
 ject. The wealth acquired by the alliance was so great, 
 that many trading towns in different countries entered into 
 the league ; among the number, might be mentioned Ant- 
 werp, Amsterdam and several other ports in Holland, Calais, 
 Rouen, Bordeaux and other towns in France, and lastly, 
 Cadiz, Lisbon, Naples and London. But this gigantic 
 confederation was gradually reduced to a few maritime 
 towns on the Baltic. The Hanseatic union, founded for 
 commercial purposes, became a great naval power ; it had 
 its fleets and armies, which were formidable to the kings of 
 Denmark. It blockaded Copenhagen in the fourteenth 
 century, and forced Waldemar the Third to give up the 
 province of Schonen to the confederation. Forty vessels*, 
 manned with good seamen and twelve hundred soldiers, 6 
 sailed on an expedition against Eric, king of Denmark, in 
 1428. The league assisted Brunswick in 1 61 5, at that time 
 invested by its duke, who was compelled to raise the siege. f 
 The grand master of the Teutonic order, Sweden and Den- 
 mark, were at different times, protectors of the league ; but 
 it lost at last its energy and its power ; the causes, which 
 had led to its formation, ceased gradually to exist ; its com- 
 merce still remained, but its armies were useless. The 
 number of Hanseatic towns at the commencement of the 
 eighteenth century, was reduced to six, namely, Bremen, 
 
 The Hanseatic fleet employed against Eric, king of Denmark, in 1428, 
 consisted of 250 ships, containing about 12,000 regular troops, besides the 
 seamen. Rees’ Cyc. art. Hanse. — P. 
 
 f Heiss, History of the Empire, book VI. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 30 
 
 Lubeck, Hamburg, Rostock, Dantzic and Cologne. They 
 retained however only an empty title ; they had no alliance 
 to maintain. At present, Bremen, Hamburg and Lubeck 
 are only considered as free towns, possessing separate go- 
 vernments. 
 
 As the assemblies of the ancient Hanseatic league were 
 held in Bremen, it ought perhaps on that account to be first 
 described. It is situated on the banks of the Weser and the 
 Wiimme, at thirty leagues from the sea. It must have been 
 a place of some importance about the end of the eighth 
 century, when Charlemagne made it the capital of an archi- 
 episcopal see ; it contains at present five thousand three 
 hundred and sixty houses, and thirty-eight thousand inha- 
 bitants, at least two thirds of whom are Calvinists. The 
 cathedral is reserved for those who adhere to the Augsburg 
 confession, and the Calvinists have four parish churches. 
 The principal seminary is a gymnasium for the children of 
 Lutherans and Calvinists ; there are besides other schools, a 
 library and a museum of natural history. The public build- 
 ings are, the observatory of Dr. Olbers, who was born in 
 the town, the exchange, the chamber of commerce, and the 
 townhouse, an edifice remarkable not only for its curious 
 architecture, but also for its cellars, in which are contained 
 an immense quantity of the finest Rhenish wines. Bremen 
 is divided into the old and new town ; the first is gloomy and 
 ill built ; the second, which is situated on the left bank of 
 ihe Weser, contains some regular streets and modern 
 houses ; the old fortifications of the town are now changed 
 into public walks. 
 
 The manufactures are linen, camlet, cloth, hats, worsted 
 stockings, tobacco, oil and glass. The art of refining sugar 
 is well understood, and the beer is reckoned to be better 
 than any other in Germany. But the wealth of Bremen 
 depends not so much on its manufactures as on its com- 
 merce. The many advantages of its situation render it 
 the mart of all the merchandise that descends the Weser ; 
 indeed it was considered, after Hamburg, one of the most 
 important acquisitions, which the French made under the 
 imperial government ; it then became the capital of the de- 
 partment of the Mouths of the Weser. It carries on a 
 great trade in the herring, salmon and whale fisheries : 
 eleven of its vessels were sent to the herring fishery in 
 1817. The linens and cottons prepared in its bleachfields, 
 are purchased in different parts of Germany, to the amount 
 of five millions of rixdollars annually. It gives in exchange 
 for these and other articles, French and Spanish wines, and 
 different kinds of colonial produce. The number of vessels 
 that enter its port every year exceeds a thousand. Banks 
 and maritime insurance offices have been established to facili- 
 tate and encourage its commerce ; its revenues amount to 
 four hundred thousand florins. 
 
 The territory belonging to it contains ten thousand inha- 
 bitants, and the extent of surface is little more than fifty 
 English square miles ; a in that small space are situated the 
 burgh of Vegesack, and thirty-five villages or hamlets. 
 The same burgh and Elsfleth in the dutchy of Oldenburg 
 serve as ports for Bremen. But as large vessels cannot 
 even enter these small ports, which are at some leagues 
 from the sea, all the goods are conveyed to the town in 
 boats. 
 
 Bremen is governed by a council composed of four 
 mayors, two syndics and twenty-four counsellors, seven- 
 
 * “ Superficial extent, 10 leagues” Fr. — 77 Eng. sq. miles. (Morse.) 
 
 b Stein’s Geography, (in Germ.) 
 
 [BOOK CXXIV. 
 
 teen of whom are lawyers, and the remaining seven, mer- 
 chants. Calvinists only are admitted into the council ; 
 indeed the exclusive system has been carried so far, that 
 Lutherans cannot hold civil employments. b Thus, al- 
 though the magistrates may be upright men, the laws are 
 oppressive, and many inhabitants are deprived of what may 
 be considered their just rights. The government of the 
 town and territory is vested in the council, and the revenue 
 is committed to its management ; it presides over the ad- 
 ministration of justice, and whenever, matters of importance 
 render it necessary, calls together the leading and influen- 
 tial citizens, who, although they meet at no stated periods, 
 form a sort of legislative assembly. 
 
 It may be remarked in proof of the patriotism which 
 prevails in this small republic, that all the citizens capable 
 of bearing arms are divided into different classes. The 
 men from twenty-six to thirty-five years of age form three 
 battalions. The officers of government are only exempted, 
 if their duties are incompatible with the military service. 
 The men from twenty to twenty-five years of age, make up 
 another battalion, the only one which is equipped at the 
 expense of the state. The town has no other troops than 
 this sort of national guard ; it is, however, obliged to 
 furnish four hundred and eighty-five men to the Germanic 
 confederation. 
 
 Hamburg was considered one of the most commercial 
 towns of Europe, when it was united to the French em- 
 pire in 1810, and made the capital of the department of 
 the Mouths of the Elbe. It contained at that time a popu- 
 lation of a hundred and seven thousand inhabitants. The 
 lands in the neighbourhood, covered with country houses, 
 plantations and cultivated fields, might have been compar- 
 ed to an extensive and magnificent garden, which the 
 course of the Elbe, and many picturesque views, served to 
 embellish. When France had to resist a powerful league 
 in 1813, Hamburg, which owed its wealth and resources 
 to its commerce, was suddenly changed into an imposing 
 fortress. So great was the extent of the military works, 
 that the lofty trees which shaded the public walks, the 
 country houses that proclaimed the wealth of the inhabi- 
 tants, as well as the humble cottage of the peasant, and the 
 gardens, hedges and inclosures, were all destroyed to a 
 considerable distance from the walls. A considerable pail 
 of the suburbs was levelled with the ground, and the losses 
 which the inhabitants then sustained, were estimated, ac- 
 cording to a very moderate calculation, at £3,000,000. 
 But the various articles which were not taken into account, 
 the merchandise that was spoiled, the ships that were da- 
 maged, the buildings that were destroyed, made the whole 
 equal to at least £4,000,000. The wants of the French 
 army obliged the general who commanded it, to dispose of 
 more than 7,500,000 marcs 0 taken from the funds of the 
 Hamburg bank. By a treaty concluded in 1 S 1 6, the 
 French government agree'd to pay Hamburg the sum of 
 £500,000. d Peace, by affording encouragement to com- 
 merce, has restored the city to its ancient prosperity, and 
 now since it has recovered its independence, vessels from 
 every nation may enter its harbour. It did not contain 
 more than sixty thousand inhabitants in 1 SI 4 ; their num- 
 ber at present is at least a hundred and ten thousand. Of 
 these the Catholics amount to two thousand, the Calvinists 
 to four thousand, the Mennonites to five hundred, and the 
 
 c The marc of Hamburg is Is. 6 d. sterling. 
 
 d “ 10,000,000 francs.” 
 
» 
 
 book cxxiv.] DESCRIPTIO 
 
 Jews to six thousand ; the other inhabitants adhere to the 
 Augsburg confession. 
 
 Although the town, in proportion to its size, may be 
 considered one of the most wealthy in Europe, the public 
 buildings are very ordinary; two, however, are worthy of 
 particular notice, namely, the exchange and the church of St. 
 Michael ; the steeple of the last of which rises four hundred 
 feet above the ground ; but even these edifices are merely 
 remarkable on account of their positions in the neighbour- 
 hood of narrow and dirty streets, brick houses, and buildings 
 which recal the period of Charlemagne, who is believed to 
 have been the founder of Hamburg. The only public walk 
 within the town, is formed by a range of trees, planted near 
 a large basin, called the Binex-Jllster. Dense crowds fre- 
 quent the public walk in the summer evenings, and the 
 number of vessels that cover the basin, give it the appear- 
 ance ot a floating city. After London and Amsterdam, 
 Hamburg is the most commercial town in Europe ; the in- 
 habitants are affluent ; numerous equipages are seen on its 
 streets; the utmost activity prevails in the harbour from 
 morning until two o’clock in the afternoon, and at that hour 
 merchants of every description repair to the exchange. The 
 interior of the houses corresponds with the wealth of the 
 inhabitants, which is displayed in the ornaments of dress, 
 and in the luxury and magnificence of the table. In Ham- 
 burg little deference is paid to rank or antiquity of family ; 
 a man is estimated by the importance and extent of his mer- 
 cantile transactions. The spirit of commerce seems to 
 pervade every individual ; in the theatre and in the draw- 
 ing-room, in balls and every other place of amusement, 
 trade, the course of exchange, and mercantile speculations 
 are the subject of conversation. Thus, there are few cities 
 where the arts are so little cultivated or so little appreciated; 
 in the account of the most insignificant towns in Germany, 
 mention has been made ot scientific collections, museums, 
 and libraries, but if strangers look for similar collections at 
 all worthy of such a place as Hamburg, they will be disap- 
 pointed. The books in the public library are not valuable 
 or numerous, the museum of natural history belonging to 
 the patriotic society contains nothing in any way remark- 
 able, and it might be difficult to enumerate more than a very 
 few individuals who devote part of their time to literature or 
 science. These remarks, however, are less applicable to the 
 places ol education ; the number is perhaps sufficient for 
 the wants, certainly for the tastes and pursuits of the inha- 
 bitants. The principal schools are a gymnasium, a com- 
 mercial seminary, a drawing and naval academy ; in addi- 
 tion to these might be mentioned a pharmaceutical seminary 
 and different gratuitous schools. 11 
 
 Although no mendicants are seen in the streets, yet it is 
 said that there are no less than twelve thousand paupers in 
 the town ; so great a number need hardly excite surprise, 
 it it be recollected that even the necessaries of life are much 
 dearer than in other parts of Germany. The expenses of 
 the work-houses and hospitals are defrayed by the town. 
 Asylums have been erected for lunatics, infirmaries for the 
 sick, and establishments for the restoration of suspended 
 animation and tor the reception of those who are attacked 
 with contagious fevers. Vaccination has also met with 
 great encouragement. Not only merchandise, houses and 
 
 >N OF GERMANY. 31 
 
 other kinds of property, but lives are insured. The life 
 insurance company had in its coffers some years ago, a re- 
 serve of 1,200,000 marcs banco, or .£200, 000, b to enable 
 it to pay to the heirs of the insured, the capitals or incomes 
 stipulated in their contracts. 
 
 The people in Hamburg are divided into three distinct 
 classes, the real burgesses, the petty burgesses, and the fo- 
 reign inhabitants. 0 The real burgesses enjoy all the rights 
 of citizens ; they only are eligible to the different offices in 
 the state, and are permitted the free exercise of every sort 
 of industry, and they are even exempt from paying duty on 
 different goods that arrive in Hamburg vessels. The 
 petty burgesses can only exercise certain kinds of industry, 
 and they pay a yearly tax of one thaler for the protection 
 which is granted to them. The foreign inhabitants are also 
 liable to an annual contribution, but as soon as they are ad- 
 mitted, they must pay fifty thalers, if they engage in com- 
 merce, and forty, it they are artisans. Strangers cannot 
 acquire property either within the town or territory of Ham- 
 burg, unless it be in the name of a burgess. 
 
 The Jews do not enjoy the rights of citizens, but they 
 may possess houses in certain parts of the town. Although 
 the right of citizenship is not hereditary, yet the sons of 
 burgesses are entitled to some privileges, and they do not 
 pay so great a sum as others for their admission. It was 
 not before the year 1814, that the Christians who did not 
 embrace the Augsburg confession, were allowed to become 
 burgesses, or to hold offices in the state ; they are still ex- 
 cluded from the council. 
 
 The form of government is, as Stein calls it, aristo-de - 
 mocratic , the sovereignty is vested in the council and in 
 the burgesses ; the former consists of thirty-six members, 
 amongst whom are included three mayors and eleven ma- 
 gistrates.' 1 The burgesses are represented by deputies, le- 
 gally elected, and by hereditary burgesses. The last are 
 the most wealthy and influential of the inhabitants. 
 
 Although Hamburg is a fortified town, the military esta- 
 blishment is not great ; the contingent to the confederation 
 has been limited to thirteen hundred men, e and a numerous 
 national guard serves to defend the town and territory. 
 Magistrates, clergymen, schoolmasters, physicians and sur- 
 geons are exempt from the military service ; all the other 
 men in Hamburg, from the age of twenty to forty-six, must 
 enter the national guard, except under peculiar circum- 
 stances. 
 
 The revenues collected in the town and territory, vary 
 from twelve to fifteen millions of florins. Of all the 
 imposts established by the French government, the stamps 
 and excise are only continued ; these indirect contribu- 
 tions, though very moderate, yield on an average a monthly 
 revenue of sixty thousand marcs ; government may thus, 
 without burdening the people, pay the interest of the 
 national debt, which amounted in 1810, to fifty-two millions 
 of marcs. 
 
 Many branches of industry are carried on in Hamburg ; 
 there were a few years ago forty sugar refineries, ten cotton 
 printing establishments, which furnished employment to 
 more than fifteen hundred workmen, twenty-five wire mills 
 many leather and soap works, more than a hundred velvet 
 and silk looms, and several manufactories of gold and silvei 
 
 a Hamburg possesses a gymnasium, several gratuitous schools of draw- 
 ing, navigation and different trades, a commercial academy, and a pharma- 
 ceutical society.” M. B — A gymnasium, a Latin school, a commercial aca- 
 demy, a drawing school, and several parochial schools. (Hassel.V- P 
 b “ 1,070,000 marcs banco, 01 1 900,000 francs.” ' 
 
 c Stein’s Geography, (in Germ.) 
 
 d The council consists of 4 burgomasters, 24 councillors, 4 syndics an 
 4 secretaries or clerks. Ed. Encyc. 
 
 e “ Contingent about 1300 men” — 1298 (Hassel.) 
 
32 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXIV 
 
 lace, as well as of fine and coarse linen. The dried meat, 
 known by the name of Hamburg beef, which forms a great 
 article of exportation, is cured within its walls. More than 
 twenty copper and brass founderies are situated in its ter- 
 ritory or in the immediate vicinity. But the produce of its 
 manufacturing industry, however great, becomes insignifi- 
 cant when compared with its foreign commerce. 
 
 It possesses more than two hundred ships, which carry 
 its merchandise to the ports of neighbouring nations, and 
 even to Portugal. It often sends considerable fleets to the 
 whale fishery, and the number of vessels that enter or leave 
 its port every year, amounts to more than twelve hundred. 
 It carries on a very great trade in colonial produce ; the 
 reader may form some notion of its importance from the 
 documents contained in the tables at the end of this book. 
 It is one of the greatest marts for sugar and coffee of any 
 town in Europe ; the inhabitants themselves consume an 
 immense quantity ; it has been estimated at no less than 
 10,000,000 pounds annually, so that the proportion for 
 every individual, amounts to more than ninety pounds. 
 
 The town is better fortified on the side of the land than 
 towards the sea. A basin formed by a branch of the Elbe, 
 serves as a place of anchorage for fresh water boats, and a 
 road twenty feet in depth for larger vessels ; the goods and 
 merchandise are transported into the different store-houses, 
 along the canals, which traverse the old town. Although 
 a dike has been built along the river, Hamburg has been 
 more than once inundated; in the year 1771, the waters 
 broke through their barrier, and covered a great part of the 
 neighbourhood and almost all the town ; in 1790, the wa- 
 ters of the Elbe rose' more than twenty feet in the course 
 of a single night. * 
 
 Hamburg and its territory form a surface of a hundred 
 and two square miles ; a in the territory are situated a small 
 town, two burghs, thirteen villages and fifty hamlets, the 
 population of which is equal to 20,000 souls. 
 
 The territory of Lubeck is enclosed in the dutchy of 
 Holstein ; it contains two towns, and seventy-nine villages 
 and hamlets. The extent of surface does not exceed 
 ninety square miles, 6 and the population amounts to forty- 
 three thousand individuals. 
 
 Lubeck, the capital, contains nearly twenty-six thousand 
 inhabitants. It is situated at the confluence of three rivers, 
 the Trave, the W ackenitz and the Steckenitz, which, at the 
 distance of three leagues, throw themselves into a gulf, that 
 bears the name of the town. Few cities are more advan- 
 tageously situated than Lubeck, for the Baltic trade. Built 
 in the twelfth century by the emperor Conrad the Third, 0 
 or as others affirm, by Godeschalk, king of the Heruli or 
 Obotriti, in the year 1066, it became a century afterwards, 
 the seat of a bishopric, which before that time had been es- 
 tablished at Oldenburg. It was several times destroyed by 
 the Danes, and as often rebuilt by its inhabitants. Wearied 
 by the assaults to which it was exposed from its barbarous 
 neighbours, it put itself, at the beginning of the thirteenth 
 century, under the protection of Frederick the Second, who 
 declared it a free and imperial city. It entered at a later 
 period into the number of Hanseatic towns, and maintained 
 lor a long time a considerable influence in the affairs of the 
 
 » “ 17 sq. leagues” Fr. — 133 Eng. sq. miles. (Morse.) 
 
 *> “Superficial extent, 15 sq. leagues” Fr. 
 
 c Built A. D. 1144, by Adolphus II. Count of Holstein-Schaumburg 
 during the reign oFConrad III. Conv. Lex. — P. 
 
 d “ Arrondissement.” 6 Burgomasters. 
 
 1 “ Lubeck possesses a gymnasium, several boarding schools, a commer- 
 
 league. In 1810, it was united to the French empire, and 
 became the metropolis of a district 11 in the department of the 
 Mouths of the Elbe ; its privileges as a free town were re- 
 stored three years afterwards. 
 
 The government is vested in a supreme council com- 
 posed of four mayors® and sixteen counsellors, who are 
 chosen from the most influential inhabitants. The spirit 
 of independence, the result of commerce, may have 
 prompted the people to embrace the Augsburg confession 
 at the commencement of the reformation ; but it is rather 
 commercial rivalry than concern about religion, which has 
 contributed to the persecution of the Jews in Lubeck, and 
 the same intolerance, far from being diminished by the ad- 
 vances made in knowledge, appears to have gained ground 
 in later times. According to a decree of the senate in 1816, 
 all those who professed Judaism, were obliged to quit the 
 town within a very short period ; they had the choice of 
 settling in the village of Moisling about two leagues distant, 
 or of leaving the territory. 
 
 Lubeck is surrounded with ramparts ; the streets, though 
 steep, are broad, straight, clean and well built. The edi- 
 fices most worthy of notice are the cathedral, which contains 
 several articles of antiquity, the church of St. Mary, noted 
 for its curious clock, and the townhouse in which may be 
 seen the celebrated Hanseatic hall, the council room, 
 adorned with fine paintings, and the hall of the treasury ; 
 the arsenal and the exchange are nowise remarkable. 
 Many useful institutions have been founded in the town ; 
 the most important are several elementary schools, a gym- 
 nasium, different boarding schools, two commercial semina- 
 ries, a school of surgery, a drawing academy for artisans, 
 and another for the higher classes/ Establishments have 
 been founded for the suppression of mendicity, and the re- 
 lief of the indigent ; there are besides a house of correction, 
 and an orphan hospital. 
 
 The revenues of the state were estimated a few years 
 ago, at nearly a million of florins, and more than half that 
 sum at least, was derived from the town. g A tax which 
 still subsists, was imposed on every citizen in 1816, to form 
 a fund for the extinction of the public debt. The military 
 force consists of a national guard divided into fifteen com- 
 panies, and a contingent of six hundred men 6 to the Ger- 
 manic confederation. 
 
 The manufactures of Lubeck consist of tobacco, sugar, 
 leather, soap, silk and cotton stuffs, coarse and fine linen, 
 sail cloth, woollens, gold and silver lace, iron and brass 
 wire, and lastly, ship-building. The commerce consists c 
 principally in colonial produce, in the exportation of grain, 
 and in the importation of different products from Sweden, 
 Russia, France, Holland, and England. 
 
 Large vessels arrive at Travemunde, a small fortified 
 town, situated at the mouth of the Trave in the Baltic 
 Sea. It is chiefly supported by the trade of Lubeck, and 
 many strangers frequent it for sea-bathing. Its lighthouse 
 commands an extensive view, which stretches on one side 
 to a great distance over the sea, and on the other, beyond 
 the territory of Lubeck. 
 
 The ancient Hanseatic towns of Bremen, Hamburg 
 and Lubeck, seemed to have acquired the right of resuming 
 
 cial institute, a drawing school for artisans, a school, of industry, and a school 
 of midwifery.” M.B.— A gymnasiurfi, a high school, a normal school, a 
 school of surgery, a school of industry, a school of navigation, a commercial 
 institute, and several elementary and charity schools. (HasseL.) — P. 
 
 s “ formed the revenues of the town.” 
 
 h 40G men. (Hassel.) 
 
BOOK. CXXIV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 33 
 
 their independence, at the time when the political divisions 
 of Germany were determined by congress. As they had 
 lost their independence merely by being incorporated in the 
 French empire, it was thought equitable by the European 
 diplomatists, that they should be restored to their ancient 
 privileges after the fall of the conqueror. Besides, their 
 situation at the extremity of Germany was likely to remove 
 the fear of other states imitating their example. But Frank- 
 fort is dilferent from the rest, and more interesting than 
 any of them, inasmuch as it forms a small republic, almost 
 in the centre of the Germanic confederation. It became 
 independent at a time, too, when rulers sanctioned reluct- 
 antly any institutions in which liberty was admitted as a 
 right, and not as a concession, revocable according to cir- 
 cumstances. It is true that Frankfort dates its freedom 
 from as remote a period as the other towns that have been 
 last described, but it had not been considered a conquest by 
 Napoleon, nor had it been united to France ; on the con- 
 trary, it had continued since 1806, the capital of a grand 
 dutchy, governed by the Prince Primate, when it was de- 
 clared a free town in 1815. It might have become the 
 most valuable possession of one of the states of the con- 
 federation, had it not excited the covetousness of the 
 neighbouring principalities, such as Nassau, Hesse Darm- 
 stadt and electoral Hesse, in the midst of which its terri- 
 tory is enclosed. It was for these reasons, not from any 
 consideration of equity or justice, that it gained an inde- 
 pendence, to which its present commercial importance 
 must be principally ascribed. 
 
 The extent of the territory is equal to five German or 
 sixty English square miles ; a it Contains, besides the capital, 
 two burghs and five villages. According to the mean term 
 of the different numbers, assigned by German geographers, 
 the population cannot be estimated at less than sixty thou- 
 sand. 6 The town alone contains more than forty-five 
 thousand inhabitants ; the Catholics amount to five or six 
 thousand, the Calvinists to two thousand, and the Jews to 
 five thousand ; the rest adhere to the Augsburg confession. 
 
 Frankfort, notwithstanding its monuments, palaces and 
 many well-built houses, is not considered a fine town. The 
 streets are for the most part gloomy, narrow and crooked. 
 The cathedral, or the church of St. Bartholomew, a 
 curious and ancient edifice, in which several emperors have 
 been crowned, is supposed to have been built by Pepin or 
 perhaps by Lewis the Pious, king of Germany, who died 
 at Frankfort in the year 876. The golden bull of the em- 
 peror Charles the Fourth, is preserved in the Roemer or 
 townhouse ; it is written on forty-three sheets of old parch- 
 ment, and was exhibited for a long time among the curiosi- 
 ties of Paris. Among the other buildings are the Saalhof 
 or palace of Lewis the Debonnaire, which has been dis- 
 figured by modern additions, the palace of the Teutonic 
 order, and the one that belonged to the prince of Tour and 
 Taxis ; besides these, may be mentioned the theatre, and 
 the bridge over the Maine, the last of which commands a 
 magnificent view, and is more than four hundred feet in 
 length. 
 
 The name of Frankfurt or Frankenfurf appears to 
 strengthen the tradition that the Franks assembled there in 
 the fifth century, and passed from it into Gaul. It bore the 
 title of a city, when Charlemagne enlarged it, after having 
 
 a “ 14 geographical sq. leagues Fr.” — 110 Eng. sq. miles. (Morse.) 
 
 h Hassel makes the population amount to fifty-twd thousand, and Stein 
 to seventy thousand souls. 
 
 VOL. in.— NO. 43. 
 
 defeated the Saxons under its walls. The suburb on the 
 left bank of the Maine, by which it is separated from Frank- 
 fort, is still known by the name of Sachsenhausen, whence 
 it may be inferred that it was in early times inhabited by 
 that people. 
 
 Frankfort distinguished itself by its zeal in the cause of 
 the reformation ; such was the violence of the different 
 parties, that religious opinions occasioned insurrections and 
 revolts, until the greater part of the inhabitants had em- 
 braced the doctrines of Luther ; d it acted too an important 
 part in the league of Smalcalden. 
 
 It is to a more extensive commerce, that the great num- 
 ber of modern buildings must be chiefly attributed, which 
 if they go on increasing in the same proportion, will soon 
 render Frankfort little inferior to the finest towns in Ger- 
 many. The new quay and the quarter of Wollgraben 
 have been much embellished ; they are every day becoming 
 larger, and are likely ere long to form the most important 
 part of the town. 
 
 Frankfort differs from Hamburg, in as much as many 
 persons among the wealthy classes cultivate the arts and 
 sciences. It would be foreign to our purpose to enumerate 
 the galleries of paintings, and the valuable collections of 
 engravings, antiquities, and objects of natural history, be- 
 longing to different individuals, but the public institutions 
 are creditable to the republic. There are three gymnasiums, 
 a school of medicine, two of drawing, one of architecture, 
 one of painting and engraving, a mathematical seminary 
 and several schools of art. The mount of piety was rather 
 a calamity than a benefit to the people ; the town has 
 established in its stead, a fund destined lor the assistance of 
 petty merchants and artisans in carrying on their commerce 
 and industry. The public library contains more than a 
 hundred thousand volumes, besides several rare books and 
 a parchment bible printed by Faust in the year 1462. A 
 valuable collection of medals is attached to the same library. 
 
 According to the constitution of 1816, the sovereignty is 
 vested in all the citizens, who are born in Frankfort or 
 within its territory. The senate cannot confer the rights 
 of citizens on strangers, until they have resided ten years in 
 the town, nor then only on such as possess an independent 
 fortune. The three branches of government are the senate, 
 the legislative body and the deputies elected by the bur- 
 gesses. 6 The legislative body consists of twenty senators, 
 as many members of the permanent deputation, and forty 
 five burgesses, nominated by the citizens. No person can 
 be elected before the age of thirty years, and if any refuse 
 the office of deputy, they may be deprived of their rights 
 and privileges as citizens. 
 
 The inhabitants of Frankfort are divided into three great 
 Christian communities, which under the superintendance of 
 the senate, provide separately for the maintenance of their 
 clergy, churches and schools. But it cannot be remarked 
 without exciting surprise, that in the nineteenth century 
 both at Hamburg and at Frankfort, wise and enlightened 
 rulers entertain such prejudices against the Jews, as serve 
 to recal the ignorance and superstition of the middle ages. 
 If it be owing to commercial jealousy that the leading men 
 of Frankfort have refused the Jews all the rights and privi- 
 leges of citizens, the measure is not less impolitic than unjust. 
 The Jews are the only inhabitants of a separate quarter ; 
 
 c Furt signifies a ford or passage. d A. D. 1530. 
 
 e Standing committee of the citizens. (Hassel.) — Permanent deputa- 
 tion. (M. B.) 
 
 5 
 
34 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 they are permitted to learn and to exercise certain trades ; 
 but the reader may have some difficulty in believing that 
 according to a decision of the legislative body in 1817, 
 not more than fifteen Jewish marriages are allowed to 
 take place in the course of a year, within the town and ter- 
 ritory/ 
 
 The revenue of Frankfort amounts to eighty thousand 
 florins, and the public debt to three hundred thousand. 
 The military force consists of a national guard and a corps 
 of four hundred and seventy-nine men, — the contingent to 
 the confederation. 
 
 Silk, linen, cotton and woollen stuffs may be mentioned 
 among the manufactures ; the other articles are tobacco, 
 playing cards, printing types, white wax, and porcelain which 
 is little inferior to that of Dresden. But the principal sources 
 of its wealth are its trade with Germany, of which it may 
 be considered the emporium ; the continual commercial 
 intercourse which it holds with the surrounding countries ; 
 the advantages it derives from the navigation of the Rhine 
 and the Maine ; and its two great fairs, the one at Easter, 
 the other in September, which bring together more than six- 
 teen hundred merchants from different parts of Europe. 
 
 The people boast that Charles the Bald was born in the 
 town, and that the diets of the confederation are held there ; 
 but in the opinion of some, b it possesses better claims to 
 
 [BOOK cxxrv. 
 
 celebrity ; it gave birth to Goethe, and the first German 
 gazette was published within its walls. 
 
 TABLES. 
 
 Commerce of Bremen in 1825. 
 
 Nine hundred and fourteen merchant vessels entered the port ot Bre- 
 men. 
 
 Nations. 
 
 
 
 Number of Vessels. 
 
 United States 
 
 _ 
 
 . 
 
 _ 
 
 54 
 
 South America 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 11 
 
 West Indies 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 _ 
 
 25 
 
 English 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 94 
 
 French 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 36 
 
 Portuguese 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 6 
 
 Spanish 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 5 
 
 Russian 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 44 
 
 Swedish and Norwegian 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 55 
 
 Hamburg 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 69 
 
 Lubeck 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 13 
 
 Mecklenburg 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 
 11 
 
 Prussian 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 . 
 
 28 
 
 Dutch 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 _ * * 
 
 10 
 
 Hanoverian 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 53 
 
 Oldenburg 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 64 
 
 Bremish vessels and others belonging to different states 
 
 and 
 
 
 principalities in the confederation 
 
 - 
 
 
 336 
 
 Five whale ships sailed from Bremen to Greenland in the 
 
 same year. 
 
 Table of the Grain Exported from Hamburg, from the Year 1815 to 1825, inclusive. 
 
 By Sea. 
 
 Into the Interior. 
 
 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 live. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Peas. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Malt. 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 Linseed. 
 
 Rape. 
 
 Vetches. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 1816 
 
 30,484 
 
 42,772 
 
 9,392 
 
 11,028 
 
 33,639 
 
 4,659 
 
 20,915 
 
 954 
 
 1,873 
 
 1,455 
 
 195 
 
 552 
 
 12,433 
 
 
 1817 
 
 46,651 
 
 25,877 
 
 4,962 
 
 12,712 
 
 32,549 
 
 3,852 
 
 30,683 
 
 1,153 
 
 1,630 
 
 1,592 
 
 654 
 
 911 
 
 3,505 
 
 
 1818 
 
 153,897 
 
 14,954 
 
 48,715 
 
 13,676 
 
 48,864 
 
 8,600 
 
 33,415 
 
 2,858 
 
 3,774 
 
 3,388 
 
 302 
 
 
 5,752 
 
 110 
 
 1819 
 
 37,794 
 
 2,208 
 
 60,452 
 
 14,384 
 
 35,908 
 
 10,712 
 
 11,613 
 
 1,076 
 
 2,267 
 
 2,235 
 
 98 
 
 
 5,505 
 
 2G7 
 
 1820 
 
 68,468 
 
 874 
 
 4,634 
 
 17,063 
 
 11,270 
 
 4,641 
 
 28,575 
 
 648 
 
 1,083 
 
 1,748 
 
 844 
 
 115 
 
 3,210 
 
 1,094 
 
 1821 
 
 20,001 
 
 414 
 
 5,485 
 
 17,082 
 
 8,865 
 
 4,269 
 
 13,625 
 
 508 
 
 725 
 
 1,963 
 
 4,991 
 
 
 6,492 
 
 358 
 
 1822 
 
 8,700 
 
 1,998 
 
 3,074 
 
 12,885 
 
 9,893 
 
 7,123 
 
 26,927 
 
 637 
 
 1,279 
 
 2,274 
 
 378 
 
 5 
 
 15,474 
 
 46 
 
 1833 
 
 36,291 
 
 8,346 
 
 6,080 
 
 15,042 
 
 12,260 
 
 4,248 
 
 25,866 
 
 525 
 
 600 
 
 1,897 
 
 1,969 
 
 221 
 
 19,163 
 
 172 
 
 1824 
 
 15,014 
 
 4,393 
 
 36,315 
 
 15,943 
 
 9,996 
 
 11,678 
 
 37,820 
 
 974 
 
 2,644 
 
 2,339 
 
 2,776 
 
 154 
 
 20,636 
 
 4,963 
 
 1825 
 
 65,329 
 
 2,863 
 
 112,217 
 
 27,403 
 
 18,968 
 
 14,686 
 
 17,348 
 
 4,777 
 
 2,074 
 
 2,480 
 
 1,624 
 
 38 
 
 9,624 
 
 3,564 
 
 Total. 
 
 482,629 
 
 104,499 
 
 291,326 
 
 157,218 
 
 222,212 
 
 74,468 
 
 246,487 
 
 14,110 
 
 17,949 
 
 21,371 
 
 13,831 
 
 1,176 
 
 101,794 
 
 10,514 
 
 Sugars imported from the year 1821 to 1825, inclusive , c 
 
 Years. 
 
 1821, 
 
 1822, 
 
 1823, 
 
 1824, 
 
 1825, 
 
 lbs. 
 
 91,849,490 
 64,692,640 
 74,887,000 
 75 577,080 
 79,799,380 
 
 Years. 
 
 1821, 
 
 1822, 
 
 1823, 
 
 1824, 
 
 1825, 
 
 Coffee. 
 Imported, d 
 21,591,160 
 28,357,940 
 26,535,100 
 38,536,720 
 34,051,240 
 
 Exported or consumed. 
 
 22.000. 000 pounds. 
 
 26.000. 000 
 
 25.000. 000 
 
 35.000. 000 
 
 34.000. 000 
 
 Variations in the price of Coffee from the year 1821 to 1825, inclusive. 0 
 
 Years. 
 
 1821, 
 
 1822, 
 
 1823, 
 
 1824, 
 
 1825, 
 
 Schillings Banco, 
 from 13j to 14 the pound, 
 from Ilf to 12 
 from 11 to 11| 
 from 8| to 81 
 from 61 to 64 
 
 Years. 
 
 1825, 
 
 1825, 
 
 1824, 
 
 1825, 
 
 Indigo imported , f 
 
 ( Cases, 4,341 or 975,000 pounds. 
 ( Bags, 6 286 or 18,000 
 Cotton imported , h 
 
 Bales 16,600 or 6,640,000 pounds. 
 Ships of different Nations that entered Hamburg. 
 
 Total 1819. 
 
 Vessels from North America 41 
 
 from South America - - - 130 
 
 from different parts of the West Indies 72 
 
 from England' ... 645 
 
 ----- Total 1863. 
 
 Vessels from North America 39 
 
 from South America ... 125 
 
 from the West Indies - - 79 
 
 from England ... 757 
 
 Commerce of the Port of Lubeck. 
 
 Lubeck possesses about 75 trading vessels. 
 
 Number that enter its port annually, about - 800 
 
 " Stein’s Geography, (in Germ.) b “ In our opinion.” M. B. 
 
 c The sugar which arrives at Hamburg is chiefly imported from Brazil 
 and Havanna ; the same article is also imported from the United States, 
 England, France and Holland. 
 
 The greater part of the sugar that enters Hamburg, is refined there, and 
 notwithstanding the competition which it has to maintain with England, it 
 exports annually more than 65,000,000 pounds of refined sugar. 
 
 d The greater part of the coffee imported into Hamburg, comes directly 
 from Havanna, Saint Domingo and Brazil ; the rest is brought from the 
 United States. 
 
 * It may be seen from the above table, that the price of coffee decreased 
 every year from 1821 to 1825. 
 
 f Indigo is by no means an important article in the trade of Hamburg ; 
 indeed Hamburg and several other states are wholly dependent for their 
 supply on the discretion of England. Indigo in cases comes from the East 
 Indies, and indigo in bags from the West Indies. 
 
 6 Ceroons. 
 
 h Although a great quantity of cotton is consumed in Germany, very 
 little is imported into Hamburg ; it receives it from the United States, Co- 
 lombia and different ports in America, from Egypt, India and the Levant, 
 and also from different mercantile houses in Italy. 
 
 * Most of the English vessels carry ballast to Hamburg, and return with 
 cargoes to England, a proof that many articles from Hamburg, are destined 
 for the English markets. 
 
BOOK CXXIV. | 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY 
 
 BOOK CXXV 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued — Germany. — Ninth Section. — Description 
 of Bohemia. 
 
 To complete the description of Germany, some account 
 may be given of the different possessions of the Austrian 
 monarchy, situated in that country. As Hungary and its 
 dependencies have already been described, it is unnecessary 
 to mention them farther ; care must also be taken not to 
 confound provinces which, from the manners, language and 
 origin of the inhabitants, should be considered separately, 
 for the geographer observes in the Austrian empire, within 
 a much smaller compass, the same confused assemblage of 
 heterogeneous parts, as in the vast empire of Russia. 
 
 Bohemia, which is now to be described, is a country, 
 both in its physical and political geography, wholly distinct 
 from the territories that surround it. It is equal in super- 
 ficial extent to about nine hundred and fifty-three German 
 or eleven thousand four hundred and thirty-six English 
 square miles. a 
 
 Bounded by Bavaria, Saxony and Prussian Silesia, b it is 
 encompassed by chains of mountains, that form a natural 
 basin, once filled by a Caspian sea, in the depths of which 
 were deposited the calcareous rocks that shall be afterwards 
 mentioned. The fact that all the mountains which form 
 the outline of the basin, have a gradual declivity toward the 
 centre of the country, serves at first view to strengthen' the 
 belief concerning the ancient existence of such a sea. The 
 greatest declivities are situated in the most northern part of 
 the basin ; thus the Elbe, which traverses that portion of 
 the country, is enlarged by all the streams that descend 
 from the mountains, and throw themselves, either into its 
 channel, or into that of the Moldau, which unites with it. 
 The outlet through which the Elbe leaves Bohemia, in its 
 passage to the North sea, appears to be the same as the one 
 by which the ancient Caspian discharged its waters into the 
 ocean. Part of the sands that now cover the Prussian pro- 
 vinces of Magdeburg and Brandenburg, and the countries 
 of Mecklenburg and Hanover, may probably be attributed 
 to the eruption of the same sea. These hypotheses, 
 founded on facts, are intimately connected with the most 
 interesting department of physical geography. 
 
 Four principal chains enclose the basin: that of the 
 Bcehmer-Wald or Bohemian forest stretches from south-east 
 to north-west, and joins that of the Erz-Gebirge, which ex- 
 tends from south-west to north-east, till it meets that of the 
 Riesen-Gebirge ; the latter follows a contrary direction,® 
 and unites with that of the Maehrisches-Gebirge or Moravian 
 mountains, which passing from north-east to south-west, 
 terminates at the extremity of the Boehmer-Wald. These 
 
 * “ 2,649 geographical sq. leagues Fr.” — 20,922 Eng. sq. miles. (Morse.) 
 b Also by Moravia and Austria on the south-east and south. 
 
 chains, as some geographers have remarked, form an irre 
 gular four-sided figure. Bohemia, by being thus enclosed, 
 is rendered an isolated country in the middle of Europe, and 
 this circumstance, it may be readily inferred, has had not a 
 little influence on the civilization and political constitution 
 of its inhabitants. The lowest mountains are those which 
 extending from north-east to south-west and south, separate 
 Bohemia from Moravia and Lower Austria. The name ot 
 a small chain, the Teufel-Gebirge or Devil’s mountains, at 
 the southern extremity of the Boehmer-Wald, near the 
 sources of the Moldau, seems to have some connection with 
 an ancient idolatrous worship. 
 
 The Boehmer-Wald is a primitive chain, composed of 
 granite, gneiss, micaceous schistus and sienite, and lastly 
 of argillaceous schistus or slate and various other rocks be- 
 longing to the same epoch. The same substances are ob- 
 served in the south, near the town of Krumau, on the banks 
 of the Moldau, and also in the Erz-Gebirge, which has 
 been already mentioned in the account of Saxony. The 
 central mountains of Bohemia, or those which extend along 
 the right bank of the Elbe, and join the Riesen-Gebirge, are 
 less remarkable for their height than their rounded sides and 
 summits, proofs that the rocks which compose them are of 
 igneous origin. Even to the lowest declivities which termi- 
 nate at some leagues to the north of Bunzlau, these moun- 
 tains exhibit sandstone, basalt and other rocks that appear 
 to have been modified by the action of subterranean fire. 
 They are surrounded by calcareous deposits, abounding in 
 fossil shells ; thus, in the midst of the sea, which occupied 
 the basin, volcanoes emitted torrents of lava. The same 
 rocks which are observed in the Boehmer-Wald, are also 
 exhibited on the side of the Riesen-Gebirge towards Bo- 
 hemia ; but the lowest declivities contain sandstone and 
 limestone in parallel strata. Sandstone of a very soft tex- 
 ture, and which disintegrates easily, abounds in the Mora- 
 vian mountains, particularly towards the north ; it assumes 
 the most singular forms, and at a distance deceives the 
 stranger, who imagines he sees towers and villages, where 
 no habitations are to be found. If the traveller descends 
 these mountains, the sides of which are covered with forests, 
 he may observe throughout the whole basin of Bohemia, 
 calcareous rocks, that were deposited at the time when it 
 was filled with water. The limestone is in many places 
 covered with other deposits ; rocks consisting chiefly of 
 amphibole, d and which hold an intermediate place between 
 the primitive and secondary formations, are situated in the 
 western part of the basin, in the neighbourhood of Plan. 
 Granite and argillaceous schistus are not less common near 
 
 c From north-west to south-east. 
 a “ Amphibolite,” primitive trap. 
 
36 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXV 
 
 Tern ; alluvial deposits containing fossil wood and iron ore, 
 which yields sixty -two parts of metal in a hundred, may be 
 observed in the vicinity of Pograd, to the south of Eger. 
 These alluvial deposits rest on micaceous schistus, and 
 similar arrangements are remarked near Prague, between 
 Marienbaden and Ogerlochin. The Commerberg, a vol- 
 canic cone, not far from Eger, is covered with lava and 
 scoriae, and other heights of the same kind extend at dif- 
 ferent distances to Carlsbad. 3 Traces of volcanoes are ob- 
 servable near Tceplitz, and also a sort of red porphyry, from 
 which the celebrated mineral springs take their rise. Ho- 
 rizontal layers of marly limestone rest on the porphyry, but 
 in some places, its displacement has given them a very con- j 
 siderable inclination. Lastly, the Mittel-Gebirge or central 
 chain of the country, which extends along the course of the 
 Elbe, appears, according to a German geologist, b to have 
 been the centre of the volcanic phenomena, that have left so 
 many traces on the southern declivities of the Erz-Gehirge ; 
 basalt and other rocks of an igneous origin are seen there 
 in every direction. 
 
 Although the volcanoes in Bohemia belong to that class 
 which burned before the period, when the earth was inha- 
 bited by man, yet the country is still subject to shocks,' oc- 
 casioned by subterranean fires. Several took place in the 
 month of January, 1824, in the chain of the Erz-Gebirge 
 and in the districts of Eger and Elnbogen. Their direction 
 was from north to south, south-west and south-east ; they 
 were accompanied in some places with a noise resembling 
 thunder ; in others many springs were dried up. c 
 
 A country in which the rocks are so various, and the 
 volcanic remains so numerous, abounds generally with mi- 
 neral springs ; at least Bohemia forms no exception to the 
 rule. Such as are most resorted to, are situated in the 
 northern districts ; it may suffice to give the reader some 
 notion of their number and celebrity, to mention the springs 
 of Sedlitz, those of Satzkamen in the district of Kaurzim, 
 and those of Strobnitz in that of Bechin, the alkaline springs 
 of Bilin, Carlsbad and Toeplitz, the ferruginous springs of 
 Bechin near Trautnau, the baths of Kleinkuchel in the dis- 
 trict of Beraun, and those of Tetschen in that of Leitmerilz, 
 and lastly, the ferruginous springs of Eger. 
 
 The two principal feeders of the Elbe are the Moldau 
 and the Eger; the first traverses Bohemia from its southern 
 extremity to Melnick ; the length of its course is more than 
 a hundred and thirty-five miles. d From the Teufel-Ge- 
 birge to Prague, a distance of about ninety miles, 6 it has a 
 fall of two hundred and sixty-nine feet. The Eger, which 
 rises in the Fichtel-Gebirge near its junction with the 
 Boehmer-Wald, and enters the Elbe at Theresienstadt, has 
 a less rapid course, for its fall does not exceed a hundred 
 and fifty-eight feet in a distance of seventy-nine miles/ E 
 
 Several extensive lakes are situated in the country ; the 
 largest are that of Teschmitz in the district of Klattau, 
 that of Plokenstein in the mountains of the same name, 
 and that of Rummer in the district of Saatz. But the 
 number of ponds is much greater; in 1786, they were, 
 reckoned at more than twenty thousand, and according to 
 the calculations that were then made in order to regulate 
 the contributions, their surface was not less than a hundred 
 and thirty-two thousand seven hundred acres ; h their num- 
 
 “ Goethe, Natunvissenschaft. 
 
 b Leonhard, Zeitschrift fur Minoralogie. 
 
 c See the observations published by M. Hallaschka, Arcliiv. fur die ge- 
 sammte Naturlehre, v. I. p. 320. 
 
 d “ 60 leagues.” 
 
 ber, however, has since been reduced by draining. That 
 of Ezeperka near Pardubitz is one of the most extensive ; 
 it contains several considerable islands covered with trees. 
 Many marshes, formed by the annual inundations of 
 rivers, or by the waters which descend from the mountains 
 into the low vallies, are situated in different parts of the 
 kingdom ; but as none of them are large, it is unnecessary 
 to describe them. 
 
 The climate of Bohemia is modified by the nature of the 
 country, its lofty mountains, extensive plains, and deep 
 vallies. It is temperate in the central districts and on the 
 south-western frontiers, but the mountains covered with fo- 
 rests have an influence on the temperature to a considerable 
 distance from their base. The variation of Reaumur’s ther- 
 mometer at Prague, gives the annual mean term of +7. 7°. 
 It has been proved by registers kept at the observatory in 
 the same town, that the greatest heat is from +23° 
 to +24° of Reaumur, and the greatest cold, about — 16°. 
 The thermometrical variations at Eger, in the remotest part 
 of the western frontier, indicate a mean term of -f-7. 4°, 
 while at Krumau near the southern extremity, it is not 
 greater than +6. 9°. 
 
 The most prevalent winds in Bohemia blow from south- 
 east and south-west. 1 The east and north-east winds are 
 almost always accompanied with rain, but the north, north- 
 west, and south-west winds, are sure signs of dry weather 
 The quantity of rain that falls yearly, amounts to eighteen 
 or nineteen inches ; the evaporation that takes place in the 
 shade, to fourteen. The average number of rainy days, 
 observed in a series of eighteen years, was annually equal 
 to ninety ; the proportion that subsisted between days of 
 calm and cloudless weather, and those in which the wea- 
 ther was rainy, or the sky more or less covered with 
 clouds, was as one to five/ 
 
 No accurate information can be obtained concerning the 
 earliest people that inhabited Bohemia ; it is known how- 
 ever that they were subdued, and in a great measure de- 
 stroyed by the Boii, who under the command of Sigovesus, 
 settled in the country about six centuries before the Chris- 
 tian era. Strabo, Pliny, and other writers, make mention 
 of the same people, from whom the present name of Bo- 
 hemia is derived. 
 
 The Boii experienced for a long period all the vicissi- 
 tudes of war ; their history is confined to migrations, vic- 
 tories and defeats — the results of battles with their neigh- 
 bours. Ancient writers mention them as possessing at one 
 time the country beyond the Danube, or in other words, 
 the basin of Bohemia, and at another time, the lands be- 
 tween the Danube and the Drave, and ‘ lastly, as settled in 
 Thrace and Illyria. Some degree of confusion, therefore, 
 naturally arises as to the countries which they occupied ; 
 hence Pelloutier supposes that they all issued from Gaul or 
 Italy. Mentelle appears to be the only author, who has 
 thrown any light on the migrations of the Boii ; according 
 to that writer, they accompanied Bellovesus, who marched 
 at the head of several barbarous tribes, in his expedition 
 into Italy. These Boii were then settled on the northern 
 declivities of the Apennines in the present territory of Bo- 
 logna, and their name seems to indicate that they were only 
 a colony belonging to tbe nation which occupied Bohemia. 
 
 f “ 35 leagues.” 
 
 » J. M. Lichtenstem, Uniriss einer Gcographisch-statistischen Schilde- 
 rung des Kcenigreichs Bcehmen. h “ Jochs.” 
 
 ‘ The south-east is the most prevalent, and next the south-west. M. B. 
 
 k See Lichtenstem’ s Essay, cited above. 
 
 e “ 10 leagues.” 
 
BOOK CXXIV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GERMAN!. 
 
 57 
 
 After the fruitless attempt of Bellovesus, the Boii were re- 
 pulsed by the Romans, and forced to retreat to the Danube, 
 near the frontiers of Illyria ; subdued and nearly annihila- 
 ted by the Getae, the country to which they had migrated, 
 remained desert, whence Strabo calls it the desert of the 
 Boii. a But the great body of the people, who inhabited 
 the basin of Bohemia, were not long secure from the at- 
 tacks of their neighbours. About two hundred and eighty 
 years before the birth of our Saviour, the Cimbri attempted 
 to subdue them, but were defeated. It was not until thirty 
 or forty years after the vulgar era, that the Marcomanni b 
 expelled them, and took possession of their territory. The 
 Boii found a new country in the plains watered by the 
 Danube, that form at present a part of Bavaria. It is on 
 that account that Tacitus says, that although the inhabi- 
 tants are changed, the name of Bohemia still remains, and 
 serves to perpetuate the remembrance of its ancient occu- 
 pants. 0 Although the Boii were driven from their territory 
 by the Marcomanni, they held no mean reputation in Ger- 
 many ; they joined the Helvetii, and invaded Gaul, while 
 the iEdui resisted Caesar ; d after the defeat of the Helvetii, 
 the Roman general did not compel the Boii to seek for 
 shelter in the Hercynian forest, but in consideration of 
 their valour and courage, and at the request of the iEdui, 
 he made over to them a part of the territory of the latter. 
 Thus, it appears from these details, that the Boii have seve- 
 ral times changed their country ; but it must not be inferred 
 that their different possessions were inhabited by five dis- 
 tinct people of the same name; on the contrary, it was the 
 same people, who at different epochs settled in five different 
 countries. 
 
 According to Tacitus, the Marcomanni were the most 
 powerful people of any in the territories between the 
 Danube and the Hercynian forest ; the fact that they con- 
 quered Bohemia, may confirm the opinion of the historian. 
 They were governed by kings, chosen from the most illus- 
 trious families of their nation, but after the reign of Augus- 
 tus, the Romans placed foreign rulers over them. Rome, 
 however, did not assist these rulers with her arms, but sup- 
 plied them with gold and silver. 6 Maroboduus is of all the 
 native princes, the one most frequently mentioned in the 
 annals of Tacitus. Strabo informs us that after having- 
 passed his youth at Rome under the protection of Augus- 
 tus, he was called to govern his countrymen. The com- 
 mencement of his reign was prosperous ; he led the Mar- 
 comanni to the conquest of Bohemia, and made himself 
 master of the country inhabited by the Boii. He subdued 
 several neighbouring states, and enriched himself with their 
 spoils. He possessed great influence over a portion of 
 Germany, and formed a league, consisting of the Her- 
 munduri, Quadi, Semnones, Longobardi and other nations, 
 against Hermann or Arminius, who had become formidable 
 after having defeated the legions of Varus. But in this 
 contest Maroboduus was unsuccessful ; in vain he implored 
 the assistance of the Romans ; they saw with secret joy, 
 the enemies who had resisted their yoke, weakened by 
 divisions amongst themselves. Abandoned by his allies, 
 without authority over his people, Maroboduus had no other 
 resource than to implore the protection of Germanicus, 
 
 11 Strabo, book VII. chap. II. section 5. b Marcomani, Tacitus. 
 
 c Manet aiihuc Boihemi nomen, significatque loci veterem memoriam, 
 quaimis mutatis cultoribus. Tacitus, De Moribus Germanorum, sect. 28. 
 
 d The yEdui at that time were the allies or rather subjects of the Ro- 
 mans. An attempt was however made by the Helvetii to attach them to 
 heir cause, through the agency of Dtunnorix. — P. 
 
 who granted him an asylum in Italy, where he passed the 
 rest of his days. 
 
 The descendants of the Marcomanni, at the time when 
 the Roman power began to decline, were compelled to give 
 up their country to different nations, whose names were 
 hardly known to the Romans. These nations migrated from 
 Poland and the north of Hungary, and were known by the 
 general denomination of Slavi. The time when they first 
 invaded Bohemia is uncertain ; indeed little is known of 
 their history before the sixth century. They were called 
 Tchekhes { or Czechs by the western Slavi, a name, which 
 in their language signifies the First, probably because the 
 country they inhabited, was nearest to Germany. Their 
 government was at first republican, but through fear lest 
 they should be expelled from Bohemia by the Avars and the 
 Huns, they chose a sovereign, who, if tradition may be 
 credited, was Samo, a Franconian merchant, a man of 
 wisdom and courage ; he governed them for a number of 
 years, and freed them from the yoke of the Avars. A re- 
 gency was appointed at his death, and it continued until 
 Krock was elected ; that prince was succeeded by his 
 daughter Libussa, surnamed the magician, who reigned with 
 Przemysl® her husband, between the years 722 and 745. 
 The sovereignty was hereditary for several generations, but 
 the early part of the Bohemeian history is involved in ob- 
 scurity. Little is known concerning it, before the middle 
 of the ninth century ; until that period they continued in 
 idolatry, and had to oppose at the same time, the attacks 
 of the Germans, and the sermons of the monks, who were 
 continually sent from Rome. Fourteen princes and the 
 grand duke Borziwoy* 1 were baptized in the year 894, and 
 Prague was erected into a bishopric in 972, during the reign 
 of Boleslaus II. 
 
 The dignity of grand duke was elective until the middle 
 of the eleventh century. Brzetislaw 1 was the first, who 
 enacted a law in the year 1053, making the succession 
 hereditary, but the law did not continue in force long after 
 the death of the prince. Otho the First conquered Bo- 
 hemia, and added it to the empire in 1086. Henry the 
 Fifth conferred on duke Brzetislaw the Second, the title 
 of king, in 1086, and from that period the monarchy was 
 elective. 
 
 The country was much improved by the German colo- 
 nists that settled there during the ninth century ; for Bo- 
 hemia, isolated from other nations, did not emerge from 
 barbarism before the introduction of Christianity, which by 
 opening communications with Rome, prepared the way 
 for the civilization of the Slavi. About the beginning of the 
 thirteenth century, Ottocar encouraged German workmen 
 and artists of every kind ; under the same prince, industry 
 was diffused in the towns, and commerce freed from its 
 shackles. Order and tranquillity were maintained, and 
 written laws were kept in the principal cities. His succes- 
 sor, Ottocar the Second, who was called to the throne of 
 Austria, extended his power not only over Bohemia, but 
 over a part of Silesia, Poland and Prussia. Possessing the 
 same views, he continued the work of his father, protected 
 the arts and sciences, and encouraged the introduction of 
 the German language, as the great means of enlightening 
 
 • Tacitus, De Moribus Germanorum. 
 
 f Germ. Tschechen. e Premislaus. 
 
 h Borziwog (^Busching,) Borzivoge or Borivory (Moreri,) Borivonus, 
 Borzivori. 
 
 ' Wratislaus. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 38 
 
 his subjects. The manners and language of the people had 
 undergone great changes about the commencement of the 
 fourteenth century ; at that time the laws were written in 
 German. Prague, which was one of the most important 
 cities in Germany, became the seat of the arts and sciences. 
 
 The emperor Charles the Fourth had been elected king 
 of Bohemia, but the states of the kingdom declared the 
 monarchy hereditary in his family. It was to the same 
 prince that the capital was indebted for its university. 
 Wenceslaus, his son and successor, reformed the laws, and 
 substituted the national language in the different courts. 
 John Huss and Jerome of Prague, flourished in the same 
 reign ; but the inhabitants were too ignorant to appreciate 
 their wise and enlightened views concerning religious reform, 
 their virtues, talents and noble disinterestedness. These 
 apostles of -the reformation appeared in the world at too 
 early a period ; they were not understood, their characters 
 were calumniated. Intriguing persons made use of their 
 own expressions ^ excite a civil war, which although it 
 may have rendered Ziska, the brave and disinterested 
 chief, illustrious, served only to protract the existence of 
 abuses, which good men wished to see abolished. The mo- 
 narchy became again elective after the death of Wenceslaus. 
 
 Ferdinand, archduke of Austria, obtained the sove- 
 reignty in 1 526 ; his reign forms an epoch, not only be- 
 cause the hereditary succession was established in his family, 
 and the prerogatives of the Bohemian states were restricted 
 in the election of their kings, but because in his time, great 
 advances were shown to have been made in knowledge. 
 The prince endeavoured in vain to check the progress of 
 civilization ; it was in vain that he protected the Jesuits, and 
 banished all those who were thought favourable to the re- 
 formation ; neither was it attended with any advantage that 
 censors prohibited books from being sold or published in his 
 dominions ; the impulse which had been given to the age 
 could not be checked. The art of printing diffused among 
 the wealthy classes, the writings of the ancients, and the most 
 admired compositions in every language. If many read the 
 works of Erasmus, it was partly Ferdinand’s fault, because 
 he permitted a translation of them to be dedicated to him- 
 self ; so far at least, he weakened unknowingly the effects 
 of his system. 
 
 Ferdinand’s successor, Maximilian the Second, followed 
 a different line of policy : wise and tolerant, he granted in 
 1567, the benefits of religious liberty to all his subjects; but 
 those who opposed freedom of conscience, failed not to ex- 
 cite obstinate fanatics to resist the protestants ; — violent 
 controversies, reiterated complaints and exorbitant demands 
 were the fruits of his liberal system. Matthias, who reigned 
 next, thought fit to impose new restrictions on the protes- 
 tants ; in place of controversies, insurrections and revolts 
 ensued. The thirty years’ war added to the calamities of 
 Bohemia ; its populaton was diminished, its finances were 
 exhausted. The effects of such evils might have continued 
 for a long period, had not Maria Theresa appeared and 
 removed them. It is to that empress that Bohemia owes 
 the abolition of slavery, and the freedom of industry ; to the 
 same celebrated woman the country is indebted for many 
 wise laws, a better administration of justice, an improved 
 system of education, and different institutions which, although 
 not to be compared with those that have recently insured 
 the prosperity of several European states, are not on that 
 account the less beneficial to a people, whose rulers adopt 
 slowly the improvements of enlightened governments. 
 
 [BOOK CXXV 
 
 According to the federative act of 1815, Bohemia forms 
 a part of the Germanic confederation. As an integral por- 
 tion of the Austrian monarchy, the succession to the throne 
 passes in a direct line to the different members of the reign- 
 ing family. According to the fundamental law of the 
 kingdom, its political organization remains on the same 
 footing as in past ages. The king, at his coronation, takes 
 an oath not to alienate the kingdom, to respect' the consti- 
 tution, protect the states, and preserve the privileges 
 conferred on them by the emperors Ferdinand the Second, 
 Ferdinand the Third and their successors, to maintain jus- 
 tice, and support the catholic religion with all his power. 
 
 The states are divided into four classes ; the clergy, the 
 higher nobles or lords, the petty nobility or knights, and, 
 lastly, the royal towns. Their deputies form a general as- 
 sembly, as often as they are called together by the king, who 
 appoints a commissioner to preside over them. Their func- 
 tions are very limited ; they may deliberate on the means 
 of executing what is proposed by the crown, but they can- 
 not petition, much less can any proposition emanate from 
 them, without the authority of the government or of 
 the commissioner who represents the government ; for, ac- 
 cording to Lichtenstern, the king of Bohemia is, as he has 
 always been, absolute sovereign of the country. In these 
 assemblies, the clergy, who by a law of Ferdinand, are su- 
 perior to the other states, take an oath of allegiance to the 
 crown. They are represented by the archbishops and 
 bishops, the grand prior of the order of Malta, and the other 
 prelates in the kingdom. The princes, dukes, counts and 
 barons are the members of the higher nobility, and the eight 
 most important offices in the state must be filled by indivi- 
 duals belonging to that body. 
 
 Although the number of royal towns is not less than 
 forty-eight, four only are entitled to elect deputies. These 
 privileged towns are Prague, Budweis, Pilsen and Kutten- 
 berg. Other towns are directly subject to the government ; 
 three of them, Saatz, Kommotau and Kaaden, are repre- 
 sented. The protected cities, as they are called, form a 
 third class ; although they may be situated in seigniories, 
 they are freed from seigniorial burdens and imposts. Most 
 of the towns having mines in their territory, belong to the 
 last class. 
 
 Although these distinctions exist, and others by which 
 the peasants are divided into four classes, namely, the pro- 
 prietors of land, the tenants of houses, 3 farmers or tenants 
 of land, and, lastly, the day labourers or workmen, still in 
 the administration of justice, the law acknowledges no 
 difference in individuals, and the police watches with equal 
 vigilance over them all. 
 
 The unjust laws that have been passed against the Jews, 
 show not only the striking difference between the Austrian 
 government and the more enlightened governments of 
 Europe, but serve to keep up in the minds of the Bohe- 
 mians, prejudices as inveterate against the same people as 
 those that existed in the dark ages. The hatred and con- 
 tempt in which the lower orders of Christians in different 
 nations hold the Jews, may be explained by those who 
 know how # difficult it is to eradicate false opinions, strength- 
 ened by religious belief. But it is not so easy to explain why 
 those who are called to the government of the state, par- 
 ticipate in the same errors. The degraded state of the 
 Jews in Bohemia must be imputed to the government undei 
 
 a “ Proprietors of houses.” 
 
BOOK CXXV.J 
 
 which they live ; if they are the worthless and despicable 
 set of people they are supposed to be, the necessity of re- 
 claiming them seems to be more urgent. But the Jews 
 cannot be reformed, nor can they be made useful members 
 of the community, if they are suffered to remain in igno- 
 rance, if they are rendered indifferent as to character, and 
 if the law is made the echo of the popular prejudices against 
 them. 
 
 Some necessary consequences of the Austrian policy in 
 this respect, may be briefly mentioned. All agree that the 
 Jews in Bohemia have made no advances in civilization for 
 more than half a century. They observe strictly the fun- 
 damental principles of a religion that separates them from 
 other nations. They refuse to drink out of the glass that 
 a Christian has used ; they abstain from wine on their jour- 
 neys, if none can be got which has been put into casks or 
 bottles by their brethren ; the flesh of every animal slain 
 by a Christian is considered unclean. 
 
 It ought, on the other hand, to be recollected, that the 
 Christians in Bohemia have committed flagrant acts of in- 
 justice against the Jews ; it has been determined more than 
 once to banish them the kingdom, and the sentence has 
 been as often averted only by pecuniary services or 
 presents to men in power. A law was enacted in 1817, 
 for the purpose of preventing their increase, by which no 
 woman can many before the age of eighteen, and no man 
 before that of twenty-two. If any enter into wedlock 
 at an earlier period, such marriages are null, and the 
 rabbis that celebrate them are banished. Can it be sup- 
 posed, after the statement of these facts, that the Jews in 
 Bohemia enjoy all the privileges of other citizens, that their 
 property and wealth are equally secure 1 Government has 
 shown its regard for them by putting them without the pale 
 of ordinary legislation. If two persons are prevented from 
 marrying because the one is only seventeen and the other 
 only twenty-one years of age, what else is it than to en- 
 courage immorality and adultery 1 It is by such means that 
 profligacy and seduction may perhaps become common 
 among a people who, whatever their faults may be, are an 
 example to Christians for conjugal fidelity. 
 
 The author from whom these details have partly been 
 taken,* commends the oppressive measures of the Austrian 
 government against the Jews, a proof that great acquire- 
 ments are not incompatible with unfounded prejudice. If 
 he may be believed, the Jews cannot be enlightened by 
 education, they are altogether destitute of generous senti- 
 ments. It was rightly maintained thirty years ago, b con- 
 tinues the same author, that the number of Jews in the 
 kingdom was a great evil ; they have always been the 
 objects of popular hatred, but their gradual increase may 
 render vain both the vigilance of the police and the wise 
 laws that have been past against them. The facts on which 
 M. Lichtenstern founds his opinion shall be afterwards exa- 
 mined ; certainly much weight cannot be attached to them, 
 if they be confined to the pretended crime of usury, and 
 the commercial superiority which distinguishes the Jews, 
 and excites the nation against them. 
 
 Before the edict of Joseph the Second was passed, 0 it 
 might have been inferred from the rigour with which as 
 many were punished as were suspected of being protes- 
 
 a Lichtenstern. 
 
 11 By the counsellor Rieger. 
 
 c Edict granting toleration to the Protestants, Oct. 13, 1781. 
 
 rt “ 7(1 convents, chapters or fraternities.” 
 
 ‘ The consistory of Prague and Vienna.” The Protestants in the 
 
 39 
 
 tants, that the whole nation was devoted to the church of 
 Rome. But no sooner was liberty of conscience proclaim- 
 ed, than whole towns became suddenly Lutheran. Although 
 protestants of almost every denomination have since that 
 time been protected by government, still they are not very 
 numerous ; the proportion between them and the catholics 
 is nearly as one to thirty-three. Thus, notwithstanding the 
 edict of Joseph the Second, the cloisters are as thickly 
 peopled as formerly ; the number of convents is not less 
 than seventy-six, d but only five of them are inhabited by 
 women. 
 
 The archbishop of Prague is styled a prince of the 
 kingdom, and receives from Rome the title of legate of the 
 holy see ; he as well as the other bishops are nominated by 
 the king ;the pope merely confirms their appointment. No 
 bull can be published in the kingdom without the consent 
 of government. The highest spiritual courts which the 
 protestants acknowledge, are the consistories of Prague and 
 Vienna.® The Jewish worship is under the direction of a 
 council, the members of which are" the great Rabbi of 
 Prague, and two assistants. 
 
 The present population of Bohemia is not accurately 
 known ; according to the last census, that of 1818, it 
 amounted to 3,275,866 inhabitants ; in that number there 
 were 1,520,934 males, and 1,754,932 females. It appears 
 from the most authentic accounts, that the country did not 
 contain more than 2,887,769 inhabitants in 1791, so that 
 the increase in a period of twenty-seven years, was equal 
 to 388,097 individuals. The population in 1827 may thus 
 be nearly ascertained by a very simple calculation ; in short 
 if the third part of 388,097 be added to the census of 
 1818, then the result gives nearly the number of inhabi- 
 tants in 1827. The population of 1827, thus calculated, 
 amounts to 3,405,231 individuals, but that number is rathei 
 under than above the truth, for the years that have elapsed 
 since the peace, have been favourable to population/ 
 
 The inhabitants consist chiefly of three distinct people : 
 the Tchekhes or Slavonians, the Germans and the Jews. 
 The first form two thirds of the population in the king- 
 dom. The circle of Elnbogen is wholly, and other circles 
 are partly peopled by Germans ; their total number does 
 not exceed eight hundred and fifty thousand ; as to the 
 Jews, they may be equal to fifty thousand. 
 
 Most of the Germans who settled in the country about 
 the ninth century, migrated from Saxony, and were em- 
 ployed in working the mines ; the rest were almost all 
 artisans, who came from different countries on the banks 
 of the Rhine, at that time too populous, and settled in the 
 towns. They were so numerous in Prague, at the com- 
 mencement of the fourteenth century, and possessed so great 
 a preponderance from their wealth, that the most important 
 offices were committed to them. The university of Prague, 
 which was founded in the same century, tended to increase 
 their number ; for the desire of knowledge attracted many 
 students from Germany, and not a few settled in the coun- 
 try. Lastly, when the partisans of John Huss, who were 
 all of Slavonic origin, were persecuted and obliged to quit 
 Bohemia, the most of their property was confiscated and 
 divided among German nobles, who, like the nobility under 
 Lewis the Fourteenth, enriched themselves with the spoils 
 
 German Austrian states and in Galicia are subject to the consistory of Vi- 
 enna. (Hassei.) — P. 
 
 f The time elapsed from 1818 to 1827 is equal to nine years ; the in 
 crease in twenty-seven years is known ; if the third part of it therefore be 
 added to the census for 1818, it gives the population in 1827. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. 
 
40 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXV 
 
 of the protestants, and had no scruples about receiving 
 ill-gotten wealth. If to these causes, so favourable to the 
 settlement of the Germans in Bohemia, be added the pro- 
 tection they acquired when the country came under the 
 government of Austria, for since that period, Germans 
 have filled the highest offices in the state, it may be easily 
 explained, why their influence is so great, although their 
 number is comparatively inconsiderable, and also why their 
 language is so generally diffused. The lower orders among 
 the Tchekhes still retain their language, which together 
 with the German is spoken by the middling classes. 
 
 The Tchekhe or Bohemian language is one of those 
 Slavonic dialects which have been styled Bohemo-Polish, 
 by M. A. Balbi. a It differs from the other dialects, such as 
 the Polish, Croatian and Ragusan, not merely in its gram- 
 matical forms, but by its use of the German characters, for 
 in the others, the Roman letters are used. The Bohemians 
 sprung from the Tchekhes, may be easily known by their 
 pronunciation. The German Bohemians retain the Ba- 
 varian, Saxon, Silesian or Austrian pronunciation, accord- 
 ing as they are descended from the one or the other of 
 those nations, or according as they inhabit the frontiers ad- 
 jacent to them. 
 
 The people in Bohemia are strong and laborious, active 
 and well made. According to calculations published by 
 Rieger and Lichtenstern, three individuals die annually out 
 of a hundred ; the proportion between the deaths and 
 births, is as a thousand to a thousand three hundred and 
 forty-four ; out of ten thousand infants, a hundred and 
 ninety-nine are still-born ; the number of births is to the 
 population as one to twenty-three. The total number of 
 deaths amount to nearly ninety thousand, and of these seven 
 hundred and seventy are violent or occasioned by accidents. 
 But the mortality is not so great in some remote quarters 
 in the districts of Beraun, Bitschow, Bunzlau, Chrudim, 
 Czaslau, Klattau and Prachin ; the deaths there do not 
 make up a fortieth of a forty-fifth part of the population. 
 Numerous examples of longevity might be mentioned ; 
 there are many individuals between ninety and a hundred 
 years of age. It is stated that in 1801, out of five thou- 
 sand nine hundred and thirty-five persons, seven hundred 
 and fitly had passed their hundredth year, and twenty-nine 
 were upwards of a hundred and ten. The proportion 
 of natural children at the same period, was nearly eight to 
 a hundred, or seventy-six to a thousand. The mean dura- 
 tion of marriages is about twenty-two years and two 
 months, and the mean number of children from every 
 marriage, about four. One marriage takes place yearly 
 out of every hundred and thirty-four inhabitants, and the 
 total number of married men in 1817, amounted to 569,793. 
 It may be worth while to compare some of these facts, 
 which relate only to the Christian population, with others 
 relative to the Jews ; among them the number of deaths 
 is hardly one in sixty-two, but the number of births does 
 not exceed one in forty-three. 
 
 The Germans and Tchekhes differ as much in their 
 character as in their language ; they resemble each other 
 only in their strict observance of religious ceremonies, in 
 their devotedness to their sovereign, and in their hatred 
 against the seigniorial nobility. The Slavonians may be 
 distinguished from the Germans by the care which they 
 take of their property, and by their constant desire of add- 
 
 ing to it ; they are less susceptible of attachment, less 
 faithful in their affections, and more addicted to society, 
 dissipation and amusement. They boast of their prudence, 
 but it consists principally in not trusting their neighbours, 
 particularly the Germans, whom they still consider enemies. 
 In the military service, the soldiers of both nations rival 
 each other in zeal and courage. The mountaineers are 
 distinguished by a greater aptitude for the arts, and by a 
 generosity and a dignity of character, which are rarely 
 observed among the people in the plains. 
 
 The stranger, who travels through Bohemia, must per- 
 ceive a great difference in the dress of the inhabitants ; 
 it does not, as in other countries, depend merely on rank 
 or fortune ; it serves to distinguish the Slavonian from the 
 German, and the German from the Jew. The Slavonic 
 dress may be known on the mountains and in the plains 
 by its resemblance to the Polish costume. Although some 
 Germans have adopted it, the observer does not confound 
 them with the other inhabitants, the character of their 
 physiognomy is so widely different. These remarks are 
 only applicable to the lower orders ; the middling as well 
 as upper classes of society, dress like the French, for the 
 fashions of that country are soon adopted by the gay and 
 the wealthy. The Jews have retained the costume which is 
 used by the lower orders, but they may be easily known, as 
 they are the most filthy class of people in the country. 
 
 The food of the inhabitants is very different in different 
 districts, and the cause depends more on the nature of the 
 soil, than on the wealth and poverty of the people. Barley 
 and oat meal, milk and potatoes, are generally used in the 
 mountains, particularly by the labourers ; beer is reserved 
 for holy-days. But in the vallies and the plains, where nature 
 is more profuse, the husbandmen have better and more 
 substantial nourishment. The use of animal food is not so 
 rare, and beer or wine is the ordinary drink. The Jews 
 are more sober and abstemious than the other inhabitants ; 
 their thin and emaciated forms seem almost to prove that 
 they deprive themselves of the necessary quantity of sub- 
 sistence. Although in a wretched and degraded state, they 
 never take wine, spirits, or any strong drink to excess ; it 
 is the Christian only that gets drunk on festivals and holy- 
 days. 
 
 It might be concluded from the consideration in which 
 landed proprietors are held in most parts of Bohemia, that 
 agriculture is well understood, and that the husbandman 
 derives from his fields, whatever they are capable of pro- 
 ducing. The truth is, however, that there are few coun- 
 tries where agriculture is not better understood. The cause 
 must he principally attributed to the inveterate prejudices 
 and slothful habits of the peasantry ; those districts in which, 
 from the quality of the soil, one might expect to find the 
 most abundant harvests, yield but scanty crops. But in 
 the mountains, on the other hand, poor lands and inclement 
 seasons, though great obstacles to fruitful harvests, have 
 ! rendered the people more active and intelligent. It results 
 from their efforts that some of the higher districts produce 
 more than is sufficient for the local consumption, and in- 
 deed the district of Leitmeritz in the central chain, has 
 been called the Paradise of Bohemia. If in the lower part 
 of the country, which is naturally the most productive, a 
 better system of agriculture was adopted, if government 
 excited the husbandmen to labour, by encouraging the cir- 
 culation of their products, by opening outlets for commerce, 
 and by improving the breed of cattle, which ire everv 
 
 Atlas Ethnographique. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 41 
 
 BOOK CXXV.] 
 
 where deficient both in number and quality, the country 
 might assume a new aspect, acquire a greater political im- 
 portance, and become one of the brightest ornaments in 
 the crown of Austria. The breeding of sheep is neg- 
 lected not only in the chain of the Riesen Gebirge, which 
 contains good pasturage, but throughout the whole king- 
 dom. No reason can be assigned why as valuable sheep 
 might not be reared in Bohemia as in Saxony or Silesia. 
 Sheep are certainly more valuable than goats which are 
 every year increasing in the country. All agree that the 
 Bohemian horses are of an excellent quality; many are 
 kept in different places by government for the purpose of 
 improving the breed, * * 3 * and a strong, active and hardy race 
 has thus been naturalized. 
 
 The climate of Bohemia does not appear favourable to 
 the culture of the vine ; the quantity of wine produced 
 annually is estimated at only 2,600 eimers or 540,000 gal- 
 lons. 15 It is however more than six hundred years since the 
 vine was first introduced into Bohemia. Plants were im- 
 ported by Charles the Fourth 3 from Burgundy and the 
 banks of the Rhine ; wine, it has been affirmed, was then 
 so abundant as to render it unnecessary to import any from 
 foreign countries. 11 
 
 The culture of fruit trees is found to be profitable ; thffir 
 number has increased considerably within the last twenty 
 years, but at that time, however, it amounted to nearly 
 eleven millions, consisting principally of apple, pear, plum, 
 and cherry trees ; e their annual produce forms an impor- 
 tant branch of commerce. 
 
 The next most productive plants are hops and flax ; the 
 first is cultivated in all the more fertile soils ; there are two 
 kinds of it, the common and the green hop, the last of which 
 is propagated spontaneously. 
 
 All the different trees that are known in Germany, grow 
 in the forests of Bohemia ; they yield annually a quantity 
 of timber much more than sufficient for the wants of the 
 people ; the greater portion is therefore exported. 
 
 The rearing of the industrious insects that furnish honey 
 and wax, is common in most parts of the country ; the 
 number of hives belonging to the peasantry cannot be esti- 
 mated at less than sixty thousand. 
 
 The mountains and the forests abound in different sorts 
 of game, some of which multiply in the plains. The rivers, 
 lakes and ponds are stored with various kinds of fish ; more 
 than two thousand quintals are sold or exported every year 
 from the seigniory of Pardubitz in the district of Chrudim. 
 The country is mostly supplied with trouts from the lordship 
 of Bidschow. In some of the ponds, carps weighing from 
 twenty to thirty pounds are not unfrequently taken. Many 
 fresh water pearls are collected in the Moldau, the Elster 
 md other rivers. Salmon are frequently caught in the Elbe, 
 nd also the fish which the Germans call the welsfisch [Si- 
 lurus Glanis, Linnaeus,) that weighs from ninety to a hun- 
 dred pounds. The same fish attains a greater size in the 
 Danube ; next to the sturgeon, it is the largest of any that 
 are found in fresh water. 
 
 The head of the silurus is broad and flat ; the mouth, 
 which is very large, is furnished with a great number of 
 
 a The most important establishments of this kind ( 'haras , studs,) are 
 those at Blatto, Alt-Bunzlau, Chlumetz, Josephstadt, Klattau, Kcenig- 
 graetz, Nemoschutz, Nimburg, Pardubitz, Pilsen, Pisek, Podiebrad, Prague, 
 Tabor, Theresienstadt and Kladrub. 
 b “ About 20,000 hectolitres.” 
 
 * In the 14th century. 
 
 VOL. Ill— NO. 43. 6 
 
 small teeth ; the back is round and of a greenish black, the 
 belly of a bright green, and black spots are scattered over 
 the body. The fins are yellow, tipt with blue, and doited 
 with the same colour. The silurus has a voracious appe- 
 tite ; it seeks during the night, the spawn along the banks 
 of the rivers, or the carcases of birds and quadrupeds winch 
 the waters have thrown on the shores. A naturalist affirms 
 that the remains of children have been found in their sto- 
 mach/ As it is slow in its motions, and as its fins arc short, 
 it seldom overtakes its prey by swimming ; it is probatily on 
 that account that it remains always during the day under 
 stones or the roots of trees, or in holes. Concealed by the 
 ooze, its dark colour renders it invisible to the other fish ; 
 its whiskers 5 6 * appear above the mud, and in their movements 
 and size, have some resemblance to worms ; the small fish 
 are attracted by the bait, but as it keeps its mouth open, 
 they are not aware of the danger, until it is too kite to escape. 
 The silurus grows slowly, and its life is consequently of long 
 duration ; it is taken by the hook and the spear ; the flesh 
 of the animal is white, soft and fat, but difficult of digestion. 
 
 It is difficult to examine any mineralogical collections 
 without being convinced of the fact that Bohemia abounds 
 in minerals. It is in the chain of the Erz-Gebirge that the 
 most extensive works are carried on, while in the south- 
 western part of the country, the mines so celebrated in 
 ancient times, are now wholly exhausted. The only tin 
 mines in Bohemia and in the whole Austrian empire are 
 situated on the declivities of the Erz-Gebirge ; their pro- 
 duce does not amount annually to more than nine thousand 
 quintals. Attempts have lately been made to work some 
 gold mines at the base of the Riesen-Gebirge. More than 
 eight centuries ago, the district of Kaurzim was so rich in 
 that metal, that about the year 998, the single mine of To- 
 balka, yielded ten thousand 11 marks of gold. It is admitted 
 however, that the experiments, which have been hitherto 
 made, have not corresponded with the expectations of the 
 miners ; still the gold washings on the banks of the Eule, 
 the Sazawa, the Wottawa, the Lesnitz and other rivers, 
 which flow through alluvial lands, are continued with some 
 success. The silver mines in the district of Tabor, on the 
 side of the Moravian mountains, are not productive. Several 
 copper mines are situated in other districts, but they are 
 not so productive as the lead mines, although the produce 
 of the latter does not exceed seven or eight thousand quin- 
 tals. The silver mines yield annually about two thousand 
 four hundred marks. The iron mines are without doubt 
 the most important of any in the kingdom; they are worked 
 in almost all the mountains, and the quantity of forged iron 
 thus obtained, is not less than two hundred thousand quin- 
 tals. Zinc, arsenic and mercury are obtained in different 
 parts of the country ; coals are abundant, and the salt 
 springs are sufficiently productive to supply not only Bohe- 
 mia but lower Austria. 
 
 It is sufficient to mention among the numerous mineral 
 springs in the country, those of Toeplitz, Carlsbad and 
 Sedlitz, which are so celebrated that it may be necessary 
 to enter into some details concerning them. The waters of 
 Toeplitz are saline, ferruginous and alkaline ; their tempera - 
 
 rt J. M. Lichtenstern, Umriss einer Geographisch-statistischen Schilde- 
 
 rung des Koenigreichs Bcehmen. 
 
 e Principally in the districts of Bidschow, Kceniggrsetz, Bunzlau, Saatz, 
 
 Leitmeritz, Prachin and Rakonitz. 
 
 f M. Bose, Membre de 1’Academie des Sciences. 
 
 6 The filaments of its beard. 
 
 h “ About 100,000.” 
 
42 EUROPE. [book cxxv. 
 
 ture is 117° of Fahrenheit. A German naturalist 1 has en- 
 deavoured to explain the formation of the seven springs at 
 Carlsbad. As their temperature is very high, he supposes 
 that in the granite in the vicinity, chemical and galvanic 
 effects are taking place, which by the action of non-mineral 
 water, account for the formation of these warm springs. 
 According to the same author, the river Tepel supplies this 
 natural laboratory ; he founds his opinion on a well known 
 fact, namely, that the springs are not so abundant in dry as 
 in rainy weather, and also on the fact that gas bubbles often 
 escape from the waters of the river. Other naturalists at- 
 tribute the heat of the springs to central fires in the earth. 
 It seems to be generally admitted that we are not in posses- 
 sion of sufficient facts to enable us to explain these pheno- 
 mena. It may be remarked that according to the analysis 
 of a distinguished chemist, b the waters of Carlsbad contain 
 a great quantity of sulphate and carbonate of soda. It has 
 been observed too by an eminent physician,® that they may 
 be used with success in hysterical and hypochondriacal 
 diseases. The purgative waters of Sedlitz which are ex- 
 ported to every country in Europe, are used perhaps with 
 greater success than the last in the same complaints. They 
 are so well known that it is needless to describe their pro- 
 perties, or to state that they are clear and limpid, and of a 
 salt and bitter taste. It appears from their chemical analy- 
 sis that they contain sulphate and carbonate of lime and 
 magnesia, as well as carbonic acid gas. d 
 
 It has been already observed that various rare minerals 
 are met with in Bohemia. Some of the precious stones that 
 are used in the arts, are also found in the country. Of these, 
 the garnet, the ruby, the sapphire, the amethyst, the hya- 
 cinth, and the topaz, are employed by the lapidary ; jas- 
 pers, carnelians and calcedonies are used for different pur- 
 poses. Different kinds of stone well adapted for building, 
 together with marble and serpentine, are common in many 
 parts of the country. Good millstones are obtained in other 
 places, and also a sort- of schistus that is converted into ex- 
 cellent whetstones, and kaolin that is used in the manufac- 
 ture of porcelain. 
 
 Industry has made rapid advances in Bohemia within the 
 last twenty years ; more than six hundred thousand pieces of 
 linen are annually obtained from its manufactories, and they 
 are sold for more than nine millions of florins. The produce 
 of the tan-works may be estimated at nearly twa millions 
 two hundred thousand florins ; the value of the hats made in 
 the country, at nine hundred thousand ; and that of all the 
 different manufactured articles at more than twenty-three 
 millions, while the total value of the raw materials is not 
 equal to a fourth part of the same sum ; thus in that single 
 class of products there is a profit of about sixteen millions of 
 florins, which is divided among the workmen, the manufac- 
 turers and the merchants. It may be worth while to men- 
 tion an important manufactory of lace and blond, which 
 has been established at Hirschenstand in the circle of Eln- 
 bogen for more than forty years. It. furnishes employment 
 to about eight thousand individuals, and the annual produce 
 of their industry is estimated at two hundred and eighty 
 thousand florins. The greater part of this manufacture is 
 disposed of in the Austrian territories ; the rest of it is ex- 
 ported to Saxony. From that kingdom, the fine thread is 
 
 1 Goethe, Naturwissenschaft, v. VI. p. 211. 
 b Berzelius. 
 
 c M. Alibert, Precis historique sur les eaux minerales les plus usitees 
 en medicine. 
 
 obtained, while Austria furnishes the common thread and 
 the silk. 
 
 It is only necessary to make one or two remarks on the 
 commerce of Bohemia, to account for the jealousy and 
 hatred which subsist against the Jews. The inhabitants re- 
 proach them, because they never follow any trade or occu- 
 pation in which manual labour is required. But there is 
 little doubt, if they were to do so, that they would be as 
 much detested by the working classes, as they are at present 
 by the mercantile class of the community. The Jews them- 
 selves seem to be aware of that circumstance, and besides, 
 as most of them have numerous families, how could they 
 be able to maintain their children during a long apprentice- 
 ship 1 They are all brokers or money agents, a profession 
 much more easy than any other, and one which does not 
 require a previous training or apprenticeship ; the example 
 of the father suffices for the son. It has been said, that in 
 whatever part of Bohemia the Jews are numerous, the 
 manufacturers are sooner or later ruined. If the statement 
 be correct, it proves merely the want of foresight, or im- 
 providence of the manufacturers. It is probable, that in 
 Bohemia, as in every other country, many manufacturers 
 begin business without a sufficient capital to carry it on. If 
 the tradesman cannot fulfil his engagements with the Jew, 
 but is obliged to give instead of money, his manufactures at 
 a loss, he is very likely to be soon ruined ; but ought his mis- 
 fortunes to be attributed to the Jew 1 The one sells his 
 money at as dear a rate as he can, and the other is as eager 
 to sell his manufactures or merchandise at the highest price. 
 The great law of commerce is equally applicable to them 
 both. 
 
 Bohemia exports not only the products of its manufac 
 turing industry, but those of its agriculture, such as grain 
 pulse and fruits, as well as the surplus timber that its forests 
 yield, are exchanged for colonial produce, sufficient to sup- 
 ply the wants of the people. The countries with which it 
 maintains direct commercial intercourse, are Prussia, 
 Saxony, the grand dutchy of Baden and Bavaria. The 
 produce of its fisheries, after supplying the consumption of 
 the country, is chiefly exported to Austria. Nothing per- 
 haps tends more to keep up the commerce of the country, 
 than the annual fairs in different towns ; the most impor- 
 tant are held at Prague and Pilsen. 
 
 Goods are transported on the Elbe, the Moldau and the 
 Eger, in boats that carry from three hundred to twelve 
 hundred quintals. The navigation against the current, is 
 often effected by the assistance ol sails, while the north 
 and north-east winds prevail in the countries that are water- 
 ed by the Elbe. If a projected canal which is to open a 
 communication between the Danube and the Moldau, weie 
 finished, Bohemia might derive great advantage from it, and 
 as much perhaps if the principal roads were completed, 
 which it is at present proposed to extend. It is certain that 
 in 1817 their total length was not more than eight hundred 
 and fifty' English miles.® 
 
 From the details into which we have entered, the reader 
 may form a correct idea of Bohemia ; the principal towns 
 in the same country are yet to be described. 
 
 Prague, the capital, is situated almost in the centre of the 
 kingdom. Four quarters extend along the banks of the 
 
 d F. Hoffmann, De acidularum et thcrmanini usu et abusu. Sec also 
 the analysis of them by Neumann. 
 
 * “ 350 leagues.” 
 
BOOK CXXV.J 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 43 
 
 Moldau, which traverses the city ; on one side are built the 
 Old and the New Town, and on the other, Kleine-Seite or 
 the Little Quarter, 3 and Hradschin or the Upper Town. 
 The population amounts to eighty-four thousand inhabi- 
 tants, and the number, of houses to three thousand four 
 hundred. The situation of Prague has been much ad- 
 mired, as well on account of the Moldau, which is about 
 five hundred and sixty yards in breadth, as of the beauty 
 of the neighbouring country, and the distant views of the 
 mountains of Schwein and Petrin, that partly bound the 
 horizon. The town occupies a great extent of ground ; it 
 cannot be less than twelve miles in circumference. 11 Each 
 quarter has its curiosities ; in the Old Town, the stranger 
 may observe a bridge over the Moldau, about eighteen hun- 
 dred feet in length, supported by sixteen arches, adorned 
 with twenty-eight statues of saints, and built by the Empe- 
 ror Charles the Fourth in the year 1338. The public build- 
 ings in the same quarter, are the Carolin or ancient univer- 
 sity, founded in 1371, the townhouse remarkable for an 
 astronomical clock, the work of the celebrated Tycho- 
 Brahe, the church of Thein, in which is contained the 
 mausoleum of the same great astronomer, the fine church 
 of the Holy Cross, the museum of natural history, and the 
 observatory. The streets in the New Town are broad and 
 well built ; on an eminence are observed the ruins of the 
 Wischerad, an ancient castle that belonged to the kings of 
 Bohemia ; another townhouse is situated in the same quar- 
 ter ; the Hussites threw thirteen members of the municipal 
 council out of its windows. The Kleine-Seite or Little 
 Quarter is still better built than the last ; it may be remark- 
 ed for its fine houses, the church of Saint Nicholas, and the 
 palace of Wallenstein. But in point of situation, the 
 Hradschin or Upper Town is finer than any other quarter; 
 it is adorned by the royal castle, the building of which was 
 continued at intervals for several centuries, and was at last 
 completed by Maria Theresa ; the Dome or cathedral, a 
 model of Gothic architecture, rises near the same edifice. 
 Prague possesses a great number of public buildings, many 
 charitable and useful institutions, and several scientific col- 
 lections and libraries ; the library belonging to the univer- 
 sity, contains a hundred and thirty thousand volumes, and a 
 manuscript of Pliny. 
 
 It is believed that Prague stands on the site of Marobu- 
 dum, an ancient town of the Marcomanni, so called from 
 their king Marobod or Maroboduus. Ruined by the inva- 
 sion of the barbarians, it was rebuilt by the Slavonians about 
 the year 611 ; it had become an important town in 723 ; 
 its population was very great during the fifteenth century, 
 and not less than forty-four thousand students are said to 
 have attended its university. But the persecution raised 
 against John Huss, c who was born in the town, and- the 
 revolt of the Hussites were fatal to the university ; it is not 
 attended at present by more than a few hundred students. 
 Among the different articles manufactured at Prague, are 
 hats, linen and cotton goods, silk and woollen stuffs, Russia 
 leather, nitric acid and glass. 
 
 It is unnecessary to describe minutely the other towns in 
 Bohemia ; none of them are sufficiently important to re- 
 quire a detailed account. Jung-Bunzlau, a small town, 
 built in 973, on the left bank of the Iser, byBoleslaus d the 
 Second, contains three thousand six hundred inhabitants, 
 wealthy from their industry and commerce. The small 
 
 manufacturing town of Reichstadt is the appanage of 'Na- 
 poleon’s son. Leitmeritz, a well built town, does not con- 
 tain more than three thousand five hundred individuals, and 
 the fortress of Theresienstadt in the neighbourhood, com- 
 mands a small place of a thousand inhabitants. Lippa is 
 noted for its cloth and woollen manufactures, and more 
 glass is made at Kamnitz than in any other town in the 
 kingdom. The famous village of Warnsdorf, the largest 
 of any in Bohemia, and from its industry more important 
 than many towns in the same country, contains eight hun- 
 dred houses and some fine public buildings. The two thou- 
 sand three hundred inhabitants of Tceplitz are enriched by 
 the produce of its mineral springs. Saatz (Bohemian, Za- 
 tecz,) on the right hank of the Eger, is peopled by three 
 thousand eight hundred persons ; it was founded in the year 
 718 by a wealthy Bohemian noble, the count of Schwach. 
 Carlsbad, celebrated for its pins, needles and cutlery, and 
 still more so on account of its mineral waters, contains two 
 thousand five hundred inhabitants. It is surrounded by 
 forests and high mountains ; according to report, the springs 
 which now constitute its wealth, were discovered while the 
 emperor Charles the Fourth was enjoying the chase ; one 
 of the dogs had fallen into a boiling pool, and its cries 
 awakened the attention of the royal party ; from that cir- 
 cumstance the value of the water, and its salutary effects, 
 were soon afterwards made known. Eger, a town of 
 eight thousand five hundred inhftbitants, carries on a trade 
 in cotton, linen, and hemp. Pilsen, which is as populous, 
 is enriched by its cloth manufactories and its four annual 
 fairs. Pisek is supposed to be the best built town in the 
 kingdom. Budweis contains a gymnasium, an arsenal and 
 six thousand inhabitants. Tabor stands on a height, and 
 was formerly fortified ; it was celebrated during the wars of 
 the Hussites. KceniggrEetz, an agreeable town of six thou- 
 sand inhabitants, was at one time more populous ; it was 
 fortified by Maria Theresa, and is at present the metropo- 
 lis of a bishopric, and has several schools and scientific 
 collections. Such are the principal towns in Bohemia ; 
 the others are too insignificant to require notice. 
 
 There are many institutions in Bohemia, of which the 
 object is to diffuse instruction and knowledge. The num- 
 ber of elementary, preparatory and scientific schools may 
 be sufficient for the wants of the inhabitants ; the Jews too 
 have as many schools as they require ; nothing more is 
 wanted than that these institutions should be put under a 
 better management, that the methods of conveying instruc- 
 tion should be facilitated and improved. Several indivi- 
 duals have shown their zeal for the arts, by forming them- 
 selves into a society at Prague, and by collecting at their 
 own expense different object of arts that are deemed useful 
 in improving the taste of the young ; an academy too is 
 connected with the society, to which students recommend- 
 ed by the members are admitted. Another society has been 
 founded in the same town for the purpose of encouraging 
 and diffusing a taste for the study both of vocal and instru- 
 mental music. Seven hundred and eighty poor students, 
 who desire to devote themselves to the sciences or the 
 career of instruction, are gratuitously educated at the uni- 
 versity ; a fund of one million three hundred and thirty 
 thousand florins is reserved for that purpose. Prague pos- 
 sesses besides the only scientific society in the ancient pro- 
 vinces of the Austrian empire ; it holds a considerable rank 
 
 a Lesser Town. Ed. Encyc. Kleine Stadt (Little Town.) Busching. 
 b “ Circumference four hours” (stunden.) 
 
 r History of Bohemia, by ./Eneas Sylvius. 
 d “ Boleslaw.” 
 
44 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 among the different institutions of the same kind iiji 
 Europe. 
 
 The numerous charitable institutions in almost all the 
 towns may be mentioned to the honour both of the Bohe- 
 mian government and the wealthy classes in that country. 
 There are few places of any consequence without hospitals 
 for orphans, the infirm and the poor. The expenses con- 
 nected with these places of charity have been estimated at 
 2,180,000 florins, and the number of persons admitted into 
 them at more than 3,300. Many beneficent societies have 
 been formed, which administer at all times food to the indi- 
 gent, firewood and clothing during winter, and pecuniary 
 advances to work people and different individuals to whom 
 such advances may be useful. Other societies have been 
 established in the capital for the relief of widows, and re- 
 spectable persons in decayed circumstances, such as mer- 
 chants, lawyers and physicians. Different houses have been 
 built in the same place for affording accommodation to the 
 ■ndigent sick and women in childbed. Funds have been 
 raised for the relief of workmen, who have met with any 
 severe bodily injury, and whose families, but for these funds, 
 must have been left destitute. The most of these institu- 
 tions are conducted on an excellent plan, and those who 
 contribute to them are aware that their money is much bet- 
 ter laid out than if it were given in private or indiscriminate 
 
 [BOOK CXXV 
 
 charity ; it may be said indeed that those whom fortune has 
 enabled to mitigate the calamities of others, are not less dis- 
 tinguished by their judgment than by their zeal in the 
 cause of philanthropy. 
 
 The revenues of the kingdom amount to more than 
 twenty-five millions of florins ; the military force to more 
 than fifty thousand men, exclusively of the landwehr or militia. 
 The conscription has been long established in the country. 
 A German geographer 1 remarks correctly that there are 
 few countries which can be more easily defended in the 
 event of a foreign invasion. It may be observed without 
 entering into military details unconnected with our subject, 
 that it is naturally defended by its mountains, that an hos- 
 tile army could not advance without great difficulty, and 
 that the more numerous the army, the more easily could 
 it be harassed by troops scattered in different parts of the 
 country. The rivers, forests, mountains and ravines are 
 obstacles which diminish greatly the chances of a success- 
 ful invasion. But if the advantages which Bohemia derives 
 from its position, are of importance to the inabitants, they 
 are less so to the Austrian empire. The tactics adopted by 
 the European states, since Napoleon taught them both to 
 defend themselves and to attack others, might be employed 
 with success in a war against that monarchy. 
 
 * Liel'tens^rn. 
 
book cxxvi.] • DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. 45 
 
 BOOR CXXVI. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued. — Germany. — Tenth section. — Description 
 of Moravia and Austrian Silesia. 
 
 Moravia, or Maehren, as it is called in Germany, derives 
 its name from the Morawa, a river thus denominated by 
 the ancient Slavonians, but which the Germans call the 
 March. This province is entitled a county or margraviate, 
 and is politically united with Austrian Silesia. Both these 
 countries shall be separately described in the account of 
 their physical geography. The extent of the first is about 
 eighty-six miles from north to south, and a hundred and 
 twenty-eight from east to west. a It is bounded on the west 
 by Bohemia, on the south and the east by the archdutchy 
 of Austria and Hungary, and on the north by Silesia. 
 More than half the country is covered with mountains, 
 which in many places, particularly in the south, enclose 
 agreeable and fruitful vallies. The soil is elevated from five 
 to nine hundred feet above the level of the sea, and it inclines 
 principally towards the south. The March is the largest 
 river in the country ; it rises in the Sudetes, flows from north 
 to south, and receives most of the streams that descend from 
 the mountains. It joins the Danube at some leagues from 
 Presburg. 
 
 Strata of transition limestone are situated in the central 
 districts ; a great variety of rocks, not uninteresting from 
 their position, are observed in the mountains on the east, the 
 north, and the west. Among these there are several coal 
 deposits, less important, it is true, than the coal mines in 
 Bohemia, but which are worked however with profit in the 
 neighbourhood of Rossitz and Blawon, where they occupy 
 the lower part of a basin formed by gneiss. To the south 
 of the coal, the geologist may discover fresh water deposits, 
 characterised by the frequent occurrence of the fossil wood 
 called lignite. b 
 
 The Alt Vater rises in the chain of mountains' that 
 separates Moravia from Silesia ; from its height probably it 
 has been called the Old Father d of the Gesenke-Gebirge, 
 the summits of which join those of the Sudetes, which ex- 
 tend to a great distance towards the kingdom of Saxony. 
 From the same lofty mountain m^y be seen the long and 
 narrow province of Austrian Silesia, extending from south- 
 east to north-west. The length of it in that direction is 
 about an hundred miles, and the mean breadth not more 
 than twenty.® The Bischofskappe, one of the mountains 
 in the above mentioned chain, is about three thousand feet 
 in height ; from another, the Hungersberg, a lofty cataract 
 descends. 
 
 a “ 36 leagues from north to south, and 54 from east to west.” 
 b See the Memoir by M. Riepl, (Annales de l’Institut Polytechnique 
 imperial et royal de Vienne.) c The Gesenke-Gebirge. 
 
 d The signification of the German name (Alt Vater.) 
 
 • “ Length 40 leagues, mean breadth 8 or 9 leagues.” 
 
 The country on the northern side of the Gesenke-Gebirge 
 is higher than any other part of the two Silesias. Valuable 
 mines of gold and silver were at one time worked there ; the 
 most productive were situated on the Hackelberg. Ac- 
 cording to a tradition, the Mongols destroyed in 1421 not 
 only the men who were employed in working these mines, 
 but most of the miners in Silesia. Repeated attempts have 
 since been made to open them, but they do not appear to 
 have been attended with much success. 
 
 The Austrian province of Silesia has been often visited 
 by geologists ; it contains, indeed, sufficient to indemnify 
 them for their labour. On the sides of the Sudetes, the 
 Gesenke-Gebirge, and a part of the Carpathians, may be 
 observed several small detached basins, formed of sand- 
 stone, slaty clay, coal, argillaceous iron and porphyry ; 
 also metalliferous limestone, containing lead, iron and zinc, 
 the limestone called muschelkalk, a formation consisting 
 partly of clay, salt and gypsum/ argillaceous strata in which 
 different metals are found, and extensive alluvial deposits. 5 
 The" coal formations occupy a space of about thirty-two 
 leagues. Granite appears on all the higher points, but 
 gneiss and micaceous schistus are more common in the 
 lower parts of the mountains. Blue clay abounds in the 
 alluvial lands, and it is to that substance that the smooth 
 and level appearance of the Silesian plains must be chiefly 
 attributed.'* * 
 
 The Quadi, perhaps the most ancient inhabitants of 
 Moravia, were the neighbours and allies of the Marcomanni, 
 who, as we have already stated, made themselves masters 
 of Bohemia. The Quadi were the same people that 
 Strabo calls the Coldui ;* their history is very obscure until 
 the time of Caracalla, by whom Gaiobomar, their king, was 
 put to death. Tacitus makes mention of them in his 
 annals ; he informs us that the Suevi were placed by the 
 Romans between the March and the Cusus or Waag, and 
 that Vannius or Wann, one of the Quadi by origin, was 
 appointed king over them/ The above passage proves the 
 great antiquity of the name of the river, which the Slavo- 
 nians call at present the Morawa. The Quadi united with 
 the Marcomanni, and were sometimes formidable to the 
 Roman power. Domitian marched against them to punish 
 them for having assisted the Daci ; the Quadi proposed 
 peace, but the emperor rejected their conditions with dis- 
 dain ; after having been defeated, however, he was com- 
 pelled to make it on disadvantageous and humiliating terms. 
 The Quadi endeavoured several times to extend their terri- 
 
 f New red sandstone 1 
 
 s See the Memoir by M. Manes, (Annales des Mine=. 1825.) 
 h Oeynhausen, Versuch einer geognostischen beschreibung von Ober- 
 Schlesien. ' Strabo, Book VII. chap. 2. § 3. 
 
 k Tacitus, Book II. § 63. inter Marum et Cusum. 
 
43 EUR( 
 
 tory beyond the frontiers of Pannonia. a Marcus Aurelius, 
 in order to check their invasions, was obliged to station an 
 army of twenty thousand men amongst them. Their his- 
 tory exhibits a series of defeats and revolts until the time of 
 the emperor Nuinerian, who gained a decisive victory over 
 them. According to Mentelle, they possessed four impor- 
 tant cities : Eburodunum (Bria,) Eborum (Obruntz,) C 'de- 
 mentia (Kalinins,) and JWediostanium (Znaim.) 
 
 Beyond the Marcomanni and the Quadi, says Tacitus, b 
 were other less powerful tribes. In the number of these 
 tribes, he includes the Burii, who inhabited the country 
 which forms at present Austrian Silesia. They resembled 
 the Suevi in their manners and language. Ptolemy calls 
 them the Luti. c 
 
 The descendants of these nations founded in the seventh 
 century, the kingdom of Moravia, which extended to Bel- 
 grade ; the Slavonians directed their conquests to that 
 country, two hundred years afterwards, and Moravia was 
 joined to the kingdom of Bohemia. It then became a mar- 
 graviate ; but since the reign of Matthias, king of Bohemia 
 and Hungary in the fifteenth century, Moravia has not been 
 governed by separate margraves. 
 
 The Slavonians, three times more numerous than the 
 Germans, inhabit chielly the central districts, and the Ger- 
 mans, the mountains. The former are divided into several 
 branches ; the Ilannacks, the Straniacks, the Slowacks or 
 Charwats, the Iloracks or Podhoracks, the Podzulacks and 
 the JVallacks. The Hannacks derive their name from the 
 small river Hanna, and they differ from the other inhabi- 
 tants in their language, customs and dress ; their principal 
 wealth consists in their cattle and flocks. The Straniacks 
 inhabit the districts near the confines of Hungary. The re- 
 maining tribes may be easily distinguished from each other, 
 but the Wallacks are the most remarkable of any ; they 
 were not originally natives of Wallachia, as one might sup- 
 pose from their name, which appears to be derived from the 
 Waag or Waha, for they were formerly settled on its banks, 
 before they migrated to the western declivities of the Little 
 Carpathians. The Wallacks speak a Bohemian dialect, 
 and wear the Hungarian costume. Before the eighteenth 
 century, while immense forests of beech and maple trees 
 covered the mountains which they inhabit, they carried on 
 a lucrative trade in wood and tinder. d Now that the woods 
 have been cleared, they are obliged to devote themselves to 
 agriculture ; still however they collect the last substance, 
 but in place of exporting as formerly a hundred wagon loads 
 every year to Leipsick, not more than five or six are at pre- 
 sent sent there. The Wallacks are distinguished from their 
 neighbours by their cleanliness. They are brave in war, 
 tolerant in their religion, and strictly honest in the ordinary 
 transactions in life. 0 
 
 The Slavonic language, spoken by these different tribes, 
 is a corrupt branch of the Tchekhe or Bohemian. Although 
 it abounds in consonants, it is rich and harmonious, and 
 adapts itself easily in vocal music, to the different intonations 
 of the voice. The literature of the same language is more 
 ancient than the Polish/ Its principal monuments are a 
 hymn composed about the year 990 by bishop Adalbert, 
 the Bohemo-Latin psalter of Wittemberg, written in the 
 twelfth or thirteenth century, the poetic chronicle of Dale- 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CXXVI. 
 
 mil, which dates from the year 1310, and the translation 
 of the Bible. It was much cultivated by the scholars and 
 learned men in Bohemia, but many of their works were 
 burnt or destroyed during the religious and political wars 
 in the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. The study of 
 the language has been encouraged for the last twenty years 
 by the Austrian government, and in the course of the same 
 period many original Slavonic works have been printed 
 Two Slavonic newspapers and three or four literary jour- 
 nals are at present published. A work is now appearing 
 in numbers at Vienna, which is to consist of three hundred 
 ancient Slavonic songs, which have been collected in the 
 different circles of the monarchy. 
 
 The different dialects of the Bohemo-Polish, spoken by 
 the different Slavonic tribes, may still be distinguished, not 
 only in Bohemia, but in Moravia and Silesia, although 
 many German words have been introduced into them. 
 The Hannack is harsh in its pronunciation ; the Slowack 
 is divided into two sub-dialects, the Moravian Slowack, 
 which is spoken by the Slowacks and the Wallacks, and 
 the Silesian Slowack, differing principally from the former 
 by a mixture of Polish and German vocables ; both are 
 said to excel the other dialects in harmony and softness. 6 
 
 The German nation is also subdivided into four branches, 
 which are distinguished by the following names : the I loch- 
 landers or Silesians, who inhabit the Gesenke-Gebirge ; 
 the Kulihandlers, who occupy the eastern part of the coun- 
 try ; and the Paganers and the Schanhcmgstlers on the 
 eastern declivity of the Moravian mountains. 
 
 The other people that migrated at a later period to Mo- 
 ravia, are the Germans who settled in it during the thirty 
 years’ war, the Croatians, who are easily known from the 
 other inhabitants, in the seigniory of Diirnholm, the French 
 in the seigniory of Goeding, and the Jews in the different 
 trading towns. 
 
 When Joseph the Second established liberty of con- 
 science within his dominions, many appeared suddenly 
 throughout Moravia, who had preserved in obscurity the 
 doctrines of John IIuss, or the principles of Luther and 
 Calvin. The Moravian brethren, who had acted three 
 centuries before that period, an important part in Moravia 
 and Bohemia, but who since the reign of Ferdinand, had 
 continued, like the other protestants, under a system of 
 persecution, then appeared in great numbers. The Wal- 
 lacks exhibited in their mountains, the curious spectacle of 
 a people declaring against Catholicism, without being re- 
 solved to substitute any other worship in its place. Not 
 many years after the decree of Joseph the Second, more 
 than twenty thousand individuals followed publicly the rites 
 of the different protestnnt churches. Austrian Silesia may 
 be considered in some respects a dependence on the dio- 
 cese of Breslau, but it contains a great number of Luther- 
 ans. The protestant worship is under the direction of the 
 general consistory of Vienna, and the catholics acknow- 
 ledge as their spiritual chiefs, the bishop of Briinn, and the 
 archbishop of Olmiitz. 
 
 The climate of Moraviat, notwithstanding its elevation 
 above the level of the sea, is milder than in many other 
 countries under the same parallel. The vine is cultivated 
 with sufficient advantage beyond the forty-ninth degree. 
 
 a “ into Pannonia.” 
 
 1 De Moribus Germanorum, sec. 43. 
 ‘ Book II. Chapter XI 
 ■* Amadou, touchwood, agaric. 
 
 e Fiehtner, Mittheilungen der Michrisch-Schlesisch. Gescllschaft. 
 f What is here said of the literature of the language, refers more parti- 
 cularly to the language of Bohemia Proper. — P. 
 
 6 M. A. Balbi, Atlas Ethnographique. 
 
isook cxxvi.j DESCRIPTION 
 
 The greatest height of Reaumur’s thermometer is about 
 28°, but in some winters it has descended so low as 22° 
 below zero. The mean temperature of Olmiitz is about 
 7.3°. But the mountains are exposed to a much more 
 rigorous climate than the central districts; thus the har- 
 vests are five or six weeks earlier in Moravia than in the 
 mountainous country of Silesia. At Briinn, for instance, 
 the cherries are fully ripe in June, while they do not begin 
 to redden in Silesia before the first days of August. The 
 north-east wind is the most prevalent in the two provinces. 
 
 The country abounds in game and fish ; bees, poultry, 
 and the different domestic animals are very common. Cattle 
 form the principal wealth of the Silesians, who, although a 
 sober and industrious people, are not affluent. The corn 
 harvest in the two provinces are more than sufficient for 
 the wants of the population ; there is no scarcity of pota- 
 toes, different kinds of vegetables, anise, hops, hemp and 
 flax. The vine and many fruit trees are cultivated with 
 success, but of the latter the walnut is the most common. 
 
 The mineral productions of the country are very vari- 
 ous ; gold and silver, it has been remarked, were formerly 
 abundant, but iron and coal are the most profitable at pre- 
 sent. Alum, marble and different kinds of rocks are found 
 in many places, and worked with advantage. It ought to 
 be observed, however, that the water in most of the springs 
 in the country is neither wholesome nor agreeable to the 
 taste. With regard to the different branches of industry, 
 Moravia is one of the most important provinces in the Aus- 
 trian empire. It is unfortunate for its commerce that the 
 March is only navigable for vessels of a very small tonnage ; 
 the inhabitants are consequently obliged to transport al- 
 most all their merchandise by land. If communications 
 were opened or facilitated, the greatest benefit might result 
 from them ; in its present state, however, the revenue of 
 the country amounts to 7,200,000 florins. 
 
 The two provinces of Moravia and Silesia have been 
 considered as forming only one since the year 1783 ; they 
 are divided into eight circles. The rights and interests of 
 the country are protected by the states, the deputies of 
 which are divided into four classes, the clergy, nobility, 
 knights and deputies from seven royal towns. The empe- 
 ror convokes a general assembly of the states every year, 
 under the presidency of the governor, and after the close 
 of the session, a permanent deputation continues its sit- 
 tings, until the members are again assembled. 
 
 Briinn, the capital of the province, is situated at the 
 base of a hill, between the rivers Schwarzawa and Zwit- 
 tawa. It is worthy of its rank from its population, which 
 exceeds thirty-eight thousand inhabitants. The ancient for- 
 tifications have been partly demolished, and the rest are in 
 ruins ; the citadel only remains, and serves at present as a 
 state prison. The ancient convent of the Augustines is 
 now the place where the states assemble ; in their hall may 
 be seen the plough, with which Joseph the Second, after 
 the example of the Chinese monarchs, turned up a field in 
 the neighbourhood of Rausnitz. The Kraut Markt or 
 cabbage market has been considered the finest square in 
 Briinn ; it is adorned with a magnificent fountain. The 
 two most remarkable of the nine churches are those of St. 
 James and the Augustines in Mt Briinn or the old town. The 
 
 — s — i 
 
 OF GERMANY. 47 
 
 first of a light but bold Gothic architecture, is covered with 
 copper, and contains a great many statues; in the second 
 is observed a silver altar, surmounted with a picture of the 
 virgin, worthy of Cranach’s best days. A manuscript of 
 the fourteenth century is preserved in ihe church of St. 
 
 James ; it contains an account of the siege of Troy, taken 
 from two ancient Greek manuscripts at Athens, written by 
 eye witnesses of the siege. a The glacis has been transformed 
 into public walks. The Spielberg, a hill of eight hundred 
 feet in height, rises near the town ; part of it, called the 
 Frandzensberg, was formerly a Calvary. A marble obelisk 
 sixty feet in height, consecrated to the glory of the Austrian 
 armies, was erected in 1818 in the midst of a wood near the 
 arid rocks, which crown the Spielberg. These walks com- 
 mand an extensive view, and the spectator observes a t twelve 
 miles distance to the south-east, the field of battle, and the 
 village of Austerlitz. Briinn contains several hospitals, 
 schools and seminaries, an agricultural society, another of 
 natural history, b and a valuable museum, which has been 
 placed in the episcopal palace. The commerce of the 
 town consists principally in the sale of its hats, silks and 
 woollen stuffs. 
 
 The burgh of Buchlowitz, about four leagues to the east 
 of Austerlitz, contains a population of thirteen hundred 
 souls ; it is known from its sulphureous mineral waters. 
 
 The village of Luhatschowitz is situated in the mountains, 
 at a greater distance from the capital; its baths are much 
 frequented ; the fountains of Vincent and Armand are sur- 
 rounded with handsome buildings in the form of temples ; 
 many afflicted with rheumatism and cutaneous diseases re- 
 pair to them every year. The burgh of T olleschowitz de- 
 rives its wealth from its vineyards, which yield excellent 
 wine. Some ruins that may be observed in the neighbour- 
 hood,' are supposed to have been once inhabited by saint 
 Cyrillus, the first bishop of Moravia. The ruins of the 
 first church which was built by the same bishop may still 
 be seen at Hradisch. That town is the capital of a dis- 
 trict, and is situated in a fruitful plain, but exposed to the 
 frequent inundations of the March. It stands on an island 
 in the middle of the river, and contains fifteen hundred in- 
 habitants. Its position has rendered it necessary to erect 
 and keep up thirty-nine bridges, one of which is more than 
 three hundred yards in length. Hradisch was an important 
 fortress in the fifteenth century ; Matthias, king of Bohe- 
 mia and Hungary, besieged it several times without success. 
 
 Four sabres are deposited in the townhouse, which were 
 given to the city by king Wladislaw to commemorate the 
 bravery of the citizens. The market place is adorned with 
 a fine statue of the virgin. 
 
 The village of Strany on the mountain of Jaworzina, 
 is peopled by the Wallacks, that have been already men- 
 tioned ; they differ from the other inhabitants in their man- 
 ners, language and dress ; during festivals and holy days, 
 the people join in a national or characteristic dance, 0 in 
 which they wield their sabres with great dexterity. From 
 the top of the heights in the neighbourhood of Strany, which 
 form the frontiers of Moravia, a good eye can distinguish 
 at thirty leagues distance the tower ol St. Stephen. d 
 
 The commercial town of Nicolsburg rises in the midst 
 of a plain, near the southern extremity of the province ; it 
 
 , a The manuscript in the church of St. James is entitled : Liber historiae 
 1 rojanae, per magistrum Guidonem de columnis de Nessana, de Gneco 
 translatus in Latinum. Guido died in 1287 ; the copy of his MS. was not 
 written by himself, but by a German of the name of Grunhagen, as is 
 proved by the las. sentence in the work : Explicit historia seu chronica 
 
 Trbjanorum, scripta per Johannem Grunhagen, Anno Domini 1348, &c. 
 See Archiv. fur Geschichte, 1825. 
 
 b “ A society of agriculture and natural history.” 
 
 c Called the robber’s dance. d Rudolph Von Jenny. Hand- 
 
 buch fur reisende in dem GSsterreichischen Kaiserstaate. 
 
48 
 
 contains seven thousand inhabitants, nearly half of whom 
 are Jews. Znaim, a town of the same population, in- 
 cluding its three suburbs, is situated on the left bank of the 
 Taya, in a fruitful country, covered with rich vineyards. 
 The principal edifices are the court of justice, and the 
 church of St. Nicholas, remarkable for its fine Gothic ar- 
 chitecture. The chapter of Pceltemberg is separated from 
 the town by a deep valley ; it belongs to the knights of the 
 cross. Znaim possesses two convents and a gymnasium. 
 The burgesses wear a blue dress, and their wives are dis- 
 tinguished by their high bonnets trimmed with gold lace. 
 The burgh of Eisgrub is also built on the banks of the 
 Taya; at no great distance from it, is a rural castle, be- 
 longing to the prince of Lichtenstein ; the building is not 
 very large, but the park which surrounds it is watered by 
 the river, and laid out with much taste. 
 
 Iglau on the banks of the Igla, lies in the midst of the 
 Moravian mountains ; its population amounts to thirteen 
 thousand inhabitants , it has three parish churches, a con- 
 vent of Minorites, founded by Ottocar the Second, a 
 gymnasium and an hospital. Some fine paintings and seve- 
 ral ancient tombs are contained in the church of St. James. 
 The church that belonged to the jesuits, has been admired 
 for its paintings in fresco. A cemetery shaded with lofty 
 trees is the most frequented public walk in the town. 
 
 Trebitsch is encompassed with walls, and situated in a 
 deep valley on the banks of the Iglawa ; most strangers 
 admire the picturesque arrangement of its houses, the large 
 castle that commands it, its ancient parish church, and the 
 convent of the capuchins. The view from the summit of 
 the Mistkogel, a high mountain with a rounded summit, is 
 as fine as it is extensive ; one may observe from it a succes- 
 sion of rich and fruitful plains, extending to Nicolsburg ; 
 also the deep and gloomy valley of the Igla, the ruins of 
 Tempelstein, an ancient castle in which the well is said to 
 be five hundred yards* in depth, and on the left bank of the 
 Rokitna, the small town of Kromau, commanded by heights 
 covered with trees, so arranged as to exhibit the appearance 
 of a vast and verdant amphitheatre. Coal is not uncom- 
 mon in these mountains, and the working of it forms the 
 chief occupation of the fourteen hundred inhabitants in 
 Kromau. 
 
 A rugged and hilly road leads across the Moravian 
 mountains to Ingrowitz, a small town on the banks of the 
 Swartza ; although it does not contain more than eleven 
 hundred inhabitants, it possesses a considerable trade in 
 linen, and serves as a place of residence to the superintend- 
 ant of the reformed communities in Moravia. Mount 
 Prositschka rises at no great distance from the town ; it 
 was there that the ancient Slavonians went to worship their 
 gods ; its summit is often obscured with clouds before rain, 
 and on that account it has been called the Weather-glass 
 by the country people. b When the sky is serene, the view 
 from it extends to Koeniggraetz in Bohemia. 
 
 Olmiitz was the ancient capital of Moravia ; its fortifi- 
 cations, which are still in good repair, and its citadel, which 
 was the prison-house of Lafayette, render it an important 
 place in time of war. The population, together with that 
 of the five suburbs, amounts to thirteen thousand inhabi- 
 tants The town is well built, provincial courts are held 
 
 1 “ Aunes,” ells. 
 
 [BOOK CXXVt 
 
 in it, and it is the residence of the archbishop. The lyceum 
 and the other schools are numerously attended, and the 
 charitable institutions are managed with great care. The 
 public fountains, remarkable for their elegance, reflect 
 much credit on Donner, the sculptor. The townhouse is 
 the finest edifice ; the lyceum possesses a library of fifty 
 thousand volumes, a valuable collection of natural history, 
 a nd another of philosophical instruments. The people show 
 the place where the emperor of Austria had an interview 
 with Napoleon a short time before the battle of Austerlitz. 
 Several manufactories have been established in Olmiitz, 
 and it carries on an extensive trade in cattle with Poland 
 and Russia. Some antiquarians think it probable that the 
 town is the same as the one which Ptolemy designates by 
 the name of Eburum. 
 
 The March, which waters Olmiitz, descends towards the 
 south, and traverses the plain in which Kremsier, the resi- 
 dence of the archbishop in the summer season, and one of 
 the finest towns in the province, is situated. Nothing can 
 exceed the magnificence of the castle appropriated by the 
 prince of the church ; galleries of paintings, scientific col- 
 lections, libraries, gardens embellished witti fountains and 
 cascades, correspond with the architecture of the edifice. 
 The population of the town is not more than four thousand 
 souls. Prerau on the Betschwa, though still less populous, 
 is one of the most ancient towns in the country ; within its 
 walls may be observed a very large building, which belonged 
 formerly to the templars. Weiskirchen, peopled by five 
 thousand inhabitants, is situated at a short distance from 
 the Betschwa ; it is visited by the strangers that resort to 
 the baths at Toeplitz about a mile and a half distant, a 
 place that must not be confounded with Toeplitz in Bohe- 
 mia. A precipice four hundred and fifty feet in height, rises 
 near the thermal springs, and a pool of mineral water ex- 
 tends below it. 
 
 Such are the principal towns in Moravia ; we shall now 
 proceed to enumerate the most important places in Austrian 
 Silesia. Jaegerndorf rises in a fruitful valley, at the foot of 
 the Buzberg, on the northern side of the mountains that 
 separate the two provinces. It is encompassed with walls, 
 and depends on a dutchy belonging to the prince of Licht- 
 enstein. The mountain that commands it, on the summit 
 of which, a large church has been erected, is often visited 
 by botanists. The town contains four thousand seven hun- 
 dred inhabitants. Troppau is a strong place with a popu- 
 lation of ten thousand souls ; it is well built, and the streets 
 are broad and straight ; the public buildings are the ancient 
 townhouse, a theatre, several churches, and the ducal castle 
 of Lichtenstein. It contains different manufactories, but 
 its trade consists principally in soap. Teschen, a town of 
 six thousand inhabitants, is situated on the declivity of the 
 Carpathians, in a country covered with forests and pastu- 
 rage. Weichsel or Vistula, a village to the south-east of 
 the last place, stands in a valley, remarkable for a cataract, 
 which descends from the height of two hundred feet ; the 
 springs that supply it, are the sources of the fine river that 
 traverses Poland. Lastly, Bilitz on the frontiers of Galicia, 
 is noted for its cloth manufactories; it contanis five thousand 
 inhabitants, and not fewer than the half of them' are em- 
 ployed in making cloth. 
 
 b “ it serves as a barometer to the country people.” c “ 3300 * 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
hook cxxvn. I 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 
 BOOK CXXVIL 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued. — Germany. — Eleventh Section. — Arcli- 
 dutchy of Austria. 
 
 The country about to be described, is mostly enclosed by 
 the different possessions of the Austrian empire, an empire, 
 extending over a number of nations, foreign to each other, 
 governed by the same sovereign, but according to different 
 laws. The inhabitants in some possessions lately added to 
 Austria, attach no meaning to the word patriotism ; passive 
 obedience is considered their only duty ; in others, that obe- 
 dience may be attributed to fear rather than to ignorance ; 
 the hope of independence still cheers them, and their most 
 earnest desire is to throw off the yoke. The former having 
 submitted to a despotic government for ages, know no other 
 blessing than repose, and have no other wish than to in- 
 crease their wealth, and by that means, their temporal en- 
 joyments ; the latter, jealous of their independence, are apt 
 to suppose they have preserved it, because their countries 
 are entitled dutchies or kingdoms. All, in short, are more 
 effectually separated from each other by their manners, 
 customs and language, than by the chains of mountains 
 which divide them. 
 
 The archdutchy of Austria is bounded on the west by 
 Bavaria, on the north by Bohemia and Moravia, on the 
 east and the south-east by Hungary, and on the south by 
 the dutchy of Stiria. The superficial extent of the country 
 is about seven hundred and eight German square miles. a 
 It is divided by the Ens into two nearly equal parts ; the 
 one situated on the left of the river is styled the government 
 above the Ens, and the other on the right, the government 
 below the Ens. h 
 
 The mountains in the south of Bohemia and the Noric 
 Alps form a large and fruitful valley, which the majestic 
 Danube traverses from west to east. Branches of these 
 mountains extend to the banks of the river ; they enclose 
 a great many vallies and small plains, and render the coun- 
 try one of the most agreeable and romantic in Europe. 
 The heights of the Mannhartsberg, and the chain of the Grei- 
 ner- Wald are not very lofty ; but those which extend to the 
 south of the Danube, rise to a great height, and some are 
 covered with eternal snow. 0 
 
 a According to Max Fred. Thielen, it is equal to 7O8- i 6 - 0 - German, or 
 nearly 8503 English square miles.* * 
 
 * “ 1970 geographical sq. leagues Fr.” 
 b Germ. Land, ob der Ens and Land unter der Ens. 
 c The height of the principal summits in the Noric Alps, has been al- 
 ready mentioned, in the general table of European altitudes ; but there are 
 several lofty mountains on the frontiers of the archdutchy, which may be 
 specified . 
 
 Oil the west or above the Ens. 
 
 The Hochhorn .... 10,6fi7 feet.t 
 
 The Dachstein .... 9,285 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 43. 
 
 It may be remarked, that the mountains which extend 
 from Vienna to the calcareous chain of the Alps, particu- 
 larly those of Thomasberg and Meyersdorf, contain several 
 deposits of coal, which are accompanied with argillaceous, 
 calcareous and quartzose sandstones, and with slaty clay 
 and marl, containing marine shells and the impressions of 
 plants. Coal is likewise found at the foot of the Alps, in 
 the valley of the Ens. d On the east of the same river, 
 formations of different characters and periods, contain 
 mines of iron, lead, silver and coal. The lofty district of 
 Monasberg is covered in several places with alluvial depo- 
 sits. The number and height of the mountains on the west 
 of the Ens, render the neighbourhood of Salzburg, and the 
 country of Berchtesgaden, more interesting to the geolo- 
 gist. They form part of the Noric Alps, and are composed 
 of granite, sandstone and limestone. Quartz, garnets and 
 other precious stones, amianthus, marble, rock-salt, feld- 
 spar and serpentine, as well as most of the metals, are 
 found at different elevations. The calcareous mountains 
 seem. to be loftier than the granite mountains, and the illu- 
 sion is partly occasioned by their steep and rapid declivities. 
 But without having recourse to the barometer, it is not dif- 
 ficult to discover that the granite mountains appear lower, 
 merely because they are seen from a greater distance ; in- 
 deed at the approach of winter, they are always first cover- 
 ed with snow. 
 
 The calcareous mountains are much more interesting to 
 the botanist, on account of their abundant and varied vege- 
 tation. The cause of so many plants may be attributed 
 to their geological structure, and particularly to the compa- 
 rative lowness of their elevation. Lichens and almost all 
 the cryptogamic plants are nowhere observed, while the 
 schistous and granite mountains are covered with them ; in 
 the first, springs and streams are very rare ; in the others 
 they are very abundant, and the noise of the cataract is 
 often heard amidst precipices, steep rocks and narrow val- 
 lies. The land rises gradually from north to south in the 
 country of Salzburg, and if the level of the lowest plains be 
 compared with that of the highest summits, (for instance, 
 the Wisbachshorn,) the difference will be found to be great- 
 
 The Hoher Kreuzberg 
 
 8,726 
 
 The Gradstein .... 
 
 8,598 
 
 The Grosser Priel 
 
 8,580 
 
 The Kopper Kehr Stein 
 
 7,734 
 
 On the east or below thv tens. 
 
 The ffitscher .... 
 
 6,062 feet. 
 
 The Wechselberg 
 
 5,574 
 
 The Huthwisch 
 
 2,716 
 
 t The measurements here given are those of the original. 
 d See the Memoir by M. Riepl, (Annales de l’Institut Polytechnique 
 de Vienne, Tome II.) 
 
 7 
 
50 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXVII. 
 
 er than ten thousand feet. a A belt of land extends from 
 east to west, to the north of Salzburg, through the whole 
 length of the archdutchy ; it is compos' d of tertiary sand- 
 stone 1 ’ and plastic clay, and reposes on a belt of alpine 
 limestone, to which succeed strata of argillaceous schistus, 
 that are supported in their turn by micaceous schistus and 
 the other rocks of the Alpine chain. 
 
 Extensive marshy lands and several well known mineral 
 springs appear on the east and the west of the Ens. Dif- 
 ferent lakes and ponds are situated in the part of the arch- 
 dutchy above the same river. The two most important 
 are the Atter, which is 7288 jochs or Austrian acres in su- 
 perficial extent, and the Traun, which although not more 
 than 3,777, is better known than the other, from its pic- 
 turesque situation and the beauty of the neighbouring dis- 
 tricts. 
 
 The greatest rivers tributary to the Danube, are the 
 March on the north, and on the south the Ens or the an- 
 cient Anisus, of which the course may he about a hundred 
 and twenty-eight miles,' and the Traun which issues from 
 a small lake in the Noric Alps near Aussee, traverses the 
 lakes of Hallstajdt and Traun, and falls near Lambach in 
 the form of a cascade over rocks sixty feet in height. The 
 latter river has a course of about seventy miles, d and a ca- 
 nal about three hundred yards 6 in length is carried round 
 the falls, so that its navigation is not interrupted. 
 
 Having thus described the position, and given a short 
 account of the archdutchy, it may be proper to mention its 
 ancient inhabitants. The lands between the Danube and 
 (he Alps, were, according to Ptolemy, inhabited by the 
 Ambilid and the Ambiclrani, who were tribes of the Norici. 
 The country was known to the Romans by the name of 
 Noricum. The districts round Vienna were included in 
 Upper Pannonia, and the left bank of the Danube was 
 peopled by the Norici and Quadi. The history of the No- 
 rici is very uncertain, but there is reason to believe that they 
 were governed by kings,- before they submitted to the Ro- 
 mans. Noricum became a Roman province under the 
 reign of Augustus ; it was considered of sufficient import- 
 ance to be divided into two parts ; the one nearest the Da- 
 nube, was called Noricum Expense, and the other, near and 
 beyond the Alps, was styled Noricum Meditcrraneimi. The 
 principal towms situated on the banks of the river, were 
 Boioduruvn, (at present Ilzstadt,) Laureacum (Lorch,) Pre- 
 date and Claudinium, the sites of which are unknown, 
 Ovilubis (Weis,) and Juvavum (Salzburg.) While the 
 Romans were powerful, the Quadi, Marcomanni and other 
 neighbouring nations respected the Norici, but they were 
 finally conquered by the Goths ; Alaric devastated their 
 country, which was afterwards laid waste by the Suevi and 
 the Heruli. 
 
 About the sixth century, the Avars or Avari, a people 
 originally from the vallies of the Ural, invaded and took 
 possession of a part of the archdutchy ; it is not improbable 
 that they founded there a kingdom, towhich the more western 
 nations gave the name of CEsterreich or the eastern king- 
 dom. Charlemagne made himself master of it, and divided 
 it into several counties. The frequent incursions of the 
 Midjars or Hungarians induced Henry the Fowler to erect 
 it into a margraviate in the year 928, of which the investiture 
 was bestowed on his nephew Leopold. Frederick Bar- 
 barossa changed it into a dutchy. It was again conquered in 
 
 * F. Ant. Von Braunc, Salzburg und Berchtesgaden. 
 
 b Mollasse. c “ Course 54 leagues.” 
 
 the thirteenth century by Ottocar the Second, king of Bo- 
 hemia ; but that prince having refused to render homage to 
 Rudolph of Hapsburg, then elected emperor, a war ensued 
 in which Ottocar was slain. The dutchy thus passed to the 
 descendants of Rudolph, who have since acquired the rank 
 and importance that are attached to the house of Austria. 
 Such was the origin of the family which courtly genealogists 
 have traced to the time of Noah’s ark, or at all events to the 
 daj r s of the Trojan horse. 
 
 The inhabitants have been so mixed by the invasions of 
 which Austria has been the theatre, that it is difficult to dis- 
 cover the shades by which they were formerly distinguished. 
 Some Slavonians, however, are found on the frontiers of 
 Moravia, in the country below the Ens. The descendants 
 of the Norici exhibit proofs of their ancient origin in the 
 country above the Ens. Their language differs from that 
 of the other inhabitants. The people in the district of Salz- 
 ach show in their customs and character, the remains of a 
 distinct race ; the most of them are honest and industrious. 
 
 The Austrian German, less pure than that which is spo- 
 ken in the centre of Germany, forms one of the Danubian 
 dialects. A Bavarian dialect is spoken in the country of 
 Salzburg, and many different varieties may be observed in 
 the rest of the archdutchy. All of them abound in dimi- 
 nutives, but none of them are so soft as the Bavarian. 
 
 The southern part of the country above the Ens, is higher, 
 and therefore colder than any other district in Austria ; the 
 grape arrives seldom at maturity. The climate is milder in the 
 valley of the Danube, and the air is every where pure and 
 wholesome. The rain that falls annually varies from twen- 
 ty-four to thirty inches, and the most frequent winds are the 
 west, the north-west and the east. The climate below the 
 Ens is temperate but variable ; Reaumur’s thermometer 
 never descends lower than — 19°, and does not ascend 
 higher than +29°. There are about twice as many fair as 
 rainy days throughout the year. 
 
 Although Austria is not exposed to the ravages of epide- 
 mic diseases, the mortality is, however, more considerable 
 than in the other possessions of the Austrian empire. The 
 number of deaths compared to the population is in the ratio 
 of one to thirty-four. The cretins, those beings both moral- 
 ly and physically degraded, are very numerous in the moun- 
 tains near Salzburg. 
 
 It has been already said that the Austrians are laborious, 
 and that the desire of increasing their wealth is observable 
 among all classes of society. For these reasons, agriculture 
 and industry are carried to a degree of perfection, which ap- 
 pears to be incompatible with the general but incorrect no- 
 tions concerning the indolence of the people. The country, 
 it must be admitted, consumes more grain than it produces, 
 but the insufficiency of the harvests in the governments , 
 above and below the Ens, ought to be attributed rather to 
 the quality of the soil, than to the ignorance of the husband- 
 men. Fruit trees are common on the left bank of the Ens, 
 and dried fruit forms a branch of exportation; but the or- 
 chards on the right bank of the river are more abundant 
 and more valuable ; it is believed too that the finest vegeta- 
 bles in the empire are produced in the neighbourhood of 
 Vienna. 
 
 If the climate be ill adapted to the growth of the vine in 
 the districts above the Ens, the culture of the same plant in 
 the rest of the country forms the most important source of 
 
 d “ 110 leagues.” 
 
 e “ 700 feet.” 
 
 J 
 
isook cxxvii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 agricultural wealth. The best wines are those of Mauer- 
 bac'n, Kloster-Neuburg, Feklsberg, Giuzing, Rcetz and Bi- 
 samberg. Hemp, flax, and saffron are cultivated with ad- 
 vantage in the country below the Ens, but as the lands do 
 not yield rich pastures, many cattle are not reared, indeed 
 the number is insufficient for the consumption of the inhabi- 
 tants. The forests have been long' neglected ; firewood is 
 consequently found to be too expensive for the poorer class- 
 es. The meadows in the country above the Ens are so 
 abundant that more fodder is raised in the government than 
 in any other part of the Austrian empire ; and although the 
 coldness of the climate compels the inhabitants to consume 
 a great quantity of wood, a considerable time may elapse 
 before it be necessary to introduce coal, or before the 
 forests which cover the mountains are exhausted. 
 
 Lower Austria is amply supplied with some domestic ani- 
 mals, a and although there may be a deficiency in cattle, it 
 it is admitted that the breed of sheep has been improved, 
 that the horses are strong and well made. The excellence 
 of the pastures in Upper Austria has led the inhabitants to 
 imitate the Swiss, in the care they bestow on their cattle and 
 dairy. The forests in that country afford shelter to wolves, 
 bears, chamois and different sorts of game. But as most of 
 the woods have been cut in Lower Austria, game has become 
 less common in that government. 
 
 The mines in the archdutchy are worked with much in- 
 telligence ; an author affirms, that if it were not the interest of 
 government to be sparing of fuel, Upper Austria might sup- 
 ply all the hereditary states in Germany with salt. b The salt 
 mines of Hallein produce nine hundred thousand quintals. 
 The district of Salzach, in mineral wealth perhaps more im- 
 portant than any other, furnishes every year three hundred 
 m irks of gold, seven hundred and twenty of silver, three 
 hundred and eighty quintals of copper, four hundred and 
 ninety of lead, fourteen thousand four hundred and sixty of 
 iron, ten of arsenic, and fifty-three of vitriol. Lower Aus- 
 tria derives from its mines thirty-four thousand quintals of 
 iron, and two thousand five hundred of alum ; the mines of 
 lead containing silver seem to be nearly exhausted, but the 
 coal mines are much more profitable than ever they were at 
 any former period ; their annual produce is about two hun- 
 dred and thirty thousand quintals. 
 
 On the left of the Ens, iron is more extensively manufac- 
 tured than any of the other metals ; it furnishes the means 
 of subsistence to more than fifty thousand families in the dis- 
 trict of Traun. There are also numerous manufactories of 
 woollen stuffs, linen and muslin. But the people in Lower 
 Austria are still more extensively engaged in manufactures ; 
 in that respect it surpasses all the other possessions of the 
 Austrian empire. Cotton mills,® linen, cloth, ribbon and 
 paper manufactories, founderies, iron, leather and glass 
 works are to be seen in many parts of the country. 11 A 
 geographer estimates their produce at eighty-five millions of 
 Austrian florins.® 
 
 It may be naturally inferred from so great a variety of 
 manufactures, that the commerce throughout the country 
 must be considerable ; almost the whole, however, is con- 
 centrated at Vienna. The metropolis, from its being the 
 residence of the court, from its position, and from its exten- 
 
 » “ Poultry.” 
 
 b Hassel’s Geography, (in Germ.) 
 
 c Lower Austria is the principal seat of the cotton manufacture in the 
 empire. (Hassel.) 
 
 a “ Cotton mills and cotton manufactories, tanneries, forges and 
 
 OF GERMANY. 51 
 
 sive credit, has long possessed the principal commerce of 
 Austria. Lintz, Salzburg, Steyer, Neustadt, Krems and 
 some other towns serve as intermediate stations to Vienna. 
 The value of the goods exported cannot be valued at less 
 than fifteen millions of florins ; the imports amount to the 
 same sum, and the amount of the transit trade may be es- 
 timated at five millions. It would be needless to inquire, 
 after the example of some authors, whether the commercial 
 balance, as it has been termed, is in favour of Austria ; be- 
 cause it is evident there must be always a balance between 
 the exports and imports of a state, since in every case an 
 equivalent value must be given for the articles imported. 
 Goods are conveyed by water on the Ens, the March and 
 the Traun, but most of all by the Danube ; many vessels 
 loaded with cargoes from a hundred and fifty to two hundred 
 tons may be seen on the last river. Merchandise is trans- 
 ported by land along eleven principal roads, three of which 
 in Upper Austria form a total length of three hundred, and 
 eight in Lower Austria of more than six hundred miles/ 
 
 The archdutchy exhibits in a religious point of view, as 
 well as in many others, that contrast between privileges 
 and restrictions which characterizes countries, where pre- 
 judice and caprice are substituted for justice and right. It 
 is not intended to throw any censure on the government, 
 but merely on the mass of the inhabitants. They showed 
 themselves under Joseph the Second, incapable of deri- 
 ving any advantage from the institutions and privileges 
 which that monarch was disposed to grant them. It is not 
 however the less singular to observe in the same province, 
 religious liberty established on one side, and intolerance on 
 the other. As in the other states of the empire, the catho- 
 lic religion is the prevailing form of worship, and the one 
 that has the most partisans in Lower Austria ; however, the 
 Greeks, Protestants and Jews enjoy equal protection, and 
 have their churches and synagogues ; while in Upper Aus- 
 tria, which contains twenty-four thousand Lutherans, who 
 are allowed the free exercise of their religion, the Jews are 
 not tolerated. 
 
 It is known, however, that the differences which exist be- 
 tween the liberties and the privileges of the provinces, de- 
 pend on the conditions that were stipulated at the time of 
 their union with the crown. The country below the Ens, 
 was originally the grand dutchy of Austria ; the country 
 situated on the other bank of the river, was annexed at a 
 later period. To the grand dutchy were attached impor- 
 tant privileges during the long continuance of the German 
 empire ; it is from these privileges, and as king of Bo- 
 hemia, that the Austrian emperor possesses the right of 
 presiding over the Germanic confederation. But accord- 
 ing to certain treaties, that have existed for nearly four 
 hundred years, the power of the sovereign is modified by 
 the states, which the emperor by his coronation oath binds 
 himself to maintain. These states are organized in the same 
 manner as those of Bohemia ; they consist of the high 
 clergy, the nobility and the deputies from some privileged 
 towns ; they are divided into a general assembly and a per- 
 manent commission, and can only be convoked by the sove- 
 reign. Assemblies of the same sort are held in Upper Aus- 
 tria, and the dutchy of Salzburg has its separate states. 
 
 founderies, glass-works, paper-mills, and manufactories of hats, cloth, rib- 
 bons and mirrors, are the principal manufacturing establishments.’ 
 e Lichtenstern’s Geography, (in Germ.) 
 
 f “ Total length in Upper Austria, 81 Germ, miles ; in Lower Austria, 
 twice that sum.” 
 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXVII. 
 
 Upper Austria is divided into five circles, and Lower 
 Austria into four. In the first, a supreme court 1 sits at 
 Lint/, and takes cognizance only of the causes of the nobles 
 and privileged classes ; three hundred and fifty-five inferior 
 tribunals decide the causes to which plebeians are parties. 
 Six hundred and twelve tribunals have been established for 
 the latter purpose in Lower Austria, while the nobles are 
 only amenable to the supreme court at Vienna, and the 
 common people can appeal to it against the decisions of 
 the other tribunals. Two councils of censors are held, the 
 one at Lint/, and the other at Vienna ; it is the duty of the 
 members to examine not only all the works published in 
 the country, hut such as are imported from foreign states. 
 
 The revenues of Upper Austria amount to about 
 .£750,000, and those of Lower Austria to nearly 
 .£2, 500, 000. b All classes, from the noble to the peasant, 
 
 are removed beyond the reach of poverty ; they may be 
 said to be affluent, when compared with the people in other 
 countries. The advocates of absolute power have attached 
 great weight to that fact, which proves merely that under 
 one despotic government, the nobles do not abuse their 
 privileges, and the people are protected by the impartial 
 administration of the laws ; in other words, that frugal and 
 industrious men amass wealth, wherever the right of pro- 
 perty is respected. But is man like the lower animals ? 
 has he no other enjoyment than that of satisfying his phy- 
 sical wants l has he no other desire than that of living in 
 obscurity or repose 1 If the Austrians are now happy un- 
 der a paternal sceptre, the time may perhaps come, when 
 they will envy the destinies of some states in Germany. 
 
 Vienna and that part of the Danube which separates 
 the town from the suburbs, are situated in the centre of a 
 fine and fruitful plain. Some travellers commend whatever 
 they see in foreign countries ; others, particularly the 
 French, blame whatever does not recal the customs and 
 neighbourhood of Paris ; it is necessary to avoid both 
 errors, in endeavouring to describe the large basin round 
 Vienna. Towards the north, the eye follows the different 
 branches of the river, whose broad and rapid course, toge- 
 ther with the vessels that cover it, embellishes and vivifies 
 the rich picture. Islands covered with trees, add to the 
 beauty of the landscape in the same direction. The sur- 
 face of the water opposite Vienna is about four hundred 
 and eighty feet above the level of the sea. The limits of 
 the basin on the east, are formed by heights covered with 
 houses, which unite with those that bound it on the south. 
 The basin becomes broader on the west, and extends to 
 the Mannhartsberg, the sides of which are covered with 
 forests ; on the north the eye wanders over a plain, the ex- 
 tent of which it cannot measure ; the heights on the south 
 are crowned with villages and country houses, surrounded 
 by verdant woods. The lofty summits behind these heights, 
 have from their distance a bluish tint, of which the different 
 shades are insensibly lost in the azure of the sky. 
 
 Vienna, in German Wien, was founded in 1142 by 
 Henry the First, duke of Austria ; it is at present the 
 largest city in Germany. It was so called from a small 
 river which traverses it, and throws itself into the Danube. 
 
 a “ Tribunal de premiere instance.” 
 
 b “Upper Austria 5, '200, 000 florins — Lower Austria 19,800,000 flo- 
 rins.” (Hassel, 1822.) 
 
 c “ 7 post leagues Fr.” — about 17 Eng. miles, which corresponds with 
 its extent in German geographical miles. — P. 
 
 d Circumference of Paris, 17 miles. (Morse.) Circumference of the 
 wall of Paris, 17 miles ; of the compact part of the city, 14 miles. (Ed. 
 Encyc.) — P. 
 
 The elevation of its surface is about four hundred and sixty 
 feet above the level of the sea ; its circumference, including 
 the different suburbs, is not less than three and a half Ger- 
 man, or twelve English miles.® Thus, in superficial extent, 
 it is nearly equal to Paris, d although the two towns are very 
 different in point of population, for Vienna does not contain 
 more than two hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants. The 
 town, properly so called, stands nearly in the centre of the 
 ground which all the buildings occupy ; it is encompassed 
 with ditches and ramparts, and communicates by twelve 
 gates with thirty-four suburbs, which are very extensive, 
 but are partly occupied by cultivated fields and gardens. 
 Encroachments however are every day making on the 
 fields ; indeed, more than six hundred new houses have 
 been built in the suburbs since the year 1826. Vienna no 
 longer resembles the town which the French have several 
 times entered victorious ; were those who had seen it ten 
 years ago to return at present, they might be ready to sup- 
 pose it a different place. It is long since the bastions and 
 the ramparts have been adorned with fine walks, and since 
 the Burg-Bastey and the Bastey of Rothenthurnf have 
 been embellished with excellent buildings/ on the glacis, 
 opposite the Burg, may be seen two gardens laid out with 
 much taste, one of which belongs to the court, and the 
 other to the public ; in the last is a temple, in which has 
 been placed an admirable statue of Theseus, the work of 
 C a nova. 
 
 The irregularity of the buildings in the interior of the 
 city indicates its antiquity. None of its eighteen squares 
 are very large ; its hundred and ten streets, though narrow 
 and crooked, are clean and well paved. The houses are 
 large, high and substantially built; the mean number of 
 inhabitants to each house exceeds forty persons, but some 
 of them contain many more. One house, for example, 5 is 
 inhabited by four hundred tenants, and it yields a rent of 
 sixty thousand florins, or nearly L‘7000. The ancient 
 burgess hospital/ now private property, is let to two hun- 
 dred families at a rent of a hundred and twenty thousand 
 florins. Most of the squares are adorned with fountains or 
 other monuments. The Hof is the largest and most regu- 
 lar ; it is decorated with bronze statues, cast by Fischer. 
 A colossal equestrian statue of the emperor Joseph the Se- 
 cond, also in bronze, decorates the square of Joseph. A 
 fountain, adorned with leaden figures representing the four 
 principal rivers in the archdutchy, has been erected in the 
 Neumarkt. But the Graben square, which is situated 
 near the centre of the town, is more frequented than any 
 other ; in an enclosure, are observed two fountains and 
 marble figures representing the trinity, perhaps the best 
 work of Strudel. The principal shops are situated in that 
 square and in the Kohlmarkt, a large and well built street 
 that leads to it. 
 
 Among the principal edifices in Vienna, may be men- 
 tioned the Burg, an imperial palace, in which are several 
 collections, consisting of minerals, objects of art, curiosities 
 and medals ; they are considered more valuable than most 
 other collections of the same kind in Europe. 1 The empe- 
 ror inhabits that part of the Burg which has been called 
 
 e The Bastion of the palace and the Bastion of Rosentlnimi. 
 
 r “ Coffee-houses.” — See Russel’s Tour in Germany, p. 377. 
 
 s The Trattner House. 
 
 h Burger-Spital — converted into dwelling houses by Joseph II. 
 
 > Among the antiquities are a great many bronze figures, statues, ana 
 jewels of different kinds, five hundred Etruscan vases, four hundred an 
 eient lamps, and thirty-two thousand gold and silver medals. 
 
KOOK CXXVII 
 
 ■] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. - 
 
 53 
 
 the Schweitzerhof. This palace, like the Tuileries, un- 
 worthy ot a sovereign, is surrounded with many public 
 buildings ; on one side is situated the ancient imperial chan- 
 cery, adorned with many statues, forming four groups of a 
 colossal size ; on the other, the imperial library, containing 
 three hundred thousand volumes, six thousand specimens 
 of early printing, and twelve thousand manuscripts’ * 1 at a 
 greater distance are the riding-school, a very elegant build- 
 ing, two assembly rooms b and the theatre of the palace. 
 The other buildings that may be mentioned, are the palace 
 of the duke of Saxe-Teschen, the mint, the chancery of 
 the court, the war-office, the Bohemian and Hungarian 
 chanceries, the townhouse, the palace of the archbishop, 
 the bank, the custom-house, the university, the chamber 
 of the states, and the two arsenals. In the town’s arsenal 
 in the Hof, is preserved the head of the grand vizier Kara 
 Mustapha, who commanded the Turkish army at the 
 blockade of Vienna in 1683, and was strangled at Belgrade 
 in the following year. In the great arsenal are to be seen 
 part of the dress worn by Gustavus Adolphus at the battle 
 of Lutzen, and the balloon, which, in consequence of the 
 observations made from it, enabled the French to gain the 
 battle of Fleurus. 
 
 The number of houses, in the town and suburbs, is equal 
 to seven thousand and fifty ; besides which there are a 
 hundred and twenty-three palaces, belonging to different 
 nobles, twenty-nine catholic churches, one reformed, and 
 one Lutheran church, two Greek churches, two syna- 
 gogues and seventeen convents, fourteen of which are for 
 men, and three for women. 
 
 The three principal churches are those of St. Peter and 
 fhe Augustines, and the metropolitan church of St. Ste- 
 phen ; the first is built after the model of the famous one at 
 R ome, and the cupola is covered with copper ; the se- 
 cond was finished in the year 1330, and it contains the 
 mausoleum of the grand dutchess Christina, a monument 
 that cost 20,000 ducats, and in which it is easy to discover 
 the genius and taste of Canova ; the hearts of the deceased 
 members of the imperial family are preserved in a chapel 
 adjoining the same building. The church of St. Stephen, 
 a fine Gothic edifice of the fourteenth century, is three hun- 
 dred and forty feet in length, two hundred and twenty in 
 breadth, and eighty in height. The tower rises about four 
 hundred and thirty feet above the ground ; it supports a 
 bell, weighing more than eighteen tons, c and made of the 
 cannon taken from the Turks, after they had raised the 
 siege of Vienna. The same building is adorned with 
 thirty-eight marble altars ; it contains the tombs of the em- 
 peror Frederick the Fourth and of several cardinals, and 
 also those of prince Eugene and the celebrated Schpissham- 
 mer, a physician, poet, orator, historian and philosopher. 
 
 The town communicates by thirty-nine bridges with Leo- 
 poldstadt and the suburbs on the left bank of the Danube. 
 Leopoldstadt, situated on an island, is exposed to the inun- 
 dations of the river. A fine walk, in which are planted dif- 
 ferent rows of trees, that terminate in a grove, serves as a 
 
 a In the same library are eight hundred volumes of engravings, and two 
 hundred and seventeen volumes of portraits. Among the manuscripts are 
 several Mexican hieroglyphics, which some future Champollion may per- 
 haps decipher ; a manuscript of Dioscorides, with plants on vellum, paint- 
 ed in the filth century ; the original of the senatus consultum by which 
 the Bacchanalia were regulated, A. R. 567 ; and lastly, Tasso’s manuscript 
 
 ol Jerusalem Delivered. 1 
 
 b Ridottos. . c 11 3 (J 7 quintals.” 
 
 . 1,1 t! ' e n p ht w ing of the gallery, are three hundred and twenty-five 
 
 pictures by the great Italian masters ; in the left wing, a hundred and 
 
 place of meeting for more than thirty thousand persons on 
 the anniversary of St. Bridget, the tutelar saint of the pa- 
 rish. . The quarter of Jaegerzeile on the same island, is 
 inhabited by the higher classes ; it is embellished by many 
 fine palaces and a theatre, and most of all by the Prater, a 
 magnificent walk, in which may be observed coffee-houses, 
 various places of amusement, panoramas, riding-schools, 
 and schools ol natation. At no great distance from it, is 
 situated the Belvedere, built by prince Eugene, but now 
 the property of the emperor, and remarkable for its gallery 
 of valuable paintings/ The large military hospital® and the 
 chapel belonging to it, are situated near the entrance to the 
 suburb of Landstrasse. The church of St. Charles, more 
 regular than any other in Vienna, adorns the suburb of 
 Wieden ; it was built by the emperor Charles the Sixth, to 
 fulfil a vow he had made, while the plague desolated the 
 city in the year 1713. The suburbs of Vienna, although 
 irregular, are finer than the town ; they seem almost to be 
 formed of palaces and gardens, but the streets, it must be 
 admitted, are ill paved, as the stones used for the purpose are 
 too small, and on that account are disagreeable to walkers. 
 
 It is unnecessary to enumerate all the places of public 
 or private instruction in Vienna ; it may be sufficient to 
 mention the most important. Whatever has any con- 
 nexion with the useful arts, the different kinds of industry, 
 and commerce, is taught in the polytechnic school. The 
 medical and surgical academy is remarkable for its organi- 
 zation and for the beauty of its edifice. Twelve hundred 
 students attend the university, and the lectures are deliver- 
 ed by seventy-nine professors. *The university library con- 
 sists of a hundred thousand volumes ; there are chairs of 
 anatomy, chemistry, physics and the different branches of 
 natural history. The oriental school was established in 
 orde'r to form interpreters, for the purpose of facilitating the 
 relations between Austria and the Porte. Besides these 
 schools, others have been instituted for the children of the 
 nobility. The fine arts are taught in the imperial academy, 
 and other seminaries are occupied with the application of 
 these arts to different products of industry. To these may 
 be added, the academy of engineers and the musical 
 school/ a normal school, a theological seminary, five col- 
 leges, and a protestont university that is ill attended, be- 
 cause the wealthier protestants prefer to educate their 
 children at home ; lastly, there are sixty schools for the 
 lower orders, and most of them are conducted on an ex- 
 cellent plan ; in the school of Neubaugasse, reading, wri- 
 tmg, arithmetic and drawing are taught gratuitously ; the 
 girls are instructed in needlework, and kept separate from 
 the boys ; corporal punishment has been abolished. Other 
 charity schools for the children of artisans are open on 
 Sundays from nine to eleven o’clock in the forenoon. The 
 daughters of the wealthier classes are educated in convents, 
 but an imperial seminary has been founded for the daugh- 
 ters of officers. The principal schools have their collections 
 or museums, by which the arts and sciences that are taught, 
 are illustrated. 
 
 ninety-five of the Flemish school ; and in the upper story, three hundred 
 and fifty-one of the ancient and modern German schools. In one of the 
 rooms is observed a fine Mosaic painting, representing the last supper bv 
 Leonardo da Vinci. 
 
 e “ H6tel des Invalides”- Invalidenhavs (Germ.) 
 
 _ f It is stated in the Wiener-Zeit (1825,) that a hundred and seventy- 
 five pupils ol both sexes attend the musical school. It contains a library- 
 consisting ot historical and theoretical works relative to music, a o-reat 
 many manuscripts on the same subject, and a very extensive collection of 
 ancient and modem musical instruments. 
 
54 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXV1I. 
 
 The charitable institutions are not less numerous ; the 
 most important may be enumerated. The hospital or 
 infirmary 3 in the suburb of Alster, b is remarkable for its 
 large dimensions and the great cleanliness with which it is 
 kept. It contains seven courts planted with trees, a hun- 
 dred and eleven wards furnished with two thousand beds, 
 and receives annually from fifteen to seventeen hundred 
 patients. The foundling hospital, the imperial orphan hos- 
 pital, and the deaf and dumb institution, are worthy of the 
 capital. 
 
 Mendicants dare not appear in the streets of Vienna; a 
 work-house has been built for all the beggars in the pro- 
 vince, and another for vagrants, who are not accused of any 
 'rime ; but the latter are not allowed, as in France, to have 
 uiy communication with criminals. 
 
 There are in Vienna, as in every other great town, many 
 places of amusement, many ways in which the idle may 
 pass their time. Five theatres are open the greater part 
 of the year, and in the fine season, the public walks and 
 gardens are crowded. The number of coffee-houses 
 amounts to seventy, and the taverns and ordinaries to three 
 hundred. 
 
 The capital is more important as a manufacturing town 
 than any other in the Austrian empire ; more than sixty 
 thousand individuals find employment in different branches 
 of industry. The manufactures consist of silks and other 
 stuffs, 0 gold and silver lace, ribbons, hardware goods, 
 needles, mathematical instruments and different kinds of 
 paper.' 1 The carriages of Vienna are prized in most parts 
 of Germany ; there are besides several porcelain works, and 
 one of them employs a hundred and fifty painters and fifteen 
 hundred workmen. The cannon foundery and the manu- 
 factory of arms are supported by government. The average 
 number of muskets that issue every year from the imperial 
 manufactory, is said to be equal to thirty thousand. The 
 other articles made in tire same town are steel ornaments, 
 jewellery, watches, excellent musical instruments, and dif- 
 ferent chemical products. 
 
 The capital is also the central point of Austrian commerce, 
 and of the circulation required to maintain it. The produce 
 of its industry which br ings annually a revenue of two mil- 
 lions four hundred thousand florins, gives rise to an expor- 
 tation sufficient to furnish cargoes to six thousand boats, and 
 merchandise for nearly two millions of wagons.® The 
 canal of Neustadt finished in 1 803, serves as a means of 
 communication between the Danube and the metropolis; 
 boats ascend by means of locks to the basin in front of the 
 townhouse. Three fairs are held in the town, and the num- 
 ber of mercantile houses of every kind amounts to nearly a 
 thousand 
 
 Fortifications and walls are still kept up round the central 
 part of the town, but Vienna is not a place that can offer 
 much resistance in the event of a -siege ; the garrison does 
 not exceed ten or twelve thousand men. Although impor- 
 tant from its population, it has given birth to few distinguished 
 men ; but among them may be mentioned some that have 
 acquired a name in German literature, such as Schroeckh, 
 Collin, Alxinger, Mastalierand the historian I nchofer, known 
 by his ecclesiastical annals of Hungary, and by a Latin work, 
 published under a fictitious name/ entitled Monarchia So- 
 lipsorum, a satire against the Jesuits, the translation of which 
 was for some time popular in France. g 
 
 * The general hospital. * 
 
 b Alstergasse. (Busching.) 
 
 c “ Silks and cottons.” 
 
 The luxuries and delicacies of the table are carried to a 
 greater excess at Vienna than at Paris, but they may be 
 had at less expense in the Austrian than in the French ca- 
 pital. Nobles from every part of the empire settle there, 
 and contribute by their wealth to increase its commerce 
 and industry. The indolence and ennui of the rich render 
 many places of amusement necessary, but none are so 
 much frequented as the theatres. If the pieces acted on 
 the stage, are not admired by the other Germans, the fault 
 must be imputed to the dramatic censors appointed by go- 
 vernment. Much has not been done in literature, still less 
 in science ; music forms the only exception : it has been 
 cultivated with great success. There are few catholic 
 towns, where the people are so punctilious in observing re- 
 ligious forms and ceremonies ; no class of the community, 
 no rank or order, are free from credulity, superstition and 
 bigotry. But although the inhabitants are ignorant, they 
 are not corrupt ; the men are honest, and the domestic vir- 
 tues are cherished in many families. 
 
 More liberty, and greater encouragement given to know- 
 ledge, by impressing a salutary impulse on the capital, 
 might produce a great and beneficial change in the whole 
 population of Austria. The vigilance of the police borders 
 on oppression ; some of them hold the office of dramatic 
 censors, and they exercise it in a very captious manner ; 
 indeed it seems to be full time that the office should be abo- 
 lished, and the police reformed. The emperor said a few 
 years ago, when returning from the theatre after a first re- 
 presentation, that he was well pleased at having seen the 
 play, as he was convinced the censors would condemn it. 
 The truth of the remark was afterwards confirmed. 
 
 The stranger observes, not without interest, the bastions 
 that protected the town against the attacks of the Turks. 
 But during the wars of Napoleon, Vienna was twice taken 
 by the French. The example of so many other capitals 
 that yielded to a victorious chief, may console the Austrians, 
 if any confound success in battle with national honour. The 
 same town was taken in 1241 by Frederick the Second, 
 duke of Austria, and by the emperor Rudolph the First in 
 1277. It was vainly besieged by the Hungarians in 1477, 
 but obliged to surrender eight years afterwards to Matthias, 
 king of Hungary and Bohemia. 
 
 Vienna insisted the Ottoman troops in 1529 and 1683. 
 The recollection of the last siege has been handed down to 
 the present inhabitants. No event was ever more likely to 
 have been fatal to- Germany, and perhaps to Europe. Kara 
 Mustapha, son-in-law and grand vizier of Mahomet the 
 Fourth, excited by the ambition of subjecting the west to 
 the humiliating yoke of his master, traversed Hungary and 
 entered the plains of Austria with an army of more than 
 two hundred thousand men, and a train of artillery consist- 
 ing of three hundred cannon, a very formidable materiel at 
 that period. Charles the Fifth, duke of Lorraine, compefie^ 
 to give way to such an overwhelming force, retreated in 
 haste to Vienna. Fear pervaded the inhabitants, and the 
 emperor fled secretly and ingloriously from the capital. It 
 is in such moments that kings feel the misfortune of not 
 being beloved by their people. Leopold having suddenly 
 taken the resolution of flying with his family, passed through 
 the fugitive crowd that encumbered the road to Lintz. But 
 he soon discovered that he was only one among a multitude 
 of sufferers ; he and his family were obliged to pass the 
 
 e This is undoubtedly a mistake. — P. 
 
 f In Holland, in the year 1618. 
 
 e The translation was published in France, in the year 1792. 
 
 d “ Paper hangings.’ 
 
EiOOK. CXXVII.] 
 
 55 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 night in a wood, and the darkness was dispelled by the 
 flames which preceded the Ottoman hordes, and with which 
 Hungary had already been desolated. Terror was at its 
 height in Vienna ; all must have been lost but for one man, 
 and that man was John Sobieski. Kara Mustapha had 
 encompassed the town ; the count of Starenberg burnt the 
 suburbs, armed the students, and resisted with a feeble gar- 
 rison of sixteen thousand men ; but after twenty-three days 
 siege, the garrison weakened, without provisions, obliged to 
 fight and to extinguish the fires occasioned by bombs, were 
 reduced to despair. The enemy had taken the counter- 
 scarp, when Sobieski appeared with seventy-four thousand 
 men ; he examined the position of the vizier, gave the sig- 
 nal of battle, and the formidable army of Mustapha was cut 
 to pieces. Never was so great an alarm followed by so 
 brilliant a triumph ; the booty was immense, Vienna was 
 savedj and Christendom freed from the danger that menaced 
 it, by the coolness and intrepidity of a hero. 
 
 The ancient town, called Castro, Fabiana or Faviana, 
 and afterwards Vindobona, rose into notice under the first 
 emperors ; the tenth Germanic legion was stationed there 
 in the time ol Ptolemy j Marcus Aurelius died in the same 
 place ; Gallienus gave it up to the Marcomanni after having 
 married the daughter of their king ; Aurelius united it again 
 to the empire. a While some alterations were making about 
 two years ago in the botanical garden, several antiquities 
 were discovered, such as coins, vases, bricks and other 
 relics, from which it appears that the site of the garden was 
 formerly within the enclosure Vindobona. When the chapel 
 of the Capuchins was enlarged, a chapel that serves as a 
 place of interment for the emperors, there were discovered 
 much about the same time a Roman tomb, fragments of 
 funeral vases, and other articles, which render it probable 
 that the road from Vindobona to Rome passed near the 
 present convent. 
 
 We have already mentioned the beauty of the neigh- 
 bouring country ; the castles and country houses on the 
 heights are so numerous that it would be no easy matter to 
 describe those only which belong to the imperial family. 
 Schoenbrunn was built by Maria Theresa. It is remarkable 
 lor the extent of the buildings, the beauty of the gardens, 
 and the. profusion of rare and valuable plants in the con- 
 sen atories. Laxenburg, a Gothic casile belonging to the 
 en peror, is encompassed with ditches and other works that 
 give it the appearance of a small fortress. The interior is 
 decorated, in the same style as the exterior, and contains 
 many curiosities of the middle ages. It forms a singular 
 contrast with its modern gardens, and even with the regu- 
 larity of the burgh at the base of its walls. 
 
 The village of Maria-Hitzing near Schoenbrunn has 
 been considered the finest and most picturesque in Austria. 
 
 It possesses a theatre, and is visited on account of its baths. 
 Penzing is. known from its ribbon manufactories, and Med- 
 lmg from its mineral waters. Several country houses are 
 situated near these villages. 
 
 We will now quit that part of the country where the 
 houses of the wealthy rival each other in elegance, and 
 where their grounds, laid out with great taste, give to the 
 basin ol Vienna the appearance of an immense garden. 
 
 1 he towns now to be mentioned are situated in the plains 
 ol Lower Austria. Kloster-Neuburg, on the banks of the 
 
 Danube, deserves to be noticed, not on account of its popu- 
 lation, which does not exceed three thousand two hundred 
 inhabitants, but on account of a magnificent convent be- 
 longing to the Augustines. The town is decorated with a 
 fine church, in which the ducal crown of Austria is deposi- 
 ted ; it has besides a seminary, a valuable library contain- 
 ing more than four hundred manuscripts, and a collection 
 of natural history and medals. 
 
 Baden, at some leagues to the south of the capital, is 
 situated on the northern declivity of Mount Calvary ; b it is 
 commanded on the east by verdant hills, while a fruitful 
 plain extends to the west. The population does not exceed 
 three thousand persons, but its baths, the efficacy of which 
 in iheumatic affections has been acknowledged, are so 
 much ii equented, that more than five thousand strangers re- 
 sort to them in some seasons. Walks have been made in 
 the neighbourhood, and the parks and pleasure grounds of 
 the different proprietors are open to strangers. 
 
 Neustadt or AVienerisch-Neustadt has been considered, 
 after the capital, the finest town in the archdutchy ; the 
 number ol its inhabitants, according to M. Thielen, is equal 
 to eight thousand three hundred.' " It is adorned with three 
 large squares ; the houses are well built, and the streets are 
 straight and regular. It possesses several seminaries, and 
 a military school attended by five hundred pupils. The 
 canal, which has been already mentioned, passes from the 
 town to Vienna, and serves to supply the latter with wood, 
 coal and stones for building. 
 
 The summit of the Schneeberg is about five leagues to 
 the west of Neustadt. That mountain is visited by a" great- 
 er number of strangers than any other in Lower Austria. 
 It is covered with mists nine months in the year, and none 
 need ascend it, unless the weather be serene and cloudless. 
 After having mounted a short distance on the most fre- 
 quented road, the spectator observes below him, a narrow 
 and deep valley, part of which is occupied by a lake. 
 Having past the region of trees, he arrives at a sort of plat- 
 form, on which a house has been built for the accommoda- 
 tion of travellers that may wish to remain during the night. 
 Lichens are the only plants that grow above the inn ; ^the 
 remaining part of the journey is not without danger it is 
 necessary to climb |naked rocks, and to avoid frightful pre- 
 cipices. The height of the summit is such as to^command 
 a most extensive horizon. The eye wanders over as fine 
 a panorama as can well be imagined ; the wooded heights 
 of the AViener-VVald and the^Mannhartsberg appear on the 
 north ; Vienna seems like a’village, and the Danube like a 
 small stream in a verdant plain. It is not difficult to count 
 all the towns, and although the distance is so great as to 
 make them resemble so many points on a geographical 
 map, there is no summit from which a stranger can at once 
 form a more correct notion of the wealth and importance 
 of the archdutchy. The view towards the south is bound- 
 ed by the chain of the Alps, extending more than a hun- 
 dred and twenty miles in length ; d on the west are seen the 
 mountains in Upper Austria, the Salzburg Alps and even 
 those of Tyrol, while the vast Hungarian plain extends on 
 the south-east to the neighbourhood of Raab and Ofen. 
 Only those towns have been hitherto mentioned, which 
 may be observed in ascending the canal of Neustadt ; the 
 description of Lower Austria may therefore be completed 
 
 a See the excellent work of Baron Hormayer : 
 und seine Denkwurdigkeiten. 
 b Calvarienberg. 
 
 Wien, seine 
 
 Geschichte 
 
 M. P. Thielen, Alphabetisch-topographisches Postreise-Handbuch 
 fur den CEsterreichischen Kaiserstadt, &c. Vienna 1827 
 d “60 leagues.” 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 56 
 
 by giving an account of the towns that are seen from the 
 Schneeberg. 
 
 Bruck, situated in a valley on the right of the Danube, 
 and on the banks of the Leytha, may be mentioned on ac- 
 count of its custom-house, and a large square adorned by 
 a fountain. Haimburg contains three thousand inhabitants, 
 and carries on a greater trade in tobacco than any other 
 town in Austria. Krems and Stein are seen towards the 
 west, on the left bank of the Danube ; the one is peopled 
 by three thousand six hundred inhabitants, and the other 
 by fifteen hundred. They are separated from each other 
 by an alley of trees, and two rows of houses, which ac- 
 counts for a popular saying : Krems and Stein are three 
 towns. Krems carries on a considerable trade in propor- 
 tion to the number of its inhabitants ; they are employed in 
 different branches of industry. But the commerce of Stein 
 lasts only a part of the year, or while the river is favourable 
 for navigation. A castle now in ruins rises above Durren- 
 stein, in which Richard Cceur de Lion was unjustly con- 
 fined. Mcelk, although only a burgh, is remarkable for a 
 large convent, belonging to the Benedictines, and for its 
 gymnasium, library and collections of natural history and 
 antiquities. Saint Pollen, a place of four thousand inhabi- 
 tants, and the chief town of a bishopric, is situated between 
 the Danube and the Wiener- Wald in a fruitful plain cover- 
 ed with cultivated fields, gardens and rich meadows. Other 
 places, though less important, may be briefly enumerated. 
 The people of Awischofen are employed in making glass. 
 Aloosdorf carries on a trade in saffron, and Mistelbach in 
 different kinds of grain ; the latter is peopled by three thou- 
 sand inhabitants. Aleiben is noted for its royal sheep- 
 folds, which are said to be the largest in Austria. Maria- 
 Taferl, a village built on a height, is no less celebrated for 
 its religious processions ; more than a hundred thousand 
 pilgrims visit it every year. Riesenberg was the birth-place 
 of the famous composer Haydn, and Wagram or Teusch- 
 Wagram stands in the plain, where the French were victo- 
 rious in 1809. 
 
 Lintz, the capital of Upper Austria, is so called from 
 Lentia, its name in the time of the Romans ; it con- 
 tains a population of twenty thousand souls. The town 
 is neither so populous nor so well built as the suburbs. 
 The ornaments in the great square are not perhaps accor- 
 dant with correct taste ; a pillar erected by Charles the 
 Fourth to the holy trinity rises in the centre, and on the 
 right and left are two fountains, the one dftorated with a 
 figure of Neptune, and the otfier with a statue of Jupiter. 
 The public buildings are nowise remarkable, but the town 
 possesses different places of education, several charitable 
 institutions and important manufactories. Although the 
 mountains of Bohemia protect it from the north winds, 
 Reaumur’s thermometer descends frequently to fourteen or 
 fifteen degrees below zero. The west winds which are very 
 common, are disagreeable and unwholesome. 
 
 Steyer on the Ens, a town of nine thousand inhabitants, 
 rises in a valley, watered by a small river of the same name. 
 The Burg, an old castle belonging to the prince of Lam- 
 berg, is the only edifice worthy of notice, and its fountains 
 are considered its greatest ornaments. The utmost activi- 
 ty prevails in it ; almost all the inhabitants are engaged in 
 
 » “ Shoemakers’ awls.” 
 
 b “ L’ad ministration et los magasins des salines.” 
 
 ° “ Length more than GOOD toises, breadth more than 1500.” 
 
 d Founded A. D. 1082. (Busching.) 
 
 • “ 10,000,000 hectolitres.” 
 
 [BOOK C'XXVII. 
 
 trade or in some department of industry. It is there that 
 iron appears to be of greater utility than gold ; many thou- 
 sand hands convert the metal that is brought from the 
 mines of Mount Erzberg into every variety of form. Nu- 
 merous hammers are moved by the Ens, which serves like- 
 wise to transport the merchandise of the town. Steyer ex- 
 ports files to German) 7 , Switzerland, Italy and the Levant, 
 razors for less than a florin the dozen to the East, penknives 
 for fifteen or twenty florins the thousand to Moravia, Sile- 
 sia and Galicia, and shoemakers’ instruments 1 to Germany, 
 Switzerland and France. A great many jewsharps are 
 sent to Steyer from forty manufactories in the neighbour- 
 hood of Mount Priel ; these as well as many other articles 
 are exported to different countries in Europe. 
 
 The town of Ens is situated near the confluence of that 
 river with the Danube ; it contains three thousand inhabi- 
 tants, and if it be true that it formed only one town with 
 Lorch, the ancient Laureacnm, it must be considered one 
 of the oldest towns in Austria. The principal ornament 
 of the town is a tower in the great square, built by the em- 
 peror Maximilian I. 
 
 Gmunden on the lake of Traun, contains a population 
 of three thousand souls ; the town is pleasantly situated and 
 neatly built, and the government offices of the mines” are 
 its finest buildings The beauty of its position depends prin- 
 cipally on the lake, which is nearly eight miles in length and 
 more than one in breadth ; c its waters are of a dark green co- 
 lour, but they become nearly black during stormy weather. 
 
 Garsten, a Benedictine chapter situated in the vicinity, 
 was founded more than eight hundred years ago. d The 
 church is not less remarkable for its architecture than for 
 its fine paintings and numerous ornaments ; within its walls 
 may still be seen the tomb of Ottocar the Fourth. But 
 this chapter cannot be compared with that of Krems- 
 Munster, founded in the year 777 by Tassilo, duke of Ba- 
 varia. The great size of the edifice, the fine observatory, 
 the large library, and the valuable collections of natural his- 
 tory and philosophical instruments, are in unison with the 
 magnificence of the interior, and the elegance of the gar- 
 dens, and serve to render the monastery superior to any 
 other in Germany. The neighbourhood is remarkable for 
 its petrifying springs ; they deposit on the plants around 
 them a sediment of calcareous matter in such abundance 
 that it is used in building. 
 
 The commerce of Hallstadt is confined to the produce 
 of its salt mines, which yield every year about fifty thousand 
 hundred weights. 6 A lake, of which the depth has never 
 been measured, is situated near its walls ; it is equal in 
 length to eight thousand four hundred yards, and in breadth 
 to eleven hundred ; f its waters, which are of a dark green 
 colour, abound with excellent fish. It has been supposed 
 that Branau, which now contains three thousand inhabi- 
 tants, stands on the site of the Roman Bundunum. The 
 small town of Montzee s is built on the banks of a lake 
 nearly five miles long, two and a half broad, and at tlTe cen- 
 tre four hundred yards in depth. h The cataract of Bachs- 
 fa.ll, falls from a rock four hundred feet in height, at no 
 great distance from the village of Bischofshofen. 
 
 Salzburg, one of the finest towns in the archdutchy,' is 
 the only other place of which it is necessary to give some 
 
 f “ Length 4200 toises, breadth 1100.” g Monsec. 
 
 h “Length 1 J league, breadth 1 league, depth 200- toises.” 
 
 ‘ Salzburg forms no part of the archdutchy of Austria as it existed be- 
 fore the French revolution. Its territory then formed a principality, sub- 
 ject to the archbishop of Salzburg. — “ In 180(1 it was added to Austria, in 
 
BOOK CXXVI1.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 57 
 
 account. It has been called at different times, Juvavium , a 
 Hadriana and Petena. It was mined by Attila in the year 
 448, and afterwards rebuilt by the Bavarian dukes, at the 
 request of St. Rupert. The Salzach separates two regular 
 and well built quarters, a rampart encompasses the town, 
 and three suburbs extend beyond the entrance. It contains 
 fourteen thousand inhabitants, but the population corres- 
 ponds ill with the size of the town ; deserted streets, and 
 uniform houses, built in the Italian style, give it a gloomy 
 aspect. The principal entrance, cut through a rock, is 
 about a hundred and fifty feet in length, and from twenty to 
 twenty-four in breadth. A marble statue of fifteen feet in 
 height, representing Saint Sigismund, is placed before the 
 entrance. A large fountain adorns one square, b and ano- 
 ther, that of the cathedral, 0 is surrounded by arcades. The 
 cathedral itself is built after the model of St. Peter’s at Rome, 
 and a much admired statue of the virgin stands on the prin- 
 cipal front. Salzburg gave birth to the famous Paracel- 
 
 1807 transferred to Bavaria, and again restored to Austria in 1817.” (Ed. 
 Encyc.) — “ The archbishopric was secularized in 1802, and given, with 
 Eichstedt, Berchtolsgaden and a part of Passau, to Ferdinand, archduke of 
 Austria and grand duke of Tuscany, as an indemnification for the loss of 
 Tuscany. At the peace of Presburg (1806,) Salzburg was immediately 
 annexed to Austria. At the peace of Vienna (1809,) it was surrendered 
 to Napoleon, who ceded it to Bavaria (1810.) After the peace of Paris 
 (1815,) Salzburg was restored to Austria, with the exception of a part of it 
 VOL. III.— NO. 44. S 
 
 sus, d and his ashes repose in the cemetery of Saint Sebas- 
 tian. The remains of ancient Roman baths, from which 
 many valuable antiquities have been collected, are situated 
 near the hospital of St. John. Salzburg is the only fortress 
 in Upper Austria ; the climate is very variable, and on that 
 account unwholesome. 
 
 The Austrians are sober, and faithful in their engage- 
 ments, particularly in their duty to their sovereign. Like 
 plants, they may be distinguished by the nature of the soil ; 
 at least the difference is apparent between the inhabitants 
 of the wine and grain countries. The natives of the plains 
 are strong and muscular, those in the mountains are light 
 and active. 
 
 The importance of the revenue might be inferred from 
 what has been said of the industry that prevails in the 
 country. It amounts in Lower Austria to 26,000,000 florins, 
 but in Upper Austria it does not exceed 8,000,000. 
 
 on the left bank of the Salza, which, together with Berchtolsgaden, was 
 left to Bavaria. (Conv. Lex.) — P. 
 a Juvavum (p. 730, M. B., D’Anville,) Juvavia (Busching.) 
 b “ Place de la Cour” — Germ. Hofplatz, Court Sauar° 
 c Germ. Domplatz. 
 
 d Paracelsus was bom at Einsidlin, in the canton of Schweitz ; he died 
 at Salzburg.— P. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXVU1. 
 
 BOOK CXXVIII. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued. — Germany. — Twelfth Section. — County 
 of Tyrol, and Dulchy of Stiria. 
 
 Snow covered mountains and arid rocks are the first ob- 
 jects that the traveller observes on entering Tyrol and 
 Stiria. The narrow and sinuous vallies in Tyrol unite with 
 the wildness of a natural, the riches of a cultivated coun- 
 try ; in Stiria the vallies are much larger, particularly in 
 the south and the east ; in both the climate is extremely 
 variable. 
 
 Tyrol derives its name from an ancient castle near Me- 
 ran, on a mountain that commands the Adige. The country 
 passed by inheritance to the dukes of Austria in the year 
 1363. It is bounded on the north by Bavaria, on the west 
 by Switzerland, and on the south and the east by the Lom- 
 bardo- Venetian kingdom, Illyria and Upper Austria. Ac- 
 cording to Blumenbach, its surface is equal to five hundred 
 and twenty German, or six thousand two hundred and forty 
 English square miles. a 
 
 The two declivities of the Rhaetian Alps, which form the 
 continuation of those in Switzerland, make up the greater 
 part of Tyrol. To have a notion of the country, one must 
 imagine mountains apparently almost as high as Mont Blanc, 
 which none have ever attempted to ascend, frightful preci- 
 pices, lofty cataracts, glaciers of several leagues in extent, 
 and torrents rolling through rocky vallies ; on one side, the 
 icy winds of the north, and on the other, the sultry blast of 
 the sirocco. 
 
 If the traveller be placed near the sources of the Inn, 
 he may observe on the right, b a chain less extensive than 
 the others, which bears the name of Arlberg, c or the Eagle 
 mountain ; hence the north-western part of the province 
 has been denominated the Vorarlberg, or the country in 
 front of the Eagle mountain. Another and higher chain 
 extends from west to east, and forms what the ancients 
 called, the Rhaetian Alps, d a name derived from the Roman 
 province of Rhaetia. The continuation of the chain in the 
 same direction was styled the Noric Alps,® because the 
 country on both sides made up the Roman Noricum ; they 
 terminate on the confines of Stiria and Austria. A chain 
 that extends from the sources of the Mur to the extremi- 
 ties of Stiria, has received the name of the Stirian Alps. 
 
 Tschernowand is next to Orteles, the highest summit in 
 the Rhaetian Alps/ The most extensive glaciers are the 
 Gebatsch and the Rofner. The rivers that rise from the 
 
 a “ 144G sq. Fr. leagues.” — 11,000 Eng. sq. miles (Morse.) The latter 
 coincides nearly with the extent in the original, reckoning the German 
 miles and French leagues as geographical, on which supposition alone they 
 tan be made to correspond. — P. 
 
 l> On the north, between the Inn and the lalfe of Constance. 
 
 c Contraction of Adlerberg. J Alpes Rhceticee. 
 
 • Alpes Noricce. The terms Rhaetian and Noric Alps are still applied 
 to these mountains. (M. B.) — P. 
 
 Arlberg, are the Isar, the Lech, the Iller and the Inn. The 
 Etsch or the Adige which throws itself into the Adriatic 
 Gulf, and the Drave which unites with the Danube, after 
 having traversed Illyria and part of Hungary, take their 
 rise from the glaciers in the great chain. 
 
 Many primitive rocks 5 are situated both on the southern 
 declivity of the Rhaetian Alps, and in the valley of the Adige. 
 A distinguished geologist 11 has made many important observa- 
 tions on the singular arrangement of the calcareous rocks, 
 which consist of that variety of magnesian limestone, called 
 dolomite. Nothing indeed can be more surprising than 
 the inaccessible heights and bold forms that these rocks ex- 
 hibit near the valley of Fassa ; they appear to surpass what 
 the imagination can conceive. Von Buch concludes that 
 this white, granular and almost friable limestone had been 
 compact, coloured, stratified and filled with organic bodies, 
 before the augitic porphyry 1 which supports it had by pene- 
 trating it with magnesia, destroyed the organic remains and 
 changed its characters. The porphyry has been elevated 
 by such a force, and to such an altitude, as to have raised 
 into the air the colossal masses that surmount it. It is un- 
 necessary to enter farther into the views of so great a 
 geologist as Von Buch, but it may be added that they appear 
 to be very probable, for the pyroxene which characterizes 
 the porphyry, seems to connect it with igneous products. 
 Von Buch however goes farther, for he supposes that all 
 chains of mountains whatever have been formed by similar 
 elevations from beneath ; that opinion may be afterwards 
 confirmed by other phenomena. Our limits prevent us 
 from examining more minutely the geological formation of 
 the Rhaetian Alps. Their elevation, and the account al- 
 ready given of the country round Salzburg which forms a 
 part of the chain, are sufficient to prove that all the rocks 
 which are considered primitive, are contained in them. 
 
 According to a professor, whom we have had already 
 occasion to quote/ coal is found in the mountains of Stiria, 
 but the deposits in the valley of the Mur, which might be 
 worked with profit, appear to consist of lignite rather than 
 coal. They lie in the midst of sandstone, argil and shell 
 marie, and these substances are encompassed and supported 
 by the transition mountains in the country. This large 
 valley is filled with deposits of tertiary formation. 
 
 The vegetable riches of the Tyrolese mountains are well 
 known to botanists ; they find on them many leguminous, 
 
 f It is upwards of twelve thousand feet in height — [11,645. M. B.] 
 
 g “ Roches anciens” — Q.u. calcaire ancien. 
 
 h Yon Buch, Memoirs read before the royal academy of Berlin, Janua- 
 ry, 1822, and February, 1823. 
 
 * “ Porphyre pvroxenique.” 
 
 k M. Riepl, Professor of Natural History in the Polytechnic Institute 
 of Vienna. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 BOOK cxxvm.] 
 
 cruciform, labiate and composite plants, as well as Orchidece, 
 Cytisi, GenistcB, Euphorbia; and Loti. The air is embalmed 
 during the night, by the fragrance diffused by the Silene 
 nutans. But the most interesting plants are not found on 
 the highest parts of these Alpine chains. The steep rocks 
 of the Lantsch near Graetz, at the extremity of the calca- 
 reous mountains in Stiria, afford shelter to plants, which 
 appear to be forever removed from the reach of the bota- 
 nist. The woods that cover its summits are the only pla- 
 ces where the Delphinium intermedium grows ; it reaches to 
 the height of five feet, and charms the eye with its fine blue 
 flowers. The only examples of the Peltaria alliacea that 
 flourish in a wild state are found on the sides of the same 
 mountain. 
 
 Ferruginous waters have been discovered in different 
 parts of Tyrol, but no warm mineral springs. 
 
 The oxen, cows and horses are small, but of a good 
 kind ; goats are more numerous than sheep, and different 
 kinds of game are very common. Wolves, wild boars and 
 bears haunt the forests, the clefts in the rocks afford shelter 
 to marmots, and the chamois finds refuge on the highest 
 summits, or in places which the hunter cannot approach. 
 
 The Rhceti were the earliest people thatare known to have 
 inhabited Tyrol. They were composed of different tribes, 
 such as the Vennonii or Vennones, whom Ptolemy and Strabo 
 mention, 1 and the Brixantes, whose chief town was probably 
 built on the site of Brixen. Pliny informs us that they emi- 
 grated from Etruria ; but it may be concluded that they were 
 obliged to leave that country, as it is very improbable that a 
 nation would renounce voluntarily so fine a climate as that of 
 Italy, to settle in such a country as Tyrol. The Rhaeti 
 were subdued by the Romans in the time of Augustus, and 
 their territory received the name of Rhcetia Prima, while 
 that of the Vindelici was called Rhcetia Secunda. 
 
 Different metals are found in Tyrol, but not in such 
 quantities as to be of much value. Thus the gold collected 
 annually does not exceed a hundred marks; silver is also 
 scarce, and what is obtained is almost entirely extracted 
 from lead. The copper is supposed to be more malleable, 
 and, consequently, purer than in most other countries ; but 
 iron is more common than any of the other metals. The 
 other substances that may be mentioned are cobalt, zinc, 
 arsenic, sulphur and salt. The salt mines are the continu- 
 ation of those in Salzburg, and one of them near Hall yields 
 every year twenty-five thousand quintals. Although the re- 
 venue which government derives from the mines may be incon- 
 siderable, the people contrive to gain a subsistence by them. 
 
 Agriculture has been brought to a great degree of per- 
 fection ; the Tyrolese use their lands to the best advantage. 
 Much labour and care are bestowed on the soil ; vegetable 
 mould is transported to high summits ; the grass which 
 grows on the sides of steep declivities, is collected for the 
 cattle ; even the atmospheric action by which rocks are de- 
 composed, is rendered profitable to the husbandmen, who 
 convert these remains into cultivated fields. The stranger 
 observes not without amazement the Tyrolese peasant with 
 a basket on his head, descending inaccessible rocks, by 
 means of a rope and a stick, to the bottom of a precipice, 
 in order that he may gain a few feet of land, and devote it 
 to agriculture. 
 
 a Strabo, Lib. IV. 
 
 b Such is the number of inhabitants according to tne calculation of M. 
 Thielen. See his Manual, Vienna, 1827. 
 
 59 
 
 The hills favourable to the vine are covered with vine- 
 yards ; it is true that the wine which they produce does not 
 keep a long time, but although it may on that account be 
 unfit for exportation, it forms the materials of an inland 
 commerce. The vineyards are most numerous in the val- 
 ley of the Adige ; they cover the heights in the neighbour- 
 hood of Brixen and Tramin ; those near the latter town are 
 considered the most valuable. The Tyrolese also cultivate 
 fruit trees, but the forests are much more important ; they 
 export timber for building to Venice. 
 
 But although the people be as industrious as possible, the 
 country cannot furnish the means of subsistence to seven 
 hundred and sixty- two thousand inhabitants. 15 The people 
 must find employment elsewhere ; they must have recourse 
 to other pursuits besides agriculture. Some have no other 
 wealth than their cattle, but it could hardly be imagined 
 that the birds which have been transported from tbe Cana- 
 ries to Europe, where they are prized both for their notes 
 and their plumage, form by no means an insignificant branch 
 of trade in Tyrol. The people are compelled to gain a 
 livelihood in any way, .and they do not disdain to wander in 
 foreign countries and to earn a subsistence by selling cana- 
 ries. There are few manufactories in Tyrol, but almost 
 every Tyrolian is an artisan or manufacturer. Many lor 
 want of a better employment travel as pedlars through the 
 most distant countries, and return in old age with enough to 
 enable them to pass the rest of their days in their native 
 land. At six years of age the Tyrolian quits his mountains, 
 sets out for the fair of Kempten in Bavaria, and renders 
 himself useful by herding geese or cattle ; at a later period 
 he emigrates as a mason, carpenter, miner or picture-seller ; 
 it is reckoned that in this manner, more than thirty thousand 
 individuals leave their country every year. Some preferring 
 a hunter’s life, traverse their mountains, endure all sorts of 
 fatigue, and expose themselves to the greatest dangers to 
 attain their prey; others wander in quest of medicinal plants, 
 which they learn from their infancy, and know as correctly 
 as the ablest botanists. 
 
 Among those who remain at home, some execute diffe- 
 rent works in wood with great skill ; the vast forests in the 
 Vorarlberg supply them with the materials for making 
 wooden shops, and even houses, of which the different 
 pieces are numbered, and transported to the lake of Con- 
 stance, and from thence to neighbouring countries. It seems 
 as if the Tyrolese were naturally mechanics ; ingenious 
 machinery, such as may supply the want of hands, is moved 
 by the streams that water their vallies ; wheels fashioned 
 for that purpose, are set in motion at different distances. 
 Do they require flour, or stand in need of oil 1 as every in- 
 dividual provides in a manner for his own wants, there are 
 neither millers nor oil mills, but at the neighbouring stream, 
 the corn is ground, and the oleaginous plants are pressed. 
 A German traveller declares that he has seen a child rocked 
 in his cradle by means of a wheel made to revolve by a 
 stream.' While men are engaged in different branches of 
 labour, the women are not idle ; some knit stockings, while 
 others make goat skin gloves, embroider muslin, or plait 
 straw which is manufactured into hats. But manufacturing 
 industry is confined to the making of only a few articles ; 
 thus velvet is made in some places, and carpets in others. 
 
 e M. Rohrer. See also “Voyage dans le Tyrol, aux salines de Salz 
 bourg, &c. par M. de Bray.” 
 
60 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXVIIl. 
 
 particularly in the valley of Lientz. The transit trade be- 
 tween Germany and Italy forms a more important and ex- 
 tensive branch of commerce. 
 
 Frankness, fidelity, loyalty and love of country are the 
 virtues that distinguish the Tyrolese. Averse to the con- 
 scription, because friendly to independence and liberty, none 
 fight with greater bravery in defence of their country. Not 
 corrupted by the usages of large towns, faithful in their do- 
 mestic relations, peace and gaiety reign in their families. 
 Devout, but also superstitious, they must have a religion that 
 attracts by its ceremonies, that speaks to the imagination 
 \is well as to the heart ; they people the summits of the 
 mountains, and the gloomy forests which encompass them, 
 with spirits, demons and sorcerers. Such being the case, it 
 is not wonderful that there are no protestants in Tyrol ; all 
 the inhabitants, with the exception of eight or ten Jewish 
 families, are catholics. 
 
 The Tyrolese enjoy more political liberty than the people 
 in any other Austrian province. Government ratified their 
 ancient privileges in 1816, and granted them a constitution 
 better adapted to their wants. While the people in the other 
 countries, subject to Austria, are represented by the clergy, 
 nobility and deputies from a few towns, the Tyrolian states 
 are not only composed of members belonging to these 
 orders, but also of others elected by the peasantry. The 
 people in the Vorarlberg possess certain prerogatives, in 
 which the rest of the inhabitants do not participate. 
 
 The conscription has been abolished in Tyrol, but go- 
 vernment has found that measure an additional security 
 against a foreign invasion, for every Tyrolian becomes a 
 soldier in time of war. The people are hardy, active and 
 accustomed to fatigue ; few armies can have much chance 
 of resisting them, when they rise simultaneously to defend 
 their country. They furnish to the government that pro- 
 tects them, only four battalions of light armed troops. a Al- 
 though no custom-houses are erected on the frontiers, the 
 revenue is considerable ; it amounts to more than two mil- 
 lions five hundred thousand Austrian florins. 
 
 There are in the country of Tyrol, twenty-two towns, 
 thirty-six burghs, and three thousand one hundred and 
 fifty villages. Some of the villages are as populous as the 
 towns, but then the greater number of the latter are small 
 and insignificant. Bregenz, situated in the Vorarlberg, on 
 the banks of the lake of Constance, contains three thousand 
 five hundred inhabitants. It is a place of great antiquity ; 
 the remains of Roman buildings are still seen near its an- 
 cient castle. The village of Achenrein derives its wealth 
 from its founderies and iron works ; the sheet copper and 
 tinned iron that are sent from these works, yield a clear 
 profit of sixty-five thousand florins. Imst, a burgh of three 
 thousand inhabitants, on the banks of the Inn, exports 
 canaries to the remotest countries in Europe ; the trade is 
 said to produce annually more than iMS00. b Scharnitz, 
 on the frontiers of Bavaria, is the ancient Roman town of 
 Porta Claudia , c 
 
 Innspruck or rather Innsbruck, which signifies the bridge 
 over the Inn, stands in the middle of a valley, formed by 
 mountains from six to eight thousand feet in height, and 
 covered with snow even in the months of May and June. 
 It is the capital of Tyrol, and its population consists of 
 10,500 souls. Although the town be small and ill built, 
 
 1 “ Chasseurs,” J tigers. 
 
 *• “ 90,000 francs ” 
 
 c The Roman Scarantia. Scharnitz is a fortified place on the frontiers 
 of Bavaria, the fortifications of which were begun by the archdutehess 
 
 the suburbs consist of modern houses, the residences of the 
 nobles and the wealthy. The palace situated in a square 
 adorned with a bronze equestrian statue of Leopold the 
 Fifth, the court church containing the tombs of twenty- 
 eight distinguished personages, and a monument to the 
 memory of the emperor Maximilian, and lastly, the large 
 and spacious town-house, are the only public buildings that 
 can be mentioned in the capital. The celebrated globe of 
 Peter Anich, a Tyrolese shepherd, who became an eminent 
 geographer, is preserved in the hall of the university. 
 
 Hall, which lies below Innspruck, is the chief town in 
 the district of the salt mines ; it contains four thousand 
 two hundred inhabitants ; its extensive salt mines are five 
 thousand feet above the level of the sea. Schwatz, one of 
 the largest burghs in the province, is peopled by seven thou- 
 sand four hundred and fifty inhabitants, two thousand of 
 whom find employment in the mines within its territory, 
 which produce a great quantity of iron, two thousand five 
 hundred quintals of copper, and three thousand five hun- 
 dred marks of silver. Zierl, another village on the Inn, is 
 commanded by steep heights and rugged rocks, from which 
 the emperor Maximilian the First made a narrow escape. 
 The prince, ardent in the chase, advanced so far that he 
 must have perished, had it not been for the coolness and 
 intrepidity of an attendant. The people tell the story, and 
 show the place where a cross forty feet in height, has been 
 erected to commemorate the event ; but superstitious, and 
 fond of the miraculous, they believe that the emperor was 
 saved by an angel. 
 
 Sterzing, a town of two thousand inhabitants, was called 
 Urbs Stiraciorum by the Romans ; d it carries on a consi- 
 derable trade in iron and wines. Botzen on the Rienz, 
 appears rather like an Italian than a German town ; the 
 valley in which it stands, is covered with vineyards and 
 fruit trees, adorned with country houses, and bounded by 
 lofty mountains that rise in the form of an amphitheatre. 
 But the interior of the town does not correspond with its 
 appearance at a distance, for the streets are dirty, crooked 
 and narrow. The population amounts to seven thousand 
 individuals. 
 
 Although the inhabitants give the name of fortifications 
 to walls ten feet in height, Trent, or as it is called in Ger- 
 many, Trient, could hardly resist an attack in time of war. 
 Broad and regular streets, well built houses, fine paintings 
 in the churches, numerous convents and hospitals, and a 
 celebrated university, render it like an Italian town ; indeed 
 the illusion would be complete, if its fifteen thousand inha- 
 bitants spoke the Italian language. Trent is well known on 
 account of its council, which lasted from the year 1545 to 
 1563. The niountains that rise on both banks of the 
 Adige, are not the lowest in the Alps. The climate is ex- 
 cessively warm in summer, and intensely cold in winter. 
 
 Roveredo, situated in the pleasant valley of Lagarina, 
 carries on a considerable trade in fruits and silk. The 
 town, originally small and ill built, has been improved as 
 the population has increased ; it contains at present not 
 less than twelve thousand inhabitants. Pieve, Castello and 
 Cinte are villages of which the trade consists in pictures. 
 Brentonico exports the greenish talc used by painters, and 
 known bv the name of terra di Verona. 
 
 The dutchy of Stiria is bounded by the kingdom of 
 
 Claudia Mcdicea, whence is derived its modern Latin name of Porta 
 Claudia. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 d R. Von Jenny, Handbuch fur reisende in dem CEsterreichischen 
 Kaiserstaate. 
 
hook cxxviii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 Illyria, the archdutchy of Austria, and the kingdom of 
 Hungary. It is equal in superficial extent to three hundred 
 and ninety-nine German, or four thousand seven hundred 
 and eighty-eight English square miles. a Several important 
 chains are situated in that mountainous region ; on the north 
 are the Noric Alps, on the east the Stirian Alps, and on the 
 west a branch of the Julian Alps. The highest mountains 
 are those in the north, and the lowest are those in the op- 
 posite direction or the south ; so that the country is thus 
 divided into Upper and Lower Stiria. b The principal rivers 
 are the Ens, the Mur and the Drave. The basin of the 
 Mur is larger than any other ; that river receives more than 
 a hundred feeders ; it turns ninety-eight flour mills, forty- 
 three saw mills and sixty fulling mills. Its declivity is so 
 great as to give it almost the rapidity of a torrent ; for the 
 same reason it is never encumbered with ice ; the oldest in- 
 habitants do not recollect to have seen it frozen. Fish 
 abound in all the rivers, but particularly in the Mur ; al- 
 though carp are not so common, trout, umber, pike and 
 barbel are taken in great numbers. 0 The lakes are nume- 
 rous, but none of them are very large. What has been 
 already said concerning the geological structure of the prin- 
 cipal chains, renders it unnecessary to recur to the subject ; 
 but some account may be given of the ancient and present 
 inhabitants of the country. 
 
 The Romans comprehended under the name of Noricum, 
 a great part of Stiria. The Norici were governed by a 
 king, when their country became a Roman province in the 
 time of Augustus. According to Ptolemy, Noricum was 
 inhabited by several tribes. The Ambisontii possessed the 
 country on the west and the north ; the Ambidrani , the 
 Ambilici and principally the Norici were settled in the east 
 and the south. In the latter part of the fourth century, 
 the hordes of Alaric made themselves masters of the coun- 
 try, and their chief wished to erect there the seat of his 
 empire ; but he pursued the course of his conquests, and 
 the Suevi, Heruli and Huns succeeded him in Stiria. It was 
 for a long time subject to Bavaria, but the emperor Conrad 
 the Second made it a margraviate in the year 1030. Erect- 
 ed into a dutchy by Frederick the First, it passed in 1186 
 by right of succession to the house of Austria. Separated 
 from the archdutchy of Austria, it was again united with it 
 m 1 232 ; lastly, it was conquered by Ottocar the Second, 
 king of Bohemia, but Rudolph of Hapsburg having been 
 raised to the imperial throne, took possession of it, and it 
 has since continued an Austrian province. d 
 
 The country, it has been seen, was the theatre of fre- 
 quent wars during the middle ages ; but it is still easy to 
 distinguish two different races of inhabitants, the Germans 
 and the Wends, the last of whom are sprung from the 
 Slavonians. The Germans form a population of six hun- 
 dred thousand individuals, and the Wends of about two hun- 
 dred thousand. The latter reside chiefly in the circles of 
 Cilly and Marburg ; they differ in their language and cha- 
 racter from the other inhabitants. The German Stirians, or 
 the natives of Upper Stiria, are strong and well made, 
 honest, frank and industrious. The Wendish Stirians, or 
 the natives of Lower Stiria, are weak in body, frivolous, 
 
 OF GERMANY. 61 
 
 dissipated and superstitious.® The greater part of the 
 population adheres to the catholic religion ; the number of 
 protestants amounts hardly to three thousand. As to the 
 Jews, they are not permitted to reside in the dutchy. 
 
 The air is keen and often very cold in the mountains of 
 Upper Stiria ; but the temperature in the vallies is warmer 
 than in most others in the Alps. The mean temperature 
 at Graetz is from seven to eight degrees of Reaumur, and 
 the height of the barometer about twenty-seven inches. 
 The climate of Lower Stiria is so mild that the grape arrives 
 at maturity ; the wines may be drunk soon after they are 
 made ; most of them are of a good quality, and some not 
 inferior in strength to the Rhenish wines. 
 
 The grain harvests are not abundant, but the flax is re- 
 markable for its length and fineness. Vegetables, fruits, 
 and leguminous plants flourish, and the forests are so ex- 
 tensive that their surface is supposed to be equal to half of 
 the whole country. The lands are fruitful and well culti- 
 vated in the vallies ; the cattle in the mountains are of a 
 good kind, indeed they are considered the best in the Aus- 
 trian empire ; in every district the sheepfolds are numerous, 
 and the country people rear besides a great quantity of poul- 
 try. The sportsman finds the red partridge, the hazel 
 grouse and many other kinds of game in abundance, and 
 flocks of chamois are met with on the mountains. If the 
 herds and flocks have diminished within the last twenty 
 years, it must be attributed to disastrous wars, and additional 
 taxes — the necessary consequence of those wars. 
 
 The riches of the country consist principally in its mines , 
 the Romans were supplied from Stiria with excellent iron, 
 and that metal is still obtained in such abundance that it 
 may be considered inexhaustible. The Stirian steel is bet- 
 ter than any other in Europe. Silver, copper and lead, 
 coal and rock salt, are obtained in different parts of the 
 country, and it is to the metals obtained from the mines that 
 the industry of the inhabitants is principally directed. There 
 are more than thirty-six scythe manufactories in Stiria, and 
 its exports are diffused over Austria, Hungary, and even 
 the Ottoman empire ; they may be estimated at one million 
 eight hundred thousand florins. 
 
 Stiria is divided into five circles, of which the chief towns 
 are Graetz, Brack, Judenburg, Marburg and Cilly. It is 
 governed like most other provinces under the Austrian em- 
 pire. The members of the states consist of three classes, 
 namely, the higher nobles, among whom are included the 
 bishops, the petty nobles, and the deputies of the towns and 
 burghs entitled to be represented in the assemblies. The 
 country furnishes several regiments f of infantry and a cer- 
 tain number of men for the cavalry. 
 
 Commencing with the mountainous region that occupies 
 the northern extremity of Stiria, the stranger may form some 
 idea of the wealth and population of the dutchy by survey- 
 ing the principal towns and inhabited places as he proceeds 
 towards the south. The burgh of Aussee is situated near 
 a lake, and at the junction of three small rivers which form 
 the Traun. The produce of several salt works in its neigh- 
 bourhood, exceeds a hundred and sixty thousand quintals. 
 Not far from the village of Mirnitz is situated a cave, wor. 
 
 a “ 1109 sq. Fr. leagues.” — Reckoning the German miles and French 
 leagues as geographical, about 8500 Eng. sq. miles. — P. 
 
 b The following Stirian mountains have not been mentioned in the Ta- 
 ble of European Altitudes, Book XC1V. 
 
 Eisenhut 7,676 feet. 
 
 Hoch G rimming ...... 7,540 
 
 Stang Alp 7,140 
 
 Kempel 4,798 
 
 Schoekel ....... 4,778 
 
 Erzberg ....... 4,590 
 
 [The above measurements are those of the original.] 
 c M. Schmutz, Steyermark Zeitschreib. 1821. 
 d Merian, Topographia Styriae. 
 
 e Hassel’s Geography, (in Germ.) f 1 Two regiments ” 
 
62 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXVIII. 
 
 fny of notice from its extent, its sinuosities and its stalactites, 
 and from its fossil bones formerly held in veneration By the 
 peasantry. Eisenerz, a burgh of which the church was 
 founded by Rudolph of Hapsburg, is surrounded hy mines 
 from which more than two hundred and sixty thousand 
 quintals of iron are obtained every year. 
 
 Zell or Maria Zell towards the north-east, and on the 
 frontier of Stiria, has been termed the Loretto of the coun- 
 try ; it is certainly more frequented by pilgrims than any 
 other place in the Austrian empire. The church is one of 
 the finest, and without doubt the largest in Stiria. The or- 
 gan is not considered inferior to any other in Germany, the 
 large pulpit is formed of red marble, and the chapel has 
 been enriched by the offerings of pilgrims ; the adored image 
 of the virgin is placed on a silver altar, and the gate that 
 leads from the church to the chapel is made of the same 
 metal. The gold, silver, and other valuable articles depo- 
 sited in the treasury, attest the pious offerings of the hundred 
 thousand pilgrims that repair every year to the shrine of the 
 virgin. 
 
 Brack on the Mur is the metropolis of a circle, and the 
 inhabitants are employed in working slate quarries and pro- 
 ductive mines in its neighbourhood. The Capuchins have a 
 convent in its vicinity. On the same river, and above 
 Bruck, is situated Leoben, one of the best built towns in 
 Upper Stiria. The preliminaries of peace between France 
 and Austria were signed within its walls in 1797. Juden- 
 burg situated above Leoben, although the chief town of a 
 circle, contains only fifteen hundred inhabitants. It was a 
 place of some consequence in the time of the Romans ; 
 during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, it was princi- 
 pally inhabited by Jews, whence the origin of its present 
 name. As a great trade was then in the hands of these Jews, 
 their prosperity drew upon them the hatred and persecution 
 of the Christians, who succeeded in expelling or extirpating 
 them about the year 1312. The town was almost wholly 
 consumed by fire in 1807, and the inhabitants had much 
 difficulty in repairing their losses; the Franciscan convent 
 has been converted into an inn, and the ducal castle into 
 barracks. Rohitsch appears to have been once a Roman 
 town ; at all events many coins, vases and other articles of 
 antiquity have been found in it. Strangers frequent it on 
 account of its mineral waters, and it exports annually more 
 than eight hundred thousand bottles to Poland, Hungary 
 and Italy. 
 
 Grsetz or Gratz, the metropolis of a circle, and the capi- 
 tal of the province, is situated in the fine valley of the Mur. 
 Its population amounts to forty thousand inhabitants ; the 
 greater number of them reside in the suburbs. According 
 to a German traveller, Herren street is the broadest, Sporr 
 street the most inconvenient, Schmidt street the most noisy, 
 and Mur street the most crowded.* The public buildings 
 are the cathedral, the theatre, the town-house, recently 
 erected, and the government-house in which the states meet. 
 Grsetz contains ten parish churches and twelve chapels of 
 ease, together with five convents for men and two for wo- 
 men. Several hospitals may be mentioned among the 
 charitable institutions, namely, the large hospital for sick, 
 another for women in labour, a third for the insane, and a 
 fourth for orphans. b An university,® a drawing academy, 
 
 “ Rud. Von Jenny. •> “ Foundlings.” 
 
 c Gratz had formerly a university founded in 1586. (Busching.) It is 
 now suppressed, or rather converted into a lyceum. (Hassel.) See Stat. 
 Table of Austria, p. 750. — P. d The'Archduke John. 
 
 a commercial seminary, gymnasiums for boys, and board- 
 ing schools for girls, are the principal places of education. 
 A library containing a hundred thousand volumes and three 
 thousand five hundred manuscripts, and the Johanneum, an 
 institution so called from the name of the prince its founder, d 
 to which belong a botanical garden, a museum of natural 
 history, and a cabinet of medals and antiquities, are consi- 
 dered the most valuable scientific collections. A Calvary, 
 a church and several chapels are situated on a height in the 
 neighbourhood. The town is a place of considerable im- 
 portance from its commerce and manufactures. 
 
 Radkersburg,® which might be surnamed the romantic, 
 stands on an island in the middle of the Mur. The fortifi- 
 cations are in bad repair, and insufficient to protect it against 
 the frequent inundations of the river. The village of Rieg- 
 gersburg is built on an eminence at no great distance from 
 the last town. Its ancient castle is remarkable for its pic- 
 turesque situation, for its fortifications cut in the rock, its 
 deep ditches and the relics of the middle ages that are con- 
 tained in it. It has been of late rendered illustrious by a 
 man of genius f who has paid a tribute of affection to its an- 
 cient proprietors. 
 
 The burgh of Leibnitz, on the right bank of the Mur, waa 
 perhaps the ancient Mureola , a town mentioned by Ptole- 
 my ; at least the opinion is rendered probable by the nume- 
 rous antiquities that have been found at different times, and 
 by the sculptures and Roman inscriptions that may still be 
 seen in the tower of Schauberg which was built in the 
 twelfth century. 
 
 Marburg, at the confluence of the Drave and the Mur, 
 contains five thousand inhabitants. Although the metropo- 
 lis of a circle, it possesses no public building of any conse- 
 quence ; it carries on, however, a considerable trade in corn 
 and wine. The small town of Pettau is situated on the left 
 bank of the Drave ; the population does not exceed seven- 
 teen hundred inhabitants, but it has its convents of Domini- 
 cans, Minorites and Capuchins. It is considered the most 
 ancient town in Stiria ; many suppose it to have been built 
 before the country was conquered by the Romans ; there 
 is, however, reason to believe that it was then situated on 
 the other bank of the river. 
 
 Luttenberg to the east of Pettau, is famous for its wines. 
 The town of Cilly is adorned with a castle in which many 
 valuable antiquities are preserved. It was founded by the 
 emperor Claudius, who gave it the name of Claudia , B and 
 its present walls are partly built with the remains of ancient 
 buildings ; the barracks which have been lately erected, 
 form the finest edifice in the place. According to the le- 
 gends, Maximilian, the first bishop of Cilly, was decapitated 
 in the town in the year 284. A third T oeplitz, which is also 
 known for its mineral waters, is situated at the foot of the 
 mountains on the south of Cilly. Rain, a small town en- 
 compassed with walls now in ruins, lies near the southern 
 extremity of the province, on the banks of the Save. The 
 lands in the neighbourhood are fruitful, and wine forms the 
 principal branch of its commerce. The rapid waters of the 
 Save are covered with empty casks at the approach of au- 
 tumn ; they are bound together in rafts and steered by ma- 
 riners who descend to the town and sell them to the inhabi- 
 tants during the vintage. It is supposed that Rain was the 
 
 * Rakesburg, Rakelsburg (Busching.) f Yon Hammer, the orientalist. 
 8 Celeia is said to have been the Roman town that occupied the site of 
 Cilly. (Busching, D’Anville.) Claudia is said by P. Hardouin, to hav# 
 occupied the site of Clagenfurt in Carinthia. (Encyc. Method.) — P. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 63 
 
 BOOK CX XVIII.] 
 
 Novidunum of the Romans ; it was pillaged and de- 
 stroyed by the Turks' 1 after a sanguinary battle in the year 
 1475. 
 
 The district of Yoitzberg, situated to the west of Graetz 
 on the left bank of the Mur, is surrounded by mountains 
 which separate it from Upper Stiria and Illyria. The high- 
 est part of the country is exposed for seven months in the 
 year to the rigours of winter, and also to frequent and vio- 
 lent storms. But the vallies in the lower part of the coun- 
 try abound in fruits and wine. The inhabitants export coal, 
 whetstones that are much prized in Stiria, and draught 
 
 » “ The country in its neighbourhood was ravaged by the Turks ” 
 
 b “ Communes.” 
 
 « M. Kudler, Steyermark Zeitschr. 1821. 
 
 horses of a good kind. The people are industrious ; the} 
 are employed in their iron works, nail manufactories, paper 
 mills and tile works ; many of them, however, are subject 
 to goitres. The small town of Yoitzberg, three burghs and 
 twenty villages b are contained in the district. 
 
 The number of women throughout Stiria exceeds that of 
 the men by nearly twenty-six thousand the latter are sup- 
 posed to be equal to three hundred and seventy-four thou- 
 sand. Five is considered the average number of members 
 in each family, and all the families, it has been calculated, 
 amount to 160, 500. d 
 
 d The reader will find some details concerning the population and agri- 
 cultural wealth of the country, in the statistical tables at the end of the 
 next bonk 
 
EUROPE. [book cxxix. 
 
 BOOK CXXIX. 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 Europe Continued. — German]). — Thirteenth Sectiyi. — King- 
 dom of Illyria described. — Austria and Germany con- 
 cluded. 
 
 The name of Illyria is connected with historical recollec- 
 tions ; it was one of the most ancient kingdoms in Europe, 
 but it lost that title when it was conquered by Anicius, a 
 Roman general, a hundred and sixty-eight years before the 
 vulgar era. It retained however the name of Illyricum, 
 and under the reign of Augustus, Liburnia and Dalmatia, 
 the fruits of new conquests, were added to it. Pliny informs 
 us a that the Pcucetice and the Japydes inhabited the region 
 between Istria and Liburnia ; we may add that the Carni 
 possessed the country on the south of the Carnic Alps. It 
 is supposed that these people were of Celtic origin. Men- 
 telle affirms that Carnia, the present Carniola, derives its 
 name from the word karn, which signifies rye. b If however 
 the name of the country be derived from a Germanic word, 
 it must be from korn, which, as every one knows, signifies 
 wheat, rye and all kinds of grain. Could it be proved that 
 the country owes its name to the abundance of its harvests, 
 it must have been originally called Kornia ; the conjecture 
 is indeed strengthened by the existence of a Roman medal, 
 struck to commemorate the victories of Scaurus over the 
 Carni, on the reverse of which are seen a Mercury and a 
 cornucopia filled with ears of corn. 
 
 Illyria was so much enlarged by the addition of different 
 provinces, that at the partition of the Roman empire, be- 
 tween Honorius and Arcadius, it was divided into two parts, 
 of which one belonged to the eastern, and the other to the 
 western empire. 0 But the name of Illyria was no longer 
 used after the northern hordes invaded that portion of Eu- 
 rope ; it was comparatively of late years that the Austrian 
 chancery restored the name to distinguish part of the an- 
 cient Illyricum from the Hungarian provinces and those that 
 extend to the south of the Drave. After the peace of Pres- 
 biirg, Napoleon, who compelled Austria to cede Krainburg, 
 Friuli, Istria, Croatia on the south of the Save, and a part 
 of Dalmatia and Tyrol, incorporated them under the name 
 of Illyria with his vast empire. 1 * Austria having gained anew 
 her possessions in 1814, united Carniola and Carinthia, the 
 territory of Trieste, and a part of Croatia, Austrian Friuli 
 and Venetian Istria, and thus restored the kingdom of Illy- 
 
 ‘ Liber ITT. cap. XXI. 
 
 b Encyclopedic M6thodique, Dictionnaire de la Geographic Ancienne, 
 par Mentelle. [“ Karn, en langue gemianique, signifiant du bled, et plus 
 particuliferement du seigle, on a cru que c'dtoit de l’abondance de cette pro- 
 duction que venoit le nom du pavs.” Encyc. Method. Gfeog. Anc. art. 
 Carnia.— P.] 
 
 c RufFus, Notices de l’Empire. 
 
 d Austria lost by the peace of Presliurg (1S05,) Dalmatia, Istria, Friuli 
 and Cattaro on the- Adriatic, together with Tyrol and the Swabian Princi- 
 palities. By the peace of Vienna (1S09,) she lost Trieste, Fiume, the 
 
 ria. It was at the same time divided into two governments, 
 those of Laybach and Trieste. 
 
 It is bounded on the north and the east by the archdutchy 
 of Austria, the dutchy of Stiria and Croatia, on the south 
 by the generalship of Carlstadt® and the Adriatic Gulf, and 
 on the west by the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom and the 
 county of Tyrol. According to Blumenbach, it is equal in 
 superficial extent to six hundred and eighteen German, or 
 seven thousand four hundred and sixteen English miles/ 
 
 Lofty chains of mountains extend across the country in 
 different directions ; the coasts are marshy on the east, in 
 other places they are flat and sandy. The peninsula of Is- 
 tria, terminating on the south in Cape Promontory , ? forms 
 the southern portion of the government of Trieste. The 
 vallies in the districts of Villach and Klagenfurt are suffi- 
 ciently fertile ; the soil is covered with calcareous fragments. 
 The lands in the circles of Laybach, Neustadt and Adels- 
 berg, in some places abounding with rocks, in others co- 
 vered with marshes, sandstone and sand, are sterile and 
 unfruitful. The western portion of the kingdom is bathed 
 by the Adriatic ; there the dryness of the soil, which rests 
 on calcareous rocks, and the scarcity of water, do not ap- 
 pear to be hurtful to vegetation. It may be remarked that 
 the plants in the southern districts have a great resemblance 
 to those on the shores of the Black Sea. 
 
 The branchesof two lofty chains extend into Illyria, namely, 
 the Noric Alps on the north, and the Julian Alps on the south. 
 They are in a great measure, particularly the last, com- 
 posed of calcareous rocks which geologists call secondary, 
 and which, from their tendency to disaggregation in parti- 
 cular parts, so as to form numerous cavities, might well be 
 termed cavernous limestone. It seems indeed as if all these 
 mountains were hollow ; at least it cannot be denied that 
 almost as many rivers flow below as above the ground. 
 The stranger who follows their course, observes them en- 
 tering the earth and returning from it at different distances. 
 Others become wholly dry at certain seasons of the year, 
 and afterwards reappear. 
 
 It might be possible to enumerate more than a thousand 
 caverns in the chain that traverses Illyria from north-west 
 to south-east ; but none can be compared in point of extent 
 with the one at Adelsberg, which is situated in a small val- 
 
 greater part of Croatia and Carniola, and the circle of Villach in Carin- 
 thia, besides other possessions not connected with the present subject. The 
 circle of Villach, Carniola, Austrian Istria, Fiume and Trieste, Croatia 
 including the LAtorale, and Dalmatia, were denominated the Illyrian Pro- 
 vinces by a decree of Napoleon (1809.) Krainburg is only a small town 
 in Carniola (Germ. Krain.) Ed. Encyc. Conv. Lex. — P. 
 e In the military limits of Croatia. — P. 
 
 ' “ 1718 sq. Fr. leagues,” — 13,508 Eng. sq. miles. (Mo se.) 
 e Ital. Punta Promontorio. 
 
BOOK CXXIX.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GERMANY. 
 
 65 
 
 ley at no great distance from that burgh. Some writers 
 consider it equal in length to five miles. 4 It is by no means 
 easy to trace the rapid declivities in the labyrinth, or the 
 narrow and tortuous passages which lead to immense halls. 
 All agree that it surpasses most places of the kind ; the 
 floor is covered with fossil bones ; a torrent rushes through 
 the cavities with a frightful noise, which is repeated by many 
 echoes ; stalactites adorn the halls, and appear in some 
 places like the ruins of old palaces, in others like magnifi- 
 cent colonnades. b 
 
 The cave of Magdalena, although not nearly so extensive 
 as the last, is fully as deep, and more remarkable on account 
 of its stalactites. The vault has the appearance of being sup- 
 ported by colossal cariatides, and the different calcareous 
 concretions exhibit the most varied forms. That species 
 of water lizard 0 known by the name of Proteus anguinus 
 abounds in a small basin at the extremity of the cave. 
 
 Many lakes, and all of them amply stored with fish, are 
 situated in the Illyrian mountains ; but the lake of Cirknitz 
 has been more frequently examined by naturalists than any 
 other ; in some years, the angler, the field sportsman, the 
 sower and the reaper may there find employment. Calca- 
 careous mountains bound it on every side ; mount Jovor- 
 nick commands it on the south, and the Sliviza on the 
 north. It is about four or five leagues in circumference in 
 dry seasons, and in wet seasons about seven or eight. The 
 waters of eight streams flow into it, and four or five islands 
 rise in the middle of the lake ; the village of Yorneck has 
 been built on the largest of these islands. 
 
 The lake disappears at irregular periods, and its waters 
 escape through about forty clefts or apertures in its bed. 
 The inhabitants then collect the fish that have not been 
 carried away by the waters, and shoot the aquatic fowl that 
 seek in vain for their haunts. The husbandman deposits the 
 seed in the fertile ooze, trusting that his labours may be 
 crowned by an abundant harvest ; but his labour, his ex- 
 penses and his hopes are often vain. By the same outlets, 
 which served to drain the lake, the waters rise suddenly 
 with a tremendous noise resembling thunder ; the fish re- 
 appear, the teal and other water birds find their wonted asy- 
 lum, and man alone complains of his improvidence. 
 
 Different mineral substances are found in the kingdom. 
 Carinthia contains carbonate of iron, lead and zinc mines, 
 which are situated in transition rocks, and also silver and 
 copper. 
 
 The metallic veins in Carniola are not less abundant ; 
 but the quicksilver mines in the neighbourhood of Idria are 
 the most valuable. These mines, together with others in 
 Spain and at Deux-Ponts, supply the greater part of Eu- 
 rope. The quicksilver is found there in bituminous schis- 
 tus. The metallic wealth of the country is transported by 
 the Drave and the Save, which are the principal rivers, and 
 by the Lisonzo d and the Quieto, which throw themselves 
 into the Adriatic Gulf. 
 
 The keen and cold air of the mountains near Villach and 
 Klagenfurt prevents the vine from arriving at maturity ; but 
 the climate to the south of these mountains is wholesome 
 and temperate. The stranger begins to feel the heat of the 
 atmosphere in the circles of Laybach, Neustadt and Adels- 
 
 “ “ 2 leagues.” 
 
 b See the description of the. cavern in a work already cited : the Itine- 
 rary of Austria by R. Von Jenny. See also the letter of M. Bertrand 
 Geslin to M. Brongniart, Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Tom. VII. 
 page 258. 
 
 VOL. Ill— NO. 44. 
 
 berg, and it increases gradually as he advances southwards. 
 The chestnut tree and the vine flourish ; the climate is fa* 
 vourable to them, and the only obstacle against which they 
 have to contend, arises from the bad quality of the soil. The 
 fig, the mulberry, and even the olive, thrive in the country 
 round Trieste ; it is seldom that they are exposed to any 
 danger from frost. The vines are loaded with grapes, but 
 their produce does not keep any length of time ; the wines, 
 however, that are produced in the valley of Vinodol, form 
 an exception ; they are brisk and sparkling, and for that 
 reason might be called the champagne of the country. The 
 domestic animals are not of a good kind ; but the people in 
 the vallies devote themseb/es principally to the rearing of 
 silk worms. 
 
 Although Illyria is not a manufacturing country, the in- 
 habitants are by no means indolent. Industry appears to 
 be most diffused in the neighbourhood of Trieste and Fiume ; 
 among the produce of that industry, different works in iron 
 and steel might be mentioned. The people near the shores 
 of the sea are occupied in fishing or in building vessels. 
 The inhabitants of the rest of the kingdom find employment 
 in the carrying trade, or in conveying different sorts of mer- 
 chandise imported by way of the Adriatic Gulf, and des- 
 tined for Vienna and Hungary. 
 
 The vapours that exhale from the shores of the Adriatic 
 are in many places injurious to health. Few strong men 
 are seen in those districts ; still the insignificance of the po- 
 pulation must be attributed, not to the climate or atmos- 
 phere, but to other causes ; it is certain that the number of 
 inhabitants for every square league does not exceed seven 
 hundred. They consist of Wends, Slavonians, Croatians, 
 Germans and Italians, who in all make up one million two 
 hundred thousand individuals. The most of them profess 
 the catholic religion ; the protestants do not amount to more 
 than eighteen thousand persons. The German is spoken 
 by the nobles in the greater part of the kingdom ; but the 
 people in Trieste speak a corrupt Italian idiom, and some 
 Serbes retain their Slavonic dialect.® 
 
 The freedom of the peasantry is subject to certain re- 
 strictions ; the kingdom is said to be independent ; it must 
 be admitted that the people are nominally represented by 
 the states. But the states are not a legislative assembly, 
 their members have no power to enact laws ; they are de- 
 puted by the clergy, the nobles and the towns ; it is their 
 province to regulate the amount and the distribution of the 
 taxes. It has been calculated that the revenue of the king- 
 dom is equal to six millions of florins. 
 
 The village of Ferlach, is situated on the banks of the 
 Drave ; it contains three thousand inhabitants, many of 
 whom are employed in a manufactory of arms, which fur- 
 nishes thirty thousand muskets every year. The small 
 town of Saint Veit serves as a depot for the iron of Carin- 
 thia ; its market-place is adorned with a fine ancient 
 fountain. 
 
 Klagenfurt/ the capital of Carinthia, is regularly built in 
 the form of a rectangle ; it stands on a canal which com- 
 municates with the lake of Werth. Fountains may be seen 
 in all the squares and principal streets ; the palace of the 
 prince bishop of Gurk is remarkable for its numerous and 
 
 c “ Salamandre.” — The Proteus belongs to a distinct genus from the 
 Salamanders, but both belong to the same family of Batracian Reptiles. — P. 
 d “ Isonzo.” 
 
 ' See p. 751. 
 f Clagenfurt. 
 
 9 
 
66 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXX1X. 
 
 valuable collections. The town is peopled by nine thou- 
 sand five hundred inhabitants ; it has its public libraries, 
 seminaries, agricultural and literary societies, 1 hospitals and 
 other charitable institutions. The inhabitants are said to 
 speak the German language more purely and correctly 
 than any others in the kingdom. The ancient town of 
 Villach, and the village of Bleiberg in its vicinity, are both 
 well known ; the former on account of its white marble 
 quarries, and the other for lead mines, which are consider- 
 ed the finest in Europe, and which yield annually more 
 than thirty-five thousand quintals of pure metal. 
 
 Krainburg, a well built town on the Drave, was inhabit- 
 ed by the Slavonians in the eighth century ; many anti- 
 quaries suppose it to be built on the side of the ancient 
 Santicum. Laybach, in Slavonic Lublana, stands on both 
 banks of the Laybach; its streets, though well paved, are 
 narrow and irregular. The cathedral is admired for its 
 paintings, and the townhouse for its Gothic architecture. 
 Laybach is the seat of the government, and the council of 
 censors meet in the same place. It is enriched by its car- 
 rying trade with Italy, Croatia and Bavaria. Gurkfeld is 
 built on a hill planted with vineyards, at the foot of which 
 flows the Save ; it contains two thousand two hundred in- 
 habitants ; the principal buildings are a castle and a church. 
 As several remains of antiquity have been discovered near 
 Gurkfeld, it has been inferred that it was the ancient JVo- 
 vidunum. The fact, however, may be considered doubtful ; 
 indeed there is reason to believe that the ancient and cele- 
 brated town of Novidunum was situated at no great distance 
 from Rain. Neustadt b is frequented in the summer season 
 by the strangers who repair to the warm baths at Toeplitz. 
 
 The town of Mcettling rises at the base of the mountains 
 inhabited by the Uscoks (Germ. Iluskoken ,) which are 
 about forty miles' in length. Many pilgrims visit Mcettling, 
 but neither their example nor that of the peasants who re- 
 pair to it in crowds at certain seasons, have infected the 
 mountaineers ; it must be admitted, however, that the Us- 
 coks are a semi-barbarous tribe, depending chiefly on pil- 
 lage for a subsistence. 
 
 Gottschee, a town of sixteen hundred souls, possesses a 
 large and well built castle. The Gottschers, in the neigh- 
 bouring country, amount in number to forty-four thousand ; 
 they may be distinguished from the other inhabitants by 
 their manners, their language and their dress. They 
 weave linen and make different articles of wood, which are 
 exported to Austria and Hungary. The men are always 
 armed with small axes, weapons by which they may be 
 easily known. Idria stands in a deep valley in the Julian 
 Alps. ; its Calvary is situated on a lofty hill, its quicksilver 
 mines are very valuable, the passage that leads to them 
 communicates with the centre of the town. d 
 
 The names of the places in the government of Laybach 
 are principally German, but in Trieste the most of the 
 names are Italian. Goerz or Gorizia,® the chief town of a 
 circle, contains ten thousand inhabitants. It stands in a 
 fruitful valley on the banks of the Lisonzo ; it has diffe- 
 rent societies, one of agriculture, another of arts, and a 
 third of commerce/ Monte Santo, a mountain famous 
 for its wine, is situated in the neighbourhood. A Roman 
 city rose formerly on the banks of the Anfora, which was 
 
 n “ An agricultural and a literary society.” 
 
 b “Neustedt.” — Neustsedtel. (Busching.) c “ 16 leagues.” 
 
 d “ Idria is celebrated for its Calvary and for its quicksilver mines, the 
 
 entrance to which is in the centre of the town.” The entrance to the mine 
 is a little southward of the town. Russel, p. 444. — P. 
 
 destroyed by the Huns in the year 452 ; the small town or 
 rather the burgh of Aquileia now occupies its site. En- 
 compassed by the lagoons of Marano, it cannot prosper 
 until these pestilential marshes are drained by government. 
 
 Trieste, the capital of the government, was formerly the 
 principal port in Austria ; its castle was ruined by the 
 French commandant in 1813, and there remains only a 
 battery for the purpose of saluting the vessels that enter the 
 roads. Trieste is divided into the old and new town ; the 
 latter is situated at the base of the mountain, the summit of 
 which is crowned by the castle. The only public build- 
 ings entitled to notice are the exchange, a model of archi- 
 tecture, and the church of the Jesuits, which is remarkable 
 for its fine front. Trieste is built in the Italian style ; the 
 houses are regular and the streets broad, particularly in the 
 new town and in the suburbs, but in the old town the build- 
 ings are irregular and the streets narrow and dirty. It is 
 impossible to walk in that part of the town during wet wea- 
 ther without being exposed to the torrents which fall from 
 the house tops, or being compelled to stem the floods that 
 rush through the streets. The exterior of the cathedral is 
 only remarkable for the Roman remains with which it was 
 built, and the interior, on account of the monument raised 
 to the memory of the celebrated Winckelmann. Some 
 remains of antiquity are worthy of fixing the attention ; 
 such, for instance, are the triumphal arch erected to Charle- 
 magne, the remains of a Roman amphitheatre, and an an- 
 cient Roman aqueduct by which the town is now supplied 
 with water. The harbour of Trieste has lately been im- 
 proved ; large ships can now enter it ; it enjoys the pri- 
 vilege of free trade, which ensures the prosperity of its com- 
 merce. All the German geographers agree that the .town 
 contains at least thirty-six thousand inhabitants. 6 
 
 Capo d’Istria, a maritime town of five thousand four hun- 
 dred souls, is built on a rock that communicates by a bridge 
 with the continent ; it is the metropolis of a bishopric. Pi- 
 rano, which rises like a pyramid at the extremity of a cape, 
 is peopled by six thousand two hundred individuals, most of 
 whom are engaged in fishing or in building vessels, and also 
 in cultivating the vine and olive. The principal church is 
 situated on a height in the centre of the town. The in- 
 habitants carry on a considerable trade, particularly in salt 
 obtained from the adjoining lagoons. Parenzo, a small 
 town, is remarkable for its cathedral, in which are seen 
 mosaics of the tenth century, and consequently, at least 
 eighty years older than those in Saint Mark’s at "\ enice. 
 Rovigno, a well built town, stands on a headland encom- 
 passed with rocks ; its Gothic cathedral is its finest edifice. 
 An active commerce, its fisheries and its coasting trade, 
 serve to enrich its nine thousand six hundred inhabitants. 
 
 The small town of Pola near the cape called Punta Pro- 
 montorio, exhibits the remains of that flourishing city which 
 Caesar destroyed on account of its devotion to Pompey. 
 It might have been owing to the beautiful view which it 
 commands, or to the interest which its faithful and attach- 
 ed inhabitants inspired, that Julia, the daughter of Augus- 
 tus, persuaded her father to rebuild it ; at all events, the 
 town obtained the name of Pietas Julia. The pestilential 
 air that rises from its lagoons, has, without doubt, contribu- 
 ted to its decay ; it is only inhabited at present by eight 
 
 e Goritia, Goritz. — Slav. Goriza. 
 
 f “It has a society of agriculture, arts and commerce.” 
 
 g Thielen makes its population amount to forty thousand five hundred 
 and thirty individuals. 
 
BOOK CXXIX.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OP GERMANY. 
 
 67 
 
 hundred and fifty individuals. It might be difficult for 
 the stranger who first examines it, to decide whether it be a 
 Roman or a modern town ; the streets and squares are 
 covered with grass, and the soil in some places with the 
 fragments . of ancient buildings ; most of the houses are un- 
 inhabited. The old castle, which is not yet finished, ap- 
 pears as deserted as the rest of the town. The cathedral 
 is built on the site, and with the remains of a Roman temple. 
 Two other temples, on one of which is inscribed a dedica- 
 tion to Augustus, a large triumphal arch, the Porta Aurea, 
 a monument of conjugal affection, 8 an amphitheatre, which, 
 judging from its dimensions, might have contained fifteen 
 thousand spectators, and many other ruins, still show how 
 much the town was enlarged and adorned by Augustus. 
 
 Having arrived as the southern extremity of Germany, it 
 is necessary to make some observations on the state of that 
 country, and in the first place on the German possessions 
 of the Austrian empire. These possessions, including Bo- 
 hemia, Moravia and Silesia, the archdutchy of Austria, 
 Stiria, Tyrol and Illyria, form a superficial extent of three 
 thousand five hundred and seventy-eight German, or near- 
 lyforty-nine thousand seven hundred English square miles ; b 
 they are peopled by ten millions four hundred thousand in- 
 habitants. Thus it appears that in point of surface and 
 population, they make up a little more than the third of the 
 whole empire. But the Germans do not amount to much 
 more than the half of the population, and their number has 
 certainly been overrated by those who consider it equal to 
 seven millions. It may therefore be easily imagined how 
 much the difference of language, manners and customs 
 tends to weaken their national spirit, and consequently their 
 political force. Considered as a federative state, Austria 
 possesses but few advantages ; if the German provinces are 
 attached to their government, an assumption that may be 
 considered doubtful, it is not difficult to observe in Hungary 
 and its dependencies, and particularly in Galicia, a sort of 
 indifference, and in the Italian provinces, an avowed aver- 
 sion to the power that governs them. The Austrian go- 
 vernment may be anxious to reconcile discordant opinions, 
 but it is by no means disposed to confound so many dif- 
 ferent interests by institutions which it considers dangerous, 
 perhaps incompatible with the actual civilization of its sub- 
 jects. It advances slowly on the beaten path, and accom- 
 modates itself to the prejudices of the people. Far from 
 imitating Joseph the Second in his projects of improvement, 
 it is rather the object of its policy to keep the people igno- 
 rant. It has even recently granted privileges to the Je- 
 suits ; Galicia had been already opened to them ; they may 
 ere long become as influential throughout the empire as in 
 the time of their splendour. 
 
 The house of Austria, rich in its soil, its mines and in the 
 industry of its inhabitants, ruling a population of about thirty 
 two millions, 0 maintaining an army of two hundred and 
 fifty thousand men, and carrying on a trade producing 
 .£3,500, 000, d is not so formidable as many are apt to ima- 
 gine. The revenue amounts to £16,035,000, and the 
 public debt to more than six times that sum.® The navy 
 consists only of seven ships of the line, as many frigates and 
 
 a The Porta aurea (It. porta dorata ,) a triumphal arch which now 
 serves as a gate to the town, was erected by his wife, in honour of Sergius 
 Lepidus. (Encyc. Method.) — P. 
 b “ 9,947 sq. leagues, 25 to a degree.” 
 
 ' Thielen, Alphabetisch-topographisches Postreise-Handbuch, 1827. 
 d “ 80,000.000 francs.” 
 
 ten or twelve brigs and sloops/ It was determined by the 
 last treaties that the course of the Inn should form a west 
 ern boundary ; e that object of Austrian ambition has at 
 length been attained ; but Austria may wish to be invulnera- 
 ble on other points besides those towards Bavaria. Although 
 secure from the chances of an attack in that quarter, al- 
 though now too powerful to fear the crescent that twice 
 threatened to destroy it, a more formidable enemy may ad- 
 vance against it from the north. Galicia has been consi- 
 dered its bulwark in that direction, but that country, from 
 its nature and position, could .afford but a feeble defence in 
 the event of an invasion. It is unnecessary to extend these 
 general remarks, or to enter into details ; the readers who 
 may be desirous of obtaining further information concern- 
 ing the resources, the means of instruction and the position 
 of the German provinces under the Austrian empire, may 
 be referred to the tables at the end of this book. 
 
 It may be asked what are the conclusions connected with 
 the moral and political state of Germany, to which a stranger 
 is likely to arrive, who traverses it in every direction, and 
 who judges with impartiality. Is that vast federative state 
 united by common interests 1 is it powerful from the resour- 
 ces which the different states that compose it, afford to each 
 other ; or is it not a country whose inhabitants are only 
 united by the same language 1 Has the light of knowledge 
 which has long been diffused over Germany, and the new 
 institutions which have been thus rendered necessary, tend- 
 ed to improve the condition of the people ? Such are the 
 questions which it is now proposed to examine. 
 
 When more than three hundred states represented in the 
 Germanic diet, acknowledged the supremacy of an elected 
 chief with the title of emperor, Germany might have been 
 considered a vast country divided into principalities or ra- 
 ther into governments/ More detached from the rest of 
 Europe, the Germans might then be said to have formed a 
 single nation. But at present while Germany consists of 
 forty-two independent sovereignties, some of which are suf- 
 ficiently important to depend on their own resources, the 
 federative bonds have been in a manner destroyed by con- 
 flicting interests ; nothing of former Germany now remains ; 
 at least, it differs wholly from what it was during the six- 
 teenth century. At one time the clergy and nobles pos- 
 sessed a decided preponderance and many privileges bur- 
 densome to the people. But the reformation first weakened 
 and at last destroyed the temporal power of the clergy 
 The spirit of liberty has in later times made new conquests, 
 and created new institutions. 
 
 No longer compelled to labour gratuitously for the no- 
 bles, governed by a comparatively small number of princes, 
 the Germans have undoubtedly gained by the recent changes. 
 The taxes have been distributed with greater impartiality, 
 numerous roads offer more easy means of communication, 
 and additional wealth has been diffused throughout every 
 class of society. Some improvements, have even origina- 
 ted amidst the evils of war ; if the houses, says a German 
 author, are now numbered in every town, it must be attri- 
 buted to the necessity of finding quarters for the French sol- 
 diers ; in the same manner, the custom of lighting the streets 
 
 e “ Revenue, more than 140,000,000 florins, or 385,000,000 francs; (ac- 
 cording to Lichtenstem, only 130,000,000 florins.) — Public debt, 800,000,000 
 florins.” f “ Corvettes.” 
 
 s Only the lower part of its course. In the upper part of its course, it 
 traverses Tyrol, and then passes through a corner of Bavaria. — P. 
 h “ Prefectures.” 
 
68 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXIX. 
 
 was not introduced before the seven years’ war. a Other 
 writers have observed that since the residence of the French 
 troops amongst them, the houses are better built and better 
 decorated, the apartments more commodious and the fur- 
 ’niture more substantial. If the wars of Napoleon were for 
 a season disastrous to Germany, that celebrated person 
 ought perhaps to be now as much regarded by the Ger- 
 mans as he was execrated by them when he oppressed the 
 country with the weight of his power ; for the continental 
 system tended to expand those germs of industry, of which 
 the people are beginning to reap the blessed lruits. 
 
 The Thuringer-Wald divides Germany into two regions, 
 the northern and the southern. The northern Germans 
 living on bread, potatoes, butter and cheese, and drinking 
 occasionally beer and spirits, are stronger, more frugal nnd 
 more enlightened ; protestantism has made most proselytes 
 amongst them. Delicate in their manner of life, accus- 
 tomed to wine, sometimes addicted to drunkenness, the 
 southern Germans may be more lively, but they are also 
 more superstitious. In northern Germany, numerous ha- 
 bitations, villages adorned with fountains, neat and clean 
 houses, excellent roads lined with fruit trees, and well cul- 
 tivated fields proclaim the wealth and intelligence of the in- 
 habitants. 
 
 Many castles, the remains of feudal times, begin to ap- 
 pear in the country near the Black F orest. These and the 
 different monuments throughout Germany are kept in good 
 repair ; if they fall to ruin, it cannot be imputed to negli- 
 gence but to time, which is often more ready to destroy than 
 the hand of man to preserve. 
 
 A distinguished writer b calls Germany the count'i'y of 
 thought. The unnumbered philosophical and metaphysical 
 systems from the time of the profound Leibnitz to the days 
 of the unintelligible Kant, might perhaps entitle it to such a 
 designation. It has been said correctly that the country 
 abounds with learned men ; they are not as in other states 
 confined to the capital ; they may be met with in the small- 
 est towns. As to the physical sciences, they have been 
 cultivated with as much success as in other countries ; they 
 are now more encouraged by the different governments than 
 by the government of that nation, which boasts, perhaps 
 not without reason, of having been pre-eminent in Europe, 
 in the career of science. However painful it may be for a 
 Frenchman to humble his national pride before strangers so 
 long his inferiors, it must be admitted that among the ad- 
 vantages of the late peace, are those which have enabled 
 different states in Germany to compete with France in the 
 most attractive and most useful departments of knowledge. 
 It is sufficient to visit the collections at Munich, Berlin and 
 Frankfort, and to converse with the distinguished men in 
 those towns, to be convinced that the Germans are not sur- 
 passed by their neighbours. Equal to other nations in the- 
 ology, jurisprudence, history, philology and medicine, they 
 are only inferior in political knowledge ; but the means of 
 acquiring it are rapidly increasing ; more than six hundred 
 journals and newspapers are now published in the country. 
 
 The method of public instruction adopted in the universi- 
 ties is superior to that used in the French colleges. It may 
 be remarked, that, although the youth are taught to read 
 Greek and Latin in a shorter period than eight years, there 
 are in no country more celebrated classical scholars and 
 archaeologists. 
 
 * Deutschland, oder Briefe eines in Deutschland reisenden Dcutschen. 
 
 b Mad. de Stael, dc l’AUeinagne. 
 
 Gymnastics form a part of the system of education in se- 
 veral states of Germany ; it has been said that such exer- 
 cises, besides their advantage in rendering the body flexible 
 and robust, have a salutary influence on the moral charac 
 ter, or that young men fatigued by this healthful labour are 
 more apt to avoid the dangerous propensities which are too 
 often the consequences of effeminacy and repose. 
 
 As society has few charms in Germany, the enjoyments 
 of reading and study are necessarily better appreciated than 
 in other countries. Music appears to be almost an innate 
 art with the Germans. Students may be seen walking in 
 procession, and singing hymns of praise to the divinity ; the 
 peasant during his intervals of labour often composes an air 
 on a wretched harpsichord ; and the shepherd makes the 
 woods re-echo the harmonious notes of his flute. 
 
 The population of Germany amounts to thirty millions 
 five hundred thousand inhabitants, who are dispersed over 
 a surface of twelve thousand German or more than a hun- 
 dred and fifty thousand English square miles, 0 so that the 
 average number of individuals for every German square 
 mile is equal to two thousand five hundred and forty-two. 
 According to statistical accounts, there are about sixteen 
 millions of catholics, fourteen millions of protestants, twen- 
 ty-five thousand Herrnhutters or Moravians, two thousand 
 five hundred Mennonites, fourteen thousand of the Greek 
 or eastern church and three hundred thousand Jews . 6 
 The revenue amounts to at least two hundred millions of 
 florins, and the military force exceeds three hundred thou- 
 sand men. 
 
 Germany has not a single naval station, and it is besides 
 deficient in canals, particularly in the southern parts of the 
 confederacy ; nor until the debt shall be liquidated, the re- 
 presentative system better established, a navy created, in- 
 land commerce less shackled by custom-houses, the coin- 
 age as well as the system of weights and measures rendered 
 uniform, and the people more united, can it become flou- 
 rishing within, and respected without. 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 GERMAN PROVINCES UNDER THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE 
 
 A. KINGDOM OF BOHEMIA, 
 
 DIVIDED INTO SIXTEEN CIRCLES. 
 
 Population 
 
 2 Beraun 
 
 3 Haurzim 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 163,389 
 
 181,631 
 
 4 Bunzlau 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 375,832 
 
 5 Bidschow 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 237,738 
 
 6 Koenisgraetz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 309,102 
 
 7 Chrudlm 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 285,096 
 
 8 Czaslau 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 226,590 
 
 9 Tabor 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 185,979 
 
 10 Budweis 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 194,502 
 
 11 Prachim 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 246,140 
 
 12 Klattau 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 163,132 
 
 13 Pilzen 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 189,586 
 
 c “ 33,000 sq. leagues” — more than 250,000 Eng. sq. miles. 220, OOt 
 Eng. sq. miles. (Morse.) — P. d Deutschland, oder Briefe, &c. 
 
book cxxix.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 14 EInbogen 220,103 
 
 15 Saatz ...... 128,655 
 
 16 Leitmeritz ...... 335,112 
 
 Town of Prague' ...... 85,710 
 
 Total amount, 3,698,596 a 
 
 Domestic Animals in 1822. 
 
 Horses ....... 137,000 
 
 Oxen 894,400 
 
 Sheep ....... 1,091,700 
 
 Swine ....... 223,800 
 
 Goats ....... 61,300 
 
 Mules ....... 100 
 
 Number of Religious Societies b in 1825. 
 
 Capuchins ...... 15 
 
 Augustines ...... 7 
 
 Minorites ...... 3 
 
 Dominicans ...... 3 
 
 Franciscans . .... 14 
 
 Benedictines ...... 3 
 
 Norbertines or Premonstrantes .... 4 
 
 Charity Brothers ...... 3 
 
 Knights of the Cross ..... 1 
 
 Piarites ....... 14 
 
 Ursulines ....... 2 
 
 Carmelites ...... 1 
 
 Sisters of Saint Elizabeth .... 2 
 
 Cistertians, Servites, &c. .... 4 
 
 76 
 
 Places of Education in 1822. 
 
 (J niversity ...... 1 
 
 Lyceums ...... 6 
 
 Gymnasiums ...... 26 
 
 Catholic Elementary Schools .... 2,512 
 
 Protestant Elementary Schools .... 48 
 
 Mixed Elementary Schools .... 380 
 
 Jewish Elementary Schools .... 21 
 
 Musical Conservatory ..... 1 
 
 Polytechnic Institute ..... 1 
 
 2,996 
 
 Number of professors and teachers ... 6,709 
 
 Number of students attending the University . . 2,055 
 
 scholars at the Lyceums ... 656 
 
 at the Gymnasiums . . . 6,497 
 
 at the Polytechnic Institute . . 791 
 
 at the Musical Conservatory . . 75 
 
 at the Elementary Schools . . 400,889 
 
 Total number of students and scholars 410,963 
 
 Division of the Land. 
 
 Jochs or Acres. 
 
 Fields ....... 3,828,500 
 
 Gardens ....... 86,000 
 
 Vineyards .... . 4,400 
 
 Meadows ..... . 799,000 
 
 Pasture lands . . . ... . 610,000 
 
 Forests ....... 2,310,000 
 
 Ponds ....... 132,700 
 
 7,770,600 
 
 Population according to the origin of the Inhabitants. 
 
 Tchekhes 2,365,000 
 
 Germans ....... 1,275,000 
 
 Jews ...... 58,000 
 
 Population according to the different Religions. 
 
 Catholics 3,587,000 
 
 Calvinists ....... 40,000 
 
 Lutherans ....... 13,000 
 
 Jews 58,000 
 
 OF GERMANY. 69 
 
 B. MORAVIA AND AUSTRIAN SILESIA, 
 
 DIVIDED INTO EIGHT CIRCLES. 
 
 Population. 
 
 1 Iglau ....... 170,037 
 
 2 Znaim ...... 157,682 
 
 3 Brunn ....... 352,541 
 
 4 Hradisch ...... 244,791 
 
 5 Olmutz ....... 401,043 
 
 6 Prerau ....... 249,699 
 
 7 Troppau ...... 219,110 
 
 8 Teschen ...... 173,810 
 
 1,968,713 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 Horses ....... 128,000 
 
 Oxen ....... 56,500 
 
 Cows 301,000 
 
 Sheep 403,000 
 
 Places of Education in 1822. 
 
 Lyceum ....... 1 
 
 Philosophical institutions ..... 2 
 
 Permanent academy ..... 1 
 
 Catholic Gymnasiums ..... 12 
 
 Lutheran Gymnasium ..... 1 
 
 Normal Schools ...... 2 
 
 Secondary Schools ..... 20 
 
 Primary Schools . . _ . . . . 1,627 
 
 Public Boarding Schools for girls .... 12 
 
 Schools of industry ..... 3 
 
 Sunday Schools ...... 1,548 
 
 3,229 
 
 Number of scholars ..... 153,000 
 
 Division of the Land. 
 
 Jochs or Acres. 
 
 Fields ....... 2,200,400 
 
 Gardens ....... 58,000 
 
 Vineyards ...... 51,000 
 
 Meadows . .... 325,000 
 
 Pasture lands . .... 429,000 
 
 Forests . . .... 1,120,000 
 
 JPonds ....... 41,800 
 
 Waste lands ..... 596,300 
 
 4,821,500 
 
 Population according to the Origin of the Inhabitants in the year 1825. 
 
 Germans ...... 462,000 
 
 Slavonians ...... 1,473,000 
 
 Jews . . ..... 32,000 
 
 Zigeunes or Gypsies ..... 1,000 
 
 Population according to the different Religions. 
 
 Catholics ...... 1,860,000 
 
 Calvinists ...... 16,000 
 
 Lutherans ... . . 60,000 
 
 Jews ....... 32,000 
 
 C. ARCHDUTCY OF AUSTRIA, 
 
 DIVIDED INTO NINE CIRCLES. 11 
 
 Lower Austria. 
 
 Population. 
 
 . ( Vienna ... . . 241,774 
 
 1 { Below the Wiener- Wald .... 229,797 
 
 2 Above the Wiener- Wald .... 222,352 
 
 3 Below the Mannhartsberg .... 262,311 
 
 4 Above the Mannhartsberg .... 226,361 
 
 Upper Austria. 
 
 5 Circle of the Muhl .... 195,288 
 
 6 — the Inn ..... 137,489 
 
 a The numbers in the above table are taken from the Manual of M. 
 Thielen, published in 1827. 
 b “ Congregations.” 
 
 e The circles in the archdutchy of Austria are called quarters (Germ. 
 I viertel.) 
 
70 EUR< 
 
 7 Circle of the Hausruck ..... 176,511 
 
 8 the Traun ..... 175,982 
 
 9 Salzburg ..... 141,105 
 
 2,008,970 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 Horses ...... 100,000 
 
 Oxen ..... 120,000 
 
 Cows ....... 500,000 
 
 Sheep 700,000 
 
 Religious Societies. 
 
 Convents for men and women .... 45 
 
 Places of Education. 
 
 University ...... 1 
 
 Philosophical Institution ..... 1 
 
 Lyceums ...... 3 
 
 Gymnasiums . ..... 11 
 
 Academies ...... 7 
 
 of Arts and Trades .... 2 
 
 Schools of Medicine 1 ..... 2 
 
 School of Engineers" ..... 1 
 
 Oriental Languages .... 1 
 
 Military Schools ..... 2 
 
 Normal Schools ..... 2 
 
 Elementary and higher Schools for Girls ... 35 
 
 Schools of Industry ..... 50 
 
 Principal German Schools 1 ' .... 20 
 
 Protestant Seminary ..... 1 
 
 Public Schools' ...... 2,000 
 
 Sunday Schools ...... 120 
 
 Village Schools ...... 4,500 
 
 Number of Pupils that attend the Schools . . 150,000 
 
 Division of the Soil. 
 
 Jochs or Acres. 
 
 Fields ....... 2,120,000 
 
 Gardens ....... 81,000 
 
 Vineyards ....... 79,000 
 
 Meadows ....... 753,000 
 
 Pasture lands ...... 1,064,000 
 
 Forests . .... 1,830,000 
 
 Waste lands ...... 883,500 
 
 6,810,500 
 
 Population according to the Origin of the Inhabitants. 
 
 Germans ....... 2,000,000 
 
 Slavonians ...... 6,750 
 
 Greeks ....... 350 
 
 Armenians ...... 200 
 
 Jews . ..... 1,500 
 
 Different Religions. 
 
 Catholics ....... 1,975,000 
 
 Lutherans . . ..... 30,600 
 
 Calvinists ....... 1,350 
 
 Greeks ....... 350 
 
 Jews ....... 1,500 
 
 D. COUNTY OF TYROL, 
 
 DIVIDED INTO SEVEN CIRCLES. 
 
 Population. 
 
 1 Lower Inn ..... 88,869 
 
 2 Upper Inn . . . . . 123,722 
 
 3 Pusterthal ...... 97,823 
 
 4 Adige or Botzen ..... 104,101 
 
 5 Trent 161,528 
 
 6 Roveredo . . . . . . 98,156 
 
 7 Vorarlberg . . . . ... 86,754 
 
 762,053 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 Horses ....... 7,600 
 
 Mules . 1,100 
 
 Oxen ....... 44,000 
 
 3PE. [BOOK CXX1X. 
 
 Cows ....... 131,000 
 
 Sheep . . .... 37,500 
 
 Goats . . .... 63,300 
 
 Swine . . . . . . ‘ . 40,400 
 
 Religious Societies. 
 
 Convents for men and women . 22 
 
 Places of Education. 
 
 Lyceums ...... 2 
 
 Gymnasiums ...... 6 
 
 Normal Schools ...... 2 
 
 Seminaries endowed by Government" 1 ... 15 
 
 Elementary Schools ..... 735 
 
 Schools for Girls ...... 59 
 
 Division of the Land, not including the circle of Vorarlberg. 
 
 Jochs or Acres. 
 
 Fields ....... 152,000 
 
 Vineyards ...... 17,300 
 
 Meadows ..... 392,600 
 
 Forests ....... 1,508,600 
 
 Waste lands ...... 2,906,700 
 
 4,978,200 
 
 Population according to the Origin of the Inhabitants. 
 
 Germans ...... 598,500 
 
 Italians ....... 163,420 
 
 Jews ....... 80 
 
 E. DUTCHY OF STIRIA, 
 
 DIVIDED INTO FIVE CIRCLES. 
 
 Population. 
 
 1 Cilly 181,529 
 
 2 Marburg ...... 185,766 
 
 3 Grtetz ....... 306,321 
 
 4 Bruck ...... 66,235 
 
 5 Judenburg ...... 89,880 
 
 829,731 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 Horses ....... 44,700 
 
 Oxen .....•• 82,400 
 
 Cows ....... 206,300 
 
 Sheep 126,300 
 
 Religious Societies. 
 
 Convents ...... 27 
 
 Places of Education. 
 
 Lyceum ...... 1 
 
 Philosophical School ..... 
 
 Gymnasiums, including the Jolianneum ... 5 
 
 Normal School ...... 
 
 Principal Schools' ..... 7 
 
 Houses of Education for Girls .... 2 
 
 Division of the Land. 
 
 Jochs or Acres. 
 
 Fields . . " . . . • • 610,400 
 
 Gardens ....... 9,000 
 
 Vineyards ... . 51,800 
 
 Meadows ....... 437,000 
 
 Pasture Lands ...... 644,400 
 
 Forests ....... 1,50/, 200 
 
 Ponds ....... 700 
 
 Waste Lands . . ... 552,300 
 
 3,812,800 
 
 Population according to the Origin of the Inhabitants. 
 
 Germans ....... 478,500 
 
 Wends . . . . . . 299,400 
 
 Hungarians, Italians, French, &c. . . . 51,800 
 
 Different Religions. 
 
 Catholics ...... 826, / 00 
 
 Lutherans ...... 3,0W 
 
 * “ Schools of Medicine Engineers and Foresters. 
 k German High Schools ( Uauptschulcn , Hassel.) 
 
 ' Primary or Common Schools ( Volkschtden, Hassel.) 
 d “Colleges.” ' High Schools. See note ( b ) this page. 
 
BOOK CXXIX.] 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 71 
 
 F. KINGDOM OF ILLYRIA, 
 
 DIVIDED INTO TWO GOVERNMENTS AND SEVEN CIRCLES. 
 
 1 Villach 
 
 2 Klagenfurt 
 
 3 Laybach 
 
 4 Neustadt 
 
 5 Adelsberg 
 
 b Goertz or Gorizia 
 7 Istria 
 
 Territory of Trieste 
 
 Horses 
 
 Oxen 
 
 Cows 
 
 Sheep 
 
 Convents 
 
 Lyceums 
 Gymnasiums 
 Normal Schools 
 Academies 1 
 Schools for Girls 
 
 Fields 
 
 Gardens 
 
 Vineyards 
 
 Meadows 
 
 Pasture Lands 
 
 Forests 
 
 Ponds 
 
 Waste Lands 
 
 Government of Laybach. 
 
 Government of Trieste. 
 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 Religious Societies. 
 Places of Education. 
 
 Division of the Land. 
 
 Population. 
 
 122,795 
 
 164,547 
 
 157,100 
 
 183,508 
 
 86,436 
 
 162,928 
 
 192,564 
 
 54,315 
 
 1,124,193 
 
 32,800 
 
 97,100 
 
 167,300 
 
 234,900 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 Jochs or Acres. 
 
 728.200 
 24,200 
 34,400 
 
 561,700 
 
 856.200 
 1,359,500 
 
 48,500 
 
 2,462,900 
 
 6,075,600 
 
 Population according to the Origin of the Inhabitants. 
 
 Germans 
 
 Wends, Slavonians, &c. 
 
 Serbes b .... 
 
 Italians . 
 
 Greeks .... 
 
 Jews .... 
 
 Different Religions. 
 
 Catholics 
 
 Greeks 
 
 Lutherans 
 
 Calvinists 
 
 Jews 
 
 year 1820. 
 
 Kingdom of Bohemia 
 Moravia and Austrian Silesia 
 
 Archdutchy of Austria j 
 
 County of Tyrol 
 Dutchy of Stiria 
 Kingdom of Illyria 
 
 • 
 
 
 220,000 
 
 . 
 
 
 850,000 
 
 • 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 • 
 
 
 50,000 
 
 • 
 
 
 700 
 
 ons. 
 
 
 2,500 
 
 • 
 
 
 1 110,000 
 
 • 
 
 
 700 
 
 
 
 10,800 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 • 
 
 
 2,500 
 
 German square 
 
 mile in the 
 
 Horses. 
 
 Oxen. 
 
 Cows. Sheep. 
 
 127 
 
 253 
 
 632 954 
 
 232 
 
 102 
 
 347 732 
 
 128 
 
 256 
 
 829 568 
 
 158 
 
 248 
 
 547 969 
 
 14 
 
 85 
 
 253 266 
 
 112 
 
 206 
 
 516 316 
 
 63 
 
 187 
 
 322 452 
 
 German Austria. 
 
 
 
 
 In 1820. 
 
 In 1823. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 In 1825. 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Bohemia 
 
 
 3,379,341 
 
 3,539,441 
 
 160,100 
 
 3,698,596 
 
 159,155 
 
 Moravia and Silesia 
 
 1,860,000 
 
 1,910,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 1,968,713 
 
 58,713 
 
 Austria . 
 
 
 1,897,417 
 
 1,956,334 
 
 158,917 
 
 2,008,970 
 
 52,646 
 
 Tyrol 
 
 . • • 
 
 737,562 
 
 755,401 
 
 17,839 
 
 762,053 
 
 6,652 
 
 Stiria 
 
 
 777,926 
 
 805,847 
 
 27,921 
 
 829,731 
 
 23,884 
 
 Illyria 1 
 
 
 
 1,089,175 
 
 
 1,124,193 
 
 85,018 d 
 
 11 “ Colleges.” b Germ. Serben, Servians. 
 
 c The number of inhabitants in Illyria amounted in 1820 to 1,141,960 
 individuals, but as the territory of Carlstadt, and part of Hungary* were 
 then included in Illyria, the population of that year has not been mentioned 
 in the table. 
 
 * The Littoral of Hungary— both that and Carlstadt have been since 
 annexed to Hungary. See Stat. Table of Hungary in this work.— P. 
 
 Population of German Austria for every German square mile in 1825. 
 
 Inhabitant 
 
 Bohemia ....... 3,885 
 
 Moravia and Silesia 
 Austria 
 Tyrol 
 Stiria 
 Illyria 
 
 4,090 
 
 2,837 
 
 1,476 
 
 2,079 
 
 2,166 
 
 Proportion between the numbers of the two Sexes. 
 
 Austria 
 
 1818. Bohemia 
 
 Moravia and Silesia 
 Upper 
 Lower 
 
 Tyrol 
 Stiria 
 
 C Laybach 
 ) Trieste 
 
 1820. 
 
 Illyria 
 
 ‘S3 of Women. 
 
 Ratio between 
 
 the Sexes. 
 
 233,998 
 
 1,153 
 
 tO/ 
 
 1,000 
 
 125,948 
 
 1,154 
 
 to 
 
 1,000 
 
 40,811 
 
 1,094 
 
 to 
 
 1,000 
 
 65,352 
 
 1,129 
 
 to 
 
 1,000 
 
 12,833 
 
 1,036 
 
 to 
 
 1,000 
 
 25,788 
 
 1,068 
 
 to 
 
 1,000 
 
 27,081 
 
 1,088 
 
 to 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,600 
 
 1,006 
 
 to 
 
 1,000 
 
 Sentences pronounced by the Supreme Criminal Court at Vienna from 
 1806 to 1809. — German Provinces and Galicia. 
 
 Attempted 
 
 Crimes. 
 
 751 
 
 Sacrilege. 
 
 14 
 
 Bigamy. 
 
 78 
 
 Child Murder. 
 160 
 
 Exposing 
 of Children. 
 
 274 
 
 Defamation. 
 
 156 
 
 Seductions 
 Duels. and Rapes. 
 
 3 172 
 
 Conspiracies. 
 
 84 
 
 Amount of the Capital Crimes committed in the Austrian Empire. 
 1823. — german provinces and galicia. 
 
 Murders. 
 
 22 
 
 Robberies. 
 
 13 
 
 Abuse of Power. 
 
 11 
 
 Fraud and Forgery. 
 
 15 
 
 Fire-raising. 
 
 5 
 
 Number of Trials. 
 
 
 Murders. 
 
 Robberies. 
 
 Abuse of Power. 
 
 Fraud and For- 
 gery. 
 
 Fire-Raising. 
 
 Political insur- 
 rections and 
 revolts. 
 
 Mortal Wounds. 
 
 Conspiracies. 
 
 ' 1824. 
 
 Bohemia 
 
 54 
 
 1108 
 
 4 
 
 76 
 
 4 
 
 57 
 
 45 
 
 0 
 
 Moravia and Silesia 
 
 38 
 
 482 
 
 1 
 
 57 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 Austria 
 
 38 
 
 1136 
 
 3 
 
 141 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 23 
 
 0 
 
 Stiria and Carinthia 
 
 34 
 
 362 
 
 5 
 
 42 
 
 0 
 
 35 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 Galicia 
 
 87 
 
 807 
 
 22 
 
 112 
 
 60 
 
 139 
 
 60 
 
 2 
 
 Number of Children who frequent the Schools . e 
 
 Lower Austria 
 
 
 
 
 1 out of every 10 in 1811 
 
 Upper Austria 
 
 
 
 
 1 out of every 13 
 
 Moravia and Silesia 
 
 
 
 
 1 out of every 11 
 
 Bohemia 
 
 
 
 
 1 out of every 18 in 1789 
 
 Id. 
 
 
 
 
 1 out of every 9 in 1822 
 
 Stiria and Carinthia 
 
 
 
 
 1 out of every 10 
 
 Number of Journals and Newspapers published in Germany 
 German Austria 
 Prussia 
 Wirtemberg 
 Bavaria 
 Saxony 
 Hanover 
 
 Grand Dutchy of Baden 
 Hesse-Darmstadt 
 Electoral Hesse 
 Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
 Saxe-Weimar 
 Saxe-Cobourg-Gotha 
 Saxe-Meinungen 
 Hamburg 
 
 Frankfort on the Maine 
 Other Petty States 
 
 Total 
 
 d M. Kudler supposes that the population of Bohemia has doubled with- 
 in the last 230 years, and that of Moravia and Silesia within the last 296 
 years. According to the same author, the other provinces present as 
 striking variations. 
 
 e These details are taken from the work entitled : The World compared 
 with the British Empire, by M. A. Balbi. 
 
 J 
 
EUROPE. jiiooKcxxx. 
 
 BOOK CXXX. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued. — Switzerland. 
 
 Switzerland is considered in point of romantic and pic- 
 turesque scenery, the finest country in Europe. To give 
 an account of such a country, to mark the contrasts be- 
 tween verdure and eternal snow, silent forests and roaring 
 cataracts, fruitful vallies and sterile mountains, and to de- 
 lineate all the varied pictures of gigantic nature, form a task 
 as difficult for the writer as the painter. Switzerland be- 
 sides is so well known, it is so often the subject of conversa- 
 tion, that even those who have never seen it, are enabled 
 to judge of it with sufficient accuracy. To describe the 
 most important features of the country, and whatever it con- 
 tains most worthy of notice, is the object of the present 
 book ; itineraries are not wanting to guide the travellers 
 who wish to examine it minutely. 
 
 Switzerland is bounded on the west by France, on the 
 north by the grand dutchy of Baden and the kingdom of 
 Wirtemberg, on the east by the Austrian province of Tyrol, 
 and on the south by the Sardinian and the Lombardo-Ve- 
 netian states. Its extent from west to east is equal to nearly 
 two hundred English miles, and from north to south to a 
 hundred and fifty. The superficial extent of the country 
 does not exceed twelve thousand English square miles. a 
 
 Two distinct ranges of mountains traverse Switzerland. 
 The chain of the Jura stretches from south-west to north- 
 east ; that of the Alps, which is much more extensive, is 
 nearly parallel to the former, but numerous and important 
 branches extend from it in every direction. The length of 
 the first is about two hundred and forty or two hundred and 
 fifty miles, while its breadth varies from thirty-five to forty. b 
 Precipitous and abrupt towards the Alps, it becomes gra- 
 dually lower on the side of France. It is principally formed 
 by calcareous rocks of a greyish or bluish colour, which in 
 some places may be wrought as marble. Organic remains 
 ore by no means uncommon, such as the bivalvular shells 
 which geologists have termed gryphites, the spiral and mul- 
 tilocular shells which, from their configuration, have been 
 called ammonites or horns of Ammon, 0 and those singular 
 conical remains that have received the name of belemnites 
 of thunderbolts.* 1 The calcareous strata alternate with lay- 
 ers of fine sand, to the height of eighteen hundred feet ; but 
 in some places they are separated from each other by lay- 
 ers of angular or rolled pebbles, that could only have been 
 united in the depths of the ancient ocean, by the calcareous 
 cement that envelopes them. These pebbles are fragments 
 
 * “ Extent from west to east about 80 leagues, from north to south 50 
 leagues; superficial extent 2-100 square leagues.” [19,000 Eng. sq. miles, 
 Morse.l 
 
 b “ Length, from 90 to 100 leagues; breadth, from 15 to 18.” 
 
 ° CoTnua ammonis. 
 
 of the different granitic rocks that form the nucleus of these 
 mountains and the summits of the Alps. The geologist 
 cannot observe without interest, on the declivities of Jura 
 towards Switzerland, the innumerable blocks of granite at 
 the height of two thousand feet above the lake of Geneva, 
 which have been apparently conveyed thither from more 
 elevated summits. 
 
 The Alps afford the materials of continual study and re- 
 flection to the geologist who examines them. Among the 
 phenomena thus presented to his notice, some have not 
 been sufficiently observed, although all have been often ex- 
 plained by the aid of hypotheses and different theories. 
 The immense masses that constitute the Alps, exhibit at 
 first sight the appearance of confusion and disorder ; they 
 seem the venerable witnesses of the natural convulsions 
 which took place when the earth assumed the form assigned 
 it by its creator. Inaccessible peaks covered with snow ; 
 summits from their almost perpendicular sides, not unlike 
 gigantic obelisks ; vallies surrounded with immense precipi- 
 ces ; rocks almost consumed by time and ready to fall from 
 old age ; such are the phenomena which the Alpine chains 
 present. But if the observer who surveys them be familiar 
 with the study of nature, he may see marks of its slow and 
 gradual course amid the traces of destruction and decay. 
 Ebel has shown that the most ancient deposits in these 
 mountains are arranged in strata having a direction from 
 west-south-west to east-north-east. Granitic rocks of a 
 date posterior to the formation of organized beings, 6 make 
 up the chain connected with Mount Blanc, the highest 
 mountain in Europe. Different calcareous ramifications 
 of the same chain extend a long way northwards, and rise 
 to a great height, while the granitic rocks on the south de- 
 scend to the confines of Italy. Nothing can be more impo- 
 sing than the appearance of Mount Blanc, towering high 
 above all the surrounding mountains ; the other summits 
 which encompass and incline towards it, have been com- 
 pared by a geologist to humble subjects, anxious to con- 
 template and pay homage to their sovereign. Mount Cer- 
 vin appears like a triangular pyramid, and its summit, which 
 consists of serpentine, rises to the clouds. But the circular 
 arrangement of some of these heights may be considered 
 the most remarkable phenomenon which they exhibit. 
 Mount Rosa, for example, is formed by an uninterrupted 
 series of gigantic peaks that enclose an immense circle, 
 nearly six thousand yards 5 in diameter. Geologists have 
 
 d The belemnite, like the ammonite, is an univalvular and multiloculai 
 shell.— P. 
 
 ' The protogine of Jurine, the talcose or steatitic granite of Daubuisson. 
 f Breislak, Institutions gfeologiques. tome ii. page 76. 
 e “ About 3(X)0 toises.” 
 
book cxxx.] DESCRIPTION OF SWITZERLAND. 73 
 
 looked in vain for the traces of ancient volcanoes in the 
 Alpine chains ; the ocean only has left marks of its former 
 existence. 
 
 The sun melts superficially the masses of snow that co- 
 ver the highest regions, and the snow thus melted, is after- 
 wards converted into ice. These glaciers are often in- 
 clined, and always divided by large and deep fissures, 
 whence their forms are generally very varied and fantastic. 
 According to their greater or less inclination, the glaciers 
 descend a short distance at the approach of spring, but 
 their course is soon interrupted ; still the motion to which 
 they are subjected, causes numerous fractures, which are 
 accompanied with loud and tremendous reports, re-echoed 
 from mountain to mountain. These effects are the causes 
 of others not less remarkable ; the violent shock given to 
 the air is communicated to the snow, which is also shaken ; 
 some portions of it are detached, which rolling downwards 
 increase in bulk, and occasionally overwhelm habitations, 
 villages and forests. Ebel concludes from a series of ob- 
 servations, that the ice descends annually in the channels of 
 the glaciers, from twelve to twenty-four feet ; if the average 
 descent be estimated at eighteen feet in one year, or about 
 three miles in nine hundred years, and if it be considered 
 that portions of rocks have been gradually dragged by the 
 ice in some glaciers over inclined plains more than twenty, 
 or even thirty miles in length, 1 some notion may be formed 
 of the immense period necessary for their formation. These 
 great natural movements have been thus described by an 
 eye witness, the clergyman of Grindelwald, who had gone 
 with some of his friends to visit the famous glacier in the 
 neighbourhood of that village. “ My friends and I had 
 hardly sat down on the ice to rest ourselves,” says the cler- 
 gyman, “ when we witnessed that singular phenomenon, 
 the groivtli or swelling of the glacier. 15 It was accompanied 
 with a tremendous noise ; every object around us seemed 
 to move of its own accord ; guns, sticks and game-bags, all 
 were overturned ; rocks apparently fixed in the ice were 
 detached and dashed against each other ; crevices from ten 
 to twenty fee’t wide were opened, while others closed as sud- 
 denly, and the water contained in them was thrown to a 
 great height. The whole glacier, thus agitated with so 
 much violence, advanced a few paces, but tranquillity was 
 soon restored, and the usual stillness was only interrupted 
 by the whistling of the marmot.” 0 
 
 The Rhine which pursues its sinuous course from Mount 
 Saint Gothard to the lake of Constance ; the Inn which 
 descends from Mount Bernina ; the Adda which rises at 
 the foot of Mount Gallo, and throws itself into the lake of 
 Como ; the Tesino which issues from Mount Gries, and 
 traverses Lake Maggiore in Italy ; the Rhone which is 
 formed by different streams from Mounts Grimsel and Fur- 
 ca, and which conveys its waters to the lake of Geneva ; 
 the Aar, a branch of the Rhine, which flows through the 
 lakes of Brientz and Thun, after having formed several 
 lofty cataracts ; and lastly, the Limmat which descends 
 from the Limmeren-Alp, traverses the lake of Zurich, and 
 unites with the Aar, water the finest and largest vallies in 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Besides the different lakes which have been enumerated, 
 two important ones may be added, those of Lugano and Lu- 
 
 a “ 10 or 12 leagues.” b “ Crue de glacier .” 
 
 c The account given by the clergyman of Grindelwald was published in 
 a work by Professor Wiss, quoted in the first volume of Simond’s travels 
 in Switzerland (Fr. edit.) 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 44. 10 
 
 cerne, and two others less extensive, those of Morat and 
 Bienne. The lake of Neuchatel has already been described 
 in the account of the principality and the town from which 
 its name has been derived. All these lakes form a super- 
 ficial extent of fifty-two square leagues, or three hundred 
 and fourteen square miles. d The fish that they contain, 
 are the pike, the trout, the salmon, the burbot and the um- 
 ber ; e the latter a very delicate fish occasionally exported 
 to Paris, where it is sometimes sold for so high a price 
 as =£12. 
 
 The mountains in Switzerland abound in useful sub- 
 stances, such as porphyry, marble and alabaster. Iron, 
 lead, copper, zinc, cobalt, bismuth, arsenic and antimony 
 are found in veins and in masses ; rock crystals are very 
 common, sulphur is collected in many places, and some 
 rivers, as the Rhine, the Aar, the Adda and the Reuss, 
 carry down gold. Beds of lignite or bituminous wood are 
 worked in several vallies, and the inhabitants use it for fuel. 
 
 More mineral springs are situated in Switzerland than in 
 most other European countries. The acidulous waters of 
 Saint Maurice in the canton of the Grisons, the baths of 
 Gurnighel in Berne, and the warm springs at Baden are 
 well known ; but the most frequented of any are those at 
 Pfeffers and Leuk. The sulphuretted hydrogen contained 
 in their waters render them salutary in diseases of the skin. 
 The goitres to which the inhabitants are subject in some 
 cantons, particularly in Berne, Lucerne, Friburg and the 
 Valais, may probably be attributed to the carbonate of lime 
 held in solution in different springs. 
 
 Ebel and other botanists divide the Alps into seven re- 
 gions. The lowest, or that of the vine, commences in the 
 vallies on the banks of the rivers and lakes, and terminates 
 at the height of seventeen hundred feet above the level of 
 the sea ; the next, or the region of oaks, rises to the height 
 of two thousand eight hundred feet ; that of the beech suc- 
 ceeds and reaches to the height of four thousand feet ; that 
 of the firs is next in order, and rises five thousand five hun- 
 dred feet above the level of the sea ; at that height the lower 
 Alpine region commences, where the trees give place to 
 fruitful pastures, which rise a thousand feet above them. 
 The higher Alpine region commences at six thousand five 
 hundred, and terminates at eight thousand two hundred 
 feet ; in places sheltered from the sun, the snow remains 
 throughout the year ; the region of glaciers and eternal 
 snow rises above it. The two last regions are not wholly 
 destitute of vegetation ; saxifrages, gentians and other hy- 
 perborean plants flourish there. 
 
 The weasel, the pole-cat, the ferret, the lynx and the 
 squirrel are found in Switzerland. Different kinds of game 
 are not uncommon ; among others the white hare, of the 
 same species as that found in Siberia, together with the 
 chamois and the marmot, both of which are considered 
 great delicacies. The other animals are the hamster, a spe- 
 cies of rat prized for its fur, different kinds of martens, the 
 wild boar and the bear ; but the last are at present much 
 more rare than formerly ; they seem to be almost confined 
 to the mountains of the Valais. 
 
 The antipathy that subsists between the bear and the bull 
 is not less certain than remarkable. A well informed tra- 
 veller states that as soon as these animals perceive each 
 
 d Reckoning the leagues as French post leagues — if geographical, nearly 
 400 sq. miles. — P. 
 
 * “ L’ombre chevalier,” Salmo Umbla, Linn. 
 
74 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXX 
 
 other, the bull becomes unmanageable, they fight furiously, 
 and seldom separate before both are exhausted ; but what 
 is most strange, they generally meet, as if by appointment, 
 on the same place the next day, and continue the combat 
 until one of them falls. 1 
 
 The chamois are also rapidly decreasing ; man is not 
 their only foe, they have also to escape from the great eagle 
 of the Alps. The king of birds discovers the swift quadru- 
 ped, and forces it by feigned attacks to fly to the highest 
 summits. The timid chamois too often makes for the brink 
 of a precipice, its place of shelter from the hunter. But 
 such a position is most favourable for its adversary ; while 
 the chamois presents its horns in an attitude of resistance, the 
 eagle strikes it with its wings, and hurls it headlong from 
 the precipice into the valley, where it feeds on its carcass. 
 
 But according to Mr. Coxe, the eagle has to contend 
 against the numerous ravens in the Alps. The battles 
 in which they engage, are interesting from the aeriel 
 evolutions made on both sides. The ravens formed into 
 straight lines, and divided into several battalions, attack 
 the eagle on every side, and are often replaced by troops 
 of reserve ; indeed it happens most frequently that the 
 eagle is obliged to seek safety in flight. The Alpine eagle 
 measures sixteen or seventeen feet between the tips of the 
 wings ; it carries off lambs, kids and dogs ; man never 
 spares it, but it is seldom that it comes within his reach. 
 Ebel vouches for the truth of the following anecdote, which 
 evinces certainly no ordinary coolness and address. A 
 hunter having discovered an eagle’s nest, killed the male, 
 and then climbed the rocks to seize the young, when at the 
 moment he was putting his hand into the nest, the mother 
 pounced upon him, and fixed her talons on his arm, and 
 her beak in his side. The hunter had presence of mind to 
 stand still, for had he moved, he must have fallen to the 
 bottom of a precipice ; holding his gun with one hand, and 
 supporting it against the rock, he took his aim, pulled the 
 trigger with his foot, and shot the eagle. Ebel adds that 
 he was forced to remain in bed for a month, from the 
 wounds he had received. . 
 
 The Swiss are descended from the ancient Helvetii, and 
 from the people that inhabited their country at a later pe- 
 riod. History makes no mention of the Helvetii, until 
 about a hundred years before the Christian era. Although 
 it may be difficult to trace their origin, it is highly probable 
 that they are sprung from a very ancient branch of the 
 Celtic race. The lofty ridges of the Alps must have risen 
 first from the depths of the ocean, and they may also have 
 been inhabited before any other country in Europe. 
 
 An author whose erudition cannot be too highly com- 
 mended, 11 has brought together several important facts to 
 prove that Greek colonies settled in the country long before 
 it was known to the Romans. Five centuries afterwards, 
 when Julius Caesar undertook the conquest of Gaul, and 
 defeated the Helvetii then marching to invade it, a register 
 of their army written in Greek characters, was found 
 among their baggage. In alliance with the Cimbri and 
 different German nations, they had invaded the country as 
 far as Marseilles fifty years before that period, and defeated 
 the consul Silanus. Cassius being sent to give them battle, 
 crossed the Alps, but they returned, and destroyed his le- 
 gions not far from the place where the Rhone throws itself 
 into the lake of Geneva. c If Divico, their chief, had known 
 
 1 Coxe’s Travels in Switzerland. 
 
 *> Muller’s Hist *ry of Switzerland. 
 
 how to improve his victory, he might have made himself 
 master of Rome ; at all events the Romans were then trem- 
 bling for their safety, and deploring the defeat of their gene- 
 ral. But the allies divided their forces, and Marius con- 
 quered them in two battles, first near Aix in Provence, and 
 afterwards on the banks of the Adige in Italy. 
 
 These victories were, however, insignificant, when com- 
 pared with the one that Caesar gained over them. Two 
 hundred and sixty-three thousand Helvetii and a hundred 
 thousand allies from the Jura, the lake of Constance, Tyrol 
 and the Grisons, began their march, after having burnt 
 twelve towns and four hundred villages in their own country, 
 determined never to return home. Men, women, children, 
 carriages and cattle were accompanied by ninety-two thou- 
 sand combatants, commanded by the same Divico. A 
 hundred thousand Helvetii were all that escaped the arms 
 of the Romans ; Caesar permitted them to rebuild theix 
 habitations. The people were included after this defeat 
 among the allies of trie republic, but their independence 
 did not continue longer than six years. They were after- 
 wards ranked among the people subject to Rome, and made 
 liable to all the hardships which the Romans imposed on 
 conquered nations. 
 
 The first foreign invasion of Switzerland, happened about 
 a hundred years after the Christian era. Not more than 
 two centuries afterwards, the seeds of Christianity were 
 sown in the country ; it still continued subject to the empe- 
 x'ors, but in the fourth century it changed its masters. A 
 population consisting of Alemanni, Longobardi, Vandali, 
 Burgundiones and other nations that appeared for the 
 first time in history, subdued the greater part of the country. 
 The conquerors had already mixed with the conquered, 
 and formed a new nation, when Helvetia was again deso- 
 lated by the hordes of Attila. But the Burgundian race 
 continued in the country ; they had their kings, and Gene- 
 va became the place of their residence. The Helvetians 
 were less oppressed by the barbarians, than they had been 
 by the Romans. 
 
 The druidical woi’ship of the ancient Helvetii was amal- 
 gamated with that of their conquei'ors. Iiesus and * Teu - 
 tales, Bclenus, the god of light, Taranis, armed with thunder, 
 Siwa, the divinity of the Grisons, and Penninus, the god of 
 the people in the Valais, shared the homage of the inhabi- 
 tants. A few Christians inhabited, however, some vallies 
 in the Jura from the third to the seventh century, when 
 some Scottish monks came to preach the gospel to the hea- 
 thens in Helvetia, and Gall, one of them, acquired so great 
 a reputation for sanctity, that the celebrated abbey of Saint 
 Gall was erected as a tribute to his memory about fifty years 
 after his death. Can the resistance which the Helvetians 
 opposed to new invaders, be attributed to the influence 
 of a religion that then began to enlighten a degraded 
 people 1 
 
 The Huns invaded Switzerland in the eighth century, 
 but their army was wholly defeated ; two hundred years 
 afterwards, hordes made up of Hungarians, Moors and 
 Sai'acens, as they are called in history, appeared twice in 
 the Alps ; they burned the villages, and plundered the 
 country during fifty years, but were at last destroyed by 
 the brave mountaineers. The names of some places, such 
 as Jlfaur-JMont, JMauro-Fonte, and the Wall of the Saracens 
 near Avenches, serve still to attest their residence.* 1 
 
 e Csesar — Book I. 
 
 d Simond’s Travels in Switzerland, Volume Second. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF SWITZERLAND. 
 
 BOOK CXXX.] 
 
 Helvetia was under the protection of the German em- 
 pire ; Rudolph of Hapsburg, in the height of his power, 
 formed the project of uniting the different parts of Swit- 
 zerland into a single sovereignty. Albert, his son, fol- 
 lowed the same policy, but the inhabitants were much op- 
 pressed by his officers. Gessler, in particular, rendered 
 their yoke very burdensome, and William Tell, by put- 
 ting that tyrant to death, paved the way for the deliverance 
 of his countrymen. Three heroes, whose names are re- 
 vered throughout the republic, namely, Werner from the 
 canton of Schweitz, Walter Furst from that of Uri, and 
 Arnold from that of Underwalden, resolved in 1308 to take 
 possession of the strong-holds occupied by the Austrian go- 
 vernors. The secret of their conspiracy was so well kept, 
 the measures concerted with such wisdom, and executed 
 with so much courage and intrepidity, that the result was 
 the independence of their country. But the Waldstetten a 
 or the three forest cantons of Schweitz, Underwalden and 
 Uri, which have been already mentioned, constituted at 
 that time the whole of free Helvetia. They formed the 
 confederation of Schweitz in 1315 ; at a later period the 
 other cantons were successively included, and in 1513 Ap- 
 penzell completed the federative republic, of which the 
 independence was confirmed and secured by the treaty of 
 W estphalia. 
 
 In 1798, Switzerland, like many other countries, was 
 obliged to submit to the laws which victorious France dic- 
 tated ; part of its territory was taken away, and the govern- 
 ment was changed. Geneva, which had been ceded to 
 France, was restored in 1815, and the country was at the 
 same time divided into twenty-two cantons. 
 
 The ancient gods of Helvetia ceased to be worshipped 
 after the introduction of Christianity, but other beings of 
 the imagination have , occupied their place. The forests 
 and mountains are believed to be peopled with spirits, and 
 it is supposed the causeway of Pierre Pertuis, b as well as 
 the natural bridge which rises above it, were constructed by 
 the devil ; the aperture is about thirty or forty feet in breadth, 
 and twenty in height, and the breadth of the arch about 
 twenty-five feet. c The reformation of the sixteenth century 
 was not embraced by all the inhabitants. The cantons of 
 Bale, Berne, Yaud, Schaffhausen, Zurich, Geneva and 
 Neuchatel separated from Rome. Soleure, Friburg, Lu- 
 cerne, Zug, Schweitz, Underwalden, Uri, Tesino and the 
 Yalais have continued catholic. The cantons of Aaragu, 
 Glaris, Thurgau, Saint Gall, Appenzell, and the Grisons 
 are partly peopled by catholics and partly by protestants. 
 
 Several languages are used in different parts of the coun- 
 try, but the German more generally than any other ; the 
 people in the greater part of Switzerland speak it, but it is 
 the harshest and most guttural of the German dialects. 
 The inhabitants of Vaud, Neuchatel and Geneva, and a 
 part of those in Berne, Soleure, Friburg and the Valais, 
 speak French ; but the lower orders in the same cantons' 1 
 make use of a peculiar idiom,® which has been considered a 
 compound of Celtic, Greek and Latin ; it is divided into 
 several dialects, and is apparently the most ancient lan- 
 
 a Germ. Waldstadte. , b Lat. Petra Pertusa, the perforated rock. 
 
 c The aperture is very irregular in its form, full 30 feet in its least 
 breadth and 50 in its greatest ; the height about 20 feet. The thickness of 
 the rock on one side of the opening is 25 feet, and on the other 20. (Simond’s 
 Travels in Switzerland.) 
 
 <* Rather in the districts where French is spoken. — P. 
 
 e “ Un patois welche ou Roman.” — In the table of population p. 760, 
 this is made to include the Grisons. In the table of European languages, 
 
 75 
 
 I guage in the country. The Italian is spoken in the canton 
 of Tesino, and in a part of that of the Grisons/ 
 
 The honesty, simplicity and moral purity of the Swiss 
 have been greatly overrated. The wealthy who travel 
 through Switzerland, are apt to be misled by the impres- 
 sions produced by a country abounding in romantic sites, 
 and differing so much from the rest of Europe, and besides 
 the only country inhabited by shepherds and husbandmen 
 living under a popular government. The peaceful life of 
 the mountaineers makes the citizen envy their destiny ; he 
 believes them happy, because he is rendered so himself by 
 the new sensations which the variety of objects creates ; he 
 forms a high idea of their virtue, because removed from the 
 sphere of ambition and intrigue, he supposes them to be 
 without ambition, care, or vice. Thus, the inhabitants of 
 towns are apt to suppose that happiness can only be found 
 in the country ; it is however but too well known that ex- 
 amples of virtue and good morals are not always to be met 
 with in villages. In Switzerland, as in every other country, 
 ignorance and poverty are rarely united with moral quali- 
 ties ; in the cantons where education is diffused, where in- 
 dustry and commerce are sources of wealth, the people 
 are contented and happy. Religion exerts a beneficent in- 
 fluence, and the spirit of union and tolerance, which per- 
 vades every class of the community, may in part, at least, 
 be attributed to protestantism. 
 
 If the Swiss have little taste for the charms of society, 
 they are perhaps on that account more susceptible of other 
 enjoyments ; domestic happiness, conjugal and parental af- 
 fections, as well as the other virtues of private life, are more 
 common in Switzerland than in countries where social 
 pleasures are better understood, and where the feelings are 
 less concentrated. The men meet, but it is to converse, 
 smoke and walk about a chamber, where three chairs are 
 sufficient for twelve persons. It is not difficult to discover 
 the character of an individual almost at the first interview, 
 so great is the simplicity of manners, so little effect has been 
 produced by the usages of society. Thus, says a Swiss 
 author,® “ at the concert or the church, at every place 
 where a number of persons are assembled, but most of all 
 at a play, which being seldom permitted, is on that account 
 more frequented, it is impossible not to observe the prodi- 
 gious diversity of physiognomies in people of every age, but 
 particularly in the young, the extreme mobility of their fea- 
 tures, and the ingenuousness and vivacity of their expres- 
 sions.” 
 
 Bravery, the love of labour, attachment to their country, 
 and respect for ancient customs and institutions, form the 
 principal features in the national character. The mass ot 
 the people are more enlightened than in other countries ; 
 in some cantons, not only the wealthy but the peasantry 
 cultivate literature and the arts. The human mind, how- 
 ever, is made up of so many contradictions, that in Swit- 
 zerland, where liberty has been established for several ages, 
 some remains of the worst of governments are suffered to 
 exist ; justice is privately administered, and the torture is 
 still in use. 
 
 Book XCVI. the Rhcetian, spoken in the Grisons and Tyrol, the Valai- 
 san, spoken in the Lower Yalais, and the Helvetic, spoken in the western 
 Swiss cantons, are all classed together under the head of Romanic (Ro- 
 mansh) of the Alps. See Note ( f ) — P. 
 
 f The inhabitants of the canton of the Grisons may be divided into 
 three classes according to their languages, viz. Italians, Proper Grisons, 
 who speak the Romansh language, and Germans. — P. 
 
 6 Meister’s Travels from Zurich to Zurich. 
 
76 EUROPE. [book txxx. 
 
 Different costumes, of which the origin is very ancient, 
 listinguish the people in most of the cantons ; in several, 
 mmptuary laws have been introduced, a wise and salutary 
 measure in a country where independence and liberty are 
 fostered by the absence of luxury. Games of chance are 
 prohibited, but gymnastic exercises are the daily amuse- 
 ments of the young ; they engage in the race, in wrestling, 
 in throwing the dart, or in shooting at a target. Although 
 the Swiss are not a poetical people , 11 it is-certain that of all 
 the arts, music is the one most generally cultivated. 
 
 The different branches of agriculture are well under- 
 stood in Switzerland, and if it were not for variable sea- 
 sons, it might be unnecessary to import grain or other ar- 
 ticles of primary necessity. The extent and fruitfulness 
 of the pastures are favourable to the propagation of cattle ; 
 the oxen are remarkable for their size, and the cows, par- 
 ticularly the short-horned breed in the valley of Gruyeres, 
 are much prized in different countries. The horses, though 
 neither swift nor well made, are strong and hardy, but as 
 the mule is more sure-tooted, it is the most common beast 
 of burden in the mountains. 
 
 The commerce of the different cantons has been much 
 diminished since the last treaties. The prohibitory system 
 introduced by neighbouring states, has necessarily confined 
 the outlets which the Helvetic confederation found former- 
 ly for its cattle, leather, cheese, hemp and flax, and for its 
 watches and muslins, but its pharmaceutical plants form 
 still a considerable branch of exportation. 
 
 The canton of Schaff hausen, one of the smallest in Swit- 
 zerland, is situated at the northern extremity of the coun- 
 try'. The capital of the same name is the only town of any 
 consequence, and it must be confessed that it contains little 
 or nothing remarkable. Its port was frequented as early 
 as the eighth century ; it was called Schiffhausen or a 
 shelter for vessels, b from its position above the cataracts of 
 the Rhine. The town possesses an academy, a gymna- 
 sium, several schools and a bible society. The trade, 
 which is considerable,, consists in cotton stuffs, silks and 
 leather. The strangers, who repair to the celebrated fall 
 of Lauffen, one of the most remarkable in Europe, gene- 
 rally visit Schaff hausen. 
 
 Frauenfeld, the capital of Thurgau, contains three large 
 and fine streets, and several silk manufactories. Bischols- 
 zell, a small town, is peopled by husbandmen. 
 
 Saint-Gall is distinguished as a commercial and manu- 
 facturing town, but the only curiosities are the remains of 
 its ancient abbey, and the manuscripts which are contained 
 in it. The people in the adjacent territory are among the 
 poorest in Switzerland ; they are degraded by ignorance 
 and its attendant vices. 
 
 Appenzell, which surrounds the last canton, presents a 
 very different spectacle ; the greatest industry prevails 
 through every part of it. The capital of the same name 
 is only a burgh ; Herisau is a place of greater consequence, 
 and possesses a more flourishing trade. 
 
 Zurich is remarkable for its romantic situation, and for 
 the fine views that extend from its ramparts and public 
 walks. The materials of its commerce are supplied by its 
 cotton, hat and soap manufactories. It was distinguished 
 in the middle ages by the reformer Zuinglius, and since 
 
 ’ Madame Dc Stael’s Germany. 
 
 * “ Abri des bateaux” — Literally, skiff-house or boat-house. (Si- 
 mond.) — P. 
 
 c In the public library is a cabinet of medals, the library of the chapter 
 
 that period, by the illustrious men, who have been born in 
 the town. To be convinced of its just claims to cele- 
 brity, it is sufficient to mention the names of Gessner, 
 Lavater and Pestalozzi. Its libraries are rich in manu- 
 scripts, in medals and in collections of natural history . 0 
 Its schools are numerous, its academy is frequented by 
 many strangers, and its scientific societies might be credit- 
 able to larger and more populous cities. The small town 
 of Winterthur rivals Zurich in the industry of its inhabi- 
 tants ; in its library, there is a fine collection of medals and 
 engraved stones, found in the village of Ober-Winterthur, 
 which stands on the site of the ancient Vitodurum. 
 
 Aarau, or Arau, the capital of Aargau, although an old 
 and dirty town, is a place of considerable trade. It pos- 
 sesses several charitable institutions, and schools to which 
 parents are obliged to send their children. A numerous 
 collection of manuscripts relative to the history of Switzer- 
 land, forms the most valuable portion of its library. Aarau 
 is the only town in the confederation where meteorological 
 observations are registered. Baden is known from its baths 
 which the Romans called Aqua, Varbigence. Tacitus in- 
 forms us that these baths were finely built, and the same 
 writer commends their salubrity. A great many antiqui- 
 ties have been found near the town, among others, a statue 
 of Isis, which was long worshipped under the name of 
 Saint Verena. d The small town of Zoffingen is well built ; 
 it possesses several fine edifices, a library and a collection 
 of medals. The only fortress and the only arsenal within 
 the limits of the confederation, are situated at Aarburg or 
 Arburg. 
 
 Bale, Basil or Basle, which Ammianus Marcellinus calls 
 Basilia, was the most important town in Helvetia during the 
 eleventh century ; it was also during a long time the only 
 one in Europe, where the art of printing was carried to a 
 great degree of perfection. Many illustrious men have 
 been born within its walls, among others, the Bernouillis, 
 the Eulers, and the celebrated Holbein ; several paintings 
 by that distinguished artist, are carefully preserved in the 
 university. Erasmus died at Bale, and left his valuable 
 library to the same institution ; it possesses besides, a col- 
 lection of twelve thousand Roman medals, and other anti- 
 quities found at Augst, the ancient Augusta Rauracorum, 
 at some distance from the town. The statue of Munatius 
 Plancus, the founder of that colony, may be seen in the 
 tower of the townhouse. The population of the town has 
 decreased since the sixteenth century, but it is still adorned 
 with several fine streets and spacious squares. The hos- 
 pitals and charitable institutions are richly endowed, and 
 the method of instruction proposed by Pestalozzi, has been 
 adopted with great success in the different schools. 
 
 The situation of the town is very romantic. The cathe- 
 dral stands on a lofty terrace shaded by horse-chestnut 
 trees; it commands an extensive view of the Rhine, but the 
 river assumes the character of an impetuous torrent, more 
 likely to desolate than to fructify or facilitate communications 
 in the country through which it flows. “ I could not per- 
 ceive,” says Simond, “ a single boat in that part of its 
 course ; its waters are of a whitish blue colour, not unlike 
 those of the Rhone ; indeed it is easy to discover a sort of 
 family resemblance between these two large rivers, which 
 
 ( Chorhcrren ) is rich in manuscripts, and the physical society possesses a 
 library, a museum of natural history, aud a collection < f philosophical in 
 struments. (Conv. Lex.) — P. 
 
 d Ebel's Travels in Sw itzerland. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF SWITZERLAND. 
 
 77 
 
 BOOK CXXX.] 
 
 indicates their common origin.” Little Bale, on the oppo- 
 site bank, communicates with the town by a bridge built of 
 stone at the two extremities, and of wood in the middle, on 
 account of the depth and rapidity of the current. The 
 mountains of the Black Forest bound the horizon towards 
 the north-east. a Bale has been more than once overturned 
 by earthquakes ; it was desolated by the plague in the 
 fifteenth century, and it has been affirmed that with the 
 exception of one, all the members of its council fell victims 
 to that disease. 
 
 Soleure is a place of considerable trade ; its broad and 
 well paved streets are adorned with fountains, and a num- 
 ber of baths have been built on the Aar. The principal 
 church b is considered one of the finest in Switzerland. The 
 late improvements in the system of education have not 
 yet been adopted in the town, although their advantages 
 have been acknowledged in the rural districts. The pri- 
 sons, workhouses and hospitals in Soleure are much better 
 managed than others in places of greater importance. 
 
 Several important towns are situated in the canton of 
 Berne. Porentrui carries on a considerable trade in leather. 
 Burgdorf, or, according to its French , name, Berthoud, is 
 well known from the institution founded by Pestalozzi. 
 Many silk worms are reared at Bienne ; its celebrated lake 
 is three leagues in length, one in breadth, 0 and two hundred 
 feet in depth. The houses are curiously painted and built 
 upon arcades, and the squares are decorated with old foun- 
 tains, the most of which were erected during the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries. The long hair of the women de- 
 scends below their petticoats, but the latter hardly reach to 
 their knees. 
 
 Berne or Bern, the chief town in this wealthy canton, is 
 * well built, but the streets are gloomy and deserted. The 
 town is kept clean by the numerous fountains and limpid 
 streams which water it. The magistrates have not sacrificed 
 utility to appearances ; hospitals, and store houses in which 
 grain is deposited and used in seasons of scarcity, are the 
 first objects that the stranger remarks on entering Berne. 
 The commerce of the town is not very great, but the inha- 
 bitants are comparatively affluent ; no mendicants are seen 
 in the streets. The edifices and places worthy of being 
 visited, are the arsenal, the cathedral which was built in the 
 sixteenth century,* * 1 the church of the Holy Spirit, finished 
 in 1704, the library, different scientific collections and the 
 monument in the botanical garden, erected to the memory 
 of the great Haller, who was born in the town. The situ- 
 ation of Berne on a height renders it salubrious, and ac- 
 counts in some measure for the frequent instances of longe- 
 vity. Its name, which is derived from the German word 
 bosr (bear,) has given rise to different opinions concerning 
 its origin. It has been supposed that Berthold the Fourth, 
 duke of Zsehringen, and the founder of the town, called it 
 Bsern, from having killed a bear in the vicinity. The 
 figure of the same animal forms the city arms, 6 and it is 
 perhaps for these reasons that several bears are still kept in 
 the intrenchments. 
 
 Sursee and Sempach are two small towns in the canton 
 of Lucerne ; they are agreeably situated at the two extre- 
 mities of a lake to which the last town has given its name. 
 But Lucerne is still more remarkable for its fine lake, part 
 
 of which lies beyond its territory, and is called the lake of 
 the Four Cantons. The mountains of Righi f and Pilate 8 
 are reflected from the surface of its waters, and the most 
 romantic views may be seen from the chapel of Maria Zell 
 and other elevated situations in the neighbourhood. The 
 broad and modern streets of Lucerne are surrounded by 
 fortifications that were built in the fourteenth century. 
 Covered wooden bridges, one of which is thirteen hundred 
 and eighty feet in length, are erected across the Reuss, and 
 unite the two quarters. The townhouse is richly adorned ; 
 the armour of duke Leopold, and other trophies gained at 
 the battles of Sempach and Morat, are deposited in the 
 arsenal. The former of these engagements was fought in 
 1386, and the latter in 1476. Different antiquities are 
 preserved in the cathedral ; the libraries, which are rich in 
 manuscripts, the celebrated model of Switzerland con- 
 structed in relievo by General Pfyffer, the learned societies, 
 the colleges and the schools, give the town an importance 
 that forms a striking contrast with its scanty population. 
 
 The canton of Zug is smaller than any other in Switzer- 
 land, and its capital of the same name was probably one 
 of the towns which the Helvetii burned, when they made 
 an incursion into Gaul in the time of Julius Caesar. 
 
 Schweitz, which might be more correctly called a burgh 
 than a town, is situated at the base of the Mythen moun- 
 tains ; almost all the houses are ill built. The pilgrims of 
 Switzerland, and others from many parts of Germany and 
 France, meet at the village of Einsiedeln in the same can- 
 ton. The convent of the Benedictines possesses a sup- 
 posed miraculous image of the Virgin, and a piece of silver 
 impressed with the hand of the Saviour. Those who wish 
 to have their sins forgiven, must put their fingers into the 
 five marks in the silver, and drink out of the fourteen pipes 
 of the fountain in front of the convent, because from one of 
 them, at present unknown, Jesus quenched his thirst. 
 Rapperschwyl is an old and almost deserted town ; but its 
 sombre aspect harmonizes with the romantic country that 
 surrounds it. 
 
 No hostile army had invaded the canton of Glaris during 
 more than four hundred years; but it was at last devastated 
 by the French, the Austrians and the Russians, in 1798. 
 Whatever could serve for food or clothing, was pillaged by 
 the soldiers. The inhabitants of this rich canton were re- 
 duced to poverty ; the last bottle of wine in the valley of 
 Sernft, was offered to Suwarrow and the grand duke Con- 
 stantine, during their precipitate retreat. Glaris differs from 
 most other towns ; its character is wholly Swiss ; the anti- 
 quated manners of its inhabitants and their still more ancient 
 habitations render it like a place of the fifteenth century. 
 The date of their construction is marked on almost all the 
 houses ; some of them have stood for more than five hun- 
 dred years ; they are painted with various colours, and 
 on many of them historical events are represented. The 
 streets are narrow and crooked, and so much is the town 
 obscured by the lofty mountains on every side, that accor- 
 ding to an intelligent traveller, the sun is visible in winter 
 for only four hours in the day. h The inhabitants manufac- 
 ture cloth, cotton stuff's and muslin. 
 
 Altorf, the chief town in the canton of Uri, was rendered 
 illustrious by the liberators of Helvetia. A tower on which 
 
 great church (cathedral) was erected in the beginning of the 15th century 
 Simond. — P. 
 
 e “ Armes parlantes,” — a coat of arms in which the charges refer to the 
 etymology of the hparcr’s name. — P. 
 
 I f Righi-berg. s Mount Pilatus. h Simond’s Travels in Switzerland 
 
 “ Simond’s Travels in Switzerland. 
 
 b “ L’eglise de Saint Ours” — the church of St. Ursa. (Ed. Encyc.) 
 c Nine miles long and four broad. (Ed. Encyc.) 
 
 d The cathedral was erected in 1421 by the same architect who built the 
 Munster at Strasburg (finished 1439.) Ed. Encyc. Encyc. Method. The 
 
78 EUR 
 
 the history of William Tell is represented, stands on the 
 spot formerly occupied by the lime tree, where he aimed at 
 the apple on the head of his son. An old house, now 
 nearly in ruins, is visited by strangers ; it belonged to Wal- 
 ter Furst, the father-in-law of William Tell, and one of the 
 heroes of the time. 
 
 The simplicity and hospitality of ancient times are still 
 observable in the canton of Underwalden. 1 It is divided 
 into two small republics ; Stantz, the chief town of the one, 
 is remarkable for a large church, adorned with marble 
 pillars, and Sarnen, the capital of the other, is situated in 
 one of the finest vallies in Switzerland. A large fountain b 
 formed from a single block of granite has been erected in 
 the market place. 0 The people in the canton carry on a 
 considerable trade in cheese, which is exported into Italy 
 and different parts of Germany. 
 
 Fi'iburg is one of the most important agricultural cantons 
 in Switzerland ; it is also highly interesting to the botanist, 
 and its women are distinguished by their beauty and the 
 singularity of their dress. Cheese forms the principal wealth 
 of Gruyeres, and the small town of Morat is celebrated as 
 being the place of the battle in which Charles the Rash d was 
 defeated. Friburg, the capital, is encompassed with an- 
 cient walls, but the cathedral is the only remarkable build- 
 ing ; its tower is about three hundred and ninety feet in 
 height.* The people appear to be as favourably disposed to 
 antiquated customs and institutions as they are averse to 
 every sort of intellectual improvement. The Jesuits have 
 been lately recalled ; they have acquired their former influ- 
 ence, and the direction of the schools is at present commit- 
 ted to their care. The trade of the town consists in hats, 
 cotton cloths and earthen ware. 
 
 The canton of Vaud, one of the largest and most popu- 
 lous in Switzerland, is also the one in which the blessings 
 of knowledge and education are most diffused. Crimes are 
 of very rare occurrence ; not more than seventy or eighty 
 individuals are confined in all the houses of correction, and 
 out of three thousand processes instituted annually, more 
 than two thousand are settled by the intervention of arbiters 
 or justices of peace/ 
 
 Aventicum, the ancient capital of Roman Helvetia, was 
 situated near the lake of Morat ; it occupied an extent of 
 more than six miles g in circumference. The remains of 
 streets and edifices may still be observed, notwithstanding 
 the ravages of time, and the depredations of ancient and 
 modern barbarians. Ruins which are supposed to have 
 been once public baths, mosaics, pilasters, marble columns, 
 the remains of a vast amphitheatre, basso-relievos and in- 
 scriptions attest its former splendour. The walls of its an- 
 cient port, and the iron rings to which boats were attached, 
 are still seen ; but it is very remarkable that the lake has 
 now receded from it more than a quarter of a league. Ta- 
 citus makes mention of Aventicum, and Vespasian embel- 
 lished it, but it is at present an ill peopled burgh, of which 
 the Latin name has been changed into Avenches.* The 
 greatest curiosities in the small town of Payerne, are the 
 tomb and the saddle of queen Bertha ; an opening appears 
 in the saddle, which was made to hold the distaff of that 
 good queen, who never travelled without it. Yverdun is a 
 place of trade and industry ; its inhabitants are distinguished 
 
 -OPE. [BOOK cxxx. 
 
 by their urbanity and their taste for the sciences. It was 
 the ancient Ebredunum, the residence of the commander 
 of the barks ( prccfcctus barcariorum.) Orbe, which was 
 also a Roman town, is still commanded by the ancient cas- 
 tle where Brunehault was betrayed and delivered to Clo- 
 taire the Second, by whom she was axidemned to death. 
 The small town of Nyon on the lake of Geneva, possesses 
 a considerable trade in porcelain. Rolle is famous for its 
 wine, Morges for its paper, its foils and its cannon, but Ve- 
 vay is perhaps better known than either, from its romantic 
 situation, and from the rocks of Meillerie/ that rise above 
 the lake. A large fountain adorns the market place, which 
 may bear a comparison with any other in Switzerland. 
 The vineyard in the neighbourhood are very productive ; 
 the husbandmen and vine-dressers join in a festival every 
 four years, which is preceded by a procession, in which dif- 
 ferent individuals represent heathen gods and personages in 
 sacred history. Noah and Canaan are seen near Bacchus 
 and Silenus; Ceres is seated in her car, followed by bac- 
 chantes' and satyrs. The origin of the procession, which 
 was in all probability modified after the establishment of 
 Christianity, is lost in the night of time. 1 Lausanne, a place 
 of some celebrity, is situated at a short distance from the 
 site of the ancient Lausonium ; it has several learned and 
 scientific societies ; Theodore Beza and Conrad Gessner 
 taught in its academy. The buildings worthy of notice are 
 the castle, the cathedral begun in the year 1000, and con- 
 secrated by Gregory the Tenth, in the presence of Rudolph 
 of Hapsburg, and lastly the house inhabited by Gibbon the 
 historian. 
 
 The scenery round the lake of Geneva is not perhaps so 
 striking as that near other Swiss lakes of a smaller size. 
 Its surface is supposed to be greater than a hundred and 
 fifty-six square miles ; k but its extent renders it difficult in 
 many places, for .the spectator to judge correctly of the dis- 
 tance and height of the summits that encompass it. The 
 mountains seem to be nearer and consequently less elevated 
 than they really are. The upper extremity is without doubt 
 the finest part of the lake ; it may there bear a comparison 
 with the most romantic sites in Germany or Switzerland. 
 The surface of its water is eleven hundred and twenty-six 
 feet above the level of the sea. 1 The mean depth has lieen 
 estimated at five hundred and sixty feet, and the tempera- 
 ture is warmer at the surface than at the bottom. The lake 
 is subject to a phenomenon which has not been hitherto 
 satisfactorily explained ; in other words, the water has se- 
 veral times been seen to rise four or five feet above its ordi- 
 nary level in the space of a few hours. To these tides the 
 inhabitants have given the name of seiches. It is highly 
 probable that the lake was larger at a former period than at 
 present ; indeed the supposition seems to be confirmed by 
 the fact that alluvial deposits are formed at the entrance of 
 the Rhone, while the same river is limpid and transparent 
 at its efflux. This lake, one of the finest in southern Eu- 
 rope, was well known in ancient times by the name of Le- 
 man ( Lacus Lemanus.) 
 
 Geneva, the capital of a very small Swiss canton, is situ- 
 ated at its western extremity. But although the canton 
 may be insignificant, both in size and population, it is the 
 most civilized, industrious and wealthy of any in Switzer- 
 
 1 Unterwalden. b The basin of a fountain. 
 
 c The public square. d Charles the Bold. 
 
 e “ 386 feet.” 
 
 f Simond’s Travels in Switzerland. 
 
 1 “ Of 2 leagues 
 
 h The rocks of Meillerie are on the southern side of the lake opposite 
 Vevav. ' Ebcl’s Description of Switzerland. 
 
 k “ Estimated at 26 sq. leagues.” 
 
 1 According to the calculations of Deluc. [1134 feet, according to Pic- 
 tet, and 1 154, according to Shuckburgh.] 
 
 1 
 
SWITZERLAND. 
 
 79 
 
 book cxxx.] DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 land. The houses and buildings in Geneva are little worthy 
 of notice, the streets are narrow, and the town is divided 
 into two unequal parts by the rapid waters of the Rhone ; 
 but the natural beauties of the vicinity are varied and impo- 
 sing. The superiority of Geneva over other places in Swit- 
 zerland is .of an intellectual nature ; literature and science 
 have been cultivated with no ordinary success since the Re- 
 formation. Much has been done for whatever is connect- 
 ed with education or instruction. Sixty thousand volumes 
 and a great many manuscripts are contained in the library. 
 The college founded by Calvin consists of different chairs 
 in theology, law, medicine and other branches of literature 
 and science. The observatory is provided with good instru- 
 ments, and the botanical garden abounds with valuable 
 plants ; lastly, several literary and scientific societies diffuse 
 among every rank a taste for useful knowledge ; to these 
 causes, and to the influence of a rigid worship, may per- 
 haps be attributed the virtue and morality by which the in- 
 habitants of both sexes are distinguished in Geneva. 
 
 The valley of the Rhone, which forms the wealthy can- 
 ton of the Valais, was called in ancient times Vallis Penni- 
 na, either from the god Penninus, or from the Celtic word 
 pen, which signifies a point or sharp summit, a denomination 
 strictly applicable to most of the mountains that surround the 
 valley. The burgh of Saint Maurice, remarkable for its hand- 
 some buildings and its fine abbey, is the first place that the 
 stranger enters as he ascends the Rhone. Between it and 
 Martigny, another burgh, part of which has been called the 
 town, is situated the lofty cascade that ought not certainly 
 to be denominated the Pisse Vache. It falls from a per- 
 pendicular height of three hundred feet, not eight hundred, 
 as some authors have stated. At no great distance above 
 it, on the right bank of the Rhone, Sion, the capital of the 
 canton, and the Ectodurum a of the Romans, exhibits its 
 three castles built one above another. The bishopric of 
 Sion is considered the most ancient in Switzerland. The 
 principal buildings are several convents, an hospital, an epis- 
 copal palace and ten churches. The village of Albinen is 
 situated near the baths of Leuk, between Sion and Brieg ; 
 it is only accessible, says a traveller, by means of eight long 
 ladders supported on precipitous rocks and steep declivities. 
 The inhabitants, men, women and children, climb up and 
 go down the ladders day and night, many of them with bur- 
 dens on their heads, without imagining the road to be worse 
 than any other. b Brieg, one of the finest burghs in the 
 Valais, may be distinguished at a distance by its houses co- 
 vered with micaceous schistus of a brilliant silver colour ; its 
 baths were formerly as much frequented as those at Leuk. 
 
 The canton of Tesino is the poorest, and the people are 
 the most ignorant of any in Switzerland. The finest silk 
 in the canton is obtained at Lugano, a small town situa- 
 ted on the banks of a lake. Several buildings in the burgh 
 of Locarno on Lake Maggiore announces its former pros- 
 perity. Bellinzone, an insignificant town, is situated on 
 the banks of the Tesino ; the gymnasium in the only in- 
 stitution, from which it might be inferred that Bellinzone 
 was the capital of the canton. 
 
 If Berne be excepted, the canton of the Grisons is the 
 most important in Switzerland ; it formed part of Rhae- 
 tia in the time of the Romans. Tusis situated in the 
 midst of mountains, on the branch of the Rhine 0 that de- 
 scends from Mount Bernardino, has been supposed, pro- 
 
 11 Sedunum. (Simond.) b Simond’s Travels in Switzerland. 
 
 c Hinter Ithein, Posterior Rhine. 
 
 * “ Council of State.” I 
 
 bably on account of its name, to have been built by the an- 
 cient Tussi or Tuscans, who found shelter in the country 
 when Bellovesus invaded Italy. Although a very small 
 town, it is one of the best built in the canton. Loire on 
 the Plessur, a feeder of the Rhine, is more populous than 
 Tusis ; it is the capital of the Grisons, and the ancient 
 Curia Rhcelorum ; its cathedral has stood during ten cen- 
 turies, but the episcopal palace is a finer building. 
 
 The canton of Neuchatel which has already been de- 
 scribed in the account of Prussia, forms also a part of the 
 Helvetic confederation. It is the only canton in which 
 monarchial forms of government are modified by republi- 
 can institutions. Although the rest are not all governed 
 in the same way, all of them are independent, and united 
 to each other by a conservative compact. They may be 
 divided into three classes ; the first, or those of Schaffhau- 
 sen, Zurich, Bale, Soleure, Lucerne and Friburg, are so 
 many mixed aristocratic governments, in other words, se- 
 veral privileged families among the burgesses are called to 
 form part of the small council to which the executive pow- 
 er is commited ; the second, or those of Thurgau, Aargau, 
 Saint-Gall, Vaud, Geneva, Valais and Tesino are represen- 
 tative republics, in which the people elect the members of 
 the great council, which deliberates with the executive de- 
 partment or the petty council ; d lastly, the people of Ap- 
 penzell, Zug, Schweitz, Uri, Glaris and Underwalden live 
 under a democratic government, similar to those of Greece 
 and Rome ; the citizens form general assemblies ( Lands - 
 gemeinde,) in which they nominate their magistrates, and 
 deliberate on the interests of the republic. The important 
 affairs of the confederation are laid before the diet, which 
 is composed of deputies from the twenty-two cantons. The 
 virtue and love of country, so characteristic of the Swiss, 
 are fostered and strengthened by their political institutions ; 
 hence the two principal literary and patriotic societies as- 
 semble alternately in the different capitals, and bring to- 
 gether the fruits of their labour and research. 
 
 Every citizen in Switzerland becomes a soldier at the age 
 of twenty ; he must be enrolled in a company, and he must 
 arm and clothe himself according to the uniform of his 
 canton. Each canton, in the event of .a war, furnishes a 
 contingent, and all their contingents make up an army of 
 thirty-three thousand seven hundred and fifty-eight men. 
 But Switzerland might easily levy double the number of 
 troops. To provide for the maintenance of the army and 
 other expenses, each canton imposes on itself a tax propor- 
 tionate to its population and resources. But the amount of 
 the contributions varies according to the revisions which are 
 made of them every twenty years. The debt of the con- 
 federation was equal in 1826 to 125,000/., and the revenue 
 to 500,000/. e 
 
 The allied powers have recognised by the treaty of Paris, 
 the perpetual neutrality of Switzerland. But fully sen- 
 sible that the weak ought to place little reliance on the 
 promises of the strong, the Swiss have formed the project 
 of raising works of defence at Saint Maurice, and in some 
 of the defiles in the Valais ; it is also intended to fortify a 
 central place where troops may be speedily collected in time 
 of danger/ The Swiss may find formidable means of resist- 
 ance in the nature of their territory and in their enthusi- 
 asm for liberty ; taught by experience, they may avoid the 
 errors which led to the invasion and conquest of their country. 
 
 e “ Debt about 3,000,000 francs — revenue 11,500,000 francs. 
 
 f These means of defence are recommended by Simond. See his Swit- 
 zerland, vol. I. p. 408. 
 
80 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 STATISTICAL* TABLES 
 
 OF SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Population of the Principal Towns, and Contingents of the 
 Twenty-two Cantons, classed according to the order and 
 rank they hold in the Confederation. 
 
 Contingents. Towns and Burghs. Population. 
 
 Cantons. 
 
 12 SchafThausen 
 
 Contingents. 
 
 466 
 
 iq a ii $ Ausser-Rhoden 772 ) 
 
 13 Appenzell | Inner .R hoden 200 
 
 14 Saint-Gall 
 
 15 Grisons 
 
 16 Aargau 
 
 972 
 
 2,630 
 
 1,600 
 
 2,410 
 
 i Zurich 
 
 . 
 
 3,700 men 
 
 Zurich 
 
 Winterthur 
 
 10,400 
 
 3,300 
 
 2 Berne 
 
 . 
 
 5,824 
 
 Berne 
 
 Thun 
 
 17,600 
 
 3,700 
 
 3 Lucerne 
 
 . 
 
 1,734 
 
 Lucerne 
 
 Sursee 
 
 6,100 
 
 3,700 
 
 4 Uri 
 
 . 
 
 236 
 
 Altorf 
 
 1,700 
 
 5 Schweitz 
 
 , , 
 
 602 
 
 Schweitz 
 
 4,900 
 
 6 Underwalden 
 
 1 Obwalden 221 
 ( Nidwalden 161 
 
 | 382 
 
 Einsiedeln 
 
 Sarnen 
 
 Stantz 
 
 3.200 
 3,500 
 
 2.200 
 
 7 Glaris 
 
 , , 
 
 482 
 
 Glaris 
 
 4,100 
 
 8 Zug 
 
 
 250 
 
 Zug 
 
 2,900 
 
 9 Friburg 
 
 . 
 
 1,240 
 
 Friburg 
 
 6,500 
 
 10 Soleure 
 
 . 
 
 904 
 
 Soleure 
 
 4,000 
 
 11 Bale 
 
 . 
 
 918 
 
 Bale 
 
 16,300 
 
 17 Thurgau . 
 
 18 Tesino 
 
 19 Vaud 
 
 20 Valais 
 
 21 Neuchatel 
 
 22 Geneva 
 
 1 520 
 1,804 
 
 2,964 
 
 1,280 
 960 
 • 880 
 
 Total 33,758 
 
 [BOOK CXXX. 
 
 Towns and Burghs. Population. 
 
 SchafThausen 7,000 
 
 ( Appenzell 3,200 
 
 ( Herisau 7,000 
 
 Saint-Gall 9,000 
 
 ( Coire 3,400 
 
 ( Tusis 3,400 
 
 f Aarau 3,500 
 
 j Baden 1,700 
 
 1 Zoffingen 1,700 
 
 I Aarburg 1,100 
 
 5 Frauenfeld 1,800 
 
 f Bischofszell 2,000 
 
 t Bellinzone 1,200 
 
 < Lugano 3,602 
 
 ( Locarno 1,500 
 
 f Lausanne 10,200 
 
 | Vevay 3,800 
 
 ■i Yverdun 2,500 
 
 Nyon 2,100 
 
 [Morges 2,000 
 
 Sion 2,400 
 
 Neuchatel 5,000 
 
 Geneva 25,000 
 
 POPULATION, SURFACE AND CONVENTS OF SWITZERLAND. 
 
 CANTONS. 
 
 POPULATION ACCORDING TO THE DIFFER- 
 ENT SECTS IN 1822. 
 
 POPULATION ACCORDING TO 
 
 THE DIFFERENT LANGUAGES 
 OF THE INHABITANTS IN 
 1822. 
 
 Total 
 population 
 in 1822 . a 
 
 Total 
 population 
 in 1826 . b 
 
 Surface iu 
 geographical 
 square 
 leagues. 
 
 Population 
 for every 
 square 
 league. 
 
 Convents. 
 
 Calvinists. 
 
 Catholics. 
 
 Anabaptists. 
 
 Jews. 
 
 German. 
 
 French, Ro- 
 mansh 
 ( Welche ) and 
 Savoyard. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 Zurich .... 
 
 191,700 
 
 1,350 
 
 
 
 193,050 
 
 
 
 193,050 
 
 218,000 
 
 124 
 
 1,772 
 
 
 Berne 
 
 300,500 
 
 41,700 
 
 900 
 
 
 291,100 
 
 52,000 
 
 
 343,100 
 
 350,000 
 
 476 
 
 736 
 
 
 Lucerne .... 
 
 
 103,900 
 
 
 
 103,900 
 
 
 
 103,900 
 
 116,000 
 
 100 
 
 1,171 
 
 10 
 
 Uri . . . . . . 
 
 
 12,000 
 
 
 
 12,000 
 
 
 
 12,000 
 
 13,000 
 
 67 
 
 196 
 
 3 
 
 Schweitz .... 
 
 
 34,900 
 
 
 
 34,900 
 
 
 
 31,900 
 
 32,000 
 
 61 
 
 533 
 
 5 
 
 Underwalden . . 
 
 
 21,800 
 
 
 
 21,800 
 
 
 
 21,800 
 
 24,000 
 
 33 
 
 727 
 
 5 
 
 Glaris 
 
 25,815 
 
 3,285 
 
 
 
 29,100 
 
 
 
 29,100 
 
 28,000 
 
 58 
 
 482 
 
 
 Zug 
 
 
 15,000 
 
 
 
 15,000 
 
 
 
 15,000 
 
 14,500 
 
 15 
 
 966 
 
 3 
 
 Friburg .... 
 
 5,100 
 
 67,400 
 
 
 
 27,310 
 
 45,190 
 
 
 72,500 
 
 84,000 
 
 64 
 
 1,333 
 
 19 
 
 Soleure .... 
 
 4,200 
 
 49,500 
 
 
 
 53,700 
 
 
 
 53,700 
 
 53,000 
 
 35 
 
 1,514 
 
 9 
 
 Bale 
 
 45,900 
 
 5,900 
 
 
 
 51,800 
 
 
 
 51,800 
 
 54,000 
 
 34 
 
 1,588 
 
 
 SchafThausen . . 
 
 26,900 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 27,100 
 
 
 
 27,100 
 
 30,000 
 
 22 
 
 1,363 
 
 
 Appenzell . . . 
 
 41,200 
 
 13,800 
 
 
 
 55,000 
 
 
 
 55,000 
 
 52,500 
 
 19 
 
 2,763 
 
 
 Saint-Gall . . . 
 
 81,829 
 
 61,371 
 
 
 
 143,179 
 
 
 
 143,179 
 
 144,000 
 
 111 
 
 1,309 
 
 14 
 
 Grisons .... 
 
 49,000 
 
 34,500 
 
 
 
 30,200 
 
 41,500° 
 
 11,800 
 
 83,500 
 
 88,000 
 
 386 
 
 228 
 
 
 Aargau . . 
 
 76,500 
 
 68,800 
 
 
 1,700 
 
 147,000 
 
 
 
 147,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 100 
 
 1,515 
 
 6 
 
 Thurgau .... 
 
 63,900 
 
 19,000 
 
 
 
 82,900 
 
 
 
 82,900 
 
 81,000 
 
 46 
 
 1,760 
 
 11 
 
 Tesino .... 
 
 
 95,800 
 
 
 
 900 
 
 
 94,900 
 
 95,800 
 
 102,000 
 
 148 
 
 693 
 
 . 22 
 
 Vaud 
 
 155,000 
 
 3,200 
 
 
 
 5,200 
 
 53,000 
 
 
 158,200 
 
 170,000 
 
 198 
 
 862 
 
 
 Valais 
 
 
 67,400 
 
 
 
 21,080 
 
 41,200 
 
 5,120 
 
 67,400 
 
 70,000 
 
 254 
 
 276 
 
 7 
 
 Neuchatel . . . 
 
 50,000 
 
 2,200 
 
 
 
 
 52,200 
 
 
 52,200 
 
 51,500 
 
 37 
 
 1,391 
 
 
 Geneva .... 
 
 27,080 
 
 14,400 
 
 
 270 
 
 
 42,100 
 
 
 42,100 
 
 52,500 
 
 12 
 
 4,375 
 
 
 
 Luth. 350 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,144,974 
 
 737,406 
 
 900 
 
 1,970 
 
 1,346,219 
 
 427,190 
 
 111,820 
 
 1,885,229 
 
 1,978,000 
 
 2,400 
 
 
 114 
 
 SWISS NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 The toted number of Newspapers published in Switzerland 
 in 1826, amounted to Twenty-eight. Those that have 
 most circulation are the following : — 
 
 GERMAN NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 1. Swiss Messenger (Schweizer-Bothe,) published once a week at Aarau. 
 
 2. General Correspondent of Switzerland (Allgemein. Schweizerisch. 
 
 Corresp.,) published twice a week at . . SchafThausen. 
 
 3. Friday’s Gazette (Zurcher Frevtags-Zeitung,) at . Zurich. 
 
 4. New Gazette (Neue Zurcher Zeitung,) thrice a week at Zurich. 
 
 5. The Narrator (Erznehler,) once a week at . . Saint-Gall. 
 
 6. The Zug Gazette (Zuger Zeitung,) once a week at . Zug. 
 
 7. The Friend of the Swiss (Schweizer Freund,) once a week at Berne. 
 
 FRENCH NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 8. Lausanne Gazette (Gazette de Lausanne,) twice a week at Lausanne. 
 
 9. Vaudois Journal (Nouvelliste Vaudois,) twice a week at Lausanne. 
 
 10. Journal of Geneva (Journal de Geneve,) at . . . Geneva 
 
 11. BibliothequeUniverselle, (a Scientific Journal,) once a month at Geneva. 
 
 ITALIAN NEWSPAPERS. 
 
 12. Swiss Courier (Corriere Suizzero,) twice a week at . Lugano. 
 
 13 Tesino Gazette (Gazetta Ticinese,) once a week at . Lugano. 
 
 Number of Strangers whose Passports were examined at Geneva from 
 the 1st of January to the 30 th of November, 1825. 
 
 Germans . . . 1,850 
 
 Swiss .... 3,559 
 
 French .... 3,058 
 
 English . . . 1,539 
 
 Piedmontese and Savoyards 3,094 
 Italians . . . 553 
 
 Americans 
 Danes and Swedes 
 Russians 
 
 Total 
 
 88 
 
 45 
 
 116 
 
 13,902 
 
 * According to the statistical tables of Hassel. 
 
 b According to documents in possession of M. Adrian Balbi, in Decem- 
 ber, 1826. 
 
 c The language spoken in the Grisons is tire Romansh ; in the other 
 cantons in this column, French or Savoyard. See notes ( e ) and ( f ) p. 755. 
 
BOOK CXXXI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 81 
 
 BOOR CXXXI. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued — Italy — First Section — Physical Geogra- 
 phy of Italy. 
 
 Germans is not without interest, from the great events 
 of which it has been the theatre, from the historical associa- 
 tions connected with it, from the advances which have been 
 made in literature and science, and from the genius and 
 character of its inhabitants. It is almost impossible to visit 
 without emotion the picturesque vallies and lofty mountains 
 in Switzerland, the only country in Europe whose inhabi- 
 tants have preserved the simplicity of patriarchal manners. 
 The azure sky of Italy, its enchanting climate, and match- 
 less pieces of art, render it widely different either from Ger- 
 many or Switzerland. The stranger hardly arrives at the 
 southern base of the Alps, before he observes new vegeta- 
 tion, new manners and new customs. It seems as if a 
 country favourable to the laurel, the myrtle and the olive, 
 excites man to the love of glory, and renders him better 
 adapted for the advantages of civilization. Italy produced 
 the people that conquered the world ; the poets and writers 
 who shed a lustre over it, and the arts introduced by the 
 Greeks, rendered it formerly the most civilized country in 
 Europe ; and when barbarism extended its iron sceptre 
 over the same quarter of the earth, even during the period 
 of the crusades, knowledge found an asylum in Italy, from 
 which it was afterwards diffused over the ultramontane 
 countries. Although superstition, monkery and wretched- 
 ness have now established their degrading empire in Italy, 
 still it is the fairest portion of Europe. 
 
 Considered according to its natural limits, the northern 
 part of Italy comprehends all the southern declivity of the 
 Alps, from the branch called the Cottian to that called the 
 Julian Alps. But these natural limits have been modified 
 by political boundaries. Thus the northern boundary of 
 Italy is comprehended between the gulf of Trieste and the 
 Rhone at its efflux from the lake of Geneva ; whence it 
 follows that the Rhone, the Pennine Alps, and the extre- 
 mity of the Adriatic gulf, separate Italy from France, Swit- 
 zerland and Germany. The Adriatic gulf and the Medi- 
 terranean extend along the coasts of Italy to the declivities 
 of the Maritime Alps near the frontiers of France. The 
 length of the country from north-west to south-east is about 
 seven hundred and fifty miles, its breadth towards the 
 
 a “ Length from north-west to south-east, about 300 leagues ; breadth in 
 the north more than 160 leagues, in the middle 50, in the south 40, and at 
 the entrance into Calabria only 10 or 12 Superficial extent, including 
 Sicily, Sardinia and the smaller islands, 16,200 sq. leagues ; that of the 
 islands only, 2800 square leagues.” Length from Monte Rosa to Capo di 
 Leuca, about 670 British miles'; medial breadth between the Adriatic and 
 Mediterranean, about 100. (Pinkerton.) — Superficial extent, including Si- 
 cily and Sardinia, 117,900 Eng. sq. miles. (Morse.) — P. 
 
 b The Pennine Alps extend eastward to the great St. Gothard, where 
 they join tire Helvetian and Rhtetian Alps. (Ed. Encyc.) The same extent 
 VOL. III.— NO. 44 II 
 
 north about four hundred, in the centre a hundred and 
 twenty-five, in the south a hundred, and at the entrance 
 into Calabria from twenty-five to thirty. The extent of the 
 surface, including Sicily, Sardinia and all the smaller islands, 
 has been estimated at ninety-seven thousand two hundred 
 English square miles ; that of the islands only at sixteen 
 thousand eight hundred. 3 
 
 The principal mountains in Italy are the Pennine Alps, 
 comprehending the chain that extends from Mount Rosa to 
 Mount Blanc ; b the Graecian Alps between Mount Blanc 
 and Mount Cenis ; the Cottian Alps between Mount Cenis 
 and Mount Viso ; and lastly, the Maritime Alps which ex- 
 tend from Mount Viso to beyond the Col de Tende.* 
 These different chains follow an irregular direction from 
 north to south. The long chain of the Appennines stretches 
 from the Tanaro to the extremity of Italy. All these 
 mountains belong to the same system. The Alps, and the 
 Rhsetian and Appenmne chains, extend from Mount Blanc 
 as from a central mass. The Appennines, which shall be 
 more particularly described, are equal in length to six hun- 
 dred and seventy miles. d They are divided into three parts : 
 the northern Appennines extend to the Adriatic gulf, at 
 no great distance to the south of Urbino ; the central Ap- 
 pennines terminate near the banks of the Sangro ; and the 
 southern Appennines, situated at an equal distance from 
 the two seas, form two branches near Muro : the least im- 
 portant of these branches separates the territory of Bari 
 from that of Otranto ; the other, composed of lofty moun- 
 tains, traverses both the Calabrias and terminates in the 
 Aspromonte. 
 
 The chain of the Alps is much more precipitous on the 
 side of Italy, than towards France, Switzerland and Ger- 
 many ; the Appennines are not so lofty, but several branches 
 issue from them, of which the most important form capes 
 on the Mediterranean and the Adriatic gulf. Piombino 
 stands on one of these headlands, but the most remarkable 
 is the one that forms Cape Campanella, at the entrance 
 into the gulf of Naples. The points or extremities of chains 
 are not so numerous on the Adriatic ; however, Cape 
 Leuca, at the entrance of the gulf of Taranto, is formed by 
 the last declivities of one of these branches. The principal 
 branch which reaches to the southern extremity of the con 
 
 is given to the chain in the table of European altitudes, Book XCIV. Of 
 course it includes the Simplon, as well as the entire chain between Mount 
 Rosa and Mount St. Gothard. — P. 
 
 C The Maritime Alps are generally represented as extending to the sea 
 coast between Nice and Oneglia. Saussure also applies the name to the 
 mountains extending along the sea coast, on the one side into Provence, 
 and on the other between Nice and Genoa, which he considers as subdivi- 
 sions of the principal chain. — P. 
 
 <* “ 270 leagues.” 
 
82 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 f 
 
 [BOOK CXXX1. 
 
 tinent, enters the sea and appears again in Sicily. The 
 Appennine chain passes throughout its whole extent nearer 
 the eastern 4 than the opposite coast of Italy. 
 
 The plains in the same country are not less remarkable 
 than its mountains ; that of Lombardy may be considered 
 the finest and most fruitful in Europe, perhaps in the world. 
 Another plain, situated between the gulf of Naples, Vesu- 
 vius and the Appennines, is less extensive but almost as 
 fertile as the last. The plains on the other side of the same 
 chain, although smaller, are equally productive; they ex- 
 tend along the shores of the Adriatic, in the territory of 
 Bari, and near the gulf of Manfredonia. 
 
 The rivers that water Italy differ from each other in size, 
 according as they descend from the Alps or the Appen- 
 nines. The Po, the largest of them all, has its source in 
 Mount Viso. Enlarged by the streams of the Tanaro, the 
 Trebia, the Taro and the Panaro, which unite with it on 
 its right bank, and augmented on the left by the Doria, the 
 Orca, the Sesia, the Tesino, b the Adda and the Oglio, it 
 throws itself, after a course of a hundred and twenty leagues, 
 into the Adriatic gulf. The Tagliamento, the Piave, the 
 Brenta and the Adige rise from the Alps and enter the 
 same gulf. Those that rise from the Appennines, and fall 
 into the Mediterranean, are the Arno, which throws itself 
 into the gulf of Genoa, and the Tiber, which enters the sea 
 near Ostia. 
 
 The largest lakes are situated at the base of the Rhaetian 
 Alps ; such are Lake Maggiore on the west, and to the east 
 of it, those of Lugano, Como, Iseo and Garda, the last of 
 which is the greatest in Italy. When contrasted with these, 
 the lakes of Perugia,® Bolsena d and Fucino 6 may appear 
 insignificant ; they succeed each other in a direction from 
 north-west to south-east on the western declivities of the 
 Appennines. 
 
 The fine climate of Italy may have contributed to render 
 its mineral waters as much frequented as those in Germany. 
 The gaseous springs of Saint Julian, the baths of Monteca- 
 tini, the springs of Saint Cassian, and the celebrated baths 
 of Lucca, attract many strangers to Tuscany. The gase- 
 ous springs in the kingdom of Naples are so numerous, that 
 they appear to be connected with volcanic phenomena ; it 
 may be sufficient to mention those of Santa Lucia, Piscia- 
 relli, Pozzuoli and the four springs in Ischia. The baths 
 of Albano near Padua, and those of Rocoaro in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Vicenza, the thermal springs of Acqui, Vinadio 
 and Oleggio in the kingdom of Sardinia, and lastly the mi- 
 neral waters near Parma, are all frequented by invalids.* 
 
 The country from the north to the south of Italy may be 
 divided into four different zones, each of them characterized 
 by a peculiar climate. The northern zone, which extends 
 from the Alps to the Appennines, is often exposed to intense 
 cold ; Reaumur’s thermometer descends sometimes to ten 
 degrees below zero. The olive, the lemon and other fruits of 
 the same kind never flourish. The second zone reaches to 
 the course of the Sangro ; the winter is there mild ; the olive 
 and the wild orange resist it, but the sweet orange does not 
 succeed in the open air. The Seville orange and the lemon 
 thrive almost without culture in the next region, which ter- 
 minates near the banks of the Crati. Although frosty 
 
 * The western, in the original; but Ibis must be a mistake. The Ap- 
 pennine branches from the southern extremity of the Alps, and then 
 stretches along the gulf of Genoa, and eastward to the. centre of Italy, 
 whence it extends south-eastward to the southern extremity of the kingdom 
 of Naples, approaching nearer the Adriatic than the Mediterranean. — P. 
 
 weather is not unknown, it is of rare occurrence in the low 
 grounds. The last zone is exposed to a burning climate ; 
 the thermometer never descends below the freezing point ; 
 the palm, the aloe and the Indian fig grow on the plains and 
 near the shores of the sea ; the highest summits, however, 
 are covered with snow in winter. 
 
 Few countries are so fruitful as the first region which 
 occupies all the valley of the Po ; it produces a great quan- 
 tity of rice and different sorts of grain, one of which the 
 Italians use in making their macaroni and other pastry of 
 the same sort. The finest meadows and the fattest cattle 
 in Italy may be seen in the same valley or in others that 
 communicate with it. Cheese forms a considerable branch 
 of exportation ; the wines are of a good quality, particular- 
 ly those of Friuli, the Vicentino, the Bolognese, and Mont- 
 ferrat. The second region does not abound in pasturage 
 or corn ; the cultivated lands rise in terraces on the decli- 
 vities of the mountains ; their verdure is varied by the pale 
 olive and other fruit trees. As part of the third region is 
 unhealthy, it has been termed the country of the malaria ; 
 it is covered in many places with rich pastures and nume- 
 rous flocks. The fig-tree, the almond, the cotton plant, 
 the sugarcane, and the grape that produces the strong wines 
 of Calabria, are cultivated in the last region, and the vege- 
 tation resembles that in the finest countries of Africa. The 
 silkworm produces a coarser silk than in the other parts of 
 Italy ; the cause has been attributed to the nature of its 
 food, which consists principally of the leaves of the black 
 mulberry tree. The luxuriant branches of the vine twine 
 round the lofty poplar, but it has been remarked that the 
 wines obtained from the low vine, are superior to such as are 
 produced from those which hang in elegant wreaths from 
 the summits of the highest trees. The grapes of the former 
 are often ripe, before those of the latter have begun to 
 change their colour. If the grapes of the two sorts be 
 mingled, the wine becomes acid and disagreeable. 
 
 Italy produces all the fruit trees that flourish in the 
 temperate regions of Europe, and some plants which thrive 
 only in high temperatures ; such are the date plum ( Dios - 
 pyrus lotus,) of which the yellow and acid fruits, in size not 
 unlike cherries, are only eaten by children and the poor ; 
 the pride of India (JWelia azedarach ,) a tree adorned with 
 clusters of pale blue flowers that diffuse a pleasant fragrance ; 
 the pomegranate brought from Carthage into Italy by the 
 Romans ; the azarole ( Cratagus azarolus,) a sort of medlar 
 tree, producing fruit of a bright red colour, which yields a 
 refreshing juice that the people often drink in southern 
 Italy ; the carob tree ( Ceratonia siliqua ;) the mastich tree 
 ( Pistacia lentiscus,) of which the oil is used in cookery and 
 for burning ; lastly, the round leaved ash ( Fraxinus rotun- 
 difolia,) the precious tree of Calabria, that yields the 
 manna of commerce. 
 
 Several animals in Italy are common to different parts 
 of Europe ; others are peculiar to its climate and its moun- 
 tains, the last of which serve as a retreat for the lynx, the 
 chamois, the wild goat, the ferret, the dormouse, and the 
 lemming, a small Norwegian rat well known on account of 
 its migrations. The porcupine is found in different parts 
 of the Appennines ; there are besides many oxen that the 
 
 b * Ticino ( Ticinus.') 
 c Thrasymenus. 
 d Lacus Volsiniensis. 
 
 * Lake Celano, the ancient Fucinus. 
 
BOOK CXXX1.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 83 
 
 inhabitants call buffaloes,* * which are tamed in the south of 
 Italy. The Neapolitan horses are strong and well made, 
 the ass and the mule are of an excellent kind, and the 
 sheep may he compared to those in Spain. The birds are 
 very numerous ; in the Maritime Alps only, three hundred 
 and six different species have been counted. Some rep- 
 tiles in the south are common to that region with the north- 
 ern part of Africa ; the most noxious serpents are the asp 
 and the viper. 
 
 The Mediterranean abounds with fish and mollusca. 
 The depths of that sea are inhabited by alcpocephali, b po- 
 matomi and lepiclolepri. In the next higher region are found 
 molvi, c whitings and castagnolli ; d at a thousand feet® below 
 the surface, the most common fish are rays, anglers (lo- 
 phii,) flounders ( pleuronectes ,) and others of the same sort/ 
 The region of corals and madrepores lies at five hundred 
 feet s below the surface ; the fish that frequent it are the file- 
 fish ( batistes ,) the wrasse ( labrus ,) and the gurnard ( trigla .) 
 Algae and different sea weeds' 1 * * * vegetate at a less depth, and 
 that part of the sea is the region of the muraenae, the weevers 
 ( trachini ,) and the stromatei. The rocks nearer the surface 
 are covered with different sorts of fuci, and serve to shelter 
 blennies, trumpet-fish, and all the other kinds that are ta- 
 ken near the shore. Lastly, along the coasts covered with 
 gravel and with sand, are found giltheads, anchovies, mul- 
 lets, and different mollusca/ 
 
 The cuttle fish is by no means uncommon in the Medi- 
 terranean ; when in danger, it discharges a black liquor, 
 which has been called sepia, and thus conceals itself from 
 its enemies. Another molluscous animal may be mention- 
 ed, which has been described by Aristotle and Pliny ; it is 
 known by the name of the argonaut or the nautilus/ 
 That singular animal has a transparent and fragile shell, 
 shaped like a skiff, which has been supposed to have given 
 man the first notion of vessels, and the earliest lessons in 
 navigation. Endowed with intelligence sufficient for its 
 preservation, a provision indispensable for the mariner, as 
 soon as the tempest begins to agitate the billows, it shuts 
 itself in its shell, and descends to the bottom of the waters ; 
 but when calm weather returns, it extends its arms out of 
 its light bark, and rises to the surface. It fills its vessel 
 with a quantity of water sufficient for ballast, or empties it 
 at pleasure ; it is impelled by its arms, which act as oars, 
 and if the breeze be not too strong, it raises two of them, 
 extends the membrane that unites them, and uses it as a 
 sail for accelerating its course, while another arm descends 
 behind the shell into the water, and acts as a rudder. 
 
 The south winds are very disagreeable in the kingdom 
 of Naples and in Sicily, but the south-east wind or the si- 
 rocco is the most oppressive of any. When it prevails, the 
 light of day is obscured, the leaves of plants are rolled up, 
 as if they had been stung by a destructive insect, and 
 men are exposed to a languor and uneasiness that ren- 
 der them incapable of exertion. It may be considered 
 fortunate that the sirocco prevails more in winter than in 
 summer. 
 
 Italy affords ample scope for meditation to the geologist. 
 
 * It. Bufoli ( Bos Bubalus Linn.) a peculiar species, native of the warm 
 
 climates of Africa and Asia. — Great droves of them are fed in the marshes 
 along the Mediterranean — P. b Q,u. Leptocephali. 
 
 c “ Molves." Q.u. moles, sunfish ( Tetraodon mola, Linn.) — P. 
 
 d “ Castagnolles.” e “300 metres.” 
 
 f “ and all fishes with soft flesh.” 6 “ 150 metres.” 
 
 h Algce and Caulinice. 
 
 * Histoire naturelle des principales productions de 1’Europe meridionale, 
 par M. Risso, tom. III. 
 
 The Alpine limestone commences to the north of Belluno ; 
 it is covered with oolitic limestones in horizontal strata 
 from which red sandstone rises. 1 Springs impregnated 
 with hydrogen issue from the limestone in the valley of Pieva 
 di C adore. Nineteen mines are situated in the same val- 
 
 ley ; an ore of lead containing silver is obtained from the 
 mountain of Jiau, which consists also of calcareous rocks ; 
 oxide of iron and sulphuret of lead are found in the moun- 
 tain of Grigni. The geologist observes in the territory ol 
 Vicenza calcareous substances analogous to chalk, tertiary 
 deposits and ancient volcanic rocks ; in the last are con- 
 tained globules of chalcedony, filled with air and water. 
 The lava alternates in the heights of Monte-Bolca, with 
 schistous limestone abounding in fossil fish. Green sand- 
 stone forms the nucleus of all the calcareous heights that 
 extend through F riuli, and of the low hills of Oltre-Piane. 
 The Veronese exhibits the same arrangements ; the lime- 
 stone rocks are filled with organic remains. At the base 
 of the Appennines, in the dutchy of Parma and Piacenza, 
 hills formed of shell limestone rise to the height of sixteen 
 hundred feet ; they command the course of the Po, and 
 their strata are inclined from ten to twenty degrees towards 
 the north. 
 
 The Po, which traverses a great extent of country simi- 
 lar in its formation to the neighbourhood of Paris, carries 
 along with it, like every great river, an abundant detritus 
 from the mountains that encompass it, and from the soil 
 through which it flows. The continual action of its waters 
 accumulates deposits at its mouth, which are every day en- 
 croaching on the limits of the sea. It may be proved that, 
 since the year 1604, when it was attempted to confine its 
 banks' by dikes, the deposits which the river brings down, 
 have been so much accumulated in the lower part of its 
 course, that the surface of its water is now higher than the 
 tops of the houses in Ferrara." 1 The sea has receded since 
 the same period, to the distance of more than three leagues. 
 The ancient Hadria or the modern Adria was once a famous 
 port, since it gave its name to the Adriatic Gulf ; it is now 
 more than eight leagues from the shore. It has been cal- 
 culated that the annual encroachments made by these de- 
 posits amount to four hundred feet," but that calculation 
 appears to be overrated ;° it is certain, however, that the la- 
 bours of men have greatly contributed to augment the de- 
 posits. Their progress may be ascertained with sufficient 
 accuracy ; in the twelfth century, Adria was about thirty, 
 or according to others, thirty-four thousand feet from the 
 sea ; p at the end of the sixteenth century, when a new pas- 
 sage was made for the river, the remotest promontories 
 formed by the deposits were sixty-one thousand six hundred 
 and sixty-five feet q distant from Adria. These distances 
 are believed to be correct, and it follows that the annual 
 extent of the encroachments was equal on an average to 
 eighty-four feet. r But the successive additions have been 
 much greater since the end of the sixteenth century ; if it 
 be recollected that the furthest limits of these alluvial lands 
 are at present 108,334 feet 5 from the meridian of Adria, 
 it may he shown that they are enlarged every year by 
 
 k Argonauta argo, Linn. “ Argonaute papiraci ,” Paper Nautilus. 
 
 1 Memoir by M. Catullo : Giornale di Fisica Chimica. 
 
 ra M. de Prony, Systeme Hydraulique de P Italie. 
 n “ 120 metres.” 0 Breislak, Institutions geologiques. 
 
 p “ Adria was nine or ten thousand metres from the sea.” 
 
 <i “ 18,500 metres.” 
 
 r “25 metres.” 
 
 E “32,500 metres.” 
 
• 
 
 84 EUR 
 
 more than two hundred and thirty-three feet. a The Po 
 was formerly subject to inundations, every forty or fifty 
 years ; they are now more frequent. The deposits brought 
 down by the Brenta render it not improbable that Venice 
 may share the fate of Adria. The Euganean mountains, 
 a group of volcanic heights, are situated in the vast alluvial 
 plains on the east of the Adige and the town of Este. 
 
 Fossil shells are very common in Lombardy and Pied- 
 mont, but the beds of earth which cover the marine deposits, 
 abound in many places with the bones of elks, mastodons, 
 elephants, rhinoceroses and other large quadrupeds. The 
 bones of cetaceous animals have been found in the hills near 
 Piacenza. Animals, which are now extinct, must there- 
 fore have inhabited the declivities of the Appennines and 
 Alps before man established his dominion in those regions. 
 
 The chain of the Appennines may be divided into two dis- 
 tinct parts; the one is composed of granite, euphotide b and 
 serpentine, which constitute the nucleus of these mountains ; 
 the other is formed of granular' and compact limestones, 
 above which are silicious strata, and the sandstone known 
 by the name of macigno. The granular limestone, which is 
 considered primitive, furnishes very fine white marble for 
 sculpture ; the most valuable quarries are those near Car- 
 rara on the western declivity of the northern Appennines. 
 But towards the north, these primitive limestones and others 
 of the transition period serve as a support for different ter- 
 tiary formations, in which are comprehended beds of clay 
 mixed with shells, and other sedimentary ‘deposits containing 
 fragments of wood and the fruits of different coniferous 
 trees. d The same tertiary formations extend at the base of 
 the central Appennines ; they form hills consisting chiefly 
 of argillaceous marl and calcareous and silicious sand, in 
 which are found sulphur, mineral pitch and salt. Organic 
 remains 0 "e so abundant that a naturalist believes them to 
 he more numerous than all the animals in the Mediterra- 
 nean.® The granitic rocks in the southern Appennines, 
 from the mountains of Conegliano to the extremity of Italy, 
 are more extensive than in the rest of the chain. They are 
 of a yellow colour, and of a granulated and imperfectly 
 crystallized texture ; they are apparently of transition for- 
 mation. Calcareous hills of tertiary formation rise in dif- 
 ferent directions near the shores of the sea. Saline de- 
 posits are situated at the base of the Aspromonte in East- 
 ern Calabria ; they are wrought most extensively in the 
 neighbourhood of Lungro. 
 
 The existence of a sea, afterwards succeeded by fresh 
 water lakes, along the western declivity of the central Appen- 
 nines, is attested by the nature of the soil ; volcanic pro- 
 ducts were amassed in the same region at a period anterior 
 to the commencement of history. In one place are macig- 
 nos ; in another travertines, the most modern of calcareous 
 rocks. The formation of the latter has been attributed to 
 mineral springs containing carbonic acid ; they were used 
 in building most of the monuments of ancient Rome, and 
 they are found in extensive beds in the neighbourhood of 
 that city. Other limestones that are still forming, indi- 
 cate the course which nature followed in the remotest pe- 
 riods. The waters that descend from the chain of Mount 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CXXXI 
 
 ] Velino, hold in suspension carbonate of lime which is de- 
 posited in Lake Velino, and also at the falls of Terni and 
 Tivoli. The reader may have some notion of the manner 
 in which this limestone is deposited from the account of an 
 intelligent naturalist. “ The celebrated falls of Tivoli are 
 not formed by abrupt declivities in the compact limestone 
 of which these hills, (those that command Rome,) consist, 
 but by deposits from the river that issues from the valley, 
 
 ; and which in ancient times was more surcharged with cal- 
 careous sediment than at present. The undulating forms 
 that these deposits assume, forms that are not seen in the 
 plains, are owing to the agitation of the waters ; their less 
 abundant precipitation may perhaps account for their crys- 
 talline texture, by which they differ from travertine, and 
 resemble alabaster. The same arrangement, attributa- 
 ble to the same causes, may be seen in all its details at the 
 lofty falls of Terni. The traveller observes in the neigh- 
 bourhood, and in the lower parts of the rock, masses of 
 travertine, a fresh water deposit of compact limestone. 
 Near Rieti, at the confluence of the Velino and the Nera, 
 that small river is precipitated over a mass of crystalline 
 concretionary limestone formed in the same way and on 
 the same base of compact limestone as at Tivoli.” f 
 
 This limestone is in most places of a brownish red colour; 
 fresh water shells are occasionally found in it ; in some places, 
 however, it is of a pure white. On a hill, evidently of recent 
 formation, to the north-west of Radicofani, and near the 
 frontiers of T uscany, the waters of San Filippo g to which 
 invalids resort, deposit a very fine white sediment ; the 
 water is made to fall into moulds in a very fine spray, and 
 by incrustation bas-reliefs are formed. 
 
 The lakes in which the ancient travertine was deposited 
 in the neighbourhood of Rome, have formed the Quirinal, 
 the Aventine, and the Mounts Marius 1 * and Coelius ; but 
 Janiculum and the rock of the Vatican attest by their mol- 
 lusca the presence of salt water. Other rocks, and volcanic 
 products conglomerated by calcareous cement, form the 
 soil of the ancient city. Some deposits in the vicinity con- 
 tain bones belonging to terrestrial animals, of which the 
 species are now extinct. 
 
 Two distinct tracts of volcanic matter may be recognized, 
 in the country between the banks of the Po and the extre- 
 mity of Italy ; the one extends along the eastern declivity 
 of the Appennines from the territory of Ferrara to Abnizzo 
 near the banks of the Sangro ; the other stretches along the 
 opposite declivity into Sicily. At the two extremities of these 
 volcanic tracts, are exhibited the phenomena of mud vol- 
 canoes, 1 in which hydrogen gas is the principal agent. 
 The one at Sassuolo, not far from Modena, is visited by all 
 the curious ; a piece of wood plunged into that oozy volcano 
 makes the water rise in the form of a jet. Others will be de- 
 scribed in the account of Sicily. At the foot of that declivity 
 of the Appennines, which extends towards the Gulf of Naples, 
 craters of different epochs are heaped on the soil now trod- 
 den by man, and the fields are fertilized by decomposed 
 lava. All the plain of Campania is covered with volcanic 
 substances, and Naples is built on former currents of lava. 
 According to Spallanzani, the lakes of Averno and Agnano 
 
 a “ 70 metres.” 
 
 b Gabbro of the Italians, Euphotide of the French mineralogists, Dial- 
 lage rock of the English mineralogists. — P. 
 
 0 “Calcaire saccharolile.” 
 
 J M f moire sur les bassins tertiaires tie G6nes et de ses environs, par 
 M Pareto: Ann. ties sciences nat. tome i. page 86. 
 
 • Breislak, Institutions geologiques, tome ii. page 206. 
 
 f De quelques terrains d'eau douce posterieurs au calcaire grossier hor* 
 du bassin de Paris, par M. Brongniart : tome ii. seconde partie, pag. 552, 
 des Recherches sur lesossemens fossiles, par M. Cuvier. 
 g Baths of St. Philip. 
 
 h Monte Mario, the Clivus Cinnse of the ancients, on the right hank of 
 the Tiber. — P. 
 
 * “ Salscs .” * 
 
BOOK CXXXI.] 
 
 were ancient craters. The Solfatara, the remains of an 
 elliptically formed volcano, at present only emits sul- 
 phureous vapours,* but the cavernous soil resounds under 
 the traveller, and the sulphur and alum which are extracted 
 from it seem to form an exhaustless source of wealth. The 
 Grotto del Cane has lost much of its celebrity, since seve- 
 ral volcanic caverns emitting carbonic acid have been dis- 
 covered in other countries. The Lucrine lake was for- 
 merly more extensive, and had a communication with the 
 sea, but the eruption in the month of September, 1538, 
 raised a small volcano in the midst of it, from which burn- 
 ing matter issued during seven days, and the lava forms at 
 present a hill, the Monte Nuovo, four hundred feet in 
 height, and eight thousand in circumference at its base. 
 
 Vesuvius rises above all the modern volcanoes in the ter- 
 ritory of Naples. As active as it was nearly eighteen hun- 
 dred years ago, it is considered the only one in Europe, 
 from which different kinds of rocks are thrown unaltered. 
 In the last eruption, which happened in 1822, its height was 
 diminished by more than a hundred feet. The most north- 
 ern point of its summit is about three thousand eight hun- 
 dred feet in height. The walls of the crater are formed by 
 successive strata of lava, from which the number of erup- 
 tions might almost be calculated. Prismatic lava, almost 
 as regular as the finest basaltic prisms, has several times 
 been observed in the conical cavity. Monte Somma, which 
 was the summit of Vesuvius in the time of Strabo, encom- 
 passes part of it at present, and is only separated from it 
 by the volcanic hill of Cantaroni. Near the summit, the 
 lava resounds beneath the feet, and seems about to be swal- 
 lowed in the gulf it encloses. Hot vapours issue from a 
 great many holes or crevices lined with beautiful efflores- 
 cences of sulphur ; and if a piece of wood or paper be 
 placed near them, it takes fire in a few seconds. Vesuvius 
 stands isolated in the middle of a plain, and as it is formed 
 by matter thrown from the bowels of the earth, its mass 
 gives the exact measure of the cavity from which the differ- 
 ent substances have been ejected. The land round its base 
 is divided into small but very fruitful farms ; the richness of 
 the soil formed by the decomposed lava may be inferred 
 from the number of inhabitants in proportion to the surface. 
 Each square league contains five thousand individuals. 
 The stranger may wonder at the security of the population, 
 for apparently men, women and children are threatened 
 with destruction at every instant ; but it is well known that 
 every eruption is predicted by certain signs. The earth is 
 shaken, a hollow subterranean noise is heard, the wells and 
 springs are dried up, and the terrified animals wander about 
 the country. Warned of the danger, man has time to es- 
 cape, and to secure whatever is most precious. Clouds of 
 smoke are emitted from the volcano in the intervals between 
 the eruptions. 
 
 The mineral riches of Italy consist rather in earthy than 
 in metallic substances ; such are the serpentine on the 
 southern side of the Alps, the porphyry of the Appennines, 
 the marble of Carrara, the alabaster of Volterra, the brec- 
 cia marble of Stazzema composed of different coloured frag- 
 ments, the black marble of Pistoia, the green marble of 
 Prato, the brocatello of Piombino, the limestone of FIo- 
 
 * At night a blue lambent fiame is visible. — P. 
 b Ruiniform or landscape marble. 
 
 c “ Length from south-east to north-west 62 leagues, mean breadth 25 
 leagues, surface about 1630 sq. leagues” — Superficial extent, including 
 the small islands aloncr its coast, about 12,500 sq. miles (Morse,) nearly 
 12,533 (Ed. Encyc.) Length from east to west 180 miles, greatest breadth j 
 
 85 
 
 rence, b on which are represented ruins and beautiful den- 
 drites formed by molecules of manganese, the sulphated 
 barytes of Mount Paderno, which is transformed by calci- 
 nation into the paste called Bologna phosphorus, the jas- 
 pers of Barga, the chalcedonies of Tuscany, the lapis lazuli 
 near Sienna, the jargon of the Vicentino, the garnet of Pied- 
 mont, the hyacinth of Vesuvius, and the mines of Sicily and 
 Sardinia. 
 
 Numerous islands form a considerable portion of the Ita- 
 lian territory ; the largest are Sicily and Sardinia, we might 
 even add Corsica, for considered physically, it forms a de- 
 tached portion of the latter. The next in point of extent 
 are Malta, Gozzo, and Pentellaria, to the south of Sicily ; 
 then the Lipari or iEolian Islands between Sicily and the 
 continent ; Ischia and Capri at the entrance of the Gulf Oi 
 Naples ; and lastly, the island of Elba between Tuscany 
 and Corsica. 
 
 Sicily, situated between Europe and Africa, is the largest 
 island in the Mediterranean. Its length from south-east to 
 north-west is about a hundred and fifty-five miles, its mean 
 breadth nearly sixty-two, and its surface nine thousand six 
 hundred and eighty-three square miles. c A chain of moun- 
 tains which forms a continuation of the Appennines, divides 
 into three branches, and their three extremities terminate 
 in as many capes, namely, Rasocolmo on the north-east, 
 San Vito on the north-west, and Cape Palo on the south- 
 east. Three great declivities are thus formed in the trian- 
 gular mass of the island, namely, the northern, eastern, and 
 south-western ; many streams and rivers descend from 
 them ; the largest are the Belici, the Platani and the Salso 
 on the south, and the Giaretta on the east ; the northern 
 declivity is narrow and rapid ; no streams of any magnitude 
 rise from it. 
 
 The principal rock that forms the nucleus of the Sicilian 
 mountains, according to Spallanzani/ is a sort of granite 
 that decomposes readily ; but from the characters he as- 
 signs to it, one might suppose it of a later formation than 
 that of organized beings, and that it was included in the list 
 of sienites, diorites, and protogines. 6 It serves as a support 
 for calcareous rocks abounding with madrepores and ma- 
 rine mollusca. Argillaceous schistus and fossil fish have been 
 seen in different parts of the island. The Italian naturalist 
 observed on the sea shore, pudding stones and sandstones 
 in which the pebbles and the grains of sand were united by 
 a calcareous cement, still forming under the water ; they 
 are most abundant in the neighbourhood of Messina. Wit- 
 nesses assured him that they had often found in the sand 
 where these rocks are formed, the heads of arrows, medals 
 and human bones ; thus the process of nature may still be 
 discerned in the formafion of certain rocks. 
 
 Mount Gibello or iEtna, a volcano so immense, that Ve- 
 suvius in comparison seems merely a hill, rises on the east- 
 ern side of Sicily. It is divided into three vegetable zones, 
 that of the sugar cane, that of the vine and olive, and that 
 of boreal plants. The greatest eruption of late years took 
 place in 1812 ; it lasted six months : another that happened 
 in 1819, has been described by a traveller who witnessed it, 
 and observed the lava flowing below him ; it formed a cur- 
 rent of sixty feet in breadth on the mountain, and twelve 
 
 130 (Ed. Encyc.) Length about 170 British miles, medial breadth 70 
 (Pinkerton.) — P. 
 
 d Voyage dans les Deux-Siciles, t. V. 
 
 c Dictionnaire dc Geographie Physique de 1’ Encyclopedic Methodique, 
 par M. Huet : art. Roches. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
86 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXX1. 
 
 hundred at its base. It desolated the country to the dis- 
 tance of’ two leagues, and set fire to the trees which it 
 touched. The stones discharged from a crater above the 
 opening by which the lava issued, rose apparently to the 
 height of a thousand feet. a 
 
 Several mud volcanoes similar to those near Modena, are 
 situated in the island ; among others, there is one at Valan- 
 ghe della Lalomba, another at Terra Pilata, and a third at 
 Macaluba. The first is the least important ; its movements 
 are wholly checked during very hot weather. The second, 
 observed some years ago for the first time by Father La 
 Via, consists of an eminence in which there are several fis- 
 sures ; from a great many small cones, gas and mud rise 
 to the height of six or seven feet ; other cones about five 
 feet in depth emit streams of hydrogen. The volcano at 
 Macaluba is somewhat different ; it is situated on a little 
 hill about fifty feet in height ; its small craters discharge 
 bubbles of gas, which breaking the clay that covers them, 
 produce a noise like that occasioned by a cork bursting 
 from a bottle. A salt spring issues from the little hill, and 
 in the calcareous soil in the neighbourhood are other hil- 
 locks of greyish clay, which contain gypsum. Terra Pi- 
 lata has been so called from its sterility ; no vegetable 
 grows on it. 
 
 The lands in Sicily are very fruitful ; the olive is more 
 vigorous and grows to a greater size than in the rest of 
 Italy ; the pistachio tree abounds, and the cotton plant is 
 cultivated with much care ; but the forests have been long 
 since exhausted, so that all kinds of timber are at present 
 very rare. Beans are cultivated as a substitute for fallow. 
 The Sicilian honey is of an excellent quality, and the bee 
 is one of the most valuable animals in the country. The 
 animals in general do not differ from those of Calabria ; 
 among the birds, the solitary thrush ( Turdus cyanus) is the 
 one most attached to the soil, and the most admired for its 
 harmonious notes. 
 
 It may be worth while to examine a question, concern- 
 ing which distinguished men have entertained different 
 opinions — was Sicily ever a part of the continent 1 Those 
 who deny the possibility of such a separation have perhaps 
 paid too little attention to the traditions of the ancients. 
 Pliny * 1 ’ and Pomponius Mela c considered it a fact that 
 could not be doubted, and the poets have described the ca- 
 tastrophe. 11 The geologist does not attach any weight to a 
 popular tradition, if it be at variance with the principles and 
 truths that form the basis of his science ; but if it can be 
 easily reconciled with these principles and truths, it may be 
 considered an additional argument of some importance. 
 It is true that the authority of history is entitled to more 
 credit than a mere tradition, lost in the night of time ; but 
 it (hies not require much reflection to be convinced that at 
 no very remote period history is confounded with fable, j 
 'I'he imagination may easily transport itself to the age when 
 men did not possess the art of communicating their ideas 
 by writing, and when history rested only on tradition. 
 
 Cluverius® argues against the possibility of such a sepa- 
 ration, because the course of the rivers along the last decli- 
 vities in Italy, on the side towards Messina, indicate a gene- 
 ral inclination of the land towards the sea. But if it be 
 
 » Lettres de M. Al. de Sehenberg a M. le docteur Schouw: Journal 
 Encyclopfedique de Naples, No. 8. 
 b Book iii. chap. 8. 
 e Book ii. chap. 7. 
 
 A Virgil, Aim-id, B aok iii. verse li t. Silius Italicus, Book xiv. verse 10, &c. 
 
 assumed that the Appennine chain, undermined by subter- 
 nean fires, was broken at the place where two heights 
 were separated by a valley, and if, at the time of such a 
 rupture, the waters of the sea rushed violently into the 
 strait of Messina, they must have had some effect in ren- 
 dering less precipitous, the declivities of Italy on one side, 
 and the capes of Messina and Rasocolmo on the other. 
 This much may be urged in answer to the objections de- 
 duced from the actual configuration of the country. But 
 it may be farther objected that it has been ascertained by 
 geological observations, that the mountains in Sicily and 
 the Appennines are formed by the same rocks. If it appears 
 a chimerical notion that a part of the chain, less than a 
 league in length, has been broken by a violent earthquake, 
 because it is an improbable supposition that the southern 
 Appennines are undermined, or, if it may be so said, placed 
 above immense cavities, then it should be recollected that 
 Calabria has been often shaken to its foundations, that 
 a mountain as vast as iEtna has been formed by sub- 
 terranean fires, and that the volcanic heights, now called 
 the Lipari Islands, have been raised from the depths of the 
 waters. 
 
 At a league and a half from the Pharos/ situated on a 
 point near cape Rasocolmo, stands a rock famous in anti- 
 quity, as being most dangerous to ships. Rising perpen- 
 dicularly, the base of Scylla is pierced by many caverns ; 
 the billows enter them, mingle with each other, and make 
 in breaking a tremendous noise, which explains why Ho- 
 mer and Virgil have painted Scylla roaring in her cave, 
 and guarded by wolves and fierce dogs. Charybdis, now 
 Calofaro, is about seven hundred and fifty feet distant from 
 the shore at Messina. It no longer resembles the descrip- 
 tion given of it by Homer ; it is not a whirlpool, but a small 
 space hardly a hundred feet in circumference, subject to 
 those eddies which are remarked at sea in all narrow pas- 
 sages. 
 
 Malta, Gozzo and Comino are situated between S : cily 
 and Africa ; they form a superficies of twenty-two square 
 leagu s. Malta is a calcareous rock about five leagues in 
 length and three in breadth/ covered with a light layer of 
 vegetable mould, which is rendered fruitful by the heat of 
 the climate. More than eighty springs water Malta ; but if a 
 proprietor wishes to make a new garden, the soil must be 
 transported from Sicily, a fact that could hardly be inferred 
 from the number and excellent flavour of the Maltese 
 oranges, from its beautiful roses and exhalations of a thou- 
 sand flowers. The small island of Comino, a rock about 
 five hundred paces in circumference/ has been so called 
 from the great quantity of cumin which the inhabitants cul- 
 tivate. Gozzo, an island on which different heights are 
 situated, is about four leagues in length and two in breadth 
 it is fruitful in cotton, grain and vegetables. 
 
 Nearer Africa than Sicily, the volcanic island of Pentel- 
 laria k presents on every side steep declivities and caverns. 
 A lake near the centre, about eight hundred paces in cir- 
 cumference, and of an immense depth, fills the cavity of 
 an ancient crater ; its waters are tepid, no fish are con- 
 tained in them. Boiling springs issue from the base of the 
 arid and burnt heights. The part of the island best 
 
 e Sicil. Antiq. lib. i. f The light house on Cape Faro. 
 
 g 20 miles long, 12 broad (Ed. Encyc.) 
 
 h Extent 3 sq. miles (Ed. Encyc.) 
 
 1 Extent 37 sq. miles (Morse,) 40 sq. miles (Ed. Encyc.) 
 
 k Pantelaria. 
 
book cxxxi.] DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 87 
 
 adapted for cultivation produces grapes, figs and olives. 
 Lampedosa, nearer Africa than Malta, is little more than 
 two square leagues in extent ; it is uninhabited. 
 
 The jEgades or the three islands of Favignana, Mare- 
 timo and Levanzo, near the western coast of Sicily, are lit- 
 tle worthy of notice. All the islands on the north of Sicily 
 are ancient craters. Ustica, at eleven leagues from cape 
 Gallo, is crowned by three small volcanic summits, which 
 had been extinguished long before the Phoenician conquest. 
 The soil is a dark loam, yielding rich harvests ; the in- 
 habitants cultivate cotton, olives and grapes. 
 
 The Lipari or iEolian Islands are situated to the east of 
 Ustica ; they are sixteen in number. Basiluzzo and the 
 three Pinarelli are only rocks composed of granitic and 
 porous lavas covered with sulphate of alumine ; a yet three 
 inhabited houses are situated in Basiluzzo. It has been 
 affirmed that hydrogen gas rises round these islands above 
 the surface of the water. The soil of Alicudi or Alicuda 
 is covered with globular lava ; but Spallanzani describes a 
 mass of porphyry that did not appear to have been in any way 
 modified by the action of fire. b Felicuri or Felicudi 0 may 
 be remarked on account of its alternate layers of lava and 
 and tufa ; d in the same island is situated a large cavern, 
 called the Grotto of the Sea Ox, not less than two hun- 
 dred feet in length, one hundred and twenty in breadth, 
 and sixty-five in height. Spallanzani observed there a mass 
 of granite, similar to the rocks near Melazzo in Sicily. 
 The block which seems to have been transported by the 
 waters might tend to strengthen the opinion that a marine 
 irruption has contributed with the action of subterranean 
 fire to separate Sicily from Italy. Salina, which Spallan- 
 zani considers the ancient Didyma, is more probably the 
 island of Tliermisia. It is about four leagues in circum- 
 ference ; a crater is situated near the centre, and the soil 
 is fruitful in grapes that yield an excellent wine. It has 
 been called Salina from the abundance of salt obtained 
 from a small lake, separated from the sea by a lava dike 
 •that the waves have formed. The waters of the lake are 
 diverted into ditches made for the purpose ; the heat of the 
 sun dries them by evaporation, and leaves behind thick 
 layers of salt. Lipari, the largest of these islands, is nearly 
 six leagues in circumference ; it is covered with feldspathic 
 lava, volcanic glass or obsidian, and pumice stone, with the 
 last of which the inhabitants supply the whole of Europe. 
 The mountain of Campo Bianco consists of conglomerates 
 containing vegetable remains, and forming strata that alter- 
 nate with pumice stone. 6 Two craters are situated in 
 Volcano, an island less than six leagues in circumference ; 
 one of them appears to be exhausted ; the other, which is 
 of very large dimensions, emits clouds of smoke. It Is reck- 
 oned to be four thousand six hundred and sixty feet in depth, 
 and two thousand five hundred and sixty-six in diameter/ 
 The last eruption took place in the year 1775. The extin- 
 guished crater is not inaccessible ; the stranger may descend 
 to a grotto adorned with stalactites of sulphur. The walls 
 of another grotto are covered with sulphur, sulphate of 
 
 a Spallanzani, Voyage en Sicile, tom. ii. 
 
 b Voyage en Sicile, tom. iii. p. 103. 
 
 c Felicuda. d Peperino. e Dolomieu, Voyage aux lies Lipari. 
 
 *' “ Depth 1400 metres, diameter 770.” 
 
 e Specular iron is found at Stromboli in the fissures of lava. (Spallan- 
 zani.)— P. 
 
 h The winter palace of Tiberius at La Marina. It was built on terraces 
 and piers advancing into the sea, which has again resumed its original do- 
 main. It is probably owing to the destruction or sinking of its foundations 
 rather than to the rising of the sea, that it is now covered with the waves. — P. I 
 
 alumine and muriate of ammonia. Carbonic acid is disen- 
 gaged from the hot waters of a small lake in the same 
 island. The volcanic products of Panaria are nowise re- 
 markable ; like Lipari, it produces corn, olives, figs and ex- 
 cellent grapes. Stromboli, the most northern of these 
 islands, is a steep volcano, in which a crater open on one 
 side, is always burning. In its ordinary calm state, two 
 eruptions take place every quarter of an hour. Its lavas 
 contain beautiful crystals of specular iron ( oligiste.) s 
 
 The entrance into the Gulf of Naples is defended by 
 three islands, Capri or the ancient Caprece on the right, 
 and Ischia and Procida on the left. No traces of volcanoes 
 are to be found in the first, which is about a league and a 
 half long, and a league broad. A calcareous cliff divides 
 it into two parts, and the inhabitants that go from the one 
 to the other must ascend a stair of five hundred steps. It 
 has been inferred from observations made in different parts 
 of the earth, that the waters of the sea are lower than in 
 past ages ; Capri, however, offers a proof to the contrary. 
 The floors of the palace h built by Tiberius are at present 
 covered with the waves. It is said that in certain seasons 
 of the year, quails flock in such numbers to the most fruit- 
 ful parts of the island, that the quantity caught in a day has 
 been sold for more than a hundred ducats. The tithe that 
 the bishop receives from the quails taken in the island, 
 constitutes his principal revenue. Ischia is eight leagues in 
 circumference ; its soil is wholly volcanic ; the last marine 
 deposits are at present covered with lava. Strabo informs 
 us, * 1 that its fruitful harvests and gold mines were the sources 
 of much wealth to the inhabitants ; but it is not improbable 
 that the Greek geographer has been mistaken, for no traces 
 of gold can now be found in its lava. Its ancient volcanoes, 
 Monte di Vico and Epopeo, are not much lower than Vesu- 
 vius. The eruption which happened in 1302, lasted two 
 months, and compelled the inhabitants to abandon the 
 island ; at present, however, it is very populous. It pro- 
 duces good wines, and many strangers repair to it on ac- 
 count of its vapour baths' 1 and mineral waters. Procida, 
 placed between the continent and the last island, is not 
 more than three leagues in circumference, but it contains 
 a great many inhabitants, more perhaps than any other 
 place of the same size their number is not less than 
 fourteen thousand. Its volcanic soil, formed by succes- 
 sive deposits of lava, yields plenty of oranges, figs, and 
 grapes. 
 
 The Pontian islands, of which the five largest are San 
 Stefano, Vandotena, Zannone, Ponza and Palmarola, ex- 
 tend to the west of Ischia ; several others of a smaller size, 
 rise between them. Ponza, the largest of the group, is about 
 six or seven miles long, and three or three and a halfbroad. m 
 Like those that surround it, it is formed by trachytic rocks, 
 the remains of burning streams that flowed in the midst of 
 earthy volcanic deposits. The base of La Guardia, one of 
 the highest summits in the island, consists of a semi-vitreous 
 trachyte, on which rests a bed of common grey trachyte, 
 about three feet thick. The trachytic rocks in the island of 
 
 > Lib. v. cap. 10. 
 
 k It. strife, stoves. Aqueous vapours are constantly issuing from fissures in 
 the lava ; they are collected and conveyed by tubes into apartments, 
 whereby a steam bath is obtained. (Ed. Encyc.)— P. 
 
 1 “ It is one of the most populous places on the globe.” 
 
 m “ leagues long and I league broad.” T he translator has probably mis- 
 taken half a league (une demi-lieue) for one league and a half. (Circum- 
 ference 5Fr. leagues. Vosgien.) — P. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 88 
 
 [BOOK CXXXI. 
 
 Zannone rest on limestone belonging to the transition 
 period. 
 
 Several other islands are situated towards the north, be- 
 tween Corsica and Tuscany ; of these the most southern 
 are Gianuti, formerly Artemisia, and Monte Cristo, the 
 ancient Oglosa, both of which are inhabited by fishermen, 
 and Giglio, which the Romans called AEgilium. In the 
 last are worked granite and valuable marble quarries ; its 
 hills are covered with trees, and the soil is fruitful in vines. 
 Pianosa, the ancient Planasia, a well wooded but thinly 
 peopled island, lies at no great distance from Elba. Ca- 
 praia, a small calcareous island to the north of Elba, contains 
 a greater population. Gorgona, opposite to Leghorn, a still 
 smaller island, is covered with wood and serves as a station 
 for the sardel fishermen. 
 
 The island of Elba, so famous for its iron mines, which 
 were worked at a very remote period, was called JEthalia 
 by the Greeks, and lira by the Romans. It is from twenty- 
 five to thirty leagues in circumference, and about nineteen 
 in superficies. Granite, micaceous sclustus and marble 
 are the principal rocks in its mountains, which extend from 
 east to west. The Capanna is the highest summit in the 
 island. Although some unwholesome marshes might be 
 mentioned, the climate may be said to be salubrious. No 
 river waters the island ; Rio is its only stream, but it pos- 
 sesses abundant and never failing springs. Several mineral 
 springs are also situated in Elba ; the inhabitants make 
 excellent wine ; the pastures, although of small extent, are 
 very fertile. 
 
 The island of Sardinia, about sixty-one leagues in length 
 from north to south, and about thirty-three at its great- 
 est breadth, forms a superficies of eleven hundred and 
 ninety-four square leagues. A chain of mountains tra- 
 verses the island from south to north ; two branches ex- 
 tend from its western side, the one towards the north-west 
 and the other towards the south-west. The island is formed 
 principally of granite, in which are contained strata and 
 veins of quartz, sienite and greenstone or diorite, and which 
 ts covered in many places, particularly at the two extremi- 
 ties, with micaceous schistus. Mount Genargentu, one of 
 the loftiest in Sardinia, consists chiefly of these substances ; 
 •t is not less than six thousand and eighty-six feet a in height. 
 The same rocks appear at the north-eastern extremity, in 
 die mountains of Della Nurra. The southern and northern 
 branches are composed of transition rocks and secondary 
 limestone, and are often covered with trachytes supporting 
 tertiary deposits, on the last of which basalt reposes ; this 
 arrangement has been observed in the mountains of Del 
 Marghine, near the middle of the western part of the island. 
 These volcanic masses seem to have been partly overturned 
 and destroyed by aqueous currents flowing in the direction 
 of north to south. Fresh water must have had some share 
 m effecting these catastrophes ; for in the country near 
 Cagliari, the remains of carnivorous and ruminating ani- 
 mals, as well as fresh water shells, are found in great num- 
 bers. 1 ’ No traces are left of the craters from which the 
 igneous products were discharged. A small modern volcano 
 dear Giave, is characterized by puzzolanas and scoriae. 
 
 The existence of gold in the Sardinian mountains may be 
 considered very uncertain, but there are several iron and 
 lead mines. Silver, copper and mercury are found only in 
 small quantities. 0 
 
 The principal rivers flow from the western side of the 
 great chain, namely, the Ozieri on the north, the Oristano 
 in the centre, and the Mannu on the south. The Flumen- 
 doza d rises from the opposite side of the mountains. The 
 Oristano is about twenty-two leagues in length ; e none of 
 the others are more than fifteen. There are numerous 
 small lakes in Sardinia, the waters of which are more or 
 less brackish, a quality derived from the neighbourhood of 
 the sea, or the nature of the soil that they water. 
 
 The climate is temperate but often exposed to the fatal 
 effects of a south-east wind called the Levante, the same as 
 the Neapolitan sirocco. Strabo/ Tacitus, g Cicero/ and 
 Cornelius Nepos 1 mention the insalubrity of Sardinia. The 
 same effects are still produced by the same causes ; the 
 miasms that rise from the marshes, particularly after hot 
 and rainy weather, occasion dangerous intermittent fevers. 
 
 A fifth part of the soil is covered with forests of oak ; the 
 principal species are the common oak ( Qucrcus robur,) the 
 holm (Quercus ilex,) and the cork tree ( Quercus suber.) 
 The island may be divided into three vegetable zones ; that 
 of the mountains may be compared with Corsica ; that o£ 
 the northern plains and coasts resembles Provence and a 
 part of Italy ; and lastly, that of the southern plains and 
 coasts is similar to Africa. The low state of agriculture 
 may be attributed rather to the character of the inhabitants 
 than to the nature of the soil. 
 
 The largest of the wild animals are the stag, the fallow 
 deer, the goat and the wild boa r ; but they are all smaller 
 than others of the same species on the continent. The mu- 
 simon k differs from the same animal in Corsica, both in size 
 and in the form of the horns, which resemble those of the 
 ram. The other quadrupeds are the fox, the rabbit, the hare 
 and the weazel. The domestic animals are distinguished 
 by peculiar characters ; the horses are small but strong, * * 
 they are often useful for twenty or thirty years ; the asses 
 are small and covered with long hair ; the oxen, like those 
 in Hungary, have very large horns ; they are light, nimble 
 and impetuous. The Sardinian goats are not inferior in 
 size to those in Italy ; all the other animals are diminutive 
 and degenerate. 
 
 The eagle soars above the mountains, the vulture devours 
 the putrid carcasses in the plains, and the linnet, the black- 
 bird and the thrush enliven the fields. The flamingo ar- 
 rives from Africa about the middle of August ; two months 
 later, it is joined by flocks of swans, geese and wild ducks 
 that have migrated from northern regions, and these are 
 followed by herons, coots and cormorants. 
 
 The slow growth of vegetation, and the sudden arefac- 
 tion of most of the plants, render insects less abundant in 
 Sardinia than in the other countries of southern Europe. 
 The tarantula is not unknown, grasshoppers 1 are common, 
 and the gnats are very troublesome. The bees yield ex- 
 cellent honey ; in some districts, it has a bitter taste which 
 is not disagreeable ; the inhabitants attribute it to the flowers 
 
 * “ 1826 metres.” 
 
 0 “In the neighbourhood of Cagliari there is a formation of osseous 
 breccia, containing the remains of small rodenlia, the teeth ol' ruminating 
 uiimals, and terrestrial shells.” 
 
 e Description de Pile de Sardaigne, par M. de la Marmora, Mfemoires du 
 Museum d’histoire naturelle, <• Flumendoso. 
 
 ' About 80 miles in length. (Ed. Encvc.) 
 f Lib V. « Anna! Lib. VII 
 
 h Lib. II. cp. 3, ad Guintum fratrem. 
 
 I De Viris Illustr. 
 
 k Mouflon, wild sheep — mufione in Sardinia, mujfoli in Corsica. 
 
 1 “ Sauterelles” locusts '! 
 
DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 89 
 
 BOOK CXX'Vl.J 
 
 of the arbute tree. The only reptiles found in the island 
 are a small snake and different species of lizards. Many 
 fish are taken in the rivers and the sea. The most remark- 
 able amphibious animals are two species of seals. 
 
 Sardinia is surrounded by several small islands. The 
 largest are San Antioco and San Pietro on the south-west, 
 Asmara on the north-west, and Maddalena, Caprara and 
 Tavolara on the north. San Antioco, the Enosis of the 
 Romans, is about nine leagues in circumference. It yields 
 rich harvests, and its inhabitants export a great quantity of 
 
 VOL. TII.— NO. 45. 12 
 
 salt. San Pietro, divided into two parts by a hill, is the 
 ancient Hieracum ; it is about eight or nine leagues in cir- 
 cumference. The inhabitants fish for coral, work their 
 salt mines, a and cultivate a fruitful soil. Asinara, the an- 
 cient Insula Herculis, about four leagues and a half in 
 length and two in breadth, is mountainous and covered with 
 pastures ; a few fishermen and shepherds inhabit it. Ta- 
 volara, a calcareous rock, now the haunt of wild goats, was 
 frequented by the ancients, who fished on the coasts for the 
 mollusca that yielded the purple die. 
 
 9 * Salines.” 
 
 3E 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK cxxxn. 
 
 BOOK CXXXII. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued. — Description of Italy. — Second Sec- 
 tion. — Lombardo- Venetian kingdom. 
 
 The most ancient people that inhabited the country from 
 the sides of the Alps to the banks of the Po, and from the 
 course of the Tesino to the Lisonzo, were the Orobii on 
 the north, the Insubres and the Cenomani below the lakes 
 of Como and Iseo, the Lcevi on the west, near the conflu- 
 ence of the Tesino and the Po, and the Euganei on the 
 east. The Orobii were probably aborigines of the Alps ; 
 their name signifies literally those that live in the moun- 
 tains; but Pliny, a after Cornelius Alexander, makes them 
 the descendants of Greek mountaineers ; however, Bergo- 
 mumf the name of their capital, indicates a Germanic or 
 rather Germano-Celtic origin. The Insubres appear to 
 have also migrated from the north ; they were a branch of 
 the Ombri, whose name in their language signified Valiant. 
 JMediolanum, their capital, is the modern Milan. The Ce- 
 nomani were a colony of Celtic people that originally inha- 
 bited the territory of Mans ; they settled on the southern 
 side of the Alps, six centuries before the vulgar era. The 
 Loen were also considered Gauls. The Euganei possessed 
 for a long time the territory that now forms the government 
 of Venice, but they were at last invaded by the Veneti, who 
 are supposed to have been a colony of the Veneti in the 
 country round Vannes in Armorica, a powerful seafaring 
 and commercial people. 
 
 The descendants of these different nations possessed that 
 part of Italy until the fall of the Roman empire in the west, 
 about the end of the fifth century, when the Heruli, under 
 the conduct of Odoacer, quitted the banks of the Danube, 
 settled on both sides of the Po, and made Ravenna the 
 capital of their territory. Six years after their conquest, 
 they were subdued by the Ostrogoths, whose power was 
 shaken by the glorious efforts of Belisarius, and overthrown 
 by the eunuch Narses in the year 553. 
 
 Italy restored to the emperors of the East, was not long 
 secure against foreign invasions. The Longobardi c quitted 
 the forests of Germany, and founded in 567 d a powerful 
 kingdom in the great valley of the Po, which in time was 
 styled Lombardy. But the bishops of Rome anticipating 
 their power, observed, not without fear and jealousy, the ag- 
 grandizement of these barbarians who threatened to destroy 
 or possess the ancient capital of the world. Stephen the 
 Second implored the assistance of France ; Pepin took from 
 the Longobardi the exarchate of Ravenna, and made the 
 pope sovereign over it. Their kingdom was afterwards de- 
 stroyed by Charlemagne, who confined Didier,® their last 
 king, in a convent. Although Lombardy continued witn- 
 
 *■ Lib. III. cap. 7. b The modern Bergamo. 
 
 ’ Lombards. d Chronological tables by John Blair. 
 
 out a sovereign, its laws were retained, and after the death 
 of Charlemagne, the country was divided into several prin- 
 cipalities subject to the western empire. But the spirit of 
 independence was diffused over that portion of Italy ; the 
 emperors of Germany granted to some towns, the right of 
 choosing their magistrates. The citizens had preserved, in 
 accordance with the genius of Christianity, the right of 
 electing their bishops, and this custom led men to conclude 
 that all power emanated from the people. 
 
 These and other republican forms determined the inha- 
 bitants of the larger towns to demand charters and more 
 important privileges. All the cities in Lombardy during 
 the twelfth century not only elected their magistrates, but 
 deliberated on their local interests, and on questions of peace 
 and war. f F rederick Barbarossa was the first emperor, who, 
 violating the charters and treaties of his predecessors, at- 
 tempted to establish absolute power in Italy. Milan was the 
 most important town in Lombardy ; besieged by that prince, 
 and reduced to extremity by famine, it consented at last to 
 capitulate, but on conditions which the conqueror disre- 
 garded ; within a few days after its surrender, Milan was 
 changed into a heap of ruins. s If the emperor protected 
 the rivals of that large city, he entirely destroyed their free- 
 dom, and the magistrates elected by the citizens were suc- 
 ceeded by the podestas whom Frederick appointed. The 
 peace which succeeded the noise and confusion of war, was 
 only the stillness of fear. Liberty, although subdued, was 
 not destroyed ; the people, unaccustomed to oppression, 
 bore it reluctantly ; a secret league conspired to restore 
 their privileges. The towns formed for that purpose a 
 confederation, while Frederick, emboldened by success, 
 marched against Rome, with a view either to humble the 
 Pope, or to unite his possessions to the empire. But on 
 that occasion at least, the thunders of the Vatican were fa- 
 vourable to the independence of nations. The Romans, 
 animated by the just resentment of their bishop, resisted 
 with courage ; heaven seemed to favour their efforts, for 
 the plague cut off great numbers in the imperial army. The 
 emperor made new attempts against Lombardy, but de- 
 nounced and excommunicated, he became the object of 
 hatred and contempt. The confederate towns gave him 
 battle, when his troops were routed and cut to pieces, and 
 Frederick himself saved his life by means of a disguise ; at 
 last, abandoned by fortune, he acknowledged the indepen- 
 dence of the Lombard republics. 
 
 Divisions in opinion are not the least evils in political re- 
 volutions ; by such causes the inhabitants of the same na- 
 tion, nay, the citizens of the same town, are often changed 
 
 e Desiderius. f Muratori, Annals of Italv. 
 
 s In six days, tne city of Milan was completely demolished. (Ed. Encyc.) 
 
BOOK CXXXII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 91 
 
 into irreconcileable enemies. While Barbarossa continued 
 fortunate and victorious, he was surrounded by ambitious 
 tlatterers, ever ready to pay their court to the powerful. 
 The same persons adhered to his successor, after the death 
 of Frederick, and, as in the former struggle, the court of 
 Rome had powerfully contgbuted by its excommunications 
 to the success of the people against the empire, Lombardy 
 was then divided into two dominant factions. The parti- 
 sans of the Pope took the name of Guelphs, while those of 
 the emperor were called Ghibelines . a In their contests, 
 both parties were at different times victorious, but the 
 Guelphs more frequently than the Ghibelines. 
 
 The freedom and independence gained by the Lombard 
 towns, tended to promote civilization and the arts, and the 
 diffusion of wealth and commerce. Some notion may 
 be formed of their resources, from the account given of 
 Milan by a cotemporary writer 1 in the thirteenth century. 
 It contained among its two hundred thousand inhabitants, 
 six hundred lawyers, 0 two hundred physicians, eighty teach- 
 ers and fifty copyists of manuscripts. Its well paved streets 
 and well built houses, its stone bridges, its public monu- 
 ments, and its palaces, gave it an appearance wholly differ- 
 ent from that of the towns in the north and west of Europe. 
 Its territory, which included Lodi, Pavia, Bergamo and 
 Como, besides a hundred and fifty villages and as many 
 castles, maintained a body of eight thousand knights or 
 gentlemen, and could put two hundred and forty thousand 
 men* * under arms. 
 
 But civil dissensions, the sources of ambition and corrup- 
 tion, proved fatal to the patriotism of the inhabitants, and to 
 their independence. These towns, so determined in de- 
 fending their privileges against the emperors, chose magis- 
 trates whose power became hereditary, and soon degenera- 
 ted into tyranny. In the fourteenth century, Central Lom- 
 bardy was the inheritance of the Visconti, while Verona 
 was governed by the family of La Scala, Padua by that of 
 Carrara, and Mantua by that of Gonzaga. Milan and its 
 territory were erected into a dutchy, and conferred on one 
 of the Visconti, by the emperor Wenceslaus, in the year 
 1395. The same principality passed, by right of marriage, 
 to the natural son d of the celebrated James Sforza, who, 
 from the condition of a labourer, rose by his talents and 
 courage to the dignity of constable. When that family be- 
 came extinct, Charles the Fifth made himself master of the 
 Milanese, which continued in the possession of Spain until 
 the year 1700, when on the death of the last duke, the 
 house of Austria succeeded to his territory, and ceded some 
 portion of it to Savoy. 
 
 The descendants of the Veneti, in order to escape from 
 the barbarous hordes of Alaric, who invaded Italy in the 
 beginning of the fifth century, sought shelter in the small 
 islands at the mouth of the Brenta. They founded there 
 two small towns, Rivoalto® and Malamocco. So early as 
 the year 697, the magistrates of these populous islands, 
 anxious to secure their independence, and to form a distinct 
 people, obtained from the emperor Leontius, the privilege of 
 electing a chief, on whom they conferred the title of Doge 
 or Duke. Pepin, king of Italy, granted to the rising state 
 
 1 The Guelphs derived their name from an illustrious Bavarian family, 
 allied by marriage with the house of Este. The Ghibelines were so called 
 from a village in F ranconia, the birthplace of Conrad the Salic, from 
 whom the house of Suabia was descended. See Hallam’s Middle A<res ; 
 Gibbon’s Antiquities of the house of Brunswick. 
 
 b Galvaneus Flamma. 
 
 • “ Notaries ” 
 
 certain lands along the coast on both sides of the Adige. 
 Rivoalto was united to tke neighbouring islands, and be- 
 came a new town to which the inhabitants gave tbe name 
 of Venetian. In the ninth century, the republic became im 
 portant from its commerce and maritime power ; in the 
 twelfth it equipped fleets for the crusades. It was princi- 
 pally owing to the efforts of the Venetians that Constanti- 
 nople was taken in 1202 ; a part of that city and its terri- 
 tory f was in consequence added to their dominions; the doges, 
 who had already assumed the' title of dukes of Dalmatia, 
 were then styled dukes of three eighths of the Roman em- 
 pire. 5 Candia, the Ionian islands, the most of those in the 
 Archipelago, and other important stations, besides factories 
 at Acre and Alexandria, served to extend tbe power and 
 the commerce of Venice. 
 
 The Venetian government consisted at first of councillors 
 named by the people, who shared with the doge the legis- 
 lative authority. The latter magistrate possessed originally 
 great prerogatives, but they were gradually restricted lest 
 the dignity should become hereditary. A numerous repre- 
 sentative council was instituted ; it was chosen by twelve 
 electors whom the people appointed ; but in time the mem- 
 bers that formed it, arrogated the right of naming the twelve 
 electors, and of approving or rejecting their successors be- 
 fore they resigned their functions. The frequent election 
 of the same members resulted as a necessary consequence 
 from this confusion of powers, and a dignity which was in- 
 tended to be the reward of virtuous citizens, became the 
 exclusive portion of certain families. When these innova- 
 tions on the primitive form of government were established, 
 a senate was instituted, on which was conferred the right 
 of making peace or war ; but the senators, as well as the 
 councillors of the doge, were elected every year by the 
 grand council. The discontent and revolts in the fourteenth 
 century, occasioned by a system that annihilated the funda- 
 mental principles of a republican government, led to the 
 formation of the celebrated Covncil of Ten, and in their in- 
 fernal police were organized the insidious spy, the hired 
 informer and the base assassin. 
 
 - Such was the state of the dutchy of Milan, and the Ve- 
 netian republic, when in 1796, and again after the victory 
 of Marengo, their territories united with that of Modena 
 and a portion of the States of the Church, formed the Cis- 
 alpine republic, afterwards denominated the Italian republic 
 until the year 1805, when it was changed into the kingdom 
 of Italy. The ancient name of Lombardy had been long 
 forgotten, when, by the negotiations at Vienna, Austria hav- 
 ing obtained possession of Milan, Mantua, Venice and the 
 Valteline, united their territories, and formed the Lombardo- 
 Venetian kingdom. 
 
 This kingdom is bounded on the north by Switzerland 
 and Tyrol, on the west and the south by the Sardinian pos- 
 sessions, the dutchies of Parma and Modena, and the States 
 of the Church, and on the east by the Adriatic Gulf and 
 the kingdom of Illyria. It is equal in superficial extent to 
 about two thousand three hundred and sixty-eight square 
 leagues.* 1 Lake Maggiore, the Tesino and the greater part 
 of the Po are its natural limits. 
 
 d Francis Sforza, who had mifcried the daughter of Philip Visconti, 
 duke of Milan. e Rialto. f Three eighths. Hallam, 1 c. infra. 
 
 e Hallam’s Middle Ages, vol. i. p. 472. [The doge took the singular 
 but accurate title, Duke of three eighths of the Roman empire. Hallam, 
 vol. II. p. 153, Philad. 1821. J 
 
 h M. Thielen considers it equal to 851.94 German square miles. [18,290 
 Eng. sq. miles. Morse.] 
 
92 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXII. 
 
 Winter lasts generally about two months ; the fields are 
 clothed with verdure in February, and the heat of summer 
 is felt in May. The grain and the ordinary kinds of fruit 
 are ripe in June or July, and the vintage takes place in 
 October. The air is salubrious in most parts of the king- 
 dom, hut the rice fields occasion in some places putrid 
 miasms ; the environs of Mantua and Rovigo are exposed 
 to unwholesome exhalations, and the lagoons are dangerous 
 to strangers. 
 
 The valley of the Po, which in the time of Polybius was 
 a marshy country shaded by forests, the haunt of wild 
 boars, does not at present furnish a sufficient quantity of 
 wood for its inhabitants. The treasures of Ceres and Po- 
 mona have succeeded to the peaceful retreats of the hama- 
 dryads. Extensive meadows watered by the streams that 
 descend from the Alps, yield six crops of hay in the same 
 year. The horned cattle are not inferior to any in Eu- 
 rope ; the peasants devote much attention to them ; cheese 
 and the produce of the dairy are their principal wealth. 
 
 Some customs of past times still exist in the Milanese ; 
 heavy wagons with low and massive wheels, drawn by 
 several pairs of oxen, the tips of their long horns covered 
 with iron balls, and their heads adorned with ribbons and 
 garlands, the country women with their hair folded in 
 tresses and fastened together by a silver bodkin, the shep- 
 herds carrying instead of a crook, a staff in the form of a 
 crosier, and with a mantle hanging from their left shoulder, 
 and the arched heads of the sheep, their pendant ears and 
 light forms, similar to many ancient basso-relievos, an- 
 nounce Italy and its classic associations. These and other 
 characters which the stranger observes on his arrival, form 
 a striking contrast with the wretchedness of the peasantry, 
 but he becomes habituated to other contrasts, still more 
 painful, for Italy is the country of luxury and poverty. 
 
 The bee and the silk-worm are reared with great suc- 
 cess in Lombardy ; an enormous quantity of wax is con- 
 sumed in the churches, and the manufacturing of silk is 
 among the few branches of industry, in which the people 
 are not inferior to their neighbours. However, cotton 
 spinning, and cloth and linen manufactures, are not with- 
 out activity, and it has been estimated that the mean pro- 
 duct of the exports amounts to about £ 3,542,000. Com- 
 mercial communications are facilitated by excellent roads, 
 rivers and canals. 
 
 The Lombardo-Venetian kingdom has been declared an 
 integral part of the Austrian empire. As the' country was 
 long governed by French laws, absolute power has been 
 mitigated by the constitution of 1815. The forms of na- 
 tional representation have been established, but the mem- 
 bers that compose it, have only the right of deliberating on 
 certain questions, which the government proposes. The 
 emperor is represented by a viceroy, and the kingdom is 
 divided into two governments, those of Milan and Venice. 
 The first is subdivided into nine districts or delegations, and 
 the second into eight. 
 
 Milan, the capital of the kingdom, and the residence of 
 the viceroy, is situated in a vast plain on the banks of the 
 Olona. If its old ramparts and new walks be included, it 
 will be equal in circumference to ten thousand yards, but 
 
 ^ 
 
 * “ 5000 and 3000 tenses.” — Milan is about eight iniles in circuit. (Ed. 
 Encyc.) b “ 1500 toises.” 
 
 e “ La voute,” the vault of the dome. 
 
 d These are the measures of the original. Length 400 feet, breadth 
 80S; height within under the principal dome, 258 feet. (Ed. Encyc.) 
 
 the part which is inhabited does not exceed six thousand. 1 
 Eleven gates lead to different parts of the country, and the 
 greatest length of Milan, or the space between the eastern 
 and Tesino gates, is about three thousand yards. b The 
 number of houses is not less than four thousand eight hun- 
 dred, and the population amounts to a hundred and forty 
 thousand inhabitants. If the streets in Milan were more 
 generally broad and straight, it would merit the title of the 
 Magnificent. It has been justly remarked, that mean look- 
 ing houses are as rare as palaces in other towns. The most 
 spacious streets are called corsi, both because they serve the 
 purpose of public walks, and because they are the places 
 where race horses run. The squares or courts are almost 
 all irregular and without ornament ; that of the Duomo or 
 cathedral is long and narrow. 
 
 The cathedral itself, one of the most remarkable in Eu- 
 rope, was begun in the year 13S6, by duke John Galeazzo 
 Visconti ; but a long time may elapse before it be finished. 
 If little was done towards completing the cathedral, with 
 the two millions of francs which Napoleon granted for 
 that purpose, it is not likely that much can be effected in 
 a short period with the hundred and forty-four thousand 
 francs paid annually by Austria. The building is about 
 four hundred and fifty-four feet in length and two hundred 
 and seventy in breadth, and the arched roof 0 is two hun- 
 dred and thirty-two feet in height. 6 The top of the high- 
 est turret is not less than three hundred and thirty-five feet 
 above the ground.® Few Gothic buildings are so much 
 loaded with ornaments ; white marble statues appear in 
 every niche, at every angle, on every turret, and round 
 every spire ; their total number has been estimated at more 
 than four thousand, but many of them are so concealed as 
 to be only seen by the birds which perch on them. Fifty- 
 two marble pillars, each eighty-four feet in height and 
 twenty-four in circumference, support the vast edifice. In 
 a subterranean chapel, below the cathedral, are deposited, 
 in a silver shrine, the remains of St. Charles Borromeo. 
 
 The church of St. Ambrose f contains the tombs of seve- 
 ral saints, 5 and also of Bernard, king of Italy, and his wife 
 Bertha. It was in the same church that the emperors of 
 Germany received the iron crown. The ancient convent 
 of the Dominicans is celebrated for the famous painting of 
 Leonardo da Vinci, representing the Last Supper, not a 
 fresco but an oil painting on the wall of the refectory, and 
 occupying a whole side of that low hall, in other words, 
 about thirty feet in length by fifteen in height. ' But it has 
 been so much disfigured by time, smoke, and damp, that it 
 is to be feared no trace of it will be discernible in a short 
 period. It could hardly be believed that the municipal au- 
 thorities at Milan, had changed the refectory into a watch- 
 house, nay, even into a prison, where French soldiers 
 guarded their prisoners of war. If the authorities were so 
 regardless of a painting which had been the greatest orna- 
 ment in their city for more than three hundred years, 1 ’ it is 
 not wonderful that French soldiers used it as a target. “ As 
 to those by whom the mischief was done,” says Simond, 
 “ an old woman who had lived near the refectory for the 
 last seventeen years informed me, that she had heard of 
 soldiers firing at the picture before she resided there, that a 
 
 e The principal tower is 400 feet high. 
 f Erected in the 9th century. 
 s “ The tomb of St. Benedict.” 
 h Painted in 1497. 
 
book cxxxii.] DESCRIPTI01 
 
 soldier of the sixth French hussars told her, he himself with 
 others had done so, not knowing what it was, when guard- 
 ing prisoners confined in the hall, and that these prisoners, 
 men of all nations, threw stones and brickbats against it by 
 way of amusement. When Buonaparte came to Milan 
 he went to see the picture, and finding the hall still used 
 as a place of confinement, he shrugged his shoulders and 
 stamped with his foot, said the woman, and ordering the 
 prisoners away, a door was walled up, and a ballustrade or 
 wooden partition was drawn across the room before it.” a 
 The church of St. Alexander is remarkable for its fine 
 portal ; that of San Vittore is so much overloaded with gilt 
 ornaments that it resembles rather a gaudy play-house than 
 a temple intended for devotion. 
 
 Several authors b have exhausted their etymological inge- 
 nuity in discovering the origin of JWediolanum , the ancient 
 name of the town. It was not so called from two Tuscan 
 warriors, nor from its position between two livers, nor from 
 a pig c half covered with wool ( medio lana ,) which was seen 
 by Bellovesus at the place where he founded the city, for it 
 is certain that other towns inhabited by the Gauls, bore the 
 sa me name. Several antiquities prove that Milan was in its 
 splendour while the Roman empire flourished. Sixteen 
 marble columns may still be seen near the church of San 
 Lorenzo ; they are supposed to be the remains of the baths 
 built by Maximian Hercules, the associate of Diocletian in 
 the empire. 
 
 The principal public buildings in Milan are the archiepis- 
 copal palace, adorned with fine paintings, the royal palace, 
 that of the regency, the Marini palace, now occupied by the 
 minister of finance, the palace or court of justice, and the 
 mint, a building in point of architecture unworthy of Mi- 
 lan, but remarkable for its fine collection of medals and 
 Italian coins. The barracks which were built at Milan by 
 Eugene Beauharnois, when viceroy of Italy, are admit- 
 ted to be the finest in Europe. Twelve or fourteen pa- 
 laces of elegant architecture, and richly decorated, belong 
 to different individuals, and evince the opulence of some 
 Milanese families. 
 
 The two most frequented of the four or five theatres in 
 Milan, are the opera, and the theatre of Girolamo. The 
 first or the Scala, so called because it occupies the site of 
 an ancient church of the same name, is a very large build- 
 ing. The six rows of boxes give it an imposing appear- 
 ance ; but small rooms are attached to them ; the specta- 
 tors seldom listen to the music ; conversation and gam- 
 bling are considered more attractive ; indeed it is often im- 
 possible to hear the performance from the noise that prevails 
 in every part of the house. A reading room is open in the 
 Scala from mid-day to the evening, and in the evening, 
 numbers repair to different gaming tables. Thus, the pur- 
 pose of the Scala has been perverted, and it might be bet- 
 ter that it were closed, than that the young should come in 
 contact with gamesters and the profligate persons who fre- 
 quent it. 
 
 The Girolamo is considered the best theatre of puppets 
 or marionets in Italy. The precision and vivacity in the 
 
 V OF ITALY. 93 
 
 motions of the actors produce a complete illusion. The 
 origin of these small wooden figures can only be discovered 
 in vague traditions of a very ancient period. An intrepid 
 French traveller 11 has recently brought from Egypt small 
 wooden figures, moveable by springs, and not inferior to 
 those of Nuremberg. It appears that the Egyptians in- 
 terred these playthings with their children, a custom which 
 existed at Rome after the introduction of Christianity. In 
 ancient times, a young woman before her marriage, sacri- 
 ficed to Venus the doll that had been given to her in child- 
 hood. 6 Ancient authors make mention of small moveable 
 figures, that attracted crowds in the streets ; f but as Millin 
 observes, the moderns were the first who substituted puppets 
 for actors in their theatres. The person that contributed 
 most to improve and perfect these exhibitions was Philip 
 Acciajuoli, a knight of Malta. Tragedies, operas, comedies 
 and ballets are represented in the Girolamo. Crowds of 
 all classes resort to them ; the humble shop-keeper, the 
 wealthy banker and the haughty noble are equally delight- 
 ed with the humourous tricks ( lazzi ) of Girolamo, a burlesque 
 personage corresponding to the Polichinello of Naples, the 
 Jlrlequino of Venice, and the Gianduja of Turin. 
 
 The immense esplanade that encompasses the remains 
 of the ancient castle of Milan, was little better than an 
 unwholesome marsh which the French transformed into an 
 agreeable walk, shaded by more than ten thousand trees ; 
 it was then known by the name of Foro Buonaparte , g A 
 triumphal arch adorned with basso-relievos in white marble, 
 was erected during the French government 11 at the end of 
 the road that leads across the Simplon. At no great dis- 
 tance from the triumphal arch, stands the circus, also a 
 monument of the reign of Napoleon, and one from its size 
 not unlike the monuments of the Romans. The seats 
 which are raised above each other might contain thirty 
 thousand spectators, and the arena is set apart for races 
 and public games. The Corso near the eastern gate is 
 lined with fine houses, 1 and the rows of trees that extend 
 between the same gate and the Roman gate, are often 
 crowded with fashionable equipages ; it is here that the 
 Milanese display their address in driving their light phae- 
 tons. 
 
 Our limits prevent us from describing the Ambrosian 
 library, founded by a cardinal Borromeo, 11 and that of 
 Brera in the royal palace of the sciences and aits, 1 an ele- 
 gant building to which are attached a fine observatory and 
 a botanical garden containing many exotic plants. The 
 same reason prevents us from mentioning the numerous 
 hospitals and charitable institutions ; but it may be re- 
 marked that the application of Jenner’s happy discovery, to 
 whom the ancients would have erected temples, is more 
 diffused in the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom than in the 
 rest of Italy. If few ravages are now made by the small- 
 pox in Milan, it is owing to the vigilance of government, 
 and to the enlightened zeal of the clergy. Sworn vaccina- 
 tors are always ready to impede its effects ; the managers 
 of hospitals and other charities grant no assistance to chil- 
 dren unless their parents be furnished with certificates of 
 
 1 Simond’s Travels in Italy, p. 12. 
 
 b Alciati, Hist. Mediolan. — Isidore, Origines. — Sidonius Apollinaris, 
 1. vii. c. 17, &c. c “ Truie.” 
 
 * M. Cailliaud, who visited Meroe and the White River. 
 e Persius, Satire ii. 
 
 f Horace, Lib. i. sat. 2. Lib. ii. sat. 7. Aulus Gellius, Lib. xiv. cap. 1. 
 6 The Forum of Napoleon ( Foro Buonaparte ) forms part of the Cam- 
 pus Marti us, an extensive open plain on the north side of the city, three or 
 
 • 
 
 four miles in circumference. On the north side of the Campus Martius, 
 stands the arch of the Simplon, and on the eastern side the great Amphi- 
 theatre or Circus. — P. 
 
 h Commenced during the French government — not completed at least 
 in 1826. — P. 1 Palaces. 
 
 k Nephew of Cardinal Charles Borromeo. 
 
 1 The college of Brera, formerly belonging to the Jesuits ; called by tho 
 French the Palace of the Sciences. (Ed. Encyc.) 
 
94 EUROPE. [book cxxxn. 
 
 vaccination. Every three months, the country curates 
 read from the pulpit, the names of the individuals, if there 
 be any, who have died of the small-pox. They remind 
 their parishioners of the duty they owe to their country, 
 which commands them not to neglect the means of securi- 
 ty.* * If an individual be seized with the small-pox, and if 
 his physician or one of his relations does not declare it, they 
 are liable to a penalty of a hundred francs. The authori- 
 ties fix an inscription in large characters on his house, and 
 contagion is thus prevented. The members of the family 
 who may have approached the invalid are not permitted to 
 communicate with others, before he be cured ; and if he 
 dies, the body is interred without the usual ceremonies. 
 
 Milan has always held a distinguished rank in literature 
 and in the arts. Virgil studied, and Valerius Maximus was 
 born in the town. It has produced in modern times, Oc- 
 tavio Ferrari, the antiquary, Cardan, the mathematician, 
 and Beccaria, the celebrated jurist. The same town car- 
 ries on a considerable trade, and possesses many manufac- 
 tories. 
 
 Monza, at some leagues to the north of Milan, is adorned 
 with a fine palace and a cathedral, the last of which possesses 
 a richer treasury than any other in the kingdom. One may 
 see there the famous iron crown of which the date and ori- 
 gin are unknown. The population of the same town 
 amounts hardly to six thousand persons. It existed in the 
 time of the Romans, and was then called JModilia or Mo- 
 dowtia. Its agreeable position on the banks of the Lam- 
 bro, made Theodoric, king of the Goths, choose it for a 
 residence. 
 
 Pavia rises on the banks of the Tesino, on the south- 
 ern frontier of the kingdom ; it was formerly called 77’- 
 cinum from the name of the river. b It was a place of some 
 importance under the emperors, and according to Pliny r , c 
 it was more ancient than Milan. Tacitus also mentions it ; d 
 indeed few towns in Italy are so pleasantly situated. The 
 Lombards chose it for their capital, but antiquaries are una- 
 ble to explain the origin of its name. It was laid waste by 
 Marshal Lautrec, who, by a new species of barbarism, 
 sought to avenge the defeat of Francis the First. Pa- 
 via is surrounded with massive walls, half ruined towers, 
 bastions and ditches ; the number of inhabitants exceeds 
 twenty-two thousand. 0 The streets are broad, and the 
 great square is encompassed with porticos. The finely 
 built cathedral indicates the period of the regeneration 
 of art. A long piece of wood, not unlike the old mast of a 
 boat, is preserved with great care in the cathedral, and 
 shown to strangers, as the lance of Orlando. Of the 
 other eighteen churches, St. Peter’s is most worthy of 
 notice for its Lomb ird architecture ; the people pretend 
 that the ashes of St. Augustin rest in its vaults. The 
 town possesses a theatre and several fine buildings; its 
 university dates from the time of Charlemagne. 
 
 Lodi possesses a fine square encompassed with arcades, 
 eight suburbs, eighteen thousand inhabitants, an old citadel, 
 now useless, lofty walls, twenty churches, a large hospital, 
 a theatre, several palaces belonging to different individuals, 
 porcelain works, silk manufactories, and, lastly, a conside- 
 rable trade in cheese, which is called Parmesan. It is 
 situated on the banks of the Adda, and is celebrated on 
 
 11 Voyage n Italie en 1320, par Ip doeteur Valpntin. 
 
 6 Name of the river, 'Picinus ; of the town, 'Picinum or Papia. 
 ' L. XVII. c. 4. 
 
 * 4nnal. L. 111. Hist. L. II. 
 
 account of the victory gained by the French on the 10th 
 of May 1796. 
 
 Como is about eight leagues to the north of Milan ; it 
 rises on the southern extremity of a lake to which it gives 
 its name. It could hardly be inferred from its narrow and 
 tortuous streets that it was a royal town ; it claims, how- 
 ever, a greater honour, that of having been the birthplace 
 of Pliny the younger. Although the architecture of the 
 marble cathedral is partly Gothic and partly modern, it is 
 the only building worthy of notice in the town. The lake 
 of Como is the Larius of the ancients. Beyond the roman- 
 tic banks of the lake, the picturesque valley of the Adda, 
 or the Valteline, extends along the base of the Alps. That 
 valley, once a part of Switzerland, and afterwards of 
 France, has been united under the Austrian empire to the 
 Lombardo-Venetian kingdom. Sondrio, the chief town, 
 does not contain more than three thousand five hundred 
 inhabitants. 
 
 Beyond the chain which bounds the valley on the south, 
 and between two small rivers, the Brembo and the Serio, 
 is situated Bergamo, a royal town, the Bergomum of the 
 Romans. It was pillaged and destroyed by A ttila, rebuilt 
 by the Lombards, and made a free town by the successors 
 of Charlemagne. While Venice was in its splendour, Ber- 
 gamo was added to the territory of the republic. It carries 
 on a considerable trade in iron and in silk ; the inhabitants 
 are industrious and comparatively affluent. 
 
 The ancient town of Cremona is situated in a beautiful 
 plain, and is encompassed with ditches, walls and bastions, 
 and commanded by the citadel of Santa Croce ; it is wa- 
 tered by the Po, and by a canal which extends from that 
 river, and communicates with the Oglio. It was founded 
 by the Cenomani a Celtic people who called it Cremon, 
 from which its present name has been derived. Faithful to 
 the cause of Brutus, its territory was divided among the 
 soldiers of Augustus. It was sacked by the troops of Ves- 
 pasian, and afterwards pillaged by the Goths in the year 
 630. It experienced the same treatment from the emperor 
 Barbarossa. Marshal Villeroy was taken prisoner at Cre- 
 mona by the Austrians in 1702 ; and in 1799 the latter 
 gained some advantage over the French, under its walls. 
 The town holds a great reputation in Italy and in most 
 parts of Europe for its musical instruments, particularly its 
 violins. It occupies a considerable extent of ground, not 
 less than two leagues in circumference ; f its population 
 amounts to twenty-three thousand five hundred inhabitants. 
 The streets are broad, straight and well built ; the palaces 
 are large, but they are all Gothic buildings. The Duomo 
 or cathedral, the most remarkable of its forty-five churches, 
 is surmounted by a tower which rises to the height of three 
 hundred and seventy-two feet, and is supposed to be higher 
 than any other in Italy. As Cremona is long and narrow, 
 it has been compared to a vessel, of which the tower is the 
 mast. g 
 
 Brescia, at ten leagues to the north of Cremona, is also 
 surrounded with ramparts and ditches ; most of its streets 
 are broad and regular, and it contains thirty-two thousand 
 inhabitants. The palace of justice is worthy of notice for 
 its mixture of Gothic and modern architecture ; the interior 
 is adorned with fresco paintings. The episcopal palace is 
 
 * Population, 22,000, M. B. 23,237, Morse. 25,000, Ed. Encyc 
 
 f Circumference about five miles. (Ed. Encyc.) 
 
 s Millin, Voyage dans le Milanais, tome ii. 
 
BOOK CXXXII.j 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 95 
 
 a magnificent building ; the theatre, which has been lately 
 finished, is remarkable for its elegant peristyle, and the ca- 
 thedral lor its bold arches, and its paintings, statues and 
 rich altars. The town possesses an extensive commerce, 
 and its fire arms are considered the best in Italy. 
 
 Mantua, says Millin, recals many associations ; it was the 
 birthplace of Virgil, and it is connected with the glory and 
 liberality of the Gonzagas. Enclosed by immense marshes, 
 formed by the inundations of the Mincio, it has the appear- 
 ance of an impregnable town ; but these marshes are un- 
 wholesome, and occasion dangerous diseases, neither do 
 they form an impassable barrier, for Mantua has been more 
 than once taken ; many consider it, however, one of the 
 strongest towns in Italy, a and it is believed to have been 
 built by the Etruscans three centuries before the foundation 
 of Rome. b It contained fifty thousand inhabitants at the 
 close of the seventeenth century, but its present population 
 amounts hardly to half the number . 0 The streets are broad, 
 and most of them straight ; the squares are large and regu- 
 lar ; the fortifications are kept in good repair. The town 
 boasts of having given birth to Virgil, and the inhabitants 
 take care to remind strangers of that circumstance ; his 
 oust is seen on one of the eight gates, and a monument in 
 honour of the poet rises in the principal square — the Piazza 
 di Virgilio . * 4 * * * 8 * The cathedral was built after the designs of 
 Julio Romano, but asglpiece of architecture, it cannot be 
 compared with the palace of Te, a very fine building, so 
 called from its resemblance to the letter T. The ashes of 
 Tasso, the modern Virgil, rest in the church of St. Egida. 
 The Austrian government has been at considerable expense 
 in rendering Mantua more salubrious, by draining part of 
 its marshes, and by constructing new fortifications and de- 
 molishing the old, by which a passage has been opened for 
 the stagnant waters. Although silk, cloth and leather are 
 made in the town, its commerce is only carried on through 
 the medium of the Jews. 
 
 All the towns that have been as yet described, belong to 
 the government of Milan ; before we give any account of 
 those under the government of Venice, some remarks may 
 be made on the insalubrity of certain districts in Upper 
 Italy. We have already had occasion to allude to the 
 poverty and wretchedness of the inhabitants in some of the 
 Milanese villages. At the base of the mountains, which 
 form the northern limits of the country, the villagers are 
 exposed to a disease which has been termed pellagra , and 
 which, according to physicians, was unknown a century 
 ago. It is a cutaneous affection, and the external charac- 
 ters are. brown or blackish spots, that appear on every part 
 of the body except the face. Those that are afflicted with 
 it, says Dr. Valentin,® are emaciated, weak and melancholy, 
 oppressed by hypochondria, and tormented with pains that 
 extend along the vertebral column. In some cases the 
 same disease is accompanied with alarming symptoms of 
 delirium. The pellagra is often fatal, and in many instan- 
 ces it has excited its victims to commit suicide ; it breaks 
 out in the spring, increases with the heat of summer, and 
 terminates at the approach of winter. The cause of the 
 disease has not yet been ascertained, but it may probably 
 be attributed to a scanty and unwholesome diet ; at all 
 
 a “ This city is the strongest place in Italy.” — M. B. 
 
 b Rudolph Von Jenny. c 23,310. Stat. Tab. p. 816. 
 
 d Piazza Virgiliana. 
 
 • Voyage en Italic, par le docteur Valentin. 
 
 { Simond’s Travels in Italy. 
 
 8 Simond’s Travels in Italy. 
 
 events it is very uncommon in the government of Venice, a 
 country, in point of climate, much more unhealthy than the 
 Milanese. The effects of the climate begin to be apparent 
 near the banks of the Adige, and according to some state- 
 ments, the neighbourhood of Peschiera, near the lake of 
 Garda, is so dangerous to strangers, that French regiments 
 used to decide by lot, which of them should form the garri- 
 son of the town/ The story, it may be admitted, does not 
 appear very probable, as it is not customary for soldiers to 
 choose the place of their garrison. Travellers affirm that 
 the territory of Verona is equally unhealthy ; it is certain 
 that the ravages of poverty and disease are but too appa- 
 rent in the town of Rovigo. 
 
 The old walls of Verona are commanded on the north 
 by hills covered with vineyards and country houses. The 
 Adige divides it into two equal parts ; it is about four leagues 
 in circumference, and the population is equal to sixty thou- 
 sand inhabitants. Different opinions are entertained con- 
 cerning its origin, but it is known that it was an important 
 place in the time of Strabo. The fine gates that adorn it, 
 are worthy of a great city, but the interior corresponds ill 
 with the entrance ; for although some of the streets are 
 spacious and well paved, the greater number are small and 
 narrow. The townhouse contains several good paintings 
 of the Venetian school, and the museum a valuable collec- 
 tion of antiquities. The venerable remains of its ancient 
 splendour may be still seen near these modern collections ; 
 the amphitheatre, the most remarkable of any, and still in 
 a good state of preservation, rises at no great distance from 
 them. It is difficult to observe its ancient monuments with 
 out recollecting that Verona was the birthplace of the elder 
 Plinyand Cornelius Nepos. Those who admire the paint- 
 ings in its churches, will soon be reminded that the modern 
 Verona was the native town of Paul Veronese. 
 
 The fruitfulness of the soil in the neighbourhood of Pa- 
 dua, Vicenza, Treviso, and Beluno, forms a remarkable con- 
 trast with the poverty of the inhabitants. Indolence and 
 want of education are the principal causes ; immorality and 
 every sort of vice, the fatal effects : it is not safe to travel 
 at night in Upper Italy ; although the robbers in that part 
 of the country are less formidable than at Tarracina or 
 Fondi, strangers are as liable to have iheir luggage and ef- 
 fects stolen. The remote villages are so many dens of 
 thieves ; those who travel from Verona to Venice, never 
 think of passing the night at any other place than Vicenza 
 or Padua. g The last mentioned town is of a triangular 
 form ; it occupies a space of more than three leagues in cir- 
 cumference , 11 and contains a population of forty-seven thou- 
 sand inhabitants. The antiquity of Padua is not doubtful ; 
 what is said concerning it by Livy , 1 who was born within its 
 walls, and the beautiful verses of Virgil, k who attributes its 
 foundation to Antenor, prove that it existed twelve centuries 
 before the Christian era. It was called Patavimn by the 
 ancients, and according to Strabo , 1 who extols its commerce 
 and its wealth, it could raise long before his time an army of 
 a hundred and twenty thousand men. The Greek geogra- 
 pher may be supposed to have exaggerated, or more proba- 
 bly, some error may have crept into his text, but different 
 Roman poets attest the prosperity and the wealth of Padua. m “ 
 
 h It is surrounded with a mound and ditch, which are between seven 
 and eight miles in circumference. (Ed. Encyc.) 
 
 1 Lib. X. c. ii. k iEneid, Lib. I. v. 242. 
 
 1 Lib. V. c. 2. 
 
 m “ The prosperous state of its manufactures, particularly of woollens.*' 
 n Martial. Epig. Lib. siv. — Juvenal. Sat. viii. 
 
96 EUROPE. [book txxxu. 
 
 It is at present adorned with several spacious squares and 
 many fine buildings, but most of the streets are narrow, dirty 
 and ill paved, and bordered with low and gloomy arcades. 
 At Padua, as in every other Italian town, there are many 
 paintings in the churches, and the paintings as well as the 
 churches are the works of great masters. The number of 
 the churches is not less than ninety-six, and it is said that the 
 church of St. Anthony contains the remains of its patron. 
 The ‘village of Arqua, at some leagues to the south-west of 
 Padua, a is not only remarkable for its picturesque site, but it 
 also contains the tomb of Petrarch, and the house inhabited 
 by the poet, in which part of his furniture has been pre- 
 served. 
 
 Vicenza, the ancient Vkentia, is peopled by thirty thou- 
 sand inhabitants, and encompassed with a double wall. 
 The streets are irregular, but in point of architecture and 
 fine buildings, it may be compared with any town in Upper 
 Italy. Few antiquities are contained within its walls ; some 
 ruins of a theatre, which is supposed to have been built by 
 Augustus, the remains of an imperial palace, and a statue 
 of Iphigenia, preserved by the Dominicans, are all that have 
 escaped the ravages of time, and the devastations of barba- 
 rians. Vicenza was the birthplace of the celebrated archi- 
 tect Palladio, who embellished his native city. 
 
 The streets of Treviso are not more regular than those 
 of Vicenza ; most of the squares are large and surrounded 
 with arcades ; the townhouse is a fine building, and the 
 cathedral possesses several valuable ornaments. The po- 
 pulation is equal to fifteen thousand souls. Although Bel- 
 limo is a royal town, 6 it contains only eight thousand inha- 
 bitants. Udina, another royal town, and the metropolis of 
 Friuli, is built on the canal of Roya. A large guardhouse, 
 one of the principal edifices, is adorned with marble statues 
 and columns. The Giardino , a fine public walk, shaded 
 with trees that were planted by the French, is situated in 
 front of the castle. 
 
 The lagoons (It. lagune ) extend along the coasts of the 
 Adriatic Gulf, and their stagnant waters diffuse an unwhole- 
 some atmosphere over the scattered habitations that sur- 
 sound them. The sickly and pallid faces of the inhabitants 
 are remarked by the strangers that visit the country. The 
 lagoons are soon confounded with the sea, and Venice is 
 seen rising from the ocean, the element of its former wealth 
 and power. Venice, one of the oldest and most singular 
 towns in Europe, stands on a hundred and fifty islands in 
 the midst of a vast marsh ; they are united by more than 
 three hundred bridges, and appear to form only a single 
 island. It is equal to nearly three leagues in circumference ; 
 a large canal divides it into two equal parts, and other ca- 
 nals lined with houses, form the streets, in which the mono- 
 tonous sound of oars may be heard instead of the noise of 
 carriages. The groups of houses that rise between the ca- 
 nals, are divided by narrow streets or lanes for foot passen- 
 gers. Venice, notwithstanding its position, is not subject 
 to the unwholesome influence of the marshes ; the continual 
 motion of the waves agitates and purifies the air. No springs 
 rise from the sandy soil ; some cisterns belonging to private 
 individuals, and a hundred and sixty public cisterns, furnish 
 water to its hundred and ten thousand inhabitants. The 
 lagoons and canals of Venice are its chief security ; ships 
 of war cannot attack it, and before the French expedition 
 which took place in 1797, it had never been entered by a 
 hostile army. 
 
 * 4 leagues S. W. of Padua, Yosgien. 
 
 The church of St. Mark, one of its principal edifices, is 
 by no means the. finest or largest in Venice, but it is the most 
 remarkable for its rich and costly ornaments ; it has been 
 said, and not without reason, that it resembles nothing else 
 in the world. The broad and low front is divided into five 
 arcades, not unlike the arches of a bridge, and the entrances 
 are formed by five gates of bronze. Above these arcades, 
 a gallery or balcony with a marble balustrade, stretches 
 across the whole front, and in the same gallery are placed 
 the four bronze horses, supposed to have been cast at Co- 
 rinth. They were removed to Athens; they served to adorn 
 the triumphal arches raised to Nero and Trajan at Rome ; 
 they accompanied Constantine to Byzantium, and were 
 transported from Constantinople to Venice in the thirteenth 
 century ; lastly, under the imperial government, they were 
 placed in the Carrousel at Paris, from whence they were 
 returned to their present position in 1815. The Parisians 
 deplored their loss, but the day of their arrival was a day of 
 joy to the Venetians ; one might almost have imagined that 
 they had recovered their independence with these monu- 
 ments of their ancient greatness ; yet a few days after- 
 wards, when the statue of Napoleon was overthrown, the 
 same people expressed their dissatisfaction. The church 
 of St. Mark is one of the earliest monuments of the middle 
 ages ; its foundation dates from the commencement of the 
 tenth century. The upper part oflSfhe building is covered 
 with pyramids, statues, spires and crosses ; the interior is 
 gloomy and loaded with columns, statues and gildings ; the 
 great altar, or that of St. Sophia, was brought from Con- 
 stantinople with the bronze horses. 
 
 The square of St. Mark, the finest in Venice, may bear 
 a comparison with any other in Europe. It is about eight 
 hundred feet long by three hundred and fifty broad ; but it 
 ought not to be judged by its dimensions ; when seen from 
 the sea, it has a magnificent appearance. Two columns 
 formed by two single blocks of granite, rise near the quay ; 
 they were brought from Constantinople, but they appear to 
 be of Egyptian workmanship ; one of them supports the 
 statue of St. Theodore, and the other, the winged lion of 
 St. Mark, which, during several years, was the ornament of 
 the Invalids at Paris. The massive architecture of the du- 
 cal palace on the right, has something of the Moorish style. 
 The royal palace, a modern edifice on the left, is adorned 
 with arcades and columns. These, together with the church 
 of St. Mark, the mint, the library and several fine buildings, 
 the works of the architect Sansovino, form the enclosure of 
 St. Mark’s, the scene of the Venetian festivals, and the place 
 where strangers and the idle citizens assemble. The finest 
 shops and the most frequented coffee-houses in Venice are 
 situated under the arcades of the same square. 
 
 The part nearest the quay is called the Piazzetla or little 
 square, and at no great distance, is the palace once des- 
 tined for the sovereign ; but little attention is paid to deco- 
 rum, for from its windows may be seen the place where 
 criminals are executed ; the instruments of death are 
 erected between two pillars near the street where buffoons 
 and puppets amuse the Venetians. The ancient residence 
 of the doge, or the ducal palace, where the state inquisitors 
 used to sit, and which, like the seraglio at Constantinople, 
 has been more than once stained with the heads of the vic- 
 tims, that were exposed on the outer balustrade, may prove 
 that an aristocracy armed with republican laws, can be as 
 sanguinary as a despotism armed with the Ottoman scimitar 
 
 b Chief town of a delegation. 
 
'/»' iff 
 
book cxxxii.] DESCRIPTIO 
 
 It requires a day to examine the interior of the edifice : 
 colossal statues are placed on the staircase ; the galleries 
 are adorned with the masterpieces of Titian, Tintoretto, 
 Paul Veronese, Corregio and Alberti ; and the library con- 
 sists of a hundred and fifty thousand volumes and a thou- 
 sand manuscripts. Not the least valuable ornaments are 
 several ancient statues of admirable workmanship. 
 
 Strangers admire the fine portal of St. Mary of Na- 
 zareth, the front of St. Jeremiah, which resembles a palace 
 rather than a church, the peristyle of St. Simon, and the 
 noble archithecture of St. Roche. Almost all the theatres 
 are called after some saint ; St. Luke’s is one of the largest ; 
 operas are acted in St. Benedict’s ; tragedies, comedies, 
 and other dramatic compositions in St. Angelo ; but the 
 finest theatre in Venice, or that of St. Felix, was finished in 
 1793. Protected by these venerable names, the actors 
 are not exposed to the same unjust prejudices which exist 
 in other catholic countries. 
 
 The arsenal, including the dock-yards of Venice, for- 
 merly the most celebrated and the largest in Europe, was 
 once filled with ships, materials for building, and all kinds 
 of arms ; the outer wall measures between two and three 
 miles* in circumference, and within these walls, during the 
 republic, two thousand five hundred workmen were con- 
 stantly employed ; stillness and repose have now succeeded 
 the noise and activity of commerce. Two white marble 
 lions placed at the entrance of the arsenal towards the 
 town, were also a conquest of the Venetians ; they were 
 transported from Athens. The port of Venice, although 
 at present the most considerable in the Austrian empire, 
 may in time be blocked up with the deposits of sand that 
 are every day accumulating. 
 
 One may judge of what Venice has been by the number 
 of its edifices and charitable institutions ; thirty-six Catho- 
 lic churches, two Greek churches, an Armenian church 
 and a Lutheran chapel, seven synagogues, a foundling hos- 
 pital, two lazarettos, and twenty-three hospitals, serve 
 to recal its past splendour, and render its decay more ap- 
 parent. 
 
 The artisans form at Venice several corporations, and 
 each corporation maintains a school ; the number of 
 corporations amounts to sixteen or eighteen, and some of 
 them meet in sumptuous buildings adorned with paintings 
 and statues. It might be inferred from such institutions 
 that the Venetians were better informed and more enlight- 
 ened than any other people. Such, however, is by no 
 means the case ; they can only be said to be less ignorant 
 than the other Italians. 
 
 The gondolier i are different from the other inhabitants ; 
 
 N OF ITALY. 97 
 
 they form a distinct population, and the cause may be at- 
 tributed to the fraternity or union which subsists amongst 
 them ; but they are no longer gay sailors singing Venetian 
 airs, or reciting the verses of T asso ; they have discovered 
 in their simplicity that they are without a country. All these 
 men can read and write, and the other workmen in the town 
 can do the same ; but the knowledge of the wealthier classes 
 is not much more extensive. 
 
 The public libraries are ill attended, and the others b are 
 made up of novels and romances, so that with the exception 
 of a few gifted persons, the rest are not better educated 
 than the lower orders in the town that gave birth to Alga- 
 rotti, Gasparo Gozzi, Goldoni, Fra Paolo, Bembo, and other 
 great men. The Venetians have no taste for literature ; 
 music, however, appears to be a favourite amusement. Ac- 
 cording to their own confession, the wealthy classes pass 
 their time in the following manner. “ People of fashion rise 
 at eleven or twelve o’clock, pay a few visits, and idle away 
 their time till three, when they dine ; they lie down in sum- 
 mer during one hour, at least, after dinner ; they dress and 
 go to the coffee-house or casino till nine, then to the opera, 
 which is another casino, then to the coffee-house for an hour 
 or two. They do not go to bed in summer before sun-rise. 
 Many of the most saving dine at the restaurateurs, and the 
 price of their dinner varies from sixteen sous to two francs, 
 or from eightpence to twentypence English money.” 0 Al- 
 though there is a wide difference between the past and pre- 
 sent state of Venice, it is still one of the greatest marts in 
 Italy. It has its fabrics and manufactures, a chamber and 
 a tribunal of commerce, an exchange and an insurance 
 company. The last doges celebrated in the island of Mala- 
 mocco, their marriage with the Adriatic, but Venice could 
 hardly then be called a maritime power. 
 
 A town was built near the ancient queen of the Adriatic, 
 on the island of Torcello, and its ruins announce that it 
 was once an important city. The remains of a church en- 
 riched with mosaics and paintings, the ruins of a palace, 
 once the residence of a barbarian conqueror, a market- 
 place and a throne raised above it, where Attila, king of 
 the Huns, administered justice, still attract the curious to 
 the island ; the town itself has disappeared. 
 
 Reduced to the state of a chief town in an Austrian pro- 
 vince, what power can prevent the ruin of Venice ? Those 
 who saw it forty years ago, can no longer recognise it ; such 
 changes have taken place in the capital, which had its navy 
 in the sixth century, which protected Petrarch and encou- 
 raged the arts, when Europe was in the darkness of barba- 
 rism, and which during nine hundred years, was treated on 
 equal terms with the greatest sovereigns. 
 
 a “More than a league.” — 21 miles (Carter’s Letters.) 
 
 VOL. in.— NO. r 13 
 
 3 
 
 *> “ Cabinets de lecture.” • Simond’s Travels in Italy. 
 
98 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXX11I. 
 
 BOOK CXXXIII. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued — Description of Italy — Third Section — 
 Sardinian Monarchy — Principality of Monaco. 
 
 The kingdom of Sardinia consists of the island of the 
 same name, divided into two provinces, and of eight divi- 
 sions or intendancies, made up of forty small provinces, 
 on the continent. The extent of the latter, from north to 
 south, is about eighty-eight leagues, and the breadth about 
 forty-six, forming a superficies of nearly two thousand three 
 hundred square leagues. 1 They are bounded on the north 
 by the lake of Geneva and Switzerland, on the east by the 
 Lombardo- Venetian kingdom, and the dutchies of Parma 
 and Massa, on the south by the Mediterranean, and on the 
 west by France. 
 
 The southern shores of Lake Leman were inhabited by 
 the JSTantuates, a long time before the Christian era. The 
 banks of the Doria were peopled by the Salassi, concern- 
 ing whom Strabo has left us some particulars. b According 
 to that geographer, the greater part of their territory was 
 situated in a deep valley — the valley of Aosta ; he adds, 
 that they were in possession of gold mines, but it appears 
 more probable that they obtained the metal from washings 
 in the alluvial lands, for he affirms that the Duria, the pre- 
 sent Doria, supplied them with water for carrying on their 
 works, but as by this means the river was often dried, it gave 
 rise to violent contentions between them and their neigh- 
 bours, who used the water for agricultural purposes. They 
 made war and peace more than once with the Romans, but 
 in their combats, their defiles and mountains were more ser- 
 viceable to them than their armies. They were bold enough 
 to impose a tax of a drachma on every soldier in the army 
 of Decius Brutus, whilst he fled from Modena ; and they 
 made Messala pay for the firewood and trees necessary for 
 bis troops encamped in the neighbourhood. They pillaged 
 on one occasion the imperial treasury, and under the pre- 
 text of working at the roads and bridges, they rolled large 
 stones and rocks on the Roman legions. The revolts of the 
 Salassi exasperated the Romans, and they were destroyed 
 by Augustus ; forty thousand were sold as slaves, and four 
 thousand were incorporated in the praetorian guard. Three 
 thousand Romans sent by Augustus, founded the town of 
 Augusta, c in the very place where Varro their conqueror 
 had encamped with his army. The same town has given 
 its name to the valley of Aosta. 1 ’ 
 
 The Taurini inhabited the country between the Alps, the 
 Bo, and the Doria; like the Salassi they were of Celtic 
 
 “ Fr. measure. — Superficial extent of the continental Sardinian terri- 
 tories, 18,250 Kng. sq. miles. (Ed. Encyc.) 
 b Strabo, Lib. iv. c. (1, sect. 5. 
 c Augusta Salassorum, or A ugusta Pretoria. 
 d Avosta (Fr. Aoustc or Aoste.) • Silius Italicus, 1. viii. 
 
 origin. The Statielli, concerning whom little is known, 
 inhabited the right bank of the Tanaro ; but the country on 
 the west, at the foot of the Alps, belonged to a people that 
 were called by the ancients, the Vagienni, V ageni or Bage- 
 ni. e The territory of the Intemelii , an inconsiderable tribe, 
 extended from the southern side of the Alps to the sea. 
 Lastly, the Apuani who derived their name from the town 
 of Apua, the present Pontremoli, were settled on the south- 
 ern side of the Appennines, in the country between Genoa 
 and Spezia. The territories of the four last people made 
 up the Roman province of Liguria; the others were in- 
 cluded in the two Gauls/ 
 
 The country near Lake Leman was called Savoy (Sa- 
 paudia, s ) about the fifth century: It was governed at dif- 
 
 ferent times by Burgundian, French and Provencal princes ; h 
 the emperor Conrad the Salic, erected it into a county, and 
 made it over to Count Humbert. Different domains were 
 successively added to it, and in the fifteenth century, it re- 
 ceived the title of dutchy from the emperor Sigismund. 
 
 The house of Savoy ranks among the oldest in Europe. 
 But as its origin is involved in darkness, it is not surprising 
 that genealogists have traced it to Witikind. That Saxon 
 chief may be considered the Japhet of the princes in modern 
 Europe ; all claim him for their founder. The house of 
 Savoy, sprung only from Humbert, who reigned in the ele- 
 venth century, might prove an antiquity of eight hundred 
 years. \ ictor Amadeus the Second was the founder of the 
 Sardinian kingdom ; wearied with the cares of a throne, 
 he abdicated in 1730 in favour of his son Charles Emma- 
 nuel, whose ingratitude brought his father to the grave. 
 I'he reign of Charles Emmanuel was glorious, but in con- 
 sequence of the influence which the French acquired from 
 their conquests, his successors lost all their continental pos- 
 sessions, and the kingdom of Sardinia, confined within the 
 limits of the island, did not recover its former rank, before 
 the last treaties by which its continental possessions were 
 restored. 
 
 The Sardinian language is not pure Italian ; many La- 
 tin, Castilian, Greek:, French and even German words are 
 contained in it ; that mixed language is most diffused in the 
 ^land of Sardinia. Two very different dialects are spoken 
 on the continent ; the Savoyard, which according to M. 
 Balbi, 1 offers many varieties, and the Vaudois which is 
 spoken in Piedmont, particularly in the province of Pig- 
 nerol. 
 
 f Transalpine and Cisalpine Gaul, “ Gallia Viennensis and Gallia 
 Cisalpina.” s Modern Latin, Sabaudia. 
 
 h “ It belonged successively to the Burgundian, French and Provencal 
 sovereigns.” 
 
 * Atlas ethnographique du globe. 
 
BOOK CXXXIII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 ‘JO 
 
 The country is divided into twenty bishoprics and six 
 archbishoprics ; the Catholic is the established religion ; all 
 the rest are merely tolerated. Twenty-two thousand Vau- 
 dois, a residing in the vallies of the Alps, who for at least 
 twelve centuries have professed a worship analogous to the 
 reformed religion, bear in silence the privation of their pri- 
 vileges as citizens. They are excluded from the learned 
 professions ; all the scientific or literary situations in the dif- 
 ferent colleges are shut against them ; although a brave 
 and a warlike people, they can never rise in the army. 
 The Jews, still more unfortunate, cannot hold landed pro- 
 perty, and have been obliged to give up the possessions 
 which they had acquired under the French government. 
 Confined in the towns, they are only permitted to exercise 
 their industry in particular quarters, and are besides com- 
 pelled to wear a badge by which they may be known. 
 From these facts relative to the Protestants and the Jews, 
 it may be easy to judge of the spirit that animates the Sar- 
 dinian government, and the discontent that prevails among 
 the different classes of a people, who were dissatisfied, and 
 not without some cause, under the French government, but 
 who have since been deprived of the advantages which they 
 then enjoyed, without obtaining any redress for their grie- 
 vances. 
 
 When the king of Sardinia was restored to his dominions, 
 the congress at Vienna recommended, relatively to Genoa, 
 something like a liberal government, or at all events the ex- 
 clusion of an oppressive one. The French civil and com- 
 mercial codes were retained, but they have been since so 
 far changed that the records of births and marriages are 
 restored t< > the clergy, and the ancient mode of hereditary 
 succession is at present in full force. b The penal code and 
 the codes of civil and criminal procedure were set aside, and 
 the old barbarous jurisprudence of Piedmont, (the torture 
 excepted,) is at present the law of the land. 
 
 When the united sovereigns of Europe gave new territo- 
 ries to his Sardinian majesty, they stipulated that no new 
 taxes should be raised without the consent of the people, 
 made known by the assemblies in each district ; c yet new 
 taxes have been levied, and these assemblies have never 
 met. In short, the will of the king is the only law on 
 which the rights and liberties of the people depend. He 
 disposes of their effects by taxes, and of their persons by ar- 
 bitrary imprisonment. The very attempt to emigrate with- 
 out leave, is an offence corrigible by fine, confiscation, and | 
 even ignominious punishment. The judges appointed and 
 revocable at pleasure, determine the costs of a suit, and as 
 their salaries are very moderate, they do not administer, 
 but sell justice. The prerogative of mercy, the brightest 
 jewel in the crown, is subject to a tax, which has been de- 
 nominated the royal emolument. As the sentence of a judge, 
 says M. Simond, in civil as well as in criminal cases is some- 
 times set aside arbitrarily, so are private contracts between 
 individuals, however legal, and testaments made in due form. 
 An individual secretly accused may be taken up and kept 
 in a dungeon for years, even for his whole life, without trial. 
 When tried, it is in secret ; he is not present at the exami- 
 nation of witnesses, he does not even know who they are ; 
 and, finally, the judges decide from the report made by one 
 of them, (the juge d? instruction,) assisted by the recorder’s 
 clerk. There are no instances of an acquitted prisoner 
 
 being liberated without paying costs/ As if it were not 
 enough that the nobles in the county of Nice, in Piedmont 
 and in Savoy, had recovered with other feudal rights, that 
 of administering justice, the governors of provinces, in the 
 plenitude of their authority, inflict corporal punishment on 
 those under their jurisdiction, and sentence the people to 
 remain hours, nay days, in the stocks. What more could 
 be done at Constantinople 1 
 
 The towns in the dutchy of Savoy are not important. 
 Chamberry is more agreeable from its position, than re- 
 markable for its buildings. Saint Jean de Maurienne, a 
 small place, although the chief town in the province of Ma- 
 riana or Maurienne, consists of ill built houses and dirty 
 streets. The country in the neighbourhood of these two 
 towns is picturesque, fruitful, and well cultivated ; lofty 
 mulberry trees, scattered in every direction, indicate that 
 the inhabitants derive a great profit from their silk worms. 
 
 The stranger has hardly crossed the Arc, which de- 
 scends from the Graecian Alps, before he observes the ex- 
 cellent road over Mount Cenis, by which he can now travel 
 in a carriage across mountains, that at no very remote pe- 
 riod were ascended by means of chairmen and mules. The 
 ramasse is no longer used in descending from the highest 
 point on the road to Lanslebourg ; a journey of five miles 
 can no longer be made in seven minutes ; the traveller 
 need not commit himself to the skill of a guide, whose feet 
 acted as a helm in directing the light ramasse along the 
 snow, and which by one false movement might be precipi- 
 tated into an abyss. Another and less rapid declivity has 
 been cut, and that part of the journey may be performed 
 without danger. But the road over Mount Cenis cannot 
 be compared with that across the Simplon. 
 
 In ascending the Doria, the traveller perceives a passage 
 cut through the rocks, between Bard and Aosta, the mag- 
 nificent work of the dukes of Savoy ; farther to the north, 
 at Aosta, may be seen the remains of Roman buildings, 
 and a triumphal arch erected to Augustus. Beyond Mount 
 Rosa, the admiration which was before attracted by the 
 beauties of nature, is concentrated on one of the noblest 
 monuments of human patience and industry. The road 
 across the Simplon surpasses the greatest works of the Ro- 
 mans ; it was not only necessary to blow up the rocks with 
 gunpowder, but to excavate numerous galleries, in order to 
 open a road through the mountains practicable for every 
 sort of carriage. Hannibal and Bernard, the uncle of 
 Charlemagne, had crossed the Alps before Napoleon, but a 
 long period may elapse before any conqueror shall imitate 
 him in the great undertaking by which Switzerland is for- 
 ever united to Italy. 
 
 Lake Maggiore forms the limit of the Sardinian posses- 
 sions ; the road which descends from the Simplon, winds 
 along it, and traverses the old and pleasant town of Novara, 
 situated to the south of Oleggio, a place frequented by 
 strangers for its mineral waters. Vercelli is interesting 
 from its antiquities ; a manuscript gospel of Saint Mark, 
 written in the fourth century, is preserved in the cathedral. 
 The Cimbri were cut to pieces by Marius in the plains near 
 Vercelli. 
 
 Turin (It. Torino) is situated at the extremity of the 
 plains of Lombardy, not far from the junction of the Po 
 and the Doria, the latter a small river that has been some- 
 
 * Waldenses. 
 
 k “ The sons inherit to the exclusion of the daughters.’ 
 
 0 “ Provincial councils.” 
 d Simond’ s Travels in Italy. 
 
100 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXIII. 
 
 times confounded with the one that waters the valley of 
 Aosta. a Turin is a very ancient capital ; it was the prin- 
 cipal city of the Taurini, as its name indicates. It consists 
 01 two parts, the old and the new ; the one resembles any 
 other ancient and Gothic town ; the other has all the ele- 
 gance of modern cities. But its broad and straight streets 
 are dismal and deserted ; they are only animated during 
 festivals. Two large squares separate the old from the 
 new town ; the latter is perhaps cleaner than any other in 
 Italy, an advantage which is secured by a great number of 
 fountains that water and purify the streets in summer, and 
 clear them of snow in winter. In order to effect the latter 
 operation, the reservoir at the gate of Susa is opened for 
 two hours, and a torrent rushes from it that carries away 
 the snow and every sort of filth from the town. 
 
 A street, a mile b in length, formed, like all the others in 
 the new town, by houses built after the same model, and 
 adorned with porticos, that afford shelter from the rain and 
 the heat of the sun, leads to the royal castle. The palace 
 is situated in the centre of a square, and surrounded by a 
 moat ; it is a sort of Hermes in architecture, exhibiting on 
 one side a Gothic front, and on the other, the elegance of 
 Grecian architecture. 0 The staircase that leads to the in- 
 terior of the building is finer than any in Italy, surpassing 
 those at Caserta and in the Palazzo Reale at Naples. The 
 number of churches and chapels at Turin amounts to. a 
 hundred and ten ; the most admired of any is the church 
 of San Lorenzo ; the interior is covered with black marble, 
 and several chains hanging down from the ceiling, formerly 
 sustained lamps and candelabras of massive silver, which 
 were taken away by the French ; but the same people re- 
 spected the santo sudurio or winding sheet of our Saviour, 
 an object of popular veneration. It is supposed to be a true 
 relic, although Genoa possesses another, which is considered 
 equally genuine. The great theatre d at Turin was for a 
 tong time the finest in Italy ; it served as a model for the 
 one at Naples. The university is another building, not in- 
 ferior in its kind to any in Turin; the entrance to it is 
 formed by a large square court encompassed with arcades, 
 and the walls are adorned with basso-relievos and ancient 
 inscriptions. 
 
 Coni, although peopled by seventeen thousand inhabit- 
 ants, contains little worthy of notice ; it is situated on the 
 banks ot the Stura, to the south of Turin. It was for- 
 merly a place of great strength, but was dismantled by the 
 French after the battle of Marengo. Casal, situated on 
 the Po to the east of Turin, is not more interesting than 
 the preceding ; it contains an equal number of inhabitants, 
 but its public buildings are more numerous. The fine road 
 which leads to Genoa, passes through Asti, formerly cele- 
 brated in the country for its hundred towers, as Thebes was 
 in ancient times for its hundred gates. But its old walls 
 are now falling in ruins, and its population is rapidly de- 
 creasing ; although in superficial extent, nearly equal to 
 Turin, it does not contain more than twenty-two thousand 
 souls. The inconsiderable trade of Asti is confined to white 
 and red wines, which are said to be better than any others 
 
 a These two rivers ar 1 the Doria Riparia or Greater Doria ( Daria ma- 
 jor,) which flows by Tu 'in, and the Doria Baltea or Lesser Doria ( Daria 
 minor,) which waters th i valley of Aosta. — P. 
 b “ Half a league.” 
 
 c The palace consuls of two parts, the old ducal palace or royal castle 
 ( Castcllo Neale, '' anil 'tv royal palace (Palazzo Reale.) — P. 
 d The Grant Op-era. 
 
 • Ancient nai.ie, At V\ °ompcia; modern name, Alba. 
 
 in Piedmont. Alba Pompeia,® at some leagues to the south- 
 west of Asti, was embellished by the father of the great 
 Pompey ; it is known too as the birthplace of the emperor 
 Pertinax. The road from Asti follows the windings of the 
 Tanaro, and leads to Alexandria. When seen at a dis- 
 tance, Alexandria (It. Alessandria ) resembles a village in 
 the midst of a plain. Although a gloomy town, consisting 
 of brick houses, it is one of the strongest places in Italy. It 
 owes its origin to the quarrels between the popes and the 
 emperors in the twelfth century ; it was founded in honour 
 of Alexander the Third, and bore for a long time the name 
 of Alessandria della paglia, because its houses were at first 
 covered with straw. A road extends to the north-east from 
 Alexandria, and leads to Tortona and Voghera. The first, 
 formerly a large and populous town, has now only eight 
 thousand inhabitants ; the second contains ten thousand, 
 and is adorned with a fine cathedral of Grecian architec- 
 ture. 
 
 The country assumes a new aspect at the division of the 
 roads to Tortona and Genoa, or at the entrance into the 
 Appennines ; the road to the latter winds through a narrow 
 passage, at one place shaded with forests, at another lined 
 with solitary meadows ; the habitations of men become 
 gradually m<5re rare, and at last disappear before the stran- 
 ger reaches the defile of the Bocchetta. On passing the 
 defile, Genoa appears at the base of the mountains, and the 
 Mediterranean is lost in the horizon. It often happens 
 that the Mediterranean is confounded with the mists which 
 cover the country ; but in fine weather, its surface, as bril- 
 liant as crystal, assumes the azure tint of the sky. 
 
 Genoa may be seen to the greatest advantage from the 
 sea ; it rises in the form of a semicircle more than three 
 thousand six hundred yards in length ; f two gigantic moles 
 defend the entrance of the port ; at one extremity, on the 
 point of a rock, rises a lighthouse of stupendous propor tions. 
 The town is encompassed in a circuit of eight miles, 5 with 
 a double range of fortifications, that are celebrated from the 
 siege that Massena sustained against the Austrians in 1800, 
 arrd from the courageous resistance of the inhabitants, who 
 endured for a per iod of fifty-nine days all the privations of 
 famine. The inter ior of the town consists of very steep and 
 narrow streets between lofty palaces : many of them are co- 
 vered in the middle with a brick causeway two or three feet 
 wide, for the convenience of mules and porters, for carts can- 
 not ascend them. Two streets, Balbi and the New Street, 11 
 are accessible to carriages ; on both sides of the former are 
 the most magnificent palaces in Genoa. The flat roofs are 
 adorned with shrubs and trees, among which are orange 
 trees twenty-five feet high, rising from a bed of earth several 
 feet deep, conveyed to the roofs, and supported on arches ; 
 fountains play among these artificial groves, and keep up 
 their verdure and shade during the heat of summer. The 
 finest edifices are the palaces belonging to the families of 
 Durazzo, Spinola, Doria, Brignole and Serra, the ancient 
 ducal palace and some churches and convents. Among 
 the latter, the church of Santa Maria di Carignano is a 
 building of elegant architecture, and although the inside of 
 
 f “ 1800 toises.” 
 
 g “ 4 leagues.” — Genoa is surrounded by two ramparts, one of which 
 incloses the town, and is about six miles in circuit, and the otheT, which 
 forms a circumference of thirteen miles, is carried round the lulls which 
 command the city. (Ed. Encyc.) 
 
 h Strada Balbi and Strada Nuova. The Strada Ballii, Strada Nuova 
 and StrauWNuovissima form one connected street, leading through nearly 
 the whole extent of the city. — P. 
 
BOOK CXXXIII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 101 
 
 the Annunziata is loaded with gilt ornaments, the stranger 
 may regret that its front is still unfinished. The church of 
 San Cyro is adorned with fresco paintings, and the Gothic 
 cathedral is covered on the inside and outside with marble 
 of different colours. There are besides three well built 
 hospitals ; one of them, the Mbergo dei Poveri is a model in 
 its kind ; it affords the means of subsistence to fifteen hun- 
 dred individuals of every age, and the young are instruct- 
 ed in different trades. The theatres in Genoa cannot be 
 compared with others in many parts of Italy. The only 
 public walks are the walls of the port, the alleys of Acqua 
 Verde, and the fine bridge of Carignano, which is not less 
 than a hundred feet in freight ; it rises above houses of six 
 stories, and unites two elevated parts of the town. 
 
 The exchange where the noble merchants of Genoa 
 formerly assemble’d to carry on their mighty trade, has lost 
 much of its activity, although Genoa has been declared a 
 free port ; still the appearance of decay is less obvious 
 than at Venice. Genoa was so powerful from its com- 
 merce in the time of the Carthaginians, that it excited the 
 jealousy of that people, by whom it was reduced to ashes. 
 Rebuilt by the Romans, it repaired the losses which it sus- 
 tained at a later period by the invasions of the Huns, the 
 Goths and the Heruli, and afterwards by the conquests of 
 the Lombards and of Charlemagne. The famous bank of 
 St. George, the earliest in any commercial town, was esta- 
 blished at Genoa in the twelfth century. a The rival of 
 Venice in the thirteenth century, it possessed Pera, a su- 
 burb of Constantinople. Having become the capital of a 
 powerful republic, it preserved longer than Venice the pri- 
 mitive form of its government, and although repeatedly for- 
 ced to implore foreign protection against civil commotions, 
 the love of independence was always the cause of its glory 
 and success. It was from convenience, not from compul- 
 sion, that it ceded Corsica to Lewis the Fifteenth. It re- 
 tained its independence till 1798, when, under the name of 
 the Ligurian republic, it received a constitution from repub- 
 lican F ranee ; but under the empire, Genoa and its territo- 
 ry were changed into a department. It is difficult to recal 
 these recollections, and not to regret that at the time when 
 so many states claimed and obtained their independence, 
 Genoa was not restored to its ancient freedom. 
 
 The lower oi'ders in Genoa are civil and obliging ; the 
 nobles, unlike those of T urin, are neither distinguished by 
 powdered wigs, gold-headed canes, and a proportionable 
 degree of pomp and solemnity, nor by that sort of etiquette 
 which prevailed in France before the revolution ; on the 
 contrary, they are remarkable for the frankness and sim- 
 plicity of their manners, advantages which must, without 
 doubt, be attributed to their commercial pursuits. The 
 women wear the mezzaro, a long white veil, half covering 
 the face, and gracefully thrown round the person ; it de- 
 scends nearly to the feet, but does not conceal light shoes 
 and white silk stockings. All the women in the upper clas- 
 ses have their cavalieri serventi, a custom considered scan- 
 dalous in other countries, but so common in Genoa, that it 
 is adopted by many persons who are irreproachable on the 
 score of morals. The love of the arts, the culture of the 
 
 a The Bank of St. George was first regularly incorporated in 1407. 
 Previous to that time, the republic borrowed large sums of money from the 
 citizens, assigning certain branches of the revenue for the payment of in- 
 terest ; and a Board of Management was appointed to cond net the loans, 
 pay the interest and account to government for the funds entrusted to their 
 care. From this circumstance, the Genoese claim the merit of establish- 
 ing a bank as early as the Venetians. The Bank of Venice, the first re- 
 
 mind, and a certain freedom of opinion, distinguish the Ge- 
 noese from the southern Italians. The inhabitants long 
 accustomed to commerce, still excel in some departments 
 of industry. Genoa has its silk, velvet, and gold lact 
 manufactories ; its jewels, perfumes and artificial flowers 
 are so many articles of exportation. As to the products of 
 the soil, the oils of Genoa are more valuable than its wines. 
 
 The eastern coast of the gulf of Genoa has been long 
 called the Riviera del Levante . b Spezia, the principal port 
 on that coast, contains six thousand inhabitants. Savona 
 on the opposite coast or the Riviera del Ponente, c is twice as 
 populous ; it possesses a considerable trade in potash and 
 in the produce of its earthen and porcelain works, but its 
 commerce might be much increased, if the harbour, which 
 is now useless, was rebuilt.* 1 The town of Nice, situated 
 on the same coast, the capital of a province and a bishop- 
 ric, possesses a finer climate than any other in Italy ; the 
 winters are not accompanied with frost, and many stran- 
 gers, particularly English, are attracted to it by the mild- 
 ness of its temperature. 
 
 The small town of Monaco, at two leagues to the east 
 of Nice, is peopled by eleven hundred inhabitants. It 
 stands on a rock which braves the fury of the billows, and 
 on the site of an ancient temple erected to Hercules Mo- 
 ncecus ; e its territory, which has been styled a principality 
 since the tenth century, is governed by the family of Gri- 
 maldi, under the protection of his Sardinian majesty. 
 
 The island of Sardinia, or according to its Greek name, 
 Sardon, belonged to the Carthaginians at the period of 
 their first war with the Romans, by whom they were ex- 
 pelled from the island, which became one of the Roman 
 granaries ; not long afterwards Corsica and Sardinia form- 
 ed a single province. While governed by the masters ol 
 the world, its population was greater than at present ; it 
 then contained forty-two towns, but not more than ten 
 which merit the name, can now be enumerated. The 
 Vandals having made themselves masters of Spain and the 
 coasts of Africa, took possession of Sardinia in the seventh 
 century. The Pisans and the Genoese succeeded them in 
 the eleventh ; two hnndred years afterwards, the popes, 
 who seldom neglected an opportunity of adding to theii 
 temporal dominions, endeavoured to unite the island to the 
 territories of the church, and the Pisans were twice con- 
 strained to submit. James the Second, king of Arragon, 
 made himself master of Sardinia in the fourteenth century, 
 and it continued under the government of Spain until the 
 year 1708, when the English took possession of it in the 
 name of the emperor of Germany, who gave it up to the 
 duke of Savoy, in exchange for Sicily. 
 
 The Sardinians remained in a state of barbarism after 
 the middle ages, but comparatively at a late period, and 
 under the paternal government of Savoy, they have been 
 made to participate in the light of knowledge, and in the 
 benefits of civi’ization. The arts and sciences are now 
 flourishing, and the house of Savoy cannot be ignorant that 
 the present prosperity and improved condition of the inha- 
 bitants, are the result of their wise and enlightened mea- 
 sures. The misfortunes of the reigning family have per- 
 
 gularly incorporated bank, was established about the middle of the twelfth 
 century. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 0 Eastern Shore. 
 
 c Western Shore. 
 
 d 11 If the harbour, which has long been filled up, was cleared.” It was 
 partly filled up by the Genoese, in order to transfer its commerce to Ge- 
 noa. — P. 
 
 s Virgil. jEneid. Lib. vi. v. 830. 
 
102 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXIII. 
 
 haps contributed to produce these good effects ; the con- 
 quests of the French deprived them of their other posses- 
 sions, and the progress of improvement was most rapid 
 when ihe princes resided in the island. 
 
 The inhabitants had for a long time little intercourse with 
 the other Italians; they may still be distinguished from 
 them. The Sardinian is strong, lively, and courageous 
 even to rashness ; of quick passions, he is ardent in his af- 
 fections, and violent in his hatred. Fond of the marvellous 
 from his habits or state of civilization, endowed with a vivid 
 imagination, and prone to enthusiasm, these qualities ac- 
 count for his devoiion to poetry and the fine arts. 
 
 Cagliari, the capital, stands on the declivity of a steep hill, 
 at the bottom of a gulf on the southern side of the island ; 
 a strong castle built by the Pisans rises above it. The po- 
 pulation amounts to twenty-eight thousand inhabitants ; it 
 is the residence of the viceroy and the principal authorities. 
 The houses are ill built and the streets are narrow and 
 crooked. The palace of the viceroy is the only building 
 worthy of notice ; among the others are a cathedral, thirty- 
 eight churches, twenty-one convents, a university, a col- 
 lege for nobles, a mint and a theatre. Among the useful 
 
 institutions may be mentioned schools of medicine and ma- 
 thematics, a library, museums of antiquities and natural his- 
 tory, and different hospitals. The town was founded by 
 the Carthaginians, and still carries on a considerable com- 
 merce ; the products of its territory are corn, oil, wine, cot- 
 ton, and indigo. Sassari, the town next to it in importance, 
 is situated in a fine valley on the northwest of the island, 
 and contains fifteen thousand inhabitants. Oristano, a town 
 near the gulf of the same name on the western coast, con- 
 tains six thousand inhabitants ; it carries on a great trade in 
 tunny, a fish which abounds in that part of the Mediterra- 
 nean. Bosa, a small port at the mouth of the Terno, on 
 the same side of the island, possesses an ancient cathedral 
 and several convents ; the walls which encompassed the 
 town, are now in ruins ; it is peopled by five thousand souls. 
 Alghero, 3 on the same coast, carries on a greater trade in 
 corn than any other place in Sardinia. The population 
 amounts to seven thousand inhabitants ; its port cannot 
 admit large vessels, but the spacious and fortified harbour 
 of Porto-Conte, at two miles b to the east, might contain se- 
 veral fleets. 
 
 Algheri. 
 
 b “ A league.’ 
 
book cxxxiv.] DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 BOOR CXXXIV. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued. — Description of Italy. — Fourth Section. 
 
 — Dutcliies of Parma, JModena, Alassa and Lucca . — 
 
 Grand Dutchy of Tuscany. — Republic of San JMarino. 
 
 The country which forms the subject of the present and 
 of the following book, is divided into a greater number of 
 small states than any other part of Italy. Seven indepen- 
 dent states occupy a surface of three thousand nine hun- 
 dred and seventy square leagues, and, without including the 
 Roman territory, they are the most important from the 
 wealth and industry of their inhabitants. 
 
 In ancient times these states comprehended Southern 
 Cisalpine Gaul, Etruria, Umbria, Picenum, and Latium. 
 The Anamani , a people of uncertain origin, but who were 
 probably Celtic, inhabited almost all the territory in the 
 dutchy of Parma ; their limits were the Po on the north, 
 the Trebia on the west, and the Parma on the east. The 
 Lingones to the south of the Po, and the Boii on the north- 
 ern declivities of the Appennines, the latter a tribe of the 
 same origin as the people that have been mentioned in the 
 account of Bohemia, were settled in the territories of Mo- 
 dena, Bologna, and Ferrara. The western declivities of 
 the Appennines in Etruria, were peopled by the Magelli 
 and the Ligures, tribes that in their customs resembled the 
 Gauls. On the shores of the Adriatic, the Senones, a tribe 
 of the Gauls, settled in the country near the present repub- 
 lic of San Marino, about four centuries before the Christian 
 era. They were celebrated for the part they took in the 
 expedition of the Gauls against Rome, in which they were 
 defeated by Camillus. The Piceni a inhabited the declivities 
 of the Appennines, which form the present territories of 
 Ancona, Macerata and Ascoli ; they were Sabines by ori- 
 gin. Their country was called Picenum from the great 
 quantity of mineral pitch which it contained. Umbria, si- 
 tuated on the western side of the Appennines, between the 
 Tiber and the Nera, a feeder of the same river, was inha- 
 bited by a people sprung from the Gauls. According to 
 Count de Gebelin, the Sabines, b their neighbours, derived 
 their name from the Celtic word sab, which signifies high 
 or elevated ; they occupied indeed the declivities and sum- 
 mits of the Appennines. Ancient writers mention the Sa- 
 bines in the most favourable terms ; they were frank, ge- 
 nerous and valiant ; their women were modest and vir- 
 tuous ; their marriages, says Mentelle, were civil obliga- 
 tions, entered into in the name of the state ; a very extraor- 
 dinary fact, as in ancient times, religious ceremonies were 
 the bases of social contracts. The power of the Sabines is 
 
 * “ Picentes .” 
 b Sabini. 
 
 c The modern Garigliano is generally supposed to be the ancient 
 Idris . — P. 
 
 proved by the early history of Rome ; the Hernici, the Lu- 
 cani, the Samnites and the Brntii were colonies of the same 
 people. Before their country was conquered by the Ro- 
 mans, their simple and metaphysical worship was exempt 
 from the corruption which characterized polytheism. The 
 territory between the mouth of the Tiber and that of the To- 
 lero or the ancient Liris, c was called Latium; it extended 
 eastward to the lake Lucrino , d The inhabitants, or the La- 
 tini, were the descendants of Pelasgians that migrated from 
 Thessaly, and of another people concerning whose origin 
 so little was known, that they were termed Aborigines . e 
 
 When Charlemagne carried his victorious arms into Italy, 
 he made himself master of Parma and Placentia ; but it is 
 not proved that he gave them to the Holy See, and it is 
 equally uncertain that Parma derives its name from the par- 
 ma or round buckler worn by the Anamani. But whether 
 it was the effect of policy or of the influence which know- 
 ledge and religion gave the popes over ignorant and super- 
 stitious princes, Rome continued long in possession of these 
 two towns. They became republics at a later period ; but 
 civil divisions and the quarrels between the Guelphs and 
 Ghibelines were the means of transferring them successively 
 to the Corregios, the Scaligers, the Viscontis, the Sforzas 
 and the popes. When Julius the Second, one of the most 
 intriguing pontiffs, had formed the great league of kings 
 against France in 1512, he made himself be invested in the 
 possession of Parma and Placentia by the emperor Maximi- 
 lian. Paul the Third made them over in 1 547 to his son 
 Lewis Farnese, who was assassinated two years afterwards, 
 but his descendants enjoyed them until Elizabeth Farnese, 
 the heiress of the family, married Philip the Fifth, king of 
 Spain, and brought these two dutchies as her dowry to the 
 house of Bourbon. The Infants Don Carlos and Don Phi- 
 lip, and the son of the latter, governed them in succession, 
 but in 1805 the two dutchies were united to the French 
 empire, and formed the department of the Taro. They 
 were made over in 1814 by the Congress at Vienna, to the 
 Archduchess Maria Louisa during her life ; the inheritance 
 is vested after her death, in the Lucchese princes of the 
 house of Bourbon Anjou, and their successors. 
 
 The states of Parma consist of the dutchy of the same 
 name, and two others, Placentia and Guastalla ; they are 
 bounded on the north by the Po, on the east by the dutchy 
 of Modena, and on the south and the west by the dutchy of 
 Massa and the Sardinian possessions. Parma, the capital 
 the largest town in the dutchy, is situated on the banks of the 
 
 d Lucrino, in the original. Q.u. Fucino, (see note e , p. 762.")* The Lu- 
 crine lake was in Campania on the bay of Naples. — P. 
 
 c “ Its inhabitants, the Latini, were a mixed people, descended from a 
 colony of Pelasgians from Thessaly, blended with a people whose origin 
 was so uncertain that they were called Aborigines .” 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 104 
 
 [BOOK CS.XXIV. 
 
 Parma, a torrent that is dry in summer. The old walls 
 and bastions form a circuit of four miles ; the streets and 
 squares are spacious, but neither the houses nor public 
 buildings are remarkable for their architecture. The ca- 
 thedral is a Gothic and imposing edifice ; the palaces and 
 other churches are simple and destitute of ornaments, but 
 worthy of being visited from the valuable paintings contain- 
 ed in them. The old Farnese palace, built of brick, re- 
 sembles a convent rather than the residence of a prince. 
 In the same edifice are the academy of fine arts, the library, 
 and the largest theatre in Italy, the masterpiece of Vignola, 
 admirable on account of its architecture, and the fine pro- 
 portion of its parts. It is capable of containing 9000 spec- 
 tators," and the interior is so well arranged that the stage is 
 equally visible from every point in the theatre, and an actor 
 speaking in a low tone of voice is heard at the remotest 
 corner of the house. It may be regretted that so fine an 
 edifice has not been used for more than a century ; an- 
 other theatre of smaller dimensions is situated in a different 
 part of the town. A plain building behind the Farnese 
 palace, is the residence of Maria Louisa ; in one of the 
 rooms may be seen the cradle of her son, and the toilet and 
 costly furniture, which the city of Paris gave to the wife of 
 Napoleon. Parma has been improved by the same person. 
 Before the year 1822, there was no cemetery belonging to 
 the town ; the dead were interred in the churches, and the 
 church of San Giovanni Decollato was reserved for criminals. 
 Physicians were aware that the custom had been injurious 
 to the health of the inhabitants, and it was abolished by 
 the reigning princes ; a large piece of ground without the 
 walls of the town has been converted into a cemetery. 
 Parma possesses five charitable institutions and a foundling- 
 hospital established in 1 S 1 8 by the archduchess ; the man- 
 agement of the latter is committed to a director and to five 
 ladies, one of whom must visit it every day. 
 
 Guastalla, the metropolis of an ancient dutchy, contains 
 little worthy of notice. Placentia, 1 ’ like Parma, is encom- 
 passed with walls and ditches, but it is a better built town, 
 and possesses numerous palaces. The ducal palace, al- 
 though a brick building, still serves to proclaim the wealth 
 of the Farnese, and the talents of Vignola, who planned it. 
 Other edifices may attract the notice of strangers ; but, 
 like Versailles, Placentia consists of broad, straight and de- 
 serted streets, m many places not unlike roads. 0 The 
 square of the palace is decorated with two bronze eques- 
 trian statues, representing princes of the Farnese family. 
 It has been supposed that the town owes its name to its fine 
 situation and salubrious air. Two centuries before the 
 Christian era, it was one of the principal cities of the Ro- 
 man republic ; but no traces of its antiquity remain ; it was 
 devastated during the war between Otho and Vitellius. It 
 sustained a memorable siege against Totila in the year 545 ; 
 the inhabitants suffered so much from famine, that they 
 appeased their hunger with human flesh. The same town 
 has given birth to several distinguished men ; among others, 
 to Ferrante Pallavicini, an ecclesiastic of the seventeenth 
 century, not less celebrated for his writings than his tragi- 
 cal death, in which Rome ftad some share ; J to Lorenzo 
 Valla, who contributed in tbe fifteenth century to restore the 
 Latin language to its ancient purity in Italy ; to Gregory 
 
 the Tenth, who ordained that on the death of a pope, the 
 cardinals should be confined in conclave until the election 
 of his successor ; and lastly, to cardinal Alberoni, who has 
 been termed the Richelieu of Spain. 
 
 The burgh of Campre-Mpldo is the Campo Morto, near 
 which Hannibal defeated the Romans at the battle of the 
 Trebia. The remains of Velcia, a town that appears to 
 have been destroyed by an earthquake, were discovered in 
 the year 1760; they are covered with stones and earth to 
 the depth of more than twenty feet. The great quantity 
 of bones, medals, and other valuable articles which have 
 been from time to time discovered, indicate that the inhabi- 
 tants, like those of Herculaneum, had not time to escape, 
 but were ingulfed with their riches. Veleia was the me- 
 tropolis of more than thirty towns and burghs, of which the 
 names inscribed on a bronze table, still preserved in Parma, 
 resemble the names of many villages in the neighbour- 
 hood. 
 
 The commerce of Parma is inconsiderable ; its manu- 
 factures consist of silk, lace, and different liqueurs. Rice 
 and silk are the principal products of the dutchy. Work- 
 men collect annually near Salzo Maggiore, at ten leagues 
 to the south of the capital, three hundred thousand hundred 
 weights" of salt, which form nearly two thuds of the con- 
 sumption. The petroleum oil, used by the inhabitants, is 
 obtained in great quantities from the same salt springs. 
 
 The dutchy of Modena, situated between the Lombardo- 
 Venetian kingdom, the dutchies of Parma and Lucca, and 
 the States of the Church, is about thirty leagues in length 
 and fourteen in breadth. This state, after having belonged 
 to the emperors, the popes, the Venetians, the dukes of 
 Milan, Mantua and Ferrara, and other princes, was added 
 in the thirteenth century to the possessions of the house of 
 Este, that reigned at Ferrara. It was united to the Cisal- 
 pine republic in 1796, and formed afterwards a part of the 
 kingdom of Italy. But the archduke Francis, who succeed- 
 ed by right of his mother to the ancient dutchy, took pos- 
 session of it in 1814. 
 
 Modena, an agreeable and well built town, of which the 
 streets are adorned with arcades, contains no remarkable 
 edifice except the vast ducal palace, which stands isolated 
 in a large square. It gave birth to Gabriel Fallopius, one 
 of the most distinguished anatomists of the sixteenth century, 
 and it has contributed to the advancement of science by the 
 labors of its scientific society.' 
 
 Reggio, the ancient Regium, which was ruined by the 
 Goths, and rebuilt by Charlemagne, was joined to the do- 
 minions of the house of Este, after having been long gov- 
 erned by its own magistrates. It was formerly the chief 
 town in a dutchy, of which the title was restored by Napo- 
 leon, and conferred on one of his bravest generals. The 
 fortifications are not more important than those of Modena, 
 but the town is well built, and contains a great number of 
 convents ; it carries on a trade in silk. Reggio was the 
 birthplace of Ariosto. The country between Modena and 
 Reggio, is pleasant and fruitful ; the hills in the neighbour- 
 hood are covered with country houses, and vines entwined 
 round fruit trees. The small town of Mirandola, in the 
 northern part of the dutchy, was governed by a prince, 
 who at an early age was a prodigy of erudition, and who 
 
 a 10,000, (Ed. Encyc.) b It. Piacenza. 
 
 c “ The principal street rather resembles a road than a street.” 
 
 11 i. e. The Papal government. He was beheaded at Avignon, 1643, 
 by sentence of the inquisition. — P. 
 
 e “ 30,000 quintals.” 
 
 f The Italian Society of Sciences, instituted by Chevalier Lorgna 
 of Verona. — P. 
 
 L 
 
BOOK CXXXIV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 105 
 
 afterwards renounced his principality to devote himself to 
 the sciences. 
 
 The dutchy of Massa does not exceed fifteen square 
 leagues in superficial extent ; it is bounded by the Medi- 
 terranean, the Sardinian states, and the dutchies of Modena 
 and Lucca ; although a very small district, it is perhaps the 
 finest part of Italy. No valley can be more romantic than 
 that of the Flume Frigido, a stream descending from the 
 mountains, and enlarged by melted snow, forming several 
 water-falls in the higher or narrow part of the valley, shaded 
 by lofty trees, that add to the coolness and freshness of the 
 air even in the midst of summer. But towards its other 
 extremity, the valley becomes broader, and the view from 
 it more extensive ; in spring, when the heat of the sun be- 
 gins to dry the plains, the snow and the verdure of the 
 meadows, when seen from a distance, form long streaks on 
 the sides of the mountains. 
 
 This dutchy depended formerly on that of Modena, but 
 its territory was added to the principality of Lucca and 
 Piombino, which Eliza Bacciochi, the sister of Napoleon, 
 governed in the time of the empire. It was anew made a 
 dutchy in 1814, and restored to the archduchess Maria 
 Beatrice, after whose death it reverts to her son, the Duke 
 of Modena. 
 
 The small town of Massa is finely situated in a plain at 
 no great distance from the Mediterranean. The ruins of 
 the cathedral serve to recal an unjust act of power, com- 
 mitted by the last princess, whose government has rendered 
 her dear to the people, but who was not free from the faults 
 to which persons are liable, that rise suddenly from low to 
 high stations. Eliza Bacciochi thought the cathedral too 
 near the palace ; chanting was apt to make her melancholy, 
 and the smell of frankincense made her cough ; for these 
 reasons the venerable building was demolished, although 
 the inhabitants were clamorous, and the magistrates remon- 
 strated. 
 
 The small town of Carrara derives its importance from 
 inexhaustible marble quarries, that have been worked for a 
 period of more than two thousand years. The neighbour- 
 ing mountains are almost wholly composed of marble, to 
 the height of about twelve hundred feet, a and over an extent 
 of not less than two leagues. The marble does not form 
 beds ; the finest and the whitest sort is united with the kind 
 that the inhabitants use in building their houses. More 
 than twelve hundred men are employed in working the 
 quarries, and the duty levied on the exports from them, 
 makes up a tenth part of the public revenue. 
 
 The dutchy of Lucca, situated between the dutchy of 
 Massa and the grand dutchy of Tuscany, was changed into 
 a republic after the death of the countess Matilda in 1115; 
 it continued however more or less subject to the emperors, 
 and Lewis of Bavaria erected it anew into a dutchy about 
 the year 1316. Its government was often changed ; but it 
 preserved its freedom from the fifteenth century to the pe- 
 riod when it was united to the states of Eliza Bacciochi. It 
 was granted as an indemnity to the ducal family of Parma 
 in 1815, to be afterwards annexed to the grand dutchy of 
 Tuscany. 
 
 The Lucchese are one of the most industrious people in 
 . Italy, as the state of their agriculture, their trade in olive 
 oil, and their velvet and silk manufactures, sufficiently 
 
 1 “ 200 toises.” 
 
 b Memoire de M. Thaon, sur les moyens propres a encouragcr la cul- 
 ture dans la Maremma. (Florence, 1826.) 
 
 VOL. III. — NO. 45. 
 
 evince. Probity is always the companion of industry, and 
 the honesty of the Lucchese peasants has been commended 
 by many travellers. 
 
 The town of Lucca is watered by the Serchio ; it has its 
 ramparts and palaces, but the ramparts are slight fortifica- 
 tions, and the strong walled palaces with their grated win- 
 dows might be mistaken for prisons. The ramparts are 
 adorned with lofty trees, and form agreeable walks ; the 
 pointed roofs of the houses, and the irregular and tortuous 
 but well paved streets, render Lucca more like a northern 
 than an Italian city. All the churches are too profusely 
 streaked or adorned with different coloured marble. The 
 celebrated baths in the neighbourhood are much frequent- 
 ed ; their temperature is about 45° of Reaumur. 
 
 The grand dutchy of Tuscany forms the most important 
 principality in Italy ; it is bounded by the dutchies of Lucca 
 and Modena, the States of the Church, and the Mediterra- 
 nean. Although the climate is unwholesome, particularly 
 in the part near the sea, Tuscany is noted for its fruitful 
 soil and romantic scenery. The wines of the same country 
 are valuable ; the red resembles Claret, and the white is 
 more delicate than Sauterne. But the labours of the hus- 
 bandman are sometimes destroyed by winds and inunda- 
 tions, and the burning Sirocco exerts too often its fatal in- 
 fluence. 
 
 The Maremma, a territory so called from its vicinity to 
 the sea, is the most unhealthy region in Tuscany, and one 
 not less remarkable for its pestilential humidity, than the 
 other districts for their fertility and for their fine and diver- 
 sified scenery, of which the description has been given by 
 Addison. The Maremma extends over a space of forty- 
 three leagues in length, to the neighbourhood of Sienna, 
 Pisa and Leghorn. It is equal in superficial extent to six- 
 teen or seventeen hundred English square miles ; the pre- 
 sent population does not exceed forty persons for every 
 square mile ; but before the country was conquered by the 
 Romans, it was the most populous region in Italy, for in the 
 Maremma were situated the Etruscan towns of Rosetta, 
 Satumia, Populonia, Cossa, and Jlncedonla, of which walls, 
 baths, amphitheatres and other ancient monuments still re- 
 main. b But the country and the towns have been desola- 
 ted by the depredations of the Romans, and the successive 
 invasions of barbarians. Destitute of inhabitants, the Ma- 
 remma is covered with wood, and the waters which an in- 
 dustrious population confined in canals, have formed nume- 
 rous marshes, and their exhalations occasion dangerous dis- 
 eases. Before the Etrusci or Rhasenae were settled in the 
 Maremma, the land was probably in the same state as at 
 present, but they surmounted the obstacles arising from the 
 insalubrity of the soil, and the country became flourishing. 
 Colonies of Greeks, perhaps Egyptians, were settled in the 
 Maremma ; the emperor Claudius had his country houses 
 and gardens in the same region, which was well adapted for 
 the vine and different fruit trees. Every thing like agricul- 
 tural wealth has now disappeared, and the stranger observes 
 only the wretched cottages of a few peasants 0 in the places 
 where a numerous and industrious population devoted 
 themselves to agriculture. The dukes of Tuscany made 
 several vain attempts to repeople these marshy districts. 
 Cosmo the Third introduced a colony of Mainotes d from the 
 Peloponnesus, but in a short time they were destroyed by 
 
 e “ Shepherds.” 
 d “ Maniottes ” 
 
 14 
 
* , ■ 
 
 106 EUROPE. [book cxxxiv. 
 
 the effects of the climate ; colonists from Lorraine were af- 1 ] 
 terwards invited, and they shared the same fate. Much 
 remains to be done before the soil can be rendered useful 
 for agriculture ; skilful men must be consulted on the best 
 method of checking the fatal effects of pestilential exhala- 
 tions ; the soil must be drained by government, and expe- 
 rienced agriculturists must determine the plants best adapt- 
 ed for the climate, or the most likely to repay the husband- i 
 man for his expenses and labour. 
 
 Tuscany was conquered by the Goths in the sixth cen- 
 tury, and they kept possession of it during sixty years. Al- 
 boin, king of the Lombards, having defeated them, erected 
 the country into a dutchy, and made it a fief dependent on 
 his crown. Charlemagne having conquered Lombardy, 
 appointed counts, who were afterwards entitled marquises, 
 over the dutchy ; they were vassals of the empire. The 
 cities in Tuscany retained their prosperity for a long time ; 
 they were governed by magistrates appointed by the citi- 
 zens. Rome, in order to weaken the imperial power, in- 
 duced these towns to enter into a league similar to the one 
 formed by the towns of Lombardy. The execution of the 
 plan was reserved for Innocent the Third, and the honour 
 und aggrandisement of the apostolic see, became the watch- 
 word of citizens, who were long faithful to their engage- 
 ments. 11 Pisa, Sienna and Florence were the most impor- 
 tant of these republics, and their chiefs were styled Gonfa- 
 lonieri. They had amassed considerable wealth by com- 
 merce in the fourteenth century, but as if states that acquire 
 power by usurpation, were destined to submit to usurpers in 
 their turn, Florence, having taken possession of Pisa un- 
 justly, was punished by becoming the domain of the Medici, 
 a family that by fortunate speculations had become the 
 most wealthy in the town. Alexander di Medici was made 
 duke of Florence in 1531 by the interest of Charles the 
 Fifth, and his son obtained from the pope and the emperor, 
 the title of grand duke. After the extinction of the Medici 
 in 1737, the grand dutchy passed to the duke of Lorraine, 
 who ceded that province to France. The same duke was 
 raised to the imperial throne, and his son was appointed his 
 successor in Italy. But the house of Lorraine was deprived 
 of the dutchy by Napoleon, who gave it to his sister Eliza. b 
 Latly, the archduke was restored to his dominions in 1814, 
 and Elba was added to his states in the following year. 
 
 The two principal streams in Tuscany are the Ombrone 
 and the Arno, both of which throw themselves into the sea. 
 The Arno, enlarged by several smaller streams, may be con- 
 sidered a river ; it made formerly a long circuit, but its 
 course has been shortened and confined by dikes, and the 
 lands which it inundated are now cultivated. The valley 
 of the Arno, c in the Appennines, from which the river takes 
 its rise, was in the time of the Florentine and Pisan repub- 
 lics, embellished with the country houses of wealthy mer- 
 chants ; in the same valley, at present peopled by work- 
 men, are manufactured the lined stuffs that form an impor- 
 tant article in the commerce of Tuscany, and also the straw 
 hats well known as Leghorn hats, from the name of the 
 port whence they are shipped to all parts of the world. 
 
 The Arno traverses Pisa at the distance of about a league 
 from its mouth. d The town is one of the most ancient in 
 Italy ; the streets are broad and well paved. The cathe- 
 
 a Muratori, Dissertatio 48, tom. iv. p. 320. 
 b Deerets des 2 et 6 Mars, 1800. 
 c Val d’Arno. 
 
 d About five miles from the sea. Ed. Encyc. 
 
 dral, a Gothic edifice, is built of marble ; three bronze gates 
 adorn the portal, and seventy-four columns, sixty-two of 
 which are of oriental granite, support the roof. The inte- 
 rior, it must be admitted, is rather gloomy ; an old chan- 
 1 delier of rusty metal hangs from the vault. Galileo hap- 
 pened to be in the church, when a workman carrying a 
 ladder, struck the chandelier by accident, and its swinging 
 motion suggested to the philosopher the first notion of the 
 pendulum. The first pendulum clock constructed by Ga- 
 lileo, is still preserved at Pisa. The Baptistery is a church 
 reserved for baptisms ; its Gothic vault is so sonorous as to 
 produce several effects which guides never fail to indicate 
 to strangers ; if the floor or pavement be struck, it resounds 
 for a long time ; if a person speaks in a loud voice, an echo 
 repeats several syllables, or if he speaks in a whisper in any 
 corner of the church, he is distinctly heard at the opposite 
 extremity. The Campanile Torto, or leaning tower, has 
 been considered the most singular edifice in Pisa. Beauti- 
 ful columns of white marble rise from its base, and support 
 six tiers of arcades, surmounted by a tower of smaller dia- 
 meter than the base. 6 The height of the tower is not less 
 than a hundred and ninety feet, and the inclination from 
 the ground to the summit, about fifteen feet from the per- 
 pendicular. At the sight of so singular a monument, it is 
 difficult to decide whether it was the original intention of 
 the architect to construct it with so great an inclination, or 
 whether, as many professional persons suppose, it may be 
 attributed to the sinking of the ground. Not far from the 
 leaning tower, the cicerones show with veneration the Cam- 
 po Santo, a rectangular court of vast size, surrounded with 
 a sort of Gothic arcade, the walls of which are painted in 
 fresco. It was constructed in the thirteenth century for 
 the purpose of securing an enormous heap of earth, brought 
 from the Holy Land by the Pisans after the third crusade ; 
 it is said to be nine feet deep, and as the extent of Campo 
 Santo is rather more than two English acres/ it must have 
 required fifty ships of three hundred tons burthen, and per- 
 haps three times that number of such vessels as were then 
 in use, to transport so great a mass of sanctified mould.® 
 
 It is believed that the bodies which are buried in it, are very 
 speedily consumed ; the time formerly required, was said 
 to be less than twenty-four hours ; the Pisans themselves 
 admit that it takes at present more than two days ; their 
 calculations are in all probability incorrect ; such miracles 
 must be confirmed by undoubted experiments. 
 
 Florence (It. Firenze) rises on the banks of the Arno, at 
 a greater distance from its mouth than Pisa. Four bridges 
 are built across the river, and these communicate with four 
 quarters, two leagues in circumference, and three thousand 
 yards'* in length. Florence, if it may be so said, was the 
 cradle of the arts at the time of their regeneration, and the 
 numerous objects of art still contained in the same place 
 render it one of the most remarkable cities in Europe. 
 Michael Angelo thought it impossible for an architect to 
 raise a finer building than the cathedral ; an isolated tower 
 at no great distance serves as its belfry, and Charles the 
 Fifth was so much pleased with its finished elegance, that 
 he said it ought to be kept in a glass-case, 1 in order to de- 
 fend it from the wind and the atmosphere. The three 
 bronze gates of the Baptistery are wrought with so much art, j 
 
 e It consists of eight stories, all of which, except the uppermost, are sur- 
 rounded with open galleries, composed of pillars and arches. — P. 
 f “ 10,000 square feet.” g Simond’s Travels in Italy. 
 
 b “ 1500 toises.” * “ Etui.” 
 
BOOK CXXXIV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 107 
 
 that Michael Angelo thought them worthy of being placed 
 at the entrance into paradise. The royal chapel or the 
 tomb of the Medici, begun about three centuries ago, and 
 not likely to be ever finished, is one of the most curious 
 works in Italy ; jasper, lapis lazuli, granite, porphyry, ala- 
 'baster, and the rarest marbles, are collected in such profu- 
 sion, that it resembles not so much a sepulchral monument 
 St as a magnificent mosaic. The church of Santa Croce, a 
 ■T . brick building originally intended to be covered with marble, 
 contains the ashes of many illustrious men. The tomb of 
 Michael Angelo supports his own bust by himself; that of 
 Vittorio Alfieri was sculptured by Canova ; there too are 
 the remains of Galileo, Aretino and Macchiavelli, the last 
 of whom is represented weighing a sword and a roll of pa- 
 per in a balance. 
 
 The Poggio Imperiale, and the Ricardi, Strozzi, Cursini 
 and Gerini palaces, are worthy of being described, but it 
 would be necessary to enter into details incompatible with 
 our limits. The ducal palace, called Palazzo Pitli from 
 the name of the person who built it in the year 1460, exhi- 
 bits a character of solidity which promises ages of duration. 
 It consists of three lofty stories divided into nine hundred 
 apartments. Many of them, carved and gilt all over, are 
 furnished in the most costly manner. In one suite are con- 
 tained a valuable collection of paintings and a number of 
 Florentine mosaic tables, dithering from the other mosaics 
 in Italy, by the large pieces of which they are formed. The 
 labour required in these works is hardly credible ; fifteen, 
 twenty, and twenty-five years have been spent by a set of 
 artists working together to finish a single table. a The fa- 
 mous Venus of Canova decorates one of the halls, and the 
 palace communicates with the Florentine gallery by a pas- 
 sage six hundred paces in length. A stranger may there 
 judge of the former magnificence of the Medici ; he may 
 admire the Venus that bears their name, other ancient 
 statues which were long the principal ornaments of the 
 Louvre, and several chefs d'ceuvre by the greatest Italian 
 painters. The Boboli gardens adjoining the palace are in 
 the taste transmitted to us by the ancients ; they are praised 
 by the Italians, who admire rectangular walks flanked with 
 cut trees, fashioned into a wall, or arched overhead. The 
 squares in Florence are adorned with more than a hun- 
 dred and fifty statues. Two obelisks rise on the piazza of 
 Santa .Maria Novella, which serves as a course for chariot 
 races, similar to those of the ancients. Horse races are 
 also an amusement ; the race ground is more than two 
 miles in length. The quays in Florence are much finer 
 than any in Paris. 
 
 Prato rises on the north of Florence towards the Appen- 
 nines, on the banks of the Bisenzio ; it is a place of some 
 trade ; the inhabitants manufacture copper utensils, and its 
 tairs are more frequented than any in Tuscany. Pistoia is 
 situated at the base of the Appennines ; there are few towns 
 in Italy in which the streets are so broad or so straight ; it 
 formed at one time a republic ; it carries on a trade at pre- 
 sent in fowling-pieces, silk and straw hats. 
 
 At a league to the east of the canal that unites the Arno 
 and the Chiana, is situated Arezzo, an ancient town of 
 .vhtch the Latin name Aretium, was derived, according to 
 some, from Aretia, a surname of Vesta, and according to 
 others, from the eastern word Aretz, which corresponds 
 with its situation, and signifies an agreeable place on the 
 
 * Simond’s Travels. b iEneid. L. III. v. 170. [ Coritus .] 
 
 icalers. In the time of the Etruscans it was celebrated for 
 its pottery, its wine, and a fountain from which oracles 
 were delivered. It was the birthplace of many great men, 
 of Maecenas, of the martyr Saint Lawrence, of Petrarch, 
 of Guido Aretino, who invented or discovered anew the 
 notes of music, of Pope Julius the Second, of Pietro Areti- 
 no, and of Concini, marshal d’Ancre. On the Appennines, 
 and at eight leagues to the north of the town, stands the 
 famous convent of the Camaldolites, founded in the be- 
 ginning of the eleventh century. 
 
 Cortona to the south-east of Arezzo, rises on the de- 
 clivity of a hill, which overlooks a fine plain, watered by 
 the Perugian lake. It is supposed to occupy the site of 
 Corythus, a town mentioned by Virgil, but which did not 
 exist in his time. b Walls constructed of very large stones 
 that are not united by any cement, may still be seen at 
 Cortona ; they were raised by the most ancient inhabitants 
 of Etruria. Although a very small place, it has possessed 
 since the year 1726, an Etruscan academy, which has been 
 of much use by its researches. 
 
 “ Fallen from its former rank, as a republican city con- 
 taining a hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants, to that of 
 a provincial town having only fifteen or twenty thousand, 
 and with the melancholy title of capital of the JMaremma, 
 Sienna exhibits no signs of decay, but on the contrary every 
 appearance of active industry. Scarcely any beggars ; 
 the streets well paved and very clean ; the shops numerous 
 and well supplied ; the people well dressed and the women 
 remarkably good looking and graceful even in the ludicrous 
 attitude of riding astride on donkeys, which seems the cus- 
 tom both with ladies and market women, all showing their 
 garters at the top of a well formed leg, and snow white 
 stockings. The cathedral is a nondescript edifice, built in 
 the thirteenth century, when the Gothic style of architec- 
 ture prevailing beyond the Alps, was with difficulty making 
 its way in Italy. It is therefore half Gothic, half Grecian ; 
 slender shafts with Corinthian capitals, and round arches. 
 The most remarkable feature of this singular edifice, is the 
 party coloured marble on the outside ; broad stripes of 
 dingy brown and dirty white alternately, like the zebra’s 
 skin. Nothing can possibly be in worse taste ; but the in- 
 laid pavement done in 1460, is on the contrary very beau 
 tiful.” c 
 
 There is only one square at Sienna, the Piazza del Catn- 
 po ; it is hollowed in the form of a basin, adorned with a 
 fine fountain, and lined with palaces in the Gothic style. 
 Saint Catherine, the tutelar saint of the town, is as cele- 
 brated in the country, as Saint Genevieve in Paris. Born 
 in the fourteenth century, the daughter of a poor dyer, she 
 acted an important part in the ecclesiastical affairs of Italy. 
 She was sent to Gregory the Eleventh, to persuade him to 
 quit Avignon, and to restore the papal throne to Rome. 
 It is said that a society established in 1464 in the house in- 
 habited by the saint, continues to endow every year the 
 daughters of poor artisans, who walk in procession on her 
 anniversary, and on these occasions make choice of their 
 husbands. A number of young men stand near the pro- 
 cession, and each gives a handkerchief to her whom he 
 loves ; if she refuses, she kisses the handkerchief, and re- 
 turns it ; if she consents, she ties a knot in it, and then 
 presents it to her bridegroom. 
 
 A Roman colony was sent to Sienna by Augustus, and 
 
 c Simond’s Travels in Italy and Sicily, page 570. 
 
 J 
 
108 EUROPE. [book cxxxiv. 
 
 it was then called Colonia Senensis. The Italian language 
 is spoken in greater purity in the same place, than in any 
 other town in Tuscany ; the pronunciation of the Siennese 
 is also the most agreeable. It possesses several academies 
 and a university ; the inhabitants are gay, lively and well 
 informed ; it has produced several celebrated men, among 
 others, seven popes, and Socinus, the chief of the Unitari- 
 ans, who reject the mystery of the trinity, and believe Christ, 
 although participating in the divine nature, to be inferior to 
 God. 
 
 The road from Sienna to Leghorn traverses the Etrus- 
 can town of Volterra, the name of which remains the same, 
 but the population, which amounted formerly to a hundred 
 thousand, is now reduced to four thousand inhabitants ; 
 it was once one of the twelve principal cities in Etruria, 
 but is now almost deserted. The populous and commer- 
 cial town of Leghorn, a small burgh in 1 120, is at present 
 peopled by seventy-five thousand . individuals, including the 
 inhabitants of its three suburbs, which contain more than 
 thirty thousand. The streets are straight and well built, 
 the port is frequented by merchant ships, and the town is a 
 place of extensive trade. The principal edifices are the 
 magazines, the arsenal and three lazarettos. The only 
 monument worthy of notice, is the marble statue of Duke 
 Ferdinand the First, in the attitude of a conqueror with 
 four bronze slaves at his feet. The harbour is six hundred 
 yards in length, and seventy-two in breadth ; hulks a are 
 kept for the purpose of taking away the pebbles and allu- 
 vial deposits, which are brought by the sea. A great 
 many Jewish and Greek merchants are settled in the 
 town ; among the exports are soap, alabaster and coral. 
 Ophthalmia is a disease peculiar to its soil ; it has been 
 erroneously attributed to the sandy dust driven by the winds, 
 and to the humidity of the quarter called New Venice on 
 account of its numerous canals ; it appears on the contrary 
 to arise from the comparative coldness of the night air dur- 
 ing the summer season. 
 
 Piombino, a sea port to the south of Leghorn, is situated 
 at a short distance from the ancient Etruscan town of Po- 
 pulonia, which was destroyed in the ninth century by the 
 patrician Niceas, but of which some remains of walls with- 
 out cement are still extant. Not far from these walls are 
 extensive ruins, which, according to some, were originally 
 an amphitheatre, while others suppose them to have been 
 part of the ancient Vetulonia. b Piombino stands on a rock, 
 and gives its name to the neighbouring gulf. The air and 
 climate are unwholesome, and the population, which peace 
 and commerce have not augmented, does not exceed two 
 thousand inhabitants. 
 
 The island of Elba, not more than three leagues from 
 the continent, may be distinctly seen from Piombino. It 
 was subject in the thirteenth century to the Pisans ; it was 
 afterwards taken by tbe Genoese, and remained at differ- 
 ent times in the possession of the dukes of Milan, and the 
 king of the Two Sicilies, who ceded it to France in 1801. 
 The island contains fourteen thousand inhabitants ; it was 
 
 * “ Pontoiis.” 
 
 the residence of Napoleon, to whom it was given in sove- 
 reignty by the treaty of 1814, and who by quitting it on 
 the 25th of February, 1815, in order to return to France, 
 brought on that kingdom a second foreign invasion more 
 disastrous than the first. Porto Ferrajo, a fortified town 
 with a harbour on the northern coast, and containing five 
 thousand inhabitants, is the capital of the island. Porto 
 Longone, a small town of 1,500 inhabitants, is defended by ' '• 
 a fortress built on a rock ; its harbour is called the Marina. \ 
 
 Tuscany owes to Duke Leopold the prosperity which it 
 still enjoys ; that prince had corrected many abuses before 
 the year 1772 ; the convents were not nearly so numerous 
 as in other Italian states ; indeed the most useless orders 
 were abolished ; the Inquisition was rendered merely no- 
 minal ; the punishment of death was almost unknown, Tor 
 it was only once inflicted during his reign ; the system of 
 taxes was improved, and they were regularly paid ; indus- 
 try and commerce were freed from their shackles, and 
 education was encouraged among the lower orders, a class 
 of people that are kept in Italy in the most abject ignorance. 
 These improvements, which are honourable to the greatest 
 prince that ever governed T uscancy, prepared the people 
 to adopt without reluctance the French laws ; but during 
 the late changes, part of the old system has been amalga- 
 mated with the Napoleon code, the lands of religious com- 
 munities have been restored, new abuses have been intro- 
 duced, and the Tuscans, whose mildness is proverbial, 
 and who as a people are very easily satisfied, have ventur- 
 ed to complain. 
 
 During the fifth century, a Dalmatian stone-cutter, by 
 the name of Marino, whose piety induced him to preach 
 Christianity, built a hermitage on the coast of the Adriatic, 
 near the summit of Mount Titan. 0 His religious zeal pro- 
 cured for him the title of saint, and after his death, he re- 
 ceived the honours of canonization. A town rose in the 
 year 600, near the hermitage of San Marino, from which 
 it took its name. It was formed into a republic, fortifica- 
 tions were erected, and two or three small fortresses in the 
 neighbourhood, were in course of time acquired. The 
 popes took possession of the republic in 1739, a very in- 
 significant conquest, but the emperor of Germany restored 
 it to freedom. Enclosed by the states of the Holy See, it 
 is at present under the protection of the pope. This little 
 republic, which adopted the following protocol in writing 
 to that of Venice, Alla nostra carissima sorella, la Serenis- 
 sima republica di Venetia, occupies a surface of five square 
 leagues ; the town of San Marino, and two villages, are 
 contained in it. The wines, which are the principal pro- 
 ducts of its territory, supply its commerce. The sovereign- 
 ty is vested in a council of three hundred ancients, and the 
 executive power in a senate composed of twenty patricians, 
 twenty burgesses, and twenty peasants, whose presidents 
 are two gonfalonieri, elected every three months. These 
 two magistrates have a guard of thirty men, but if the free- 
 dom of the republic is endangered, every citizen becomes a 
 soldier. 
 
 b “ which are believed to be the remains of a temple, or the ruii s 
 
 of the ancient Vetulonia.” c It. Monte THtaiw. 
 
 -j 
 
BOOK CXXXV.J 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 BOOK ( WAV. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued. — Description of Italy. — Fifth Section . — 
 Description of the States of the Church. 
 
 Although the subjects of the different princes in Italy, 
 resemble each other in several particulars, we think it pro- 
 per to describe in a separate book, a state which, in a po- 
 litical point of view, differs from every other in Europe. 
 It is not uninteresting to contemplate an elective monarchy 
 having for its domain the earth, on which it only occupies 
 a point, and for its empire the heavens, from which it looks 
 on kings as its inferiors. It is not easy to define or even to 
 characterize such a power as that of Rome, which passes 
 for the most ancient in Europe. The papal tiara is adorn- 
 ed with a triple crown ; he who fills the throne, and wears 
 the diadem, is called the successor of St. Peter ; in general, 
 he may be as much entitled from his advanced age as from 
 his rank as prince of the church, to the homage and vene- 
 ration of his people, but he also claims the homage of kings 
 and all the powers on the earth. Is it as the successor of 
 St. Peter that he is clothed in purple, that he wears the 
 emblems of royalty, that he has his soldiers, that justice is 
 administered in his name, and that he prevents crimes by 
 punishing the guilty 1 Are not the two powers with which 
 he is vested, incompatible with each other 1 Can the servant 
 of the servants of God appear without inconsistency in royal 
 pomp 1 Is it necessary that he should be one of the weak- 
 est princes in Christendom, in order, as the vicar of our 
 Saviour, to be greater than the kings of the earth 1 Such 
 are the reflections which naturally occur in considering the 
 pope as uniting the sovereign power with his dignity as 
 chief of the church. But what appears an anomaly at a 
 time when governments and powers are defined, might, in 
 the early ages of Christianity, have resulted from the course 
 of events, and from the force of circumstances. 
 
 The supremacy of the apostolic see of Rome over the 
 other churches, dates from a very remote period. Irenaeus, 
 bishop of Lyons, in the second century, and Cyprian, bishop 
 of Carthage in the following century, admitted it as an in- 
 contestable point, without, however, deducing all the conse- 
 quences which were afterwards derived. Before the period 
 that Italy was invaded by Pepin, the popes had no political 
 power, no temporal possessions. The pretended donation 
 made by Constantine to Silvester the First, has been con- 
 sidered fabulous by the most able critics and by the Ultra- 
 montanes themselves.® Pepin, mayor of the palace of Chil- 
 deric the Third, wishing to maintain his usurpation by the 
 consent of the nation, and the authority of the church, con- 
 sulted solemnly pope Zachary, who answered, like the ora- 
 cles of old, that the sovereignty belonged to him who exer- 
 
 cised the royal power. Such an answer satisfied the scru- 
 ples of the minister; his master was confined in a convent, 
 and he himself was proclaimed king by the French. But 
 when Pepin had expelled the Lombards from the exarchate 
 of Ravenna, he gave it from a motive of gratitude or policy 
 to pope Stephen the Second. The donation was afterwards 
 ratified by Charlemagne, who added to it the Perugino and 
 the dutchy of Spoleto. The bishops of Rome being raised 
 to the rank of temporal princes, were no longer destitute of 
 ambition ; it was not, however, before their spiritual power 
 reached its height, that they extended their dominions. 
 The emperor Henry the Third gave them the dutchy of 
 Benevento in the eleventh century ; Matilda, countess of 
 Tuscan)', bequeathed to the Holy See, in the twelfth cen- 
 tury, the territories of Bolsena, Bagnarea, Monte-Fiascone, 
 Viterbo, Civita Castellana, Corneto, Civita Vecchia and 
 Bracciano, possessions which form what is called the Pa- 
 trimony of St. Peter. Rome, then merely the residence of 
 the popes, belonged to the empire ; it was divided by repub- 
 lican factions. Men possessing qualities that were ill adapt- 
 ed to the spirit of the age, attempted vainly to establish a 
 free government. Rome and the contiguous province of 
 Sabina were not included in the domains of the Holy See, 
 until the end of the fourteenth century. Lewis Gonzaga, 
 general of Clement the Seventh, united the March of An- 
 cona to the States of the Church in 1532. The dutchy 
 of Urbino, which belonged to the family of Julius the Se- 
 cond, became the possession of the popes in 1626. The 
 latest conquests the popes made, were the Orvietano, the 
 dutchy of Castro, and the county of Ronciglione. The 
 two last principalities were the inheritance of pope Paul 
 the Third, and he left them to his son Farnese, who be- 
 came duke of Parma and Placentia ; but one of his de- 
 scendants mortgaged them at the Mount of Piety in Rome, 
 •for a sum which he was unable to pay, and Innocent the 
 Eleventh took possession of them. 
 
 The part which the pope took, as temporal prince of 
 the church, in the European coalitions against France, 
 was attended with disastrous consequences ; it is by no 
 means improbable, that if Napoleon had retained his power, 
 the popes might have been reduced to their ancient con- 
 dition under the eastern empire. The invasion of Lom- 
 bardy and the States of the Church by the French, forced 
 Pius the Sixth to conclude a treaty on the nineteenth of 
 June, 1796. It was stipulated that he should cede to France 
 a certain number of statues, vases and pictures, and five 
 hundred manuscripts to he selected by the commissaries of 
 there public, that he should pay a contribution of 800,000Z, b 
 
 » J. Lesueur, Histoirede l’Eglise et de 1’ Empire, tom. ii.— Histoire de la 
 
 d^livrance de l’Eglise, par le P. Morin. — Dictionnaire de Moreri, art. Syl 
 I vestre. b “ 21 millions francs.” 
 
110 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK cxxxv 
 
 that he should grant a free passage to the French troops, 
 and that he should open his ports to French vessels, and 
 shut them against the ships of every state at war with the 
 French republic. The treaty was soon broken by the 
 pope himself; fortune seemed to declare against France, 
 and Pius the Sixth took possession of F errara on the thirty 
 first of January, in the following year. A letter intercept- 
 ed by Buonaparte proved that his holiness was treating with 
 the emperor of Germany ; but at the approach of the con- 
 queror, new conditions were proposed by the Holy See. 
 The sum of thirty-six millions of francs or 1,500,000/. was 
 exacted by the French generalissimo, and the other terms 
 of the former treaty were anew concluded. But the as- 
 sassination of the French general Duphot, at Rome, at the 
 close of the same year, furnished the Directory with a pre- 
 text for overturning the Papal government. General Ber- 
 thier received orders to march against Rome, and the states 
 of the Holy See were transformed into a republic. When 
 the French left Italy, the ephemeral republic fell of its own 
 accord. The Roman states, in consequence of new politi- 
 cal combinations, were united to the crown of Italy in 
 1808. By a decree of Feb. 17, 1810, they were included 
 within the limits of the French Empire, and Rome and 
 Pai'is were then fixed as places of residence lor the pope. A 
 new revolution was the result of the events in 1814, and 
 Pius the Seventh recovered all the former possessions of the 
 church. 
 
 The Roman states are bounded by the Adriatic Sea on 
 the east, by the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom on the north, 
 by the dutchies of Tuscany and Modena on the west, by 
 the Mediterranean on the south-west, and by the kingdom 
 of Naples on the south. Their extent is equal to ninety- 
 live leagues in one direction, and to twenty-five in the other ; 
 the ir surface is equal to about two thousand two hundred and 
 forty square leagues. The ancient denominations, such as 
 dutchies, counties and others already mentioned, by which 
 the different provinces were distinguished, have been abolish- 
 ed ; the country is now divided into three districts and 
 seventeen legations.® The example of the French adminis- 
 tration has been the means of occasioning reforms in the 
 laws, in the administration of justice, and in the distribution 
 of taxes; much, however, still remains to be done, and it 
 is to be feared that the popes will never be able to establish 
 within their dominions, the moral improvement, the love of 
 industry, and other good qualities of which the Roman 
 people might perhaps be susceptible under a different* go- 
 vernment. To form an idea of the manners and govern- 
 ment of the people in the Roman states, it is only necessary 
 to visit the capital. 
 
 The ordinary method of life at Rome, may be termed a 
 long lent, so much attention do all the inhabitants pay to 
 the exterior duties of religion. That large city, which 
 might contain three times more than its present population, 
 has a sombre appearance, rendered still more striking by 
 large squares, spacious and deserted streets, numerous 
 monks and priests, and the majestic ruins which are seen 
 at every step. The very market places are almost as much 
 deserted on market days as the rest of the town. But the 
 
 * 13 delegations — Statist. T able, p. 819. 
 
 b Confetti di gesso, plaster comfits — pieces of pozzolana covered with 
 plaster of Paris. — P. 
 
 c “ Horses without riders, goaded by plates of metal covered with 
 
 points and by a lighted match inserted between the skin and the flesh, start 
 from the Piazza del Popolo and traverse the Corso ” The goads arc balls 
 covered with sharp spikes of metal (Rome in the 19th century.) — P. 
 
 stillness is changed into noisy mirth at the time of the car- 
 nival ; Rome is no longer the same city, all ranks are then 
 confounded, the churches are deserted, and the streets can 
 hardly contain the inhabitants, all of whom leave their 
 houses, and join in the joyous throng. . On these days of 
 folly are seen young abbes, grave magistrates, and even 
 prelates, covered with masks, and in quest of pleasures, 
 which may be easily found, for both sexes are persuaded 
 that a few moments of error are fully expiated by the peni- 
 tence and holy privations of lent. Tumultuous crowds as- 
 semble in the Corso, which is on these occasions lined with 
 two files of carriages ; pieces of tapestry and other orna- 
 ments are suspended from every window ; confetti or small 
 fragments of puzzolana, dipt in lime water to imitate sugar 
 plums, b are thrown against the foot passengers and the equi- 
 pages, followed by the shouts and applause of a multitude in 
 masks of every colour. At a given signal, — the report of a 
 cannon, the middle and the greater part of the Corso are 
 cleared : horses without riders are seen in full gallop ; tin- 
 sel glittering about their manes and tails ; ribbons with 
 burning matches, streaming in the wind ; sparks flying from 
 their back, sides and every part of their body ; thus galled 
 and tormented, the frightened animals run at full speed. 0 
 The follies of the carnival, which may be compared to the 
 lupercalia of the ancient Romans, are accompanied with 
 other diversions on the night of Shrove Tuesday ; men, 
 
 I women and children run about the streets with lighted 
 tapers d in their hands, and pursue each other in order to 
 extinguish them. Every equipage must also be illuminated, 
 otherwise it might be broken by the populace. The same 
 customs were observed in ancient Rome during the festival 
 of Ceres seeking for her daughter Proserpine. 
 
 It might be naturally imagined that the police are care- 
 less or useless in a capital, where government, instead of 
 punishing, negociates with bandits ; it must be admitted, 
 however, that there are few towns where the police are 
 more efficient or better regulated than at Rome ; no dis- 
 turbances in the streets, no robberies, none of the petty 
 larcenies so common in great towns ; it seldom or never 
 happens that handkerchiefs and watches are stolen. It 
 cannot be denied that stilettos are sometimes used, but it is 
 from jealousy, not from avarice or desire of gain. The 
 streets of Rome are not sullied by the degraded beings, to- 
 lerated in other towns as a necessary evil, and the sight of 
 whom serves to tempt the wicked, and to offend the virtuous. 
 Public women are banished without any scruple, or at all 
 events they can never be distinguished by indecent effrontery. 
 It may be mentioned to the honour of the papal govern- 
 ment, that it has done much to suppress licentiousness and 
 immorality by encouraging marriages. Marriage licences, 
 says an author, are granted with as much facility as pass- 
 ports, and as soon as these licences are presented, the curates 
 must read the marriage ceremony, and pronounce the nup- 
 tial benediction. He who seduces a young woman, is obliged 
 to marry her, or to pass five years of his life in the gallies. 
 
 The church condemns usury, but it permits the cardinals 
 to enjoy the most unjust monopolies. They only are per- 
 mitted to sell the necessaries of life, 6 such as oil, groce- 
 
 •* Moccoletti. 
 
 e This is not stated in the original, but merely that cardinals are per- 
 mitted to exercise monopolies in the sale of these articles. Others are noi 
 prevented from selling by legal prohibitions, but by the vexatious interfe- 
 rence of the cardinals or their agents. — P. 
 
bookcxxxv.] DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. Ill 
 
 ries, corn, flour and bread. The grocers and bakers are 
 merely their agents, or if any wish to exercise their in- 
 dustry on their own account, they are exposed to vexatious 
 oppression. Besides, government regulates the price of 
 bread for the nominal and ostensible reason that the people 
 may not pay too dear for it, but if any baker attempts to 
 sell it under the regulated price, he may be liable to a se- 
 vere penalty. Most governments are now aware of the 
 bad effects of lotteries ; at Rome, however, that iniquitous 
 tax is not only levied on an ignorant and wretched people, 
 but sanctioned by the ministers of religion, for tire tickets 
 are drawn in the presence of clergymen, bishops and car- 
 dinals ; a children turn the wheel, but before they do so, they 
 make the sign of the cross. Although lotteries are permit- 
 ted by the church, the same church prohibits games of 
 chance. 
 
 At Paris, gensdarmes guard the theatres, and are station- 
 ed in the public places during festivals ; at Rome, govern- 
 ment goes further : while the follies of the carnival last, 
 and while the theatres are opened, an executioner walks 
 gravely near his cavalletto, an instrument of punishment, 
 destined for those whose turbulent mirth passes the pre- 
 scribed rules on festive days, or for the critics who venture 
 to condemn or interrupt a theatrical representation. The 
 cavalletto consists of two boards joined to each other, and 
 forming two inclined planes ; it is supported on four wood- 
 en feet, and the two in front are lower than the others^ 
 Delinquents are placed horizontally, and bound to it, so as 
 to prevent their escape, while the executioner inflicts a cer- 
 tain number of lashes. Vintners b must submit to the same 
 punishment, if animal food, or any dishes that are not per- 
 mitted, appear on their tables during lent. The strappado 
 is an instrument of punishment for greater offences ; the 
 hands of the criminal are tied behind his back, he is raised 
 into the air by means of a rope, and allowed to fall sudden- 
 ly to the ground. The assassin is punished by death, but 
 not until he has remained several days in a dungeon, the 
 victim of suspense, and ignorant of his sentence ; he is then 
 compelled to listen to the exhortations of a priest, to con- 
 fess and to communicate. Three days after these cere- 
 monies have taken place, the criminal is executed ; but if 
 he refuses the consolations of religion, he is beset by all the 
 monks and priests belonging to the different congregations , 0 
 until he confess, and if he persists in his refusal, he cannot 
 be punished without an order from the pope. The torture 
 has been abolished, and the Italian or national language 
 has been substituted for the Latin in the civil and ecclesi- 
 astical courts, since the accession of Leo the Twelfth. 
 
 The government of the Roman States, consists of cardi- 
 nals who fill certain offices, and laymen to whom different 
 places in the magistracy and army are committed, all of 
 them subject to the absolute authority of the pope. The 
 principal offices filled by cardinals, are that of the Camer- 
 lingo, or minister of finance, who presides in the Apostolic 
 chamber, or council entrusted with the revenue of the state ; 
 that of the secretary of state, who corresponds with the 
 nuncios and legates, and whose office is similar to that of 
 minister for foreign affairs in other governments ; that 
 of the Datario, who is entrusted with the nomination to va- 
 
 a “ Cardinals and heads of congregations.” >> Restaurateurs. 
 
 c “ He is charged with all that relates to the public morals, and the Jews.” 
 
 d “ by all the religious congregations.” 
 
 e “ Who is intrusted with the department of justice, and with the ex- 
 amination of candidates for the episcopate.” 
 
 f Those who have committed unpremeditated murder are entitled to 
 
 cant benefices, with dispensations and with anrmts.; that of 
 the vicar, who besides the episcopal functions which he ex- 
 ercises in Rome, performs the duties of minister of the police, 
 watches over the inhabitants, punishes transgressors, and 
 enforces the laws against the Jews ; d that of the chancellor, 
 whose office is sufficiently indicated by its title ; that of the 
 auditor, who administers justice, decides intricate law- 
 suits, and examines those that are appointed to dioceses 
 and lastly, that of the secretary of briefs, who is charged 
 with issuing all the papal dispensations. Different assem- 
 blies of cardinals are called consistories or congregations. 
 The members of the consistories deliberate concerning the 
 nomination of nuncios, legates and bishops. The mem- 
 bers of the congregations pass sentence on murderers, who 
 claim the right of asylum or impunity after having taken 
 refuge in a church ; f they examine the complaints of the 
 people against their governors, the claims of those who so- 
 licit titles of nobility, and other questions of a like nature. 
 The congregation of rites regulates the ceremonies of the 
 church, and confers after the usual forms the honours of 
 canonization. The chief of these congregations is the In- 
 quisition or Santo Uffizio, which is assisted by the Index or 
 council of censors. An assembly of cardinals forms the 
 tribunal called Segnatura di Giustizia, a court that reviews 
 the decisions of inferior judges.® The pope presides in the 
 Segnatura di Grazia, a tribunal composed of prelates and 
 cardinals, which examines the petitions of supplicants, and 
 the cases in which the royal prerogative of mercy may be 
 extended with advantage. The Rota , a tribunal compo- 
 sed of lay judges, h takes cognisance of civil cases in the 
 first instance ; the administration of justice in criminal ca- 
 ses falls within the department of the governor of Rome. 
 Two Considta or courts of appeal are established in the 
 Roman states, the one in the capital, the other at Bologna. 
 The senator and his four lieutenants form another lay tri- 
 bunal, and the conservatori are magistrates entrusted with 
 whatever concerns the interests of the city ; they regulate 
 the distribution of the taxes 1 in the chief town of every dis- 
 trict. 
 
 Superstition prevails not only at Rome but in all the 
 States of the Church. The inhabitants observe scrupu- 
 lously all the ceremonies of religion* omitting nothing con- 
 nected with form or etiquette, although apparently destitute 
 of true devotion. Confession is a practice which all follow, 
 more from custom than Christian humility, and rather to 
 lull the conscience than to correct vice. A lady meets her 
 lover in a church ; they may be alone, and it often happens 
 that the churches are deserted ; but she never speaks or 
 even looks at him, until she has counted all the beads in her 
 chaplet. The people kneel and receive the benedictions 
 of the pope ; it is not at Rome, however, that the chief ot 
 the church is thought to participate in the divine power ; 
 what he gains in temporal, he loses in spiritual authority. 
 As soon as Easter is over, the curates demand from their 
 parishioners certificates of communion, and if any do not 
 present them, their names are added to the lists of the ex- 
 communicated. Although the subjects of the papal go- 
 vernment must rigorously observe the ceremonies of devo- 
 tion, strangers enjoy the utmost freedom : no processes are 
 
 the privilege of immunity if they have taken refuge in a church. The con- 
 gregation of ecclesiastical immunity investigates the claims of such persons 
 to immunity. — P. 
 
 g II performs the functions of a Supreme Court of Appeal. — P. 
 
 h The civil tribunal called the Rota.” The members of the Rota, 
 
 called auditors, are prelates ex officio. — P. » “ Les dhpcnscs du budjet.” 
 
112 EUI 
 
 raised against foreigners, who do not deck their houses with 
 tapestry on Corpus Chrisli day, and it is not necessary that 
 f hey should take off their hats, if they see a cross or the 
 viaticum in the streets. Lastly, whatever a man’s religious 
 belief may be, he may be assured of having his body trans- 
 ported to the church after death, provided payment be 
 made, and of being interred with all the honours and pomp 
 used by the Romish communion. 
 
 It is needless to make any remarks on the cicisbei or ca- 
 vnlieri serventi ; they are as common in Rome as in the 
 other large towns of Italy ; during the residence of the 
 French, these lovers were rendered ridiculous, and intrigues 
 were substituted for the contracts which good natured hus- 
 bands made with the gentlemen that their ladies loved. 
 Foreigners who have lately returned from Rome, admit 
 that the old custom is again becoming fashionable, a natu- 
 ral consequence in a country where the beneficial effects of 
 education are unknown, and where it does not tend to im- 
 prove the morals. 
 
 A government wholly pacific like that of Rome, might 
 console itself for its political nullity, by encouraging and 
 protecting letters, sciences and arts, but an intellectual dead- 
 ness seems to pervade the Roman states. The sciences 
 are less cultivated than in the rest of Italy, and the town 
 which contains inexhaustible treasures for the archaeologist, 
 possesses no antiquarian worthy of being compared with 
 many in Germany and France. The literary academies 
 in Rome are more obscure than other societies of the same 
 sort in the French provinces. The stage cannot flourish 
 in a town where the tragedies of Alfieri are not permitted 
 to be acted, and where the theatres are only open a few days 
 before and after the carnival ; and although prelates appear 
 at theatrical representations, it would be much better to 
 prohibit such amusements, than to sanction a criminal 
 mutilation in the holy city, by substituting castrati for singing 
 women. No name worthy the best days of Italian paint- 
 ing exists at present in the Roman school, and were it not 
 for the ancient chefs-d'oeuvre in which Rome abounds, the 
 French academy of the fine arts might as well be establish- 
 ed in any other town. Mosaic painting is the only art in 
 which the Romans excel. The people in the upper classes 
 are as indolent and ill informed as the present Venetian no- 
 bles ; the reading of the young people is mostly confined 
 to the romances of Voltaire, and the girls, in order to make 
 up for the time lost in a convent, read frivolous and danger- 
 ous works. The lower orders in the town can read and 
 write, but such knowledge is by no means common in the 
 rural districts. 
 
 Enough has been already said concerning the manners 
 and customs of the inhabitants in the capital of the Roman 
 states ; some remarks may now be made on the most re- 
 markable ancient and modern monuments that are con- 
 tained in the same place. Rome stands in the middle of a 
 large plain, which extends from the Appennines to the sea ; 
 that plain was formerly fertile, but it is now comparatively 
 sterile. On first entering the town, one can hardly believe 
 himself in the former capital of the Roman empire, so dif- 
 ferent is papal from imperial Rome. The ancient city is 
 partly concealed by the modern, but some scattered mo- 
 numents of the former still remaining, notwithstanding the 
 ravages of time, barbarians and Christians, attest its past 
 
 a The cella of the temple is now half buried, and therefore the upper 
 part of the ancient walls forms the lower part of the walls of the church. 
 (Rome in the 19th cent.) 
 
 U "E. [BOOK CXXXV. 
 
 existence. The modern soil is so much higher than the 
 ancient, that the Tarpeian rock does not exceed at present 
 twenty-five or thirty feet in height, and the pavement of a 
 small church, built at the foot of the Palatine hill, is exactly 
 on a level with the roof of an ancient temple 3 erected on 
 the spot where Romulus and Remus were supposed to have 
 been suckled by a wolf. It was necessary to remove the 
 soil to the depth of twenty-feet, in order to uncover the base 
 of Tra jan’s pillar. More than half the pedestal of the tri- 
 umphal arch of Constantine was covered with earth, which 
 had also to be removed before a correct judgment could 
 be formed of a monument that has suffered little from the 
 effects of time, and which although raised in a period when 
 art was on the decline, is nevertheless highly interesting to 
 the antiquary. The fine Egyptian obelisk loaded with hie- 
 roglyphics, and cut by order of Raineses, thirteen centu- 
 ries before the Christian era, was covered with sixteen feet 
 of earth amidst the ruins of the great circus, before it was 
 disinterred in the time of Sixtus the Fifth, and transported 
 to the square of St. John Lateran. The soil reached to 
 more than half the height of the principal gate in the arch 
 of Septimius Severus. Many monuments that still remain 
 of ancient Rome, were cleared by the F rench government, 
 which did more in a few years than most of the popes, to 
 restore them to the admiration of modern artists. 
 
 The Pantheon, a temple erected by Agrippa to all the 
 £ods, is perhaps the finest monument of ancient Rome, and 
 certainly the one in the best state of preservation. The 
 hemispherical dome, is equal in height to its diameter, as if 
 the architect had wished to imitate the rottmdity of the 
 celestial sphere. The interior of the edifice is a hundred 
 and thirty-seven feet in diameter, and the light enters it by 
 a circular opening eighty feet in circumference. Adorned 
 with a magnificent portico, composed of sixteen granite 
 columns, and crowned with a pediment supported on eight 
 columns, it was easily changed into a church. The tombs 
 of Raphael and Annibal Caracci, the busts of Palladio, 
 Winckelmann and Nicholas Poussin, are now seen instead 
 of the heathen gods that were formerly stationed in the 
 Pantheon. The Rotonda is the modern name of the edi- 
 fice, and the stranger ascends by steps to the circular open- 
 ing in the roof. The dome was covered with bronze in 
 the time of the Roman power ; Constantius the Second 
 was the first who took part of it away, and sent it to Syra- 
 cuse ; the rest was employed in constructing the famous 
 Baldacchino of St. Peter’s, and in making the cannon which 
 defend at present the castle of St. Angelo. 
 
 The Flavian amphitheatre which has been called the 
 Colosseum or Coliseum, from its gigantic proportions, is 
 not in so good a state of preservation as the Pantheon, be- 
 cause it was impossible to change it into a church ; but the 
 people have had some respect for the edifice, since Pius the 
 Sixth erected a large cross in the middle of the arena, and 
 fifteen altars to the memory of the martyrs, who are be- 
 lieved to have perished within the enclosure. Twelve thou- 
 sand Jews, whom Vespasian made captives, and brought 
 to Rome after the taking of Jerusalem, commenced the 
 edifice, which cost at first a sum equal to 2,083,500/. h and 
 which was finished by Titus. The outer part of the build- 
 ing exceeds fourteen hundred feet in circumference ; c the 
 interior is five hundred and eighty in length, and four hun- 
 
 t> “50,000,000 francs.” 
 
 c “ Exterior circumference 1000 feet.” (?) The amphitheatre is above 
 1000 feet in circumference. (Ed. Encyc.) 
 
DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 113 
 
 BOOK CXXXV.] 
 
 dred and eighty in breadth. It is said that it could contain 
 80,000 spectators, but from calculations which appear to 
 be more accurate, the number has been reduced to forty- 
 four thousands When Titus opened the amphitheatre for 
 the first time, the arena was crowded with an incredible 
 number of wild animals of every sort, — foxes, lions, tigers, 
 elephants, stags and gazelles ; more than five thousand 
 were destroyed in a single day. The arena was sometimes 
 changed into a lake twenty feet deep ; the water flowed 
 through eighty openings, and the people were thus present- 
 ed with the spectacle of a naval combat. It is customa- 
 ry to visit the Vatican, when illumined with torches, arid 
 the Coliseum by moon light ; and certainly, the pale light 
 of the moon heightens greatly the effect of the vast amphi- 
 theatre ; the imagination may conceive the ghosts of gla- 
 diators issuing from the vomitories, or the shades of captives 
 that perished before a people accustomed to barbarous 
 spectacles. 
 
 The Vatican, which is contiguous to the church of St. 
 Peter, is said to be built on the site of Nero’s palace. It 
 consists of several edifices that occupy a much greater sur- 
 face than both the Tuileries and the Louvre. The interior 
 is divided into twenty courts, and as many porticos, eight 
 large, and two hundred smaller stair-cases, and twelve hun- 
 dred apartments. b The great stair-case, which leads to 
 the gallery of antiques, served as a model for the one in the 
 Louvre, to which most judges give the preference. The 
 chapel of the Vatican, or the famous Sistine chapel, is rich- 
 ly decorated, and its finest ornament is the celebrated paint- 
 ing in fresco of the last judgment, by Michael Angelo. The 
 library contains seventy thousand volumes, and forty thou- 
 sand manuscripts. In the same palace are seen the school 
 of Athens, and the other fresco paintings of Raphael. A 
 small building which communicates with the Vatican, by 
 two long galleries, and which commands a fine view of Rome, 
 and the neighbouring country as far as the Appennines, has 
 on that account been called Belvedere. In the same build- 
 ing, and in a much better situation than in the Louvre, is 
 placed the statue of the Apollo, — the chef-d’oeuvre of an- 
 cient sculpture ; the Laocoon, the Torso and the Antinous 
 are seen in adjoining apartments. 
 
 The Vatican is the residence of the Pope in winter, and 
 the Quirinal palace in summer. Although the form of the 
 latter edifice may be irregular, it has been much admired 
 for the magnificence of the interior, the fine view from it, 
 and the beauty of the gardens. It was reserved, under the 
 French imperial government, for the young prince who re- 
 ceived the title of king of Rome. The palace derives its 
 name from the Quirinal hill, on the summit of which it 
 stands. It has also been called the palace of Monte- 
 Cavalluf because in front of it are two groups of marble 
 statues, each representing a horse of colossal proportions, 
 and a youth seventeen feet in height, who appears to sub- 
 due it. The two groups are ancient, but it is not probable 
 that they are the works of Phidias and Praxiteles, as might 
 be inferred from the names on the pedestals. An Egyptian 
 obelisk of red porphyry rises between them, and a fountain, 
 which discharges its waters into a basin of oriental granite, 
 seventy-six feet in circumference, adorns the centre of the 
 square. 
 
 a Simond’s Travels in Italy. 
 
 b Number of apartments 10,000 (Ed. Encyc.) — 13, 000 (Carter’s Letters.) 
 
 c Monte Cavallo is the modern name for the GLuirinal hill. — P. 
 
 J The column on the left was the first mile stone on the Appian way ; 
 the other is a modern one made in imitation of it. — P. 
 
 VOL. Ill— NO. 45. 15 
 
 Modern Rome has also its Capitol, but it is no longer 
 the Capitol which the masters of the world ascended to re- 
 turn thanks to Jupiter the Thunderer, whose temple com- 
 manded the city ; near it rose the Tabularium, a sacred 
 edifice in which were deposited the decrees of the senate 
 engraved on tables of bronze. The modern Capitol is an 
 insignificant hill, styled by corruption the Campidoglio, and 
 the buildings on it are the residences of the municipal ma- 
 gistrates. A flight of steps, planned by Michael Angelo, 
 leads to the top of the hill. Two antique lions of basalt 
 guard the foot of the stairs, and two naked colossi the top ; 
 the latter were dug out of the banks of the Tiber, two hun- 
 dred and fifty years ago. Each holds a prancmg horse, 
 colossal too, and yet scarcely reaching to the waist of its 
 gigantic master. These figures, which are but of indiffe- 
 rent workmanship, have been styled Castor and Pollux. 
 On a line with them are two mutilated trophies, two sta- 
 tues of the sons of Constantine, and lastly, at the extremi- 
 ties of the balustrade two milliary boundaries ; d the stone, 
 No. I. on the Appian way, was formerly placed at the end 
 of the first mile, but it stands now at the beginning. 6 The 
 square or piazza , to which the stair leads, is regularly built 
 on three sides ; the palace of the senator occupies the front, 
 that of the Conservatori the right side, and the museum of 
 antiquities the left. These buildings are also the work of 
 Michael Angelo, and by his direction the bronze statue of 
 Marcus Aurelius, the finest ancient equestrian statue in ex- 
 istence, and the only one that has been found at Rome, was 
 placed in the middle of the square. 
 
 The tower of the senator’s palace commands a vast space 
 covered with ruins, now the Campo Vaccino or cow-mar- 
 ket, formerly the Forum Romanum. “ From this elevated 
 station, about two hundred feet above the Forum,” says 
 Simond, “ the eloquent voice of Cicero might have been 
 heard, revealing to his assembled countrymen the conspira- 
 cies of a Cataline. He might even have been heard in the 
 tribune of Harangues, situated on the other side of the Fo- 
 rum, and next to the Temple of Jupiter Stator, — taking the 
 oath that had saved the country, and all the people repeat- 
 ing the same oath after him. But the gory head and hand 
 of this saviour of his country, might have been seen from 
 the same station, soon after nailed to the side of the same 
 tribune, and the same people tamely looking on ! Instead 
 of contending crowds of patriots, conspirators, orators, he- 
 roes and fools, each acting his part, I only saw a few cows 
 quietly picking up blades of grass among the ruins ; beg- 
 gars and monks, and asses loaded with bags of puzzolana, 
 and a gang of galley slaves, lazily digging for antiquities 
 under the lash of a task master.” f The gulf of Curtius 
 may recal the patriotic devotion of a generous Roman, but 
 it does not deserve at present the name of a pond. g 
 
 The Antonine column, 11 surmounted with a statue of St. 
 Paul, rises near Monte Citorio. The tomb of Adrian on 
 the banks of the Tiber, has become the castle of St. Ange- 
 lo. The bridge which leads to it, and which bears the 
 same name, was the ancient yElian bridge, 1 built bv Adrian ; 
 the two statues at the entrance are those of St. Peter and 
 St. Paul, the others represent angels. 
 
 We may leave these ancient monuments, disfigured by 
 bad taste and religious zeal, and direct our steps to the 
 
 e Simond’s Travels in Italy. 
 
 ( Ibid. 
 
 g The Lake of Curtius, not the gulf — P. 
 
 h The Triumphal Column of Marcus Aurelius — P. 
 
 ' Pons Aolius. 
 
114 EUR( 
 
 master work of modern Rome, the largest Christian temple 
 in the world. One fault in the church of St. Peter may be 
 mentioned ; the principal front instead of resembling that 
 of a temple, looks more like the front of a showy palace. 
 The dimensions of the building are so great that the mag- 
 nificent cupola does not seem to form any part of it, but 
 appears like the dome of another edifice. The area in front 
 of St. Peter’s, “ is not less remarkable than the church ; it 
 is surrounded by two semicircular porticos, and terminates 
 in an avenue that extends to the front of the building, thus 
 forming two piazzas, of which the total length is not less 
 than a thousand feet. The portico is surmounted by ninety- 
 two statues of saints, about nine or ten feet in height ; the pro- 
 portions of the portal accord so well with the objects which 
 surround it, that its great size is not at first obvious, neither 
 do the pillars appear very large, although they are not less 
 than eight feet three inches in diameter. The dimensions 
 of the front 6 are equal to three hundred and sixty -six feet ; 
 the entrances to the church are five doors, under a portico 
 four hundred and forty-eight feet long, and thirty-nine 
 broad. The extremities of the portico form two vestibules, 
 in one of which may be seen the equestrian statue of Con- 
 stantine, and in the other that of Charlemagne, both of 
 whom Rome considers its benefactors. 
 
 The form of St. Peter’s is that of a Latin cross ; those 
 who enter it for the first time, are less struck with the size 
 of the building than the profusion of mosaics and marbles ; 
 the length, however, is equal to five hundred and sixty-five 
 feet, and the height to a hundred and thirty-six. The or- 
 naments are so splendid as to be dazzling, and they are 
 arranged with more ostentation than taste. It might also 
 be urged that the light is too great ; were it less vivid it 
 would be more in unison with the purpose of the building, 
 and more inviting to retirement and devotion ; it would also 
 harmonize better with a finely painted window 0 at the up- 
 per end of the nave. The principal chapels are adorned 
 with mosaics after the models of the great masters. An 
 antique Giove Capitolino in bronze, was melted to supply 
 materials for a colossal figure of St. Peter, d a figure of bar- 
 barous workmanship, which has been placed in a recess. 
 The statue is always surrounded by devout persons, who 
 kiss with great fervour a projecting toe of the apostle, and 
 the metal has been actually worn off a full inch, by the 
 kisses of three hundred years. 
 
 The Baldacchino or famous canopy of bronze which 
 surmounts the high altar may give the stranger an idea of 
 the dimensions of the building. It is nearly ninety feet high, 0 
 exceeding the height of all the palaces in Rome except one ; 
 indeed the colonnade of the Louvre at Paris is somewhat 
 lower than the canopy, which in apoearance seems a mere 
 piece of furniture that might be pushed into a corner with- 
 out being missed/ The bronze used in constructing it, 
 weighed one thousand six hundred and sixty-six hundred- 
 weights/ and the gilding cost more than 10,000// It 
 stands below the cupola, the most remarkable part of the 
 building. The height of the cupola amounts to four hun- 
 dred and fifty feet, and the inner diameter to a hundred and 
 thirty. The twelve apostles are represented on the vault 
 in mosaics, and separated by groups of angels bearing the 
 instruments of the passion. Care has been taken in the 
 
 )PE l book cxxxv. 
 
 two most apparent parts of the church, to connect it with 
 the memory of the saint, to whom it is consecrated. Thus, 
 it is affirmed that the gilded balustrade placed before the 
 high altar, covers the tomb and the body of St. Peter, si- 
 tuated beneath it, in a subterranean church more ancient 
 than the Basilica. The upper end of the nave is decorated 
 with a splendid monument, — the pulpit of St. Peter, sup- 
 ported by four colossal figures of St. Ambrose, St. Augus- 
 tin, St. Athanasius and St. Chrysostom. According to 
 tradition, St. Peter used to sit in the arm chair now placed 
 in the pulpit ; it is made of wood, and inlaid with gold and 
 silver. The building was commenced in the year 1450, 
 and finished in 1 606. The sum expended on it, was equi- 
 valent to 10,291,700/.' 
 
 No other church in Rome can be compared with St. 
 Peter’s ; many, however, are remarkable for their orna- 
 ments or antiquity. The Romans consider San Giovanni 
 in Fontef not only the most ancient in Rome, but in Chris- 
 tendom ; it has also been designated the Baptistery of Con- 
 stantine, but the emperor was not baptized there, although 
 it is not improbable that he enriched it. To give a detail- 
 ed account of the other churches in the capital of the Chris- 
 tian world, would be a tedious and unnecessary task ; suf- 
 fice it to say that their number exceeds three hundred. 
 
 But the number of palaces is still greater ; their archi- 
 tecture has for the most part the character of solidity rather 
 than of elegance ; Vasi enumerates more than sixty-five 
 that are worthy of being visited. There are few of them 
 in which the emblems of poverty are not contrasted with 
 the trappings of pride. Strangers may admire fine paint- 
 ings of the Italian school, in a sumptuous hall with broken 
 windows. “ A massy gate,” says Simond, “ opens into the 
 body of a palace, which is not situated in a court ; the court, 
 on the contrary, being placed within the palace, enclosing it 
 on all sides. The stairs generally are near the gate, or under 
 an open portico in the court, so that visiters may always 
 alight under cover. The entrance being generally left open, 
 it becomes in consequence a common receptacle for filth. 
 I have heard it suggested,” he continues, “ that there may 
 be something of the Grandioso in the squalid court of a Ro- 
 man palace ; an odd idea, but not perhaps wholly ground- 
 less. The noble proprietor occupies but a small part of the 
 edifice, the rest being intended not for private comfort, but 
 for the display of wealth and grandeur, to be enjoyed by 
 an admiring multitude at all hours, and in their own way, 
 which is neither very refined, nor very cleanly.” 
 
 The country near Rome abounds with the remains of 
 antiquity. Near the gate of St. Paul, the pyramid or 
 tomb of Caius Cestius, announces the wealth of that ancient 
 Roman by its size, and by the paintings and ornaments in 
 the interior. At no great distance from it are the cata- 
 combs, — the burying place of unnumbered bodies, and the 
 grotto and the fountain where Numa used to meet the 
 nymph Egeria. It was to Tuscvlum that Cicero, Caesar 
 and Crassus fled from the noise and political intrigues of 
 ancient Rome ; Frascati rises near its ruins. Another 
 Horace might write a satire on Tivoli and its dirty streets, 
 rather than compose songs in their praise. The Roman 
 poet could no longer recognise that Tibur which afforded 
 him such delight, but he might still discover the remains of 
 
 s Piazza of St. Peter’s. i> “ Facade.” 
 
 c A circular window stained yellow, on which the Holy Spirit is repre 
 sentcd in the form of a dove. — P. 
 
 d It is said to be a real antique, not made from the materials of one. — P. 
 
 e “ 86 feet in height ; exactly the height of the colonnade of the Louvre.” 
 f Simond’s Travels in Italy. 
 
 s “ 186,392 lbs.” Fr. h “ The gilding cost 210,000 francs.’ 
 
 ' “ 247 millions francs.” '■ k St. John Lateran. 
 
 . . 
 
DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 115 
 
 BOOK CXXXV.] 
 
 two temples, the one dedicated to Vesta, the other to the 
 Sibyl ; he might also admire the situation of the town, and 
 its celebrated cascades, still worthy of his verses. A house 
 near Veletri, the ancient Velitrce, a town founded by the 
 Volsci, was sometimes the country residence of Augustus. 
 
 The Pontine marshes (Pomptince Paludes ) are now 
 more dangerous by their exhalations than in ancient times. 
 They were traversed by the Appian Way, the work of Ap- 
 pius Claudius, and the first undertaking by which that part 
 of the country was improved. They were partly drained 
 by Augustus, Trajan erected bridges and houses, and many 
 country seats were built there by the wealthy Romans. 
 The causes which rendered the Maremma unhealthy, pro- 
 duced the same effects on the Pontine marshes. The 
 country having been depopulated by the northern barbari- 
 ans, the waters remained without an outlet, and unwhole- 
 some miasms were diffused in the atmosphere. Those who 
 sleep in the open air, on the borders of the marshes, during 
 the heat of summer, seldom or never awake. Several 
 popes have attempted to drain them, and the last attempts 
 have not been wholly useless ; but to arrive at satisfactory 
 results, requires a government possessing more resources 
 and energy than that of Rome. The yellow complexions 
 and swollen legs of the inhabitants proclaim the nature of 
 the country ; it has been said that the people are never free 
 from fever, but it may be affirmed, without exaggeration, 
 that they are subject to it several months in the year. The 
 lower animals do not seem to suffer from the insalubrity of 
 the air ; the stags, wild boars, and buffaloes, are strong and 
 numerous. 
 
 Ostia, a town founded by Ancus Martius, the fourth 
 king of Rome, became an important place during the em- 
 pire, from its port at the mouth of the Tiber ; its trade, 
 now insignificant, consists in salt. The insalubrity of the 
 Pontine marshes extends to Ostia, and the cardinal, who 
 is bishop of it, takes care to reside at Rome. Civita Vec- 
 chia, a well built town, and the only commercial port which 
 the pope possesses on the Mediterranean, is not so unwhole- 
 some as Ostia. The pleasant town of Viterbo is situated 
 to the east of Civita Vecchia ; several popes are interred in 
 its cathedral. Orvieto, on the banks of the Paglia, stands 
 on a steep rock ; there is a pit near it, to which mules de- 
 scend and return by inclined planes ; it is lighted by a hun- 
 dred small windows. A number of fine basaltic columns 
 are situated in the neighbourhood. 
 
 Spoleto, on the road that leads to Foligno, contains seve- 
 ral remains of antiquity, among others, the ruins of a thea- 
 tre, and different ancient temples ; its old walls and towers 
 were perhaps erected by Narses, who drove the Goths from 
 the town. A fine aqueduct, five hundred feet in height, 
 and of Gothic architecture, was probably the work of The- 
 odoric. The industrious inhabitants in the small town of 
 Foligno, carry on a’ trade in paper, waxlights, and comfits. 
 
 Perugia, near the Tiber, was an ancient Etruscan city, a 
 and an important place long before Rome ; it resisted all 
 the power of Hannibal. Placed on the summit of a hill, 
 water is conveyed into it from Monte Pacciano, by pipes 
 which descend into a valley, and then ascend to the height 
 
 1 Perusia. 
 
 b The concordate between Francis I. and Leo X. was concluded Aug. 
 16, 1516. The king and the pope had their interview on the subject, Dec. 
 11 1515. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 They are said to amount to 200. (Ed. Encyc.) 
 
 of four hundred feet. Perugia was the birthplace of Pietro 
 Perugino, a distinguished painter, who claims the honour of 
 being the master of Raphael. The view from its ramparts 
 extends over a rich and varied surface. At the distance of 
 three leagues, on the side of a mountain, are seen aque- 
 ducts, temples and walls ; they are the walls of Assisi, the 
 native town of St. Francis, whose remains are still visited 
 by numerous pilgrims. 
 
 We may arrive at Bologna by following the windings of 
 the Appennines ; it is the second city in the States of the 
 Church, and the one, after Rome, that possesses the most 
 valuable collections. The concordate of 1515 b was signed 
 within its walls, by which Francis the First reserved to 
 himself the nomination to the principal benefices, and 
 granted to the pope the first year of their revenue. A great 
 many churches are contained in the town ; c there are be- 
 sides two old towers, more inclined than the one at Pisa, 
 which threaten destruction to the neighbouring houses. 
 The university, the museum of natural history and anti- 
 quities, which occupies twenty-six apartments, the library, 
 consisting of two hundred thousand volumes and many 
 manuscripts, the observatory worthy of being visited on ac- 
 count of its meridian line, d the botanical garden in which 
 numerous exotic plants have been collected, and two sci- 
 entific academies, render Bologna little inferior to the most 
 celebrated towns in Italy. 
 
 Ferrara, a place of less importance than Bologna, is the 
 most northern town in the States of the Church. The 
 streets are broad and straight, and one of them is equal to 
 two thousand yards in length. 6 The most remarkable edi- 
 fice is the Gothic palace, once the residence of the dukes 
 of Ferrara. Other monuments are connected with She 
 illustrious house of Este. The ashes of Ariosto rest in the 
 Lyceum, and in the hospital of St. Anne, may be seen the 
 place where, (under the pretext of madness,) Tasso was 
 seven years confined by Alphonso duke of F errara. 
 
 Marine deposits have gradually filled up the harbour, 
 which Augustus constructed at Ravenna ; the town is at 
 present two leagues distant from the sea. f The Rotonda, 
 a curious church, was constructed in order that the sarco- 
 phagus of Theodoric might be placed in it ; that monument 
 was destroyed in 1512 by the French; but the tomb of 
 Dante, near the cloister of the Franciscans, was decorated 
 about forty years ago by Cardinal Gonznga. Faenza has 
 given its name to the glazed earthen ware, which the French 
 call faience ; it was the birthplace of the celebrated Torri- 
 celli. Forli need only be mentioned for its cathedral and 
 regular streets. The town of Rimini, built on the shores 
 of the sea, was the place where the Flaminian and iEmili- 
 an roads terminated ; it contains several ancient remains, 
 among others a fine triumphal arch erected to Augustus, and 
 the bridge commenced by the same emperor, and finish- 
 ed by Tiberius. The church of San Francesco, finished 
 in 1450, was one of the first buildings in which the Roman 
 was substituted for the Gothic architecture. The small 
 town of Urbino boasts of having given birth to Raphael. 
 Ancona is seen to - st advantage from the sea ; it stands 
 on the side of a !*ui ; the citadel rises at one extremity, and 
 
 d The celebrated meridian line in Bologna is traced on the pavement of 
 the church of St. Petronius. — P. 
 
 « “ That of St. Benedict is one thousand toises in length.” 
 f The port is now filled up with the mud and sand thrown up by the 
 tide, which has formed a tract of land of three miles in extent, which sepa- 
 rates the town from the sea. (Ed. Encyc.) 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 116 
 
 the cathedra] at the other. The harbour extends in the 
 form of a semicircle ; the mole, which projects into the 
 sea, is sixty-eight feet in height and two thousand in length ; 
 the streets are for the most part narrow and crooked. A 
 triumphal arch was erected to Trajan, and at a later 
 period, another to Benedict the Fourteenth, by whom the 
 mole and the lazaretto were constructed. 
 
 Many, who visit Ancona, are induced to extend their 
 journey to Loretto, a small town on a hill that commands 
 the sea. It rose into celebrity from its statue of the vir- 
 gin, formerly an object of so great veneration that before 
 the Reformation, more than two hundred thousand pilgrims 
 came to it every year, and deposited their offerings at the 
 feet of the image. Loretto deserves a place in the history 
 of superstition. According to tradition, angels carried away 
 the house of the holy virgin at Nazareth, in the year 1291, 
 and placed it near Tersato in Dalmatia ; three years after- 
 wards, the same angels transported the same house to the 
 coast of Italy, and deposited it a thousand paces from the 
 sea, in the neighbourhood of Recanati. Eight months after- 
 wards, the house, which was solid, stationed itself a thou- 
 sand paces nearer the town ; it removed next to the lands 
 of a noble lady, called Lauretta, and fixed itself on the very 
 spot where Loretto has been since built. The house, still 
 adored by the people, is thirty-two feet in length, thirteen 
 in breadth, and eighteen in height ; many imagine it to be 
 without any foundation, and that it rests on the ground. 
 It was formerly a mere brick building ; it is now decorated 
 
 a Wardrobe ( armario sacro .) 
 
 *> Cupboard niched in the wall near the Virgin. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXX 
 
 and incrusted with Carrara marble. The cedar-wood 
 statue of the virgin stands above the fire-place in the east- 
 ern walls ; the garments with which the priests clothe the 
 statue, are kept in a chest ; a one of them, a red camlet 
 gown, is said to have been worn by Mary herself. The 
 earthen vessels which the holy family used, are deposited 
 in another chest ; b the window opposite the fire-place was 
 the one by which the angel Gabriel entered. The house, 
 which the inhabitants call the Casa Santa, stands in the 
 middle of a church, enriched with more costly treasures 
 than any other in the world. 
 
 Only four towns of any importance are situated between 
 Loretto and the Neapolitan frontiers, namely, Macerata 
 rising on a hill above a fruitful plain ; Fermo with a har- 
 bour much frequented by small vessels ; Camerino with an 
 archiepiscopal palace, a university, and silk manufacto- 
 ries ; lastly, Ascoli, the ancient Asculum, and the metro- 
 polis of a bishopric. 
 
 The popes possess besides two small territories in the 
 kingdom of Naples. Ponte Corvo on the banks of the 
 Carigliano, peopled by five thousand inhabitants, is the 
 chief town of the one, and the seat of a bishopric. Bene- 
 vento, the metropolis of an archbishopric, contains several 
 fine buildings, and the Porta Aurea, a marble triumphal 
 arch raised in honour of Trajan. c The first of these terri- 
 tories is enclosed by the Terra di Lavoro, and the last by 
 the Principato Ultra. 
 
 c The Porta aurea forms one of the entrances of the town. (Ed. 
 Encyc.'l 
 
book cxxxvi.] DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 117 
 
 BOOK CXXXVI. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued. — Description of Italy. — Sixth Section. 
 
 Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 
 
 The Liburni, a nation that emigrated from the Illyri- 
 an mountains, settled in the country between the Alps and 
 the Adige, about sixteen centuries before the vulgar era; but 
 abandoning that marshy soil, fatal to man, and difficult of 
 culture, they advanced southward along the shores of the 
 Adriatic, and established themselves in the region between 
 the mouth of the Chiento and the extremity of Calabria. 1 
 The principal branches of the Liburni were the Pcedicu- 
 li, the Apuli, and the Calabri. The names of some of their 
 tribes have given rise to considerable etymological research. 
 Court de Gebelin supposes that the Marrucini on the right 
 bank of the Pescara, were so called from the words mar 
 and ru, the former signifying high or lofty, and the latter, a 
 stream or rivulet. The Peligni dwelt in the Appennines, 
 and the word pal signifies an elevated place. The Fren- 
 tani, he affirms, derived their name from the word ren to 
 flow, because their country was watered by several rivers, 
 which descend to the Adriatic, but they might perhaps 
 have been so denominated from one of those rivers, the an- 
 cient Fronto, or the modern Termoli, b in the same manner 
 as the names of different tribes in North America were found 
 to be the same as those of rivers or mountains. Accord- 
 ing to some writers, the name of the Calabri was derived 
 from the eastern word calab, which signifies resin, because 
 their country was covered with pines. The territory to 
 the west of the Liburni, towards the gulf of Tarentum, was 
 called Messapia or Japygia. Mazzocchi makes a curious 
 remark on the subject, namely, that the oriental word mas- 
 sap signifies wind, and the Hebrew word japah, it blew ; 
 thus the roots from which the two ancient names have been 
 derived, are applicable even at the present day to the na- 
 ture of the country. The lands in the Appennines round 
 the lake Fudnus, c which occupies part of a i elevated basin, 
 were inhabited by the Marsi ; their name, says Court de 
 Gebelin, comes from mar, a height, and ci, water. They 
 were the neighbours of the Peligni. The Marsi, the Pelig- 
 ni, the Marrucini, and the Frentani, were not numerous, 
 but brave and warlike ; they resisted for a long time the 
 power of Rome. d 
 
 Samnium, the country of the Samnites, lay on the heights 
 and sides of the Appennines to the south of the territory 
 inhabited by the Marsi. The Greek geographer considers 
 the Samnites the descendants of the Sabini ; Court de Ge- 
 belin and La Martiniere arrive at the same conclusion from 
 the etymology of their name ; they might have been first 
 called Sabinites, then Sannites, and lastly, Samnites. The 
 
 a T lie extremity of Japygia ( Japygium Promontorium, Capo di Leu- 
 ca.) Encyc. Method. Geog. Anc. In ancient geography, Calabria was 
 synonymous with Japygia. It has now a very different application. — P. 
 
 cause of their separation from the Sabini does not appear 
 improbable ; Strabo mentions the tradition. According to 
 the custom of the most remote antiquity, the Sabini, (being 
 engaged in a war with the Ombri, their neighbours,) vowed 
 to consecrate to the gods whatever was produced within 
 their territory in the course of the year. Their efforts were 
 crowned with success, the animals and the crops were of- 
 fered a sacrifice to the gods, and a famine was the natural 
 consequence. One of the people remarked, that in order to 
 fulfil their vow, the children born during the year should also 
 be included in the offering ; these were accordingly devoted 
 to the god Mars. When arrived at the age of manhood, being- 
 compelled to expatriate themselves, they followed the chain of 
 the Appennines, and settled at twenty leagues distance from 
 their native land. They became a warlike and numerous 
 people, being able to put eighty thousand foot soldiers and 
 eight thousand horsemen under arms. Long the rivals of 
 the Romans, they were not wholly subdued, until the dicta- 
 tor Sylla, having vanquished them, was inhuman enough 
 to massacre in the field of Mars, the prisoners who had 
 been induced to surrender themselves by the conditions 
 which he himself had proposed. 
 
 “ I may mention,” says Strabo, “ an excellent law of the 
 Samnites, one well adapted to excite men to virtue. Fa- 
 thers have not the right of choosing husbands for their 
 daughters, but judges name twenty young persons, ten of 
 each sex, whom they consider more meritorious than the 
 rest ; the most deserving virgin becomes the wife of the 
 most deserving young man, the next is given to the next, 
 and so on until they are all married. But if a husband 
 who has received a prize, changes his mode of life, or from 
 being virtuous, becomes wicked, he is rendered infamous 
 and his wife is taken from him.” 6 
 
 Campania, a country to the east of Samnium, was cele- 
 brated in ancient times for its fertility and diversified sce- 
 nery ; in the same region was situated Capua, of which the 
 luxury was as fatal to the troops of Hannibal, as the plains 
 of Cannae had been to the Roman legions. The hills ol 
 Falernus beyond it, were covered with vineyards, while 
 the neighbourhood of Baia and Pozzuoli was adorned with 
 country houses, in which the degenerate Romans indulged 
 in effeminacy and luxury. 
 
 “ Vesuvius,” says Strabo, “ rises above these places, and 
 with the exception of its summit, the soil is very fruitful. 
 The summit, however, is sterile, and in appearance not 
 unlike a heap of ashes. It may be inferred from the cavi- 
 ties in iron coloured rocks, which appear to have been cal- 
 cined by fire, that the mountain was formerly a volcano, 
 
 b The modern Fortore. De Anville. c The modern Celano. 
 
 d Strabo, Book V. chapter 9. * Strabo, Book Y, chap. 10, sect. 2. 
 
113 EUROPE. [book cxxxvi. 
 
 containing fiery furnaces, which were extinguished, when 
 the materials that supplied them, were exhausted.” 1 11 It is 
 not a little remarkable to hear the Greek geographer speak 
 of Vesuvius, nearly in the same terms that a person of the 
 present day would apply to the extinguished volcanoes in 
 Auvergne. The fertility of Campania induced different 
 people to settle in it at ditferent periods ; it was inhabited 
 by the Opici and the Jlusones, before it was conquered by 
 the Osci, who were in their turn expelled by the Cymaeif 
 a Greek tribe that emigrated from vEolia, twelve centuries 
 before the vulgar era. After having built twelve towns, of 
 ivhich Capua was the capital, the Cymaei were vanquished by 
 the Samnites, who were themselves subdued by the Romans. 
 
 Lucania extended to the south-east of Campania from 
 the gulf of Salernum to that of Tarentum. The Lu- 
 cani, who inhabited the country, were a colony of the Sam- 
 nites. Justin, after Trogus Pompeius, gives the following 
 account of them. “ As soon as the young men among the 
 Lucani, arrive at the age of puberty, they are put out of the 
 towns, and sent to the woods among the shepherds ; there, 
 without assistance, without clothing, and without beds, they 
 are early accustomed to a laborious and frugal life ; they 
 have no other food than what they kill in the chase, no 
 other drink than the water from the stream. 0 Thus, they 
 are inured in youth to whatever is most irksome and pain- 
 ful in the life of a soldier.” At the time of their settling in 
 the country, the coasts of eastern Italy, as well as Sicily, 
 were peopled with Greek colonies, and their territory re- 
 ceived the name of Great Greece , d The neighbours of the 
 Lucani made war against those new settlers ; it was always 
 their policy to oppose their invasions on the maritime dis- 
 tricts. It was probably that policy which led to the de- 
 struction of Sybaris, a town situated at the mouth of the 
 Sybaris, now the Cosale. 6 It appears to have been of 
 eastern origin, at least Mentelle derives its name from the 
 word sheber, which in Hebrew signifies plenty. It is re- 
 markable that when the Sybarites had rebuilt the same 
 place, its Greek name, at first Thourion, then changed by 
 the Latins into Tkurium, and afterwards into Copia by the 
 Romans, retained always the same signification. Thor in 
 Chaldean signifies an ox, the emblem of agriculture ; and 
 Copia conveys the same idea of abundance. The country 
 of the Sybarites was rich and populous ; it contained no 
 fewer than twenty-five towns, and an army of thirty thou- 
 sand men could be raised in the event of a war. But the 
 wealth and effeminacy of the inhabitants were the causes 
 of their ruin. 
 
 The territory of Calabria was called Bretium or Brutium 
 by the ancients. According to Strabo, the Brelii or Brutii 
 who inhabited it, migrated from Lucania, but Court de 
 Gebelin considers the tradition doubtful, because the name 
 of Bretium appears to come from the Celtic word bret, a 
 forest. The Syrian word brula signifies a resinous tree ; 
 Brutium might therefore denote a country abounding with 
 pines. It has been already shown that the root of the word 
 Calabria signifies resin. Some degree of probability may 
 be attached to these etymologies, from the fact that they 
 correspond very exactly with the productions of the soil in 
 different parts of southern Italy. 
 
 1 Strabo, Book V. chap. 10. sect. 1. b Cumcci, the founders of Cumce. 
 
 c “ Potus, aut lactis, aut fontium liquor crat.” Justin. Lib. xxiii. c. 1. 
 
 d Magna Grcecia — In the original, the terra is applied to the coasts 
 of Eastern Italy ; but the whole southern part of Italy, comprising Apulia, 
 Calabria ( antiqua ,) Lucania, and the country of the Bruttii, was called 
 Magna Grajcia. — P. 
 
 Sicily was first inhabited by the Sicani, a people of Basque 
 or Iberian origin, by whom the country was called Sicania. 
 Conquered by the Siculi or Skill, a Dalmatian people, that 
 had settled in Latium, the island received the name of Si- 
 cilia from its new masters. The ancient kings of Sicily 
 were denominated tyrants ; f they are celebrated in history 
 by their despotism and their invasions of the coasts of Italy. 
 After the death of Dionysius, one of these princes, the 
 island was at different times subdued by the Greeks, the 
 Carthaginians, the Mamerlini, who were a tribe of the 
 Brutii, and, lastly, by the Romans. 
 
 The four provinces which composed what is now called 
 the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, were devastated by the 
 Ostrogoths after the fall of the empire. Narses subdued 
 them in the year 553, and compelled the inhabitants to 
 submit to the emperor at Constantinople. Thirty years 
 afterwards, Autharis, king of Lombardy, took possession of 
 those provinces, and founded the dutchy of Benevento ; 
 Naples, Salerno, Capua and Taranto were within the do- 
 minions of its dukes. 
 
 Apulia and Calabria continued subject to the Greek em- 
 perors. In the eleventh century, some Norman gentlemen, 
 returning from a pilgrimage to the holy land, (at that time 
 pilgrims carried arms along with them,) remained some time 
 at Salerno. While they resided at the court of the Lombard 
 prince Guimar, the Saracens, then masters of Sicily, invaded 
 the port, and exacted contribution from the prince and the 
 inhabitants. The Normans, although much inferior in num- 
 ber, would not suffer infidels to plunder the town without re- 
 sistance ; their courage supplied them with strength, and but 
 few of the Saracens returned to Sicily. The people,- grate- 
 ful to their liberators, loaded them with presents ; and, after 
 their return to Normandy, their success prompted many of 
 their countrymen to seek wealth and fortune in Italy. An 
 expedition was accordingly fitted out under the command 
 of Ranulph. That chief after having rendered important 
 services to the Greek and Lombard princes, obtained permis- 
 sion from them to fortify and settle in Aversa, between 
 Naples and Capua. Ranulph’s successors were surpassed 
 in their exploits by the achievements of the sons of Tancred. 
 Their alliance was courted by the princes of Great Greece, 
 but the covetousness of the latter occasioned dissentions 
 between them and the Ultramontanes. Manasses, general 
 of the Greek troops, led an army into Sicily, but that army 
 could not vanquish without the French, who gave signal 
 proofs of their valour ; whilst they were pursuing the Sara- 
 cens in their mountains, the Greeks shared the booty taken 
 from the enemy. The Normans deputed Ardoin, one of 
 their chiefs, to remonstrate with their allies against so flagrant 
 an act of injustice. The Norman was scourged, conducted 
 round the camp, and returned covered with blood to his 
 friends. It was difficult to restrain the impetuosity of the 
 soldiers burning to avenge their general, or to prevent them 
 from marching against the Greeks, but Ardoin conceived 
 the bold project of making himself master of Apulia, and his 
 companions seconded him with so much ardour, that the 
 conquest was an easy one. William, surnamed the Iron 
 Arm, s eldest son of Tancred, and after him Dreux and On- 
 froy, his two brothers, founded several principalities ; lastly, 
 
 e Coscile. 
 
 f The word tyrant (: mpawos ,) in its original acceptation, signified mere- 
 ly a prince or sovereign. — P. 
 
 e William, surnamed Bracchio di Ferro ( Bras de Per. M.B. Fiera- 
 bras, Moreri,) or William with the Iron Arm. Guthrie & Gray’s Univ 
 Hist. v. X. p. 45. — P 
 
book cxxxvi.] DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 119 
 
 Robert, the fourth of Tancred’s twelve sons, and who from 
 his great cunning was surnamed Guiscarcl, extended these 
 conquests. Master of Apulia, Calabria, and the principali- 
 ties of Salerno and Benevento, he obtained from the pope 
 the title of duke. Roger, his brother, conqueied Sicily with 
 a handful of Normans, and took the title of count. His son 
 Roger, heir of Robert Guiscard’s dominions, forced the em- 
 peror Lothaire and Pope Innocent the Second to acknow- 
 ledge him as king ; his possessions comprehended almost 
 all the territory, which forms at present the kingdom of the 
 Two Sicilies.® 
 
 It was thus that the Normans established themselves in 
 southern Italy ; William the Third, the last of their princes, 
 succeeded to the throne ; when too young to reign, his mo- 
 ther Sibylla was appointed regent. The emperor Henry 
 the Sixth, who was related to the same family, had been 
 nominated protector ; by his instructions Sibylla was confined 
 in prison, and he condemned her son to perpetual bondage 
 after having deprived him of his sight and virility. Master 
 of the throne of Naples, his ambition might have been satis- 
 fied, but his cruelty excited him to new crimes, and all the 
 partisans of the Norman princes were destroyed. His ava- 
 rice prompted him to other acts of injustice ; while Richard 
 Cceur de Lion was passing through his dominions, Henry 
 confined him in prison, in order to obtain a ransom. The 
 same emperor seized the possessions of the church, and dis- 
 tributed them among his favourites. The last usurpation 
 brought upon him the thunders of the Vatican ; but ha ving 
 been reconciled with the church, he commenced anew his 
 cruelties in Italy with so much atrocity that his wife put her- 
 self at the head of the insurgents and confined him in a 
 castle. Not long afterwards the empress believing her hus- 
 band penitent restored him to liberty, and he was preparing 
 to atone for his crimes by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, 
 when he was poisoned in 1 197, bearing the surname of 
 Cruel, which he had too well deserved. The descendants 
 of Henry reigned at Naples until the year 1265, when the 
 investiture was bestowed by the pope on the conqueror, who 
 had defeated the usurper Manfred. b 
 
 Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, promised to ful- 
 fil the intentions of Rome ; although it was well known that 
 the nearest heir was alive, reports were circulated concern- 
 ing his death ; the accession of Charles was therefore a new 
 usurpation ; indeed he himself used to affirm that his go- 
 vernment could only be maintained by an iron sceptre. 
 Conradin, the grandson of Henry the Sixth, laid claim to 
 the throne, but he was defeated and decapitated by Charles, 
 an event that tended to increase the hatred of the Sicilians 
 towards their new master. The severity of his government, 
 and the F rench garrisons in all the towns, reminded the peo- 
 ple of his conquest over them. The F rench, besides, were 
 dangerous rivals near their wives ; these and other causes 
 led to important results. Procida, a proscribed person, con- 
 ceived the bold design of liberating his country ; he was sup- 
 ported by the pope, the Greek emperor, and the king of 
 Arragon. Having disguised himself, he travelled through 
 Sicily, and excited the inhabitants to revolt ; the king of 
 Arragon, not unprepared for action, had a fleet on the coast 
 of Africa, under pretext of watching the Moors. In the 
 year 1282, on the day before Easter, a lady of Palermo 
 
 1 Sismondi,Histoire des Republiques Italiennes. A. de la Salle, His- 
 toire des Princes de Normandie en Sicile. 
 
 b Urban IY. published a Crusade against Manfred ( Mainfroy ,) and of- 
 fered the investiture of the Sicilian crown as a reward for his expulsion. 
 This offer wa? iccepted by Charles of Anjou, who arrived at Rome in May 
 
 was insulted by a Frenchman during a procession, an insult 
 that gave rise to the revolt, which has been styled the Sici- 
 lian vespers. The tumult might have been soon quelled, 
 had it not been for the conspiracy of Procida ; the people 
 rushed to arms, and massacred the French. The conspi- 
 rators invited the king of Arragon and his fleet to their as- 
 sistance, and proclaimed him sovereign. The consequence 
 of that event was the separation of Naples and Sicily ; the 
 former continued under the house of Anjou until the year 
 1382, but in the following century, the two crowns were 
 again united. The possession of Naples and Sicily was the 
 occasion of many wars between France, Spain and the 
 Empire. The Spanish branch of the house of Bourbon 
 ruled over the two countries, until the last king fled for re- 
 luge to Sicily in 1805. Naples was first given to Joseph 
 Buonaparte by his brother, and afterwards to Joachim Mu- 
 rat in 1808. The old government was restored in 1815. 
 
 San Germano, on the side of the Appennines, near the 
 site of two ancient cities — Casinum and Jlquinum, of which 
 some ruins still remain, is the first town of any importance, 
 on the frontiers of the Terra di Lavoro. Murat was defeat- 
 ed in 1815, near the fortress that commands San Germano. 
 The abbot of Monte Cassino resides in the town. The abbey 
 or convent, presenting a front of more than five hundred 
 feet, stands on the summit of a steep mountain. A fine li- 
 brary and a collection of antiquities, are contained in the 
 building. The ashes of St. Benedict, its founder, and St. 
 Scholastica are deposited in the church. The Benedictines 
 of Monte Cassino were formerly the proprietors and the 
 lords of all the neighbouring iShds, which now belong to Ihe 
 crown. Banditti inlest the country round the abbey ; the 
 dead bodies suspended at different distances on the branches 
 of trees, announce the punishment that awaits them, but 
 do not intimidate or deter them from the commission of 
 crimes. The Appennines in the same part of the country 
 exhibit a peculiar aspect ; snow still lingers on many 
 heights in the month of June, exhibiting streaks of silvery 
 whiteness, which together with the fine walnut trees, render 
 them not unlike the Alps in Switzerland. The peasants do 
 not inhabit the vallies, because they are unhealthy ; but in 
 summer they collect the cherries, and employ themselves 
 in other rural labours. The reapers amuse themselves by 
 dancing to the accompaniment of the zampogna or rustic 
 flute. Eight men form a circle by taking hold of each 
 other’s hands ; as many girls leap on their shoulders, and 
 remain while the men dance, pass alternately under one 
 another’s arms and make a thousand evolutions ; the girls 
 then descend, and dance or sing in the middle of the circle ; 
 lastly, at a given signal, every man receives in his arms her 
 whom he carried on his back. The robust appearance of the 
 men, and the slender figures of their partners, together with 
 the motley costume of the latter, have rather a ludicrous 
 effect ; two pieces of cloth, the one red, and the other green, 
 encompass their waists ; a silver pin binds their long black 
 hair, which sets off their fine complexion. 
 
 It has more than once been remarked, that in propor- 
 tion as nature is prodigal of her treasures, in the same ratio 
 does man become careless and slothful. The truth of the 
 observation may be confirmed by visiting Italy, and by com- 
 paring it with other countries. It ought not, however, to 
 
 1265, and after having been solemnly crowned, invaded the kingdom of 
 Naples. A decisive battle was fought at Benevento ; the Neapolitans de- 
 serted Manfred, who was entirely defeated and killed on the field, Feb. 26, 
 
 1266. — P. 
 
120 EURC 
 
 De concluded that the far niente, 3 which distinguishes the 
 Italian, is the elfect of climate. The people have retained 
 nothing of the activity and energy of their ancestors ; it 
 would be more correct to attribute the change to moral 
 rather than to physical causes. Charity, so wisely enjoined 
 by the founder of Christianity, but which when applied, 
 must be directed with judgment by legislators and the in- 
 terpreters of divine truths, has contributed not a little in 
 countries where industry has not received the necessary 
 impulse from government, to encourage indolence and ser- 
 vility, and to produce corruption and all the vices and 
 crimes which the lower orders of society are tempted to 
 commit. What man has visited Italy without remarking 
 the arrogance with which the mendicant exacts the wages 
 of his importunity 1 He supposes that his wretchedness 
 gives him a right to what he implores; that notion leads to 
 another ; he considers mendicity as a trade, — a sort of 
 industry ; shame is then banished from the mind, and if 
 the means of subsistence can be procured by alms, the 
 Deople choose to beg rather than to work. A person 
 vithout education and virtue, can perceive little difference 
 between demanding as a supplicant, and exacting as a 
 robber. It is not therefore wonderful that highway rob- 
 bery should be a profession in countries where mendicity 
 is a trade. 
 
 Beggars and bandits, the scourges of Italy, are as com- 
 mon in the kingdom of Naples as in the States of the 
 Church. Between Terracina, on the frontiers of the 
 Roman states, and Fondi, a miserable Neapolitan town 
 inhabited by mendicants, theflbanditti have established their 
 head quarters. Although military posts are stationed at 
 every quarter of a league, a stranger may consider himself 
 fortunate if he escape an attack. Scouts stationed on the 
 rocks that command the road, apprize their chief of a 
 traveller’s approach ; in a moment, these men, accustomed 
 to descend the steepest heights, intercept the road almost 
 within sight of the soldiers stationed to repel them. Wo to 
 the brave traveller who offers to resist them ; he may atone 
 for his temerity with his life. To carry nothing which may 
 excite their avarice is not always a security. The inspec- 
 tion of a passport or other papers suffices to indicate the 
 profession or rank of the person to whom they belong, and 
 he remains a hostage until the sum fixed for his ransom has 
 been paid by a friend or correspondent. They seldom 
 wait longer than the stipulated time for the ransom ; if it 
 does not arrive within the limited period, the prisoners are 
 put to death. These men, inured to every sort of crime, 
 are in many instances the fathers of families ; they cultivate 
 their fields, and obey implicitly him whom they have .chosen 
 for their chief. They wear a particular dress, — -buskins or 
 sandals attached by cords that reach to the middle of the 
 leg, a broad girdle bound by a silver clasp, pantaloons and 
 waistcoat of blue cloth, with buttons of the same metal, an 
 open shirt, a conical hat encircled with different coloured 
 ribbons, a short but loose mantle of a brown colour, and a 
 belt, to which are suspended a sabre, a dagger, a spoon and 
 a fork. All of them carry fire armsj b and wear on their 
 oreast an image of the Virgin or the infant Jesus. Saint 
 , Anthony is their favourite patron ; why they have chosen that 
 
 peaceful hermit cannot be easily determined. «. 
 
 ■ | 
 
 )PE. [BOOK CXXXVI. 
 
 The dangers one encounters in the six leagues’ stage 
 between Terracina and Fondi, and the wretched aspect of 
 the inhabitants, may heighten, by contrast, the beauty of 
 the valley in which the last town is situated. The principal 
 street stands on the Appian way. Bean fields diffuse their 
 fragrance round the neighbouring country ; the roads are 
 lined with hedges of aloe, or with orange, lemon and cy- 
 press trees. At the sight of such profusion, a traveller may 
 be tempted to ask, why nature has lavished these treasures 
 on a sensual and indolent people. Historical associations 
 give new charms to the varied and picturesque scenery, and 
 to the fine views that, in the neighbourhood of Mola, c are 
 bounded by the Mediterranean. Near that town, Cicero 
 had his country house, and on the very road by which 
 strangers travel at present, the assassins suborned by 
 Anthony, seized the Roman orator. 
 
 Gaeta, which rises like an amphitheatre on the shores of 
 the sea, was the ancient Caieta ; its harbour was repaired 
 by Antoninus Pius, and its present walls were built by Charles 
 the Fifth ; within these walls may be seen the tomb of the 
 Constable Bourbon, whose body was deprived of the rites 
 of sepulture from the year 1528 to 1757, because he had 
 been excommunicated. 
 
 Capua has nothing in common with the luxurious Capua 
 of the ancients, but the name. It is situated half a league 
 from the ancient town. d It was founded by the Lombards 
 in the year 856 ; and the streets are as dirty at present, 
 as they were in the time of those barbarians. Caserta, 
 which owes its origin to the same people, contains only one 
 remarkable edifice, — the magnificent palace built in 1752 
 by Charles the Third of Spain. These places lead to Na- 
 ples, the Neapolis of the Romans, and the Parthenope of the 
 Greeks ; the last of whom, in their brilliant fictions, attributed 
 its foundation to the siren Parthenope, to indicate the safety 
 of its harbour, and its maritime importance. 
 
 Naples stands on a gulf, of which the outline is equal to 
 fifty miles in extent ; the town and the suburbs are not less 
 than eight miles in circumference. The broad quays ; the 
 castle of the Egg ( Castel dell ’ Uovo) on an insulated rock ; 
 that of Saint Elmo which protrudes into the sea ;® the island 
 of Capri, rising like a sterile rock from the water ; the 
 blackish colour of Vesuvius, which menaces the town with 
 its destructive fires, its sides covered with the richest ver- 
 dure, and dotted with white points or so many country 
 houses ; the blue mountains that terminate in the promon- 
 tory of Massa ; the town of Castel a Mare , built on the 
 ruins of the ancient Stabm, near which the elder Pliny 
 perished, while contemplating the eruption by which Pom- 
 peii was destroyed ; lastly, Sorrento on the sea shore, the 
 birth place of Tasso, form together a landscape, of which 
 the magnificence surpasses the most gorgeous description. 
 
 He who sees, for the first time, the splendid panorama un- 
 folding itself before him, may be ready to exclaim with the 
 Neapolitan, Vedi Napoli e poi muori. ( 
 
 The crowded quays announce a populous city 7 , but to 
 judge of Naples, one must repair to the street of Toledo. 6 
 No street in Paris is so noisy, none exhibits so much confu- 
 sion ; the crowds on a Sunday are so great as to render it 
 almost impossible for foot passengers to proceed, and yet 
 three hundred carnages pass along it with great velocity, 
 
 ** “ Tlie propensity to idleness” — (Jar niente , to do nothing.) 
 b “ Muskets.” ' Mola di Gaeta. 
 
 d The ancient city of Capua stood about two miles S. E. of the present 
 town. — P. 
 
 9 
 
 • 
 
 pp. . — 
 
 'The castle of St. Elmo stands on the highest point of the mountain 
 overlooking the whole city — the Castel dell’ Uovo projectsinto the sea. — P. 
 f See Naples and then die, or in plain English, there is nothing worth 
 1 seeing after Naples. — P. s Strada di Toledo. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 121 
 
 BOOK CXXXVI.] 
 
 and cross each other in every direction. The Toledo may 
 be called a perpetual fair ; the Aquaiolo distributes his re- 
 freshing beverage, the lazzarone sells his figs, the mounte- 
 bank exhibits his wonders, and mixing the sacred with the 
 profane, gives his hearers some notion of future bliss from 
 the pleasure they experience in eating his macaroni. 
 Sometimes, a funeral procession advances in the midst of 
 the throng, with all the pomp of a triumph. The coffin is 
 deposited in a sort of ark or chest, resplendent with gold 
 and silver, and resting on a bier covered with crimson 
 velvet. 
 
 The motion and the bustle which distinguish Naples, are 
 no proofs of industry or labour. The Neapolitans agitate 
 and torment themselves without doing any thing, as they 
 quarrel and menace each other without ever coming to 
 blows. It may be readily conceived that these remarks are 
 only applicable to the lower orders, but in such classes the 
 national character is most easily observed. The general 
 hatred against those who hold the balance of Themis, may 
 proceed from the conviction that the laws are unjustly ad- 
 ministered. If a person, caught in the act of picking 
 another’s pocket, be beaten or scourged, the people approve 
 of the correction, but if he be conducted to the tribunal, 
 they murmur, — they are dissatisfied. If a crime has been 
 committed, the people pity the man who has suffered from 
 it ; but if the criminal be apprehended, he then becomes 
 an object of sympathy. Let not the reader confound in 
 these characteristic traits, pity for the man who is justly 
 punished, with the jealous hatred that the people bear 
 towards the wealthy or privileged classes, who are too often 
 suffered to commit offences with impunity. There is no 
 town where the inhabitants make such use of their canes 
 as at Naples ; if an individual were to strike a hackney- 
 coachman in London or Paris, he might be repaid with 
 interest, but the hackney-coachmen of Naples submit to 
 castigation with the greatest patience. 
 
 The Lazzaroni lead a very monotonous life. Idle from 
 choice, and servile from indolence or want of energy, they 
 rarely disturb the tranquillity of the town where the police 
 does little or nothing for the public safety. They have only 
 evinced their hostile intentions on a few great occasions, and 
 under a government odious to every class of the community. 
 These men who obtain as much macaroni as they can eat 
 for three halfpence, and quench their thirst with iced water 
 for a farthing, may easily satisfy their most urgent wants. 
 Ice is as much an article of necessity at Naples, as bread is 
 in temperate regions, and government takes care that the 
 people have it at a cheap rate. It has been said that a day 
 without ice might make the Neapolitans revolt, and there is 
 more truth in the saying than many are apt to suppose. 
 Mendicity assumes all its varied forms to deceive the stran- 
 ger, or move the pity of the passenger ; theft, too, is very 
 common; if a person does not use great precautions, he is 
 in continual danger of losing his watch or his handkerchief. 
 So great is the dexterity of the pickpockets, that one might 
 oelieve the ancient Parthenope had been founded by a colo- 
 ny of Spartans. 
 
 The revolution by which Joseph Buonaparte, and after- 
 wards Joachim Murat, were raised to the throne of Naples, 
 was attended with the inconvenience of removing some fa- 
 vourites, and of giving a new direction to royal favour. But 
 it had the advantage of bringing forward superior men, and 
 such as were animated with good intentions, and even the 
 present government has profited by the useful lesson, which 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 46. 16 
 
 the usurpation afforded. Good roads were made into remote 
 provinces, and industry was encouraged ; order was intro- 
 duced into the administration, and a regular code of laws 
 was substituted for the inextricable conliision of ill-digested 
 and contradictory precedents ; assassins were disarmed ; 
 and the revenue, although almost doubled by oppressive 
 taxes on the rich, was at least expended among the poor 
 and stimulated their industry. Public schools for the lower 
 orders were established at the expense of government, and 
 the teachers received a fixed salary of fifteen ducats a month. 
 Although these schools were ill attended at first, the number 
 of scholars increased gradually, and they are still increasing, 
 for they have not yet been abolished. The rising genera- 
 tion among the lower orders in the town can now read and 
 write, a degree of knowledge which is by no means common 
 in the country. Murat, in the year 1807, established four- 
 teen royal colleges, and appointed able professors ; they 
 were attended by six thousand students, but the numbei 
 has decreased. Boys of noble or rich families are rarely 
 sent to college ; some have private tutors, or receive lessons 
 at home from the professors of colleges ; but a great many, 
 brought up among servants, receive no education, and few 
 instances are to be found of young men, who are devoted to 
 literary or scientific pursuits. Of the women, comparatively 
 few are now sent to a convent to be educated. Queen 
 Caroline, the wife of Murat, established, at the expense of 
 government, a seminary for young ladies of noble families, 
 something like the one at St. Denis in France, and the 
 present authorities keep up the institution. 
 
 Among the rich, pride and vanity are the motives of 
 every action. Women above the lower ranks, seldom or 
 never walk in the streets ; those who cannot afford a car- 
 riage, doom themselves to perpetual imprisonment in their 
 own houses, or only go to church with one or two poor 
 lazzaroni, hired for the occasion, who put on an antiquated 
 livery, and carry a book and a cushion. Good natured 
 husbands sometimes perform the office, thinking, probably, 
 that they cannot be recognized in the disguise of a footman, 
 and choosing to gratify vanity at the expense of pride. a The 
 luxury of the rich is displayed in their horses and carriages ; 
 as to their morals, they do not think it necessary to sacrifice 
 realities to appearances ; a lady talks of her intrigues as 
 she would of her domestic duties, and of her lovers as of 
 her husband. 
 
 The largest and most commodious houses are situated m 
 the Chiaja, the finest of the five suburbs that communicate 
 with Naples. It extends westwards, and is terminated by 
 a long quay or rather a public walk planted with orange 
 and lemon trees, and adorned with lawns and fountains. 
 It is there that the Farnese bull, a chef-d’oeuvre of anti- 
 quity, has been placed ; near it may be seen the bust of 
 Tasso, for which the French erected a rotundo supported 
 by white marble columns. The finest coffee-houses in 
 Naples are situated in the same walk, which is crowded 
 every evening with carriages. The different quarters of 
 the town are embellished with fountains, and the water is 
 supplied by an aqueduct, that extends from the base of 
 Mount Vesuvius. All the squares in Naples, with the ex- 
 ception of that in front of the royal palace, are small and 
 irregular ; the dark and narrow streets near the centre of 
 the town are lined with lofty houses ; the smooth black 
 pavement is formed by large blocks of lava from Vesuvius. 
 
 ‘Simond’s Travels in Italy. 
 
122 EUROPE. [hook cxxxvi. 
 
 The theatre of San Carlos, which communicates with 
 the royal palace, is more remarkable than any other from 
 iis dimensions and elegant structure. None of the palaces 
 can be compared with the one inhabited by the sovereign. 
 The architecture is modern ; the front extends to the dis- 
 tance of six hundred feet, and contains twenty-two win- 
 dows and three doors adorned with granite columns, which 
 support balconies. 
 
 The cathedral is also called the Vescovado and the church 
 of San Gennaro or St. Januarius, a personage held in 
 veneration by the people, and whose blood, preserved in two 
 small vials, excites the joy or despair of the populace ac- 
 cording as it dissolves or remains coagulated on the nine- 
 teenth of September, the birthday of the patron saint. 
 The church is of Gothic architecture, and it stands on the 
 ruins of a temple consecrated to Apollo. Of the other 
 two hundred churches in the town, there are hardly any 
 worthy of Italy. 1 
 
 Naples, says Doctor Valentin, b had not before the last 
 century, a number of charitable institutions, proportionate 
 to its population. There are at present twelve hospitals, 
 including the hospital of Invalids, the Foundling Hospital, 
 and the Rcclusorio. The hospital of Incurables is the 
 largest and best kept in the town ; nearly a thousand 
 patients are confined in it, but it might contain double the 
 number. Four clinical chairs dependant on the university 
 are attached to the institution ; the first relates to medicine, 
 the second to surgery, the third to midwifery, and the 
 fourth to diseases of the eye. 
 
 The industry of the Neapolitans is confined to a few 
 manufactures, such as silk stuffs, ribbons and silk stockings ; 
 many are also employed in making macaroni and different 
 kinds of pastry. The perfumed soaps and the musical 
 strings of Naples are exported to different countries. The 
 comfits of the same town, particularly the diavolini, are said 
 to be the best in Italy. 
 
 We have already spoken of the catacombs at Rome ; 
 those near Naples are more extensive. They occupy the 
 cavities in a height situated to the north of the town. The 
 galleries, cut in a sandy volcanic rock, which was worked 
 at a very remote period, are in several places eighteen or 
 twenty feet broad by fourteen high. These galleries were 
 used as cemeteries during the first centuries of the Chris- 
 tian era. 
 
 Pompeii' is the most interesting object of antiquity in the 
 vicinity of Naples ; it was buried by an eruption of Mount 
 Vesuvius, the fires of which have hitherto spared Naples, 
 although both places are situated nearly at equal distances 
 from the mountain, the first in a westerly direction, the other 
 towards the north. d When the volcano which had ceased 
 to burn, at a date anterior to the historical period, com- 
 menced anew in the year seventy-nine of the Christian era, 
 Pompeii was overwhelmed by a deluge of ashes, water and 
 mud. The greater number of the inhabitants had in all 
 probability full time to escape with their most valuable 
 effects, — a fact that may be inferred from the inconsiderable 
 number of skeletons which have been nitherto discovered, — 
 not one hundred in all, — and from the small quantity either 
 of jewels or money. They might ha e returned after the 
 catastrophe to collect whatever was ol talue, for it is very 
 
 * “ Of the was hundred churches in Naples, there is none whose portal is 
 worthy of Italy.” 
 
 b Voyage en Italie. * “ Pompeia.” 
 
 remarkable that the lowest stratum appears to have been 
 pierced or broken, while the upper do not. Eight strata of 
 volcanic deposits succeed each other ; from which it may 
 be concluded that eruptions have taken place at different 
 times in the same direction. Scoriae and pumice, but no 
 lava, are found among the igneous products. A modern 
 may walk in the streets, and enter the houses of Pompeii. 
 The high road that leads to it, is paved with huge pieces of 
 lava, irregularly shaped, but arranged so as to fit each 
 other, and presenting a tolerably fiat surface ; from the 
 narrowness of the road, however, the wheels run constantly 
 in the same track, which is deeply marked on the stones. 
 The walls of the town were first cleared, and the whole 
 circumference is now exposed to view. These walls which 
 from certain ancient characters on many parts of them, ap- 
 pear to have been founded by the Osci, long before the 
 foundation of Rome, are about twenty feet in perpendicular 
 height on the outside, but they form inside an inclined 
 plane with narrow steps for the soldiers to ascend to the 
 top. The barracks are in a good state of preservation ; 
 they resemble a cloister for monks, being a quadrangular 
 court with high walls and small rooms without windows, 
 under a projecting roof supported by pillars. The indecent 
 sketches and writings on the walls by the Roman soldiers, — 
 the fruits of their idleness, — have excited great curiosity. 
 The rubbish has been taken away from two theatres, an 
 amphitheatre, and most of the houses in the town. It may 
 be thus seen that it was customary for the ancients to write 
 the names of the proprietors 6 above the doors of the houses. 
 
 Herculaneum, buried under torrents of lava, above 
 which a town is built/ has only been explored in order to 
 collect the treasures, which give so much interest to the 
 museum in the royal palace at Portici. The excavations 
 which were made have been since filled up, with the ex- 
 ception of the theatre. The town was larger and more im- 
 portant than Pompeii ; it may be regretted that it cannot 
 be seen. 
 
 The finest views of Naples are from the palace of 
 Portici, and from the Capo di Monte, where one may 
 count its palaces and churches, and observe the islands 
 which rise at the entrance of its gulf, and the sea lost in 
 the horizon. But the garden of Camaldoli is not less cele- 
 brated ; situated on the summit of a volcanic hill twelve 
 hundred feet in height, near a convent in which the monks 
 are so insensible to the magic of a natural landscape, that 
 they wonder why so many strangers visit them. The view 
 extends towards the north, over the vast plains of Cam- 
 pania, bounded by the mountains of the Abruzzi, and 
 Naples appears on one side between Pozzuoli and Vesuvius. 
 From the same gardens are seen the lake of Avernus, no 
 longer exhaling the noxious vapours mentioned by Virgil, 
 and no longer suffocating the birds that fly above its sur- 
 face ; the Solfatara, anciently called the valley of Pldegra, or 
 the Forum Vidcani ; the lake of Agnano, from whose bub- 
 bling waters streams of hydrogen escape ; the Fusaro, the 
 Acheron of the poets ; and lastly, Baia, the ancient Baice, 
 of which the soil is now arid and sterile, but its enchanting 
 sites induced Caesar and Nero to build palaces near the 
 temples of Diana, Venus and Hercules. 
 
 We may now descend from Camaldoli, and direct our 
 
 <i Pompeii is situated on the south-western slope of Vesuvius ; Naples to 
 the north-west. — P. 
 
 « “ Locataires,” tenants. f Portici. 
 
 J 
 
BOOK CXXXVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 123 
 
 steps to the hill called Monte Pausilippo ,® a promontory 
 that separates Naples from the Phlegraean fields. A sub- 
 terranean road, supposed to be the most ancient work of 
 the kind, passes through the hill. “ The road,” says Strabo, 
 “ extends through the mountain situated between Neapolis 
 (Naples) and JJiccearchia (pozzuoli.) The breadth is so 
 great, that carriages pasS^each other without inconvenience, 
 ani l the light of day is admitted in many places by aper- 
 tures, dug to a great depth from the surface of the moun- 
 tain.” 11 The account given by the Greek geographer, is a 
 very correct one, of the grotto of Pozzuoli, 0 which is 
 equal to eighty or ninety feet in height, to twenty-four or 
 thirty in breadth, and to two thousand one hundred and 
 eighty in length. The excavations were not attended with 
 much difficulty, as the mountain is wholly composed of 
 volcanic tufa, or peperino. Although paved, it is always 
 covered with dust ; the light enters at the two extremities, 
 and by two apertures near the middle. The servants of 
 the wealthy carry torches before them ; but foot passen- 
 gers are contented with lanterns, and the feeble glimmer- 
 ings that pass through the openings. Twice a year, in Oc- 
 tober and February, the last rays of the setting sun pene- 
 trate through the long vista. 
 
 Temples, amphitheatres, and other ancient ruins, are 
 scattered along the coast, between the subterranean pas- 
 sage and Cape Miseno. The small town of Pozzuoli, 
 after having been exposed to the devastations of barbari- 
 ans, was overturned in 1538 by an earthquake. The ca- 
 thedral stands near the ruins of a temple dedicated to Au- 
 gustus. Some parts of its ancient amphitheatre remain ; 
 but at no great distance from the town is seen the temple 
 of Serapis, a monument worthy to fix the attention of the 
 antiquarian and geologist. It stands on the shore, at fif- 
 teen feet above the level of the sea ; it was, at a period 
 beyond the reach of tradition, buried under volcanic ashes. 
 About seventy years ago these deposits were removed ; the 
 pavement of the temple was uncovered, and there were 
 found marble vessels to receive the blood of the victims, 
 brass rings to fasten them, broken statues and columns. 
 Rut what is very extraordinary, pholades had pierced those 
 parts of the marble columns still standing, with innumera- 
 ble holes, that reach to the height of five or six feet. 
 These marine mollusca are very common in the Euro- 
 pean seas ; they are bivalvular, and armed with teeth and 
 several accessary parts, which, by a rotatory movement, 
 penetrate the hardest calcareous rocks. d But the marble 
 of which the columns are formed, exhibits no other traces 
 of these animals ; it must be supposed, therefore, that the 
 holes have been made since the catastrophe by which the 
 temple was covered with volcanic ashes. To explain the 
 phenomenon, it has been supposed that the sea had risen 
 at least to the height of the marks left by the pholades. But 
 the fallacy of such an opinion may be easily shown ; in 
 the first place, the event must have happened since the 
 commencement of our era ; secondly, several ancient 
 towns, situated on the coasts of the Mediterranean, and 
 Naples itself, must have been destroyed by such a cala- 
 
 a Posilipo, Posilippo, Pausilypo. 
 
 b Strabo, Book V. chap. 10. sect. 1. c Grotto of Pausilippo. 
 
 d Simond is mistaken in supposing that the pholades exude a chemical 
 acid, and thus perforate the rocks in which they are found. It is known, 
 besides, that they make holes in wood ; and if their physical structure ena- 
 bled them to secrete a solvent as powerful as nitric acid, it is certain that 
 epicures would not consider them a great delicacy, or give so much for them 
 as they do at present. 
 
 mity. It is true, that during the fifteenth and sixteenth 
 centuries, as Simond remarks, the coast of Baiae was ex- 
 posed to several volcanic shocks, and the ruins now sub- 
 merged prove that the ground has sunk in many places. 
 But if it be attempted to explain the phenomena connected 
 with the temple of Serapis by such facts, it must be sup- 
 posed, what is inadmissible,® that the land has risen after 
 having been once submerged, for the pavement of the tem- 
 ple is still higher than the level of the sea. Thus, it hap- 
 pens, that vague- conjectures are the consequence of care- 
 less observation. When the volcanic deposits were re- 
 moved, and the edifice was uncovered, a small lake, 
 formed after the outlet of a stream had been closed by 
 the deposits, watered its base. The lake might have be- 
 come salt by the hydrochlorate of soda/ contained in cer- 
 tain products of Vesuvius ; and if it be supposed, what is 
 not improbable, that the waters of the lake communicated, 
 for some time, at least, by a subterranean passage with the 
 sea, the presence of these pholades, and their long con- 
 tinuance in the lake, may be classed among the number of 
 those physical facts, which, however extraordinary, are 
 by no means irreconcilable with the laws of nature. 
 
 A monument, on the opposite side of Mount Posilippo, 
 formed by a large square base, constructed of stones and 
 bricks, on which a circular tower rises, commands the re- 
 spect and admiration of travellers ; it is the tomb of Virgil. 
 The interior consists of a square and vaulted chamber, and 
 the tomb is covered with earth, on which many shrubs 
 grow : it is shaded by evergreen oaks, but the laurel plant- 
 ed by Petrarch exists no longer. The people say that the 
 roots are still to be found — that they are immortal like the 
 ashes of the divine poet, and that they bud, if the soil be 
 moistened with rain, but that travellers pull the leaves as 
 soon as they appear. 
 
 It has been seen that the small province of Naples con- 
 tains many places of great celebrity. We shall now pro- 
 ceed to the other provinces of the kingdom. Salerno, the 
 ancient Salernum, is situated in the Citerior Principality ; s 
 it was fortified by the Romans, that they might be better 
 able to control the Picentini, who had embraced the party 
 of Hannibal. h One part of the town extends along the 
 sea shore, and the other rises in the form of an amphithea- 
 tre to the castle that commands it. The cathedral, sur- 
 rounded by a portico supported by ancient pillars of por- 
 phyry, contains the tomb of Pope Gregory the Seventh, 
 and, according to tradition, the ashes of St. Matthew the 
 evangelist. The port, situated at the bottom of a gulf, was 
 the most frequented on the co^st before Naples rose into 
 importance. But the celebrity of Salerno, in the eleventh 
 century, depended principally on its school of philosophy 
 and .medicine ; several precepts, which emanated from the 
 school, were long obeyed as oracular. 1 The ruins of Po- 
 licastro, formerly Paloeocastrum, rise at the extremity of a 
 gulf ; near it may be seen the remains of the three tem- 
 ples of Pcestum, now Pesto ; they were built by the Syba- 
 rites. 
 
 Part of the Appennines are situated in the Ulterior Prin- 
 
 ' How inadmissible ? Might it not have been submerged by one con- 
 vulsion, and elevated by another? — P. 
 
 f Muriate of soda, common salt. s II Principato Citra. 
 
 h Strabo, Book V. chap. 10. sect. 3 
 
 * The Schola Salernitana de conservanda valetudine , or a collection of 
 precepts on the preservation of health, in Latin verse. — P. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 124 
 
 [BOOK CXXXV1. 
 
 cipality . a Avellino, its capital, was the ancient Jlbellinum 
 Hirpinorum. The streets, though broad, are irregular ; 
 the public walks are shaded with fine trees. The produce 
 of its territory consists in chestnuts, and in the large filbert 
 called avellana, from the name of the town. The Val di 
 Gargano occupies the site of the Caudine Forks ( Caudi - 
 nee Furculce,) where the Romans passed under the yoke of 
 the Samnites. Ariano, a place of more importance than 
 Avellino, is built at a greater height on the Appennines. 
 
 Near the summits of the same mountains, and at some 
 distance from the last town, is situated Aquila, the metropo- 
 lis of the Second Ulterior Jlbruzzo ; b it carries on a consi- 
 derable trade in saffron, and four great fairs are held in it 
 every year. The town has been more than once injured 
 by earthquakes, and a small fort is the only part of its old 
 fortifications that now remains. The antiquities which are 
 contained in it, were discovered in the neighbourhood, on 
 the site of Jlmilernum, the birthplace of the historian Sal- 
 lust. To the northeast, in the First Ulterior Jlbruzzo , c 
 Teramo rises in the middle of a plain, between the Ap- 
 pennines and the Adriatic Sea ; it possesses some woollen 
 manufactories, and, in proportion to its size, an extensive 
 trade in grain. Proceeding towards the southeast, the tra- 
 veller reaches the banks of the Pescara, a river which de- 
 scends from the Appennines to the Adriatic, and waters 
 near its mouth a small town, to which it has given its name. 
 Chieti, the chief town of the Citerior Jlbruzzo/ stands on 
 its right bank ; it is pleasantly situated, well built, and con- 
 tains several fine edifices, among others a cathedral, and a 
 very large seminary. It was the chief town of the JWar- 
 rucini, and the Teate of the Romans, from which the Thea- 
 tines, a celebrated religious order, have derived their name. 
 The order of the Theatines was founded in 1 524, by Ca- 
 raffa, the archbishop of the town, who was afterwards Pope 
 Paul the Fourth. Lanciano carries on a considerable 
 trade in muscadine wine. 
 
 Campobasso, once famous for its cutlery, is situated in 
 the province of MoliseJ The adjoining province of Ca- 
 pitanata forms the greater part of Apulia/ It is divided 
 in the direction of southwest to northeast, by a chain of 
 calcareous heights, that terminates at Mount Gargano 
 (Garganus JWons ;) their declivities and the surrounding 
 hills form a large promontory on the Adriatic. The sum- 
 mits are covered with forests, in which are collected, as in 
 ancient times, manna, turpentine and pitch. A large sandy 
 ulain extends on the south of the chain to the sea. The 
 port of Manfredonia is the most important harbour in the 
 province, although large vessels cannot enter it. The town 
 was built in 1256 by Manfred, who gave it his name. 
 Foggia, the chief town of the Capitanata, was destroyed 
 by an earthquake in 1732, but it has been rebuilt with ele- 
 gance and regularity. The Candelaro, which flows be- 
 neath its walls, facilitates its trade in grain. The people 
 have long been in the habit of preserving their corn in 
 vaulted and subterranean magazines, buildings not unlike 
 the ancient silos. 
 
 Near the limits of the Terra di Bari, not far from the 
 banks of the Ofanto, s is situated the Campo di Sangue, or 
 field of blood ; it is there that the famous battle of Gannas 
 
 was fought. The village of Canna, on the right of the 
 river, stands on the site of the ancient Cannae. The town 
 of Canosa, the ancient Canusium, founded by Diomedes, 
 was destroyed by an earthquake, in 1 694. The pope had 
 a palace there, and the emperor Henry the Fourth stood 
 at its gate during three days, jp the winter of 1077, implo- 
 ring pardon from Gregory the Seventh, by whom he had 
 been excommunicated. 
 
 The Terra di Bari, a province destitute of wood, but 
 abounding in salt, forms part of the ancient Apulia. Alta- 
 mura, the largest town beyond the Appennine chain, which 
 traverses the province, contains sixteen thousand inhabi- 
 tants. If Bitonto be excepted, a place that carries on a 
 great trade in an excellent wine, called zagarello, the prin- 
 cipal towns on the eastern side of the mountains are situated 
 on the sea coast.. Trani, one of them, forms an enclo- 
 sure round its harbour, which scarcely contains sufficient 
 water for ordinary boats. It is related, that in 1502, a 
 time when people talked more of national glory than at 
 present, eleven Frenchmen, and as many Spaniards, fought 
 under the walls of Trani, to support the respective honour 
 of the two countries. The combat continued until six of 
 the Spaniards remained against four of the Frenchmen, 
 when the latter dismounted and defended themselves behind 
 their horses, until night put an end to the contest, and left 
 the victory undecided. Barletta, another sea port, about 
 two leagues to the northwest of Trani, was founded by one 
 of the Norman chiefs who conquered Apulia. Several 
 moles serve to protect the harbour against the billows, and 
 an ancient citadel may defend the town in the event of a 
 foreign attack. Bari, the chief town of the province, was 
 thrice destroyed, and as often rebuilt ; but its narrow and 
 crooked streets, and the absence of any thing like a fine 
 building hardly entitle it to its rank as capital. It pos- 
 sesses a harbour which, although small, offers a safe asy 
 lum for ships. 
 
 The Terra di Otranto, a continuation of the Terra di 
 Bari, forms what the ancient geographers called the heel 
 of the Italian boot. Brundusium, now Brindisi, was the 
 port in which Julius Ca;sar blockaded his antagonist Pom- 
 pey, who made a passage for himself through the midst of 
 the besiegers, and tied for safety to Greece. The town 
 has been much injured by earthquakes, and the harbour 
 was destroyed in the fifteenth century, by a method which 
 the prince of Taranto adopted, in order to close the en- 
 trance against the Venetian fleet. Several vessels were 
 sunk at its mouth ; h the sands and other deposits being 
 thus arrested, were consequently accumulated, and the 
 port, thus changed into an unwholesome marsh, engenders 
 every summer pestilential diseases, by which the population 
 has been reduced to a third of what it was formerly. The 
 town does not contain at present more than six thousand 
 inhabitants. Lecce, between Brindisi and Otranto, at three 
 leagues distance from the sea, is not only the capital, but 
 the finest and largest town in the province ; its inhabitants 
 are held in the same repute at Naples, that the Boeotians 
 were at Athens. The valley that separates Lecce from 
 Otranto, has been called the paradise of the country. The 
 small sea-port town that has given its name to the province, 
 
 a II Principato Ultra. 
 c Abruzzo Ultra Priino. 
 
 b Abruzzo Ultra Secondo 
 d Abruzzo Citra. 
 
 e II Contado di Molise. f It. Pvglia, Fr. Pouillc. 
 
 s The ancient Aufidus. b £[ In the middi ' of the entrance.” 
 
 
book cxxxvi.] DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 125 
 
 stands on the site of the ancient Ilydruntum, which re- 
 ceived, with the benefits of civilization, the first lessons in 
 philosophy from Pythagoras. a 
 
 Gallipoli, the first port in the gulf of Taranto, after pass- 
 ing Cape Leuca, owes its activity to its tunny fisheries 
 and its manufactures, the last of which consist principally 
 in cotton stockings and muslin. Taranto, the ancient Ta- 
 renlum, situated at the northern extremity of the gulf, was 
 in ancient times a place of great importance ; Strabo com- 
 mends its fine and spacious harbour, but at present the 
 town only occupies the site of the- ancient citadel, in which 
 the Romans resisted Hannibal. It was principally from 
 the gulf of Taranto that the ancients obtained the mol- 
 lusca that supplied them with their purple. A cavity below 
 the neck of the animal is filled with the liquid that yields 
 the colour; but the quantity contained in each cavity is so 
 small, as to account for the excessive price which the an- 
 cients gave for the dye. Taranto has given its name to 
 the tarantula ( Lycosa tarentula,) an insect well known from 
 the fables concerning the effects of its sting. It was long 
 believed that those who were stung by it exhibited very dif- 
 ferent symptoms ; some laughed, others wept; one person 
 was mournful and silent, another continued singing from 
 morning till evening ; many were seized with drowsiness, 
 others could not be prevented from dancing : music was 
 found to be the most effectual remedy for all. The sting 
 of the tarantula, although not without danger, yields rea- 
 dily to different remedies. The animal, a species of spider, 
 is of a black colour, with red and black streaks on the ab- 
 domen ; b it is about an inch in length. The web of the 
 tarantula serves only to envelope its eggs, and to line the 
 cell which it digs in the earth. It feeds on different in- 
 sects, and lies frequently, in ambush for them near the 
 entrance of its den. It often makes excursions into the 
 fields, and sometimes into the houses, but it always carries 
 its prey home. “ The eggs of the same animal,” says an 
 able naturalist,' “ are like the seeds of the white poppy ; 
 when they are hatched, the mother tears open the cover- 
 ing which incloses them, and carries her young on her 
 back, until they are able to provide for themselves. The 
 male and female are only seen together at the season of 
 coition ; at other times they kill each other. It is not easy 
 to make it leave its cell ; but if it be once dislodged, and 
 return afterwards, it allows itself to be destroyed, rather 
 than be removed a second time.” 
 
 Potenza, the capita] of the Basilicata, is situated at the 
 foot of the Appennines. The same town, and Matera, at 
 twelve leagues from it towards the southeast, although ill 
 peopled, are the most important in the province, which de- 
 rived its name in the tenth century from Basil the Second, 
 emperor of the east, who conferred, probably, some privi- 
 leges on the inhabitants. It is at present one of the poor- 
 est provinces in the kingdom of Naples. 
 
 Mount Pollino separates Basilicata from the two pro- 
 vinces of Calabria — provinces destitute of important towns, 
 and inhabited by a poor and wretched people. Bathed on 
 i!he east, the west, and the south by the sea, and traversed 
 by a branch of the Appennines, the two Calabrias are in- 
 dented with large gulfs, cooled by the sea breeze, and wa- 
 
 a “ The first lessons in philosophy given by Pythagoras”— but Pytha- 
 goras is said to have taught philosophy in Greece before he retired to Ita- 
 ly. — P. 
 
 b “ lower part of the abdomexyred (crocus yellow, Ed. Encyc.) with 
 
 a transverse black band.” J 1 
 
 M. Latreille, Member of the Academy of Sciences. 
 
 tered by heavy dews, and by springs and rivers, which in- 
 crease the fertility of a black and rich soil. Citerior Ca- 
 labria 6 terminates at Mount Calistro, and at the banks of 
 the Neto. e Cosenza, the capital, is situated at the conflu- 
 ence of the Crati and the Bussento ; f the streets are nar- 
 row and crooked, with the exception of one large street, 
 which traverses the town ; it possesses, however, several 
 useful establishments, such as hospitals, a college and two 
 academies, besides a fine cathedral and a palace of jus- 
 tice, edifices which strangers are surprised to see in so 
 small a town. The only other important towns in the pro- 
 vince are Cassano, Rossano, Bisignano and Cariati, none 
 of which possesses any remarkable edifice, and the most 
 populous of which contains hardly nine thousand inhabi- 
 tants. The making of olive oil is almost the only kind of 
 industry in which the inhabitants of Rossano are engaged, 
 and the sale of it constitutes the principal branch of com- 
 merce. Bisignano is noted for its silk worms, and the best 
 manna in Calabria is produced in the neighbourhood of 
 Cariati. 
 
 More important towns are situated in Ulterior Calabria, e 
 some of which were celebrated in ancient times. The 
 walls of the famous Crotona are seen on the eastern coast, 
 and its ruins encompass the modern town of Cotrone. 
 Crotona, rich and populous, could recruit an army of a 
 hundred thousand combatants within its walls and its terri- 
 tory ; Cotrone contains hardly six thousand souls. Not to 
 mention the robust Milo, it is known that the inhabitants of 
 Crotona were renowned, the men for their symmetry and 
 strength, the women for their beauty ; but their descend- 
 ants have greatly degenerated. Crotona contained many 
 fine edifices ; its gymnastic games, and the schools of phi 
 losophy founded by Pythagoras, rendered it the first of 
 the Greek colonies; Cotrone contains at present six 
 churches, two hospitals, two convents, and a seminary, 
 but no buildings worthy of notice. Catanzaro, although 
 possessing little or no trade,* 1 contains a greater population 
 than Cotrone. 
 
 Pizzo is situated on the western side of the Appennines, 
 on the gulf of Saint Eufemia. Joachim Murat landed at 
 its little harbour on the eighth of October, 1815, and at- 
 tempted to regain his throne. Taken prisoner and ill treated 
 by those who had long acknowledged him as their king, 
 condemned as a common malefactor, and interred in the 
 very church which he had rebuilt, his death may be con- 
 sidered not only as one of the catastrophes which result 
 from political revolutions, but as a characteristic trait of a 
 people, who afterwards showed themselves incapable of 
 enjoying the institutions which they apparently desired. 
 
 The wretched town of Gierace, built on the ruins of the 
 second Locri, and at some distance from the ancient city 
 of the Locri, does not contain four thousand inhabitants. 
 Bova, a still smaller town, was destroyed by the earthquake 
 in 1783, and afterwards rebuilt and improved by Ferdinand 
 the F ourth. 
 
 The country in the neighbourhood of Reggio abounds 
 with figs and ananas, and the town is the capital of Ulterior 
 Calabria ; the inhabitants carry on a considerable trade 
 in the essence of citron, orange and bergamot. As a town, 
 
 <* Calabria Citra. ' Nieto. (E<1. Encyc.) 
 
 f Busiento. e Calabria Ultra. 
 
 h Catanzaro possesses the most important silk manufactories in Cala 
 bria.— (Ed. Encyc.) It has a considerable trade in corn, silk and oil. — 
 (Vosgien.) 
 
126 EUROPE. [book cxxxvl 
 
 Reggio is nowise remarkable ; its name indicates its position 
 on the site of the ancient Rhegium, once, according to 
 Strabo, a powerful city, but afterwards wholly destroyed by 
 Dionysius the elder. The tyrants of Syracuse were dreaded 
 on the coasts of Italy. The inhabitants of Rhegium formed 
 a league against Dionysius ; but when hostilities had ceased, 
 and a peace had been concluded, the tyrant declared to the 
 magistrates that he intended to choose a wife among the 
 daughters of the most distinguished families in Rhegium ; 
 the latter not wishing an alliance with their enemy, an- 
 swered that they could only give him the daughter of the 
 executioner , a Indignant at such an answer, Dionysius laid 
 siege to the town, and after a series of cruelties, the details 
 of which are mentioned by Diodorus Siculus, his vengeance 
 was so complete that, notwithstanding all the efforts of Dio- 
 nysius the younger, the place could never be restored to its 
 ancient splendour. The city which was built on its ruins 
 fell at a later period under the power of the Romans. It 
 was destroyed by an earthquake, and rebuilt by Caisar, 
 whence it was called Rhegium Julii. Barbarossa reduced 
 it to ashes in 1543 ; between that period and the year 1593, 
 it was twice pillaged by the Turks, and injured by earth- 
 quakes ; but the one which happened in 1783 was attended 
 with more disastrous consequent*^ than any other. That 
 formidable earthquake, by which all Calabria was devasted, 
 was so extraordinary both from its duration and effects, 
 that it may be proper to give some account of it. 
 
 The first shocks were felt about noon on the fifth of 
 February, and were renewed at short intervals during 
 several months. They were not preceded by any of the 
 ordinary indications, and in a few minutes all the plains in 
 Ulterior Calabria were laid waste. Those who witnessed 
 the frightful calamity, declared that the oscillations were so 
 frequent and so violent that nothing could resist them, — 
 neither the works of nature, nor the most solid works of 
 man. Edifices were overturned, and their fragments thrown 
 to a distance. The materials of the small town of Sciglio, 
 built on the promontory of Scylla, overwhelmed two thou- 
 sand seven hundred persons that had fled to the coast for 
 refuge. The ruins of villages rolled from the hills. Some 
 of the mountains opened, others sunk, and the upheaved 
 earth formed new heights. In one part, the plains were 
 changed into lakes, and their waters covered the harvests ; 
 in another, rivers issued from their beds, and changed the 
 direction of their course. Movements similar to the un- 
 dulations of waves were seen on the land. Masses of earth 
 in different places were raised into the air and fell, as if they 
 had been blown up by gunpowder. On some parts of the 
 coast, the sea rose above its ordinary limits, and man}' who 
 ran for safety to the shore or to their vessels were destroyed. 
 Some pressed the expiring bodies of their friends, and in a 
 few seconds shared their fate. Lovers rushed into the gulf 
 that had swallowed up the object of their affections ; 
 mothers, recalled to life by the care and good offices of rela- 
 tives, sought their children amidst the ruins of their houses, 
 and were buried with them in the same grave. More than 
 three hundred towns or villages were destroyed in the two 
 Calabrias, and most of the places that have been already 
 mentioned, were much injured ; forty thousand individuals 
 perished, and twenty-thousand were the victims of conta- 
 gious diseases, occasioned perhaps by putrid carcasses in 
 
 a Strabo, Book 6. chap. 11. 
 
 b “ which is used for the same purposes a the officinal liquorice 
 
 ( Glycyrrhiza glab-a.)” 
 
 stagnant water, or under the ruins and rubbish of buildings. 
 To add to the misfortunes of the people, the fires, left in 
 the houses, communicated with the combustible materials, 
 and the flames destroyed what the earthquake had spared. 
 Lastly, the little that remained was seized by banditti, who, 
 in the general consternation, massacred the inhabitants, 
 and carried off whatever was of value. The inhumanity 
 and intrepidity of these men, who rushed from several parts 
 of Italy into Calabria, cannot be considered extraordinary 
 by persons acquainted with the character of the Neapolitan 
 bandits. But several examples of courage and disinterested 
 ness might be mentioned to the honour of the Calabrians 
 and the rest of the nation. The inhabitants of districts far 
 removed from the scene of these calamities, rivalled each 
 other in mitigating the misfortunes of an impoverished peo- 
 ple ; the custom-house officers of Naples and the Laz- 
 zaroni employed in loading the vessels which conveyed the 
 supplies sent by government to Calabria, refused to receive 
 any reward for their services. 
 
 Earthquakes are not the only evils to which the two Ca- 
 labrias are exposed ; there are others which are periodical, 
 such as the blast of the sirocco, which prevailing four 
 months in the .year, produces diseases and destroys vegeta- 
 tion, and the miasms rising from the stagnant waters in 
 summer, which compel the inhabitants to leave the low plains 
 and to reside on the mountains. 
 
 The vegetation of the two Calabrian provinces varies 
 according to the exposure of the soil. The grape might 
 yield excellent wine, if the inhabitants bestowed any care 
 on its culture. The echinated liquorice ( Glycyrrhiza echi- 
 nata ,) a variety not inferior to the Spanish kind, b grows 
 naturally ; and the leaves of the mulberry nourish an im- 
 mense number of silk worms. The olive, a tree that may 
 be seen almost in every part of Calabria, produces so much 
 oil that the inhabitants keep it in large cisterns ; the man- 
 niferous ash ( Fraxinus rotundifolia,) indigenous to these 
 provinces, grows without culture in the plains and on all 
 the hills ; c it is during the greatest heat of summer that it 
 yields the concrete juice so useful in medicine ; the palm, 
 the cotton plant, and the sugar-cane flourish. The fruits 
 of the orange and the lemon tree add to the amount of the 
 exports, and the different kinds of grain are sufficient for the 
 wants of the inhabitants. Larches and other resinous trees 
 afford great quantities of pitch ; the Bretian pitch, which 
 was considered very valuable by the ancients, was obtained 
 from the forest of Sila, on the summits of the Appennines, 
 which, according to Strabo, was seven hundred stadia or 
 twenty-three leagues in length. The thick leaved aloe 
 crowns the arid rocks ; the rose laurel shades the banks of 
 the rivers, and mingles its flowers and its foliage with the 
 leaves of the -arrundinaria, a sort of grass that is converted 
 into cordage, mats, nets and baskets. 
 
 Spirited horses, large and hardy mules, numerous herds 
 and flocks, and woods abounding with game and wild buf- 
 faloes, may be enumerated among the natural advantages 
 of the two Calabrias. The ancients said that the dews ol 
 the evening renewed the grass which the cattle had brows- 
 ed during the day, — a metaphor not so improbable, as those 
 who live in northern latitudes might be apt to suppose. 
 
 The natural riches of the country are increased by the 
 fish that are taken on the coast ; the tunny fisheries are the 
 
 c “Dans tous les bois et sur le penchant ties collines.” — The manna 
 ash grows spontaneously on the lower parts of the mountains. (E~. Encyc.) 
 
 ll 
 
book cxxxvi.] DESCRIPTIO 
 
 most profitable ; the sword-fish ( Xipluas gladius ) serves as 
 food to the Calabrians. The last animal has derived its 
 name from a hard or bony substance that extends from its 
 muzzle, and with which it defends itself against its enemies. 
 The sword-fish grows to the length of eighteen or twenty 
 feet, and weighs sometimes four hundred pounds. It is 
 difficult, and even dangerous to take it, on account of its 
 great activity, and the weapon with which it is armed ; it 
 often breaks the nets of the fishermen, who are obliged to 
 harpoon it. The corals that line the bays are valuable 
 from their fine colour ; and the fishermen take the Pinna 
 nobilis, the largest of the bivalvular mollusca, furnished with 
 the long red silk, that the people at Reggio weave into dif- 
 ferent stuffs of admirable delicacy. 
 
 The Calabrians delight in idleness ; the far niente has 
 more charms to them than to the other Italians ; wearing 
 loose mantles like the Spaniards, they resemble the same 
 people in their black eyes and dark complexion. Suspi- 
 cious and vindictive, a Calabrian seldom leaves his house 
 without being armed. Tall or strong men and handsome 
 women are equally rare in the province ; the latter marry 
 at an early age, and soon lose their looks. Notwithstand- 
 ing the great number of marriages, and the fruitfulness of 
 the women, the country is ill-peopled, and the cause may 
 partly be attributed to the custom of relatives marrying with 
 each other ; the inhabitants of almost every village and of 
 many small towns in Calabria are so many kinsmen and 
 kinswomen. The children, it is known, are unhealthy, and 
 the consanguinity of the parents may tend to perpetuate 
 diseases. The dowry of a peasant girl consists in a small 
 piece of ground, in a part of a vineyard, or even sometimes 
 in a single mulberry tree. Little has been done to improve 
 the condition of the peasantry ; most of them are small 
 fanners or day labourers ; the land is divided among the 
 nobles, the clergy, and some burgesses, who let it on short 
 leases. Thus, it happens that agriculture is still in a very 
 imperfect state, and that a fruitful soil nourishes a poor and 
 sickly population, scattered in wretched hovels, in dirty vil- 
 lages, or deserted towns. 
 
 We had occasion, in treating of Hungary, to make some 
 remarks on a people of uncertain origin, who in that coun- 
 try are called Zigeunes ; the same people are found in Ca- 
 labria, where they are styled Zingari. They are distin- 
 guished from a poor population by their greater poverty, 
 and by their squallid appearance and dress. The men 
 shave their beards, but suffer their hair to grow ; they gain 
 a subsistence by buying and selling horses, and by working 
 iron ; many of them are conjurors ; they collect crowds in 
 the public places, and perform their different feats with great 
 skill and address. The women wander about the country, 
 and live by pilfering, or telling fortunes. Without any fix- 
 ed habitation, living under tents, where men, women, chil- 
 dren, and animals are crowded together, they form a dis- 
 tinct people from the other inhabitants ; they marry only 
 among themselves. According to travellers, the Zingari 
 are more ignorant and dissolute than the Calabrians ; all 
 of them can speak Italian, but many words in their own 
 dialect indicate its eastern origin. Their religion is a com- 
 pound of Christianity and different superstitions ; they ad- 
 mit the divinity of Jesus Christ, but they have no venera- 
 
 N OF ITALY. 127 
 
 tion for the Virgin. As to marriages, funerals, and bap- 
 tisms, they conform readily to Catholic ceremonies, but if 
 the clergymen refuse to celebrate them, the Zingari have 
 no scruples in substituting other rites which were probably 
 derived from paganism.* 1 
 
 A distance of a hundred and ten leagues forms the great- 
 est length of the continental provinces in the kingdom of 
 Naples ; their mean breadth varies from twenty to thirty, 
 but they are upwards of seventy in some parts. b 
 
 A phenomenon similar to the mirage in the deserts of 
 Africa, and one that can only be accounted for by the re- 
 fraction of light, has sometimes been observed on the coasts 
 of the strait, which separates Reggio from Messina? A few 
 minutes before the sun issues from the waves in summer, a 
 spectator on the shores of Sicily, looking in the direction of 
 Reggio, may see forests, towers and palaces in the air, the 
 whole forming a panorama of Messina, its hills, woods and 
 houses. If a spectator on the Italian coast, looks towards 
 Messina, he sees'also in the clouds the image of a city simi 
 lar to Reggio. The illusion has hitherto been imperfectly 
 explained ; it would be less extraordinary, if a person saw 
 the town that bounded the horizon, instead of the one near 
 which he was placed. The phenomenon has given rise to 
 the following fable in Calabria and Sicily, for the people 
 have inherited from the Greeks, the love of marvellous and 
 brilliant fictions. The Fata JMorgana, a powerful fairy, 
 rules over the Strait of Messina ; she displays her aerial 
 palaces to mariners, that they may be shipwrecked on the 
 rocks where the modern Circe waits to destroy them. 
 
 Sicily possesses more than two hundred and thirty leagues 
 of coast, and several important harbours, such as Messina, 
 Palermo, Syracuse and Catania. It is divided into seven 
 intendancies, and twenty-three districts. It was once the 
 country of the arts ; such was its prosperity in ancient times, 
 that the inhabitants in the single town of Syracuse were 
 almost as numerous as the whole present population. The 
 same island, during the zenith of Napoleon’s power, was 
 the only state in Europe governed by a prince of the house 
 of Bourbon. It retained its feudal customs with the parlia- 
 ment of the Three Arms ( Tre Braeci ,) c until Lord William 
 Bentinck, the English ambassador, induced his Sicilian 
 majesty to grant his subjects a representative government 
 framed after the model of the British constitution. “ The 
 advantages of the new system,” says the Count Fedor de 
 Karaczay, d “ must ere long have been felt by every class 
 of the community. The privileged classes were to be put 
 on an equality with the others, in order that they might 
 contribute to the prosperity of the country. The epoch of 
 the hundred days, the treaty of Paris, and the defeat of 
 Murat by the Austrians, enabled Ferdinand to regain the 
 throne of Naples. The selfish and limited notions of the 
 Sicilian barons, — the ancient feudal proprietors, were car- 
 ried into effect. It was thought that the times of the three 
 braeci were to return, and with the parliament, the feudal 
 rights. All the nobles united to overturn the constitution, 
 but they little imagined that they were to gain nothing by 
 the change. The constitution was indeed abolished by a 
 decree published at Messina, but the privileges of the nobles 
 have not been restored. Ferdinand the First took the title 
 ofkingof the Two Sicilies on the eighth of December, 1816, 
 
 * There are several colonies of Albanians in Calabria, who still retain 
 their language, and some few of whom adhere to the Greek church. — P. 
 
 •> “ Their greatest breadth is 70 leagues.” 
 
 * The Parliament before its reformation in 1810, was composed of three 
 
 branches, viz. 229 nobles, 66 prelates, and 43 deputies from cities, univer- 
 sities and crown estates. (Ed. Encye.) — P. 
 
 d Manuel du Voyageur en Sicile, published in French at Gotha 1826 
 
128 EUROPE. [book cxxxvi 
 
 ana Sicily was declared a province of the kingdom. 4 The 
 nobles acknowledge their errors while it is too late to cor- 
 rect them ; taught by the past, they may not perhaps be 
 again so easily deceived.” 
 
 While a Frenchman reigned over Naples, the Sicilians 
 possessed a considerable inland trade, and Palermo was 
 the residence of a king and a numerous court ; but the 
 Sicilians are now governed by the lieutenant of a viceroy, 
 and the circulating medium, attracted to Naples, is daily 
 becoming more scarce in the island. No manufacturing 
 industry tends to bring back the money, which the Sicilian 
 courtiers spend at Naples. Different objects of luxury, 
 muslins, linens and other articles, are imported from England 
 or France, and in order to satisfy factitious but urgent 
 wants, the island furnishes only raw materials, of which the 
 production affords employment to but a small number of 
 hands. The most important of these materials are raw silk, 
 averaging one year with another, not less than <£180,000 ; b 
 different sorts of wines, among others those of Syracuse 
 and Marsala, c of which the quantity exported to Boston ex- 
 ceeds two thousand pipes, and the value £39,000 ; d grain 
 to the amount of £372,000,® a quantity much less con- 
 siderable than in ancient times, when Sicily and Sardinia 
 were called the granaries of the Roman people ; fruits that 
 are sold for £80,000; f olive oil, equal in value to £84,000 ; g 
 soda, of which great quantities are exported to Marseilles ; 
 and the produce of the tunny fisheries, yielding £15,000. h 
 Sicily carries on, besides, a trade in mercury, sulphur, alum, 
 nitre and rock salt. Such are the only sources of wealth, 
 and they may be mentioned to the disgrace rather than to 
 the credit of the Sicilian government. Although there is 
 not a more fertile soil in Europe, not a fourth part of the 
 surface is cultivated ; treasures are contained in the depths 
 of the earth, but its gold, silver, copper, iron and lead mines 
 have been long neglected. The. gypsum, with which Sicily 
 abounds, might be used in building, or as a manure, and 
 it might even form an article of exportation, but the inhabi- 
 tants derive no advantage from it. 
 
 If agriculture, industry and commerce were encouraged, 
 Sicily might contain, as in the time of the Romans, three 
 times the number of its present population. But many 
 obstacles must be removed before it can attain such a de- 
 gree of prosperity ; the nobility must show an example of 
 disinterestedness, that can hardly be expected from their 
 character and habits. The indolent and slothful would 
 suffer from the change, and the number of monks would be 
 diminished. There are no manufactories in the island, but 
 it would be of advantage to establish some in the different 
 convents, as their number is out of all proportion with that 
 of the inhabitants. Twenty-eight thousand monks and 
 eighteen thousand nuns, in all forty-six thousand, are con- 
 tained in a population of one million six hundred and fifty 
 thousand individuals, which gives one recluse for every thirty- 
 five inhabitants. The secular clergy might not perhaps be 
 averse to such a reform, for they are said to be tolerant, 
 from which it may be inferred that they are enlightened and 
 well informed. They possess a third part of the land, but 
 their influence depends as much on their knowledge as on 
 their wealth. The nobles, still more wealthy, possess almost 
 
 * According to a decree of the month of J uly, 1824, Sicily is governed by 
 the same laws as the other Neapolitan states. 
 b “ Annual value 4 millions francs.” 
 
 e “ The most esteemed are those of Syracuse and Marsala.” 
 d “ Total value about 900,000 francs. 6 “ 9 millions francs.” 
 
 all the rest of the country ; they are composed of a hundred 
 and twenty princes, eighty dukes, a hundred and forty 
 marquises, thirty counts, three hundred and sixty barons, 
 and a great many knights, who are also included in the 
 aristocracy. The abolition of their privileges has tended 
 to diminish their revenue, but they may imitate the Russian 
 nobles, and add to their riches by building manufactories, 
 and encouraging agriculture, which might be done without 
 difficulty in a country where nature invites man to labour by 
 repaying him a hundredfold. 
 
 Sicily, from its situation between Europe and Africa, 
 might easily be rendered the most commercial island in the 
 Mediterranean ; but before such a change can take plaee, 
 good roads must be substituted for rugged and incon- 
 venient paths : so long as there is no other road' in the 
 island than the one between Montreale and Alcamo, the 
 difficulties of communication are likely to prevent every 
 improvement in agriculture. Lands yield less than four per 
 cent, to the proprietor ; he advances the seed to the 
 farmer, who returns it after harvest, and pays his rent in 
 produce, according to the rates that are determined in 
 every parish. 
 
 While an eternal winter reigns on the summit of Etna, 
 the rest of Sicily enjoys a perpetual spring. In April, 
 Reaumur’s thermometer stands at about seventeen degrees 
 in the shade at noon, but when the sirocco blows, the same 
 thermometer rises to thirty-five- or thirty-six degrees. The 
 other southern winds, or the Libecchio'* from the southwest, 
 and the Austral' from the south, are more or less accom- 
 panied with the unwholesome effects of the sirocco. The 
 months of November and December are mild ; people seek 
 the shade in January ; but the cold winds of March compel 
 the Sicilians to have recourse to their portable fires. m 
 
 The Sicilian wheat grows to an extraordinary height ; 
 the ears seldom contain less than sixty grains ; both the 
 grains and the straw are of a golden or bright yellow colour, 
 by which it may be distinguished from the wheat of northern 
 countries. The finest crops in France or England present 
 to the Sicilian the image of sterility, so.much do his own 
 exhibit that of abundance. The aloe rises to the height 
 of thirty feet ; most of the roads are lined with the Cactus 
 opunliaf and its purple fruit, in shape not unlike a fig, 
 serves as food for the poor. The water melons are perhaps 
 finer than in any other country in Europe. The fruits of 
 the date tree arrive at maturity ; their sweet juice forms a 
 seasoning for certain dishes, or they are dried, and served 
 on the tables of the wealthy and the burgesses. The pome- 
 granate, brought from Carthage into Italy by the Romans, 
 who gave it the name of punica, yields a vinous and acid 
 juice, very agreeable to the people in the south of Europe. 
 The sugar cane is indigenous to the coast opposite Africa, 
 and the coffee shrub has been discovered in a wild state in 
 the same part of the island. So great a variety of plants in 
 addition to those of northern climates, might tempt the in- 
 dolent Sicilian to bestow more attention on agriculture. 
 
 Messina is situated nearer the Calabrian coast than any 
 other town in Sicily. It was founded, according to the 
 common opinion, ten centuries before the vulgar era. The 
 Siculi, says Thucydides, called it Zancle, from a word in 
 
 f “ Lemons and orangps for 1,800,000 francs.” 
 s “ 2 millions francs.” 
 
 h “ More than 250,000 francs.” 1 “ Chaussee.” 
 
 K It. LAbeccio. 1 It. Austro. 
 
 m Brasiers. “ Nopal, Indian fig. 
 
HOOK CXXXVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 129 
 
 their language which signified a scythe or pruning hook, 
 probably on account of the crooked form of its harbour.” 
 Three or four centuries after its foundation, Anaxilas, the 
 chief of the Messenian colony at Reggio, defeated the 
 Zanclod, took possession of their town, and gave it the name 
 of JMessana or Messene. It was taken at a later period by 
 the JWamertini, a people of Campania. The town was 
 wholly destroyed by the earthquake that happened in 
 1783 ; it has since been rebuilt according to a regular plan, 
 but although it has been declared a free port, it is not so 
 important as it once was : it contained before the last catas- 
 trophe, more than a hundred thousand inhabitants ; the 
 present population is about seventy thousand. b It rises in 
 the form of an amphitheatre at the base of the mountains, 
 the branches of which extend throughout the island, forming 
 in our opinion the continuation of the Appennines. The 
 sides of these heights are intersected by ravines ; they are 
 covered with a thousand varied plants, that rise above the 
 palaces of Messina. The agitated waters of the strait, 
 where Scylla and Charybdis were the terror of ancient 
 navigators, are seen under the walls of the city. Built on 
 uneven ground, Messina is about six thousand yards in 
 extent ; c a promontory of rocks and sand protrudes in the 
 form of a semicircle on the right, and forms a safe and 
 spacious anchorage for ships. A large citadel, together with 
 several forts and batteries, defends the entrance into its har- 
 bour, which may be considered one of the finest in the 
 Mediterranean. The streets are broad and regular, and 
 paved with large pieces of lava. The well built quays are 
 lined with low houses, probably that less danger may accrue 
 in the event of earthquakes. Four or five large but irregu- 
 lar squares or piazzas may be remarked rather for the pro- 
 fusion than the taste or selection of their ornaments ; they 
 are all decorated with marble fountains and bronze statues 
 of ordinary workmanship. The royal palace, in point of 
 architecture, the finest building in the town, is not yet finish- 
 ed. The churches may vie with others in Italy, in the 
 number of their paintings and images, which are placed to- 
 gether without much judgment. The cathedral built by 
 Count Roger, is decorated with twenty-six columns of 
 Egyptian granite, and they have a very singular elfect near 
 Gothic ornaments of the twelfth century. The people are 
 ill educated in Messina ; few among the lower orders can 
 read, and still fewer among the nobles are well informed. 
 The different places of education are a royal college and 
 six gratuitous schools, two of which are reserved for young 
 nobles ; there are besides a seminary for four hundred pupils, 
 and forty-six convents for men or women. Among other 
 institutions, may be mentioned a bank, several mounts of 
 piety, d a lazaretto and a large hospital. 6 
 
 Taormina stands on a hill near the shore, about twelve 
 
 a Strabo adopts the opinion of Thucydides : see book vi. chap. 3. § 5. 
 Thus, it might be easy to prove the Greek origin of the Siculi, for the 
 Greek word $ayK\n, which is pronounced zancle, signifies also a scythe or 
 pruning hook. 
 
 b Between eighty and ninety thousand. Ed. Encyc. c “ 3000 toises.” 
 d “ Three mounts of piety.” e The public hospital. 
 
 f “ L’avant-scene.” E It. Monte Gibello, Mongibello. 
 
 h The silence of Homer concerning the fires of Etna, render it probable 
 that it was in the same inactive state in his time, as Vesuvius was in the 
 time of Strabo. The number of its eruptions from the earliest period of 
 history to the present day amounts to eighty-one ; namely, 
 
 Recorded by Thucydides* .... 3 
 
 In the year 132 before Christ . . .1 
 
 * The three eruptions recorded by Thucydides, happened A. C. 565, 
 A. C. 476 and A. C. 425.— P. 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 4fi. 
 
 leagues to the south-west of Messina. Although not peo- 
 pled by more than three thousand inhabitants, it contains e 
 great many churches and convents. The Roman way that 
 leads to it, and the vast remains of a theatre, prove it to be 
 the Taurominium of the Romans, formerly a considerable 
 town, which Arabs and earthquakes have destroyed. The 
 edifice already mentioned, the most remarkable of any in 
 Taormina, is more than two hundred feet in diameter, and 
 it serves to give the moderns a correct idea of ancient thea- 
 tres ; although of so great dimensions, the space allotted to 
 the actors was only a few feet in depth, not more than the 
 space in modern theatres between the curtain and the or 
 chestra/ The sculptures that adorned the theatre, rjow 
 decorate the monasteries in Taormina ; their profane ori 
 gin was no protection against the pious zeal of the Norman 
 princes. 
 
 The river Cantara, which still retains the name of Al- 
 cantara, given it by the Arabs, separates the plain below 
 Taormina from the last declivities of Etna or Gibello , s the 
 latter a name also of Arabic origin, and one that signifies a 
 mountain. A pyramidical rock forms the summit of the 
 great volcano, of which the crater is more than a league in 
 circumference, and seven- hundred feet in depth. Many 
 strangers visit the mountain, but few ever reach its frozen 
 summit, so much do the difficulties and dangers increase 
 after having passed the first region of snow. h Not many 
 years ago an English traveller, who reached the crater, was 
 rash enough to descend it by means of ropes attached to 
 his waist ; he was drawn up suffocated, after having given 
 the signal to his guides, but they were unable to restore him 
 to life. 1 The lava and scorise of Etna are as useful in fer- 
 tilizing the ground as the same substances on Vesuvius ; 
 thus, the base of Etna, which some writers consider equal 
 to a hundred leagues in circumference, affords the means 
 of subsistence to a hundred and eighty thousand inhabitants. 
 The plants in the same part of Sicily reach to an extraor- 
 dinary size ; near the volcanic promontory of Aci, a place 
 connected with the fable of Acis and Galataea, old chestnut 
 trees, the silent witnesses of political revolutions and natu- 
 ral convulsions, extend to a great distance their wide spread- 
 ing branches. One of them is twenty-four feet in diameter, 11 
 another is fifteen, but the most remarkable of any, and one 
 that many consider a sufficient inducement for strangers 
 to go out of their way to examine, is the Castagno dei cento 
 cavalli, not an inaccurate designation, for according to Si- 
 mond, a hundred horses may find shelter under its shade j 1 
 the circumference is not less than a hundred and twelve 
 feet.™ 
 
 Catania, the ancient Catana, is situated at the foot of 
 Etna, on the sea-shore ; it was founded seven centuries be- 
 fore the vulgar era, but it has been often destroyed by lava 
 
 In the year 44 of the vulgar era . . 1 
 
 252 .... 1 
 
 During the twelfth century ... 2 
 
 During the thirteenth . . . .1 
 
 During the fourteenth .... 2 
 
 During the fifteenth . . . . .4 
 
 During the sixteenth .... 4 
 
 During the seventeenth . . . .22 
 
 During the eighteenth .... 32 
 
 Since the commencement of the nineteenth . . 8 
 
 * Manuel du voyageur en Sicile, par M. le comte Karaczay. 
 k “24 feet in one direction, and 12 in another.” 
 
 i “ and in its interior.”(?) The trunk, near the ground, separate* 
 
 into five great divisions, fonning a large cavity, and appearing as if fiv* 
 trees had grown into one. — P. “ Simond’s Travels in Italy. 
 
 17 
 
130 
 
 and earthquakes, and it does not cover at present more than 
 a fourth part of the surface which it occupied when Hiero, 
 tyrant of Syracuse, changed its name into Etna, and peo- 
 pled it with new inhabitants. The town is large and well 
 built : its fine edifices, which render it not unlike Turin, are 
 so many proofs, not of its prosperity, but rather of its mis- 
 fortunes ; for in Catania, houses never become old, they 
 give way either to lava or volcanic shocks. It is to the 
 earthquakes of 1693 and 1783, that it owes its magnifi- 
 cence ; almost wholly destroyed, it was rebuilt with greater 
 regularity. Most of its edifices have been since injured by 
 the shocks in 1819. The cathedral is one of the finest ; 
 the walls of the sacristy are covered with fresco paintings, 
 which represent the ravages of the eruption in 1669 ; dur- 
 ing that period, a torrent of lava, a league in breadth, was 
 accumulated behind the walls of the town, which were more 
 than sixty feet high, but the burning stream flowed over 
 them into Catania, traversed the city, and formed a lofty 
 mole in the sea, which adds at present to the safety of the 
 harbour. The people, however, are persuaded that the 
 town owes its preservation to St. Agatha, the tutelar saint 
 of Catania, who suffered martyrdom in the same place un- 
 der the reign of Decius. It is true that they attribute to 
 their own sins, the misfortunes which the protection of the 
 saint cannot avert. The convent or rather palace of the 
 Benedictines, forms a striking contrast, by its magnificent 
 architecture, with the simplicity that is so well adapted to 
 a house of devotion. The monastery may be considered a 
 museum of the antiquities that have been discovered in the 
 neighbourhood ; it possesses, besides several valuable paint- 
 ings, a collection of natural history, a large library, and 
 gardens made at much expense on a bed of lava. A great 
 many antiquities are contained in the Biscari museum, 
 which was founded by an opulent nobleman of the same 
 name, who employed his wealth in exploring or digging 
 for antiquities in the territory of Catania. The ancient 
 theatre and amphitheatre, the old walls, baths and temples 
 were buried under several layers of lava and alluvial deposits, 
 that were removed by the same individual ; lastly, the town 
 is indebted to him for several ancient statues, and a basaltic 
 elephant carrying an Egyptian obelisk on its back. Al- 
 though the religious houses in Catania are richly endowed, 
 sufficient funds are not wanting for the university. The 
 professors are distinguished by their attainments, and their 
 classes are attended by five hundred students ; those among 
 the nobles, who are educated in the same institution, are in 
 general well informed, A convent in the town, serves as 
 a residence for the knights of Malta, whose predecessors 
 were for a long time the terror of the Crescent. £ 
 
 The territory of Catania produces plenty of corn, wine, 
 flax, olives and silk. Much amber, and some pieces of a 
 bright red colour, are collected on the coast near the mouth 
 of the Giaretta, formerly the Simajthus, — a river celebrated 
 by the ancient poets. These products maintain the indus- 
 try and commerce of the town ; the inhabitants carry on a 
 trade in olive oil ; some manufacture linen and silk stuffs, 
 
 * Strain refutes triumphantly the common opinion that existed in his 
 time, concerning the junction of the Alpheus and Arethusa. Book VI. 
 Chap. iii. sect. 5, 
 
 b Incredibili magnitudine et plenisefmus piecium. 
 c “ The piece of money, intended as the fare &c., was observed in the 
 mouth of several skeletons.” A small coin ( triens vel obolus) was put in 
 the mouth of the deceased, that he might give it to Charon for his freight. 
 (Adam’s Antiq. p. 515.) 
 
 — pec habet, quern porrigat, oretricn tem. — Juvenal. Sat. iii. v. 267. — P. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXVI. 
 
 while others are employed in making amber crosses and 
 chaplets. 
 
 The road from Catania to Syracuse is not nearly so 
 pleasant as the one from Messina to Catania ; indeed the 
 former extends along the sands on the sea-shore. But the 
 Phrygian bonnet, still worn by the inhabitants, recals some 
 associations not without interest, and the traveller passes 
 through a country embellished by the brilliant fictions of the 
 G reeks. The banks of the Simaethus are still covered with 
 the fragrant flowers, which Proserpine was gathering, when 
 she was carried away by Pluto, — the god of hell and of 
 Etna, who shared with her his empire. 
 
 The fountain of Arethusa issues from a rock near the 
 ancient Syracuse, which the Greeks called Pentapolis from 
 its five quarters ; the fountain serves to recal the story of 
 the nymph Arethusa, flying from Alpheus, but her meta- 
 morphosis availed her little, for the ancients pretended that 
 the Alpheus passed under the sea, and united his streams 
 with the fountain — a notion sufficiently poetical, but con- 
 trary to physical geography, by which the impossibility of 
 such a communication may be easily demonstrated. 1 The 
 fountain, which Cicero describes as of very great magni- 
 tude, and abounding in fish, b can no longer be recognised ; 
 it is, at present, only a small and narrow stream, where the 
 women of modern Syracuse are employed in washing 
 clothes. The modern town scarcely occupies one of the 
 suburbs of the ancient city ; the latter did not long survive 
 the decline of Athens. Modern Syracuse is built on the 
 island that the ancients called Nasos ; the circumference 
 of the town, including the large and small harbour, is 
 hardly equal to a league, while that of the ancient city 
 amounted to nearly eight. Some idea may be formed of 
 its great population in past times, from the extent of its ca- 
 tacombs ; they are situated in the plain where the old 
 church of St. John stands at present, and they are cut in 
 a sort of sandy limestone. Long and regular galleries, 
 extending in every direction, are interrupted at different 
 distances by large circular halls, covered with stucco, and 
 open at the roof so as to admit the light and air. Niches 
 and tombs are hollowed in the sides, and in some of them 
 twenty coffins, placed one above another, were found, and 
 pieces of money, the fare for the ferryman of Acheron, 
 have been observed near several skeletons.® It was in the 
 same place that Cicero discovered the tomb of Archi- 
 medes.' 1 One may still trace the enclosure or outer wall 
 which Dionysius built round the town, and examine the re- 
 mains of a large theatre and amphitheatre, cut in the rock. 
 The celebrated prison, called the Ear of Dionysius, is not 
 a building, but a cavern, perhaps the quarry out of which 
 old Syracuse was built ; e its form is most favourable to the 
 repercussion of sound, high, narrow, pointed above, and 
 presenting a singular curve in its horizontal depth. It is 
 so sonorous that Dionysius might have placed himself near 
 the opening above it, and heard whatever the prisoners said 
 in a whisper. The tearing of a piece of paper makes a 
 noise not unlike that occasioned by knocking a heavy stick 
 
 d This is not in the original. The tomb of Archimedes was found by 
 Cicero near one of the gates of Syracuse, ( cst enim ad portas Agragia- 
 nas magna frequentia sepulchrorum,) overgrown with thorns and bram- 
 bles. It could not, therefore, have been in the catacombs. — P. 
 
 e This is not in the original. The perpendicular height of the Ear of 
 Dionysius is about 90 feet (58 feet M. B.) and its length 250 feet (Bry- 
 done) — scarcely large enough to supply materials for such a city as ancient 
 Syracuse. The La t omits, an extensive quarry, now converted into a gar 
 den, is better entitled to that distinction. — P. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
BOOK CXXXVI-] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 131 
 
 against a stone , some notion may thus be formed of the 
 effect produced by the discharge of a pistol, an experiment 
 with which the ciceroni are not unwilling to gratiiy stran- 
 gers. 
 
 Modern Syracuse has been much injured by earth- 
 quakes ; the one that happened in 1693, did not last more 
 than four minutes, but it destroyed almost all the houses, 
 and a fourth part of the inhabitants. Although now an 
 insignificant town, it possesses a theatre and a very valua- 
 ble museum, in which may be seen a statue of Venus Cal- 
 lipygia, supposed to be the one described by Athenseus, 
 and given to the Syracusans by the emperor Ileliogabalus. 
 The cathedral is the ancient temple of Minerva ; it was 
 transformed into a church towards the end of the second 
 century ; its most precious ornament is a Madonna of solid 
 silver, as large as life ; the lady appears in a robe, covered 
 with diamonds and other precious stones, on certain solemn 
 occasions, such as the day of an annual visit which she 
 m ikes, in procession and with much ceremony, to another 
 Madonna in the neighbourhood. 
 
 Mount Laura, which rises to the west of Syracuse, is 
 one of the highest points in the three chains that traverse 
 Sicily. Calatagirone, an industrious and commercial town, 
 is situated on the southern side of the mountains, at a con- 
 siderable elevation ; the inhabitants are engaged in com- 
 merce, agriculture and the useful arts. It contains many 
 churches and priests, convents and»monks, besides a royal 
 college and several hospitals. Two or three fairs are held 
 every year in the town ; and according to different authors, 
 the population amounts to nineteen thousand six hundred 
 inhabitants, but it is not improbable that the number has 
 been overrated. It stands on the site of Hybla Minima or 
 Hercea, as it is called in the Itinerary of Antonine. A bad 
 road passes through Calatagirone from Catania to Castro- 
 Giovanni, a town of eleven thousand souls, which from its 
 position on a hill, and from some remains of antiquity, was 
 probably the ancient Enna, a place mentioned by Strabo ; 
 within its walls, about a hundred and fifty years before the 
 Christian era, a number of revolted slaves maintained a long 
 and obstinate siege against the Romans. The neighbour- 
 ing country was and is still very fruitful in corn. Ceres had 
 a magnificent temple in the town, which is said to have 
 been the capital of her dominions ; at no great distance 
 from it may be seen the grotto, by which Pluto returned to 
 the infernal regions, when he carried away Proserpine. 
 
 A road from Castro-Giovanni leads to Girgenti, but by 
 following the course of the Salso, one may reach Alicata, 
 a town of twelve thousand inhabitants, situated on the sea 
 coast ; it is protected by two forts, and well known in Sicily 
 for its pastry and macaroni. The harbour, although small, 
 is much frequented, and the ruins on Mount Serrato in the 
 neighbourhood, are, according to some antiquaries, the re- 
 mains of Gela, the birthplace of the poet Apollodorus, of 
 the philosopher Timagoras and the tyrant Gelon. At a 
 short distance from the same place stood the tomb of Aes- 
 chylus. 
 
 Girgenti, of which the streets rise like steps one above 
 another, on one of the highest mountains near the coast, 
 is a dirty, ill-built and by no means commercial town. 
 
 » In the original, — “beyond the Platani and the Calatabellota.” The 
 translator appears to have considered the two names as belonging to the 
 same river, but they are in fact two distinct rivers entering the sea on the 
 western coast between Girgenti and Sciacca, the Platani on the south, 
 
 It possesses an orphan hospital, a lyceum with a library and 
 a collection of medals, an episcopal palace, and a seminary ; 
 it contains also forty-six churches and fifteen monasteries, 
 although its population does not exceed fifteen thousand 
 souls. It rises on the site of the citadel, that Daedalus built 
 at the request of king Cocalus, to defend Agrigentum. The 
 ruins of the ancient city are situated about a mile and a 
 half to the south-east, at a place called Girgenti Vecchio. 
 Several convents rise within its enclosure, which consisted 
 of rocks cut in the form of walls. Agrigentum, which 
 Strabo calls Acragas, from the name of the stream that 
 watered it, was founded six hundred years before the vul- 
 gar era ; Amilcar destroyed it two hundred years after- 
 wards ; having been rebuilt, it was taken by the Romans. 
 The population amounted to two hundred thousand souls, 
 and it was a considerable town, at comparatively so late a 
 period as the year 941, when the Arabs or Saracens laid 
 it in ruins. If the inhabitants were unable to resist their 
 enemies, it was owing to their luxury and effeminacy. The 
 long tyranny of Phalaris, and his cruel and dreadful tor- 
 tures, compelled them at last to shake off the yoke. While 
 Carthage was in its splendour, the people of Agrigentum 
 were menaced with an attack from that naval power. The 
 magistrates decreed that the citizens in rotation should 
 watch the ramparts during the night, and in order that the 
 service might not be attended with too much inconvenience, 
 every man on duty was permitted to have a tent, a woollen 
 coverlet and two pillows. But even this indulgence was 
 not sufficient to satisfy the citizens, and the decree occa- 
 sioned much discontent. The philosopher Empedocles, 
 who perished in the crater of Etna, was born at Agrigen- 
 tum ; he said that his countrymen indulged in luxury as if 
 they were to die the next day, and erected temples and edi- 
 fices as if they -were to live for ever. The public buildings 
 were magnificent ; strangers admire the temple of Concord, 
 which, with the exception of the roof, is still entire ; among 
 the other ruins that exist at present, are the temples of 
 Castor and Pollux, Juno Lucina, the Olympian Jupiter, 
 Ceres and Proserpine, Hercules, Apollo, Diana, and Aes- 
 culapius. 
 
 It is unnecessary to mention the towns in the interior of 
 Sicily ; all the industry of the country is concentrated in 
 the different places on the coast, and it is there too that the 
 stranger finds subjects for meditation, in the historical re- 
 collections connected with them. Timoleon, at the head 
 of six thousand Syracusans, defeated an army of seventy 
 thousand Carthaginians, near the Calatabellota, a rivei 
 twelve leagues in length, to which the ancients gave the 
 name of Crimisus. An arid plain beyond it, a extends to 
 the sea-shore, where the town of Sciacca rises ; its wretch- 
 ed appearance is so much the more remarkable as it con- 
 tains twelve thousand inhabitants, and because great quan- 
 tities of grain are exported to foreign countries from its har- 
 bour. Few vestiges of the town called the Baths of Seli- 
 nus ( Thermae. Selinuntice,) now remain ; b a town celebrated 
 in ancient times for its warm springs, for its fine earthen 
 ware, incorrectly denominated Etruscan, and also as being 
 the birth-place of Agathocles, who from a potter, rose by 
 his talents to the throne of Syracuse. Selinus c was situa- 
 
 nearest Girgenti, and the Calatabellota on the north, near Sciacca. The 
 mistake of the translator is corrected in this edition. — P. 
 b It occupied the site of Sciacca. 
 
 0 Selinuns. 
 
 J 
 
132 EUR 
 
 fed in the territory of Castel Vetrano on the right bank of 
 the Belici, but the ruins of ancient temples and other edifi- 
 ces, that the inhabitants call the Giants' Pillars ( Pilieri dei 
 Giganti,) are all that remain of the ancient town. The 
 tempest, says a traveller, 3 sometimes sweeps away the de- 
 posits that now cover the port of Selinus, and reveals for a 
 few moments, quays, columns and rings, which the billows 
 conceal anew under heaps of moveable sand. Innumera- 
 ble lizards sport about the ruins, the aloe sends up its taper- 
 ing shoot, and the wide spreading opuntia covers them with 
 its shade. A deserted but fruitful plain extends beyond 
 them to Mazzara, a town peopled by eight thousand in- 
 habitants. Marsala is situated on the other side of a hill, 
 near the sea-shore ; the neighbouring country is famous 
 for its wines ; b the plants were originally imported from 
 Madeira. The town stands near the ruins of Lilybicum, a 
 Carthaginian city that maintained a five years seige against 
 the Romans, and in which the latter, according to Livy, 
 kept a garrison of ten thousand men after the ruin of Car- 
 thage. Trapani, an agreeable town to the north of Marsala, 
 stands on a peninsula at no great distance from the site of 
 the ancient Drepanum. The islands of Favignana, Levanzo 
 and Maretimo may be seen from its ramparts. It was near 
 these islands that the consul Claudius Pulcher was defeat- 
 ed in a naval engagement by the Carthaginians ; before the 
 engagement, the consul ordered the sacred chickens to be 
 thrown into the sea, exclaiming — let them drink, if they will 
 not eat ; on the same coast, Caius Lutatius gained a vic- 
 tory over the same people, which enabled the Romans to 
 make themselves masters of Sicily. 
 
 The sterile country between Trapani and Alcamo may 
 render the stranger better prepared to contemplate one of 
 the finest monuments of antiquity — the only remains of 
 JEgesta or Segesta. It stands on a height at the base of 
 Mount Eryx, celebrated in ancient times for the temple of 
 Venus Erycina, which was deserted and almost in ruins at 
 so early a period as the time of Strabo. 3 All the travellers 
 who have examined the temple are unanimous in its com- 
 mendation. The effect it produced at a distance, says 
 Simond, increased as I approached. Such is the magic of 
 its proportions, and the beauty of its form, that whatever 
 side it may be viewed, it is equally admirable. It has 
 braved the influence of time, — the edifice stands entire, 
 columns, entablature, pediment, all except the cella and 
 roof, which have disappeared. The columns of the Ionic 
 order are about seven feet in diameter at the base, tapering 
 towards the top, and only four diameters in height, but they 
 form with the front* 1 a total height of fifty-eight feet. The 
 dimensions of the interior are about a hundred and seventy- 
 four feet by seventy-two ; e six pillars support the front, and 
 fourteen each of the sides/ 
 
 The country round Alcamo is fruitful and romantic ; the 
 name of the town indicates its Arabian origin ; it was found- 
 ed in the year 828, by Alkamah, a Saracen prince. When 
 seen from the heights that rise above it, g its towers and its 
 walls give it the appearance of a Moorish town. The wo- 
 men have preserved the eastern costume ; they never walk 
 the streets without being covered with a large black mantle, 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CXXXVI 
 
 I that conceals part of the face. The town contains thirteen 
 thousand inhabitants, and most of them adore their Madonna, 
 which has already performed unnumbered miracles ; indeed 
 the people maintain that there is not a better Madonna in 
 all Sicily. 
 
 •Montreale or Morreale, a town of eight thousand inha- 
 bitants, is also situated on a hill. The church and the con- 
 vent of the Benedictines, which were founded in the twelfth 
 century by the Norman prince William the Good, have 
 served as a nucleus for the town ; houses have at different 
 periods been grouped around them. The abbot of the 
 monastery has the title and the rank of an archbishop ; the 
 monks of Mount Cassino form his chapter. The church 
 was much injured by a fire in 181 1 ; its principal entrance 
 is formed by a bronze portal covered with reliefs ; the 
 columns are of granite, the walls are incrusted with mosaics, 
 and the pavement consists of porphyry and different colour- 
 ed marbles ; within the same building are contained the 
 mausoleums of William the Good, and of his father William 
 the Bad. The convent is adorned with an admirable paint- 
 ing by Pietro Novelli, the Sicilian Raphael. 
 
 An excellent road leads from Montreale to Palermo ; 
 country houses are scattered in the neighbourhood, and 
 arid rocks, rising apparently from the sea, are heaped above 
 each other in a fruitful valley, covered in some places with 
 the spiry aloe and the cactus. Palm trees and tall bam- 
 boos wave their verdanj tops in the air, and the light breeze 
 that sweeps over the corn fields, agitates the undulating sur- 
 face. The bright foliage of the orange and lemon trees, 
 the smooth branches of the olive, the large-leaved vine and 
 the graceful rose laurel, form a varied landscape of the 
 richest verdure. 
 
 Palermo, the capital of Sicily, and the ancient Panormus, 
 town founded by the Phoenicians, is encompassed with walls, 
 and rises in the form of a circle on a gulf. It appears 
 smaller than it really is ; two streets which intersect each 
 other transversely, divide it into four nearly equal parts. 1 ' 
 The breadth of these streets is about forty or forty -five feet, 
 and the length from twelve hundred to fourteen hundred 
 paces. One of these streets, the Cassaro, derives its name 
 from the Arabic word Cassar, which signifies a palace ; 
 the other is called the Macqueda or Strada Nuova. The 
 place where the two streets cross each other, forms an 
 octagonal square ; at no great distance from it, is situated 
 the Pretorian square, which is much larger. A fountain 
 loaded with ornaments, and of such dimensions that the 
 eye cannot embrace the whole,* rises in the centre of the 
 last mentioned square ; it consists of several basins placed 
 above each other, and separated by galleries covered with 
 statues and animals, that throw out the water in different 
 directions. The piazza of Bologni is adorned with an 
 equestrian statue of Charles the Fifth, king of Sicily, — the 
 best work of Volsi, a Sicilian sculptor. The gates of the 
 town are shut at night ; the two finest are the Porta Felice, 
 a triumphal arch that forms the entrance from the harbour 
 into Palermo, and the Porta Nuova at the extremity of the 
 Cassaro, and contiguous to the royal palace. The archi 
 tecture of the latter building is by no means creditable to 
 
 “ M. le comte Fedor de Karaczay. b Sicily Madeira. 
 
 c Rook VI. chap. iii. § 8. d “Fronton,” pediment. 
 
 * “ Length 30 toises, breadth 12.” 
 
 f See Simond’s Travels, and also the Manuel du Voyageur en Sicile, 
 by Count Fedor de Karaczay. 
 
 s “ When seen from below the height on which it rises.” — The Sara- 
 eens erected a fortress on Mount Bonifati. Frederick of Swabia having 
 
 driven out the Saracens, destroyed the fortress, and built Alcamo at the foot 
 of the mountain. (Ed. Encyc.j It is situated on high ground. (Cyc.) — P. 
 
 h The two principal streets, the Cassaro and the Strada Nuova, traverse 
 the citv, and intersect each other at right angles in the centre. (Ed. En- 
 cyc.) — P. 
 
 > “ et d’une dimension qui ne permet point d’ea saisir l’ensemhle de 
 
 l’extr6mite de la place, qu’elle obstrue.” 
 
 - 
 
BOOK CXXXVJ.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 133 
 
 the good taste of the Palermitans ; constructed at different 
 periods, the different parts are not in harmony with each 
 other. The most remarkable part of the edifice is the 
 chapel built by king Roger in 1129; and it too is only re- 
 markable for its grotesque paintings,® its coarse mosaics, 
 and an architecture in which the Gothic and the Grecian 
 style of the middle ages are united. The highest part of 
 the palace, or the observatory, was finished in 1791 ; it 
 was there that the celebrated Abbe Piazzi discovered in 
 1801, the planet which he called Ceres. The oldest fres- 
 co painting in Europe may be seen on the walls of the great 
 hospital ; it was painted in the fourth century ; b the triumph 
 of Death forms the subject, one that cannot be very conso- 
 latory to the patients who are confined in the hospital. 
 
 The Vicaria or palace of justice, is at once the tribunal 
 and the prison ; the guilty and innocent, criminals and ac- 
 cused, are confined together, and remain sometimes ten or 
 fifteen years before the court condemns or acquits them. 
 “ I shall give an example,” says Simond, “ of the man- 
 ner in which the prisons are filled, as I am sure of the fact. 
 A few months ago, two men were quarrelling in the street 
 with knives in their hands, when a third person interfering, 
 was stabbed, and the murderers fled. The sbirri, who 
 happened to be at hand, seized three of the bystanders, and 
 conducted them to prison, where they are now detained, 
 without any evidence whatsoever against them ; and unless 
 they have powerful friends or money, they may remain 
 there half their lives. In the meantime, no measures have 
 been taken to bring the real murderers to justice.” An 
 epidemy lately carried off eighty individuals in confinement. 
 The original cause of detention, often trifling, is forgotten, 
 witnesses are gone away, nobody thinks of prosecuting ; it 
 is hopeless for a prisoner to expect a trial ; he may look 
 forward to a gaol delivery, to which an arbitrary govern- 
 ment has sometimes recourse, when the prisons are too full. 
 The indifference as to the fate of prisoners, encourages the 
 powerful to persecute and oppress the poor. The number 
 of prisoners 0 amounted to about seventeen hundred in the 
 year 1818. The prisons in a district nine times more popu- 
 lous than the province of Palermo, namely, those under the 
 jurisdiction of the royal court at Paris, did not contain at 
 the same period more than thirteen or fourteen hundred 
 persons. 
 
 Several articles of considerable value have lately been 
 added to the museums of antiquities and medals ; and the 
 paintings, which are now collecting in the galleries of the 
 university, are likely to be of use to those who devote them- 
 selves to the fine arts. Two edifices of Moorish architecture 
 are situated in the suburbs of Palermo ; the one is the 
 palace of Ziza, the property of an individual, and the other, 
 the palace of Cuba, which has been changed into barracks 
 for cavalry ; they were built by an emir, who called them 
 after the names of his two daughters. The town contains, 
 besides the buildings already mentioned, twenty-seven prin- 
 cipal churches and several others of a smaller size, sixty- 
 seven, convents, five hospitals, eight charity schools, a semi- 
 nary, three public libraries, four barracks, two theatres, 
 and two mounts of piety. The Duomo or cathedral, one 
 of the finest Gothic monuments in Sicily, was founded in 
 the year 1166 ; it may bear a comparison with the most 
 magnificent buildings in Cordova and Granada, but the in- 
 terior, although profusely adorned, does not correspond with 
 
 the exterior; marble, granite, jasper, porphyry, alabaster and 
 lapis lazuli are lavished in the same way as in other Italian 
 churches. Next to the cathedral, the church of Jesus is 
 the most remarkable, not only for its architecture, but for 
 its precious ornaments, its paintings and its basso relievos. 
 
 The catacombs cut in the rock below the church of the 
 Capuchins, possess the singular property of converting into 
 mummies the bodies that are deposited in them. The dead, 
 placed upright in niches, are sumptuously attired ; their 
 arms hang downwards, or are crossed on the breast. The 
 nobles attach much importance to this method of sepulture, 
 and purchase very dearly the right of obtaining it ; indeed, 
 the revenue that the Capuchins thus derive, forms the prin- 
 cipal source of their wealth. On certain festivals, these 
 bodies are clothed in gorgeous apparel ; relatives, friends, 
 perhaps lovers, are then admitted to see those who were 
 dear to them. But the magnificent dresses of the dead 
 form surely a painful contrast with their shrivelled skin, — 
 the contracted lip no longer concealing the teeth, — the dis- 
 agreeable grimace on some countenances, — the smile on 
 others, as if they looked in pity or contempt on the vain 
 grandeur and fleeting pleasures of the world. 
 
 Palermo boasts of having been the birthplace of St. Aga- 
 tha, who received the palm of martyrdom in the third cen- 
 tury ; the same town claims the honour of having given 
 birth to another personage in the legend, to another object 
 of veneration to a credulous people. A Sicilian poet places 
 St. Rosalia above all the saints in paradise, nay more, above 
 the Virgin herself. According to tradition, she was the 
 niece of William the Good ; at fifteen years of age, she re- 
 nounced the world, and lived in complete solitude ; she with- 
 drew to the mountains on the west of Palermo, where she 
 died unknown. While the plague depopulated the town in 
 1 624, a hermit declared that he had seen a vision, in which 
 God revealed to him a cavern on Mount Pelegrino, where 
 the bones of St. Rosalia were to be found ; these bones it 
 was necessary to carry in procession -round the walls of 
 Palermo, in order that their sacred virtue might drive away 
 the plague. No one, until that period, ever heard of St. 
 Rosalia ; no one knew that such a person ever existed. It 
 was rather too much to expect that her remains could be 
 found five centuries after her death. The magistrates paid 
 little attention to the story of the visionary, but the people 
 believed it, and to satisfy them, a deputation of monks, with 
 the hermit at their head, was sent to the cavern. The bones 
 were found, and the plague in the course of time disappear- 
 ed. The remains of St. Rosalia are now enclosed in a 
 magnificent shrine on the very spot from which they were 
 first removed, and to which pilgrims from Italy and every 
 part of Sicily resort. 
 
 A festival that commences on the fifteenth of July, lasts 
 several days, and those who have seen it, affirm that there 
 is a greater display of pomp and pageantry on these occa- 
 sions, than during the holy week at Rome. The shrine of 
 St. Rosalia is then carried in procession through the streets 
 of Palermo. Fifty-six mules richly caparisoned are at- 
 tached to an immense vehicle seventy feet long, thirty broad, 
 and eighty high, containing a numerous orchestra, and 
 adorned with orange trees, shrubs and flowers. The holy 
 chariot, d if it may be so called, terminates in a dome, sup- 
 ported by six Corinthian pillars, and beneath it is placed 
 the gigantic statue of St. Rosalia, which consists of massive 
 
 Arabesques.’ 
 
 Manuel du Yoyageur en Sicile. 
 
 ) c In the prisons of the Vicaria. 
 
 Triumphal car. 
 
134 EUROPE. [book cxxxvi 
 
 silver. The saint with her numerous suite and her guard 
 of cavalry, return home in the evening, when every house 
 is illuminated, and when every priest or monk that accom- 
 panies her, holds a lighted torch in his hand. Fire works 
 are then discharged from every part of the town, and the 
 corso a is crowded with carriages from midnight until two 
 o’clock. Horse races commence on the morning of the 
 second day ; in the forenoon, the saint and her retinue pass 
 through different parts of the town, and in the evening the 
 same illuminations are renewed, and the fire works are 
 more brilliant ; the same amusements are continued during 
 the third day. There are three races on the fourth, and 
 the cathedral is lighted in the evening with thirty thousand 
 wax tapers. Lastly, the saint is accompanied with a very 
 numerous procession on the fifth day, for all the priests and 
 monks in the town must attend ; they pass round the Pre- 
 torian square, and the fountain is changed in an instant in- 
 to a fountain of fire. The festival attracts to Palermo near- 
 ly a fourth part of the population of the island, and costs 
 the municipality about sixty thousand ducats. The interest 
 that the Palermitans of all ranks and all ages take in the 
 vain show, the luxury that prevails, and the importance at- 
 tached to trifles, seem to indicate that the blood of the an- 
 cient Greeks, who were so devoted to ceremonies and re- 
 ligious festivals, flows still in the veins of the Sicilian 
 people. 1 * 
 
 The Marina is the finest public walk in Palermo ; it ex- 
 tends along the sea-shore, and leads to the Flora, a large 
 garden tastefully planted, which communicates in its turn 
 wi h a botanical garden, containing upwards of four thou- 
 sand exotic plants. The fine edifice in the centre of the 
 last garden, the work of a French architect, 1 ' is now set 
 apart for lectures on botany and natural history. 
 
 The Gulf of Palermo cannot be compared with the Gulf 
 of Naples ; mountains scorched by a burning sun, proclaim 
 the vicinity of Africa. Mount Pelegrino, the Eveta of the 
 Romans, is the highest of the different mountains that rise 
 like an amphitheatre round the town ; their sides are adorn- 
 ed with gardens and country houses, in the midst of which 
 may he remarked the Favorita, a royal park, stocked with 
 an innumerable quantity of hares and pheasants. The po- 
 sition assigned in the Itinerary of Antonine, to Hyccara, a 
 small town mentioned by Thucydides and Plutarch, and 
 the birth-place of Lais, the celebrated courtezan, is suffic ient 
 to prove that the present village of Carini stands on its 
 site. The wretched town of Termini, well known in 
 Sicily for a wealthy convent of Benedictines, built by pope 
 St. Gregory, is situated on the coast near the site of Hime- 
 ra, a town founded six hundred and fifty years before the 
 Christian era, by a colony sent from Messina or Zancle. 
 Gelon defeated Amilcar under its walls, but his defeat was 
 avenged by Hannibal, who razed the town, and put its in- 
 habitants to the sword. The other towns and villages on 
 the coast, are too insignificant to require notice. Melazzo, d 
 built on a promontory at eight leagues from Messina, is the 
 ancient JWylot, where the Romans gained the first naval 
 victory over the Carthaginians. 
 
 The islands round Sicily may now be mentioned in or- 
 der to complete the account of the Neapolitan states. Op- 
 pidolo, the chief town in Pentellaria, an island on the south- 
 
 " The corso is the procession of carriages in the Cassaro. 
 
 b The description in the text differs in many particulars from the origi- 
 nal, which corresponds very nearly with the description in Brydone’s Tour. 
 In the original it is stated "that the great car enters the city in the evening of 
 the 1st day, and that the procession is renewed in the evening of the '2d, 
 
 west, contains three thousand five hundred inhabitants. 
 The town of Santa Maria,* a place defended by a fortress, 
 contains the greater part of the population in Ustica, which 
 lies to the north of the Gulf of Palermo. Felicudi contains 
 eight hundred individuals. Alicudi or Alicuri, an island 
 somewhat smaller than the last, does not contain more than 
 two hundred and fifty. Salina, which has been already 
 mentioned, is peopled by four thousand inhabitants. The 
 population of Lipari amounts to eighteen thousand ; the 
 town of the same name is fortified, and the island produces 
 excellent malmsey wine. Two hundred inhabitants reside 
 in Panaria, the ancient Didyme. Stromboli is the ancient 
 Strongyle ; its fruitful and volcanic soil did not contain 
 more than two hundred inhabitants about twenty-five years 
 ago, but at present, more than two thousand are collected 
 in a single town. The other islands dependent on Sicily, 
 are not inhabited. 
 
 The climate of Sicily exerts its influence, not only on 
 the physical, but moral character of its inhabitants. The 
 Sicilians are gay, lively and intellectual, of ardent imagina- 
 tions and impetuous passions ; the same people are gene- 
 rous, hospitable and faithful observers of their word. But 
 neither are their good qualities improved, nor their bad pas- 
 sions subdued by education. A man commits murder, not 
 from covetousness, but from vengeance. To avenge one’s 
 self is by all considered a right, by many a duty. The 
 lower orders in Sicily do not submit to injuries so tamely as 
 the people of Naples ; the higher classes never venture to 
 strike their inferiors ; a blow, says Simond, might be repaid 
 with a stab. Although they pass their time in indolence, 
 their mental activity puts them in possession of many re- 
 sources ; indeed if they were well educated, they might 
 perhaps he superior to the people of any other country. 
 But they are kept in ignorance ; influential men consider 
 knowledge a fatal or dangerous present ; it is supposed to 
 make the people discontented ; they have not yet learnt that 
 the object of general education is not so much to teach the 
 sciences, as to inculcate the moral truths, that are so close- 
 ly connected with those of religion. Elementary educa- 
 tion, by diffusing the use of writing, might introduce a love 
 of order and economy among the lower ranks, enable them 
 to profit by the perusal of the books within their reach, 
 dispose them to consider their engagements to the state, 
 and their other duties, more obligatory, and render the hus- 
 bandman and the artisan better able to inform themselves 
 in their respective departments of industry. What danger 
 can result from such changes in the manners and habits of 
 the people 1 The bulwarks that defend the palace against 
 popular tumults, are not impregnable ; a well informed per- 
 son capable of respecting the laws, may be more easily 
 kept within the limits of a reasonable obedience, than ano- 
 ther who knows only the sovereignty of force, and the sub- 
 mission that results from fear. 
 
 We have attempted to describe the fondness of the peo- 
 ple for religious festivals. The Sicilians require a worship 
 that addresses itself to the senses ; they must have flowers, 
 perfumes, noisy music and images ; incapable of receiving 
 Christianity in its native purity, they introduced the ma- 
 chinery of polytheism into the religion of Jesus. The na- 
 tional vanity, which is common to the Sicilians with their 
 
 not ill the forenoon as in the translation. No tire works are mentioned on 
 the 2d day, hut in the evening of the 3d. In these points the original 
 agrees with Brvdone. — P. 
 
 c M. Dufourny. 
 
 A Milazzo. 
 
book ( xxxvi.] DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 135 
 
 ancestors, makes them suppose themselves superior to other 
 people, and the same sentiment produces some degree of 
 jealousy between the different towns. Athens and Lace- 
 demon claimed political supremacy, and Messina does not 
 yield to Palermo the title of capital. 
 
 The Sicilians are exemplary for their sobriety ; in that 
 virtue, at least, they are not inferior to the ancient Spartans. 
 Some customs of the Greeks are still preserved among the 
 peasantry ; thus, the shepherds choose a judge to hear 
 their songs, and to award the prize to him who deserves it. 
 The country women retain a part of the Greek costume, 
 such as the long veil and the wide cincture. 
 
 Conversazioni are as general in Sicily as in Italy ; peo- 
 ple meet in each others houses, or in public places to which 
 they subscribe ; in the latter, rooms are set apart for the 
 purpose of conversation, and other apartments for those 
 who consider gambling more attractive. But what appears 
 very strange, a lady in confinement never fails to hold a 
 conversazione, and, the day after delivery, all her friends re- 
 pair to her chamber. The pains by which women pur- 
 chase the pleasure of being mothers, are not felt in Sicily, 
 an advantage that nature has bestowed on warm climates. 
 
 Sicily has given birth to several distinguished writers ; 
 and their works form frequently a subject for criticism or 
 conversation to the present Sicilians. Poetry is the lan- 
 guage of love and gallantry ; there is not a tender swain 
 that does not express the cruelty of his mistress in rhyme. 
 Amorous intrigues are the pastimes of all the ladies ; they 
 never walk the streets ; they are only seen in the theatre, 
 at mass, or in their houses. They adopt, and often im- 
 prove the French fashions, and they are perhaps as adroit 
 as the Parisian ladies in heightening the effect of fine fea- 
 tures and arch eyes. The women of Messina are pleasant 
 and agreeable in their manners, at Palermo they are hand- 
 some, at Syracuse they are distinguished by the freshness 
 of their complexion, and at Trapani, one may discover the 
 regularity of the Greek profile. In Naples the men are 
 handsomer than the women ; in Sicily the women are bet- 
 ter looking than the men. 
 
 The principal sources of public corruption are an inex- 
 tricable labyrinth of laws, and a host of advocates and at- 
 torneys, encouraging, more than anywhere else, the mania 
 for lawsuits. Justice is venal, and the judges do not blush 
 to acknowledge it ; the agents of government are the great- 
 est smugglers ; monks educate youth and govern families, 
 » while their own conduct is not more exemplary than that 
 of their predecessors in the sixteenth century. 
 
 Sicily was formerly as much infested with robbers as the 
 Neapolitan territory is at present, and some parts in the 
 island were emphatically styled dens of thieves. Such, 
 however, is no longer the case, for strangers may travel 
 without danger, from one end of the country to the other, 
 Resolute Capitanos, appointed in each district, are chosen 
 from the most influential proprietors. Each Capitano has 
 a guard of fourteen horsemen, well mounted, well armed, 
 and well paid, and it is the duty of their chief to enforce 
 the law in his district, preserve the peace, and ensure the 
 safety of the inhabitants, for which he is made responsible. 
 The horsemen were originally selected from the most in- 
 trepid banditti, and they have performed their duty so well 
 that travelling is as safe in Sicily as in England. 
 
 Strangers have some difficulty in understanding the man- 
 
 * The Ave Maria is twenty-four o’clock. 
 
 ner of computing time in Sicily and in every part of Italy, 
 except Turin, Parma and Florence. The first hour of the 
 twenty-four, or the Jive Maria? begins half an hour after 
 sunset ; therefore, at the equinox, what is twelve o’clock at 
 noon in the rest of Europe, is thirty minutes after seventeen 
 in Italy, and it is one o’clock on the same day and in the 
 same country at half past seven in the evening. One in- 
 convenience attending the Italian method, is that the clocks 
 must be regulated every day at noon, and advanced or re- 
 tarded according as the days are becoming longer or short- 
 er. The watches of the Italians are made in foreign coun- 
 tries, and the dials do not correspond with their mode ot 
 counting the hours, which they however maintain, has 
 many advantages over the ordinary method. 
 
 Italy, once the country of flourishing colonies, ihe centre 
 of the most formidable empire in ancient times, the theatre 
 of the most powerful republics during the middle ages, has 
 remained without influence and without glory, during the 
 political changes to which Europe has in modern times 
 been exposed. Divided into kingdoms and principalities of 
 the second and third order, it is without any central point , 
 every part is consequently vulnerable. During the last 
 fourteen centuries, Italy has been an object of ambition to 
 the princes beyond the Alps, and late events have too clear- 
 ly proved that its different states may easily become the 
 prey of an ambitious monarch. One or two victories ena- 
 bled Napoleon to make himself master of the country. 
 Had he secured its independence by giving it a chief, in 
 place of dividing it into prefectures, governed under his in- 
 fluence by princes of his family, France and Italy might 
 have resisted the coalition of Europe. Napoleon acknow- 
 ledged his error, when it could not be repaired ; what that 
 emperor did not attempt, time and the interests of Europe 
 may perhaps accomplish. The influence of manners, re- 
 ligion and language, tends to unite all the people in Italy ; 
 the intrigues of some princes, and the ambition of different 
 powers, have hitherto prevented the union. The succes- 
 sive conquests of the greatest empire in Europe, may at no 
 distant period occasion reasonable alarm for the safety ot 
 the western nations ; in the event of any such calamity, it 
 might be well to secure the independence of Italy. Addi- 
 tional resources might be obtained in the alliance of a coun- 
 try possessing on a surface of 97,200 square miles, b a popu- 
 lation of 1 6,560,000 individuals. But if commerce and in- 
 dustry were encouraged, Italy might easily contain twenty- 
 four millions, so great are the fertility of the soil, and the 
 advantages of its climate. The Italian nation is defended 
 by the Alps on the north, by the Appennines in the centre, 
 and in other directions by the sea ; it might add to the na- 
 tural strength of its position by fortresses, strongholds and 
 arsenals ; it might maintain an imposing army, enlarge its 
 ports, create a navy, avail itself of its islands to acquire a 
 maritime superiority, and thus be raised to an equality with 
 the greatest nations in Europe. One of the present thrones 
 in Italy may probably govern the whole country ; but if the 
 different states be excited to revolt by local interests or un- 
 foreseen causes, Italy may become a federative republic ; 
 Milan, Venice, Florence, Rome, Naples, Cagliari and Pa- 
 lermo might then be the six principal towns in the New 
 United States, — participating perhaps at the extremity of 
 the European continent, in the wealth and prosperity that 
 distinguish the American federation. 
 
 b “ 16,200 sq. leagues.” 117,090 Eng. sq. miles. (Morse.) 
 
I o J 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXVI. 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 
 OF ITALY. 
 
 Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom, divided into two govern- 
 ments and seventeen delegations, including forty-one Towns, 
 a hundred and seventy-six Burghs, and five thousand four 
 hundred and eighty -one Villages and Hamlets* 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF MILAN. 
 
 CHIEF TOWNS. 
 
 Population 
 of the chief 
 towns. 
 
 Surface in 
 German 
 square miles. 
 
 Population of 
 the 
 
 Delegations. 
 
 Population 
 for every 
 Ger.sq.mile. 
 
 1. Sondrio 
 
 3,374 
 
 62.05 
 
 83,451 
 
 1,346 
 
 2. Como 
 
 7,669 
 
 60.61 
 
 335,060 
 
 5,761 
 
 3. Milan 
 
 124,647 
 
 47.90 
 
 463,477 
 
 9,861 
 
 4. Pavia 
 
 21,351 
 
 24.40 
 
 146,368 
 
 6,098 
 
 5. Lodi * 
 
 14,882 
 
 34.10 
 
 197,532 
 
 5,809 
 
 6. Bergamo 
 
 29,469 
 
 66.10 
 
 315,186 
 
 4,775 
 
 7. Brescia 
 
 32,911 
 
 57.80 
 
 323,738 
 
 5,679 
 
 8. Cremona 
 
 26,876 
 
 22.60 
 
 175,815 
 
 7,991 
 
 9. Mantua 
 
 23,340 
 
 27.30 
 
 239,436 
 
 8,868 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF VENICE. 
 
 10. Verona 
 
 60,000 
 
 68.40 
 
 277,849 
 
 4,086 
 
 11. Rovigo b 
 
 7,000 
 
 20.72 
 
 135,625 
 
 6,781 
 
 12. Padua 
 
 47,000 
 
 39.80 
 
 290,514 
 
 7,474 
 
 13. Vicenza 
 
 30,000 
 
 41.20 
 
 297,547 
 
 7,257 
 
 14. Belluno 
 
 8,000 
 
 61.90 
 
 122,840 
 
 2,013 
 
 15. Treviso 
 
 15,000 
 
 35.60 
 
 232,732 
 
 6,649 
 
 16. Venice 
 
 109,927 
 
 51.26 
 
 249,157 
 
 4,885 
 
 17. Udina 0 
 
 18,000 
 
 130.20 
 
 350,974 
 
 2,699 
 
 Total superficies in German square miles, total 
 
 
 
 
 population, and average population for every 
 German square mile 
 
 851.94 
 
 4,237,301 
 
 4,979 
 
 Surface in square geographical French leagues, 
 and average population for each league 
 
 2,368.39 
 
 
 1,789 
 
 Population according to the origin of the 
 
 Italians ..... 
 Germans ..... 
 
 Jews . • . . . 
 
 Greeks ..... 
 Armenians .... 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 4,163,700 
 
 66,500 
 
 5,600 
 
 700 
 
 . 500 
 
 4,237,000 
 
 Statistics of the Press, 1824. d 
 
 Number of volumes printed .... 1,040,500 
 
 Engravings and music — Number of copies . . 143,600 
 
 Periodical Works. 
 
 The Milan Gazette — Number of copies 
 
 Ladies’ Courier ...... 
 
 Royal Almanack ...... 
 
 Law Bulletin ...... 
 
 Besides these works, each delegation has its separate journal. 
 
 Scientific and Literary Journals. 
 
 At Milan ....... 
 
 At Padua ...... 
 
 At Treviso ...... 
 
 At Pavia ...... 
 
 1,900 
 
 700 
 
 690 
 
 1,750 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 Libraries. 
 
 At Belluno, the advocates’ library contains 
 At Bergamo, the largest contains 
 At Brescia Id. 
 
 At Mantua Id. 
 
 Volumes 
 
 45.000 
 
 30.000 
 
 60.000 
 50,000 
 
 '* The above table indicates the population according to the census of 
 1825, contained in the Alphabetisch-topographisches Postreise-Handbuch, 
 published by Max. Fried. Thielen, Vienna 1827. 
 
 b Chief town of Polesino, an ancient province, now a delegation. 
 c Chief town of Friuli. 
 
 d Taken from the Biblioteca Italiana, February, 1825, January and 
 February, 1826. 
 
 At Milan, the Ambrosian library 
 Id. the Brera library 
 At Padua, the university library 
 Id. the Benedictine library 
 At Pavia, the university library . 
 
 At Venice, library of St. Mark . 
 
 Id. the Narri library . 
 
 At Vicenza 
 
 Universities and Colleges, in 1822. 
 
 Government of Milan .... 
 
 Id. Venice .... 
 
 90.000 
 140,000 
 
 70.000 
 
 52.000 
 . ■ 33,000 
 
 . 150,000 
 
 40.000 
 
 20.000 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 University of Padua founded in 1221, attended in 1822 by 300 students. 
 University of Pavia Id. 1361, . . 750 
 
 Number of pupils who attend the colleges and schools . 132,000 e 
 
 In 1815, the pupils attending the different schools in 
 the delegations of Brescia and Bergamo, were as one 
 in ....... 14 
 
 In the delegation of Venice, in the year 1823, they were 
 as one in ...... 27 
 
 Idem, 1826, one in ..... 23 f 
 
 Number of convents in 1822 .... 19 
 
 KINGDOM OF PIEDMONT AND SARDINIA. 
 
 Divided into eight Intendancies, and into forty continental and ten in- 
 sular Provinces ; containing in all ninety-four Towns, two hundred 
 and sixty-nine Burghs , and three thousand three hundred and fifty- 
 six Villages and Hamlets. 
 
 DIVISION OF SAVOY. 6 
 
 Provinces. 
 Savoy Proper 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 119,910 
 
 Chief Towns. 
 Chamberryt 
 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 12,000 
 
 Upper Savoy 
 
 
 35,140 
 
 L’Hopital 
 
 
 
 1,500 
 
 Carouge 
 
 
 37,960 
 
 Saint Julien 
 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 Chablais 
 
 
 45,030 
 
 Thonon . 
 
 
 
 3,000 
 
 Faucigny 
 
 
 68,100 
 
 Bonneville 
 
 
 
 1,200 
 
 Genevois 
 
 
 71,850 
 
 Annecy 
 
 
 
 5,500 
 
 Maurierine 
 
 
 49,770 
 
 Saint Jean de Maurienne 
 
 2,500 
 
 Tarentaise 
 
 
 39,320 
 
 Moutiers 
 
 • 
 
 
 2,500 
 
 Turin 
 
 
 DIVISION 
 
 315,480 
 
 OF TURIN. 
 
 Turin+t 
 
 
 
 114,000 
 
 Biella 
 
 
 91,700 
 
 Biellat 
 
 
 
 7,700 
 
 Ivrea 
 
 
 136,200 
 
 Ivreat 
 
 
 
 7,000 
 
 Pignerol 1 * 
 
 
 106,990 
 
 Pignerolt 
 
 
 
 4,000 
 
 Susa' 
 
 
 65,470 
 
 Susat 
 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 Coni 
 
 
 DIVISION OF CONI. 
 
 143,780 Conit 
 
 
 
 16,500 
 
 Alba 
 
 
 99,380 
 
 Albat 
 
 
 
 7,000 
 
 Mondovi 
 
 
 118,370 
 
 Mondovit 
 
 
 
 17,000 
 
 Saluzzo 
 
 • 
 
 127,600 
 
 Saluzzot 
 
 • 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 Alessandria 
 
 DIVISION OF 
 
 90,530 
 
 ALESSANDRIA. 
 
 Alessandriat 
 
 
 
 30,000 
 
 Acqui 
 
 
 76,940 
 
 Acquit 
 
 
 
 6,500 
 
 Asti 
 
 
 107,670 
 
 Astit 
 
 
 
 21,000 
 
 CasaP 
 
 
 102,820 
 
 Casalt 
 
 
 
 16,000 
 
 Tortona 
 
 
 47,580 
 
 T ortonat 
 
 
 
 8,000 
 
 Voghera 
 
 
 84,770 
 
 Vogherat 
 
 
 
 10.000 
 
 Novara 
 
 
 DIVISION OF NOVARA. 
 
 115,780 Novarat 1 . 
 
 
 
 13,000 
 
 Lumellina . 
 
 
 101,330 
 
 Vigevanot . 
 
 
 
 15,000 
 
 Ossola 
 
 
 30,420 
 
 Domo d’ Ossola 
 
 
 
 1,500 
 
 Pallanza . 
 
 
 60,040 
 
 Pallanza 
 
 
 
 1.500 
 
 Val-Sesia 
 
 
 31,320 
 
 Varallo 
 
 
 
 3,300 
 
 Vercelli 
 
 
 101,130 
 
 V ercellitt 
 
 
 
 16,000 
 
 Aosta 
 
 
 DIVISION 
 
 61,640 
 
 OF AOSTA. 
 
 Aostat 
 
 
 . 
 
 5,500 
 
 e According to Hassel. 
 
 f According to M. Balbi. See Iris work entitled, The World compared 
 with the British Empire. 
 
 e The population of the provinces is taken from the census of 1826 
 The signs t and tf indicate bishoprics and archbishoprics. 
 b Pinerolo. ‘ Suza. 
 
 k Casale. 
 
 
BOOK CXXXVI.j 
 
 
 
 
 
 DIVISION 
 
 OF NICE. 
 
 Nice 
 Oneglia 
 San Remo 
 
 * 
 
 85,220 
 
 51,360 
 
 36,650 
 
 Nicet 
 
 Oneglia 
 
 Ventimigliat 
 
 
 
 DIVISION 
 
 OF GENOA. 
 
 Genoa 
 
 Albenga 
 
 Bobbio 
 
 Chiavari 
 
 Levante 
 
 Novi 
 
 Savona 
 
 * * 
 
 208,290 
 
 50,860 
 
 31,490 
 
 91,380 
 
 64,450 
 
 56,540 
 
 36,340 
 
 Genoatf 
 Albengat 
 Bobbiot 
 Chiavari 
 ( Spezia 
 \ Sarzanat 
 Novi 
 Savonaf 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 15,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 5,500 
 
 80,000 
 
 4.000 
 3,500 
 
 8.000 
 
 4.000 
 
 3.000 
 
 8.000 
 
 10,000 
 
 Total 3,399,600, on a surface of 2,635 square leagues, 
 giving on an average 1290 for every square league. 
 
 Population of Turin at the end of 1825. a 
 
 Different classes 
 Working classes 
 Ecclesiastics 
 Servants 
 Jews 
 
 Individuals in the congregations 
 
 Id. in the monasteries 
 
 Id. in religious houses' 1 
 
 Id. in the seminaries, colleges ) 
 
 and military academy $ 
 Id. in the hospitals 
 
 Men. 
 
 Women. 
 
 Total. 
 
 39,514 
 
 43,094 
 
 82,608 
 
 7,744 
 
 4,405 
 
 12,149 
 
 663 
 
 — 
 
 663 
 
 2,659 
 
 4,874 
 
 7,533 
 
 777 
 
 776 
 
 1,553 
 
 275 
 
 — 
 
 275 
 
 7 
 
 215 
 
 222 
 
 15 
 
 848 
 
 863 
 
 < 995 
 
 — 
 
 995 
 
 ' 1,098 
 
 1,556 
 
 2,654 
 
 53,747 
 
 55,768 
 
 109,515° 
 
 ISLAND OF SARDINIA. 
 
 Population of the Provinces in 1821. 
 
 Cagliari 
 Busachi 
 lglesias 
 Isili 
 
 Lanusei 
 Nuoro 
 Sassari 
 
 8 Alghero 
 
 9 Cuglieri 
 10 Ozieri 
 
 Names 
 of the 
 Dioceses. 
 
 Cagliari 
 
 Ogliastra 
 
 95,780 
 
 63,270 
 
 36,680 
 
 44,170 
 
 24,540 
 
 47,900 
 
 54,710 
 
 26,660 
 
 30,110 
 
 38,130 
 
 461,950 
 
 Population of the Dioceses in 1823. d 
 
 ( Cagliaritt 
 
 Sassaritf 
 
 Sassari 
 
 lglesias 
 
 Gastella and 
 Nuoro 
 
 | Iglesiast 
 
 1 
 
 Villages 
 
 or 
 
 Burghs. 
 
 Guarto 
 
 Sanluri 
 
 Sinnai 
 
 Gergei 
 
 Villaputzu 
 
 Seni 
 
 Lanuseit 
 
 Sorso 
 
 Bonorvo 
 
 Ittiri 
 
 Osilo 
 
 Ploaghe 
 
 Carloforte 
 
 Nuorot 
 
 Dorgali 
 
 Fonni 
 
 Oliena 
 
 Population. 
 
 2,150 
 1,814 
 1,379 
 19,3681 
 3,285 
 4,253 I 
 
 4.000 f 
 4,988 
 
 3.000 j 
 4,591 l 
 2,486 ( 
 3,3491 
 3,049 1 
 3,000 f 
 2,500J 
 
 Number 
 
 of 
 
 Parishes. 
 
 1 
 
 Population 
 of the 
 Dioceses. 
 
 79 
 
 J 
 
 109.888 
 
 > 28 
 
 25,982 
 
 32 
 
 23 
 
 25 
 
 77,467 
 
 22,803 
 
 33,570 
 
 “ See Annal. Univers. di Statistica, February, 1826. 
 b “ Lieux de retraite,” houses of refuge. 
 
 ° The population of 1824 amounted to 107,388 
 
 Increase at the end of 1825 .... 2, 127 
 
 109,515 
 
 The increase from the end of 1825 to the end of 1826 was more than 
 douole that of the preceding year. 
 
 Alghero 
 
 Bosa 
 
 Bisarcio 
 
 Ales 
 
 Oristano 
 
 Algherot 
 
 Bosat 
 
 Villanova 
 
 Bolotona 
 
 Ampurias and 
 Civita 
 
 Santo Lussurgiu 
 Cuglieri 
 Ozierit 
 Pattada 
 Budduso 
 Guspini 
 Villacidrot 
 Gonnos Fanadigo 
 
 Oristanott 
 
 Cabras 
 T onnara 
 Isili 
 
 ( Castelsardo 
 
 T empiot 
 Nulvi 
 Sedini 
 
 La Maddalena 
 
 6,924 : 
 3,176 
 2,180 1 
 5,553' 
 4,022 
 3,405 1 
 7,766 ' 
 3,019 
 2, 100 
 3,307' 
 5,571 
 3,125 1 
 5,3561 
 
 2,600 I 
 
 2,136 f 
 
 2,062 J 
 
 1,964" 
 
 7,057 
 
 3,009 
 
 1,343 
 
 1.758. 
 
 26 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 41 
 
 73 
 
 21 
 
 137 
 
 32,965 
 
 23,017 
 
 29,760 
 
 42,093 
 
 65,894 
 
 26,648 
 
 Total 
 
 392 490,087° 
 
 Population of the Sardinian states. 
 
 Piedmontese 
 
 Savoyards 
 
 Sardinians 
 
 Jews 
 
 According to 
 their origin. 
 
 3,010,000 
 
 386.000 
 
 490.000 
 3,700 
 
 3,889,700 
 
 Catholics 
 
 Vaudois f 
 
 Jews 
 
 According to 
 their religion. 
 
 3,864,000 
 
 22,000 
 
 3,700 
 
 3,889,700 
 
 Population of Sardinia according to their Classes f 
 Families. Individuals. 
 
 1,600 Noble families ..... 6,200 
 
 16,500 Husbandmen 11 ..... 85,000 
 
 16,300 Citizens ...... 65,200 
 
 66,161 Workmen and Peasants .... 330,805 1 
 
 Ecclesiastics ...... 1,757 
 
 Monks ... ... 1,125 
 
 490,087 
 
 Congregations and Convents in the Island of Sardinia. 
 
 Occupations. 
 
 Teachers 
 
 Id. ... 
 
 Superintendents of Hospitals 
 Proprietors 
 
 Mendicants . . 
 
 Orders. 
 
 Jesuits 
 
 T eachers of Reli 
 gious Schools 1 * 
 St. John 1 
 Different Orders 
 Id. 
 
 Congregations 
 
 and Convents. Individuals. 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 47 
 
 90 
 
 11 
 
 74 
 
 28 
 
 317 
 
 695 
 
 1,125 
 
 Number of Murders in the Island of Sardinia. 
 
 The proportion is as one to every 490 inhabitants. 
 
 Total number about ..... 
 
 1,000” 
 
 Table of Cattle existing in the Island of Sardinia in 1824. 
 
 Oxen 
 
 Cows 
 
 Swine 
 
 Horses 
 
 Goats 
 
 Ewes 
 
 Rams 
 
 In a domestic state. 
 
 On the mountains 
 
 91,800 
 
 28,500 
 
 17,900 
 
 106,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 156,000 
 
 29,300 
 
 17,800 
 
 
 314,800 
 
 
 669,600 
 
 
 61,400 
 
 
 1,523,100 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 40. 
 
 18 
 
 d The above table has been derived from details furnished by M. Cibra- 
 rio. See Bulletin des Sciences, section de Geographic, tom. ii. 
 
 ° The above population, on a surface of 1,100 square leagues, together 
 with the adjacent islands, gives the small proportion of 445 individuals for 
 every square league. 
 
 f Waldenses. s According to La Marmara. h “ Shepherds.” 
 
 1 According to an approximation. k “ Peres des ecoles pies.” 
 
 1 “ St. Jean de Dieu ” Fratres Joannis a Deo. 
 
 m J. Manno, Storia di Sardegna, 1825. 
 
138 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXV1 
 
 
 Places of Education in the Sardinian States. 
 
 
 
 Principal places of Education. 
 
 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 Number of 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 Number of 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Universities. 
 
 Students. 
 
 Libraries. 
 
 Volumes. 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Universities. Students. Libraries. 
 
 Volumes. 
 
 Turin 
 
 1* 
 
 1,200 
 
 University 
 
 110,000 
 
 Parma 
 
 1“ 250 1 
 
 1 10,000 
 
 
 
 
 1 S. Carlo 
 
 30,000 
 
 Placentia 
 
 1 
 
 20,000 
 
 Genoa 
 
 d 
 
 420 
 
 < Beria 
 
 20,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( Franzoniana 
 
 30,000 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 Public Debt. 
 
 Army. 
 
 Cagliari 
 
 i« 
 
 350 
 
 University 
 
 70,000 
 
 191,6671. 1 
 
 187, 5001. k 
 
 1,320 men. 
 
 Sassari 
 
 i d 
 
 120 
 
 Id. 
 
 15,000 
 
 
 
 
 Dilferent 
 
 Gymnasiums 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Towns 
 
 Seminaries 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 
 DUTCHY OF MODENA. 
 
 
 BUDGET OF THE 
 
 SARDINIAN 
 
 STATES IN 1825 AND 1826. 
 
 
 Containing eight Towns, sixty Burghs, and four hundred Villages and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hamlets . 
 
 
 Revenues of the Island of Sardinia. 
 
 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Francs. Cent. 
 
 Cense 
 
 
 200 
 
 4,800 
 
 Domains of the Crown 
 
 
 3,504 
 
 84,082 73 
 
 Direct taxes 
 
 
 38,194 
 
 916,647 08 
 
 Indirect taxes 
 
 
 71,830 
 
 1,723,901 56 
 
 Contingencies 
 
 
 857 
 
 20,568 63 
 
 
 
 114,585 
 
 2,750,000 
 
 Revenues of the continental provinces 
 
 259,400 
 
 62,250,000 
 
 T otal 
 
 
 373,985 
 
 65,000,000 
 
 Public debt 
 
 • 
 
 4,200,000= 
 
 100,000,000 
 
 Infantry 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 Infantry and Cavalry 
 
 Ships of the line 
 Frigates 
 
 ARMY. 
 
 Sardinia. 
 
 Continental Provinces. 
 
 NAVY. 
 
 Sardinia. 
 
 Continental Provinces. 
 
 Smaller vessels 
 
 PRINCIPALITY OF MONACO. 
 
 Population. 
 
 6.500 
 
 Revenue 
 
 16,700Z. (400,000 francs.)' 
 
 DUTCHY OF PARMA. 
 
 Containing six Towns , thirty-one Burghs , and eight hundred and fif- 
 teen Villages or Hamlets. 
 
 Population in 
 1826. 
 
 Surface in geographical 
 square leagues, g 
 
 288 440,000 
 
 The population in 1823 amounted to 437,400 
 
 Average Population to 
 every sq. league. 
 
 1,180 
 
 Increase 
 
 
 2,600 
 
 
 
 Population of the Towns. 
 
 
 1 Parma 
 
 2 Placentia 
 
 3 Guastalla 
 
 4 Borgo San Donnino 
 
 5 Fiorenauola 
 
 6 Nibbiano 
 
 
 • • • • 
 
 • • • • 
 
 • • • • 
 
 30.000 
 
 28.000 
 5,000 
 
 5.000 
 
 3.000 
 2,300 
 
 a Founded in 1406. 
 
 
 b Founded in 1803. 
 
 
 c Founded in 1704.* 
 
 * 1764. M. B. 1606. Ed. Encyc. 
 
 •* Founded in 1765. 
 
 ' The Sardinian debt amounted in 1816 to £3,600,000 (86,400,000 
 francs.) M. Adrian Balbi ( Balance politique du Globe ) makes it equal 
 in 18-26, to £4,200,000 (100,000,000 francs ;) he admits that his calculation 
 may he inaccurate, but it is certain that the public debt in 1826, was consi- 
 derably greater than in 1816. 
 
 f M. Ad. Balbi — (considered doubtful.) 
 
 s Twenty geographical leagues are equal to a degree, consequently a 
 geographical square league is equal to nine geographical square miles. Tr. 
 [This is a mistake on the part of the translator. Twenty five geographi- 
 
 Surface in geographical 
 square leagues. 
 
 260 
 
 Population in 
 1826. 
 
 350,000 
 
 Population of the Towns. 
 
 Proportion of the popu- 
 lation to the sq- league. 
 
 1,346 
 
 10,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 Modena 
 Mirandola . 
 
 Reggio 
 
 Castel Nuovo di Garfagnana 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 
 27.000 
 6,000 
 
 18.000 
 3,000 
 
 
 Principal places of 
 
 Education. 
 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Modena 
 
 Reggio 
 
 Universities. 
 
 l 
 
 Number of 
 Students. 
 
 200 
 
 Libraries. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Number of 
 Volumes 
 
 60,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 150,0001.' 
 
 
 Public Debt. 
 
 50,0001.™ 
 
 
 Army. 
 
 1,680 men, 
 
 DUTCHY OF MASSA. 
 
 Including two Towns, three Burghs, and thirty-seven Villages and 
 Hamlets. 
 
 Surface in geographical 
 leagues. 
 
 12 
 
 Massa 
 
 Carrara 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 21 , 0001 ." 
 
 Population in 
 1826. 
 
 29,000 
 
 Population of the Towns. 
 
 Public Debt. 
 
 12 , 0001 .° 
 
 DUTCHY OF LUCCA. 
 
 Ratio of the population 
 to the square league. 
 
 2,416 
 
 7.000 
 
 6.000 
 
 Army. 
 100 men. 
 
 Containing two Towns, twenty Burghs, and two hundred and seventy 
 Villages and Hamlets. 
 
 Surface in geographical 
 leagues. 
 
 54 
 
 Lucca 
 
 Viareggio 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Lucca 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 82,0001.5 
 
 Population in 
 1826. 
 
 143,000 
 
 Population of the Towns. 
 
 Principal places of Education. 
 Universities. 
 
 IP 
 
 Public Debt 
 
 35,0002. r 
 
 Ratio of the population 
 to the square league. 
 
 2,648 
 
 22,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 Number of Students 
 
 120 
 
 Army. 
 
 800 men. 
 
 cal leagues and twenty marine leagues are equal to a degree, consequently 
 a geographical square league is equal to 5.76 geographical square miles, and 
 a marine square league to nine geographical square miles. See Table X. 
 Tab. Math. Geog. — P.] 
 h Founded in 1606. 
 
 i “4,600,000 francs.” k “4,500,000 francs. 
 
 1 “3,500,000 francs.” 
 
 ™ “ 1,200,000 francs.” 
 
 " “500,000 francs.” 
 o “ 300,000 francs.” 
 p Founded in 1802. 
 q “ 1,900,000 francs.” 
 r “ 800,000 francs — considered doubtful.” 
 
BOOK CXXXVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 139 
 
 GRAND DUTCHY OF TUSCANY. 
 
 Including thirty-six Towns, one hundred and thirty-jive Burghs, and 
 six thousand and seventeen Villages and Hamlets. 
 
 Surface in geographical 
 square leagues. 
 
 Population in 
 1826 . 
 
 Ratio of the population 
 to the square league. 
 
 1,098 
 
 1,275,000 
 
 1,161 
 
 Population of the principal Towns. 
 Florence ...... 
 
 Prato ...... 
 
 Pistoia .... . . 
 
 Arezzo ...... 
 
 Cortona ...... 
 
 Pisa ...... 
 
 Leghorn ...... 
 
 Piombino ...... 
 
 Pontremoli ...... 
 
 Sienna ...... 
 
 Grossetto ...... 
 
 Volterra ...... 
 
 80,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 9.000 
 
 7.000 
 
 5.000 
 20,000 
 66,000 
 
 1,500 
 
 3.000 
 18,000 
 
 2.000 
 
 4,000 
 
 Compartimento of Florence 
 
 Id. of Pisa 
 
 Id. of Sienna 
 
 Id. of Arezzo 
 
 Id. of Grossetto 
 
 Provi 
 
 596,250 
 
 295,640 
 
 128,060 
 
 201,290 
 
 53,730 
 
 2 
 
 Ferrara 
 
 
 24,000 
 
 3 
 
 Ravenna 
 
 
 24,000 
 
 4 
 
 F orli 
 
 
 16,000 
 
 
 f Pcsaro . . 
 
 
 14,000 
 
 5 
 
 < and 
 
 
 
 
 f Urbino . 
 
 
 11,000 
 
 
 1 Macerata . 
 
 
 12,000 
 
 6 
 
 < and 
 
 
 
 
 f Camerino . 
 
 
 7,000 
 
 
 1 Fermo . . 
 
 
 7,000 
 
 7 
 
 < and 
 
 
 
 
 f Ascoli 
 
 
 12,000 
 
 
 l Spoleto 
 
 
 7,000 
 
 8 
 
 < and 
 
 
 
 
 f Rieti . 
 
 
 7,000 
 
 
 ( Viterbo 
 
 
 13,000 
 
 9 
 
 < and 
 
 
 
 
 ( Civita Vecchia * 1 
 
 
 7,000 
 
 10 
 
 Ancona 
 
 
 30,000 
 
 11 
 
 Perugia 
 
 
 30,000 
 
 
 f Frosinone 
 
 
 6,000 
 
 12 
 
 < and 
 
 
 
 
 f Ponte Corvo 
 
 
 6,000 
 
 13 
 
 Benevento 
 
 
 14,000 
 
 250.000 
 
 150.000 
 
 170.000 
 
 200.000 
 
 230.000 
 
 160.000 
 180,000 
 
 415.000 
 
 160.000 
 
 190.000 
 
 170.000 
 
 20,000 
 
 2,590,000 
 
 Principal places of Education, Religious Houses and Hospitals. 
 
 1,275,000 
 
 Principal places of Education. 
 
 Towns 
 
 Universities. 
 
 Number of 
 Students. 
 
 Libraries. 
 
 Number of 
 Volumes. 
 
 Florence 
 
 i» 
 
 300 
 
 Ducal 
 
 80,000 
 
 
 
 
 Laurenziana 
 
 20,000 
 
 .. 
 
 
 
 Maglia Becchiana 
 
 130,000» 
 
 
 
 
 Marucelliana 
 
 50,000 
 
 
 „ 
 
 
 Ricordiana 
 
 20,000 
 
 Pisa 
 
 i« 
 
 660 
 
 University 
 
 40,000 
 
 Sienna 
 
 i d 
 
 280 
 
 University 
 
 25,000 
 
 Elementary Schools. 
 
 Towns. Lancasterian Schools Public Schools, e 
 
 Florence 4 8 
 
 Revenue. Public Debt. 
 
 708, 500Z. f 
 
 Army. 
 
 4,000 men. 
 
 REPUBLIC OF SAN MARINO. 
 
 Containing one Town and four Villages . 
 
 Surface in geographical 
 leagues. 
 
 3 
 
 Population in 
 1826 . 
 
 7,000 
 
 Ratio of the population 
 to the square league. 
 
 2,233 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 2, 9207. e 
 
 Military force. 
 
 40 men. 
 
 STATES OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 Containing ninety Towns, two hundred and six Burghs, and three 
 thousand three hundred and eighty-seven Villages. 
 
 Surface in geographical 
 square Teagues. 
 
 Population Ratio of the population 
 
 in 1826 . to the square league. 
 
 Number of 
 Jews. 
 
 2,257 
 
 2,590,000 1,147 
 
 New division into thirteen Delegations A 
 
 15,000 
 
 Names of the 
 
 
 Population of 
 
 Population of the 
 
 delegations. 
 
 
 the towns. 
 
 delegations. 
 
 1 Bologna 
 
 . 
 
 65,000 
 
 295,000 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 =i 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 TOWNS. 
 
 
 1 
 
 ► 
 
 CO 
 
 »f 
 
 v 1 
 
 * 
 
 1 
 
 °I 
 
 A 
 
 c 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 1*3 
 
 |! 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 J5 
 
 O 
 
 
 z 
 
 o 
 
 
 Ancona . . 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 l 
 
 0 
 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 Albano . . 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 Ascoli . . 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 l 
 
 0 
 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 Benevento 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 l 
 
 1 
 
 
 147 
 
 4 
 
 Bologna . . 
 
 
 l k 
 
 550 
 
 0 
 
 ( University 
 ) Magnani 
 
 200,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 67 
 
 4 
 
 Camerino 
 
 
 1> 
 
 200 
 
 0 
 
 i 
 
 
 19 
 
 0 
 
 Civita Vecchia 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 67 
 
 17 
 
 Civita Castellana 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 F ermo . . 
 
 
 Ira 
 
 200 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 15,000 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 Ferrara . . 
 
 
 i" 
 
 300 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 80,000 
 
 227 
 
 1» 
 
 Forli . . . 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 107 
 
 0 
 
 Frosinone 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 37 
 
 0 
 
 Frascati . . 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 Fondi . . . 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 Macerata . . 
 
 
 IP 
 
 200 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 20,000 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 Perugia . . 
 
 
 11 
 
 200 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 30,000 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 Pesaro . . 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 Ponte Corvo . 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 37 
 
 0 
 
 Ravenna . . 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 30,000 
 
 47 
 
 17 
 
 Rieti . . . 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 37 
 
 0 
 
 Rimini . . 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 25,000 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 Spoleto . . 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 6? 
 
 1 
 
 Tivoli . . . 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 Urbino . . 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 10,000 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 Viterbo . . 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 107 
 
 1 
 
 Rome . . . 
 
 
 D 
 
 600 
 
 4 
 
 Albam 
 
 40,000 
 
 3007 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Angelica 
 
 100.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Barberini 
 
 6' ‘.000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Corsini 
 
 4< 100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ghigi 
 
 25. 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Of Minerva 
 
 80,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Of Science 
 
 35,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Of the Vatican 
 
 70,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 2250 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 
 O' 
 
 f— • 
 
 CO 
 
 30 
 
 1 Founded in 1443. 
 b It contains 11,000 manuscripts. 
 c Founded in 1339. 
 d Founded in 1330. 
 e “ Ecoles communales.” 
 f “ 17,000,000 francs.” 
 e “70,000 francs.” 
 
 h The States of the Church were divided intoeighteen provinces in 1824 ; 
 Dut the divisions were afterwards changed. We are indebted to M. A. 
 Balbi for the above table. 
 
 1 The ninth delegation comprehends the town and territory of Rome. 
 
 k Founded in 1119. 
 
 1 Founded in 1824. 
 m Founded in 1824. 
 n Founded by Leo the Twelfth. 
 
 o The MSS. of Orlando and Jerusalem Delivered, in the handwriting of 
 Ariosto and Tasso, are preserved m the library, 
 p Founded by Leo the Twelfth in 1824. 
 
 <i Founded in 1307. 
 r Founded in 1248. 
 
 s We have not enumerated all the convents in the Roman 6tates; there 
 are few towns or villages without them. 
 
 J 
 
 Hospitals. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 140 
 
 [BOOK CXXXVI. 
 
 Statistics of the Population of Rome from 1816 to 1825, inclusive: 
 
 
 
 1816. 
 
 1817. 
 
 1818. 
 
 1819. 
 
 1820. 
 
 1821. 
 
 1822. 
 
 1823. 
 
 1824. 
 
 1825. 
 
 Families 
 
 
 32,587 
 
 31,705 
 
 32,572 
 
 33,510 
 
 34,601 
 
 34,650 
 
 34,585 
 
 34,357 
 
 33,774 
 
 33,271 
 
 Cardinals ...... 
 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 Bishops 
 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 Priests 
 
 
 1,303 
 
 1,434 
 
 1,429 
 
 1,399 
 
 1,455 
 
 1,397 
 
 1,450 
 
 1,395 
 
 1,570 
 
 1,456 
 
 Monks 
 
 
 1,286 
 
 1,370 
 
 1,450 
 
 1,487 
 
 1,519 
 
 1,532 
 
 1,532 
 
 1,565 
 
 1,613 
 
 1,662 
 
 Nuns ...... 
 
 
 1,172 
 
 1,303 
 
 1,325 
 
 1,348 
 
 1,382 
 
 1,468 
 
 1,464 
 
 1,370 
 
 1,318 
 
 1,502 
 
 Pupils in the seminaries 
 
 Poor in the hospitals .... 
 
 
 241 
 
 423 
 
 359 
 
 252 
 
 424 
 
 332 
 
 409 
 
 460 
 
 469 
 
 468 
 
 
 2,757 
 
 2,992 
 
 3,044 
 
 2,289 
 
 2,826 
 
 1,963 
 
 1,942 
 
 1,438 
 
 1,290 
 
 2,002 
 
 Prisoners ...... 
 
 
 778 
 
 996 
 
 1,667 
 
 1,728 
 
 1,033 
 
 968 
 
 1,112 
 
 1,218 
 
 1,080 
 
 1,020 
 
 Heretics, Turks and Infidels, exclusively of Jews 
 
 62 
 
 108 
 
 172 
 
 246 
 
 244 
 
 215 
 
 275 
 
 234 
 
 195 
 
 217 
 
 Persons arrived at the age of Communion 
 
 
 93,669 
 
 95,662 
 
 
 
 
 
 .... 
 
 97,199 
 
 97,249 
 
 
 Id. before the age of Communion 
 
 
 35,301 
 
 36,241 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 39,070 
 
 40,696 
 
 
 Marriages 
 
 
 1,303 
 
 1,031 
 
 1,183 
 
 1,440 
 
 1,395 
 
 1,265 
 
 1,157 
 
 1,269 
 
 1,369 
 
 1,158 
 
 Baptisms ...... 
 
 
 4,256 
 
 3,836 
 
 3,944 
 
 4,299 
 
 4,215 
 
 4,756 
 
 4,309 
 
 4,365 
 
 4,628 
 
 4,243 
 
 Deaths, Males ..... 
 
 
 2,750 
 
 3,997 
 
 4,145 
 
 3,741 
 
 2,785 
 
 3,128 
 
 3,320 
 
 3,129 
 
 2,997 
 
 2,460 
 
 Females .... 
 
 
 2,191 
 
 2,440 
 
 2,723 
 
 2,573 
 
 2,053 
 
 2,288 
 
 2,937 
 
 2,351 
 
 2,252 
 
 1,986 
 
 Total number of Deaths 
 
 
 4,941 
 
 6,437 
 
 6,868 
 
 6,314 
 
 4,838 
 
 5,416 
 
 6,257 
 
 5,480 
 
 5,249 
 
 4,446 
 
 Males ... 
 
 
 67,226 
 
 69,544 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 72,355 
 
 72,273 
 
 73,397 
 
 Females 
 
 
 61,771 
 
 61,812 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 63,914 
 
 66,237 
 
 65,333 
 
 Total population .... 
 
 
 128,997 
 
 131,356 
 
 133,812 
 
 134,161 
 
 135,046 
 
 135,171 
 
 136,085 
 
 136,269 
 
 138,510 
 
 138,730 
 
 The mean number of marriages is . 
 
 Their ratio to the population is one to . 
 
 The mean number of children for every marriage is 
 The number of births is to the population as one to 
 The number of deaths is to the population as one to 
 Revenue. Public Debt- 
 
 £1,250,000 £25,000,000" 
 
 1,299 
 
 106.60 
 
 3.30 
 
 32.23 
 
 24.76 
 
 Army. 
 6000 men 
 
 Marine. 
 
 2 Frigates. 
 
 8 vessels of smaller size." 
 
 KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES. 
 
 Including six hundred and seventy-six Towns , three hundred and ninety- 
 eight Burghs , and two thousand one hundred and forty-two Villages 
 and Hamlets. 
 
 Continental i 
 provinces 
 Sicily and 
 the islands 
 
 Surface in Population in 
 geographical 1826 . 
 square leagues. 
 
 Population 
 according to 
 the sexes. 
 
 3,910 5,090,000 {$£». ggSgj 
 
 1,610 1,780,000 
 
 Ratio of the 
 population to the 
 square league. 
 
 5,520 7,420,000 
 
 1,455 
 
 1,074 
 
 1,344 
 
 Division of the Kingdom of Naples into fifteen Provinces. 
 
 Provinces. Population. 
 
 Chief Towns. 
 
 Other Towns. 
 
 
 Pqpulation. 
 
 Napoli 819,000 
 
 Naples 
 
 
 
 354,000 
 
 
 
 Castel a Mare 
 
 
 15,000 
 
 * 
 
 
 Portici 
 
 
 5,000 
 
 
 
 Pozzuoli 
 
 
 5,000 
 
 
 
 Sorrento 
 
 
 4,000 
 
 
 
 Torre dell’ Annunziata 5,000 
 
 
 
 Torre del Greco 
 
 
 15,000 
 
 Terra di Lavoro 663,000 
 
 Capua 
 
 . 
 
 
 8,000 
 
 
 
 Acerra . 
 
 
 6,000 
 
 
 
 Arpino . 
 
 
 9,000 
 
 
 
 Aversa . 
 
 
 13,000 
 
 
 
 Caserta . 
 
 
 4,000 
 
 
 
 Fondi 
 
 
 5,000 
 
 
 
 Gaeta 
 
 
 15,000 
 
 
 
 Nola . 
 
 
 9,000 
 
 Principato Citra 503,000 
 
 Salerno 
 
 
 
 11,000 
 
 
 
 Amalfi 
 
 
 3,000 
 
 
 
 Nocera 
 
 
 9,000 
 
 Principato U ltra 405,000 
 
 Avellino 
 
 • 
 
 
 13,000 
 
 
 
 Ariano . 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 
 Atripalda 
 
 
 4,000 
 
 Abruzzo 1° Ult. 178,000 
 
 Teramo 
 
 
 
 9,000 
 
 
 
 Civita di Pcnna 
 
 
 8,000 
 
 Abruzzo 2° U It. 253 000 
 
 Aquila 
 
 . . • • 
 
 
 13,000 
 
 
 
 Avezzano 
 
 
 3,000 
 
 
 
 Civita Ducale 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 a The population for the years 1816 and 1817, is taken from Simond’s 
 Travels in Italy. 
 
 * M. Ad. Balbi, Balance Politique du Globe. The above estimate of 
 
 Abruzzo Citra 285,000 Chieta 
 Capitanata 289,000 Foggia 
 
 Sannio or Molise 234,000 Campobasso 
 
 Terra di Bari 375,000 Bari 
 
 Terra di Otranto 324,000 Taranto 
 
 Basilicata 429,000 Potenza 
 
 Calabria Citra 387,000 Cosenza 
 
 Calabria Ult. Pr. 225,000 Reggio 
 Calabria Ult.Sec.321, 000 Catanzaro 
 
 Sulmona 
 
 Lanciano 
 
 Vasto 
 
 Bovino . 
 Luzera . 
 Manfredonia 
 Santo Severo 
 
 Colie ! 
 Morcone 
 Sepino . 
 Trivento 
 
 Altamura 
 B arietta 
 Molfetta 
 Monopoli 
 T rani 
 T erlizzi 
 
 Brindisi 
 
 Gallipoli 
 
 Lecce 
 
 Otranto 
 
 Lago Negro 
 Matera . 
 
 Meffi . 
 
 Cassano . 
 Castro Villari 
 Paola 
 Rossano . 
 
 Gierace . 
 Sciglio . 
 
 Cotrone 
 Monte Leone 
 Nicastro 
 Pizzo 
 
 Santa Severina 
 Squilaee 
 Tropea 
 
 4,000 
 
 13.000 
 
 12.000 
 
 4,000 
 
 21,000 
 
 4.000 
 
 8.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 4.000 
 
 8.000 
 
 4.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 3.000 
 
 4.000 
 15,000 
 
 15.000 
 
 17.000 
 
 11.000 
 
 15.000 
 
 14.000 
 
 8.000 
 
 18.000 
 6,000 
 8,000 
 
 14.000 
 
 3.000 
 
 8.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 12.000 
 
 7.000 
 
 10,000 
 
 6.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 3.000 
 
 6.000 
 
 16,000 
 
 5.000 
 
 4.000 
 
 11,000 
 
 5.000 
 
 15.000 
 
 10.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 6.000 
 2,000 
 4,000 
 
 Total 5,690,000 
 
 Division of the Island of Sicily into seven Intendancies. 
 
 Intendancies. 
 
 Palermo 
 
 Population. 
 
 409,000 
 
 Chief Towns- 
 
 Palermo 
 
 Population 
 
 168,000 
 
 the revenue and public debt is considered doubtful by M. Balbi. Part of the 
 revenues of the papal government, being derived from foreign sources, are 
 altogether contingent. c According to Hassel. 
 
BOOK CXXXVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ITALY. 
 
 141 
 
 Trapani 
 
 Girgenti 
 
 Caltanisetta 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 Catania 
 
 Messina 
 
 147.000 
 
 291.000 
 
 156.000 
 
 194.500 
 
 292.500 
 
 240.000 
 
 1,730,000 
 
 Trapani 
 
 Girgenti 
 
 Caltanisetta 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 Catania 
 
 Messina 
 
 Population of the islands near Sicily, in 1826.® 
 
 Alicudi 
 
 Basiluzzo 
 
 Felicudi 
 
 Lampedosa 
 
 Lipari 
 
 Panaria 
 
 Pentellaria 
 
 Salina 
 
 Stromboli 
 
 Ustica 
 
 24.000 
 
 15.000 
 
 17.000 
 
 15.000 
 
 45.000 
 
 60.000 
 
 260 
 
 20 
 
 820 
 
 150 
 
 18,200 
 
 200 
 
 5,000 
 
 4,200 
 
 2,100 
 
 700 
 
 31,650 
 
 Principal places of Education in the Kingdom of the two Sicilies. 
 University Towns. Number of Students. Libraries. 
 
 Naples' 1 . . . 800 . . . .3 
 
 Salerno 
 
 Palermo' 
 
 Catania d 
 
 300 
 
 600 
 
 500 
 
 Marriages, Births and Deaths in the Kingdom of Naples during 
 the year 1824.® 
 
 Provinces. Marriages. Births. Deaths. 
 
 5,588 29,258 20,722 
 
 4,432 23,168 18,570 
 
 2,860 16,917 9,776 
 
 2,587 13,572 9,558 
 
 1,507 . 10,038 6,012 
 
 1,533 9,667 6,578 
 
 2,177 10,908 8,836 
 
 2,289 13,554 9,457 
 
 2,630 14,187 12,636 
 
 3,144 18,936 11,320 
 
 2,824 15,763 10,414 
 
 3,816 20,978 13,166 
 
 2,513 15,717 9,750 
 
 1,936 9,381 6,353 
 
 2,969 12,966 10,284 
 
 42,805 235,010 163,432 
 
 ® The inhabitants of the islands are included in the population of the 
 Intendancies. 
 
 b The university of Naples was founded in 1224. 
 e University founded in 1447. 
 d University founded in 1445. 
 
 ® Giorn. del regno delle due Sicilie, July, 1825. 
 c Exclusively of strangers. 
 
 Naples 
 
 Terra di Lavoro 
 Principato Citra 
 Principato Ultra 
 Abruzzo Ultra 1° 
 Abruzzo Ultra 2° 
 Abruzzo Citra 
 Capitanata 
 Sannio or Molise 
 Terra di Bari 
 Terra di Otranto 
 Basilicata 
 Calabria Citra 
 Calabria Ultra 1° 
 Calabria Ultra 2° 
 
 Population, tf-c. of Naples in 1824. 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 Population, f 
 
 165,015 
 
 184,175 
 
 Marriages. 
 
 2,970 
 
 349,190 
 
 Births. 
 
 7,584 
 
 7,407 
 
 14,991 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 6,455 
 
 6,021 
 
 Longevity in 1824. 
 
 From ninety to a 
 hundred years of age. 
 
 Both sexes 
 
 In 1823 
 
 132 
 
 13 
 
 S Males 
 F emales 
 
 Above a hundred 
 years of age. 
 
 12,476 
 
 Total. 
 
 142 
 
 Suicides. 
 
 In 1824 
 
 Popula- 
 
 tion. 
 
 Population , <$*c. of Palermo in 1824.® 
 
 Deaths Deaths 
 in pri- in the 
 
 In the Marria- Natural vate Hospi- 
 
 Convents. ges. Births. Children. Houses. tals. 
 
 164,793 ^ Females 8/170 $ 378 ( 
 
 Total number of births and deaths 
 
 Males 8,361 < 
 Females 3,197 1 
 
 6,558 
 
 597 
 
 ,964 
 
 Excess of births 
 
 . ) Males 2,627 
 
 1,uo/ ) Females 2,404 
 
 6,031 
 
 1,527 
 
 Population <frc. of Palermo during the tenyears from 1816 to 1825, h in- 
 clusive. 
 
 Population. Marriages. Births. Natural Children. Deaths. 
 
 167,505 10,882 65,766 6,922 48,893 
 
 Excess of births 16,873 
 
 Longevity during the ten years from 1806 to 1815, inclusive. 
 
 Out of 47,914 deaths, seventy-nine individuals were above ninety-seven 
 years of age. 
 
 From 97 years to 101 .... 49 
 
 From 102 to 105 
 At 106 years 
 At 107 years 
 From 109 to 110 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 79 
 
 Budget of Sicily in 1823. 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 £1,730,350' 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 £2,264,555" 
 
 Budget of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1826. 
 
 Revenue. Debt. 
 
 £3,500,000 .... £21,000, 000 1 
 
 ROYAL NAVY. 
 
 TRADING VESSELS. 
 a 
 
 Ships of Smaller Brigan- Xebecks, Fe- 
 
 the Line. Frigates, vessels. Polacres. tines & Pinks. Schooners, luccas, &c 
 
 30,000 men. 2 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 220 
 
 15 
 
 3,480 
 
 s Bullettino universale di scienze, letter e, artie polit. July 4, 1825. 
 h Tavole sinottiche sulla populazione di Palermo, by M. Calcagni, ho- 
 norary physician of the great hospital of Palermo. 
 
 1 “41,328,270 francs.” 
 
 k “ Expenditure, 52,349,310 francs. — Excess of expenditure above the 
 revenue, 11,021,040 francs.” 
 
 1 “ Revenue 84 millions francs — Debt 500 millions francs 1” 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 142 
 
 [BOOK CXXXVH 
 
 BOOK CXXXVII. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued — Physical Geography of the Spanish 
 
 Penh.sida — History of the ancient People that inhabited. 
 
 Spain and Portugal — Mussulman Conquest. 
 
 No part of Europe is more favoured by nature than the 
 Spanish Peninsula ; its mountains, by the facilities they afford 
 to partisan warfare, contribute to defend it against hostile in- 
 vasions, and so great is the variety of its climate, that the 
 productions of the tropics are blended with those of the tem- 
 perate zone. Lofty plains, fruitful in useful plants, hills 
 covered with vineyards, rich vallies, watered by fertilizing 
 streams, and rivers so situated as to afford easy communica- 
 tions by means of canals, are the elements of an agricultural 
 wealth, which might be rendered, by industry, more valuable 
 than the possession of tire largest colonies. A vast extent 
 of coast, furnished with spacious and safe harbours, open to 
 the navigation of two seas, is not less favourable to com- 
 merce. By what causes have the sources of so gre^t 
 prosperity been rendered unavailing? The population of 
 France exceeds that of Spain by more than fourteen mil- 
 lions, but the superficial extent of Spain is greater than that 
 of France by two thousand and sixty-five square leagues. 
 
 This extensive region has been called a peninsula, per- 
 haps incorrectly ; for the space included between the gulfs 
 of Lyons and Gascony can hardly be considered an isthmus, 
 since it is not less than ninety leagues in breadth, while the 
 Peninsula itself is hardly three times as broad. The Pyre- 
 nees separate it from France. One half of the country is 
 watered by the ocean, and the other by the Mediterranean. 
 The greatest length from east to west is equal to 220 
 leagues, and the greatest breadth from north to south, to 
 190. The surface of the Peninsula is equal to 28,804 
 square leagues : of these, 4,922 belong to Portugal, 23,867 
 to Spain, and 1 5 to the republic of Andorra. a 
 
 It is only of late years that the physical geography of the 
 country has been accurately described. The mountains by 
 which it is divided, it was formerly supposed, extended from 
 a common centre, and their ramifications were compared to 
 the veins of a vine leaf. A writer of very varied acquire- 
 ments has detected the errors of former geographers. If 
 the Spaniards are now less ignorant of the mountains, rivers 
 and basins in their peninsula, they are indebted to the labours 
 of a foreigner. 11 
 
 a These leagues are each equal to two English miles and a half ; if 
 then they be multiplied by 6^* *, the result will be equal to the super- 
 ficial extent of the Peninsula in English square miles. — Tr. [The 
 French geographical league, or 25 to a degree, is equal to 2.77 Eng. 
 miles; tlie French post league, to 2.42 Eng. miles. — P.] 
 
 * The writer of the note should have said, these sq. leagues are equal to (ij 
 Eng. sq. miles, (the linear leagues being equal to 2J Eng. miles.) But the 
 French leagues here employed are undoubtedly the geographical of 2.77 Eng. 
 miles (linear meas.,) as will appear by comparison with the extent of the Pe- I 
 ninsula in Eng. sq. miles, (217,502 Eng. sq. miles, Morse;) consequently the 
 .eagues in the text should be multiplied by 7.67, to give the Eng. sq. miles.— P. | 
 
 The mountains in the Peninsula, according to M. Bory de 
 St. Vincent, form seven different divisions. 
 
 The ‘Pyrentean range, which comprehends the whole 
 chain of the Pyrenees, may be divided into five principal 
 masses. First, the Mediterranean or eastern, in which the 
 highest summit is the peak of Canigou, and from the declivi- 
 ties of which rise the Segre, a feeder of the Ebro, and the 
 Ter and the Llobrega, that throw themselves into the Med- 
 iterranean ; secondly, the Aquitanian, the glaciers of which 
 are the sources of the Garonne and the Adour, but from 
 which no large river flows into Spain ; thirdly, the Canta- 
 brian or central, separated from the Asturian by the sources 
 of the Ebro ; fourthly, the Asturian , almost as high as the 
 Aquitanian, and rising abruptly on the south ; fifthly, the 
 Portuguese or western, of which the ramifications extend to 
 the mouth of the Duero. 
 
 A geologist has observed that, although the Pyrenaean 
 chain belongs to the granite formation, the same substance is 
 not so ancient as in several other parts of Europe. 0 Gran- 
 ite rocks are seen throughout the whole range, and dtey still 
 bear the marks of a former revolution. d Micaceous schistus 
 rests on the sides of the granite mountains, and supports, 
 in its turn, rocks containing organic remains of the most 
 ancient date ; the latter are overlaid with red sandstone ; 
 and lastly, calcareous rocks, similar to those on the Alps 
 and Jura, extend to the lowest declivities. White marble 
 or primitive limestone appears in different directions above 
 the granite, and the Alpine limestone is, in many places, 
 covered with rocks containing amphibole. e 
 
 The Iberian range consists of different chains, which unite 
 on the north-west with the Pyrenees, and terminate on the 
 south-east, near the banks of the Guadalaviar. These dif- 
 ferent chains, united to each other, are called the Sierra { de 
 Oca, the Sierra de Moncayo, the Sierra de Gudar, and the 
 Sierra de Espadan. The Sierra de JUolina, which joins 
 the Sierra de Albaracin and the mountains of Cuenca, be- 
 longs to the same range. 
 
 The chain, consisting of the latter mountains, forms a 
 subdivision that has been called the Hesperian range. Cal- 
 careous rocks? abound, and the low plains are covered with 
 alluvial deposits, mixed with so many fossil bones, that the 
 localities where they are found are known to the inhabitants 
 
 b M. Bory de St. Vincent, Guide du Voyageur en Espagne, 1 vol. 
 8vo. 1823. Diccionario de EspaiTa y Portugal, por el Doctor Sebastian 
 de Minano, 10 vol. 4to. 1826. The arrangement of the mountains, in 
 the article Spain, in the Dictionary, is almost literally a translation 
 from M. Bory de St. Vincent’s work. 
 
 c M. de Charpentier, Essai sur la Constitution G6ognostique des 
 6n6es. 
 
 Souldvement’' — elevation from beneath. e Trap rocks 
 
 f Sp. Sierra, Port Serra, a chain of mountains. — P. 
 s “ Calcaire ancien.” 
 
 t 
 
BOOK CXXXVII.] 
 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 
 
 riy the name of Las Calaveras.® Many of the remains be- 
 long to animals now extinct. The vallies from the sources 
 of the Guadalaviar to its mouth, are watered by rapid 
 streams, and surrounded by steep heights. The Sierra de 
 Espadan has been compared to a long wall ; lofty peaks are 
 seen from sombre vallies, and tortuous ravines, intersected 
 by many rivulets, form an inextricable and gigantic laby- 
 rinth, Calcareous rocks, b abounding in different metals, 
 rise towards the east, but on the west, the country assumes 
 a different aspect ; the mountains are less precipitous, and 
 their black and porous rocks indicate a volcanic origin. 
 
 The Carpetano-Vettonic range, so called, because, in an- 
 cient times, its sides were inhabited by the Carpetani and 
 the Vetiones, joins the Iberian mountains on the east, and 
 terminates on the west at Mount Junto, which commands 
 the Tagus at no great distance from its mouth. The prin- 
 cipal chain is steep and narrow ; it forms the boundary be- 
 tween Old and New Castile, and separates the province of 
 Salamanca from Estremadura. From the same chain, 
 during the winter season, proceed the storms and tempests 
 that are not uncommon at Madrid, and in summer, it in- 
 creases the heat of the atmosphere, by reflecting the burning 
 winds, which blow from Africa, and traverse the arid plains 
 of La Mancha. Some summits are so lofty, that the snow 
 has been known to remain on them throughout the year. 
 The range may be divided into three groups ; the eastern, 
 formed by the Somo-Sierra and the Guaclarrama ; the cen- 
 tral, or the Sierra de Gredos, the most elevated of them all, 
 in which there is a small g.aciei, near the place called Palacio 
 del Moro Almanzor, and several lakes, the outlets of which 
 unite with the Tormes, a feeder of the Duero ; lastly, the 
 western, which comprehends the Pena c de Francia, the 
 Sierra de Gata, the Sierra de Estrella , and the heights 
 that reach to the neighbourhood of Lisbon. In no part of 
 the Peninsula are the woods and forests so extensive as in 
 the last group. Granite appears to be the most common 
 rock ; it is of a coarse texture and a grayish colour, and it 
 may be concluded to be of a comparatively recent forma- 
 tion, both from its liability to decomposition, and from the 
 masses of a harder granite contained in it. Calcareous rocks 
 abound in the neighbourhood of Madrid, where chalk, con- 
 taining dark-coloured flints, serves as a support for recent 
 deposits. 4 
 
 The Lusitanian range is lower than any that have been 
 already mentioned, and the snow never remains on any part 
 of it during the summer. It occupies the country between 
 the Tagus and Guadiana, and is formed by the mountains 
 of Toledo on the east, the Sierra de Guadalupe in the cen- 
 tre, and the Sierra de San Mames on the west ; from the 
 latter the Sierra de Estremos projects to the south. 
 
 The Marianic range, or the chain formed by the ancient 
 Marianus, is higher than the last; the greatest elevation 
 may be about 4600 feet,® and the snow remains in some 
 places during nine months in tire year. The greatest part 
 of the chain separates the course of the Guadiana from that 
 of the Guadalquivir. The eastern extremity consists of two 
 branches, the Sierra Alcaraz and the Sierra de Segura; 
 the centre has been called the Sierra Morena, which signi- 
 fies the black mountains, and recals the ancient name of 
 
 a Calavera signifies a skeleton. — Tn. f Las Calaveras, the skulls. — 
 
 P I 
 
 b “ Calcaire ancien.” c Sp .Pena, Port. Penha, a rock. — P. 
 
 d Of tertiary formation. — P. 
 
 e “ Some of the summits are 800 or 900 toises in height.” 
 
 f Bowles, Introduction a la Historia Natural y a la Geografia fisica 
 de Espana, 4to. 1782. 
 
 113 
 
 Mons Marianus; the Sierra Albaleyra, which terminates 
 near the Guadiana, forms the western extremity. The 
 heights diat surround Alcaraz are composed of argillaceous 
 sandstone ; and a chain consisting of volcanoes, now extin- 
 guished, but still easily discernible,* stretches along the base 
 of the summits situated near the sources of the river/ 
 
 The Cuneic range consists of the small chain which the 
 ancients called Mons Cuneus. It extends from the mouth 
 of the Guadiana to Cape St. Vincent, and separates the 
 kingdom of Algarva from the province of Alentejo, which 
 forms the southern part of Portugal. It consists of two 
 chains, the eastern or the Sierra Calderona, and the western 
 or the Sierra de Monchique. The heights are not lofty, 
 and the range differs from the others in its constituent parts : 
 sandstone is very common, but lava and other substances of 
 the same kind appear in the eastern part ; the name of 
 Sierra Calderona, or the Caldron Mountains, is not inap- 
 plicable to that part of the range, since it consists of a series 
 of volcanic cones, the craters of which still retain their forms 
 and the characters diat mark their origin. 
 
 The Bsetic range, of which the northern sides formed the 
 Roman province of Bcetica, extends from the Rio Almanzor 
 to the heights that terminate near the mouth of the Guadal- 
 quivir. The central part is made up of the Sierra Nevada 
 and the Sierra de Loja. Although not the largest, it is cer- 
 tainly the loftiest range in the Peninsula. Many summits, 
 higher than the Pyrenees, are covered with eternal snow. 
 The steep sides of the mountains of Ubrique, Algodonales 
 and Gastor, are commanded by the peak of San Cristoval. 
 The snow always appears on the top of the Serrania s de 
 Ronda, where a small hermitage has been erected, and dedi- 
 cated to Nuestra Senora de las Nieves)' Li the eastern part 
 of the same range are different groups, that rival each other 
 in height ; the most remarkable are the Sierra Prieta, the 
 Sierra de Alhama and the Sierra Tejada, but in point of 
 picturesque scenery, they cannot be compared with the 
 Sierra de Torqual, in which rocks of various forms and 
 dimensions are so singularly arranged, that they might be 
 compared to the ruins of a town built by the Titans. But 
 these mountains are neither so imposing nor so lofty as the 
 summits of the Sierra Nevada, which, commanding the ho- 
 rizon on every side, bear the marks of perpetual winter. 
 The snow line commences at the height of about 9500 feet * 1 
 above die level of the Mediterranean, which bathes the 
 southern base. From these summits, says M. Bory de St. 
 Vincent, may be seen at the same time the Sierra Morena, 
 more than thirty leagues distant towards the north, and the 
 coasts of Africa, which are at least forty-five leagues distant 
 to the south. The Mulahacen is the most elevated point in 
 that range of snow'-covered peaks ; it reaches nearly to the 
 same height as die famous peak of Teneriffe, or, in other 
 words, to more than 12,700 feet. k The vallies in the Bsetic 
 range are deep, and cross each other in every direction ; 
 most of diem are watered and rendered fruitful by limpid 
 streams. 
 
 The whole chain is of primitive formation. The Sierra 
 Nevada is schistous ; primitive limestone and marble of dif- 
 ferent colours 1 rest upon the gneiss, together with calcare- 
 ous breccias, which are employed as ornaments in building. 
 
 s Sp. Port. Serrania, a chain of mountains. — P. 
 
 h Our Lady of the Snow. 
 
 ' “ Rather more than 3050 metres” — about 10,000 feet. 
 
 k “ At least 3600 or 3700 metres” — about 11,800 or 12,100 feet. Alti- 
 tude of the Peak of Teneriffe, 12,175 feet. — (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 1 “ Veined marble.” 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXVII. 
 
 144 
 
 The fine kind of onyx, called niccolo by the lapidaries, is not 
 uncommon in the neighbourhood of Cape Gata. The rock 
 of Gibraltar, at the other extremity of the chain, rises to the 
 height of 1470 feet a above the Mediterranean. It has ex- 
 cited for a long time the attention of geologists. It con- 
 sists of gray limestone, divided by perpendicular fissures, 
 and these are filled with calcareous concretions, containing 
 an immense quantity of bones and shells ; many of the for- 
 mer belong to different sorts of deer, none of which are at 
 present found in Europe. b Such phenomena may be con- 
 sidered the proofs of a partial cataclysm, fatal to the animals 
 which formerly inhabited our continent. 0 
 
 As connected with the heights in the Peninsula, it may be 
 worth while to mention the Parameras, or interior table-lands, 
 all of which are very lofty, and many of a great size. They 
 either extend between different parts of the ranges that have 
 been already mentioned, or are situated near then - summits, 
 so that they appear less elevated than they really are. The 
 most remarkable of these bare and solitary table-lands are 
 situated in the provinces of Avila and Soria. In the Pyre- 
 nees, in the mountains of Molina, Albaracin and Cuenca, 
 mid also in those of Toledo and Gredos, may be seen other 
 parameras, which, independently of their extent, might be 
 compared with the arid summits in Tartary. 
 
 Considered physically, the Peninsula may be divided into 
 five large basins, and into as many others of a smaller size. 
 To the first class belong the basins of the Ebro, the Duero, 
 the Tagus, the Guadiana, and the Guadalquivir; to the sec- 
 ond, the basins of the Guadalaviar, the Jucar, d the Segura, 
 the Mondego, and the Minho. The basin of the Ebro, 
 although the smallest in the first class, is larger than any 
 other that communicates with the Mediterranean. Three 
 of the second class are also inclined in the same direction ; 
 while, from four large basins and two of a smaller size, the 
 waters of the Peninsula are borne to the ocean. Thus, 
 before the straits of Gibraltar w r ere formed, all the eastern 
 and southern declivities in the country must have been sub- 
 merged, while the others, on the side of the ocean, were no 
 longer inundated. 
 
 The Tagus flows through the longest basin in the Penin- 
 sula ; it was famed in ancient times ; its name has not been 
 changed. e Poets have celebrated the happy banks and 
 flowery meads of the Tagus ; but whoever surveys its nu- 
 merous windings, discovers little that can justify the praises 
 of Silius Italicus and other ancient writers. The arid banks 
 are, in most places, very steep ; for more than three fourths 
 of its course, it flows with the rapidity of a torrent. The 
 ancients styled it Auratus , but no particles of gold are now 
 found in the red ooze carried down by the waters. The 
 river has its source in the Albaracin mountains, and the 
 length of its course is not less than a hundred and seventy 
 leagues. The principal feeders on the right bank are the 
 Jaramaf which is enlarged by the Tajuna, the Guadarra- 
 ma, that descends from the mountains of the same name, the 
 Alberche, that rises between the mountains of Gredos and 
 Avila, the Tietar, that has its source in one of the branches 
 of the Sierra de Gredos, and lastly, the A/agon and the 
 Zezere, the former rising from the Sierra de Franeia, and 
 
 s “ 450 metres.” The Sugar Loaf, the most elevated point, is 1439 
 feet in height. Ed. Encyc. 
 
 b “ It consists of gray limestone, divided by perpendicular fissures, 
 filled by calcareous and ferruginous concretions of a fine red colour, 
 in which are contained an immense quantity of bones and terrestrial 
 shells. The remains of quadrupeds belong partly to small rodcntia, 
 and partly to deer, all of which are of different species from any now 
 found in Europe.” 
 
 the latter at the base of the Sierra de Estrella. The largest 
 streams that enter the Tagus on the left bank, are the Rio 
 del Monte and the Salor, of which the one descends from 
 the Sierra de Guadalupe, and the other from the Sierra de 
 Montanches. 
 
 The ancient name of the Anas is still retained in the Gua- 
 diana, an Arabic periphrase which signifies the water of 
 the Ana. The length of the river is about 1 50 leagues ; it 
 descends from the mountains of Cuenca, where it is called 
 the Rio Gijuela ; but as it is formed by several streams 
 that unite with each other, its real source has not yet been 
 determined. It is supposed that it issues from the marshes 
 of Riduera, whence indeed a rivulet escapes and disappears 
 after a course of twenty-five miles , e but it is seen anew near 
 a place called the Ojos de Guadiana . h The Ojos or Eyes 
 are several large fountains which issue from the earth, and 
 form by their junction a stream that the inhabitants of the 
 country call the Guadiana. Several rivers are known which 
 appear and disappear, but if the marshes of Riduera be 
 really the sources of the Guadiana, it disappears twice be- 
 fore it has traversed its extensive basin. The size of the 
 river, still insignificant below the Gijuela, is not much 
 increased until it receives the Jabalon on the left bank, and 
 the Bullague on the right, the latter of which descends from 
 the mountains of Toledo. It receives, at a greater distance 
 from its source, the Guadalema and the Zuja, which rise in 
 the mountains connected with the Sierra Morena ; the other 
 feeders are the Matachel, which issues from the Sierra 
 Constantina, and the Ardila and the Chanza , that descend 
 from the Sierra de Aracena. All these enlarge the Guadi- 
 ana, and give it such a degree of velocity below Martola, 
 as to form a cataract, called the Wolfs Leap, or Salto del 
 Lobo. 
 
 The Duero, or the Douro, * 1 the ancient Durius, flows 
 through a broader basin than the Tagus or the Guadiana ; 
 it has its source in the peak of Urbion, and separates it 
 from the Sierra de Oca. The length of its course is about 
 a hundred and forty leagues, and, as its basin is very broad, 
 most of its feeders are important. The Pisuerga, one of 
 the largest on the right bank, is formed by the junction of 
 several rivers that rise in the Pyrenees' 1 and the Sierra de 
 Oca; the Esla, which descends from the Pyrenees, 1 ' and 
 receives itself several large feeders, falls into the Duero, 
 below its junction with the Pisuerga ; the Tainega enters the 
 same river at the distance of fifteen leagues from the ocean. 
 The feeders on the left bank are the Eresma, from die pa- 
 rameras of Avila, the Tonnes, from the lofty summits of 
 Gredos, and the Rio Coa, from the Sierra de Gata. The 
 soil in different parts of the basin is not unfruitful, but, in 
 some places, the land is so heavy, that the rain changes it 
 into a thick and tenacious clay, while, in others, it consists 
 of moving sand, on which the only plants are resinous trees. 
 The river, after it leaves the mountains, waters dismal and 
 extensive parameras, of which the elevation above the sea 
 is not less than 2400 leet. m A wretched vegetation height- 
 ens the monotonous appearance of these immense plains. 
 
 When the Arabs made themselves masters of the Penin- 
 sula, they were struck with die great size of the Baetis, and 
 
 c Rccherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles, par M. G. Cuvier. 4to. 1821. 
 
 A Xucar. e Fr. Tage, Sp. Tajo, Port. Tijo. 
 
 1 Xarama. s “ 10 leagues.” h The eyes of Guadiana. 
 
 ‘ Span. Duero, Port. Douro. 
 
 k Properly, the range continued westward from the Pyrenees, called 
 the Pyrencean range by M. Bory de St. Vincent. — P. 
 
 1 See note k m *• 700 or 800 nieCes.” 
 
BOOK CXXXVII.J 
 
 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 
 
 145 
 
 gave it the name of Guacl-al-Keber , a or great river, which 
 has been changed by the Spaniards into Guadalquivir. 
 According to the common opinion, it rises on thej/west- 
 ern declivity of the Sierra Sagra ; but since, according to 
 the rule generally adopted by geographers, the source of a 
 river must be sought in the stream most distant from its 
 mouth, die Guadermena, which descends from the Sierra 
 Alearaz, has been incorrectly denominated, and should have 
 been called the Guadalquivir ; thus die river rises in the 
 basin of the Guadiana, and traverses die Baetic range. Two 
 other large rivers, issuing from the same basin, enter die 
 Guadalquivir on the right side, one of which, or the Ajan- 
 dula, flows across die Sierra Morena, and the other, or the 
 Biar, opens a passage for itself in the middle of the Sierra 
 Constantina. The Genii, b or the ancient Singilis, the 
 largest feeder diat flows from the Sierra Nevada, enters the 
 same river on the- left bank. The lands near the Geriil are 
 in many places deeply impregnated with salt ; efflorescences 
 hurtful to vegetation are formed in the summer season. The 
 Guadalquivir, after its junction widi the Genii, waters a low 
 and fruitful country, but beyond the neighbourhood of Se- 
 ville, a belt of land, about two leagues in breadth, which the 
 inhabitants call the Marisma , as insalubrious as the Italian 
 Maremmas, extends from die Tablado to the salt marshes 
 of San Lucar. That small uninhabited region is intersected 
 by several brackish streams, which, descending from the 
 declivities of Moron and Montelliano, change the country 
 into a sort of marsh ; a few slender plants, useful only in 
 furnishing soda, are all the vegetation on die light ooze thus 
 formed. But the river, divided into several branches, en- 
 closes different islands, such as the Manor and the Major , c 
 as well as others of great fertility, and numerous herds of 
 cattle are reared on their rich meadows. The same river is 
 not navigable above Cordova. 
 
 It is at Font-Ibre, (Lat. Fons lbera A ) in die valley of 
 Reynosa, that the Ebro takes its source. It was called the 
 lberus by the Romans. During the greater part of its course, 
 it is confined by mountains, and the vallies diey enclose 
 afford passages to its numerous feeders. On die left side, 
 the Agra e and the Arragon unite, and, at no great distance 
 beyond their junction, enter the river ; farther down, it re- 
 ceives the Gallego, near Saragossa, and the Cinca and die 
 Segrej below Mequinenza ; all of these rivers flow from the 
 Pyrenees. Other feeders descend from the Sierra de Oca, 
 the Sierra de Moncayo, and the Pena de Goloca. The prin- 
 cipal are die Xalon, which has been compared to the Marne, 
 and the Guadalupe, which the Arabs rendered useful by 
 their canals in the basin of the Ebro. The length of the 
 Ebro, including its windings, amounts to about 120 leagues ; 
 although less sinuous and more rapid than the Seine, it may 
 be compared to it from the extent of its course and the body 
 of its water. Its navigation is often impeded by rocks that 
 have fallen from die mountains ; consequently the Spanish 
 government has been at considerable expense in construct- 
 ing a canal parallel to the river, from Tudela to Sastaga. It 
 might be equally useful to complete a canal, which was be- 
 gun many years ago, between the Ebro and the Duero. 
 The country between the two rivers is not of such a nature 
 as to oppose any great obstacles, but the funds are wanting 
 for the completion of such a work. A canal stretches along 
 the Segre, between Mequinenza and Lerida. These canals 
 
 1 Wadi-al-Kibir. b Xenil. 
 
 c I si a Mayor and Isla Menor, the greater and lesser islands. — P. 
 
 J The Ebro rises from a spring at the foot of the castle of Font- 
 bre. — P. 
 
 VOL. III. — NO. 40. 
 
 in the basin of the Ebro have diffused abundance in that 
 part of Spain; still their number is not sufficient. The de- 
 posits which the river carries to the Mediterranean have form- 
 ed a considerable delta at its mouth, and it has been neces- 
 sary to cut a canal, in order diat vessels may ascend to the 
 small town of Amposta below Tortosa. 
 
 The other basins in the Peninsula, although of less conse- 
 quence, may be briefly mentioned. On the south of the 
 Ebro extends the basin of the Guadalaviar, a small river 
 rising between the Sierra Molina and the Sierra de Albara- 
 cin, and fed by several streams, of which the Alhambra is 
 the most considerable. The length of its course is more 
 than fifty leagues : the basin which it waters is bounded on 
 the north by the Pena Goloca, and other heights that extend 
 towards the Ebro, and on the west by the chain that stretches 
 to the Sierra de Albaracin. On the south of the last is 
 situated the basin of the Jucar, another small river, fed by 
 the Gabriel and die Lambay, and forming many windings 
 between mountains and hills. The Jucar rises on the west- 
 ern declivities of the Sierra de Albaracin, and runs to the 
 distance of more than eighty leagues. The basin of the 
 Segura is broader than the two last ; on the north and on 
 the east it is bounded by hills, and a group of mountains, 
 called the Penas de San Pedro, extends on the north-west ; 
 on the west are situated the Sierra Alearaz and the Sierra 
 Sagra. The Segura, including its windings, is equal in 
 length to fifty-five leagues ; it receives the waters of the 
 Rio Mundo, die Quipar and the Sangonera. In the first 
 part of its course, the country which it waters is wild and 
 desert, but from the valley of Ricote to the Mediterranean, 
 the soil is covered with die richest vegetation. 
 
 Two small rivers discharge their waters into the ocean; 
 the largest of these, or the Minho/ descends from the Sierra 
 de Mondonedo : although of considerable breadth, the length 
 of its course does not exceed sixty leagues. It flows south- 
 wards until it joins the Sil, then turns to the west, where it 
 is bounded on one side by the Sierra de Penagache and the 
 Sierra de Estrica, and on the other by the Sierra de Barcia. 
 The mountains adjoining the same basin, exclusively of 
 those connected with the Pyrenees, belong to the Sierra de 
 Segondina, from which the Bibey, a feeder of the Sil, takes 
 its course. The Mondego, a river to the south of the Due- 
 ro, flows in the direction of east to west ; the basin through 
 which it passes is enclosed by the Sierra de Alcoba and the 
 Sierra de Estrella ; the distance from its source to its mouth 
 is not less than fifty leagues ; it is fed by the Alva, the Seire 
 and the Soire. 
 
 The division of any country according to the basins that 
 may be contained in it, cannot satisfy the geographer, who 
 seeks other limits than those which are obvious to the eye, 
 other boundaries than the courses of rivers. A writer,’ * 1 who 
 has thrown additional light on many subjects, has divided the 
 Peninsula into four parts, according to the inclination of the 
 surface. The first or the Cantabrian division is formed by 
 the northern declivities of the Pyrenees, from the sources of 
 the Adour to Cape Ortegal. The second or the Lusitanian 
 division consists of the southern declivities of the Pyrenees 
 and of those which are watered by the Duero, the Tagus 
 and the Guadiana ; it forms a vast semicircle, of which the 
 two extremities are Cape Ortegal and the mouths of the 
 last mentioned river. The southern declivities of the Sierra 
 
 e Arga. 
 f Segra. 
 s Sp. Mino. 
 
 I b M. Bory de St. Vincent. 
 
 19 
 
146 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXVI1. 
 
 Morena, and all the mountains connected with the same 
 chain, that terminate at Cape Gata, including the Sierra 
 Nevada, make up the third or Baetic division, which embraces 
 within its circuit the Guadalquivir and its branches. The 
 last or the Iberian division comprehends the eastern decliv- 
 ities of all the mountains, which, extending from Cape Gata 
 to the Pyrenees, form the Sierra de Algamilla, the Sierra de 
 Segura, the Sierra de Albaracin, the Sierra de Molina, the 
 Sierra de Moncayo, and the Sierra de Oca. The southern 
 declivities of the Pyrenees, from their connexion with these 
 Sierras, form part of the same division. This arrangement, 
 intended to explain the passage taken by the sea, when it 
 left the Peninsula, does not appear to correspond strictly 
 with the phenomena which the vegetation of the country 
 presents. To elucidate that subject, another plan must be 
 adopted ; this fair portion of Europe may therefore be divi- 
 ded into six regions, by which it will not be difficult to clas- 
 sify the principal facts relative to the temperature. 
 
 The central or Celtiberian region comprehends the two 
 great table-lands of Old and New Castile, or, in other words, 
 the Sierra de Gata, the Sierra de Gredos, the Sierra de 
 Avila, and the mountains of Somo-Sierra , on the north of the 
 Tagus, and on the south of the same river, the Sierra de 
 Maines and the mountains of Toledo to the defiles of the 
 Sierra de Molina, and also all the western declivities of the 
 Sierra Morena and the Sierra de Albaracin, as far as the 
 Sierra Martes. Although forests and isolated summits occa- 
 sionally appear in this part of the Peninsula, it consists chiefly 
 of sterile and immense plains ; it is formed by an assemblage 
 of table-lands, not unlike the central one in Asia Minor. 
 The apple-tree is nowhere seen ; the olive begins to show 
 itself in the south, and the vine succeeds almost throughout 
 the whole extent. The oak that yields the sweet acorn 
 flourishes in the same part of the country ; its fruit, a in 
 taste not unlike the almond, may be conceived to have been 
 food for the earliest inhabitants of Spain. 
 
 The southern or Baetic region extends from east to west, 
 from Cape Palos to Cape St. Vincent, and from north to 
 south, from the southern declivities of the Sierra Morena, 
 including the mountains of Algarva, to the Mediterranean 
 and the ocean. The climate is hotter than in Sicily. The 
 country in the neighbourhood of the sea might almost be 
 considered an African zone ; it is marked by the presence 
 ol the banana, the dwarf-palm and the cactus. b The stony 
 places are covered with the caper-bush ; its numerous and 
 long stems, and its large flowers with purple stamens, adorn 
 with their elegant tufts the rocks and uncultivated lands. A 
 second zone, always verdant, and covered with the plants of 
 Sicily and Italy, rises above the last. The myrtle, the 
 orange and lemon tree, the rose laurel, the agnus castus, 
 the tamarisk and the oleander are most common in this part 
 of the Peninsula. Another and a higher zone is adapted 
 for the vine and different kinds of grain : forests of pine ex- 
 tend above it, and to these succeed Alpine plants and heights 
 covered with eternal snow. 
 
 The eastern or Iberian region comprehends, from north 
 to south, all the space between Cape Palos and Cape Creux, 
 and from east to west the basin of the Ebro, and the lands sit- 
 uated between the Sierra de Molina, the Sierra de Albaracin, 
 the Sierra Martes, the mountains of Palomera and Orihuela, 
 and the Mediterranean. This magnificent portion of the Pe- 
 ninsula, which may be compared to the shores of Ionia and 
 
 Doris, possesses all the plants of Sicily, the Archipelago and 
 the Levant. The olive flourishes every where, the carob 
 tree grows near the lentisk, while the myrtle, the laurel, the 
 fig and the mulberry display their var ied foliage ; the grape 
 yields a strong wine, but within the same division, as in the 
 last, are situated several zones, which exhibit different kinds 
 of vegetation, from the low vallies to the summits of the 
 Pyrenees. 
 
 The Lusitanian region, or that of the lower Tagus, ex- 
 tends from south to north, from Cape St. Vincent to Cape 
 Roca ; its breadth is determined by the southern branch of 
 the Sierra de Estremos, and farther north by the Sierra de 
 Mames. It is sheltered against cold winds by the moun- 
 tains on the north of the Tagus. The lower parts are cov- 
 ered with sandy heaths, but one zone may be distinguished 
 by its groves of orange and olive trees. M. Boiy de St 
 Vincent observed on the coasts, particularly to the south, a 
 vegetation similar in some respects to that of the Atlantic 
 islands. “ From the mountains of Cintra and the Sernas de 
 Ourem to Cape St. Vincent,” says the same writer v “ bota- 
 nists may discover a great many plants, which, it was sup- 
 posed, w T ere confined to the Azores, Madeira and the Cana- 
 ries. American plants thrive and multiply easily ; some of 
 them might even be considered indigenous ; at all events, 
 they have banished such as are so in many large districts, 
 where they flourish as well as in their native land.” 
 
 The Galician region, or that of the Duero, which occu- 
 pies, from north to south, the space between Cape Roca and 
 Cape Finisterre, is different from the preceding ; the oak 
 and the chestnut abound, and the vine prospers, but the 
 olive and the orange appear only in the low vallies to the 
 south of the Dueio. 
 
 The northern or Cantabrian region comprehends all the 
 country from the sources of the Adour to Cape Finisterre ; 
 it is intersected by vallies, which incline either from east to 
 west, or from south to north. The plains are not extensive, 
 and all of them are situated near the coasts. The constant 
 and uniform character of the region consists in the absence 
 of the cistus and rose laurel. The orange and the olive are 
 reared with difficulty, and the same remark is applicable to 
 the vine ; but the hills and vallies in this fruitful region are 
 covered with lofty forests, rich crops and verdant meadows. 
 The constant verdure may be attributed to a fertile soil and 
 a humid atmosphere. The apple flourishes in every dis- 
 trict ; cider is substituted for light wine, so that the country 
 may be considered the Normandy of the Peninsula. 
 
 If, as every appearance leads us to believe, Africa and 
 Spain were once united, the Balearic islands must have been 
 part of the Peninsula. They seem to be a continuation of 
 the chain which terminates at Cape St. Martin ; their gen- 
 eral direction is from south-west to north-east ; they consist 
 of four principal islands, Ivica and Fromentera, Majorca and 
 Minorca, but several odters of a smaller size are situated 
 near their coasts. Thus, around Ivica, may be seen Co- 
 nejera Grande or Great Rabbits’ island, as well as Esparto, 
 Bebra, Espalmador, c Espardella d and Tagam. Near the 
 coasts of Majorca, are situated Dragonera or Dragons’ island, 
 Conejera or Rabbits’ island, and Cabrera or Goats’ island. 
 The island of Ayre lies near the southern shores of Minorca : 
 the others may be passed over in silence ; they are of little 
 or no importance. 
 
 The island of Fromentera® is equal to four leagues at its 
 
 * Span. Bel lata. 
 
 b Schow's Botanical Geography. Copenhagen, 1822. 
 
 c Espalmadora. 
 e Formentera. 
 
 d “ Espardell”— Espartil? 
 
book cxxxvn. SPAIN AND 
 
 greatest breadth, while its utmost length does not exceed five. 
 It is believed that it has been so called in modern times, 
 from the great quantity of grain which it produces in propor- 
 tion to its surface. It was the lesser Pityusa or Pityusa 
 Minor of the ancients.® Ivica or Ivisa, b to the north of the 
 last, is about twenty-two leagues in circumference ; the Ro- 
 mans called it Ebusus. It might be inferred from their an- 
 cient names, 0 that these islands were once covered with 
 forests. 
 
 Majorca, or Mallorca d is the Balearis Major of the an- 
 cients : it is about fifty leagues in circumference. Strabo 
 informs us that the rabbits, which the early inhabitants 
 brought to it, multiplied so rapidly, that the people were at 
 last obliged to implore the assistance of the Romans to de- 
 stroy these animals.® 
 
 Minorca or Menorca/ the ancient Balearis Minor , is not 
 less than thirty-eight leagues in circumference ; it lies to the 
 east of the last. 
 
 The land in these islands is mountainous ; their geological 
 formation is everywhere the same. Calcareous rocks are 
 the most common, a fact that may serve to corroborate the 
 opinion concerning their submarine junction with Cape St. 
 Martin. The heights of the mountains, the rocks and the 
 vegetables of the Baleares, have been accurately known 
 since 1825, the year that a French naturalists visited these 
 islands. The island of Majorca is, in these respects, the 
 most interesting ; its two principal mountains are the Puig 
 de Torcella and the Puig Major}' The two groups of 
 mountains, which divide the island, are formed by calcare- 
 ous rocks, belonging to the rock called lias by the English, 
 and to the oolitic limestones. 1 Dolomite, porphyry, and 
 other rocks, which appear to be of igneous origin, are also 
 to be met with. Medicinal springs and different specimens 
 of copper ore indicate the mineral wealth of the island, from 
 which the inhabitants have hitherto derived no advantage. 
 Majorca, like the other Baleares, may be distinguished by 
 its arid summits and verdant vallies. The carob and the 
 olive tree appear in all their vigour. The first occupies the 
 lowest level, and ascends to the height of 1500 feet. k The 
 second thrives on the mountains ; it unites with the box and 
 the Aleppo pine, in covering the declivities, but the last, 
 extending to the height of six hundred feet 1 above the olive, 
 mingles with the evergreen oak, which reaches 300 feet m 
 above it. The highest summits are covered with the Ses- 
 leria ccerulea. n The dwarf palms, on the stony heights near 
 the coast, protect with their broad foliage different species 
 of Cyclamen, Ononis and Anthyllis. The peasants often 
 set fire to the forests of oaks and pines on the mountains, in 
 order to promote the vegetation of a plant which they call 
 carregt ( Donax tenax.) It diffuses itself over all the vacant 
 space thus produced, and affords, in the following year, an 
 abundant nourishment for mules and cattle. In vain do the 
 
 PORTUGAL. 147 
 
 pines and oaks push forth their shoots ; the carregts keep 
 their ground, and it is not until after many years that they 
 yield to the efforts of their gigantic neighbours. The myr- 
 tle, the pistachio,® the thorny caper bush, the cistus, and the 
 rosemary, on the stony heights near the mountains of Major- 
 ca, indicate the Mediterranean region. The ligneous sali 
 cornia and the tamarisk grow in the salt marshes near the 
 shore, the vine flourishes on the hills, and the cotton plant is 
 cultivated in low and humid places. 11 It is unnecessary to 
 give an account of the vegetable productions in the neigh- 
 bouring islands, as they differ but little from those that are 
 found in Majorca. 
 
 The Baleares, or Balearides, were so called by the 
 Greeks, from the great skill with which the inhabitants used 
 the sling. 1 * According to Pliny, these islands were also 
 called Gymnasia , r because the inhabitants went naked to 
 battle. 3 Their arms were a small buckler, a javelin, and 
 three slings of different sizes, one or other of which was used 
 according to the distance of the enemy. Their children 
 were early accustomed to handle the same instrument; it 
 is said that their parents refused to give them food, until 
 they hit a mark at a certain distance. It has been inferred 
 from the surname of Gymnasii, or naked, that the Greeks 
 and Romans had not often friendly intercourse with these 
 islanders, for it is certain that in private life, they wore 
 dresses long before the inhabitants of Italy. The Romans 
 conquered the Baleares, not so much to put a stop to the 
 piracies of the islanders, as to deprive the Carthaginians of 
 important stations for the commerce of the Mediterranean. 
 The same people founded Palma and Pollentia in Majorca, 
 two places which shall be afterwards mentioned ; these isl- 
 ands formed part of the Tarragonian province ( Provincia 
 Tarraconensis .) 
 
 Many conjectures have been formed concerning the origin 
 of the words Hispania and Hesperia, the ancient names of 
 the Peninsula. It is probable that Hispania comes from the 
 Phoenician word span, wirich signifies concealed — not an 
 inapplicable name, for at an early period, the country was 
 little known to the Phoenicians. It has been also said that 
 they called it Spania, from the number of rabbits they ob- 
 served in it. 1 The Greeks called it Hesperia, from its 
 western situation, relatively to their own country." The 
 name of Iberia, which it also bore, seems to have been de- 
 rived from the name of its early inhabitants. M. Bory de St. 
 Vincent supposes them a colony from the island or continent 
 of Atlantis. Such an assumption, however, is liable to many 
 objections, but it appears to be as probable as the opinion 
 supported by several Spanish authors, who affirm that the 
 first inhabitants of their country were descended from Tubal, 
 a son of Noah, x who landed in Spain twenty-two centuries 
 before the Christian era. 
 
 The Iberians, according to Herodotus, were divided into 
 
 1 The ancients also called it Ophiusa. — P. 
 
 b Ibica, Ibiza, Iviza, Yviqa. ( Pityusa Major of the ancients.) — P. 
 c PityuscB, Pine islands — (irtTvc, a pine.) — P. 
 
 d Majorca, Majorica, Mallorca, Mayorca, (the Greater.) — Ed. Encyc. 
 e Book III. ch. 2. sect. 2. 
 
 f Minorca, Menorica, (the Smaller.) — Ed. Encyc. 
 e M. Cainbessede, member of the Society of Natural History and of 
 the Philomat.hic Society of Paris. 
 
 h M. Cambessede took a barometrical measurement of the two moun- 
 tains ; according to him, the first is equal to 4,778 feet in height, and 
 the second to 3,670. [“ 1463.6 and 1115.4 metres.”] 
 
 1 “ Secondary calcareous rocks ( calcaires de sidimens inf&riturs,') i. e. 
 the lias of the English, and the oolitic limestones.” 
 k “ 500 metres.” 1 “ 200 metres.” m “ 100 metres.” 
 
 n Blue Moor grass — found in mountain pastures, throughout the 
 greater part of Europe. — P. 0 Pistacia lentiscus. 
 
 p Cambasse.de, Enumeratio plantarum qu® reperiuntur in insulis Ba- 
 learibus, 4to. Paris, 1827. From the Greek word hallo, I throw. 
 
 r The original states that the inhabitants were called Baleares or 
 Balearides by the Greeks, and Gymnasii by Pliny. The two Greek 
 terms were applied to the islands ( Baleares Insulce.) Pliny’s name 
 is also applied solely to the islands — “Graci Gymnasias dixere .” They 
 were called Gymnesice (Bvinriaiai) by Strabo. — P. 
 
 9 Plin. Hist. Nat. Lib. III. cap. 5. 
 
 1 The double signification of the word span (concealed, rabbit,) leads 
 to this double interpretation. The Romans adopted the last, as ap- 
 pears from a medal of Adrian, on which Spain is represented by the 
 figure of a woman with a rabbit at her side. See Florez, Medallas de 
 Espana, tom. i. p. 109. 
 
 u Hespera (soneQa) signifies the west, or the evening, in Greek. [Hes- 
 peria (scmtQia,) western or evening (adj.) — P.] 
 
 1 Son of Japhet. 
 
 — 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 148 
 
 six tribes ; the Cynetce, Gletce, Tartesii or Turdctani , Eleu- 
 sinii, Mnrtinii , and Ccleinni. Strabo informs us that the 
 Turdctani had made great advances in civilization, that they 
 applied themselves to literature, and that they possessed 
 books of poetry and history of a very ancient date, and laws 
 which, they affirmed, were written six thousand years before 
 bis tirae. a 
 
 Diodorus Siculus mentions the passage of the Celts into 
 Spain. The Iberi made war against them for a long time, 
 but, after an obstinate resistance on the part of the natives, 
 the two people entered into an agreement’, according to 
 which, they were to possess the country in common, bear 
 the same name, and remain for ever united ; such, says the 
 same historian, was the origin of the Celtiberi in Spain. 
 These warlike people, continues Diodorus, were equally 
 formidable as cavalry and infantry, for when the horse had 
 broken the enemy’s ranks, the men dismounted and fought 
 on foot. Their dress consisted of a sagum or coarse wool- 
 len mantle ; they wore greaves made of hair, an iron helmet 
 adorned with a red plume, a round buckler and a broad 
 two-edged sword of so fine a temper as to pierce through 
 the enemy’s armour. Although they boasted of cleanliness 
 both in their food and in their dress, it was not unusual for 
 them to wash their teeth and bodies with urine, a custom 
 which they considered favourable to health. Their habitual 
 drink was a sort of hydromel ; wine was brought into the 
 country by foreign merchants. The land was equally dis- 
 tributed, and the harvests were divided among all the citi- 
 zens ; the law punished with death the person who appro- 
 priated more than his just share. They carried so far the 
 duty of hospitality, that they considered it a special favour 
 to entertain a stranger, being convinced that the presence of 
 a foreigner called do\Vn the protection of the gods on the 
 family that received him. They sacrificed human victims 
 to their divinities, and the priests pretended to read future 
 events in the palpitating entrails. 1 * * At every full moon, says 
 Strabo, diey celebrated the festival of a god without a name ; 
 from this circumstance, their religion has been considered a 
 corrupt deism. 
 
 The Phoenicians were the first people who established 
 colonies on the coasts of Spain ; Tartessus was one of the 
 most ancient ; at a later period, they founded Gades, now 
 Cadiz, on an island of the same name. They carried on 
 there a very lucrative trade, inasmuch as it was unknown to 
 other nations ; but in time, the Rhodians, the Samians, the 
 Phocaeans and other Greeks established factories on different 
 parts of the coast. 
 
 Carthage had been founded by the Phoenicians ; but the 
 inhabitants, regardless of their connexion with that people, 
 took possession of the Phoenician stations, and conquered 
 the whole of maritime Spain. The government of these 
 republicans was less supportable than that of their predeces- 
 sors ; the Carthaginians were unable to form any friendly 
 intercourse with die Spaniards 0 in the interior ; their rapine 
 and cruelty excited the indignation of die natives. 
 
 The ruin of Carthage paved the way to new invaders, 
 and Spain was considered a Roman province two centuries 
 before the Christian era. Those who had been the allies, 
 became the masters of the Spaniards, and die manners, cus- 
 toms and even language of the conquerors were introduced 
 
 a Strabo, Book III. ch. 2. b Diodorus, Book V. ch. 31. 
 
 c “ The Celtiberians.” 
 
 d Libora was situated in Tarraconensis, but very near the limits of 
 Lusitania. (D'Anville. Encyc. Method.) — P. 
 
 e The inhabitants wen called Callaici or Callaci. — P. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXVII. 
 
 into the Peninsula. But Rome paid dear for her conquest ; 
 the north, or the present Old Castile, Arragon and Catalo- 
 nia, was constantly in a state of revolt ; the mountaineers 
 shook off the yoke, and it was not before the reign of Au- 
 gustus that the country was wholly subdued. The Penin- 
 sula w r as then divided into three provinces, Lusitania , Bce- 
 tica and Tarraconensis. 
 
 The Lusitanian province or the western region was sepa- 
 rated on the north from Tarraconensis by the Duero, as far 
 as its confluence with the Tonnes ; the two most eastern 
 points within its limits were Libora on the Tagus, d and 
 Augustobriga. The course of the Guadiana served as a 
 boundary from the mountains of Toledo to the Atlantic. 
 Thus, it comprehended the greater part of Portugal, and all 
 Estremadura. Emerita Augusta , the present Merida, was 
 the capital of the province. 
 
 Bastiga was separated from Lusitania by the Guadiana, 
 and from Tarraconensis by a line extending from the neigh- 
 bourhood of Ciudad-Real to the Rio-Almanzor ; it formed 
 the most southern portion of the Peninsula; Corduba was 
 its capital. 
 
 All the rest of Spain was included in the province of 
 Tarraconensis ; Gallcecia e on the north-west, now Galicia, 
 Carthag incus is, now the kingdom of Murcia, and the Bale- 
 aric islands w r ere contained in it. 
 
 The same province was also called Hispania Citerior, 
 while the two others formed Hispania Ulterior. 
 
 The southern part of the province of Lusitania was peo- 
 pled by the Cynetce or Cynesii, the earliest inhabitants of 
 Algarva, and by the Celtici or Celtcc-Gletce between the 
 Guadiana and the Tagus. The country round the moun- 
 tains of Gredos belonged to the Vettones, a people that 
 passed alternately from a state of inactivity and repose to the 
 vicissitudes and hardships of war. The Lusitani, a nation 
 of freebooters, were settled in the middle of Estremadura ; 
 they were distinguished by their activity and patience of 
 fatigue ; their food was flour and sweet acorns ; f beer was 
 their common beverage. They w r ere swift in the race ; 
 they had a martial dance, which the men danced, while they 
 advanced to battle .s 
 
 The part of Baetica near the Mediterranean, was peopled 
 by the Bastuli or, as they were also called, the Pceni. The 
 Turduli inhabited the shores of the ocean, near the mouth 
 of the Bretis. The Bceturi dwelt on the Marianic moun- 
 tains,’ 1 and the Turdetani inhabited the southern declivities 
 of the Sierra de Aracena. The last people, more enlight- 
 ened than any other in Baetica, were skilled in different 
 kinds of industry long before then - neighbours. When the 
 Phoenicians arrived on their coast, silver w T as so common 
 amongst them, that then- ordinary utensils were made of it. 
 What was afterwards done by the Spaniards in America, was 
 then done by the Phoenicians in Spain ; they exchanged iron 
 and other articles of little value for silver ; nay, if ancient 
 authors can be credited, they not only loaded then- ships 
 with the same metal, but if their anchors at any time gave 
 way, others of silver were used in their place. 
 
 The people in Gallcccia, a subdivision of Tarraconensis, 
 were the Artabri, who derived then- name from Cape Arta- 
 brum, now Cape Finisterre ; the Bracari, w’hose chief town 
 was Bracara, the present Braga ; and lastly the Luce uses, 
 
 1 Strabo says that the Lusitani dried their acorns, and then ground 
 them, and made bread of the flour — “ ^qaianii — fira aXtaairtg xut 
 aQTo.TOiyaaueroi.” — P. 
 
 * Strabo, Book III. ch. 3. 
 
 b Mons Marianas, the Sierra Morena. 
 
book cxxxvn.] SPAIN AND 
 
 of which Lucus Augusti, now Lugo, was the capital. 
 These tribes and some others formed the nation of the Cal- 
 aici or Gallceci , a who, according to the ancients, had no 
 religious notions. The Asturif now the Asturians, inhabited 
 the banks of the Asturis or the country on the east of the 
 Gallaecian mountains ; Asturica Augusta f was then- capital. 
 The Vacccd, the least barbarous of the Celtiberians, pos- 
 sessed the country on the east of the Asturi. The fierce 
 Cantabri occupied the coasts of Old Castile; it was custom- 
 ary for two to mount on the same horse, when they went to 
 battle. The C antes' 1 II or Caristi inhabited part of Biscay 
 on the same declivities of the Pyrenees ; on the southern side 
 of those mountains, the Turmodiges e and the Murbogii s 
 were settled in the province of Burgos. Their neighbours 
 on the east, were the Autrigones in Alava, the Berones in 
 Rioja, and the Varduli in Guipuscoa. The Vascones or 
 the Navarrese, the ancestors of the present Gascons, were 
 settled on the north of the Ebro. The Jaccetani were scat- 
 tered on the Pyrensean declivities of Arragon. The brave 
 llergetes resided in the country round Lerida, and the Ves- 
 citani, between the Vascones and the llergetes. As to the 
 country on the east of these tribes, the whole of Catalonia 
 was peopled by the Cerretani, the Indigetes, the Castellani, 
 the Ausetani, the Saletanis and the Cosetani. h ' As to the 
 country on the south of the Ebro, the Arevaci, who were so 
 called from the river Arena, were settled in the neighbourhood 
 of Arevalo, and in the province of Segovia ; the Pelendones 
 possessed the high plains of Soria and Moncayo. The 
 space comprehended between the mountains of Albaracin 
 and the river, was peopled by the Edctani, one of the most 
 powerful tribes in Spain. The llercavones ,’ who were not 
 less formidable, inhabited an extensive district between the 
 Upper Jucar and the Lower Ebro. The territory of the 
 Suessetani , between the Ebro and the Guadalaviar, extended 
 to the shores of the Mediterranean. The country of the 
 Carpetani , including the space from the Guadiana to the 
 Somo-Sierra, forms at present the archiepiscopal see of To- 
 ledo. The people on the south of the last, were the Oreta- 
 ni, between the Guadiana and the Marianic mountains, and 
 the O/cadcs, a small tribe, near the confluence of the Ga- 
 briel and the Jucar. Carthaginensis, a subdivision of Tar- 
 raconensis, was inhabited by two tribes ; — the Bastitani in the 
 centre of Murcia, who often made incursions into Baetica, 
 and the Contestant, who possessed the two banks of the 
 Segura, near the shores of the Mediterranean, from Cape 
 Palos to the Jucar. 
 
 In time of peace, says Diodorus Siculus, the lberi and 
 Lusitani amused themselves with a lively and light dance, 
 which requires much activity. That ancient writer alludes 
 perhaps to the fandango, a dance of which the origin is 
 unknown. An assembly, composed of old men, among the 
 Celtiberians, was held every year ; it was part of their duty 
 to examine what the women had made with their own 
 hands within the twelve-month, and to her, whose work the 
 assembly thought the best, a reward was given. An ancient 
 author, k who mentions that singular custom, adds that cor- 
 pulency was considered a reproach by the same people ; for in 
 
 a See note e, p. 828. b Astures, D’Anv. 
 
 * The modern Astorga. <* * Carietes, Pliny, B. III. ch. 3. 
 
 c Turmodigi, Pliny. f Murbogi, Ptolemy. 
 
 e Laletani ? — P. 
 
 b As the llergetes inhabited the country around Lerida, they must 
 Have occupied a part of Catalonia. — P. 
 
 ■ fleraion.es, D’Anv. 
 
 k Nicholas of Damascus. See his fragments collected by Constan- 
 tine Porphyrogenitus. 
 
 PORTUGAL. 149 
 
 order to preserve their bodies light and active, the men were 
 measured every year by a girdle of a certain length, and some 
 sort of punishment was inflicted on those who had become 
 too large. The age of marriage was fixed by law ; the girls 
 chose their husbands among the young warriors, and the 
 best means of obtaining the preference, was to present the 
 fair one with the hand of an enemy slain in battle. 
 
 Strabo enters into some details concerning the dress of 
 the ancient Spaniards. The Lusitani covered themselves 
 with black mantles, because their sheep were mostly of that 
 colour. The Celtiberian women wore iron collars with 
 rods 1 of the same metal rising behind, and bent in front ; to 
 these rods was attached the veil, their usual ornament. 
 Others wore a sort of broad turban, and some twisted their 
 hair round a small rod m rising about a foot above the head, 
 and from the rod was appended a black veil. Lastly, a 
 shining forehead was considered a great beauty ; on that 
 account, they pulled out their hair, and rubbed their brows 
 with oil. D 0 
 
 The different tribes were confounded while the Romans 
 oppressed the country, but in the beginning of the fifth cen- 
 tury, the Suevi, the Vandals and the Visigoths invaded the 
 Peninsula, and mixing with the Celts and Iberians, produced 
 the different races, which the physiologist still observes in 
 Spain. The first people or the Suevi descended the Duero 
 under the conduct of Ermeric, and chose Braga for the 
 capital of their kingdom. Genseric led his Vandals to the 
 centre of the Peninsula, and fixed his residence at Toledo ; 
 but fifteen years had not elapsed after the settlement of that 
 barbarous horde, when Theodoric, conquered by Clovis, 
 abandoned Toulouse, penetrated into Spain, and having 
 taken Toledo, compelled the Vandals to fly into Africa. 
 During the short period that the Vandals remained in the 
 country, the ancient province of Baetica was called Vanda- 
 lusia, and it bears the name of Andalusia to this day. But 
 the Visigoths soon extended their conquests, and all the 
 country from the Ebro to the Straits of Gibraltar, submitted 
 to them. The ancient Celtiberians, who had so long resist- 
 ed the Romans, made then no struggle for liberty or inde- 
 pendence ; they yielded without resistance to their new 
 masters. Powers and privileges were the portion of the 
 Gothic race, and the title of hijo del Godo, or the son of the 
 Goth, which the Spaniards changed into hidalgo , p became 
 the distinctive appellation of a noble or a free and powerful 
 man among a people of slaves. A number of petty and 
 almost independent states were formed by the chiefs of the 
 conquering tribes ; but these barons or free men acknowl- 
 edged a liege lord. Spain and Portugal were thus divided, 
 and the feudal system was thus established. Among the 
 Visigoths, however, the crown was not hereditary, or at least 
 the law of regular succession was often set at defiance by 
 usurpers. The sovereign authority was limited by the 
 assemblies of the great vassals, some of whom were very 
 powerful ; indeed the Count Julian to avenge himself on 
 King Roderic for an outrage committed on his daughter, 
 delivered Spain to the Mahometan yoke. 
 
 After the country had submitted for three centuries to the 
 
 I xoqglx eg, beaks, processes. m c vXtoxog, a little column. 
 
 II “ Some removed the hair from the front part of the head, in such 
 a manner as to render it more shining than the forehead.” — aXXac Si 
 roc nqo'y.oii la xptXtjv em tooutot , t og’ anogiXfhiv rs perumu fiaXXov. Stra- 
 bo, 1. c. — P. 
 
 0 Strabo, Book III. cb. 2 and 3. 
 
 p Hidalgo has been derived from hijo de algo, the son of somebody— 
 a much less probable etymology than the one given in the text. — P 
 
150 EUROPE. [book cxxxvii. 
 
 Visigoths, it was subdued by the Arabs in the year 712. A 
 single battle, fought at Xeres on the left bank of the Guada- 
 lete, was sufficient to secure the conquest. The settlement 
 of the Moors in the Peninsula may be considered one of the 
 events which illustrate the superiority of a well informed and 
 polished people over a nation divided by factions, and de- 
 graded by the feudal system. Cordova was chosen as the 
 capital of their empire ; rendered confident by success, they 
 devoted themselves to the sciences, cultivated letters and the 
 fine arts, embellished Cordova, Granada and other towns 
 with their elegant mosques, governed the vanquished with 
 mildness and justice, and nowhere violated the laws of a 
 wise toleration. By such means, they thought to strengthen 
 their empire, while a poor but intrepid people in the moun- 
 tains of Asturia, were silently preparing a way for the inde- 
 pendence of their country. Pelagius or Pelctyo, a simple 
 shepherd, whom some writers call a prince or a king, be- 
 cause he showed himself worthy of being one, founded the 
 kingdom of Oviedo, which was extended by conquest to the 
 Duero, and even to llie chain of Guadarrama ; the same 
 kingdom was afterwards divided into two, those of Leon and 
 the Asturias. 1 The Christians were encouraged by his ex- 
 ample ; whilst they, to preserve fl emselves, concentrated 
 their forces, the lieutenants of the caliphs were divided by 
 ambition, and weakened by civil discord. They were styled 
 kings of Cordova, Seville, Valencia and Granada, but they 
 were not united, and separately they were unable to resist 
 the torrent that threatened to destroy them. From the year 
 1 085, the Moors began to lose their provinces in Spain, and 
 on the second of January, 1492, b Ferdinand of Arragon and 
 Isabella of Castile made their triumphant entry into Granada, 
 the last bulwark of the Mussulmans. 
 
 The kingdom of Granada lost with its ancient masters, its 
 wealth and power. It was the finest conquest of the Span- 
 iards, but fanaticism transformed it into a desolate and 
 wretched province. The Mahometan population, the most 
 enlightened, industrious and wealthy in the Peninsula, were 
 reduced to slavery. It was forgotten that the Moors had 
 
 1 The kingdom was at first called the kingdom of Asturias, and after- 
 wards the kingdom of Leon and Asturias It continued united as one 
 kingdom till its union with Castile, A. L». 1037. — P. 
 
 b The standard of the cross and the royal standard were hoisted on 
 the walls of Granada, Jan. 2, 1492. The triumphal entry took place 
 Jan 6.— P. 
 
 respected in the time of their prosperity, the laws and the 
 religion of the vanquished. The fires of the Inquisition were 
 kindled by the same men who preached union and brotherly 
 love. According to the terms of the capitulation, concluded 
 with the last king of Granada, no one was to be punished for 
 his religious belief ; but the violation of treaties made with 
 infidels, was considered an act of piety by the Holy Office. 
 The conquered, almost reduced to despair, were easily 
 excited to revolt. Unable to resist, great numbers received 
 baptism, and the wealthiest on paying a stipulated sum, 
 obtained permission to pass into Africa. By this measure, 
 considerable sums flowed into the royal treasury, but 
 immense capitals were for ever taken away from Spain. 
 Not satisfied with its triumph, the Inquisition pretended that 
 the conversion of the Mussulmans was not real, and the lat- 
 ter could only escape from death by a new and successful 
 revolt. Having fled for shelter to the mountains, they called 
 to their assistance their brethren in Africa, but before any 
 aid could be had from that quarter, a Moorish sovereign was 
 proclaimed, conquered and beheaded. The Spanish gov- 
 ernment, emboldened by the weakness of the rebels, refused 
 their submission, and they were banished from the kingdom, 
 conformably to a decree of Philip the Third. 
 
 Their expulsion was an act of state policy, of which the 
 consequences were long fatal to the arts, agriculture and 
 commerce of Spain. A Spanish writer thus describes the 
 kingdom of Granada about the beginning of the sixteenth 
 century. “A short time after the conquest of Ferdinand, 
 that rich province contained seventy fortified towns, and 
 Granada alone was peopled by two hundred thousand inhab- 
 itants.” 1 The imposts and produce of the mines in the 
 same part of the Peninsula, were enormous comparatively 
 with what they are at present. The single tax on silk pro- 
 duced a revenue of 181,500 gold ducats. d It is humiliating 
 to the Spaniards, says an English writer, that the noblest 
 monuments in then - country, are those which a hateful race 
 of conquerors left behind them. e 
 
 c Zurita, Annals of Arragon. 
 
 d Al. de Laborde, Voyage pV^esoue et historique de l’Espagne 
 folio, tom. ii. 
 
 e Hallam’s Middle Ages 
 
BOOK CXXXVIII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 151 
 
 BOOK CXXXVIII. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued. — Spanish Peninsula. Kingdom of Por- 
 v tugal and Algarva. 
 
 It may not perhaps be deemed according to rule, to com- 
 mence the political account of the Peninsula, with that of a 
 kingdom so insignificant as Portugal ; but it should be recol- 
 lected that the same method has been already followed, 3 
 and in a historical point of view, the kingdom of Portugal 
 merits the priority, for it was freed from the Saracens, and 
 in possession of its present limits, long before Spain had 
 shaken off the Mahometan yoke. Henry of Burgundy was 
 created count of Portocale , because he assisted the king of 
 Castile in his expeditions against the Moors. About the 
 commencement of the twelfth century, Alphonso Henriquez, 
 the son of the same Henry, received from his soldiers tire 
 title of king, after having killed with his own hand five Mus- 
 sulman princes, whose heads occupy a prominent place in 
 the armorial bearings of Portugal. b It was about the middle 
 of the following century, that Alphonso the Third took Al- 
 garva from the Saracens. Free in a land which their cour- 
 age had delivered from foreign oppression, it was during the 
 same heroic age that the Portuguese emerged from the 
 darkness of barbarism, and betook themselves to tire sciences, 
 to navigation, agriculture and trade ; they led the way in the 
 career of those memorable discoveries that extended the 
 circle of European communication with Asia and Africa, 
 and afterwards with a vast continent, of which the genius of 
 Columbus had conjectured the existence. In the annals of 
 the middle ages, no nation holds a greater rank than the one 
 that during two centuries, conquered many islands, gave 
 laws on the banks of the Ganges, founded numerous towns 
 and factories in India, covered every sea with its ships, and 
 shared with Spain vast territories, bounded according to the 
 decrees or caprice of a Roman pontiff. If Portugal was 
 invaded by Philip the Second, when the dynasty of Avis 
 became extinct, if it remained sixty years subject to Spain, 
 the colonies it lost during the same period, roused the spirit 
 of the nation, and gave rise in 1640 to a conspiracy, by 
 which the independence of the country was secured, and 
 the crown conferred on a duke of Braganza, the founder 
 ot die reigning family. Although comparatively insignificant 
 in point of population, it has shown more than once how 
 
 a M. Bory de St. Vincent, Guide du Voyageur en Espagne. 
 
 b Some authors have derived the name of Portugal from Porto-Gallo 
 (the French port.) a town in which Henry of Burgundy and his com- 
 panions resided, and which is now called Oporto or Porto. Other 
 writers affirm that there was an ancient town named Cale* now Gaya, 
 at the mouth ot the Douro ; in course of time, a harbour was construct- 
 ed opposite to Cale, which received the name of Portucalet (the port 
 of Caie,) and became the town of Porto, of which (Mle or Gaya now 
 forms the suburb. It is from the word Portucale that the name of 
 Portucalia was first applied to the present provinces of Minho and 
 
 * Calle, D’Anv. f Portus Callis or Porto Guile. (Ed. Encyc ) 
 
 much the strength of a country may be increased by the 
 public spirit of the inhabitants. Recollecting its past glory, 
 it may be expected that, under an enlightened government 
 and a wise policy, it may again occupy no mean station 
 among the kingdoms of Europe. 
 
 The kingdom of Portugal extends from north to south, 
 between the forty-second and thirty-seventh parallels, and 
 from east to west, between the ninth and eleventh degrees 
 of longitude. Its political limits on the north are Galicia 
 and part of the province of Zamora ; the boundaries on the 
 east are the provinces of Salamanca and Estremadura and 
 the kingdom of Seville. 
 
 The natural limits of the same country are a part of 
 the course of the Minho, and the mountains of Penagache 
 and Segondera, on the north ; on the east, a part of the 
 Douro, the Turon, the Heijas, a part of the Tagus, the Se- 
 ver, a portion of the Guadiana, the Chandza, and the lower 
 Guadiana from its junction with the Chandza to its mouth ; 
 the ocean forms the southern and western confines of the 
 kingdom. Its greatest length from north to south is equal 
 to a hundred and twenty-five leagues, 0 and its greatest 
 breadth from east to west is about fifty. The superficies 
 amounts to four thousand nine hundred and twenty-two 
 square leagues, 11 and the population to three million, three 
 hundred and forty thousand inhabitants. 
 
 As Portugal is very narrow from north to south, it might 
 be thought that the climate throughout the kingdom was 
 almost uniform ; but the inequalities in the soil, the direction 
 of the vallies, and the greater or less proximity of the ocean, 
 have a considerable influence on the temperature. It is 
 sufficient to travel a few leagues to transport oneself from the 
 excessive heat of Lisbon to the cold of Germany. Although 
 the temperature diminishes gradually from the coast to the 
 highest summits, still the laws of increase or diminution are 
 modified by several local causes. Thus, in the high coun- 
 try, in the province of Tras-os-Montes, the heat is excessive 
 during summer, and more particularly so in the neighbour- 
 hood of Lamego, for the hills of slate near the town, incline 
 to the south, and the Marao forms a barrier against the north 
 wind. Besides, the distance from the sea is so great that 
 the wind from that direction passes with difficulty into the 
 
 Tras-os-Montes, and afterwards to the whole kingdom. The most an- 
 cient document in which the name of Portugal occurs, bears the date 
 of the year 1069 ; it is carefully preserved in the monastery of Aroun. 
 See Gaetano de Lima, Geographie Historique, tom. i. p. 86. 
 
 c The league mentioned in this work, is equal to the twenty-fifth 
 part of a degree. 
 
 d Geographers differ as to the extent of surface ; M. Bory de St. 
 Vincent makes it equal to 3,437£ square leagues — Cheling to 1,642.37 
 German square miles, or 4,566 square leagues — Franzini to 28,350 
 miles of sixty to the degree. 
 
 The last measurement, which has been adopted by Balbi, seems to 
 be the most correct. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXVIU. 
 
 152 
 
 country, whilst the confined situation of the valley, and the 
 arid slate-hills exposed to the sun’s rays, render it one of the 
 warmest parts of Portugal in the summer season. 3 
 
 The lower districts in the same kingdom, possessing the 
 advantages of a very short winter, may be said to have a 
 double spring. The first begins in February; the succeed- 
 ing months are sometimes cold and rainy, at other times 
 warm and dry. The crops are reaped in June, and by the 
 end of July the plains are scorched, the grass becomes yel- 
 low, the trees wither, and it requires much labour and care 
 to preserve esculent vegetables. While the heat along the 
 coast is often more excessive than in the torrid zone, the 
 temperature of the higher regions is cool and mild. b The 
 low country is adorned with a second vegetation about the 
 end of September or beginning of October. The plants of 
 spring succeed suddenly those of autumn, the meadows are 
 covered with new grass, the trees seem to have resumed 
 their foliage, and the orange groves, then in flower, give to 
 the month of October, all the charms of the finest spring. 
 Winter commences at the end of November, and continues 
 until the month of F ebruary ; it is the season of much rain 
 and violent hurricanes ; the torrents then make a passage 
 for themselves to the rivers, while the latter overflow their 
 banks, and the ordinary communications between different 
 parts of the kingdom are interrupted. But the cold is never 
 rigorous, and it rarely freezes, in the low country. Still the 
 frost is sufficiently keen in the mountains of Tras-os-Montes 
 beyond the Douro, and also on the summits of the Serra de 
 Estrella, the Serra de Mames and the Serra de Estremos ; 
 although the snow accumulates, the rivers are seldom lfozen. 
 The Portuguese affirm that snow lies during the greatest 
 heat of summer on the summit of the Gaviarra in the prov- 
 ince of Minho, in some cavities of the Marao, and on the 
 tops of the Estrella. But snow does not remain more than 
 a month on the other mountains, and it is altogether unknown 
 in the kingdom of Algarva. The north wind prevails in 
 winter in the provinces of Tras-os-Montes and Entre Douro 
 e Minho, and the south-west wind in those of Beira, Estre- 
 madura and Alentejo during the same season. The greatest 
 cold is generally accompanied with the east wind, which 
 passes over the snowy summits of Castile. In the other 
 seasons, and particularly in summer, the north-west wind 
 blows in the morning, and the south-west in the afternoon. 
 
 According to a well informed observer, 0 the winter at 
 Lisbon and in the basin near the mouth of the Tagus, con- 
 tinues during December, January, February and March; 
 April and May are die two months of spring ; the summer 
 lasts from the beginning of June to the end of September, and 
 the autumn from the first of October to the end of November. 
 Th''. basin of the Mondego in the neighbourhood of Coimbra, 
 is more temperate than Lisbon, but it is also more humid and 
 less salubrious. The climate of Oporto and Penafiel is equally 
 humid, but the winters are colder and more cloudy, while 
 the summers on the contrary are very warm. The winters 
 are very mild in the kingdom of Algarva ; the meadows are 
 always enamelled with flowers. Rain is unfrequent during 
 the months of July, August and September. If October be 
 a rainy month, it is not uncommon to see the fruit trees 
 blossom anew in November. December and January are 
 the wettest months, and abundant rains in April are the signs 
 
 * Ad. Balbi, Essai Statistique sur le Royoume de Portugal et d’Al- 
 garve, tom. i. 
 
 b The difference of temperature between the coasts and the high 
 country is about ten degrees of Fahrenheit, or four and a half of Reau- 
 mur. 
 
 of a plentiful harvest. A remarkable fact in the history of 
 atmospheric phenomena may be mentioned ; in the month 
 of May the wind follows generally the direction of the sun, 
 or in other words, it blows from the east at sunrise, from the 
 south at mid-day, from the north-west in the evening, and 
 from the north during the night/ 
 
 Although Portugal be a mountainous country, it is seldom 
 exposed to violent storms ; thunder is only heard during the 
 autumn and winter. 
 
 Having entered into sufficient details concerning the tem- 
 perature, a few remarks may be offered on the salubrity of 
 the climate. Portugal is justly celebrated on this account 
 in England, and many examples of longevity prove that the 
 opinion, unlike many of the same nature, is not founded on 
 prejudice. Among the places noted for their salubrity are 
 Braga, Ponte de Lima, and almost all the othoRs in the 
 province of Minho. Mirandella, Villa Pouca, Montalegre, 
 and several other towns in Tras-os-Montes are equally 
 healthy. The same remark is applicable to the upper valley 
 of the Mondego in the centre of the kingdom, or to the 
 country between Guarda and Ponte de Marcella. Ourem, 
 Loures and Lisbon in Estremadura, Beja, Evora and Ou- 
 rique in Alentejo, and Monchique, Faro and Tavira in Al- 
 garva, have been commended for the same reason by the 
 Portuguese. But many parts of the country, particularly 
 such as are humid and marshy, are considered unwholesome. 
 The inhabitants of Quarteira, Lagos, Silves and San Marcos 
 de Asserra in Algarva, as well as those of Silveiras and 
 Monte-Mor-o-Novo in Alentejo, are subject to different mal- 
 adies, attributable to local causes. Pezo de Regoa, Chaves, 
 Braganza and Miranda in Tras-os-Montes possess a sad 
 celebrity. The same may be said of Almeirim in Estrema- 
 dura, and almost all the southern bank of the Tagus between 
 the Rio-Almanzor and the counUy near Lisbon, and of the 
 southern declivities of the Estrella, and the lands watered 
 by the Mondego from Coimbra to Figueira in the province 
 of Beira. 
 
 Some diseases are most prevalent in particular situations ; 
 thus at Lisbon, apoplexy, paralysis, and complaints of the 
 liver and breast, are more common than in other parts of the 
 country, and the variations of temperature occasion different 
 sorts of fevers, and other diseases produced by suppressed 
 perspiration. The people in the northern provinces are 
 subject to rheumatism and pleurisy, and the salt marshes on 
 the coast produce obstructions and dropsy. A sort of lep- 
 rosy attacks the working classes in Beira, and intermittent 
 fevers, dropsy and anthrax 6 are not unfrequent in Alentejo ; 
 lastly, the inhabitants of Algarva are exposed to gastric 
 fevers, and to a certain inflammation known by the name of 
 mal de Bciriga , which medical men attribute to the great 
 quantity of unripe figs that constitute the principal food of 
 die lower orders during three or four months in the year/ 
 
 The frequency of earthquakes may be considered the 
 greatest calamity to which the southern part of Portugal is 
 exposed ; a year seldom passes away without the recurrence 
 of several shocks, and since the eleventh century Lisbon has 
 been fifteen times more or less injured. It has been observed 
 that they happen between the months of October and April, 
 and particularly after the first rains that succeed the heat 
 and droughts. These facts are important, inasmuch as they 
 
 c Colonel Fransini, cited by Balbi. 
 
 d This wind is called Vento Rodeiro (turning wind ) by the natives. 
 
 e Carbuncle. 
 
 1 Ad. Balbi, Essai Statistique. 
 
 L 
 
 
cooil cxxxvm.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 153 
 
 
 prove an invisible relation between the atmospheric phenom- 
 ena and those taking place in the depths of the earth. The 
 data hitherto collected concerning volcanoes and the shocks 
 which they produce, are extremely vague ; but enough is 
 known to prove that the subterranean communications in 
 which they are developed, extend to a great distance, since 
 the famous earthquake that overturned Lisbon in 1755, was 
 felt almost at the same instant in Africa, Ireland and 
 America. 
 
 It would be incorrect to estimate the mineral wealth of 
 Portugal from the inconsiderable profits gained by the inhab- 
 itants ; a more accurate notion of its value and importance 
 may be inferred from the facts recently published by M. 
 Balbi. F ew countries in Europe have a greater number of 
 mineral springs : there are ten in the province of Minho, six 
 in Tras-os-Montes, seventeen in Beira, twelve in Estrema- 
 dura, nine in Alentejo, and two in Algarva. These are either 
 gaseous, saline, sulphureous, ferruginous or merely warm ; 
 all of them are of a temperature more or less elevated. 
 The Carthaginians obtained their metals from the same 
 country ; it still possesses mines of gold, silver, iron, lead 
 and tin ; but it is now dependent on foreigners for these 
 substances, which, if well worked, might form a lucrative 
 branch of exportation. The coal mines are for the most 
 part neglected ; the salt marshes are alone worked with 
 profit ; the number of workmen employed in them, thirty 
 years ago, was equal to five thousand four hundred, and the 
 annual quantity of salt to 384,000 casks ; but much less of, 
 the same article is now exported ; the annual produce does 
 not exceed 140,000 casks, of which the value in English 
 money may be estimated at L. 100, 000. a 
 
 Agriculture is in a less advanced state than in most of the 
 corn countries in Europe ; a quantity sufficient for the con- 
 sumption of die inhabitants is not produced in the kingdom ; 
 on an average, 150,000 measures' 1 of grain are imported 
 every year 1 , and it costs more than L. 1,500, 000.® It may be 
 added too, that only a sixth part of the imported grain is 
 brought from the Portuguese colonies. M. Balbi, however, 
 believes that enough is produced in ordinary years to main- 
 tain the inhabitants ; he attributes the necessity of importa- 
 tion to the consumption at Lisbon, into which place, from 
 the want of roads, supplies cannot be brought from the 
 interior. The same cause is not without its influence on the 
 agriculture of die country ; the freedom of the port at Lis- 
 bon serves only to aggravate the evil, inasmuch as foreign 
 corn is thus attracted into the kingdom. Other causes 
 retard the developement of agricultural industry ; it may be 
 sufficient to mention the heavy imposts to which the peas- 
 antry are subject, the great number of privileged estates be- 
 longing to the crown, the nobility, the church and different 
 towns, the want of hands occasioned by the military service, 
 which falls principally on the inhabitants of the country, and 
 also a common custom among the nobility, that of not living 
 on their estates, but of letting them on long leases to farmers, 
 who subset them to labourers ; lastly, the want of communi- 
 cations, occasioned by the bad state of the roads. Govern- 
 ment has endeavoured to put an end to all these abuses 
 
 a “ The number of workmen, thirty years ago, amounted to more than 
 5400, and the annual produce to 384,000 muids, [a measure equivalent 
 to 68.725 Eng. bushels nearly. — Encyc. Method. Commerce, art. Me- 
 sures.~\ The exportation of salt has since undergone a sensible dimi- 
 nution ; it amounts at present only to 140,000 muids annually, of 
 which the value in French money is estimated at 3,200,000 francs.” — P. 
 
 b “ Muids.” c “ 36,000,000 francs.” 
 
 J “280,000 quintals of codfish ( morue .)” 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 47 20 
 
 but, civil dissensions and an impoverished treasury have 
 hitherto prevented the proposed improvements. 
 
 The wretched state of agriculture must have necessarily 
 some effect both on the number and quality of the cattle, 
 and the same effect operates in its turn on the culture of the 
 soil. The days on which the people abstain irom butcher’s 
 meat, make up nearly a third part of the year ; hence they 
 are obliged to receive annually from foreigners 280,000 
 hundred weights of dried or salted fish, d an article which 
 costs them every year about L. 41 5,000.® The bad quality 
 of the pasturage, which the husbandman is not anxious to 
 improve, and the little profit he derives from his milk, being 
 unable to convert it into butter or cheese, account sufficiently 
 for the dependence of Portugal on its neighbours/ The oil 
 obtained from its neglected olives is so ill made that it cannot 
 be a source of profit ; indeed, if the quantity of the same 
 article which is imported, be compared with the quantity 
 exported, it may be found that the former exceeds the latter 
 in value by L.5000. Under better management, Portugal 
 could not only supply her colonies but several foreign coun- 
 tries with oil. 
 
 The provinces of Minho, Tras-os-Montes and Beira are 
 fruitful, but chiefly in grain. The greater part of Estrema- 
 dura and Algarva remains uncultivated ; the principal prod- 
 ucts of the last province consist in figs and almonds. Pears 
 and apples are cultivated in the other parts of the country ; 
 chestnuts abound everywhere, and those of Colares and 
 Portalegre are as much extolled as the figs of Almada. 
 Estremadura is enriched by the sale of oranges and lemons, 
 which are prized in every country. The wines of Portugal 
 are not less celebrated ; that of the upper Douro is well 
 known in England by the name of port ; the others are the 
 muscadine wines of Carcavelos and Setubal, and the white 
 wines of Algarva. Portugal exports annually almonds and 
 dried figs, of which the ordinary value may be about 
 L.2 1,000, oranges to the amount of L.84,000, and 47,000 
 pipes of wine, worth more than L. 1,830, 000. s 
 
 It has excited surprise that the country people understand 
 so little about rearing silk worms and bees ; if these branches 
 of rural economy were better known, the inhabitants might 
 add considerably to their wealth. The other products of 
 the animal kingdom are equally .neglected. The sheep 
 might be much improved ; the flocks are numerous, partic- 
 ularly in the province of Beira, from which they are driven 
 in the winter season into Alentejo. The wool, indeed, is 
 less valuable than that of Spain ; still it is purchased by 
 strangers, but the quantity exported does not yield more 
 than L. 17,000/ The horses are inferior to those of Cas- 
 tile and Andalusia ; although small, they are light and well 
 made ; it requires only a moderate degree of care to improve 
 the breed, and to increase the number, which at present is 
 very inconsiderable. The mules are not numerous, but of 
 a good kind, large, strong and docile. 
 
 Wolves haunt the forests and the mountains, and the wild 
 cat frequents the desert lands. Wild goats, although less 
 common than formerly, are not unfrequently seen in the 
 Serra de Gerez. The stag, the roe 1 and the wild boar 
 
 6 “ Valued at 10,000,000 francs.” 
 
 f Salt butter and cheese are imported from Holland and England. 
 e “ Portugal exports annually almonds and dried figs to the amount 
 of 500,000 francs, oranges to the amount of 2,000,000 francs, and 47,000 
 pipes of wine, valued at 44,000,000 francs.” 
 h “ 400,000 francs.” 
 
 ■ « Daim” ( Cervus Dama,) the fallow deer. 
 
154 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXVIII. 
 
 appear sometimes in the woods ; hares are rare, and rabbits 
 less numerous than in Spain. According to an author, on 
 whose accuracy we rely, 3 the insects of northern Africa are 
 found on the heaths, the butterflies, common to the south of 
 Fiance, on the sides of the Estrella, and the beetles of 
 (he north on the heights of Tras-os-Montes. Vipers and 
 other venomous reptiles are concealed in the mountains ; it 
 is not uncommon to observe in the fields, and even in the 
 houses, the Mauritanian cordylus, b an animal which the Por- 
 tuguese abhor, attributing to it qualities that it does not pos- 
 sess, and not appreciating the services it renders by destroy- 
 ing many hurtful insects. 
 
 The rivers and coasts abound in fish of every sort ; shad, 
 eels, sardel, soles and flounders are taken in great plenty ; 
 some of the other kinds are the JMura.nct oph is, the Scomber 
 pelamis c and the Xiphias gladtusJ From such abundance 
 Portugal might derive its principal wealth, but government 
 has neglected these important fishings. Three centuries ago 
 Portuguese fishermen competed with the Dutch on the 
 shores of Newfoundland, but at present they can hardly ex- 
 plore their own coasts. Although their trade requires a 
 considerable outlay, although the taxes on the produce of 
 their industry are excessive, and in short, although poor and 
 wretched, their number amounted some years ago to more 
 than 1 8,000 : hut many, it is said, unable to live in their 
 own land, seek the means of subsistence in the American or 
 English navy. 
 
 Different writers have affirmed that the Portuguese are 
 degraded by ignorance and superstition. A few remarks 
 on the religion, manners and literature of the people, may 
 serve perhaps to dissipate errors which have been often 
 repeated. Of late years greater toleration has been shown 
 in Portugal, as well as in most states under the influence of 
 European civilization. The Catholic is the established reli- 
 gion, but others are tolerated. The principles published by 
 the Cortes in 1821, have effected this happy change ; the 
 tribunal of the inquisition was then abolished, which indeed 
 had long derived no support from public opinion. The 
 number of ecclesiastics was greatly exaggerated by the geog- 
 raphers of the last century, and writers of the first merit have 
 believed and repeated their blunders. 6 It might be proved, 
 however, by correct data, published many years ago, and 
 since confirmed by more recent details, that the total number 
 of those in holy orders, including the members of the secular 
 clergy, as well as the persons of both sexes in the monaste- 
 ries, cannot he more than 29,000 individuals/ The higher 
 
 1 Ad. Balbi, Essai Statistique. 
 
 b “ Gecko tie Mriuritanie, a Saurian reptile of the family of lizards.” 
 Lacerta Maurita nica, Gmel. Moorish lizard, Shaw. Gecko fascicv laris, 
 Daudin. Gecko ties murailles, Cuvier ; (a Saurian of the family of 
 Geckotiens, and of the genus of Geckos— the lizards properly so called, 
 constitute a genus of the family of Laccrtiens. Cuvier, Regne Ani- 
 mal.) The Cordyli, to which the translator has erroneously referred 
 this animal, constitute a division of the genus Stellio, in the family of 
 Iguumens. Cuvier. — P. 
 
 c Bonito. d Sword fish. 
 
 e In the article Portugal, in the Dh-tionnuire d' Economic, Politique, de 
 
 V Encyclopedic Mithodique, the number of ecclesiastics is said to exceed 
 300,01)0 individuals. 
 
 Bourgoing. in his Nouveau Voyage cn Espagne, (Paris, 1797, 3 vols. 
 8vo.) and Dumouriez, in his Etat prisent du Portugal, (1 vol. 4to. 
 1797.) estimate the number in holy orders at 200,000. 
 
 M. de Laborde made the number amount in 1808, to 280,000. 
 
 M. Bory de St. Vincent, in his Guide du Voyagcur en Espagne, 
 (1823,) supposes them equal to more than 200,000. 
 
 r The above number, the result of M. Balbi’s calculation in his Sta- 
 tistique du Portugal, is not below the truth, and we believe indeed that 
 its tendency is to diminish rather than to remain stationary. It is re- 
 markable, that the same mistake has been so often committed, more 
 
 clergy consist of three archbishops and thirteen bishops. 
 The archbishop of Braga possesses the highest dignity ; he 
 is styled patriarch and primate, titles which were created in 
 171G.S If some writers -are to be believed, 11 * * V the clergy are 
 not irreproachable, but on the contrary, shamefully corrupt. 
 It appears, however, that within a period of twenty years, 
 the manners of the people have been improved, and the na- 
 tional character of the Portuguese has in some respects been 
 changed by frequent communications with foreigners. They 
 are no longer the same people that violated the most sacred 
 moral obligations, and observed punctiliously the ceremonies 
 of religion. The soldiers are no longer like those, who in 
 the war of the Succession, refused to march until St. Antho- 
 ny, the patron of Lisbon, was appointed their general by 
 Don Pedro, the king. The Portuguese are still supersti- 
 tious, but not fanatical. Docile to the voice of their priests, 
 they tolerated the inquisition, but condemned the excesses 
 of that revolting tribunal. The mildness or apathy of the 
 people is apparent even in political commotions ; their polite- 
 ness extends from re highest to the lowest orders of society ; 
 unlike the Spaniards, they are kindly disposed towards 
 strangers, nor is it in that respect only they resemble the 
 French, for their vivacity is almost as great. The Portu- 
 guese have been accused of indolence and vain-glory ; the 
 peasants in Estremadura and Alentejo, are indeed slothful 
 and lazy, but if the people in all the provinces boast of their 
 nation, it may be attributed to their own ignorance and to 
 the important part which their ancestors acted on the theatre 
 of the world. It has been frequently asserted since the 
 time of Link, that the Portuguese are perfidious and vindic- 
 tive. There is either something worse than exaggeration in 
 the assertion, or the people are much changed. Although 
 it may be just to condemn them for their faults, it is not 
 right to conceal their good qualities ; they are for the most 
 part much attached to their native land, disinterested in then- 
 friendships, and faithful in their attachments According to 
 M. Balbi, an impartial and judicious observei, the people in 
 the province of Minho are shrewd and industrious, but im- 
 petuous and easily excited ; the inhabitants of Tras-os- 
 Montes are simple, brave and active ; those in Beira are 
 more laborious, but less polished than the natives of Estre- 
 madura ; while the Algarvians on the other hand are the 
 most lively people in Portugal. 
 
 The portrait of the Portuguese drawn by Du Chatelet, 1 
 and copied by modern geographers, is any thing but flatter- 
 ing. The people, says that writer, are of a swarthy com- 
 
 particularly as from the number of convents, the number of their 
 inmates might have been easily calculated. In the year 1790, accord- 
 ing to Stein’s Geography, there were 418 convents for men, and 108 
 for women. It is known that the mean number of persons for each 
 convent is sixteen ; therefore it may be easily shown that in the same 
 year the total number of individuals in all the convents did not exceed 
 8416. But the convents have been since reduced to 363 ; thus there 
 are now in Portugal only 5808 monks and nuns. If the number of 
 those employed in the hospitals be estimated at 100, and it is not more, 
 the result will be 5908. Portugal contains about 4054 parishes ; sup- 
 posing five priests for each parish, the number throughout the kingdom 
 will amount to 20,270, and together with the inhabitants of the con- 
 vents, to 26,178. Thus it appears we have rather exceeded than un- 
 derrated the total number in assuming it equal to 29,000. 
 
 • s “ The archbishop of Braga bears the title of patriarch-primate, a 
 dignity created in 1716.” The other archbishops are those of Lis- 
 bon (styled patriarch) and Evora. — P. 
 
 h Travels in Portugal, by J. Murphy, London, 1798. Link, Bemerk 
 ungen auf einer Reise durch Frankreich, Spanien und vorztlglich 
 Portugal, 1800. 
 
 ‘ The work entitled Voyage du due Du Chatelet en Portugal, with 
 notes by Bourvoing, (1798, 2 vols. 8vo.) was written by M. Cormartin, 
 a zealous rovalist of La Vendfee. 
 
book cxxxviii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 plexion, while their noses are short, and their lips thick ; 
 now certainly they are not of a swarthy complexion, neither 
 are short noses nor thick lips characteristic features. They 
 have the complexion of the people in southern Europe ; 
 although not of a tall stature, they are in general well made ; 
 deformed persons are rarely seen amongst them. The 
 finest and strongest men in the kingdom are those in the 
 provinces of Minho and Tras-os-Montes, and on the moun- 
 tains of Estrella ; they have generally fair complexions and 
 light or chestnut hair ; in the other provinces black is the 
 prevailing colour of the hair. Long black hair, a fine com- 
 plexion, large black eyes, and white and regular teeth, might 
 render the Portuguese women the most attractive in Europe, 
 if with the gayety of the French, they united the dignity of 
 the Spaniards. 
 
 The vivacity and warm imagination which distinguish the 
 Portuguese, are probably the causes of their eagerness after 
 pleasure. The theatre, music, dancing, processions, bull 
 fights, in short, whatever can gratify the senses, have to them 
 irresistible charms. Their lively music is not unpleasing to 
 strangers ; the popular songs, accompanied with the guitar, 
 are light and graceful, but in most of them the words are too 
 licentious. The national dance or the Foffa is so lascivious 
 that every si ranger who sees it, must deplore the corruption 
 of the people, and regret to find such exhibitions permitted 
 not only in the country, but in the heart of towns, and even 
 on the stage. 
 
 The Portuguese language, formed from that of the ancient 
 Turdetani and the Latin, a was once, like the other Italic 
 tongues, a barbarous dialect; Arabic words were introduced 
 into it under the domination of the Moors, and afterwards 
 French vocables, when Count Henry of Burgundy settled 
 in Portugal with his comrades. It acquired greater regular- 
 ity during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and in the 
 sixteenth, that softness and energy were united, which have 
 been so justly admired in the verses of Camoens. Since 
 the same period the Portuguese language has degenerated ; 
 the usurpation of the throne by Philip the Second hastened 
 its decline. Despotism checked the flight of genius, and 
 repressed the utterance of generous thoughts ; servility sub- 
 stituted the language of flattery for that of truth, and thus 
 the sentiments as well as the language of the people were 
 degraded. The Portuguese has not the guttural sounds of 
 the Spanish ; it is rich and sonorous, but the frequency of 
 nasal terminations, and the facility with which the words of 
 other languages may be adopted, weaken its harmony ; had 
 not several modern writers proved the contrary, it might be 
 supposed from the last defect, that it was not rich in voca- 
 bles. 11 c 
 
 It is a common error to condemn Portuguese literature, 
 because it happens to be little known in Europe. The 
 country has produced distinguished men in many depart- 
 ments of knowledge. Some of the poets who have flourish- 
 ed since the time of Camoens, have acquired no ordinary 
 celebrity among their countrymen ; if those who have de- 
 voted themselves to the dramatic muse, have been unable to 
 raise the Portuguese theatre from the obscurity in which it 
 languishes, it must be admitted on the other hand, that sev- 
 
 JF PORTUGAL. IM 
 
 eral lyric poets are not unworthy of the fame which has been 
 conferred on them. Citizens became legislators during the 
 last political struggles, and although the mass of the people 
 were incapable of enjoying the wise institutions of Don Pe- 
 dro, still the knowledge diffused among the higher classes 
 must have one day a salutary influence on the destinies of 
 the kingdom. From data, which we believe correct, it ap 
 pears that more than a hundred works in the various depart 
 ments of literature and science are published every year in 
 Portugal/ The number is certainly greater than might 
 have been inferred from the intellectual state of the people. 
 There was a time when the liberty of the press, and the 
 interest excited by political questions, increased the number 
 of newspapers and journals to more than thirty. 
 
 The low state of the fine arts may be attributed to the 
 little encouragement afforded either by the wealthy or by 
 government. Music is almost the only one in which any of 
 the Portuguese have hitherto become eminent. Many facts 
 are not wanting to prove the low state of education among 
 the lower orders ; in Spain, indeed, the system of education 
 is much worse ; with that exception, however, there is per- 
 haps no other country in Europe where the number of schol- 
 ars relatively to the population is so inconsiderable. But 
 the places of education for the children of the rich or privi* 
 leged classes may bear a comparison with any other in Eu- 
 rope. Scientific instruction is committed to able professors, 
 and die labour of the students is facilitated by good elenv™ 
 ary works, written in the Portuguese language. 
 
 Since the year 1821, the time in which the form of gov- 
 ernment was changed, Portugal has more than once excited 
 the attention of Europe. The constitution by which die 
 legislative power was committed to the king and the cortes, 
 must form for a long time an epoch in the histoiy of die 
 country. But a real national representation was no innova- 
 tion in the state, for the establishment of the cortes dates 
 from the eighth century, or from the foundation of the king- 
 doms of Leon and Castile, and they are repeatedly mentioned 
 in the earliest times of the Portuguese monarchy. These 
 assemblies, which German or Gothic princes formed round 
 their elective dirones, were composed of the great proprie- 
 tors or barons, to whom the right of conquest gave that of 
 alone constituting themselves into a national body, and who 
 assumed the prerogative of restraining the power of their 
 kings, and confining it within due limits by the refusal of 
 subsidies. With the military nobility, the clergy after- 
 wards united, an order by so much the more powerful, 
 as during die wars against the Moors, the standard of the 
 cross became the banner of independence. The invasion 
 of the Suevi and Visigoths did not destroy in the Spanish 
 Peninsula the duties of those agents whom die Romans 
 appointed in the great towns, and who still exist under the 
 name of procuradores ; they formed the third class of mem- 
 bers that composed die Spanish and Portuguese cortes. 
 These assemblies deliberated .on the laws, and regulated the 
 imposts. It was not unusual for them to encroach on the 
 prerogatives of the crown ; while the cortes sat at Coimbra 
 in 1387, during the reign of John the First, the deputies of 
 the towns being averse to war with Castile, the king informed 
 
 a The Portuguese and the Galician ( Gallego ) were originally the 
 same language, and are supposed by Sismondi, to have been formed 
 by the mixture of the vulgar Latin or Romana Rustica with the lan- 
 guages of the Vandals and Suevi who conquered that part of the Penin- 
 sula, while the Spanish or Castilian was formed by the mixture of the 
 Latin with the language of the Visigoths. — P. 
 b — “ but the frequency of hiatuses and nasal terminations, the pro- 
 
 pensity to neologism, and the facility with which the words of other 
 languages are adopted, weaken its harmony, and if many modern 
 writers had not proved the contrary, would lead one to suppose, that 
 it was poor in its vocabulary.” 
 
 c Ad. Balbi, Atlas ethnographique du Globe. 
 d Essai Statistique du Portugal. 
 
 
 
, j 
 
 156 EUROPE. [book cxxxvm. 
 
 them that he would conclude a peace, or continue the war, 
 according to the advice of the people. Lastly, they exer- 
 cised an authority which at the present day might he consid- 
 ered revolutionary in some countries, for in a period of 525 
 years, the Portuguese cortes elected five kings ; namely, 
 Alpbonso the First, count of Portugal, Alphonso the Third 
 after the deposition of his brother Sancho the Second by the 
 pope, John the First after the extinction of the legitimate 
 branch of die Burgundian dynasty, John the Fourth of Bra- 
 ganza after the expulsion of the Spaniards, and Peter the 
 Second, in 1G67, after Alphonso the Sixth was declared 
 incapable of reigning. Had every class of the community 
 been represented in the cortes, and had it been made imper- 
 ative on the sovereign to convoke such assemblies, the people 
 need not have envied the English constitution ; but the kings 
 of Portugal have dispensed with them since the year 1697. 
 Such was the state of the kingdom in 1821, when a new 
 constitution, the work of a new cortes, nominated by electors 
 chosen by all the citizens, established a representative gov- 
 ernment, equal and even superior in some respects to any of 
 the same kind in Europe. 3 The constitution was abolished 
 in 1823 ; three years afterwards, Don Pedro, the emperor 
 of Brazil, ascended the throne of Portugal, and granted his 
 subjects a representative government, more monarchical in 
 its tendency than the former, but of such a nature as to sat- 
 isfy the enlightened part of the nation. b 
 
 Having endeavoured to describe the moral and political 
 state of the Portuguese people, it remains for us to mention 
 the principal towns and others which, although inferior in the 
 number of their inhabitants, merit the notice of the traveller 
 or historian. The statistical tables at the end of the present 
 book, may enable the reader to estimate the force and re- 
 sources of the kingdom. 
 
 The port of Lisbon, 0 from the magnificent spectacle which 
 it affords, may be compared to any in Europe ; mariners 
 consider it one of the best anchoring places in the world. 
 It is defended by fort Bugio, situated on an island at the 
 mouth of the Tagus, and by fort San Juliao on the right 
 bank of the same river. The town rises like an amphithe- 
 atre on the right bank, and occupies a space about three 
 leagues in length, and more than one in breadth. The 
 large bay formed by the Tagus, affords only a narrow and 
 dangerous passage for ships ; indeed, vessels seldom approach 
 it without being provided with experienced pilots, a precau- 
 tion rendered necessary by the bar which its waters form 
 against the ocean. 
 
 It might be supposed from the sight of this large capital, 
 that it contained many more inhabitants than it really does, 
 but it is well known that the population does not exceed 
 260,000 souls. It is divided into two towns : the old town 
 is formed by many tortuous, narrow and dirty streets, which 
 were not destroyed during the great calamity in the year 
 1755 ; the streets in the new town are broad and straight, and 
 their number is daily increasing. The number of streets in 
 both the towns amounts to 566 ; there are besides 60 
 squares, only twelve of which merit the name. The two 
 
 a The cortes alone had the power of originating laws. 
 
 ^ On the death of John VI.. March 182(5, the crown devolved by 
 hereditary descent, on Don Pedro, his eldest son, emperor of Brazil, 
 although it has since been contended by the Apostolical party, that by 
 the constitution of Lamego, he had forfeited his right to the crown, as 
 a foreign sovereign. On the 29th April 182C, he granted to Portugal 
 a constitutional charter, and on the 2d May, abdicated the crown in 
 favour of his daughter Donna Maria. Although the charter was sup- 
 ported during the year 1827. by the British troops sent by Mr. Can- 
 ning, and although it was solemnly sworn to by Don Miguel on his 
 
 most remarkable are the Prapa do Commercio d and the 
 Prapa do Rocio ; the first is bounded on one side by the 
 Tagus, and adorned with fine edifices, such as the exchange, 
 the custom-house, the India-house, the admiralty, the royal 
 library and other buildings, some of which are not yet fin- 
 ished. The second or the Prapa do Rocio , is smaller than 
 the preceding ; it is adjoining the great palace of the Inqui- 
 sition, in which are now contained the offices of the different 
 ministers, and the prisons of the holy office. If tire royal 
 palace in the suburb of Ajuda was completed according to 
 its original plan, it might be doubtful if there would be an- 
 other in Europe of so large a size. The king of Portugal 
 possesses two other residences in Lisbon, the palace of Bem- 
 posta , in which he gives audience, and that of JVecessidades, 
 now set apart for foreign princes. Among the other build- 
 ings are the naval arsenal, the college of nobles, the palace 
 of Calhariz, now the place in which the academy of sciences 
 hold their meetings, and the theatre of San Carlos, which in 
 point of size at least, may be compared with the secondary 
 theatres in the Italian towns. The principal churches are 
 the cathedral or Basilica de Santa Maria , an old edifice 
 that was repaired after the last earthquake, the church be- 
 longing to the convent of Jesus, remarkable for the boldness 
 of its dome, and perhaps the finest modern building in Lis- 
 bon, and lastly, the church of the martyrs, a monument to 
 the glory of the Portuguese, erected at the place where 
 Alphonso the First defeated the Moors. 
 
 Lisbon possesses several useful institutions, but the first in 
 point of importance is the naval observatory, an establish- 
 ment which has contributeo to the advancement of astronom- 
 ical science. Some of the others are the royal naval acad- 
 emy, 6 the royal school of naval architecture, the royal acad- 
 emy of fortification, artillery and drawing, the royal school 
 of surgery, and that of sculpture. We may also mention the 
 commercial school, the royal military college, the college of 
 nobles, and the royal schools in the monastery of St. Vin- 
 cent de Fora, where the ancient and modern languages, 
 geometry, physics and philosophy are taught. There are, 
 besides these, a royal school of drawing and civil architect- 
 ure, in which the course of instruction lasts five years, and a 
 musical seminary (Seminar io Musical ,) for the purpose of 
 promoting composition and also vocal and instrumental mu- 
 sic. The seminaries connected with religion are the royal 
 college of St. Patrick, established in 1590 for the edu- 
 cation of Irish missionaries, the royal college of catechumens, 
 founded in 1579 for the instruction of converted infidels in 
 the principles and doctrines of Christianity, the college of 
 St. Anthony and St. Peter for orphans and poor children, 
 and other institutions of the same nature under the direction 
 of the clergy or the different monasteries/ 
 
 The royal academy of sciences at Lisbon, holds the first 
 rank among the scientific institutions in the kingdom. A 
 society for the encouragement of national industry has lately 
 been established in the city. It possesses also public libra- 
 ries, a botanical garden, a museum of natural history, and 
 different scientific collections, which are much inferior to 
 
 return in 1828, it was almost immediately after abolished, and the old 
 government restored with an accumulated despotism. Such is the 
 present state of Portugal. — P. 
 
 c Port. Lisboa. d Commercial square. 
 
 c Jleademia real da Marinha. 
 
 f The royal schools of the congregation of the Oratory, principally 
 for instruction in Latin, and the schools of grammar, rhetoric and phi- 
 losophy at the royal hospital of A 'ossa Sevhora de. JVecessidades. To 
 these different public institutions, may be added several private estab- 
 lishments. 
 
 
— — — — — — - — — — “ - ■ “ 
 
 book cxxxviii.] DESCRIPTION ( 
 
 others of the same kind in the principal capitals of 
 Europe. 
 
 It is not more than twenty or thirty years that persons 
 were not safe in tire streets of Lisbon ; murders were com- 
 mitted in open day, and murderers found protection by flying 
 to the sanctuary ; at night passengers were stopped by sol- 
 diers who demanded charity, and took by force the money 
 which any ventured to refuse. There were then no patroles 
 nor police to check these disorders ; now that the best 
 means are employed to ensure the public safety, murders 
 and even thefts have become very rare. 
 
 No edifice in Lisbon can be compared with the aqueduct 
 of Bemfica ( agoas livres), by which tire water that the 
 inhabitants consume, is principally conveyed into the city. 
 It has been considered one of the most magnificent works 
 that has been executed in modern times, and it is certainly 
 not inferior to any ancient work of tire same kind. The 
 length of the aqueduct is not less than 56,380 feet; the 
 largest arch is equal to 206 feet in height, and the opening 
 or breadth to 100 . a The country around Lisbon is not only 
 agreeable from the fine sites in different directions, but inte- 
 resting historical recollecions are connected with it. Oeiras, 
 the country seat given by King Joseph to the Marquis of 
 Pombal, was inhabited by the same monarch in 1775, and 
 the minister availed himself of his temporary residence to 
 change a village fair into one of a different kind, where 
 the products of Portuguese industry were exhibited, — an 
 ingenious idea, that has been imitated elsewhere, and has 
 excited a salutary emulation in other countries, particularly 
 in France. Cintra is celebrated for the capitulation, in vir- 
 tue of which the French army left Portugal in 1808. Ma- 
 fra on the western side of the chain connected with Monte 
 Junto, is remarkable for the convent, church and palace, 
 built by John the Fifth, in order to fulfil the vow which he had 
 taken before the birth of his son. These three buildings, 
 the work of a foreign architect, and embellished by painters 
 and sculptors of different nations, form, perhaps, the finest 
 edifice in the kingdom. Loires at three leagues from Lis- 
 bon, is well known for its plantations of orange trees, which 
 yield the best oranges in Portugal. Campo Grande is a 
 place of resort for the Portuguese nobility ; it stands in a 
 plain surrounded with trees and gardens, where in the sum- 
 mer season, the court and the* nobles display their - equipages. 
 The different places that have just been mentioned, are not 
 privileged towns ( cidades ), but burghs or small towns with- 
 out municipalities {villas). 
 
 Few other towns of any importance are situated in the 
 rest of Estremadura. Leiria, however, may be mentioned ; 
 it is not far from the palace of King Denis, b on whom the 
 Portuguese conferred the title of Great. The convent built 
 by John the First, a noble monument of Normano-Gothic 
 architecture, serves to adorn the burgh of Batalha ; within 
 the same building may be seen the mausoleum of its founder, 
 and several dirty chapels destined for the sepulchres of the 
 kings. The large burgh of -Santarem built on a hill, and 
 defended by an old fortress, was long the residence of the 
 Portuguese sovereigns. Lastly, Setubal, although it does 
 not possess the rank of a city, may be considered an impor- 
 tant town. Some antiquaries suppose that Troja, a head- 
 land at a short distance from tire mouth of the Sado, where 
 
 )F PORTUGAL. 157 
 
 several remains of antiquity have been discovered, was the 
 site of a Phoenician colony. 
 
 Coimbra is situated in the province of Beira, on the de- 
 clivity of a hill which commands the Mondego. The inte- 
 rior of the town may be said to be as dismal as the neigh- 
 bouring country is agreeable. It was a place of considerable 
 importance under the Romans, the Alans and the Moors ; it 
 is die capital of the province, and its public buildings, the 
 number of its useful institutions, together with the celebrity 
 of its university, render it not unworthy of its title. The 
 small town of Aveiro at die mouth of the Vouga, is begin- 
 ning to recover the maritime importance which it seemed to 
 have for ever lost. The ancient city of Viseu, c situated in 
 the mountains from which die Mondego takes its source, is 
 the residence of a bishop, and carries on a considerable 
 trade in cloth and jewellery. Lamego lies at the nordiern 
 extremity of the province, in a fruitful district between 
 Mount Penude and the river Douro. It was there that the 
 cortes met in 1144, and the same assembly established a 
 constitution by which the royal authority was confined within 
 due limits, — a constitution diat Alphonso the First swore to 
 maintain in the name of his successors. 
 
 The province of Entre Douro e Minho is smaller than 
 either of the two last ; Braga, the metropolis, stands on a 
 height between the Cavado and the Deste. The principal 
 buildings are the archbishop’s palace, the seminary and the 
 cathedral; diere are besides several imposing remains of 
 Roman grandeur. Porto or Oporto, d the second town in 
 the kingdom, rises on a magnificent site at die moudi of the 
 Douro, on two hills called the Se and the Victoria . e It 
 consists of the low and the high town ; it is divided into five 
 quarters, two of which are encompassed with a wall thirty 
 feet in height, while the three others are open. Twelve 
 large squares, several fine churches, and different public build- 
 ings, such as the court of appeal, the town-house, the dioce- 
 san palace, the royal hospital and extensive store-houses for 
 its wines, are among the ornaments of this commercial city. 
 Guimaraens, an industrious town, was in ancient times the 
 capital of die kingdom. 
 
 Miranda, formerly Cambetum Lubicanarum / a small 
 episcopal city, is the chief town in Tras-os-Montes. Mon- 
 corvo, the ancient Forum JVarbasorum, is ill built, but con- 
 tains twice as many inhabitants as the last town. Braganza 
 or Braganqa, the ancient Brigantium, rises in die midst of 
 a fruitful plain. It was within its walls that Don Pedro, the 
 Justiciary, married secretly the unfortunate Inez de Castro.s 
 Chaves is built on a height near the Tamega, which flows 
 under a bridge of eighteen arches, built by Trajan ; the 
 place was celebrated in the time of the Romans for its min- 
 eral w - aters, which they called Aqua, Flavice Turodorum. 
 
 . Alentejo h is not less mountainous than Beira ; aldiough 
 more extensive, it is diree times less populous, and being the 
 poorest province in die kingdom, it may be readily supposed 
 that it does not contain many important towns. Evora, the 
 capital and the chief town in die diocese of an archbishop, 
 is styled the second city in Portugal. The population, it is 
 true, does not exceed ten thousand souls, but the vain dtle 
 has been conferred on it, because several kings made it the 
 place of their residence. It is situated on a height in the 
 chain which forms the continuation of the Serra de Estre- 
 
 * These are the measures of the original. The length differs very 
 greatly from that given by other authorities, (2400 feet, Ed. Encyc. 
 Rees’ Cyc. — less than half a mile, Morse.) — P. 
 b Port. Diniz. c Viseo. 
 
 d O Porto, the port or harbour. ' A Se and A Victoria. 
 
 1 Cambetum Lubanorum. Ptolemy, 
 e Port. Igncz de Castro. 
 
 h Port. Alcm-Tejo, beyond the Tagus, from its situation on the south 
 of the Tagus, opposite Lisbon. — P. 
 
158 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXVIII. 
 
 mos. The ancient name of Ebora, and that of Cerealis, as 
 Pliny calls it, announced its prosperity. Flattery induced 
 me municipal magistrates to give it the name of Liberali- 
 tas Julia. The imperial liberality consisted in building 
 monuments with part of the gold that was exacted from the 
 conquered countries ; the remains of some are still to be 
 seen at Evora. The aqueduct attributed to Quintus Serto- 
 rius is remarkable for its fine state of preservation. A cir- 
 cular monument at its extremity resembles in the elegance 
 of its proportions, the Lantern of Demosthenes at Athens. 
 The remains of the temple of Diana, distinguished by its 
 fine Corinthian columns, have been converted into the public 
 shambles. Most of the antiquities discovered at Beja, have 
 been collected in a museum. Estremos® carries on a trade 
 in pottery and earthen vases of a particular kind, so porous 
 that they are used for lowering the temperature of water by 
 promoting evaporation. The ancient town of Elvas, the 
 strongest place in Portugal, rises on a steep hill at two 
 leagues from the right bank of the Guadiana. Some re- 
 mains of antiquity are still to be observed in Beja, the an- 
 cient Pax Julia , a town built by the Romans. 
 
 Algarva, b a small province which the Portuguese sove- 
 reigns have denominated a kingdom, contains only four 
 towns worthy of notice. Faro, the capital, a well built 
 town, with a harbour at the mouth of the Vaformoso , ex- 
 ports a great quantity of oranges and other fruits. Tavira 
 is situated on the coast at eight leagues eastwards from F aro ; 
 it is almost wholly peopled by fishermen. Villa Nova de 
 Portimao is a small but well-frequented sea-port at the dis- 
 tance of ten leagues to the west of Faro. Lagos 0 in the 
 middle of a fruitful district, possesses a harbour which ac- 
 cording to tradition was dug by the Carthaginians. Sagres 
 owes its name to the Sacrum Promontorium, now Cape St. 
 Vincent. Lastly, we may mention the small town of Mon- 
 chique on the Serra of the same name ; its romantic situa- 
 tion and medicinal springs have of late years rendered it a 
 place of resort. 
 
 The Portuguese foreign possessions are the Archipelago 
 
 1 Estremoz, Extremos. b Algarve, Algarves. 
 
 e The ancient Lacobriga. d St. Jago, Santiago. 
 
 e Fuego. 
 
 f St. Nicholas, St. Anthony, Bonavista. 
 s St. Vincent. h Salt Island. 
 
 St. Lucia. k Cacheo. 
 
 of the Azores ; the province of Madeira, including Madeira, 
 Porto Santo and other neighbouring islands; the prov- 
 ince of Cape Verd, comprehending the islands of Sant-Iago, d 
 Fogo,® Brava, San Nicolao, Santo Antao, Boavista/ Mayo, 
 San Vicente, & Sal h and Santa Luzia * 1 ; the Portuguese col- 
 ony of Senegambia, in which the principal places are Ca- 
 cheu, k Bissao, Geba, Farim and Zeguichor; the kingdom 
 of Angola and Congo, comprehending Angola and several 
 other stations ; a small province consisting of Prince’s island 
 and the island of St. Thomas ; the province of Mosambique, 
 containing several important factories ; and in Asia, the vice- 
 royalty of India, of which Goa is the capital, including the 
 provinces of Salsete and Bardez , 1 the governments of Da- 
 mao m and Diu, die factories of Surat and Macao, and the 
 islands of Timor, Adomera and Oende Menor" in Oceanica. 
 
 These insignificant remains of the Portuguese power, and 
 the rising empire of Brazil, of which the independence was 
 radier an advantage than a calamity to the mother country, 
 serve to maintain the commerce of Portugal. The exports 
 which it sends to die same countries, amount in value to 
 L.3,625,000,° and the articles it derives from them exceed 
 L.3,000,000 .p The imports from other countries may be 
 estimated at L. 3, 875, 000,1 an d the exports to them at 
 L.3, 000,000/ As it possesses comparatively few commer- 
 cial resources in its agriculture, it may be inferred that the 
 products of its manufacturing industry form a considerable 
 item in the sums now specified. It is in reality not so poor 
 in such products as some political economists have supposed. 
 No comparison can be made between its manufactures and 
 those of more industrious states ; but if, notwithstanding the 
 privileges England enjoys, the Portuguese have been able 
 to compete with die English in different manufactures, it 
 may be concluded that industry cannot be at a very low 
 ebb ; on the contrary, judicious encouragement and a better 
 system of policy are only wanting to bring it to a high degree 
 of perfection. The reader may form a tolerably correct 
 opinion of the sources of Portuguese wealth from die follow- 
 ing tables. 
 
 1 Salsette and Bardes. m Damaun, Daman. 
 
 “ The Lesser Ende (O Ende Menor). 
 
 0 “ More than 87,000,000 francs.” 
 
 p “ 82,000,000 francs.” « “ 93,000,000 francs.” 
 
 1 “ 70,000,000 francs.” 
 
 ’ A 
 
BOOK CXXXVIII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 159 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 Population of the principal Cities and Towns 
 
 PROVINCE OF ESTREMADURA. 
 
 Divided into eleven Comarcas or Districts. 
 
 * 
 
 Lisbon, the capital, . 
 
 . 260,000 
 
 Sardoal, V 
 
 . 3,300 
 
 Torres Vedras, V. . 
 
 . . 3,400 
 
 Abrantes, V 
 
 . 4,900 
 
 Castanheira, V. . . 
 
 . . .700 
 
 Ourem, V 
 
 . 3,100 
 
 Villa Franca, V. . . 
 
 . . 4,600 
 
 Chao de Couce, V. . . 
 
 . 1,300 
 
 Alemquer, V. . . 
 
 . . 2,600 
 
 Santarem, V. ... 
 
 . 7,800 
 
 Chamusca, V. . . 
 
 . . 3,000 
 
 Torres Novas, V. . . 
 
 . 4,200 
 
 Cintra, V 
 
 
 Setubal, V 
 
 . 14,800 
 
 Leiria, C 
 
 . . 2,000 
 
 Cezimbra, V. ... 
 
 . 4,200 
 
 Pombal, V. ... 
 
 . . 4,800 
 
 Almada, V 
 
 . 4,200 
 
 Alcobai;a, V. . . . 
 
 Thomar, V. . . . 
 
 . . 1,300 
 
 Aldea Gallega, V. . . 
 
 . 3,500 
 
 PROVINCE OF BEIRA. 
 Divided into eleven Comarcas. 
 
 Coimbra, chief town, 
 
 . . 15,200 
 
 Miranda de Corvo, V. 
 
 . . 3,900 
 
 Figueira or Figueira 
 
 da 
 
 Foz, V 
 
 . . 6,400 
 
 Louzaa, V. ... 
 
 . . 3.100 
 
 Penella, V. ... 
 
 . . 3,500 
 
 Arganil, V. ... 
 
 . . 1,700 
 
 Aveiro, C 
 
 
 Mira, V 
 
 
 Ilhavo, V 
 
 . . 7,300 
 
 Sousa, V 
 
 . . 3,700 
 
 Feira, V 
 
 
 Ovar, V 10,400 
 
 Viseu, C 9,200 
 
 Lamego, C 8,1)00 
 
 Arouca, V 5,500 
 
 San Martinhodos Mouros, V. 4,800 
 
 Paiva, V 6,600 
 
 Pinhel, C 1,700 
 
 Trancoso, V 1,200 
 
 Guarda, C 2,400 
 
 Covilhao, V 6,400 
 
 Linhares, V 800 
 
 Castello Branco, . . . 5,700 
 
 PROVINCE OF MINHO OR ENTRE DOURO E MINHO. 
 
 Divided into seven Comarcas. 
 
 Braga, chief town, . 
 
 Prado, V 
 
 Porto, or Oporto, C. 
 San Joao da Foz, 
 
 Pavoa de Varzim, V. 
 Pedrozo, .... 
 Penafiel de Sousa or P 
 Arrifana, C. . . 
 
 de 
 
 14,400 
 
 6.500 
 70,000 
 
 3.300 
 5,700 
 
 3.500 
 
 2.300 
 
 Guimaraens, V. . . . 
 
 . . 6,100 
 
 Viana, V 
 
 
 Barcellos, V 
 
 
 Villa do Conde, V. . , 
 
 . . 3,100 
 
 Eixo, V 
 
 
 Valencia, V. . . . . 
 
 . . 1,600 
 
 PROVINCE OF TRAS-OS-MONTES. 
 Divided into four Comarcas. 
 
 Miranda, chief town, . . . 500 
 
 Moncorvo, V 1,600 
 
 Villa Real, V 4,000 
 
 Braganza, C 3,700 
 
 Chaves, V 5,200 
 
 Evora, chief town, . . 10,000 
 
 Estremoz, V 5,300 
 
 Beja, C 5,400 
 
 Moura, V 3,800 
 
 Serpa, V 4,600 
 
 Ourique, V 2,400 
 
 Villa Viqosa, 3,500 
 
 Borba, V 3,400 
 
 PROVINCE OF ALENTEJO. 
 
 Divided into eight Comarcas. 
 
 Elvas, C 10,000 
 
 Campo Maior, V. . . . 4,500 
 
 Portalegre, C 6,100 
 
 Castello de Vide, V. . . 5,700 
 
 Crato, V 1,200 
 
 Sertao, V 3,300 
 
 Aviz,t V 1,400 
 
 * The cities or cidades are denoted by the letter C, the burghs or 
 villas by V. 
 
 t Avis — seat of the military order of Avis, the grand master of which, 
 John I., was the founder of the dynasty of Avis, 1383. See p. 831. 
 
 t Twenty-five of these leagues are equal to a degree, consequently 
 each of them is equal to 2+ geographical miles. — T r. 
 
 
 Convents. 
 
 Monks. 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 Pounds. St. Francs. 
 
 Military orders, monks, regular and 
 
 secular canons 
 
 Mendicant orders 
 
 Endowed mendicants 
 
 Missionaries 
 
 29 
 
 167 
 
 155 
 
 9 
 
 1,160 
 
 2,350 
 
 2,070 
 
 180 
 
 87,600 
 
 4,500 
 
 65,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 2,102,370 
 
 103,870 
 
 1,523,000 
 
 69,630 
 
 360 
 
 5,760 
 
 160,100 
 
 3,798,870 
 
 
 KINGDOM OF ALGARVA. 
 Divided into three Comarcas. 
 
 Faro, chief town, 
 Lagoa or Alagoa, V. 
 Tavira, C. 
 
 8,400 
 
 3,000 
 
 8,600 
 
 Louie, V 8,200 
 
 Lagos, C 6,800 
 
 Villa Nova de Portimao, . 3,200 
 
 Population of the Portuguese Provinces in 1826, according 
 to their surface. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Surface iD 
 square 
 
 leagues.! 
 
 Population. 
 
 Inhabitants 
 for eve r y 
 sq. league. 
 
 Minho 
 
 375 
 
 810,000 
 
 2,160 
 
 Tras-os-Montes 
 
 531 
 
 285,000 
 
 536 
 
 Beira 
 
 1,125 
 
 940,000 
 
 836 
 
 Estremadura 
 
 1,297 
 
 745,000 
 
 574 
 
 Alentejo 
 
 1,344 
 
 330,000 
 
 245 
 
 Algarva 
 
 250 
 
 104,000 
 
 416 
 
 
 4,922 
 
 3,214,000 
 
 653 § 
 
 CONVENTS FOR MEN. 
 
 Produce of the Land belonging to the above Convents. 
 
 
 Alqueires. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Litres. 
 
 Value in 
 fraacs. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Idem, second crop 
 
 Barley 
 
 Pulse 
 
 92,600 
 
 43,800 
 
 23,900 
 
 1,100 
 
 4,410 
 
 2,086 
 
 1,138 
 
 50 
 
 1,234,635.8 
 
 583,985.4 
 
 318,658.7 
 
 14,666.3 
 
 291,690 
 
 137,970 
 
 27,150 
 
 4,720 
 
 
 Almudes. 
 
 Hogsheads. 
 
 
 
 Wine 
 
 Oil 
 
 16,000 
 
 2,062 
 
 1,412 
 
 495,000 
 
 99,000|| 
 
 192,300 
 
 77,300 
 
 Estimated value of these products, L.30,000, or 731,130 francs. 
 Total revenue in francs 4,530,000 
 
 CONVENTS FOR WOMEN. 
 
 
 Convents. 
 
 Inmates. 
 
 Convents of different orders 
 
 126 
 
 
 Convents de Commendas e Recolhimentos (hospitals!!) . 
 
 12 
 
 
 Professed nuns 
 
 
 2,725 
 
 Retired sisters ( Commendadeiras retiradas) .... 
 
 
 162 
 
 Novices 
 
 
 55 
 
 Lay sisters ( Leigas ) 
 
 
 151 
 
 Secular ladies ( Senhoras seculares ) 
 
 
 164 
 
 Pupils ( Educandas ) 
 
 
 739 
 
 Domestics ( Creadas ) 
 
 
 1,907 
 
 Total 
 
 138 
 
 5,903 
 
 Revenue, L.188,750.** 2,268,750 francs. 
 
 § If the rest of Portugal were as populous as the province of Minho 
 it would contain 10,591,520 inhabitants. 
 
 || 99,000 litres would correspond to 6,000 almudes. Qu. — P. 
 
 V “ Hospices .” Places of retreat. 
 
 ** This calculation must be erroneous. The amount corresponding 
 to the revenue in francs, is L.94,530 nearly. — P. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 160 
 
 Produce of the Lands belonging to the above Orders. 
 
 
 Alqueires. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 Litres. 
 
 Value in 
 francs. 
 
 Wheat 
 
 Barley . . 
 
 49,500 
 
 33,000 
 
 2,360 
 
 1,590 
 
 649,983.5 
 
 43,998.9 
 
 156,250 
 
 37,500 
 
 
 Aliuudes. 
 
 Hogsheads. 
 
 
 
 Wine . . . 
 
 Oil . 
 
 Estimated value of other prod- 
 ucts, L.2,605 
 
 3,900 
 
 6,300 
 
 246 
 
 433 
 
 64,350 
 
 103,950 
 
 25,000 
 
 81,250 
 
 62,500 
 
 Estimated value of all the land produce, L.15,105, or 302,500 francs. 
 Total revenue in francs 2,631,250 
 
 IBOOK CXXXYIII 
 
 Value of the articles manufactured in Portugal, and export- 
 ed to Brazil and the colonies in 1819. 
 
 
 Value in reis. 
 
 Value in L. s. 
 
 Cotton stuffs 
 
 Woollen 
 
 Silk 
 
 Gold and silver 
 
 Linens 
 
 Different articles 
 
 456,269,660 
 
 40,615,660 
 
 250,443,415 
 
 72,218,860 
 
 9,813,680 
 
 413,401,141 
 
 118,818 2 
 10,577 
 65,440 
 18,807 
 2,555 3 
 107,656 11 
 
 Sum total 
 
 1,242,762,416 
 
 423,853 16 
 
 (7,767,205.10 francs.) 
 
 Table of the Male Population of Portugal in 1 826, accord- 
 ing to their conditions and employments. 
 
 Secular clergy, 30,000 ) 
 
 Regular , 17,500 ) 
 
 Persons employed by government, 10,250 
 
 Magistrates, advocates, notaries, bailiffs, &c. . . 9,500 > 
 
 Persons employed in the hospitals, 850} 
 
 Teachers of different sciences and arts, 350 'j 
 
 Schoolmasters, 1,850 I 
 
 Students of divinity under sixteen years of age,* . 3,100 )■ 
 
 Physicians, surgeons, and apothecaries, .... 5,750 I 
 
 Artists, 1,000 J 
 
 47,500 
 
 20,600 
 
 12,050 
 
 Proprietors and rentholders, 75,000 
 
 Merchants and retailers, 8,500 
 
 Muleteers, wagoners, couriers, &c 3,100 > 30,300 
 
 Sailors and fishermen, 18,700 } 
 
 Peasants and proprietors cultivating their own lands, 120 ,000 'j 
 Farmers and peasants cultivating lands on lease, 169,000 I gQj 
 
 Day labourers, 268,750 | ’ 
 
 Shepherds and other farm servants, 43,750 J 
 
 Masters and workmen in vegetable substances, . 57.850') 
 
 Idem Idem animal substances, . . 80,600 I 904 oaa> 
 
 Idem Idem mineral substances, . . 18,000 f ’ 
 
 Idem Idem different substances, . . 7,750 J 
 
 House servants, valets, &c 58,750 
 
 Individuals not classed 56,200 
 
 Prisoners and persons condemned to labour, 1,850 
 
 Military and naval force, 35,000 
 
 Total number, ... 1,142,950 
 
 Ship6of the line. 
 
 4 
 
 Portuguese JVavy in 1821. 
 
 Frigates. Sloops. Brigs. Charruas or Transports. 
 
 11 7 6 4 
 
 Number of Students and Pupils in the different Schools and 
 Colleges in 1820. 
 
 University and Royal College at Coimbra, 1,C04 
 
 All the schools under the general directory of studies, . . . 29,684 
 
 Naval and commercial academy at Oporto, 315 
 
 Commercial school at Lisbon, 151 
 
 Marine academy, 300 
 
 observatory, 60 
 
 Royal school of naval architecture 15 
 
 academy of fortification, artillery and drawing, . . . .100 
 
 military college, 200 
 
 school of surgery, 360 ? 
 
 schools in the monastery of St. Vincent de Fora, . . . 242 
 
 of the congregation of the Oratory, . ... 200 ? 
 
 Schools of grammar, rhetoric, and philosophy,’. 155 
 
 Royal school of the Arabic language, 2 
 
 college of St. Anthony and St. Peter, 50 
 
 school of drawing and civil architecture, 20 
 
 of sculpture, 6 
 
 Musical seminary, 15 
 
 Gratuitous school for the deaf and dumb, 21 ? 
 
 Military schools for mutual instruction, into which private sol- 
 diers): are admitted, 4,000 ? 
 
 37,500 § 
 
 PUBLIC LIBRARIES. 
 
 Volumes. 
 
 Lisbon Royal library, 85,000 
 
 Library of Jesus, 32,000 
 
 of St. Francisco, 20,000 
 
 of St. Vincent de Fora, 22,000 
 
 of Necessidades, 28,000 
 
 Coimbra of the University, ^38,000 
 
 of Santa Cruz, 36,000 
 
 Porto of the Diocese, . . 32,000 
 
 Tibaens, ... 25,000 
 
 Evora, 20,000 
 
 FINANCES. 
 
 Revrenoe. National Debt. 
 
 L.2,250,000 L.6,670,000 
 
 * “ Etudians au-dessous de seize ans.” 
 
 1 This sum does not agree with the amount of the different classes 
 included in it, viz. 164,200. 
 
 t “ Peasants." 
 
 § This number does not include the students in the seminaries and 
 private boarding-schools. 
 
 L 
 
book cxxxix. DESCRIPTION OF SPAIN. IGj 
 
 BOOK CXXXIX. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued. — Spanish Peninsula. — Kingdom of 
 Spain. 
 
 Pelagius raised the standard of the cross, and passed the 
 mountains in Asturia to rescue some portion of Spain from 
 the Moorish yoke. That example of patriotic devotedness 
 was imitated by other chiefs, and the districts restored to 
 Christianity and independence, were erected into several 
 petty kingdoms. Although all of them were united under 
 Ferdinand and Isabella, the different crowns retained then- 
 titles and geographical limits, as well as certain privileges 
 which serve to recal the glorious epoch of their origin, and 
 to account for the ancient division of Spain into fourteen 
 principal provinces, which are still denominated kingdoms 
 and principalities, and nearly all of which are subdivided into 
 smaller provinces. 
 
 The superficial extent of Spain, and the limits by which 
 it is separated from Portugal have been already mentioned ; 
 we shall now proceed to give an account of its population 
 and government, of the manners and customs of the inhabit- 
 ants, of their resources and commerce, and in short, of what- 
 ever constitutes the strength or weakness of the nation. 
 
 According to the latest work published in Spain, on the 
 geography of that country,® its population, together with that 
 of the Baleares, amounted in 1826 to 13,902,234 individu- 
 als, including the clergy, the naval and military forces, men- 
 dicants, prisoners and the people in the work-houses or hos- 
 pitals. But it is a hopeless task to ascertain the number of 
 inhabitants in Spain ; the elements on which the calculation 
 depends, are wanting, for the registers, it is well known, are 
 very inaccurately kept by the curates. The number of 
 ecclesiastics, although many convents were destroyed when 
 the country was in the hands of the French, from the year 
 1808 to 1814, is nearly equal to 150,000 individuals. 
 
 The Catholic religion is the only one acknowledged in 
 the country ; the dignitaries are the archbishop of Toledo, 
 also entitled primate of Spain, eight archbishops and fifty- 
 one bishops. There are besides sixty-one cathedral and a 
 hundred and fourteen collegiate churches, of which the can- 
 ons and abbots are vested with almost episcopal authority. 
 
 To judge correctly of the physical and moral character 
 of the Spaniards, it is necessary to examine the different 
 provinces. If it may be so said, the shades are better de- 
 fined in each Spanish province than in other European king- 
 doms, because the low state of industry, the want of roads, 
 and the natural bafriers that separate the different districts 
 are so many obstacles to that frequent intercourse and com- 
 
 1 Don Sebastian de Minano, Diccionario Geografico-est-adistico de 
 Espana y Portugal. 
 
 b Laborde, Itineraire de l’Espagne, tom. v. 
 
 c See Antillon and Minano. 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 47 21 
 
 munication which diffuse a uniform character over a whole 
 population. Thus he who traverses Spain in different direc- 
 tions, cannot fail to observe the light and graceful forms of 
 the Biscayans, the lofty stature of the Galicians and Catalo- 
 nians, the strength of the Castilians, the dark complexions 
 of the Estremadurans, and the paleness of the Murcians. 
 The women are, in general, graceful and well made ; if 
 their beauty has been much commended, it may perhaps be 
 attributed to their animated and expressive features. Dif- 
 ferences not less obvious are observable in the moral charac- 
 ter of the people in the different provinces. The Biscayans 
 are haughty, irascible and passionate; 13 the Galicians are 
 melancholy and unsocial, but laborious and brave ; the Cat- 
 alonians are impetuous and indocile, but indefatigable ; the 
 inhabitants of Arragon are devoted to their country, and 
 attached to its ancient customs ; the Castilians are grave and 
 proud, the Estremadurans indolent and vain ; the Andalu- 
 sians may be remarked for their arrogance, they have been 
 called the Gascons of Spain ; the Murcians are slow and 
 dull, and the most ignorant and at the same time tire most 
 suspicious people in the Peninsula; the Valencians, on the 
 other hand, are gay and inconstant, affable and industrious. 
 As to the people generally,® the most marked traits in the 
 Spanish character are circumspection, pride, honesty, great 
 patience and resolution in their undertakings, and an aver- 
 sion to every improvement unless its utility be very apparent. 
 
 It may be inferred from the penetration and perseverance 
 of the Spaniards that they would have excelled in the cul- 
 ture of the exact sciences, but the impulse given to natural 
 philosophy was checked by the inquisition. Thus, the road 
 was shut to the most attractive departments of knowledge, 
 and the brilliant imagination of the people exhausted itself 
 in the culture of letters. The most ancient romances form 
 a part of Spanish literature ; at an early period it consisted 
 principally of such works and the national songs recording 
 the great achievements of the Cid. The Spanish language 
 is expressive and harmonious, although several guttural 
 sounds have been introduced from the Arabic. It may be 
 divided into five dialects, of which the most ancient is still 
 spoken in the kingdom of Leon and the Asturias, but the 
 dialect of Toledo" 1 is the purest and the one most generally 
 used since the time of Charles the Fifth. The same dialect 
 has been immortalized by the inimitable Cervantes, by Que- 
 vedo, who to the graces of art unites the sublimity of genius, 
 by Guevara, from whom Le Sage has borrowed one of his 
 tales, e by Lope de Vega, the author of 1800 plays and nu- 
 
 d The Castilian or cultivated Spanish. — P. 
 
 e Le Diable Boiteux [ — The Devil on Two Sticks. The original 
 by Guevara is entitled : El Diablo Cojaelo, 6 memorial de la otra 
 vida. — P.] 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 1G2 
 
 merous fugitive poems, and by the celebrated Calderon, 
 whose comedies have formed the groundwork of a thousand 
 others. 
 
 Little attention has been paid to science in Spain ; indeed 
 it is only possible to mention a few learned lawyers, well 
 informed physicians, laborious botanists and uselessly pro- 
 found theologians. Spain has however made greater ad- 
 vances in the fine arts ; it has produced engravers little infe- 
 rior to any of Italy or the Netherlands. In painting, Murillo 
 almost rivals Van-Dyck ; Coello has been compared to Paul 
 Veronese, and the graceful Coreno enjoys the title of the 
 Spanish Titian.* Herrera, Arnal and Juan Bautista de To- 
 ledo hold the first rank among Spanish architects ; Mena, 
 Alvares and Toledo among sculptors. 
 
 Before Charles the Fifth succeeded to the throne of 
 Spain, the government was a limited monarchy ; the powers 
 of the crown were restrained by the cortes, those provincial 
 assemblies of which the origin has been already explained, b 
 and in which the privileged classes were only represented. 
 The privileges of these assemblies were gradually destroyed 
 by the princes of the houses of Austria and Bourbon. 
 Their power and influence had been wholly abolished long 
 before 1808, when Napoleon compelled Charles the Fourth 
 and his son Ferdinand the Seventh to renounce all the 
 claims which they or their successors might have to the 
 crown, and proclaimed his brother Joseph, king of Spain 
 and the Indies. The obstinate and brave resistance of the 
 Spanish people against a foreign usurper, gave additional 
 courage to the members of the provincial juntas, to whom 
 the direction of the war was committed. The most important 
 of these assemblies was held at Cadiz, where the members 
 established a council of regency, to which they resigned 
 their authority ; an extraordinary cortes was soon afterwards 
 convoked, and that constitution framed, which although very 
 defective was acknowledged in 1812 by the powers ieagued 
 against Fi ■ance. To reward the heroic efforts of the Span- 
 iards in the cause of independence, Ferdinand swore to 
 maintain the constitution ; being at liberty to modify or im- 
 prove it, he disregarded his oaih, and the constitution w T as 
 abolished. The inquisition had been suppressed, that odious 
 tribunal was called anew into existence ; the members of 
 the cortes had been declared inviolable, the king sent them 
 into exile. Discontent succeeded the enthusiasm that had 
 accompanied the return of the sovereign ; fnsurrections ex- 
 tended through the country, and on the first of January 
 1820, the constitution of the cortes was proclaimed by the 
 army in the island of Leon. Such were the conditions 
 offered to Ferdinand, and he was obliged to accept them; 
 he requested the right of modifying the constitution, but the 
 eagerness with which he had formerly abolished it, occa- 
 sioned distrust, and the constitution was declared unalterable. 
 At the same time, die partisans of absolute power busied 
 themselves in exciting the people, and in creating disturb- 
 ances in which ecclesiastics and monks were not ashamed 
 to take a part inconsistent with their duty, and disgraceful to 
 their sacred character. The French cabinet, on die suppo- 
 sition that the Spaniards were not sufficiently enlightened to 
 
 * “ Morales., who painted only religious subjects, has been called 
 the divine ” — El Divino. 
 
 b See the preceding book. 
 
 c Spain produces a great quantity of wheat, of an excellent quality, 
 much superior to that in the more northern countries of Europe. The 
 principal wheat districts are Andalusia, Old Castile, Arragon and 
 Murcia, which produce a sufficient surplus to supply the demands of 
 the other parts of the kingdom. Considerable quantities of wheat are 
 
 [BOOK CXXX1X. 
 
 enjoy the blessings of a representative government, thought 
 fit to interfere and to restore the ancient system. The 
 Duke of Angouleme having entered Spain at the head of an 
 army which was nowhere opposed by the intrepid bands, so 
 formidable in the time of Napoleon, dissolved the cortes, and 
 liberated the king. The memorable ordinance of Andujar 
 was passed by the same general ; thus giving an example of 
 great moderation, in wishing no other recompense for the 
 treasures that France had spent, than the safety and pro- 
 tection of those who had supported the constitutional govern- 
 ment. It is almost unnecessary to add that his intentions 
 were never carried into effect. 
 
 The king possesses at present an unlimited authority ; 
 different councils have been created, but the most important 
 is the council of state, formed in the year 1 825. Justice is 
 administered throughout the kingdom by supreme courts that 
 are held in the metropolis of each province. The courts of 
 Valladolid and Granada are entitled chanceries, that of Na- 
 varre is called a council , and the rest tribunals ( audiencias .) 
 The captain-generals of the provinces are ex officio the pres- 
 idents of the courts. ' Whatever may tend to recal the time 
 of the cortes has been abolished ; that the people may 
 believe all authority to be centred in the king, the towns 
 are no longer suffered to elect their mayors or magis- 
 trates ; diis privilege, the last of ah those which served to 
 remind the Spaniards of a better system, was taken away 
 in 1823. 
 
 Industry and agriculture, long neglected in Spain, cannot 
 be .supposed to have made much progress during the last 
 twenty year's of wars and revolutions to which that unhappy 
 country has been exposed. The swarms of locusts that 
 ravage the fields, are a minor evil, if compared with the 
 obstinacy and prejudices of the husbandmen. Foreigners 
 attribute incorrectly the low state of agriculture to the indo- 
 lence of the people ; such an opinion, says Minano, has 
 never been entertained by those who have seen the Span- 
 iards toiling and labouring in the almost inaccessible moun- 
 tains of the Asturias, Galicia and Catalonia, or in the arid 
 ravines of Guipuscoa, Biscay and Navarre, in the marshes of 
 Valencia, or in the burning plains of Andalusia and Estre- 
 madura. The men, who endure so much fatigue for so 
 small wages, cannot be thought either indolent or indifferent. 
 
 Spain, one of the most fruitful countries in Europe, might 
 also from the variety of its products be considered one of 
 the most wealthy ; wheat, rye, barley, maize and hemp are 
 cultivated in almost all the provinces, but although the absti- 
 nence and frugality of the people are proverbial, the crops 
 are hardly sufficient for the consumption. 0 Wheat is most 
 common in Leon, Estremadura, the two Castries, Arragon, 
 Andalusia and Murcia. Rye is more generally cultivated 
 in Biscay, Navarre and Catalonia. Oats are neglected or 
 despised ; instead of that grain, the Spaniards, .particularly 
 in the kingdoms of Granada and Seville, give barley to their 
 cattle. The inhabitants of Galicia cultivate flax, a plant that 
 does not appear to be very common in the other provinces. 
 Oil and soda d are the principal products of the southern 
 provinces, particularly along the shores of the Mediterranean ; 
 
 also exported from Spain, especially from Leon and Old Castile, by 
 the ports of Galicia and Biscay. This export might he greatly increas- 
 ed, were it not for the imperfect state of the roads leading to the sea- 
 ports, which are hardly passable for carriages, so that the grain is 
 chiefly conveyed on the backs of mules. Large quantities of bpanish 
 wheat are sent to the Havanna, its importation being favoured there 
 by discriminating duties. — P. 
 d Barilla. 
 
 L 
 
book cxxxix.j DESCRIPT10 
 
 the other products are broom, sumach and different esculent 
 plants of an admirable quality. In the same part of the 
 country are seen whole fields of saffron, the rice plantations 
 appear like so many waving plains, and the cotton shrub 
 thrives as well as on its aboriginal soil. The mulberry trees 
 are very luxuriant, and their leaves afford rich nourishment 
 to the bombyx ; it is thus easy to explain why the silk it 
 secretes is so valuable. Rice is most abundant in Catalonia 
 and in the kingdom of Valencia. The latter province and 
 Andalusia are the finest in Spain ; trees of different sorts are 
 covered with delicious fruit, the sugar-cane grows beside the 
 cotton plant, and numerous olive-trees furnish the oil that 
 forms at present an important branch of commerce. Honey 
 and different vegetables useful in dyeing also add to the re- 
 sources of that part of Spain. The honey in the province of 
 Cuenca was celebrated in the time of the Romans for its 
 whiteness and agreeable flavour, on account of which it 
 was called mcl rosmarinum. Anise, maize, salt and the 
 esparto grass* from which mats and cordage are manu- 
 factured, form the principal riches of Murcia ; barilla, b the 
 plant from which the inhabitants extract soda, is almost 
 confined to Valencia, a province that has been styled from 
 its culture, the garden of Spain. The lands in Arragon 
 near the Ebro abound in grain, saffron, hemp, olives and 
 different fruits ; the forests too are well kept ; but at a dis- 
 tance from the river, the soil is arid, and the greater part of 
 it uncultivated. Navarre may be distinguished by its exten- 
 sive vallies covered with rich pastures. The Vasconian prov- 
 inces 0 and particularly Biscay are remarkable for then 1 fer- 
 tility and the industry of their inhabitants. The food of the 
 peasantry in Galicia consists principally of maize, chestnuts 
 and potatoes ; the last plant was first imported into the same 
 province, from which it has been diffused throughout Europe. 
 Naval timber is obtained from the forests in the Asturias, 
 and numerous herds are fattened in the pastures. As to the 
 two Castiles, the old province is arid and sterile, the new is 
 warmer and not so unfruitful. 
 
 The lands in almost every part of Spain are favourable to 
 the culture of the vine. The excess of the vintage above 
 the quantity consumed in the country, forms a considerable 
 branch of the export trade, and it might be still much more 
 important, if in making the wine and cultivating the grape, 
 the people availed themselves of the improvements that have 
 been known to chemists and agriculturists during more 
 than twenty years. J The best wines are those of Peralta in 
 Navarre, Ribadavia and Betanzos in Galicia, Manzanares 
 and Bal de Penas in La Mancha, Xeres, San Lucar and 
 Rota in the kingdom of Seville, Cabra, Lucena and almost 
 all the district of Campine in Cordova, Malaga in Granada, 
 Carthagena in Murcia, and lastly Alicante in Valencia. 
 Although some of these wines are held in great estimation, 
 the quantity exported bears no proportion to the brandy that 
 is sent from the same parts of the country to the different 
 ports in Spain. 
 
 N OF SPAIN. 163 
 
 The little profit that Spain now receives from its wool, 
 affords a sad contrast to the treasures it derived from die 
 same article at a very early period. It would not be easy 
 to enumerate the fatal effects of the war which France 
 maintained against the Spaniards during the imperial gov- 
 ernment, and if it were at all necessary to account for the 
 decay in the wool trade, other causes that have contributed 
 in a greater or less degree, might also be mentioned. Now 
 that Spanish sheep are imported into F ranee and other conn 
 tries where the breed is perpetuated, it is difficult to con 
 ceive that Spain can ever again arrive at the same pre-emi- 
 nence in the same trade. But as it has been proved that 
 the merinos are fraudulently exported, it cannot be doubted 
 that such an evil might be checked by a wise administration ; 
 if it were prevented and greater encouragement afforded 
 to the woollen manufactures, Spain might at least afford to 
 produce articles equally good and at as moderate prices as 
 any of her rivals. The breed of sheep, it is not less certain, 
 might be still more improved in the same country, and die 
 privileges of the Mesta e need not interfere with the interests 
 of the landed proprietor. The merinos are divided into two 
 classes, those that are stationary, and those that migrate ; 
 the former amount in all to at least 8,000,000 ; the number 
 of the latter, including the flocks that belong to the clergy 
 as well as to the laymen, is still greater/ Two shepherds 
 drive a flock of a thousand or twelve hundred merinos ; they 
 leave the heights of Old Castile in the month of October, 
 and lay waste the plains of Estremadura and Andalusia until 
 the month of May, when the sheep are driven back to the 
 mountains. There are not less than sixteen thousand shep 
 herds, s almost as ignorant as their flocks ; they exercise a 
 despotic authority, and commit many abuses in the districts 
 through which they pass. The length of their stay in any 
 part of the country depends on the quantity of food they find 
 for then- sheep. During their progress, a space equal to 
 240 feet in breadth is allotted to each flock by the ordinances 
 of the Mesta ; h once arrived at the end of their journey, the 
 sheep are put into the pastures, and the Mesta regulates in a 
 very arbitrary manner the rate of rent payable to the propri- 
 etors. The depopulation of certain provinces, and the decay 
 of agriculture have been attributed not without reason to 
 these annual migrations ; indeed Biscay, the Asturias, Gali- 
 cia and Burgos, not being exposed to the same calamity, are 
 better peopled and better cultivated than the provinces to 
 which the shepherds and then- flocks resort. 
 
 The sheep are shorn after the shepherds have returned to 
 their summer quarters. It is a very busy time, and the 
 greater part of the inhabitants are employed. The work is 
 done in large sheds that may hold a flock of forty or sixty 
 thousand sheep. One may judge of the number of hands 
 employed, since it requires a hundred and twenty-five 
 persons to shear a thousand sheep ; some are occupied in 
 cutting the wool, and others in dividing it into four sorts ac- 
 cording to the different degrees of fineness. The sheep- 
 
 a “ Stipe” — Stipa tenacissima,L inn.; esparto rush, (Townsend.) — P. 
 b Salsola Soda, Linn. — The Salsola saliva is also cultivated for the 
 same purpose. — P. 
 
 c “ Les provinces Vascongades” — (Span. Las provincias Vascon- 
 mdas or Bascnngadas ;) the Biscayan provinces. — P. 
 
 d See Mihano’s Geographical and Statistical Dictionary, article 
 Spain. 
 
 e The Mcsta is a society that meets every year, the president of 
 vhich is a counsellor of state, and the members are the owners of 
 [he numerous flocks that are conducted for the sake of pasturage 
 nto different provinces. [“ The Mesta is an incorporated company 
 af proprietors of migratory sheep, who are endowed with particular 
 privileges highly prejudicial to the interests of agriculture. This as- 
 
 sociation is formed chiefly of the nobles, persons in power, members 
 of rich monasteries, and ecclesiastical chapters.” Ed. Encyc. — P.] 
 f See the statistical tables at the end of the book, 
 e M. Al. de Laborde (Itincr. d’Espagne) estimates their number at 
 forty thousand, but he includes those that remain at home as well as 
 the others who travel. 
 
 h “ The sheep pass unmolested over the pastures, belonging to the 
 villages, and the commons which lie in their road, and have a right 
 to feed upon them. They are not, however, allowed to pass over cul- 
 tivated land, but the proprietors of such lands are obliged to leave for 
 them a path of ninety varas, or about eighty-four yards in breadth.’ 
 Ed. Encyc.— P. 
 
164 EUR 
 
 shearing season is not less joyous than the vintage in the 
 most fruitful districts of Spain. 
 
 Several parts of the country are ill provided with horned 
 cattle, particularly Catalonia, Arragon, Navarre and Biscay, 
 which depend principally for their supplies on France. 
 Many oxen are fattened in the rich pastures in the central 
 districts of Galicia. Fine cattle are reared in the Asturias, 
 and the cow is there a most useful animal to the peasantry ; 
 the milk is converted into butter and cheese ; indeed a suffi- 
 cient quantity of the former might be produced for the con- 
 sumption of Spain, if the inhabitants knew how to salt or 
 preserve it. The symmetry of the oxen in Andalusia was 
 admired by the ancients ; innumerable herds of the same 
 kind may still be seen in its fertile pastures. Pigs are very 
 common on the mountains of Aracena and Constantina, as 
 well as others in the same province, and the bacon of 
 Leon as well as Galicia is much prized throughout Spain ; 
 its delicate taste has been attributed to the sweet acorns on 
 which the pigs are fed. Although the mules and horses of 
 the same country are not in so great repute as they once 
 were, the Asturias may still boast of their light and spirited 
 ponies, while the horses of Andalusia retain the strength that 
 distinguishes the Arab breed. The mules in these provinces 
 are hardy and robust, qualities which they derive from the 
 ass, which has degenerated less in Spain than in France. 
 
 Almost all the wild animals in southern France are com- 
 mon to Spain. The mountains and plains abound in game ; 
 the wild boar, the bear and different kinds of deer are found 
 in the Galician mountains and Asturian forests. Hares, rab- 
 bits, red partridges and bustards are common in Andalusia ; 
 the wolf still frequents nearly all the wooded and mountain- 
 ous districts in the country. The chamois and the lynx 
 find shelter in the Pyrenees and the mountains of Cuenca. 
 The musmon® is found in the kingdom of Murcia, and 
 among the animals in the more southern parts of Spain, the 
 genette, the porcupine, the scorpion, the truxalis nasutus h 
 and the chameleon mav be enumerated. A naturalist 0 having 
 observed the striking similarity between the zoology of 
 southern Spain and northern Africa, has been led by the 
 analogy to conclude that the continents now separated by the 
 Straits at Gibraltar were once united. 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CXXXIX. 
 
 Estremadura and Andalusia are sometimes desolated by 
 swarms of locusts ; but it would not be difficult to desu-oy 
 them, for they are never seen in great numbers until some 
 time after their first appearance ; still the opportunity has 
 been usually neglected, and these insects from the plains of 
 Arabia lay waste the country when it is impossible to check 
 the devastation. 11 
 
 The rivers as well as the coasts of Spain abound in fish, 
 and it is from this source that Galicia derives the principal 
 part of its wealth. The sardel fisheries are perhaps as val- 
 uable as any others in that province. The sardel are salted 
 so as to render them fit for exportation, and very many of 
 them are consumed in Spain, France and the Levant. The 
 tunny fisheries in the same province are also very profitable ; 
 indeed the importance of the fisheries on the southern and 
 eastern coasts of Spain, depends on the high prices given for 
 tunnies and anchovies. 
 
 Spain admits less of a vague or general description than 
 any other country in Europe. The people in France, Eng- 
 land and Italy are distinguished by national characters, of 
 which the colours are too well defined to be ever confound- 
 ed ; but shades more or less obscure mark the Spaniards of 
 the different provinces, and contrasts more or less striking 
 separate them from each other. To mark these shades and 
 contrasts, and to ascertain their influence on the moral and 
 intellectual character of the Spanish people, has hitherto 
 proved a stumbling-block to many who have attempted to 
 describe Spain, or to compare the Spaniards with the inhab- 
 itants of other countries in Europe. To give an accurate 
 description therefore, or at least one free from incorrect gen- 
 eralities, it is necessary that each division or province in 
 Spain should be separately examined. 
 
 The kingdom is divided into fourteen principal parts, each 
 of which has its authorities or separate administration, and 
 several are subdivided into smaller provinces.® The disad- 
 vantages of what has been termed centralization 1 are not 
 felt in Spain, an evil that exists in France, and which most 
 Frenchmen would wish to see abolished. 
 
 The kingdom of Navarre is separated from France by 
 the Pyrenees ; it is bounded on the east by Arragon, on the 
 south by Old Castile, and on the west by the Biscayan 
 
 a “ Le Moufflon,” the wild sheep — found also in the mountains of 
 Sardinia and Corsica, where it is called mvffuli — (the musimon of 
 Pliny.)— P. 
 
 b Gryllus nasutus. Linn. — a species of locust or grasshopper. — P. 
 c M. Bory de St. Vincent, Guide do Voyageur en Espagne. 
 a According to Bowles, these provinces were exposed to their rava- 
 ges from 1754 to 1757. See Introduction it l’histoire naturelle et a la 
 g'ographie physique de l’Espagne. (Traduction de Flavigny, Paris, 
 1776.) 
 
 e The following are the general divisions : 
 
 In the north. 
 
 1st. The kingdom of Navarre, a province. 
 
 2d. The three Vasconian or Biscayan provinces. 
 
 3d. The principality of the Asturias, a province. 
 
 4th. The kingdom of Galicia, divided into seven provinces. 
 
 5th. The kingdom of Arragon, a province. 
 
 6th. The principality of Catalonia, a province. 
 
 In the centre. 
 
 7th. The kingdom of Leon, divided into six provinces. 
 
 8th. Old Castile, divided into five. 
 
 9th. Estremadura, a province. 
 
 10th. New Castile, divided into five provinces. 
 
 11th. The kingdom of Valencia, a province. 
 
 In the south. 
 
 12th. Andalusia, including the kingdoms of Cordova, Jaen, Seville, 
 Granada, and the JVeio Pu/nJations* forming seven provinces. 
 
 13th. The kingdom of Murcia, a province. 
 
 In the Mediterranean 
 14th. The Balearic islands. 
 
 In all forty-one provinces. 
 
 * See page 857. 
 
 Spain was divided in 1822, conformably to a decree of the Cortes, 
 into fifty-one provinces. 
 
 Navarre was at the same time called the province of Pampehina. 
 
 The three provinces of Vittoria, San Sebastian and Billioa, were in- 
 cluded in the Biscays. 
 
 One province, or that of Oviedo, in the Asturias. 
 
 Those of Corunna, Lugo, Vigo and Orense, in Galicia. 
 
 Those of Villafranca, Leon, Zamora, Salamanca and Valencia, in the 
 kingdom of Leon. 
 
 Those of Santander, Burgos, Logrono, Soria, Valladolid, Segovia and 
 Avila, in Old Castile. 
 
 Those of Ilatsca, Teruel, Calatayud and Saragossa, in Arragon. 
 
 Those of Gerona, Barcelona, Tarragona and Lerida, in Catalonia. 
 
 Those of Caceres and Budajos, in Estremadura. 
 
 Those of Madrid, Guadalaxara, Cuenca and Toledo, in New Castile. 
 
 That of Ciudad-Real, in La Mancha. 
 
 Those of Alicante, San Felipe, Valencia and Castellon de la Plana, in 
 the kingdom of Valencia. 
 
 Those of Huelva, Seville, Cadiz, Jaen, Cordova, Granada, Malaga and 
 Almeria, in Andalusia. 
 
 Those of Murcia and Chinchilla, in the kingdom of Murcia. 
 
 That of Palma, in the Baleares. 
 
 These divisions were abolished when the king obtained despotic 
 power. 
 
 f The concentration of authority and influence in the capital. It is 
 well known, from repeated experience, that a revolution in Paris is 
 decisive as to the whole kingdom. — P. 
 
book cxxxix.] DESCRIPTIQ 
 
 provinces. The country is mountainous, but intersected 
 with rich and fruitful vallies, and crossed in different direc- 
 tions with excellent roads, an advantage which few Spanish 
 provinces possess. The climate although cold and variable, 
 is by no means unwholesome ; the inhabitants are laborious 
 and poor. That petty kingdom, of which an ancestor of 
 Henry the Fourth* had been deprived by pope Julius the 
 Second, was united to the crown of Arragon and Castile in 
 the year 1 5 1 8. b The traveller who enters the country from 
 France, observes as soon as he has crossed the Pyrenees, 
 the small plain of Roncevallos, c and in the convent of the 
 same town, are still seen several relics, that may remind 
 him of the brave Roland and archbishop Turpin. 
 
 Painpeluna ( Pamplona ) rises on Mount St. Christopher, 
 above the banks of the Arga, at no great distance from the 
 last mentioned place. It has been affirmed that the town 
 was built by Pompey, who gave it the name of Pompeiopo- 
 lis ; at all events, it is the capital of the province, and the 
 seat of a bishopric. The walls, bastions and ancient castle 
 are imposing, but the interior of the town is by no means 
 cheerful ; the streets are straight, spacious and deserted, the 
 houses are lofty and built of stone ; the trade of the inhabit- 
 ants 11 consists chiefly in coarse cloths and different sorts of 
 earthen ware. Tudela, a handsome episcopal town, possess- 
 ing manufactories of cloth, soap and pottery, and carrying on 
 a considerable trade in cattle, stands at the confluence of die 
 Queila and the Ebro. 
 
 The three Vasconian provinces, 6 which derive their name 
 from their ancient Basque population/ form a triangle of 
 which the northern side is watered by the gulf of Gascony ,s 
 and the two others bounded by Navarre and Old Castile. 
 Distinguished by that great activity and love of independence 
 common to the people in other mountainous countries, these 
 industrious Basques have found in an unfruitful soil, the pal- 
 ladium of their freedom. Although subject to the Spanish 
 domination in virtue of ancient treaties, the kings of Spain may 
 rather be considered their protectors than their sovereigns. 
 The three provinces have a separate government and gen- 
 eral assemblies in which their mutual interests are not only 
 discussed, but the orders of the king examined, for they 
 cannot be executed without that formality. They tax thein- 
 selves to defray the expenses of the local administration ; the 
 contributions, which they pay to the crown, are considered 
 gifts that are rarely sought, and never granted, unless they 
 be very moderate. 
 
 The Bidassoa, a small river, which discharges itself into 
 the bay of Biscay, separates France from the province of 
 Guipuscoa. h Fontarabia or Fuenterabia, according to its 
 Latin name, Fons rapidus, is a strong place at the mouth of 
 the Bidassoa. Tolosa, the ancient Iturissa , is a small but 
 pleasant town on the banks of the Orio. Saint Sebastian is 
 the capital of the province ; situated on a peninsula watered 
 by the bay of Biscay, with a small harbour at the mouth of 
 the Urumea, the town itself Gannot be considered very large, 
 
 N OF SPAIN. 165 
 
 but the inhabitants are industrious ; they carry on a consid- 
 erable trade, and have manufactories of leather, arms and 
 iron. A large bay apparently closed on all sides by moun- 
 tains runs into the land between Fontarabia and Saint Se- 
 bastian ; it forms the harbour of Los Passages,' one of the 
 finest and safest in Europe. The town is built on a narrow 
 piece of ground between the mountains and the bay. Ber- 
 gara k possesses a patriotic school, in which the physical sci- 
 ences are taught, and where the young nobles ol the country 
 are educated at the expense of the state. All the coasts 
 are peopled by fishermen or mariners, and the rural districts 
 by laborious and peaceful husbandmen. 
 
 No country can be more agreeable than the hills in Bis- 
 cay, none more fruitful than the cultivated vallies. Bilboa, 1 
 the capital, has long been the mart for all the wool that 
 Spain exports, and for all the merchandise sent from differ- 
 ent countries into the northern provinces of the kingdom. 
 Crowds frequent the harbour, and many ships repair to it, 
 although the town is about two leagues from the sea ; it is sit- 
 uated on the right bank of the Ansa, a small river sufficiently 
 deep to receive large merchant vessels ; the same river abounds 
 in angulas,™ a very delicate fish, highly valued in Spain. 
 
 The road that leads from Biscay into the province of 
 Alava, traverses the great defile and the mountain of Salinas. 
 Beyond the town of the same name, the heights become 
 gradually lower until they terminate in the fruitful plain of 
 Vittoria, in which many hamlets and villages vary the ro- 
 mantic scenery. Vittoria, the capital, according to its Latin 
 name, Victoria , serves still to mark the place where the 
 Cantabri were defeated in the reign of Augustus. It was 
 rebuilt by Sancho the Great, who gained under its walls a 
 decisive victory over the Saracens. The old town consists 
 of irregular and clumsy houses, but the new has been built 
 with much elegance ; it contains a spacious square at pres- 
 ent set apart for bull fights. Several festivals are held in 
 Vittoria, some in honour of the young, others of married 
 persons ; these ceremonies tend to preserve the purity of 
 the people. 
 
 The principality of the Asturias is bounded on the north 
 by the ocean, on the east by Biscay, on the south by the 
 ridge of the Asturian Pyrenees, and on the west by Galicia. 
 It is intersected by many narrow and sinuous vallies, which 
 are watered by torrents and rivers well supplied with fish. 
 The people in the province boast that they have never mixed 
 with foreigners ; they are brave, patient and laborious. 
 Oviedo, the capital, the ancient Ovetum, is situated in about 
 the centre of the province, on a hill that rises in the midst of 
 an undulating plain between the Nora and the Nalon. The 
 cathedral, a Gothic edifice and the finest in the town, was 
 built in the eleventh century ; n some ancient relics have 
 been deposited in it, and the people hold them in great ven- 
 eration. Cangas de Onis, a small town on the banks of the 
 Celia, stands at a short distance from the abbey of Our Lady 
 of Cavadonga, which, it is said, occupies the site where Pe- 
 
 1 Jean d’ Jllbret (John III. of Navarre,) great grandfather of Henry 
 IV. by the mother’s side. — P. 
 
 b In 1510, Pope Julius II. excommunicated Jean d’Albret, and au- 
 thorized Ferdinand to take possession of his territories. The latter 
 invaded Navarre in 1511, and July 25th 1512, that petty kingdom 
 was united to the crown of Castile. (Abrege Chronol. de l’Hist. d’Es- 
 pagne et de Portugal, T. II. p. 60 — 65.) — P. 
 c Fr. Ronccvaux. — Roncesvalles. 
 
 J Its manufactures. e Guipuscoa, Biscay and Alava. 
 
 f M. William Von Humboldt has proved by his learned researches, 
 that the Basque bears more characters of a primitive language than 
 any other known tongue in Europe. The name of the people who 
 speak it, appears to be derived from the Basque word vaso , which sig- 
 
 nifies a mountain. If the same word be used adjectively, the termi- 
 nation co must be added ; thus the people have been denominated 
 Vasoco, and by contraction Vasco, a term analogous to mountaineers. 
 
 The Romans called the Basques, Vascones, and their country Vasco- 
 nia, of which the etymology is still preserved in the Spanish word 
 Vascongadas. 
 
 % Bay of Biscay. h Guipuzcoa. 
 
 ■ “ Port du Passage.” k Vergara. 1 Bilbao. 
 
 m Qu. anguilas, eels. — Bilboa is supplied with fish of various kinds, 
 particularly with a sort of eels in winter, which are caught m prodi- 
 gious quantities at low tides. (Rees’ Cyc.) — P. 
 
 □ “ — built nearly eleven centuries ago,” i. e. in the eighth century 
 — said to have been built in 760. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 — . 
 
166 EUROPE. [book cxxxix 
 
 lagius- first planted the standard of independence. The 
 same distinguished person resided long at Gijon, a well- 
 built town at the base of a mountain that terminates in Cape 
 Penas ; its port was formerly much frequented. Aviles 
 stands at the bottom of a gulf, on the other side of the cape ; 
 it carries on a trade in coal, and in copper utensils manufac- 
 tured in the neighbourhood. 
 
 The kingdom of Galicia, contiguous to the Asturias and 
 to Leon, is bounded on the north and the west by the ocean, 
 and on the south by Portugal. The large vallies in the 
 province are formed by different high chains connected with 
 the Pyrenaean range. Some important towns and more 
 than forty harbours* are situated in Galicia. Santiago or 
 St. Jago de Compostella, although it may not perhaps be 
 the ancient Gall(ccia, h is considered the capital of the king- 
 dom. The streets are crooked and ill paved ; the principal 
 ornament of the town is the large Gothic cathedral, which 
 was built more than a thousand years ago. It is a double 
 edifice, the lower part of which forms a subterranean church 
 consecrated to San Jago Manor or St. James the Less, 
 while in the upper church the pious catholics adore the 
 body of San Jago Mayor or St. James the Elder, which 
 was discovered at the time the workmen were building the 
 cathedral. The riches of the same church or the treasures 
 supplied by credulous piety have been greatly exaggerated, 
 probably because they were never generally known until an 
 equal division was made between the chapter and Marshal 
 Ney in 1809; the sum allotted to him for the pay of his 
 troops amounted only to a hundred thousand crowns.® The 
 gold statue of St. James turned out to be only gilt, and his 
 diamond eyes, it was discovered, were imitation diamonds. 
 The magnificence of the church consists principally in the 
 extravagance of the sculpture, and in the beauty of the 
 painted windows. The trade in images, chaplets and other 
 objects of superstition is not without importance at Santiago, 
 but the real industry of the place is centred in the cloth and 
 silk d manufactories. Orense, situated in a fine country near 
 the southern extremity of the province, and watered by the 
 Minho, was formerly more flourishing ; a fine bridge of ten 
 arches so lofty that a ship of war with all its masts may sail 
 under them, has been built over die river ; one edifice, the 
 Gothic cathedral, may be also remarked for the elegance 
 and regularity of its proportions. Many still resort to the 
 three warm springs, on account of which the town was called 
 Aquae Calidat by the ancients. Lugo, founded by the Ro- 
 mans seventy-six years before the vulgar era, was named 
 Lmcus Augusti in honor of Augustus. The Tamboga wa- 
 ters the town ; the thermal springs and a sacred wood in- 
 duced the Romans to build it on its present site, where sev- 
 eral ruins not uninteresting to antiquaries are still to be seen 
 within the walls and in the neighbourhood. The townhouse 
 and its majestic front were built by the ancients. The cir- 
 cular walls that encompass Lugo, might contain ten times 
 the number of inhabitants ; they are nearly a league 6 in cir- 
 cumference. Mondonedo/ situated at the foot of the Sierra 
 de lulestia of which the declivities descend to the ocean, is 
 the ancient Britonia ; it was long well known for its cattle- 
 fairs, but at present they are not much frequented. 
 
 1 “ On the coast are forty sea-ports, but the greater part are very 
 small.” — Ed. Encyc. 
 
 b “ Perhaps the ancient GaUacia ” ( Callcecia .) The Brigantium. of 
 the ancients (Ed. Encyc.) Betanzos, near the bay of Corunna, is the 
 Brigantium ( Flavium Brigantum, Encyc. Method.) of the ancients. 
 
 c Bory de St Vincent, Guide du Voyageur en Espagne. 
 
 The principal ports in Galicia may now be mentioned. 
 Ferrol, the chief town of one of the three maritime depart- 
 ments in Spain, possesses a naval academy and school ; its 
 spacious harbour forms a bay, on which formidable batteries 
 have been erected to guard the narrow entrance. The 
 inhabitants are industrious and consequently wealthy. Be- 
 tanzos, the ancient Brigantium, situated at some distance to 
 the south of Ferrol, unites a trade in light wines with the 
 commerce of its port. Corunna,? the Caronium of the 
 Gallaeci, situated about five leagues from Betanzos, is divided 
 into two towns ; the old town stands at the extremity of a 
 small peninsula, and is surrounded with fortifications ; the 
 new town, or the Pescadaria, as it has been called from its 
 fish market, is only fortified on the side of the land. The bay 
 of Corunna is about a league in breadth ; the harbour, which 
 is large and commodious, is in the form of a crescent ; it is 
 defended by the fort St. Anthony, and is one of the most 
 frequented of any in Galicia. The town is enriched by its 
 commerce and its sardel fisheries, by its cloth, hats and cor- 
 dage, and lastly by its cigar manufactories in which more 
 than five hundred women are employed. It is not improb- 
 able that the word Corunna has been derived from Colum- 
 na ; such at least was the name that the ancients gave to a 
 tower that was used as a pharos, in height and appearance 
 not unlike a column. The same tower still remains ; ac- 
 cording to tradition it was built and consecrated to Hercules 
 by the Phoenicians, and at a later period repaired by the 
 Romans who dedicated it to Mars. A Latin inscription 
 serves to confirm the tradition, but a learned Spaniard 11 con- 
 siders it the work of Trajan. 
 
 The kingdom of Leon, an imnortap t Spanish province, 
 still retains its ancient title ; contiguous In Portugal and Ga- 
 licia on the west, it is bounded by Estremadura on til** 
 south, by Old Castile on the east, and by the mountains 
 which separate it from the Asturias on the north. The 
 Duero crosses it from east to west. 
 
 The province derives its name from the town of Leon, 
 the capita], which was founded by the emperor Galba, on 
 the place where a Roman legion (Jegio septima gemina) 
 was stationed. The cathedral church, the principal orna- 
 ment of die place, was commenced about the end of die 
 twelfth century, and completed in the fourteenth ; remark- 
 able for its elegance and lightness, it has been considered 
 the finest in Spain. The streets are crooked and for the 
 most part very dirty ; they are chiefly composed of Gothic 
 and irregular houses : the market-place, 1 however, may be 
 considered an exception ; it forms a perfect square, and 
 strangers admire it for the regularity of the buildings. The 
 antiquary may still discover inscriptions and other Roman 
 monuments in Astorga, the ancient Asturica Augusta ; the 
 thick walls of the town, flanked with turrets and bastions, 
 were repaired and extended by the French. Ponferrada is 
 supposed to have been the Pons Ferratus of the Romans ; 
 it possesses an ancient castle now in ruins, which belonged 
 to the Templars. It stands at the confluence of the Sil and 
 the Baeza, in the middle of a large and fruitful valley en- 
 closed by steep mountains. Zamora was destroyed by the 
 Moors in the eleventh century, and rebuilt by Ferdinand the 
 
 d “ Silk stockings.” — It has a manufactory of silk stockings. (Ed. 
 Encyc.) 
 
 e “ Three fourths of a league” Fr. 
 
 f Mondonedo. f Fr. Corogne, Span. Coruna. 
 
 h Don Jose Cornide, the academician. See his Dissertation on that 
 Monument. 
 
 ‘ “ The great square (place.)" Span. Plaza Mayor. 
 
book exxxix.i DESCRIPTION Cl 1 SPAIN. 167 
 
 Second and Alphonso the Eighth. It rises on the right 
 bank of the Duero ; the bridge across the river may be said 
 to be the greatest ornament to the town ; the military school 
 has not wholly lost its ancient reputation. 3 * * 6 The pleasant 
 town of Toro, although very insignificant in point of size, 
 contains not less than eighteen parishes and an infirmary/ 
 The cortes met within its walls in the year 1 505, and to 
 that assembly the Spaniards were indebted for the wise and 
 equitable laws that are still called the laws of Toro. Tor- 
 desillas, the ancient Turns Syllce , is still commanded by the 
 old castle, where the mother of Charles the Fifth died in 
 the year 1555, but long before that period, she wa* afflicted 
 with the loss of reason. Carrion de los Condes is celebrat- 
 ed in the Spanish chronicles for the exploits of the Cid, and 
 also for a memorable victory over the Moors. An annual 
 tribute of a hundred virgins, which the Moorish princes ex- 
 acted from the Spaniards, was abolished after the battle, and 
 a festival still held in the town, serves to commemorate the 
 event. The town contains eight parishes ; c it must be a 
 place of considerable industry, for there are not fewer than 
 six linen manufactories, d eight leather works, five oil, and as 
 many flour mills. Palencia may be considered an agree- 
 able town, although the houses are of Gothic architecture. 
 In one large and well built square, two of the sides are 
 adorned with piazzas, and the cathedral erected by King 
 Sancho, is not inferior in size to any in Spain. Valladolid 
 possesses an university and an academy of painting ; e the 
 royal castle was the birth-place of Philip the Second and 
 of several other kings ; the cathedral and fifteen parish 
 churches are richly endowed ; many broad and straight 
 streets, adorned with porticos supported by granite pillars, 
 terminate in a spacious square ; but with all these advan- 
 tages, it has the appearance of a deserted town. The pop- 
 ulation was formerly equal to a hundred thousand persons ; 
 it does not amount at present to twenty-five thousand. The 
 inquisition was long held within the walls of Valladolid, and 
 the proceedings were marked with the cruelty and ferocity, 
 which distinguish it from every other tribunal. The same 
 town stands on the site of the ancient Pintia, a place men- 
 tioned by Ptolemy, at the confluence of the Esqueva and 
 the Pisuerga. The trade of Valladolid is not great; it con- 
 sists in ribbons, pottery, perfumery and liqueurs. Salaman- 
 ca, formerly Salmantica , celebrated for an university founded 
 in the year 1239, possesses also twenty-five churches, a 
 cathedral, (a fine monument of the sixteenth century,) and 
 many edifices of every period and every style, on account 
 of which it has been styled the Rome of Spain/ The prin- 
 cipal court/ as the inhabitants call it, forms a regular square ; 
 it is encompassed with a portico consisting of ninety arcades ; 
 the houses are constructed on a uniform plan, and surmount- 
 ed with stone balustrades. The one half of the bridge 
 across the Tonnes was built by the Romans, the other in 
 the time of Philip the Fourth. Ciudad Rodrigo, an impor- 
 tant fortress in the twelfth century, was more than once be- 
 sieged in the last war. It appears from inscriptions and 
 different remains of antiquity, that it was the Lancia 
 Trcmscudana of the Romans, so called from its position on 
 
 3 “ The most remarkable objects it contains, are a fine bridge over 
 the Duero, and a military school.” — P. 
 
 b “ Hotel des Invalides” — military hospital. 
 
 c “ Seven parishes”— ten parish churches. (Crutwell.) 
 
 11 “23 metiers de toiles.” 
 
 e “ A school of fine arts.” — An academy of the belles lettres was es- 
 tablished in 1752. (Rees’ Cyc.) 
 
 1 “ Little Rome.” 
 
 6 “ La grande place " — Piuza Mayor. The great square. (Townsend.) 
 
 the right bank of the Agueda or, according to its ancient 
 name, the Cuda 
 
 Old Castile is divided into five provinces ; it is bounded 
 on the north by the Gulf of Gascony, on the west by the 
 Asturias and the kingdom of Leon, on the south by New 
 Castile, on the east by Arragon, and on the north-east by 
 Navarre and the Biscayan provinces. The Duero waters 
 the country, and flows in the direction from east to west 
 Castile, it has been affirmed, was so called from the great 
 number of castles ( Castillos ), formerly its means of defence 
 against the Moors, and the residences of petty princes whom 
 ambition armed against each other. 
 
 Santander, supposed to be the Menosca of the Par dull, 
 is the largest town in the north of Old Castile ; many ves- 
 sels frequent the harbour, and it carries on a considerable 
 trade in wine. Burgos, the Bravura of Ptolemy, and an 
 ancient capital, abounds with convents and churches/ The 
 cathedral, a highly finished Gothic edifice, remarkable for 
 its elegance and the numerous small spires that rise above 
 each other on every side, the remains of the house inhabited 
 by the Cid, the arch of Fernando Gonzalez, the episcopal 
 palace, and St. Mary’s arch, which might be more correctly 
 denominated the triumphal gate that leads to the Rio Arlan- 
 zon, 1 are the principal ornaments or curiosities in Burgos. 
 Beyond the walls are the tomb of the Cid, and the ruins of 
 the palace formerly belonging to King Alphonso the Wise, a 
 legislator and an astronomer, and the author of the Alphon- 
 sine Tables. Soria, a small town watered by the Duero, 
 stands on the site of the ancient JYumantia ; it possesses a 
 considerable trade in wool. 
 
 Segovia requires a more minute description ; it is the an- 
 cient Segovia, a Celtiberian city embellished by Trajan; its 
 name has not been changed. It stands on a hill of which 
 the Eresma waters the base. The Arabic gate and the 
 Alcazar, an old castlb flanked with turrets, and built on a 
 precipitous rock, may still give the stranger some notion of 
 the flourishing state of Segovia under the Moorish domina- 
 tion. But these sink into insignificance when compared or 
 rather contrasted with the work of Trajan, the aqueduct 
 with a double row of arches, by which water has been con- 
 veyed into the town for seventeen hundred years. It con- 
 sists of a hundred and nine arches,* 1 the largest of which are 
 nearly ninety feet in height from the ground to the conduit, 
 and the length of the space which diey cover, exceeds 2530 
 feet. If Trajan raised a structure so costly, solid and gigan- 
 tic, it may be readily admitted that Segovia, in ancient 
 times, was a much more important place than it is at pres- 
 ent. Other works of past days still serve to recal the an- 
 cient splendour of the town ; but sumptuous temples have 
 given way to time or the more destructive efforts of ignor- 
 ance and barbarism. The cathedral is the finest modern 
 edifice in the city ; it was built in the sixteenth century, and 
 its demi-gothic style announces the period of the regenera- 
 tion of art. The styles of different periods are united in the 
 Alcazar, and the interior is not the least curious part of the 
 building. The principal stair-case is constructed in the best 
 taste, most of the apartments are adorned with carved and 
 
 h It is situated on the declivity of a hill, on the right bank of the 
 Rio Arlanzon. 
 
 ‘ “ The principal approach to the city is by the gate of Santa Maria, 
 which opens on one of the bridges over the Arlanzon.” — Ed. Encyc. 
 
 k It contains 159 arches. (Townsend.) — P. 
 
 1 A double row of arches, one above another, crosses the valley and 
 the plain of Azoquejo. The greatest height of this part of the aque 
 duct is eighty feet ten inches. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
1G8 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXIX. 
 
 gilt wood-work, and in the largest hall is contained a col- 
 lection of wooden statues representing the kings of Oviedo, 
 Leon and Castile, from Favila the First who reigned in the 
 eighth century, to queen Joan, surnamed the Foolish,® the 
 mother of Charles the Fifth. The Cid and his famous 
 horse Babicio are also represented ; one may see too the 
 real or supposed saddle of the same courser, which contrib- 
 uted more than once to the victories of its master. The 
 pupils in the royal school of artillery founded by Charles the 
 Third, now meet in this ancient edifice. Segovia was for- 
 merly well known for its cloth ; it possesses still a great 
 many looms, four fulling mills, and three large washing 
 places for wool. 
 
 St. Ildefonso lies at two leagues from Segovia. Once a 
 manor belonging to a society of monks, it was purchased by 
 Philip the Fifth, who built a palace on the grounds, to which 
 the king and his successors repaired in summer. The 
 houses near it form a small town of four thousand inhabit- 
 ants. The palace is of simple architecture, and within it 
 are contained the best paintings which Christina of Sweden 
 collected at Rome. It may be said of the gardens, as it has 
 been said of those at Versailles, that art has conquered na- 
 ture ; the water which descends from the neighbouring 
 heights has been collected at a great expense ; a thousand 
 channels supply lakes, cascades, fountains and jets that rise 
 above the trees, and surpass every thing of the kind in Eu- 
 rope ; in short, Philip the Fifth imitating the prodigality of 
 his ancestor, 11 expended 45,000,000 piastres on his country 
 seat, an enormous sum, by which the treasury was almost 
 exhausted. 
 
 Avila is the most southern province in Old Castile ; the 
 name of the chief town is the same as that of the province, 
 and is derived from an Arabic word. Avila has a fine ca- 
 thedral and a college, but on the whole it may be considered 
 a dismal and gloomy city encompassed with thick walls. 
 It was the native town of St. Theresa and of the historian 
 Gilles Gonzalez Davila. 
 
 The ancient kingdom of Arragon forms a single province, 
 bounded on the north by France, on the east by Catalonia 
 and the kingdom of Valencia, and on the west by Old Cas- 
 tile. Tarazona, supposed to be the ancient Augustobriga , 
 stands at the foot of the Sierra de Moncayo, and is divided 
 into the high and low town. It may be doubted if the con- 
 vent belonging to lire Fathers of Mercy is entitled to the 
 encomiums that have been lavished on its architecture, but 
 .he faithful repair to it that they may adore the bodies of St. 
 Boniface and St. Eusebius. Borja, a small place at no 
 great distance from Tarazona, carries on a trade in flints, 
 which abound in its neighbourhood. Calatayud, on the 
 oanks of the Xalon, was built on the ruins of Bilbilis, the 
 birth-place of the poet Martial. Daroca appears to be the 
 ancient Agiria, a city of the Celtiberi ; a vast cavern in the 
 vicinity, at the foot of the chain of Moncayo, receives the 
 torrents that descend in rainy seasons, and thus secures the 
 town against inundation. Albaracin, 0 of which the name is 
 evidently Arabic, is watered by the Guadalaviar ; it rises in 
 a fruitful and romantic valley enclosed by the mountains of 
 fdubeda and the Sierra de Albaracin. Teruel near the 
 confluence of the Guadalaviar and the Rio Alhambra, an 
 
 A *• Jeanne la Folle” — so called from her insanity; Jane of Castile. 
 
 b His grandfather, Louis XIV. c Albarazin, Albarracin, Albarrazin. 
 
 d Alcaniz. e Balbastro. 
 
 f '• The Mandragora rises near the little town of Benavarre.” 
 
 B Jacca. h In 1808. 
 
 1 Calle Santa. k Nucstra Dona del Pilar. 
 
 ancient town without any remarkable buildings, is distin- 
 guished by the industiy of its inhabitants. Alcaniz 11 was 
 built by the Moors; its name signifies a treasury in the 
 Arabic language ; it is commanded by an old fortress near 
 the Guadalupe, and adorned with a very fine square, that 
 leads to the principal church. Barbastro, e an old town 
 encompassed with walls, stands on the banks of the Vero, a 
 small river that divides it into two parts, which communicate 
 with each other by a stone bridge. The Madragora flows 
 near the little town of Benavarre ; r the same stream issues 
 with a loud noise at irregular intervals from the depths of the 
 earth, and rushing suddenly into the neighbouring vallies, 
 destroys the harvest and the labours of the husbandman. 
 Jaca,s a strong hold at the base of the Pyrenees, is not more 
 than six leagues from the frontiers of France; it lies in a 
 beautiful valley that communicates with several others of 
 a smaller size. Sos is only remarkable for an old castle in 
 which Ferdinand the Catholic was born. Huesca, the an- 
 cient Osca, which was raised to the rank of an episcopal 
 town in the sixth century, is pleasantly situated in the midst 
 of a plain, that extends on the north to the Sierra Guara. 
 The streets are well built ; the longest or the Calle del Co- 
 so consists of uniform houses and different public buildings, 
 such as the cathedral, the consistorial chamber, the univer- 
 sity founded in the year 1354, the palace of Count Huaza, 
 and the convents of St. Francis and St. Domingo. 
 
 Saragossa, the ancient Salduba, was erected into a mili- 
 tary colony by Augustus under the name of Caesar Augusta. 
 The Spaniards call it Zaragoza ; situated almost in the cen- 
 tre of Arragon, near the junction of the Ebro with the 
 Huerva, it is the capital of the province, and likely to be 
 for ever memorable in the annals of Spain from the resist- 
 ance it made against the French troops, h who took it by 
 assault, and when masters of the walls, were obliged to be- 
 siege the houses. The bridge of Saragossa consists of seven 
 arches, one of which is 180 feet wide. The Holy street 1 is 
 not only longer but broader than any other in the town. 
 The church of Our Lady k is superior in architectural beauty 
 to the cathedral, and also more celebrated on account of its 
 miracles. The adjoining country has a monotonous appear- 
 ance in spite of the most varied culture. An edifice in the 
 neighbourhood, the convent of the Hieronymites, erected in 
 the middle ages, exhibits a fine mixture of the Moorish and 
 Italian styles. 
 
 Catalonia, contiguous to France, Arragon and the king- 
 dom of Valencia, is bathed on the east by die Mediterranean. 
 A mountainous country and a great extent of coast appear 
 to have had some influence on die character of the inhabit- 
 ants, or in other words to have rendered diem more indus- 
 trious, more attached to their native land, and consequently 
 more watchful of its independence. The people of . Marca 
 Hispanica, as the province w 7 as then called, shook off die 
 Moorish yoke in the tenth century. Gotholaunia , from 
 
 which the word Catalonia has been derived, was at the same 
 time substituted for its ancient name. * 1 The counts of Cata- 
 lonia, originally vassals of France, at length made themselves 
 independent, and the people excited by their warlike spirit, 
 carried dieir arms or their commerce into most countries then 
 known. Lastly, the house of Catalonia having become 
 
 “ In the tenth century, the province of Catalonia, which had been 
 already freed from the Moors, changed its name of Marca Hispanica 
 for that of Gotholaunia, from which the present name is derived.” 
 Catalonia was conquered by the Saracens in 712, but before the con- 
 clusion of the same century (the eighth,) they were completely expel 
 led from the province by Lewis the Debonnaire. — Ed. Encyc. — P 
 
book cxxxix.j DESCRIPT 
 
 powerful from alliances, was able to unite on a single head 
 all the crowns of Spain. The activity which distinguishes 
 the Catalonian, his patience of labour, his pride that makes 
 him submit to many privations rather than become a ser- 
 vant, or engage in servil » employments in his native coun- 
 try, and his language, a Provencal dialect unintelligible to 
 other Spaniards,® render Catalonia different in many respects 
 from every other province in the kingdom. Agriculture has 
 made greater progress ; trees are not proscribed as in some 
 other provinces ; the woods and groves near the towns 
 heighten the effect of the scenery, and afford a grateful 
 shade against the heat of the sun, an advantage of which 
 Arragon has been deprived. 
 
 Junquera at the base of the Pyrenees, the last Spanish 
 town towards the eastern extremity of those mountains, was 
 called Juncaria by the Romans from the great number of 
 rushes b ( stipa tenacissima), that grow in the neighbourhood. 
 The industry of the inhabitants is mostly confined to their 
 cork manufactories, from which they derive a considerable 
 profit. Figueras, supposed to possess the strongest citadel 
 in Europe, is regularly built and situated in a fruitful coun- 
 try at the extremity of a range of hills which separates the 
 course of the Muga from that of the Marol. Two roads 
 meet in Figueras, one of which leads to Rosas, a strong 
 place on the coast with a large but not very safe anchorage, 
 and the other to Gerona, which the poet Prudentius, a 
 writer of the fourth century, calls the small and wealthy 
 town of Gerunda. Little of its wealth now remains ; it 
 stands at the foot of a hill, and is commanded by the 
 small fort of Montjoui ; ail the other fortifications were de- 
 stroyed by the French in 1S08. The only remarkable 
 monuments are the Arabic baths within the convent of the 
 Capuchins, and the cathedral of which the front cannot be 
 too much commended. There are soap works and one or 
 two cotton manufactories in the town. 
 
 Urgel, or as it is called in Spain, Sco dc Urged, an epis- 
 copal city, well known during the last Spanish revolution as 
 the place where the apostolic junta assembled, rises in a 
 valley near the Pyrenees, on the banks of the Segre. Ba- 
 laguer and its strong'castle are situated below it on the same 
 river ; it is the ancient town of Bergusia, to which place, 
 according to Livy, the Romans sent ambassadors two cen- 
 turies before the vulgar era, to persuade the inhabitants to 
 break off their alliance with the Carthaginians. The Se- 
 gre also waters Lerida, or as Lucan calls it “ Ihrda on the 
 peaceful streams of the Sicoris .” Livy calls it by the an- 
 cient Greek name of Athanagiu, which signifies immortal. 
 Lerida rises on the declivity of a hill, and is surrounded by 
 a very fruitful country ; the banks of the river are shaded 
 by poplars and other trees. The town still possesses some 
 remains of ancient splendour, among others the gate of Los 
 Botes, a Roman building. Cervera, although the largest of 
 the four towns of the same name, is a small place sur- 
 rounded with walls and defended by an ancient castle. 
 The university may be considered the finest edifice ; it was 
 founded in the year 1717. Igualada on the banks of the 
 
 ION OF SPAIN. 169 
 
 Rio Noya, is well built ; the inhabitants are frugal and in- 
 dustrious. 0 
 
 Montserrat rises at the distance of five leagues from the 
 last mentioned place ; its numerous peaks tower into the air, 
 and from their appearance its name has been derived, which 
 signifies the serrated mountain. The caverns in its schist- 
 ous and calcareous mass are remarkable for the yellow ala- 
 baster deposited within them in the form of stalactites. The 
 mountain is about eight leagues in circumference, and its 
 summit is almost always concealed by clouds. Fourteen 
 hermitages are situated between the base and the top ; the 
 magnificent convent of the Benedictines is about half way 
 from the summit. It was there that Ignatius Loyala, an- 
 ticipating the great events to which he believed himself 
 called, consecrated his sword to the virgin. The Carde- 
 net d which throws itself into the Llobregat, flows at no great 
 distance from Montserrat ; a canal serves as a communica- 
 tion between the two rivers, and runs through the town of 
 Manresa, the inhabitants of which carry on a trade in silks 
 and gun-powder. A very magnificent church may be seen 
 on tire left bank of the Cardenet ; it was built by the Jesuits 
 above a grotto, to which the founder of their order retired, 
 when he composed his Spiritual Exercises. 
 
 The small town of Cardona, at some leagues to the north 
 of Manresa, is supposed to have been the ancient Udura; 
 at present it is only remarkable for the rock-salt mines in 
 the vicinity, but it is difficult to conceive a more splendid 
 spectacle than these large open quarries exhibiting saline 
 deposits nearly four hundred feet in height, 6 and which 
 when illumined with the sun’s rays, display the brilliant 
 colours of the rainbow. The strata of rock salt are in 
 some places as transparent as crystal ; in others they are 
 blue or bright red or mixed with greyish clay. The varietv 
 of vivid colours gives to the abrupt sides, the prominences 
 and the summits of this imposing mass, the only one of the 
 kind in Europe, the appearance of a mountain of precious 
 stones, surpassing in magnificence whatever has been imag- 
 ined by the natives of the east concerning the abodes of 
 fairies and genii. The geological position of these salt mines 
 was long unknown to naturalists ; but it has now been ascer- 
 tained that the vast prominence which they form, in the 
 midst of a space nearly twelve thousand feet in length, and 
 fgur thousand in breadth/ contains deposits of gypsum and 
 clay arranged in vertical strata, and separating in some 
 places the layers of salt. These substances, together with 
 the sandstone, the quartz and the limestone of the surround- 
 ing mountains, may be considered as belonging to the inter- 
 mediate formation. s h 
 
 A road from Cardona passes between frightful precipices 
 and through a thick wood at the end of which may be seen 
 the romantic town of Solsona/ the Setelsis of Ptolemy. 1/ 
 rises near the extremity of a group of mountains, on the 
 banks of the Rio Negro. The neighbouring districts are well 
 cultivated, and the inhabitants of tire town manufacture cut- 
 lery and hardware. A chain of mountains connected with 
 the Pyrenaean range, and separating the course of the Llo- 
 
 1 A smoother dialect of the same language is spoken in the kingdom 
 of Valencia, particularly by the country people. — P. 
 
 B “ Sparte” — esparto grass. See note a p. 843. 
 c Botli of the two last towns are on the road from Lerida to Barce- 
 lona. M. B. 
 d Cardonero. 
 
 e “ 100 metres in height.” 
 f “ 3000 metres in length and 1000 in breadth.” 
 s “ — to the formation of middle sediment (sedimens moyens)” — sec- 
 ondary formation. M. Cordier considers the salt and gypsum as tran- 
 VOL. TTI.— NO. 47 22 
 
 sition, and the rocks in the surrounding mountains as secondary 
 The salt hill occupies the centre of a circus having the shape of a 
 horse shoe, and surrounded by mountains on every side, except to 
 wards the east, where it opens on the valley of the Cardonero. See at 
 abstract of M. Cordier’s memoir in De la Beche’s Selections of Ge- 
 ological Memoirs, p. 52. — P. 
 
 h See the memoir on the rock salt of Cardona, by M. Cordier. 
 (Journal de Physique, tome 82.) 
 
 ■ Salsona. 
 
170 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXIX. 
 
 bregat from that of the Ter, extends between Solsona and 
 Vich, a * the latter an ancient town built on the ruins of Awsa, 
 the inhabitants of which resisted the Romans a hundred and 
 eighty-five years before the vulgar era. The streets are 
 broad, some however are not paved, and most of them are 
 very steep. The principal square is surrounded with ar- 
 cades, and the shops, coffee-houses, and other places of 
 amusement render it a place of resort for the town’s people. 
 The fertility of its environs, the copper and coal mines in 
 the neighbouring mountains, and the linen and cotton manu- 
 factures within die walls, maintain the commerce of the 
 inhabitants. 
 
 As to the towns on the coast of Catalonia, Mataro, or as 
 Pliny calls it llluro, is the capital of a maritime department. 
 It carries on a considerable coasting trade, and many ves- 
 sels repair to the harbour ; the inhabitants manufacture a 
 great quantity of lace, and the products of the distilleries 
 are held in some repute. The old town stands on an emi- 
 nence ; ancient walls, gates and other remains of antiquity 
 still remain ; the streets are narrow, but not so crooked as 
 diose in many other Spanish cities. The new town, formerly 
 a suburb, is now much larger than the old ; it is better 
 planned and better built ; the houses are not inelegant, and 
 many of them are adorned with fresco paintings. 
 
 Whether the stranger travels along the road that leads 
 from Mataro to Barcelona, or proceeds to the same capital 
 by sea, he is struck with the beauty of its position, die regu- 
 larity of the buildings, and the impulse given to commerce 
 by the activity of the population. There are not fewer 
 than seven hospitals, four public libraries, eight public schools, b 
 a seminary, an institution for the deaf and dumb, an academy 
 of painting, schools of pharmacy, surgery and medicine, and 
 lastly, a society for the encouragement of arts and sciences.® 
 The buildings set apart for these different institutions are 
 not unworthy the large city of Barcelona ; but the finest 
 edifices are those reserved for public or religious purposes : 
 among the former are the palace of audience,* 1 in which the 
 celebrated archives of Arragon, and other documents con- 
 nected with that kingdom, as old as the eighth century, are 
 deposited ; the town-house, an elegant building ; the palace 
 of the captain-general of the customs, the front of which is 
 adorned with two rows of columns ; the lonjn or exchange, 
 admirable for the simplicity of its architecture ; and lastly, 
 the theatre, perhaps the finest of the kind in Spain. The 
 convent of Santa Clara is all that remains of the ancient 
 palace that belonged to the counts of Barcelona, and the 
 kings of Arragon.® The cloister in the convent of Mercy 
 is very large and of finished workmanship. The church 
 ol St. Michael, once the temple of Neptune, is still adorned 
 with an ancient Mosaic pavement. The cathedral is a 
 Gothic building, but bold, simple and majestic ; an alabas- 
 ter mausoleum, containing the remains of St. Eulalia, the 
 tutelar saint of the city, may be seen in a chapel under the 
 church. The church of ‘St. Mary of the Sea is after the 
 cathedral, the finest in Barcelona. It is not difficult to 
 trace the successive additions made to the town ; the old 
 streets are narrow and crooked, but the new are straight ; 
 
 1 Vicq, Vique — Vic (Vosgien) — Vic de Osona (D’Anvillc.) — P. 
 
 *■ “ Colleges.” 
 
 c “ A school of painting, and another of belles lettres, a college of 
 pharmacy, a school of surgery, an academy of practical medicine, and 
 a society of arts and sciences.” 
 
 J The hotel of the Deputation, (La Casa de la Deputation.) “ The 
 jalaee of the audience or deputation.” 
 
 e The palace of the Counts of Barcelona and the Kings of Arragon 
 
 the modern houses consist of four or five stories ; they are 
 adorned with balconies, and are mostly constructed with 
 considerable taste. Many Roman monuments are still to 
 be found in Barcelona ; the ancient city was called Barcino, 
 and it has been supposed, was founded by Hamilcar, the 
 ancestor^ of Hannibal. The fort of Monjuich or Montjoui, 
 which guards the town on the south, while the citadel de- 
 fends it on the north, stands on the site of a temple dedi- 
 cated to Jupiter. The new town of Barcelonetta has been 
 built near the mole that extends into the sea ; it forms 
 merely a suburb of Barcelona. The port, although regularly 
 cleaned, is much encumbered with ooze and pebbles ; it 
 has been for a long time inaccessible to large ships, an in- 
 convenience which has hitherto had little effect on the com- 
 merce of the place ; the products of its industry consist in 
 cloths, velvets, silks, lace and excellent armour.® The 
 consequences of the epidemical disease by which the pop- 
 ulation was more than decimated in 1 82 1 , are now almost 
 forgotten. 
 
 It would be an omission to say nothing of the situation 
 of Barcelona, or the varied scenery in the neighbourhood, 
 forming a landscape of lofty hills, thick woods, precipices, 
 torrents and foaming cataracts, worthy to be appreciated by 
 those who can find subjects of study in the beauties of na- 
 ture. 
 
 Many monuments of Roman power are seen in the 
 country betwen the capital of Catalonia and Tarragona ; 
 the remains of an aqueduct near Villa Franca form a com- 
 munication between two steep mountains ; the ruins of an 
 ancient fortress are situated near Villa Nova, h and numer- 
 ous sepulchres dug in rocks, exhibiting, if it may be so 
 said, the impressions of so many human bodies, indicate 
 the site of Carthago Vetus, a town mentioned by Ptolemy ; 
 a triumphal arch rises beyond the burgh of Vendrell, and 
 near Torre-dam-Barra, a majestic tomb, which according to 
 popular tradition contains the ashes of the Scipios. From 
 the last mentioned place may be seen Tarragona apparently 
 extending into the sea, and which different antiquarians con- 
 sider Tarraco, a place that in the time of the Romans gave 
 its name to the largest province in ancient Hispania. The 
 town stands on an eminence six hundred feet 1 above the 
 level of the sea ; it is defended by walls flanked with bastions, 
 and within their enclosure are many ancient monuments 
 together with some fine modern buildings. The Roman 
 aqueduct is still kept in good repair ; uniting utility with its 
 historical recollections, it furnishes wholesome and limpid 
 water to the whole population. The cathedral, of which 
 the architecture appears to have been borrowed from the 
 Moors, is certainly the largest building in the town. Tar- 
 ragona was exposed to many disasters in consequence of its 
 resistance to the French armies, but it has now become 
 more industrious and more flourishing than formerly. The 
 harbour begun in 1800, affords at present an easy entrance 
 to ships, and a safe retreat against every storm. The wool, 
 the fisheries, and the coasting trade of Tarragona, together 
 with the commercial relations between the same place and 
 distant countries are the guarantees of its prosperity. The 
 
 servos for the prisons of the inquisition, and the academy of medicine. 
 Ed. Encyc. — P. 
 
 f “ A'feul,” grandfather. Barcelona was originally founded by Ha- 
 milcar Barcas, the father of Hannibal, and from him called Barcino. 
 (Rees’ Cyc.) — P. 
 
 s “ Armes blanches,” swords, sabres, and other small arms. — Bar- 
 celona has a large cannon foundery, besides manufactories of muskets, 
 pistols, swords, and other small arms. — P. 
 
 h Villa Nueva. ‘ “ 760 feet.” 
 
BOOK CXXXIX.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SPAIN. 
 
 171 
 
 town was the birth-place of Paul Orosius, a disciple of St. 
 Augustine. 
 
 Reuss, a a place founded by the clergy of Tarragona, b 
 was only a burgh at the end of the last century, but its 
 commerce and industry now place it among the number of 
 important towns. It carries on a trade in glass, and it pos- 
 sesses a hundred and fifty tan-pits, a hundred and twenty 
 machines for carding cotton, eighty-four for spinning silk, c 
 six bleach-fields, as many hat manufactories, fifteen soap 
 works, and twenty for different sorts of dying. 
 
 Tortosa, the ancient Dertosa, formerly one of the largest 
 cities in Tarraconensis, stands near the southern extremity 
 of the province, between two chains of mountains on the 
 banks of the Ebro. The Spaniards having taken it from 
 the Moors in the year 1149, the latter collected a great 
 force, and laid siege to the town ; the besieged exhausted 
 by a long resistance, were about to give up the place for 
 want of hands to defend it, when the women took up arms, 
 and drove away the Mussulmans. A military ceremony in 
 which the women took precedence of the men, served until 
 lately to perpetuate the memory of the event. Tortosa is at 
 present reckoned one of the strong places in Spain, and it 
 is also the capital of a maritime department. The finest edi- 
 fices in the town are the cathedral and the episcopal palace. 
 
 The kingdom of Valencia forms a province bounded by 
 Catalonia, Arragon, New Castile and Murcia. The coasts 
 are more extensive than those of Catalonia ; the land yields 
 rich harvests, and abounds in mines and different sorts of 
 marble. 
 
 The Valencian is not only laborious and industrious, but 
 he possesses a lively imagination, and his uniform gayety or 
 cheerfulness cannot be wholly subdued by misfortunes. 
 They unite, says Fischer,* * 1 the opposite qualities that are re- 
 marked in the inhabitants of the north and' in those of the 
 south, the bodily strength of the Norwegian with the im- 
 petuosity of the Provenqal. They are fond of religious 
 ceremonies, festivals, amusements and every sort of bodily 
 exercise. It is inspiring to see the ardour with which they 
 dance to the accompaniment of the tambourine and the 
 dulzayna, an Arabic instrument, not unlike the clarionet, 
 used at present in no other Spanish province. Their dia- 
 lect, derived from the Provencal, although soft and agreea- 
 ble, particularly in the mouths of the women, is not desti- 
 tute of energy. The Fiera, a very ancient ballad, which 
 the peasant sings to the sound of his guitar, expresses the 
 woes of love in harmonious modulations and in the con- 
 tinued accord of the accompaniment. A fondness for finery 
 or display in dress is common to every class of people in 
 V alencia. The bonnets of the peasantry are like those used 
 by the ancient Phrygians ; their shirts are bound by a girdle, 
 and descend in the form of a tunic ; e sandals attached with 
 cords are worn instead of shoes; lastly, a large piece of 
 cloth falls over tire shoulders, and completes the costume. 
 On festival and gala days they appear in velvet, a broad hat 
 encircled with ribbons protects them from the sun, while 
 their mantles and buskins are adorned with strings 1 " of gold 
 or silk. The country women are distinguished by their 
 
 1 Reus. b A. D. 1151. 
 
 c “ It possesses a glass house, 150 tanneries, 120 machines for card- 
 ing cotton, 84 for spinning ( filatures ) — ” 
 
 d Gemrelde von Valencia, herausgegeben von Ch. Aug. Fischer. 
 
 e “ Their shirts are bound by a girdle, and descend over their naked 
 limbs in the form of a tunic, or are confined at the waist by loose 
 drawers” ( calzones .) 
 
 f “ Ganses,” loops. g Pedro de Luna. 
 
 A grotto into which the waves are precipitated, and from which 
 
 grace and gayety from the inhabitants of the other provinces ; 
 they never appear without their veils, and wear even during 
 festivals the same sort of bodice that was worn by their an- 
 cestors. 
 
 The road from Tortosa leads to Pehiscola, a frontier 
 town in Valencia ; it stands on a rock that rises from the 
 sea to the height of 240 feet, and a belt of sand, only thirty 
 feet wide in its narrowest part, unites it with the continent ; 
 but the same belt was sometimes covered with water in 
 tempestuous weather, before a dike was raised by the in- 
 habitants. The town thus fortified by its position was con- 
 sidered impregnable until Marshal Suchet took possession 
 of it in November 1811. The ruins of a church belong- 
 ing to the Templars may still be seen; it was to it that the 
 antipope Peter Luna,s who had taken the title of Benedict 
 the Thirteenth, fled for safety ; he died in the same place 
 in the year 1423. A natural grotto into which the waves 
 are precipitated with a loud noise, has been called the Bu- 
 fador of pope Luna in honor of the same celebrated person. 1 * 
 Castellon, surnamed de la Plana, to distinguish it from two 
 other cities of the same name, the one in Valencia, the other 
 in Catalonia, is a well built town about a league from the sea, 
 and at a short distance from the Rio Mijares, over which a 
 bridge of thirteen arches has been lately erected. Francis- 
 co Ribalta, the celebrated painter, was a native of the town. 
 Segorbe 1 has been considered the Segobriga mentioned by 
 Pliny ; but the dolphins represented on the medals of the 
 same place seem to indicate that the ancient town of the 
 Suessetani was not far from the sea. k 
 
 Valencia, which gives its name to the province, is one of 
 the finest and largest cities in Spain. The Spaniards still 
 call it by the ancient name of Valeniia ,' but the antiquities 
 consist merely of imperfect inscriptions and ijiul ilated col- 
 umns. The Guadalaviar passes through the town ; although 
 at no great distance from its mouth, it is very narrow, be- 
 cause the streams are diverted and serve to irrigate the fer- 
 tile districts watered by the river. Bridges 111 lead from the 
 town to the different suburbs. The cathedral, an ancient 
 mosque, may be remarked on account of a silver altar," and 
 the pictures that adorn the chapels. The Arabic baths, al- 
 dtough disfigured by modern additions, enable us to judge 
 of the manner in which the Moors laid out these edifices. 
 The custom-house, a fine building, forms nearly a side of 
 the square of St. Domingo. The lonja or exchange, a 
 Gothic edifice in the market-place, is crowned by a range of 
 battlements rising above a hall 120 feet long, eighty broad 
 and sixty in height. The elegance of the private houses, 
 at the same time that it announces the wealth, is creditable 
 to the taste of the inhabitants. The same town was the first 
 in Spain, in which serenos were established, or companies 
 of police that walk the streets at night, watch over the pub- 
 lic safety, and warn the inhabitants in cases of fire. These 
 useful institutions have been adopted in all the large Spanish 
 towns since the last century. Lastly, it was also the first 
 place that participated in the benefits oi printing ; so early 
 as the year 1474, the inhabitants distinguished themselves 
 in the new art, and even at present it possesses a decided 
 
 they spout in showers of spray to a very great distance, is called from 
 the latter circumstance, El Bufador del Papa Luna , (the blower or 
 puffer of Pope Luna.)” 
 
 * Segorba. — T r. 
 
 k Compare D’Anville with the work entitled Medullas de Espana by 
 P. Florez. » 
 
 1 The Spanish orthography is Valencia. — P. 
 
 m “ Five bridges.” 
 
 0 The great altar.” 
 
 J 
 
172 EUROPE. [book cxxxix. 
 
 superiority in this respect over all the other towns in the 
 kingdom. The same cause may account in some measure 
 for die rank which it holds among the cities that have pro- 
 duced celebrated men in literature and the arts. The insti- 
 tutions connected with education or instruction are seven 
 seminaries,® an university, two public libraries, a botanical 
 garden, a great many elementary schools, a military school 
 for cavalry, a royal academy of liberal arts, and a society of 
 agriculture and rural economy. 11 
 
 Whether a stranger leaves Valencia by the gate of Serra- 
 nos, of which the semi-gothic architecture and the two mas- 
 sive octagonal towers accord perfectly with the battiemented 
 walls that surround the town, or proceeds by the triumphal 
 gate, called the Puerto, del Reed, along the line walk of the 
 Alameda , he is equally struck with the beauty of the coun- 
 try, the richness of the cultivation, and the luxuriance of the 
 vegetation throughout the whole extent that the eye can 
 reach. 
 
 Two places may be mentioned between Valencia and 
 Alicante, namely, Gandia, a small maritime town, situated 
 in the most fruitful and finest part of the province, and De- 
 nia, a port now insignificant, but celebrated in ancient times 
 under the name of Dianium, c from a temple consecrated to 
 Diana, of which some remains may be observed. Alicante d 
 still retains an Arabic name ; it is built near the site of the 
 ancient Lucentum, and extends along a fine beach under 
 several hills. A castle commands the nearest of these 
 heights, the rocks of which threaten to give way and to de- 
 stroy the town. The harbour is safe and commodious, and 
 the large and deep bay might serve as an anchoring place 
 for several fleets. Orilmela near the confines of Murcia, 
 occupies the site of the ancient Orcelis, a town supposed to 
 have been founded by the Carthaginians: it stands in a 
 fruitful plain watered by the Segura, and at the base of a 
 lofty calcareous hill. Xicoua/ a place of some trade/ is 
 about twelve leagues to the north-east of Orihuela. Lastly, 
 San Felipe, formerly Xativa, which was destroyed because 
 the inhabitants resisted Philip the Fifth, and afterwards 
 restored by the same prince, who gave it the name that it 
 now bears, is situated at the foot of a mountain, on which 
 may be seen an ancient casde, built first by the Romans, 
 and afterwards by the Goths and Moors. San Felipe pos- 
 sesses a considerable trade in cotton and silk manufactures, 
 and according to tradition, it occupies die site of Scetabis, 
 famous in ancient times for its linen. 
 
 New Castile forms a large division of Spain, bounded by 
 the kingdom of Valencia, Arragon, Old Castile, Estremadu- 
 ra, Andalusia and Murcia ; it comprehends the provinces 
 of Cuenca, Guadalaxara, Madrid, Toledo and La Mancha. 
 
 F ew towns of any consequence are situated in the prov- 
 ince of Cuenca.s San Clemente in the south, is one of the 
 largest ; it possesses a Latin seminary. Huete,' * 1 a small 
 and finely situated town in the north, bears the name of the 
 stream that waters it. Cuenca in the centre, die ancient 
 Valeria, near the confluence of the Huecar and the Jucar, 
 rises on a mountain of which the sides form lofty precipices 
 above these rivers. It contains fourteen churches, two hos- 
 
 a “ Colleges.” 
 
 b “ — a society of agriculture and economy” — not of rural economy 
 alone, but of the useful arts. Tho Economical Society of Valencia 
 directed its attention to improving the silk manufacture. (Towns- 
 end. - ' — P. 
 
 c Strabo, Rook III. ch. 4, § 6. d Alicant. . 
 
 c Xixona, Jijona. 
 
 “ It. carries on a considerable trade in a kind of sweetmeat called 
 turron” 
 
 pitals and three seminaries, 1 but it was formerly more popu- 
 lous than at present. It is the native town of the architect 
 Herrera/ and of the celebrated jesuit Lewis Molina, one of 
 die most subtle casuists of his fraternity. 
 
 Siguenza in the province of Guadalaxara contains nothing 
 remarkable except a Gothic cathedral, three hundred and 
 thirteen feet long, a hundred and twelve broad, and as many 
 in height. It was in ancient times the Celtiberian town of 
 Seguntia. Guadalaxara or Guadalajara, aldiough the capi- 
 tal, is an old Moorish town, ill built and enclosed with walls, 
 on the eastern bank of the Rio Henares. It still possesses 
 some of the cloth manufactories in which its riches formerly 
 consisted ; the largest of these manufactories belongs to the 
 king, but their products are not in so great repute as they 
 once were. 
 
 Madrid, die capital of the kingdom, adds considerably to 
 the importance of the province, in which it is situated. The 
 town, it is said, was built near the site of Mantua ,’ a city 
 belonging to the Carpetani. While the Goths were masters 
 of the country, it was a mere village under the archbishops 
 of Toledo. It was included in the number of royal towns 
 in the fourteenth century, and obtained the title of capital by 
 a decree of Philip the Second. It is higher than any other 
 metropolis in Europe, being 1800 feet m above the level of 
 the sea, a circumstance that partly accounts for the compar- 
 ative coldness of the temperature. The climate has some 
 resemblance to that in the nordi ; in summer the heat is 
 oppressive, the centigrade thermometer reaches often to 
 forty degrees ; in winter, the cold is keen and piercing, and 
 the mercury in the same thermometer descends sometimes 
 so low as eight or ten degrees below die freezing point. 
 The houses are ill adapted to shelter the inhabitants against 
 the cold or the humidity of the north wind, for they consist 
 mostly of high apartments, in many places not air-tight, and 
 seldom provided with a fire or chimney. The word Madrid 
 is of Arabic origin, and signifies a tvell-aired house," but the 
 variableness of the climate gives rise to phthisis, putrid 
 fevers and a sort of dangerous colic, which, according to 
 many, can only be successfully treated by the physicians of 
 the country. 0 It still contains some old houses built of 
 wood, and decorated according to the ancient custom with 
 paintings representing bull-fights and persons in the costume 
 of the sixteenth century ; but the modern quarters of the 
 town are provided with brick or stone houses and broad 
 streets, net inferior to any in other European capitals. The 
 street of Alcala is the largest in Madrid, and die most re- 
 markable for the number of public buildings ; ten carriages 
 may pass abreast in any part of it. Of the forty-two squares, 
 it is only necessary to mention the square of the Royal Pal- 
 ace, adorned by that large and imposing edifice ; the square 
 of the sun,P where five of the principal streets terminate, and 
 a place of resort both for the idle and die busy ; and lastly, 
 the great square ( Plaza Mayor ) in the centre of the town, 
 formerly frequented on account of the bull-fights and the 
 public festivals at which die king assisted from the balcony 
 of a small palace that has been since converted into a hall 
 for the royal academy of history. The Cevada is the place 
 
 s Cuenca, Cuenza. b Hueta, Gueta. 
 
 > “.Colleges.” k Juan de Herrera. 
 
 1 Mantua Carpetanorum. 
 
 1,1 2276 feet. (Ed. Encyc.) — 2281 feet Fr. (M. B. Table of Euro 
 pean altitudes.) 
 
 n “ Maison du bon air” — a salubrious dwelling. 
 
 0 Fischer, Reise nach Spanien. 
 
 p Puerto del Sol. 
 
book cxxxix.] DESCRIPTIOl 
 
 to which the people run with the greatest pleasure, because 
 it is there that criminals are executed, but the most delight- 
 ful to a real Spaniard, is the one that serves as an arena for 
 bull-fights. 
 
 Whoever has not been a witness of these spectacles, 
 where the blood of man is mingled with the blood of an 
 infuriated beast, can form but an imperfect idea of them. It 
 is still more difficult to conceive the ardour with which the 
 people, as well as men and women of the highest rank, rush 
 into the enclosure prepared for these dangerous combats. 
 The artisan, insensible to the wants of his family, leaves his 
 work, and carries his furniture or best clodies to a mount of 
 piety, that he may procure a sufficient sum to pay for his 
 place at the corrida . a A surgeon and a priest may be seen 
 in attendance near the amphitheatre, apparently very indiffer- 
 ent about the passing scene, until it has been announced to 
 them that the toreador is mortally wounded, when the one 
 administers the resources of his art, and the other the conso- 
 lations of religion. A combat that is exhibited gratuitously 
 to the people, serves as a prelude to the one for which the 
 spectators pay. The first rays of the sun have hardly illu- 
 mined the horizon, when the people appear in crowds at the 
 entrance of the circus, to see the bull let loose into the arena, 
 where tormented by a multitude who have passed the night 
 in taverns, in order to get a good place at the combat, it 
 often wounds the fool-hardy drunkards that venture to attack 
 it, until the matador dispatches it, and puts an end to the 
 fight. In the mean time, preparations are made for the 
 principal spectacle ; the first places are filled with the ladies 
 and gentlemen of Madrid, and the others with the lower 
 orders, who can afford to pay for their amusement. The 
 box of the king is situated opposite the gate by which the 
 bull is driven into the arena, and another in front of the 
 king’s belongs to the municipal authorities. Before the 
 combat commences, an officer bows to the king or to the 
 place reserved for him, and then receives his instructions 
 from the master of the ceremonies. The latter gives the 
 signal by throwing up a number of keys. b The silent crowd 
 eagerly await the long wished moment. The picadores 
 (prickers), clad in silk jackets, bespangled with gold, and 
 adorned with ribbons of every colour, and chamois panta- 
 loons lined with iron from the heel to the haunch, armed 
 with long and light spears, and mounted on horses with fillets 
 bound round their eyes, march in file to the accompani- 
 ment of trumpets before the two principal boxes, and range 
 themselves opposite the gates. The chulos or tormentors in 
 the costume of Figaro, carrying long scarlet scarfs, pass 
 between the posts of the balustrade, which separates the 
 arena from the spectators. The chulos are replaced by the 
 matadores, holding a long sword in one hand, and the rnule- 
 ta in the other, a sort of small banner that they use as a 
 buckler. After having been presented by a municipal offi- 
 cer to the prince and the master of the ceremonies, they 
 retire in the same order that they entered. 
 
 A flourish of trumpets precedes the commencement of the 
 combat. The gates open, and the picadores with couched 
 lances prepare for the fight. The animal springs into the 
 enclosure, runs round every part of it, and seeks in vain to 
 escape. The appearance of twelve or fifteen thousand per- 
 sons waving their handkerchiefs and their hats, and the 
 shouts of joy that accompany its entrance, frighten or enrage 
 it. It strikes the earth with its horns, beats its tail against 
 
 V OF SPAIN. 173 
 
 its sides, and attacks one of the picadores, who receives it 
 with his lance, supporting it with all his strength against the 
 shoulder 0 of the animal ; but as the iron point at the end of 
 the lance can only gall the bull, it becomes more furious, 
 and rushes successively against each of the picadores. If 
 the men are not very dexterous, or if their lances break, 
 they are dismounted, and their gored horses fall dead on the 
 arena. The horsemen themselves, although their limbs are 
 covered with plates of iron, might also be destroyed, if the 
 chulos did not run forward and turn away the animal by 
 waving their silken banners. When a sufficient number of 
 horses have been killed, the picadores retire and give place 
 to the chulos, to whom the perilous task is committed of 
 plunging the banderilla into the body of the animal, at the 
 junction of the neck and shoulders. The banderilla is a 
 small staff about two feet long, furnished at one extremity 
 with a bent spike, and at the other are attached many squibs 
 and crackers. d The light banderillero places himself in front 
 of the animal, passes his arm between the horns, and fixes 
 the banderilla, but if he miss his mark, he is infallibly 
 wounded or tossed into the air by his furious adversary, 
 while shouts of viva are a thousand times repeated by the 
 crowd. Tormented by the iron and the fire, the bull bel- 
 lows, bounds, turns and fights with desperate fury, when 
 a flourish of trumpets announces its approaching fate. As- 
 sisted by four chulos, the matador holding in one hand a 
 drawn sword, and in the other an unfurled mideta, presents 
 himself with great gravity. The flag which he displays 
 attracts the attention of the animal ; the two adversaries look 
 at each other an instant, the one to satisfy its fury, the other 
 to ward off its attacks. The spectators are all attention ; 
 the bull springs forward, but only tearing the light silk, passes 
 under the left arm of the matador, who with his right hand 
 strikes the sword into its withers, and separating two verte- 
 brae, dispatches his victim at a single blow. The victor is 
 then hailed with the applauses of the whole assembly, and 
 if he has the address not to leave hold of his sword until he 
 presents it to the people, the ladies crown him with flowers, 
 and the gentlemen load him with piastres. But if the ma- 
 tador strikes the animal in any other place than that pre- 
 scribed by die rules of art, so that it does not die instantly 
 on the spot, hisses and groans are bis only reward. If the 
 bull kills one matador, the people continue shouting bravo, 
 until it falls by the hand of another. These sanguinary 
 spectacles, not unknown in the most remote antiquity, and 
 common in the days of chivalry, have retained something of 
 the barbarous gallantry of the middle ages ; the matador 
 presents with much grace to his mistress or to a noble dame 
 in the assembly, the ribbons placed on the back of the ani- 
 mal to indicate the colour of its breed. These representa- 
 tions, however solemnly conducted, impress the stranger 
 with no favourable idea of Spanish civilization ; for the peo- 
 ple are not satisfied until ten or twelve bulls and about twenty 
 horses have fallen ; indeed, as a writer who resided long in 
 Spain, and was frequently a witness of these spectacles, 
 affirms, the combat can hardly be considered complete un- 
 less a matador has lost his life. But these accidents do not 
 happen so often as might be expected, fortunately for those 
 not familiar with such scenes, or who do not think the death 
 of a man a very agreeable spectacle. 
 
 Madrid w r as bombarded in 1808 by Napoleon, who 
 adopted that method of compelling the people to acknowl- 
 
 a Corrida de toros , bull-fight. 
 
 b — “ by throwing to the officer the keys of the gates by which the 
 bulls are let into the arena.” c “ Oinoplate,” shoulder-blade. 
 
 d “ A small flag, wilh a staff about two feet long, armed with a very 
 sharp barb, and furnished with crackers, which are lighted by a piece 
 of tinder the moment it is inserted in the animal.” 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 174 
 
 edge the title of king of Spain and the Indies, which he had 
 conferred on his brother. The same brother of the emperor 
 adorned and improved the capital of Spain. It was he who 
 levelled with the ground the old houses in the neighbour- 
 hood of the new palace, and rendered the edifice wor- 
 thy of being ranked among the finest royal residences in 
 Europe. The interior is decorated with valuable paintings, 
 and the twelve mirrors in the king’s hall a are said to be the 
 largest on the continent. The royal arsenal rises near the 
 principal front of the palace, and an elegant arcade extends 
 along its -eastern extremity. This building contains a rich 
 collection of ancient armour, among which that of queen Isa- 
 bella is still preserved ; but M. Reichard, who mentions 
 among its curiosities the sword of Francis the First, b has 
 forgotten that it was the only trophy retained by Napoleon, 
 of all the victories which he gained in Spain. The royal 
 library, valuable from its manuscripts, medals and antiquities, 
 contains 150,000 volumes. The royal museum of natural 
 history, and the royal academy of San Fernando, founded 
 by Philip the Fifth, are situated in the street of Alcala. M. 
 Mariano de Cabrerizo, a Spanish writer, has added the au- 
 thority of his name to a popular fiction, in affirming that the 
 French took away whatever was most precious in the muse- 
 um of natural history to enrich their own in Paris. The 
 Paris museum need not be augmented with the fabulous 
 spoils which the author enumerates, for if the skeleton of the 
 Mastodon be excepted, it is as much superior to the other 
 in the number and selection of the different articles, and in 
 the order in which they are classed, as it is to the different 
 museums in the French departments. It is unnecessary to 
 mention the places of education at Madrid, not because they 
 are insufficient in point of number, but because the sphere 
 of their utility is very limited. The charitable institutions 
 are more important ; they are richly endowed, and the 
 buildings reserved for them are spacious and cleanly kept. 
 In the general hospital, the largest in Madrid, many unfor- 
 tunate persons receive every sort of assistance, and in cases 
 of disease, the best medical treatment the capital can afford. 
 The churches are less remarkable for their architecture than 
 for the number of their paintings. 
 
 Madrid is not more than two leagues and a half in circum- 
 ference ; the public walks are the garden of the Retiro , 0 
 Las Delicias and the Prado, the last a very fine plantation, 
 in which the principal avenue is often crowded with equi- 
 pages, while the odters serve as a place of resort for the 
 burgesses. Two monuments, not unworthy of any capital, 
 may be mentioned ; these are the triumphal arch of Alcala J 
 and the gate of Toledo ; the former, like the gates of Ato- 
 cha and Segovia, leads to pleasant walks beyond the walls, 
 and the latter to the majestic bridge over the Manzanares. 
 In summer the river may be easily forded, which accounts 
 for the advice of a jester, who counselled the king to sell the 
 bridge, and purchase water with the money ; but in winter 
 the abundant rains, and in spring the sudden melting of the 
 snow accumulated on the mountains, add so much to the 
 breadth and impetuosity of its course, that the bridge is nei- 
 ther too long nor too solid. 
 
 The Spanish metropolis is a place of trade and industry ; 
 
 1 Salon de los Rcynos, the hall of kingdoms — the audience chamber 
 ^Townsend.) — P. 
 
 b See the Traveller's Guide through Europe by Reichard. (Fr. 
 Trans.) 1827. 
 
 c Ruen Retiro. <* The gate of Alcala. 
 
 • “ On the left bank of the Manzanares, above Madrid, is the pleas- 
 ant country seat, called the Prado — ” 
 
 f Alcala de Henares — “ situated opposite the site of Complutum .” 
 
 [BOOK CXXXIX. 
 
 the inhabitants manufacture woollen stuffs of every colour, 
 carpets, silks, printed linen and muslins ; government keeps 
 up at a great expense very extensive porcelain works ; lastly, 
 a fair is held in the town, which lasts from the 21st of Sep- 
 tember to the 4th of October. 
 
 Madrid stands in the midst of a sandy and sterile plain, 
 surrounded with mountains ; but in the neighbourhood some 
 places are not destitute of beauty. The Manzanares waters 
 the Prado, the much admired palace, 6 where Philip the 
 Fourth found the duchess of Albuquerque, his mistress, in 
 the arms of the duke of Medina de las Torres. Kings, like 
 other men, are liable to such accidents, but Philip bore it 
 not with becoming moderation, and the lovers might have 
 speedily atoned for their crime with their lives, had not the 
 royal rage been restrained by an attendant. 
 
 F ew other towns of any consequence are situated in the 
 same province. The ancient Complutum was ruined in the 
 tenth century ; Alcala/ however, at no great distance from 
 it on the opposite bank of the Henares, is celebrated not 
 only for its university, the next in importance after the one 
 at Salamanca, but also on account of several distinguished 
 townsmen, among whom may be mentioned the historian 
 Antonio Solis, the naturalist Bustamente de la Camara and 
 the immortal Cervantes. In a different direction or at the 
 distance of eight leagues to the north-west of Madrid, is sit- 
 uated the town of Escurial de Abajo, an ecclesiastical burgh, 
 of which the lands belong to the Hieronymites, for whom 
 the superstitious Philip the Second built the Escurial,? an im- 
 mense edifice, at once a monastery and a palace. The 
 Spanish word escorial signifies an exhausted mine. It is not 
 improbable, therefore, that there was formerly some sort of 
 mine in the place, or that the name was applied to indicate the 
 great size of the building, and the enormous quantity of gran- 
 ite used in the construction, the working of which has formed 
 not merely a quarry, but a valley, that from its extent might be 
 compared with the works of nature. h The building forms a 
 rectangle seven hundred and forty feet in length, and five hun- 
 dred and eighty in breadth ; the height from die base to the 
 cornice is not less than sixty feet. The superstitious Philip, 
 terrified after having lost the battle at St. Quentin, and not 
 knowing to which of the saints he should address his vows, 
 sw r ore if on any future day, he should retrieve his lost for- 
 tunes, to raise the most magnificent convent in the world to 
 the saint whose name then appeared in the calendar. Hav- 
 ing gained a victory with the assistance of the English, he 
 hastened to perform his vows ; the day on which he was 
 successful, was the anniversary of the saint and martyr Lo- 
 renzo / a site for die building was therefore chosen near the 
 village of San Lorenzo. The saint had been burnt to death 
 on a gridiron, and that circumstance determined the form 
 of the edifice ; gridirons appear in profusion among the 
 architectural ornaments, and figures of the same instrument 
 are sewed or embroidered on the sacerdotal habits. Four 
 towers, each two hundred and sixty feet high, erected 
 at the four angles of the building, represent the feet of the 
 gridiron, the apartments reserved for the king form the han- 
 dle, and die eleven square courts into which the interior is 
 divided, indicate the spaces between the iron bars. This 
 
 The Biblia Complutensia, a splendid edition of the Bible, was printed 
 in Alcala, J512 — 1517. — P. s Span. Escorial. 
 
 h We have adhered to the proper meaning of the word Escorial, but 
 M. Minano supposes the name of the palace to be derived from the 
 i Latin word esciilelnm. a forest of oaks, in allusion to the lofty trees, 
 that formerly shaded the solitude of San Lorenzo. See Diccionario 
 Geografico-estadistieo de EspaiSa y Portugal, art. Escorial. 
 
 I * * St. Lawrence. 
 
book cxxxix., DESCRIPTION OF SPAIN. 175 
 
 wonder of Spain, as it has been called, cost the founder 
 L.2. 500,000,® but the same wonder is one of the most 
 gloomy and dismal residences that can well be imagined. 
 The pictures that decorate the apartments, the chapeP that 
 serves as a place of interment for the royal family, the rel- 
 ics and the gardens, may be passed over in silence. The 
 library contains nearly 30,000 volumes, and more than 4000 
 Latin, Greek, Hebrew and Arabic manuscripts. 
 
 The indolence and apathy of the Castilians are more ap- 
 parent in the province of Madrid than in any other. It may 
 be natural for the inhabitants themselves to be of a different 
 opinion, but how else can they account for the small number- 
 of manufactories, and particularly for the inferior quality of 
 their products ? The places in the vicinity of the capital 
 do not resemble those near the other great cities in Europe ; 
 the same movement and activity so apparent in the neigh- 
 bourhood of London or Paris can nowhere be observed. It 
 is only necessary to leave Madrid to be transported from the 
 opulence and luxury of the capital to the wretchedness and 
 misery that prevail in the country. The character given 
 some time ago of the Castilian peasantry by a German trav- 
 eller,® is equally applicable to them at present ; revolutions 
 continued with little interruption for a period of thirty years 
 have made no alteration in their manners and habits. The 
 instruments of labour, their dress, and then - food, proclaim 
 the poverty and ignorance in which they are suffered to lan- 
 guish. Inveterate prejudice opposes itself to every improve- 
 ment in agriculture and the mechanical arts. But this is not 
 all ; the disgust, which the sight of so wretched a population 
 produces, is heightened by their filth ; for from the dear 
 price of linen, the trouble of washing it, and the notion that 
 it is sooner worn out by being washed, the men never 
 change their shirts more than once a month. The neces- 
 sary consequences of the custom are a degree of uncleanli- 
 ness that occasions cutaneous diseases and the excessive 
 multiplication of vermin. It is usual, not only in villages but 
 in the populous parts of great towns, to see men and women 
 destroying the vermin which they find on each other. 
 
 The siesta, a custom perhaps necessary from the heat of 
 the climate, has been adopted since time immemorial in 
 every part of Spain. At Madrid, the shopkeepers shut their 
 shops from one to three o’clock in the afternoon ; die work- 
 men leave their work ; all the inhabitants are asleep. In 
 the evening, on die contrary, all are eager to enjoy the cool 
 air ; those who are idle, hasten to the public walks ; die 
 cortejos or gallants accompany the fair, and are continually 
 engaged in performing those assiduous and minute attentions, 
 which seldom fail to please a Spanish lady. Such atten- 
 tions the women of Spain consider indispensable ; it is cer- 
 tain, they have the art of captivating die men, and binding 
 them when once subdued in chains that are only broken 
 by length of years. The bonds imposed by the women, and 
 the innumerable services they exact, not the vigilance of the 
 police, have kept Madrid comparatively pure from die scan- 
 dal of prostitution. 
 
 The towns in the province of Toledo are none of diem 
 distant from the banks of the Tagus. The small town of 
 Talavera de la Reyna is situated below the confluence of 
 the Tagus and the Alberche ; the streets are crooked and 
 
 ill built ; it appears probable from many remains of anti- 
 quity that it was the ancient Libor a. It boasts, of having 
 given birth to the jesuit Mariana, celebrated as an historian, 
 and to the learned agricultural writer, Alonzo de Herrera.* * 1 
 This town has gained some celebrity by the battle fought 
 under its walls, between the French and Anglo-Portuguese 
 armies, on the 27th and 28th of July 1809. 
 
 Sylva, a Spanish historian, whose etymological researches 
 are very frivolous, supposes that Toledo was founded five 
 hundred and forty years before the Christian era by a Jew- 
 ish colony, that called the town ToJedath or the mother of 
 nations.® f The Tagus, which flows beneath the town amidst 
 arid and naked rocks, the Moorish bridge over the same 
 river, the elegant gate built by the Arabs, and the position 
 of the town on a granite rock, form a sad contrast with the 
 interior, where the only remarkable edifices are the cathe- 
 dral, an ancient mosque, and the Alcazar, built by the 
 Moors, repaired by Alphonso the Tenth, and embellished 
 by Charles the Fifth, and the Cardinal Lorenzana. These 
 edifices rise majestically above old buildings, and tortuous 
 and dirty streets. The royal residence of Aranjuez, nearly 
 seven leagues above Toledo, is surrounded with extensive 
 and magnificent gardens; the Tagus washes the castle wall, 
 and forms a cascade down an artificial terrace as broad as 
 the space between the banks. A small town, built with 
 scrupulous exactness after a plan laid down by government, 
 rises near the palace. 
 
 The southern part of New Castile forms the province of 
 La Mancha, in which three cities are contained, namely, 
 Alcaraz, Almagro and Ciudad-Real, the capital. In the 
 first, which stands on an eminence near the banks of the 
 Guadarmena, are seen the remains of a Roman aqueduct 
 The second, situated in a very fertile part of the province, 
 indicates by its name an Arabic origin ; many persons from 
 different parts of the kingdom, repair to its fair, which is 
 held every year on St. Bartholomew’s day. Ciudad-Real, 
 famous for the tribunal of the Santa Hermandad estab- 
 lished by Ferdinand the Third in 1249, was also important 
 for its manufactories and the number of its inhabitants. It 
 contains three hospitals and a fine church dedicated to the 
 virgin of Prado, h the tutelar saint of the town. 
 
 Leaving the fruitful but ill-cultivated territory of La Man- 
 cha, its plains destitute of trees, its marshes and its pastures 
 covered with flocks, we now enter Estremadura. The 
 name of the province is derived from the two Latin words, 
 Extrema ora; indicating it to have formed the boundary of 
 the conquests gained by Alphonso the Tenth in the thirteenth 
 century. The western extremity of the province still- forms 
 the boundary between Portugal and Spain. The Tagus 
 and the Guadiana flowing parallel to each other from east to 
 west, divide Estremadura into three portions, and the moun- 
 tains of Mames and Montanches into two nearly equal parts. 
 During the Roman empire it was the richest country in 
 Spain, but now, the poorest and the worst peopled. 
 
 The inhabitants of Estremadura are more taciturn and 
 grave than the other Spaniards, qualities which depend less 
 perhaps on their physical constitution than on the nature of 
 the country they inhabit ; steep mountains, rapid rivers and 
 the want of roads are so many barriers to communication. 
 
 a “ More than 60,000,000 francs.” 
 b Called the Pantheon. 
 c Fischer, Reise nach Spanien. [1797.] 
 
 d Gabriel Alphonso Herrera, born at Talavera in the 16th cent., au- 
 thor of a work entitled : Libro de Agric.ultuni , Toledo, 1520, fol. (Beau- 
 vais, Diet. Hist.) — P. 
 
 e See the Dictionary of Minano, who gives it the same origin. 
 
 1 Toledo was the Toletum of the Romans. 
 
 s The Holy Brotherhood — a fraternity instituted for the suporession 
 of robberies. — P. 
 h Virgen del Prado. 
 
 
176 EUROPE. [book cxxxix 
 
 Thus, the Estremaduran, completely isolated, becomes re- 
 gardless of his welfare, and careless about improving his 
 condition ; hence his habitual indolence, the blame of which, 
 however, ought not to be imputed to himself, but rather to 
 the Spanish government. If the Estremadurans were ex- 
 cited by the hopes of wealth, or any stimulus of the same 
 sort, they might be active, enterprising, and indefatigable ; 
 for no other people are more patient of labour, none braver 
 in war ; the best horsemen in the Spanish army are natives 
 of Estremadura. 
 
 Plasencia on the banks of the Gertes is the capital of a 
 district, and has at a distance the appearance of a fine town ; 
 the old walls in a state of tolerable preservation, six gates, 
 five hospitals, an episcopal palace, and particularly the aque- 
 duct composed of eighty arches, are the principal ornaments. 
 The Roman inscriptions and other ancient remains in the 
 same place attest its antiquity, but it is doubtful whether it 
 bore in ancient times the name of Ambracia or Deobriga. 
 Coria, encompassed with walls, in which the architecture of 
 the Romans may be easily discovered, was without doubt 
 the ancient Caurium , a place mentioned by Ptolemy, al- 
 though a Spanish author supposes its name to be of Arabic 
 origin. 3 The situation of Coria on a hill, the church and 
 the old dungeon, which are larger than any other buildings, 
 give it an imposing appearance. 
 
 Alcantara, another chief town of a district, received its 
 present name from the Arabians ; it signifies the bridge, for 
 when these foreigners took possession of the town, they were 
 struck with the fineness of the Roman bridge over the Ta- 
 gus ; that magnificent monument of Trajan’s reign has re- 
 sisted the effects of time and political commotions. It rises 
 to the height of 211 feet 10 inches above the river; it is 
 equal in breadth to 27 feet 6 inches, and in length to 568 
 feet. 1 ’ Of the six arches the two in the centre are 94 feet 
 wide.® A triumphal arch with an inscription in honour of 
 Trajan rises in the centre, and a mausoleum constructed by 
 the Roman architect for his cemetery stands at the extremi- 
 ty towards the town. The same mausoleum owes its pres- 
 ervation to the enormous stones of which it is built ; having 
 been changed into a small chapel consecrated to St. Julian, 
 it is at present an object of veneration both to the towns-peo- 
 ple and the peasantry. The town was well known in the 
 thirteenth century, when it became the metropolis of the 
 military order of Calatrava, which then assumed the title of 
 the order of Alcantara. The edifice belonging to these 
 knights may still be seen ; it stands in the highest part of 
 the city. Alcantara, with the exception of its antiquities, 
 contains nothing remarkable ; indeed it might be difficult to 
 explain the causes* of its importance when subject to the 
 Romans, but it must have been a place of considerable con- 
 sequence, since the inhabitants were able to build the bridge 
 and other monuments which are now in ruins. Different 
 opinions are entertained concerning the ancient name of 
 Alcantara, but it was probably the JVorba Ccesarea, which 
 Pliny calls JYnrbonensis Colonial 
 
 Several small towns are situated on the sides or at tire 
 base of a range of mountains that extends from the Tagus 
 to the Sierra de Montanches. Of these towns Caceres is 
 the most important, the capital of a district, and the ancient 
 Castra Ccecilia. A statue erected to the genius of Augus- 
 
 a M. Minano, Diccionario Geografico-estadistico. 
 
 b “ 576 feet 11 inches” — The other measurements in the translation, 
 are those of the original. — P. 
 
 c Al. de Laborde, Voyage pittoresque et historique de l’Espagne. 
 
 tus, serves still to adorn the market place. Trujillo,® the 
 chief town of another district, was the Roman city of Tur- 
 ns Julia , and the birth-place of the famous Pizarro. Me- 
 rida, now an insignificant town, was formerly the most flour- 
 ishing of the Roman colonies ; as the epoch of its origin is 
 unknown, the Spaniards attribute its foundation to Tubal, 
 and affirm that it was first called Morat, a name, according 
 to their own confession, derived from a Greek word, which 
 may either signify a mulberry tree or a tribe / for it admits 
 of a double etymology. It cannot, however, be denied that 
 it was called Emerita Augusta by Augustus, when he gave 
 it to his soldiers as a recompense for their valour. At the 
 time of its splendour, it was nearly six leagues in circum- 
 ference ; the majestic remains, which it still possesses, are 
 the best proofs of its past prosperity, and form almost the 
 only inducement for the stranger to visit it. Merida rises 
 on the declivity of a hill on the banks of the Guadiana ; the 
 old bridge over the river has been attributed to Trajan ; al- 
 though of very different dimensions, it is not less remarka- 
 ble than the one at Alcantara for its solidity and fine preser- 
 vation. It consists of sixty arches, which extend to the 
 length of two thousand eight hundred feet on a breadth of 
 twenty-three. Another Roman bridge, in a very entire 
 state, bears the name of Puente de Albaregas. Beyond 
 the walls are situated a theatre, a naumachia, a circus, the 
 remains of three aqueducts, and four Roman ways. The 
 town itself is little inferior to any in Italy in the number of 
 its monuments ; within the walls may be seen a fine trium- 
 phal arch, the ruins of several temples, columns, capitals, 
 Roman inscriptions and other remains now used in building 
 houses. 
 
 On the banks of the Guadiana, nearer its mouth and to- 
 wards the extremity of the province, is situated Badajos,s the 
 capital, and the ancient Pax Augusta , of which the Arabic 
 name Beledaix denotes a salubrious country. Very differ- 
 ent from Merida, it contains no monument of past magnifi- 
 cence ; a modern bridge, however, the work of Philip the 
 Second, may vie with the ancient bridges in Emerita Augus- 
 ta ; it is formed by twenty-eight arches, equal in length to 
 1874 feet, and in breadth to twenty-three. The cathedral 
 is adorned with fine paintings by Mateo Cerezo and Mo- 
 rales, the latter of whom was born in the town. Olfvenza, 
 a fortified town, was ceded to Spain in 1801, but in maps 
 published since that period, it is marked by mistake in the 
 kingdom of Portugal. Zafra, a small town, remarkable for 
 the beauty of its situation, rises in the valley of Telares. 
 Lastly, Llerena, the chief town of a district, appears to 
 have been the ancient Regiana. It stands in a plain cov- 
 ered with olive trees, and commanded by the mountains of 
 San Miguel and San Bernardo, continuations of the Sierra 
 Morena. At a short distance from the town are the 
 fruitful pastures of St. Martin, on which numerous flocks 
 and several thousand oxen are fattened. 
 
 The fruitful province of Andalusia is bounded by the 
 kingdom of Algarva, Estremadura, New Castile, Murcia 
 and the Mediterranean ; but before describing it more mi- 
 nutely, it may be as well to examine the Sierra Morena, 
 formerly the retreat of the most intrepid bandits, and the 
 terror of travellers, until a French engineer traced the fa- 
 mous road from Madrid to Cadiz. A tribute of praise too 
 
 d Norhensis Colonia. Plin. Nat. Hist. L. IV. c. 22. — P. 
 
 e Truxillo. 
 
 f 6 ftoooc, a portion or division — <5 fio^o c and to i<ooov, a mulberry. — l' 
 
 6 Badajoz. 
 
BOOK CXXXIX.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SPAIN. 
 
 177 
 
 may be offered to the memory of a sage and philanthropist ; 
 nay the traveller who crosses these mountains, may probably 
 inquire by what fatality men entitled to the gratitude and 
 reward of their country have so often suffered persecution 
 and disgrace. 
 
 The mountains of the Sierra Morena, inhabited and cul- 
 tivated during the time of the Moors, were after the expul- 
 sion of these foreigners, covered with forests, which afford- 
 ed shelter to robbers and wild beasts. It was proposed 
 during the reign of Charles the Third to bring the waste 
 lands into cultivation, and to people the most fertile districts ; 
 Don Pablo Olavides, the statesman who formed the project, 
 was entrusted with its execution ; his plans were conducted 
 with so much zeal and intelligence, that their success sur- 
 passed his expectation. Fifty-eight villages or burghs rose 
 on the heights which command La Mancha and Andalusia. 
 The country was called JYuevas Poblaciones (New Popula- 
 tions,) a and formed a province of which La Carolina, the 
 capital, was soon peopled with three thousand inhabitants. 
 But the virtuous Olavides was hated or envied by a monk 
 belonging to the order of the Capuchins. Having been de- 
 nounced for some indiscreet expressions, which had escaped 
 him in the heat of debate, and having languished in the 
 prisons of the holy office, he was condemned to eight years 
 confinement in a monastery, declared incapable of holding 
 any place under government, and deprived of all his posses- 
 sions. Olavides escaped from his prison, and took refuge 
 in France ; he remained in that country during the most 
 sanguinary period of the revolution, and was at last permit- 
 ted to return to Spain. The disgrace of the same person, 
 the changes in the Spanish government, and its diminished 
 resources, have retarded the advancement of these settle- 
 ments. 
 
 The Andalusian character is intermediate between that of 
 the Spaniard and the Arab ; with the vivacity natural to the 
 inhabitants in the southern climates of Europe, they unite the 
 imagination and carelessness of the people in the east. So- 
 ber and patient, they are always gay and lively although in 
 a state of the utmost wretchedness, but necessity renders 
 them active, industrious, and even ingenious in discovering 
 resources. They are considered a boastful people, says M. 
 Mihano, 5, and this trait, together with their Arabic pronun- 
 ciation, accounts for the epithets bestowed on them both by 
 Spaniards and foreigners. 
 
 The kingdom of Jaen, one of the smallest of the seven 
 provinces in Andalusia, is divided into five districts, the 
 chief towns of which shall be briefly mentioned. Ubeda, a 
 pleasant town of Arabic origin, stands on a declivity sur- 
 rounded by mountains and mountain passes, between tire 
 Guadalquivir and the Guadalimar ; it has its woollen manu- 
 factories, and carries on a considerable trade in horses, 
 which are much valued throughout Spain. Baeza, c the an- 
 cient Beatia, rises on an elevated table-land ; the adjacent 
 country is said to be very healthy. The bishop’s palace, 
 and the church of St. Mary del Alcazar, are not the only 
 edifices which adorn the town ; the streets are broad and 
 straight, but it may be regretted that the population is not 
 more numerous. Andujar, d a well built town, and impor- 
 tant from the industry of the inhabitants, is built on the right 
 bank of the Guadalquivir, over which a bridge of fifteen 
 arches has been erected. There are not fewer than three 
 manufactories of painted pottery, thirty of earthen-ware, and 
 
 five soap works ; it exports every year four hundred wag- 
 gons of different kinds of earthen-ware, consisting principal- 
 ly of alcarrazas, which are used in cooling water by pro- 
 moting evaporation. Some authors suppose that Jaen, the 
 capital, was the ancient Flavium aurgitanum ; a magnifi- 
 cent cathedral built in the form of a Latin cross, and on t^e 
 site of an ancient mosque, twelve parish churches, fourteen 
 convents and several hospitals render it when seen at a dis- 
 tance, like a town of forty thousand inhabitants, although 
 the population amounts hardly to half the number. Mar- 
 tos, supposed to be Tucci colnnia, is commanded by a very 
 high rock, from which Ferd nand the Fourth precipitated 
 two brothers of the name of Carvajal, who were suspected 
 without any foundation to have murdered a knight of the 
 family of Benavides. The two brothers protested their in- 
 nocence in vain, and, according to a popular tradition, 
 while they rolled from rock to rock, a voice was heard 
 citing Ferdinand to appear on a certain day before the 
 judgment seat of God; on the day mentioned, Ferdinand 
 died at Jaen. 
 
 Lucena, a considerable town in the kingdom of Cordova, 
 and the capital of a district, carries on a trade in wine. 
 Montilla, also the chief town in a district, is a place of great- 
 er industry, although less populous than Lucena. Four 
 potteries, several linen manufactories, fifty oil mills and 
 many other establishments tend to enrich its laborious in- 
 habitants. Bujalance, which many consider the Roman 
 city of Calpurnium, is situated in a large and fruitful plain 
 that lies to the left of the road from Andujar to Cordova. 
 The trade of the place consists in cloth and woollen stuffs. 
 
 At the distance of some leagues from Cordova, on the 
 road that leads from Andujar, one of the finest bridges in 
 Europe has been erected over the Guadalquivir, near the 
 Venta de Jllcoha. The entrance into the celebrated Cordo- 
 va, the Roman Corduba , is not calculated to give the stran- 
 ger a favourable opinion of the town. A mass of houses 
 built without any regularity or elegance form many narrow, 
 crooked and dirty streets. The space which the town oc- 
 cupies, although very great, consists for the most part of 
 gardens; it is enclosed by old walls, flanked with large 
 towers of Roman or Moorish construction. One monument, 
 the only relic of Moorish power, attracts notice ; it is the 
 magnificent mosque built by Abdalrahman in the year 770, 
 long a principal temple of Islamism, and second only to the 
 one at Mecca ; at present the sacred images of the catholic 
 worship rise round the verses of the Koran. The edifice 
 forms a rectangle of 620 feet in length by 440 in breadth, 
 including an extent of 210 feet, which is laid out as a gar- 
 den, and enclosed with walls and arcades. A great many 
 pillars arranged in quincunx are crowded in the interior of 
 the building ; indeed it is affirmed that there are not fewer 
 than 850 of different materials, such as marble, granite and 
 porphyry. These columns are without bases or rest on 
 very low pedestals, but they are adorned with elegant capi- 
 tals, and support a double row of arches. Not far from the 
 mosque or mezquita, as the Spaniards still call it, is a fine 
 bridge of sixteen arches built over the Guadalquivir by the 
 Romans and the Moors. In the neighbourhood of the 
 town are seen the ruins of a building which the people call 
 the house of Seneca ; it cannot perhaps be determined 
 whether the tradition be well or ill founded, but it is certain 
 that Cordova was the birth-place of both the Senecas, and 
 
 a New Settlements. 
 
 b Diccionario geografico-estadistico de Espafta y Portugal : art. 
 VOL. III.— NO. 47 23 
 
 Andalusia. 
 d Anduxar. 
 
 c Bae^a. 
 
178 EUROPE. [book cxxxix 
 
 of Lucan, Avicenna, Averroes and Gonzalvo Fernandez, 
 better known by the name of Gonzalvo de Cordova. In 
 the time of the Moors, the population amounted to 300,000 
 inhabitants ; in the seventeenth century it was reduced to 
 00,000 ; at present it does not contain more than 40,000. 
 While the Romans and the Moors were masters of Spain, 
 Cordova was a place of great trade and industry ; the inhab- 
 itants are still employed in dressing morocco leather, an art 
 which they learnt from the Saracens ; the other manufac- 
 tures are ribbons, gold lace and hats. 
 
 The tw r o provinces that have been last mentioned are not 
 together more important than the province of Seville. Ecija, 
 the Roman Stigis , a one of the largest towns in the province, 
 stands between two high hills on the banks of the Genii, 
 over which a stone bridge is erected ; the heat during the 
 greater part of the year is so excessive that the Spaniards 
 call the town la sarien de Andalucia, or the frying-pan of An- 
 dalusia. Carmona, an opulent and w r ell built town, is men- 
 tioned by ancient writers, and it still retains its ancient name ; 
 two of the gates that communicate with the town were built 
 by the Romans. It possesses at present a considerable trade, 
 consisting of cloth, soap, linen, pottery and morocco leather. 
 
 Seville, a town founded by the Phoenicians, consequently 
 one of the oldest in Spain, was also one of the most cele- 
 brated both in ane'ent times and during the middle ages. It 
 is still a place of great importance both from its size, the 
 number and magnificence of the public buildings, and the 
 wealth and industry of the inhabitants. It was called His- 
 palis by the Phoenicians on account of the fruitful country 
 in the vicinity. Julius Cesar gave it the name of Julia 
 Romula in vain, for the Arabs by changing it into Sevilla, 
 indicated the fruitfulness of its situation, and thus rendered 
 its present name analogous in meaning to the one of Phoeni- 
 cian origin. Seville is admirably situated ; the horizon is 
 bounded by mountains, of which the nearest belong to the 
 Serrania de Ronda, and terminate towards the west the 
 long chain which includes the Sierra Nevada. It rises in 
 the midst of a plain covered with olive plantations, hamlets, 
 villages and convents ; the Guadalquivir, which fertilizes the 
 same plain, winds at the base of the walls. The latter, 
 flanked with 166 towers, form a circumference of two 
 leagues, exclusively of the suburbs ; if these be taken into 
 account, the extent may be nearly doubled. b The popula- 
 tion of Seville was probably exaggerated at the time that 
 Saint F erdinand took it from the Moors ; in this way the 
 Spanish writers were perhaps desirous to magnify the glory 
 of the conquest. It is certain, however, that since the same 
 period the population has considerably diminished. At the 
 beginning of the eighteenth century, it contained 130,000 
 inhabitants, while the cloth and silk manufactories furnished 
 employment to 16,000 workmen ; at the end of the same 
 century, the population was reduced to 100,000, and not 
 more than a thousand workmen were employed in its man- 
 ufactories ; the number of inhabitants at present does not 
 exceed 91,000. 
 
 The Spaniards, accustomed to extol tha .beauty of their 
 country, express their admiration of Seville hi the following 
 popular couplet : 
 
 3 .Qstygis. D’Anvilte. 
 
 b “ — will be more than doubled.” 
 
 e “ In most of them, the marks of the axle-trees may be seen on 
 either side” — i. e. on the walls of the houses. — P. 
 
 d The interior of the city is chiefly built in the Moorish style, the 
 streets being so narrow that a person extending his arms can touch 
 the houses on either side. — Ed. Encyc. 
 
 Que non a visto Sevilla 
 Non a visto maravilla. 
 
 But Seville, with all its wonders, is a very gloomy and 
 dirty town ; the streets are so narrow that it is not safe or 
 easy to pass through them in a carriage, yet the marks of 
 wheels may be seen in most of them ; c in some even, a per- 
 son with his arms extended might touch the opposite houses. 1 * 
 There are in the town and suburbs, 564 streets, 12,055 
 houses, 62 squares and 32 churches. Of the fifteen gates 
 some are of good architecture, and the one that leads to the 
 Triana, the largest of the suburbs, forms a triumphal arch 
 adorned with Doric columns. 6 The public buildings in Se- 
 ville are the greatest ornaments ; among those worthy of 
 notice are the archbishop’s palace, a large and richly deco- 
 rated edifice ; the alcazar or palace of the Moorish kings, 
 a work completed by Peter the Cruel and his successors, 
 and remarkable both for the elegance and singularity of its 
 form, and the fine gardens that surround it ; also the town- 
 house, the cannon foundery, the college of St. Elmo, the 
 snuff manufactory, and the Lonja or exchange, a square 
 building of Tuscan architecture, where the archives relative 
 to the discoveries made by the Spanish navigators are pre- 
 served. The cathedral church, more imposing dian any 
 other edifice, and one of the largest in Spain, was built in 
 the beginning of the fifteenth century. It is 400 feet in 
 length, 300 in breadth, and 1 50 in height ; the interior is 
 divided into nine naves, adorned with statues, paintings and 
 tombs. There rest the ashes of St. Ferdinand, the Spanish 
 St. Louis, of Alphonso the Wise, both a king and an astron- 
 omer, and lastly of Christopher Columbus, on whose tomb 
 is engraved the following simple epitaph : 
 
 A Castilla y Aragon 
 Otromundo dio Colon/ 
 
 The most curious part of the cathedral is the celebrated 
 tower of the Giralda, the work of Geber, an Arabian architect, 
 who raised it to die height of 250 feet, but in the year 1568, 
 the height was increased by a hundred feet. From this 
 square tower the view extends to the distance of more than 
 fifteen leagues. No stair leads to die summit, but an inclin- 
 ed plane which is said to be of so gentie an acclivity that 
 a horse might ascend it at full trot ; it is very doubtful if the 
 experiment has ever been tried. The cupola is surmounted 
 by a gilt bronze figure representing Faith, and serving the 
 purpose of a weathercock ;£ although weighing more than 
 thirty-four quintals, it is turned by die gentlest breeze. 
 
 The amphitheatre of Italica has been considered the finest 
 ancient monument in the neighbourhood of Seville ; it was 
 formerly the principal ornament of Santi Ponce, now an 
 insignificant village, but once a flourishing city, h the chief 
 town in a diocese, and die birth-place of three emperors, 
 Trajan, Hadrian and Theodosius. 
 
 The remaining towns in the province may be briefly de- 
 scribed. Utrera was probably the ancient Orippo ; it is 
 small but well built ; the w alls have been destroyed ; the ad- 
 jacent country is fruitful in olives, vines and pasturage, on 
 which excellent horses are reared. Moguer possesses an 
 ecclesiastical tribunal, an hospital, two convents, two Latin 
 schools, and a port on the Tinto, from which wines and the 
 
 6 The following verses are inscribed on the gate of Carne : 
 
 Condidit Alcides, renovavit Julius urbera ; 
 
 Restituit Christo Fernandus tertius heros. 
 
 ( Columbus gave another world to Castile and Arragon. 
 s Don Juan Agustin Cean Bermudez, Descripcion artistera de la 
 Catedral de Sevilla. 
 h The city of Italica. 
 
BOOK CXXXIX.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SPAIN. 
 
 179 
 
 other products of the province are exported ; but the prin- 
 cipal trade consists in spirits ; there are not fewer than sixty 
 brandy distilleries in the town. Huelva, the chief town of a 
 district, at the confluence of the Odiel and the Tinto, stands 
 on the site of Onuba ; a the port is perlfips as much fre- 
 quented as the one at Moguer. Lastly, Ayamonte, a forti- 
 fied town at the mouth of the Guadiana, on the confines of 
 Andalusia and Portugal, has been enriched by commerce 
 and sardel fisheries. 
 
 A recent subdivision of Seville forms at present the prov- 
 ince of Cadiz. San Lucar de Barrameda, the nearest 
 place in the province to Ayamonte, lies at the mouth of the 
 Guadalquivir; as it was formerly called Lucifer , b it has 
 been supposed that the god of light was worshipped in the 
 town ; it carries on a trade in wines, the produce of the ad- 
 joining districts, and in different sorts of liqueurs. The 
 neighbouring country is very fruitful, but on the opposite 
 bank of the river, sandy plains as sterile as the deserts of 
 Africa extend to a considerable distance. 
 
 Rota, a place celebrated for its wines, rises on the coast. 
 Xeres or Jerez de la Frontera, the ancient Asia Regia, stands 
 at the foot of a hill in a very fruitful part of the country. 0 
 The produce of the vineyards amounts annually to 7758 
 tuns ; d it is deposited in cellars which from their extent and 
 solidity may be mentioned among the curiosities of the town. 
 An old wall in which arcades and passages have been cut, 
 divides Xeres into two parts. On one side of the wall, the 
 streets are narrow, and the houses are ill built ; on the other, 
 the streets are broad and regular, composed chiefly of neat 
 and well built houses. The royal castle, remarkable for its 
 large towers, appears to be a very ancient building. Arcos 
 de la Frontera, a small town with long streets, ill adapted for 
 foot passengers, because they are wholly unpaved, 6 rises at 
 the distance of four leagues from Xeres on the steep banks 
 of the Guadalete. It is situated in the same district as the 
 last mentioned town ; antiquaries consider it the ancient Ar- 
 cobriga. 
 
 It is necessary to cross the Guadalete to visit Cadiz, that 
 important city, whose inhabitants . are said to be the most 
 civilized in Spain, but who imprudently and without any 
 chance of success erected twice the standard of liberty in 
 the course of fifteen years. Gaddir, which signifies a for- 
 tified place/ was the ancient name of Cadiz ; the same 
 name was afterwards changed into Gadts by the Greeks 
 and Romans. Strabo attributes the foundation of Gades to 
 'he Phoenicians ;S he compares it with the most powerful 
 cities in Italy ; although the inhabitants, says the geographer, 
 possess only a small island and but little land on the conti- 
 nent, they arm the largest and the greatest number of vessels 
 that are employed in the commerce of the Mediterranean 
 and the ocean. Cadiz, from the advantages of its position, 
 may still be ranked among the most commercial towns in 
 Europe. That part of the Spanish coast has undergone 
 
 1 Onoba, D’Anville — Martialium Onoba, Pliny. 
 
 b <t>uiowoon icoov, Luciferi fanum. Strab. L. III. p. 140, Ed. Par. 
 1620. 
 
 c It is celebrated for its wines, corruptly called Sherry. 
 
 d “ 72,000 hectolitres.” 
 
 ' “ On account of their steepness.” 
 
 f “ Lieu entoure,” an enclosed or fenced place — a nedge or limit, as 
 it was thought that here were the western limits of the world. (Lem- 
 priere’s Classical Diet. Anthon’s Edit.) 
 
 e L. III. c. 5. § 4. 
 
 h This last assertion is not in the original. “ The well water in Ca- 
 diz is hard, brackish and unwholesome » what is generally used is 
 brought from the port of St. Mary, in boats kept for the purpose ; 
 what they use for washing and other domestic purposes, is the rain 
 
 many changes since the time of Strabo ; it is probable that 
 the natural mole which unites Cadiz with the isle of Leon 
 did not exist in his time, and that Gades was situated on an 
 island, which has since become a peninsula. This opinion 
 appears to be confirmed by Pliny, who says that the town is 
 situated on an island near the island of Juno, which can be 
 no other than that of Leon. 
 
 Cadiz is at present the chief town in one of the three 
 maritime departments in Spain. Defended on all sides by 
 ramparts and bastions, nature as well as art have contributed 
 to its safety. It is guarded by sand banks and rocks towards 
 the north and the west, and on these rocks are the two forts 
 of St. Catherine and St. Sebastian. To add to its security, 
 the Cortadura or canal has been cut across the isthmus that 
 unites it to the isle of Leon, and by this means all commu- 
 nication with the latter may be easily intercepted. The 
 blockade made by the French lasted from the year 1809 to 
 1812, but the only inconvenience ^vhich the inhabitants sus- 
 tained, was that of bringing water at a considerable expense 
 from the port of St. Mary, for there are no wells or springs 
 in the town. h The houses are well built and whitened with 
 great care ; their projecting roofs may darken the streets, 
 but they serve as a shade against the rays of the sun. The 
 town as a whole may bear a comparison with any other in 
 Spain, but the edifices are by no means remarkable ; the 
 cathedral is small and shabby the tewnhouse is an irregu- 
 lar edifice of very ordinary architecture ; the prison is w ith- 
 out doubt the finest building in Cadiz. The good order 
 that prevails in the interior of the prison, and the discipline 
 to which die prisoners are subjected, are creditable to the pub- 
 lic functionaries. If it be considered that besides the foundling 
 hospital there are five others, one of which contains more 
 than 800 persons, who are cleanly and well kept, it may be 
 allowed that the inhabitants are neither deficient in charity, 
 nor injudicious in the method of administering it. The 
 people of Cadiz are said to be better informed than the other 
 Spaniards ; at all events, if they are not so, it is not for want 
 of schools ; the city contains, besides many others, a semi- 
 nary and college, of which the professors and teachers are 
 jesuits, an academy of fine arts, a naval seminary, and 
 schools of mathematics, surgery and medicine.* 0 
 
 The isle of Leon* is separated from the continent by an 
 arm of the sea GOO feet in breadth, which the Spaniards call 
 the Rio Santi-Petri ; a bridge erected over it communicates 
 with the road that leads to Medina Sidonia, a small town 
 on the summit of a conical rock, famous for its medicinal 
 waters and a particular sort of clay, so well adapted for 
 making bricks and earthen ware," 1 that tliLse articles are ex- 
 ported into most parts of Andalusia. The name of the town 
 is of Arabic origin, but the number of Roman inscriptions 
 renders it probable that it was the ancient Asindo. The 
 town and harbour of Tarifa" are situated on the coast at 
 the distance of five leagues from lake Janda, and at the 
 
 water which falls in the inner.courts of the houses, and is collected in 
 cisterns.” (Ed. Encyc.) — The inhabitants of Cadiz ascertained during 
 the siege that the water in their cisterns is proper for all uses. (M. B.) 
 — P. 
 
 ' The new cathedral, when finished, if executed according to the 
 plan which it now displays, will be one of the most magnificent struc- 
 tures in Spain ; it is, however, defective, both in elegance and simpli- 
 city. The old cathedral is chiefly remarkable for its pictures and 
 treasures. (Ed. Encyc.)— P. 
 
 k — “ a seminary, a college of Jesuits, and also schools of the fine 
 arts, navigation, mathematics, surgery and medicine.” 
 
 1 Isla de Leon. 
 
 m “ Fire bricks and pottery.” 
 
 n Tarifla. 
 
 J 
 
180 EUR< 
 
 southern extremity of Spain. It was the Roman Mellaria, 
 a place of some repute for its salt works® in the time of Stra- 
 bo. As a fortified place, it may be of considerable im- 
 portance ; but the inhabitants have attempted without suc- 
 cess to unite it to the small island of the same name, and 
 from which it is only separated by die distance of three or 
 four hundred feet. b 
 
 The road that leads to the province of Granada, the most 
 important in Andalusia, is at one part not more than two 
 leagues removed from Gibraltar, an almost impregnable 
 rock that has belonged to the English since the war of the 
 succession ; an account of it shall be given in the descrip- 
 tion of the English possessions. 
 
 In the rich country now to be described, where the towns 
 rival each other in industry, one may ascend frond the low 
 and burning plains on the Mediterranean to the cold regions 
 which have given the name of Sierra Nevada to the prin- 
 cipal chain which extends through the province. Cool 
 springs temper the heat of the climate, and the meadows 
 are enamelled with flowers ; the same province is intersect- 
 ed with delightful vallies, and better watered than any other 
 in the Peninsula ; it has been so much favored by nature, 
 that it was the last which the persecuted Moors determined 
 to abandon. Granada 0 contains besides several important 
 towns. Ronda, the first town on the road towards Madrid, d 
 is divided into two parts by a frightful precipice, which 
 reaches from the summit to the base of the height on which 
 it is built. The chasm is about five or six hundred feet in 
 depth, and a torrent flows through it. The torrent, which 
 is called the Gaudalvin, an Arabic word that signifies literal- 
 • ly a hollow stream, lower down takes the name of the Gua- 
 diara, and falls into the sea between Estepona and Gibral- 
 tar. Two bridges connect the two quarters of the town.; 
 the largest or the new bridge is so much elevated above the 
 torrent that the passengers can hardly hear the noise of the 
 waters. A stair consisting of 400 steps leads to the cascade 
 of El Tajo. Ronda, as its name indicates, stands on the 
 site of Arunda, a place mentioned by Pliny and Ptolemy. 
 The ruins of the ancient Acinipo, the present Ronda la Vie- 
 ja or Old Ronda, are not more than two leagues distant. 
 The remains of a theatre may be still seen ; several inscrip- 
 tions, medals and statues have of late years been discovered. 
 Estepona, a maritime town, is situated at the base of the 
 Sierra Venneja or vermilion mountains, well known for 
 their mines of plumbago. Marbella,® the chief town in a 
 district abounding with minerals, might become an import- 
 ant place, if the roads were kept in such a state as to afford 
 better means of communication ; it exports different manu- 
 factures, and many vessels frequent the port on account of 
 the fisheries in the neighbourhood. The streets are straight ; 
 it is adorned with several fountains and a fine public walk, 
 from which the view extends over the Mediterranean. Ac- 
 cording to a tradition, the same view was so much admired 
 by Ferdinand and Isabella, that the queen, struck with the 
 beauty of the sea, exclaimed, Que mar tan bclla ! which 
 exclamation, say the chroniclers, accounts for the name of 
 Marbella. Whatever the origin of its present name may 
 have been, it cannot be doubted that the place is very an- 
 cient ; it has been supposed that it was called Rarbesola, 
 
 DPE. [BOOK CXXXIX. 
 
 but it may be considered more probable that it stands on 
 the site of Cilniana, a town mentioned in the Itinerary of 
 Antonine. 
 
 It is only in the latter part of the year that rains are com- 
 mon in the fine c&nate of Malaga ; in other seasons, the sky 
 is almost always serene and cloudless. The base and sides 
 of the mountains that enclose the bay on which Malaga stands, 
 are covered with olive and orange trees, and fruitful vine- 
 yards, or varied with cotton fields and plantations of sugar 
 cane. Thus situated, the tow r n enjoys the advantages of a 
 fine climate and a convenient harbour. The men are affa- 
 ble and polite ; the women are considered the fairest of any 
 in Andalusia. Malaga is encompassed with a double wall, 
 defended by bastions and a castle built by the Moors, on 
 the summit of the rock which commands the town. Two 
 extensive moles shelter the harbour against eveiy storm ; 
 on one of them revolving lights have lately been erected. 
 The Alameda, or public walk, is surrounded with elegant 
 houses, and adorned with several statues and a fountain. 
 The inhabitants are supplied with water from a fine aque- 
 duct, a work which Molina, a wealthy citizen, built at his 
 own expense. Most of the old Moorish houses have been 
 replaced by modern buildings ; the episcopal palace, a very 
 large edifice, is built in the best style of architecture ; the 
 cathedral has been equally admired ; its tower reaches to 
 'the height of 260 feet. The present town rises near the 
 site of the ancient JMalaca , a place of great trade, which 
 Strabo affirms was founded by the Phoenicians. 
 
 The rich vineyards of Malaga produce annually about 
 13,340 tuns f of vv me. There are not fewer than thirty dif- 
 ferent sorts of grapes ; they are classed according to the 
 seasons in which they ripen. The early grapes are collected 
 in June ; they yield a thick and sweet wine which is prized 
 by many ; they are valuable, too, in as much as they furnish 
 the best raisins, a very lucrative branch of the Malaga trade ; 
 but for that purpose they must be cut at the middle of the 
 stalk, and allowed to dry fifteen days in the sun, when they 
 are afterwards packed. The ordinary grapes are gathered 
 in September, and their produce furnishes the strong and dry 
 wines, which are exported into different countries. But the 
 late grapes produce the best wines ; one sort, called the 
 guindas wine/ brings the highest price ; it derives its name 
 from the buds of a particular cherry-tree, which jre put into 
 the vats. The products of Malaga are exported by the na- 
 tions that consume them ; out of all the ships which enter 
 the harbour, certainly not more than a seventh part are 
 Spanish vessels. 
 
 A road that winds along the coa-st, leads from Malaga to 
 Velez Malaga , which although insignificant in point of pop- 
 ulation, is a place of considerable industry and trade ; h it 
 stands on the site of Menoba, and the vineyards in the 
 neighbourhood are almost as much famed as those of 
 Malaga. 
 
 Antequera, the ancient Antecaria, situated between the 
 mountains of the same name and the Guadiaro, contains a 
 greater number of inhabitants than the last mentioned town. 
 The Lovers’ Mountain (Pena de Jos Encnnorados ) rises in 
 the vicinity ; it has been celebrated by an act ol heroism 
 not unexampled in the history of Spain during the middle 
 
 a Tai)i/nu; i^sda. Strab. Lib. III. p. 140, Ed. Par. 1020. 
 b “ — by a channel a few hundred feet in breadth.” 
 c The kingdom of Granada, divided into the provinces of Malaga and 
 Granada. The towns which follow, from Ronda to A ntequera inclu- 
 sive, belong to the province of Malaga. — P. 
 
 Qu. Cadiz Ronda is situated near the western extremity of the 
 
 . 
 
 province, to the eastward of Cadiz and to the northward of Gibral- 
 tar. — P. 
 
 e Marvella. f “ 160,000 hectolitres.” 
 
 s Vino de guindas — from guinda, a cherry. — P. 
 
 h — a small industrious and commercial town " — Population in the 
 statistical table, 14,000. 
 
 — — -/ 
 
book cxxxix.] DESCRIPTION OF SPAIN. 181 
 
 ages and even in modern times. A Cliristian knight had 
 been taken prisoner by a Moorish prince ; during his cap- 
 tivity he fell in love with the daughter of the infidel ; re- 
 solved to celebrate their union in a Christian country, and 
 at the foot of the altar, they had proceeded to the frontiers, 
 when they were overtaken by the prince and his troops ; 
 they sought a hiding place in the caves of the mountain, but 
 the enraged father ordered the soldiers to seize the fugitives. 
 His daughter remonstrated that she was a Christian, and 
 that she had married, and threatened to destroy herself if he 
 approached ; but the father was inexorable, and the two 
 lovers rushed headlong from the summit of a precipice. A 
 cross indicates the place, and serves still to commemorate 
 the event. 
 
 The province of Granada is divided into two nearly equal 
 parts, the northern and the southern. The towns in the 
 southern are either ports, or situated at a short distance from 
 the sea. Almunecar,® of which the harbour is sheltered 
 from the east and west winds, stands at the foot of a hill, 
 where are seen the remains of a citadel, that was used as a 
 treasury by the Moorish kings, and also as a prison for their 
 ambitious relatives. The country round Motril is fruit- 
 ful in the sugar cane, and according to the Spaniards, 
 the rum extracted from it, is not inferior to any from the 
 West Indies ; b the town is about two leagues from the shore; 
 it stands on a road that leads in one direction to Malaga, 
 in the other to Almeria, a city that has been for ages wealthy 
 and industrious, occupying the site of JMurgis, a town of 
 which the origin is lost in the night of time ; the harbour, 
 which the ancients called Portus Magnus , is still well fre- 
 quented. 
 
 Loja c situated at the foot of a chain that bears its name, 
 on the left, bank of the Genii, is noted for its salt springs. 
 Alhaina, of which the Arabic name signifies a thermal 
 spring, stands higher above the level of the sea than any 
 other town in Europe. The Moorish houses, the old walls 
 that encompass it, and other peculiarities render it difficult 
 of description. The country above it is covered with snow 
 during six months, and scorched by the sun the rest of the 
 year. The baths at a quarter of a league from the walls, 
 are much frequented. The waters are sulphureous and 
 slightly coloured ; the place from which the spring issues is 
 arid and desert. When the ray3 of the sun fall on the 
 water in the baths, it exhibits a singular appearance, in as 
 much as it seems to be covered with an unctuous film ; in 
 cold weather vapours rise from it, and the channels through 
 which it flows are lined with a white and soft substance. 
 The road to Velez Malaga extends across the mountains of 
 Alhama, and the traveller observes a curious passage, the 
 Puerta de Zaflaraya, a natural gate in the midst of high 
 rocks ; no sooner has he passed it, than very different scenery 
 appears before him ; the eye wanders over an immense ex- 
 tent of country, embracing the southern declivities of tire 
 Baetic range, the coasts of Granada, the Mediterranean, and 
 the African shores. 
 
 But the same road leads to the important place which 
 proved fatal to the Moorish power in Spain. J On the 
 left bank of the Genii, and in a pleasant country, is situ- 
 ated the town of Santa Fe, which was almost destroyed by 
 an earthquake in 1807. It was founded by the Castilian 
 heroine, the wife of Ferdinand the Catholic. During the 
 
 a Almunecar. 
 
 b “ — is equal to that of Jamaica.” 
 
 * Loxa. d Granada 
 
 siege of Granada, the queen made a vow not to change her 
 shift until the capital had opened its gates. To intimidate 
 the enemy her camp was changed into a fortified town, and 
 the town was called Santa Fe. The Moors fought long 
 and valiantly, but it appeared at last that resistance was vain 
 It was observed that the queen’s shift had been so long worn 
 that it assumed a yellow hue ; hence the origin of what is 
 called to this day an Isabella colour. It was also within the 
 walls of Santa Fe that Ferdinand and Isabella approved of 
 the first expedition undertaken by Christopher Columbus. 
 
 The walks on the banks of the Genii indicate the approach 
 of Granada, through which the Daro flows ; it is encom- 
 passed by woods, and watered by limpid streams, while the 
 gardens and groves on the neighbouring heights diffuse their 
 fragrance to a distance. The Sierra Nevada is about half a 
 mile e from the town ; its summits are covered with eternal 
 snow, but the cold of winter is never felt at its base. Gran- 
 ada was founded by the Moors ; the present state of the town 
 may be contrasted with what it was in the time of its splen- 
 dour. When the crescent rose above the mosques, it con- 
 tained 400,000 inhabitants ; it occupied a circumference of 
 three leagues, which was defended by more than a thou- 
 sand towers. It is still adorned with several fine buildings ; 
 there are two large squares, and sixteen of a smaller size, 
 many public fountains, seven colleges, eleven hospitals, an 
 elegant theatre built by the French, and sixty-three churches, 
 the most remarkable of which are the churches of San Ge- 
 ronimo, Santa Cruz, San Juan de Dios, and the cathedral, 
 the latter an imposing edifice, in which are contained the 
 tombs of Ferdinand and Isabella, of Philip the First, and of 
 Queen Joan. But these edifices appear insignificant near 
 others for which the people of Granada are indebted to the 
 genius and luxury of the Arabs. Charles the Fifth, during 
 the splendour of his power, erected in vain a palace which 
 was to surpass in magnificence whatever had been construct- 
 ed by the Moors ; for in beholding this palace which was 
 planned and executed while the arts were reviving in 
 Europe, one does not so much regret that it remains in 
 an unfinished state, as that a part of the Alhambra was de- 
 stroyed in order to obtain a convenient site. This edifice 
 of Charles the Fifth, although large, and adorned with por- 
 ticos and the most costly marble, is infinitely inferior to the 
 Moorish palace and fortress, in which the apparent fresh- 
 ness of the ornaments, the galleries supported by light col- 
 umns, the elegance of the courts, and the arcades that sur- 
 round them/ indicate its superiority over the modern build- 
 ings in Granada. The same town was the birthplace of 
 the poet Hurtado de Mendoza, and of the jesuit Suarez, 
 who has obtained a sad celebrity in the provincial letters of 
 Pascal. At a short distance from the walls may be seen 
 the site of Eliberis , a Roman town, where valuable antiqui- 
 ties have been discovered. 
 
 Guadix, situated in a valley on the banks of the Rio 
 Guadix, is the metropolis of a district ; it was within its 
 old walls that the Moors made a long and obstinate resist- 
 ance after the conquest of the capital. It stands probably 
 near the site of Acci, a Bsetic city ; that it does so might be 
 inferred from the ancient name without any other proof, for 
 by prefixing the word guadi, which signifies running water, 
 the Arabs changed it into Guadiacci, which has since been 
 corrupted into Guadix. The country round Baza abounds 
 
 e “ A quarter of a league.” 
 
 f “ The elegance of the court of the baths, and the arcades, 
 surround the court of the lions — ” 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 182 
 
 in hemp and flax ; die town rises in a fruitful valley at the 
 foot of a mountain which bears its name ; it was the ancient 
 town of Basti, the capital of the Bastilaiii. Lastly, Hues- 
 car, situated in the same district as Baza, and on the banks 
 of the Barbato, carries on a trade in woollen stuffs ; the 
 village of Huescar la Vieja near its walls is all that remains 
 of Osca, a place founded by the Carthaginians. 
 
 Another province on the continent remains to be described, 
 namely, that of Murcia, formerly entitled a kingdom, and 
 contiguous to Andalusia, New Castile and the province of 
 Valencia. It hardly extends beyond the basin of die Se- 
 gura ; it is divided into nine districts. 
 
 Lorca, one of the most important towns in the province, 
 is the ancient Eliocroca ; its situation on the northern de- 
 clivity of the Sierra del Cano, rendered die calamity that 
 befel it in 1802, more disastrous. A reservoir in which 
 the streams of the neighbouring torrents are collected, and 
 which serves to supply the country people with water for 
 the irrigation of their lands, burst suddenly, inundated all 
 the lower part of the town, and destroyed more than six 
 hundred persons together with a great number of cattle. 
 The loss sustained by the inundation in the country and in 
 the town was calculated at 50,000,000 reals.* Murcia, a 
 wealthy and populous city, is situated in a plain intersected 
 by the Segura, the waters of which are confined by an em- 
 bankment. The cathedral is the finest edifice, but both die 
 outside and the interior are loaded with ornaments ; the 
 other public buildings are the townhouse and the royal silk 
 manufactory ; b the raw material with which the last is sup- 
 plied, forms the principal wealth of the district. It appears 
 from Roman inscriptions and other antiquities that Murcia 
 was formerly called Vergilia. Carthagena, the most im- 
 portant town in the province, both from its commerce and 
 its port, which may contain forty ships of the line, and a 
 great many smaller vessels, was founded by Asdrubal the 
 Carthaginian. The territory in which it is situated, sepa- 
 rated from that of Murcia by lofty heights, contained so 
 many mines that it was long to the Romans what Mexico 
 was afterwards to the Spaniards. They worked silver and 
 different useful metals. A very large cavern, about three 
 miles® distant from the town, now called the cave of St. 
 John, is nothing else than an ancient mine. The thermal 
 springs in the neighbouring mountains are still frequented, 
 and many labourers are employed in working alum. Car- 
 thagena, one of the finest cities in Spain, is defended by 
 several iorts along the coast, and also by the fortress of At- 
 alaya on an eminence which commands the walls. The naval 
 arsenal is very large ; the yards, docks and rectangular 
 basin occupy nearly the western half of the town. The ca- 
 thedral is the most remarkable edifice ; it is formed by three 
 naves, and within them are contained several richly sculp- 
 tured altars. The depth and size of the harbour in this 
 chief town of a maritime department are not the only advan- 
 tages which it furnishes to the Spanish navy. 
 
 Ivica or Ibiza, d one of the Baleares, at no great distance 
 
 [BOOK CXXXIX. 
 
 from Carthagena, is still nearer the port of Denia ; e Iviza, 
 the capital, stands on the declivity of a steep rock, which 
 rises near a bay ; on the summit of the same rock are the 
 bishop’s palace, the cathedral and the governor’s castle. 
 The town is encompassed with walls, which although they 
 are no security against the attacks of pirates, defend it at 
 least against the natives of the island ; for the latter are so 
 much oppressed by taxes, that finding it impossible to pay 
 them, they are apt to revolt. The country round the town 
 is marshy but fruitful in cotton ; the rest of the island abounds 
 in a sort of pitch obtained from the Aleppo pine ( Pinus Ha- 
 lepensis), and which along with the produce of the salt works 
 forms the two principal branches of commerce. 
 
 Ivica contains besides some scattered groups of habita- 
 tions that have been dignified with the name of villages. If 
 the inhabitants are rude and uncultivated, it should be con- 
 sidered that they have been long degraded by superstition 
 and poverty. Their songs consist of one or two modula- 
 tions ; the monotonous sounds of the flagelet, accompanied 
 with the tambourine and the castanet, make up all the music 
 that they use in their wild and ungraceful dances. 
 
 The costume of the peasants consists of a short jacket 
 and tight pantaloons that reach to the middle of the leg ; 
 they wear a red woollen cap ; their spardilles or shoes 
 resemble in form the wooden shoes worn by the French ; 
 they are made of matweed,^ and attached by cords of the 
 same substance. The dress of the women is more elegant; 
 they wear a large round hat a little inclined on one side, and 
 a handkerchief that covers the neck and descends to the 
 waist, but open behind in order to display their long hair ; 
 three necklaces of different sizes are placed above the hand- 
 kerchief, to two of which crosses are attached ; h a narrow 
 but richly embroidered apron contrasts well with a dark pet- 
 ticoat ; the spardilles are of the same shape as those worn 
 by the men. 
 
 The singular manner by which marriages w r ere celebrated 
 in the Balearic islands in the days of Diodorus Siculus, has 
 been mentioned in the account of the ancient inhabitants. 
 The present custom, which appears to have originated from 
 the ancient, although less immoral, is not less ridiculous. As 
 soon as a villager obtains the consent of his future bride, he 
 is considered by her parents as one of the family ; but the 
 ceremony does not take place until the end of a year * 1 at 
 least ; within that period, the young lads in the neighbour- 
 hood are permitted to visit the bride on certain days, and to 
 remain alone with her ; according to a French traveller, they 
 emulate each other in dissuading her from her purpose by 
 enumerating the vices and bad qualities of her intended hus- 
 band ; the bride is constrained to hear them without a mur- 
 mur, and as the lover must leave the room when they en- 
 ter, he suffers during his absence the same vexation which, 
 in all probability, he has before inflicted on others. k 
 
 Fromentera or, as the Spaniards call it, Formentera, is 
 so near to Ivica, that it might be easy and without doubt 
 useful to unite them . 1 The inhabitants are scattered in 
 
 a “ The loss sustained by the inundation in the neighbouring coun- 
 try was estimated at more than 50,000,000 reals” — The loss was esti- 
 mated at 200 millions of reals. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 b “ The townhouse and the building in which silk is prepared” — 
 There is in Murcia, a considerable establishment for spinning and 
 twisting silk. (Rees’ Cye.) — P. c “ Three leagues.” 
 
 A See p. 827 The b and v in Spanish, are interchangeable, as well as 
 the i and f. Many Spanish proper names, with z or f, are written 
 with c simply in English authors. — P. 
 
 * In Valencia. ' Ivica. 
 
 1 Jonc.” rushes — properly of esparto grass. See page 843, note a. 
 
 h “ A large round hat, a little inclined on one side, covers a hand 
 kerchief which is tied under the chin and descends to the waist, but is 
 open behind to display their long black hair: three necklaces of differ 
 ent sizes are arranged on their bosoms, to two of which a cross is sus- 
 pended.” 1 “ Two years ” 
 
 k M. J. Cambassede, Excursions dans les iles Bah'ares. 
 
 1 Qu.-in description. It is separated from Ivica by a channel 
 above two miles wide (Ed. Encyc.) — 4 miles (Crutwell.) The island 
 of Formentera is south of Yviya two miles and a half; the passage 
 between being called the Channel of Yvi^a. Tuckey’s Mar. Geog 
 vol. II. p. 17G — P 
 
book, cxxxix.] DESCRIPTIO. 
 
 several villages ; the island has been represented as infest- 
 ed with serpents, wolves and foxes, but the only animals in 
 the woods and meadows are sheep and goats, which from 
 neglect have become wild ; the flamingo and other birds 
 of passage abound on the shores. 
 
 Cabrera, at a short distance from Majorca, is inhabited 
 by some shepherds, whose wealth consists in their goats. 
 
 It is well wooded, and three springs serve to supply the 
 inhabitants with wholesome water. The sufferings which 
 the French prisoners experienced on the island about the 
 end of the last war, must ever be remembered with regret 
 by the friends of humanity ; they were allowed to perish for 
 want of food, and their bones scattered on the island, attest 
 the cruelty of those to whose care they were entrusted.* 
 
 The island of Majorca contains sixteen towns, and the 
 average population of each may amount to 4500 inhabit- 
 ants ; b but Palma, the capital, peopled by 34,000, is the 
 only one worthy of being described. It is encompassed 
 with walls about seven or eight feet thick, with thirteen bas- 
 tions fifty paces in breadth, and commanded by a castle on 
 the hill ol Belver. The houses are built of stone, but the 
 excessive breadth of the balconies darkens and confines the 
 streets. The Lonja, which rises near the port, is the only 
 edifice that recals the former splendour of the town. The 
 tomb of Jayme II., c king of Majorca, serves to adorn the ca- 
 thedral ; his father conquered the Moors, and took posses- 
 sion of the island in the year 1229. The town, long the 
 principal mart for the commerce between Europe and the 
 east, carries on at present no more trade than what is neces- 
 sary to supply the wants of the islanders. The Jews are 
 despised by the other inhabitants ; many of them are em- 
 ployed in manufacturing jewellery and trinkets. 
 
 The Pages or rural inhabitants of Majorca wear a very 
 different dress from that of the people in Ivica ; a round 
 jacket without a collar, sandals, bare legs and loose breeches 
 render their costume not unlike that of the Greek peasants, 
 but they may be distinguished by a broad hat, which serves 
 to shade the visage. The women wear sandals ; in other 
 respects their dress differs little from that worn in Ivica. d 
 The people may be perhaps more superstitious than those 
 in Spain, but they are also more hospitable ; as there are no 
 inns in the island, they never refuse to admit strangers, and 
 to share with them whatever they possess. 
 
 The people in Minorca resemble those of Majorca in their 
 manners and in their dress, but they are said to be the least 
 superstitious of the Spaniards. Five towns are situated on 
 the island. Jamna, now Ciudadela, e was probably founded 
 by the Carthaginians; with the exception of Mahon, the 
 capital, it is the largest town in Minorca. Broad and straight 
 streets, and clean and well built houses, render Mahon an 
 agreeable residence ; the cathedral and townhouse f corre- 
 spond ill with the rest of the city. The boldness of their 
 pirates, e and the safe retreat afforded by their harbour, ena- 
 bled the inhabitants to amass considerable wealth during the 
 war against Napoleon. The harbour indeed is one of the 
 
 Nf OF SPAIN. 183 
 
 finest in the Mediterranean ; the celebrated Andrew Doria 
 is said to have been the author of a Spanish proverb, accord- 
 ing to which, the only four good ports in that sea, are June, 
 July, August and Port Mahon. h It is about a league in 
 length, and a thousand or twelve hundred yards 1 in breadth ; 
 the sides are formed by two steep heights. The breadth 
 of the entrance is about 300 yards, 1 * and vessels can sail in 
 the neighbourhood, without being endangered by rocks. 
 
 Having thus endeavoured to describe the principal towns in 
 Spain and its islands, it remains for us to make one or two 
 remarks on the commerce and industry of that fine country. 
 It has been already seen that it abounds in soda, salt, iron 
 and different metals, that it produces oil, fruits anrl wine, the 
 best wool in the world, and silk that is only surpassed by 
 that of Italy. The value of the wines, which the Spaniards 
 consider the most lucrative of their productions, might be 
 considerably increased, if any thing like an equable system 
 of duties were introduced. It exports at present about 
 twenty-five or thirty thousand casks, and the price obtained 
 for them does not exceed L.625,000. The silk in the 
 provinces of Arragon, Valencia, Granada and Murcia, might 
 soon rival any in Italy, if exportation were encouraged, and 
 the mulberfy cultivated with care. The mines, although 
 rich in different metals, do not afford all the advantages that 
 might be expected from them. Lastly, could it be believed 
 that the Spaniards, with so great an extent of coast, were 
 dependent on foreigners for all the dry or salt fish which 
 they consume. A Spanish author calculates that the money 
 given every year for imports, in that single article, exceeds 
 L. 500,000 ; thus the consumption in the interior nearly 
 counterbalances all the profits it derives from the fecundity 
 of the soil. 
 
 The insignificance of their foreign trade ought chiefly to 
 be attributed to the indifference of the Spaniards. Although 
 from their situation, few nations have such facilities in form- 
 ing a mercantile navy, still the Spanish flag is the one which 
 mariners observe very rarely on tire sea. The Spaniards 
 hold some intercourse with different ports in the Mediterra- 
 nean, but with few in the Baltic ; if they cross the Atlantic, 
 it is only on account of their American possessions. 1 
 
 The taxes with which the products of agriculture and 
 industry are loaded, the diversity of weights, measures and 
 money, the bad state of the roads, and the scarcity of canals, 
 of which the most useful remain unfinished, may be ’consid- 
 ered the principal causes which have led to the decay of 
 Spanish commerce. But all those evils might be easily 
 remedied, and the country contains within itself the elements 
 of prosperity. The time may come when government, 
 aware of the true interests of Spain, will pursue an opposite 
 course to that which has been hitherto followed. If industry 
 were encouraged, if salutary reforms were introduced, and if 
 the real advantages of the country were no longer sacrificed 
 to the imaginary advantages of American possessions, Spain 
 might become one of the wealthiest and most flourishing 
 regions in Europe. 
 
 a For the details of these proceedings, disgraceful to a civilized na- 
 tion, the reader may consult the work of Cambassede. 
 b “ — 16 towns of from 3000 to 6000 inhabitants.” 
 c James, king of Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica, son of James I. king 
 of Arragon, who conquered these islands from the Moors. James II. 
 king of Arragon, was the son of his elder brother, Peter III. of Arra- 
 gon.— P. 
 
 d “ The handkerchief used as a headdress by the women, is open 
 before and thrown back upon the shoulders ; in other respects it does 
 not differ from that in Ivica.” The headdress, called rebozello, consists 
 of a double handkerchief, the top of which covers the head, and is tied 
 
 under the chin ; then extending over the shoulders, and falling half 
 way down the back, the two ends meet, cross and tie before. (Ed. En- 
 cyc.) — P. 
 
 6 Ciudadella. f “ Government house.” e Privateers. 
 
 h Junio, Julio, Agosto y Puerto Mahon, 
 
 Los mejores puertos del Mediterraneo son. 
 
 ■ “ 500 or 600 toises.” k “ Breadth, 150 toises.” 
 
 1 These being now lost to the mother country, except the islands of 
 Cuba and Porto Rico, its American trade must of course be greatly 
 restricted. — P. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 184 
 
 It may be necessary to mention a small territory on the 
 confines of France and Spain, nominally neutral and pro- 
 tected by these two great states. Although the republic of 
 Andorra is twice as large as that of San Marino in Italy, the 
 former remains unnoticed,® while the other is described in 
 most geographical works. It occupies a valley in the Pyr- 
 enees, and is bounded on the east, the south and the west 
 by the corregidories b of Puycerda and Talarn in Catalonia, 
 and on the north by the department of the Arriege. The 
 whole territory is about seven leagues in length by six in 
 breadth ; it contains thirty-four villages or hamlets, and is 
 divided into six communities, namely, Old Andorra, the 
 capital, Canillo, Encamp, Massana, Ordino and St. Julian. 
 The thermal springs near the hamlet of Cables are still fre- 
 quented, and the iron in the territory furnishes employment 
 to many of the inhabitants.® The valley, watered by sev- 
 eral streams, of which the three largest are the Balira, the 
 Ordino and the Os, is crowned by inaccessible mountains. 
 Rich in the products of the three natural kingdoms, it con- 
 tains quarries of fine marble, inexhaustible iron mines and 
 
 a It holds a place, however, in the excellent work entitled : Ta- 
 bleau de la Balance politique du Globe, by Ad. Balbi. 
 
 b Corregimientos. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXIS. 
 
 | valuable timber, which is transported by the Balira and the 
 j Segre to Tortosa, and from thence to the Mediterranean 
 The forests and the mountains abound with game and 
 i different animals, such as wild goats and wild boars, 
 bears and wolves. Part of the land produces excellent to- 
 bacco. 
 
 Louis the Debonnaire ceded the sovereignty of Andorra 
 to the bishops of Urgel ; the latter possessed it jointly with 
 the counts of Foix from the thirteenth century until the ac- 
 cession of Henry the Fourth to the throne, when the county 
 of Foix was united to France. From that time the French 
 ! kings retained feudal rights over it; but in the year 1790, 
 these rights were abolished, and the small republic of An- 
 dorra was rendered independent of France. 
 
 The government is composed of two syndics, elected by 
 a general council of twenty-four members, who are chosen 
 for life by the six communities. The people speak the 
 Catalonian dialect, and are under the spiritual authority of 
 the bishop of Urgel. Happy in their seclusion, the quarrels 
 of ambitious men never disturb their peaceful labours. 
 
 c “ There are thermal springs near the hamlet of Caldes, and four 
 forges in the territory.” 
 
 Lb 
 
BOOK CXXXIX.] 
 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SPAIN. 
 
 185 
 
 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES. 
 
 
 
 
 POLITICAL DIVISION OF SPAIN. 
 
 
 Lieutenancies.* Corregimientoa.f 
 
 Governments. 
 
 Alcaldias Mayores.J 
 
 Lieutenancies 
 
 Corregrimientoa. 
 
 Governments. Alcaldias Mayores. 
 
 Pampeluna 
 
 Pampeluna 
 
 — 
 
 
 Ledesma 
 
 Ciudad Rodrigo Ciudad Rodrigo 
 
 Vittoria Guipuzcoa 
 
 St. Sebastian 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 San Felices de los 
 
 Bilboa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Gallegos 
 
 Oviedo Orense 
 
 Corunna 
 
 Corunna. 
 
 Valladolid 
 
 Valladolid 
 
 Valladolid. 
 
 Betanzos 
 
 Ferrol 
 
 Ferrol. 
 
 
 Medina del Campo 
 
 
 
 Banos de Molyas 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Olmedo 
 
 
 
 Baltar 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Puebla de Sanabria 
 
 Puebla de Sanabria 
 
 Linares 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Tordesillas 
 
 
 
 Verin 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 Avila 
 
 Madrigal 
 
 
 
 Santiago Cambados 
 
 Salvatierra 
 
 Salvatierra. 
 
 
 Arevalo 
 
 
 
 Ulloa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Burgos 
 
 Burgos 
 
 Burgos. 
 
 Rairiz da Veiga 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Briviesca 
 
 
 
 Soto Mayor 
 
 — 
 
 Soto Mayor. 
 
 
 Lerma 
 
 
 
 Barcelona Barcelona 
 
 Barcelona 
 
 Barcelona. 
 
 
 Santo Domingo de 
 
 
 Albaracin 
 
 Berga 
 
 Berga. 
 
 
 la Colzada 
 
 
 
 Cervera 
 
 Cervera 
 
 — 
 
 
 CastroxerizH 
 
 
 
 4 Barbastro 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 The Merindas of Old 
 
 
 Benavarre 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Castile** 
 
 
 
 Borja 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Segovia 
 
 Segovia 
 
 Aguilar del Rio 
 
 Gerona 
 
 Gerona 
 
 Gerona. 
 
 
 
 Alhama. 
 
 Calatayud 
 
 Calatayud 
 
 Calatayud. 
 
 
 Soria 
 
 
 
 Figueras 
 
 Figueras 
 
 Figueras. 
 
 
 Agreda 
 
 
 
 Moya 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Alfaro 
 
 
 
 Lerida 
 
 Lerida 
 
 Lerida. 
 
 
 Logrono 
 
 
 
 Manresa 
 
 Manresa 
 
 Manresa. 
 
 
 Arnedo 
 
 
 
 Mataro 
 
 Mataro 
 
 Mataro. 
 
 
 Calahorra 
 
 
 
 Puigcerda§ 
 
 Puigcerda 
 
 Puigcerda. 
 
 
 Riaza 
 
 
 
 Talarn 
 
 Talarn 
 
 — 
 
 Santander 
 
 — 
 
 Santander Santander. 
 
 Tortosa 
 
 Seo de Urgel 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 Santona 
 
 Valle de Aren 
 
 Rosas 
 
 — 
 
 Badajoz 
 
 : 
 
 Badajoz Badajoz. 
 
 Vich 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Caceres 
 
 Olivenza Albuquerque. 
 
 Villa Franca de Pen- 
 
 
 
 
 Coria 
 
 
 
 ades 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Plasencia 
 
 Alcantara, O. M. 
 
 Zaragoza Zaragoza 
 
 — 
 
 Zaragoza. 
 
 
 Trujillo 
 
 Gata, O. M. 
 
 Cincavillas 
 
 Cincavillas 
 
 Cincavillas. 
 
 
 Guadalcanal, O. M. 
 
 Jeresit de los Cabal- 
 
 Daroca 
 
 Daroca 
 
 Daroca. 
 
 
 
 leros, O. M. 
 
 — 
 
 Alcaniz, O. M .11 
 
 
 — 
 
 Llerena, O. M. 
 
 Fraga 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 Merida, 0. M. 
 
 Huesca 
 
 Huesca 
 
 Huesca. 
 
 
 — 
 
 Valencia de Alcan- 
 
 Jaca 
 
 Jaca 
 
 Jaca. 
 
 
 
 tara, O. M. 
 
 Tarazona 
 
 Monzon 
 
 — 
 
 
 — 
 
 Villa Nueva de la 
 
 Torrijas 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 Serena, O. M. 
 
 Tarragona 
 
 Tarragona 
 
 Tarragona. 
 
 Madrid 
 
 Madrid 
 
 
 
 Teruel 
 
 Teruel 
 
 Teruel. 
 
 
 Alcala de Henares 
 
 
 
 Leon Leon 
 
 — 
 
 Leon. 
 
 
 Chinchon 
 
 
 
 Astorga 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Guadalaxara Guadalaxara 
 
 Guadalaxara 
 
 Ponferrada 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Atienza 
 
 
 
 Benavides 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Ita 
 
 
 
 Bonar 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Jadraque 
 
 
 
 Sahagun 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Medina Celi 
 
 
 
 Palencia Palencia 
 
 — 
 
 Palencia. 
 
 
 Molina de Aragon 
 
 
 
 Carrion 
 
 — 
 
 Aguilar del 
 
 Toledo 
 
 Toledo 
 
 Ocana, O. M. 
 
 
 
 Campo. 
 
 
 Talavera de la Reyna 
 
 
 Reynosa 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Illescas 
 
 
 
 Becerril de Campos 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Lillo 
 
 
 
 Duenas 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Cuenca 
 
 Cuenca 
 
 Alarcon. 
 
 Herrera de Rio Pisuerga 
 
 — 
 
 
 Huete 
 
 
 
 Toro 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 Requena 
 
 
 
 Torquemada 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 
 San Clemente 
 
 
 
 Zamora 
 
 Zamora 
 
 Zamora. 
 
 
 Sisantaand Vara del 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Alaejos. 
 
 
 Rey 
 
 
 
 Salamanca 
 
 Salamanca 
 
 Salamanca. 
 
 
 Utiel 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Albade Tormes 
 
 
 Tarazona 
 
 
 
 * “ Intendancies.” The translator has applied the same term Lieu- 
 
 II Military Order. 
 
 
 tenancy, to two entirely different classes of divisions, to neither of 
 
 IT Castro Geriz. 
 
 
 which is it applied in the original. See note a 
 
 page 130. — P. 
 
 ** These merindas* are six in number, and are situated in the prov- 
 
 t Corregi.miento, the district over which the 
 
 jurisdiction of a corre- 
 
 ince of Burgos ; Campo, Horna and Valdelugana form part of them. 
 
 gidor extends. 
 
 
 
 * Merindad , the jurisdiction of a merino (royal judge and superintendent or 
 
 t Alccddia Mayor, the district 
 
 subject to a higher alcalde. 
 
 inspector of sheep-walks.) — r. 
 
 
 , § Puycerda. 
 
 
 
 ft Xeres. 
 
 bee page bb7. 
 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 48 24 
 
 
 
 
 — — — i 
 
 
186 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXIX 
 
 hioutenancie*. Corrncimlentos. 
 Ciudad Real Ciudad Real 
 
 Alcaraz 
 
 Villa Nueva de los 
 Infantes 
 
 Valencia 
 
 Nuevas Po- 
 blaciones 
 Jaen 
 
 Valencia 
 
 Alcoy 
 
 Castellon de la Pla 
 na 
 
 Denia 
 
 Jijona 
 
 Morelia 
 
 Onteniente 
 
 Orihuela 
 
 Peniscola 
 
 San Felipe 
 
 Governments. 
 Penas de San Pe- 
 dro 
 
 Almaden, O. M. 
 
 Alinagro, O. M. 
 Infantes, O. M. 
 
 Cordova 
 
 Seville 
 
 Cadiz 
 
 Granada 
 
 Malaga 
 
 Murcia 
 
 Alcira* 
 
 Alicante 
 
 • Castellon de la Pla- 
 na 
 
 Denia 
 
 Morelia 
 Murviedro 
 Orihuela 
 Peniscola 
 San Felipe 
 
 Alcaldias Mayores. 
 
 Valencia. 
 
 Alcira. 
 
 Alicante. 
 
 Castellon de la Pla- 
 na. 
 
 Jaen 
 
 Andujar 
 
 Ubeda 
 
 Alcala la Real 
 Alcaudete 
 Marc ha Real 
 Cordova 
 Bujalance 
 
 Lucena 
 
 Montilla 
 
 Montoro 
 
 Pedroches 
 
 Seville 
 
 Almonte 
 
 Martos, O. M. 
 
 Ayamonte 
 
 San Lucar 
 Guadiana 
 
 Morelia 
 
 Orihuela. 
 
 San Felipe 
 La Carolina. 
 
 Alcala la Real. 
 
 Cordova. 
 
 Aguilar de la Fron- 
 tera. 
 
 San Lucar la May- 
 or. 
 
 de 
 
 Carmona 
 
 Ecija 
 
 Gibraleon — — - 
 
 Moguer 
 
 Niebla 
 
 Paradas 
 
 Pruna 
 
 Rota and Chipiona 
 
 Cadiz 
 
 Alcala de los Ga- Puerto de Santa 
 zules Maria 
 
 Arcos de la Fron- San Lucar de Bar- 
 
 tera 
 
 Chiclana 
 
 Conil 
 
 Xeres de la Fron- 
 tera 
 
 Trebujena 
 Villa Martin 
 Granada 
 
 Ujijar, in the Al- 
 puxarras 
 
 rameda 
 
 Tarifa 
 
 Granada 
 
 Ecija. 
 
 Cadiz. 
 
 Puerto de Santa 
 Maria. 
 
 San Lucar de Bar- 
 rameda. 
 
 Carthagena 
 Mallorca 
 Palma 
 
 Antequera 
 
 Baza 
 
 Coin 
 
 Guadix 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Marbella 
 
 Ronda 
 
 Velez Malaga 
 
 Murcia 
 
 Albacete 
 
 Chinchilla 
 
 Mula 
 
 Mahon 
 
 Palma 
 
 Almeria 
 
 Motril 
 
 Malaga 
 
 Cieza, O. M. 
 
 Carthagena 
 
 Mahon 
 
 Palma 
 
 Iviza 
 
 Xeres de la Fron- 
 tera 
 Tarifa. 
 
 Granada. 
 
 Almeria. 
 
 Alboloduy. 
 
 Motril. 
 
 Antequera. 
 
 Adra, Berja, and 
 Dalias. 
 
 Calahorra de Gra- 
 nada. 
 
 Malaga. 
 
 Carthagena. 
 
 Palma. 
 
 * Al/ira, Algecira. 
 
 t “ Captain-Generalships.” Spain is divided into eleven grand 
 military departments, (exclusive of the islands), the chief command of 
 
 Navarre 
 
 The Biscayan 
 Provinces ^ 
 
 DIVISION OF SPAIN INTO LIEUTENANCIES,! 
 
 WITH THE NAMES OF THE PROVINCES, THEIR POPULATION, AND THAT OF 
 THE PRINCIPAL TOWNS IN EACH PROVINCE, ACCORDING TO THE LAT- 
 EST DOCUMENTS. 
 
 A. Lieutenancy of Navarre. 
 
 General Divisions. Provinces. Population. Towns. Population. 
 
 fPampeluna, . 
 
 Navarre . 272,000 J Judela, . . 
 
 ^Tafalla, . . 
 
 B. Lieutenancy of Guipuscoa. 
 f St. Sebastian, 
 
 Guipuscoa, 127,000 1 
 
 l, Vergara or Bergara, 
 
 • i33 > ooo SSrd b u°5k, : 
 
 . 85,000 Vittoria, . 
 
 Lieutenancy of Galicia. 
 
 C Oviedo, , 
 
 . 420,000 < Aviles, 
 
 ( Gijon, 
 
 { Santiago, 
 
 Pontevedra, 
 
 Padron, . 
 
 Muros, 
 
 167,000 1 Perrol^ 08 ’. 
 
 73,000 Corunna, 
 
 324,000 Lugo, . . 
 
 382,000 Orense, . 
 
 wa '«SS’d.vi., 
 
 Lieutenancy of Arragon. 
 
 ' Saragossa, 
 
 Asturias 
 
 Galicia 
 
 Biscay, 
 
 Alava, . 
 C. 
 
 < Asturias, 
 
 Santiago, . 
 
 Betanzos, . 
 
 Corunna, . 
 Lugo, . . 
 
 Orense, . . 
 
 Tuy, . . . 
 
 Mondonedo, 
 
 D. 
 
 Arragon 
 
 Catalonia 
 
 Catalonia, 
 
 Jaca 
 
 Alcaniz, . 
 Barbas tro, 
 Borja, 
 Fraga, . . 
 
 Huesca, . 
 Carinena, 
 Calatayud, 
 Daroca, . 
 Montalban,! 
 Teruel, . 
 ^Taragona,§ 
 Lieutenancy of Catalonia. 
 
 ' Barcelona, 
 Cervera, . 
 Figueras, . 
 Gerona,|[ . 
 Lerida, 
 
 1,125,000^ Manresa, . 
 
 Arragon, . 770,000. 
 
 E. 
 
 Population 
 
 15,000 
 . 8,000 
 . 6,000 
 . 5,000 
 
 . 9,000 
 . 2,000 
 . 5,000 
 . 4,000 
 . 15,000 
 . 3,000 
 . 7,000 
 
 . 10,000 
 . 6,000 
 . 6,000 
 . 28,000 
 . 4,000 
 . 4,000 
 . 4,000 
 . 5,000 
 . 13,000 
 . 18,000 
 . 7,000 
 . 4,000 
 . 6,000 
 . * 2,000 
 . 6,000 
 . 3,000 
 
 . 55,000 * 
 . 3,000 
 . 6,000 
 . 7,000 
 . 3,000 
 . 5000 
 . 9,000 
 . 3,000 
 . 6,000 
 . 6,000 
 . 3,000 
 . 7,000 
 10,000 
 
 120,000 
 . 5,000 
 . 7.000 
 . 6,000 
 12,000 
 13,000 
 
 13.000 
 
 11.000 
 16,000 
 
 Old Castile 
 
 Leon 
 
 Mataro, 
 
 Tarragona, 
 
 Tortosa, . 
 
 Villa Franca de Penades 4,000 
 
 (_Vich, 12,000 
 
 Lieutenancy of Old Castile. 
 
 107 000 5 AviIa ’ 4 ’ 000 
 
 . . 107,000 £ Areval0; 2,000 
 
 ora one t Burgos, 12,000 
 
 ‘ " 1 ( Aranda de Duero, . 4,000 
 
 im non $ Segovia, 12.000 
 
 14 0,0°0 \ St. Ildefonso, . . . 4^00? 
 
 f Soria, 5,000 
 
 262.000 < Calahorra, .... 6,000 
 
 ( Agreda, 3,000 
 
 183.000 Santander, .... 18,000 
 
 200 000 5 k eon > 5,000 
 
 2JU,UUU £ Astorga , 4,000- 
 
 on' nnn S Palencia, 10,000 
 
 ^ u °> uuu £ Carrion de los Condes, 3,000 
 i -o non 5 Toro 9,000 
 
 152.000 1 Zamora, 7,000? 
 
 F. 
 
 Avila, . . 
 
 Burgos, . . 
 
 Segovia, 
 
 Soria, . . 
 
 Santander, . 
 
 Leon, . . 
 
 Palencia, 
 
 Toro, ) 
 
 Zamora, ) 
 
 Salamanca, . 235,000 
 
 ( Salamanca, 
 
 ( Ciudad Rodrigo, 
 ("Valladolid, 
 
 Valladolid, 
 
 195,000 i Medina del Campo, 
 
 Medina del Rio Seco, 
 t^Tordesillas, . . . . 
 
 14.000 
 
 4.000 
 
 32.000 ? 
 
 3.000 
 
 4.000 
 
 3.000 
 
 which resides in the governor, who assumes the title of captain-gen- 
 eral, to which the governor of Navarre adds that of viceroy. Ed. En- 
 cyc. — P. { Montalvan. § Tarazona. || “ Girone.” 
 
BOOK CXXXIX.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SPAIN. 
 
 167 
 
 G. Lieutenancy of Estrerrmdura. 
 Jeneral Divisions.^ Provinces. Population. Towns. 
 
 ' Badajoz, 
 
 Population. 
 
 Cstremadara ■ 
 
 Estremadura, 070,000 
 
 New Castile < 
 
 H. 
 
 Madrid, 
 
 Toledo, 
 
 Cuenca, . 
 
 ipulatio! 
 
 12,000 
 
 Albuquerque, . . . 0,000 
 Alcantara, .... 3,000 
 
 Caceres, 10,000 
 
 Ceclavin, .... 5,000 
 
 Llerena, 0,000 
 
 Merida, 5,000 
 
 Olivenza, .... 10,000 
 Plasencia, .... 0,000 
 
 Truxillo, 4,000 
 
 Xeres de los Caballeros, 9,000 
 
 10,000 ? 
 
 Valencia 
 
 Zafra 
 
 Lieutenancy of J\'ew Castile. 
 
 ' Madrid, . . . , 
 
 Alcala de Henares, 
 C Guadalaxara, 
 
 Guadalaxara, 217,000 1 Brihuega, 
 
 ( Siguenza, 
 
 { Toledo, 
 
 Aranjuez, 
 Consuegra, 
 Guardia, 
 
 Ocana, 
 
 328,000 $ Cuenca, . 
 
 ’ ‘ Kequena, 
 
 Ciudad Rea 
 Alcaraz, . 
 Manzanares, 
 
 Lieutenancy of Valencia and Murcia. 
 
 'Valencia, 
 
 La Mancha, 375,000 . 
 
 I. 
 
 Murcia, 
 
 Valencia, . 1,048,000- 
 
 Murcia, 
 
 458,000- 
 
 a 
 
 Alcala de Chis 
 Alcira, 
 
 Alcoy, 
 Alicante, . 
 Benicarlo, 
 Castellon de 
 Carcagente, 
 Concentayn 
 Callera, 
 
 Denia, 
 
 Elda, . 
 
 Elche, 
 
 Gandia, 
 Murviedro, 
 Orihuela, 
 Oliva, . 
 Segorbe, . 
 
 San Felipe, 
 Vinaros, . 
 
 Villa Real, 
 Xixona, . 
 Murcia, . 
 Albacete, 
 Almansa,t 
 Callaspara, 
 Carthagena, 
 Cehegin, 
 Chinchilla, 
 Jumilla, 
 
 Lorca, 
 
 Totana, 
 
 Villena, 
 
 _ Yecla, 
 
 er 
 
 FI 
 
 201 ,000 
 . 4,000 
 . 7,000 
 . 4,000 
 . 5,000 
 . 15,000 
 . 4,000 
 . 6,000 
 . 4,000 
 . 5,000 
 . 7,000 
 . 10,000 
 . 10,000 
 . 10,000 
 . 9,000 
 
 J. Lieutenancy of Andalusia 
 'New Popula- ~ 
 tions,t 
 
 Andalusia, 
 
 13,000 
 
 Jaen, 
 
 Cordova, 
 
 267,000. 
 
 La Carolina, 
 'Jaen, . . 
 
 Andujar, 
 Alcala Real, 
 Alcaudete, 
 Baeza, 
 Baylen, . 
 Martos, . 
 Ubeda, 
 
 * Cordova, . 
 Baena, 
 
 370,000 i Bujalance, 
 
 7 | Lucena, . 
 
 Montilla, 
 (.Priego, . 
 
 66,000 
 6,000 
 8,000 
 18,000 
 
 23.000 
 5,000 
 
 na, 15,000 
 
 5.000 
 
 7.000 
 
 7.000 
 
 3.000 
 
 4.000 
 
 4.000 
 
 6.000 
 6,000 
 
 25.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 6.000 
 
 15.000 
 
 9.000 ? 
 
 8.000 
 
 4.000 ? 
 
 35.000 
 
 9.000 
 
 7.000 
 
 3.000 
 
 29.000 
 
 10.000 
 10,000 
 
 8.000 
 
 40.000 
 
 8,000 
 
 12.000 ? 
 8,000 ? 
 
 3.000 
 . 18,000 
 , 10,000 
 
 14.000 
 
 6.000 
 
 10.000 
 
 4,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 15.000 
 
 46.000 
 
 14.000 
 
 14.000 
 
 19.000 
 
 13.000 
 
 16.000 
 
 * Gisvert or Xibert. 
 t Almanza, Almanza, 
 t See p. 857. 
 
 I Genera. Divisions. Provinces. Population. 
 
 Seville, 
 
 648,000. 
 
 Andalusia 
 
 , Towns. Population. 
 
 Seville, 91,000 
 
 Aracena, .... 5,000 
 Ayamonte, .... 6,000 
 Carmona, .... 18*000 
 Constantina, . . . 6,000 
 
 Ecija, 34,000 
 
 Estepa, 10,000 
 
 Fregenal, .... 5,000 
 Huelva, .... 8,000 
 Marchena, .... 13,000 
 
 Osuna,§ 16,000 
 
 Utrera, 11,000 
 
 'Cadiz, 53,000 
 
 Algesiras,|| .... 13,000 
 Arcos de la Frontera, 10,000 
 Medina Sidonia, . . 9,000 
 Puerto de Santa Maria, 17,000 
 
 Rota, 8,000 
 
 San Fernando (Isle of 
 
 Leon), 3,000 
 
 San Lucar de Barra- 
 meda, . 
 
 Tarifa, 
 
 _Xeres de la Frontera, 
 
 K. Lieutenancy of Granada and Malaga 
 
 Cadiz, 
 
 245,000 
 
 Andalusia 
 
 Granada" 
 
 ► 1,108,000- 
 
 Malaga 
 
 j 
 
 L. 
 
 Balearic Isl- 
 ands 
 
 Granada, 
 
 Adra, . . 
 
 Alhama, . 
 Almunecar, 
 Almeria, 
 
 Baza, . . 
 
 Guadix, . 
 
 Loja, . . 
 
 Motril, 
 
 Torviscon, 
 Malaga, . 
 Antequera, 
 Estepona, 
 Marbella, 
 
 Ronda, 
 
 Velez Malaga, 
 Lieutenancy of Majorca. 
 
 f Palma, 
 
 Balearic ) 
 Islands, 5 
 
 250,000 
 
 l^Soller,H . 
 r Mahon, . 
 
 Minorca J . • 
 
 ) Ciudadela, 
 
 ( Mercadal, 
 Ivica, Ivica, . . 
 
 Total population, . 13,560,000 
 
 Table of the Spanish Colonies. 
 
 f Ceuta, 
 
 16,000 
 
 13.000 
 
 31.000 
 
 80.000 
 
 9.000 
 
 6.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 19.000 
 
 10.000 
 
 9.000 
 
 14.000 
 
 10.000 
 
 15.000 
 
 52.000 
 
 20.000 
 
 9.000 
 
 4.000 
 18,000 
 
 14.000 
 
 34.000 
 
 9.000 
 
 7.000 
 
 8.000 
 
 19.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 7.000 
 
 4.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 Africa 
 
 'Presidios, or for- ' 
 tified places 
 on the coast, 
 
 Canary Islands, 196,000 
 
 An-" 
 
 1000 
 
 Oceanica ■< 
 
 America 
 
 Island of 
 nobon, 
 
 Island of Fer- 
 nando Po, J 
 Philippine "I 
 
 M^nfsi-h 2 ’ 640 - 000 ? 
 
 ands, J 
 
 9,000 
 
 11,000 7 Alhucemas,) Q 
 
 l Melilla p UUU 
 
 f Teneriffe 5 Santa Cruz ’ 8 ’ 000 
 ienenne £ San Cr istoval,9,000 
 
 { Palmas, . 9,000 
 
 Aguimez, 5,000 
 
 Arucas, . 4,000 
 
 Guia, . . 3,000 
 
 Tirajana, . 3,000 
 
 Palma, Santa Cruz, 5,000 
 
 Lancerota, Teguisa, . 2,000 
 
 Grand 
 
 Canary 
 
 Antilles, 
 
 1,240,000 
 
 Manilla, 140,000 ? 
 Cavite, . 6,000 
 Tayabes . 13,000 
 
 'Havanna, 130,000 
 Bayamo, 12,000 
 Matanzas, 7,000 
 Puerto Principe, 
 
 30,000.’’ 
 
 _ Santiago, 20,000 
 Porto Rico, San Juan, 30,000 
 
 Luconia 
 
 Cuba 
 
 § Ossuna. 
 
 II Algeziras. 
 IT Soler. 
 
 j 
 
188 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXXXIX 
 
 Total population of the colonies, 4,088,000 
 
 Total population of Spain, 13,560,000* * 
 
 Total population of the Spanish monarchy, . . 17,648,000 
 
 Number of Hospitals and other Institutions. 
 
 Hospitals, 2,231 
 
 Houses of entertainment for monks and ecclesiastics, t 106 
 
 Foundling hospitals, 67 
 
 Places of retreat, 32 
 
 Prisons, 5,898 
 
 Colleges, 383 
 
 Houses of education, 168 
 
 Number of Clergy in \ 826. J 
 
 Archbishops and bishops, 61 
 
 Canons 2,363 
 
 Prebends, 1,869 
 
 Curates 16,481 
 
 Vicars, 4,929 
 
 Incumbents having great benefices, 17,411 
 
 Do. small benefices, 9,088 
 
 Expectants (demandantes ) , 3,467 
 
 Hermits and pilgrims, 1,300 
 
 Number of men in the convents, 61,327 
 
 Do. women do. 31,400 
 
 Total number, 149,696 
 
 Cattle , Sfc. in the kingdoms of Leon and Castile, according 
 to the documents published by M. Mxnano in 1826. 
 
 
 Belonging to 
 Laymen. 
 
 Belonging to 
 Ecclesiastics. 
 
 Total 
 
 Number. 
 
 Horned cattle 
 
 2,729,551 
 
 215,334 
 
 2,944,885 
 
 Horses 
 
 361,523 
 
 38,972 
 
 400,495 
 
 Mules . . 
 
 206,967 
 
 16,679 
 
 223,646 
 
 Sheep 
 
 16,792,788 
 
 1,894,371 
 
 18,687,159 
 
 Goats 
 
 4,828,068 
 
 359,600 
 
 5,187,668 
 
 Asses 
 
 618,342 
 
 23,446 
 
 641,788 
 
 Swine 
 
 2,551,152 
 
 177,131 
 
 2,728,283 
 
 Hives 
 
 1 ,467,773 
 
 229,820 
 
 1 ,697,593 
 
 * The number of people in the hospitals, prisons, colleges, and ec- 
 clesiastical seminaries has not been determined. The same remark is 
 applicable to the number of criminals,* smugglers, gypsies and per- 
 sons without any means of subsistence. Their number has been 
 
 vaguely estimated by M. Minano at 127,345 
 
 The ecclesiastics amount to 149,696 
 
 The army and navy, . 64,000 
 
 Inhabitants of Spain, 13,560,000 
 
 Thus the total population is equal to . . 13,901,041 
 
 * “ Criminals condemned to the galleys.” 
 t “ Hospices”— Hospicios, almshouses, especially for decayed eccle- 
 siastics. — P. 
 
 I The following is the table in the original : 
 
 Archeveques et feveques, 61 
 
 Chanoines, 2,363 
 
 Ecclesiastiques prebendes, 1,869 
 
 Cures de paroisses, 16,481 
 
 Vicaires, 4,929 
 
 Beneficiers ordonn6s majeurs, 17,411 
 
 Id. ordonnes mineurs, 9,088 
 
 Postulans ( demandantes ), 3,467 
 
 Ermitcs et pelerins, 1,300 
 
 Dans les couvens, hommes, 61,327 
 
 Id. femmes, 31,400 
 
 Spanish Revenue. 
 
 
 Pounds St. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Customs 
 
 939,170 
 
 22,540,000 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 625,000 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 Salt 
 
 410,917 
 
 9,860,000 
 
 Stamps 
 
 137,900 
 
 3,310,000 
 
 Lottery 
 
 90,000 
 
 2,150,000 
 
 Tax on the population of Granada . . 
 
 8,750 
 
 210,000 
 
 Lanzas (contributions exacted from the 
 grandees as an equivalent for the lances 
 or horsemen which they furnished for- 
 
 merly to the crown) 
 
 19,170 
 
 460,000 
 
 Cruzada (ancient tax levied for the cru- 
 
 
 
 sades) 
 
 197,087 
 
 4,730,000 
 
 Excusado (subsidy granted by the pope 
 for the revenue of the clergy) . . . 
 
 % 
 
 215,000 
 
 5,160,000 
 
 JVoveno (ninth part of the tithes granted 
 
 by the pope) 
 
 242,917 
 
 5,830,000 
 
 Tcrcius (two ninths of the tithes) . . . 
 
 125,000 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 Diczmo (tax on the river fishings in Se- 
 
 ville) 
 
 417 
 
 10,000 
 
 Half of the annats belonging to the secu- 
 
 
 lar clergy 
 
 9,325 
 
 225,000 
 
 Casa de Aposento (ancient tax claimed by 
 the king’s purveyors) 
 
 
 7,292 
 
 175,000 
 
 Penas de Camera (fines incurred after 
 
 
 
 three appeals to the supreme council) . 
 
 12,500 
 
 300,000 
 
 Mesadas, &c. (ecclesiastical dues and an- 
 
 
 
 nats) 
 
 15,422 
 
 370,000 
 
 Posts, gunpowder, saltpetre and other 
 
 products 
 
 1,320,000 
 
 31,670,000 
 
 Total 
 
 4,376,776 
 
 105,000,000 
 
 Amount of the national debt 
 
 150,000,000 
 
 4 ,000^000^000 
 
 Army. 
 
 Effective men, 50,000 § 
 
 Navy. 
 
 Ships of the line, 10 
 
 Frigates, 16 
 
 Other vessels, 30 
 
 Men in the naval service, 14,000 
 
 The following table for 1787, is taken from Townsend’s Travels in 
 Spain, vol. 2. p. 213 : 
 
 Parochial clergy, called curas, 16,689 
 
 Assistants, called tenientes curas, 5,771 
 
 Sacristans, or sextons, 10,873 
 
 Acolitos, to assist at the altar, 5,503 
 
 Ordenados de patrimonio, having a patrimony of three 
 
 reals a day, 13,244 
 
 Ordenados de menores, with inferior ecclesiastical or- 
 ders, 10,774 
 
 Beneficiados, or canons of cathedrals, and other bene- 
 ficiaries, 23,692 
 
 Monks, 61,617 
 
 Nuns, 32,500 
 
 Beatas ,* 1,130 
 
 Syndics, to collect for the mendicants, t 4,127 
 
 Inquisitors, 2,705 
 
 188,625— P 
 
 * Women who wear a religious habit, and are engaged in works of charity, 
 t Sindicos, depositaries of the alms of some religious houses. 
 
 § The army is organized for a force of 120,000 men, exclusive of the 
 militia, which consists of 40,000.1 
 
 1 The army consists of 65,530 men, including 4,200 guards, and is to be 
 doubled in time of war. Hassel, Statistik, 1822. — P. 
 
 149.696 
 
book. cxl. i DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 189 
 
 BOOR CXL. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued. — France. — Historical notice. 
 
 The influence of France may be compared to that which 
 ancient Greece possessed over the civilized world ; ' the 
 French language has become the language of courts and 
 ambassadors ; the literature of the same people has been 
 admired by the enlightened of every nation ; since the rev- 
 olution, French philosophers have contributed, perhaps 
 more than those of any other country, to extend the limits 
 of science, and French armies crowned with laurels, have 
 dictated their laws to Europe. Those, who consider philo- 
 sophically certain questions by which geography may be 
 changed into a new science, must examine the causes on 
 which the characters that distinguish a people from neigh- 
 bouring nations, depend. They cannot, in the present 
 instance, be attributed to climate, for the extreme de- 
 grees of cold or heat, that modify the physical and moral 
 powers of the inhabitants, are not felt in France; neither 
 can the causes be discovered in the inequalities of the soil, 
 for there are no extensive plains or lofty chains of mountains, 
 which by determining men to become husbandmen or shep- 
 herds, accelerate or retard the progress of civilization. The 
 question, therefore, depends on other causes, and its solution 
 is not without interest in the description of a country, whose 
 inhabitants have enlightened Europe, planted the seeds of 
 freedom in America, and overturned empires in their polit- 
 ical commotions. 
 
 The population of France belongs to three different races : 
 viz. the Celtic , which forms nearly four fifths of the inhab- 
 itants, the Germanic or the people in the ancient provinces 
 of Flanders and Alsace, and in part of Lorraine, and lastly, 
 the Pelasgian, diffused over the country near the Mediterra- 
 nean, and in Corsica.® The changes occasioned by civili- 
 zation may modify, but cannot wholly destroy the character 
 of a people. It is easy to discover the French of the pres- 
 ent day in the description of the Celts, given by Caesar, 
 Strabo and gther writers. Although they mixed with the 
 Franks, their conquerors, the traits by which they were dis- 
 tinguished, have not been effaced. The Celtce-Galli or 
 Gauls were gay, frivolous, quick of apprehension, easily 
 excited, prompt in forming their resolutions, brave in battle, 
 attached to then- country, and jealous of their freedom. 
 Their frankness and impetuosity are so great, adds the Greek 
 geographer, that each man thinks it incumbent on him to 
 resent an injury offered to his neighbour. * 1 * They speak 
 often of their glorious deeds, says Caesar, 0 but from their 
 natural inconstancy, they are presumptuous after success, 
 
 a This division seems to have been derived not so much from eth- 
 nographical principles as from the physical character of the inhabit- 
 ants. 
 
 b Strabo, Book IV. ch. 4. 
 
 " De Bello Gallico, Liber III. 
 
 and dejected after defeat. The ancients describe them as 
 ostentatious and fond of ornaments, d affable to strangers, and 
 practising hospitality ; according to their laws, the man who 
 murdered a stranger, was punished with death, while he 
 who murdered a native, was only sent into exile. At a very 
 remote period, they elected their own magistrates, limited 
 the authority of their princes, and never granted subsidies 
 until they had deliberated in their popular assemblies. Their 
 politeness distinguished them from all the people, whom the 
 Greeks and Romans comprehended under the name of bar- 
 barians. Such are the accounts left by the ancients of the 
 Celts, and they are in some respects still applicable to the 
 French. Thus, too, the difference which has been observed 
 between the same people and the other inhabitants of Eu- 
 rope, may be perhaps explained. The Celts were indebted 
 to their physical constitution for the qualities which rendered 
 them to a certain degree susceptible of perfectibility; these 
 qualities have been transmitted from generation to genera- 
 tion ; the soil which they occupied, and which they still 
 possess, has been rendered more productive by their labour, 
 and so long as the progress of improvement continues, 
 France is likely to be the most flourishing country in Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 The people of the Celtic race whom the ancients called 
 Galli or V alii, were renowned for their conquests more 
 than seven centuries before the epoch which has been as- 
 signed to the foundation of Rome. It is unnecessary to 
 indicate the period of dieir first migrations ; history has pre- 
 served but a confused remembrance of them. It is known 
 that they made several invasions into Italy, and that the Ro- 
 mans, while in the height of their power, employed vast 
 armies to subdue them. Sixty years of war and carnage 
 were hardly sufficient to reduce their country into Roman 
 provinces, which occupied nearly the same space that the 
 kingdom of France does at present. The glory of termi- 
 nating these expeditions was reserved for Cffisar, and it is 
 from the writings of the same person that the Romans de- 
 rived their knowledge concerning the different nations in 
 that part of Gaul which they called Transalpine ( Gallia 
 Transalpina) . When that general entered the country, it 
 was inhabited by three principal tribes or nations : viz. the 
 Celtce and A quitani, who, although they spoke distinct dia- 
 lects, belonged evidently to the Celtic race, and the Belgce of 
 Germanic extraction, who inhabited the northern part of the 
 country. Gaul was divided into four provinces by Augus- 
 tus ; e Probus subdivided it into seven/ Diocletian into 
 
 d Ammianus Marcellinus, Book LXV. chap. 13. 
 
 e Belgium ( Gallia Belgica), Celtic Gaul ( Gallia Celtica ), Aquitaine 
 (Aquitania ) , and the Narbonnaise ( Gallia Narbonensis). 
 
 1 Belgium, the first and second Germany, the Lyonnaise, the Vien- 
 noise, the Narbonnaise and Aquitaine 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 190 
 
 twelve, 3 Valentinian into fourteen, b and during the reign of 
 Gratian, the number amounted to seventeen. 0 We shall 
 enumerate the inhabitants of the fifteen provinces which 
 made up the present territory of France. d 
 
 The First Narbonnaise ( Narboncnsis Prima), formed by 
 Roussillon, die greater part of the county of Foix and Con- 
 serans, was inhabited by the Sardones, a people probably 
 sprung from an Illyrian colony, and by the Eolcce, divided into 
 the eastern and western ; the former were surnamed the Ar- 
 ecomici, their lands extended to the banks of the Rhone ; the 
 latter or the Tectosctges, a warlike people, carried their arms 
 into Germany, and founded Ancyra in that district of Asia 
 Minor, which was called Galatia from its Gallic inhabitants. 
 
 The Second Narbonnaise ( JVarbonensis Secimda), which 
 comprehended the greater part of Provence, was inhabited 
 by the Tricorii, a people mentioned by Livy in his account 
 of Hannibal’s expedition, by the Saluvii or Salyes, a tribe 
 formidable to their neighbours, and also by the Oxybii, who 
 distinguished themselves in the wars against the Romans. 
 
 The Maritime Alps ( Alpes Maritime ) contained part of 
 Dauphiny, Provence and Piedmont. The Caturiges, who 
 inhabited that part of the province included in France, dis- 
 puted with Caesar the passage of their mountains. 
 
 JYovcmpopulania comprehended the territory of Gascony, 
 Armagnac, Bearn and Lower Navarre. It was peopled by 
 the Boil , whom Ausonius calls Picci, because their country 
 abounded with pitch or resin, by the Ausci who inhabited 
 Auch, by the Bigerrones in Bigorre and Bearn, who cov- 
 ered themselves in winter with the skins of animals, and 
 lastly, by the Tarbdli and the Tarusates , who resisted Cae- 
 sar and Crassus. 
 
 The First Aquitaine ( Aquitania Prima) was the most 
 important province of Gaul ; in it were comprehended 
 Quercy, Rouergue, Auvergne, Bourbonnais, Marche, Li- 
 mousin, Velai with Gevaudan and another portion of Lan- 
 guedoc, Berry, and a part of Poitou. It was peopled by the 
 Cadurci, whose principal city was Caliors, by the Arverni 
 or inhabitants of Auvergne, one of the most warlike nations 
 of the Celtic race, by the Lemovices or Limousins, who 
 raised an army of ten thousand men, and by the Bituriges 
 Cubi, who possessed an extensive territory long before the 
 invasion of Caesar. 
 
 The Second Aquitaine ( Aquitania Secunda ) compre- 
 hended a part of Poitou, Saintonge, Angoumois, Perigord, 
 Agenois and the rest of Guienne. The inhabitants were the 
 Pictones or Pictavi, the Santones in the territories of Saintes, 
 Coignac and Angouleme, the Petrocorii or ancestors of the 
 Perigourdins, the Meduli in the country of Medoc, and the 
 Bituriges Eivisci or people of Bordelais. 
 
 The Viennoise ( Eiennensis) included part of Provence to- 
 gether with the county of Venaissin,® part of Dauphiny to- 
 gether with the principality of Orange, part of Languedoc, 
 and part of Savoy together with the territory of Geneva. The 
 inhabitants were the Anatilii on both banks of the Rhone, the 
 Cavares and the Allobroges on the right bank of the same 
 river, the Eocontii, a warlike people, included by Rome in 
 the number of her allies, and lastly, the Helvii. 
 
 The Great Sequanaise ( Maxima Sequanorum) was formed 
 
 * The first and second Belgium, the first and second Germany, the 
 Great Sequanaise, the first and second Lyonnaise, the Narbonnaise, 
 the Viennoise and Aquitaine, to which were added, the Greek Alps, 
 comprehending part of Switzerland and Savoy, and the Maritime Alps, 
 including part of Provence and the county of Nice. 
 
 *> By the subdivision of Aquitaine into three parts, namely, the first 
 and second Aquitaine and Novemoopulania. 
 
 [BOOK CXL. 
 
 by part of Burgundy, Franche-Comte and Bassigny, togeth- 
 er with Bresse and a portion of Switzerland. All the French 
 part of the same province was included in the territory of the 
 I Sequani, from which the Romans imported their best bacon/ 
 
 The First Lyonnaise ( Lugdunensis Prima) was made up 
 of Lyonnais, Beaujolais, F orez, and a part of Burgundy, 
 Nivernais, F ranche-Comte and Champagne. It was inhab- 
 ited by two powerful nations, namely, the Ambarri, who, 
 during the reign of the Elder Tarquin* * sent colonies into 
 Italy, and the JEdui, the allies of the Romans before the 
 invasion of Gaul by Caesar ; the latter were governed by a 
 president or elective chief, who was not permitted to leave 
 the territory of the republic. 
 
 The Second Lyonnaise ( Lmgdunensis Secunda) compre- 
 hended Normandy, French Vexin and the greater part of 
 Perche. It contained nine different tribes, and a resem- 
 blance still subsists between their names and the names of 
 different parts of the country. The Caleti inhabited the 
 country of Caux ; the Eburovices, the territory of Evreux ; 
 the Lexovii, that of Lizieux ; the Saii, that of Seez ; the 
 Bajocasses, that of Bayeux; the Eenellip that of Valogne ; 
 the AvrincatcEp that of Avranches ; the Eiducasses, the city 
 of Vieux, now a small village near Caen ; and the Eeliocas- 
 ses, Vexin. 
 
 The people of the Third Lyonnaise ( Lugdunensis Ter- 
 tia), were the Redones in the territory of Rennes, the Ee- 
 neti in that of Vannes, a wealthy and commercial people, 
 the JVamnetes in that of Nantes, the Arvii on the banks of 
 the Arve, a feeder of the Sarthe, the Cenomani in the coun- 
 try round Mans, the Andecavi in the territory of Angers, and 
 the Turones in that of Tours. Thus it appears that the prov- 
 ince was made up of Brittany, Maine, Anjou and Touraine. 
 
 As to the Fourth Lyonnaise ( Lugdunensis Quarta), six 
 different tribes were settled in Beauce, the Isle of France, 
 Brie, a part of Champagne, Burgundy and Nivernais, and 
 in Gatinais and Orleanais ; these tribes were the Carnutes 
 in Chartrain, 1 the Parisii round Paris, the Meldi in the ter- 
 ritory of Meaux, the Tricasses in the neighbourhood of 
 Troyes, the Senones who inhabited Sens and Auxerre, and 
 sent armed colonies into Italy, and lastly, the Aureliani in 
 the territory of Orleans. 
 
 The First Belgium ( Bclgica Prima) was formed by the 
 dutchy of Luxemburg, and by part of the territory of 
 Treves and the province of Gelders. It was partly inhabit- 
 ed by tire Trevtri , a people that have been already men- 
 tioned, and by the Cceresi, of whom some account shall be 
 given in the description of the Netherlands. The people in 
 the French part of the province were the Mediomatrici 
 who inhabited Messin, k the Eerodunenses in the country 
 round Verdun, and the Leuci who possessed a. considerable 
 territory, including Bar, Toul and part of Lorraine. 
 
 The different tribes that occupied the Second Belgium 
 ( Bclgica Secunda,) were the brave and proud JS r ervii, who 
 inhabited Hainault, Cambresis, and part of tire Netherlands; 
 the Morini, an industrious people, who carried on a trade in 
 linen, and who occupied part of Picardy and F rench Flan- 
 ders ; the Atrebates, whose name has some analogy with 
 that of Artois ; the Ambiani in the territory of Amiens, who 
 
 c By the division of the two Lyonnaise into four, and of the Nar- 
 bonnaise into two. 
 
 d The Greek Alps formed a part of Savoy ; the second Germany 
 will be described in the account of the Netherlands. 
 
 • “ Le Comtat Venaissin.” f Strabo, Book IV. chap. 3. 5 2 
 
 s Unelli, D’Anv. h Abrincatui, D’Anv. 
 
 ■ “ Le Pays Chartrain,” the country of Chartres. 
 
 k “ Le Pays Messin,” the country of Metz. 
 
 L 
 
BOOK CXL.J 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 191 
 
 were renowned for their cavalry ; tire Bellovaci, who were 
 settled in Beauvaisis ; the Silvanectes, who possessed V alois 
 or the country round Senlis ; the Suessiones, a powerful 
 people in Soissonnais and part of Champagne ; the Remi, 
 who inhabited die territory of Reims and Laon ; and the 
 Catalauni, who occupied the country round Chalons. 
 
 The First Germany ( Germania Prima ) extended along 
 both banks of the Rhine; beyond the limits of the French 
 part of the province, it was peopled by the Treveri, the Ne- 
 metes, the Pangiones and die Tribocci, which have been 
 already mentioned in the account of the Bavarian circle of 
 the Rhine ; but part of the Tribocci were settled in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Strasburg and Saverne, while the Rauraci, the al- 
 lies of the Helvetii, inhabited the districts round Neuf-Brisach. 
 
 Different dialects were spoken by the tribes or nations 
 that made up the Celtic race. Some persons amongst them, 
 more learned than the rest, appear to have been acquainted 
 with the Greek characters ; it is probable, however, that the 
 Veneti and other tribes called Armorican, because they lived 
 near the sea, a adopted the written characters of the Phoeni- 
 cians in consequence of their commercial intercourse with 
 that people. As to the Irish Celts, it is supposed that they 
 made use of distinct characters. The only Celtic languages 
 yet remaining, are the Gaelic still spoken in several parts of 
 the British islands, b and which is divided into several 
 branches or dialects ; c the Cambrian 3 or Celto-Belgic, traces 
 of which may be discovered in Flanders and the kingdom 
 of the Netherlands ; and lastly, the Rreyzad or Low Bre- 
 ton, spoken by the peasants in Brittany, of which there are 
 not fewer than four dialects, namely, the Leonard , used in 
 the neighbourhood of St. Pol de Leon, the Trecorian e 
 spoken by the people of Treguier, the Cornish f in the terri- 
 tory of Quimper Corentin, and the Pennetan% in the terri- 
 tory of Vannes. h 
 
 Celtic Gaul formed a vast federative state, consisting of 
 petty republics, in which the governments were of two dif- 
 ferent classes ; in some the chiefs w r ere elected for a limited 
 period ; in others the office was held during life, and these 
 magistrates assumed the name of kings. Matters of the 
 greatest importance, and questions concerning peace or w T ar, 
 were agitated in the general assemblies formed by the depu- 
 ties from these republics. The time in which they were 
 held,* was the beginning of spring, and every free man was 
 obliged to repair to them, for it was the season not only of 
 the most important civil, but of the most solemn religious 
 festival. “ In their assemblies,” says Strabo,' “ the Gauls 
 observe a custom which is peculiar to them ; if any one 
 interrupts the person who is speaking, the usher of the as- 
 sembly, holding a naked sword in his hand, orders him to be 
 silent ; if he continues, the orders are repeated a second and 
 a third time, but if he still persists, his mantle is rent in sev- 
 eral places.’” 1 According to a Greek poet and geographer, 1 
 a band of musicians assisted in their councils, and when the 
 tumult of the speakers interrupted the deliberations, it was 
 the business of the band to play such music as was likely to 
 have some effect in allaying the passions. 
 
 a From the Breton word Armorik, compounded of the preposition nr, 
 on or above, and viori.k, a diminutive of mor, which signifies the sea. 
 
 b See the account of England. 
 
 c The Irish, the Highland Scotch, and the Manks. — P. 
 
 d “ Kumbre.” — The Welsh call themselves Cymri (pron. Kymri), and 
 their language Cyinreg. Adelung. — Cynmro, Cymro, plur. Cynm- 
 ry, Cymry, a Welshman. Cynmraeg , Cymraeg, the Welsh language. 
 Owen’s Welsh Diet. — P. 
 
 e The Treconian (Treconnicn). Adelung. — P. 
 
 Cnrnouaillier." e “ Vanneteux." 
 
 In the earliest ages, the people of the Celtic race were 
 divided into many wandering tribes ; at a later period they 
 became stationary, but the desire of liberty made diem avoid 
 the enclosure of cities ; dieir towns always open, consisted 
 of cottages separated by gardens, and situated on the skirts 
 of a wood, or the banks of a river. Agriculture was reserv- 
 ed for the slaves of both sexes ; freemen devoted themselves 
 exclusively to the profession of arms, and like the present 
 Swiss, when they could not find employment in their own coun- 
 try, they enlisted in the service of a foreigner. They reared a 
 great number of oxen, horses and sheep, and they lived on 
 the milk and flesh of their cattle, and the produce of the 
 chase. If Pliny may be believed, the same people, who 
 adopted so readily the usages of civilized life, were anthro- 
 pophagi before the arrival of the Romans in Gaul. The 
 skulls of their enemies slain in battle, were girt with gold or 
 silver, and served as drinking cups in their banquets ; wine, 
 hydromel, and beer sparkled on the board ; they passed 
 from one person to another, but they were never offered to 
 the ignoble, or in other words, to those who had not distin- 
 guished themselves in an engagement, for in early times, 
 among the Celts, as well as among every other barbarous 
 people, titles of nobility were only granted to such as had 
 shed the blood of their fellow-creatures. It has been said 
 that the custom of duels was introduced into the country by 
 the Franks; but the honour which the Celts attached to the 
 profession of arms in the remotest ages, established amongst 
 them the right of appeal to the sword, and a Celt was dis- 
 graced by refusing a challenge. A freeman was never seen 
 in public without his arms, hence, without doubt, the custom, 
 which the revolution has modified, of wearing a sword at the 
 court and on occasions of ceremony. Long hair was con- 
 sidered a great ornament by both sexes ; they stained their 
 fair hair of a red colour by means of a particular unguent, in 
 the same manner as their descendants render the hair white 
 by the use of powder. The men wore long chains of gold 
 round their necks, and loaded their arms and wrists with 
 bracelets of the same metal. They rubbed their face with 
 butter to make it shining, and the women used the foam of 
 beer for the same purpose. 
 
 Polygamy was not permitted by the Celts. When a girl 
 was marriageable, her parents invited all her suitors to a 
 feast, and the first to whom she presented the washing ves- 
 sel, was the person of her choice. In the marriage ceremo- 
 ny it was customary for the bride to address her husband in 
 the following manner — You are my master and my husband ; 
 I am your servant. The husband had the power of life and 
 death over her, and if a wife was convicted of having killed 
 her husband, she was burned alive.™ Adultery was severe- 
 ly punished, and divorce was sanctioned by law. Public 
 assemblies, marriages and funerals were so many occasions 
 for sumptuous repasts, which usually terminated in dancing. 
 
 The Celts had no temples ; they thought the greatness 
 of die divine power, accorded id with the smallness of hu- 
 man buildings ; it was in the forests that they offered up 
 their prayers to heaven ; they there placed shapeless stones 
 
 h There are only twenty-two letters in the Breyzad ; among them 
 may be remarked the nasal n, they, the ch and the liquid I of the 1 rench, 
 and the German ch See the Atlas Ethnograpliique by Adrian Balbi. 
 
 ■ Book IV. ch. 4. § 1. 
 
 k “ — a piece is cut from his mantle large enough to render it of 
 no further service.” M. B. A correct translation of the Greek origi- 
 nal. TcXevTaio v aipaiQu th (Toys to aavror oaor a/qrjgov noiyoai 
 
 Tor Xonrov . Strabo, Lib. IV . — P. 
 
 1 Scymnus of Chios ; the period in which he lived, has not been 
 ascertained. m Ceesar, de Bello Gallico, Book VI. chap. 19 
 
192 EURC 
 
 near each other, so as to enclose a sort of sanctuary, or they 
 erected a huge and isolated stone, around which their reli- 
 gious meetings were held. Although, according to Caesar, 
 they worshipped the same gods as the Romans, it is certain 
 they considered it impious to represent the divinity under 
 the form of a man. The isolated stones, called menhirs 
 and peulvans, or a lofty and venerable oak, were the sym- 
 Dols which they adored. They admitted an infinite intelli- 
 gence, the first cause of the harmony that prevails in the 
 universe. Teut or Teutates, the Celtic Mercury, and the 
 creator of the world ; Esus, or their Mars ; Kernunos, or 
 their Bacchus ; Ogmios, or their Hercules ; and Belen, 
 Woden and their other gods, were only secondary divini- 
 ties. They rendered besides a sort of religious homage to 
 the four elements, to springs, fountains and rivers, and to 
 the sun and the moon. It was by the light of the moon that 
 the priests made the multitude assemble in their ancient for- 
 ests or in other places that excited the mind to superstition. 
 Their priests were divided into different classes. The Eu- 
 bnges studied and interpreted nature ; a the bards or Saroni- 
 dee cultivated poetry, that their laws might be more readily 
 committed to memory by the people ; they also sung the 
 exploits of heroes, and transmitted the history of great events 
 to posterity ; the Vates sacrificed the victims, and the druids 
 were the sages who predicted futurity after examining the 
 entrails. b The latter, skilled in casuistry, directed the peo- 
 ple in matters of conscience ; versed in all the sciences, it 
 was supposed they could cure all diseases. They adminis- 
 tered justice, and they presided in the assemblies of the na- 
 tion, and at the judicial trials called the judgments of God, 
 in which the proofs by fire, iron and water, determined the 
 guilt or innocence of the accused. In short, they possessed 
 so much credit that no affair of any consequence, relative to 
 public or domestic policy, could be undertaken without their 
 advice. They led the people into the belief that guilty ac- 
 tions and sins offended the divinity, and that expiatory sacri- 
 fices were necessary to deliver the soul from impending 
 wrath ; hence the great number of animals, which were 
 slain ; but as man is the noblest of animals, they thought 
 human blood most acceptable to the gods. The victims 
 were generally chosen among the prisoners of war ; but on 
 occasions of public calamity, fanatics offered themselves vol- 
 untarily to be sacrificed, and died contented in leaving be- 
 hind them an example of devotedness, and a great reputa- 
 tion for piety. The Celtic clergy made use of their religion 
 to inculcate the practice of moral duties ; they affirmed that 
 the gates of paradise were closed against those who died by 
 their own hands ; thus suicides were numbered among the acts 
 of the wicked. He who outraged public morals, was liable 
 to be excommunicated, by which he was prevented from 
 mixing in civil or religious assemblies, and was regarded as 
 an object of abhorrence by his fellow citizens. The druids 
 established fasts for political purposes ; they enjoined their 
 disciples to abstain from animal food in the middle of sum- 
 mer, because in that season of the year, vegetables were 
 considered more wholesome. 
 
 The oak was held in veneration by die Celts, and the 
 mistletoe, which is so seldom seen on the same tree, was 
 probably for that very reason consecrated to the divinity. It 
 was a sovereign remedy for every evil, and the water in 
 which it was infused, rendered sterile animals fruitful. 0 The 
 
 )PE. [BOOK C XL, 
 
 year was divided into lunar months, and on the first day of 
 every year, the druids forming an imposing band, marched 
 through the forests, cut the parasitical plant with a golden 
 knife, collected it in a white sagum or tunic, and distributed / 
 afterwards to the eager multitude. The ceremony was an 
 nounced by the priests, who travelled through the country 
 and summoned the inhabitants by repeating with a loud 
 voice, — aguillaneuff an exclamation which is still known 4: 
 some of the provinces. 
 
 The druids acknowledged a chief to whom they submitted 
 in all things, and who resided in Chartrain. None were 
 admitted to the sacerdotal office until after a noviciate of 
 twenty years. Their wives shared the veneration in which 
 their husbands were held by the people; they were the 
 judges of family quarrels, and their decisions could not be 
 revoked ; in the art of predicting futurity, they acquired a 
 greater celebrity than the men ; hence perhaps the origin of 
 the popular superstitions concerning fairies, so long believed 
 in different countries in Europe. 
 
 The Romans, aware of the advantages they might derive 
 from the courage of the Celts, respected their municipal 
 privileges ; they were anxious, however, to civilize them, 
 which was easily done by making them adopt their arts and 
 laws. Provincial governments and the title of Roman citi- 
 zen were conferred on the chiefs. The Celtic language 
 was mixed with the Latin, particularly in central Gaul, 
 which served as a communication with Germany ; but it was 
 necessary to deliver the people from the yoke of the druids. 
 Caesar,® Tiberius f and Claudius^ employed alternately per- 
 suasion and force to abolish the horrid practice of immo- 
 lating human victims. The forests were destroyed ; the 
 people in time repaired to temples, and altars were erected 
 to the gods of the Capitol. The religion of the conquerors 
 was mingled with the ancient worship of the druids ; and 
 druidesses resided in the temples, where they officiated as 
 priestesses, but they were permitted to remain one day in 
 the year with their husbands, — a privilege they enjoyed 
 while their ancient faith was in its purity ; other persons who 
 had taken vows of celibacy, performed in Gaul the offices 
 of vestal virgins. 
 
 But druidism was not wholly abolished when the con- 
 querors and the conquered embraced Christianity. It is 
 probable that the first Christians who converted the welts, 
 sanctioned certain practices which might contribute to the 
 benign influence of Cliristianity on a superstitious people ; 
 the same practices were approved by Rome, and adopted 
 afterwards in different countries. The Christians had no 
 difficulty in considering the druids magicians or men under 
 the power of the devil ; the persecuted priests and their per- 
 secuted partisans were unable to resist the zeal and know! 
 edge of the new proselytes. 
 
 Half a century had hardly elapsed, after the Roman pow- 
 er had been divided into the western and eastern empires, 
 when the Roman provinces were dismembered by the bar- 
 barous nations, that had been too long oppressed by the rulers 
 of the world. The Burgundians and other people of the 
 same origin, known by the name of Visigoths, founded about 
 the beginning of the fifth century two contiguous kingdoms 
 in the heart of Gaul. The former besides a part of Switzer- 
 land and Savoy, possessed Franche-Comte, Bresse, Dau- 
 phiny, Lyonnais, the greater portion of Nivernais, and the 
 
 * Ammianus Marcellinus. b Diodorus Siculus, Book V. 
 
 Pliny, Boak XVI. chap. 44. 
 
 •* Perhaps .hi gni Van ncuf, to the mistletoe, it is the new year. Tr. 
 
 .z , . : , ... z.—i — . — - 
 
 ' Lucan. Book II. 
 
 ' Pliny. Book XXXI. ch. 1. 
 s Suetonius, ch. 20. 
 
cxi..] DESCRIPTION 
 
 adjoining country, which from these inhabitants has been 
 called Burgundy. The banks of the Loire were the north- 
 ern limits of the Visigoths ; they ruled over the centre and 
 the south of France, including Provence, the county of Nice, 
 and even a part of Spain.® Numerous hordes that issued 
 from Germany, settled in the Netherlands ; they founded 
 some years afterwards, under the command of Pharamond, 
 a petty kingdom, of which the southern limit may be repre- 
 sented by a line drawn from the mouth of the Somme 
 through Amiens and Rethel, including Treves with part of 
 its territory, and terminating on the left bank of the Rhine, 
 a short way below Mayence/ Sixty years afterwards, the 
 same Franks, under the conduct of king Clodovech or Clo- 
 vis, destroyed the remains of the Roman power in Gaul, and 
 made themselves masters of all the country between the last 
 mentioned boundary and the limits of the Visigothic and 
 Burgundian kingdoms. At a later period, they crossed the 
 Rhine, extended their conquests into Germany, and left col- 
 onies in that part of the country which has been since called 
 Franconia. 
 
 Gaul was thus divided during twenty years ; a third part 
 of the surface was occupied by the Franks, rather the pro- 
 tectors than the oppressors of the Gauls, who were confound- 
 ed with the Romans, because they had adopted their man- 
 ners and laws. The victors were distinguished by their ap- 
 pearance, their language and their dress. The Franks wore 
 short boots ; the arms and the rest of the leg were bare ; 
 the body was covered with a narrow and short tunic, bound 
 by a girdle ; their long and fair hair descended below then- 
 shoulders. 0 Their weapons were a long sword, a francisca 
 or two-edged hatchet, d several javelins divided near the ex- 
 tremity into three branches, representing what the French 
 have since termed a fieur de hjs , and lastly, a small buckler 
 which they used with great address. The chiefs abolished 
 most of the imposts ; they allowed the ancient inhabitants to 
 retain their customs and magistrates, reserving to themselves 
 the right of appointing dukes over the provinces, counts over 
 the towns, and viscounts over the burghs and villages ; but, 
 in the councils of the prince, the Gauls preserved that cred- 
 it and ascendancy, which are the consequences of superior 
 knowledge.® The proprietors were compelled to share 
 their land with the invaders, but the peasants and the work- 
 ing classes remained in a state of slavery. The slaves of 
 the king were distinguished from the slaves of the Franks 
 and the Gauls ; among the latter, many possessed slaves, be- 
 cause the Gallic nobility had been preserved. The Bur- 
 gundians and the Goths, more barbarous than the Franks, 
 clothed themselves with the skins of wild beasts. The first 
 might be discovered by a round visage, small and sunk eyes, 
 broad shoulders and a deep chest. The second were dis- 
 tinguished by a darker complexion, aquiline nose, lively 
 eyes, full black beard, and long plaited hair/ Their bar- 
 barity or rudeness rendered the Gauls impatient of their 
 yoke, and the same cause contributed, in a great degree, to 
 the destruction of their monarchies. The ambition of Clo- 
 vis soon reduced the Visigoths to the necessity of migrating 
 into Spain. After the death of that prince, his sons divided 
 France into four kingdoms, of which Paris, Orleans, Soissons 
 
 OF FRANCE. 193 
 
 and Metz, were the capitals. Additional territory was after- 
 wards acquired, and by succession, conquest, usurpation, or 
 in consequence of murders and other crimes, the different 
 parts of France and the kingdom of Burgundy were united 
 in the seventh century under a single head. A century af- 
 terwards, France was governed during some years by Char- 
 lemagne and his brother Carloman, but the first became sole 
 master, and rendered it powerful by his conquests. 
 
 France has never been so extensive and powerful as it 
 was under Charlemagne ; it was then divided into two pans, 
 the western and the eastern. The first comprehended 
 Provence, Gothia or Septimania, now Languedoc, Vasconia 
 or Gascony, Aquitaine, Burgundia or Burgundy, JYeuslria, 
 including Brittany, Normandy and Flanders, and lastly 
 Austrasia, formed by all the country situated between the 
 mouth of the Rhine and Jura. The countries on the south 
 and on the north of the Alps, and the territory extend- 
 ing from the right bank of the Rhine to the mountains of 
 Bohemia, and the banks of the Elbe, made up eastern 
 France. In other words, Charlemagne reigned over the 
 greater part of Italy, and over Switzerland, Bavaria, Hesse, 
 Saxony and Friesland. In the countries extending between 
 the banks of the Drave and the Danube, and those of the 
 Elbe, several nations w r ere also tributary to the same mon- 
 arch. 
 
 The weight of such an empire was too great for his suc- 
 cessor. Louis the Debonnaire, a weak father and a feeble 
 prince, spent his time in contending against his revolted chil- 
 dren, and died after having divided amongst them a crown 
 which he was unworthy to wear. France was governed 
 during a century by the princes of the same race, but the 
 kingly power was weakened by the abuses of the feudal sys- 
 tem ; and when Hugh Capet took possession of the throne 
 in the year 987, he was merely the first baron in the king- 
 dom, and reigned only over Picardy, the Isle of France 
 and Orleanais. The policy of that prince and his succes- 
 sors was to increase the power of the crown by humbling 
 and degrading the nobility. Berry was purchased in 1100 
 by Philip the First from the viscount Eudes Arpin ; and 
 king John erected it into a dutchy, which became the ap- 
 panage of one of the sons of F ranee. Louis the Gross made 
 no acquisitions or conquests, but by liberating the towns, e he 
 raised a barrier against the encroachments of the feudal 
 lords. In 1202, Philip Augustus wrested Touraine from 
 John, king of England,’ 1 who had succeeded to it as the de 
 scendant of its counts ; and in the following year, the same 
 Philip made himself master of Normandy, which, from the 
 time of Charles the Simple, had been ceded in perpetuity 
 to Rollo and his Norwegians. Amaury de Montfort gave 
 up Languedoc to Louis the Eighth, and the cession was rat- 
 ified by a treaty made with St. Louis in 1228. Jane of 
 Navarre, by her marriage with Philip the Fair in 1284, 
 united the county of Champagne, which she had received as 
 her dowry, to the dominions of her husband. In 1307, the 
 inhabitants of Lyonnais having gained their freedom, com- 
 pelled their archbishop to acknowledge the authority of the 
 same king. 
 
 Dauphiny, which derived its name from Guy the Eighth, 
 
 a The kingdom of the Visigoths was founded by Ataulphus in 411, 
 and that of the Burgundians by Gundicar in 413. 
 
 b It is generally admitted that the kingdom of the Franks was found- 
 ed in the year 423. 
 
 c Sidonius Apollinaris, Book IV. epistle 20 
 d “A francisque, or two-edged battle-axe.” 
 
 ' e Gregory of Tours, Books III. VI. VII. VIII. and 1\. 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 48 25 
 
 f Sidonius Apollinaris, Panegyrics of Avitus and Anthemius. 
 e “Communes” — municipalities. Charters granting municipal right* 
 may be found in France A. D. 974, long before the twelfth century 
 and the reign of Louis VI. or the Gross, the period usually understooa 
 as the era of the rise of cities. Rankin's Hist, of France, Vol. III. p. 
 ; 255.— P. 
 
 j b “Jean Sans-Terre” — John Lackland. 
 
134 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK. CXL. 
 
 the bravest is princes, surnamed the Dauphin, because 
 he wore o " ;is helmet, the figure of a dolphin, was ceded to 
 Philip of A aiois in 1349, on condition that the eldest sons of 
 the French kings should assume the title of Dauphins, and 
 also that the country should form a separate sovereignty, and 
 never be incorporated with the kingdom. Charles the Fifth 
 took Poitou, Aunis, Saintonge and Limousin from the Eng- 
 lish. Charles the Seventh, in consequence of his victories 
 over the English, added to his dominions, in 1453, the 
 greater part of Guienne and Gascony. Louis the Eleventh 
 humbled the power of the great, and had the good fortune 
 to acquire Maine and Anjou by inheritance, conquests made 
 by Philip Augustus, but more than once detached from the 
 crown, and conferred on princes of the blood. The same 
 monarch seized the dutchy of Burgundy, declaring himself 
 the lawful heir, although there existed at the time a duke of 
 Burgundy, Nevers and Retliel. It was stated however in 
 letters patent, that the dutchy had been united to France 
 with the free will of the states on the following conditions, 
 namely, that the people were not to be deprived of their 
 natural judges, that no subsidy was to be imposed without 
 the consent of the three orders, and that the taxes, which 
 the people had hitherto paid on wine and the other products 
 of the province, were to he al. lished. The same king took 
 possession of Provence, having aroved by several witnesses 
 that Charles of Anjou had made him his heir. The inhab- 
 itants received the same privileges as those which had been 
 granted to Burgundy. Since that period, the French kings 
 have on several occasions* styled themselves counts of 
 Provence. Francis the First availed himself of the rights 
 which he had acquired by the revolt of the Constable Bour- 
 uon, and in 1527 obtained Auvergne, Bourbonnais and 
 Marche, which belonged to the prince. Some years after- 
 wards, Brittany, of which the inheritance had devolved on 
 his son Francis, was united to the kingdom. In consequence 
 of this junction, Brittany was exempt under his successors 
 from most taxes, being merely subject to a voluntary impost 
 voted by its states. The same gallant and chivalrous king 
 was a poet and friend of the fine arts ; flattery has designat- 
 ed him as the protector of letters, although he established 
 the censorship ; he was not considered cruel, although by 
 his presence he added the weight of his authority to the pun- 
 ishments of the inquisition. In the same reign the assem- 
 blies of the notables were substituted for the states-general, b 
 but the crown derived little advantage from the change, for 
 notions of civil and religious liberty were then gaining force ; 
 they proved the harbingers of political commotions, and serv- 
 ed as instruments for the ambitious and discontented to ex- 
 cite the people. 
 
 The corruption of the court and nobility under Henry the 
 Second, Francis the Second and Charles the Ninth, were 
 favourable to the reformation. The principles of the new 
 religion accorded well with the growing desire for knowl- 
 edge, but the question became a political one, and the royal 
 party confounded the reformers and their partisans with the 
 opponents of absolute power. The massacre of St. Bar- 
 tholomew, considered an act of political wisdom by Catha- 
 rine de Medicis and her son, was devised and executed to 
 rid royalty of its enemies. But the designs of the League 
 
 * “In their letters addressed to the province.” 
 
 b The Slates-sjeneral consisted of deputies chosen by the three es- 
 tates, namely, the nobility, the clergy, and the people. The assem- 
 blies of the Notables were formed by a number of persons from all 
 parts of the kingdom, chiefly selected from the higher orders of the 
 state by the, king himself. Ed. Encyc. — P. 
 
 assumed a very different appearance during the reign of 
 Henry the Third, for it appeared to be the chief object of 
 the party to put the crown of F ranee on the head of a Span- 
 ish prince. Henry the Fourth, whom the catholic chiefs 
 held in execration, ascended the throne, and added to the 
 kingdom all that then remained of the dominions of his fathers, 
 or Bearn, the county of Foix and part of Gascony. France 
 during the reign of Louis the Thirteenth was twice agitated 
 by civil wars ; but the policy of Richelieu saved the king- 
 dom, and his master gained new laurels by the conquest of 
 Artois in 1640, and of Roussillon in 1642. 
 
 The reign of Louis the Fourteenth contributed to the ag- 
 grandisement of France ; that monarch obtained Nivernais 
 by the total extinction of the feudal system ; he took Flan- 
 ders by conquest in 1667, and some years afterwards made 
 himself master of F ranche-Comte ; lastly, by a treaty with 
 the emperor of Germany in 1697, the cession of Alsace was 
 ratified. Under Louis the Fifteenth, Lorraine, formerly a 
 portion of the states belonging to Lothaire, c of whom it bears 
 the name, was added to the kingdom ; it was shortly after 
 ceded to Stanislaus, king of Poland, d on condition that it 
 should be restored to the crown after his death, an event 
 which happened in 1766. The republic of Genoa gave up 
 Corsica for a sum of money two years afterwards. 
 
 Such were the extent and importance of the French ter- 
 ritory, during the latter part of the long and peaceful reign 
 of Louis the Fifteenth ; and the king, whose death was not 
 regretted by the nation, left to his successor the difficult task 
 of realizing the expectations which his virtues seemed to 
 promise. The well informed classes were able to appreci- 
 ate the institutions which they desired, and the king consent- 
 ed to adopt them. But it was necessary to introduce re- 
 forms into the finances, and the middling classes were more 
 jealous than ever of the privileges of the nobility. The 
 states-general were no sooner convoked dian their respective 
 interests gave rise to two parties ; the deputies of the third 
 estate, full of confidence in public opinion, swore never to 
 separate until they had framed a constitution. It was ac- 
 cepted by Louis the Sixteenth, and the pope ceded Avignon 
 and the county of Venaissin to France. The kingdom hav- 
 ing been divided into eighty-three departments, the assem- 
 bly was dissolved. 
 
 It was succeeded by the legislative assembly, composed 
 of men who did not understand the advantages of a repre- 
 sentative system, and who allowed themselves to be ruled by 
 a party. The acts of the sovereign were purposely misrep- 
 resented, and die people dreamed of a republic. A new 
 era soon commenced, marked by a political fanaticism, of 
 which history affords no other example, and by crimes, of 
 which die recital fills the mind with horror. Louis the Six- 
 teenth yielded to die storm, and died with die resignation 
 and tranquillity of a virtuous man. France was shortly af- 
 terwards governed by a handful of persons, who, under the 
 name of equality, divided the inhabitants into classes, under 
 the name of liberty, established die most sanguinary despot- 
 ism, under die name of fraternity, sought associates among 
 die dregs of the people, and under die name of reason, abol- 
 ished Christianity, and substituted the ceremonies of pagan 
 mythology. Anarchy reigned within, but France repelled 
 
 c Grandson of Louis the Debonnaire. The country was first called 
 Rcgnum Lotharii, then Lotlun ingia, afterwards Loherrene, Lorrene, and 
 lastly Lorraine. 
 
 d Lorraine, which had been previously considered as a dutchy be- 
 j longing to the empire of Germany, was conquered by the French in 
 | 17113. and in 173(3 ceded to Stanislaus, king of Poland. — P. 
 
book cxl.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 foreign armies, while the different parties in the national con- 
 vention, proscribed, banished and massacred each oilier. 
 The government was overturned, and the management of 
 affairs committed to two councils and five directors ; if they 
 possessed great influence, both abroad and at home, it was 
 owing to the victories of the French. The principality of 
 Montbelliard was united to the republic in 1796, and the 
 free territory of Mulhausen in 1798. But after the direc- 
 tory had existed five years, it was destroyed by the efforts 
 of a few, at the head of whom was the young general, who 
 had distinguished himself in Italy and on the plains of Egypt. 
 Bonaparte was named first consul ; he put an end to fac- 
 tions, acquired new glory in Italy, and dictated conditions 
 of peace to the emperor of Germany. 
 
 The treaty signed at Luneville on the ninth of February 
 1801, confirmed France in the possession of additional con- 
 quests. The course of the Rhine from Wissemburg to the 
 place where it is called the Waal, served as a limit to the 
 republic, and beyond the same point, Belgium, Antwerp 
 and Flushing were included within the northern frontiers. 
 The same rich territory formed the twelve departments of 
 Mont-Tonnerre, the Sarre, Forets, a the Rhine and Moselle, 
 the Sambre and Meuse, the Ourthe, the Roer, the Lbwer 
 Meuse, Jemappes, the Dyle, Deux-Nethes b and the Scheldt. 
 Porentruy on the east of the ancient boundaries was united 
 to the department of the Upper Rhine. The country round 
 Geneva and Chambery formed the departments of Leman 
 and Mont-Blanc, and the county of Nice was changed into 
 the department of the Maritime Alps. By the treaty of 
 Amiens, peace was restored to Europe on the twenty-seventh 
 of March in the following year, and England gave up the 
 French colonies which she had seized during the preceding 
 wars. 
 
 In the year 1804, Napoleon converted the laurels of 
 Montenotte, Arcole, Rivoli and Marengo, into an imperial 
 diadem, and received in Paris, from the hand of the sove- 
 reign pontiff, the unction with which kings are consecrated, 
 and, as if to heighten the splendour of a title, which added 
 nothing to his glory or his power, the anniversary of his cor- 
 onation, in the following year, was the day in which he gain- 
 ed a very memorable victory, by defeating the Austrian and 
 Russian armies on the plains of Austerlitz ; the treaty of 
 Presburg was the result of the campaign, and by that treaty 
 Prussia ceded to Napoleon all its rights to the dutchy of 
 Cleves, together with the country of Neufchatel and Vallen- 
 gin and the territory of Anspach, the last of which was ex- 
 changed for the dutchy of Berg with Bavaria, which was at 
 the same time erected into a kingdom. The emperor of 
 Austria gave up Dalmatia and the Venetian states, and re- 
 linquished to him the title of king of Italy. Piedmont and 
 Liguria were added to France, and changed into the de- 
 partments of the Doria, the Sesia, Marengo, the Po, the 
 Stura and Montenotte. 
 
 The importance of the empire was still farther increased, 
 when its chief became the protector of the German and 
 
 OF FRANCE. 195 
 
 Swiss confederations. A new rupture, followed by new vic- 
 tories, changed again the state of Europe ; the battles of Je- 
 na and Friedland brought about the treaty of Tilsit, 0 in con- 
 sequence of which the confederation of the Rhine was more 
 than doubled in importance, and France obtained possession 
 of the Ionian islands. In the following years, Kehl, Gasset 
 and Wesel on the right bank of the Rhine were added to 
 the departments on the left, and the grand dutchy of Tus- 
 cany, the dutchies of Parma and Placentia, the territories 
 of Spoleto and Rome, the Valais, Holland, Friesland, Han- 
 over, the bishoprick of Munster, the county of Oldenburg, 
 and the possessions attached to the free towns of Bremen, 
 Hamburg and Lubeck, were transformed into French de- 
 partments. 
 
 Napoleon ruled over the greater part of Europe ; when 
 consul, he changed kingdoms into republics, and when em- 
 peror, republics were changed into kingdoms ; he founded 
 monarchies in Germany ; twice he spared the crown of 
 Prussia, but lavished the best blood and the treasures of the 
 empire to place his brother on the throne of Spain. Having 
 lost the best army in the world on the frozen plains of Rus- 
 sia, and been abandoned by his allies on the field of battle, 
 he made a glorious resistance in France against the combin- 
 ed efforts of Europe. On the 31st of March 1814, his 
 capital was occupied by the foreigners whom he had often 
 vanquished. Compelled to abdicate, he retired to the island 
 of Elba, leaving to the ancient family of the Bourbons a 
 kingdom which had been confined by treaties within its for- 
 mer limits. The territories of Montbelliard and Mulhausen 
 were all that France retained of her republican conquests. 
 
 The institutions, for which the French were indebted to 
 the wisdom of Louis the Eighteenth, made them forget the 
 disgrace of a foreign occupation, but the reports of the dis- 
 affected were believed and circulated through every part of 
 the kingdom ; Napoleon, availing himself of the general dis- 
 content, landed at Frejus on the 1st of March 1815, and 
 entered Paris along with the troops that were sent to take 
 him prisoner. He immediately levied an army to oppose 
 the attempts of foreign princes, gained the victory of Ligny, 
 and was defeated the next day on the plains of Waterloo/ 
 Having abdicated in favour of his son, he entrusted himself 
 to the generosity of the English government ; and the man 
 who at one time thought the world too small for his ambi- 
 tion, was banished to an arid and volcanic rock in the midst 
 of the ocean. 
 
 France lost a territory of twenty square leagues in extent, 
 which had been fortified by Louis the Fourteenth; 6 it paid 
 to the foreigners whom it maintained during five years, an 
 indemnity of 700,000,000 francs, or nearly L.29,200,000 ; 
 yet by means of a good government and wise institutions, it 
 has recovered from its calamities, and resumed the rank which 
 it held among the kingdoms of Europe/ 
 
 According to its present limits, France extends from sev- 
 en degrees nine minutes, to the west of the meridian of Par- 
 is, to five degrees fifty-six minutes, to the east of the same 
 
 1 “ Les Forets” — The department of the Forests, including the great- 
 er part of the grand dutchy of Luxemburg. — P. 
 
 b The Two Nethes — so called from two small rivers of that name 
 (the Great and the Little Nethe) in the territory of Antwerp. 
 
 c It was signed on the 7th of July 1807. 
 
 d The battle of Ligny was fought on the 16th of June, and that of 
 Waterloo on the 18th. — P. 
 
 e The territory of Saar Fouis, annexed to the Rhenish possessions 
 of Prussia. — P. 
 
 1 The recent revolution (July 27-29, 1830) has given a new turn 
 to affairs in France. The immediate effects of the revolution have 
 been the change of dynasty from the elder branch of the Bourbons to 
 the branch of Orleans, the establishment of the charter on a new and 
 
 popular basis, and its nearer adaptation to the principles of liberty. 
 
 The form of monarchy is retained, but its principle may be considered 
 as essentially abandoned. The king no longer rules by his own right, 
 but by the will of the people ; he is no longer a sovereign jure divino, 
 but a citizen king, holding his power from a grant of the national rep- 
 resentatives. So the charter is no longer a gift of the king to the 
 people, but a constitution established by the latter, and simply sworn 
 to by the king. These are great points gained; and if France con- 
 fines herself "to her own internal consolidation and improvement, and 
 can avoid the encroachments of administrative power on the one 
 hand, and the tumults of popular anarchy on the other, she may become 
 what England has been, in theory, since the revolution of 1688, — a 
 monarchical republic. — P. (Dec. 1830.) 
 
 _ 
 
196 EUROPE. book cxjl. 
 
 meridian, and from forty-two degrees twenty minutes to fifty- 
 one degrees five minutes of north latitude. It is bounded 
 on the north by a part of the Channel and the Straits of 
 Calais, the kingdom of the Netherlands, the grand dutchy 
 of Luxemburg, the Prussian provinces on the Lower Rhine, 
 and the Bavarian circle of the Rhine ; on the east by the 
 grand dutchy of Baden, Switzerland and the Sardinian 
 States ; on the south by the Mediterranean and Spain ; and 
 on the west by the Atlantic ocean and a different part of the 
 Channel. 
 
 The greatest dimensions of its frontiers may be determined 
 by two lines, the one drawn in the direction of north-west to 
 south-east from the most western point on the coast of Brest 
 to Antibes, forming an extent of 239| leagues,® and the other 
 drawn from Givet in the Ardennes to Mount Huromba in 
 the Pyrenees, to the south-east of St. Jean Pied de Port, 
 being about 208 leagues in length. The greatest breadth 
 of the kingdom is about 20G leagues from Kersaint in the 
 department of Finisterre to the confluence of the Lauter and 
 the Rhine in the department of the Lower Rhine. The 
 extent of the coasts, including their sinuosities, has been cal- 
 culated at 490 leagues. b The total superficies, including 
 that of Corsica, amounts to 26,739 square leagues. The 
 population about the beginning of the year 1827, was equal 
 to 31,820,000 souls, or on an average to more than 1191 
 individuals for every square league. Although the popula- 
 tion has considerably increased since the revolution, for in 
 the year 1790, the same surface contained only about 
 
 25.000. 000 inhabitants, and, in 1814, the period of the res- 
 toration, 28,500,000, it is not less certain that France might 
 be much more populous. Thus if two departments be taken, 
 forming nearly the two extremes, namely, that of the North 
 which contains 3,403 inhabitants for every square league, 
 and that of the Lower Alps, which contains only 415, the 
 mean term would be 1714 individuals, and if such were the 
 average number of inhabitants for every square league in the 
 kingdom, the total population of France would amount to 
 
 45.000. 000. The fruitfulness of the soil cannot be denied, but 
 before so great a number of inhabitants can be maintained, ag- 
 riculture must be much improved, the different branches of 
 industry must be extended, and new sources of wealth created. 
 
 Corsica, the third largest island in the Mediterranean, 
 possesses within itself the elements of prosperity which may 
 one day render it the finest of the French colonies. Jt is 
 equal in surface to 495 geographical square leagues. 0 
 
 The history of the island from die remotest ages to the 
 period when it was united to France, forms only a distress- 
 ing picture of war, bloodshed and revolt. Herodotus affirms 
 that it was first inhabited by the Phoenicians, who gave it 
 the name of Collista; before that period it was called The- 
 
 rapnc. It was afterwards peopled by a colony of Lacede- 
 monians or, according to Seneca, of Phocaeans, who called 
 it Thera from Theras, the name of their chief. d e Owing 
 to the frequent communications between the islanders and 
 the Greeks, it received from the latter the names of Cyrnos, 
 Cerneatis and Cor sis ; f but the Romans having taken it 
 from the Carthaginians, styled it Corsica, a name of which 
 the origin is uncertain. 
 
 The characters which the ancients have left us of the 
 inhabitants are apparently contradictory. Strabo describes 
 them as living by plunder, and as more savage than wild 
 beasts. “ If a Roman general,” he adds, “ advances into 
 the interior, takes some forts, and brings a certain number 
 of slaves to Rome, their ferocity and stupidity afford a sin- 
 gular spectacle. They consider it either not worth their 
 while to live, or they remain in a state of complete apathy 
 and indifference. However small the price may be for 
 which they are sold, their masters soon discover that they 
 have paid too much for them.” But, as the annotator on 
 Strabos remarks, Diodorus Siculus bears witness to the con- 
 trary. According to that writer, the Corsican slaves are the 
 best servants of any ; they are from habit singularly clean. h ‘ 
 Theft aversion to their conquerors has tended to preserve 
 the manners of their ancestors. They are still sober, brave, 
 hospitable and enthusiastic in then - love of freedom. They 
 may be distinguished by lively eyes, a stature about the 
 middle size, and a dark complexion. 
 
 Corsica was added to the dominions of the Goths after the 
 fall of the Roman empire ; but the inhabitants neither lapsed 
 into the barbarism of their masters, nor submitted to the feu- 
 dal system which they established. The effects of the con- 
 quest were battles, murders and crimes of which history has 
 preserved a confused remembrance. The Goths were suc- 
 ceeded in the eighth century by the Arabs and Saracens, 
 who remained but a short time in the island. It was reserv- 
 ed for the rising republic of Genoa to impose a cruel and 
 tyrannical yoke on the people, which lasted, with many 
 interruptions, during a period of nine centuries. In the same 
 period the people experienced all the vicissitudes that result 
 from resistance and submission ; at one time asserting their 
 independence, at another yielding to their oppressors. Rome 
 attempted the conquest of the island ; the Pisans took it from 
 their rivals during the eleventh century, but in the twelfth, 
 the latter gained it anew. In the course of the thirteenth 
 century it was nearly taken by the Pisans, and during the 
 fifteenth hy Alphonso the Fifth, king of Arragon. Genoa 
 ceded it in 1465, and took it back shortly afterwards from 
 the duke of Milan. In 1553, Henry the Second assisted 
 the Corsicans, and freed them from the Genoese ; but six 
 years after their deliverance, the island was restored to the 
 
 left by Cadmus, before it was settled by the Lacedemonians under 
 Theras. These statements of Herodotus are partly confirmed by Stra- 
 bo. On the contrary, Seneca simply states, in which he is confirmed 
 by Diodorus (Lib. V.), that Corsica was settled by a colony of Pho- 
 caeans (Epigramm. super exilio, Ep. I. v. 1,) and that the Greeks from 
 Phoctea who founded Marseilles first settled in the island (De Conso- 
 lat. cap. 8.) He farther states in the same place, that the earlier his- 
 tory of the island was involved in the darkness of antiquity. Therapru 
 was the name of a town in ancient Crete. (Pliny.) — P. 
 
 1 Strabo, Book V. ch. 4. § 5. 
 
 s M. Gosselin. 
 
 h “ The Corsican slaves, says Diodorus, are better than all others for 
 useful service, for which they are by nature peculiarly adapted.” This 
 conveys the correct sense of the Greek original, in which not a word 
 is said of their cleanliness. “ TaSt aiSgoTioSa xvgrta Siaiftqnv doxti 
 Tuiv ai-Auir iuXmr tig rag xaTa tov |Siov j«)tiag, tpva txrjg Tou rijf tijj nhorij- 
 rog iiaqaxo>.u-9naijg.'’ — P. 
 
 * Diodorus Siculus, Book V. § 13. 
 
 1 Twenty-five of these leagues are equal to a degree. 
 b Their extent, exclusively and inclusively of their sinuosities, may 
 be seen by the following table : 
 
 Straight line. Sinuosities. 
 
 Coasts of the Mediterranean, 85 leagues. 120 leagues. 
 
 Atlantic, . . 145 “ 195 “ 
 
 Channel, . . 135 “ 175 “ 
 
 365" “ 490 “ 
 
 c It is situated between 41° 17' and 43° N. lat. and between 6° 12' 
 and 7° 12' E. long, from Paris. 
 d Herodotus, Book IV. ch. 147. 
 
 0 There appears to be a great degree of confusion in the above pas- 
 sage. The passage quoted from Herodotus refers only to the island 
 of Thera in the Archipelago. He simply states that the island took its 
 name of Thera from Theras , that it was previously called Callista* 
 (not Collista ;) and that it had been occupied by a colony of Phoenicians 
 
 * KaXhgt], 
 
book cxl.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 republic by the treaty of Chateau-Cambresis. Promises 
 of assistance were offered, but never fulfilled, and the inhab- 
 itants, almost reduced to despair, had recourse to revolt in 
 1564. Men were not wanting, who could organise and 
 direct insurgents, but none were found capable of liberating 
 their country. Tranquillity was restored each time Genoa 
 promised to abolish their grievances, but when she resumed 
 her authority, her promises were broken. While the differ- 
 ent parties against the Genoese were divided on the choice 
 of their leader, a German baron, Theodore Von Neuhof, 
 landed in the island, offered his services to the insurgents, 
 and gained so great an ascendancy over them, that he was 
 proclaimed king. Without talent as a general, without en- 
 ergy as a monarch, he was unable to disperse the Genoese, 
 or to unite the factions which enfeebled his ephemeral king- 
 dom. Twice he sought in foreign countries resources and 
 supplies, which he could not find at home, and during his 
 absence, an auxiliary army furnished to Genoa by France, 
 put an end to the revolt. The French had hardly left the 
 island before a new insurrection broke out, and king Theo- 
 dore returned in 1741. Eight years afterwards the French 
 
 OF FRANCE. 197 
 
 conquered Corsica, and restored it to the Genoese, but the 
 latter found a formidable enemy in Pascal Paoli. It was not 
 enough that he repelled the oppressors ; he became the lib- 
 erator and lawgiver of his country. Deputies were sent by 
 him to the principal courts of Europe, announcing that the 
 Corsicans, no longer submitting to the treachery of Genoa, 
 had proclaimed their independence. The republic of Genoa 
 ceded in 1768, the sovereignty of the island to France. 
 The people did not confound in their hatred the Genoese 
 and the F rench ; many submitted voluntarily, and the inde- 
 pendent party was annihilated after a single campaign. The 
 efforts and genius of Paoli were employed in vain ; he left 
 his country, and found an asylum in England. An unfore- 
 seen event called him from his retirement ; the French rev- 
 olution having commenced, he repaired again to the island, 
 and with the assistance of the English repelled the French. 
 Paoli intended to found a republic, when the king of Great 
 Britain was proclaimed sovereign of Corsica ; but the inhab- 
 itants were mistrustful of the English, and an easy victory 
 freed them from British supremacy. 
 
198 EUROPE. [BOOK CXLL 
 
 BOOR CXLI. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued. — Physical Geography of France. 
 
 The different sciences of which the object is to extend 
 our knowledge of nature, have thrown additional light on 
 geography. Physical geography, a new department of sci- 
 ence, possessing many attractions, has thus been created. 
 In its application to France, it indicates the connexion of the 
 different chains of mountains, the rivers that rise from them, 
 the fertility or barrenness of the soil, the different windings 
 of the coasts, the fish that are found in the seas and rivers, 
 and the animals indigenous to the mountains and plains. 
 The science of geology tends to illustrate physical geogra- 
 phy ; descending into the depths of the earth, it reveals the 
 nature of the strata beneath the surface, and the mineral 
 riches contained in them. It may be necessary, therefore, 
 to advert to some elementary principles of geology, which 
 are no longer contested, and to describe in a few words the 
 formation of the different deposits comprehended within the 
 limits of France, and the volcanic convulsions of which it 
 has been the theatre. 
 
 The northern declivities of a part of the Pyrenees, and 
 the western of the Alps, form a portion of the southern and 
 eastern boundaries of the kingdom. It is obvious that the 
 other mountains in France form, together with those last 
 mentioned, part of the summit line, which divides Europe 
 into two great declivities. The Pyrenees unite with the 
 Cevennes, and the Cevennes with the Vosges, while the lat- 
 ter meet Jura on the south, and form the Ardennes on 
 the north. In the present state of geographical science, in 
 order to determine the points of junction or separation 
 between different mountains, it is necessary to determine 
 the nature and formation of the rocks which compose them ; 
 and as the same remark is equally applicable to their boun- 
 daries and ramifications, the study of mineralogy becomes 
 indispensably necessary to all those who do not confine 
 their inquiries to the systems of ancient geographers, or to 
 political and arbitrary divisions ever liable to change. 
 
 According to this method, the mountains in the interior 
 of France may be designated the Franco- Celtic group. It 
 belongs to the vast Alpine range, and consists of two princi- 
 pal chains, namely, the Ceveno-Vosginn and the Armorican. 
 The first, separated from the Pyrenees by the valley in 
 which is situated the canal of Languedoc, is formed on the 
 south by the Black Mountains, the Espinouse, the Garri- 
 guen and the Cevennes proper. A branch called the Le- 
 vezon stretches towards the south-west from Mount Lozere 
 in the Cevennes, while the mountains of Aubrac extend to- 
 
 a Mont-Dor, which Sidonius Apollinaris calls Mons Duranius, is 
 generally written Mont-d’Or, as if its Latin name had been Mons Au- 
 reus. ftamond proposed to call it Mont-Dore, after the name of the 
 river whicli rises from it ; hut as the same river is called the Dor- 
 dogne after its junction with the Dogne, we have adopted the name 
 
 wards the north-west. In the same direction, the mountains of 
 Margeride connect the Cevennes with the Cantal and Mont- 
 Dor, 3 the last of which includes the Puy de Saucy, the high- 
 est summit in central France. A long but not a very high 
 chain passes from these two branches to the Loire, in which 
 the loftiest points are Mount Olouze, Mount Jurgean b and 
 the heights of Gatine. A much shorter chain, situated be- 
 tween Mount Lozere and the Mezen, c formed by the moun- 
 tains of Forez and those of La Made, stretches northwards 
 to the banks of the Loire. The Mezen, the Pilat, d the 
 mountains of Charolais, and the Cote d’Or, together with 
 Mounts Moresot and Tasselot, the plateau of Langres, and 
 the Faucilles, form the connecting link between the Ceven- 
 nes and the Vosges. The heights of Morvan extend to- 
 wards the north-west near the banks of the Ouche, and ter- 
 minate in low hills at the sources of the Vernisson. The 
 Vosges, which are separated on the south-east from the 
 chain of Jura only by a valley now traversed by the canal 
 of Monsieur, extend on the north to the banks of the Rhine. 
 Branches of the same range extend towards the north-west 
 near the sources of the Moselle, and form different ridges, 
 covered with the thick woods of the Ardennes. They are 
 divided anew into two other branches near the sources of 
 the Oise, one of which terminates at the Straits of Calais, 
 and the other near the coasts of the Channel. It appears 
 from their geological composition and other circumstances 
 which shall be afterwards mentioned, that the various divis- 
 ions of the Cevennes and the Vosges are only different 
 parts of a single chain. 
 
 The Armorican chain consists of four divisions, which 
 extend in different directions. It commences on the west- 
 ern coasts of ancient Brittany, where it divides itself into 
 two branches knowrt by the names of the mountains of Ar- 
 ree and the Black Mountains ; the former are situated on 
 the north of the Aulne, and the latter on the south of the 
 same river. The Menez mountains extend eastwards, and 
 a series of hills beginning near the sources of the \ ilaine, 
 runs towards the south, and, but for the course of the Loire, 
 would join a part of the preceding chain. The northern 
 extremity of one branch forms Cape La Hague ; another on 
 the east stretches to the heights of Beauce, which are sepa- 
 rated by the valley of the Vernisson from die mountains of 
 Morvan. It is dius that the two chains may be considered 
 as forming but a single group. 
 
 France may be divided into fifteen basins, Hz. four prin- 
 cipal basins, one German, two Belgian, and eight connected 
 
 in the text, which may be considered a translation of Mons Dura- 
 nius . 
 
 b Odouze and Jargean, p. 879. c Mezin, p. 898,900. 
 
 <* So called from the Latin word Pilctilus. because its summit is often 
 covered with a cap of clouds. 
 
book cxLi.1 DESCRIPTION 
 
 with the coasts. The basin of the Garonne is formed by 
 the Pyrenees on the south, the Cevennes on the east, and 
 the Cantal, together with Mounts Odouze, Jargean and Be- 
 ron, on the north. The Gironde discharges all its waters 
 into the ocean. The Garonne, of which the name is a 
 translation of the Lathi word Garumna or Varumna, has its 
 source in the valley of Aran in the Pyrenees. The 
 Gers and the Save, which descend from the same moun- 
 tains, are the only feeders of any consequence on its left 
 bank ; but on the right, it receives the Arriege, a the Auri- 
 gera of the ancients, and the Pactolus of Gaul, b the Tarn, 
 enlarged by the Aveyron, the Lot by the Truyere and the 
 Celle, and lastly, the Dordogne, which rising from Mont- 
 Dor, is fed by the waters of the Cere, the Vezere and the 
 Isle. The Garonne receives the name of the Gironde after 
 its junction with the Dordogne. The tide is perceptible in 
 the river at thirty leagues from its mouth ; the length of its 
 course is about two hundred and fifty miles. 0 Rafts and 
 timber are floated down the stream from a place about two 
 leagues above the small town of St. Beat, and it becomes 
 navigable at Cazeres in the department of the Upper Ga- 
 ronne. A number of islands and sandbanks below Ambes, d 
 where it joins the Dordogne, render the navigation danger- 
 ous. The banks are bordered by heaths or downs at no 
 great distance from its mouth, and the breadth of the river 
 exceeds seven miles,® but it Decomes gradually narrower, and 
 enters the ocean by a passage little more than two miles f in 
 width. 
 
 The basin of the Rhone, bounded on the north by 
 Jura, on the west by the chain formed by Mount Pilat, 
 Mount Mezeq, the mountains of Saones and the Cevennes, 
 and on the east by several mountains which may be consid- 
 ered the counterforts' 1 of the Alps, extends on the north to 
 the Vosges, while its waters are discharged on the south into 
 the Mediterranean. The Rhone, the Rhodanus of the an- 
 cients, rises from beneath the glaciers of Mount Furca, and 
 enters France at some leagues to the east of St. Dizier. It 
 is one of the most rapid rivers in Europe ; the declivity has 
 been estimated at thirty-three feet in each league.' The 
 principal feeders on the right bank are the Ain, the Saone, 
 the Ardeche and the Gard ; it receives on the left, the Isere, 
 the Drome, the Aigues and the Durance, the last of which 
 rises at the base of Mount Genevre. The Rhone begins to 
 be navigable at Seyssel on the boundaries between Savoy 
 and the department of the Ain. The length of its course is 
 equal to a hundred and eighty leagues, and of these a hun- 
 dred and twenty are included between the frontiers of France 
 and the Mediterranean. After it passes Beaucaire, it be- 
 comes less rapid ; it flows slowly into the sea, and divides 
 itself into four branches, in which several banks render the 
 passage difficult. 
 
 The length of the basin watered by the Loire is still 
 greater ; it is bounded on the east by the mountains of 
 Charolais, and part of the Cevennes, on the south by the 
 mountains of Margeride, the Cantal and Mont-Dor, on the 
 south-west by the heights of Gatine, and on the north by the 
 hills, which form the plateau of Beauce, and which unite 
 with the Armorican chain. The Loire rises from Mount 
 Gerbier le Joux, at some leagues from the Mezen. It runs 
 
 OF FRANCE 199 
 
 first northwards, being separated from the Allier by the 
 mountains of Forez and those of La Made; it then bends 
 to the north-west, and continues in that direction until it 
 reaches the neighbourhood of Orleans ; beyond the last 
 mentioned place, it flows westwards, and enters the ocean 
 after a course of two hundred and twenty leagues. The 
 mean depth of its waters is more than seven, but less than 
 ten feet,* 1 and the declivity of its course, about twenty-three 
 feet on each league. 1 Rafts and timber are floated on its 
 stream from the village of Retournac, at five leagues above 
 Beauzac in the department of the Upper Loire ; it becomes 
 navigable a short way above Roanne in the department of 
 the Loire. The Mayenne, swollen by the streams of the 
 Sarthe and Loir, enters it on the right, but it receives no 
 other important river from the same side, as it is not confin- 
 ed in that direction by lofty hills. Several large rivers which 
 fall into the Loire, rise on the left from the chain of moun- 
 tains, in which are situated the highest summits in central 
 France; the principal of these rivers are the Allier, the 
 Cher and the Vienne. The alluvial deposits conveyed by it, 
 obstruct its mouth, and form sand banks which are daily 
 increasing ; thus in some places, the depth which was for- 
 merly twenty feet at low tide, does not at present exceed 
 seven or eight. 
 
 The sinuous course of the Seine or the ancient Sequana 
 traverses a basin formed on the south by the extension of the 
 Armorican chain, which separates it in that direction from 
 the Loire, and joins the mountains of Morvan ; it is enclosed 
 on the east by Mounts Moresot and Tasselot, the plateau of 
 Langres, and the heights that separate the Meuse from the 
 Aisne ; while it is bounded on the north by the Faucilles 
 and the Ardennes, which unite with the chalky hills that fol- 
 low the course of the river to its mouth. The Seine rises 
 between Chanceaux and Saint Seine, at the foot of a hill 
 connected with the plateau of Langres. Timber is floated 
 on it from the village of Oigni, in the department of Cote 
 d’Or, but it does not become navigable until it reaches the 
 village of Marcilly at its junction with the Aube. On the 
 right bank, it receives the Marne at Charenton near Paris, 
 and the Oise near Conflans St. Honorine above Poissy. 
 The feeders that enter it from the left, are the Yonne at 
 Montereau and the Eure near Pont de l’Arche. The 
 length of its course is about a hundred and sixty leagues. 
 When the tide is full, the breadth of its mouth gives it a very 
 majestic appearance, but at low tide, it looks like a number 
 of canals flowing in the middle of an oozy bed. It is not 
 easy to imagine the changes which take place during the 
 equinox, and more particularly at the time of the syzygies ; 
 the billows enter the mouth of the Seine by narrow passages, 
 rise to a considerable height, are precipitated into the bed 
 of the river, and impede the course of its waters. The cry 
 of the Bnrre then becomes a signal of alarm, and the houses 
 on the banks have been more than once destroyed. The 
 same sort of phenomenon has been observed at the mouth 
 of the Loire, and also at that of the Garonne, where it is 
 called the Mascaret. 
 
 Having thus briefly described the four principal rivers in 
 France, it remains for us to cross the Vosges and to exam- 
 ine the Germanic basin or the basin of the Rhine. Formed 
 
 a “ Ariege.” 
 
 b The gold borne down by the waters of the Arriege, is at present 
 found in too inconsiderable quantities to be worked with profit. 
 e “ 150 leagues.” 
 
 d “ Bee d’Ambes” — the point of land at the confluence of the two 
 rivers. The town of Ambes or Ambez is in the immediate vicinity. — P. 
 
 e “ 14,000 metres” — more than eight miles. — P. 
 f “ 4000 metres” — nearly two and a half miles. — P. 
 e Sone, p. 898. h Buttresses or outworks. 
 
 ■ “ 30 feet per league” Fr. meas. 
 k “ Mean depth from 2 to 3 metres.” 
 
 1 “ 22 feet per league” Fr. meas. 
 
 ... -■ J 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 200 
 
 by the declivities of the Black Forest and the Vosges, it 
 extends from Huningen, at the foot of the lowest declivities 
 of Jura, to those of Mount Tonnerre. The course of 
 the 111, the largest feeder it receives, is equal to about thirty- 
 six leagues ; it rises near the burgh of Winckell in the de- 
 partment of the Upper Rhine, and throws itself into the river 
 at the distance of two leagues above Strasburg. The Mo- 
 selle is a feeder of the Rhine, and for that reason its basin, 
 although a separate one, may be considered as forming a 
 part of the other. 
 
 On the west of the Germanic basin, are the two Belgian 
 basins, the first of which is watered by the Meuse, a consid- 
 erable river that traverses only a small part of France. It 
 rises from the heights which form the plateau of Langres, a 
 short way above the village of Meuse. The long and nar- 
 row basin of the river is bounded by the Ardennes, and the 
 heights of the Moselle. It begins to be navigable at Verdun, 
 and continues so to the frontiers of the kingdom. 
 
 The second Belgian basil?, or that of the Scheldt, is 
 formed by two ranges of hills, one of which on the north- 
 east commands the course of the Meuse, while the other 
 extends towards Calais. The country is watered by the 
 Scheldt, which holds no inconsiderable rank among rivers, 
 both because it receives several navigable feeders, and be- 
 cause it discharges itself into the North Sea. a It takes its 
 rise near Castelet in the department of the Aisne, and be- 
 comes navigable below Conde, at no great distance from the 
 confines of France. 
 
 Of the remaining eight basins, five discharge their waters 
 either into the Channel or the Ocean. The basin of the 
 Somme is enclosed by the chain of hills that was last men- 
 tioned, and by another which extends towards Cape La 
 Heve ; its principal stream takes its rise at Font-Somme in 
 the department of the Aisne, and may be considered a 
 river, b to which the Miramont, the Avre and the Celle are 
 tributary. It is navigable from Amiens to St. Valery, 
 where it throws itself into the Channel after a course of about 
 forty leagues. 
 
 The Orne receives the Noireau, the Ajze, the Odon and 
 other small rivers ; it rises near Seez, in the granite heights 
 on the north of Alenqon ; its basin is bounded by a northern 
 branch of the same heights, and by another that stretches 
 towards Cape La Hague. The course of the Orne is 
 about thirty leagues, and it discharges itself into the Chan- 
 nel. 
 
 The basin contiguous to that of the Orne, may be called 
 the basin of the Ranee, from the name of the principal river, 
 which, however, is not more than eighteen leagues in length. 
 It is formed by tbe chain which serves as a limit to the pre- 
 ceding basin, c and which proceeds westwards, under the 
 names of the mountains of Menez and Arree, till it termi- 
 nates to the northwards of Brest. 
 
 The mountains of Menez, and a chain of hills, extending 
 
 a See, on the relative importance of rivers, the article Rivieres, in 
 the fifth volume of Physical Geography in the Enryrlopidic Mitho- 
 dique, by M. Huot. [The sentence in the text to which the note refers, 
 is scarcely adapted to any other language than the French, and owes 
 its propriety to the peculiar meanings attached to the words Jlcuve and 
 riviiire ; the first implying a navigable stream which empties directly 
 into the sea or other reservoir, and which receives other navigable 
 streams or branches, and the second a stream which falls into another 
 larger stream, or which does not receive navigable branches. The 
 writer in the original, says that “ the Scheldt deserves to be ranked 
 among Jieuves, because it receives several navigable rivieres, and be- 
 cause it empties into the North Sea.” — P.] b “ Fleuve.” 
 
 c The granite heights to the north of Alen(;on, the southern limit 
 of the preceding basin. — P. 
 
 J “ It is navigable for boats only for the space of 580 metres, where it 
 
 [BOOK CXL.I. 
 
 from the north to the neighbourhood of the Loire, bound 
 the basin of the Vilaine, a small river which rises near Ju- 
 vigne, and is rendered navigable by sluices at the village 
 of Cessan ; it is enlarged by the Meu, the Seiche and the 
 Don, and reaches the ocean after a course of forty-five 
 leagues.- 
 
 The Charente, a sinuous river, about eighty-five leagues 
 long, rises near the village of Cheronnac in the department 
 of the Upper Vienne. The Ne, the Seugne and the Bou- 
 tonne are the principal feeders ; it begins to be navigable at 
 Monlignac, a few leagues above Angouleme,^ and throws 
 itself into the ocean, opposite the isle of Oleron. Its basin 
 is bounded by a chain that descends from the heights of 
 Gatine, and by a range of hills, which separate it from the 
 basin of the Garonne. 
 
 The basin of the Adour is bounded on the south by the 
 Pyrenees, and by a chain of hills that extend from those 
 mountains to the sandy plains of the Gironde. The river 
 flows from the declivities of the Pic du Midi, and forms a 
 cataract of a hundred feet in height, a short way above Bag- 
 neres. The length of its course is about seventy leagues ; 
 it quits the vallies of the Pyrenees, and receives the Midouze, 
 the Luy, the Gave de Pau, the Gave d’Oleron, the Bidouze 
 and several other streams. The Adour cannot be consid- 
 ered either a useful or important river ; its course is veiy 
 rapid, and the inundations occasioned by the melting of the 
 snows, desolate the fields in the neighbourhood of the banks. 
 It begins to be navigable at St. Sever, and throw's itself 
 into the Gulf of Gascony at Bayonne. 
 
 The Aude rises from a lake or pond of the same name 
 in the Eastern Pyrenees, about a league from Mount Louis ; 
 the Orbieux, its principal feeder, is not navigable. The 
 length of its course is about fifty leagues ; boats, however, 
 are seldom seen on it, until it joins the canal at Narbonne. d 
 The basin of the river is enclosed by Mount Espinouse, 
 the Black Mountains and the extreme branches of the Pyr- 
 enees. 
 
 The basin bounded by the Moorish mountains, die moun- 
 tains of Esterel, and their ramifications, is watered by sev- 
 eral rivers, of which the Argens is the most important ; it is 
 formed by several streams that unite at Chateau Vert. The 
 waters of the Artuby fall into the Argens, which enters the 
 Mediterranean, after a course of twenty-four leagues. It is 
 not navigable, and although it flows between high and rocky 
 banks, it often inundates the adjoining fields, and forms pes- 
 tilential marshes. The Herault traverses the eastern part 
 of the same basin from the Cevennes to the sea, a distance 
 of twenty-eight leagues. e 
 
 France is watered by ten great rivers, by a hundred and 
 eight diat are navigable, and by more than five thousand 
 smaller streams and rivulets/ But in order to complete the 
 hydrographical account of the same country, it is necessary 
 to notice the lakes and lagoons.® Of the former, one only 
 
 joins the canal of Narbonne; the branch which falls into the Mediter- 
 ranean, is only proper for floating timber.” 
 
 e There must be a mistake in this passage. The Herault traverses 
 the eastern part of the basin watered by the Aude. The basin water- 
 ed by the Argens is in the eastern part of Provence, that river entering 
 the Mediterranean at Frejus. — P. 
 
 f “ 10 Jieuves, 108 navigable rivitres, and more than 5000 smaller 
 rivieres and rivulets.” 
 
 s “ Etangs.” — On the coast of Provence and Languedoc are a erreat 
 number of inlets of the sea, which the French call clangs. They have 
 a communication with the sea through a narrow channel, bv which 
 they are supplied with their waters, which are consequently salt. Ed 
 Encyc. — They resemble the Venetian lagoons, and the sounds, bays 
 and other inland waters between the sea islands and the main lar.n, 
 along the south shore of Long Island, and the coast of the S. Slates. — P 
 
book cxli.] DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 201 
 
 need be mentioned ; it is the lake of Grand-Lieu in the dis- 
 trict 3 of Nantes ; it is formed by the waters of the Boulogne, 
 the Ognon, and other small rivers, and it discharges itself by 
 the Achenau into the Loire. It is about two leagues and a 
 half in length, and nearly two in breadth. The only large 
 lagoons in France are situated in the maritime departments 
 in the south-west and south-east. That ol Carcans in the 
 department of the Gironde is about two leagues long by one 
 and a half broad ; it communicates with that of Canau, 
 which is not much smaller. That of Biscarosse in the 
 Landes is nearly of the same dimensions as the first ; these, 
 as well as others of a smaller size, are separated from the 
 sea by downs. The boundary on the coast ol the Mediter- 
 ranean, between the departments of the Eastern Pyrenees 
 and the Aude, divides that of Leucate, which is about three 
 leagues long, into two almost equal parts. That ol Sigean, 
 nearly four leagues in length, is situated in the department 
 of die Aude. That of Thau, in the department of die He- 
 rault, is nearly as long as the last ; it exhibits two phenome- 
 na not unworthy of notice ; in the first place, it is salt, 
 although fed by many fresh water springs ; secondly, a sort 
 of subterranean water-spout rises several feet above the sur- 
 face near the northern extremity, and forms by its fall a cir- 
 cular pool. b It communicates on the north-east by means 
 of a natural channel with the lagoons of Maguelonne, Perols 
 and Mauguio, thus forming a length of more than thirty 
 miles.® The lagoon of Bere d in the department of the 
 Mouths of the Rhone, may be almost considered a gulf; it 
 enters the sea by the canals of Martigues and the Tour de 
 Bouc. It is about fifteen leagues in circumference, and a 
 £reat quantity of salt is deposited in its calm and still waters. 
 Several artificial ponds, not inferior in size to natural lakes, 
 are situated in the interior of F ranee ; among others, that of 
 Viilers in the department of the Cher, and that of Indre® 
 in the department of the Meurthe ; the first is about six 
 leagues in circumference, and the second, four. The Seille, 
 a feeder of the Moselle, issues from the last. 
 
 Two large promontories are situated on the French coasts; 
 that of La Hague or La Hogue protrudes into the Channel, 
 at the extremity of a department of the same name, * 1 * while 
 that of Raz forms the most western point in the department 
 of Finisterre. The waves are broken into foam at the base 
 of the last cape, and the view from its summit extends to a 
 great distance along the ocean. 
 
 The same coasts are indented by large and deep gulfs ; 
 that of St. Malo in the Channel, includes the bay of St. 
 BrieuxS on the left, and forms at its extremity the bay of 
 Cancale, famous for its oysters. The road of Brest h on the 
 western coast of Finisterre might be more correctly called 
 a bay, of which the depth at low tide is not less than from 
 ten to fifteen fathoms, and the circumference about eight 
 leagues ; it communicates with the ocean by the strait called 
 Le Goulet or the Gullet. The bay of Douarnenez to the 
 south is still larger ; its entrance is formed by Cape Chevre 
 and Cape Raz. The bay of Morbihan, which gives its 
 
 1 “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 b In it is a deep spot called Avysse, from which rushes up a column 
 of fresh water with such force as (in conjunction with strong winds) 
 to produce at times waves dangerous to boats. The waters of this spot 
 being much warmer than the surrounding ones, a circular space re- 
 mains unfrozen in the hardest winters, when the rest of the lake is a 
 sheet of ice. Tuckey’s Maritime Geography, vol. II. p. 178. — P. 
 
 c “28,000 toises.’’ d “ Etang de Bere.” 
 
 “ l’lndre” — Lindre (Vosgien) — P. 
 
 f La Manche — the department of the Channel. 
 
 s'“ St. Brieuc.” 
 
 b Brest Water. ' Bay of Biscay 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 48 26 
 
 name to a department, is about eight leagues in circumfer- 
 ence. The bay of Bourgneuf, which is broader, but not 
 so deep as the last, extends almost to the mouth of the 
 Loire. The gulf of Gascony 1 which forms part of the ocean 
 is bounded by the coasts of France and Spain; it receives 
 at its extremity the small river Nivelle. The most impor- 
 tant gulf in the Mediterranean, is the gulf of Lions, incor- 
 rectly written Lyons ; k an error which has led some geogra- 
 phers to suppose that it was called after the town of the 
 same name, from which, however, it is more than fifty-five 
 leagues distant in a direct line. During the middle ages, it 
 was styled the sea or gulf of the Lion, because, from the 
 frequency of tempests, it was formidable to mariners. It is 
 known that St. Louis, after having embarked at Aigues 
 Mortes, in 1269, was detained in the gulf by a storm which 
 lasted three days. 1 It is bounded by the coasts of five de- 
 partments, namely, the Eastern Pyrenees, the Aude, the 
 Herault, the Gard and the Mouths of the Rhone. Four 
 bays are formed by the coasts in the department of the Var ; 
 namely, the bays'" of Cavaleire, Grimaud, Napoule and Juan. 
 
 It is unnecessary to mention all the islands near the- coasts 
 of France; Jersey and Guernsey are more important than 
 any others in the Channel, but as they are under the gov- 
 ernment of England, they shall be described in the account 
 of that country. The isle of Ushant (Fr. Ouessant ) on the 
 coasts of the ocean is surrounded by other smaller islands 
 of the same name, and lined with rocks, which render the 
 approai h to it dangerous. It is equal to two square leagues 
 in supei ficial extent, and its soil is by no means unfruitful. 
 Groaix, a more productive island, is chiefly inhabited by 
 fishermen. Belle-Isle, about four leagues in length, and two 
 in breadth, yields rich pasturage. Noirmoutiers, equal to 
 four square leagues in extent, is peopled by industrious 
 inhabitants. Yeu is formed by a granite rock, covered with 
 a light stratum of vegetable earth ; the surface occupies a 
 space of nearly six square leagues. The isle of Re, about 
 five leagues long, and fifteen in circumference, is bounded 
 by rocks on the north and the west. The land is ill 
 provided w ith wood_, and unfruitful in corn ; the wealth of 
 the inhabitants consists chiefly in the produce of their vine- 
 yards. Oleron, an island of considerable importance, is 
 about six leagues long, and two broad ; its salt marshes are 
 very valuable. Camargue, an island in the Mediterranean, 
 is formed by the alluvial deposits brought down by the 
 Rhone ; with the exception of a large marsh, the soil affords 
 excellent pasturage. The isles of Hyeres," of which the 
 principal are Porquerolles, Port-Croz, Bagneaux and the 
 isle of Titan or Levant, 0 stretch to the distance of seven 
 leagues from east to west ; they are fruitful in oranges, 
 strawberries and different aromatic plants. The islands of 
 Lerins or those of St. Marguerite and St. Honorat are en- 
 compassed with reefs and almost uninhabited. Corsica is 
 situated to the south-east of the latter islands ; from its im- 
 portance it is necessaiy to enter into some details concern- 
 ing it. 
 
 k “ — the gulf of the Lion ( du Lion,) incorrectly called the gulf of 
 Lyons (de Lyon.)” 
 
 1 We may mention the testimony of William of Nangis, a monk of 
 the thirteenth century, and a biographer of St. Louis. “ Mare Leonis 
 nuncupatur, quod semper est asperum, fluctuosum et crudele.” See 
 also Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, tom 
 xii. p. 210. 
 
 rn “ Gulfs.’’ — The coast from Marseilles to the limits of Italy, has a 
 great number of small indentations, improperly named gulfs, between 
 the rocky headlands. Tuckey’s Maritime Geography, vol. II. p. 179. 
 — P. 0 Hieres. 
 
 ° The easternmost island, whence the latter name. — P. 
 
- 
 
 202 EUROPE. [BOOK. CXLI. 
 
 The island is partly covered with mountains, forming a 
 group belonging to a range which a French geographer 3 * has 
 denominated the Sardo-Corsican, because it is a continua- 
 tion of the mountains in Sardinia. This group consists of 
 the chain of Mount Caona on the south, the mountains of 
 Cagnone in the centre, those of Frontogna ®n the north- 
 west, and the chain of Titime on the north. Different coun- 
 terforts or branches project laterally from these chains, and 
 enclose numerous vallies or small basins. The seven of 
 most consequence are those watered by the Tavignano and the 
 Golo on the east, and the vallies of the Valinco, the Taravo, 
 the Gravone, the Liamone and the F ango, which descend to- 
 wards the western declivities of the island. None of these 
 rivers are navigable. Several lagoons are situated on the 
 eastern coast, the largest of which or that of Biguglia is near- 
 ly eight miles in length. 5 The chain of Titime terminates 
 at Cape Corsica 0 on the north, the most important of any in 
 the island. The numerous mountains that descend on the 
 western side, enclose many bays and gulfs, among others, 
 the gulfs of Valinco, Ajaccio, Porto and St. Florent. Sev- 
 eral small islands are situated near Corsica, but none of them 
 are of much importance. 
 
 Before we proceed to examine the soil in the different 
 parts of Fiance, it maybe proper to make some remarks 
 relative to the geology of the country. Granitic rocks or 
 such as are anterior to the appearance of organized beings, 
 are seen on the summits and declivities of the Pyrenees and 
 the Alps, but the granite in the former is less ancient than 
 the granite in the second. The granitic masses support vol- 
 canic summits in the Cevennes proper, and particularly in 
 the Cantal and Mont-Dor. The granite in the Ceveno- 
 Vosgian group disappears in the neighbourhood of Avalon, 
 and is seen anew at the two extremities of the Vosges, or in 
 other words, at the sources of the Moselle, and in the vicin- 
 ity of the Ardennes. Granitic rocks also prevail in the Ar- 
 morican chain, forming the crests of the small basins, water- 
 ed by the feeders of the Lower Loire, and of that of the Vi- 
 laine, and covering almost all the surface in the departments 
 of the Lower Loire, Morbihan, Finisterre, the North Coast, 
 the Ille and Vilaine and the Channel. 
 
 From the remains of the granitic rocks, triturated and 
 united by the action of water, are formed the masses of old 
 sandstone which extend near the limits of the former. But 
 at the time that their molecules were cemented, continents 
 existed, for in their inclined strata are found vegetable re- 
 mains. Extensive deposits of the same rocks are situated 
 at the base of the Cevennes, on the banks of the Tai n, in 
 the neighbourhood of St. Etienne, near Brives, in the territo- 
 ry of Bourbon l’Archambault, and on the banks of the Cher 
 and the Auron. The same rocks bound the Vosges on the 
 west and the south ; they form their summits from the sources 
 of the Sarre to the base of Mount Tonnerre, and appear 
 again on the banks of the Moselle in the vicinity of Sierck. 
 
 The ancient ocean has left traces of its existence in every 
 country on the earth ; as its waters became gradually lower, 
 calcareous strata and beds of sea salt were deposited on the 
 declivities of the rocks which have been already indicated, 
 
 1 M. Brouguiere, Tableau des Montngnes. 
 
 b “Length 13,000 metres.” c “ Cap Corse" — Cape Corso. 
 
 d Roofing slate, a variety of argillite, the chain of hills in which it 
 is found, being a branch of the primitive mountains in Brittany. — P. 
 
 e The remarks in the above sentence refer to the Ichthyosauri, in 
 the original ; but the Ichthyosauri were characterized by a short neck, 
 and a very long tail, whereas it was the Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus 
 which was distinguished by a very long slender nock, consisting of 
 thirty vertebrae. The other characters belong to the Ichthyosauri. — P. 
 
 1 M. Geoffrey de St. Hilaire. 
 
 and in basins of which the limits are still apparent. The 
 whole chain of Jura may be considered the highest re- 
 gion of these deposits, which are supported on the south by 
 the base of the Lower Alps, the Cevennes and the Pyre- 
 nees, and on the east by the base of the Higher Alps, and 
 which form on the right of the Saone, the mountains of 
 Charolais, the Cote d’Or and the plateau of Langres. The 
 same deposits become lower towards the Mediterranean, and 
 their declivities also extend in the direction of the Channel, 
 occupying a zone, which may be traced from the banks of 
 the Tarn to Valogne in the neighbourhood of Cherbourg; 
 they form the ridge of the Ardennes, terminate at the sources 
 of the Serre, and re-appear in the vicinity of Boulogne 
 sur Mer. 
 
 But a second series of sediments is deposited on the lat- 
 ter formations, exhibiting to the south of Angouleme and 
 Perigueux, and at the distance of some leagues to the north 
 of the Garonne, the arenaceous and calcareous substances 
 which belong to the chalk formation. It might be said that 
 they have been accumulated in the depths of vast Caspian 
 seas, of which the remains on the banks of the Dordogne, 
 the Ille, and the Charente, extend to and are lost in the ocean, 
 where they form the island of Oleron. Another deposit, 
 much greater than the last, occupies an immense basin 
 which, in its irregular windings, stretches into England, and 
 which terminates on the west towards the range of hills, that 
 diverges from the Annorican chain to the Loire, and that 
 forms in the neighbourhood of that river the tegular schistus d of 
 Angers, while it extends on the south to the heights of Gatine, 
 the ridge of Issoudun, and the hills near Bourges, on the east 
 to those of Auxerre, and the declivities of the plateau of Latf 
 gres and the Ardennes, and on the north beyond the Baltic. 
 
 The animals that existed in these Caspian seas differed 
 wholly from any that now frequent the ocean. Among 
 those that the naturalist considers the most remarkable, are 
 large reptiles, which may be compared to monsters engen- 
 dered in the imagination, exhibiting the singular spectacle 
 of a head like a dolphin’s, with the teeth of a crocodile, 
 placed at the extremity of a long neck, consisting of eighty 
 vertebrae, and attached to the body of a lizard.® The re- 
 mains of the marine reptiles, called Ichthyosauri , have been 
 found in the blue marl near Honfleur, while those of the 
 Plesiosaurus, an animal resembling a lizard, and about nine 
 feet in length, have been collected near Boulogne and Aux- 
 onne. A third animal, to which a French naturalist has 
 given the name of Teleosaurus Cadomensis, resembled in 
 some respects the crocodile it is found in the quarries near 
 Caen. 
 
 At a period subsequent to the formation of the chalk ba- 
 sins, which cover a great part of Champagne, Normandy, 
 Touraine, Picardy and Artois, the traces of smaller seas 
 have been left in France. These traces may be discovered 
 wherever there are beds of coarse limestone, 1 * * similar to the 
 kind used for building in the neighbourhood of Paris, or 
 wherever there are arenaceous deposits resembling the strata 
 beneath the same rocks.* The smallest of these Caspian 
 seas, if they may be so called, covered a portion of the coun- 
 
 e “ Gavial” — Gangetic crocodile. “ It is considered by Geoffrey 
 as intermediate between the mammalia and the crocodiles.” M. B. — P. 
 
 h “ Calcaire n-rossier" — lower marine limestone in the Paris ba- 
 sin. — P. 
 
 ' “ Resembling the lower strata of the coarse limestone.” The 
 lower beds are very sandy, so as sometimes to form a calcareous sand- 
 stone. The coarse limestone is succeeded below by the Plastic clay 
 and sand formation, which rests immediately on the chalk. — P 
 
book cxli.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 try now watered by the Rhone, in the lower part of its 
 course ; the limits of it may be traced in the departments 
 of the Herault, the Gard, Vaucluse and the Mouths oi die 
 Rhone. Another, and a somewhat larger sea, was situated 
 to the north of the former, and was bounded by the declivi- 
 ties of Jura, and by those of the Cote d’Or, and the 
 mountains of Charolais. The basin which it formed reach- 
 es from the north of Dijon to the south of Valence. A 
 third, of still greater dimensions, covered almost all the sur- 
 face in the departments of the Tam, the Upper Garonne, 
 the Gers, the Landes, the Gironde, and lastly, the Lot and 
 Garonne. But the largest of them all extended over the 
 departments of the Loiret, the Seine and Oise, and the 
 Oise, and partly over the departments of the Aisne, the 
 Seine and Marne, the Eure and Loir, the Loir and Cher, 
 the Indre and Loire, and the Indre. The basins of these 
 Caspians were not drained at the same epoch. While the 
 one on the north, the last that has been mentioned, is form- 
 ed by marine calcareous strata, in which the organic remains 
 belong to animals wholly different from any that now frequent 
 our seas, in the basin through which the Garonne flows, are 
 found many shells similar to those of animals still existing. 
 Deposits of gypsum, which repose on the calcareous strata, 
 and which appear to have been formed in the depths of fresh 
 water, seem to indicate that lakes succeeded the seas in the 
 two basins of Paris and Avignon. Graminivorous quad- 
 rupeds frequented the banks of these lakes ; but they were 
 part of a creation very different from the one which now in- 
 habits the surface of the earth. Their bones have been col- 
 lected, examined and compared by a celebrated naturalist,® 
 and with the aid of a science, which has been brought bv 
 the same person to a high degree of perfection, their forms 
 have been discovered, and even their habits conjectured. 
 It is in the strata of Montmartre, Belleville and Montmoren- 
 cy, in the quarries of Aix, and in the calcareous marl near 
 Orleans and on the Rhenish limits of France, that the bones 
 of these ancient animals have been found. From their pe- 
 culiar conformation, and the marked characters which dis- 
 tinguish them from every living being, names have been as- 
 signed them, which either indicate their antiquity, or the 
 forms of their jaw-bones and teeth. Thus the Pakeotheri- 
 ums (ancient animals) have been divided into seven species, 
 of which the largest is almost equal in size to a horse, and 
 the smallest not larger than a hare. The only animals to 
 which they bear any resemblance in shape, are the tapirs 
 that exist at present in the new world. The Anoplotheri- 
 ums (defenceless animals) are divided into six species, the 
 largest of which is three feet high by five long, and the 
 smallest not larger than a rat. The remains of the Lophio- 
 dons b are chiefly found in calcareous marl ; they resemble 
 the tapirs in many respects, the difference consisting princi- 
 pally in their greater or smaller size. 
 
 At the period when the marine calcareous masses in the de- 
 partments round Paris were covered with fresh water, there 
 must have been large lakes in the highest part of France, 
 among the mountains in the departments of Puy de Dome, 
 Cantal, the Lozere and the Ardeche, which deposited their 
 sediment immediately on the granite ; for no marine calcareous 
 rocks have been observed in that lofty country. These basins 
 appear to have discharged their waters in a northern direction, 
 and to have augmented by their rupture the analogous de- 
 
 a M. Cuvier. See Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles, 5 vols. 
 i to . 1823. 
 
 b From lo(/>oc, a crest or hill, and o Sag, a tooth. 
 
 See the introduction to the work entitled, Recherches sur les Os- 
 
 203 
 
 posits, which were forming in the great northern basin. 0 In 
 the deposits of these lakes are contained a great many or- 
 ganic remains, some of which are of the same kind d as those 
 of Montmartre, while others belong to hippopotami and to 
 the anilLracotherium, an animal in some respects similar to 
 the hippopotamus. In addition to these might be mentioned 
 the remains of reptiles and birds, different from any that 
 now exist ; and what is a new fact in the science, the eggs 
 of gallinaceous birds perfectly entire. Lava and basalt rest 
 above these fresh water basins ; although the volcanoes from 
 which they were vomited are now extinguished, their height 
 and their craters still excite admiration. While they were 
 emitting flames* animals existed in that part of France, 
 which at present are only found in the warmest climates. 
 Among these were elephants, rhinoceroses, hyenas, lions, 
 stags of an immense size, and those large quadrupeds called 
 mastodons, that have disappeared from the surface of the 
 earth, but of which the remains are still collected in the new 
 world. The most of these animals succeeded those which 
 have been already described, and of which the remains are 
 found in marl and gypsum ; in Auvergne, however, their re- 
 mains are contained in alluvial soils which are covered by 
 ancient streams of lava and basalt, and from which it may 
 be easy to prove the existence of volcanoes at different pe- 
 riods in that part cl the country. It must not, however, be 
 imagined that those large animals, which now inhabit Africa 
 and Asia, w r ere confined to the banks of the Allier. In the 
 alluvial deposits that cover the floors in the caverns of Mont- 
 pellier, are found tigers, lions, hyenas, panthers and hippo- 
 potami. Similar alluvial deposits 0 in the vallies throughout 
 France contain the remains of the same quadrupeds, and 
 very many have been collected in the country round Paris. 
 It is certain, therefore, that the climate of France, and, in 
 general, of all the temperate regions, was at the period in 
 which these animals existed, much warmer than at the pres- 
 ent day. 
 
 The greatest part of Corsica belongs to the granitic form- 
 ation. Calcareous rocks similar to those in the Alps and 
 Jura are observed in two different parts of the island, 
 namely, on the eastern coast a little to the north of Porto 
 Vecchio, and on the northern coast near the gulf of St. Flo- 
 rent. More recent calcareous rocks and calcareous sand- 
 stones, which were left by the ocean, the last time it cover- 
 ed the present continents, are only observed in the southern 
 part of the island, in the neighbourhood of Bonifacio. 
 
 The account that has been given of the different geologi- 
 cal deposits in France, in the order of their formation, may 
 prepare the reader to judge more readily of the mineral 
 riches in the same country. From the variety of these de- 
 posits, some notion may be inferred of the substances which 
 are contained in them. 
 
 We may commence with the rocks that are used in the 
 arts, and which serve to decorate edifices and monuments. 
 In the department of the Higher Alps are found grey, green, 
 and rose coloured granite, and sienites of various colours, 
 long confounded with granite, but more valuable from the 
 fine polish of which they are susceptible. Besides these 
 substances, there are brown and fine green porphyry, vario- 
 lites with white, brown or black spots on a green or violet 
 ground, and serpentine of a grey, green or brown colour, or 
 veined with different shades. The same rocks are found in 
 
 semens Fossiles du departement du Puy-de-Dome, by MM. Croizet 
 and Jobert, 4to. 1828. 
 
 d “ Belong to the same genera.” 
 
 e “ Terrains de transport” — diluvium. — P. 
 
 OF FRANCE. 
 
204 EUR( 
 
 Corsica, but with more numerous varieties. Porphyry 
 abounds in die Vosges, and granite is by no means uncom- 
 mon in other departments, such as those of die Lower 
 Loire, the Channel and the Sarthe. It was employed in 
 paving the streets of different towns, but for some years past, 
 the lava of Auvergne has been substituted in Paris for the 
 same purpose. 
 
 Frenchmen long envied the marble quarries of the Ital- 
 ians, ignorant that others in their own country, might rival 
 the most renowned in Italy. At present, different sorts of 
 marble are worked in no less than forty departments ; the 
 best kinds are situated in the departments of the Upper and 
 Lower Pyrenees, the Upper Garonne and the Eastern Pyr- 
 enees, particularly the schistous marble of Campan, which 
 is of a red, green or delicate rose colour, and was first 
 brought into repute by Louis the Fourteenth, who used it in 
 decorating the palaces of Trianon and Versailles. Among 
 others, in those departments, we might enumerate the marble 
 of Sarancolin, which resembles a breccia, several kinds of stat- 
 uary marble, and at least twenty other varieties, which it is un- 
 necessary to particularize. Those who have seen the eight pil- 
 lars that support the triumphal arch in the Place du Carrousel, 
 may form a correct notion of the red and white marbles in the 
 department of the Aude. The marbles in the department 
 of the Arriege are of a dark blue or violet colour ; the two 
 sorts in the department of the Mouths of the Rhone, have 
 been incorrectly called Aleppo and Memphis marbles.* 
 Two different kinds in the department of the Herauit, the 
 one of a white, and the other of a red b colour, have served 
 to adorn several edifices in the capital. Statuary, cipolin 
 and other kinds of marble are obtained in Corsica, and the 
 varieties in the departments of the Isere and the Ardeche 
 are not less numerous. The marbles of Jura and the 
 Lot are employed in those two departments ; quarries of a 
 finely grained and white coloured marble are situated in the 
 department of the Vienne. It would be superfluous to men- 
 tion all the departments in which the same substance is 
 found ; suffice it to say that it is obtained in those of Puy de 
 Dome, the Lower Charente, the Saone and Loire, the Var, 
 die Higher Alps, the Cote d’Or, the Aube, the Maine 
 and Loire, the Sarthe and the Straits of Calais. 
 
 Other rocks, less ornamental but more useful than mar- 
 ble, are worked in different parts of France. Many work- 
 men are employed in the extensive slate quarries at the base 
 of the Pyrenees, and in the departments of the Maine and 
 Loire, the Meuse and the Ardennes. Limestone, admira- 
 bly adapted for building, is worked in the departments of 
 the Dordogne, the Herauit, the Loire, the Cote d’Or, the 
 Yonne, the Meuse, the Moselle, the Oise and the Seine. 
 Other kinds, not inferior to the last, are common in the de- 
 partments of the Seine and Marne, the Seine and Oise, Cal- 
 vados and the Channel. Excellent lithographic stones are pro- 
 cured from the neighbourhood of Mulhausen, Belleyq Dijon 
 and Chateauroux. 
 
 The ancient provinces of Burgundy, Champagne, Flan- 
 ders and the Isle of France abound in clay, which the in- 
 habitants convert into bricks and tiles. The decomposed 
 feldspar contained in the granite rocks near Limoges and 
 
 JPE. [BOOK CXLI. 
 
 St. Yrieix, furnishes kaolin, a very useful substance in the 
 manufactory of porcelain. Pipe clay, not inferior to any 
 other on the continent, has been long worked near Forge 
 les Eaux in the department of the Lower Seine ; another 
 sort near Elbceuf in the same department, is much used in 
 claying sugar. The clay in the neighbourhood of Beauvais 
 and Montereau is employed in manufacturing the finest pot- 
 tery. The departments of the Yonne, the Cher and the 
 Lower Charente abound in flint f and the small town of 
 La Ferle sous Jouarre exports millstones of the same sub- 
 stance 11 to different countries of Europe, and even to Amer- 
 ica. The soft chalk in the departments of the Marne, the 
 Seine, and the Seine and Oise, is fashioned into different 
 shapes, and sold as an article of commerce f lastly, the gyp- 
 sum obtained in the neighbourhood of Paris, furnishes the 
 plaster so much used in the capital. 
 
 An increase lias of late years been very perceptible in the 
 products that form the mineral riches of France, and they 
 may still be greatly augmented. The following is a list of 
 the different metals obtained from the French mines in the 
 year 1826/ 
 
 Lead, reduced to the metallic state . . 6,453 quintals. 
 
 Sulphuret of lead 1,642 “ 
 
 Copper, in the metallic state 1,394 “ 
 
 Native arsenic 50 “ 
 
 Antimony, reduced to the metallic state . 412 “ 
 
 Oxide of Manganese 7,550 “ 
 
 Cast iron (first fusion,) bars, and steel . 1 ,587,350 “ 
 
 Silver, in ingots 3,286 lbs. avoirdupois.s 
 
 Lead ore is more common in France than in many other 
 countries ; it was from the mines of argentiferous lead in 
 the departments of Finisterre, the Lozere and the Vosges, 
 that die above quantity of silver was obtained. Mines of 
 the same sort, at present unworked, are situated in the de- 
 partments of the Arriege, Puy de Dome, the Upper Vienne, 
 the Two Sevres, die Channel, and the Lower Rhine. The 
 mountaineers in the department of the Isere sell frequently 
 pieces of silver ore to the jewellers in Grenoble, from which 
 it might be inferred that the mine of Chalanche, and per- 
 haps others at no great distance, are very valuable. Man- 
 ganese abounds so much in France, that it contains more 
 than sufficient to supply the whole of Europe. Gold has 
 been found in the alluvial soils deposited by several rivers. 
 Many individuals formerly employed themselves in collect- 
 ing particles of gold on the Salat, which issues from the 
 Pyrenees, on the Sexe and the Gardon that rise in the Ce- 
 vennes, on the Arriege and the Garonne near Toulouse, on 
 the Rhone near the frontiers of the department of the Ain, 
 and on the Rhine below Strasburg. At present, however, 
 the trade of a gold-searcher is not very profitable, for on the 
 banks of the Rhine, which are supposed to contain the great- 
 est quantity, the value of the gold collected from Bale to 
 the neighbourhood of Mayence, does not exceed in ordi- 
 nary years L.625. 
 
 The other mineral substances, worked in France, make 
 up a considerable part of its territorial wealth. Coal is found 
 in thirty-two departments ; others possess lignite, a different 
 combustible, sulphate of iron, alum, mineral pitch and pe- 
 troleum. Salt springs, and a mine of rock salt, discovered 
 in 1819, are situated in the department of the Meurthe ; the 
 
 * “ Rriche d’Alep — brioche de Memphis.” 
 
 “ Griotte” — spotted with red and brown. 
 
 c “ Gun-dint” — found in chalk and limestone. — P. 
 
 11 Buhrstone — found in beds in the fresh-water limestone of the Par- 
 s basin. — P. 
 
 • “ It is used in the arts by the name of Spanish white.” 
 
 See the Report on the products of French industry in the year 
 
 1827, by M. A. Hernn do Villefosse, Inspector of Mines, and Member 
 of the Academy of Sciences, in the Annalesdes Mines, t. II. 1627. 
 s “ 1,162 kilogrammes.” 
 
 h A fossil vegetable that retains its ligneous texture, and of a later 
 formation than coal — [including jet, moor coal, bituminous wood, 
 brown coal, and earth coal. — P ] 
 
book cxli.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 mine, it has been calculated, extends over a surface of 30 
 square leagues, while its thickness exceeds 520 feet ; a it ap- 
 pears from the same calculation that it might yield annually 
 1,000,000 quintals, during a period of 96,000 years; but 
 the annual quantity has been limited to 1 50,000 quintals. 
 The products of these different minerals are stated in the 
 report, published at the beginning of 1827. 
 
 Coal, 12,758,906 quintals. 
 
 Lignite, 98,414 “ 
 
 Sulphate of iron, 25,941 “ 
 
 Alum or sulphate of alumine, 21,118 “ 
 
 Magma or mixture of sulphate of iron and alum, 3,747 “ 
 
 Asphaltum, b 260 “ 
 
 Bitumen, 4,000 “ 
 
 Petroleum, 851 “ 
 
 Rock salt, 110,000 “ 
 
 The value of the metallic and other mineral substances in 
 France, estimated according to their average price, amounts 
 to more than L.4, 029,200.® 
 
 There are not fewer than two hundred and forty mineral 
 springs in different parts of the country ; accommodations 
 for the sick have been provided at a hundred and fifty-one, 
 sevdftty-nine are visited by persons from a distance for the 
 purpose of drinking the waters, and ten are frequented by 
 the inhabitants of the neighbouring districts . 11 According to 
 approximate calculations, the money brought from different 
 parts of the kingdom and circulated in these places, cannot 
 be less than L. 300, 000.® f 
 
 Having thus given a short account of the mineral sub- 
 stances in France, it remains for us to examine certain at- 
 mospheric phenomena, not uncommon in the country, a de- 
 partment of physics by no means uninteresting, and one 
 leading to important results, connected with vegetation. 
 France may be considered as placed in the temperate zone, 
 not merely from its latitude, but also from the moderate ele- 
 vation of the soil ; still, however, different parts of it exhibit 
 peculiarities of temperature, sufficiently important to have a 
 marked influence on vegetation. The humid vapours that 
 rise from the seas, which bound France on the west, and 
 the chains of mountains that limit it on the east and the 
 south, often occasion sudden modifications in the atmosphere. 
 
 The winds, according to the different directions from 
 which they proceed, are accompanied with hail, rain or 
 drought in the different basins. As the north wind in the 
 valley of the Durance, does not pass over any great heights, 
 it tempers the heat of the climate, and is favourable to the 
 growth of plants ; but the same wind is often attended with 
 destructive effects in the basins of the Seine and the Loire. 
 While the valley of the Durance is desolated by the east 
 wind, that traverses the frozen summits of the Alps, it is the 
 sign and harbinger of fair weather in the country watered by 
 the Seine. The south winds that issue from the burning 
 deserts of Africa spread desolation on the coasts of the Med- 
 iterranean ; cooled in their passage over the snowy summits 
 of the Pyrenees, they are frequently accompanied with hail 
 in the basin of the Garonne. The crops in the departments 
 of the V ar and the Mouths of the Rhone are often laid waste 
 by the mistral, % a north-west wind known by the name of 
 the galerne near the mouth of the Loire ; in Brittany, on 
 the contrary, it, as well as the west and the south-west winds, 
 is often a forerunner of rain. Lastly, the north-east wind is 
 
 a “ About 160 metres.” 
 
 b A mineral substance, which differs little from bitumen and petro- 
 eum. 
 
 c “ More than 96.700,000 francs.” 
 
 d See the Statistical Tables at the end of the account of France. 
 
 “7,400,000 francs.” 
 
 OF FRANCE. 205 
 
 accompanied with cold and humid weather in the depart- 
 ments of the Vosges and die Ardennes. 
 
 F ranee is divided into two great regions by the forty-sixth 
 parallel, and there is a sensible difference in the mean num- 
 ber of rainy days on die north and south of the same line, 
 which passes along the northern declivities of the group of 
 Mont-Dor. On the south the mean number of rainy days 
 is equal to 134, and in the latitude of Paris, to 105. From 
 the observations made in order to ascertain the mean quan 
 tity of rain that falls annually in different parts of Franc- 
 the following results have been derived. 
 
 Departments. Inches. Lines 
 
 Herault — Montpellier, 28 6 
 
 Isere, 32 0 
 
 Rhone — Lyons, 29 2 .20 
 
 Upper Vienne, 25 0 
 
 Ille and Vilaine, 21 0 
 
 Orne, 20 4 « 
 
 Eure, 20 4 
 
 Seine — Paris, 19 6 .94 
 
 North — Lille, 27 0 
 
 Moselle — Metz, 24 8 .76 
 
 Upper Rhine (plains,) 28 1 
 
 (mountains,) 30 0 
 
 It is in vain in the present imperfect state of meteorology 
 to attempt an explanation of the atmospheric phenomena, 
 connected with climate ; it may be sufficient to quote the re- 
 sults of observations concerning the mean temperature of 
 
 different places in 
 
 France. 
 
 
 
 
 
 During summer. 
 
 During winter. 
 
 Clermont, . 
 
 . -f- 18.0 degrees. 
 
 -f- 1.4 degrees 
 
 Dunkirk, . 
 
 . + 17.8 
 
 ii 
 
 + 3.7 
 
 (C 
 
 Paris, . . 
 
 . +18.1 
 
 it 
 
 + 3.7 
 
 u 
 
 St. Malo, . 
 
 . + 18.9 
 
 a 
 
 + 5.6 
 
 a 
 
 Nantes, . 
 
 . + 20.3 
 
 “ 
 
 + 4.7 
 
 ti 
 
 Bordeaux, . 
 
 . +21.6 
 
 u 
 
 + 5.6 
 
 a 
 
 Marseilles, 
 
 . + 22.5 
 
 a 
 
 + 7.5 
 
 “ 
 
 Montpellier, 
 
 . + 24.3 
 
 u 
 
 + 6.7 
 
 u 
 
 Toulon, . . 
 
 . + 23.9 
 
 a 
 
 + 9.1 
 
 u 
 
 Nimes, . . 
 
 . + 23.0 
 
 u 
 
 + 9.0 
 
 a 
 
 Agen, . . 
 
 . + 28.7 
 
 a 
 
 + 2.5 
 
 a 
 
 Colmar, . . 
 
 . +21.0 
 
 a 
 
 — 8.7 b 
 
 u 
 
 These different results prove that several local causes, 
 such as the elevation of the soil, and its exposure, together 
 with the vicinity of seas and chains of mountains, have a very 
 considerable influence on the temperature and humidity of 
 the atmosphere. The indications offered by different plants 
 are less liable to error, and the climate of France may thus 
 be better determined. The olive, the maize and the vine 
 mark the limits of four natural regions into which the coun- 
 try is divided ; these limits have been drawn on different 
 maps by straight and parallel lines, but in reality they are al- 
 ways curved or sinuous , they tollow the declivities and 
 windings occasioned by the inequalities in the soil, and cut 
 obliquely the degrees of latitude. The region of olives ex- 
 tends from the shores of the Mediterranean, to the eastern 
 declivities of the Pyrenees, the southern ol the Cevennes, 
 and the western of the Lower Alps. It is bounded on the 
 north by a line which, commencing at Bagneres de Luchon, 
 extends in a north-easterly direction to Die in the depart- 
 ment of the Drome, and thence south-easterly to Embrun 
 in the department of the Higher Alps. The region of maize 
 does not extend far beyond a second line, which begins at 
 the mouth of the Gironde, and passing to the north ol Nev- 
 ers, stretches to the northern extremity of Alsace. The 
 
 f See the article Sources Minerales, Encyclopedie Methodiaue. 
 
 s Fr. Maestral, It. Maestrate. 
 
 b Several of the above results are still considered doubtful. The 
 decrees are those of the centigrade thermometer ; to convert them in- 
 to degrees of Fahrenheit, it is necessary to multiply them by and 
 [J then to add the number 32 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 206 
 
 vine occupies both these regions, and another still farther to 
 the north, but does not succeed beyond a line which com- 
 mences at a ’point some leagues northwards from the mouth 
 of the Loire, and thence extending towards the north-east, 
 passes to the south of the sources of the Eure, follows the 
 contours of the heights which bound the right bank of the 
 Oise, and stretching to the north of the Aisne and of Verdun, 
 terminates on the north-east at the Rhine. Beyond this 
 boundary the vine gives place to the apple. These limits, 
 however, must not be considered as rigorously exact. Thus, 
 maize might be cultivated in the country round Metz, for it 
 thrives in the gardens ; a considerable quantity is indeed 
 cultivated in Brittany on the southern declivities of the 
 mountains of Arree, and also in some parts of French 
 Flanders. 
 
 Tli£ neighbourhood of the sea, by rendering the climate 
 milder, extends its influence to vegetation ; the fig and the 
 myrtle, which seem to require a warm climate, flourish in 
 very different latitudes. The first yields excellent fruit 
 without shelter, in the neighbourhood of Havre and Cher- 
 bourg, while the same plant not only requires a favourable 
 exposure in the vicinity of Paris, but the fruits are later and 
 never so good. The myrtle grows in the open air in Coten- 
 tin, at Brest, and in Belle-Isle en Mer. At a hundred 
 leagues farther south, but at a greater distance from the sea, 
 it does not resist the severity of the climate without much 
 care. The melon grows almost without culture on the coasts 
 of Lower Normandy, but it is well known how much labour 
 s bestowed on it in the neighbourhood of Paris, where, 
 However, some sorts are produced, that surpass the best in 
 Italy. 
 
 Lastly, the elevation of the soil has a great influence on 
 different plants ; thus the chestnut tree flourishes from the 
 mountains of Forez and Auvergne to the southern extremi- 
 ties of France, and grows naturally in several woods round 
 Paris . 3 
 
 The only useful plants really natural to France, are the 
 fig, the apple, the pear and the plum ; it ought not, however, 
 to be forgotten that among the acotyledonous plants, the 
 truffles in the neighbourhood of Angouleme and Perigueux, 
 so much prized by gourmands, are indigenous to the coun- 
 try. Many useful and ornamental plants have been natural- 
 ized by culture ; the cherry tree brought from Asia by Lu- 
 cullus, was, as well as the vine, first planted in France by the 
 Romans. The Greek colonies on the coasts of the Medi- 
 terranean transported thither the olive, a plant indigenous to 
 Mount Taurus, and the raspberry-bush from Mount Ida. 
 Since the discovery of the New World, France has obtained 
 the acriviola b of Peru, the lycopersicon 0 of Mexico, the 
 potato of Virginia, and the maize which has been incorrectly 
 called Turkey corn. d The humble parsley was brought 
 from Sardinia, and the cardoon from Barbary. The pome- 
 granate was also conveyed from Africa, and planted in the 
 southern regions of France. 
 
 The gardens, the orchards and the fields in the same 
 country, are now adorned with the productions of Asia ; the 
 orange, the lemon and the white mulberry are indigenous to 
 China, the black mulberry to Asia Minor, the apricot to 
 
 1 M. De Candolle, Flore Franchise, tom. ii. 
 b Tropaohnn, Indian cress or Nasturtium. 
 c Solanum Lycopersicon, Tomato or Love Apple. 
 i M. Moreau de Jonmbs, corresponding member of the Academy of 
 Sciences, read a paper in 1828 to the Academy, in which he proved 
 the American origin of maize. 
 
 * “Tournesol ” — Heliotropium peruvianum, Peruvian Turnsole or 
 
 [BOOK CXLI. 
 
 Armenia, and the pedcli to Persia. Other plants first 
 imported from Asia are now common, such as the almond, 
 the walnut and the finest kinds of melons. Lastly, the kid- 
 ney bean, the white endive and the pumpkin have passed 
 from the burning climate of India to the temperate countries 
 of western Europe. The gardener has been enabled by his 
 art, to preserve in France, the lily of Palestine, the sunflow- 
 er® of Peru, the dahlia of Mexico, the balsamine of India, 
 the reseda of Egypt, the angelica of Lapland, the tuberose 
 of Ceylon, the tulip of T urkey, and the inodorous ranuncu- 
 lus, the only monument of St. Louis’ pious expedition into 
 Syria. The weeping willow, now common on the banks 
 of rivers, was obtained from the neighbourhood of Babylon. 
 
 Near the most common forest trees in France, such as 
 the oak, the birch, the elm, the ash and the beech, may now 
 be seen the false acacia/ which Robin brought from Vir- 
 ginia, different American oaks, and the horse chestnut tree, 
 indigenous to Turkey in Asia. The Norwegian and Cana- 
 dian firs now grow in the highest regions of the kingdom. 
 To the aspen tree, and the black and white poplars, origi- 
 nally natives of the country, are added other species frbm 
 Italy and America. But all the woods and plantations in 
 France do not occupy a greater surface than 17,500,000 
 English acres® — an extent too small not to render it pecu- 
 liarly desirable to employ all the means necessary for the 
 preservation of the forests. 
 
 Local industry, climate, and a favourable exposure, add 
 in several departments to the value of certain plants. For- 
 ests of resinous trees extend along the sea coast in the de- 
 partment of the Landes, throughout an extent of thirty or 
 forty leagues ; in the same country and in the department 
 of the Lot and Garonne, the Quercus suber or cork tree is 
 cultivated. The firs of the Vosges and Jura are used 
 by the house carpenter; indeed in that part of France, few 
 or no firs are imported from northern countries. The pine 
 furnisnes the peasant of Brittany with a substitute for oil and 
 candles. The fruit of a particular kind of cherry tree, that 
 abounds in the Vosges, yields by distillation a kirschenwasser , 
 not inferior to any that can be had in the Black Forest. 
 The mulberry, the olive and the orange are cultivated in the 
 southern departments. The fruit of the plum tree forms a 
 considerable branch of commerce in the departments of the 
 Var, the Lot and Garonne, and the Indre and Loire. 
 The finest fruits in the country round Paris are the chasse- 
 las h of Fontainebleau, the peach of Montreuil and the cherry 
 of Montmorency. 
 
 Different garden vegetables have acquired, on certain 
 soils, a superior quality ; one or two instances may be men- 
 tioned, among others, the kidney beans in the neighbour- 
 hood of Soissons, the carrots of Amiens, and the artichokes 
 in the country round Laon . * 1 * The vineyards in France 
 yield two hundred and fifty different sorts of wine ; they 
 extend over a surface of 5,000,000 acres/ and their mean 
 produce is estimated at SS0,000,000 gallons . 1 The best 
 sorts of wine are obtained from the ancient provinces of 
 Champagne, Burgundy, Lyonnais, Dauphiny and Bordelais. 
 
 To divide the soils of France into seven different classes, 
 after the example of Arthur Young, might lead to errors 
 
 Heliotrope ; a shrub generally cultivated for the almond scent of its 
 flowers. — P. 
 
 1 Robinia Pseuducacia, the common locust tree of N. America. 
 
 s “ 7,000,000 hectares.” h A variety of grape. 
 
 ' See in the Statistical Tables, the quantity of land employed in the 
 culture of different vegetables. 
 
 k “ 2,000,000 hectares.” 1 “ 35, 000, COO hectolitres.” 
 
BOOK CXLl.j 
 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 which have been too often repeated.® As there is not a sin- 
 gle department in which the surface does not consist of 
 lands, more or less rich, light, stony or sandy, how can 
 twenty-one departments be arbitrarily classed under rich or 
 heavy soils, nineteen under heath lands, eight under chalky 
 soils, two under gravelly soils, fifteen under stony soils, as 
 many under mountainous lands, and six under sandy soils ? 
 The study of geology tends to correct such mistakes ; thus, 
 what has been called vegetable earth, is merely an alluvial 
 stratum, formed while the surface of the different formations 
 was covered with fresh water ; the same stratum is more or 
 less fruitful in proportion to the quantity of decomposed 
 vegetables contained in it ; if thin, it mixes with the rocks 
 that support it ; if imperceptible, sand, clay or calcareous 
 substances, exposed to view, form a soil in which the perfec- 
 tion of agriculture consists in supplying the defects of nature. 
 Lastly, the inequalities in the surface have a great influence on 
 the fertility of different soils, because in low vallies the allu- 
 vial deposits are greater than in plains, and the latter for the 
 same reason are more fruitful than hills or lofty ridges. It 
 would not, however, be difficult to point out a great extent 
 of surface, where the soil, naturally sterile, might be fructi- 
 fied by the efforts of industry, and a judicious system of 
 agriculture. A great part of the Vosges and the Pyrenees 
 and almost the whole of the Dauphinese Alps are very un- 
 fruitful, although the Cevennes, in which the rocks are of 
 the same kind, prove what may be done by the persevering 
 labour and industry of man. In that part of the country, 
 as well as in some parts of Auvergne, walls are raised at dif- 
 ferent distances, along the sides of the mountains, in order 
 to retain the alluvial deposits, which otherwise would be car- 
 ried by the waters to the lowest vallies. The southern por- 
 tion of the department of the Gironde, and almost the whole 
 of that of the Landes, are covered with sands, which might 
 become wholly unproductive, if the inhabitants did not avail 
 themselves of the plant best adapted to the nature of the 
 soil, namely, the maritime pine, which yields a great quan- 
 tity of resin, and thus enables them to carry on no inconsid- 
 erable trade. If the same sands are mixed with any calca- 
 reous substance, such as the fossil shells in the neighbour- 
 hood of Bordeaux, they form a soil favourable to the culture 
 of the vine ; they may be even rendered productive by force 
 of manure, as for example, the plain of Boulogne near Paris. 
 By, the same means, the present sterile sands of Sologne in 
 the department of the Cher, and others in Brittany might be 
 cultivated. The chalky plains of Champagne are fruitful 
 wherever their surface is covered with an alluvial deposit of 
 argil ; but in the more arid parts of the same province, 13 dif- 
 ferent evergreen trees might be planted. The importance 
 of encouraging agriculture in France, may be admitted from 
 the fact, that the surface of unproductive or waste lands, 
 cannot be estimated at less than 10,000,000 acres, 0 or in 
 other words, at a twelfth part of the whole kingdom. If so 
 great .a surface were rendered productive, a considerable 
 increase must necessarily follow in the number of inhabitants, 
 since more than a sixth part would be added to the amount 
 of arable land in France, which is considered equal to 
 57,000,000 acres. d The average produce of the same land, 
 
 1 The above mentioned division is still adopted in the last edition 
 of Guthrie’s Geography- Tr. [“ In the last edition of the French 
 work entitled : L'Abr6g6 de la nouvelle Geographie universelle, 
 d’aprcs Guthrie, par Hyacinthe Langlois, 1828.”] 
 
 b Champagne Pouilleuse — so called from its sterility. 
 
 c “ 4,000,000 hectares.” 
 
 d “ 23,000,000 hectares.” 
 
 • The hectolitre contains nearly three English bushels. Tr. [The 
 
 OF FRANCE. 207 
 
 according to the most correct calculations, is equivalent to 
 
 51.500.000 hectolitres® of wheat, 30,300,000 of meslin 
 
 6.300.000 of maize, 8,400,000 of buckwheat, 32,000,006 
 of oats, and 20,000,000 of potatoes. It follows from the 
 nature and position of the soil in different parts of France, 
 that eleven departments, namely, those of the Lozere, the 
 Creuse, Finisterre, the North Coast, the Channel, Calvados, 
 the Orne, the Lower Seine, the Somme, the Straits of Cal- 
 ais and the North, are wholly destitute of vineyards, that 
 about forty produce flax, and that hemp is extensively cul- 
 tivated in filty-seven. 
 
 It is unnecessary to enumerate the plants that compose 
 the French Flora; it may be observed, however, that they 
 are divided into more than 830 genera and 6000 species, a 
 number greater than that in Germany, although the latter 
 country is larger than France. 
 
 The wild animals that frequent the mountains, woods and 
 fields, are not so numerous as in Germany, because the for- 
 ests are not so large, and the mountains not so extensive. 
 The black bear ( Ursus Pyrenaicus ) and the brown bear are 
 found in the French part of the Pyrenees; the lynx, of 
 which the piercing eyes are proverbial, frequents the High 
 Alps ; it is now, however, more rarely observed than for- 
 merly ; the chamois and the wild goat never leave the sum- 
 mits that form the eastern and southern limits of the kingdom. 
 The forests of the Vosges, and the woods on the Moselle, 
 afford shelter to the common squirrel ( Sciurus vulgaris ) ; 
 another species of a dark brown colour varied with yellow- 
 ish white [Sciurus alpinus), and the Siberian flying squirrel/ 
 which issues from its retreat in the night, and by means of 
 its dilated sides, springs from one branch to another, are not 
 uncommon in many parts of the High Alps. The yellow 
 marten [Mustela alpina ) is found in the same mountains ; 
 the marmot [Arctomys marmotta), a social animal, frequents 
 the cavities near the summits of the French Alps and Pyre- 
 nees.? In the departments contiguous to the Vosges, may 
 be seen the ermine [Mustela erminea), of which the fur is 
 imported from the frozen plains of Siberia, and the hamster 
 [Mus cricetus ), famous for its migrations, and found in the 
 north and south of Russia, and in Poland, the Ukraine, Hun- 
 gary, Germany and Alsace, where it is called the marmot 
 of Strasburg. The hamster lays waste the crops ; each of 
 them, it is said, amasses in its burrow from twelve to a hun- 
 dred pounds of grain ; as intrepid as it is fierce, it never 
 retreats before its enemies, not even before man, who has so 
 much interest in destroying it. All the more extensive for- 
 ests serve as places of refuge for the wolf, the most destruc- 
 tive of the carnivorous animals in France. In some prov- 
 inces, the polecat, the weasel and the fox are the terror of 
 the poultry yards. The solitary and distrustful badger digs 
 its den in the remotest woods, and the mole raises its hills 
 in the most fruitful fields. The hedge-hog lurks in the 
 bushes, and the rat, the field mouse, the common mouse 
 and the dormouse frequent the fields and the gardens. The 
 water rat [Arvicola amphibius) and the otter seek holes 
 in the banks of such marshes and rivers as are little fre- 
 quented. 
 
 Almost every species of bird, common to Europe, is found 
 
 hectolitre contains G102.8 cubic inches, and the English bushel 2510.42 
 cubic inches ; consequently the hectolitre is equal to 2 bushels, 1 peck 
 5 quarts, and 2.5 pints, nearly.— P.] 
 
 r “ Polatouche” — common European flying squirrel ( Sciurus volans 
 Linn. Pteromys volans, Cuv.) 
 
 s “ The marmot, a hybernating animal, lives in society in large bur- 
 rows, near the summits of the Alps and the Pyrenees.” Its burrows 
 are excavated by its own labour. — P. 
 
208 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXL1. 
 
 in France. The flamingos that migrate from the shores of 
 Africa, appear in flocks on the coasts of the Mediterranean. 
 The witwall ( Galgulus garrulus) 3 of which the plumage is 
 varied with tints of blue, green and violet, is by no means 
 rare in the southern departments ; among others in the same 
 part of the country, are the midwall ( Mcrops apiaster), b 
 probably indigenous to the island of Candia, the beccafico 
 or fig-pecker, which is sold for high prices in Paris, and the 
 piannet or creeper that frequents steep rocks or the walls of 
 ancient castles. Numerous species visit France every year 
 at the approach of spring, and remain until the end of au- 
 tumn, passing the winter in a warmer climate. Among 
 these are different species of the lark and the thrush, the 
 quail, the ortolan, and the red-breast, all of which are sought 
 for the table ; the hoopoe, the oriole, the titmouse and the king- 
 fisher, all of which have their plumage adorned with the 
 most vivid colours ; the turtle dove, which appears to exist 
 only for the indulgence of the tender passion, but which 
 may be considered rather an emblem of inconstancy, than 
 of fidelity ; the swallow, which builds its nest on the houses ; 
 and the nightingale, which sings in the groves, when fresh 
 with the first colours of spring. Among the other singing 
 birds are the goldfinch, the linnet and the bulfinch ; the jay 
 and the starling are noted for the facility with which they 
 learn to imitate the human voice. 
 
 Several species of gallinaceous birds abound in different 
 parts of France; the red partridge is often observed in the 
 central and western departments, but in the southern, the 
 grey partridge is more common than any other species. 
 Woodcocks and snipes frequent the woods and marshes ; 
 the first are very numerous in Picardy, and the second in 
 Auvergne. Lastly, the coasts of the Channel and the 
 Ocean are frequented by different kinds of wild fowl, such 
 as the plover, the lapwing, the widgeon, 0 the sea lark and 
 the wild duck, of which a great many are sent to Paris by 
 the inhabitants of the Lower Charente. 
 
 The common viper and the asp are often seen in moun- 
 tainous, stony and wooded districts, such as tire country 
 round Lyons, Grenoble and Poitiers ; it has been remarked 
 that these venomous reptiles appear most commonly in the 
 morning, and in places with an eastern exposure ; they live 
 on insects, mice and other small animals. The reptiles 
 common to the central departments of France, are the viper- 
 ous adder/ and the green and yellow adder/ which may be 
 easily tamed. A peculiar species called the Bordelaise / as 
 well as the masked adder, is found in the neighbourhood of 
 Bordeaux ; another species/ which grows to the length of six 
 feet, is confined to the southern provinces ; the Provengale, 
 which is never longer than seven or eight inches, indicates 
 by its name the country it inhabits. Many of the snakes are 
 not dangerous ; h some indeed, known by the name of hedge 
 
 a The common roller (Coracias garrula, Linn.) The witwall is the 
 common European oriole (Oriolus galbula, Linn.) — P. 
 b The common bee-eater. — P. 
 
 c “ Macreuse” — ( Anas nigra, Linn.) Black duck or Scoter. — P. 
 d “ Couleuvre viperine” ( Coluber viperinus, Latreille.) 
 e “ Couleuvre verte et jaune” ( Coluber atro-virens.) 
 f Couleuvre Bordelaise, Cuv. ( Coluber Girondicus, Daudin.) 
 s “ Couleuvre k quatre raies” ( Coluber Etaphis , Shaw.) Body fawn- 
 coloured, with four brown or black lines on the back. Cuvier. — P. 
 
 h “ The adders or ra'lier snakes ( couleuvrcs ,) above mentioned, are 
 not dangerous.” The term adder is usually applied to the poisonous 
 species. — The genus Coluber , Linn, comprehended all serpents, 
 whether venomous or not, with scuta under the belly and scutella under 
 the tail. The genus is now confined to the species not venomous. — P. 
 
 ‘ The word Saurian has been lately introduced into the nomencla- 
 ture of natural history ; it is derived from the Greek word Zavqa, a 
 lizard. k From Butqu/ o?, a frog. 
 
 cels in the rural districts, are not considi ted unwholesome 
 food. The animals belonging to the Saurian order,* are 
 sufficiently numerous, but the most remarkable is the gecko 
 of Mauritania, which frequents the Mediterranean coasts. 
 A crocodile still preserved at Lyons, was taken from the 
 Rhone about two centuries ago. Could it have been the last 
 descendant of the reptiles, of which the fossil remains are 
 found among the calcareous strata in F ranee, or was it car 
 ried by currents from Africa to the mouth of the Rhone r 
 Among the animals of the Batracian order, 1 * ' different spe- 
 cies of frogs and toads may be mentioned. The Rana 
 bombina abounds in the central districts, and during rainy 
 nights annoys the inhabitants with a continued and disagree- 
 able croaking. The Bvfo obstetricans, which conceals 
 itself under stones, and frees the female of its eggs in order 
 to carry them to some pool, is found in every department. 
 The green toad, which, when struck, diffuses an odour 
 resembling that of ambergris, and the thorny toad, 1 a hideous 
 animal, some of them of a monstrous size, are confined to the 
 mountainous districts. The turtle, which the ancients used 
 in making their lyres, m is sometimes taken on the coasts of 
 the Mediterranean and the Ocean ; the fresh water tortoise,” 
 not uncommon in the southern marshes, is frequently kept 
 in gardens, because it destroys insects and noxious animals. 
 The water eft is most common in the southern departments ; 
 the ordinary lizard frequents them all. 0 
 
 Many -individuals are employed in fishing on the extensive 
 coasts of France, and the products of their labour are dis- 
 tributed in the remotest districts. The Channel and the 
 Ocean supply the inhabitants with turbot, ray, soles, cod, 
 salmon, whitings, mackerel, mullet and sardel. The last 
 kind is so abundant that the sardel fisheries on the coast of 
 Brittany, yield an annual profit of L. 83, 000. Other kinds 
 are taken by the fishermen in the Mediterranean ; the most 
 valuable are the tunny and the anchovy. 
 
 Cetaceous animals sometimes appear on the French 
 coasts ; a cachalot or trumpo p was taken in the neighbour- 
 hood of Bayonne in 1741 ; thirty-one large cachalots belong- 
 ing to a distinct species'* ( Physeter macrocephalus), were 
 stranded by a tempest on the western coast of Audierne in 
 Lower Brittany, in 1784. The whale, the giant of the 
 northern seas, frequented the gulfs of Gascony and Lions in 
 the time of Strabo and Pliny. r The Basques derived con- 
 siderable profit from their u'hale fisheries about the beginning 
 of the twelfth century ; since that time the whale has fled 
 for refuge from man into the frozen seas, and its appear- 
 ance on the French coast is cited as a rare phenomenon. 
 In 1620, a w r hale more than a hundred feet in length, was 
 stranded on the island of Corsica; in 1726, another at least 
 seventy-two feet long was taken in the bay of the Somme ; 
 one about fifty-two feet in length, was thrown on the island 
 
 1 Bufo spinosus, Daudin. 
 
 m Testudo coriacea, Linn. — called the Lvtli (lute) by the French.- — P. 
 
 “ “ La tortue bourbeuse” — mud tortoise. # 
 
 0 “The terrestrial salamanders inhabit the south of France; the 
 aquatic salamanders are found in all the departments.” The terres- 
 trial salamander ( Sulamandra terrestris) is the Luccrtu Salomon dr a , 
 Linn. There are several species of aquatic salamanders, found in 
 France, viz. the marbled salamander (S. inamorata,) the crested sala- 
 mander (S. crislata,) the dotted salamander (S. punctata) and the web- 
 footed salamander or water newt (S. palmata, Latreille. Lacerta aquati- 
 ca, Linn.) — P. 
 
 p “ Cachalot trumpo,” ( Physeter Trumpo, Ed. Encye.) Blunt- 
 headed cachalot — considered by Cuvier, as a variety of the great 
 spermaceti whale (P. macroccphulus.) — P. 
 
 1 “ Grand Cachalot” — Great Spermaceti whale. 
 
 r Pliny's Natural History, Book IX, ch. li. Strabo, Book III, ch. 2 
 § 2 - 
 
book cxli.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 of Oleron in 1826; lastly, the inhabitants of St. Cyprian 
 near Perpignan, found a whale on the shores ok the Medi- 
 terranean in 1828, which, according to their measurement, 
 was sixty-three feet in length. 
 
 The terrestrial mollusca might be passed over in silence, 
 if several species, valuable as delicacies, or useful as reme- 
 dies in pectoral affections, were not included among the 
 helices a or snails. Three different species, b common in the 
 fields of southern France, together with the Helix pomatia, c 
 the most common of them all, since it is found in every 
 vineyard, the shagreen snail that frequents the gardens, and 
 the nemoral snail d of the meadows and fields, are those that 
 are eaten, or which furnish the materials for broths and cos- 
 metics. Immense numbers of them are consumed in Alsace 
 and Saintonge ; from the last province alone, snails are in 
 some years exported to the amount of L. 1000 ; e they are 
 even sent to the Antilles. 
 
 The fishing of marine mollusca forms a much more 
 important branch of industry ; the horse-foot oyster ( Ostrea 
 hippopus), common on the coast near Boulogne sur Mer, is 
 by no means considered the best sort of oyster. The com- 
 mon oyster ( Ostrea edulis ) is so much prized, that the 
 quantity consumed every year in Paris, is equal in value to 
 L.42,000. f The departments of the Lower Charente, the 
 Channel and Calvados, are those in which the best kinds are 
 taken. The common muscle ( Mytilus edulis ) is a valuable 
 food to the lower orders on some of the French coasts. 
 The Crustacea, too, are very useful for the same purpose. 
 The Portunus velutinus and the Cancer pagurus,% form 
 partly the nourishment of die people in the seaports and on 
 the coasts. The lobster ( Astacus marinus ), and another 
 species ( Palinurus vulgaris), remarkable for its great size 
 and its brown and yellow colour, appear on the tables of the 
 wealthy Parisians. 
 
 Several noxious insects are found in France, some of 
 which are indigenous to the country. Among these are a 
 particular species of weevil, h very destructive to grain ; the 
 European and red scorpions, 1 which are not unknown in the 
 departments on the coasts of the Mediterranean ; and the 
 black bellied lycosa, a sort of tarantula spider, which is ob- 
 served in die same part of the kingdom, and which is very 
 similar to the one concerning which so many fables have 
 been related in Italy. The commercial relations between 
 France and India have been the means of transporting oth- 
 ers from the latter country ; among these are the aphis, which 
 destroys the apple tree, and two species of termites or white 
 ants, the Termcs lucifugum and T. flavicolle, which are 
 mostly confined to Provence and the neighbourhood of 
 Bordeaux, where they devour the timber in the houses and 
 naval arsenals. Although not numerous, other insects are 
 very useful ; the bee enables the inhabitants of the southern 
 provinces to export a great quantity of honey ; the silk-worm, 
 habituated to the climate, since the time that Louis the 
 Eleventh planted the mulberry tree in France, forms by its 
 products part of the riches of Dauphiny. The weight of 
 the raw silk thus obtained by the French manufactories, is 
 estimated at 5,200,000 kilogrammes.’ 1 The winged insect 
 
 OF FRANCE. . 209 
 
 that forms the gall nut, adds very considerably to the value 
 of the oaks in the southern departments, and the cantharides 
 furnish one of the most powerful agents that are used in 
 medicine. 
 
 It now remains for us to give a short account of the most 
 useful domestic animals in France, and thus terminate the 
 few remarks that have been made concerning the animal 
 kingdom in that country. The breeds of horses, to which 
 little attention has hitherto been paid, might be greatly 
 improved, so as to rival the finest that are known in Europe. 
 Government has proposed to encourage the crossing of 
 different breeds, and if the judicious plans which it has form- 
 ed, be carried into effect, the results that may be reasona- 
 bly expected, must be attended with great advantage. Good 
 cavalry and post horses are bred in the departments of the 
 Somme, the Straits of Calais, the Ardennes, and the Upper 
 and Lower Rhine ; but the horses in the departments of 
 the Seine and Oise, the Aisne, and the Seine and Marne, 
 are better fitted for artillery. The best carriage and saddle 
 horses are from the departments of the Orne and Calvados; 
 they belong to the breed which is said to have been intro- 
 duced into France by the Danes, who under the name of 
 Normans, settled in the country. The horses in the depart- 
 ments of the Maine and Loire, the Sarthe, the Eure and 
 Loir, the Drome, the Isere, the Higher Alps, the Upper 
 Saone, the Doubs, and Jura, are better adapted for light 
 cavalry. The horses of Morbihan and Corsica are by no 
 means remarkable for their symmetry, but they are said to 
 be almost indefatigable. Other breeds in the departments 
 of the Ain, the Cote d’Or, the Saone and Loire, the Allier 
 and the Nievre, are equally reputed for the same quali- 
 ties ; but the best horses both for strength and swiftness are 
 bred in some parts of southern France. The Limousin 
 breed is confined to the departments of the Correze, the 
 Upper Vienne, Cantal, Puy de Dome, and the Dordogne. 
 The horses, known by the name of JYavarrins, are most 
 common in the Eastern and Lower Pyrenees, but they are 
 also bred in the departments of the Aveyron, the Lot, the 
 Gers and the Arriege. 
 
 The French ass must be considered a degenerate animal, 
 if compared with the asses of Spain and Italy ; one breed 
 however, in tire department of the Vienne, forms an excep- 
 tion ; it is remarkable for its long hair and great size, almost 
 equal to that of a mule. 
 
 It is believed that there are not fewer than twelve or fif- 
 teen kinds of oxen in France. Those in the departments 
 of the Upper Vienne, the Charente and the Lower Charente, 
 are most probably of the same breed ; they are of a pale 
 reddish 1 colour ; their horns are long, large and tapering , 
 their weight varies from six hundred to eight hundred and 
 fifty pounds. 111 The oxen in die departments of tire Creuse, 
 the Indre and the Cher, are for the most part of a light col- 
 our ; n they weigh from five hundred to seven hundred 
 pounds. In the department of the Gironde, the oxen are 
 of a dirty white colour ; they are heavier than the two last 
 kinds. In the departments of Cantal and Puy de Dome, 
 they are mostly of a red colour with short and white horns ; 
 
 a G.. Helix, Linn. The translator calls them helecites, a name 
 which has no exislence in the nomenclature of natural history, nor in 
 any other language. Fossil snails are called helieites. — P. 
 b H. variabi/is , H. rhodostoma, and H. vermiculata. 
 
 ' Common edible snail, the cochlea of the ancients. — P. 
 d Ii. nemoralis — Girdled snail, Donovan. 
 e “ More than 20,000 francs.” 
 j f “ Nearly 1,000,000 francs.” 
 
 | s “ Tourteau” — common crab. h Curcul.io granarius. 
 
 VUI,. Ill —NO. 48 27 
 
 * Scorpio Europceus and S. Occitanus. 
 
 k The kilogramme is equal to a thousand grammes ; the gramme is 
 nearly equal to 19 grains. Tr. [The gramme is equal to 18.827 French 
 grains, or 15.4441 grains Troy. — P ] 
 
 1 “blond roux,” light red. — The prevalent colour of the cattle in 
 France is a pale reddish, or rather a cream colour. Ed. Encyc. 
 
 m Ninety -one and a half of these pounds are equal to 100 lbs. Avoir- 
 dupois. Tr. 
 
 » “ blond pale,” light yellow. 
 
210 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLI. 
 
 they weigh from five hundred and fifty to eight hundred and 
 fifty pounds. The oxen in the department of the Saone 
 and Loire, are as heavy as those in the Upper Vienne. The 
 oxen in the departments of the Lower Loire and the Maine 
 and Loire are grey, black, dark brown and chestnut-col- 
 oured ; many of them are equal in weight to nine hundred 
 pounds. In Morbihan, they are small and spotted ; they 
 weigh rarely above five hundred pounds. A breed of low 
 oxen, not uncommon in the department of the Sarthe, has 
 the advantage of being easily fattened. The other kinds 
 differ so little from those which have been already mention- 
 ed, that it requires a good judge to distinguish them. They 
 are not all reared in the countries in which they are pro- 
 duced ; thus few are bred in Lower Normandy, but very 
 many are fattened in its rich pastures. 
 
 Sufficient attention has not been paid in France to the 
 breeding of sheep ; at all events, the wool in the country is 
 still inferior to that of Saxony. Sheep are more numerous 
 in the ancient province of Berry than in any other part of 
 the kingdom. Those bred in the country round Beauvais 
 are very large, but the sheep in Burgundy and the Ardennes 
 are better for the table. The best kinds are those on the sandy 
 coasts of the maritime provinces. The sheep of Roussillon 
 are very like the merinos in the fineness of their wool. 
 The advantages that result from crossing the different Span- 
 ish and French breeds have been already sufficiently proved ; 
 still, however, that branch of rural economy is neglected, 
 such are the effects of ignorance and prejudice. 
 
 Three different breeds of pigs are common in different parts 
 of France. The pure breed, as it is called, existed in the 
 country in the time of the Celts, and is still preserved in 
 Normandy; it may be fattened until it attains to a great 
 weight ; some of them weigh from three hundred to four 
 hundred pounds ; it is distinguished by its small head, nar- 
 row ears and white colour. The pigs of the Poitou breed 
 are not so arge, neither are they so well made ; they are 
 remarkable for large heads, broad pendent ears and long 
 
 * The common domestic goose is derived from a wild species of a 
 grey colour, with the back brown shaded with grey, ( Anser cinereus, 
 Mayer.) Cuvier. — P. 
 
 b “ — at least 45,000 000 francs.” 
 
 white hair. A third breed in Perigord differs from the 
 others in ihe roughness of its coat, and in its black colour. 
 The other kinds are sprung from these three breeds ; they 
 resemble more or less one or other of them, and differ prin- 
 cipally in their colour, black being prevalent in the south, 
 white in the north, and black and white in Central France. 
 A great many pigs are bred in the departments of the Up- 
 per Rhine, the Moselle, the Meuse, the Aube, the Marne 
 and the Lower Pyrenees. 
 
 The poultry in some of the departments are not the 
 least valuable of their products ; the cock and hen of Caux 
 form a distinct variety ; to ascertain its superiority, it is 
 necessary to partake of the excellent fowls that are fattened 
 in the neighbourhood of Barbezieux, La Fleche and Mans. 
 The ash-coloured goose ( Anser cinereus ), a the type of the 
 domestic goose, attains a great size in Lower Languedoc ; 
 there are many of them also in the departments of the 
 Lower Rhine and the Upper Garonne and in others in 
 Western France. The best ducks, it is said, are those in 
 Lower Normandy and Languedoc. The manner in which 
 the goose and duck are fed in some departments, renders 
 their livers excessively large, and gives them a delicacy that 
 gourmands are able to appreciate. The geese round Stras- 
 burg, and the ducks round Toulouse, are thus tortured to 
 gratify the corrupt tastes of the Parisians. 
 
 That different branches of rural economy require to be 
 improved, must be admitted from the fact that the number 
 of domestic animals is not sufficient for the wants of the 
 inhabitants. France imports every year on an average 
 about 23,000 horses, 900 asses, 800 mules, 40,000 oxen, 
 167,500 sheep, 4700 goats, 148,800 pigs, 5,800,000 raw 
 hides, 5,900,000 kilogrammes of fine and coarse wool, and 
 a great quantity of feathers. Such imports, amounting in 
 value to nearly L.2,000,000, b c say very little for rural 
 industry, which instead of being dependent in any way on 
 foreign countries, ought to swell the tide of exportation 
 from France. 
 
 c See the memoir by M. Senac, entitled : Projet de Sociiti d’ Amelio- 
 ration des animaux domesliques, inserted in the Bulletin Universel de* 
 Sciences et de l'lndustrie : section des Sciences Agricoles, 1826. 
 
HOOK CXliII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 211 
 
 BOOK CXLII. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued. — Kingdom of France. — First Section . — 
 Southern region. 
 
 Some account has been given in a preceding book of the 
 people from whom the French are descended ; it has been 
 seen that their chiefs have added to their power by con- 
 quests, and that in some instances they have wielded the 
 destinies of Europe. The resources which France derives 
 from its climate, soil and natural wealth, were enumerated 
 in the last book. Such at least was the end proposed in 
 describing the country in its connexion with historical and 
 physical geography. It now remains for us to examine 
 France in detail, — a task not without difficulty. It would 
 be desirable to adhere to the accuracy and precision which 
 ought to be the basis of topography, and at the same time 
 to avoid unnecessary repetition in naming the departments, 
 districts 1 and chief towns, which, unlike the old govern- 
 ments and provinces, have not the advantage of being con- 
 nected with historical associations, but which have contrib- 
 uted to render the population more homogeneous. The 
 artificial division by which France is made to consist of five 
 regions, those of the south, the east, the centre, the west and 
 the north, appears on the whole to be the best, or at least 
 the one by which its chorography may be the most conven- 
 iently explained. Besides, the same method has been 
 established by custom, it is familiar to a great many persons, 
 and it is also useful in another point of view, for the old and 
 new divisions may thus be made to coincide with tolerable 
 accuracy. The same route that has been followed in the 
 last book, namely, the one from the south to the east and 
 north, may be continued in the present. 
 
 Corsica is the largest French department in point of 
 extent, but one of the least in point of population . b Placed 
 between Italy, Spain and France, civilization and industry 
 may one day render it a very advantageous commercial and 
 maritime station ; indeed when European states acknowl- 
 edge the folly of maintaining colonies, long since proved to 
 be more onerous than profitable, France may find in the 
 
 a “ Arrondissements.” — The kingdom of France is divided into 
 eighty-six departments, and these again are subdivided into districts, 
 called arrondissements ( arrondissemens communaux.) For the purposes 
 of civil administration, each department constitutes a prefecture, and 
 each arrondissemcnt a subprefecture, (with the exception of the arron- 
 dissements of Paris ;) but the prefect of the department performs the 
 duties of subprefect in the arrondissement in which he resides, (viz. 
 that including the chief town of the department.) The arrondisse- 
 ments consist of a greater or less number of communes, each of which 
 has a mayor and communal municipality. A commune is sometimes a 
 single town, and sometimes a union of several small towns or villages. 
 The city of Paris constitutes only a single commune, but it is divided 
 into twelve arrondissements, each of which has its mayor. It also 
 forms only a single subprefecture, under the immediate control of the 
 prefect of the department. For judicial purposes, the arrondisse- 
 ments are divided into districts ( cantons or justices depaix,) each of 
 
 fruitful soil of Corsica, and in its climate, well adapted for 
 colonial produce, a source of wealth that requires apparently 
 only an enlightened government to he realized. 
 
 When the uaveller, who quits the coasts of France for 
 the port of Ajaccio, first observes the island, it has the ap- 
 pearance of an enormous pyramid formed by mountains, 
 which, from the effect of distance, seem to be grouped round 
 each other. Ajaccio, 0 the chief town or the residence of the 
 prefect, is not the largest of the Corsican cities. Bastia, 
 which was formerly styled the capital of the island, is the 
 most populous ; but Ajaccio is considered the most ancient, 
 for it was the seat of a bishopric at so early a period as the 
 sixth century. It is true that the miasms from a neighbour- 
 ing marsh, made the inhabitants determine to abandon the 
 place in the year 1435, so that the present Ajaccio is dis- 
 tant about a mile d from the site of the ancient town. The 
 streets are broad and straight, the houses are not without ele 
 gance, the palace of the prefect e is at once a simple anu 
 imposing edifice, the barracks are large, the harbour is spa- 
 cious and convenient, and the entrance into it is guarded by 
 a citadel. The places connected with education, by so 
 much the more necessary as the inhabitants are still bigoted 
 to their prejudices and ancient customs, are a college, a 
 library of 1 3,000 volumes, a botanical garden, and an agricul- 
 tural society. A large edifice is at present building to serve 
 as an hospital/ an asylum for foundlings, and a school for 
 young girls. The commerce of the town consists in the 
 sale of the oil and wine produced in the neighbouring coun- 
 try, and in the coral which is obtained on the southern 
 coasts. Ajaccio is likely to be for ever memorable, for Na- 
 poleon Bonaparte was born within its walls in 1769. Ur- 
 cino, a small anchorage in the gulf of Sagona, at some 
 leagues to the north of Ajaccio, indicates the site of Urci- 
 nium , a Roman town, once well known on account of its 
 earthen vases, in which the ancients kept their Falernian. 
 Ajaccio is the residence of the bishop and the prefect ; but 
 Bastia, situated at the opposite extremity on the coast front- 
 
 which has a justice of peace ( juge de paix.) These districts are in 
 general composed of a greater or less number of communes, but in the 
 commune of Paris, each arrondissement constitutes a judicial dis 
 trict. — P. 
 
 b Corsica was at first divided into two departments, that of the Go- 
 lo, comprehending the north, (Bastia, the capital,) and that of the 
 Liamone, comprehending the south part of the island, tAjaccio, the 
 capital.) (See Peuchet, Statistique de la France, 1805.) It now forms 
 only one department, that of Corsica. This union took place un- 
 der the imperial government. (Almanach Imperial, 1813, p. 388.) 
 — P. 
 
 c Ajazzo. 
 
 d “ One third of a league” — nearly a league (Ed. Encyc. — Encyc. 
 Method.) 
 
 e “ Hotel de la prefecture” — government house. 
 
 f “ Hospice civil” — alms-house. 
 
 J 
 
212 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 lbook cxjlii. 
 
 ing Italy, is the residence of the commander in chief.® As | 
 a fortified town, it is considered as belonging to the first 
 class ; it has a college and a theatre. A society for the 
 purpose of diffusing instruction 11 has of late years been insti- 
 tuted. It is not so well built as Ajaccio, but as it is con- 
 structed in the form of an amphitheatre, it has a better 
 appearance at a distance ; its harbour can only receive 
 small vessels, but commerce and industry place it above its 
 rival ; it carries on a trade in soap, paste, wax, liqueurs® and 
 other articles. The burgh of Mariana at four leagues to the 
 south, near the banks of the Golo, stands on the site of an 
 ancient town, which bore the same name, and which accord- 
 ing to tradition was founded by Marius. 
 
 The other towns in the island are of less consequence. 
 Calvi on the western coast is defended by a fortress, and its 
 anchorage might contain a large fleet. St. Florent d is situ- 
 ated at three leagues to the west of Bastia, and Porto Vec- 
 cliio on the eastern coast is noted for its good wine and 
 granite quarries. These places, as well as Bonifacio, at the 
 southern extremity of the island, which carries on a trade 
 in wine, oil and coral, are provided with convenient and safe 
 harbours. Sartene, situated at the base of the heights, 
 which command the left bank of the Valinco, has been en- 
 titled a subprefecture. Corte, almost in the centre of the 
 island, near the confluence of the Orta and the Tavignano, 
 is a poor and ill built town ; its isolated situation in a 
 mountainous district at a comparatively great distance from 
 the sea, prevents the increase of its commerce, which consists 
 merely in agricultural products. 
 
 The passage boats between the island of Corsica and 
 France were by no means remarkable for their celerity, but 
 since the commencement of the year 1830, steam vessels 
 have sailed regularly, and the communication between the 
 two countries, has in consequence been much facilitated.® 
 The mouth of the Var may be seen from the vessels as they 
 approach the port of Antibes ; the lower part of the same 
 river serves as a boundary between the kingdom of France 
 and the county of Nice, now dependent on the Sardinian 
 crown. The department of the Var forms part of Prov- 
 ence, the earliest conquest of the Romans in Gaul, and by 
 the same people called Provincia, an appellation from which 
 the modern name has been derived. Antibes, a place of 
 great antiquity, the Antipolis of the ancients, was founded 
 340 years before the vulgar era by the Greek colonists that 
 built Marseilles. Augustus made it a municipal town, but 
 before his time it must have been a place of some conse- 
 quence, since it had its theatre and other public buildings, 
 of which the ruins still remain. Trade animated its harbour, 
 and the tunny fisheries furnished employment to many indi- 
 viduals. Although it has now lost its commerce/ it is still 
 important as a military station. As a strong town it belongs 
 to the third class ; such as it is, however, it may oppose a bar- 
 rier to the invasions which threaten France from the Sardin- 
 ian frontier. The island of St. Marguerite rises between the 
 gulfs of Juan and Napoule ; its strong castle, once a state 
 prison, served as a place of confinement for the mysterious 
 
 1 “ General commanding the division” — Governor of the military 
 division consisting of the island of Corsica, (tli6 seventeenth, 1822.) — P. 
 
 b “ Societe d’instruction publique.” 
 
 c These articles are enumerated in the original, among the manu- 
 factures of Bastia. The translator has here adopted the same indef 
 mite language, as in a former part of the Geography. — P. 
 
 d San Fiorenzo. 
 
 0 The original (Tom. VIII) published in 1829, states that the estab- 
 lishment of steam packets was contemplated in 1830. — P. 
 
 “ At present, only small vessels can enter its harbour.” 
 
 prisoner with the iron mask. Cannes, where Napoleon 
 landed in 1815, may be mentioned among the maritime 
 towns in the department of the V ar ; sixteen years before 
 that period, he disembarked at Frejus on his return from 
 Egypt. s The last town, although small, is larger than 
 Cannes ; h it was the ancient Forum Julii, a place embel- 
 lished by Julius Caesar and Augustus, but probably founded, 
 like Antibes, by a Greek colony. The name by which it 
 was known before it became the station of the eighth Roman 
 legion, has long been forgotten ; still, however, monuments 
 and ruins are not wanting to attest its ancient splendour. 
 The harbour, twice as large as the harbour of Marseilles, 
 was the largest in Gaul. Agricola, the father-in-law of 
 Tacitus, was born in the same place, now an inconsiderable 
 town, whose inhabitants have to contend against an unwhole- 
 some atmosphere and a marshy situation. St. Tropez, on 
 the gulf of Grimaud, at the distance of five leagues from 
 Frejus, is remarkable on the other hand for its salubrious 
 climate. Its harbour is defended by a citadel, and in its 
 dockyards are built the fishing-boats that are used on the 
 coast ; it stands on the site of Heraclea Caccabaria, well 
 known for its temple of Hercules. Hieres, 1 like the last 
 place, is famed for a mild and salubrious climate/ and also 
 for the excellent oranges produced in the vicinity. 
 
 Toulon, it has been said, was founded by the Roman 
 general Telo Martius, 1 about the middle of the fourth cen- 
 tury ; it was famous during the reign of Arcadius for differ- 
 ent dies, particularly purple. The harbour, one of the 
 largest in Europe, is divided into two parts, namely, the old, 
 finished by Henry the Fourth, and the new, constructed by 
 Louis the Fourteenth; they communicate with each other 
 by means of a canal. The careening wharf, m three hundred 
 feet long and one hundred broad, the rope walk, an arched 
 building 1572 feet in length, the arsenal, the ship yards, the 
 foundery and the sail manufactory are the most important 
 places in the town. Toulon stands near the base of a hill, 
 which commands it on the north. The streets are narrow 
 and the squares irregular ; one of the last, however, called the 
 Field of Battle, forms an exception ; it is spacious and elegant, 
 and adorned with a double range of trees. The principal bal- 
 cony in the town-house is supported by two grotesque figures 
 of colossal size, the work of the celebrated Puget ; it is said 
 that the artist wished to represent two consuls 11 by whom he 
 was disappointed in a favourite project. The town was partly 
 destroyed by the Arabs about the end of the tenth century ; 
 having been rebuilt by the counts of Marseilles, it was twice 
 ruined in the twelfth century by the Mahometans. The 
 duke of Savoy, aided by the English and the Dutch, be- 
 sieged it in vain about the beginning of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury. The Spaniards and the English, availing themselves 
 of the civil dissensions in France, found bribery and intrigue 
 more successful weapons in 1793; but they did not keep it 
 long ; at the end of a few months, they were driven to their 
 ships by the young soldier, who afterwards filled Europe 
 with his fame. The chevalier Paul, who was born in the 
 town, rose in the course of the last century from a very 
 
 s He landed at Frejus, Oct. 9, 1799 — at Cannes, March 1, 1815. — P. 
 
 h This is not stated in the original. Population of Cannes (1622) 
 2804 — of Frejus, 1943. (Almanach Royal, 1822.) — P. 
 
 1 “ Hyeres,” Hieres. 
 
 k “ Hieres is noted for the mildness of its climate.” Hieres is cele- 
 brated for the mild temperature of its winters, but is reckoned un 
 healthy from May to October. Ed. Encyc. — P. 
 
 1 Telo Martius was the ancient name of Toulon. — P. 
 
 m “Bassin de carenage” — dry dock. 
 
 " See note k p. 905. 
 
book cxi.il.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 humble station, that of a common sailor, to be vice-admiral 
 of France. 
 
 The country round Toulon is adorned with groves of 
 lemon, olive and date trees, and villas are scattered in differ- 
 ent directions. Beyond them on the road to Marseilles, is 
 situated the pass of Ollioules , a a wild valley enclosed by arid 
 heights ; in some places, their precipitous and abrupt sides 
 appear as if they were about to fall ; in others they are like 
 the ruins of ancient ramparts. The road across the Moor- 
 ish mountains, so called from the devastations committed by 
 African pirates, as late as the reign of Louis the Twelfth, 
 leads to Brignolles, a small town, situated in a pleasant 
 country. The purity of the air, its position on the side of 
 a hill near the fruitful valley of Calami, abounding in grain 
 and wine, render it perhaps the most agreeable residence in 
 the department. Although it contains several manufacto- 
 ries, the principal trade consists in dried plums, which are 
 transported into different countries. It is said to have been 
 founded before the Christian era ; it was the birth-place of 
 St. Louis, bishop of Toulon, b and grand nephew to St. 
 Louis the Ninth. A rich plain extends between Brignolles 
 and Draguignan, the capital of the department ; in the same 
 plain are produced the large chestnuts that are sold in Paris. c 
 Draguignan is watered by several fountains, and traversed by 
 the Pis, a small river ; the principal curiosities are a botan- 
 ical garden, a good library and a museum of natural history. 
 At two leagues from it, is situated Grasse, a much more 
 important place both in point of population and industry ; it 
 stands on the side of a hill, commanding a view of fields 
 and gardens, where the orange, the jessamine and the rose 
 mingle their perfume. Swarms of bees, a source of wealth 
 in that part of the country, find in these and other flowers 
 abundant nourishment, while the inhabitant extracts from 
 them the juices that are converted into liqueurs or essences, 
 and sold in every quarter of the world. 
 
 Castellane, now well known for its dried fruits and prunes, 
 is the first town in the department of the Lower Alps on the 
 road from Grasse to Digne. On account of its salt .springs, 
 one of which is large enough to turn a mill, it obtained in 
 ancient times the name of Salince. Digne, d an ancient city 
 that Caesar calls Digna, e f is situated in the midst of moun- 
 tains, that might afford an ample harvest to the mineralogist 
 and the botanist. It consists of steep and narrow streets, 
 enclosed by old walls, and flanked with square turrets. The 
 palaces belonging to the prefect and the bishop, together 
 with the cathedral, are the only public buildings, and they 
 are nowise remarkable. The thermal springs in the vicinity, 
 to which the ancients repaired/ are visited during the sum- 
 mer and autumn 1 * by people from different parts of Italy and 
 France. 1 The small village of Champtercier near the town, 
 has been rendered famous as the birthplace of the celebrated 
 Gassendi, a philosopher, an astronomer and the rival of 
 Descartes. Colmars may be mentioned on account of a 
 fountain, the water of which flows and intermits alternately 
 every seven minutes. The rich valley of Barcelonette 
 affords pasturage to numerous flocks of sheep, and to many 
 herds of oxen ; it derives its name from a small town built in 
 1230, on the site of a Roman city, by count Raymond Be- 
 rengqr, and as his ancestors had migrated from Barcelona, 
 
 OF FRANCE. 213 
 
 the place was called Barcelonette. Segustero, a Latin 
 name of Celtic origin, announces the antiquity of Sisteron at 
 the confluence of the Buech and the Durance. The rive*, 
 confined in the town between the two rocks on which the 
 fortress of La Beaume rises, flows rapidly below a lofty 
 arch, to which the same rocks serve as hutments. The 
 principal altar in the cathedral is adorned with a fine paint- 
 ing by Vanloo, and at no great distance from the building, a 
 walk laid out with much taste, leads to one of the gates on 
 the road to Aix. k Albertet, a Provencal poet who flourished 
 in the thirteenth century, was born in Sisteron ; he was still 
 more unfortunate than Petrarch, for he actually died of love ; 
 the object of his passion was Laura, the beautiful marchio- 
 ness of Malespina. It might be difficult to account for the 
 origin of a singular custom that exists in the country between 
 Sisteron and Digne ; the peasants wrap their dead in a 
 winding sheet, place them on the roofs of their huts, and 
 cover them with snow, during winter. Claudius Tiberius 
 Nero, sent by Caesar into Narbonensis, founded there a 
 small town, called Forum JYeronis, on the site of which 
 stands Forcalquier, the capital of a subprefecture, a dirty and 
 ill built town on a rock, commanded by the ruins of an an- 
 cient castle. 
 
 Several ancient monuments have been observed in the 
 same department ; an inscription on a rock near Sisteron, 
 informs the antiquary that Dardanus and Neva Gallia, his 
 wife, introduced the custom of interring the dead in vaults 
 at Tkeopolis , the present village of Theoux. A bridge 
 attributed to Caesar, and a building called the tower of 
 jEnobarbus, are still seen near the village of Cereste, five 
 leagues distant from Forcalquier. The ruins of several 
 ancient temples are situated near the small town of Riez. 
 
 The department of the Mouths of the R1 k®^' contains 
 too a thousand objects, which recal ancient recollections. 
 In the neighbourhood of St. Remy, are observed a triumphal 
 arch erected to Marius, and a mausoleum fifty feet in height. 
 Aix, formerly the capital of Provence, was founded a hun- 
 dred and twenty years before the vulgar era hy the consul 
 Caius Sextius Calvinus, near the mineral springs which he 
 himself had discovered, and on account of which he gave 
 the name of J^quce Sextice to tire town. It became soon 
 afterwards a place of importance ; the emperor Tiberius 
 raised a temple there to the memory of Augustus ; it had its 
 senate and a body of decurions.™ Many objects of antiquity 
 have been discovered in the same place, the most of which 
 are collected in the town-house. Several edifices are re- 
 markable for their sculptures and architecture, which are 
 connected with the rise of art in modern times. Such is 
 the cathedral, of which the baptistery, constructed with the 
 remains of a Roman temple, forms one of the most beautiful 
 ornaments. The town-clock near the fountain in the mar- 
 ket-place, was erected during the middle ages ; it is curious 
 on account of its mechanism ; springs put in motion differ- 
 ent figures, every time the hammer strikes the bell. The 
 streets are paved, and many of the houses are well built. 
 The Orbitelle, a public walk, is formed by four rows of 
 trees, and adorned with several fountains. The counts of 
 Provence resided at Aix, and made it the seat of a court, 
 where gallantry and politeness reigned, where poetry was 
 
 a “ Gorges d' Ollioules.” b Born A. D. 1274. 
 
 c “ — by the name of Lyons chestnuts ( marrons de Lyon.)" 
 “ “ Dignes.” 
 
 e Digna inter Montes posita. Caesar, De Bello Gallico 
 f Dinia, D'Anv. Encyc. Method, 
 e They are mentioned by Ptolemy and Pliny. 
 
 h “ From the first of May to the first of September.” 
 
 ■ For the quality and properties of these waters, the reader may con- 
 sult the statistical tables. 
 
 k “ La porte d’Aix”— the gate of Aix. 1 “ Bouohes du Rhone.” 
 
 m The senators of the Roman colonies were called decurions ( decu - 
 rioncs.) Adam’s Rom. Ant. p. 79. — P. 
 
214 EUROPE. LBOOk cxl.ii. 
 
 admired and cultivated, and where the troubadours were 
 respected. It is still a university town, where students 
 ntay find ample means of instruction ; it possesses an acad- 
 emy, schools of law and theology, several scientific collec- 
 tions, and a library of 80,000 volumes. In 1819, the 
 mayor laid the foundation of a monument in honour of 
 king Rene, whose memory must be forever dear to the 
 people of Provence ; but if the inhabitants were to 
 raise monuments to each of their celebrated townsmen, 
 the walks and public places might acquire additional in- 
 terest from the statues of Tournefort, Vanloo, Adanson, 
 Vauvenargues and Entrecasteaux. The glory which these 
 distinguished men shed over the town, may console it for 
 having given birth to the president D’Oppede, whose sad 
 celebrity is still preserved in the annals of fanaticism. 
 The procession on Corpus-Christi day attracts many idle 
 persons to Aix ; it is a strange medley of sacred and pro- 
 fane ceremonies, of saints and devils with long horns ; in 
 fine, a ridiculous masquerade, in which the principal char- 
 acters are sustained by the clergy and municipal authorities. 
 The procession was abolished during the revolution, and 
 afterwards renewed ; but it would have been well to have 
 discontinued part of the ceremonies, inconsistent with the 
 ideas of the age, and the respect due to religion. 
 
 The country in the neighbourhood of Marseilles an- 
 nounces a populous and commercial town ; it consists of 
 cultivated fields, gardens, vineyards, and country houses 
 or villas, of which the number is not less than 5000. Sur- 
 rounded with manufactories, and built on the declivity of 
 a hill, and in a plain that extends to the sea, its situation 
 cannot be compared with that of any other town in France. 
 The old town on the declivity, may give the stranger an 
 unfavour^mfer idea of the place ; the finest part of Mar- 
 seilles is that nearest the sea. Sailors of every nation are 
 seen on the quay ; the streets in the same quarter are 
 broad, straight and well paved ; a public walk extends 
 round one of the best harbours in the kingdom, sufficiently 
 large to contain twelve hundred vessels, and the noisy centre 
 ol the trade which France carries on with the east. The cas- 
 tle of If, an ancient state prison, is the most striking object in 
 view from the summit of Notre Dame de la'Garde, but the 
 spectator may also observe institutions and edifices, of 
 which the inhabitants are justly proud, such as the schools 
 of hydrography, medicine, drawing and music, the semi- 
 naries where chemistry, geometry, and the mechanical 
 sciences in their application to the arts, are gratuitously 
 taught, the college, the observatory, the mint, the exchange, 
 and the lazaretto, the largest and the best regulated in the 
 kingdom. At the sight of such institutions, one naturally 
 remembers the celebrated JMassilia, which Cicero called 
 the Athens of Gaul, and Pliny, the mistress of the sciences 
 ( JMngistra studiorum.) It was the native town of Petro- 
 nius. the satirist, Puget, the sculptor, Dumarsais, the gram- 
 marian, and Barbaroux, the conventionalist. The climate 
 of Marseilles would be delightful, if the calmness of the 
 atmosphere were not disturbed by the impetuous mistral. 
 To the influence of the same wind have been attributed, 
 probably by a stretch of the imagination, the violent char- 
 acter of the people, and their ferocity and cruelty in the 
 time of the revolution. 
 
 * A relate , D’Anville, (Ccesar, De Bell. Civ. Lib. I. § 34.) 
 
 b “ Arrcvidissernent.” 
 
 - See the Memoir on the ancient republic of Arles by Anibert. 
 
 d The papal palace, situated near the summit of the Rock of Dons 
 
 The island of Ca.mague may be seen from the road 
 that leads to Arles ; it is surrounded by the sea and by 
 two branches of the Rhone ; it contains nine villages, a 
 great many country houses and nearly three hundred and 
 fifty farms, on which the proprietors or tenants rear annu- 
 ally 40,000 sheep, 3,000 oxen, and as many horses. 
 Tbe royal sheepfold of Armilliere is situated in the island. 
 Arles, the ancient Arelasf one of the capitals of Gaul, is 
 now the chief town of a district 11 in the department of the 
 Mouths of the Rhone. Although thinly peopled and ill- 
 built, it may be considered one of the most remarkable 
 cities in France, both on account of the historical associa- 
 tions connected with it, and the remains of ancient splen- 
 dour. It is supposed to have been built by the Celts, fif- 
 teen hundred years before the Christian era ; c its name 
 has been derived from two Celtic words, ar and lait, which 
 signify near the waters. The antiquary may still perceive 
 several arches and two columns of a theatre, the remains 
 of an amphitheatre in a good state of preservation, the tow- 
 er of Constantine’s palace, a granite obelisk, the only one 
 of the kind in France, besides tombs, altars, statues and 
 other remains which are almost daily excavated. The on- 
 ly modern edifice, worthy of being cited, is the fine town- 
 house erected by Mansard. The trade of Arles consists 
 in the sale of the wines, corn, fruits and oil, produced in 
 the surrounding country. The small town of Tarascon 
 stands on the left bank of the Rhone, by which it is sep- 
 arated from Beaucaire. It is commanded by an ancient 
 castle, formerly a country seat belonging to the counts of 
 Provence, and afterwards changed into a prison. 
 
 The course of the Durance from the place where it 
 joins the Verdon to its confluence with the Rhone, sepa- 
 rates the last department from that of Vaucluse. Broad 
 and majestic, and rapid as a torrent, the river covers the 
 country with its inundations, but the fertile ooze it depos- 
 its, and the canals it supplies, compensate in some meas- 
 ure the waste it occasions. At a short distance from the 
 Durance, and on the banks of the Rhone, Avignon rises L 
 a fruitful plain, embellished with mulberry trees, orchards 
 and meadows. The streets of the city are narrow and 
 crooked ; the palace of Crillon, and the ancient apostolic 
 palace d are two fine Gothic buildings ; the cathedral may 
 be remarked for its portal, which is said to have belonged 
 to an ancient temple of Hercules. The useful and char- 
 itable institutions are more numerous than might have been 
 expected from the number of inhabitants. Among others 
 there are an hospital, an infirmary,® a collection of paint- 
 ings, a museum of natural history, a botanical garden, dif- 
 ferent schools, a library of 27,000 volumes, and a literary 
 society, called the academy of Vaucluse. It is unneces- 
 sary to mention the gaiety of the inhabitants, or the grace 
 and beauty of the women, rivalling or surpassing the fair 
 in most towns of the south ; it may be remarked, howev- 
 er, that the low and ignorant part of the community, the 
 same persons that committed in 1815, crimes only equal- 
 I led by those of the revolution, are now making advances 
 in different branches of industry. Avignon was the native 
 place of the brave Crillon, Vernet, the Abbe Poulle and 
 several men who have shed a lustre on the society of the 
 Jesuits. The town is the mart of the grain produced in 
 
 an eminence rising to the height of several hundred feet in the midst 
 of the city. — P. 
 
 ' “ Succursnle des lnvalides” — military hospital subordinate to the 
 Hdtel des Incalides at Paris. — P. 
 
book cxl.ii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 several of the southern departments ; it has also manufac- 
 tories of silks, cottons, leather and paper. Avenio, the an- 
 cient name, is of Celtic origin. Pomponius Mela says 
 that in his time the inhabitants were very wealthy. 
 
 Apt, a place not less ancient than the last town, was 
 embellished by Caesar, and bore the name of Apta Julia ; 
 the present walls are said to have been founded by the 
 Romans. Many ancient remains are contained in the sub- 
 terranean chapels of the old cathedral ; it is watered by 
 the Calavon. 
 
 Carpentras, another ancient city, surrounded with old 
 walls, was the Carpentoracte of the Memini, a tribe of the 
 Cavares ; it would be much improved if the streets were 
 straight. It was the metropolis of a bishopric, which con- 
 tinued from the third to the nineteenth century ; the col- 
 umns of the principal church, formerly the cathedral, sup- 
 ported the temple of Diana in the burgh of Venasque. 
 The remains of a triumphal arch are situated in the 
 courts ot the episcopal palace ; it was erected to com- 
 memorate the victory which Domitius iEnobarbus gained 
 over the Allobroges and the Arverni. The hospital, the 
 different markets, the public laver, the gate in the direction 
 of Orange, 3 surmounted by a lofty tower, and the modern 
 aqueduct, consisting of forty-eight arches, thirty-six feet in 
 width, and forty-five in height, are ornamental to the town. 
 
 It possesses different manufactories, and carries on a trade 
 in wines and other products of the department. 
 
 The celebrated fountain of Vaucluse, one of the finest 
 springs in Europe, is situated at an equal distance from 
 Avignon, Apt and Carpentras. It issues from a large and 
 deep cave at the base of a high bill, that bounds on the 
 south the narrow and winding valley of Vaucluse (Pallis 
 Clausa.) An old fig tree below the roof or arch of the cave, 
 serves to indicate the height of the water in the fountain. 
 When it is at the greatest elevation, occasioned by the 
 melted snows about the vernal equinox, it bathes the roots 
 ol the tree ; the vault or arch of the cavern is then no 
 longer visible, and the calm waters occupy a large basin, 
 almost circular, about sixty feet in diameter. The waters 
 are lowest in the month of October, when they descend 
 to the depth of forty feet below the edge of the basin. 
 The vault of the cave then appears in all its majesty, and 
 the spectator may observe a lake of which the extent is 
 lost in total darkness. Many have descended the sides of 
 the basin to the surface of the limpid water, that fills an 
 abyss, of which the depth has never been measured. Ex- 
 tensive subterranean canals placed above each other, are 
 the passages for the waters formed by the melted snows. 
 Twenty torrents are precipitated with a tremendous noise 
 below the basin ; their united streams are the sources of 
 the Sorgues, b which becomes suddenly navigable for boats, 
 and turns several mills. A majestic column was erected 
 on the edge of the fountain in 1809, by the academy of 
 Vaucluse ; it bears the following simple inscription in gold- 
 en letters — A Pctrarque. c The naked rocks that encom- 
 pass the cascade, the pyramidical masses on the right and 
 left, the green sward that covers the neighbouring heights, 
 the old turreted castle on the left bank of the Sorgues, ac- 
 cording to tradition, the residence of Petrarch, the verdant 
 trees that shade the river, and the village of Vaucluse, ate 
 
 a “ La porte d’Orange” — Orange gate. 
 
 b Sorgue. c To Petrarch. 
 
 d “ It possesses manufactories of printed cloths, and also silk mills 
 and madder mills ” 
 
 OF FRANCE. 215 
 
 some parts of a landscape not inferior to any other in the 
 kingdom. A thousand echos respond to the names of Pe- 
 trarch and Laura ; the sympathy of the young and the fair 
 may console the shade of the poet for the cruelty of his 
 mistress. 
 
 Mount Ventoux, near the northern extremity of the de- 
 partment, remains covered with snow eight months in the 
 year. The small town of Vaison at some leagues west- 
 ward, stands on the ruins of Pasio, the principal city of 
 the Pocontii. Orange, seven leagues south-west of the last 
 place, contains several manufactories, spinning looms, print 
 fields and madder mills it also carries on a trade in wine, 
 oil, honey and saffron. Before it was taken by Louis the 
 Fourteenth, it was the capital of a principality belonging to 
 the house of Nassau. Before Caesar’s expedition into 
 Gaul, it was one of the four principal towns in the territo- 
 ry of the Cavares. Ptolemy designates it by the name of 
 Aurosio e Cavarum. A triumphal arch at the distance of 
 four hundred paces from the walls, on the road to Mar- 
 seilles, may bear a comparison with any in Rome. It was 
 erected to commemorate the victory gained by Marius 
 over the Cimbri. 
 
 The Rhone forms a western limit throughout the whole 
 length of the department of the Drome ; the road on the 
 banks of the river first traverses Pierre-Latte, a small town 
 of which the name signifying a large stone, * 1 * may recal the 
 ancient worship of the Druids, or it may be attributed to 
 the large rock at the foot of which it is built. The agree- 
 able town of Montelimart at five leagues northwards, is en- 
 compassed with walls and ramparts, watered by several 
 canals, which supply different manufactories, and com- 
 manded by an ancient citadel. It is surrounded with fine 
 meadows, fruitful plains and hills covered with excellent 
 vineyards. The four gates that lead to the town corre- 
 spond with the four cardinal points. Faujas de St. Fond, 
 a learned professor, who promoted the study of geology, 
 was a native of Montelimart. Valence is situated on the 
 other side of the rapid Drome. It is the chief town of the 
 department, and the residence of the prefect, and although 
 built without regularity, contains some monuments not un- 
 worthy of notice ; among others, a fine mausoleum in the 
 cathedral, erected by Canova to the memory of Pius the 
 Sixth, who terminated his days at Valence in 1798. The 
 building called the Government Housed is not inelegant in 
 point of architecture. It might be worth while to visit the 
 citadel, were it for nothing else than to enjoy the view 
 along the Rhone, or on the west, towards the mountains of 
 Vivarais. The same city is mentioned in the writings of 
 Ptolemy : it was the Valentia of the Segalauni. Cham- 
 pionnet, a general, who distinguished himself by his victo- 
 ries during the revolutionary period, was born in the town. 
 Die, the ancient Dea Pocontiorum, according to the Table 
 of Peutinger, and the Itinerary of Antonine, and a place fa- 
 mous for muscadine wine, stands on the right bank of the 
 Drome, in an agreeable valley enclosed by two chains of 
 mountains, of which the northern is connected with Mount 
 Embel, and the southern with Mount Volvent. Nyons in 
 the southern part of the department, on the banks of the 
 Aigues, carries on a trade in soap, woollen stuffs and silk. 
 The bridge over the river was built by the Romans. 
 
 e Arausio. — P. 
 
 1 “ Pierre large.” 
 
 e “Gouvernement." 
 
216 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CX LI I 
 
 A road across the mountains leads to the small town of 
 Serres, on the banks of the Bueeh, the first in the depart- 
 ment of the Higher Alps. The place called La Batie 
 Mont-St.-Leon, within a league from its walls in the di- 
 rection of Gap, is the ancient Mount Seleucus, where in 
 the year 353 of the vulgar era, Constantius gained a com- 
 plete victory over Magnentius. At a league from Gap, 
 the capital of the department, the peasants show strangers 
 the Trembling Meadow , a a small floating island in the lake 
 of Pelhotiers, formed like every other of the sat’he descrip- 
 tion by a congeries of vegetables, the surface of which has 
 been changed into a sort of soil, and covered with grass. 
 Gap stands on the site of Vappicum or Vapincum. Its 
 name announces its early origin ; but laid waste by the 
 Lombards and the Arabians, and overthrown by earth- 
 quakes, it rises on the ruins of its ancient buildings. The 
 remains, which indicate how much it has fallen, can only 
 be discovered by digging to a great depth. The plague 
 by which many were destroyed in 1630, the revocation of 
 the edict of Nantes which annihilated its industry, and the 
 almost general conflagration in 1692, when it was taken 
 by the duke of Savoy, have reduced the population to less 
 than half the number it possessed in the sixteenth century, 
 when it contained 16,000 inhabitants. It is ill-paved, ill- 
 built, and without any remarkable edifice ; indeed, it can 
 only be commended on account of its agreeable position 
 on the banks of two rivulets, the Ronne b and the Luye, 
 in a small plain bounded by mountains that form a natural 
 amphitheatre. Embrun, 0 called Eborudono in the Itinera- 
 ry of Antonine, 4 was the seat of a bishopric.® The episco- 
 pal palace is a fine building, but inferior to the cathedral, 
 which, it is said, was erected by Charlemagne. Eboru- 
 
 ono was the principal city of the Caturiges ; Nero and 
 Galba conferred on it important privileges, and Valens ren- 
 dered it a military station/ 
 
 Passing through Montdauphin, a small strongholds of 
 five hundred inhabitants, we may follow the road on the 
 banks of the Durance, leave Mount Genevre on the right, 
 and arrive at Brianqon, the highest city in France. It 
 was the Brigantio of the Romans, under whom it rose to 
 some importance j h at present however it is so thinly peo- 
 pled, and so ill built, that it need only be mentioned on ac- 
 count of its impregnable position. It is defended by sev- 
 en forts that command all the approaches to the town. 
 The Durance, an impetuous torrent, flows at the foot of a 
 precipice 170 feet in height, and separates the town from 
 the principal fortifications which are partly excavated in 
 the rock above the river ; a bridge consisting of a single 
 arch 120 feet in width, thrown over the abyss, forms a 
 communication between the fortress and the town. The 
 trade of Brianqon consists in woollen and cotton goods, 
 and also in different articles of cutlery. 1 
 
 It has been said that there are four climates in the moun- 
 
 I Pri qui tremble. 
 
 b Benne (Vosgien) — Beny (Encyc. Method.) 
 
 ' It is situated on the right bank of the Durance. 
 
 II Elirodunum. (D’Anv.) 
 
 ® Archbishopric. (Encyc. Method.) 
 
 f “• Nero granted it the right of the Latins ( Jus Latii vel Latinitas.) 
 Galba that of alliance, and Valens rendered it an important military 
 station." 
 
 s “ Place forte” — fortified town. 
 
 h “ It was ranked among cities of the second order.” 
 
 ' “ It has manufactories of hosiery, cotton goods and hardware.” 
 
 k “ The mountainous department of the Iserc presents several re- 
 markable peculiarities. Four different climates may be distinguished, 
 
 tainous department of the Isere, and certainly there is 
 some difference in the temperature of the arid plains, the 
 marshes, the vallies and the mountains. 11 The first are 
 subject in summer to excessive heat and violent winds • 
 the second are exposed to a humid but less elevated tem- 
 perature. In the deep vallies the variations of the atmos- 
 phere are very rapid, still rains and droughts are often of 
 long continuance ; during summer, the heat is extreme, 
 while in winter, the cold is very rigorous. Only two sea- 
 sons, those of summer and winter, are known on the moun- 
 tains ; the latter lasts longer than the former. Among their 
 inhabitants, are observed the same activity and the same 
 industry for which the mountaineers in other European 
 countries are remarkable. The high part of the country 
 is ill provided with wood, but the abundant pastures com- 
 pensate in some measure for the want of forests ; the peas- 
 ants are thus enabled to rear numerous flocks. The lofty 
 woods in the eastern districts of the department, furnish 
 fuel, timber for building, and masts for ships. 
 
 The road which leads from Briancon to Grenoble, ex- 
 tends across a mountainous country, and follows the wind- 
 ings of the Romanche from La Grave, the last village in 
 the Higher Alps, to Vizille, a burgh of no great size, but 
 important on account of its manufactures. 1 The forges 
 and iron works that are scattered on the same road, indi- 
 cate the metallic wealth of the mountains. Leaving the 
 wild and romantic banks of the Drac on the left, we ob- 
 serve the Isere pursuing its sinuous and rapid course at the 
 foot of a chain of heights, covered with vineyards and mul- 
 berry trees at their base, and with forests and pastures to- 
 wards their summits. The same river waters the valley 
 of Gresivaudan, and passes through Grenoble. The lofty 
 ramparts of the town command a fruitful plain, varied with 
 orchards and meadows. The principal public buildings 
 are situated in the part of the town on the left bank of the 
 Isere. m Among these are the palace of the prefect, and 
 the court of justice. The library belonging to the univer- 
 sity" contains sixty thousand volumes, besides many valu- 
 able manuscripts, among others, the poems of the duke of 
 Orleans, the father of Louis the Twelfth. The statues of 
 Bayard, Vaucanson, Condillac and Mably, all natives of 
 Grenoble, are erected in the college. In the schools of 
 law, medicine and surgery, other men, still living, have 
 been educated, who have given proofs of talent sufficient- 
 ly great to merit one day a place near the distinguished 
 persons already mentioned. The town carries on a trade 
 in different articles, particularly ifi gloves, which are said 
 to be the best in France.® History attests its antiquity ; it 
 was the Cularo of the ancients ; p ruined in the wars of the 
 Romans, it was rebuilt by the emperor Gratian, who gave 
 it the name of Gratianopolis, which has been corrupted 
 into Grenoble. 
 
 The burgh of Sassenage, well known for excellent 
 
 namely, those of the arid and the marshy plains, and those of the val- 
 lies and the mountains.” 
 
 1 “ Print fields and spinning mills.” 
 
 m Nine tenths ofthe city are on the left bank of the Isere. — Ed. Encyc 
 
 “ “ College” — Grenoble possesses a university and a royal col 
 lege. — P. 
 
 o “ Its commerce and manufactures are important ; among the lat- 
 ter, that of gloves has few rivals in Europe.” The principal manu- 
 factures of Grenoble are woollen cloths, muslins, hats, and particular- 
 ly gloves, the principal towns of France, Spain, Italy, and Britain, 
 being supplied with them. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 p “ It was one of the cities of the Allobroges, who gave it the name 
 of Cularo.” 
 
 L 
 
BOOK CXLII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 cheese, is situated at the foot of the mountain that rises on 
 the west of Grenoble. Strangers visit there two grottos, 
 rendered famous in past times by popular superstition ; with- 
 in them are two cylindrical excavations, called the Vats 
 of Sassenage, a in both of which the water rises spontane- 
 ously, and according to the height it reaches, the peasants 
 used to presage the scarcity or abundance of the harvest. 
 These grottos, well worthy of being seen, are not so fre- 
 quently visited at present, probably because imposture 
 works no longer on ignorance and credulity. A rugged 
 and difficult path leads to them ; the entrance is about 
 twenty-five feet broad, and as many in height; beyond it, 
 a sort of porch forty feet wide and seventy long, b termi- 
 nates in several caverns ; the torrent of Germe issues from 
 the largest, and forms a cascade, of which the noise is 
 heard in the subterranean cavities. 
 
 Although the direct distance to the frozen summits of 
 Mont Blanc exceeds twenty-five leagues, they may be dis- 
 tinctly seen from the heights above Grenoble. The Great 
 Chartreuse 0 lies in the same direction, a monastery for- 
 merly considered the capital of the rich and rigid order 
 founded by St. Bruno in the year 1084. It has taken its 
 name not from the founder, but from the village of Char- 
 trouse, situated near the valley, where the pious anchorite 
 chos^e his retreat, and where his disciples built their con- 
 vent. It is enclosed at the two extremities by mountain- 
 passes extending between rugged and almost vertical cliffs 
 covered with fir trees and brambles ; in certain seasons of 
 the year, particularly in spring, those who visit it must be 
 prepared to brave dangers at every step ; enormous rocks 
 rising on the right and on the left afford but an insecure 
 support to other rocks that are lost in the clouds. The 
 precipices are in some places, more than four hundred feet 
 in perpendicular height ; the voice of the guides and the 
 cries of animals are drowned in the noise of torrents. The 
 stranger must traverse a narrow pass below the cataract 
 of Guiers-Vif, on the slippery declivity of an immense rock, 
 that separates the mass of w_ater from the abyss into which 
 it descends. These difficulties, almost insurmountable 
 while the snow melts, cease generally about the middle of 
 summer. But the journey in every season is very fatiguing ; 
 a winding road encumbered with large stones or broken 
 rocks terminates in the obscurity of a forest, in which the 
 traveller ascends constantly until he observes the convent ; 
 the road then begins to descend, and the valley becomes 
 broader, and at the same time the forest opens, and the 
 fir gives place to the beech. An edifice of a simple and 
 noble architecture in such a situation, is not likely to be 
 seen for the first time without feelings of devotion. These 
 walls were respected at the revolution, when religious 
 houses were destroyed. The people in these mountains 
 have not forgotten the blessings which the successors of 
 St. Bruno diffused among the poor ; they furnished em- 
 ployment to every inhabitant, they encouraged agriculture, 
 and they changed part of a desert into meadows and fruit- 
 ful fields ; under their superintendance, the forests were 
 preserved, the flocks multiplied in the vallies. Now set- 
 
 1 “ Cuves de Sassenage.” 
 
 b “ More than 40 feet in height and depth, and 70 feet in width.” 
 
 c La Grande Chartreuse. d “The venerable." 
 
 e See “ Les Merveilies et les Beautes de la Nature en France,” by 
 M Depping, who relates the above anecdote on the authority of M. 
 Ladoucette, formerly prefect of the Isere. 
 
 ( In the year L>70. 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 49 28 
 
 OF FRANCE. 217 
 
 tied again in their ancient residence, if they no longer pos- 
 sess the influence which was acquired partly by their wealth, 
 they still retain an ascendency that must be attributed to 
 exemplary virtue, benevolence and charity. 
 
 It may not perhaps be worth while to describe all the 
 remarkable places in the neighbourhood of Grenoble ; a 
 few detached features may suffice to give the stranger 
 some idea of the country. The hamlet of Andrieux in the 
 valley of Godmard is so much concealed by steep rocks, 
 that the inhabitants never see the sun during three months of 
 winter. When the luminary appears for the first time after 
 so long an absence, all the people, according to an ancient 
 custom, follow the oldest person * 1 * * * to a bridge in the vicini- 
 ty ; every person carries an omelet, and the return of the 
 sun is celebrated by dances. As soon as it appears, the 
 omelets are presented as an offering ; the band then re- 
 turns to the village, and the festival terminates in mirth 
 and drinking. 6 The burgh of Echelles to the north of the 
 Great Chartreuse, stands near the limits between France 
 and Savoy, and not far from the excellent road cut through 
 the rocks by Charles Emmanuel/ and improved by Napo- 
 leon. At a greater distance, Pont de Beauvoisin on the 
 banks of the Guiers, is the last town in France. La Tour 
 du Pin is situated on the same road, in a fertile valley. 
 Near the village of Notre Dame de la Balme, on the left 
 bank of the Rhone, the entrance to a cave has been chang- 
 ed into a chapel, and dedicated to the Virgin. The inte- 
 rior consists of several halls adorned with beautiful stalac- 
 tites, and with cascades, canals and a small lake, where 
 strangers may sail in a boat by the light of torches ; and 
 if it were not that the place was sanctified, for it belongs 
 to the chapel, the boat might be compared to the one in 
 which the shades of heathens are transported to the infer- 
 nal regions. 
 
 Confined between the left bank of the Rhone and a se- 
 ries of heights arranged in the form of an amphitheatre, 
 and watered by the Gere, which gives motion to machine- 
 ry, Vienne, consisting formerly of dirty and winding streets, 
 has been lately embellished with many new buildings. 
 The modern front of the town-house adorns the principal 
 square ; the portal and nave of the ancient cathedral are 
 works of considerable merit. The town possesses a libra- 
 ry of 12,000 volumes, a theatre, a college, a museum of 
 natural history, and a collection of valuable antiquities, dis- 
 covered within the walls. It was the Vienna and Vindo- 
 bonaz of the ancients, and had risen into importance in 
 the time of Caesar ; h Strabo styles it the capital of the Al- 
 lobroges Ptolemy considers it their only city/ and Pliny 
 calls it a colony. 1 According to Pornponius Mela, it was 
 one of the most opulent cities in Gaul. Literature was 
 cultivated, and the poet Martial congratulates himself on 
 the success which his writings met with in the town.™ Un- 
 der the reign of Claudius, the prefect of Gaul, and the 
 commander of the fleet, which the Romans kept on the 
 Rhone, resided at Vienne. The emperors built a palace 
 in the town, and it was there that Valentinian was strangled 
 in the year 392. It became the capital of the Burgundian 
 
 8 Vienna was the ancient name of Vienne in France, and Vindohona 
 of Vienna in Austria. — P. 
 
 h De Bello Gallico, lib. vii. § 9. 
 
 ' Lib. iv. cap. i. § 9. k Lib. ii. cap. 10. 
 
 1 Lib. iii. cap. 4. 
 
 m Fertur habere meos, si vera est fama, libellos 
 
 Inter delicias pulchra Vienna suas. — Lib. VII. Epigr. 83. 
 
218 EUR* 
 
 kingdom in 432; but the Franks made themselves masters 
 of it in 534. It was taken in the year 871 by Charles the 
 Bald, after a siege that lasted several months. Pope Clem- 
 ent the Fifth, in presence of Philip the Fair, assembled 
 within the walls a council, memorable in the history of fa- 
 naticism, for the unjust condemnation of the Templars. 
 In the time of Eusebius, Lyons and Vienne were the two 
 most important metropolitan cities in France; the arch- 
 bishop of the latter town was long entitled first primate of 
 Gaul. If the edifices for which the place was remarka- 
 ble, have been destroyed, it may be attributed to the blind 
 zeal of the early Christians, and the devastations occasion- 
 ed by war : still, however, there are the remains of a the- 
 atre, the ruins of an aqueduct and an amphitheatre, a tem- 
 ple dedicated to Augustus, and a triumphal arch. The 
 church of Notre-Dame de la Vie is an ancient edifice, sup- 
 posed to have been the Prcetorium. According to several 
 antiquaries, the bridge which serves as a communication 
 between the town and the suburb was built by the Romans, 
 as well as fort Pipet ; but some parts of the latter are evi- 
 dently of Gothic archtiecture. The most celebrated per- 
 sons born in Vienne are the poet Claudian and pope Guy, a 
 surnamed Clement the Fourth. Now the capital of a pre- 
 fecture, it holds some rank among the manufacturing towns 
 in France ; it has cloth manufactories and iron works, and 
 carries on besides a considerable trade in leather. b La 
 Cote de St. Andre, a populous burgh, near the banks of 
 the Frette, derives great profit from the sale of liqueurs 
 and light sparkling white wines. St. Marcellin, well built 
 and agreeably situated, is enriched by the produce of the 
 neighbouring vineyards. 
 
 The Ardeche has given its name to the department 
 which it traverses in an easterly direction, and which it al- 
 so bounds on the south near its confluence with the Rhone ; 
 the same department is limited on the east, in the direction 
 of its length, by the Rhone, while on the west, the chain 
 of Mezin, c and the mountains of Sone and Tanargue, form 
 part of the frontiers. Thus within the same limits was al- 
 most wholly contained the ancient province of Vivarais, 
 which long before the invasion of the Romans, was called 
 Ilelvia. In conformity to an etymology, that may be ad- 
 mitted, because it accords with the nature of the country, 
 the ancient name of the province might signify a road in 
 the mountains . d But etymologists have certainly gone too 
 far in deriving the name of the Ardeche from the same root 
 as the Latin word ardere (to burn). To suppose that the 
 mountains of Auvergne and Vivarais, almost all of which 
 bear the marks of igneous origin, emitted flames when man 
 inhabited those regions or other neighbouring countries, is 
 to indulge in conjectures wholly at variance with facts. 
 Not the least important of these facts may be considered 
 the discovery of the fossil bones belonging to different ani- 
 mals under the basaltic currents near Issoire in Auvergne, 6 
 — bones in which nothing has been found to announce the 
 existence of man at the period when the basalt covered 
 the place where these remains were deposited. If the an- 
 cient names of certain mountains accord with the notion of 
 their ignition, it is because they preserved their heat, 
 
 3PE. [BOOK CXLU 
 
 smoke or other signs of incandescence, long after the 
 flames had disappeared, or because the dark colour of vol- 
 canic products leads the most ignorant persons to compare 
 them with objects which have undergone the action of fire. 
 Thus basalt/ an eastern word, signifies burnt stone, from 
 its dark color, although the ancients applied that name to 
 a rock, which they did not consider a lava, and which in 
 reality differs from the basalt of geologists. 
 
 The physical geography of the same department is less 
 understood than that of almost any other in France. It 
 owes its peculiar character to the volcanic conflagrations, 
 of which it was once the theatre, and to the decomposition 
 of the rocks in many parts of its granitic and calcareous 
 mountains. The crater of St. Leger, not far from the 
 banks of the Ardeche, exhales like the Grotto del Cane 
 near Pozzuoli, a great quantity of carbonic acid. The 
 Pont de la Beaume/ a volcanic current, exhibits a mass 
 of basalt, arranged in the form of prisms, inclining in dif- 
 ferent directions, and resting on a range of larger prisms, 
 placed vertically the one beside the other. But the most 
 curious part of the hill is a natural grotto, formed and sur- 
 mounted by prisms regularly fashioned into an arch, as if 
 by the hand of man. The mountain ofChenavari rests on 
 a calcareous base, supporting a stratum of rolled pebbles, 
 and is crowned by a volcanic summit, which forms a bar- 
 rier of grey and reddish lava towards the south, and pre- 
 sents in the opposite direction the singular spectacle of a 
 basaltic colonnade more than six hundred feet in length. 
 At a greater distance northwards, a rock surmounted by 
 prisms heaped horizontally, or grouped in an inclined po- 
 sition, supports the ancient castle of Rochemaure, now in 
 ruins, so called from the black colour of the stone. The 
 burgh of Vais is celebrated for its mineral waters; near it 
 may be seen the famous Giants’ causeway ( Chaussee des 
 Gcans ) formed by many basaltic prisms that rise above 
 both banks of the Volant. A cataract near the bridge of 
 Bridon falls in foam from similar rocks. It is impossible 
 to behold these objects with indifference ; but others not 
 less remarkable, are situated in the same department ; such 
 are the majestic collection of prisms near the bridge of 
 Rigodel, the stupendous causeway formed by colossal pil- 
 lars near the village of Colombier, and lastly, the Gueule 
 d'Enfer , a waterfall that rushes from a granite rock more 
 than five hundred feet in height, covered with prismatic 
 lava. These volcanic mountains have been frequently de- 
 scribed with more or less exactness and particularity ; h it 
 is, however, unnecessary to enumerate all the objects in the 
 same part of the country, which have been mentioned by 
 different authors, under the enticing head of natural curi- 
 osities or wonders of nature. Among those not of volcan- 
 ic origin, the natural bridge of Arc above the Ardeche has 
 given rise to much speculation. It is formed by a semi- 
 circular arch a hundred and ninety-five feet wide, and 
 ninety or ninety-five in height/ opening a passage through 
 a calcareous rock, that extends across a fruitful and ro- 
 mantic valley. The geographers who mention it, suppose 
 it to have been formed by a rupture made in the rock by 
 the waters of the river, and finished by the hand of man, 
 
 1 Guy Foulquois, Foulquezor Fouquet — elected pope A. D. 1265. — P. 
 b “ It has cloth manufactories, tanneries, and establishments for 
 working the metals obtained in the department.” — It has manufacto- 
 ries of cloth, steel, copper, paper, glass, salt and nitre. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 c From mezing, a word in the old patois, which signifies middle. 
 d In the ancient Celtic languages, hel and bel signify elevation, height, 
 and via, like wcg, a way or road. 
 
 e See p. 883. 1 In Arabic bashalt. 
 
 e Bridge of Beaume. 
 
 h Histoire naturelle des provinces m^ridionales de France, par l’abb6 
 Girault-Soulavie. Recherches sur les volcans feteints du Vivarais, par 
 Faujas de Saint-Fond. Institutions geologiques, par Breislak. 
 
 • “ 60 metres in width, and 25 or 30 in height.” 
 
 J 
 
BOOK CXL1I.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 219 
 
 because since the time of the Roman conquest, it has been 
 used as a passage from the Cevennes to Vivarais. 1 Rut so 
 large a rock, instead of having been perforated by the river, 
 must have determined its course in a different direction. It 
 is evident also that it never has been perfected by manual 
 labour ; for owing to the inequalities of its upper surface, no 
 one can cross it without the greatest difficulty. It is also 
 certain that the Ardeche has not enlarged it, for the arch 
 exhibits no marks of aqueous abrasion ; the bridge must 
 therefore be considered a real cavern, like other caverns 
 formed in the same rock on the banks of the river by natural 
 disintegration ; indeed its tendency to disintegration serves 
 as a character for that sort of limestone, whence in the lan- 
 guage of geology, it is termed cavernous. h The grottos near 
 the burgh of Vallon, may be attributed to the same cause; 
 they are remarkable for the singular and varied forms which 
 their stalactites present ; the rocks near Ruoms, on the other 
 hand, are not less remarkable for then- regular shapes, 
 either cubical or pyramidical. 
 
 The geologist and the painter may find ample scope for 
 their respective pursuits in the same department, but several 
 places well worthy of being visited, are almost unknown. 
 Such is the domain of Ubas, occupying a circumference of 
 nearly seven leagues. It lies in the western extremity of the 
 department, in the district of St. Etienne de Lugdares, at 
 eight leagues north-west of L’Argentiere, and surrounded 
 on the north, the east and the south by hills, which rise 
 gradually, and form the volcanic mountain of Prasoncoupe, 
 about 3250 feet c above the level of the Mediterranean ; the 
 name of the mountain signifies the cup or crater of the mead- 
 ows, d so called most probably on account of the fruitful 
 meadows below it. The same volcano, from the abundance 
 of its lava, may be considered the most important in Viva- 
 rais. If the geologists, who have examined the neighbour- 
 ing country, had observed it, the first rank would not have 
 been assigned to the volcano of Loubaresse. The thermal 
 springs that rise in the neighbourhood, account for the 
 wealth in the village of St. Laurent les Bains ; if it were 
 not for the reputation in which the waters are held, it might 
 remain deserted in its narrow and sterile valley. The 
 scene changes at the summit of Prasoncoupe, and lands 
 covered with woods, meadows, abundant streams and culti- 
 vated fields, form a contrast to the arid and dismal valley. 
 The worthy descendant of the ancient family, to whom the 
 domain belongs,® has set an example that the landlords in 
 the department would do well to imitate ; he has improved 
 agriculture by introducing the methods adopted in different 
 districts in Switzerland and Alsace, and by crossing the oxen 
 with the best herds of Berne. It were to be wished that 
 such improvements were generally adopted in a country, 
 that appears to have made little or no progress in agricultural 
 knowledge since the thirteenth century. The domain, like 
 all the western and northern part of the department, abounds 
 in granite and sandstone ; it contains besides rich iron ore, 
 coal, clay well adapted for earthen ware, and the finest kao- 
 lin for porcelain. 
 
 The summit of the volcano of Loubaresse commands the 
 valley of Valgorge; its numerous peaks and fruitful fields, 
 
 1 Itineraire complet du royaume de France, 5e Edition, 1828. Dic- 
 tionnaire de gcographie physique de la France, par Girault de Saint- 
 Fargeau, 1827. Les Merveilles et les Beautes de la Nature en France, 
 par Depping, 1822. 
 
 b For further particulars in relation to the bridge of Arc, the reader 
 may consult the memoir by M. Rozet, inserted in “ Memoires de la 
 Societe d’histoire naturelle de Paris, tom ii.” entitled : Notice geog- 
 
 and the frequent contrasts between cultivated nature and 
 romantic scenery, render it the most picturesque in Vivarais. 
 It was in the castle of Valgorge, near a small town of the same 
 name, in the most fertile part of the valley, that the Marquis de 
 La F are composed the poems on which his celebrity depends. 
 Although the mines of argentiferous lead are now exhausted at 
 L’Argentiere, it finds in its silk manufactures more resources 
 than ever it obtained from the works from which the name of 
 the town has been derived. The town of Bourg St. Andeol 
 to the south-east, on the banks of the Rhone, contains twice 
 as many inhabitants as L’Argentiere, although the latter is the 
 chief town of a subprefecture. f It has been affirmed that 
 the town was called after St. Andeol, who suffered mar- 
 tyrdom in the third century. On a rock in the neighbour- 
 hood from which the Tourne, a fountain of cold mineral 
 water, escapes, is situated a religious monument of the Gauls, 
 namely, the ruins of a temple, which appears to have been 
 consecrated to the god Mithra. Most of the basso-relievos 
 are nearly effaced, but one of them, perhaps the most impor- 
 tant, remains in a good state of preservation. e It is not dif- 
 ficult to distinguish a bull with a dog biting it on the neck, 
 and a man holding it by a rope ; a radiated figure above the 
 same group represents the sun. Two monuments of a sim- 
 ilar kind may be seen in the royal museum of antiquities at 
 Paris; they have been illustrated by French antiquaries. 
 Aps, the Alba Helviorum of the Romans, and the ancient 
 capital of Helvia, was ruined by the Goths ; it is now a 
 mere village. The inhabitants of Villeneuve de Berg in the 
 vicinity, rear an immense number of silk worms. The 
 same town was the birthplace of Court de Gebelin, one of 
 the greatest philologists of the last century, and whose 
 researches on the languages and monuments of antiquity 
 are among the most valuable. Viviers on the banks of the 
 Rhone contains two thousand souls ; it was formerly the 
 capital of Vivarais. 
 
 The granite and gneiss that bound the department on the 
 north-west, the sandstone and schistus that rest on these rocks, 
 the limestone that reposes upon the two latter, and the vol- 
 canic belt that terminates suddenly on the banks of the 
 Rhone in the basalt of Rochemaure, as if the river had been 
 a barrier to the torrents of lava, meet near Aubenas, where 
 alluvial deposits occasioned by the erosion of the vallies 
 which intersect the other formations, form a very fruitful 
 soil. It might be said, judging not only from the walnut, 
 chestnut and mulberry trees, but also from the vineyards 
 and crops, that few parts of F ranee are so productive ; thus 
 Aubenas, a town of 3500 inhabitants, is the mart for the 
 chestnuts and wines of the Ardeche, and a fair to which 
 many persons resort, is held twice a year in the same place 
 for the sale of silk. Privas, the capital of the department, 
 is not remarkable for its edifices ; indeed, with the excep- 
 tion of a prison, it possesses none of any consequence ; the 
 importance of the town depends on die commerce and 
 industry of the inhabitants. The village of Cornas and the 
 burgh of St. Peray, at no great distance from the Rhone, 
 are encompassed with fruitful and valuable vineyards. The 
 course of the river leads to Tournon, which communicates 
 with Tain on the opposite bank by means of a suspension 
 
 nostique sur la langue de terre comprise entre le Rhone, l’Arde 
 che, &c. 
 
 c “ 1000 metres.” d “ Coupe ou cr attire des pris." 
 
 e The family of Agrain des Ubas has possessed it since the eleventh 
 century. f Bourg St. Andeol is in the sub-prefecture of Privas. — P. 
 
 s “ Among several bas-reliefs, nearly effaced, the most important is 
 that which indicates the purpose for which the temple was erected.” 
 
[BOOK CX1.II 
 
 220 EUROPE. 
 
 bridge, that is neither so light nor so elegant as others in the 
 neighbourhood of Vienne. An old castle that rises above 
 the town, was built in the time of Charles Martel ; it is at 
 present only remarkable for the extensive view it commands 
 along both banks of the Rhone ; on the right and in the de- 
 partment of the Drome are seen the famous hill of Hermitage, 
 and the vineyards of Cote-rotie brune and Cote-rutic blonde; 
 the trade in these wines is principally carried on at Tour- 
 non. The ruins of an old bridge are situated on the Doubs 
 in the neighbourhood ; according to different writers, it was 
 built in the time of Caesar. The first iron wire bridge made 
 in France, was erected at the small town of Andance. An- 
 nonay, well known for its fine paper, is the most industrious 
 town in the Ardeche, a pre-eminence, owing partly to its 
 position at the confluence of the Cance and the Deume. It 
 possesses in addition to the paper mills, cloth, silk and cotton 
 manufactories, bleach-fields, wax and leather works.® The 
 population amounts to 8000 individuals. It was the birth- 
 place of the virtuous Boissy d’Anglas and of Mongolfier, the 
 inventor of the balloon and the hydraulic ram. Two mon- 
 uments raised to the memory of these distinguished men, 
 attest the gratitude of their fellow citizens, but reflect little 
 honour on the artists by whom they were executed. 
 
 The department has produced several great men, but it 
 cannot be remarked without pain that the mass of the people 
 both in the country and in the towns are as uncultivated as 
 their mountains, and as superstitious as the ancient Helvians 
 from whom they are sprung. The climate of the same de- 
 partment is very different in different places. A fructifying 
 heat is felt on the banks of the Rhone ; the vallies round 
 St. Julien and Annonay are temperate, but in the Cevennes 
 on the west, winter lasts nearly eight months, and the ground 
 is often covered with deep snow. 
 
 Conterminous to the department of the Ardeche, and 
 traversed by the same chains of mountains, the department 
 of the Upper Loire exhibits the same volcanic phenomena, 
 as wild scenery, and as romantic beauties. The Mezin, b a 
 mountain of igneous origin, is adorned with majestic columns 
 of basalt ; it rises to the height of 2600 feet c above its gran- 
 ite base. The volcanoes called the Tartas, d the Infernels 
 and the Mouns Caou or Mont Chaud e are the most remark- 
 able among those which are situated on the same line as the 
 Mezin/ Basaltic currents appear to have obstructed the 
 course of the Loire at Goudet and at Solignac, and of the 
 Allier at Monistrol, Prades and Chasez. The volcanic 
 rocks take at Pradelles a north-west direction, and they may 
 be discovered near Lonjac, Poulaquet, La Voute, Brioude 
 and Blesle ; the currents of lava that flowed from them, 
 appear to have been broken or cut by rivers. Conical masses 
 of scoria rise in several places above the basalt ; the Bards 
 near Allegre, one of the most remarkable of these masses, 
 
 a “ It also possesses manufactories of cloth, establishments for spin- 
 ning silk and cotton, and for bleaching wax, and tanneries.” 
 
 b “ Mont Mezin.” c “ 800 metres.” 
 
 d This name has some analogy to the Tartarus of the ancients. M. B. 
 
 e The Hot Mountain. 
 
 f A very apposite remark, which has been already made by different 
 writers, may be here repeated ; it is that the names of the volcanoes 
 in Vivarais and Velay are not of Roman origin. Cajsar observed that 
 there was a great analogy between the dialect spoken in these coun- 
 tries and the Latin, as if the latter was derived from it. In this man- 
 ner it is easy to account for the resemblance which the names men- 
 tioned in the text, bear to words of the purest Latinity. Thus Tartas 
 or Tartarou, and Infernels or Infemhs, may serve to recal the Latin 
 words Tartarus and Infernus, whilst Coueron is not unlike coquere (to 
 boil,) and Tanargue resembles Tonitru ager [the field of thunder). 
 
 s “ Le Bois de Bard” — tho wood of Bard 
 
 h “ 1150 metres.” 
 
 reaches to the height of 3737 feet the traces of a lake 
 long since dried up, are still apparent on its truncated sum- 
 mit. * 1 The site which the lake of Bouchet occupies, is con- 
 sidered an extinct crater ; it is about ninety feet in depth, 
 and nine hundred in diameter, k and is surrounded by four 
 hills of scorias. But the most singular volcanic rocks in the 
 department, are the rock of Corneille, rising like an enormous 
 cube in the neighbourhood of Puy, that of Polignac covered 
 with the ruins of an ancient castle, that of St. Michael, ex- 
 hibiting the appearance of a round tower, and the Roche 
 Rouge 1 at a league and a half from Brives, a volcanic pyr- 
 amid more than a hundred feet high, encompassed with a 
 belt of reddish granite seven feet in breadth, and mixed 
 with granite blocks which stud its surface from the base to 
 the summit — a curious example of the action of subterranean 
 fire by which its products have been forced upward through 
 the superincumbent rocks. If it were certain that the hand 
 of man had not contributed to its regularity, the natural 
 temple, as it is called, might merit a particular notice ; a 
 current of lava near the village of Goudet on the banks of 
 the Loire, has assumed the most capricious forms, such as 
 a round tower terminated by a conical roof, and the peri- 
 style of an edifice supported by columns, thirty feet in 
 breadth and a hundred and eighty in height. 
 
 Different mineral substances are found in the primitive 
 and secondary districts ; granite, serpentine and marble are 
 rendered useful, and excellent mill-stones are extracted from 
 the beds of sandstone near Marsanges, Navogne and Re- 
 tournac; coals of the best quality are worked at Frugeres, 
 but the department possesses enough of that mineral to fur- 
 nish an annual supply of 11000 chaldrons for a period of 
 600 years.™ Sulphuret of antimony is found in beds or in 
 veins in the district" of Brioude, and several places abound 
 apparently in sulphuret of lead. 0 One or two remarks on 
 the principal towns may enable the reader to estimate the 
 commerce and industry of a department from which more 
 than three thousand individuals emigrate every year, and 
 find employment as tradespeople or workmen in the differ- 
 ent French towns. 
 
 Puy,P the ancient capital of Velay, is finely situated in a 
 picturesque valley, watered by the Loire and by two small 
 rivers, the Borne and the Dolaison ; it stands at the base of 
 Mount Anis, which terminates in the volcanic rock of Cor- 
 neille. The streets are so steep that the noise of carriages or 
 waggons is never heard ; the lava with which they are paved, 
 and with which the houses are built, gives it a gloomy and 
 dismal appearance. There is no town in France where 
 religious ceremonies are more strictly observed, or where 
 more time is lost in unnecessary and tiresome forms. 1 * The 
 rock of St. Michael, in the lower part of Puy, is commanded 
 by a church to which the people ascend by a stair of 260 
 
 * On its summit is situated the Crater of Bar, which is almost per- 
 fect, 1660 feet in diameter, and 130 feet in depth. It appears that a 
 lake once existed there, but it is now nearly dried up. Daubeny’s 
 Descript, of Volcanoes, p. 40. — P. 
 
 k “ 30 metres in depth, and 900 in diameter” — 98.5 and 2953 feet 
 nearly. — P. 
 
 1 Red Rock. 
 
 m “ 3000 hectolitres for more than 600 years.” 
 
 B “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 e Description statistique du departement de la Haute-Loire, par M. 
 Deribier de Cheissac. Description geognostique des environs du Puy- 
 en- Velay, par M. Bertrand Roux. 
 
 P Le Puy. 
 
 s “ There is no town in France where religious ceremonies are more 
 fatio-uing to those who diligently observe them” — i. e. the processions 
 of The Romish church are more fatiguing than in any other town, 
 from the steepness of the streets. — P. 
 
 *• 
 
book cxLii.i DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 221 
 
 steps cut in die solid rock. The cathedral stands in the 
 highest part of the town, and a lofty flight of 118 steps leads 
 to its portico. The situation of the building, its architecture 
 and the height of its pyramid ie.al steeple, render it one ol the 
 most majestic Gothic monuments in Europe. The front is 
 adorned with a sort of mosaic, and the interior appears like 
 a large chapel, in which the vault is formed by the junction 
 of several cupolas. The most valuable relic is a miracu- 
 lous image of the Virgin — a small cedar wood statue, ac- 
 cording to tradition, carved by the Christians of Mount 
 Lebanon, and brought to France in the eighth century, but 
 more probably a figure of Isis, which the pious crusaders 
 mistook for the mother of Christ; at all events, it is begirt 
 with fillets after the manner of Egyptian statues. But as it 
 has long been an object of veneration, it may be considered 
 a Christian relic ; several popes and eight or ten kings of 
 France have prostrated themselves before it. The tomb of 
 Duguesclin, which adorns the former church of the Domin- 
 icans, the theatre, supposed to have been an ancient temple 
 of Diana, and the museum of natural history are not unwor- 
 thy of notice. Cardinal Polignac, the author of the poem 
 of Anti-Lucretius, and Julien the sculptor were born in the 
 town ; it is now the capital of the department, and it pos- 
 sesses several manufactures, particularly different sorts of 
 lace, and for more than a century has furnished horse-bells 
 to the waggoners and muleteers in the south of France. 
 The neighbouring village of Expailly is known to mineral- 
 ogists from a stream, in which sapphires, garnets and hya- 
 cinths are found. Among the ruins of the ancient castle at 
 Polignac raised on the site of a temple, consecrated to the 
 Celtic Apollo, may be seen the head of the god, carved on 
 a disc of white marble that serves as a cover to the aperture 
 of the cave from which the Gallic divinity used to deliver 
 his prophecies. The small town of Craponne in the same 
 district* carries on a trade in cloth and lace. Yssengeaux is 
 the seat of an agricultural society ; it has also a valuable lead 
 mine in its vicinity. Brioude, at no great distance from the 
 Allier, is situated in a fruitful district. 1 ’ 
 
 A chain of mountains extends from east to west, and 
 the highest part of it, or the Lozere, c gives its name to a 
 department. The mountains of Margeride traverse it from 
 south-east to north-west, and the heights of Aubrac are 
 divided into two principal branches. Three rivers, the 
 Allier, the Lot and the Tarn rise in the same country; they 
 are embellished with waterfalls, whilst rugged rocks and 
 wild scenery attest the desolation occasioned by subterranean 
 fires. The Pas de Souci on the Tarn, is formed by two 
 hills almost touching each other at their summits ; it would 
 seem as if they waited for the hand of man to unite them, 
 and thus erect a bridge 1800 feet in height : in one place the 
 waters are ingulfed between two immense rocks, the Aiguille 
 and the Roc-Sourde ; repelled by these barriers, they resume 
 their course, and make the air re-echo with their noise. 
 The abundance of water renders the department humid, and 
 the mountains lengthen the duration of winter. Spring and 
 autumn are generally rainy seasons ; storms are not uncom- 
 mon in summer, but the heat is rarely oppressive. The 
 soil does not produce enough of corn or wine for the con- 
 
 a “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 b It has an elegant church. M. 13. There are two towns of this 
 name, about half a league distant from each other, viz. Vicille-Brioude 
 or Brioude la Vieille (Old Brioude,) on the Allier, with a lofty bridge 
 of a single arch, and Brioudc-V Eglise, so called from a chapter of can- 
 ons, all of whom are of noble descent. Encyc. Method. The latter is 
 the one mentioned in the text. — P. c Mount Lozere, p. 878. 
 
 d “ The town is surrounded with a boulevard.” 
 
 sumption of the inhabitants. The wealth of the country 
 consists in its mines, which yield silver, antimony and lead. 
 Cattle and woollen stuffs form the two principal branches of 
 its commerce. 
 
 Mende, the capital, is situated in the centre of the depart- 
 ment ; the valley in which it stands, is intersected by a great 
 many streams that water the villas and country seats in the 
 vicinity. The town is encompassed with ramparts ; J the 
 streets are crooked, but adorned with several fountains ; the 
 cathedral is remarkable for the boldness of its steeples. The 
 serge manufactured at Mende is exported to the north and 
 south of Europe. Pope Urban the Filth was born in the 
 neighbourhood of the town, which, it has been affirmed, was 
 the Anderitum of the Romans.** Chateauneuf de Randon, 
 a burgh in the mountains to the north-east of Mende, con- 
 tains hardly 2500 inhabitants ; it was formerly a strong 
 place, and a town of some celebrity from the siege which 
 the English maintained against Duguesclin in 1380. The 
 Frenchman died beneath its walls, and the English general, 
 who promised to surrender if he did not receive assistance 
 within a certain time, laid his sword and the keys of the 
 town on the coffin of his adversary. The same year in 
 which that event took place, an act of heroism was achieved 
 near the village of Luc on the eastern frontier of the de- 
 partment, by the ancestors of some families now existing. 
 The English had invaded Gevaudan and Vivarais with a 
 considerable force ; murder and desolation indicated their 
 march, until it was suddenly impeded at the fort of Luc, 
 which commanded the road into Upper Auvergne. Two 
 thousand men attempted to besiege it, hut three brave 
 knights/ to whom the fief belonged in common, defended 
 themselves so valiantly that they at last repelled the enemy. 
 The English, however, w T ere ashamed of their defeat, and 
 returned to the contest, when the three knights must 
 have perished, had they not been unexpectedly reinforced 
 by ten of the most intrepid proprietors in the neighbourhood/ 
 by whose assistance they gained a decisive victory. The 
 castle of Luc is still remarkable for its antiquity; according 
 to ancient chronicles and popular traditions, it was founded 
 before the country was conquered by the Romans. Lan- 
 gogne, a small place of 2500 souls, possesses different cloth 
 manufactories. The village of Bagnols les Bains is much 
 frequented on account of its mineral waters. 1 * Marvejols, 
 destroyed by the duke De Joyeuse, and rebuilt by Henry 
 the Fourth, is a neat town with broad and straight streets. 
 Florae in a narrow valley on the left of the Tarnon, is sur- 
 rounded with meadows and fruitful fields, but derives little 
 advantage from its situation. 
 
 Three streams, known by the name of Gardon, rise on the 
 eastern declivity of the Cevennes, namely, the Gardon 
 d’Anduse, the Gardon de Mialet and the Gardon d’Alais, so 
 named from the principal places they water. Their junc- 
 tion forms the Gard, also called the Gardon, which gives 
 name to a department ;* its waters sometimes disappear 
 under beds of gravel, but its destructive inundations make 
 the labourer pay very dear for the pieces of gold it brings 
 along with it. Alais, watered by one of the branches 
 already mentioned, is considered a very ancient town ; it 
 
 e Anderitum occupied the site of Javols or Javaulx, an inconsidera- 
 ble town, five leagues N. W. of Mende. D’Anv. Vosgien. — P. 
 
 f M. M. De Polignac, Bourbal de Choisinet, and D’Agrain des 
 Ubas. 
 
 s Malet de Borne, D’Apcier, Morangies, Malmont de Soulage, Mo- 
 dene, Durour, Balazuc, Vernon de Joyeuse, Longueville and Regletton. 
 
 h The waters are sulphureous. See statistical tables. 
 
 * The department of the Gard 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 222 
 
 suffered much during the persecutions* in the reign of Louis 
 the Fourteenth, but these injuries have been repaired ; it is 
 well built, lias several manufactories, and carries on a consid- 
 erable trade in raw silk and ribbons. Near the burgh of Re- 
 moulins, the impetuous waves of the Card rush through a nar- 
 row pass, traversed by the Pont du Gard, b a majestic Roman 
 aqueduct, which conducted the waters from the fountain of 
 Aure to the naumachia c in the ancient JYemausus . d Formed 
 by three rows of arches, it extends to the distance of GOO feet, 
 and rises to the height of 1G0. The same monument is in ex- 
 cellent preservation ; it is difficult to observe it without admir- 
 ing the ancient Romans, who, wiser than the moderns, employ- 
 ed their soldiers during peace in useful labours. Uzes, the 
 ancient Ucetia, is surrounded with high hills ; it was for- 
 merly the seat of a bishopric, but that did not prevent the 
 inhabitants from embracing the reformation in the sixteenth 
 century. At present it is a place of some trade ; its manu- 
 factures consist of hosiery, silks, pasteboard and paper.® 
 It was the native town of the learned Abauzit. Bagnols 
 lies in a fruitful country on the banks of the Ceze ; it may 
 be considered on the whole an ill-built town, although a 
 square encompassed with arcades forms an exception; it 
 was the birthplace of Rivarol. A citadel built by Louis the 
 Thirteenth may still be seen at Pont St. Esprit, a town 
 which is also remarkable for a fine bridge, almost half a mile 
 in length/ begun by St. Louis, and finished in the reign of 
 Philip the Fair. It may be also observed that the same 
 bridge rises at a place where the course of the Rhone is so 
 rapid, that a spectator in a boat below it,® has hardly time 
 to observe the arches, before they recede from the view. 
 Roquemaure on the right bank of the river, although small, 
 is an industrious town ; the inhabitants possess silk manufac- 
 tories, brandy distilleries and hydraulic saws; * 1 II ' they make 
 more than 20,000 casks every year for the produce of the 
 vineyards in the vicinity. 
 
 Nunes, 1 situated in a fruitful plain, encompassed with 
 hills, is important as the capital of a prefecture/ and as the 
 seat ol a bishopric and a court of justice. 1 Learned socie- 
 ties and numerous schools have been established in the town. 
 The few streets that are straight or well built, are confined 
 to the suburbs. Confined within a narrow enclosure, the 
 air is only pure on the ramparts and glacis ; m these fine 
 public walks are shaded with trees ; the court of justice/ a 
 very elegant building, is the greatest ornament of the one ; 
 the other is embellished with modern houses, the hospital 
 and the theatre. 0 The cathedral contains the tombs of 
 Cardinal Bernis and the celebrated Flechier. But these 
 edifices, creditable to any modern town, shrink into insignif- 
 
 a “ Dragonnades” — After the revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685, 
 Louis XIV. attempted to compel the Protestants by force to renounce 
 their faith and embrace the Catholic religion. For that purpose he 
 built a citadel at Alais in 1669, and that he might combine spiritual 
 persuasion with temporal power, founded there a bishopric in 1692. — P. 
 
 b Bridge of the Card. 
 
 c Place where mock sea fights were exhibited. 
 
 d Nimes. 
 
 e “ Silk stockings, twisted silk, and pasteboard.” 
 
 I “ 2520 feet in length.” 
 
 * “ Bateau de poste” — passage boat on the Rhone. 
 
 II “ Silk mills, brandy distilleries and saw mills (scierics hydrau- 
 
 liqu.es.)” * “ Nimes,” Nismes. 
 
 k It is the capital of the department, and consequently of the pre- 
 fecture. — P. 
 
 1 “ Cour royale,” Royal Court — corresponding to our Circuit Courts. 
 There are twenty-seven Royal Courts in France, including that of 
 Paris. (Almanach Royal, 1822.) — P. 
 
 “ “The boulevards and the esplanade.” — The town is surrounded 
 by a circle of Boulevards, scarcely inferior to those of Paris. (Carter’s 
 Letters 1 — P 
 
 [BOOK CXL1I. 
 
 icance when compared with the monuments of the Romans. 
 The Maison Carree p, a rectangular building, as high as it is 
 broad, stands near the theatre ; the front is equal to thirty- 
 six feet, and the length to seventy. It is an ancient tem- 
 ple with Corinthian pillars, built by Adrian, and since 
 repaired by two kings of France, namely, Louis the 
 Fourteenth and Louis the Eighteenth.** The amphitheatre, 
 which has been recently cleared from the buildings and 
 rubbish that encumbered it, forms an elliptical enclosure of 
 1 080 feet ; it is surrounded with a hundred and twenty 
 arcades, divided into two rows, the one above the other. It 
 holds about 17,000 persons; bull-fights are sometimes ex- 
 hibited in the arena. A triumphal arch, called the gate of 
 Caesar, is one of the ancient monuments most recently dis- 
 covered ; r the northern gate is also of Roman construction. 
 Many sculptures, basso-relievos and ancient tombs are seen 
 in the town. The Tour J\Iagne, s a seven-sided pyramid/ 
 rises beyond the walls ; the base is about 245 feet in cir- 
 cumference." The fountain of Diana and its Roman baths 
 retain only their names to verify their antiquity. The re- 
 mains of the temple consecrated to the same divinity/ con- 
 sists of several capitals, cornices and inscriptions. The 
 foundation of the town is attributed to the Phocseans of Ionia. 
 From the time when it bore the name of JVcmausus to the 
 present day, Nimes has produced many distinguished men ; 
 among others, the emperor Antonine, Domitius Afer, the 
 master of Quintilian, John Nicot, who first introduced to- 
 bacco into France, Bourguet the naturalist, Samuel Petit, the 
 erudite Seguier/ Saurin, Villars, John Fabre the protestant, 
 who suffered punishment in place of his father, who had been 
 condemned to the galleys on account of his religion, and 
 lastly, the learned but unfortunate Rabaud-Saint-Etienne. 1 
 Nimes contains at present a great number of manufactories, 
 and carries on a considerable trade in the products of the 
 department. The medicinal plants and others used in dying, 
 collected by the peasants, form a lucrative branch of ex- 
 portation ; they may be seen in the markets of Amsterdam, 
 Hamburg and Lubeck. 
 
 Beaucaire, probably the ancient Ugernum, is situated at 
 the distance of five leagues to the east of Nimes, on the 
 banks of the Rhone, which separates it from Tarascon. 
 The streets are narrow, but in other respects it is a well- 
 built town. The commercial importance of Beaucaire de- 
 pends principally on a fair, which lasts from the 22d to the 
 28th of July at midnight ; during these six days, there is as 
 much activity and confusion as at Leipsic, when merchants 
 repair to it from every part of the world. As the season of 
 the fair approaches, the Rhone is covered with boats con- 
 
 “ “ Palais de justice” — hall of justice. 
 
 ° “ The air is pure only in the shade of the trees that adorn the 
 boulevards and the esplanade ; the palace of justice is the principal 
 ornament of this fine promenade, whilst another boulevard is embel- 
 lished by many elegant modern buildings, the most important of which 
 are the hospital and the theatre.” 
 
 p The Square House. ( Maison Quarrie, in older authors.) — P. 
 
 In 1689 and in 1820. 
 
 r It was first discovered in the year 1791. 
 
 * The Great Tower. 
 
 * “ A pyramid with seven sides at the base and eight at the sum- 
 mit.” 
 
 u It is about 120 feet high, and was formerly surrounded with a cir- 
 cle of open columns. Ed. Encyc. — P. 
 
 1 Called also the Temple of the Fountain. 
 
 y J. F. Seguier (born 1703,) distinguished as an antiquary and bota- 
 nist. — P. 
 
 1 J. P. Rabaut de St. Etienne, a distinguished member of the Con- 
 stituent Assembly and the National Convention — opposed the condem- 
 nation of the king, and was consequently denounced by the revolu- 
 tionary tribunal, and executed Dec. 5, 1793. Beauvais. — P. 
 
book cxlii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 veying the manufactures of Lyons, Germany and Switzer- 
 land ; at the same period, vessels arrive at Toulon and 
 Marseilles, laden with the merchandize of Italy, Spain and 
 the Levant. A hundred thousand merchants repair from 
 different points of Europe and the East to the fair, where 
 they are crowded in a town of ten thousand inhabitants. 
 The houses can contain only a small part of the extra popu- 
 lation, but the extensive meadows on the banks of the 
 Rhone are covered with tents. 
 
 Aigues-Mortes, a small town of 3000 inhabitants, situated 
 in a marshy country, is no longer a port, although St. Louis 
 embarked there on his unfortunate expedition to Palestine. 
 
 It derives its wealth from the immense salt works of Peccais, 
 situated in an arid and sandy district. Vigan, a a small 
 place at the western extremity of the department, is the 
 capital of a subprefecture ; it is watered by the Arre, and 
 only worthy of notice as the birthplace of the chevalier 
 D’Assas. b The bronze statue that serves to perpetuate the 
 memory of the same person, was exhibited in the Louvre in 
 1828; it now adorns his native town. 
 
 The department of the Card does not abound in metals 
 or minerals ; it contains, however, antimony, coal and lignite, 
 the last ol which yields sulphate of iron and alum. The 
 grain harvests are insufficient to supply the consumption, but 
 the vineyards yield three times the quantity of wine that is 
 used in the country. The excess, either in the form of 
 wine or distilled into brandy, together with silk, olive oil, 
 wool, and other articles already mentioned, make up the 
 exports of die department. 
 
 The department of the Herault is still poorer than the 
 last in mineral substances. The people work coal, marble, 
 salt and lignite, the last of which, under the name of fossil 
 ashes, is used as a manure. It produces more grain than it 
 consumes, and the great excess of wine, dried fruits, liqueurs, 
 perfumes and oil, form exports of considerable value. The 
 river which gives its name to the department, rises in the 
 Cevennes, at the foot of the high mountains of Egoual and 
 Esperon ; it is only navigable for the distance of three 
 leagues, from the burgh of Bessan to its mouth. The 
 course of the same river, from its origin to its junction with 
 the Ergue, may guide us in the description of the country. 
 
 Ganges, on the left bank, a town of four thousand inhab- 
 itants, is surrounded with country houses, and commanded by 
 an ancient castle. The grotto of the fairies (la Baouma de las 
 Doumaiselas ), in which the sombre windings are covered 
 with magnificent stalactites, is situated in the neighbourhood. 
 At Aniane, c a place of less importance than the last, may be 
 seen the ruins of the first convent, built by St. Benedict. 
 Ascending the Ergue, and leaving on the left Clermont de 
 Lodeve d or Clermont l’Herault, peopled by six thousand 
 inhabitants, who export cloth to the Levant, and carry on a 
 
 a Le Vigan. 
 
 b Distinguished for the heroic devotion with which he sacrificed his 
 life to his country, at Clostercamp near Gelders, 17C0. — P. 
 
 c Seven leagues below Ganges, and on the same bank of the river. 
 M. B. d Clermont-Lodeve. 
 
 e “ It possesses important tanneries, and manufactories of verdi- 
 grise.” 
 
 1 Lodeve furnishes cloths for military clothing. Ed. Encyc. 
 
 s Montpelier — Lat. Mims Pessulanus. 
 
 h “ Esplanade.” The Esplanade occupies the ground between the 
 citadel and the ancient city. Ed. Encyc. 
 
 ‘ Porte Peyrou, Place du Peyrou. 
 
 k “ Hotel de la prefecture” — the Palace of the Prefecture, formerly 
 the bishop’s palace. Ed. Encyc. 
 
 1 “ A school of music and one of design” — An academy of arts was 
 founded in 1781. Ed. Encyc. 
 
 n ' ‘ Amphitheatre” — built during the administration of M. Chaptal, 
 
 OF FRANCE. 223 
 
 trade in leather and verdigrise,® we arrive at Lodeve, the 
 ancient Lutcva, and the metropolis of a subprefecture, an 
 ill-built town, encompassed with walls, and situated in a fruit- 
 ful valley. The manufacture of coarse cloths is the princi- 
 pal employment of the inhabitants/ 
 
 A very bad road through a wild country leads from Lo- 
 deve to Montpellier/ The last town stands on a hill from 
 which a magnificent view stretches to the Mediterranean 
 and the Pyrenees. Squares adorned with fountains, no 
 broad streets, but well-built houses, a spacious glacis, * 1 * ' the 
 Peyrou, 1 a fine walk which terminates at an aqueduct, 
 formed by two rows of arches, placed one above the other, 
 the church of St. Peter, the residence of the prefect, k and 
 the exchange, a very elegant edifice, render it one of the 
 finest towns in the south of France. In the same town, 
 the sciences are taught with zeal, and cultivated with suc- 
 cess ; it possesses an university, a library containing many 
 valuable manuscripts, an excellent botanical garden, an ob- 
 servatory, several scientific societies, schools of music and 
 painting, 1 an anatomical theatre,™ and a celebrated school 
 of medicine, founded in the twelfth century by Arabian 
 physicians expelled from Spain, but received and protected 
 by the counts of Montpellier. It is indebted to M. Fabre, 
 the worthy pupil of David, for a very valuable collection of 
 paintings, both as to their number and selection. It has pro- 
 duced many celebrated men in different branches of knowl- 
 edge, such as Barthez, Broussonet," Fizes, Fouquet and 
 Baumes 0 in medicine, Peyronie the founder of the academy 
 of surgery at Paris, Rondelet the naturalist, Magnol, who 
 may be considered the inventor of natural methods in botany, 
 Cambon, who distinguished himself in the troublous times of 
 the revolution by restoring order to the finances/ Cambaeeres, 
 whose talents have never been disputed, and who rose to the 
 first offices of the empire, Roucher, the author of the poem 
 of the Months/ the celebrated painter Bourdon, and Vien the 
 master of David/ It is unnecessary to describe in detail 
 the curiosities of Montpellier ; one or two remarks may 
 suffice. The marble chair on which the professor 3 sits in 
 the amphitheatre of the medical school, is an ancient monu- 
 ment, that was found in the amphitheatre, at Nimes. Al- 
 though the names of the ancient and modern buildings are 
 the same, it might have been as well that the chair had 
 remained in the ancient ; l but the same remark is not appli- 
 cable to an old bronze bust of Hippocrates, now placed in 
 the hall of the celebrated school. The walk of Peyrou ter- 
 minates in a six-sided pavilion ; within it is a basin supplied 
 by the aqueduct already mentioned, and from which the water 
 falls in cascades over artificial rocks, till it terminates in a 
 lower basin. u The botanical garden, at no great distance 
 from these places, cannot be observed without interest ; it 
 was the first of the kind in France, that was formed for the 
 
 on the model of that at the Museum of Natural History at Paris. Ed. 
 Encyc. ” Broussonct is best known as a natural historian. — P. 
 
 0 J. B. T. Beaumes, author of a system of chemistry, and several 
 medical works, died 1815. Beauvais. — P. 
 
 p He organized and directed the confiscation of the estates of the 
 emigrants, and may be considered as minister of finance to the national 
 convention. Beauvais. — P. 
 
 a Les Mois — a descriptive poem, in the manner of Thomson’s Sea- 
 sons, each month forming the subject of a separate canto — P. 
 
 r He is considered by the French as the restorer of painting in 
 France. M. B. Beauvais. — P. 
 
 « The professor of anatomy. Ed. Encyc. 
 
 1 “ It had better have been deposited in the Maisun Carrie ” — now 
 converted into a museum of antiquities. — P. 
 
 u This lower basin is much larger than the one in the pavilion, and 
 
 forms a small lake overshadowed by the trees in front of the espla- 
 nade. — P. 
 
224 EUR 
 
 purpose of naturalizing plants remarkable for their rarity, 
 beauty or utility. It contains not less than eight thousand 
 plants, and the manner in which it is laid out, renders it an 
 agreeable walk. The admirers of Young’s Night Thoughts 
 may repair to a thick shade, below which is an obscure 
 vault, that contains the tomb of his daughter Narcissa. 
 Commerce and the useful arts are cultivated in Montpellier 
 as successfully as the sciences ; the manufactures of the 
 town consist in cottons, muslins and cloths, and also in ver- 
 digrise and other chemical products. The hospitals and 
 other charitable establishments are well regulated ; the 
 mount of piety cannot be too much commended ; such 
 institutions, notwithstanding their name, are in most places 
 usurious and fatal to the poorer classes, but in this town at 
 least, their philanthropic purpose has been preserved, and 
 money is advanced on pledges to the poor without in- 
 terest. 
 
 Lunel, a town of 5,500 inhabitants, near the eastern lim- 
 its of the department, is situated in a country famous for 
 muscadine wines. A cavern in the neighbourhood has been 
 frequently visited by geologists / in an alluvial deposit, the 
 fossil bones of different graminivorous animals, such as wild 
 boars, stags, horses, oxen, and others no longer found in our 
 climates, as hippopotami and camels, are mingled with the 
 remains of lions, tigers, bears and hyenas ; it is proved too 
 by the marks of teeth on the bones of the former, that they 
 have been devoured by the latter. The wines in the dis- 
 trict of Frontignan, b about six leagues to the west of Mont- 
 pellier, rival those of Lunel. Cette, which ought to be 
 written Sette, because it stands upon Mount Setius/ a height 
 mentioned by Pomponius Mela, d guards with its fortifications 
 the entrance into the canal of Languedoc. e Built in the 
 form of an amphitheatre between the sea and the lagoon of 
 Thau, the last of which yields a great quantity of salt, and 
 possessing a fine harbour, accessible to large ships, it con- 
 tains ten thousand inhabitants, and carries on an extensive 
 trade. Invalids repair to it every year on account of the 
 sea and sand baths. The vertical fissures in the heights 
 near it, are filled with alluvial deposits/ in which are con- 
 tained the fossil bones of birds, quadrupeds and reptiles.? 
 
 Beziers rises on a hill that commands a view of a rich 
 valley, where the sad foliage of the olive is united with the 
 verdant leaves of the mulberry, and where gardens, orchards, 
 vineyards and country houses extend along both banks of 
 the Orb. 1 * In a different direction, may be seen the country 
 watered by the canal of Languedoc. 1 The town was the 
 birthplace of Mairan the astronomer. It is a place of great 
 antiquity ; it was the Bcctcrrce of the Romans ; although it 
 had been repeatedly ruined by the Visigoths, the Saracens 
 and Charlemagne, it had reached the height of its splendour 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CXLII. 
 
 when it was sacked in the thirteenth century by Arnold, 
 abbot of Citeaux/ during the crusade against the Albigen- 
 ses. When the monk was about to storm the town, his 
 followers asked him by what signs they might know the 
 catholics, — Kill all, said the bigot, let God discover his own} 
 Agde, formerly Agatha, stands near the sea at the base of 
 a volcanic height ; it was founded by a Greek colony ; the 
 harbour is advantageously situated for the coasting trade ; it 
 possesses a hundred and twenty small vessels, and it is peo- 
 pled by eight thousand inhabitants. Pezenas, which Pliny 
 calls Pisccncc, rises to the north-east of Beziers, on the 
 banks of the Herault ; the inhabitants carry on a trade in 
 woollen stuffs and in the excellent wines for which the dis- 
 trict is celebrated. 
 
 The Tarn waters on the western side of the Espinouse 
 and the Black Mountains, a poorer department 111 than the 
 one that has been described. The people employed them- 
 selves formerly in cultivating woad, but now that the superi- 
 ority of indigo is acknowledged, the profits arising from the 
 culture of the plant are much reduced. The country is in 
 many places covered with forests, and the timber is exported 
 and used in building ; the pastures are abundant, and the 
 produce in grain and wine is more than sufficient for the 
 wants of the people. Coal is the only mineral substance 
 of any importance, and the manufacturing industry is prin- 
 cipally confined to cotton and woollen stuffs. 11 
 
 Alby° on the banks of the Tarn, perhaps the worst built 
 archiepiscopal city in France/ is the native town of the 
 unfortunate Lapeyrouse q and the brave general D’Haupoult/ 
 The walls in the inside of the cathedral are adorned with 
 old paintings. The building itself is remarkable for boldness 
 and elegance. The Lice, a public walk, is formed by a 
 fine terrace commanding a view of an extensive and fruitful 
 plain. Albiga, the Latin name of die town, proves it to 
 have been the principal city of the Albigi; it was after- 
 wards the capital of Albigeois, a province devastated in the 
 twelfth century by the fanatical Simon de Montfort, and at 
 a latter period, during the persecutions in the reign of Louis 
 the Fourteenth. Castres, founded in 647 on the site of a 
 Roman camp, may be considered the most important town 
 in the department, both on account of its manufactures and 
 the number of inhabitants. The residence of the subprefect 
 is the ancient episcopal palace, a very elegant edifice built 
 after the plans of Mansard. The Agout divides the town 
 into two parts, which communicate with each other by means 
 of two stone bridges. It has produced several distinguished 
 men, among others, Rapin Thoyras the author of a history 
 of England, Andrew Dacier the academician, and the 
 learned Sabatier. 5 La Roquette, a place in the vicinity, 
 so called from the broken masses of rock which cover 
 
 1 See the Memoirs by M. Marcel de Serres. 
 b The wine is called Frontignac. — P. 
 c Mons Setius. d Lib. II. cap. 5. 
 
 e “ Canal da Midi” — Canal of the South. 
 
 f “ Depot de transport agglutine — ” properly, a diluvial conglomer- 
 ate. — P. 
 
 s “ — birds, small rodentia, ruminant quadrupeds, and reptiles.” — P. 
 h Orbe. 
 
 ' “In another direction, the canal of Languedoc may be seen de- 
 scending by nine locks, placed one above the other.” The canal of 
 Languedoc descends from the long level of 17 miles, by a chain of 8 
 locks at Fonserannc, within sight of Beziers, and then by a single one, 
 after which it passes the river Orb, on the south side of the town last 
 mentioned. Ed. Encyc. art. Inland Navigation. — P. 
 
 k Abbot of the Cistercians. (Roscoe.) The Cistercians were so 
 called from the abbey of Citeaux in Burgundy. — P. 
 
 1 “ Tueztous ; Dieu sciura bicn reeonnaitre les siens.'’ Kill them all; 
 God will know who belongs to him. (Roscoe.) 
 
 m The department of the Tarn. 
 
 n “ The manufactures consist of cotton and woollen stuffs and many 
 articles of hardware.” 
 
 0 Albi. 
 
 p Alby was the seat of an archbishopric before the revolution, but 
 it has now neither archbishop nor bisiiop. — P. 
 
 1 La Peyrouse, La Peirouse,and La Perouse, are different orthogra- 
 phies of the name. — P. 
 
 r J. J. D'llautpoul-Salette, (born 1754.) general of cavalry under 
 Napoleon, distinguished himself in the battles of Austerlitz and Eylau. 
 He died of the wounds he received in the last engagement, five days 
 after the battle. Beauvais. — P. 
 
 5 “ Le litterateur Sabatier” — the professional author. Anthony Saba- 
 tier, the critic and controversialist, born at Castres, 1742. His prin- 
 cipal work is a literary history of France from the time of Francis I 
 to 1772 ( Les trois sidcles de la Utliralure francaise. ou Tableau de T esprit 
 de nos icrirains, depuis Francois Icr jusqu'en 1772, 3 v. Svo.) Beau- 
 vais. — P 
 
BOOK CXLII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 225 
 
 it, is visited by strangers on account of the Trembling Stone* 
 and the grotto of St. Dominic. The trembling stone, a 
 mass consisting of 3G0 cubic feet, has been supposed to weigh 
 not less than thirty tons ; b it resembles an egg flattened ax one 
 end, and placed on its smaller extremity ; it rests near die 
 edge of a large rock on the declivity of a hill ; any one may 
 easily make it vibrate, and when once put in motion, the 
 vibrations are distinctly repealed seven or eight times. The 
 grotto that has been called after the founder of the Domini- 
 cans, to whom it served as a retreat, is situated at the base 
 of the hill, below the trembling stone ; it consists of subter- 
 ranean galleries about 4200 feet in length, by sixty or seventy 
 in breadth. 6 The walls of the cavern are formed by round- 
 ed rocks, heaped upon each other in many places with so 
 much regularity that they might be supposed to have been 
 the work of art, not of nature.* * 1 Alby and Castres are the 
 two most important towns in the department ; the others are 
 comparatively insignificant. Gaillac rises on the right bank 
 of the Tarn, at the place where it begins to be navigable; 
 the inhabitants find employment in building boats or in 
 making casks, and they carry on a considerable trade in the 
 brandy and wines of the neighbourhood. The village of 
 Lombers is mentioned in history, as the place where a 
 council assembled in 1 176, whose decision was tire signal 
 for the crusade against the Albigenses, and for the murders 
 committed in Languedoc. The small town of Lavaur pos- 
 sesses cotton and silk manufactories. Bruguiere,® the capi- 
 tal of a district, contains four thousand inhabitants ; it is sit- 
 uated near the Thaure, a small river which loses itself in 
 subterranean cavities, and leaves a part of its bed, equal in 
 length to more than eight hundred yards, always dry. 1 The 
 small town of Soreze, peopled by 2500 souls, enjoyed some 
 celebrity in past times on account of a college.^ 
 
 The canal of Languedoc passes through the department 
 of the Upper Garonne, a department bounded on the south 
 by the lofty summits of the Pyrenees, and watered by the 
 Tarn, the Arriege and the Garonne, and by not less than 
 fourteen smaller streams. The soil is rich and fruitful; the 
 forests supply the inhabitants with timber proper for ship -build- 
 ing, and the abundant pastures account for the number of the 
 herds. From the mildness of the climate, and the favour- 
 able exposure of many hills, the vine has been planted in a 
 great part of the country. The wines, it is true, are not of the 
 best quality, but the quantity is so great that two-thirds of it 
 are exported from the department. The mineral products 
 are various, but not very useful ; two salt springs, and the 
 mineral and thermal waters of Encausse, Barthe, and Bag- 
 
 * Rocker tremblant — a rocking stone. 
 b “COO quintals” Fr. 
 
 c “ 800 toises in length by 10 or 12 in breadth.” 
 d Encyclopedic Methodique, Tom. III. 
 e La Bruguiere. 
 
 f “ — and leaves its bed dry, to the distance of 800 metres.” 
 s Founded in 1706. Encyc. Method. 
 
 h J. A. M. de Cazales, one of the most distinguished speakers in the 
 Constituent Assembly ; born at Grenade sur la Garonne, 1752. — P. 
 
 ■ “ Although this large and celebrated city contains many fine resi- 
 dences of the old nobility (hotels,) and many modern houses of elegant 
 architecture, it exhibits no traces of its ancient splendour.” 
 
 k The Capitol. — The consuls of Toulouse were from this circum- 
 stance called capitouls. (Vosgien.) — Consuls were certain municipal 
 magistrates in some of the French cities and towns (see Toulon note n 
 p. 892), corresponding to the jurats and echcvins in others, and to the 
 sheriffs and aldermen in England. — P. 
 
 1 “ Gay Savoir ” — El Gai Saber, the Provencal term for poetry. — P. 
 m This college was erected into the Academy of Floral Games in 
 1G94 ; the society assembled in one of the halls of the Capitol. M. B. 
 — Clemence Isaure, a lady of Toulouse, who founded the Floral Games 
 in the 15th century. The precise period of her birth and death are 
 VOL. III.— NO. 49 29 
 
 neres de Luclion form an exception. It possesses manufac- 
 tories of iron, steel and different kinds of stuffs. 
 
 The Tarn which traverses the northern part of the de- 
 partment, leads to Villemur, the capital of a district,- a small, 
 ill-built town peopled by 6000 individuals, and situated near 
 the confluence of the Save and the Garonne. Grenade, a 
 neat and clean town, although consisting of brick houses, 
 was the birthplace of Cazales. 1 ' 
 
 Toulouse, five leagues above the last place, on the banks 
 of the Garonne, was the ancient city of the Tolosates, the 
 dominant tribe of the Tectosages, a nation that had no incon- 
 siderable share in the distant expeditions conducted by Bel- 
 lovesus, Sigovesus and Brennus. The capital of the king- 
 dom of the Visigoths during several centuries, it became 
 afterwards the capital of the country governed by the counts 
 of Toulouse, and continued so until Languedoc was united 
 to France. The numerous monuments that adorned it, 
 when it was classed among the most important Roman colo- 
 nies, are now almost wholly destroyed ; none can be men- 
 tioned except the remains of a small amphitheatre, and a 
 single ancient tomb in the cloister of the old church of the 
 Augustines. Some of the edifices are admired, several 
 modern houses are not inelegantly built; but although a 
 large town, it contains nothing which indicates its ancient 
 splendour. 1 Brick buildings are too numerous, and the 
 squares, with the exception of St. Cyprian’s, are deficient in 
 regularity. The broad quays give the town an imposing 
 aspect ; the Garonne divides it into two equal parts, and is 
 crossed by a magnificent bridge terminating in a triumphal 
 arch, constructed after the plans of Mansard. It is encom- 
 passed with walls flanked by two round towers, and nine 
 gates lead to different parts of the city. The townhouse, 
 called the Ccipitolef is an old building with a fine modern 
 front ; the busts of different persons born in Toulouse are 
 placed in the interior. We may mention those of Cujas the 
 lawyer, Fermat tire mathematician, Campistron the tragic 
 poet, Duranti the magistrate, and Clemence Isaure, who 
 founded in 1323 the college of the Gay Science. 1 m A 
 fountain adorned with basso-relievos rises in front of the 
 cathedral, of which the choir is the only part finished. The 
 principal institutions in the town are an university, a school 
 of medicine and surgery, a royal college, a botanical garden, 
 a school of artillery and one of horsemanship, an academy 
 of the fine arts with a collection of paintings, a mint, and a 
 royal cannon foundery. Most of the buildings were more 
 or less injured on the sixteenth of April 1816, by the explo- 
 sion of a powder magazine." 
 
 not known; it is only ascertained that she was living' in 1478, and that 
 she died not long before 1513. The academy of Floral Games was 
 dissolved in 1790, but restored in 1806. A history of the academy has 
 been recently published by the perpetual secretary, M. Poitevin-Pei- 
 tavi, entitled : Mimoire pour servir a VHistoire des Jcux Floraur, Tou- 
 louse, 1815, 2 v. 8vo. (Beauvais, Diet. Hist.) The academy of the Gay 
 Science (del Gai Saber) was founded in 1323, by a number of versifiers 
 who had assumed the name of Troubadours, and who associated them- 
 selves under the title of La Sobregaya Companhia dels sept Trobadors de 
 Tolosa, “ the very gay society of the seven Troubadours of Toulouse.” 
 In 1324, the capitouls or magistrates of Toulouse, and the company of 
 Troubadours, addressed a circular to all the cities of Languedoc, offer- 
 ing a prize of a golden violet to the author of the best poem in the 
 Provencal language. This was the origin of the Floral Games. The 
 existence of Clemence Isaure is considered doubtful. She is not men- 
 tioned in the circulars of the academy, nor in the registers of the magis- 
 trates. Sismondi’s Literature of the South of Europe, vol. I. p. 126, 
 Roscoe’s Trans. — P. 
 
 D The country in the neighbourhood of Toulouse, is very agreeable ; 
 the Canal of Languedoc passes at the foot of the ramparts, and not 
 far from the town is the plain where Marshal Soult signalized himself 
 in 1814, by defeating the Anglo-Spanish army, although three times 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLI1 
 
 226 
 
 The road to Carcassonne crosses a fruitful plain, and passes 
 through the small town of Ville Franche,® the capital of a dis- 
 trict. b Muret in a valley at the confluence of the Louge and the 
 Garonne, is a place of considerable industry ; the people are 
 employed in making fine pottery, or in manufacturing coarse 
 cloth. It is celebrated in French history on account of the 
 siege, which Simon de Montfort maintained against the king 
 of Arragon, who was killed in a sally. St. Martory, the 
 capital of a district, 0 is situated in a pleasant valley on the 
 Garonne, which is traversed by a bridge terminated by two 
 triumphal arches. The same town was the birthplace of the 
 priest Vigilantius, d who flourished during the fourth century, 
 and attempted in vain to reform the abuses that had crept 
 into the church. St. Gaudens on the left bank of the river, 
 is the mart for an extensive trade with Spain. St. Bertrand 
 de Comminges stands on the ruins of Ijugdunum Convena- 
 rum ; e it was formerly an important town, but contains at 
 present hardly 800 inhabitants ; they export marble vases, 
 statues and bas-reliefs to different parts of Europe. The 
 mausoleum of the holy bishop whose name it bears, serves 
 as an ornament to tbe church. At the distance of a league 
 beyond St. Beat, which a strong dike protects against the 
 inundations of the Garonne, the traveller leaves the valley 
 watered by the river, and enters another in which Bagneres 
 de Luchon is situated ; at present indeed Bagneres hardly 
 deserves the name of a town, but it may soon do so, if the 
 population continue to increase as it has done of late years. 
 It resembles a triangle, and from the three angles extend as 
 many public walks ; one is planted with planes, another with 
 sycamores, and a third with lime trees ; the last or the most 
 northern leads to the baths, and is consequently the most 
 frequented. The public baths may be compared to the 
 finest of the kind in Europe ; the structure itself has the 
 appearance of a castle. The establishment does not appear 
 to be of very ancient origin, although it is certain that the 
 baths were known to the Romans ; f altars and votive inscrip- 
 tions have been discovered at different periods. The valley 
 of Luchon is broad in the neighbourhood of Bagneres, and 
 laid out in rich meadows and cultivated fields, which yield 
 often two harvests in the same year ; numerous herds 
 and flocks? are reared in the same part of the country. 
 Mountain passes, fragrant with aromatic flowers, torrents 
 broken by cataracts, and the peak of Maladetta, covered 
 with eternal snow, and situated on the crest of the Spanish 
 Pyrenees, give a lively interest to the excursions round Bag- 
 neres. But the stranger is often saddened in the midst of 
 such magnificent scenery by the sight of beings as hideous 
 from the goitres with which they are affected, as from their 
 invariable attendant, moral degradation ; they are the true 
 Parias of the French Pyrenees ; whether men, women or 
 children, all the other inhabitants look on diem with disgust, 
 and condemn them to the lowest occupations. Wealth and 
 cleanliness, the companions of industry, tend happily by their 
 progress to diminish the number of these unfortunate persons. 
 
 Although die mountains are arid, that extend from the 
 
 summits of the Pyrenees to the canal of Languedoc, and 
 although the Black Mountains, which rise on the north, and 
 which belong to the chain of the Cevennes, are unfruitful, 
 the agricultural products in the department of the Aude, are 
 more than sufficient for the wants of the people. The prin- 
 cipal river which w'aters it, the canal which crosses it from 
 west to east, and the Mediterranean which washes the coast, 
 have contributed to its commerce, or at least to the activity 
 and industry of the inhabitants. The mines yield compara- 
 tively little, but the iron works in the department are not 
 without importance ; the people are economical and frugal, 
 and consequently rich ; indeed it has been ascertained that 
 die average quantity of wealth belonging to each individual, 
 is greater than in most other departments ; die country, 
 however, might be still much improved. 
 
 Sostomagus, one of the most ancient towns in southern 
 Gaul, was ruined at the time the Goths invaded France; at 
 a later period it was rebuilt and fortified by the same people, 
 and as they were Arians, it took the name of Castrvm JVo- 
 vum Arianorum, which has been since changed into Castel- 
 Naudary. h Traversed by the canal of Languedoc, a fine 
 basin enclosed with broad embankments, and shaded with 
 trees, serves as a harbour, and forms a public walk. Char- 
 itable institutions and places of industry are not wanting in 
 the town, and the historical recollections connected with it 
 are not without interest. It is known that the count of Tou- 
 louse was obliged to demolish the fortifications, when he made 
 peace with St. Louis in the year 1229. The English burnt 
 it in 1 355 ; it was rebuilt and enlarged about ten years after 
 wards, and it was below the ramparts that Marshal Sehom- 
 berg at the head of the troops of Louis the Thirteenth, de 
 feated the forces of Gaston d’Orleans, commanded by the 
 duke of Montmorency, who was decapitated at Toulouse. 
 Among the great men to whom it has given birth, we need 
 only mention the learned and brave general Andreossy. It 
 carries on at present no inconsiderable trade in woollen stuffs ; 
 the use of modern machinery has been introduced into the 
 manufactories. * 1 The Aude divides Carcassonne into two 
 parts ; the upper town is a wretched and almost deserted 
 place, encompassed with walls, and built on a rock, but the 
 lower town consists of broad and straight streets, and is 
 adorned with several public walks ; it possesses a fine har- 
 bour on the canal, and among the public buildings may be 
 mentioned the cathedral, the town-house, the palace of the 
 prefect and the barracks. It has been long famous for its 
 cloths ; k it still possesses about forty manufactories, and the 
 cloths are mostly destined for die Levant. Caesar mentions 
 the town, and calls it Carcaso; 1 it was the birthplace of Fabre 
 d’Eglantine. On the banks of the Fresquel in the neighbour- 
 hood, may be seen a triumphal arch, erected to Numerian. 
 
 Limoux on the Aude contains within its walls about 
 twenty cloth and ratteen manufactories. The same river 
 waters the small town of Alet, m peopled with 1100 souls, and 
 visited by strangers on account of the thermal springs. Nar- 
 bonne, celebrated under the name of A r arbo, 300 years 
 
 stronger than his own, and commanded by the Duke of Wellington. 
 M. 15. This pleasant specimen of French national vanity has been 
 omitted by the English translator for very obvious reasons. English 
 writers inform us that the Duke of Wellington was completely suc- 
 ressful. The battle was fought April 10th, and at the close of the day 
 the French were hemmed in on three sides, the road to Carcassonne be- 
 ing the only one left open. Marshal Soult however succeeded in effect- 
 ing his retreat by that road on the night of the 11th. — P. 
 
 * Villefranche. b “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 c “ Canton” — jurisdiction of a justice of peace. — P. 
 d Vigilantius was born at Calaguri, a small town in the country of 
 Comminges. Beauvais. Morcri. — P. 
 
 c It is situated on the Garonne, above St. Gaudens, and was for- 
 merly capital of the country of Comminges, originally an independent 
 county, but surrendered to the king of France by tbe countess Marga- 
 ret, who died in 1443, when it became a province of the kingdom. — P. 
 
 f They were first called Aqua Convcnurvm, and afterwards Aqua 
 Balnearia Luxonienses. 
 e “ Cattle and goats.” 
 h Castelnaudary. 
 
 1 “Its hydraulic machinery for spinning wool is remarkable for its 
 importance.” 
 
 k Since the twefth century. M. B. 
 
 1 De Bello Gallico Liber III. m Aleth. 
 
book cxlii.] DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 227 
 
 before the vulgar era, and surnamed Martins * * by the Ro- 
 man consul, who founded a colony there a hundred and 
 fifty years afterwards, is situated on the canal of Robine, 
 which communicates with the Mediterranean by the lagoon 
 of Sigean. The Gothic cathedral is a very fine edifice, 
 and the stranger may observe within its walls, and within 
 the court of the former archiepiscopal palace, b several Ro- 
 man monuments in a good state of preservation. It was 
 the native town of Varro, a poet and a warrior , c of the em- 
 peror Marcus Aurelius, d of Fronto the orator, and of Mont- 
 faucon the antiquary. The honey in the district® forms a 
 branch of exportation. 
 
 The eastern extremity of the Pyrenees gives its name to 
 a department/ watered by the Agly, the Tet and the Tech, 
 which flow for the most part in an eastern direction. The 
 climate is warm ; indeed the temperature of winter might 
 be mistaken for that of spring. A favourable exposure un- 
 folds the vegetation of eastern countries ; pomegranate trees 
 grow in the hedges, and the fields are shaded with mulber- 
 ry, olive and orange trees ; juniper bushes, thyme, rosemary 
 and lavender grow in the open fields or on the sides of the 
 mountains, and gentle breezes diffuse their fragrance. The 
 vines warmed by tire summer’s heat yield a great quantity 
 of grapes, and two-fifths of the wine are exported from the 
 department ; the best kinds are raised on the hills of Col- 
 lioure, Salces and Rivesaltes. But the department is not 
 exempt from disadvantages ; during the summer season, 
 droughts are not unfrequent, and the rivers, from the inclina- 
 tion of their channels, are left diy ; on the contrary, during 
 the rainy season, and the melting of the snows, they inundate 
 their banks, and deluge the plains. It may be also mention- 
 ed that the lands near the sea, formed by alluvial deposits, 
 are little better than marshes; the exhalations that rise from 
 them, render several districts very unhealthy, and their 
 effect might be still more deleterious, if the air was not oc- 
 casionally purified by a north-west wind, which the people 
 call the Tramontane, because it crosses the mountains of 
 Corbieres, which extend into the department of the Aude. 
 
 Perpignan, the seat of a prefecture and a bishopric/ rises 
 on the right bank of the Tet, and on the small river Basse. 
 It is situated about two leagues from the sea, at the foot of 
 a hill, and on the site of Flavium Ebusum, an ancient mu- 
 nicipal city. The old fortifications and the works construct- 
 ed according to the principles of Vauban were almost en- 
 tirely rebuilt in the year 1823. The view from the ram- 
 parts extends over a magnificent plain, bounded by moun- 
 tains, and commanded on the west by the snow covered 
 peak of Canigou ; in a different direction, several openings 
 in the midst of fruitful hills unfold the expanse of the Medi- 
 
 a Narbo Martins, D’Anv. Founded by the consul Marcius, A. U. 
 C. 63G. Lempriere. — P. 
 
 b “ On its walls, in its churches, and within the court &c.” — A 
 great number of inscriptions and other remains of antiquity are in- 
 serted in the walls of the court of the archiepiscopal palace. There 
 s also a very fine ancient tomb in the gardens of the same palace. 
 Varbonne formerly contained a great many ancient buildings, such as 
 a capitol, a circus, and an amphitheatre ; but these have been entirely 
 destroyed, and their materials employed in erecting the fortifications 
 of the city. It however contains a greater number of inscriptions 
 than any other town of ancient Gaul. Encyc. Method. — P. 
 
 c P. Terentius Varro Attacinus, author of a translation into Latin 
 verse of the Argonautics of Apollonius Rhodius, of an epic poem de 
 Bello Sequanico, and of various other poems, of all which only a few 
 fragments are extant. Born B. C. 82. Beauvais, Diet. Hist. — P. 
 
 i M. Aurelius Carus ; not M. Aurelius Antoninus, who was born at 
 Rome . — P. 
 
 ° “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 1 The department of the Eastern Pyrenees. 
 
 terranean. An inexhaustible spring flows at the base of a 
 lofty citadel. The buildings worthy of notice are the bar- 
 racks erected by Louis the Fourteenth, which may contain 
 about five thousand men, the church of St. John, the town- 
 house, the court of justice and the exchange. The college, 
 the library, the museum of natural history, and different 
 seminaries are certainly creditable to the town. The royal 
 sheep-folds in the neighbourhood are perhaps the finest in 
 France ; it may be regretted that the improvements intro- 
 duced into so important a branch of rural economy, have 
 not been imitated in other parts of the country. 11 
 
 Elne on the left bank of the Tech, a small town of 1200 
 inhabitants, stands on the site of the ancient Helena, or the 
 still more ancient llliberis, a place of some celebrity, for 
 Hannibal encamped under its walls. Ceret, thinly peopled 
 and encompassed with lofty walls, may be mentioned on ac- 
 count of a bridge more remarkable for boldness than any 
 other in F ranee ; it rises to an extraordinary height, and 
 consists of a single arch, of w'hich the abutments are built 
 on two rocks; the opening exceeds 150 feet. 1 Port Ven- 
 dre near the frontier, a short distance to the south-east of 
 Collioure, was a small seaport about the end of the eigh- 
 teenth century, hardly equal in point of population to Col- 
 lioure ; it owes its present importance to Marshal De Mailly, 
 who was then governor of Roussillon. k He foresaw the ad- 
 vantages it might derive from its position ; tire harbour wa3 
 cleared and reconstructed, a basin was dug, which may con- 
 tain five hundred vessels, and at present Port Vendre is a 
 flourishing and well-built town, in which the market place 1 
 is adorned with fountains and a marble obelisk a hundred 
 feet in height. 
 
 It is only necessary to traverse some ravines near the sources 
 of the Tet, to arrive at the vallies where the Arriege™ rises. 
 The department watered by the last river/ is covered with 
 mountains, forests and pastures ; two distinct climates are 
 perceptible within its limits. The southern part, from the 
 elevation of the soil, is exposed to great cold and excessive 
 heat, while the vallies on the north are mild and temperate. 
 Numerous herds are reared in the same vallies, and the soil, 
 although ill adapted for the vine, is very fruitful in corn. 
 The number of iron works, and the quality of the steel 
 made in the department, prove that the industrious inhabit- 
 ants have availed themselves of the mineral riches in their 
 territory. 
 
 The small town of Foix rises in the valley watered by 
 the Arriege, near an ancient castle surmounted by three 
 Gothic towers. The counts that bore the name of the 
 town, appear in the brightest pages of French history, but 
 the monuments of those times are passing away. The 
 
 s Suppressed and united with that of Carcassonne. (1822). — P. 
 
 h “ The citadel, which contains a never failing well within its in 
 closure, stands on an eminence that commands the town. The latter 
 is divided into two parts, called the old and the new town. A range of 
 barracks built by Louis XIV., to contain 5000 men, occupies one side 
 of a large square, called the parade ( place d'armes'). Among the 
 other public buildings, are the church of St. John, the finest edifice, 
 the town-house, the hall of justice and the mint. The college, the 
 library, the collection of philosophical apparatus, the museum of natu- 
 ral history, and the public nursery of the department, are very useful 
 establishments ; but they are not to be compared with the royal sheep- 
 folds* in the vicinity, which are remarkable for the care with which 
 they are superintended.” — M. B. 
 
 * An establishment founded before the revolution, for introducing merinos 
 into France. — P. 
 
 ‘ “ — is equal to 140 feet” Fr. 
 
 k 1780—1788. 
 
 1 “Public square” (place publique). 
 
 m “ Ariege.” “ The department of the Arriege. 
 
228 EUR< 
 
 streets are narrow, and the ancient castle is wholly deserted 
 and falling into ruins ; a trade and industry correspond with 
 the insignificance of the population. Tarascon stands in a 
 very picturesque situation at the confluence of the Arriege 
 and a torrent which descends from the valley of Vic d’Es- 
 sos. Ax is famous for fifty-three mineral and thermal 
 springs, of which the temperature varies from 72° to 1G7° 
 of Fahrenheit. 1 * Pamiers in the north of the department is 
 surrounded with canals fed by the Arriege, which serve to 
 move many machines ; the streets are broad and straight, 
 and the houses well built. Foix is the capital of the de- 
 partment, but Pamiers surpasses it in every respect ; it has 
 lately been made the seat of a bishopric. 0 The mountain 
 called the Puy du Till stands at no great distance from the 
 small and neat town of Mirepoix ; the mountain is remark- 
 able for the cavities contained in it, from which cold and 
 sometimes very violent currents of air escape in every sea- 
 son of the year ; the people call the phenomenon, the Vent 
 de Pas. St. Girons is the only other town worthy of notice 
 in the department ; it stands on the Salat, a small but rapid 
 river, which sets in motion paper mills and different manu- 
 factories.* 1 St. Lizier in the vicinity, formerly the seat of a 
 bishopric, claims vainly the rank of a town ; it does not 
 contain 1100 inhabitants, and, as if to afford an example of 
 the vicissitudes in this lower world, the episcopal palace has 
 been changed into an asylum for mendicants. 
 
 The ancient county of Bigorre forms almost the whole 
 of the department, which derives its name from the highest 
 part of the Pyrenees. 0 The plains are confined to the 
 northern districts ; the others are made up of thick forests 
 and verdant vallies, mountains difficult of access, naked 
 peaks, summits covered with glaciers, and lakes fed by 
 melted snows. The torrents or gaves, { which fall in cata- 
 racts from the mountains, are the sources of the Adour, the 
 Garonne and other rivers which water the department. He 
 who travels from the confines of the department of the 
 Gers to Mont Perdu, the Mont Blanc of the Pyrenees, 
 passes through almost every climate in Europe ; he may 
 observe the vegetation changing gradually from the plants 
 of temperate countries to those of hyperborean regions. 
 No great quantity of corn is raised on the most fruitful soils, 
 but they yield plenty of wine. An active race of men in- 
 habit the mountains ; their manner of life may recal the 
 customs of pastoral tribes. The shepherds have their win- 
 ter and summer residence; they choose the first in the 
 lower, and the other in the higher vallies. Skilful in di- 
 recting the course of the waters, they are thus enabled 
 to enrich the meadows, which in the latter part of the 
 year, afford nourishment to their cattle. “ The same small 
 stream,” says Ramond,s “ waters contiguous possessions, 
 the one above the other. A few slates are the simple 
 sluices by which the course of the water may be changed, 
 and made to communicate with neighbouring canals, where, 
 by the same means, it is directed from meadow to meadow, 
 until it reaches the lowest declivities which it is intended to 
 fructify.” While the different members of the family are 
 
 3PE. [BOOK CX1.II. 
 
 engaged in cultivating the ground, one man conducts the 
 flocks to the highest mountains, where natural pastures await 
 them ; if he cannot find any cave or shelter, he raises a 
 rude cottage with stones and the branches of trees; in 
 autumn, the sheep and cattle are brought down to the sum- 
 mer residence, which the family has left for the village. 
 The shepherd passes the winter in solitude, and his flocks 
 consume the food that has been prepared for them. He 
 braves the rigours of the season, the snows, the hurricanes 
 and the overwhelming avalanche. His food consists princi- 
 pally of milk, but the cows are much inferior both in form 
 and in size to those on the Alps. 
 
 We shall commence with the towns in the northern part 
 of the country. Vic en Bigorre, 1 * a small town on the right 
 bank of the Lechez, is peopled by 3500 inhabitants ; it car- 
 ries on a trade in brandy and leather. Rabastens near the 
 banks of a canal, 1 is the small town whose inhabitants were 
 massacred without distinction of age or sex by the troops of 
 Charles the Ninth, after the battle of Montcontour. 
 
 Tarbes is situated above these places, on the banks of the 
 Adour; the streets are broad and regular, and the houses 
 are built of brick and marble. A pure air and a cloudless 
 sky, together with fresh and limpid streams, contribute to 
 the salubrity for which it is famed. It is the chief town 
 and the mart of all the commerce in the department ; many 
 Spaniards repair to it for the purpose of purchasing cattle. 
 The prefect resides in the ancient episcopal palace ; the 
 cathedral rises on the ruins of the castle of Bigorra ; the 
 square of Maubourguet, situated in the centre of the town, 
 is adorned with trees, and encircled with coffee-houses and 
 places of amusement, but it cannot be compared w ith the 
 Prado beyond the walls. Tarbes stands probably on the 
 site of the ancient city of the Tarbelli. k 
 
 Bagneres de Bigorre is situated five leagues to the south, 
 and on the banks of die same river ; it is the capital of a 
 district, 1 and many strangers visit it every year on account of 
 its mineral waters. It stands at the foot of a hill covered 
 with trees and verdure ; pleasant walks extend from it 
 through the fine valley of Campan and along the banks of 
 the Adour. Campan, a flourishing burgh, contains about 
 4500 inhabitants ; it is a place of trade ; the manufactures 
 are paper and w T oollen stuffs. Extensive marble quarries 
 and a grotto four hundred feet in depth, adorned with beau- 
 tiful stalactites, are situated in the vicinity .“ Argeles,” the 
 chief town of a district, 1 is only remarkable for its romantic 
 position in a valley, watered by the Gave d’Azun, which 
 unites with the Gave de Pau. On the banks of the last 
 river, and at the distance of five leagues below Argeles, 
 Lourdes rises on a rock, commanded by a fortress, which 
 w r as ceded to the English by the treaty of Bretigny, and 
 afterwards changed into a state prison. It is a small town, 
 with manufactories of linen and woollen stuffs, and appears 
 to be of very ancient origin, from the remains of walls and 
 tow r ers of Roman construction. Cauterets, towards the 
 summits of the Pyrenees, is situated near roaring cataracts 
 and foaming streams ; it is mentioned in history as the resi- 
 
 a “ The castle now serves as a prison, which, like most of those in 
 Prance, stands in great need of improvement.” 
 b “ 18° to 60°.” 
 
 c Founded 1296. Suppressed and united with the see of Toulouse. 
 (1822).— P. 
 
 d “ iron works, paper mills and woollen manufactories.” 
 
 ‘ Department of the Upper Pyrenees. 
 
 1 The name iriven by the Basques and the Bearnese to streams and 
 rivers, as the Gave de Pau, the Gave d'Oloron. — P. 
 e Voyages et observations faites dans les Pyrenees. 
 
 h Vic Bigorre. 
 
 ■ Dug by Alaric. — M. B. 
 
 k Tarbes was the ancient Tnrba, the capital of the Bigerrones. 
 The capital of the TarbcUi was Aqua Augusta Tarbellira:, now Dai. 
 D’Anv. Encyc. Method. — P. 
 
 1 Arrondissement. Alman. Royal. 
 
 m “ Campan, a pleasant town ( bourg ) of 4500 inhabitants, derives its 
 importance from its manufactories of woollen stuffs, its paper mill, its 
 marble, and the stalactites in a grotto four hundred feet in depth.” 
 
 " Argellez. (Vosgien.) 
 
book cxlii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 dence of Margaret of Valois, but its celebrity depends 
 chiefly at present on its mineral waters. The village of St. 
 Sauveur is visited on account of the sulphureous springs in 
 the neighbourhood. The church in the small town of Luz, 
 was originally a convent of the Templars. The thermal 
 springs of Bareges, to which more than GOO strangers re- 
 pair, vary in temperature from 106° to 122° of Fahrenheit.® 
 The village is formed by a single street, consisting of eighty 
 houses, and has a chapel, an hospital built by Louis the 
 Fifteenth for disabled soldiers, and extensive baths. Al- 
 though a pleasant summer residence, it is hardly habitable 
 in winter ; most of the inhabitants then repair to Luz, where 
 they remain until the beginning of spring. The famous 
 cataract of Gavarnie, more remarkable than any other in 
 Europe, may he observed in the neighbourhood ; it falls 
 from the height of 1270 feet. 
 
 The ancient principality of Bearn, b and Lower Navarre, c 
 the only remains of the kingdom, which Rome took from 
 the grandfather 11 of Henry the Fourth, and granted to Fer- 
 dinand king of Arragon, are included in the department of 
 the Lower Pyrenees. A new title, that of king of Navarre, 
 was assumed by the French sovereigns, when a descendant 
 of the house of Bearn mounted the throne of France. 
 The territories of Soule and Labourd e f are also situated in 
 the same department. s The Pyrenees do not occupy one 
 half of the country ; they have no longer the appearance 
 of lofty mountains covered with eternal glaciers, hut of 
 heights crowned with forests, and intersected with fruitful 
 and well peopled vallies. Hills planted with vineyards ex- 
 tend at their base, plains rich in corn line both the banks of 
 the Gave de Pau, and the sandy lands on the north, partly 
 uncultivated, but susceptible of much improvement, add to the 
 varied products of the department. The Bidassoa bounds 
 it on the west, and determines the line which separates the 
 kingdoms of France and Spain. In the same river is situ- 
 ated the isle of Pheasants, called also the isle of Conference, 
 from the interview between Mazarin and Lewis de Haro, h 
 an interview that brought about the treaty by which Artois 
 and Roussillon were ceded to France. 1 Although the 
 coasts bathed by the Gulf of Gascony are not extensive, 
 the harbours situated on them, afford great advantages to the 
 commerce of the department ; the inhabitants are not solely 
 occupied with agricultural labours ; many of them are em- 
 ployed in different manufactories, and in working iron and 
 other mines. 
 
 At the period when the Arabs, then masters of the greater 
 a “32° to 40°. ” 
 
 b A territory extending along the foot of the Pyrenees, between 
 Lower Navarre and Soule on the west, and Bigorre on the east. Pau 
 the capital. — P. 
 
 c A small territory, 8 leagues long and 5 broad, separated from 
 Spanish Navarre by the Pyrenees. It occupies the S. W. extremity 
 of France. St. Jean Pied de Port the capital. — P. 
 d Jean d’Albret, great grandfather of Henry IV. — P. 
 e Lriliourd signifies coast, in the Gascon dialect. 
 f “ Pays de Soule” (the country of Soule, situated between Bearn 
 and Navarre. Mauleon the capital .) — “ Terre de Labourd” (coun- 
 try of Labour, situated on the sea coast. Bayonne, the capital.) — P. 
 
 g Soule, Labour and Lower Navarre are called the Basque prov- 
 inces. The Basques form the principal part of the population, both in 
 the towns and the country, and they still retain their very peculiar 
 language and costume. — P. 
 
 h Don Luis de Haro, prime minister ofPhilip IV. of Spain. — P. 
 
 1 In the river Bidassoa nearly at the crossing place from Fontara- 
 bia to Andaya on the French side, is a small barren and uninhabited 
 island, formerly named the Isle of Pheasants, but being the place 
 where the conference was held between France and Spain, which 
 produced the peace of the Pyrenees, it thence received the name of 
 Isle de la Conference. Tuckey’s Mar. Geog. II. p. 74. — P. 
 
 OF FRANCE. 229 
 
 part of Spain, extended their devastations beyond the Pyre- 
 nees, a prince of Bearn marked with three staxes, the site 
 of a castle, which was afterwards raised to impede their 
 progress. The same edifice, built in the ninth century, was 
 occupied both as a palace and a fortress. The people of 
 Bearn called it Paou, which signifies a stake, and from the 
 protection it afforded, houses were grouped round it, and a 
 town was thus formed in the tenth century, which continued 
 to increase and prosper under the government of good and 
 enlightened princes. Such was the origin of Pau, a city 
 built with some sort of elegance, near the extremity of a 
 table-land that commands the fruitful valley watered by the 
 Gave, k which derives its name from the ancient capital of 
 Bearn. The principal ornaments of the town are a lofty 
 bridge that rises above the river with the majesty of an aque- 
 duct, together with the castle, the court of justice, and a 
 public walk adorned with a fine fountain. Pau is renowned 
 as the birthplace of Henry the Fourth, but it has also pro- 
 duced Gaston de Foix, the celebrated duke of Nemours, 
 Jane d’Albret, who, although queen of a petty state, acted an 
 important part in French history, and the viscount D’Orthes, 
 who in Bayonne, on St. Bartholomew’s day, spared the 
 victims devoted by Charles the Ninth it was also the na- 
 tive town of Peter Marca, m one of the most learned prelates 
 in the Gallican church, of Pardies the astronomer, and last- 
 ly, of the general," who accepted the Swedish throne, and 
 renounced his country. It may be repeated that Henry 
 the Fourth was born in the castle of Pau, which, during 
 the revolution, was changed into a barrack, and after the 
 restoration, into a royal palace. A large tortoise-shell, once 
 the cradle of the monarch, is preserved with almost reli- 
 gious veneration ; other relics of the great and good king 
 are kept with the same care. But Pau has more titles to 
 celebrity than those arising from historical associations ; it 
 holds no mean place among the industrious towns in France; 
 the manufactures consist of cloth, carpets and woollen stuffs. 0 
 Nay, situated above it, on the left hank of the Gave de Pau, 
 is a place of some trade ; p it was the native town of Abba- 
 die, a famous protestant theologian. 
 
 Oloron or Oleron on the right bank of the Gave d’Ossau, * 1 * ! 
 carries on a trade with Spain ; it sends among other articles 
 into that country, a great many boxwood combs made by 
 machinery ; it exports timber for the royal navy, and the 
 wool it receives from Spanish Navarre into different parts of 
 France." Mauleon stands in a fruitful valley; it is the 
 smallest capital of a district 3 * in the department. Orthez, 1 
 
 k Gave de Pau. 
 
 1 This act is attributed to the viscount La Braue, a native of Or- 
 thez. Encyc. Method. — P. 
 
 m Pierre de Marca, president of parliament, and afterwards arch- 
 bishop of Toulouse, under Louis XIII. — P. 
 
 n Bernadotte. 
 
 0 “ Pau holds an important rank among the manufacturing towns 
 of France, from its manufactories of linens and carpets ; it is also 
 noted for the excellence of its dried geese and hams, the last of which 
 take their name from Bayonne.” M. B. It has manufactories of 
 cloth, linen, handkerchiefs and hats ; also paper mills, tanneries, and 
 dying houses, and a trade in hams, geese, chestnuts and lime. (Vos- 
 gien.j The principal manufactures are linens, table linen and tow- 
 els ; its hams, which are celebrated, are shipped at Bayonne. Ed 
 Encyc. — P. 
 
 p “ It has manufactories of woollen stuffs.” 
 
 *i Gave d’Oloron. (Vosgien.) 
 
 r “ It carries on with Spain, a considerable trade in hams, and in 
 boxwood combs made by machinery. It sends to other parts of 
 France, the wool received from Spanish Navarre and collected in the 
 department, and also timber for the royal navy.” 
 
 3 “ Subprefecture” or arrondissement. — P 
 
 1 Ortez, Ourtes (Vosgien). 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 230 
 
 another chief town of a district,® and a place of greater im- 
 portance, is well built and commanded by the ruins of an 
 old castle. Jane d’Albret granted it an university, b and 
 founded a school, in which a trial was made of what has 
 been since called the system of mutual instruction, a system 
 -enewed at the present day, and generally believed to be of 
 English invention.® A destructive battle was fought at the 
 gates of the town in 1814 ; Marshal Soult, at the head of 
 20,000 men, sustained the shock of 70,000 English, Span- 
 iards and Portuguese under the command of the Duke of 
 Wellington, who purchased a victory with the loss of 10,000 
 men. The salt springs near Salies, a small town in the 
 same district/ abound in salt of a pure whiteness, to which 
 has been attributed the superiority of the hams cured at 
 Pau and Bayonne.® It was in the last town that the bayo- 
 net was invented in the eighteenth century/ — a formidable 
 weapon by which many victories have been since decided. 
 
 Bayonne is the only trading town in France, that pos- 
 sesses the advantage of two rivers, in which the tide rises. 
 The Nive and the Adour divide it into three nearly equal 
 parts, called Great Bayonne, Little Bayonne and the suburb 
 of St. Esprit. The streets are broad and straight ; the squares 
 and market places are adorned with different edifices, the 
 finest of which are the cathedral and the exchange.® As a 
 strong place, it may be ranked in the first class ; it is the 
 seat of a bishopric, and the capital of a district. 4 Great 
 Bayonne is commanded by an old castle, Little Bayonne 
 by a modern castle, and the suburb of St. Esprit by a cita- 
 del, the work of Vauban, which has been since enlarged 
 and improved. The harbour, although difficult of access 
 for large ships, is safe and much frequented by small ves- 
 sels. Many persons are engaged in the coasting trade and 
 in the cod fisheries. Bayonne rivals Andaye in preparing 
 the liqueur that bears the name of that village it sends 
 chocolate into most parts of France/ and wines of the first 
 quality are produced in the neighbourhood. 
 
 The people in the department of the Landes see the 
 summits of the Pyrenees only at a distance ; the Adour and 
 the Lay which descend from those mountains, water fields 
 fruitful in maize and wheat, and the hills on the left are cov- 
 ered with vineyards. But on leaving the Adour, vast plains 
 of sand fatigue the eye by an uniformity which is only broken 
 by ponds, marshes or heaths, and at distant intervals, by 
 meadows and cultivated fields. A long green belt near the 
 sea shore is formed by a forest of maritime pines ; the same 
 part of the country is thinly peopled. These monotonous 
 and dismal plains (landes ) give their name to the depart- 
 ment. The peasants live in isolated cottages ; the father of 
 the family employs himself in cultivating the ground, or in 
 other rural labours, while the young people often travel ten 
 leagues round the country for the purpose of making char- 
 
 1 “ Subprefecture” or arrondissement. — P. 
 
 b Established for the protestants ; suppressed by Louis XIV. — P. 
 
 c Histoire de Jeanne d'Albret, par Mile. Vauvilliers. 
 
 d “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 6 “ The hams of Pau or Bayonne” — cured at Pau, and shipped at 
 Bayonne. — P. 
 
 ‘ The bayonet appears to have been first manufactured in the town 
 >f Bayonne, from which it derives its name. It was first introduced 
 jy the French about the end of the 17th century, and was employed 
 irith great success in the war of 1G89. Ed. Encyc. — P. 
 
 e “Mint.” 
 
 h Andaye, on the right bank of the Bidassoa, is the last town in 
 France. Tuckey’s Mar. Geog. V. II. p. 24. Andaye is noted for its 
 Brandy. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 • “ It is noted for its chocolate” — Its wines, raisins and chocolate 
 ire exported in considerable quantities to the north of Europe. Ed. 
 Encvc. — P. 
 
 [BOOK CXLII. 
 
 coal in the forests, or of leading their flocks to pastures. It 
 might be supposed that the people were wanderers, and not 
 unwilling to quit an ungrateful soil ; certainly their great so- 
 briety, their comparatively few wants, and the velocity with 
 which they move along their deserts by means of long stilts, 
 might afford them great facility in removing ; but the love 
 of country prevails. The land, however, is not wholly un- 
 productive ; the peasant cultivates hemp, makes sail cloth, 
 and derives considerable profit from the resin of his pine 
 trees. The soil abounds in iron ore, and there are not 
 fewer than seventeen places in the department in which it 
 may be smelted. * 1 ' 
 
 Dax, 1 situated on the left bank of the Adour, above its 
 junction with the Lay, may be considered an important 
 town, not from its population, but as being the capital of a 
 district.™ It is well built and encompassed by old walls 
 flanked with towers. The hospital may be mentioned for 
 the excellent way in which it is managed, and on account 
 of the attention bestowed on the inmates.® It possesses a 
 museum of natural history, containing a fine collection of 
 fossil shells mostly found in the vicinity ; some species 
 which are still inhabitants of the neighbouring sea, prove 
 that the sandy plains in the department were covered 
 by the ocean at a later period than the marine de- 
 posits round Paris. The thermal springs are much fre- 
 quented ; their mean temperature is about 165° of Fahren- 
 heit.® The waters are collected in a pentagonal reservoir 
 nearly 25 feet in depth, surrounded with porticos and 
 iron rails. The vapours that rise form them in the morn- 
 ing when the air is cold, form a dense fog, which cov- 
 ers sometimes the whole town. The Romans were not 
 ignorant of the thermal springs in this ancient city of the 
 Tarbelli ; it was styled by them Aqua: Tarbellicce ;P it is 
 still not unfrequently called Aqs, which, as well as its more 
 common appellation, is evidently derived from the same 
 name. It passed from the Roman domination under that 
 of the Goths ; the latter were succeeded by the Franks, 
 who were in their turn expelled by the Vascones or Gas- 
 cons. The Arabs took it in the year 910, and the Eng 
 lish in the twelfth century ; it was freed from the yoke of 
 the latter about the middle of the fifteenth by Charles the 
 Seventh ; it carries on at present a considerable trade in 
 the products of the department. It was the native town of 
 Borda, the inventor of the reflecting circle. The small 
 village of Poy in the vicinity claims the honour of having 
 given birth to Vincent de Paul,*! whom the church adores 
 as a saint, and humanity reveres as a benefactor. 
 
 St. Sever rises on the left bank of the Adour, at the dis- 
 tance of ten leagues above Dax. It owes its origin to 
 William Sancho, r duke of Gascony, who, in the year 982, 
 founded there a celebrated abbey of Benedictines. Aire, 
 
 k “ 17 furnaces.” 
 
 1 Dacqs, Acqs. Encyc. Method. 
 
 m “ Subprefecture” or arrondissement. — P. 
 
 n “ On y voit un hospice civil fort bien tenu” — There is in Dax a 
 well managed alms-house. M. B. — The establishments in France for the 
 reception of those who are obliged to have recourse to public charity 
 are of two kinds, viz. hospitals ( hopitaux ,) for the sick, and hospices, 
 for the infirm and indigent. Pcuchet, Statistique de la France, p. 
 261. In the large towns in France there arc generally two hospi- 
 tals, one for the indigent sick, the other for the aged poor. Ed. En- 
 cyc. — P. 
 
 0 “ 60° of Reaumur.” 
 
 P Aqua Augusta TarhcUictc, D’Anv. 
 
 q Born 1576 at Ranquines, a small hamlet in the parish of Pouy, 
 diocese of Acqs ; died 1660 — canonized by Benedict XIII, 1729 
 Beauvais. — P. 
 
 1 “ Guillaume Sanche.” 
 
book cxm.j DESCRIPTION 
 
 at the foot of a hill, is the ancient Vicus Julii, which was 
 called Jltures before the reign of Augustus, from the Atur , a 
 the name given by the Tarusates to the Adour, that flows 
 below the town. Tartas rises like an amphitheatre on the 
 declivity of a hill ; it is watered by the Midouze, a feeder 
 of the Adour ; the country in the neighbourhood abounds 
 in tortoises, red partridges and different sorts of game. Last- 
 ly, Mont de Marsan, situated near the confluence of the 
 Douze and the Midou, formerly a very insignificant town, 
 has increased in population, since it became the capital of 
 the department. It bears the name of its founder, Peter, 
 viscount of Marsan, by whom it was built in the year 1140. 
 Although not a manufacturing town, its position at the en- 
 trance into a vast plain, renders it the principal mart for the 
 trade of the department. 
 
 The Leyre, a small river, which rises on the north of 
 Mont de Marsan, and throws itself into the bay of Arca- 
 chon, b serves as a boundary to the department of the Gi- 
 ronde. The sandy plains or landcs extend nearly to the 
 hanks of the Garonne, from which they are separated by the 
 rich vineyards of Medoc, Haut Brion, St. Emilion and 
 Grave ; they terminate on the west in sandy downs that 
 stretch along the sea-shore ; the particles of sand carried by 
 the wind, covered formerly every year a space seventy-two 
 feet in breadth by fifty leagues in length. The steeple of 
 a church was long seen near the canal of F urnes, while the 
 other parts of the building were buried in the sand. Sev- 
 eral houses on the coast of Medoc, have been destroyed in 
 the same manner, and the tops of the highest trees are only 
 observed in an ancient forest near the bay of Arcachon. It 
 was the opinion of Bremontier the engineer, that plants well 
 adapted for such kinds of soil, might be raised on these 
 downs ; his advice was followed, and they have since be- 
 come fruitful. 0 The marble monument, which records the 
 memory of the event, and the gratitude of the inhabitants, 
 is now surrounded by cultivated fields. In the country be- 
 tween the Garonne and the Dordogne, the most varied and 
 picturesque sites succeed the uniformity of the heaths. The 
 soil between the last river and the Dronne, which forms the 
 northern limit of the department, consists of calcareous 
 heights, covered with coppice or vineyards, and separated 
 from each other by fruitful vallies. Enriched by agricul- 
 ture and trade, the people are industrious and enlightened ; 
 iron and other mineral substances are worked with profit; 
 flocks of merinos are by no means uncommon on the estates 
 of the wealthy proprietors, and of late years, the best breeds 
 from England have been introduced into the country . d 
 
 The towns situated in the landes are poor and thinly 
 peopled ; such is Bazas, the capital of a district.® Although 
 it possesses no other antiquities than medals and mosaics, it 
 
 OF FRANCE. 231 
 
 is known to have been an important place in the time of the 
 Romans, who called it Cossium Vasatumf because it was 
 situated in the territory of the Vasatcs. The diocese, of 
 which it was formerly the seat, must have been very ancient, 
 since one of the bishops was present at the council of Agde 
 in the year 506. The cathedral is a fine Gothic edifice of 
 the fourteenth century. The ruins of the church of Ozeste, 
 another Gothic building, erected by pope Clement the Fifth, 
 may be seen at a short distance from the walls. s Langon, 
 surrounded by the vineyards of Gravg, is better built; it 
 rises on the left bank of the Garonne, where the tide, still 
 perceptible, favours the trade of the town, and the convey- 
 ance of its wines. Of late years, steam boats have sailed 
 regularly to Bordeaux, and the communication between the 
 two towns, has in consequence been much increased. 
 
 Many islands are scattered in different parts of the river, 
 and the banks are bordered by fruitful hills. On the right 
 bank are situated the old towers and embattled walls of 
 Cadillac, as well as the fine castle of Epernon. Rions at a 
 greater distance to the north, on the same bank of the river, 
 contains 1500 inhabitants. Castres, on the left bank, near 
 the confluence of the Gue-Mort, is not so important a place 
 as the last, but better built, and is agreeably situated on the 
 road from Toulouse to Bordeaux. The last city rises ma- 
 jestically on the banks of the Garonne, at the place where 
 the river forms a large curve, and renders the harbour very 
 imposing. It describes an arc, of which the two extremi- 
 ties are not less than a league distant from each other, and 
 the space it encloses may contain a thousand ships. Bor- 
 deaux' 1 may be ranked from its commerce and importance 
 among the first towns in the kingdom. A line of fine 
 buildings extends along the whole length of the city, 1 and 
 vessels of every size and from every nation repair to the 
 harbour. The mean breadth of the river may be more 
 than a mile ; k it flows with rapidity, and a magnificent 
 bridge, consisting of seventeen arches, erected over the nar- 
 rowest part of the Garonne, occupies a space equal to 648 
 yards' in length. The difficulties against which the archi- 
 tect had to contend in building such a bridge in such a 
 situation, were apparently insurmountable. It was neces- 
 sary to overcome the obstacles arising from the sandy and 
 shifting bed of the river, from the depth of twenty-five to 
 forty feet,™ from the force of the tide, which twice a-day 
 rises to the height of four or five yards," and from the cur- 
 rents occasioned by the same cause, the velocity of which 
 someiimes exceeds three yards in a second. Old Bor- 
 deaux extends on the right of the bridge ; the streets 
 are narrow and crooked, and the squares and market 
 places are irregular. The quarter of Chartrons is the 
 most commercial part of the town, 0 but the finest and best 
 
 1 Jllvrus, D’Anv. b Arcayon. 
 
 c “ Since the engineer Bremontier suggested the idea that these 
 downs might be fixed by sowing them with plants suited to the soil, 
 they have been rendered productive.” France is indebted to Bre- 
 montier for fixing the sands and planting the downs along the Gulf 
 of Gascony, and for restoring those sandy soils to cultivation. (Beau- 
 vais.) Since 1788, the government has attempted checking the prog- 
 ress of the downs, by raising pines from seeds on their internal de- 
 clivities, and as far as the experiment has been tried, it is said to 
 have succeeded. Tuckey’s Mar. Geog. V. 11. p. 5. — P. 
 
 d “ Enriched by its agriculture and a very extensive commerce, the 
 department of the Gironde also contains many manufacturing estab- 
 lishments. Iron is extensively manufactured ; there are four high 
 furnaces* and seven fineries! in the department. Many of the 
 wealthy proprietors keep flocks of merinos, and are also engaged in 
 introducing the English long wooled sheep.” — P. 
 
 * Smelting furnaces. t Refining furnaces — used in making bar iron. 
 
 • “ Arrondissement.” 1 Cossio, D’Anv. 
 
 « “ The cathedral is one of the finest monuments of the fourteenth 
 
 century. The Gothic church of Ozeste, + founded by Pope Clement 
 V. is situated at a short distance from the walls now in ruins ( scs mu- 
 \ rmUes ere mines.)" 
 
 | Oreste 1 Orestes was bishop of Bazas in 585. Moreri. — P. 
 h Bourdeaux. 
 
 * The river forms a semicircular basin, 700 fathoms broad, and is 
 lined by a superb quay, with magnificent buildings. Tuckey’s Mar. 
 Geog. V. II. p. 23.— P. 
 
 k “ The breadth of the river is equal to three fourths of a league” — 
 The river opposite Bordeaux is between 300 and 400 toises in breadth. 
 Ed. Encyc. 
 
 1 “ 486 metres.” 
 m “ 7 to 10 metres.” 
 
 " “ 4 to 6 metres.” — The tide rises to the height of 12 feet. Ed. 
 Encyc. 
 
 ° The suburb of Chartrons, in which the principal merchants re- 
 side. (Ed. Encyc.) — Bordeaux consists of the city (old town.) and 
 the three suburbs of the Chapeau Rouge, St. Surin and the Chartrons. 
 CEncyc. Method.) — P. 
 
[BOOK CXIiII. 
 
 232 EUROPE. 
 
 built is the quarter of the Chnpeau Rouge. Louis the 
 Fourteenth destroyed the remains of an ancient temple ded- 
 icated to the tutelary gods, in order to enlarge the esplanade 
 of the Chateau Trompette ; but the castle itself has been 
 destroyed since the revolution, and modern buildings not 
 unworthy of so wealthy a city are now raised on the site 
 All that remains of the old fortifications, now useless, are 
 the ruins of the fort of St. Croix at the extremity of the 
 quarter of Chartrons ; the dockyards extend at their base. 
 
 The old dungeons 1 ' in the castle of Ha are still entire ; 
 they are used as a prison. The Burgundian gate, c a fine 
 triumphal arch, rises on the quay, opposite the bridge ; it 
 was built to commemorate the birth of the grandson of 
 Louis the Fourteenth. 11 Another gate near the old trench- 
 es of Salinieres, may be remarked on account of the Goth- 
 ic edifice which rises above it; it is the ancient town- 
 house. The Royal square® is more worthy of the name from 
 the buildings which adorn it, than from its size. The Place 
 Dauphine , more regular than the last, is situated at the ex- 
 tremity of a much frequented walk, called the alleys of 
 Touruy ; the other squares worthy of notice, are the 
 Place d'Armes , and those of St. Germain and Grands- 
 hommes. The cathedral, the largest church in the town, 
 is a Gothic edifice; the interior, imposing from its size, is 
 adorned with a magnificent altar. The large theatre, a 
 circular building/ surpasses most places of the same kind 
 in elegance of architecture, and in the commodious ar- 
 rangement of the boxes. A light and graceful dome tow- 
 ers above the exchange, the rendezvous for merchants 
 from every part of the world. The ancient archiepiscopal 
 palace, an edifice remarkable for its regularity, was chang- 
 ed into a royal palace at the restoration. Bordeaux, like 
 Paris, has a pompous cemetery, where the wealthy accu- 
 mulate marbles and inscriptions; it is situated at the ex- 
 tremity of the town, in the enclosure of the new Chartreuse, 
 near a handsome modern church embellished with fresco 
 paintings. Within the same rich city are situated several 
 hospitals, an asylum for the deaf and dumb, different 
 academical societies, and a public library, consisting ol 
 1 10,000 volumes, among which is a copy of Montaigne’s 
 Essays with marginal corrections written by the author ; it 
 possesses besides, a botanical garden, one of the four es- 
 tablished by government for the purpose of naturalizing ex- 
 otic plants, a collection of natural history, schools of theol- 
 ogy, medicine, surgery, drawing and painting, and lastly a 
 
 '* * * The Chateau Trompette was purchased from the late king (Louis 
 XVI.) by a company of speculators, for the purpose of being taken 
 down, in order to build with the materials a fine square, and several 
 splendid streets, to the number of 1800 houses. (Ed. Encyc. 1813.) — P. 
 
 b “The Donj >n” — principal tower or keep. 
 
 c “ Porte do Bourgogne” — Gate of Burgundy. 
 
 d Louis, duke of Burgundy, father of Louis XV. — P. 
 
 e “ Place Royale.” 
 
 f In the shape of the segment of an oval, occupying a space of 306 
 by 165 feet, with the principal front at one end, where there is a por- 
 tico of twelve very large Corinthian columns. Ed. Encyc. — P. 
 
 s “ a cabinet of natural history, a university,* a faculty of theolo- 
 
 gy, schools of medicine, drawing and painting, a gallery of pictures, and 
 a museum of antiquities, in the last of which are collected the different 
 tombs and basso-relievos, that have been found within the town or in 
 its neighbourhood.” 
 
 * “Academie Universitaire.” — The general superintendence of education in 
 France is intrusted to the Council of Public Instruction, subordinate to which 
 are the Academies, equal to the royal courts in number. The Academies 
 have the immediate superintendence of all the schools within their jurisdiction. 
 The schools are arranged in the following order : viz. 1st, Faculties ; 2d, Royal 
 and Communal Colleges; 3d, Seminaries ( Institutions , ) and Boarding Schools 
 ( Pensions)-, 4th, Primary Schools. The academies with their faculties corre- 
 spond to the former universities, whence the term “ academie universitaire,” in 
 the original.— P. 
 
 museum of antiquities, in which are tombs and basso-re- 
 lievos collected in the town or neighbourhood. ? We have 
 had occasion to mention an ancient temple, now wholly de- 
 stroyed ; some arcades of an amphitheatre, called the pal- 
 ace of Gallienus/ are the only remains that serve to recal 
 the Roman domination. It is supposed that Bordeaux 
 was a town before the conquest of Caesar, and that its an- 
 cient name came from two words of Celtic origin, Bur and 
 Wal, signifying a Gallic fortress, which the Romans cor- 
 rupted into Burdigala. It is by that name that Ausonius 
 mentions it in his verses; it became the capital of the sec- 
 ond Aquitania during the reign of Hadrian. It was ravag- 
 ed by the Visigoths about the end of the fourth century, 
 and four hundred years afterwards, by the Saracens and 
 the Normans ; it passed with the whole of Aquitaine into 
 the power of the English in the year 1152.’ It was en- 
 larged under Henry the Second and Edward the Third, 
 but it did not become very flourishing until Charles the 
 Seventh freed it from a foreign yoke. Although it may 
 be doubted that it was the native town of Ausonius and 
 Sidonius Apollinaris, it claims at least the merit of having 
 given birth to Montesquieu, to Berquin, to Ducos and Gen- 
 sonne, two distinguished members of the national conven- 
 tion, and lastly to the celebrated defender of Louis the 
 Sixteenth/ whose devotedness was rewarded with the most 
 honourable dignities. 
 
 Bordeaux has its distilleries, vinegar, nitric acid and su- 
 gar works ; it possesses paper, cotton, silk and woollen 
 manufactories : the porcelain, glass, hats, carpets and stock- 
 ings made in the same place are sold in different parts of 
 France. 1 It equips every year nearly two hundred ves- 
 sels, and of these several are sent to the cod and whale 
 fisheries. 
 
 The small town of Blaye, supposed to have been the 
 ancient Blavia, is situated below the narrow tongue of 
 land, called the Bee d'Ambes , m on the right bank of the 
 Gironde, opposite Medoc. It is divided into two parts, 
 one of which rises on the acclivity of a hill, and the other 
 on the summit, where four large bastions serve with the 
 fort of Medoc to guard the entrance into the river. Ac- 
 cording to tradition, Caribert, who died in the year 574, 
 and the brave Roland, who fell at Roncevaux in 778, were 
 buried within the walls of the town. Libourne, the capi- 
 tal of a district,” is situated at the confluence of the Dor- 
 dogne and the Dronne ;° it is encompassed with walls and 
 
 h The amphitheatre and the palace of Gallienus were two distinct 
 edifices. The former was of an oval figure, 227 feet in length and 140 
 in breadth. A few walls and two of the gates are the only remains of 
 the latter. Encyc. Method. — P. 
 
 ‘ By the marriage of Eleanor, only daughter of William the tenth 
 and last duke of Guienne, who had been divorced from Louis VII. of 
 France in 1152, with Henry of Normandy, afterwards Henry II. of 
 England, Bordeaux became subject to the princes of that country, by 
 whom it was greatly enlarged and beautified. Ed. Encyc. — P. 
 
 k Count Deseze, the youngest of the council of Louis XVI., selected 
 as their associate by the two elder council, Malesherbes and Tronchet, 
 after the refusal of Target to officiate. He lived in retirement till the 
 restoration, when he was made president, of the Court of Cassation, 
 and afterwards ennobled, by Louis XVIII. — P. 
 
 1 “ Bordeaux possesses manufactories of vinegar and nitric acid, 
 distilleries and sugar refineries ; it also manufactures paper, cottons, 
 hats, stockings, pottery ( delft-ware ,) glass, carpets and oil cloth.” 
 
 w The point between the two rivers, at the confluence of the Ga- 
 ronne and the Dordogne. — P. 
 
 “ “ Subprefecture” or arrondissement. 
 
 0 Libourne is situated at the confluence of the Dordogne and the 
 Hie. (Vosgicn. Encyc. Method. Rees’ Cyc.) The Dronne is a branch 
 of the Ille. — P. 
 
 L 
 
BOOK CXL.I1.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 233 
 
 agreeable walks, and was founded by Edward the First, 
 king of England. La Reole, the last town worthy of no- 
 tice, rises near the eastern extremity of the department, 
 on a hill which commands the right bank of the Garonne. 
 It was the birthplace of the two Fauchers, both victims of 
 the same political revolution. Twin brothers, and united 
 to each other by the most devoted attachment, their patri- 
 otism called them both to the field of battle, where they 
 served in the same ranks, distinguished themselves in the 
 same engagements, and were made generals at the same 
 time. Enthusiastically attached to liberty, they disdained 
 to promote the ambition of a single man ; as soon, there- 
 fore, as Bonaparte assumed the title of consul, and there- 
 by announced his ambitious designs, they resigned their 
 commissions. Their retirement was ennobled with the 
 laurels of twenty campaigns. But the presence of foreign 
 troops on the French territory after the battle of Waterloo, 
 and the continuance of hostilities after the departure of Na- 
 
 f Brandy, cordage and pins. (Vosgicn.) 
 s Clerac. 
 
 h “ The tobacco manufactory ( manufacture dc tabac,) which formerly 
 enjoyed a high reputation, is situated at a short distance from its walls. 
 Clairac on the Lot formerly rivalled it in that article ; its tobacco ( la - 
 VOL. III.— NO. 49 30 
 
 and it is considered of a better quality than any other sort 
 in France. Iron, the most abundant mineral substance in 
 the department, adds considerably to the wealth of the in- 
 habitants. 0 The climate is temperate, the sky is seldom 
 clouded, and the air is salubrious ; an exception, however, 
 must be made of the country near the marshes, which cov- 
 er part of the landes. Long alternations of rains and 
 droughts often interrupt the course of the seasons ; some- 
 times an atmospheric phenomenon, called the brouillard i 
 in the country, changes the joyful days of spring into days 
 of mourning. If the burning rays of the sun are sudden- 
 ly felt after the light mist which accompanies the same 
 phenomenon, the hopes of the husbandman are blasted. 
 
 Marmande was almost destroyed by the Arabs in the 
 eighth century ; although many of the buildings are anti- 
 quated, it is on the whole, a well built town ; it is the chief 
 place in a district 0 of the same name ; it rises on the right 
 bank of the Garonne, and carries on a considerable trade 
 with Bordeaux. Tonneins consists mostly of a long and 
 broad street, embellished with several fine houses ; the in- 
 habitants are industrious, and the town is a place of trade 
 both in the products of the department, and in different 
 manufactures/ The tobacco works, which were at one 
 time in greater repute than any others in France, are situ- 
 ated at a short distance from the walls. Although its snuff 
 is still much prized, connoisseurs of the present day seem 
 to give the preference to that of Clairac, s h a town situated 
 on the Lot, peopled by about 5000 inhabitants, and one 
 of the first places in the south that embraced the reforma- 
 tion/ Villeneuve d’Agen, which was built in the thirteenth 
 century according to a regular plan, is traversed by the 
 Lot; the principal arch of a bridge erected at the same 
 period over the river, is 108 feet in width and 55 in height. 
 The old fortifications are now changed into agreeable 
 walks, but some remains of the former may be seen near 
 the castle of Duke Alphonso, the brother of St. Louis, and 
 the founder of the town. No other place of any conse- 
 quence can be mentioned in the same district/ Agen, al- 
 though thinly peopled, is the largest town in the depart- 
 ment its antiquity is attested by the name of Aginum, m 
 given it by Ptolemy, who informs us that it was the capi- 
 tal of the JVitiobriges. It obtained the rank and privileges 
 of a city under Theodosius ; it is at present the seat of a 
 bishopric and a court of justice." The streets are narrow 
 and crooked, and the houses clumsy and inconvenient, but 
 the bridge over the Garonne is a fine structure. The 
 walks are laid out with much taste, and the neighbouring 
 country cannot be too much commended. Agen was the 
 native town of Joseph Scaliger and Lacepede. The in- 
 habitants manufacture hard-ware, sail-cloth and printed 
 cottons. The small but neat town of Nerac on the Bayse, 0 
 
 hue) was esteemed the best in France.” — For a memoir on the cultiva- 
 tion and preparation of tobacco in the district of Tonneins, see Sava- 
 ry, Diet. Comm. 1741, Vol. III. p. 272, or Encyc. Meth. Commerce, 
 art. Tabac. The inodes of preparing it were spinning and rolling. The 
 manufacture of snuff is not mentioned. — P. 
 
 ‘ “The first place in the south which embraced the reformation.” 
 Gerard Le Roux, abbot of Clerac, about the year 1530, having embrac- 
 ed the doctrines of the reformation, not only brought over the town to 
 his persuasion, but also Margaret, queen of Navarre, who declared 
 herself his protectress. Moreri. — P. 
 
 k Arrondissement of Villeneuve d’Agen. 
 
 1 It is the capital of the department and the residence of the pre- 
 fect. — P. 
 
 m Aginnum, Ptolern. ed. Mercator. 1584. — P. 
 
 n “ Cour royale.” 
 
 ° Baise. 
 
 poleon, and the return of the King, announcing the dangers 
 which threatened France, the two brothers accepted from 
 general Clausel, the honourable office of defending then- 
 native town, an office which they fulfilled with much zeal 
 and ability until, informed of the state of events, they laid 
 down their arms. Their patriotism was imputed to them 
 as a crime ; summoned before a special commission, no 
 advocate was bold enough to defend them. The two 
 brothers were in consequence doomed to death, and as 
 they had been inseparable during life, so they died in em- 
 bracing each other. 
 
 If a traveller were to form an opinion of the soil in the 
 department of the Lot and Garonne from the wide and fer- 
 tile vallies that these two rivers water, he might suppose it 
 one of the most fruitful in France. But the dismal landes 
 that have been already mentioned, extend on the west, and 
 cover an eighth part of the surface. The hills situated on 
 the east between the Garonne and the Lot, particular- 
 ly near the banks of the Lot, are by no means fruitful. 
 On the north, the labourer attempts to derive some profit 
 from a ferruginous clay, which covers several districts ; it 
 may be truly said, however, that the soil is ungrateful." 
 But in the more fertile parts of the country, the corn crops 
 suffice amply for the wants of the inhabitants. Trees of 
 different kinds are loaded with fruit, and it is believed that 
 the best prunes in France are exported from the depart- 
 ment/ The vines, often cultivated with the plough, 
 and suffered to grow without props, yield double the quan- 
 tity of wine that the inhabitants consume. Most of the 
 wines are red, thick and strong ; they may be kept a long 
 time, and are not impaired by distant voyages. Hemp 
 grows to a great height, and judges consider it superior to 
 any in the north ; tobacco is cultivated on a great scale, 
 
 a “ It may be truly said that in one half of the department, the soil is 
 unproductive.” 
 
 b “ Plum trees are the most common, particularly those that furnish 
 the excellent prunes called cutes* * * which form an extensive article of 
 exportation.” 
 
 * Fr. cute, a graft. 
 
 c “ Iron is the most important of its mineral productions ; it supplies 
 three high furnaces, three Catalan forges, t and five fineries.” 
 t Furnaces in which tough or bar iron is made directly from the ore. — P. 
 d Fr. brouillard , fog mist. e “Arrondissement.” 
 
234 EUR< 
 
 is situated in a picturesque country, and commanded by an 
 ancient Gothic castle, the residence of the kings of Na- 
 varre.® 
 
 The department of the Gers, bounded on the north by the 
 one that has been last mentioned, may be considered an ag- 
 ricultural country; although mountainous on the south, large 
 plains extend towards the north ; the air is pure and the cli- 
 mate temperate. A seventh part of the surface is covered 
 with vineyards ; the rest is laid out in meadows and corn 
 fields. The greater part of the soil yields moderate har- 
 vests, and the department furnishes very little good wine, 
 but a great quantity of bad, which the inhabitants convert 
 into brandy, better than any other sort in France, with the 
 exception of that of Cognac. The brandy still bears the 
 name of Armagnac, an ancient province, of which the 
 greater part forms the present departinent. b 
 
 Condom stands on the Bayse, a river which serves to 
 turn many flour mills in the vicinity ; c it carries on a con- 
 siderable trade in leather and quills ; it was formerly the 
 seat of a bishopric. Several distilleries have been built in 
 the small towns of Cazaubon and Eauze; the name of the 
 last was probably derived from Elusa , a city belonging to 
 the Elusates, and the metropolis of Novempopulania, of 
 which some vestiges are to be found in Ciutat, an adjoin- 
 ing hamlet. The village of Castera-Vivent, situated on the 
 road to Auch, is much frequented on account of the sul- 
 phureous springs near it. Auch, the ancient Climberris, 
 the capital of the Ausci, a people who were subdued by 
 Crassus, is at present the chief town of the department, 
 and the residence of an archbishop, who was formerly en- 
 titled primate of Aquitaine.* 1 Rising like an amphitheatre 
 on the declivity of a hill, and divided by the Gers into the 
 upper and lower town, Auch consists of narrow and wind- 
 ing streets, but the squares and public places are built with 
 greater regularity. The foundation of the cathedral has 
 been attributed to Clovis ; it may be admired for the ele- 
 vation of the vaulted roof, the beauty of the painted win- 
 dows, which Mary de Medicis wished to remove to Paris, 
 and the elegance of the modern portal, in which the Co- 
 rinthian order is united with the Composite. A well built 
 square in the upper part of the town, leads to a pleasant 
 walk, from which the view extends to the Pyrenees ; for 
 these as well as many other embellishments, the inhabitants 
 are indebted to M. Detigny/ an individual to whom they 
 have shown their gratitude by erecting a statue. Auch is 
 the native town of the witty Roquelaure, of admiral Villa- 
 ret de Joyeuse and of general Dessolles. Mirande, the 
 small capital of a poor and sterile district/ is well built and 
 encompassed with walls. Lombcs/ still more insignificant, 
 but situated in a very fruitful part of the country, has been 
 often injured by the inundations of the Save, which waters 
 it. Fleurance, although it contains only 3000 inhabitants, 
 is adorned with a fine public square. 
 
 We traverse a fruitful country, and follow the windings 
 of the Gers, before we arrive at the height which crowns 
 Lectoure, the birthplace of Marshal Lannes. It is not far 
 removed from the site which has been attributed to Lac- 
 tora, a city of the Lactorates. It is chiefly worthy of no- 
 
 DPE. lbook cxlij. 
 
 tice on account of the magnificent view from the public 
 walk called the Bastion. The walls that surround it, are 
 erected on the space occupied by the triple enclosure, 
 which defended it in the time of the counts of Armagnac, 
 but which proved no security to the last descendant of that 
 illustrious family, against the vengeance of Louis the Elev- 
 enth. John the Fifth, count of Armagnac, was one of 
 those persons who seem to be impelled in the career of 
 wickedness by an irresistible power, and whom impetuous 
 passions render as culpable as unfortunate. The crimes 
 of his father, who revolted against his liege lord, might 
 have deprived him of his dominions, had it not been for 
 the clemency of Charles the Seventh, but the misfortunes 
 of his family, and the proscription denounced against him 
 in early life, were all unavailing lessons. A passion at 
 which nature shudders, was the origin of his misfortunes. 
 Madly attached to his sister Isabella, a lady renowned for 
 her beauty, the publicity of their guilt brought upon him 
 the wrath of the church; but the indignation of Rome w r as 
 appeased by his feigned repentance. He had hardly been 
 absolved from excommunication and restored to Christian 
 privileges, when he ventured to solicit from the pope, dis- 
 pensations for marrying his sister, which were perempto- 
 rily refused, but two persons suborned by the count, forged 
 them, and the monstrous marriage was celebrated with 
 pomp and solemnity. The chief of the church published 
 a second and a terrible anathema against the incestuous 
 pair. Charles employed persuasion and counsel to restore 
 the count to reason, who repaid his kindness by joining the 
 enemies of France. Lectoure was shortly afterwards be- 
 sieged by a formidable army; Isabella fled, John could 
 not remain without her, and both hastened for protection 
 to the King of Arragon, their relative. Love, not fear, 
 had induced the count to fly, but singularly inconsistent in 
 his character, he returned and appeared before the parlia- 
 ment that summoned him. Thrown into prison, he made 
 his escape ; proscribed, deprived of his dominions, and 
 unable to see her, whom a late but not insincere repent- 
 ance rendered the most wretched of mothers, he travelled 
 on foot as a mendicant to Rome, and implored lor him- 
 self, now that his power had vanished as a dream, and for 
 her who was bewailing her crimes in a cloister, the mercy 
 of the holy father ; an absolution was granted, but not 
 without the most rigid conditions. Louis the Eleventh put 
 him again in possession of his estates, and he married the 
 daughter of the count of Foix ; but equally ungrateful to 
 his new benefactor, as he had formerly been to Charles 
 the Seventh, he conspired against the throne of France. 
 Punished a second time, and driven from his dominions, 
 he was enabled to return in consequence of new political 
 intrigues, which he had formed with the duke ot Guienne. 
 He became a third time an exile after the tragical death 
 of the duke, but by new intrigues he made himself a third 
 time master of his capital, and cast Peter of Bourbon into 
 prison, who commanded the town in the name of the king. 
 Louis the Eleventh had now determined to reduce the 
 power of the great vassals of the crown, and the treason of 
 John was not to be passed over with impunity. Tristan 
 
 I It has manufactories of sea biscuit, and is noted for its pastry. — 
 M. U. 
 
 II Rather is situated in or forms part of . The department of the 
 
 Gers is formed by the old province of Condomois, and part of those of 
 Comminges and Armagnac. Armagnac is included in the departments 
 of the Gers and the Upper Pyrenees, the greater part in the for- 
 mer. — P. 
 
 c “ Condom is traversed by the Bayse, which turns a great number 
 of flour mills.” 
 
 d The archbishopric of Auch was suppressed during the revolu- 
 tion. — P. 
 
 e Intendant of Auch. M. B. 
 f “Arrondissemcnt.” 
 
 « Lombez. 
 
 ‘ ' - — 
 
book cxlh.j DESCRIPTION 
 
 the hermit, and Cardinal D’Alby, marched with their 
 sanguinary troops against Lectoure ; the count defended 
 himself bravely, and his son, the fruit of incestuous love, 
 was slain in a sally. Despairing of success, and no match 
 against the king in the number of his men, he offered to 
 surrender orf certain conditions. The conditions were ac- 
 cepted ; the cardinal and the count partook the sacrament 
 together, and both parties swore on the altar to observe 
 them. However, the troops of the king had hardly enter- 
 ed the town before all tire inhabitants were put to the 
 sword ; the count fell in the midst of the slaughter, 1 and the 
 countess, far advanced in pregnancy, was compelled to 
 swallow poison ; b Charles his only brother, and James d’Ar- 
 magnac his cousin expiated on the scaffold the crimes of 
 their relative. 0 
 
 A new department, that of the Tarn and Garonne, was 
 added to the others, conformably to a decree passed on 
 the second of November 1808 ; it consists of different dis- 
 tricts, which were taken from the adjoining departments. 11 
 It is watered by the Aveyron, which throws itself into the 
 Tarn below Montauban, and by the Tarn which joins the 
 Garonne below Moissac. The Gimonne, the Rats and 
 other streams of less consequence, which traverse it in dif- 
 ferent directions, serve to enlarge a river often liable to in- 
 undations. Fruitful and well cultivated fields are enclosed 
 with hedges, or varied with groves of quince trees. 0 The 
 land produces much more wheat than the inhabitants can 
 consume; more than half the wine is converted into bran- 
 dy, and sent out of the department ; the white mulberry 
 tree affords plentiful nourishment to the silk worm ; differ- 
 ent sorts of poultry are reared in great numbers ; and mules 
 prized by the Spaniards, are exported to their country. It 
 is pleasing to observe the reciprocal influence of agricultu- 
 ral and manufacturing industry ; thus the consequences of 
 the one are numerous distilleries, silk manufactories and 
 other works of different kinds/ 
 
 Moissac, founded about the end of the fourth century, 
 rises on the right bank of the Tarn, and the navigation of 
 the river facilitates the trade with Bordeaux. Lauzerte, a 
 small town of 5000 inhabitants, stands on a rock in a pic- 
 turesque situation, at the confluence of the Landou and the 
 Barguelonne. The ancient walls and ramparts that en- 
 compassed Castel-Sarrazins are now changed into agreea- 
 ble walks. 
 
 Montauban, the most central town in the department, 
 was founded in the twelfth century. It has been affirmed 
 that it received the name of JWons Albanus from the great 
 quantity of willows in the vicinity, which the country peo- 
 ple call albas. It is a large and well built town ; the Tarn, 
 which divides it into three quarters, affords an easy com- 
 munication with Bordeaux, and adds to the importance 
 of its trade/ The gates, the town-house and most of the 
 public buildings are not inelegant ; the cathedral is much 
 
 OF FRANCE. 235 
 
 older than the town ; indeed it is well known that long be- 
 fore the foundation of the latter, the convent of Mons Au- 
 reolas stood in the highest part of the present Montauban. 
 It is the native town of Lefranc de Pompignan 1 and other 
 distinguished men. 
 
 It is said that queen Brunehault had a castle at Bruni- 
 quel on the left bank of the Verre, where the lower orders 
 find at present employment in working iron/ Negrepe- 
 lisse was a flourishing town, before it was burnt by the 
 troops of Louis the Thirteenth. 1 Cossade,'" St. Antonin and 
 Caylus are small towns of four or five thousand inhabitants, 
 who manufacture serge and coarse cloth, dress leather/ 
 and carry on a considerable trade in the corn and wines 
 of the department. 
 
 Mounts Espinouse, Garriguen and Aubrac, and some 
 branches of the Cantal extend over almost all the surface 
 in the department of the Aveyron / vast forests cover their 
 declivities, and the snow remains on their summits six 
 months in the year. Thus, although a southern depart- 
 ment, the climate is cold in some places, particularly in 
 the northern districts; in others where the tempera- 
 ture is milder, wheat is in general not the most common 
 sort of grain. Not less than a third part of the land re- 
 mains uncultivated, but the harvests are sufficient for the 
 wants of the inhabitants. The vineyards, confined to the 
 eastern part of the country, produce as much wine as the 
 people can consume ; if, however, the wines of Agnac, 
 Laucedat and Marcillac be excepted, all the others are of 
 an ordinary quality. But the wealth of the department 
 consists in fruitful meadows and pastures, which afford the 
 means of rearing horses, mules, oxen, goats, and nearly 
 600,000 sheep. The cheese of Roquefort, which the in- 
 habitants export to most countries in Europe, is made of 
 the milk of the ewes, mixed with a small proportion of the 
 milk of the she-goats. The different metals in the same 
 department are still unworked, but it contains besides ex- 
 tensive coal mines and quarries of aluminous schistus ; the 
 produce of the last in sulphate of alumine, which now forms 
 a considerable article of commerce, might be easily in- 
 creased in a tenfold ratio. The mineral riches of the de- 
 partment, the existence of which was hardly imagined thir- 
 ty years ago, are found in the chain that separates the Lot 
 from the Aveyron. The mountains containing coal were 
 known only by their spontaneous combustion, the true 
 source of which was not even suspected ; the cause of 
 their ignition is probably attributable to the decomposi- 
 tion of sulphuret of iron, although similar fires are often oc- 
 casioned by accidental causes. A remarkable example 
 of this kind may be seen on the heights of Fontagne, at 
 the distance of four hundred feet above the Aveyron. One 
 may there observe a crevice of an elliptical form, surround- 
 ed with plants, of which the pale verdure indicates their 
 languid and unhealthy state. The combustion is not visi- 
 
 1 A. D. 1473— P. 
 
 b “ — to procure abortion.” She afterwards married John count of 
 Astier. Moreri. — P. 
 
 c Charles was confined 14 years in the Bastile by Louis XIII. ; he 
 was finally liberated by Charles VIII. He succeeded his brother as 
 count of Armagnac, and died 1496. James d’Armagnac, duke of Ne- 
 mours, was beheaded at Paris Aug. 4, 1477. Moreri. Beauvais. — P. 
 
 d From the departments of the Aveyron, the Upper Garonne, the 
 Gers, the Lot, and the Lot and Garonne.. — P. 
 
 e “ — enclosed with hedges and wild quince trees ( engnassiers .)” 
 f “ The influence of manufactures in encouraging agriculture is not 
 less remarkable in this department than in other countries ; examples 
 of this may be observed in the favorable effects of the distilleries, and 
 of the manufactories of silk stockings and quills ” 
 
 8 Castel-Sarrasin. 
 
 h “ — of its manufactures.” — The principal manufactures of the 
 place are silk stuffs and stockings, linens, serge, and other wooller 
 stuffs. Ed. Encyc. — P. 
 
 * J. J. Le Franc, marquis de Pompignan, a lyric and dramatic poet 
 of the last century. — P. 
 
 k “ Bruniquel possesses fineries ( affineries ) and high furnaces” 
 
 The translator, by a characteristic blunder, mistook fineries (furnaces 
 for making bar iron) for sugar refineries, and consequently found em- 
 ployment for his lower orders in refining sugar, as well as in working 
 iron ! ! — P. 
 
 1 A. D. 1622. “Caussade. 
 
 n “ They possess tanneries and manufactories of linens and serges. ' 
 
 8 Aveiron. 
 
236 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXL1I 
 
 ble daring the day, but favored by the obscurity of the 
 night, flames are seen to rise from the cavity, which resem- 
 bles a small crater ; to the persons who venture to ap- 
 proach, notwithstanding the heat and smoke exhaled from 
 it, it appears filled with a mass of burning coals. The 
 combustion has continued for several centuries, but it is 
 believed that a perceptible diminution has taken place in 
 its intensity. The mountains in the department form the 
 boundaries of six long vallies, watered by the Trueyre, 
 the Lot, the Aveyron, the Viaur, the Tarn and the Sor- 
 gues, almost all of which flow in the direction from east to 
 west. The same vallies are filled with fruitful alluvial de- 
 posits ; the rivers, particularly the Lot and the Tarn, serve 
 to move different works, such as silk, woollen and paper 
 manufactories,® and facilitate commercial intercourse with 
 the neighbouring departments. 
 
 The towns are mostly insignificant, and they may there- 
 fore be briefly described. Ville Franche, the chief town 
 in the westernmost district, b is agreeably situated at the 
 confluence of the Alzon and the Aveyron ; it was the birth- 
 place of Marshal Belle-Isle ; the neighbouring country 
 abounds in rich pastures. 
 
 Rhodez or Rodez, c the capital of the department, the 
 smallest and also the ugliest provincial capital 4 in France, 
 is built on the declivity of a hill, at the base of which the 
 Aveyron flows with great rapidity. It must not be infer- 
 red that the neighbouring country is destitute of beauty ; 
 on the contrary, the views from many places are roman- 
 tic f but the dark, dirty, narrow and crooked streets, all 
 built on an inclined plane, are steep and difficult of access. 
 A great many wooden houses, and others of stone, but ill 
 built, project on the streets/ and the numerous inequalities 
 in the pavement are filled with rough and sharp stones; on 
 the whole, in point of convenience and comfort, it may be 
 said to be several centuries behind the other towns in 
 France. The inhabitants are indebted to the liberality of 
 Francis d’Estaing, one of their bishops, for their cathedral, 
 the only edifice of consequence in Rhodez. The extent 
 of the nave, the boldness of the vaulted roof, the finely 
 formed windows, the steeple not less than 250 feet in 
 height, and the principal tower terminating in a cupola, and 
 crowned by a colossal statue of the Virgin, render it one 
 of the finest monuments of Gothic architecture in southern 
 France. It has long been considered one of the wonders 
 in the department, and according to a ridiculous Latin in- 
 scription on one of the walls, it is said to be equal in height 
 to the pyramids of Egypt. It is affirmed that the Vandals 
 of the revolution would have destroyed the building, had it 
 not been for the address of a single citizen, who preserved 
 it by proposing in an assembly that it should be dedicated 
 to Marat, a motion which was carried by acclamation .e 
 Rhodez has given birth to some distinguished men, among 
 qffiers to Hugh Brunet, a troubadour of the twelfth centu- 
 ry, and to John de Serres, a protestant theologian. The 
 same town bore before the Roman conquest, the Celtic 
 
 1 “ The rivers supply iron and copper works, tanneries, 
 
 silk and paper mills, and manufactories of different stuffs.” 
 b “Arrondissement.” c Rhodes, Rodes. 
 
 d “ Capital of prefecture” or department. 
 
 e “ From its peculiar position, it is surrounded by walks which rise 
 in terraces and furnish magnificent views.” 
 
 1 “ The lower story projects into the street.” 
 
 s Promenade de Paris ii Bagn^res de Luchon, par le comte P. de V. 
 h Rutcni, D’Anv. Urbs Rutcna, Enc. Meth. 
 
 * Irish, rmidh. — P. 
 k Milhaud, Millau. 
 
 name of Segodumim, which the Romans changed into 
 Rutcna, h because it was the capital of the Rutcni. If any 
 opinion may be formed from the resemblance between dif- 
 ferent words which appear to have passed from the Celtic 
 into the Latin, and other known words of the former lan- 
 guage, the people who at a remote period inhabited the 
 province of Rouergue, might with greater accuracy have 
 been called the Rutheni, from the Celtic word Ruth,' the 
 same as the German Roth, both of which signify red ; the 
 origin of the name is still indicated by the red colour of 
 the soil and the sandstone near Rhodez. 
 
 St. Afrique, almost encompassed with fine walks, is wa- 
 tered by the Sorgues, which flow's in the middle of a val- 
 ley intersected with orchards, meadows and vineyards. Its 
 crooked streets are lined with Gothic houses ; an hospital 
 and the reformed church are the only buildings worthy of 
 notice. The village of Roquefort at two leagues from the 
 town, was famous for its cheese more than eight hundred 
 years ago. 
 
 Milhau/ the Roman JEmiliamim, is built on the Tarn, 
 in an advantageous situation for trade and manufacturing 
 industry. Severac le Chateau, a town of two thousand in- 
 habitants, rises on a conical hill, commanded by an old 
 Gothic fortress, in which a drawbridge leads to the massive 
 ramparts. St. Geniez d’Olt * 1 stands on the Lot ; Oltis 
 was the ancient name of the same river, a name which 
 was probably corrupted into Olt. m It is a neat and small 
 town of 4000 inhabitants, and has given birth to Raynal. 
 Espalion, although not so large, is the capital of a district ; n 
 it is traversed throughout its whole length by a broad and 
 well-built street. 
 
 The department which bears the name of the Lot , 0 is 
 crossed from east to west by the same river ; the Dordogne 
 and the Cere water its northern extremity, and the Selle, 
 less important than the rest, winds from north-east to south- 
 west, and falls into the Lot. Although the mountains are 
 not lofty, they cover a great extent of surface ; different 
 metals are contained in them, and iron is found in sufficient 
 abundance to supply several large founderies. p The val- 
 lies are fruitful in grain, hemp and tobacco ; the low hills 
 are covered with vineyards. The excess of the grain har- 
 vest above the consumption is considerable ; that of the 
 wines amounts to three-fifths. 
 
 The inhabitants of Figeac, a town situated on the right 
 bank of the Selle, are engaged in the manufacture of cot- 
 ton stuffs, and carry on a great trade in wines and cattle. 
 It owes its origin to a Benedictine abbey founded by Pe- 
 pin in the year 755. When the abbot made his first en- 
 trance into the town, a baron, the lord of Montbrun, ap- 
 peared in the costume of a harlequin, with one leg bare 
 and the other covered with an embroidered stocking ; he 
 led a horse from the stable, on which the pious man mount- 
 ed, and, holding the bridle, conducted him to the church 
 gate, where he waited until the abbot had gone through 
 his devotions, held the stirrup for him on his return, and 
 
 1 St. Geniez de Rivedolt. (Vosgien.) [St. Geniez on the banks of 
 the Olt. — P.] 
 
 m “ St. Geniez d’Olt, on the Lot, proves that the name of the river, 
 the ancient Oltis, ought rather to be written L’Olt (the Olt.)” — It 
 needs but little acquaintance with the progress of the French lan- 
 guage to know that Lot is formed from L’Olt by changes of the most 
 common occurrence, viz. blending the article with the proper name, 
 and suppressing the l before t. — r. 
 
 “ “Arrondissement.” 
 
 0 Department of the Lot. 
 
 p “ Two Catalan forges, two high furnaces, and one finery.” 
 
BOOK CXJjII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 237 
 
 ied him back to his house. The ceremony was perform- 
 ed for the last time in the year 1766. ab 
 
 Cahors was a town before Caesar invade’d Gaul ; it was 
 then called Divona, and according to tradition it excited 
 the admiration of the Roman general. It is certain that it 
 was embellished by the Romans, who gave it the name of 
 Cadurci from the people who inhabited the country. Some 
 vestiges of those ancient times still exist, among others, the 
 remains of a theatre and an aqueduct, and of a monument 
 near the prefect’s palace, erected during the reign of Au- 
 gustus, by the Cadurci, to commemorate the courageous 
 resistance which their countrymen made against Caesar at 
 Uxellodunum, the present Capdenac. The cathedral, it 
 has been thought, is partly formed by the remains of an 
 ancient temple, but the portal is of modern construction. 
 The ramparts are used as a public walk; they rise above 
 the Lot, which encompasses nearly the whole town, and 
 the rock on which it stands. The streets are steep and 
 crooked ; the royal college, the seminary, the library, the 
 museum of natural history, 0 the theatre and the episcopal 
 palace, are nowise remarkable. But the bishopric was 
 one of some importance before the revolution; the prelate, 
 who possessed it, was entitled the count of Cahors, and 
 he had the privilege of having his gloves and sword placed 
 beside the altar whenever he officiated. His installation 
 was accompanied with a ceremony similar in some respects 
 to the one that was performed at Figeac. The viscount 
 of Cessac, the vassal of the bishop, waited for him at the 
 city gate, having his head uncovered, without a mantle, the 
 right leg bare, and a slipper on the right foot. In this 
 dress, he held the bridle of the bishop’s mule, and led it to 
 the episcopal palace, where he appeared in the capacity of 
 an attendant, and served his liege lord during dinner. As 
 a recompense for his trouble, he received the mule and the 
 buffet, which had been used at the repast ; the value of the 
 latte i was fixed at L.130. d Cahors was the birthplace of 
 pope John XXII, who in the year 1321, founded an uni- 
 versity in his native town, of the poet Clement Marot, of 
 La Calprenede the writer of romances, of Joachim Murat, 
 king of Naples, and of general Ramel, who was assassi- 
 nated at Toulouse in 1815. The manufactures of the 
 town are paper, cloth, and leather. 
 
 Gourdon,® the capital of a subprefecture, f rises on the 
 small river Bloue ; it carries on some trade in sail cloth 
 and woollen stuffs. Souillac is about seven leagues from 
 Gourdon ; it contains a royal manufactory of fire arms ; it 
 is watered by the Dordogne, over which a fine bridge con- 
 
 a “ When the abbot made his first entrance into the town, a baron, 
 the lord of Montbrun, was obliged to receive him in the costume of a 
 harlequin, with one leg bare, to lead to him a horse, on which he 
 mounted, and to hold his bridle to the gate of the church ; then to wait 
 for his return, when he held his stirrup, and conducted him to the ab- 
 bey. The ceremony was performed as late as 1766.” — This is appa- 
 rently taken from the Encydopidie Methodique (Part. Geog. Mod. art. 
 Figeac,) where the same authority is quoted, and almost the same 
 words are employed. The Encydopidie does not say the ceremony was 
 performed in 1766, but quotes the Journal Encyc. of that year (March,) 
 and uses the present time in the relation. The latter circumstance 
 might induce one to believe that the ceremony existed at a later peri- 
 od — that part of the Encyc. was published in 1782. There is one 
 point in the relation in which the Encyc. and the original M. B. dif- 
 fer — the former does not say the baron was obliged to lead him a horse, 
 much less to lead one from the stable, as the translator hath it, but 
 simply that he was obliged to go and receive the abbot, and then lead 
 his horse to the church. It however states in the words of the writer 
 quoted, that the baron, like the viscount of Cessac at Cahors, received 
 th'e abbot’s horse for his pains. The changes the story has undergone 
 .n passing from the Encyclopedia into the original, and from the orig- 
 
 sisting of seven arches has been erected. Two intermitting 
 fountains, called the Gourg and the Boulcy , are situated in 
 the neighbourhood ; the first rises in the valley of Blagour, 
 and the other issues from the heights of Puy Martin. They 
 never flow at the same time ; as soon as the one ceases 
 the other begins, and changes in a few minutes the valley 
 which serves as its basin into a sheet of water. The eruj> 
 tion of the Bouley is almost always accompanied with a 
 slight shock and a tremendous noise. 
 
 We may pass from the department of the Lot into that of 
 the Dordogne by descending the last river, which traverses 
 it on the south from east to west. It is also watered by 
 the I lie, the Dronne, the Vezere, and by more than 
 fourteen hundred smaller streams. Chains of hills ex- 
 tend through the country in every direction, but with 
 the exception of the two vallies watered by the Hie and 
 the Dordogne, they bound only narrow ravines, almost all 
 of which are desolated by torrents. The soil is by no 
 means productive ; the calcareous rocks are in many places 
 bare, and vast districts are covered with heath, broom and 
 chestnut trees ; the uniformity thus occasioned is in a few 
 places broken by marshes. Some parts are rich and fruit- 
 ful, but they are so insignificant in point of extent, that 
 they may be said to form an exception to the general char- 
 acter of the department. The grain harvests are not suf- 
 ficient for the maintenance of the inhabitants, but the defi- 
 ciency is supplied by using chestnuts as a substitute. As 
 to the vintage, more than half the wines are either consum- 
 ed in different parts of France, or they are converted into 
 brandy for exportation.® Mineral substances abound in 
 the country ; the most valuable are coal, manganese and 
 iron. The working of the last metal, and the art of con- 
 verting it into steel, furnish employment to many of the in- 
 habitants . 11 The same country supplies the gourmands in 
 Paris with different delicacies, among which the white wine 
 of Bergerac is not the least important ; pork, red partridges, 
 pike, truffles, liqueurs and sweetmeats are also sent to the 
 capital.* * 
 
 Sarlat exports a great quantity of paper ; k it is the chief 
 town in a district 1 that abounds in iron and copper ore, 
 mill-stones and coal. The people in Belves™ and Le 
 Bugue 11 find employment in making walnut oil. The Doux 
 has its source in the same district ;' it rises in a narrow 
 valley, and fills a circular basin, of which the circumference 
 exceeds 176 yards,” but the depth has not been ascertain- 
 ed. The labyrinths in a cave about three leagues distant 
 from Sarlat, are more than 4200 yards in length ; they ex- 
 
 inal into the translation, form an amusing illustration of the progress of 
 historical truth. — P. 
 
 b Journal Encyclopedique. March, 1766. 
 c “ Physical cabinet ( cabinet dc physique.)” 
 d “ 3000 livres.” e Gordon. (Vosgien.) 
 
 f Arrondissement. 
 
 s “ More than half the vintage is exported from the department, 
 either in the form of wine or distilled into brandy.” 
 
 *> “ It contains 37 high furnaces, 86 fineries, 2 Catalan forges, and 
 several establishments for manufacturing steel.” 
 
 * “ The department is noted among gourmands for the white wine 
 of Bergerac, the delicacy of its pork,* the abundance of its red par- 
 tridges, the excellent pike taken in its ponds, the fine sugar plums 
 ( dragies ) of Perigueux, its liqueurs, and particularly its truffles.” 
 
 * The pork in Limousin is fed on chestnuts. Ed. Encyc. 
 k “ — contains a great number of paper mills. 
 
 1 “ Arrondissement.” 
 m Belvez. 
 
 " Bugo de St. Cirq. (Vosgien.) 
 
 0 “ 88 toises in circumference.” 
 
238 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXI.II 
 
 tend between the burgh of Miremont and the village of 
 Privaset. a The small and neat town of Bergerac rises on 
 the right bank of the Dordogne ; its position enables the 
 inhabitants to carry on an advantageous trade with Libourne 
 tnd Bordeaux. Many persons are employed in the founde- 
 ries, forges and paper mills in the vicinity. Michel de Mon- 
 taigne, a village about eight leagues to the west of Bergerac, 
 is situated near the castle which belonged to the celebrated 
 philosopher of that name ; the chamber in which most of his 
 essays were composed, may still be seen in one of the turrets. 
 
 A road crossing an arid ridge leads to the fruitful valley 
 watered by the Ille, and to Perigueux, the capital of the 
 oepartment, and the seat of a bishopric. It stands on the 
 site of the ancient Vesunna. h The streets are dark, nar- 
 row and crooked; the old quarter or the city 0 is almost 
 deserted. Were it necessary to indicate its importance in 
 the time of the Romans, it might be sufficient to mention 
 the public baths and aqueducts now in ruins, the remains 
 of the amphitheatre, the tower of J^esunne, d as the inhabit- 
 ants call it, a circular edifice 6 without doors or windows, 
 but communicating with the town by subterranean pas- 
 
 a “ At the distance of three leagues from Sarlat, between the small 
 town ( liourg ) of Miremont and the village of Privaset, there is a cav- 
 ern, the ramifications of which form a total length of more than 2000 
 toises.” The cavern is called the Cluseau. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 b Vcsuna; afterwards Petrocorii, whence the modern name. 
 D’Anv. — P. c “ The old quarter, called the city (Citi.)” 
 
 d Vesune or Visone. (Encyc. Method.) — The primitive name of 
 the ancient city (Vc&una) is still retained in the quarter called La Vi- 
 Bone. D’Anv. — P. e 100 feet in height. M. B. 
 
 1 By two subterranean passages. Enc. Meth. 
 
 e Nine ancient inscriptions are inserted in the walls of the barracks, 
 the most remarkable of which is that of a milliary column, the only 
 one containing the name of the emperor Florian. Encyc. Meth. — P. 
 
 h “ Its turkies, its truffle pies,* its liqueurs, its paper, and different 
 manufactures,! render the trade of Perigueux of some importance.” 
 * Pates de Perigord, Perigord pies, (made of partridges and truffles. Vosgien.) 
 t It has manufactories of arms, handkerchiefs, &. c. (Vosgien.) The prin- 
 cipal manufact ires of the department are iron, hosiery, paDer and earthen 
 ware- Ed. Ec- yc. 
 
 sages/ different inscriptions/ and many other objects col- 
 lected in a museum of antiquities. Several monuments of 
 the middle ages, such as tne cathedral, and the church of St. 
 F ront, in the last of which the Gothic architecture recals 
 the period of the lower empire, prove how much it has 
 fallen since the time that Pepin defeated the duke of Aqui- 
 taine under its walls. The inhabitants of the present day 
 carry on a trade with the capital in turkeys, truffles, pas- 
 try, liqueurs and other articles. * 1 * 
 
 Brantome, a small town on the left bank of the Dronne, 
 peopled by 2700 inhabitants, was formerly the seat of a 
 Benedictine convent, which might have been long since 
 forgotten, had it not been for Peter de Bourdeilles, better 
 known by the name of Brantome, a writer of some celeb- 
 rity, 1 and although a layman, abbot of the convent. Non- 
 tron k on the right bank of the Bandiat carries on a trade 
 in leather, hardware goods and iron obtained from the 
 mines in the neighbourhood. 1 Riberac, the chief town of 
 a contiguous district, m rises in a fruitful plain at no great 
 distance from the Dronne, but still nearer an old castle 
 that belonged to the viscounts of Turenne.” 
 
 • “Author of memoirs of a licentious character.” — The memoirs of 
 Brantome were printed in 10 vols. 12mo., and a supplement in five 
 volumes afterwards published. Of the former, four contained accounts 
 of French captains, two of foreign captains, two of gallant women, one 
 of illustrious women, and one of duels. The writings of Brantome 
 are not always perfectly decent, a circumstance attributable to the na- 
 ture of his undertaking, as historian of a very licentious age. Born 
 1527 ; died 1014. Gorton’s Biog. Diet. — P 
 k Capital of an arrondissement. M. B. 
 
 1 “ — manufactures leather, and common knives with boxwood han- 
 dles, and carries on a trade in the iron furnished by the mines and 
 forges in its neighbourhood.” 
 
 m “Arrondissement” — contiguous to that of Nontron 
 n “ Riberac — is situated in a fruitful plain watered by the Dronne 
 It still preserves the remains of an old castle that belonged to tbe vis- 
 counts of Turenne.” 
 
BOOK CXL.III.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 239 
 
 BOOK CXLIII. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued. — France. — Second Section . — Western 
 Region. 
 
 We have had occasion to observe the mild climate, the 
 romantic sites and the remains of Roman power in the 
 twenty-eight departments* that form the Southern region of 
 France. The inhabitants, it. has been seen, are favoured 
 by nature ; different productions are admirably adapted for 
 their country, and with the exception of the mountains, the 
 soil is almost everywhere fruitful. But if the population be 
 compared with the surface, it will be found that the result 
 accords ill with the natural advantages of the same vast 
 region, which makes up more than a third part of the king- 
 dom. The extent is equal to 9,000 square leagues, and 
 the population to 8,404,000 individuals ; thus the number 
 of inhabitants to every square league does not amount to 
 nine hundred and thirty-four, a result below the mean num- 
 ber in the other divisions of the same country. Such facts 
 are not without their value ; if the best and most fruitful 
 part of France is comparatively poor and ill-peopled, it 
 proves how much the munificence of nature may be surpass- 
 ed by the industry and resources of man. Government too 
 may derive an important lesson from the same fact ; it may 
 thus be taught to appreciate the elements of its wealth and 
 power. Thirteen departments make up the Western region ; 
 the population relatively to the surface is greater than in the 
 last, for 5,438,000 inhabitants occupy a surface of 4200 
 square leagues, and consequently the average number to 
 every square league exceeds 1294; still the advantages of 
 education are little known in the Western region ; in that 
 point of view it is almost on a level with the preceding. 
 How much then might the population and wealth be increas- 
 ed, if ignorance no longer formed a barrier to the expansion 
 of industry ? 
 
 Continuing in the direction from south to north, the de- 
 partment of the Charente may be first described. Contig- 
 uous, but much inferior in size to the department of the 
 Dordogne, it is intersected on the north by high hills, and 
 on the south by low ridges and heights. Nine rivers, ex- 
 clusively of the one from which the department takes its 
 name, water it in different directions. The waters of the 
 Tardouere are absorbed by numerous subterranean cavities, 
 and they never reach the Bandiat until they have been swol- 
 len by rains. The last river exhibits the same phenomenon ; 
 
 a Including Corsica. 
 
 b It is navigable for boats to its source. M. B. 
 
 c “ Plateaus” — table-lands. 
 
 d “ Barriques.” — The barrique of Bordeaux is nearly equal to the 
 English wine hogshead, or in the proportion of 12000 to 12034. Encyc. 
 Method.— P. 
 
 e “ The iron ore worked in the department, is converted into cast 
 iron in six high furnaces, and into bar iron in fifteen fineries.” 
 
 the hills which border it are undermined by immense cavi- 
 ties, adorned with the finest stalactites. The Taponnat after 
 a course of some leagues, is lost in similar cavities, and never 
 afterwards appears. The Touvre, almost as large as the 
 Sorgues at Vaucluse, issues from the cavities of a steep 
 rock ; although its channel is obstructed by several islands, 
 it might be rendered navigable without much difficulty. 1 
 These rivers, as well as the Peruse, the Ne, the Tude, the 
 Nizonne and the Vienne water vallies abounding in rich 
 pastures. The calcareous ridges 0 and sandy plains that 
 cover several districts, account for the aridity of the soil in 
 the greater portion of the department. The arable land is 
 equal to a third part of the whole surface, and the grain 
 harvests are sufficient for the maintenance of the inhabitants ; 
 another third is laid out in vineyards, yielding wines of an 
 ordinary quality, but for tire most part converted into brandy, 
 of which the quantity exported to other parts of France and 
 to different foreign countries amounts to more than thirty- 
 five thousand barrels. 11 The rest of the department is cov- 
 ered with woods of chestnut trees, uncultivated plains, and 
 natural and artificial meadows, the last of which afford pas- 
 ture to more than thirty thousand oxen, which the inhabit- 
 ants import every year, and export again after they are fat- 
 tened. Mines are worked in the department, and iron ore 
 is converted into cast iron and bars.® 
 
 Angouleme rises on a hill, which may be seen from a 
 great distance ; the air is pure and salubrious ; many of the 
 inhabitants attain to a great age, and the women are distin- 
 guished by their beauty. The Quartier-JVeuf f is the only 
 part of the town worthy of notice ; ill-built houses, and 
 crooked and narrow streets, make up the remainder. The 
 suburb of Ousmeau stands on a declivity above the Cha- 
 rente ; the inhabitants have erected several paper mills, dis- 
 tilleries and sugar works ; they manufacture woollen stuff’s, 
 porcelain and earthen ware.s It is the capital of the depart- 
 ment, and also the seat of a bishopric. It was once fortified, 
 but the ramparts have been changed into public walks, that 
 rise in the form of terraces, and command an extensive hori- 
 zon bounded by heights; the most remarkable objects in 
 view are the small river of Anguienne, that winds among 
 rich meadows and fruitful hills, the fine bridge over the 
 Charente, and the obelisk raised by government to the pres- 
 ent duchess of Angouleme. 1 ' Within the same town are 
 
 f New Quarter. 
 
 s “ The suburb of Ousmeau — contains several large paper mills, 
 which with the distilleries, sugar refineries, and manufactories of 
 woollen stuffs and pottery (delft ware,) render the commerce of the 
 town very active.” — The trade of the town is chiefly carried on by the 
 Charente. — P. 
 
 h “ The obelisk raised, in the middle of the new road ( chtmin nevf,) m 
 honour of the duchess of Angouleme.” 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 240 
 
 contained a royal naval school, a college, a library and a 
 museum of natural history ; it was the birthplace of Balzac, 
 of Montaleinbert the engineer, and of the assassin of Henry 
 the Fourth.® It is a place of great antiquity; the Romans 
 called it Iculisma ; b it is more than once mentioned by Au- 
 sonius, but it did not rise into importance before the period 
 of the middle ages. La Rochefoucault, a small town on the 
 Tardouere, consists of a single street ; it contains 3000 
 inhabitants. The old Gothic castle which commands it, was 
 the birthplace of the duke, whose fame has been perpetuated 
 by his book of maxims. 
 
 Confolans, c surrounded by a comparatively sterile country, 
 and the capital of a subprefecture, derives its name from the 
 confluence of the Goire and the Vienne ; it is not, however, 
 unpleasantly situated, and the banks of both the rivers are 
 fruitful in pastures. A single square tower is all that remains 
 of its ancient strong castle. It is necessary to cross the 
 Charente at two places on the road that leads from Confo- 
 lans to the small and neat town of Ruffec, that rises on the 
 right bank of the same river. Beyond a small chain of hills, 
 terminating on the south in the neighbourhood of the Cha- 
 rente, which describes many windings through large mead- 
 ows, the town of Jarnac rises on both banks of the same 
 river, on which it possesses a port of some importance. A 
 modern monument erected in the neighbouring plain, serves 
 to mark the field of battle, where the duke of Anjou defeated 
 the prince of Conde in the year 1569. As it has been 
 thought consistent with good taste to commemorate the fatal 
 engagement in which Frenchmen fought against each other, 
 the place near the walls of the town, where the unfortunate 
 prince was assassinated by the marquis of Montesquiou d after 
 the victory, ought also to have been indicated. Cognac, the 
 capital of the same district, 6 rises on an eminence, of which 
 die base is watered by the Charente. Francis the First 
 was born in the old castle that defended formerly this small 
 commercial city, the mart of the excellent brandy and 
 liqueurs that are distilled in the adjoining districts/ 
 
 Barbezieux in the midst of the fruitful country through 
 which the Ne flows, is neither so populous nor so well built 
 as Cognac ;6 it rises on the declivity of a hill, on the high 
 road from Paris to Bordeaux ; the ancient fortress has 
 been changed into a prison. The trade it carries on with 
 die metropolis, consists chiefly in capons and truffles/ 
 Aubeterre on the Dronne, at the southern extremity of the 
 department, is finely situated at the base of a hill, command- 
 ed by an ancient casde. The church is cut in the rock 
 which supports part of the town. 
 
 The lower part of the Charente waters a country 1 II * fruit- 
 ful in corn and pasturage, and abounding in vineyards of 
 which the produce is converted into brandy. The great 
 extent of coast washed by the mouth of the Gironde and the 
 ocean tends to enrich a laborious population. There are 
 not many inequalities in the department ; the surface is 
 
 I Francis Ravaillac. b Iculisna, D’Anv. 
 
 c Confolens, Confoulens ; Lat. Confluentes. 
 
 d Baron of Montesquiou. Moreri, Beauvais. 
 
 e “ Arrondissement” — the same in which Jarnac is situated. — P. 
 
 f “ Communes.” s “ Less wealthy, but better built than Cognac.” 
 
 h “ Elle fait des grandes expeditions de chapons truffes” — It ex- 
 port* great quantities of capons with truffles. 
 
 * The department of the Lower Charente. 
 
 II “ Which is largely exported to England.” — The original does not 
 say that it is called Rochelle salt by the English. Rochelle salt is the 
 tartrate of potash and soda or salt of seignette. The sea salt prepared 
 in the neighbourhood of Rochelle, and on other parts of the south- 
 western coasts of France, is called Bay salt by the English. — P. 
 
 Jonsac. 
 
 [BOOK CXLIIL 
 
 chiefly occupied by low hills and extensive plains, and 
 the climate is generally salubrious. But the salt marshes 
 near the sea, which furnish the salt known in England by 
 the name of Rochelle salt/ diffuse pestilential exhalations, 
 and occasion different diseases in their neighbourhood. 
 Many anchorages and ports facilitate navigation, promote the 
 coasting trade, and induce companies or individuals to equip 
 vessels for the cod fisheries and the French colonies. Lastly, 
 the islands of Re, Oleron and Aix add to the maritime 
 importance of the department. 
 
 Jonzac 1 is situated in a part of the country contiguous to 
 the last department ; it is the chief town in an ill-peopled dis- 
 trict, m but is inferior in population to the burgh of Mirambeau, 
 which contains 3200 inhabitants. Saintes" the capital of 
 Saintonge, is an old and probably on that account, a dirty 
 town. Amrnianus Marcellinus considered it one of the most 
 flourishing cities in Aquitaine. It was originally called Me- 
 diolanum, which the Romans changed afterwards into San- 
 tones, after the name of the people in that part of Gaul. It 
 possesses still the remains of a triumphal arch, and the ruins 
 of an amphitheatre. It was the seat of a bishopric, and sev- 
 eral councils have been held in the town. The last met in 
 the year 1096, and enjoined the faithful to fast during the 
 vigils of the apostles. The residence of the subprefect, the 
 theatre, the college and the ancient cathedral cannot be 
 commended on account of their architecture; the public 
 library contains 24,000 volumes. Bernard de Palissy was 
 born at Saintes, 0 a man of genius, who from the condition 
 of a potter became one of the most eminent natural philoso- 
 phers of the sixteenth century. The Boutonne, a small 
 river, begins to be navigable at St. Jean d’Angely/ and ena- 
 bles the industrious inhabitants to carry on a trade in brandy 
 and timber. Religious wars were long fatal to the town ; 
 indeed they may be said to have been so from the period of 
 the memorable siege by which it fell into the hands of Henry 
 the Third, to the time it supported another siege against 
 Louis the Thirteenth, who razed the fortifications. Henry 
 the Second of Bourbon Conde, and Regnaud/ a statesman 
 under the imperial government, were born in St. Jean 
 d’Angely. It possesses a royal powder manufactory. The 
 horses in the neighbourhood are much valued in different 
 parts of France/ Marennes, about half a league distant 
 from the sea, is exposed to the pernicious exhalations from 
 the salt marshes. Although a well built and a commercial 
 town, it might have been much more flourishing than at 
 present, had it not been for its unhealthy situation. Ton- 
 nay-Charente 8 possesses a safe and commodious harbour for 
 vessels of a hundred tons. 
 
 Rochefort rises on the Charente, about a league’s distance 
 from the last place ; the harbour, one of the three largest in 
 France, is about 2500 yards in length / it has a sufficient 
 depth of water to float ships of the line" at low tide/ Ships 
 of 600 tons with their cargoes, enter a smaller harbour 
 
 m “ It is the smallest capital of subprefecture in the department.” 
 
 n Formerly written Xaintes. — P. 
 
 0 He was born at Agen, but carried on the potter’s trade at Saintes 
 Nouv. Diet. Hist. Caen, 1804. Beauvais. — P. 
 
 p St. Jean d’Angeli. q Count Regnaud de St. Jean d’Angely. 
 
 r “ It possesses an important powder manufactory,* and a royal stud 
 for stallions and one for cavalry horses ( depdts d'e talons ct de remonte.)' 
 
 * It contains two of the best powder mills in France. (Vosgien.) 
 
 s Situated in the arrondissement of Rochefort. Tonnay-Boutonne 
 a smaller town, is in the arrondissement of St. Jean d'Angely. — P. 
 
 1 “ 2200 metres in length.” 
 
 u “ Large vessels (vaisseaux de haut-bords.)” 
 
 * Line of battle ships are obliged to take out their lower deck guns 
 to enter the river. Tuckey. vol. II. p. 22. — P. 
 
 L 
 
BOOK CXLIII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 241 
 
 adapted for merchant vessels. Rochefort is about four 
 leagues distant from the ocean, but the advantages of an 
 admirable position are increased by large dockyards, ca- 
 reening wharfs, naval storehouses, cordage and sail manufac- 
 tories.® The town is regularly built, the streets are straigiit, 
 many of them terminate in a large piece of ground planted 
 with trees. b The hospital, the prison® in which 2400 galley- 
 slaves may be confined, the cannon foundery and the arsenal 
 are the finest buildings. A reservoir enables the inhabitants 
 to water the streets daily, a precaution by so much the more 
 necessary as from the month of August to that of October, 
 the air of Rochefort is any thing but salubrious. The works 
 that defend it are the ramparts by which it is surrounded, 
 and the forts constructed at the mouth of the Charente. 
 An excellent road leads to Rochelle,* * 1 * the capital of the de- 
 partment. 
 
 The latter town was founded in the tenth century. Philip 
 Augustus conferred several privileges on the inhabitants ; it 
 was ceded to the English by the treaty of Bretigny. Charles 
 the Filth contrived to add it to his dominions ; the political 
 divisions to which the reformation gave so much importance, 
 rendered it the centre of protestant opposition ; it was finally 
 besieged by Louis the Thirteenth, and taken after a resistance 
 of thirteen months, a resistance which cost the king more 
 than L.2, 000,000.® Situated at the bottom of a small gulf, 
 the harbour is safe and commodious ; whatever be the height 
 of the waters in the ocean, vessels may be careened in the 
 basin, in which they receive their cargoes. The fortifica- 
 tions were constructed by Vauban. Straight streets, many 
 houses adorned with porticos that form arcades, the elegant 
 court of the castle/ the exchange and the townhouse give 
 the place an imposing aspect. It was the native town of Reau- 
 mur, of Seignette the druggist, who discovered the purgative 
 salt that bears his name, and of several other distinguished 
 men. It is not remarkable, therefore, to find it the seat of 
 learned and scientific societies ; it also possesses a valuable 
 library, a museum of natural history, a botanical garden, a 
 college, and a school of navigation. The Mail, s a public 
 walk, commands a view of the ocean ; from it may be seen 
 the isle of Re, h on the right, peopled by fishermen, and en- 
 compassed with breakers, the isle of Aix in front, where 
 vessels wait for favourable winds, and the important Oleron 
 on tlie left, an island abounding in wine and salt. Marans, 
 a small but neat town at the northern extremity of the de- 
 partment, carries on a trade in salt, and contains four thou- 
 sand inhabitants ; it has a safe harbour on the Sevre Nior- 
 taise at the distance of four miles 1 from the sea, to which 
 vessels of a hundred tons are borne by the tides. 
 
 The Vendee, the largest feeder of the Sevre Niortaise, is 
 only navigable in a small part of its course, not more than 
 six leagues in length. At the time France was divided ac- 
 cording to the new divisions, the same river was chosen 
 rather than the Lay, although the last is somewhat larger, 
 and the name of La Vendee was given to one of the most 
 fruitful maritime departments 1 * — a department which by its 
 
 a “ Large shipyards, magazines for naval stores, docks for careen- 
 ing vessels ( bassins de carcnagc ,) and a fine rope walk.” 
 
 b “ The streets are straight, and terminate in a fine public square 
 planted with trees.” — The streets are straight across each other at 
 right angles. (Encyc. Meth.) — The streets, which are built after a 
 regular plan, are broad and straight. The Place d’Armes is a spacious 
 square, nearly in the centre of the town. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 c “ The Baarne (Bagnio.) d La Rochelle. 
 
 « “ 40,000,000” Fr. 
 
 f “ Place du Chateau” — Castle Square. 
 
 6 The Mall. h Isle of Rhe. Tuckey. 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 49 31 6 A 
 
 devotedness to the royal cause, became at the commence- 
 ment of the revolution, the focus of a civil war, that lasted 
 not less than seven years, and desolated almost all die 
 western part of France. Its surface may be divided into 
 three parts. The Marais 1 comprehends all the country on 
 the coast ; it is covered with sands which have been rendered 
 productive by canals and the labour of man, and it abounds 
 also in marshes, which from their extent and the quantity of 
 salt collected from them, seem to indicate that the ocean 
 covered these coasts at a comparatively recent period. The 
 Bocage, m consisting in some places of sterile heaths, and in 
 others of woods, is intersected by numerous streams that 
 serve to water and fructify it. The Plain formed by all the 
 country between the Bocage and the southern limit of die 
 department, may be considered the most fertile division, and 
 the best adapted for every sort of cultivation. The me- 
 phitic vapours that rise from the Marais, are fatal to the 
 health of the inhabitants ; drained by many canals, which 
 intersect it in different directions, destitute of springs, and 
 only affording water more or less brackish to quench the 
 thirst, it is with all these disadvantages one of the best culti- 
 vated countries in France. It produces excellent hemp, 
 abundant grain harvests, leguminous plants" remarkable for 
 their size, and pastures in which large breeds of horses, oxen 
 and sheep are reared. The Bocage yields good tvine, and 
 the fields are intersected by hedges and orchards. The 
 Plain is fruitful in every sort of grain, but white wines of an 
 ordinary quality are only produced in the vineyards. The 
 manufacture of earthen-ware, cordage, linens and coarse 
 woollens, the extracting of soda from sea-weed, the fisheries, 
 and the preparation of salt in the marshes on the coast, form 
 the principal branches of industry. 
 
 The name of Fontenay le Comte excited the indignation 
 of the republican government ; ridiculously jealous of what- 
 ever might be associated with the ancient system, it did 
 not suffer the town to be called by its usual name, but 
 changed it by a decree into that of Fontenay le People. It 
 stands in a fruitful valley on the left bank of the Vendee- 
 The sombre remains of a strong castle, a church of which 
 the steeple is about 300 feet in height, and suburbs larger 
 than the town itself, give it the appearance of an important 
 city ; it is the capital of a district. 0 Luqon, the second town 
 in the same district, 0 has been made the seat of a bishopric / 
 it contains about 3600 inhabitants. The houses are well 
 built, but the streets are ill paved ; it is situated at the ex- 
 tremity of a canal, which throws itself into the sea at the 
 Anse d’Aiguillon.*! A road through a dull and monotonous 
 country leads to Sables d’Olonne/ a town consisting of four 
 long straight and parallel streets, built on a narrow stripe of 
 sandy land that protrudes into the sea, and defended by sev- 
 eral batteries. The harbour which can only receive vessels 
 of a hundred and fifty tons, separates the town from the 
 suburb of Chaume, 3 * * * * 8 which rises on a rock. St. Gilles, an- 
 other seaport on the same coast, lies opposite the isle of Yeu/ 
 which is only inhabited by fishermen ; but Noirmoutier, a 
 
 ' “ 2 short leagues” — 1 league (Encyc. Method. Vosgien. Tuckey.) 
 
 k Department of the Vendee, or of La Vendee. 
 
 1 The Marsh. m The Wood or Thicket. 
 
 " “ Legumes” — not leguminous plants merely, but cultivated vege- 
 
 tables in general, (except corn and fruits,) including potatoes, turnips, 
 
 &c. See note * p. 933. 
 
 0 “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 p “ Is the seat of a bishopric” — The bishopric of Lu<;on was founded 
 in 1317. Encyc. Meth. — P. 
 
 s Creek or cove of Aiguillon. r Les Sables d’Olonne. 
 
 8 La Chaume. 1 Isle Dieu or Isle d’Yeu. 
 
242 EUR< 
 
 larger island at some distance from it to the north, contains 
 two villages and a town of the same name, and is peopled 
 by 7500 individuals. Both these islands form part of the 
 district* of Sables d’Olonne, which extends on the north to 
 the isle of Bouin, formerly a calcareous rock, but at present 
 more than seven leagues in circumference, and united to the 
 continent by a causeway thrown across the canal, by which 
 it was formerly separated from the main land. b The island 
 gives its name to a village of 2500 inhabitants. 
 
 Bourbon Vendee, a tbinly peopled town, c but the only one 
 of any consequence that has not been mentioned, was for- 
 merly the burgh of La Roche sur Yon in the principality 
 that belonged to the house of Bourbon-Conti. It contained 
 hardly 800 inhabitants in 1807, when its name was changed 
 into that of the emperor, d who laid out L. 126,000° in erect- 
 ing the necessary buildings for the chief town of a prefecture ; f 
 in 1814, its name was again changed into that of Bourbon 
 Vendee. It is built after the plan of a large city, but most of 
 the edifices remain unfinished, owing to the want of funds; 
 the streets are broad and straight, but deserted. From its posi- 
 tion on the small river Yon, at a distance from all navigable 
 rivers, and from any populous town, it can never become 
 a place of commerce or industry until the projected canal 
 of Bret has been completed. 
 
 The department of the Two Sevres^ is bounded on the 
 west by that of La Vendee, and is crossed in a diagonal 
 direction by the heights of Gatine, a chain of lofty hills 
 shaded by forests, from which the inhabitants export differ- 
 ent sorts of timber. Intersected by many small streams, it 
 takes its name from the two Sevres, the one flowing from 
 south to north, and the other from east to west ; the former 
 is called the Sevre Nantaise, because it enters the Loire 
 opposite Nantes, and the latter the Sevre Niortaise, because 
 it passes by Niort. Many fine vallies and plains, fruitful in 
 vineyards and pastures, extend in different directions, but it 
 contains also much uncultivated land, and numerous ponds 
 ar d marshes. The produce in grain and wine exceeds the 
 consumption ; herds and flocks are reared in the meadows. 
 It furnishes the mules that are so much prized by the wealthy 
 Spaniards, 11 others that travel with heavy burdens across the 
 steep Alps and Pyrenees, and others too, that drag the enor- 
 mous waggons, which are seen on all the roads in the south 
 of France. The sale of these animals in foreign countries 
 and in other parts of France, yields several millions of francs 
 to the department. The oxen form also a lucrative branch 
 of commerce ; the fattest are sent to Paris, but the greater 
 number are sold and fattened in Normandy. The people 
 work iron, 1 and manufacture cotton and coarse woollen 
 stuffs. 
 
 Niort, the capital of the department, and a place of some 
 antiquity, has been much improved ; modern buildings now 
 occupy the site of the rubbish and old houses, that rendered 
 it formerly one of the dirtiest towns in Poitou. The most 
 remarkable edifices are an old Gothic church built by the 
 English, the townhouse, the ancient palace that belonged to 
 
 DPE. [BOOK CXLII1. 
 
 Eleanor of Aquitaine, and the fine fountain of Vivier. k Ma- 
 dame de Maintenon was bom in one of the prisons in the 
 same town ; among the celebrated men that it has produced, 
 Isaac de Beausobre and Louis de Fontanes may be men- 
 tioned. The picturesque banks of the Sevre in the neigh- 
 bourhood add to the beauty of the public walks and gardens. 
 The small town of Mauze is the capital of a district 1 from 
 which fifteen or twenty thousand asses are annually exported. 
 St. Maixent, a town of five thousand souls, may be mention- 
 ed on account of the fruitful country in the neighbourhood. 
 The finest mules in Europe are reared in the district, 111 of 
 which Melle is the chief town. 
 
 After having crossed the heights of Gatine, the traveller 
 enters a plain watered by the Thouet. Parthenay" rises 
 near its banks, on a hill formerly commanded by an ancient 
 castle now in ruins. The village of La Foret, at no grea* 
 distance from the sources of the Sevre Nantaise, contains 
 the tomb of the celebrated Duplessis Mornay, whom the 
 catholics called the pope of the Huguenots ; the river flows 
 in the neighbourhood, and serves to move different mills. 0 
 Bressuire is situated on a hill, which borders the course of 
 the Argenton ; it was so much injured during the wars of 
 La Vendee, that at one time the only buildings left entire 
 were a solitary house and the granite church. It has since 
 become the capital of a subprefecture, and the inhabitants 
 manufacture linen and woollen stuffs. In a north-east direc- 
 tion, and about five leagues distant from the last place, the 
 Thouet flows round the base of a hill, on the summit of 
 which rises the town of Thouars. It was probably founded 
 before the sixth century ; its name signifies the citadel of 
 the Thouet. p Pepin took it in the year 758, and the Eng- 
 lish rendered it in the middle ages one of the strongest 
 places in Poitou. As the town was more than once deso- 
 lated during the late civil wars, q it may excite surprise that 
 the magnificent castle built in the time of Louis the Thir- 
 teenth by the duchess of La Tremouille, r remains entire. 
 
 The Vienne gives its name to a department 9 through 
 which it passes from south to north. Some of the hills on 
 the south are lofty, but those on the north are insignificant ; 
 the centre of the department is occupied by an extensive 
 table-land, partly encompassed by the Vienne, and partly by 
 the Clain, one of its feeders ; the eastern districts consist of 
 low plains and vallies. The soil cannot be said to be fruit- 
 ful ; the surface is covered in many places with landes and 
 heaths ; still as much grain is produced as the inhabitants 
 consume, and a surplus quantity of wine, by no means incon- 
 siderable, is either exported or converted into brandy.‘ 
 Different mineral springs and iron mines are situated in the 
 department ; it is unnecessary to mention the hardware 
 goods, the cutlery, the coarse woollen stuffs and the ordina- 
 ry lace that the inhabitants manufacture it may be suffi- 
 cient to remark that the greatest hindrance to their commerce 
 is the want of roads and other outlets. 
 
 Civray, a small town and the capital of the most southern 
 district, 1 possesses a church, which was probably built before 
 
 * “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 b It was a few years since separated from the main, by a channel 
 practicable by vessels of 200 to 300 tons, but which by the accumula- 
 tion of sand is now reduced to a boat passage. The island has three 
 leagues of surface almost entirely consisting of salt marshes. Tuck- 
 ey, vol. II. p. 28. — P. c “ One of the least in population.” 
 
 d Napoleon. e “ 3,000,000” francs. 
 
 f It is now the capital of the department. 
 t Deux Stvres. h For riding. M. B. 
 
 * “ Iron ore is found in the department, but it supplies only one high 
 
 furnace and two fineries.” 11 Fed by an Artesian well. M. B. 
 
 * “Canton.” m “ ArrondissemeiU.” 
 
 n Partenay. 0 “ A mill for dressing flax and hemp.’ 
 
 p Thoaci arx, in Latin. M. B. — Thoarcis Arx (Vosgien.) — P. 
 a The wars of La Vendee. 
 
 r La Tremoille or La Triinouille. Moreri. Beauvais. 
 
 » Department of the Vienne. 
 
 t “ — is exported, either in its natural state, or when converted into 
 brandy.” 
 
 0 “It has two high furnaces and five fineries, and among its manu 
 factures, are coarse woollens, common lace, swords and cutlery.” 
 x “ Arrondissement.” 
 
book cxLiin.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 the establishment of Christianity in Gaul. Montmorillon, 
 situated on the Gartempe, is the capital of another district ; a 
 it is noted for its biscuits and macaroons, which are exported 
 to different parts of F ranee. An ancient and very curious 
 monument, supposed by many to be of Druidical origin, 
 stands in the court of the old convent that belonged to the 
 Augustines. 
 
 Poitiers, b the former capital of Poitou, rises on a hill at the 
 confluence of the Boivre and the Clain. It was the Limo- 
 num of the Pictavi, an important place in the time of Ptole- 
 my; it is now the capital of the department, and it still 
 retains its old walls flanked with towers, the venerable wit- 
 nesses of the invasion of the country by the Visigoths, and 
 of their defeat by Clovis. King John of France, after hav- 
 ing refused the advantageous terms offered by prince Ed- 
 ward, 0 lost the memorable battle of Poitiers, in which a 
 French army of eighty thousand men was defeated by eight 
 thousand English ; the king was taken prisoner and conveyed 
 to England. Charles the Seventh removed the parliament 
 of Paris to Poitiers during the wars he maintained against 
 the English. The streets are narrow and crooked, but some 
 traces of ancient splendour may be discovered in the remains 
 of the palace erected by the emperor Gallienus, in the ruins 
 of an amphitheatre, and in the name of the street that is still 
 called the Arena . d The Guillon, 6 a picturesque walk in the 
 neighbourhood, terminates near the imposing ruins of a 
 Gothic castle. The cathedral, which in point of size is equal 
 to any other in France, was built in the eleventh century, 
 but the bishopric of Poitiers dates from a much earlier 
 epoch ; not less than twenty-three councils were held in the 
 town during the period from the middle of the fourth to the 
 beginning of tire fifteenth century/ The ashes of Madame 
 de Montespan rest in the Grey Friars’ church ;£ St. Hilary 
 and St. Maximin, two bishops of the fourth century, were 
 born in Poitiers ; it contains a curious collection of antiqui- 
 ties, 11 and a library of 22,000 volumes. 
 
 The Vienne begins to be navigable at seven leagues to the 
 north-east of Poitiers. Chatellerault 1 rises on the right bank 
 of the river, over which a modern bridge has been erected, 
 lhat leads to an old castle flanked with four large towers ; it 
 may be doubted that the building adds much to the strength 
 of the place, but it serves at least as a gate to the town. k 
 Loudun is about nine leagues distant in a north-west direc- 
 tion from Chatellerault; it is situated on a hill, and sur- 
 rounded by vineyards that yield good wine. Although an 
 
 1 “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 b Poictiers. c Edward the Black Prince. 
 
 d “ Rue des Arhn.es" — the street of the amphitheatre. The amphithe- 
 atre at Nimes is still called : Les At tries de Nimes. (Diet, de 
 1’Acad.) — P. 
 
 e “ Promenade du pont Guillon.” 
 
 f Namely, in the years 355, 389, 592, 937, 1000, 1010, 1023, 1030, 
 1032, 1030, 1073, 1078, 1094, 1100, 1105, 1109, 1280, 1284, 1304, 1307, 
 1387, 1390 and 1405. 
 
 s “ Church of the Cordeliers.” 
 
 h “ Cabinet of antiquities and natural history.” 
 
 ‘ Chatelleraut, Chatelleraud, Chatelherault. 
 
 k “ The river is crossed by a fine bridge, one extremity of which ter- 
 minates at an old castle flanked with four large towers, that serves as 
 a gate to the town.” 
 
 One of the best Latin poets of the 10th century. — P. 
 
 m Gazette de France. — P. 
 
 n Curate (curt) of St. Peter’s at Loudun. — P. 
 
 * The convent of Ursulines at Loudun. — P. 
 
 p “ The town was rendered famous during the reign of Louis XIII. 
 by the trial of the curate Urban Grandier, who for having ventured to 
 write a song against Cardinal Richelieu, was accused of bewitching 
 the nuns in the Ursuline convent. It is difficult to conceive how at a 
 period so recent and when France could boast of many individuals of 
 great intelligence, any nuns could be found so fanatical as to declare 
 
 OF FRANCE. 243 
 
 insignificant town, it has given birth to several distinguished 
 men ; among others, to John Maigret, 1 better known by the 
 name of Macrin, from the assumed Latin one of Macrinus, 
 and to Renaudot the physician, who published the first 
 French newspaper 1 ” in the year 1631. Urban Grandier, a 
 curate,” was accused and condemned in the same town 
 during the reign of Louis the Thirteenth. A song that he 
 had written against Cardinal Richelieu was the cause of his 
 death ; a pretext, however, was necessary, and it was alleged 
 that he had bewitched a convent of Ursuline nuns.” Igno- 
 rant and superstitious women may be excited or bribed to 
 swear on the altar that they are possessed by demons ; if the 
 experiment were renewed at present, it might be followed 
 with the same success ; it is much more wonderful that they 
 were believed at so recent a period, at a time when many 
 great and good men were living in France. Although a 
 matter of deep regret, it ought not to be concealed that cler- 
 gymen perhaps suborned, certainly encouraged and confirm- 
 ed such witnesses in their delusion ; the same men put an 
 innocent brother to the torture, and afterwards burnt him 
 alive to gratify the vengeance of a minister, whose great 
 actions were sullied by greater crimes.? 
 
 The department of the Maine and Loire derives its name 
 from its two principal rivers, the Loire and the Maine. The 
 former flows through it from east to west, and receives the 
 latter, which is formed by the union of the Mayenne and 
 the Sarthe. Manufacturing industry, the culture of corn 
 and the vine, and the working of mines, and of granite, 
 marble and slate quarries, are the principal sources of its 
 wealth. The coal pits in the same department yield every 
 year more than 10,000 chaldrons.’ 
 
 Saumur is situated on the left bank of the Loire ; a suburb 
 rises on the opposite bank of the river, which is crossed by a 
 well built bridge of twelve arches. The quay is the most 
 frequented walk, and the principal buildings in that part of 
 the town are a royal riding school, spacious barracks 1- and a 
 theatre. A broad street leads to the declivity of a steep 
 hill on which part of the town has been built. 3 A strong 
 castle rises on the summit of the same height, and it serves 
 at present as a depot for arms and ammunition. The portal 
 of St. Peter’s church is modern, but the rest of the build- 
 ing is very ancient. The town-house is a Gothic edifice. 
 The quay, which extends beyond the public walk, terminates 
 at a fine hospital 1 built near the chalky height that commands 
 the town ; the neighbouring excavations in the same hill 
 
 at the altar that they were possessed with demons, or any priests so 
 weak and cruel as to pretend to be convinced of the guilt of Grandier, 
 and even to put him to the torture before condemning him to the 
 flames. These shameful intrigues were only meant to satisfy the resent- 
 ment of a minister whose great talents were sullied with great crimes.” 
 It is said that the persecution of Grandier arose from the hostility of 
 the monks of Loudun. and that in order to gratify their hatred, they 
 persuaded Cardinal Richelieu that Grandier was the author of “ La 
 Cordonniere de Loudun,” a severe satire on his person and family, and 
 by this means succeeded in effecting their malevolent purpose 
 Moreri. Beauvais. — P. 
 
 “ 110,000 quintals.” 
 
 r “ The royal riding school ( dcole d' equitation) and its barracks”- 
 School for cavalry instruction ( icole d’ instruction des troupes a cheval,) 
 founded by a royal ordonnance, Dec. 23, 1814 — destined to form 
 instructors for all the regiments of cavalry. For this purpose, each 
 corps sends a detachment of officers and sub-officers, who after com- 
 pleting their course at the school, return to instruct their regiments. 
 (Alman. Royal, 1822). The barracks were erected before the estab- 
 lishment of the school. (Vosgien) — P. 
 
 • “ A broad street extends in front of the bridge, and on tho left is a 
 quarter of the town, rising on the declivity of a hill crowned by a steep 
 summit.” The principal street follows the fine of the bridge. Ed. 
 Encyc. — P. 
 
 1 “Hospice.” See note » p. 910. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 244 
 
 have been converted into a lunatic asylum.* Saumur is 
 watered on the west by the Thoue, a small river over which 
 the inhabitants erected of late years a bridge, where general 
 Berton halted very unexpectedly at a time when he might 
 have easily taken the town. Three druidical monuments 
 are situated in the neighbourhood : one of them is a natural 
 obelisk that rises vertically to a considerable height ; b the 
 two others, which consist of several stones laid flat upon 
 other stones,* are two cromlechs J in a good state of preser- 
 vation ; the smallest stands on a sloping hill ; the other, re- 
 markable for its great size, rises in the middle of a plain. 
 Saumur is a place of considerable trade ; it employs GOO 
 individuals of both sexes and different ages in a particular 
 department of industry ; they manufacture beads and enam- 
 els, of which the quantity exported may amount in value to 
 L.20,000. e f Done, about four leagues distant from Sau- 
 mur, is peopled by two thousand inhabitants. It contains 
 the ruins of a Roman amphitheatre formed by excava- 
 tions in a calcareous rock, the remains of an old palace, 
 which is said to have belonged to king Dagobert, and one 
 of the finest fountains in France. Extensive grottos are situ- 
 ated in the neighbourhood. 
 
 The road from Saumur to Bauge is nowise remarkable, 
 and the latter town, although the capital of a subprefecture,® 
 might be passed over in silence, if it were not for the fine 
 bridge that has been lately erected over the Couesnon.' * 1 An 
 English army was defeated at no great distance from Bauge 
 in the year 1421. 1 The same district 15 carries on a great 
 trade in paper ; thus although Durtal 1 is a small town of 
 3000 inhabitants, it possesses several paper mills, and the 
 inhabitants also manufacture linen, tiles and earthen ware. 
 Durtal has been admired for its situation on the banks of the 
 Loir, and at the base of a hill commanded by two colossal 
 towers, the only remains of an old castle, that was founded 
 in the eleventh century. The Oudon waters Segre, which 
 although the chief town in a subprefecture,® is inferior in 
 population and industry to the burgh of Chateau-Neuf on 
 the Sarthe, to Pouance, which is enriched by iron works, 
 to Lion d’Angers, worthy of notice for its picturesque situa- 
 tion, and to other burghs and towns in the same district. 15 
 
 Angers rises on the declivity of a hill at no great distance 
 below the confluence of the Mayenne and the Sarthe.” 1 The 
 ramparts,” the public walks, particularly the Turcie and the 
 Champ de Mars, the cathedral with its two steeples rising 
 into the air, and a Gothic castle, the ancient residence of the 
 dukes of Anjou, in which eighteen large towers form an 
 imposing mass, give the town an appearance of splendour 
 that it does not possess. The streets are narrow ; some of 
 the houses are built of wood, while others are constructed 
 
 a “ Excavations made in the same hill serve as cells for lunatics.” 
 b It is one of those stones which antiquaries term peulvcns, from a 
 Breton word, that signifies a pillar of stone. 
 
 c Cromlechs generally consist of a single large flat stone, laid usually 
 in an inclined position on other stones which serve as pillars to sup- 
 port it. — P. 
 
 d Cromlech signifies literally a vaulted place {lieu routi.) — [Crom- 
 lech signifies the bowing stone (place of worship) from the Celtic 
 crom or crum, bent or bowed, and lech or leac, a broad stone. (Tindal.) 
 — Cromlee, compounded of crom, bent, concave, and lice, a fl a t stone. 
 (Owen’s Welsh Diet.) — P.] 
 
 8 — “ the annual exportation amounts to more than 400,000 francs.” 
 f Saumur formerly possessed a flourishing Calvinistic school, found- 
 ed by Duplessis Mornav, but suppressed in 1084. — P. 
 e “ Arrondissement.’’ 
 
 h “ — for the fine bridge of hewn stone erected over the Couesnon” 
 (CoCsnon, Encyc. Meth.) 
 
 * “ The English commanded by the Duke of Clarence, were defeated 
 Dy Marshal La Fayette, in the neighbourhood of Baug6, in 1421.” 
 k “ Arrondissement.” Duretal. CVosgien.) 
 
 [BOOK CXLII1 
 
 with blocks of the slate, with which the roofs are generally 
 covered. 0 It must be confessed, however, that the modern 
 additions made to the town, the quarter near the ramparts, 
 and others are regularly and well built. p Angers possesses 
 a library consisting of 20,000 volumes, a valuable collection 
 of French paintings, a museum of natural history, a botanical 
 garden, and two theatres. It was a place of some impor- 
 tance before the Roman conquest ; it was then called Julio- 
 rnagus ; the Romans changed its name afterwards into 
 Andecavum .4 It has given birth to Bernier, the celebrated 
 traveller, and to Menage, a poet and a man of letters, whom 
 Moliere has represented in the character of Vadius. 1- In 
 the neighbourhood are situated extensive slate quarries, 
 which afford employment to about three thousand workmen, 
 and from which nearly eighty millions of slates are obtained 
 every year. 
 
 Pont de Ce s on the banks of the Loire, about a league 
 distant from Angers, contains only 3000 inhabitants ; it may 
 be remarked however for its series of bridges and embank- 
 ments, forming a line more than 3000 yards in length, and 
 extending across the different islands and branches of the 
 river. The remains of a Roman camp, occupying a great 
 space, are situated near the confluence of the Mayenne. 
 Ingrande near the road to Nantes possesses glass works in 
 which five hundred workmen are employed. Chalonne a 
 town of 5000 inhabitants, in a district famous for its vine- 
 yards, is built near the confluence of the Layon and the 
 Loire ; it fronts the Lombardiere islands, whose verdant 
 groves and delightful scenery form one of the finest land- 
 scapes on the banks of the Loire. Coal and other mineral 
 substances are worked in the neighbourhood. 1 
 
 Beaupreau between the same river and the southern limits 
 of the department, is the chief town in a fruitful and indus- 
 trious district." The inhabitants manufacture linen and 
 woollen stuffs, and many of them are employed in dying 
 cloth ; they carry on besides a considerable trade in leather. 1 
 The village of Mont-Jean is almost surrounded by coal 
 mines ; the prosperity of Tessouale, another village, depends 
 on its bleach-fields. y Chemille, a small place of 4000 
 
 inhabitants, has been enriched by the same manufactures 
 which have rendered Cholet 1 a flourishing town. The lat- 
 ter was adorned with a fine castle, which was destroyed in 
 common with almost all the other buildings during the wars 
 of La Vendee ; but it has risen from its ruins and increased 
 in industry, and its population has been doubled ; it contains 
 at present more than 7000 inhabitants. The improvements 
 introduced into the manufactories, and the greater demand 
 for their products, are the cause of so much prosperity.** 
 
 The romantic sites and varied landscapes watered by the 
 
 m It is situated on the declivity of a hill, on the banks of the river 
 Maine, which divides it into two parts. Ed. Encyc. — P. 
 
 “ “ Boulevards.” 
 
 0 Almost all the houses are covered with slate, of which there are 
 abundant quarries in the neighbourhood. Encyc. Method. — The town 
 is famous for its quarries of black slate, which in 1772 amounted to 
 seven. Ed. Encyc. — P. 
 
 p “ Some new quarters which border the boulevards, are built with 
 elegance.” q Jlndegavum. Moreri. Encyc. Meth. 
 
 r See the comedy of the Femmes Savantes. 
 
 • Les Fonts de Ce. (Alinan. Royal.) 
 
 ' “ There is a coal mine in its neighbourhood.” 
 
 " “ Subprefecture” — arrondissement. — P. 
 
 1 “ It possesses several manufactories of linen and woollen stuffs, and 
 also dye-houses and tanneries.” 
 
 r “ Near the village of Mont-Jean, are extensive coal mines, and at 
 that of Tessouale, a fine bleach-field.” 1 Chollet. 
 
 ““The improvements it has introduced into its manufactures of 
 linens, cotton handkerchiefs, coarse cottons and flannels, have given 
 I them no small degree of reputation.” 
 
BOOK CXL.III.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 245 
 
 Loire, have given the liver a celebrity which it might not 
 have otherwise possessed. And certainly the lower part of 
 its course serves to confirm the general opinion, and ac- 
 counts for the songs that have been made in its praise. 3 
 Neat villages, picturesque vallies, hills covered with vine- 
 yards, and rich meadows, may be seen on that part of the 
 road to Nantes, extending from Montrelais, a village enrich- 
 ed by its coals and excellent wines, to the burgh ol Oudon, 
 where two chains of hills line the opposite banks of the 
 Loire. The appearance of the country changes beyond the 
 last place ; the fields are no longer covered with luxuriant 
 harvests, and the traveller might suppose himself in Brittany 
 from the ferns, buckwheat and heath. Lastly, the cathe- 
 dral of Nantes is seen, as the traveller reaches a well-culti- 
 vated plain, about two leagues in length. 
 
 Many rivers water the department of the Lower Loire ; 
 it is also bathed by the Ocean, the coasts of which are near- 
 ly twenty-five leagues long and are continually enlarged by 
 alluvial deposits. It may be remarked too that the salt 
 marshes on the same coasts are very valuable. Different 
 districts in the department are covered with rich pastures 
 and thick forests ; it is fruitful in grain, and still more so in 
 wine ; it abounds in coal and iron ; the inhabitants smelt the 
 ©re, and convert the metal into different articles which are 
 sold in many parts of France. * 1 * * The other products of 
 industry in the same department are porcelain, china and 
 different manufactures ; c it carries on a trade with the prin- 
 cipal European states/ and it equips vessels for the herring, 
 sardel and cod fisheries. The capital, not unworthy of the 
 country, may be ranked among the largest towns in France. 
 
 Nantes, after Bordeaux, the most commercial town which 
 communicates with the ocean, rises on the right bank of the 
 Loire, at the place where the Erdre and the Sevre fall into 
 the river. e It occupies the site of Condivicnum, the prin* 
 cipal city inhabited by the JYamnetes ; the ancient Celtic 
 name indicates its position, for it signifies a town at the con- 
 fluence of several streams. It may be admired for the 
 regularity of the streets, the elegance of the public buildings, 
 and the magnificence of the quays. Some parts of the 
 town, such as the quarter of Graslin, the isle of Feydeau 
 and the suburb of La Fosse, may bear a comparison with 
 the finest quarters in Paris. The verdant banks of the 
 river, the islands in different directions, and the natural am- 
 phitheatre that rises beyond them, render Nantes in point 
 of situation, at least equal if not superior to any other town. 
 The port of La Fosse is shaded with lofty trees, and lined 
 with large buildings that extend to the distance of half a 
 league. The same port is about twelve leagues from the 
 ocean, and although one of the most frequented in France, 
 it has the disadvantage of being inaccessible to vessels above 
 three hundred tons/ because the tide does not rise higher 
 
 5 “ The Loire, in the lower part of its course, does not belie the 
 reputaiion it has acquired from the beautiful scenery on its banks.” 
 
 b “ The produce of its iron mines supplies four high furnaces and 
 twelve fineries.” 
 
 c “ It possesses manufactories of delft ware, porcelain and different 
 stuffs.” 
 
 J “ It carries on an important commerce with different parts of the 
 globe.” 
 
 e Ardre and Sevre Nantaise. The Sevre enters the Loire on the 
 south, opposite Nantes, and the Ardre on the north. The latter flows 
 through the town. Moreri. Vosgien. — P. 
 
 f “ 200 tons.” s “ 5 feet.” 
 
 11 “ Palais de la cour des comptes” — Hall of the chamber of accounts 
 or board of finances. Rees’ Cyc. — P. 
 
 ‘ “ At the extremity of St. Peter’s Course ( Cours de St. Pierre ,) an 
 agreeable and spacious promenade, the old castle of the dukes of Brit- 
 tany rises on the banks of the Loire.” 
 
 than six feet.s The exchange, which appears like a monu- 
 ment erected to the commerce and shipping of France, ex- 
 hibits a fine front adorned with an Ionic peristyle, and a 
 portico on the opposite side, crowned with the statues of 
 Duguay-Trouin, Duquesne, John Bart and Cassart. The 
 residence of the prefect was the ancient court of exchequer ; h 
 the front of the theatre presents a range of eight large Co- 
 rinthian columns. St. Peter’s course, a spacious and pleas- 
 ant walk on the banks of the Loire, leads to the old castle that 
 belonged to the dukes of Brittany ; l it was built by one of 
 them in the year 930, and has acquired celebrity from the 
 edict issued by Henry the Fourth, the revocation of which 
 by his grandson was the cause of innumerable calamities tc 
 F ranee. Among the useful institutions, it may be worth 
 while to mention a fine collection of paintings, a valuable 
 public library, a museum of natural history, better than any 
 other in any provincial town, a large botanical garden, a 
 royal college, and lastly schools of medicine and hydrogra- 
 phy. The charitable institutions are creditable to the be- 
 nevolence of the inhabitants ; the manner in which they are 
 managed, is not less creditable to the civic rulers.* 1 Nantes 
 is the seat of a bishopric which was erected in the third 
 century. 1 It was fortified in the time of Ca?sar ; it main- 
 tained a terrible siege against the Huns in the year 445 ; 
 the Normans ravaged it in 843, and put all the inhabitants 
 to the sword. The English besieged it in vain in 1343. 
 A Vendean army consisting of 80,000 men attempted to 
 take it by assault in 1793, but they were defeated and re- 
 pulsed by the citizens. It became at a later period the 
 theatre of the horrible executions which were sanctioned 
 by Carrier. Nantes bas given birth to the learned Mathu- 
 rin Veyssiere, m to Rene Le Pays, a poet of the seventeenth 
 century, to Boffrand the architect, to Cassart the navigator," 
 to Cacault the diplomatist, to Bouguer the mathematician, 
 and to Fouche, duke of Otranto, and minister of police. It 
 possesses a cannon foundery, and dockyards in which mer- 
 chant vessels and sloops of war are built ; it also supplies 
 part of the navy with cordage, sail-cloth and iron cables ; 
 there are besides several sugar works, cotton and cloth 
 manufactories, tan-pits and different works of less conse- 
 quence. 0 
 
 From the extremity of the department to Nantes, the 
 Sevre waters a country not less romantic than Switzerland, 
 and more interesting from the associations connected with it. 
 The village of Palet was the birthplace of Abeilard / in the 
 woods and rocks in the neighbourhood, Heloise and her 
 lover bewailed their misfortunes after the base Fulbert had 
 satisfied his monkish vengeance. The small town of Clis- 
 son contains only 1200 inhabitants, but it recals the title 
 of a family that rendered itself illustrious in the annals of 
 France; their castle, formerly remarkable for its arcbitect- 
 
 k “ The town house, in which there is a fine collection of paintings, 
 the public library, the museum of natural history, next in importance 
 to that of Paris, the botanical garden, remarkable for its situation and 
 extent, the royal college, the schools of medicine and hydrography, 
 and several establishments for the support and education of poor chil- 
 dren, are creditable to the municipal authorities.” 
 
 1 St. Clair is said to have been the first bishop of Nantes, about the 
 year 277. Encye. JVIeth. — P. 
 
 Mathurin Veyssieres de Lacroze, a distinguished orientalist. — P. 
 
 n Jacques Cassard, a distinguished officer in the French navy, 
 during the reign of Louis XIV. Beauvais.— P. 
 
 0 “ It possesses sugar refineries, cotton mills (filatures), cloth manu- 
 factories, tanneries, and other manufacturing establishments of less 
 importance.” 
 
 p The name is written variously in different authors : Abailard, 
 Abaillard, Abaelard and Abelard. The last is generally used in Eng- 
 lish authors. The name of the village is generally written Palais. — P 
 
246 EUR 
 
 ure, now majestic in its ruins, stands on a height near the 
 town. Paimboeuf,* on the left bank of the Loire, about ten 
 leagues below Nantes, was a hundred years ago a mere 
 hamlet peopled by a few fishermen ; but commerce has 
 since changed it into a flourishing and well built city, at 
 present the capital of a district. b 
 
 The most remarkable places on the south of the Loire 
 have now been mentioned ; towards the north and on the 
 right bank of the river is situated Ancenis, a pleasant town, 
 commanded by the old castle which was long inhabited by 
 the dukes of Bethune. Chateaubriant, on tbe other side 
 of the small river Don, is well known for its preserves.' 
 Savenay on the south-west of the last place, is the chief 
 town in a district 4 that carries on a considerable trade in 
 cattle and salt. Guerande, a more industrious and more 
 populous town, and Pouliguen possessing a convenient har- 
 bour,' are situated in the midst of salt marshes which yield 
 every year nearly eighteen thousand tons f of grey and white 
 salt. 
 
 The word Morbihan, it has been said, signifies a small 
 sea in Low Breton or perhaps in some Celtic dialect. The 
 gulf of the same name is larger than any other on the coasts 
 of the department, which the lower course of the Vilaines 
 separates from the one that has been last examined.' 1 The 
 same gulf encloses a great many small islands, the two 
 largest of which, or the Isle aux Moines and that of Arz, are 
 well peopled and cultivated. 1 Vannes is about a league 
 from the most northern bay in the same gulf; two small 
 rivers water and surround it ; they add to the convenience 
 of its harbour, and the advantages of its position. Accord- 
 ing to ancient authors, the walls of the town must have been 
 bathed by the sea at the time when it was not only the prin- 
 cipal city of the Veneti , but the most powerful, wealthy and 
 populous of any in Armorica. k An old wall flanked with 
 towers separates the town from a suburb which exceeds 
 it in size. The heavy and massive cathedral rises in the 
 midst of dismal houses and dark streets. The freestone 
 quays along the narrow harbour may be admired for then- 
 solidity, but the finest buildings are erected on the mole 
 which extends near a small salt marsh. Three public walks 
 are frequented in the vicinity, and within the walls are situ- 
 ated a college, an hospital and a theatre the industry of the 
 inhabitants is confined to sardel fisheries and to the manu- 
 facture of coarse cloth. Such is the capital of a depart- 
 ment which, although poor in vineyards, is fruitful in corn, 
 pastures, timber, flax and hemp. The marshes and landes 
 are without doubt extensive ;• still the inhabitants rear many 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CXLI11. 
 
 horses, oxen and sheep. m Iron mines are wrought in differ- 
 ent parts of the country ; the inhabitants export the leather, 
 linen and woollen stuffs manufactured in the department." 
 
 Sarzeau, on the peninsula of Rhuys, is a small town 
 peopled by G000 inhabitants, who are mostly fishermen. 
 The castle of Suscinion was erected on the coast by Anne, 
 duchess of Brittany, and the monastery of St. Gildas 0 
 may still be seen on another part of the coast of the same 
 peninsula ; according to tradition, the monks possess the 
 chair of Abeilard ; it is certain that he was the abbot of the 
 convent.? 
 
 The islands which Pliny calls Insulce Veneticcc, rise op- 
 posite the coast between Vannes and Lorient ; q all of them 
 belong to the department. The inhabitants of Belle-Isle 
 en Mer, the largest as well as the richest of these islands, 
 rear cattle, and export every year nearly eight hundred 
 draught horses of the best kind in France. It contains 
 8000 souls, three small harbours and the burgh of St. Palais 1 
 defended by a castle. A small fortress guards Hoedic, 
 of which the inhabitants, like those of Houat, earn their 
 livelihood by fishing. Groix or Groaix, the most northern 
 of these islands, is peopled by 2000 individuals scattered in 
 different villages ; they are at once husbandmen and fishers. 
 Quiberon, or as old writers call it, 8 Keberoen, a peninsula 
 about two leagues in length, and a quarter of a league in 
 breadth, is changed into an island during the full tide. It is 
 celebrated for the descent made in 1795 by 10,000 emi- 
 grants under the protection of the English fleet; abandoned 
 by allies who might have saved them, they were completely 
 defeated by general Hoche. A monument perpetuates the 
 memory of the event. 
 
 The burgh of Carnac, situated on a height near the coast, 
 at some distance to the north of Quiberon, has been often 
 ^mentioned by antiquaries on account of a druidical monu- 
 ment ; the size and the arrangement of the parts have been 
 much admired, but its true purpose has never been explain- 
 ed. It is formed by more than five thousand granite stones, 
 rudely cut and arranged in eleven straight and parallel rows. 1 
 As it has been proved that they were not erected by the 
 Romans to commemorate the victory gained by Caesar over 
 the Veneti," it may with probability be inferred that they 
 w 7 ere raised for the same superstitious purposes as other 
 Celtic relics of a like kind. The port of Lorient, the chief 
 town in a district* of the same name, was built in 1719 by 
 the India company* at the mouth of the Scorff, and on the 
 bay of Port Louis. The town is large and well built, but 
 it is no longer enriched by the commerce, which excited 
 
 1 Painbffiuf, PimbcEuf. 
 b “ Subprefecture” — arrondissement. — P. 
 c “ Conserves of angelica.” 
 
 <* “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 e “ The small port of Pouliguen.” — Poulquain, a small dry tide 
 haven, with ten feet high water. Tuckey’s Mar. Geog. Vol. II. p. 
 21.— P. 
 
 f “ More than seventeen millions of kilogrammes.” 
 s Villaine. 
 
 h “ The gulf of Morbihan, the name of which signifies a small sea, in 
 the Low Breton or rather in the Celtic language,* is the largest on 
 the coast of the department,! which the traveller enters after crossing 
 the lower part of the Vilaine ( [basse Vilaine) .” 
 
 * Welch mur, Gaelic muir, a sea, and Welch bychan, Gaelic brag, beg, di- 
 min. beagan, began, little. — Welch, Auf, by<;an, little. (Oweu). — P. 
 t The department of Morbihan. 
 
 ‘ According to the construction of the original, these two islands are 
 not the only ones inhabited and cultivated. — The gulf of Morbihan is 
 filled with inhabited islands. (Vosgien.) — The gulf — is a kind of 
 small sea lagoon with many inhabited islands. Tuckey, Vol. II. p. 
 3.— P. 
 
 k Cesar, de Bello Gallico, Lib. III. 
 
 1 “ The town possesses a college, a hospital, a theatre, and three 
 public walks (promenades.)” 
 
 m “ Notwithstanding the marshes and heaths (landes.) the inhabit- 
 ants rear many horses, sheep and bees. The honey of the last is much 
 valued.” 
 
 n “ The department contains iron mines, important iron works and 
 valuable salt marshes. The principal manufactures are sail cloth, 
 linens, woollen stuffs and leather.’” 
 
 ° St. Gildas de Ruys. 
 
 p “ The chair of Abeilard, who was at one time its abbot, is still 
 preserved in the convent.” 
 
 i L Orient. r Palais, Le Palais. (Vosgien.) 
 
 • “ As it is written in old documents.” 
 
 1 The stones are rudely cut into the shape of obelisks, resting on 
 their points, and are arranged in eleven rows, each in a direction 
 perpendicular to the coast. M. B. 
 
 “ See the dissertation by M. Ollier de Grandpre : Mcmoires de la 
 Societb Royale des Antiquites de France, Tom. II. p. 32a 
 
 x “ ArrondissementT 
 
 j “ Compagnie des^.des” — formed in 1719 by the union of severa 
 companies, the most important of which were the East India and the 
 West India companies. Savary, Diet. Comm. — P. 
 
' 
 
 book cxliii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 the jealousy of the English, who attempted to destroy it in 
 1746, when a nobleman of Brittany, a having arrived with 
 some assistance, displayed so much energy that the besiegers 
 fled and left several cannon behind them, which the king 
 presented to the town. If the harbour now appears more 
 deserted than it really is, it should be recollected that its 
 extent was made to correspond with the importance of its 
 commercial transactions, at the time when the affairs of the 
 India company in France were in a flourishing condition. 
 Port Louis, about a league’s distance to the south of Lori- 
 ent, rises at the mouth of the Blavet in a situation well 
 adapted for trade. The harbour is convenient, b and the 
 citadel which guards the entrance into the bay, was built by 
 Louis the Thirteenth. The population does not exceed 
 3000 inhabitants. The old castle of Trafaven stands on 
 the right bank of the Scorff, a castle which the imagination 
 of the peasantry has peopled with sprites and fairies. 
 
 Ploermel is situated near the confluence of the Oust and 
 the Malestroit, beyond a chain of high hills, which crosses 
 the department from north-west to south-east. It was an 
 important town about tire tenth century, but the old edifices 
 were mostly destroyed when it was besieged by Henry the 
 Fourth ; there may still be seen, however, a Gothic church, 
 adorned with painted windows and with the tombs of two 
 dukes of Brittany, John the Second and John the Third. 
 The waters which flow from a lake nearly three leagues in 
 circumference, at a short distance from the town, form a 
 fine cascade. The Blavet waters the western declivities of 
 the same heights ; it is navigable to Pontivy, a town situated 
 on the left bank of the river, in a fruitful country. Now 
 the capital of a district,* it bore under the imperial govern- 
 ment the name of Napoleonville. It owes its origin to the 
 monastery in which St. Josse, the brother of Judicael king 
 of Brittany, died in the year 660. The ruins of the ancient 
 walls, with which it was surrounded, still remain, and also 
 an old castle flanked with turrets, concerning the origin of 
 which antiquaries disagree. The barracks are the finest 
 buildings in Pontivy. 
 
 When the National Assembly decreed that the old divis- 
 ions of France should be abolished, and others substituted 
 in their place, it gave the name of the department of Finis- 
 terre' 1 to that part of Brittany which juts into the Ocean, like 
 the promontory on the north-west of Spain, to which the 
 ancients gave the same name ( Promontorium finis terra), 
 because early navigators supposed it the limits of die earth. 
 The department is bounded on the east by those of Morbi- 
 han and the North Coast, on the south and the west by the 
 Ocean, on the north by the Channel. Twenty islands are 
 situated on the coasts, and the indentations in the latter form 
 more than fifteen capes. Shipwrecks are not uncommon ; 
 these bold coasts are every where composed of granitic rocks, 
 against which impetuous billows are dashed. The soil, 
 although moderately fruitful, produces plenty of grain, hemp 
 and flax. The country is well supplied with wood ; thick 
 forests grow on the hills, and the vallies are covered with 
 rich pastures. It possesses more valuable silver and lead 
 
 OF FRANCE. 247 
 
 mines than any other department in F ranee ; it is also per- 
 haps the most humid, or the one in which rains and mists 
 are most common. 
 
 The Isole which flows with the rapidity of a torrent, and 
 joins the Elle, a small and tranquil river, is known in the 
 lower part of its course by the name of the Laita ; it falls 
 into the Ocean. Quimperle® situated at the place where the 
 two rivers meet, possesses a small but well frequented harbour 
 inaccessible to vessels above fifty tons. The prosperity of 
 the place may be attributed to its position. The streets are 
 neat and clean ; two in particular may be remarked for their 
 elegance ; the finest public buildings are a church, the ancient 
 convent of the Benedictines, now changed into the resi- 
 dence of the subprefect, and a four-sided tower on the high 
 road. It was the birthplace of Morellet, nephew to the 
 celebrated Abbe of the same name/ and a writer of consid- 
 erable talent and erudition. Quimper, surnamed Quimper- 
 Corentin after St. Corentin, its first bishop at an uncertain 
 period, perhaps about the beginning of the fifth century, was 
 formerly called Cornouailles ; it was the capital of a coun- 
 try of the last name, that comprehended the whole of its 
 diocese.® The Romans called it Corisopitum, but before 
 their conquest, it bore the Celtic name of Kimpcr, which 
 signifies a small walled town ; it appears, therefore, that its 
 antiquity cannot be disputed. It is situated on the declivity 
 of a hill at the confluence of the Odet and the Steire. The 
 most ancient quarter, encompassed with walls and turrets, 
 rises like an amphitheatre, and commands a view of a ro- 
 mantic country covered with rocks, woods and heaths. In 
 the more modern quarter of St. Mathieu, the streets are not 
 so narrow, and the houses are better built. h The finest 
 public walk extends along the canal of the Odet, 1 which the 
 tide renders navigable to vessels of 300 tons. The cathe- 
 dral was rebuilt at the commencement of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, and is one of the finest churches in France. The 
 town has given birth to several distinguished men, among 
 others to Bougeant and Hardouin, two jesuits ; the first com- 
 posed the admirable Histoire du Traite de Westphalie, and 
 also the Jhnusemens philosophiques sur le langage des hides, 
 on account of which his brethren banished him to La Fleche ; 
 the second author, more to be pitied for his singularity, than 
 dreaded for any real or imaginary danger arising from his 
 writings, attributed Virgil’s iEneid to a monk of the thir- 
 teenth century, and considered the poem an allegorical de- 
 scription of St. Peter’s journey to Rome. The same 
 writer maintained that the acts of all the councils anterior to 
 the council of Trent, were false; he was charitable enough 
 to include Malebranche, Nicole and Pascal in the list of 
 atheists. The jesuits allowed him to repeat these absurdi- 
 ties without molestation/ Freron the ex-jesuit, and Valen- 
 tin the painter, were likewise natives of the town ; the latter 
 during the civil dissensions in France, handled the pencil, 
 the pen and the sword. Concarneau, situated on a small 
 island, which communicates with the continent by means of 
 a convenient ferry, is enclosed with walls, and guarded by 
 a castle. It was taken by Duguesclin in 1373. It sends 
 
 a Count de Tinteniac. 
 
 b “ Avec un bon port” — It has a good port, but of difficult access. 
 Tuckey, Vol. II. p. 20. — P. 
 
 « “ Arrondissement.” i “ Finistere.” 
 
 e Quimperlay, Quimperley. 
 
 f Abbe Morellet, distinguished as a writer before and during the 
 revolution. — P. 
 
 e Cornouailles is the name of a country in Brittany, comprehending 
 all the former diocese of Quimper. (Encyc. Meth. Vosgien.) — P. ° 
 k ‘ In the old quarter, the upper stories of the houses project in 
 
 such a manner as to facilitate communication between the inhabitants 
 on the opposite sides of the streets.” 
 
 * “ The fine quays and the promenade which border the channel of 
 the Odet, contribute to the commerce of the place and the recreation 
 of its inhabitants.” 
 
 k “ He published and repeated these absurdities without molesta- 
 tion” — This statement is not strictly true. Not only were the works 
 in which he had denied the authenticity of the ancients and the conn 
 cils, suppressed by authority, but he was compelled by his religious 
 superiors to retract his opinions. — P. 
 
248 EURC 
 
 every year about four hundred boats and small vessels to j 
 the sardel fisheries, of which the mean annual produce 
 amounts to a thousand tons. Douarnenez rivals the last 
 town in the same sort of industry ; it is partly peopled by 
 two thousand fishermen and sailors.* 
 
 There are no towns of any consequence in the district b 
 of Chateaulin. The capital of the same name, divided in- 
 to two nearly equal parts by the river Aulne, c is pleasantly 
 situated ; it was the birthplace of father Andre J and rear- 
 admiral Cosmao ; the former obtained some celebrity as 
 the author of a treatise on Man, and an essay on the Beau- 
 tiful ; e the latter died a few years ago, after having distin- 
 guished himself in several engagements. The burgh of 
 Huelgoet and the village of Poullaouen are two other places 
 in the same district ; b the former is enriched by a mine of 
 argentiferous lead ; the other contains 3,600 inhabitants, 
 almost all of whom are employed in working a similar 
 mine, the largest in France, and one of the finest in Eu- 
 rope. It yields annually about 150 tons of lead, and more 
 than 000 pounds of silver/ The machinery used in the 
 works, the founderies and the houses of the miners/ are 
 not unworthy of being visited. The small and dirty town 
 of Carhaix rises on the left hank of the Hiere at the dis- 
 tance of eleven leagues to the east of Chateaulin. It has 
 produced one of the greatest men of the last century, the 
 brave La Tour d’Auvergne, distinguished for his learning' 1 
 and as a soldier, and a worthy descendant of Turenne, 
 who was proclaimed first grenadier of France, and who 
 fell in 1799 at the battle of Neuburg. 
 
 Every stranger who has visited Brest, must have observ- 
 ed the fatiguing and uninterrupted motion which prevails in 
 the port, the vessels that frequent it, displaying the colours 
 of every nation, the imposing aspect of the batteries, which 
 defend the towfi, the old fortress, according to popular tra- 
 dition, erected by Caesar, which guards the entrance, and 
 the extensive road, communicating with the ocean by the 
 strait called the Goulet, and capable of holding five hun- 
 dred ships of war ;' he may also have remarked the naval 
 storehouses, the large arsenal, the barracks on the long 
 esplanade, the cordage and sail manufactories, the large 
 dockyards, and lastly the work-houses which may contain 
 four thousand prisoners or galley-slaves. k Brest is built 
 on the declivity of a hill, and is divided into the high and low 
 
 }PE [BOOK CXLJII. 
 
 town ; the latter has been embellished with many modern 
 houses; indeed the quarter of Recouvrance may ere long 
 he compared with the one round the harbour, for it has 
 been found necessary to pull down the ancient Gothic hab- 
 itations in order that sufficient space may be obtained foi 
 new buildings. 1 The steep and crooked streets in the up- 
 per town are very disagreeable and difficult of access. 
 The fifth stories of several houses are on a level with the 
 gardens belonging to others, and as the only communica- 
 tions between the old and new quarters are by means of 
 long and open stairs, accidents are not uncommon during 
 frosty weather. A fine machine for masting vessels may 
 be observed at no great distance from the entrance into 
 the harbour. One can hardly behold the solid and exten- 
 sive quays, and the magazines or storehouses built of free- 
 stone, which line them, without rendering homage to the 
 genius of Richelieu, by whom they were planned, and who 
 foresaw the advantages that might be derived from the sit- 
 uation of a burgh, which he raised to the rank of a mari- 
 time town. Il has been supposed, and in all probability 
 correctly, that Brest is not so ancient a place as many be- 
 lieve ; it cannot he inferred from the Roman fortress which 
 still remains, that the town existed in the time of Caesar ; 
 besides it may be shown that it was only a village in the 
 ninth century, when king Coron Meriadec erected a castle 
 near it. m Louis Choquet, a poet of the sixteenth century, 
 Rochon, a dramatic writer, and Lamothe-Piquet and Ker- 
 saint, two distinguished naval officers, were born in the 
 capital of Finisterre." 
 
 The isle of Ouessant 0 may be seen from the coast of 
 Brest; it contains about 1800 inhabitants, who are scat- 
 tered in several hamlets. The road to the heights in the 
 district 15 of Morlaix, leads to Landernau which, although it 
 has been extolled by an academician, must be considered 
 an ill-built and disagreeable town. Morlaix is not so dirty 
 as many other small towns in Brittany ; it stands between 
 two hills, about two leagues from the sea, and at the con- 
 fluence of the Jarleau and the Kerlent, which enter its 
 harbour ; the latter is defended by a castle. i Possessing 
 a considerable trade, adorned with several fine edifices, 
 and encompassed with agreeable walks, it cannot be denied 
 that Morlaix is a pleasant and wealthy city. It was the 
 birthplace of general Moreau, a Frenchman who betrayed 
 
 1 “ Its population comprehends about 2000 mariners ( marins .)” 
 Douarnenez has a population of 2000. Tuckey, Vol. II. p. 20. — P. 
 b “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 c Chateaulin is situated on the Auzon. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 d Yves Marie Andre, jesuit, professor of mathematics at Caen — died 
 1764, aged 89.— P. 
 
 ' Traiti dc l' Homme — Essai sur h beau. 
 
 1 “ 3000 quintals of lead and 400 kilogrammes of silver.” 
 s “ The machinery employed in extracting the ore, and the build- 
 
 ings destined for founderies” 
 
 >' In various languages, particularly the ancient Celtic. He pub- 
 lished a Glossary of 45 languages, a French and Celtic Dictionary, 
 and a work on Celtic etymology ( Traiti des Origincs Gauloises.) — P. 
 
 ' Brest has two roads, the outer called Bertheaume Road, and the 
 inner, Brest Water, the communication between them being by a nar- 
 row channel, called Le Goulet (the Gullet,) which is defended by a 
 castle on a steep rock on the south side, and by a semicircular battery 
 on the other.* Brest Water is capable of holding 500 sail of large 
 ships. Tuckey. Vol. II. p. 19. — P. 
 
 * Guarded by a castle on the side next the sea, and on the land side by a 
 large ditch and other strong fortifications. Ed. Eneyc. 
 
 k “ The magazines for naval stores, the arsenal, the barracks front- 
 ing on a long esplanade, the two rope walks in a line parallel with the 
 dock yards, and the prison for the galley slaves ( bagne ,) built near the 
 summit of a hill, and large enough to contain nearly 4000 prisoners.” 
 
 1 “ Improvements are making more rapid progress in the latter, par- 
 
 i-' — 
 
 ticularly in the quarter of Recouvrance, t in which the old Gothic 
 houses are replaced by modern buildings, and which promises soon to 
 rival the quarter near the harbour.” 
 
 t “ Quartier de Recouvrance” — Brest is divided into two parts, one of which 
 is called the Cote du llrest and the other the Cote de Recouvrance , between 
 which there is no communication but by boats. (Ed. Encyc.) — The town ( vil/e ) 
 properly so called, consists of a small number of narrow and crooked streets 
 built on the declivity of a hill. The suburb, called the suburb of Recouvrance 
 ( fauxbourg de la Eecouvrance.) consists of straight and well built streets. It 
 is separated from the town by an arm of the sea w hich forms the harbour. (En- 
 cyc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 “ Conan Meriadoc died A. D. 393. (Moreri.) — Conan Meriadec, a 
 native of Great Britain, was created duke (dux) of the Armorican 
 frontiers by the emperor Maximus about the year 383, and 26 years 
 afterwards invested with the sovereign authority by the Bretons. He 
 died about the year 421. (Beauvais.) — Conan 1. who took the title of 
 king of Brittany, was killed in battle A. D. 992. (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 n Rochon de Chabannes, the dramatic writer, was born at Paris 1730. 
 La Mothe (Motte-) Piquet was born at Rennes 1720. Kersaint was 
 born at Paris 1741. (Beauvais.) — La Mothe-Piquet died at Brest 1791 . 
 (Diet. Hist. Caen, 1804.) — Quimperis the capital of the department and 
 the residence of the prefect. Brest is only capital of an arrondisse- 
 ment or subprefecture. (Alman. Royal, 1822.) — P. 
 
 0 Ushant. p “Arrondissement.” 
 
 1 Its port is defended by the castle of Taureau on an island. Tuck- 
 ey. Vol. II. p. 19. — P. 
 
book cxLin.i DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 249 
 
 his country, and was mortally wounded when commanding 
 the enemies of France. St. Pol de Leon, a the metropolis 
 of a district, b and formerly the seat of a bishopric, rises on a 
 hill near the sea. The only buildings worthy of notice 
 are the town-house, the ancient granite cathedral and the 
 steeple of Creesker. The district of which it is the capi- 
 tal, has been long famous for its horses. 
 
 Several deep bays and important capes that jut into the 
 Channel, are situated in the department of the North 
 Coast. 0 The arid, rocky and wild heights of Menez, Ar- 
 ree and Menebrat cover a large part of its surface, and are 
 the sources of three navigable rivers, namely, the Guer, 
 the Trieux and the Gouet. The gentle declivities of the 
 same heights terminate both on the north and the south in 
 sterile sands, which extend to a considerable distance, but 
 plains of great fertility may be seen beyond them, particu- 
 larly near the coasts. Their products are flax, hemp, and 
 different kinds of grain and fruits ; in some places the 
 country is covered with vineyards. d The mineral riches 
 of the department consist in iron and lead mines, in gran- 
 ite and slate quarries, and lastly in several medicinal springs 
 of greater or less celebrity. The culture of the ground 
 and the produce of the fisheries enable many to gain the 
 means of subsistence ; but other sorts of industry, the prod- 
 ucts of manual labor, the Brittany linens as they are call- 
 ed, have almost changed the department into a vast manu- 
 factory. 6 
 
 Although the district of which Laudeac f is the chief 
 town, and which extends below the southern declivities of 
 the Armorican chain, may be considered the smallest in 
 die department, no less than four thousand linen manufac- 
 tories are contained in it. Uzel, near the banks of the 
 Oust, is the principal mart for the different manufactures. 
 The small town of Lannion stands on the banks of the 
 Guer, near the shores of the sea, in a favourable situation 
 for trade. The river Tre°;uier serves as a communication 
 between the port of the same name and the Channel. 
 Guingamp on the Trieux may be remarked on account of 
 the fruitful and romantic country in which it is situated.® 
 
 St. Brieuc or St. Brieux contains hardly ten thousand 
 inhabitants ; one cannot see therefore without surprise, a 
 public library of 24,000 volumes, a collection of paintings, 
 a theatre, an hospital and a fine granite bridge over the 
 Gouet. 1 ' It may be added too that there are horse races 
 every year in the beginning of July ; the horses that run, 
 must be bred either in the department of the North Coast, 
 or in the neighbouring departments of Finisterre, Mor- 
 bilian, the Lower Loire, and the Ille and Vilaine. 1 The town 
 also contains a school of hydrography, and an agricultural 
 society. The harbour is at the village of Le Gue St. 
 Brieuc. St. Brieuc was built at irregular intervals round 
 
 1 St. Paul de Leon (Encyc. Metli.) 
 
 b “ Subprefecture” The capital of a district ( canton ) in the sub- 
 
 pi efecture or arrondissement of Morlaix (Vosgien. Alman. Royal, 
 1822). — P. c Cotes du Nord. 
 
 d “ They produce flax, hemp and cider, and also a little wine.” 
 
 e “The inhabitants are employed in agriculture, fisheries, and dif- 
 ferent manufactures, particularly in the manufacture of what are call- 
 ed Brittany linens ( toiles de Bretagne,* * * ) in which so many are employed 
 as almost to convert the department into a vast manufactory.” 
 
 * Also called Bretagnes or Brittanies. Encyc. Meth. Part. Commerce. — P. 
 
 * Loudeac. 
 
 e “ Guingamp may be remarked for its fine cathedral, and for 
 
 the pleasant walks in its neighbourhood.” 
 
 * Goy. (Tuckey.) 
 
 ‘ -Horse races, in which these departments are competitors 
 (concourent.)” 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 50 32 
 
 a monastery which dates from the fifth century ; the streets 
 are clean and straight, and, according to antiquaries, one 
 of the parish churches now repaired, was originally a dru- 
 idical temple. k Paimpol on the coast, towards the north- 
 west, contains 2000 inhabitants ; the harbour is safe and 
 convenient, and the mineral waters are held in some re- 
 pute. Quintin, 1 at the distance of four leagues to the south- 
 west of St. Brieuc, has been long known for its fine lin- 
 ens ; on the neighbouring hill are situated a castle of sin- 
 gular architecture, and two peulvens or druidical stones 
 twenty-five feet in height, one of which is still erect. The 
 small town of Lamballe to the east of the capital, was 
 probably the ancient city of the Ambiliates , m a people men- 
 tioned by Ccesar. 
 
 The district" of Dinan is the only other in the department; 
 the town rises on a height near the left bank of the Ranee ; it 
 has a harbour, from which there is a communication during 
 high tides with that of St. Malo. It is noted for a strong cas- 
 tle, an ancient residence of the dukes of Brittany, the walls 
 of which are remarkable both for their height and thick- 
 ness. The public walks are extensive and laid out with 
 much taste ; but most of the public buildings are not very 
 creditable to the town." Dinan has produced several dis- 
 tinguished men ; it may be sufficient to mention Duclos, 
 the secretary of the French academy, and Mahe de La 
 Bourdonnaye, who was thrown by an ungrateful country 
 into a dungeon in the Bastille, after having added to the 
 glory of the French arms in India. Although the time in 
 which Dinan was founded, has not been determined, it is 
 certain that it was originally a Celtic city, probably the 
 same which Ptolemy designates by the name of Dianlitce. 
 Mineral springs, p which have been of late years much fre- 
 quented, rise in a valley at a short distance from the walls. 
 The old road to them was almost impracticable ; a new 
 and an excellent one was made by the states of Brittany. 
 
 The Ille and the Vilaine water a department, 11 the last 
 of those that are included in the ancient province of Brit- 
 tany. The first river flows from north to south, and unites 
 with the second, which takes first a western direction, 
 and turns afterwards to the south. It serves, as well as 
 the Cher and the Coesnon, to facilitate the conveyance 
 of goods. Hills extend in different directions, and forests, 
 landes and heaths make up nearly half of the country. 
 The banks of the rivers are covered with rich pastures, 
 and the fruitful marsh of Dol, the Delta of the department, 
 yields abundant harvests, but even these are hardly ade- 
 quate to the consumption. The working and smelting of 
 iron, and different manufactures, particularly linen, r have 
 diffused wealth among the inhabitants. 
 
 As the people in the ancient city of Meth, the modern 
 St. Servant, 3 were continually exposed to the attacks of 
 
 k “ The antiquaries of the country consider its parochial church as 
 an ancient druidical temple.” St. Brieux contains a cathedral and the 
 parish church of St. Michael. Moreri. — P. 
 
 I Population, 3976 (Alman. Royal, 1822) — not stated in the origi- 
 nal. — P. 
 
 m Ambiatites, Caesar. J. Scaliger. edit. Elzevir. 1635 — Ambiliates, 
 Caesar, ed. Vicentii, 1558. — P. 
 
 II “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 0 “ With the exception of its public walks, which are agreeable and 
 extensive, and a concert hall, an evidence that it reckons a number 
 of connoisseurs ( dilletanti ) among its inhabitants, the town contains 
 nothing remarkable.” 
 
 p “ A ferruginous spring.” 
 
 q The department of the Ille and Vilaine. 
 
 r “ Agriculture, the working and refining of iron, and the manufac- 
 ture of different kinds of linen.” 
 
 » St. Servan. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 250 
 
 [BOOK CXL.III 
 
 pirates, most of them removed, during the eleventh century, 
 to the rock of Aaron, where they founded a small town, 
 which was called St. Malo after the name of their bishop. 
 The rock on which it stands communicates with the land 
 by means of an embankment ; the rough breakers on the 
 north, and many batteries, render the access difficult to the 
 enemy. The entrance to the narrow gulf which forms the 
 harbour, is very inconvenient ; on both sides are situated 
 numerous shoals, and the waters are suddenly depressed 
 or swollen by the tides ; indeed, they have risen more 
 than once to the height of forty-five feet above their ordi- 
 nary level. 11 The town rises like an amphitheatre ; many 
 of the streets are regularly built, and public walks extend 
 round the ramparts. St. Malo has produced several re- 
 markable men ; among others, Duguay-Trouin, James 
 Cartier, b who discovered Canada, Maupertuis, a geometer 
 and natural philosopher, La Mettrie, a physician, who was 
 banished and died in exile, because he doubted the im- 
 mortality of the soul, and lastly, the Abbe Trublet, an in- 
 defatigable compiler. St. Servant, not more than half a 
 league from St. Malo, is a neat modern town with two 
 harbours, one of them set apart for merchant vessels, and 
 the other for those in the service of government. Cancale 
 on the coast, at the distance of three leagues from St. Ser- 
 vant,' * 1 supplies different places with oysters. d Although 
 the church of Dol may be compared with any other in the 
 department, the town itself does not contain more than four 
 thousand inhabitants.® 
 
 The road from St. Malo to Paris passes through Fou- 
 geres, which was almost destroyed by fires during the last 
 century, calamities which account for its being at present 
 one of the best built towns in the department. The pub- 
 lic walks command a view of the neighbouring country, the 
 fruitful valley watered by the Nancon, and meadows va- 
 ried by groves; a fine forest in which are contained seve- 
 ral druidical monuments, extended formerly beyond the 
 village of Landean/ where the cellars may be still seen 
 that were dug in the twelfth century by Raoul, lord of 
 Fougeres, in order that his treasures might be hid from 
 Henry the Second of England, but the monarch was more 
 active than his enemy, for he seized the booty before it 
 was concealed. Fougeres has been long famous for dif- 
 ferent dyes, particularly for its scarlet, of which the brillian- 
 cy has been attributed to the quality of the waters of the 
 Nanqon. The sinuous course of the Vilaine leads to Re- 
 don, an agreeable and well built town, that carries on a 
 
 considerable trade with Rennes ; it possesses a harbour 
 for vessels under two hundred and fifty tons.® Two small 
 towns, Renac and Bain, are situated in the district, 1 ’ of 
 which Redon is the capital; cheeses little inferior to those 
 of Gruyeres are exported from the one, and the department 
 is supplied with serge from the manufactories in the other. 1 
 Three other districts' 1 remain to be described ; their chief 
 towns are Montfort sur Meu, Rennes and Vitre ; it may per- 
 haps be worth while to add that they are all situated under 
 the same parallel ; the old fortifications in the first of these 
 places are not wholly destroyed. The most important iron 
 works in Brittany are those of Paimpont, a village about 
 five leagues distant from Montfort sur Meu. The inhabit- 
 ants of Plelan le Grand, another flourishing village, manu- 
 facture linens, thread, and other articles. 1 These two vil- 
 lages are three times more populous than the chief town in 
 the district.* 1 
 
 Public walks on the banks of the Vilaine, communicate 
 with Rennes, the capital of the department. The upper 
 town, the finest part of the city, has been so called to dis- 
 tinguish it from the lower, which is situated on the left bank 
 of the river, and is not unfrequently liable to inundations. 
 The philosophical author of the treatise on Compensations, 
 has omitted to state that many towns might not have been 
 improved or embellished, had it not been for the devasta- 
 tions occasioned by fire. Thus, in the month of December 
 1720, all the upper part of Rennes was laid in ashes by a 
 conflagration, which lasted several days ; m but the finest 
 quarter of the city was built" in consequence of that calam- 
 ity. The court of justice 0 stands in a square, which may 
 be compared with any other in France the houses that 
 surround it, are adorned with Corinthian pillars, q which ac- 
 cord well with the architecture of the principal building. 
 The different halls in the court are ornamented with paint- 
 ings by Jouvenet and other French artists/ The town- 
 house, a larger and finer edifice than the last, forms near- 
 ly one of the sides in another square shaded by lofty lime 
 trees/ One of the wings has been set apart for the civil 
 and commercial tribunals, and also for a public library, 
 containing seventeen thousand volumes. Some of the 
 works in the gallery of paintings are attributed to the great 
 Italian masters; it is situated near the botanical garden, 
 which contains many rare plants, and forms one of the 
 most agreeable walks in the town/ The establishments 
 connected with instruction are an academy, a royal college, 
 a scientific society, and lastly, schools of medicine, law, 
 
 a “ The harbour is surrounded with rocks ( ecueils ,) and situated at the 
 bottom of a narrow gulf, in which tlxe sea rises at spring tides, 45 feet 
 above its ordinary level ; the access to it is consequently difficult.” — 
 The harbour is spacious, but of difficult access from rocks. It is near- 
 ly dry at low water, but the tide rises 48 feet. Tuckey, Vol. II. p. 
 18.— P. 
 
 b Jacques Cartier. 
 
 c “ Cancale, at the distance of three leagues along the coast — ” 
 Cancale is three leagues E. of St. Malo. (Vosgien.) 
 
 d — “is noted for its oysters.” On the coast of Brittany there are 
 very large oysters, particularly at Cancale, where a great many are 
 preserved in places inclosed for that purpose. Ed. Encyc. 
 
 0 “ Dol, a town of 4000 inhabitants, contains a fine church.” 
 
 f “ It has a public walk ( promenade ,) arranged in terraces, from which 
 the view extends over the pleasant valley watered by the Nancon, 
 over meadows interspersed with clumps of trees, and over a fine forest 
 which contains many druidical monuments, and which formerly ex- 
 tended beyond the village of Landean ” 
 
 s “ Its port receives vessels of 200 tons” Its port which serves 
 
 as the entrepot for the commerce of Rennes, is accessible to vessels 
 of 200 tons with full cargoes. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 h “ Arrondissement” 
 
 1 “ Redon is the capital of an arrondissement, in which aro situated 
 tho small towns of Renac and Bain, in the former of which a kind of 
 
 cheese is made that is sold for that of Gruyeres, and the latter of which 
 contains several manufactories of serges.” 
 k “ Arrondissements.” 
 
 1 “ Plelan le Grand a de belles fabriques dc fil” manufactures 
 
 fine thread. — The thread, called Brittany thread (fils de Bretagne,) 
 comes from Rennes, either white or coloured. It may be had of all 
 colours and of every degree of fineness ; it is used only for sewing. 
 Savary, Diet. Comm. art. Fil. — P. 
 
 m “ Seven days” six or seven days (Encyc. Meth.) eight days 
 
 (Vosgien.) It consumed more than 850 houses. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 n — “ Built on a regular plan.” The streets in the Upper Town 
 are, with few exceptions, straight, broad and regular, and the houses, 
 which are six or seven stories high, are well built, upon a uniform 
 plan. Ed. Encyc. — P. 
 
 0 Palais dc Justice — Parliament House. 
 
 P “ The Palace square {Place du Palais) is one of the finest in France.” 
 s “ Pilasters.” 
 
 r “ Some of the halls in the building are adorned with paintings by 
 Jouvenet and with elegant arabesques.” 
 
 s “ The town-house, a more elegant edifice than the last, termi- 
 nates a square planted with lime trees” — the Place d'Brmes. — P. 
 
 1 “ The picture gallery contains several paintings attributed to cele- 
 brated artists ( peintres cclebres). The botanical garden torms a de- 
 lightful promenade.” 
 
book cxiiiii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 and the fine arts. a Rennes is not only the seat of a court, 
 but also the chief town in a diocese ; b it has produced sev- 
 eral great men, among others, Rene de La Bletterie, the 
 historian of Julian the apostate, Tournemine the jesuit, a 
 person of great erudition, Caradeuc de La Chalotais, whose 
 name is generally associated with the expulsion of the 
 jesuits, and the principal events that preceded the revolu- 
 tion, St. Foix, the author of the essays on Paris, 0 and 
 Lanjuinais, a member of the convention, and afterwards 
 raised to the peerage ; the latter was distinguished for his 
 eloquent speeches in the revolutionary assembly ; in his 
 various public employments he conducted himself as an 
 enlightened philosopher and a virtuous citizen. The large 
 prison' 1 in the ancient capital of Brittany, serves as a place 
 of confinement to the culprits in the four departments sub- 
 ject to the jurisdiction of the royal court. If the canal be- 
 tween Rennes and St. Malo were finished, the trade of 
 the town might be much improved. It may be almost un- 
 necessary to mention that the capital of Brittany was con- 
 nected with many important events in the history of France. 
 The parliament of Rennes was instrumental in bringing 
 about the convocation of the states-general in 1789. The 
 inhabitants took arms for and against the king at different 
 periods during the League.- In the fourteenth century, 
 it was invested by the English under the command of 
 Lancaster, who were forced by Duguesclin to abandon the 
 siege ; but at a period anterior to the French monarchy, 
 and even in the time of the Romans, several antiquities 
 still preserved within the walls, prove that the town must 
 have been an important place. The masters of the world 
 called it Rhedones, e because it was the chief town in the 
 country inhabited by the people of the same name. It 
 was called Condate by the Celts before the Roman con- 
 quest, probably on account of its position at the confluence 
 of the Ille and the Vilaine. The hamlet of La Prevalaye 
 is not more than half a league from Rennes ; f the neigh- 
 bouring country has been long famous for its butter, which 
 is said to be better than any other in France ; it is mostly 
 consumed in Paris. s 
 
 "V itre, h the only other place in the department that re- 
 mains to be described, cannot be said to be either a clean 
 or well-built town. It might almost be supposed that it 
 had been made the capital of a district, 1 merely because 
 the states of Brittany assembled there before the revolu- 
 tion. The house in which Madame de Sevigne used to 
 reside while the states sat, perhaps the finest in the town, 
 would be considered a very ordinary building elsewhere. 
 From its appearance, one would be led to consider it as 
 
 OF FRANCE. 251 
 
 one of the oldest Armorican towns ; some antiquaries even 
 pretend to have discovered within its walls the remains of 
 Roman edifices. It was the birthplace of Savary, the au- 
 thor of letters on Egypt. The neighbouring country has 
 been much admired, and of late years much frequented on 
 account of medicinal springs. Strangers visit the barony 
 ol Rochers, and the old castle flanked with towers, in 
 which, it is said, several articles are carefully preserved, 
 that belonged to the celebrated person, whose correspon- 
 dence has become classical in French literature. 11 
 
 The Mayenne waters the department of the same name 1 
 in all its extent from north to south ; the soil and the veg- 
 etable productions are nearly the same as in the last ; the 
 vallies are fruitful in grain, but the vine gives place to the 
 apple tree. Herds of oxen, and flocks of sheep may be 
 seen in all the rural districts, and the peasants find the 
 rearing of bees a profitable employment. 1 " The industrious 
 classes manufacture flax, hemp and cotton. 
 
 The stranger looks in vain at Laval for straight or broad 
 streets and houses at all worthy of an industrious and 
 wealthy city. Situated between two hills, which enclose 
 a fine valley, the Mayenne divides it into two parts, and 
 waters a country as agreeable as the town is the reverse. 
 The old and clumsy walls were built about the tenth cen- 
 tury, when the town and the territory attached to it, were 
 erected into a barony, which was made over in 1218 to a 
 branch of the house of Montmorency; it became after- 
 wards a county during the reign of Charles tlje Seventh." 
 The old castle that belonged to the dukes of Laval, 0 rises 
 in the middle of the town, on the banks of the river ; it 
 has been long used as a prison. The linen mart, p a large 
 and lofty edifice, was built by the dukes of La Trimouille, 
 who succeeded those of Montmorency .9 The linens of 
 Laval have been held in great repute for more than five 
 hundred years ; that branch of industry was first introduced 
 by Guy the Eighth, lord of Laval, r after his marriage with 
 Beatrice of Flanders, from which country many weavers 
 migrated and settled in the town. The fact, however, is 
 little known by the townspeople, who in gratitude ought to 
 have erected a monument to the great promoter of their 
 prosperity. The public library consists of 25,000 volumes; 
 the town has produced several distinguished men, but none 
 perhaps more eminent titan Ambrose Pare, the father of 
 surgery in France. 
 
 The Mayenne waters the three principal towns in the 
 department, and it may be necessary to remark that two 
 of them, Chateau Gonthier and Mayenne, are six leagues 
 distant from Laval, the one on the north, and the other on 
 
 a “ An academy, a royal college, a society of arts and sciences, a 
 faculty of law, a secondary school of medicine,* and a school of fine 
 arts.” 
 
 *The schools of medicine in France are of two orders, viz: faculties and 
 secondary schools, the latter subordinate to the former. In 1822, there were 
 three faculties of medicine in France, those of Paris, Strasburg and Montpel- 
 lier P. 
 
 b “ Rennes is the seat of a royal court and a bishopric.” 
 
 e Essais sur Paris. 
 
 d “ Central prison ( maison centrale de detention)" — prison for crim- 
 inals, corresponding to our penitentiaries. — P. 
 
 e Redones , D’Anv. 
 
 f On the left bank of the Vilaine. M. B. 
 
 s The original merely states that its butter is highly esteemed in 
 Paris. — P. 
 
 h Vitray, Vitry. 
 
 * “ Subprefecture” — arrondissement. 
 
 k Madame de Sevigne. 1 Department of the Mayenne. 
 
 m “The cattle, sheep and swine are numerous and valuable; bees 
 are reared on a large scale.” 
 
 n “ This ancient barony, the walls of which do not indicate an ori- 
 gin anterior to the tenth century, was acquired by a branch of the 
 house of Montmorency in 1218,* and erected into a county by Charles 
 
 Vll.t” 
 
 * By the marriage of Mathieu de Montmorency (II.) with Emma, only daugh- 
 ter of Guy V. last of the barons of Laval of the first branch. The barony de- 
 scended to the children of this, his second marriage. Moreri. — P. 
 tA. D. 1429. 
 
 ° — “to its dukes” not dukes of Laval, but of La Tremoille. 
 
 Francis, lord of La Tremoille, married Anne de Laval, second daugh- 
 ter of Guy XV. count of Laval ; the house of La Tremoille thus be- 
 came lords of Laval, by the extinction of the elder heirs of the house 
 of Montmorency-Laval, and assumed, as one of their titles, that of 
 count of Laval. Moreri. — P. 
 
 p “Halle aux toiles” linen hall. 
 
 q “ — who succeeded the Montmorencies” not the dukes of Mont- 
 
 morency, but the Montmorencies, counts of Laval. See note 0 — P. 
 r Guy VIII. died in 1323. 
 
 
 
252 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLIII. 
 
 the south. Thus, their relative situation tends to facilitate 
 their commerce with each other. If the streets in Chateau 
 Gonthier were straight, it might be an agreeable residence ; 
 it is separated from its principal suburb by the river ; the 
 great charm of the public walks consists in the view along 
 the basin of the Mayenne ; the banks of the river are shad- 
 ed with walnut trees and orchards, or bordered with 
 meadows, and are commanded by heights that contribute 
 much to the beauty of the scenery. Craon, a small town 
 of 3000 inhabitants, about four leagues to the west of Cha- 
 teau Gonthier, was the birthplace of the celebrated Volney. 
 Although the streets of Mayenne are narrow and crooked, 
 the cleanliness of the houses may convince the stranger 
 that he is no longer in the ancient province of Brittany. 
 It was erected into a dutchy a by Charles the Ninth in fa- 
 vour of Charles of Lorraine, wfto in consequence assumed 
 the title of duke of Mayenne. The ancient castle inhabited 
 by the same duke and his successors, may still be consid- 
 ered one of the greatest ornaments to the town. 
 
 The Sarthe, which gives its name to a department 15 con- 
 tiguous on the east to that of the Mayenne, traverses it 
 from north to south, and waters a very fruitful country, un- 
 til it joins the Huysne ; c there the soil changes, and all the 
 space between the latter river and the Loir is covered with 
 sandy and sterile heaths. Wines of an ordinary quality, 
 grain in sufficient abundance for the wants of the inhabit- 
 ants, rich pastures , 11 * 1 * numerous flocks, and iron and coal 
 mines , 6 make up the territorial wealth of the department. 
 
 The small town of Mamers may be first mentioned, be- 
 cause it is situated in the most northern district * 1 in the de- 
 partment. It was probably founded a short time after the 
 arrival of the Franks in Gaul; the Normans fortified it at 
 a later period, and it has since been embellished with pub- 
 lic walks, fountains and different buildings. Although La 
 Ferte Bernard contains hardly 2500 inhabitants, it possess- 
 es linen and woollen manufactories, together with several 
 corn and fulling mills, which are moved by the Huysne 
 and the Mene. The inhabitants have formed by subscrip- 
 tion a public library,® a proof that industry is accompanied 
 with the desire of knowledge. 
 
 Mans, the capital and the residence of the prefect, is 
 advantageously situated near the centre of the department ; 
 seven high roads terminate in the town, and the lofty trees 15 
 which shade them, add to the beauty of the neighbourhood. 
 Narrow and crooked streets paved with pebbles, and almost 
 inaccessible to carriages, indicate the antiquity of the quar- 
 ter on the right bank of the Sarthe. The upper town is 
 more modern; the houses are built of freestone, and cov- 
 ered with slate ; but most of the public buildings are situ- 
 
 1 “ Duche-pairie” — a title peculiar to the old government of 
 France. The Peers of France were the princes and nobles, secular 
 and ecclesiastical, who assisted at the coronation, and had a seat in 
 the parliament. All the nobles, however, were not peers. Hence 
 the title in the original signifies a dutchy with the privilege of the 
 peerage annexed. — P. 
 
 b Department of the Sarthe. c Huisne. 
 
 d “ Abundant crops of trefoil” (yellow clover. Ed. Encyc.) 
 e Poultry and bees are also enumerated in the original. “ Poultry 
 forms an important article of commerce in the department.” Peuchet. 
 p. 155.— P. 
 
 1 “ Arrondissement.” 
 s “ The town supports a public library.” 
 h “ The poplars.” 
 
 ' “ The New Quartor ( Quartier Neuf) is the finest part of the town, 
 and the residence of the principal inhabitants. In the same quarter 
 are situated the palace of the prefect and the public library, the last 
 of which contains not less than 45,000 volumes and 700 manuscripts.” 
 
 ated in the New Quarter, the finest part of the city. 5 * * 8 The 
 cathedral was built at irregular intervals, during a period 
 of not less than six hundred years ; it forms a combination 
 of Roman and Gothic architecture, very interesting to 
 those who study the history of the art. Rows of stone al- 
 ternate with rows of brick ; the circular arches in the inte- 
 rior, and the ogives in the exterior produce a singular ef- 
 fect, which accords very well with the dazzling colours of 
 the Gothic windows. The mausoleum of William de Bel- 
 lay, 11 viceroy of Piedmont during the reign of Francis the 
 First, a good general and an able diplomatist, may be con- 
 sidered the principal ornament in the interior. The house 
 in which Scarron resided, whilst he was canon atMans, is sit- 
 uated at no great distance from the cathedral. The prom- 
 enade of the Jacobins, 1 a walk shaded with lime trees and bor- 
 dered by terraces, occupies the site of a Roman amphithe- 
 atre. The same town was the ancient Suindinum , the capi- 
 tal of the country of the Cenomani; under the Roman gov- 
 ernment, it was the second city in the third Lyonnaise. It was 
 one of the principal towns in France in the time of Charle- 
 magne ; the Normans by whom it was almost ruined, made 
 themselves twice masters of it. 555 It was several times 
 taken and retaken by the Yendean and Republican armies; 
 the market place 55 was changed into a field of battle on the 
 13th of December 1793, when the soldiers of La Vendee, 
 commanded by the prince of Talmont 0 and La Roche- 
 jaquelein, yielded in the darkness of the night and after 
 much slaughter to the troops commanded by Westermann 
 and Marceau, against whom they had defended themselves 
 during the whole of the day.? The wax candles made at 
 Mans are said to be the best in the kingdom, but that 
 branch of industry is not confined to the capital of the de- 
 partment ; the same articles are sent to Paris from some 
 districts in the neighbourhood, and from Suze,’ 1 a small 
 town of 1800 inhabitants, situated near the extremity of 
 the landes, r on the banks of the Sarthe. 
 
 Encompassed with forests and sandy plains, the Anille 
 waters a town 3 * which bore the same name as the river un- 
 til about the sixth century, when a St. Calais founded there 
 a monastery, and gave his own name to the tow T n. An old 
 church, a large square and two public walks are the great- 
 est ornaments to the place. Besides the commerce aris- 
 ing from the linen manufactures, it carries on a considera- 
 ble trade in grain . 1 The inhabitants' in the industrious 
 burgh of Besse, about three leagues towards the south, find 
 employment in different manufactories, in dying cloth, and 
 in making paper and wax candles . 51 In the same district , 1 
 beyond the southern extremity of the landes, nature, 
 abounding in contrasts, has embellished the rich valley of 
 
 k Guillaume du Bellay. (Beauvais.) 
 
 1 “ Promenade des Jacobins” (Dominicans.) 
 
 m “ It was twice ravaged by the Normans.” 
 
 n “ The great square (la grande place.)” 
 
 0 A. Ph. de La Tremoille, lord of Laval. 
 p See the Memoirs of La Rochejaquelein. 
 
 q “ There are many manufactories of the same article at Suze,* and 
 in the other arrondissements.” [Suze is in the arrondissement of 
 Mans. — P.] 
 
 * La Suze, La Suse. 
 
 r Heaths. See general account of the department. 
 
 8 The capital of an arrondissement. 
 
 * “ Besides its linen and woollen manufactures, it carries on a con- 
 siderable trade in clover seed (graines de trejle.)” 
 
 “ “ — in manufacturing coarse cottons (siameises,) wax candles and 
 paper, and in dying.” 
 x “ Arrondissement.” 
 
BOOK. CXLIII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 253 
 
 the Loir ; fields covered with grain, leguminous plants* 
 and fruits, hills adorned with vineyards that yield the only 
 good wine in the department, fruitful orchards and rich 
 meadows are united with romantic scenery. The chalky 
 hills, cut into terraces, on the banks of the Loir, form a 
 very singular appearance ; houses of two stories are exca- 
 vated in the declivities ; the chimneys pass upwards to the 
 fields, and clouds of smoke are exhaled from them. Cha- 
 teau du Loir rises on one of these heights ; industry and 
 commerce have enabled the inhabitants to substitute new 
 and commodious houses for old and inconvenient habita- 
 tions ; the town has been gradually renewed, and although 
 it contains at present only about 3000 souls, it possesses a 
 good classical seminary, an hospital, 15 a theatre and public 
 baths. 
 
 Passing through the same sort of country, the Loir flows 
 below the small but neat town of Lude f at a greater dis- 
 
 a “ Legumes”— — This term not only includes leguminous plants, 
 but all other edible plants, except grain and fruits, such as cabbages, 
 turnips, potatoes, &c. Peuchet. p. 333. — P. 
 b “ — a college, a hospital ( hospice ) — ” 
 c Le Lude. 
 
 d Called under the imperial government, the Military Prytancuin 
 
 tance, La Fleche, a comparatively wealthy city, rises on 
 the right bank ; it is not however remarkable for its indus- 
 try, for its only manufactories are one of black veils for 
 nuns, two of glue, and some leather works. It is however 
 a well built town, and the public library contains 22,000 
 volumes ; but this capital of a sub-prefecture has acquired 
 additional importance from the college founded by Henry 
 the Fourth, and changed many years ago into a military 
 school' 1 for six hundred pupils, four hundred of whom re- 
 ceive their education at the expense of government. Prince 
 Eugene, the celebrated Descartes and Picard the astron- 
 omer were educated at the college of La Fleche. Sable 
 at the confluence of the Erve and the Sarthe, is the last 
 place of any consequence in the western region of France ; 
 a fine bridge of black marble obtained from the quarries 
 in the vicinity, is without doubt the greatest ornament to 
 the town. 
 
 (Prytance Milituire,) and under the late government (1822,) the Royal 
 preparatory military school of La Fleche ( Ecole royale militaire pri- 
 par'itoire de La FLlche.) The pupils who have completed their course 
 at this school, are admitted at the special military school of St. Cyr. 
 The college which had belonged to the Jesuits, was converted into a 
 military school on the suppression of that order. — P. 
 
25 ^ EUROPE. [BOOK CXLTV. 
 
 BOOK CXLIY 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued. — Kingdom of France. — Third Section. 
 
 — Central Region. 
 
 The thirteen departments which make up the central 
 region ot France, formed eight provinces in the ancient 
 monarchy : Orleanais, fruitful in corn and in vines, Touraine, 
 called the garden of France, Berri, abounding in cattle, 
 Nivernais, Bourbonnais and Marche, each of them enriched 
 by commerce, Limousin, whose inhabitants supply by their 
 industry the disadvantages of an ungrateful soil, and lastly, 
 Auvergne, where the low lands are productive, and the 
 higher districts, although not fruitful in grain, afford good 
 pasturage. The same region does not differ widely from 
 the last in extent of surface, and in the means of education 
 provided for the people, but it is far inferior to it in the num- 
 ber of inhabitants, for the 4,165 square leagues that compose 
 it, are only peopled by 3,789,000 individuals, which on an 
 average does not amount to 910 persons to every square 
 league.® Thus it appears to be even more thinly peopled 
 than the southern region ; although no very favourable opin- 
 ion can be inferred from such results, still this portion of 
 France contains within itself so many resources, so much 
 that may contribute to the expansion of industry, that its 
 present depressed state cannot render an account of it unin- 
 teresting. 
 
 Almost the whole of Touraine, one of the smallest of the 
 ancient provinces, is at present included in the department 
 of the Indre and Loire, which these two rivers, together 
 with the Cher, the Claise and the Vienne, traverse from 
 east to west. The mildness of the climate, the fruitful val- 
 lies, the romantic banks of the Loire, on which the scenery 
 has not been too much extolled by poets, and the varied 
 productions inadequately described by geographers, b render 
 the country one of the most delightful in France. But the 
 celebrity that has been conferred on the whole department, 
 strengthened by the repetition of the same praises, may be 
 reduced or more correctly estimated after a minute exami- 
 nation. The traveller, after leaving the banks of the Loire, 
 whose majestic course is bordered by heights, covered with 
 vineyards, orchards, castles and villages, and after passing 
 through the vallies watered by the other streams that have 
 been mentioned, will observe in other parts of the country, 
 large tracts of uncultivated heaths, and will not therefore be 
 surprised to learn that a region apparently so rich, which 
 
 J It amounts to 009.7 nearly. — P. 
 
 b “ — the beautiful country on the banks of the Loire, whose scenery 
 has been perhaps too highly celebrated, but whose fertility almost sur- 
 passes description.” 
 
 c “ — with its prunes.” — Prunes, or St. Catharine’s plumbs, consti- 
 tute a lucrative branch of traffic, almost exclusively carried on at 
 Tours and Chatelherault. Ed. Eneyc. — P. 
 
 J Encyclopedic Methodique : Dictionnaire geographique, art. Tou- 
 raine. 
 
 has been almost compared to the promised land, and whic.1 
 supplies France and other countries with different fruits, 
 does not furnish a sufficient quantity of grain for the con- 
 sumption of the inhabitants. Thus the rich banks of the 
 Loire may be said to resemble one of those magnificent 
 frames which deceive the ignorant, and enhance in their 
 opinion the value of a picture. 
 
 The following passage concerning Touraine, appears in 
 a work that was published about forty years ago. d 
 
 “ The province was formerly enriched by different man- 
 ufactures, such as leather, cloth, silk and ribbons ; but all 
 of them have fallen into decay ; those of cloth and leather 
 are no longer carried on. The silk looms amounted in the 
 sixteenth century to eight thousand, the number of mills to 
 seven hundred, and the individuals who found employment 
 in manufacturing silk, to more than forty thousand, but the 
 latter do not at present exceed two thousand. Of three 
 thousand ribbon looms, there do not now remain more than 
 fifty.” The impolitic revocation of the edict of Nantes, and 
 duties equivalent to prohibitions on foreign trade, have been 
 so fatal to the department, that it has not participated in the 
 immense progress that French industry has made during the 
 last twenty years. The cloth, carpet and cotton manufac- 
 tories, the paper mills and leather works® are without doubt 
 both more numerous and important than they were forty 
 years ago, but they are not nearly so productive as might 
 have been reasonably anticipated. 
 
 The state of the department justifies these reflections, 
 although few towns in the kingdom can be compared with 
 Tours on the banks of the Loire. The entrance into it is 
 very imposing. A circus f leads to one of the best built 
 bridges in Europe, terminating in a spacious courts that 
 communicates with the Royal street, h die finest in the town, 
 and inferior to none in any other. Broad, straight, furnished 
 with side walks, and lined with large houses, public buildings 
 or well furnished shops, 1 it terminates in the road to Poitiers, 
 along which an extensive range of lofty trees stretches to a 
 green hill, surmounted with ruins, forming an admirable per- 
 spective. The Trancheef an excellent road, cut dirough 
 another hill, and bordered by a verdant slope (talus) and 
 different buildings, extends from the same bridge, in an 
 opposite direction ; it leads to the telegraph, not an uninter- 
 esting object, but very different from die ancient ruins diat 
 
 e “ Manufactories of coarse cloths, carpets, silks and cottons, cotton 
 mills ( filatures ,) paper mills and tanneries.” 
 f “ Place circulaire.” 
 
 s “ — terminating in another square (place.)” 
 h “ Rue Royale. 
 
 ■ “ — with fine houses (hdtds.) and elegant shops.” 
 k The Cut. 
 
BOOK CXLIV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 crown the other hill. The Royal street extends through 
 the whole breadth of the town ; several straight and modern 
 streets cross it ; but tbe old quarters consist of narrow and 
 crooked lanes. The cathedral is an admirable Gothic edi- 
 fice ; the nave is of vast dimensions ; the organ is remarkable 
 for its size and ornaments, and tbe windows in the choir 
 display the most dazzling colours. A very precious monu- 
 ment, illustrating the revival of the arts, may be seen within 
 the same building ; it is the tomb of Charles the Eighth and 
 Anne of Brittany, his wife. The public library is one of 
 the richest and most valuable in France; it contains more 
 than 30,000 volumes, a great many copies of rare editions, 
 and numerous manuscripts ; among the latter, are the Hours* 
 of Charles the Fifth, those of Queen Anne of Brittany, and 
 a book of the gospels, written in gold letters, on which the 
 kings of France used to swear in the capacity of abbots and 
 canons b of St. Martin’s church, where it was formerly pre- 
 served. The collection of paintings was removed a short 
 time ago to a more commodious gallery ; they are suffi- 
 ciently numerous and of various styles, and some of them 
 are by the greatest masters. Tours possesses a medical 
 society, another of agriculture, and a third of arts and sci- 
 ences ; the last boasts of some distinguished members. 
 Several celebrated men have been born in the town ; among 
 others, we may mention Destouches, a dramatic writer, 
 Dutens, the author of different valuable works on numismat- 
 ics, 0 and the canon Grecourt, whose licentious poems find 
 but few admirers at the present day. The period in which 
 Tours was founded, has not been ascertained ; Ptolemy 
 mentions it by the name of Ccesarodunum , a name that was 
 probably derived from the conqueror of Gaul ; but it is not 
 less probable that it was the capital of the Turones, at the 
 time Caesar entered their country. Can the Roman general 
 be considered the founder of a town, which a short time 
 after the conquest was a place of considerable importance 
 in Celtic Gaul, which afterwards became the capital of the 
 third Lyonnaise, and the name of which was distinguished 
 by a Celtic termination ? It is well known that the termi- 
 nation dunum indicates invariably a position on a height.* 1 
 Tours then, although at present on the left bank, .was origi- 
 nally on the right bank of the Loire, perhaps on the very 
 eminence where the telegraph has been erected. 
 
 Amboise, the ancient Ambacia, at the distance of five 
 .eagues to the east of Tours, has been considered by its 
 townsmen, a place of greater antiquity, but the honours 
 which they claim, are at best doubtful.® Peopled by five 
 thousand five hundred souls, and memorable from events 
 connected with the troublous times of French history, it is as 
 ill built as at the period when Louis the Eleventh instituted 
 in its old castle the order of St. Michael. Charles the 
 Eighth was born and died in the same edifice ; there too 
 
 1 Breviary. 
 
 b “ First canons.” — The church of St. Martin was abbatial and col- 
 legiate. The dignity of abbot was united to the crown of France by 
 Hugh Capet. The dauphin was first honorary lay canon of the chap- 
 ter. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 c Better known by his work, entitled : Rechcrch.es svr V originc 
 dcs dicouvertes attrihuies aux modernes, in "which he attempts to 
 trace the principal modern discoveries and inventions to the an- 
 cients. — P. 
 
 d The Gaelic dun is generally interpreted a fortress or fortified 
 town, erected on a hill. In a note to the Death of the Sons of Usnach 
 (Oid lie Chloinne Uisneac,) a Gaelic tale published in the Transactions 
 of the Gaelic Society of Dublin, vol. i., it is asserted that dun signifies 
 a fort, fastness, mansion or tower, or simply any place shut in or en- 
 closed. But as the forts of the Celts, as well as other ancient nations, 
 were very uniformly erected on hills, particularly such as were insu- 
 lated and abrupt, (witness the Acropolis of the Greeks and the Capitol R 
 
 OF FRANCE. 255 
 
 the conspiracy against the Guises proved abortive, a family 
 that contributed by their intrigues to make the catholics and 
 protestants of the same country, two hostile people, and that 
 first rendered popular the reproachful epithet of Huguenots, 
 by which reformed Christians have been since designated/ 
 One of the towers in the castle rises to the height of eighty- 
 four feet ; a spiral stair leads to the summit, which com- 
 mands a view of the rich landscapes that border the Loire 
 and the Cher. A well built bridge, finished in 1 822, crosses 
 the river and communicates with the road to Paris. Cha- 
 teau-Renault, situated to the north of Amboise, is divided 
 by the Brenne into the upper and lower town ; the burgh of 
 St. Paternes at no great distance eastwards, contains 2000 
 inhabitants and more than twenty manufactories of woollen 
 and linen stuffs. One of the streams that fall into the Loire, 
 waters the small town or rather burgh of Luynes, h which 
 was erected into a dutchy 1 by Louis the Thirteenth, in favour 
 of the constable D’Albert. It possesses a large hospital 11 
 and several lace manufactories. Habitations similar to those 
 that have been remarked in a neighbouring department, are 
 dug in the depths of chalky rocks, and the ground above 
 them is covered with rich vineyards. Paul Louis Courier, 
 one of the most learned hellenists in France, and not less 
 distinguished as a political writer, was born in the neigh- 
 bourhood. 
 
 The small town of Langeais 1 at the distance of some 
 leagues from Luynes, carries on a trade in linen stuffs and 
 earthen ware; m it consists of a single street, and contains 
 2500 inhabitants. The old Gothic castle is still in a good 
 state of preservation ; it was built in the eleventh century ; 
 the articles according to which Brittany was united to 
 France, and the 'marriage contract between the duchess 
 Anne and Charles the Eighth, were signed in one of the 
 halls on the ground flour, now converted into a stable. 
 The other parts of the building have been changed into a 
 prison. Although the town is included in the district* of 
 Chinon, it is separated from it by the Loire, the Cher and 
 the Indre. Chinon, situated on the Vienne, carries on a 
 considerable trade in wines and also in the excellent prunes 
 produced in the district. The walls which encompass it, 
 are all that remains of the old fortifications. The venerable 
 ruins of an ancient castle adorn the town ; it was there that 
 Henry the Second of England died in 1189; Joan of Arc 
 presented herself in the same place before Charles the Sev- 
 enth, and offered to deliver France from a foreign yoke. 
 Chinon was the birthplace of the celebrated curate of Meu- 
 don.° The minister of Louis the Thirteenth? changed 
 Richelieu, then a mere village, into a town ; he embellished 
 it with a castle, which has been since destroyed. The 
 houses and streets are built with great regularity. 
 
 La Have* 1 on the banks of the Creuse, has been surnamed 
 
 of the Romans,) the meaning usually attached tp the word dun, includ- 
 ing the idea of a height, rnay be considered legitimate. — P. 
 
 e “Amboise — disputes with Tours the piecedencc in point of anti 
 quity.” 
 
 f “ — and there too the reproachful epithet of Huguenots, by which 
 the Calvinists (chreticns reformes) were designated, first became pop 
 ular.” The original does not say that the Guises rendered the epithet 
 popular, but that it became so at Amboise. Moreri mentions among 
 his etymologies of the name, that it was first applied by the couitD.x,, 
 while the court was resident at the castle of Amboise. — P. 
 s St. Pater. (Savary. Vosgien.)- — P. 
 h Called also Mailli: and Maille-Luynes. 
 
 ' “ Duch6-pairie.” k “ Un bel hospice.” 1 Langets, Langey 
 ra “ It is noted for its melons, and possesses manufactories of linen 
 and tiles.” 
 
 " “ Arrondipeeroent.” * Rabelais. 
 
 p Cardinal Richohen. ’< La Haye-Descartes 
 
25G 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXL.JV 
 
 Descartes after the celebrated philosopher who was bom 
 within its walls, and whose house and modest furniture are 
 still preserved with scrupulous care. Loches, the chief 
 town in a district,® that produces in abundance the excellent 
 plums, which the French call the plums of Tours, b rises 
 like an amphitheatre on the left of the Indre. The 
 square tower which commands it, was built by the Romans ; 
 it formed part of the castle in which Agnes Sorel used the 
 empire of her charms to inspire her royal lover c with the 
 desire of glory. The building was converted into a state 
 prison by Louis the Eleventh, and the Cardinal Balue, one 
 of his ungrateful favourites, was confined there during eleven 
 years, in an iron cage. The tomb of Agnes Sorel, which 
 Louis the Sixteenth removed from the choir in the church 
 of Loches to another part of the building, may now be seen 
 at the residence of the subprefect ; the epitaph attests that 
 she was charitable to all , giving largely of her wealth to the 
 church and the poor. 
 
 Blois, Vendome and Romorantin are the three principal 
 towns in the department of the Loir and Cher, a fiat and 
 uniform country, but in some places varied by hills covered 
 with vineyards, on which the eye rests with pleasure. The 
 soil is much more fruitful in some parts than in others ; the 
 lands on the north of the Loire are very fertile, but on the 
 south of the river, marshes, heaths and forests cover a third 
 part of the soil. d The country yields more corn than the 
 inhabitants require, fruits and leguminous plants e of every 
 sort, a great quantity of hemp, different kinds of timber, and 
 some good wines, particularly those of the Cote du Cher. 
 Many sheep and oxen are reared ; f the turf pits? are by no 
 means unprofitable; iron mines are worked, and the flints 
 in the chalky hills form an important branch of commerce. 
 As a manufacturing department, it is not inferior to the 
 last. 
 
 Different remains of antiquity render it probable that 
 Blois was founded before the Roman conquest ; in it, as in 
 all the ancient French towns, the oldest buildings are situated 
 on a height, and form a quarter consisting of steep and nar- 
 row streets ; modern houses are erected below them ; they 
 extend to the quay on the right bank of the Loire, and to 
 the bridge of eleven arches, the latter adorned with a lofty 
 pyramid, and communicating with a suburb on the opposite 
 side of the river. The lower part of the city is well built, 
 and the views which it presents in different directions, are 
 likely to impress strangers with a favourable idea of the 
 place. The former church of the jesuits, built after the 
 plans of Mansard, the Roman aqueduct dug in the rock, the 
 public library, the prefect’s palace in the highest part of the 
 town, and the long walk which terminates in a large forest, 
 
 a “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 11 “ Lcs excellens pruneaux da Tours” — the excellent prunes of 
 Tours 
 
 ' Charles VII. 
 
 ^ “ The country on th6 north oftho Loire is more fertile than that 
 on the south of the river ; marshes, heaths and forosts cover three 
 fourths of the latter.” 
 
 e “ Legumes.” — See note 3 p. 933. 
 
 f “ The department abounds in sheep and poultry.” 
 
 s “ Tourbieres” — peat bogs. 
 
 h Henry de Lorraine, third duke of Guise, and Louis de Lorraine, 
 cardinal of Guise. — P. 
 
 1 Dec. 23, 1588.— P. 
 
 k Aug. 1, 1589, by James Clement, a Dominican. — P. 
 
 1 Chambor. 
 
 m Primaticcio (Le Primatice,) a nativo of Bologna. 
 
 " “ — the castle of Chambord, constructed after the designs of Le 
 
 Primatice during the reign of Francis I ; 1800 workmen were employed 
 
 during twelvo vears in building it, but it was continued under his 
 
 are well worthy of notice, but all of them are less imposing 
 than the old castle, where the good Louis the Twelfth was 
 born, which was inhabited by Francis the First and 
 Charles the Ninth, and where too, during the last meet- 
 ing of the states under Henry the Third, the Duke 
 of Guise, and his brother, the cardinal, * 1 * were assassinated 
 by order of the king, 1 who was himself afterwards murdered 
 by a bigot. k The curious repair to the village of Cham- 
 bord, 1 about four leagues to the east of Blois, in order to 
 see a castle which was built in the reign of Francis the 
 First after the plans of Primatice ; m the monarch employed 
 1800 workmen during twelve years, his successors followed 
 his example, and the edifice was completed by Louis the 
 Fourteenth. 11 Although an irregular assemblage of tower* 
 and turrets, it is one of the most imposing Gothic buildings 
 in France. A double spiral stair in the interior has been 
 often admired ; one person may mount and another descend 
 it without seeing each other. The park round the castle is 
 enclosed by a wall seven leagues in circumference. This 
 fine domain was the residence of king Stanislaus; Louis 
 the Fifteenth ceded it afterwards to Marshal Saxe, who died 
 there in the year 1750. Napoleon presented it to the 
 prince of Wagram ;° lastly, having been purchased by means 
 of a national subscription, it became the appanage of the 
 duke of Bordeaux. St. Aignan on the banks of the Cher, 
 carries on a considerable trade in cloth and in flints, which 
 are cut in the neighbourhood . p 
 
 Ten q manufactories render the small tow r n of Romorantin 
 a place of some importance ; and it may be mentioned as a 
 proof of its prosperity, that it has lately been embellished 
 with several new streets."" It is celebrated in history on 
 account of the edict that was issued by the chancellor De 
 l’Hopital, an edict that saved France from the horrors of 
 the inquisition. The Loir divides itself into several branches 
 near Vendome, which stands at the foot of a hill covered with 
 fruitful vineyards. The towm is well built, and the college 
 is not inferior in point of architecture to any in France ; 5 * 
 the finest buildings are those in the vicinity of the horse- 
 barracks, and no view near the town can be compared with 
 the one, which may be seen from the ruins of the ancient 
 castled Vendome was the birthplace of the poet Ronsard. 
 
 A flat country, consisting of extensive and fruitful plains, 
 with some narrow vallies of little depth, watered by different 
 rivers, the largest of which are the Eure and the Loir, 
 makes up the department of the same name, u in an agricul- 
 tural point of view, one of the most productive in France. 
 It comprehends the greater part of the ancient Beauce and 
 Perche. It furnishes corn in sufficient abundance for the 
 consumption of the inhabitants, and exports besides a great 
 
 successors, and was not completed till the reign of Louis XIV.” — 
 Chambor, a royal house of France, begun by Francis I. a short time 
 before his death, and finished by Henry II. JVIoreri. — P. 
 
 0 Marshal Berthier. 
 
 p “ St. Aignan, on the left bank of the Cher, is a place of some im- 
 portance from its cloth manufactories, and also from the sale of flints, 
 which are prepared on a large scale in its neighbourhood.” Gun 
 flints are manufactured by breaking the nodules of flint into fragments 
 by the stroke of a hammer, and then reducing these fragments to a 
 proper form and size on the edge of a chisel by repeated small blows 
 (Cleaveland.) — P. 
 
 s “ Une dizaine” — about ten. 
 
 r “ Constructions nouvelles” — new buildings. 
 
 • “ The college is one of the finest in France.” 
 
 * “ The cavalry barracks ( quartier de cavaterie) axe of elegant archl 
 tecture, and from the summit of the castle, now in ruins, there is a 
 magnificent prospect.” — The castle is situated within the town. (Mo- 
 reri.) — P. 
 
 “ Department of the Eure and Loir. 
 
 L 
 
BOOK CXLiIV .] 
 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 quantity 1 to Paris and the neighbouring departments. It has 
 been proved by official returns, that the quantity of grain 
 raised in the department of the Eure and Loir, is nearly 
 three times greater than the average produce of the French 
 departments. The inhabitants rear numerous flocks and 
 herds ; the quantity of wool exceeds twice the mean quan- 
 tity in the other departments, and the same may be said of 
 the number of horses that are bred in the country . b c As 
 the agricultural products are so abundant, it might be sup- 
 posed that the inhabitants are not engaged in other occupa- 
 tions, but all the branches of industry are mutually connected 
 with each other ; thus, the mines furnish materials to several 
 important iron works, and the wool, to cloth and different 
 manufactories. 11 It may be unnecessary to mention the 
 vineyards, as all the wines are of ordinary quality ; the 
 quantity produced may be equal to 20,000 tuns ; cider, 
 however, is a very common beverage in different parts of 
 the country. e 
 
 The department of the Eure and Loir contains four dis- 
 tricts/ Nogent le Rotrou is the chief tow n in one of them ; the 
 houses are mostly well built ; it stands in a fruitful valley 
 watered by the Huysne and the Arcise ; the latter turns 
 several mills, and forms a cascade near the town. The 
 Gothic castle, which commands Nogent le Rotrou, need not 
 be mentioned on account of its architecture, but it may be 
 remarked that it was the residence of Sully. There are no 
 other towns of any importance in the same district.^ 
 The burgh of Senonches is situated in the district^ of which 
 Dreux is the capital ; the inhabitants carry on a trade in 
 machinery and agricultural implements/ Maillebois has 
 several cloth manufactories. 
 
 It would be a waste of time to inquire whether Dreux 1 
 derives its name from the Druids or from Dryus, the fourth 
 king of the Gauls ; the antiquity of the town cannot, how- 
 ever, be disputed ; it is well known that it was called Duro- 
 casses before the Roman conquest, a name which was after- 
 wards changed into Droca, and lastly into Dreux. The 
 inhabitants carry on a trade in leather, printed cottons, 
 woollen stuffs, stockings and hats, all of which they them- 
 selves manufacture/ Rotrou the poet, and Philidor the 
 musician and celebrated chess player, were born in the 
 town. The battle in which the troops of Charles the Ninth 
 took the prince of Conde 1 prisoner, was fought under the 
 walls in 1562. The ruins of the ancient castle that was 
 inhabited by the counts of Dreux are still seen on a neigh- 
 bouring height. The burgh of Anet is about three leagues 
 to the north of Dreux ; it was near it that Henry the Sec- 
 ond built a noble residence for Diana of Poitiers, his mis- 
 tress ; what remains of it enables us to form some notion of 
 what it must have been, in its original magnificence ; it may 
 be considered a monument of the foolish passion that the 
 
 1 “ More than 800,000 quintals.” 
 
 b Tlie number of horses exceeds the average number, and the quan- 
 tity of wool is more than double the average quantity, in the depart- 
 ments.” 
 
 c M. Ch. Dupin, Forces productives et commerciales de la France, 
 tom. i. 
 
 d “ The iron mines supply several fineries ( affinerics ,) and the de- 
 partment also contains numerous manufactories of cloth and hosiery.” 
 e “ The quantity produced is estimated at 200,000 hectolitres, nearly 
 equal to that of the cider made in the department.” 
 
 f “ Arrondissements.” e “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 h “ It contains an establishment in which hydraulic machinery is 
 manufactured.” 
 
 ■ Situated on the Blaise M. B. 
 
 k “ It carries on a trade in dying ( tcinturcs ,) and in the leather, 
 woollen stockings and hats, which it manufactures.” 
 
 1 Louis de Bourbon, first prince of Conde. 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 50 33 
 
 OF FRANCE. 257 
 
 king had for a woman who was not always faithful V) him, 
 and w r ho was the cause of many disasters to France. 
 
 Epernon in the districts of Chartres, contains about four- 
 teen hundred inhabitants ; it rises in a pleasant valley. 
 Maintenon, somewhat more populous and still more agreea- 
 bly situated than Epernon, was the native town of Colin 
 d’Harleville. The castle, its finest edifice, was built in the 
 sixteenth century ; limpid streams water the park that sur- 
 rounds it; there Louis the Fourteenth raised an aqueduct, m 
 now in ruins, in order to transport the waters of the Eure to 
 Versailles; for that purpose he employed during several 
 years more than sixty thousand soldiers, and a great many 
 workmen. Several Druid ical monuments are situated in a 
 plain beyond the park ; the country people call them the 
 stones of Gargantua. Dirty and mean villages extend in 
 different directions in the country between Maintenon and 
 the capital of the department ; they are built in the same 
 manner as were those belonging to the Carnutes in the 
 time of Caesar ; they consist of wretched hovels without 
 windows, and made of clay mixed with cut straw, but what • 
 is very remarkable, the peasants who inhabit them, are not 
 indigent. 
 
 The two towers’ 1 of the cathedral of Chartres may be 
 seen from the heights in the neighbourhood of Maintenon ; 
 they might be mistaken for two lofty obelisks. A small 
 wood, the only remains of the ancient forest inhabited by 
 the chief of the Druids, is in the vicinity of Chartres. The 
 Eure, which flows below it, was the Celtic Autur, and the 
 Latin Autura, whence the town was called Autricum , but the 
 ancients also designated the latter by the name of Carnutvm. 0 
 An elegant square adorns the lower town, which is mostly 
 well-built, but the upper town is formed by steep and irreg- 
 ular streets ; in one of the narrow courts? mav be observed 
 a monument q erected to the memory of general Marceau, in 
 every way unworthy of the young hero, whose ashes repose 
 in a foreign land, and whose tomb was respected by the 
 enemies he had defeated. The cathedral is the most re- 
 markable edifice in Chartres ; it stands in the highest part 
 of the town, and the towers’ 1 rise to a great height. It was 
 founded in the eleventh century, and it was there that St. 
 Bernard excited his hearers to engage in the second crusade ; 
 at a later period Henry the Fourth was crowned in the same 
 place. Among the ornaments may be mentioned a white 
 marble figure of the Virgin r by Coustou, and in one of the 
 small chapels, another Virgin with the infant Jesus. The 
 last group and the relics of St. Vast are held in great ven- 
 eration by the people. 
 
 The most valuable collections in the town, are a museum 
 of natural history, and a public library, the latter consisting 
 of about 30,000 volumes and 700 manuscripts. Chartres 
 has produced several distinguished men ; we may mention 
 
 m “ Behind the castle is a park watered by limpid streams, and 
 traversed by the remains of the aqueduct” — undertaken by Louis XIV, 
 A. D. 1684.— P. 
 
 " “ Clochers.” The principal curiosity of the town is the church of 
 Notre Dame, with its two spires, one of which is the admiration of 
 strangers, from its enormous mass, and from its pyramidal and finely 
 tapering form, while the other is admired for the strength of its arch- 
 itecture and the richness and delicacy of its ornaments. (Ed. Encyc.) 
 — There is a proverb in France : the steeples of Chartres, the nave of 
 Amiens, the choir of Beauvais, and the portal of Rheims. (Encyc. 
 Meth.)— P. 
 
 0 Carnutes{ D’Anv.) fromthename ofthe people who inhabited it.— P. 
 
 p “ — in a small square ( place itroitc ) in the upper town.” 
 
 a “ Obelisk.” 
 
 r “ An assumption of the Virgin.” — A magnificent group in white 
 marble, representing the assumption of the Virgin — the virgin as the 
 principal figure, surrounded by angels. Encyc. Method. — P 
 
258 EUR 
 
 Philip Desportes and Regnier* his nephew, two poets of the 
 sixteenth century, Andrew Felibien, an author of consid- 
 erable erudition, b Thiers, better known as a critic than a theo- 
 logian, 0 Peter Nicole, an eminent writer of Port-Royal, Bris- 
 sot de Warville and Petion de Villeneuve, two members of 
 the Convention, and the virtuous defender of the unfortunate 
 queen. The old ramparts of Chartres have been changed 
 into public walks, which communicate with the lower part 
 of the town ; the gates are adorned with triumphal arches, 
 and one of them flanked with turrets was connected with 
 the drawbridge that was lowered before Henry the Fourth. 
 The road to Brittany passes through Courville, a small city 
 about four leagues to the west of Chartres. Sully died in 
 the neighbouring castle of Villebon, an elegant and well 
 preserved Gothic edifice of the sixteenth century. 
 
 The banks of the Loir lead to Bonneval, a burgh of sev- 
 enteen hundred inhabitants, who carry on a trade in cotton, 
 woollen studs and leather ; d broad, clean and well built 
 streets indicate the wealth of the people. Chateaudun on 
 the banks of the same river, was destroyed by fire in 1723, 
 a calamity which has contributed much to its improvement ; 
 it is at present one of the finest towns in France. It has 
 been made the capital of a district ; e it contains a townhouse, 
 a public library and a college. The market-place must be 
 considered the greatest ornament to the town both on ac- 
 count of its size, and the number of public buildings ; a 
 pleasant walk extends along the peaceful hanks of the Loir, 
 bounded by natural grottos, which have been converted into 
 habitations for the peasantry/ A castle rises on a rock that 
 commands the river ; it belonged to the counts of Dunois, 
 and was built in the tenth century ; there is not perhaps 
 another edifice of the’ same date in France that can be com- 
 pared with it.s 
 
 A well-made road through no very picturesque country, 
 leads from Chateaudun to Orleans, the chief town of a de- 
 partment, h the name of which has been derived from the 
 Loiret, a small river hardly three leagues in length from its 
 source to its junction with the Loire, but which is navigable 
 the distance of a league ;* it has never been known to freeze, 
 an advantage which renders it useful in more than one 
 branch of industry. According to Lancelot and D’Anville, 
 the ancient capital of Orleanais was originally called Gena- 
 bum. Strabo informs us that the Carnutes held their prin- 
 cipal markets there ; it was embellished by the emperor 
 Aurelian, who gave it the name of Aurelianum. It might 
 have been destroyed in the year 450 by Attila, had it not 
 been for the courage of the Roman general Aetius, who 
 drove the Huns to the plains of Champagne, where he 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CXLIV 
 
 gained a complete victory over them. It fell under the 
 power of Clovis after the destruction of the Roman empire, 
 and it became after the death of Clovis, the capital of one 
 of the kingdoms into which France was divided. Philip of 
 Valois erected it into a dutchy in favour of his son; having 
 been united to the domains of the crown at the accession of 
 Louis the Twelfth, this dutchy became under Louis the Tliir 
 teenth, the appanage of his brother Gaston, and afterwards 
 of Philip, the brother of Louis the Fourteenth ; but the rev- 
 enues were abolished during the regency, the title only has 
 been retained/ Orleans was the birthplace of king Robert, 
 a distinguished scholar, and the author of several hymns, 
 some of which are still sung in the churches ; it was also the 
 native town of the jesuit Pelau, one of the most learned 
 critics of his age, of Amelot de La Houssaye, an able com- 
 mentator, and lastly of Pothier, the celebrated jurist. It stands 
 at the extremity of an elevated plain, which terminates near the 
 banks of the Loire ; a bridge crosses the river opposite the 
 town, and communicates with the road to Bourges. The ex- 
 tent of the suburb, which the stranger enters on the road from 
 Paris, and the number of well-built houses contained in it, 
 indicate the opulence of a large city. The monument in 
 the square of Martroy was completed in 1803, and dedicated 
 to Joan of Arc the town has thus paid a tribute of grati- 
 tude to the heroine, who compelled the English to raise the 
 siege in 1426. The finest street in Orleans is the one which 
 leads from the same square to the bridge over the Loire. 
 The cathedral was commenced by Henry the Fourth, and 
 not continued until the reign of Louis the Sixteenth ; 
 although still in an unfinished state, it may be considered a 
 model of architecture. 1 " The old ramparts have been con- 
 verted into broad streets." 
 
 As the seat of an university," Orleans is a place of some 
 importance ; the transactions published every year by the 
 society of arts and sciences are not without merit ; the bo- 
 tanical garden contains many valuable plants ; the collection 
 of paintings is superior to most of the same kind in the pro- 
 vincial towns.!' Although there are several rare works in the 
 library, the total number of volumes does not exceed twenty- 
 six thousand. The commerce of Orleans was formerly 
 more flourishing than at present ; the sugar works yielded 
 greater profits, and a greater number of hands were em- 
 ployed in the shawl manufactories, but the difference in the 
 other products of industry is less perceptible ; the demand 
 for cottons, woollen stuffs, flannels and fine cloths is at pres- 
 ent almost as great as at any former period. q Orleans was 
 one of the first towns in F ranee, in which steam engines were 
 substituted for human labour in the spinning manufactories. r 
 
 a Mathurin Regnier, the satirist. 
 
 b He wrote chiefly on the fine arts. — P. 
 
 c “ A theologian and learned critic.” His principal works are on 
 different subjects of catholic theology, chiefly polemical. — P. 
 
 <* “ It has woollen manufactories, cotton mills (filatures ) and tan- 
 neries.” 
 
 * Arrondissement. 
 
 f “ It contains a large and elegant public square, a town house and 
 a college, both of them well built, a valuable public library, and a 
 pleasant walk ( promenade ,) commanding a fine view along the Loir, 
 which there flows with a gentle current, and is bordered with grottos, 
 now converted into habitations.” 
 
 e “ On the rock which commands the town, rises the old castle 
 of the counts of Dunois, one of the finest edifices of the tenth cen- 
 tury.” 
 
 h Department of the Loiret. 
 
 * “ More than a league.” — It has a course of two leagues, and is 
 navigable nearly to its source. Vosgien. — P. 
 
 k “ Since the time of the regent,* it has been merely a title, with- 
 out any hereditary privileges.” 
 
 * Philip, duke of Orleans, only brother of Lonis XIV, regent during the 
 minority of Louis XV . — P. 
 
 1 “ The monument of Joan of Arc, in the great square of Martroy, 
 was restored in 1803.” 
 
 m “ If the cathedral, the building of which was begun under Henry 
 IV, but has been discontinued since the reign of Louis XVI., were 
 completed, it might be considered a model of architecture.” 
 
 “ “ Boulevards.” 
 
 ° Orleans was the seat of a university before the revolution. It 
 has now an academy and a royal college, but no faculties. Alman 
 Royal. 1822.— P. 
 
 p “ The collection of paintings is not without value.” 
 
 i The refining of sugar was carried on more extensively,! and a 
 greater number of hands were employed in the manufacture of ho- 
 siery., The manufacture of blankets and cotton coverlets, as well as 
 that of fine cloths and flannels, is still of considerable importance.” 
 
 t The sugar refined at Orleans was formerly esteemed superior to any other 
 in France. — P. 
 
 1 It was estimated on an average, that about 60,000 dozen pairs of stock- 
 ings were made annually at Orleans. Savary, Diet. Comm. Elat Gen. tom. i., 
 p. 37. 1741. — P. 
 
 r “ Filatures” — cotton mills. 
 
 . 
 
BOOK CXLIV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 2.59 
 
 A part of the produce of the neighbouring vineyards 
 is converted into excellent vinegar, which forms no incon- 
 siderable part of the trade of Orleans. The situation 
 of the town on the banks of a large river may contribute to 
 restore it to its ancient prosperity. The present commercial 
 decline, whatever it may be, can only be imputed to the 
 rivalry of other places in the same branches of industry. 
 
 The other towns or burghs in the same district 3 may be 
 briefly enumerated. Olivet on the Loiret was well known 
 on account of an abbey, supposed to have been founded by 
 Clovis. Francis, duke of Guise, was assassinated there, 
 while he was making preparations for the siege of Orleans. 
 The population of the burgh amounts at present to about 
 three thousand souls. Meun b was the birthplace of John, 0 
 surnamed Clopinel, on account of his lameness ; he enjoyed 
 some reputation as a poet at the court of Philip the Fair. 
 The town contains about five thousand inhabitants ; it carries 
 on a trade in leather and in different manufactures. Beau- 
 gency, d perhaps more populous than the last place, is cer- 
 tainly more industrious ; the vineyards belonging to the town 
 yield generous wine ; it possesses besides, cloth and serge 
 manufactories, leather works and distilleries.® The town 
 must have been more important in tbe twelfth century than 
 at present, for two councils were then held at Beaugency. 
 It rises on a hill near the Loire, which is crossed by an old 
 Dridge of thirty-nine arches. 
 
 It might be almost unnecessary to mention Pithiviers/ 
 were it not the chief town in the district* * * watered by the 
 (Euf, and the mart of the saffron collected in the neighbour- 
 ing country, believed by many to be the best in Europe. 11 
 Malesherbes, a burgh at no great distance from it, was 
 adorned and improved by the lord of Malesherbes, the virtu- 
 ous minister of Louis the Sixteenth. 1 Montargis is finely 
 situated near a forest, and at the junction of three canals, 
 namely, those of Briare, Orleans and the Loing / the only 
 buildings worthy of notice are the theatre and a church that 
 may be remarked for the boldness of its architecture. Cha- 
 tillon sur Loing has a population of 2000 inhabitants ; it was 
 the birthplace of admiral Coligny. Gien, the capital of the 
 smallest district* in the department, has been embellished 
 with a modern bridge over the Loire ; the trade of the 
 inhabitants is confined to porcelain. 1 Briare is about three 
 leagues to the south-east of Gien ; it rises in a valley near 
 the junction of the canal that bears its name, with the Loire. 
 
 The country from the last town to Orleans, on the right 
 and on the left of the Loire, is by no means fruitful ; m but on 
 the north of this portion of the sterile Sologne," the hills are 
 
 1 “ Arrondissement.” b Meung- or Mehun-sur-Loire. 
 
 c John de Mehun. d Beaugenci, Baugenci. 
 
 e “ Beaugency, containing nearly the same population,* possesses 
 valuable vineyards, and also several manufactories of hats and serge, 
 besides tanneries and distilleries.” 
 
 * Population of Meun, 4584 ; of Beaugency, 4520. Alman. Royal. 1822. — P. 
 f Petiviers, Puviers, Pluviers. — The last name is said to have been 
 derived from the great numbers of plovers ( pluviers ) in its neighbour- 
 hood. (Encvc. Meth.) — P. e “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 h “ Pithiviers, the capital of an arrondissement, is situated on the 
 CEuf, a small rivulet; it need only be mentioned as the mart of the 
 saffron collected in its neighbourhood, considered the best in Europe, 
 and for its pastry.” 
 
 1 “ — had for its lord ( seigneur ) and benefactor, the virtuous minis- 
 ter who defended Louis XVI.” (Lamoignon de Malesherbes.) 
 
 k The canals of Briare, Orleans and the Loing form three branches 
 of a navigable communication between the Loire and the Seine. That 
 of Briare, (begun in 1605 under Henry IV. and completed in 1642,) 
 commences in the Loire, a mile below Briare, and extends to the Loing 
 below Montargis; that of Orleans, (begun in 1682, and completed 
 by the Duke of Orleans, during the minority of Louis XV ,) com- 
 mences in the Loire, at the small town of Combleux, about a league 
 
 covered with vineyards, numerous herds are fattened in the 
 meadows, and tbe fields at tbe approach of autumn display 
 their waving harvests, and yield more than sufficient for the 
 consumption of the inhabitants. 
 
 The department of the Loiret is contiguous to that of 
 the Nievre, for the distance of about two leagues. The 
 latter department, situated to the south-east of the former, 
 and formed by the ancient province of Nivernais, compre- 
 hends on the east the granite heights of Morvan, in some 
 places covered with lofty forests which supply the Parisians 
 with wood and charcoal, and in others with rich pastures on 
 which the oxen are reared that are sent to the capital. The 
 Yonne, the Aron, the Nievre and the Loire compensate in 
 some measure for the few and bad roads that traverse differ- 
 ent parts of the country, most of which are impassable during 
 part of the year. Many planks, united by flexible branches, 
 and forming long lines,® descend every year on the first of 
 these rivers to Paris. Sandy but fruitful plains extend on the 
 right of the Loire, which in a tract equal to sixteen leagues 
 in length, bounds the department on the west. They pro- 
 duce enough of wheat, oats and wine for the wants of the 
 people. The department abounds in coal and iron ; wealth 
 is thus diffused among the inhabitants ; commerce and manu- 
 facturing industry are facilitated. Not less than fourteen 
 hundred persons are employed in working metals, and the 
 products of their labour represent a value almost equivalent 
 to L.400,000 .p 
 
 Many of the iron works are situated in the district of 
 Cosne the town of the same name is the mart of the iron 
 that is forged in the neighbourhood ; it stands on the decliv- 
 ity of a hill, and the streets are clean and well paved ; the 
 inhabitants manufacture cutlery, and carry on a considerable 
 trade in wine and grain. Although no remains of antiquity 
 are left, it is certain that it was one of the seven or eight 
 cities in Gaul, which were called Condate, a name probably 
 signifying the junction of two or more streams ; we have 
 already had occasion to make the same remark in describing 
 Rennes ; it is alike applicable to other places that have not 
 been mentioned. The Nohain throws itself at Cosne into 
 the Loire ; public walks have been cut on the banks of the 
 river ; the view from them extends over a fruitful country 
 to the distant hills in the department of the Cher. r A road 
 from Cosne traverses the heights, which command the 
 course of the Loire, the islands which it waters, and the ro- 
 mantic scenery near its banks ; but the landscape becomes 
 still finer above the descent that leads to Pouilly, or at all 
 events, the gifts of nature appear in greater luxuriance ; the 
 
 above Orleans, and also extends to the Loing below Montargis ; that 
 of the Loing, (begun in 1720 and completed in 1724,) is a prolongation 
 of those of Orleans and Briare to the Seine, in which it terminates at 
 the village of Mamort near Moret. The canal of Briare is 34^ miles 
 long ; that of Orleans, 45 miles ; and that of the Loing, 33 miles , 
 making a total of 112^ miles. Ed. Encyc. Savary. — P. 
 
 1 “ ft has no other ornament than a fine bridge over the Loire, and 
 no other manufacture than that of fine pottery (faience, delft.)” — It 
 manufactures serges and stockings. (Vosgien, 1813) — P. 
 
 m “ Sandy and barren.” 
 
 n Sologne, a district of country, comprehended in the old government 
 of Orleans, extending on the south of the Loire, to the confines of 
 Berri. Romorantin was the capital. Now comprehended in the de- 
 partments of the Loiret and the Loir and Cher. — P. 
 
 0 “ Rafts ( trains de hois, floats,) the parts of which are ingeniously 
 bound together by flexible branches — ” 
 
 p “ 9,000,000 francs.” 
 
 1 “ The arrondissement of Cosne is one of those in which there is 
 the greatest number of forges.” 
 
 r “ The public walk (promenade) along the Loire ( fieuve ) [the No- 
 hain is only a rivitre,~\ commands a fine view of the country on its 
 banks, terminated by the distant hills in the department of the Cher.” 
 
260 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLI\. 
 
 
 hills are covered with rich vineyards, that yield the excellent 
 white wines to which the last place has given its name. 3 
 Pouilly does not contain more than two thousand six hun- 
 dred inhabitants ; it is about four leagues from Cosne, and 
 at an equal distance from La Charite. In the latter town, 
 which is finely situated on the banks of the Loire, the two 
 most remarkable objects are the magnificent ruins of a 
 Gothic church, and a well built bridge that joins the road to 
 Bourges. 
 
 Clamecy, at the confluence of the Beuvron and the 
 Yonne, is the metropolis of a district, b and the place where 
 the authorities regulate the cuttings in the forests of Morvan/ 
 It carries on a considerable trade, and possesses several 
 cloth manufactories and porcelain works ; d thus, although 
 the town is small, the inhabitants are comparatively wealthy. 
 The suburb of Bethlehem has derived its name from its 
 having served as an asylum to the bishop of Bethlehem, after 
 the expulsion of the Christians from Palestine. It was the 
 native town of Marchangy, a magistrate and a man of letters. 
 Corbigny on the small river Anguison, which throws itself 
 into the Yonne, has been long famous for its horses. e 
 
 The district of Chateau-Chinon owes its wealth to its 
 forests and meadows. The capital of the same name, a 
 small town situated at no great distance from the sources of 
 the Yonne, stands on a hill commanded by well wooded 
 heights. The inhabitants carry on a trade in wood, char- 
 coal and cattle, a trade which the supply of Paris renders 
 very lucrative. A bad road leads from the town to Nevers, 
 the birthplace of Adam Billaut, a carpenter, whose poetry 
 hears the stamp of genius; he is known in France by the 
 name of the rustic Virgil. £ The town was called JVoviodu- 
 num in the time of Cassar, who places it in the country of 
 the JEdui, h but its name was afterwards changed into JYo- 
 virum, and lastly into JYevirnum. It did not become a place 
 of any importance before the reign of Clovis. About the 
 tenth century, William, one of its governors, rendered him- 
 self independent, and took the title of count of Nevers. It 
 contained only seven thousand inhabitants about forty years 
 ago, but since that period the population has been more than 
 doubled ; the increase must be attributed to the effects of 
 commerce and industry, both of which might be still much 
 
 a “ The road from Cosne crosses an extensive plateau, from which 
 the Loire and the islands it encircles, are continually in view; a finer 
 landscape presents itself on reaching the descent that leads to Pouilly, 
 the environs of which are covered with vineyards that yield the excel- 
 lent white wines that bear its name.” 
 
 b “ Subprefecture” — arrondissement. 
 
 • “ Where are held the public sales of wood, for the forests of Mor- 
 van (le point dc reunion des adjudicataircs des coupes dc boisdu Morvan.)" 
 Adjudicataire, the buyer at a public sale. Coupe de hois, standing wood, 
 the cutting of which has been determined by the proper authorities — 
 a term in the French forest laws. Encyc. Meth. Jurisprud. — P. 
 
 d “ It manufactures delft-ware and cloth.” 
 
 ' “ At Corbigny — there is a royal stud for stallions ( dipdt d'i- 
 talons)." 
 
 1 “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 g “ — Adam Billaut, a poet and a joiner (menuisier ,) called by his 
 contemporaries, the Virgil of the plane ( Virgile aurabot.)" Better 
 known by the name of Maitre Adam — died at Nevers 1662. He pub- 
 lished most of his poems in three collections, which he named from 
 the tools of his trade, viz. Chevilles (pegs,) Vilebrequin (gimblet,) and 
 Robot (plane.) — P. 
 
 h Ca’sar. de Bello Gallico, Lib. VII. 
 
 ■ Forces productives et commerciales de la France, tome i. page 296. 
 
 k “ Its porcelain ( porcelainc ) and enamel are celebrated. It manufac- 
 tures with small glass pearls, different articles of jewellery,* * in which 
 an extensive trade is carried on both in France and in foreign coun- 
 tries. Its pottery ( faiences , delft!) is considered the best in France, 
 and the manufacture, as M. Dupin remarks, has been in a flourishing 
 condition for eight centuries. There are not less than ten establish- 
 ments, engaged in this manufacture ; they furnish employment to 700 
 
 improved. Nevers has been Iona; celebrated for enamel and 
 different articles of jewellery ; they are sold in most parts 
 of France, and exported into different countries. The por- 
 celain works in the same place are supposed to be the best 
 in France ; the most ancient of these works, as M. Dupin 
 remarks,* was established eight centuries ago ; they furnish 
 employment to seven hundred workmen ; the quantity of tin 
 consumed annually, amounts to 72,000 pounds, and the 
 quantity of lead to 337,500.'* It is sufficient to pass through 
 the town to be convinced of the truth of an observation made 
 by a distinguished writer. 1 “ At Nevers,” says he, “ there 
 are lamps which are never lighted, a bridge over the Loire, 
 which is never repaired, m and an enormous calvary raised in 
 the worst taste in the market place." The people in the 
 town have given or allowed the magistrates to take L.1500 0 
 for the purpose of erecting this calvary ; it might have been 
 better had they laid out the money in purchasing oil, and in 
 lighting their crooked and ill paved streets.” 
 
 The Allier, the Elaver of the ancients, throws itself into 
 the Loire at the distance of a league to the west of Nevers; 
 it crosses from south to north, the department to which it 
 gives its name/ and which is contiguous on the south to that 
 of the Nievre. It makes up almost the whole of Bourbon- 
 nais, a country well known on account of its mineral 
 springs, coal-pits and iron mines. Many oxen are fattened 
 in the pastures, and the horses are remarkable for their 
 strength. The oaks are used in building ships, arid the 
 rivers and ponds supply Paris with excellent fresh water 
 fish. The inhabitants are employed in different branches of 
 industry ; iron is converted into steel, raw silk into different 
 manufactures, rocks into mill-stones, and clay into porce- 
 lain. ( i But agriculture has long remained stationary ; it 
 
 may be regretted that the system of husbandry has not been 
 improved, that the rich lands in the vallies, and the sandy 
 but fruitful soil which covers the granite rocks, yield so 
 scanty harvests/ 
 
 Moulins was founded in the fourteeenth century ; it de- 
 rives its name from the great number of mills ( moulins ) 
 round the place where it was built. Robert, the son of St. 
 Louis, founded there an hospital, and the princes of the 
 house of Bourbon, long lords of the province in which it 
 
 workmen, and consume annually 32,000 kilogrammes of tin, and 
 135,000 of lead.” 
 
 * The boasted manufactory of enamel is nothing more than the blowing of 
 glass toys with the blow pipe. Ed. Eneye. — P. 
 
 + Faience (delft ware,) a kind of varnished or enamelled pottery, originally 
 made at Faenza in Italy, and since at Delft in Holland, the last in imitation of 
 the Chinese porcelain ; whence its French and English names. There may be 
 manufactories of genuine porcelain at Nevers, but they must be of recent es- 
 tablishment, for in the authorities 1 have consulted, (Peuchet 180?, Vosgien 
 1813, and the older ones, Encyc. Meth. 1784- and Savary 1741,) omy faience 
 is mentioned. — The manufacture of delft in Nevers is the oldest in the kingdom. 
 It was originally brought from Italy by the dukes of Nevers, who were natives 
 of that country. Encyc. Meth. — The original manufacture certainly was not 
 porcelain, for the first European porcelain w as made in Saxony, where the 
 process of making it was first discovered by Boetticher, in the early part of the 
 last century. — P. 
 
 1 M. Ad. Blanqui, Relation d’un voyage au midi de la France pen 
 dant les mois d’Aoilt et de Septembre 1828. 
 
 m “ — which is not repaired." — One half of the stone bridge over the 
 Loire was carried away many years ago, and is replaced by one of 
 wood. The part of the stone bridge remaining consists of six arches, 
 and the wooden half of ten arches. Ed. Encyc. — P 
 0 “ — in the public square (place).” 
 
 ° “ 30,000 francs.” 
 p Department of the Allier. 
 
 <i “ Its steel is converted into cutlery, its silk into ribbons, its sand- 
 stone into millstones, and its clay into pottery (delft).” 
 
 r “ Stationary in its agriculture, it does not derive all the advantage 
 it might, from the fertile soil of its vallies, and the sandy soil which 
 covers its granite rocks ; still its produce in grain and wine is more 
 than sufficient for the wants of its inhabitants.” 
 
BOOK CXLiIV.J 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 2G1 
 
 was the capital, at different periods embellished it. The 
 streets are well paved ; although the houses are built of 
 brick, and the outer walls fantastically divided into red and 
 black compartments, they are better than many in other 
 provincial towns. Several of its finest edifices are built of 
 stone ; among others that may be mentioned, is the former 
 convent of the Visitation, I * * * * 6 1 now changed into a college ; b the 
 church attached to it is adorned with different ornaments, 
 particularly with die fine mausoleum of the last constable 
 Montmorency, who was beheaded at Toulouse during the 
 administration of Richelieu. The townhouse, another stone 
 building, has been lately erected in the principal square. 0 
 The town is the seat of a bishopric ; it possesses a museum, 
 a collection of natural history, a library of twenty thousand 
 volumes and a theatre. It was the native town of John 
 Lingendes, a poet of the seventeenth century ; his verses 
 are seldom read, but they evince no ordinary talent ; d it was 
 also the birthplace of Marshals Villars and Berwick. A 
 four-sided tower, now changed into a prison, is all that 
 remains of the ancient castle which the princes of Bourbon 
 inhabited. The bridge over the Allier is little inferior to 
 any in France; it is about 257 yards in length, and nine- 
 teen in breadth ; e it consists of ten arches, and the opening 
 in each exceeds twenty yards/ 
 
 Two excellent roads bordered by lofty poplar trees ter- 
 minate at the bridge ; the one on the left leads to Clermont, 
 and that on the right to Limoges. The latter first traverses 
 Sou vigny, a town of 2700 inhabitants, where the Gothic 
 church served formerly as a place of interment to the princes 
 of the house of Bourbon. The town is situated at no great 
 distance from the capital of the department, and the inhab- 
 itants carry on a considerable trade in soda and glass.s 
 Bourbon l’Archamhault in a fruitful valley about three 
 leagues from Souvigny, is visited during the summer and 
 autumn h by invalids, particularly by diose afflicted with 
 rheumatism and palsy ; it is supposed that the thermal 
 springs may mitigate, if they do not remove these diseases. 
 The church is adorned with finely painted windows, but the 
 clumsy and ill built houses appear as old as the town, which 
 was founded about five hundred years ago. The castle 
 that belonged to the princes of Bourbon is no longer habita- 
 ble, although three of the towers are in a good state of pres- 
 ervation . 1 The population amounts to three thousand indi- 
 viduals. The poor but laborious inhabitants in the burgh 
 of Lurcy-Levy find the means of subsistence in making por- 
 celain and earthen ware ; some of them are employed in the 
 coal mines in the vicinity/ 
 
 La Palisse , 1 a small town in the eastern part of the depart- 
 ment, is the capital of a subprefecture ; it is watered by the 
 Besbre, and commanded by the ruins of an ancient castle. 
 Cusset, on the banks of (he Allier, has from its walls and 
 
 I Convent of St. Mary, for nuns of the Visitation. 
 
 b The royal college ofMoulins. 
 
 ' “ — in one of the squares.” 
 
 II “ — whose verses are less known than they deserve to be.” — Jean de 
 Lingendes, born 1580, died 1010 — remarkable for the period in which 
 he lived, for sweetness of versification and delicacy of sentiment. — P. 
 
 e “ 239 metres in length ; 14 in breadth.” 
 
 ' “ Span of the arches, 20 metres.” 
 
 6 “ It manufactures soda, and has two works for making glass 
 bottles.” 
 
 h “ From the middle of May to the end of September.” 
 
 ' “ The houses are inelegant, and appear to have been built at least 
 five hundred years ago, at the same time with the castle that belonged 
 to the princes of Bourbon, of which there remains only three towers, 
 still in a good state of preservation.” 
 
 k “ — find employment in a manufactory of white porcelain, in 
 twelve manufactories of common pottery, and in the coal mines in the 
 vicinitv 
 
 ancient fortifications, the appearance of a strong town ; it 
 contains about four thousand inhabitants. Many persons 
 resort every summer to Vichy, a fashionable watering place 
 at no great distance from Cusset ; it is situated in a roman- 
 tic country, where the painter, the botanist and the geologist 
 may find subjects of study in their respective pursuits. 
 
 Gannat might be passed over in silence, if it were not the 
 residence of a subprefect. St. Pourqain, in an agreeable 
 valley, is famous for its cattle fair, held during the last 
 days of August. Crowds of well-dressed peasantry repair 
 to the market place, while the idle are attracted by strolling 
 players or mountebanks ; tables and tents are set in the 
 plain, where the excellent white wines of Lachaise form the 
 ordinary beverage ; in one place the noise of music and 
 dancing is heard ; in another the galloping of horses, which 
 those who mean to purchase, try beforehand ; the oxen are 
 prized for their strength, not for their fatness ; indeed they 
 are never bought by the butcher ; the peasantry use them 
 in the plough. The singular costume of the men, the fresh 
 and fair complexion of the women, the cries of different 
 animals, and the confused voices of the multitude, bear no 
 resembance to the village festivals in the neighbourhood of 
 Paris ." 1 
 
 Mont-Luqon, the capital of a district," is surrounded by 
 walls flanked with towers. In its vicinity 0 is situated 
 the burgh of Neris les Bains, the name of which has not 
 been changed? since the time that Julian rebuilt it after it had 
 been sacked under Constantine the Second. It is at present 
 peopled, as in the time of the Romans, by invalids subject to 
 rheumatism and cutaneous diseases. Several remains of an- 
 tiquity, such as an amphitheatre, and the traces of a Roman 
 camp [cast rum,,) prove that Neris must have been a considera- 
 ble town, before it was laid waste by Clovis, and at a later peri- 
 od by the Normans. Although there are no public baths, each 
 inn is provided with a large apartment for eight or ten bathers. 
 Piscines, i similar to those that existed in ancient times, are 
 reserved for the use of the hospital, into which more than a 
 hundred and thirty patients are gratuitously admitted. 
 
 Unproductive in corn, and destitute of wine, for which 
 other fermented liquors afford but a poor substitute, the de- 
 partment watered by the Creuse/ must be considered a 
 sterile country ; it is certain too that a tenth part of the 
 labouring population migrate every year into other parts of 
 France, but they seldom fail to settle afterwards in their 
 native land, where they improve by judicious investments 
 the fruits of their economy and industry. The soil may be 
 arid and mountainous, but the love of country makes it 
 appear less ungrateful than it really is ; on that account 
 numbers return to their hills and vallies, and cultivate joyfully 
 the field which their labour has enabled them to purchase. 
 The working of metals is not attended with profit in the 
 
 1 La Palice. 
 
 m “ The crowds of peasants that flock to the market place, the idlers 
 attracted by the shows of mountebanks, the tents erected in the plain, 
 the tables loaded with the excellent white wines of Lachaise, here 
 noisy dances, there the trial of horses and oxen, the latter only in the 
 plough, the large hats of the peasants, the fresh complexions and cheer- 
 ful looks of the village girls with straw hats turned up in the figure of 
 a boat, suspended from their arms, the cries of different animals, and 
 the confused voices of the multitude, altogether present a spectacle 
 that bears no resemblance to the village festivals near Paris.” 
 
 D Arrondissement. 
 
 0 Neris les Bains is one league S. E. of Montlu^cn. — P. 
 
 p Atpia. JYerte of the ancients. 
 
 a “ Piscines” — basins or tanks for bathing. The basin where the/ 
 (the Romans) bathed was called Baptisterium, , or Piscine 
 
 Adam’s Antiq. p. 480. — P. 
 
 T Department of the Creuse. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 262 
 
 [BOOK CXLIV 
 
 department, but from the low rate of wages, it is well adapt- 
 ed for other branches of industry ; the art of making carpets 
 has been brought to great perfection ; the same may be 
 said of paper and different manufactures. 3 
 
 The four principal towns’* * * are of little importance, and the 
 country is of such a character as to present few objects for 
 description. Aubusson, watered by the Creuse, and situated 
 in an arid and unfruitful district, rises in a defile formed by 
 naked granite rocks ; it consists merely of a single street, 
 which, it must be admitted, is broad and well built. Louis 
 the Fourteenth gave it in exchange for St. Cyr to the Mar- 
 shal de Lafeuillade, the last descendant' of its ancient vis- 
 counts. The carpets made in the royal manufactory are 
 equal to any in France ; d fifteen other manufactories of the 
 same kind diffuse the means of subsistence among the inhab- 
 itants. The places of amusement are three coffee-houses, 
 a theatre and a literary club. Felletin, a small place of 
 three thousand inhabitants, not more than two leagues from 
 Aubusson, rivals it in the same sort of industry. Bourga- 
 neuf may be mentioned on account of two porcelain works 
 and a paper manufactory ; it is remarkable too for a tower 
 of very large dimensions, which according to tradition was 
 built by Zizim, the son of Mahomet the Second, 6 who found 
 refuge in France during the reign of Charles the Eighth. 
 Gueret is the capital of the department; the streets are well 
 built and watered by fountains ; it is a place of little or no 
 trade ; although fuel is very cheap in the neighbourhood, 
 no manufactory or work of any kind has been erected near 
 the town. Boussac contains fewer inhabitants than the 
 capital of any other district f in France ; it stands on a rock 
 and is almost inaccessible to carriages ; surrounded with 
 walls, flanked with towers, and commanded by an old em- 
 battled castle from which the view extends along a defile 
 formed by arid and wild mountains, die town is as gloomy 
 a residence as can be well imagined. 
 
 There are few departments so well wooded as that which 
 derives its name from the Cher it has the advantage too of 
 abounding in iron and other minerals. 11 The uniformity of the 
 country is in some places broken by hills ; the lands on the east 
 near the banks of the Loire, which forms the eastern boundary, 
 produce the richest harvests ; on the south and the south-west 
 are situated a great many ponds, and the soil is of an ordinary 
 quality ; on die north and the north-west are numerous 
 marshes encompassed with sterile landes and heaths ; a 
 fruitful country in the centre extends along the banks of the 
 Auron and Cher. On the whole, an ungrateful soil in many 
 places, but in others sufficiently productive, 1 covers two- 
 
 thirds of the surface ; the remaining portion is abundantly 
 fruitful. The inhabitants derive their wealth or means of 
 subsistence from the products of their iron works, from their 
 wool and from the culture of the ground, but bigoted to old 
 prejudices and to routine, they do not derive all the profits 
 which might be obtained from a better system of husbandry. 
 
 St. Amand, one of the most commercial towns in the de- 
 partment, rises in an agreeable valley at the confluence of 
 the Marmande and the Cher. It is the mart of the grain, 
 wine, chestnuts, timber and cattle in the surrounding district ; k 
 most of the inhabitants are consequently engaged in trade. 
 It was built in the year 1410 on the ruins of the burgh of 
 Orval, which the English had destroyed by fire. Dun le 
 Roi, 1 on the right bank of the Auron, was in ancient times 
 one of the most celebrated cities in Aquitaine. The pros- 
 perity of Sancerre depends on its trade in wine ; m it is built 
 on the highest hill in the department, at the distance of a 
 league from the left bank of the Loire. Ivoy le Pre is a 
 populous and flourishing burgh ; the inhabitants find occu- 
 pation in making glass ; others are employed in iron works, 
 where the different pieces that form the parts of the steam 
 engine, are forged. 11 
 
 The interest excited by an industrious population, and 
 that attached to historical recollections, are not often united 
 in the same place ; other manufacturing towns, 0 therefore, 
 such as Aubigny, Henricbemont and Precy, may be passed 
 over in silence, for several places in the neighbouring dis- 
 trict! 1 of Bourges, possess the double interest which has just 
 been mentioned. Bourges, it may be remarked, is situated 
 in an agreeable position on the declivity of a hill, watered 
 by the Auron, at the very place where the river receives 
 several other streams. It is surrounded with a thick vail 
 flanked at regular distances with eighty lofty towers, all of 
 which are in a good state of preservation. Divided into 
 the old and the new town, it might be inferred from their 
 superficial extent, that they could contain a greater popula- 
 tion than that which has been assigned to them, but they 
 exhibit nothing which renders it at all doubtful that Bourges 
 is one of the dirtiest towns in France. *! It is the seat of a 
 royal court, an archbishopric, an university , r a royal college, 
 and a scientific and agricultural society ; s it possesses besides 
 a valuable library, a collection of natural history, 1 a theatre 
 and a large hospital, 0 all of which are situated in the midst 
 of low houses and narrow streets. Two edifices only are 
 worthy of fixing the attention ; the one is the cathedral, and 
 the other the town-house. The first may be ranked among 
 the finest Gothic monuments in Europe ; it is surmounted 
 
 a “ The manufacturing industry does not consist in the working of 
 metals, as in the neighbouring departments, but the low price of 
 labour has made it the seat of important manufactories of carpets* and 
 paper, both of which are in high reputation, and of different establish- 
 ments for spinning wool and cotton.” 
 
 * “ Tapisseries” — carpets, hangings, &c. The department was formerly noted 
 for its raised tapestry-hangings, called Aubusson tapestry (tapisseries d’ Aubus- 
 son ;) but the manufacture is now almost entirely confined to carpets and fur- 
 niture tapestry Peuchet, p. 1G8. — P. 
 
 b Aubusson, Bourganeuf, Gueret and Boussac, capitals of subprefec- 
 tures or arrondissements. — P. 
 
 c “ Only descendant.” — Louis XIV ceded Aubusson in exchange for 
 St. Cyr to the Marshal La Fcuillade, who assisted in forming the Pluce 
 (Us Victoires in Paris. This marshal was Francis, viscount d' Aubusson 
 and duke de L a Fcuillade, who had three sons, the second of whom 
 succeeded him in his titles. The latter was born in 1C70. Louis XIV 
 founded a nunnery at St. Cyr, for the education of the daughters of 
 military officers, the buildings of which were completed in 1C86. En- 
 cyc. Mctnod Morori. — P. 
 
 d “ -—have keen long celebrated in France.” See note *. * 
 e Brother of Bajazet II. by whom lie was forced to take refuge in 
 Italy, where he died, it is said, of poison. Beauvais. — P. 
 
 f Arrondissement. e Department of the Cher. 
 
 h “ It has numerous forges and iron works.” — It contains mines of 
 iron and ochre, and abounds in wood which supplies fuel for its numer- 
 ous iron works. Peuchet, p. 169. — P. 
 
 * “ A soil not very fruitful, and yet tolerably productive — ( des terres 
 ingrates et pourtant assrz productires.)” 
 
 k Arrondissement of St. Amand. 
 
 1 Dun sur Auron. 
 
 m “ Sancerre carries on a large trade in wine.” 
 
 » The small town (bovrg) of Yvoy le Pre is very flourishing, owing 
 to an establishment for the manufacture of window glass and bottles, 
 and to another for casting the iron work of steam engines.” 
 
 0 In the arrondissement of Sancerre. M. B. 
 
 p Arrondissement. 
 
 a “ Its two quarters united occupy a space capable of containing a 
 greater population than has been assigned to it ; but in its general 
 appearance ( dans son ensemble,) it is obviously one of the dirtiest towns 
 in France.” 
 
 r “ Acadcmie universitaire” — academy of Bourges. 
 
 * “ A scientific or rather agricultural society.” 
 
 ’ “ Physical cabinet ( cabinet de physique.)" 
 
 » « — and several charitable establishments.” 
 
book cxliv.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 by two high towers ; the front cannot be considered free 
 from the irregularity, which disfigures almost all the churches 
 of die same period, but it is remarkable for the delicacy and 
 finished workmanship of the ornaments ; one of the sculp- 
 tures on the portal represents the last judgment. The town- 
 house was the residence of the celebrated James Cceur, one 
 of the wealthiest merchants in France during the reign of 
 Charles the Seventh ; he managed the king’s finances, and 
 was treated as a court favourite, until he granted a loan of 
 200,000 gold crowns to his sovereign. As a recompense 
 for this service he was accused of several imaginary crimes, 
 deprived of his wealth, and confined in the Franciscan mon- 
 astery at Beaucaire ; many however sympathized with him 
 in his sufferings ; indeed he was so much esteemed that the 
 merchants of Beaucaire enabled him to escape from con- 
 finement, 1 * 3 * * * 7 •and furnished him with money, as a means of 
 settling in a foreign land, where he might forget the country 
 which he had loved, and the base ingratitude of a prince, 
 whom he had had the misfortune to oblige. The house was 
 purchased by Colbert, who made it over in 1679 to the 
 mayor and aldermen of Bourges. Every part of the build- 
 ing is richly decorated ; the walls are covered with a profu- 
 sion of ornaments, among which, hearts are not the least 
 conspicuous, probably because the original proprietor’s name 
 was Cceur. The chimneys represent towers and the gates 
 of cities guarded by soldiers. 1 * A bad portrait of Bourda- 
 loue, painted by himself, has been placed in the interior. 
 The same celebrated jesuit, the fathers Deschamps, 3 Souciet 
 and D’Orleans, the treasurer of Charles the Seventh, d and 
 Louis the Eleventh,® who founded the university of Bourges 
 in 1466, are the most distinguished persons that the town 
 has produced. 
 
 According to Livy, Bourges must be one of the oldest 
 cities in Gaul ; at the time of the Roman conquest, it was 
 called Avaricum, and was the principal city of the Bituriges 
 Cubi; the Romans gave it the name of Bituriges ; Augus- 
 tus made it the capital of Aquitania, and the roads to Bor- 
 deaux and Autun passed through the town. It was embel- 
 lished with an amphitheatre, for which a castle was 
 substituted in the eighth century ; it is not more than forty 
 years ago since the same castle was destroyed/ The cap- 
 itol built by the Romans stood on the site of the town-house.® 
 It became at a very early period the chief town in a dio- 
 cese which was founded by St. Ursin in the year 252. 
 Chilperic having taken possession of it, plundered the 
 inhabitants, and burnt the houses, but they were rebuilt and 
 improved under Charlemagne and Philip Augustus. The 
 public walks of Villeneuve, 1 * so called from the name of the 
 prefect, by whose directions they were made, are very orna- 
 mental to the town. 
 
 Mehun 1 is situated below Bourges, at the place where the 
 Auron joins the Yevre, and forms a large basin k well adapted 
 
 a Jacques Cceur is said to have effected his escape by the aid of 
 Jean de Village, one of his factors. — P. 
 
 b “ The building is constructed in a style of great magnificence ; 
 even the chimneys are of the richest architecture ; they represent 
 towers and the gates of cities guarded by warriors ; shells and hearts 
 are sculptured on the walls of the edifice.’’ 
 
 c Et. Agard Des Champs. 
 
 d Jacques Cceur, born near the end of the 14th cent., son of a gold- 
 smith at Bourges. — P. 
 
 e Louis XI. was born at Bourges, 1423. — P. 
 
 f “ — destroyed more than forty years ago.” The Great Tower, 
 which commands the easiest approach to the town, is a castle partly 
 in ruins since 1651. Moreri. — P. 
 
 s “ The house of Jacques Cceur.” 
 
 h “The public walks ( promenades ) which surround it, called the 
 Boulevards ViU-aeuve — ” 
 
 OF FRANCE. 265 
 
 for the purposes of commerce ; the inhabitants carry on a 
 trade in hemp, wool, timber, and the products of their man- 
 ufactories. 1 The site and some vestiges of the castle may 
 still be seen where Charles the Seventh, fearing that his son 
 Louis the Eleventh intended to poison him, starved himself 
 to death in the year 1461. The population of the town 
 does not exceed three thousand individuals. Vierzon stands 
 at the confluence of the Yevre and the Cher, the last of 
 which waters the most fruitful and agreeable district in the 
 department; although it contains only four thousand five 
 hundred inhabitants, it has cloth and serge manufactories, 
 others of porcelain and earthen ware, iron works, paper 
 mills and tan-pits. m 
 
 Woods and forests occupy more than a seventh part of 
 the surface in the department of the Indre : the country on 
 the right bank of the liver 11 is covered with ponds and 
 marshes, which diffuse dangerous and pestilential vapours in 
 the atmosphere ; but it is chiefly in the territory of Brenne, 
 between the Indre and the road to Limoges, that these large 
 sheets of shallow water occasion in the summer season nox- 
 ious exhalations, of which the effects are often fatal to man 
 and the lower animals. Government has not hitherto 
 attempted to drain these marshes, a work which might be 
 accomplished without much difficulty ; and if the health of 
 the inhabitants is not a matter of concern to the state, the 
 hope of profit may perhaps excite it to undertake the task, 
 for more than thirty thousand acres'* of land might thus be 
 restored to agriculture. The lands in the other parts of the 
 department are chiefly sandy ; they yield more grain than 
 the inhabitants consume ; the wines are of an ordinary qual- 
 ity, but the excess of the vintage above the consumption is 
 equal to at least one half. Sheep and oxen are reared in 
 great numbers in the rural districts.? 
 
 Issoudun, as the chief town of a district, q cannot be passed 
 over in silence ; it w r as destroyed by fires in the years 1 1 35, 
 1504 and 1651 ; it possesses at present four cloth and three 
 linen manufactories, one porcelain and seven leadier 
 works. r 
 
 Some antiquaries affirm that the name of Levroux has 
 been derived from the great number of lepers, who, it is 
 supposed, inhabited the town about the twelfth century ; but 
 according to others the place was so called from an hospital 
 for lepers, which was built there about the same period ; it 
 is certain that the town bears the name of Ltprosum in 
 some old charters, and it is not improbable that the same 
 circumstance may have attracted the attention of anti- 
 quaries to a subject of little or no importance ; it would have 
 been a more interesting object of inquiry to have ascertained 
 what was the name of Levroux in the time of the Romans. 
 The present population does not amount to more than three 
 thousand inhabitants, but the ruins of an amphitheatre, and 
 other remains of antiquity prove that it must have been an 
 
 1 Mehun- or Meun-sur-Yevre. 
 
 k “ Below Bourges, at the place where the Auron joins the Yevre, 
 the latter river washes the town of Mehun, and forms between its 
 bridges a larce basin — ” Mehun is situated on the Yevre (Evre.) 
 Vosgien. Encyc. Meth. — P. 
 
 1 “ — manufactories of different stuffs.” 
 
 m “ — it has manufactories of porcelain, delfl (faience,) cloths and 
 serges, besides tanneries, paper mills, and iron works (forges.)" 
 
 " The Indre. 
 
 0 “ 10,000 hectares.” 
 
 p “ Sheep, as well as geese and turkeys, are sources of great profit.” 
 — The fine wool of Berry ( laines du Berri) is procured from the de 
 partinents of the Indre and the Cher. Peuchet. p. 160. — P. 
 
 a “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 r “4 manufactories of cloth, 3 of linen, 1 of delft (ftiicnre) ani 
 
 7 tanneries.” 
 
264 EUR 
 
 important city under the Caesars. 1 It is surrounded by 
 walls flanked with towers, and encompassed with ditches. 
 A road that passes through vineyards and woods leads to 
 Valenqay, b in which the castle built by the house of Etampes c 
 and since embellished by Talleyrand, served as a residence 
 to king Ferdinand the Seventh of Spain from the year 1808 
 to 1814. The number of inhabitants is nearly equal to 
 three thousand ; d many of them are employed in manufac- 
 turing cloth. e The most extensive iron works in the de- 
 partment, are those in the neighbouring village of Luqay le 
 Male/ The chief town in the districts of Buzanqois con- 
 tains four thousand inhabitants ; the trade of the place consists 
 in wool, iron and flour. 1 ' 
 
 The town of Chateauroux in the district' of the same 
 name is situated on the left of the Indre, which flows through 
 the middle of a low plain covered with rich meadows. It 
 derives its name from Raoul de Deols, by whom it was found- 
 ed in the tenth century. A castle which he erected on a 
 neighbouring hill, is now occupied as the prefect’s residence/ 
 Cloth is the principal article of trade, and there are not 
 fewer than thirty-five manufactories. The Creuse waters 
 Argenton, a small town of four thousand inhabitants, at the 
 distance of six leagues to the south-west of Chateauroux. 
 It may be inferred from several medals and sculptures that 
 have been discovered at different times, and also from the 
 ancient fortress which was demolished by Louis the Four- 
 teenth, but of which some ruins still remain, that the town 
 was more important in the time of the Romans. It was 
 then called Argentomagus, and it lay between the territories 
 of the Bituriges and the Pictavi. 
 
 Two districts 1 remain to be described. La Chatre, the 
 capital of the one, is a small but neat town on a gentle de- 
 clivity near the left bank of the Indre ; it was formerly de- 
 fended by a strong castle, but the only part of it which now 
 remains, has been for many years used as a prison. 11 * Aigu- 
 rande, an insignificant town near the southern extremity of 
 the department, may be mentioned on account of an ancient 
 octagonal monument, concerning which no tradition has been 
 preserved by the inhabitants, but which was probably set 
 apart for sacrifices or other religious purposes. The Creuse 
 divides Leblanc," the capital of the other district,* into the 
 upper and the lower town. St. Benoit du Sault, 0 between 
 the last river and the Anglin, is considered a town by the 
 inhabitants, although it does not contain more than twelve 
 hundred individuals ; it is situated in the most picturesque 
 part of the department ; indeed nothing can be more roman- 
 tic than the scenery near the rocks and the cascade of 
 Montgerno. 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CXLIV 
 
 The department of the Upper Vienne, a mountainous 
 country, abounds in metals, in rocks useful for building or 
 other purposes, and in kaolin which is used in many porce- 
 lain works ; but the land is ill adapted for grain or the cul- 
 ture of the vine, and the produce does not supply the con- 
 sumption of the inhabitants ; chestnut trees, however, occupy 
 a surface of more than 120,000 acres/ and yield annually 
 about 25,000 tons'* of chestnuts, which make up for the 
 deficiency in grain ; fruitful meadows also enable the pro- 
 prietors to rear many horses, most of which are much valued 
 on account of their strength/ The people are frugal and 
 laborious; many masons, carpenters and other artisans an- 
 nually leave the country, and obtain employment in most 
 parts of France. Such are some of the characters by 
 which the department of the Upper Vienne may be distin- 
 guished. 
 
 The district 3 of Bellac may be first described, because it 
 is contiguous on the north to the department of the Indre. 
 The town stands on the declivity of a steep hill above the 
 Vinqon, a small river or rather a rivulet ; it possesses several 
 leather works, some paper mills, linen and woollen manu- 
 factories/ The vineyards in the neighbourhood yield wines 
 of a good quality. A fine monument of the druidical wor- 
 ship may be observed at no great distance from Bellac, near 
 the village of La Borderie. Dorat is a small town of three 
 thousand inhabitants ; the people manufacture cloth and 
 cotton stuffs ; they also carry on a trade in weights, meas- 
 ures and barometers." The village of Darnac contains 
 more than two thousand inhabitants ; it has risen into impor- 
 tance from its glass and porcelain works/ It may not be 
 difficult to infer from this account of the principal places, 
 some notion of the commerce and industry in the district.* 
 
 A short distance above Limoges, the capital of the depart- 
 ment, the Vienne waters an agreeable valley covered with 
 artificial meadow’s and bordered by low hills. The town 
 rises like an amphitheatre on one of the sides of the same 
 valley, and the streets are consequently steep and crooked ; 
 if they are clean, it may be attributed to the streams that 
 water the town ; its situation on a height renders the air keen 
 and pure, the chief cause perhaps of the health of the inhab- 
 itants, and of the beauty for which the women are famed. 
 Several different squares and public walks are situated in 
 the highest part of the town ; one of the former* occupies 
 the site of a Roman amphitheatre. The church of St. 
 Martial may be admired for its lofty spires ; it belonged for- 
 merly to an abbey of which the ruins still remain ; the ca- 
 thedral is an imposing Gothic edifice, but the church of 
 St. Martin is perhaps the finest and certainly the oldest 
 
 a A plate of copper bearing the following inscription, was discovered 
 there at the commencement of the seventeenth century ; Flavia Cuba, 
 Firmiani JUia , Colozza Deo Marti suo, hoc signum fecit Augusto. 
 b Valant;ay. 
 
 c The fistampes of Valen^ay were a younger branch of the family, 
 the first of whom, Louis d’Estampes, was lord (seigneur) of Valen<;ay, 
 the fourth, James d’Estampes, marquis, and the seventh, Henry d’Es- 
 tampes, who continued the line after the death of his nephews without 
 issue in 1700, count of Valent;ay. — P. d “ Population 2700.” 
 
 ' “ It possesses a cloth manufactory ( unefahrique des drops.)" 
 
 1 “ The village of Lutjay le M&le* contains the finest iron works 
 (forges) in its neighbourhood.” 
 
 * Two leagues S. \V. of Valei^ay. — P. 
 e “ Canton” — subdivision of an arrondissement, under the juris- 
 diction of a justice of the peace (jugc de paix.) — P. 
 
 h “ Buzancois contains 4000 inhabitants, and carries on an extensive 
 traje in wool ; in the district attached to it, are some important iron 
 works, and a great number of flour mills.” * “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 * The castle — was erected by one Raoul (Radulpkus), whenco the 
 town took the name of Chateau-Ilaoul (Castrum Radulphium, Ru- 
 dolph’s castle,) sinco corrupted into Chateau-Roux. Moreri. — P. 
 
 1 “ Arrondissements.” 
 
 m “ The only tower that remains is now used as a prison.’ 
 
 “ Le Blanc, Le Blanc en Berry. 
 
 0 St. Benoit du Saut (St. Benedict of the falls.) 
 
 p “ 40,000 hectares” — 98,850 acres. — P 
 
 s “ Nearly 500,000 metrical quintals.” 
 
 r “ Many fine horses are bred in its fruitful pastures.” — The best 
 saddle horses in France are those of Limousin.* They are seldom fit 
 for riding till they are six or seven years old ; but then they are very 
 useful and last a long time. Ed. Encyc. 
 
 * Included in the departments of the Creuse, the Correze and the Upper 
 Vienne. — P. 
 
 • “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 1 “ It possesses several tanneries, a foundery, and some manufacto- 
 ries of paper, and of linen and woollen stuffs.” 
 
 “ “ They manufacture cloths, cottons (colonnades,) weights and 
 measures, and barometers.” 
 
 1 “ Darnac, a village of 2000 inhabitants, contains an important es 
 tablishment for the manufacture of glass bottles, and another for that 
 of pottery.” 
 
 > The Place d' Or say. 
 
BOOK CXL.IY.J 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 2G5 
 
 of the three. It might be difficult to discover a fourth pub- 
 lic building at all worthy of notice.® Limoges possesses, 
 however, other titles to celebrity ; it may be sufficient to 
 mention the academy , b the royal college, the museum of an- 
 tiquities and natural history, the public library, the royal nur- 
 sery, the gratuitous schools of drawing and of geometry in its 
 application to the arts, the anatomical school, the dispensary, 
 the. lunatic asylum, the society of agriculture and the sciences, 
 and what is not perhaps the least useful, the society for the relief 
 of prisoners. At certain seasons, the town is crowded with 
 strangers and country people who attend the races, in which 
 the only horses that are allowed to run, are those bred in 
 the department and nine others in the neighbourhood ; c 
 much about the same time, a cattle show takes place, and 
 prizes are awarded to those who exhibit the best oxen. d 
 The number of woollen manufactories amounts to thirty-two, 
 and there are not fewer than eleven porcelain works. The 
 distinguished men that the town has produced, are the 
 carmelite Honore de Sainte Marie,® the author of three 
 quarto volumes on different military orders, Dorat the poet/ 
 the chancellor D’Aguesseau, and Marshal Jourdan. 
 
 Rntiatum, a town which Ptolemy mentions, appears to 
 have been built on the site of Limoges ; s the Romans gave 
 it the name of Lemovices , by which they also designated the 
 ancestors of the present Limousins. It must have been a 
 flourishing city in Cassar’s time, for he says that the territory 
 furnished ten thousand men to the confederation of the 
 Gauls. h It was laid waste in the fifth century by the Visi- 
 goths; the English obtained possession of it in 1360 by 
 virtue of the treaty of Bretigny, but it was restored nine 
 years afterwards to the kings of France. St. Leonard, the 
 second town in point of importance in the district, 1 is about 
 seven leagues above Limoges, on the Vienne; it is encom- 
 passed with agreeable walks, and contains several manufac- 
 tories, and at least six thousand inhabitants. 
 
 Rochechouard k lies to the west of Limoges, near the 
 frontier of the department ; it is built on the declivity of a 
 hill, and commanded by an old castle, which the English 
 besieged in vain during the reign of Charles the Fifth. The 
 present name of the town is derived from Rvpcs Cavardi, 
 the ancient name of the castle. 1 Twelve burghs are situated 
 in the district of which Rochechouard is the capital; the 
 country abounds in iron ore ; several iron works and manu- 
 
 * “ Besides the church of St. Martial, remarkable for its lofty steeple, 
 and which belonged to an abbey formerly venerated in the country, the 
 cathedral, an imposing Gothic edifice, and the church of St. Martin, the 
 oldest of the three, Limoges possesses no other edifice of any impor- 
 tance.” 
 
 b “ Academie universitaire” — academy of Limoges. 
 c The departments of the Allier, the Cher, the Creuse,the Correze, 
 the Indre, the Indre and Loire, the Nievre, the Saone and Loire, and 
 the Vienne. 
 
 d “ Races are held every year, in which the horses of the depart- 
 ment and of nine neighbouring departments, are competitors; premi- 
 ums are also annually distributed for improving the breed of oxen.” 
 e Honore de Ste. Marie, a barefooted carmelite, born 1651. His 
 work on military orders ( Dissertations histor. et crit. dcs Ordres Mili- 
 tai.res, ou sur la Chevalerie) was published in 1 vol. 4to. ; lie however 
 published a work on ecclesiastical criticism ( Reflexions sur les regies 
 et sur V usage dela Critique, touchant V Histoire de I’Eglise, les Ouvrages 
 des Peres, <fec.) in 3 vols. 4to. Beauvais. Diet. Histor. Caen, 1304. — 
 The error in the text has probably arisen from falsely quoting the 
 Encyc. Method, art. Limoges. “ Honore de Ste. Marie — known by his 
 historical dissertations on military orders, and by his reflections on the 
 rules and uses of criticism, in three volumes 4to. — ” — P. 
 
 f John Dorat, died 1588, celebrated in his day as a Greek, Latin 
 and French poet. There have been other poets of the same name in 
 France. Claude Joseph Dorat, born in Paris 1734, enjoyed at one time 
 no little reputation. — P. 
 
 s Limoges was originally called Augustoritum , and afterwards he- 
 movices, from the name of the people that inhabited it. Ratiatum was 
 VOL. III.— NO. 50 34 
 
 factories account for the industry and comparative wealth 
 of the inhabitants. 11 * * St. Junien, a small city, but more pop- 
 ulous than the last, is encompassed with ramparts ;" it rises 
 like an amphitheatre on a hill at the confluence of the 
 Vienne and the Glanne ; it has twelve cloth and two flannel 
 manufactories, five paper mills and two porcelain works.® 
 It carries on a considerable trade in horses and mules. The 
 district? of St. Yriex/ not less industrious than that of 
 Rochechouard, abounds in kaolin, of which the discovery 
 made in 1770 by Villars, a druggist at Bordeaux, has 
 greatly increased the number of porcelain works in France; 
 almost all of them are supplied with that substance, as well 
 as with petuntse, from the district? of St. Yriex. The 
 town, although wealthy, is ill built ; it owes its origin to a 
 monastery founded in the sixth century in honour of the 
 saint whose name it bears. 
 
 The Correze has its source, and also its termination in 
 the Vezere, in a mountainous department, r ill provided with 
 good roads or navigable rivers. The inhabitants fatten sev- 
 eral thousand oxen in winter, and send them to Paris in the 
 spring of the year ; they supply besides the maritime towns 
 of Bayonne and Bordeaux with salt meat, 3 and furnish wal- 
 nut oil to different departments. These products indicate 
 at least the abundance of walnut trees and the richness of 
 the pastures. The country may be divided into two distinct 
 regions, the one on the south-west, and the other on the 
 north-east of the road to Limoges. 1 If a traveller ascend 
 the Correze, he may observe on the right of the same road, 
 mountainous and sterile districts which occupy nearly two 
 thirds of the department, and which the peasantry call the 
 Montagne ; the second or the low country, as it has been 
 termed, consists of cultivated lands and fruitful vineyards, 
 but it does not produce enough of grain to supply the con- 
 sumption. 11 In the former, the scenery is wild and romantic, 
 and the inhabitants are thinly scattered ; in the latter the 
 population is more concentrated, almost all the ground is 
 cultivated, and mills’ 1 are erected on the different streams. 
 
 The road from Limoges traverses the small but neat 
 town of Uzercbe, which does not contain more than two 
 thousand inhabitants ; it stands on the declivity of a hill 
 above the Vezere ; ail the houses are covered with slates ; 
 the most of them are flanked with turrets/ which gives the 
 town a singular appearance, and attests its antiquity. Be- 
 
 a town of the Pictavi, the name of which remains in that of the coun- 
 try of Retz. D'Anv. Encyc. Method. Geog. Anc. art. Gallia. — P. 
 
 h Caesar, de Bello Gallieo, Lib. VII. VIII. 
 
 ‘ Arrondissement. k Rochechouart. 
 
 1 Rochechouart was called Rupes Cavardi, in the Latin of the middle 
 ages. Encyc. Meth. — P. 
 
 m “ The arrondissement of Rochechouard, contains more than twelve 
 communes, in which there are several important iron works ( usines et 
 forges.)" “ “ Boulevards.” 
 
 0 “ It has 12 cloth and 3 hat manufactories, 5 paper mills, and also 
 manufactories of blankets ( couverturcs ,) porcelain and common pottery.” 
 
 P “Arrondissement.” 9 St. Yrieix. 
 
 r Department of the Correze. s “ Salt pork.” 
 
 • “ Divided on a line drawn from south-east to north-west, by the 
 road to Limoges.” 
 
 “ “ The district on the right, in ascending the Correze,* is the most 
 mountainous, and occupies nearly two thirds of the department ; the 
 people of the country call it the Mountain {Montague ;) sterile heaths 
 cover the greater part of the surface. The second, called the Low 
 Country {pays has,) consists of cultivated fields and fruitful vineyards, 
 but without the aid of the chestnut tree, would not furnish sufficient 
 food to supply the consumption of its inhabitants.” 
 
 * The north-eastern district. 
 
 * “ usines” — iron works. The iron manufacture is the most impor- 
 tant in the department. Peuchet, p. 130. — P. 
 
 y “ Almost all the houses are flanked with turrets and covered 
 with slates — ” 
 
266 EUR 
 
 yond Uzerche, the same road passes through a picturesque 
 country, intersected with the ravines and precipices that are 
 formed by the last heights in the mountainous region. The 
 cathedral of Tulle was built in the ninth century ; it is chiefly 
 remarkable for the height of its tower, which can, however, be 
 seen from the road only at the distance of three miles.* 
 The town owes its origin to a monastery, that dates from 
 the seventh century, and to the destruction of another and 
 more ancient city, of which all that now remains, are the 
 ruins of an amphitheatre and other buildings about half a 
 mile from the walls. b The present city is dirty and ill 
 built ; the streets are crooked and narrow, and in many 
 places very steep. c There are several paper mills, woollen 
 manufactories, distilleries and leather works ; the inhabitants 
 also carry on a trade in walnut oil and horses. Tulle has 
 produced few distinguished men, and certainly none during 
 ihe last or present century, but it may perhaps be worth 
 while to mention Stephen Baluze, d who was sent into exile 
 for having written a genealogical history of the house of 
 Auvergne, in which he supported the claims of Cardinal 
 Bouillon, who, it was asserted, could not he subject to the 
 king, because his father was prince of Sedan before Tulle 
 was united to France. e 
 
 The Correze, below Tulle, waters the neat town of 
 Brives la Gaillarde/ the birthplace of Cardinal Dubois, Gen- 
 eral Treilhard and the unfortunate Marshal Brune. Luber- 
 sac, about eight leagues north of Brives, contains three 
 thousand inhabitants ; general Souham may be mentioned 
 among its distinguished townsmen. Turenne, at the distance 
 of three leagues from the chief town in the department, s has 
 given its name to one of the greatest generals that France 
 has produced. 11 The population does not exceed sixteen 
 hundred individuals ; the ruins of a castle, probably one of 
 the most ancient fortresses in France, are situated on a steep 
 rock that commands the town ; the largest tower in the 
 same castle is about a hundred feet in height, and is called 
 the Tower of Ccesar. 
 
 Few places of any consequence can be mentioned in the 
 mountainous region ; Ussel, the capital of a district,' is sur- 
 rounded by arid summits, and watered by the Sarsonne, 
 over which a bold and elegant bridge has been erected 
 since the revolution. 11 Bort 1 is about five leagues to the 
 south-east of the last town ; it stands in a fine position on 
 the right bank of the Dordogne, and it boasts of being the 
 birthplace of Marmontel. About a mile and a half below 
 Bort, the Rue, a small river, forms a fine cascade, called 
 the Sant cle la Saule. m 
 
 The different ramifications of the Cantal 11 extend over the 
 department, which bears the name of the mountain 0 — a noble 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CXLIV. 
 
 monument of the volcanic convulsions, to which the centre 
 and the south of France were exposed at a period, when 
 the soil was covered with the sea.P The sides of these 
 heights, formed by porphyry, basalt, lava, scoriae and pumice, 
 are frequently beaten by violent winds, and the snow on 
 their summits remains nearly eight months in the year. 
 Limpid springs issuing from the depths of the earth, give 
 birth to numerous rivulets, which by the cascades they form 
 in different directions, add to the beauty of varied landscapes. 
 The same streams, precipitated into the vallies, fertilize the 
 pastures which they water, and give rise to several rivers. 
 The northern declivities furnish the principal streams 
 of the Rue, a feeder of the Dordogne ; the latter river 
 receives also the Maronne and the Cere, which descend 
 from the western vallies. The eastern vallies supply the 
 sources of the Truyere, which throws itself into the Lot, 
 and of the Alagnon, which runs in an opposite direction, and 
 is joined by the Arc.ueil, before it falls into the Allier. The 
 vallies on the south are watered by different small streams 
 that enlarge the Truyere. The thermal and medicinal 
 springs that issue from the sides of the same mountains, 
 are considered salutary in different diseases. The vallies 
 watered by the streams and rivers which have been 
 just enumerated, are in general fruitful, but most of the 
 grain that the inhabitants consume, is produced in the 
 Planeze, a small plain watered by the Alagnon and the 
 Arcueil. 
 
 The higher vallies, the different heights, and even the 
 summit of the Plomb,‘> the latter the loftiest and the most 
 central mountain in the group of the Cantal, abound in rich 
 pastures and meadows that are covered with numerous 
 herds, even with those from the neighbouring departments. 
 The oxen fattened in these pastures are sold in every part 
 of F ranee, while the sheep are sent to the southern parts of 
 the kingdom ; kid and goat skins, articles of commerce in 
 the country, are converted into parchment at Milhau. r The 
 horses, although of a small size, are strong and well adapted 
 for light cavalry. The people in the Burons or cottages 
 that are scattered in different parts of the pastures, convert 
 their milk into butter and into cheese of three different qual- 
 ities. The husbandman cultivates rye and buck-wheat, 
 which constitute the principal food of the peasantry, flax 
 which rivals in fineness that of Flanders, hemp which is 
 woven into coarse cloth, either employed in the navy, or 
 sold to the Spaniards, potatoes, fruits of different kinds, 
 particularly chestnuts, the last of which make up no small 
 part of the consumption, and lastly some vineyards, that 
 yield only wines of inferior quality. Copper kettles and 
 different culinary utensils of the same metal, together with 
 
 a “ Half a league.” b “ — at some distance from the walls.” 
 
 c “ The town has a mean appearance, and consists of steep streets, 
 on the declivity of a hill” — at the confluence of the Correze and the 
 Solanes. — P. d Etienne Baluze, born 1630, died 1718. 
 
 « Literally — “ who considered himself independent of the king, be- 
 cause he was born of a prince of Sedan before that town [Sedan] be- 
 longed to France.” — Emm. Theod. de La Tour, Cardinal of Bouillon, 
 third son of Fred. Maurice de La Tour, duke of Bouillon and prince 
 of Sedan, was born 1643. His father, who had been arrested for en- 
 gaging in a plot against Cardinal Richelieu, gained his liberty only by 
 ceding the principality of Sedan, of which he was independent sove- 
 reign, to Louis XIII. in 1642, consequently the year before the birth 
 of Cardinal Bouillon. He however made the cession on condition of 
 retaining the dignity of Prince of Sedan. Having again joined the 
 enemies of the king, he finally made peace with him in 1651, by re- 
 ceiving in exchange for Sedan, several large estates in France, among 
 others, the barony of La Tour and the county of Auvergne. This final 
 cession by treaty, in which he resigned the dignity of prince, as well 
 as the sovereignty of the principality, explains the last clause of the 
 original, which would be obviously in contradiction with the first ces- 
 
 sion by compulsion in 1642. The first clause of the original is explain- 
 ed by the following circumstance. The cardinal, having fallen into 
 disgrace with Louis XIV., resigned his offices and quitted the kingdom, 
 in doing which he wrote to the king that he resumed the liberty which 
 his birth and his quality of foreign prince gave him. I have allowed 
 the translation, altogether inaccurate as it is, to remain unaltered. — P. 
 1 Brive, Brive la Gaillarde. 
 
 s “ Three leagues south of the chief place” — Brives, the chief place 
 of the arrondissement, not Tulle, the chief place of the department. 
 Turenne is 9 miles S. of Brives and 15 S. W. of Tulle. Rees' Cyc. — P. 
 b Marshal Turenne (Henry de La Tour, Viscount of Turenne.) 
 
 ' “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 k “ — over which there is a bridge, remarkable for the elegance and 
 boldness of its architecture.” 
 
 1 Bord. m Willow Falls. 
 
 n “ The group of the Cantal.” 0 Department of Cantal. 
 
 p “ — when the greater part of the surface was covered by the sea 
 or by lakes ( d'eaux marines on Jluviatiles) See the remarks on the 
 salt and fresh water basins under the head of the geology of France. — P. 
 i Le Plomb du Cantal. r In the department of the Aveyron 
 
 " 
 
book cxliy.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 lace and paper, are almost the only articles that are made in 
 the department ; the coal pits are not of much importance, 
 no other mines are worked ; thus for want of employment, 
 many individuals leave their country; the most of them fol- 
 low the trade of copper-smiths or braziers in different parts 
 of France, in Spain, and even in Holland.® 
 
 The fifteen hundred inhabitants of Maurs in the southern 
 part of the department, 11 rear a great many pigs, and carry 
 on a considerable trade in bacon. From Maurs, which is 
 situated at the base of the mountains, the traveller can as- 
 cend into the high country, where he may pass through 
 towns little worthy of being examined in detail, and where 
 the majestic spectacle afforded by the remains of ancient 
 volcanic eruptions is likely to reward him for his labour. 
 
 At the extremity of the picturesque valley watered by the 
 Jordanne, he may traverse the broad but irregular streets 
 of Aurillac. The theatre has been considered too large and 
 too much ornamented for the capital of so poor a depart- 
 ment ; c the town rests on lava, which large lakes have cov- 
 ered with thick strata of calcareous sediment. The hippo- 
 drome beyond the walls has been set apart for horse races, 
 which take place every year, from the first to the fifteenth 
 of May inclusive. It appears very improbable that Aurillac 
 was founded before the eighth century. d Pope Gerbert who 
 took the title of Silvester the Second, Marshal Noailles, Pi- 
 ganiol de la Force, e and the infamous Carrier were born 
 within its walls. Basaltic lava arranged in colonnades may 
 be observed in the immediate neighbourhood of the town ; 
 two mineral springs rise in the suburbs, the use of which is 
 recommended in different diseases. 
 
 It is almost impossible for a stranger to travel the winding 
 and narrow roads in the department of Cantal without a 
 guide. Vic en Carladez, a small town of two thousand 
 five hundred inhabitants, called also Vic sur Cere, because 
 the Cere passes through it, is much frequented on account 
 of its mineral waters. It is about nine miles from Aurillac ; 
 the women in the intermediate villages are celebrated not 
 only for their beauty and fresh complexions, but also for 
 their graceful demeanour. 
 
 The elevation of the Plomb du Cantal is about 6,036 f 
 feet ; any one who ascends it, may discover the ruins of a 
 colossal volcano, overlaying a granitic mass. St. Flour is 
 situated above the valley watered by the Dauzan, on the 
 summit of a basaltic hill nearly three hundred feet in height. 
 The number of inhabitants does not amount to more than 
 seven thousand ;s it is the chief town in a district consisting 
 of eighty-two burghs and villages. 1 * * All the houses are 
 built of lava ; but, although the seat of a bishopric, it pos- 
 sesses no edifice of any consequence. It has, however, pro- 
 duced two celebrated men, namely, the dramatic poet Du 
 Belloy, and the brave Desaix who fell at Marengo. The 
 
 1 “ The only mines worked in the department, are those of coal ;* 
 but many individuals annually leave the country, and follow the trade 
 of braziers in other parts of France, and also in Spain, and in Hol- 
 land.” 
 
 * There are mines of coal, antimony and copper in the department, and also 
 quarries of marble and slate. Peuchet, p. 131. — P. 
 
 b On the right bank of the Ranee. M. B. 
 
 c “ The theatre is very handsome (assez jolie,) for so small a capital 
 of department.” 
 
 d “ Aurillac is supposed to have been founded about the end of the 
 eighth century.” 
 
 e “ Author of a description of France” ( Description histor. et geo- 
 grapli. de la France , 1715, 5 vols.) also of a description of Paris ( De- 
 scription de la ville de Paris et de ses environs, 10 vols.) — P. 
 
 1 “ Height 1857 metres.” 
 
 i Population 6,640 (Stat. Table) — 5687 (Alman. Royal, 1822.) 
 
 OF FRANCE. 267 
 
 inhabitants manufacture copper utensils and coarse cloths ; 
 they also prepare glue, and archil* for dying. 
 
 Chaudes-Aigues rises in a deep defile, watered by a feeder 
 of the Truyere ; it was known to the Romans, who gave it 
 the name of Calentes Aqucc. k It does not contain more than 
 two thousand individuals, but the thermal springs, which are 
 held in great repute, attract during the summer season, a 
 number of invalids at least equal to the number of inhabitants. 
 These springs issue from volcanic rocks, and their tempera- 
 ture varies from twenty to sixty-five degrees of Reaumur. 
 Their sanative qualities are not their only virtues they are 
 used in cooking, in washing, and in eveiy domestic purpose 
 for which warm water is required ; lastly, they are intro- 
 duced into each house by subterranean pipes, and thus serve 
 to warm the lower rooms during winter. 
 
 The Alagnon waters a pleasant valley at the base of the 
 Plomb du Cantal, and near the Puy du Peroux. Murat, 
 the chief town in a subprefecture, stands on the right bank 
 of the same river ; the men are employed in making copper 
 utensils, and the women in working lace ; the latter occupa- 
 tion serves to recal that sort of industry which was first 
 introduced by Colbert into Upper Auvergne.*** * The Puy- 
 Mary, a volcanic peak, rises on the opposite side of the Col 
 de Cabre in the district** of Mauriac. The small town of 
 Salers in the same district 1 * is built on a current of lava ;° it 
 gives its name to the mountains in the neighbourhood, where 
 the finest cattle in Auvergne are reared. The mountaineers 
 are said to be quarrelsome and prone to revolt, defects 
 which may be attributed to an insulated situation and the 
 want of education . p Mauriac, a small town, is situated on 
 the side of a basaltic hill,*i which commands an extensive 
 and magnificent view. In the vicinity are the romantic val- 
 ley of Fontanges, and the water-falls of Salins ; a labyrinth 
 of deep glens and precipitous rocks stretches to the banks of 
 the Rue, and exhibits all the variety of forms that are to be 
 found in volcanic countries. 
 
 Vallies watered by small streams separate the group of 
 the Cantal from that of Mont-Dor ; the immense labyrinth, 
 which they form, leads from the department of Cantal tG 
 that of Puy de Dome. 
 
 Having arrived above the region of the fir, pastures cover 
 the sides of all the mountains r which are grouped round the 
 Puy de Sancy ; their bases form a plateau with a southern 
 inclination. Herds of cattle are seen at distant intervals, 
 and a few scattered cottages serve to vary a dreary country, 
 in which the traveller cannot find a single tree to shelter 
 himself against the rays of the sun. The peasantry who 
 inhabit the mountains, repair to a Gothic chapel, built in the 
 sixteenth century ; great numbers perform a pilgrimage to it 
 every year ; 3 on Sundays and other days, consecrated to 
 divine service, many mountaineers meet at the same place. 
 
 h “ It is the chief town of an arrondissement composed of 82 com- 
 munes.” 
 
 ■ A dying material prepared from lichens. — P. 
 
 k The ancient and modern names both signify thermal waters. — P. 
 
 1 “ Their sanative qualities are less important than their other 
 uses.” 
 
 m Murat is noted for the manufacture of point lace. — The manufac- 
 ture of point lace was introduced into France by Colbert in 1665. Sa- 
 vary, Diet. Comm. Tom. i. p. 101. Tom. iii. art. Point. — P. 
 
 “ “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 o On the right bank of the Maronne. M. B. 
 
 p “ The inhabitants of these mountains are said to be obstinate and 
 quarrelsome ( mutins et querelleurs.)” 
 
 a Between the Ouze and the Dordogne. M. B. 
 
 r “ Puys” — peaks. 
 
 * “ It is celebrated in the country for an annual pilgrimage.” 
 
2G8 EUR 
 
 A cottage, which has been dignified with the name of an 
 inn, may be seen near the chapel ; it is frequented by pe- 
 destrians in their excursions to Mont-Dor, and by all those, 
 whether natives or strangers, who require something strong- 
 er than the limpid water which flows from a neighbouring 
 spring. On the approach of winter, the peasantry aban- 
 don their mountain cottages, the chapel is closed until 
 spring, and the deep snows render the roads impassable. 
 At some distance from the chapel, is situated the Trou de 
 Soucy, a natural excavation in the form of a funnel, about a 
 hundred feet in diameter, and terminating in a gulf or pit not 
 less than eighty feet in depth. The extent of the cavity 
 cannot be ascertained, but to judge from the prolonged 
 noise occasioned by the discharge of a gun, it must be con- 
 siderable. It would be wrong to consider this excavation 
 as an ancient crater ; it may be also remarked as the most 
 curious circumstance respecting it, that it is filled to the 
 depth of at least six feet, with limpid water, the tempera- 
 ture of which too is always much lower than that of most 
 of the springs in the country ; but the phenomenon may 
 be easily explained, from the fact that the porous lava 
 which lines the cavity, promotes evaporation. The coun- 
 try people affirm that the gulf communicates with the wa- 
 ters of Lake Pavin, a lake which in appearance at least, 
 resembles a crater. It is situated at the bottom of a cir- 
 cular cavity, not less than a hundred and twenty feet in 
 depth. The sides of the cavity are well wooded, and the 
 luxuriance of the vegetation which covers them may be 
 attributed to the moisture exhaled from the waters ; the 
 banks of the lake are formed by the lava, which flowed 
 from the sides of the Puy de Mondial, a neighbouring 
 volcano. The black waters of the lake, fed by no visible 
 spring, and continually discharged by an adjoining outlet, 
 *orm the Couse, a small river, which fertilizes the neigh- 
 bouring meadows. A limpid stream feeds the lake of 
 Mount Sineyre, at no great distance from the last, but 
 there does not appear to be any outlet to the waters which 
 it continually receives. 
 
 Few travellers visit the volcanic heights* that encompass 
 Mont-Dor without ascending the Puy de Sancy, of which 
 the pyramidal summit is apparent from every part of the 
 surrounding country. The rocks that compose it, are im- 
 pressed with all the characters of an igneous origin ; the 
 groups of Mont-Dor and the Cantal may be said to attest 
 those great convulsions of nature, of which the volcanos 
 now in action can furnish but an imperfect idea. No cra- 
 ters can be seen ; the fused substances, raised from an im- 
 mense depth, and forced through the superincumbent 
 granite, exhibited probably after their consolidation enor- 
 mous and rugged masses, which the action of the atmos- 
 phere and of ages has scattered in every direction. These 
 masses, once so awful from their height, and imposing 
 from their extent, now present only broken skeletons, whose 
 pointed peaks threaten to overwhelm the vallies below them. 
 The eastern declivities of the Puy de Sancy are not very 
 precipitous, and the chairmen in the valley to which visit- 
 ors resort on account of the thermal baths, have frequent- 
 ly carried ladies to the summit. The verdant slopes are 
 covered with thick and tufted grass ; a sheet of water 
 formed by all the springs which descend from the higher 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CXLIV. 
 
 declivities, occupies a small part of a lofty plain, where the 
 traveller rests before climbing the peak. It often happens 
 that those who commence their journey at day -break, when 
 no clouds appear on the mountain, and when they expect 
 to be rewarded for their labour by a magnificent and 
 extensive view, find themselves on reaching the summit of 
 the volcanic pyramid, where a cross formed of the same 
 substance has been erected, suddenly involved in a dense 
 fog which prevents them from discovering even the narrow 
 path by which they have ascended. The inscriptions on 
 the four sides of the cross are then only visible ; from them 
 they may learn that they have ascended 2720 feet, that 
 the rock on which they stand, is 109 feet higher than the 
 Plomb du Cantal, 1368 higher than the Puy de Dome, 
 and 6136 above the level of the sea, and lastly, that they 
 have reached the highest point in central France. If the 
 sun’s rays dissipate the clouds collected around them, they 
 may see on one side the romantic valley of Mont-Dor, and 
 beyond it an almost boundless horizon, and on the left, the 
 valley of Enfer, frightful from its depth and from the rug- 
 ged rocks that surround it. Having left the Pic de la 
 Croix, b the traveller may wander through meadows, where 
 golden ranunculus and potentilla contrast with the ver- 
 dure of the other plants. Only a few scanty tufts of veg- 
 etation issue from the crevices in the valley of Enfer, 0 
 and from the steep rocks'which border that of La Cour, 
 whilst in the ravines above their frightful precipices, the 
 snow remains even in the month of August. The view 
 from the slippery declivities on the western side of the val- 
 ley/ extends over deep and sequestered vallies, while the 
 cattle on the heights seem almost suspended from pastures, 
 on which man cannot walk without fear. The shepherds 
 frequently drive a stake into the ground above these preci- 
 pices, and attach themselves to it by means of a cord ; 
 they are thus enabled to mow the grass which grows in al- 
 most inaccessible situations, but which the wind too often 
 scatters before they have time to collect it. 
 
 The highest part of the valley of Mont-Dor is watered 
 by the small river Dor ; it is formed by a number of 
 streams collected on the Puy de Sancy, from which it de- 
 scends in cascades through a vertical fissure in the midst 
 of rugged rocks. Fir trees cover the base of the moun- 
 tain ; a rapid stream, which the inhabitants call the Cas- 
 cade of the Serpent, 6 winds in the shade of their dismal 
 foliage on the right of the Dor ; it is almost concealed in 
 many places by tufts of the broad-leaved cacalia and the 
 blue flowering sonchus. Below it and on the same side of 
 the valley, the waters of the Dogne fall from a height of 
 not less than a hundred and sixty feet ; they mingle near 
 the fall with the waters of the Dor, and form the Dor- 
 dogne. The Capuchin, a rock composed of porphyritic 
 lava, so called because one of its fragments/ when seen 
 from a distance, has some resemblance to a monk in the 
 dress of that order, rises on the opposite bank of the river. 
 The village of Bains fronts the same rock ; a walk lately 
 planted with trees leads from it to the banks of the Dor- 
 dogne, across which an iron bridge has been erected. 
 Since the new baths were constructed on the site of those 
 that were built by the Romans, the village has been en- 
 larged and embellished, and has now become a place of 
 
 * “ Puys.” 
 
 b The Peak of the Cross. 
 
 “ Gorge de l’Enfer” — ravine of Enfer (Hell.) 
 
 d Valley of Mont-Dor. 
 
 • Cascade du Serpent. 
 
 1 “ A prism detached from the mass.” 
 
book cxliv.1 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 2C9 
 
 resort for strangers from the beginning of June to the mid- 
 dle of September. The baths form a simple and at the 
 same time a solid and elegant edifice ; they are built of a 
 dark coloured lava, and covered with large and thin stones* 
 of the same substance ; on the whole, they are not unlike 
 the buildings of the Romans. The pilasters and arcades 
 in front correspond well with the columns and other re- 
 mains of an ancient monument, which probably formed 
 part of a temple that some wealthy Roman erected on the 
 square before the new edifice, to commemorate a cure 
 which, it was supposed, the waters had effected. The va- 
 ried and picturesque sites in the valley and neighbourhood 
 of Mont-Dor are visited by the strangers who frequent the 
 baths ; the exercise which they take contributes perhaps 
 as much as the thermal springs to the improvement of their 
 health. Few persons leave the country before they have 
 seen Lake Chambon in which the river Couse has its 
 source. The romantic scenery near the lake, accords so 
 well with the views which Sidonius Apollinaris describes 
 round his house, that there is every reason to believe that 
 its banks were inhabited by that celebrated prelate of Gaul, b 
 who flourished about the middle of the fifth century. 0 
 
 We may pass from the valley of Mont-Dor to different 
 places not unworthy of notice in the district of Issoire.* * 1 
 St. Nectaire, a small burgh famous for its cheese, contains 
 the remains of several Roman baths, which serve to prove 
 its antiquity. One of the five or six rivers in the depart- 
 ment, called the Couse, e traverses Issoire, a town that was 
 founded before the conquest of Gaul, and to which the 
 Romans gave the name of Issiodurum . f The church ap- 
 pears to be of an architecture anterior to the Gothic ; mo- 
 saic ornaments are observed on the outside, and the twelve 
 signs of the Zodiac are represented on the walls ; Virgo 
 and Libra adorn the principal front. The Latin names of 
 these signs, sculptured in Roman characters, are proofs 
 that the church was built at a very remote period ; the 
 choir rests on a subterranean chapel. The town is embel- 
 lished with several broad and well built streets, besides 
 fountains, squares, a fine public walk and a covered mar- 
 ket place, built of granite. Issoire was the birthplace of 
 Anthony Duprat, chancellor of France, who after the death 
 of his wife, entered into holy orders, and became a cardi- 
 nal ; he abolished the pragmatic sanction, rendered offices’ 
 venal, increased the imposts, and lived long enough to he 
 execrated by his countrymen. Iron and coal mines are 
 worked in the neighbourhood of Auzat on the right bank 
 of the Allier. More than a million of bottles are made 
 every year at the glass works of La Combelle in the same 
 district. 11 Sauxillanges' contains about two thousand inhab- 
 itants ; they carry on a trade in earthen ware, saws, scythes 
 and woollen stuffs of their own manufacture. k 
 
 The Allier, a broad but shallow river, winds through Li- 
 
 1 “ With slabs (dalles.)” 
 
 b Sidonius Apollinaris wasbishop of Jhigustnnemetum (Clermont.)— P. 
 
 c See the note at the end of the work by Doctor Bertrand, entitled : 
 Recherches sur les propri&tcs physiques , chimiques et midiciiialcs des eaux 
 du Mont-Dor. 
 
 d “ The country in the vicinity of Mont-Dor comprehends the most 
 interesting part of the arrondissement of Issoire, but the principal 
 towns in the same arrondissement are situated in an eastern direction 
 from the mountain.’ 
 
 e Couze. 
 
 1 “ Its Latin name is Issiodurum” ( Ixiodurum , Encyc. Meth. Geog. 
 Mod. art. Issoire.) — P. 
 
 e Judicial offices (charges de judicature.) Moreri. — Diet. Hist. Caen, 
 1804.— P. 
 
 magne ; it is bordered on the left by granite rocks which rise 
 perpendicularly near the village of St. Yvoine, and threat- 
 en to overwhelm both the boatman who steers his bark, and 
 the traveller who pursues his journey along the road 1 on the 
 banks of the river. The burgh of Vic le Comte is built on 
 the right bank beyond the village ; it may be mentioned as 
 the birthplace of the immortal Lesage. Billom," 1 a town 
 of five thousand inhabitants, and supposed to be the most 
 ancient in Auvergne, is situated on an eminence, about 
 two leagues distant from the Allier. It may be seen from 
 the summit of the Puy de Corent, a mountain of the abso- 
 lute height of about nineteen hundred feet, composed of 
 lime and sandstone, which were originally deposited by 
 the fresh waters that covered the whole of Limagne, and 
 crowned with lava and basalt. Billom was formerly cel- 
 ebrated, and it has again become so of late years, on ac- 
 count of a college under the direction of the jesuits. At 
 the time of their expulsion, a picture was found in the 
 college church, of which many engravings were afterwards 
 sold in France; it represented religion under the emblem 
 of a ship glided by the jesuits. The principal articles 
 made in the tow T n are silks and porcelain of admirable 
 fineness." 
 
 The road to Clermont passes along the base of Gergo- 
 via,° a calcareous and volcanic mountain ; the name serves 
 still to indicate the site of the principal city in the country 
 of the Arverni , a city that Caesar besieged without success. 
 It was built in a plain on the mountain,? of which the ab- 
 solute height is not less than two thousand three hundred 
 feet. The site is accurately described in the Commenta- 
 ries ; the country people have often found there broken 
 amphora, Roman medals and Gallic axes. 11 The traveller 
 may form from the same place some notion of the wealth 
 and industry of Limagne ; he may see villages crowded 
 on the sides of the mountains, hills covered with vineyards, 
 vallies shaded by fruit trees, and in the distance, the fer- 
 tile plain that extends from the banks of the Allier to the 
 volcanic summits that command Clermont, Volvic and 
 Riom. The heights above the plain are crowned in dif- 
 ferent directions with old and dark castles, while the plain 
 itself is watered by numerous streams or by canals cut by 
 the husbandmen, and is agreeably diversified with mead- 
 ows, corn fields, orchards and plantations of poplar trees. 
 Pont du Chateau 1- contains about three thousand inhabit- 
 ants ; it is situated near the extremity of the plain on the 
 banks of the Allier, which flows beneath a modern bridge, 
 and falls the height of several feet from an artificial em- 
 bankment. 3 
 
 Clermont is built on a height which cannot be said to 
 be very lofty, if compared with the mountains that sur- 
 round it. Ramparts adorned with fine trees form an en- 
 closure round narrow and dismal streets. 4 It may be 
 
 b “ Commune.” ' Sauxilanges. 
 
 k “ They manufacture scythes, saws, pottery, and woollen stuffs. 
 
 1 “ The road cut in the rock.” 
 m Billon. 
 
 “ “ Poteries fines — etoffes de nouveautes.” 
 
 ° Modern name, Gergoviat (Encyc. Meth.) 
 p “ It occupied the plateau of the mountain” — its flat summit. 
 
 <i The ancient Gauls used two-edged battle-axes (lipennes.) — P. 
 r Pont du Chatel. 
 
 s “ — which flows beneath a bridge lately erected, and then falls 
 over a dam (digue) in a sheet of foam (en nappe blanchatre.)” 
 
 * “ Boulevards planted with fine trees form a regular enclosure 
 round the town, which consists for the most part of narrow and gloomy 
 streets.” 
 
270 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLIV. 
 
 urged, however, that the gloomy appearance of the town is 
 owing, in part at least, to the lava with which the houses 
 are built ; the inhabitants cover them with a coat of plas- 
 ter, but the lava always resumes its sombre colour. The 
 cathedral was commenced in the twelfth century, but it re- 
 mains still in an unfinished slate ; the architecture is bold 
 and elegant ; the greatest ornaments in the interior are the 
 finely painted windows ; the white marble figures on the 
 outside contrast well with the dark lava of which it is con- 
 structed. The church of Notre-Dame du Port is without 
 doubt a much more ancient building ; lighted by arcades 
 and not by ogives, and loaded with inscriptions in Roman 
 characters, it was in all probability founded shortly after 
 the introduction of Christianity in Gaul. 
 
 The principal squares ( places ) are very large, and some 
 of them worthy of particular notice. That of Jaude forms 
 a rectangle, not a square ; a covered market is erected in 
 the middle of it. A Gothic fountain ornamented with ara- 
 besques rises in the square of Champeix, a large but irreg- 
 ular quadrangle. That of the Poterne a is bordered by an 
 agreeable walk, from which the plains of Limagne, and the 
 summit of the Puy de Dome may be distinctly seen. A 
 fountain in the form of an obelisk has been erected to the 
 memory of Desaix, at the extremity of that of Taureau. 
 The ancient college, a very elegant building, is situated at 
 no great distance from the last monument ; large halls are 
 set apart for public schools of drawing, mineralogy and 
 natural history ; it contains besides a valuable collection 
 of casts from the finest ancient statues, and of different ar- 
 ticles in the three natural kingdoms, among others, the best 
 mineralogical specimens of the department. Other apart- 
 ments are reserved for the academical society and for a 
 library of twenty thousand volumes. b A white marble 
 statue of Pascal, certainly the most illustrious man that 
 Clermont has produced, has been placed in the library. 
 A large and valuable botanical garden is connected with 
 the college.' 
 
 The fountain of St. Allyre, in one of the suburbs of Cler- 
 mont, is considered by the inhabitants the greatest wonder 
 in the place, and guides are ever ready to show it to stran- 
 gers. It is a ferruginous spring, abundantly impregnated 
 with carbonate of lime ; it supplies baths, the use of which 
 medical men consider beneficial in some complaints. The 
 transparency of the water does not indicate the ingredients 
 that compose it, for in that respect it may vie with the pur- 
 est crystal. Diverted into small buildings, where it is made 
 to fall in minute particles' * 1 on different objects, such as flow- 
 ers, fruits, branches of trees, and stuffed animals of the 
 largest or smallest size, it covers them with so fine a cal- 
 
 a Square of t he Postern gate. 
 
 b “ 15,000 volumes.” 
 
 c Clermont has a fine college, and a literary society founded in 1741. 
 (Encyc. Meth.) — In the organization of public instruction in France, 
 Clermont has an academy, and a royal college. (Alman. Royal, 1822.) 
 
 d “ In a fine spray.” 
 
 e In one of the halls of the bathing establishment. M. B. 
 
 ( The waters of the spring have formed a wall more than 140 paces 
 long, and in some places 15 or 20 feet high, with a small bridge, under 
 which flows the Tiretaine. Encyc. Meth. — P. 
 
 s — “ a bridge, similar to the preceding, over the rivulet into which 
 it falls.” 
 
 h “ Its manufactories and its tanneries are of little importance ; it 
 is however noted for its preserves ( pdtes de fruits.)” — The principal 
 manufactures of Clermont are fine ratcens, coarse serges, druggets, lin- 
 en cloth, ribbands, silk stockings, candles and paper. Its preserved 
 apricots have long been celebrated. (Ed. Encyc.) — It carries on a 
 
 careous sediment as to give them the appearance of petri- 
 factions without changing their forms. These articles are 
 collected" and sold to strangers, many of whom, while ob- 
 serving the manner in which the calcareous molecules are 
 disengaged from the waters, erroneously believe that they 
 can discover in this mechanical operation, the phenomena 
 of petrifaction. The spring of St. Allyre has made for it- 
 self a calcareous embankment that terminates in an irregu- 
 lar arch, under which flows a small rivulet/ The natural 
 bridge and embankment are formed by the sediment which 
 the waters deposited around the plants that grew in their 
 course. The calcareous sediment thus deposited extends 
 over a space about two hundred and thirty feet in length , 
 a branch of the same spring forms at present other works 
 of the same kind,® and as the length gained every year 
 does not exceed four inches, it follows that a period of sev- 
 en hundred years must have elapsed before the bridge and 
 embankment which are now seen, were completed. 
 
 Clermont is not a manufacturing town ; it possesses but 
 few manufactories or works of any kind. 1 * It may be con- 
 sidered however an important depot for the neighbouring 
 departments, and even for Bordeaux, Lyons and Paris. 
 The people in Auvergne believe it to be a town of great 
 antiquity ; the ancient name of Nemetum renders their 
 opinion not improbable, but if it existed at the time that 
 Cresar laid siege to Gergovia, it must have been a place 
 of little importance, for it is not mentioned by the Roman 
 general. It cannot be denied that it was enlarged and em- 
 bellished by Augustus ; indeed to perpetuate the recollec- 
 tion of the emperor’s munificence, it was called Augusto- 
 JVemetum / It retained its senate and magistrates until 
 the seventh century ; the present name of the town appears 
 to have been derived from that of an ancient castle on a 
 neighbouring height ; it is certain at least that both the 
 one and the other were called Clarus J\lons. k 
 
 The Puy de Crouelle, Mount Rognon and various oth- 
 er mountains, the product of volcanic fires, seem like so 
 many low hills from the lofty ramparts’ of Clermont, but 
 they appear very different from the plain below the town ; 
 the first rises to the height of more than three hundred 
 feet above the highest part of the town ; the inclination of 
 the alternate calcareous and basaltic strata towards its cen- 
 tre, may be considered the traces of the subterranean 
 shocks by which it was raised." 1 The basaltic cone on the 
 second has been ascertained to be at least eight hundred 
 feet above its base, and, like many other heights in the 
 same country, it is crowned with the ruins of an ancient 
 building." Mont-Ferrand has been called a suburb of 
 Clermont, although it is about a mile and a half distant 
 
 great trade in preserved apricots and apples ( pates d'abricots et de 
 pommes.) Savary. — P. 
 
 ‘ Augustonemetum, D’Anv. 
 
 k “ The ancient city was embellished by Augustus, in gratitude for 
 which it took the name of Augusto-JVemetum. It retained its senate 
 until the 7th century, and finally took its present name from a castle 
 which commanded it, and which gave to its mountain the name of 
 Clarus Mons.” — Clermont is situated on a small eminence at the foot 
 of a lofly mountain. Ed. Encyc. — The modern Latin names of Cler- 
 mont are Claromons and Claromontum. Encyc. Meth. — P. 
 
 1 “ Boulevards.” 
 
 m “ The first exhibits on a height of nearly 300 feet above the plain, 
 traces of its elevation from beneath ( soulerement ) in the inclination of 
 its alternately calcareous and volcanic strata towards its centre.” 
 
 “ “ The second, which rises to the height of more than 800 feet 
 above its base, presents a basaltic cone, crowned like many others in 
 the country, with the ruins of a castle constructed of its prisms.” 
 
book cxliv.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 from the walls f it consists of dark Gothic houses, that are 
 crowded on an inclined plain. A country different from 
 that which has been last described, extends in an opposite 
 direction. 
 
 The oldest building in the burgh of Chamaillere b is a 
 church that was built in the fourth century ; c there are be- 
 sides six paper mills that are put in motion by the Fonta- 
 nat, which waters a romantic valley. Old walnut trees 
 display their thick foliage, while the broad-leaved ivy 
 clings round their trunks ; vines appear suspended above 
 a road that follows the windings of a limpid stream ; gran- 
 ite mountains support two immense currents of lava and 
 masses of scoria; ; and excavations similar to those at Poz- 
 zuoli exhale carbonic acid. A thermal spring whose wa- 
 ters are acidulated and ferruginous, was perhaps not un- 
 known to Caesar, at all events it hears his name ; d in the 
 grotto of Royat, another spring issues from volcanic rocks 
 by seven outlets, and forms as many cascades ; in short 
 the whole valley may remind an Italian of the finest sites 
 in his country. The Puy-Chateix, so called from a cas- 
 tle which was built by the dauphins of Auvergne, rises 
 above the village and grotto of Royat. The mineralogist 
 may find near its summit, in the veins that run through the 
 granite, beautiful specimens of sulphate of barytes ; the 
 botanist may discover several rare plants and lichens of 
 the finest colours. Those who have neglected the previous 
 study requisite for the enjoyment of scientific researches, 
 may accept the invitation of the villagers, who are ready to 
 show strangers the Granaries of Ccesar. It is thus that 
 they call a ruin on the side of the mountain, where travellers 
 have seen rye, wheat and other grain slightly carbonized,® 
 in all probability the effect of a fire by which the granaries 
 of the ancient castle were destroyed. 
 
 An author of some celebrity f affirms that the Puy de 
 Dome is not a mountain ; but what other name can be 
 given to an eminence which commands all the volcanic 
 summits in the neighbourhood of Clermont, and of which 
 the absolute elevation is not less than 4500 feet, and the 
 height above the base 2200. It is by no means unlikely 
 that the writers who describe the crater of the Puy de 
 Dome, have never ascended it.® This mountain, which 
 may be regarded as an ancient monument of subterranean 
 convulsions, was probably raised from the depths of the 
 earth through a crater, the orifice of which it has covered 
 with its own mass. The ancients called it Podium Du- 
 mense; it is composed of a spungy rock through which 
 are disseminated ferruginous laminae of dazzling lustre.' 1 
 The same rock is of igneous origin, and known by the 
 name of domite, the type of other analogous substances. 
 
 OF FRANCE. 271 
 
 Long and thick grass extends from the base to the summit, 
 where a small excavation, the only remains of an ancient 
 hermitage and chapel, has been dignified with the name 
 of a crater, although it is deemed inaccurate to call the 
 Puy de Dome a mountain. The view from the summit 
 loses in richness what it gains in extent ; no near oi well- 
 defined objects form a shade to a succession of airy dis- 
 tances ; the sixty volcanos that form a long line from its 
 base, might almost be compared to so many mole-hills in 
 a field. The Puy de Nadailhat, which rises to the height 
 of two thousand feet above the plain, has vomited from its 
 sides an immense mass of lava, called the Serre, occupy- 
 ing on a considerable breadth, an extent of nearly three 
 leagues. The Puy de Pariou, which rises near the base 
 of the Puy de Dome, is remarkable for a regular and well 
 preserved crater, about 960 feet in diameter and 280 in 
 depth ; the mountain itself is not less than five hundred 
 feet higher than the last ; still both of them appear very 
 insignificant from the Puy de Dome. 
 
 The white summits of the Great Sarcouy and the Puy 
 Chopine on the north of the mountains last mentioned, indi- 
 cate a different origin from that of the neighbouring heights. 
 In the first, the same porous substance may be discovered, as 
 that which composes the Puy de Dome, and the name of 
 the mountain still serves to indicate the use to which the 
 rock was applied by the ancients ; several unfinished sar- 
 cophagi have been found in the caverns dug by the Ro- 
 mans ; it is certain they were considered valuable by the 
 same people from the property they possessed of drying 
 speedily dead bodies by absorbing the humid particles. 
 The second attests the convulsions by which the neighbour- 
 ing conical masses were raised, masses composed of dif- 
 ferent sorts of domites, granite and basaltic rocks. 1 The 
 district 11 of Riom extends to the north of these mountains ; 
 Pont-Gibaud, 1 one of the places in the district, 14 has been 
 called a town, although the population does not exceed 
 eight hundred individuals ; it possesses a fine fountain, min- 
 eral springs, several corn mills and hydraulic saws ; the in- 
 habitants have lately begun to work argentiferous lead 
 mines in the neighbourhood. 111 
 
 Low woods cover the base of the Puy de Nugere, and 
 in many places thorns and nut trees conceal the vegetable 
 mould formed by the decomposition of scoria; the same 
 Puy has vomited 11 from its inclined crater two currents of 
 lava, which extend in different directions to the distance 
 of 3600 yards, and meet below Volvic. The inhabitants 
 of the burgh had long used these volcanic materials for 
 building and other purposes ; but the same sort of indus- 
 try was not long since much extended by the ingenious M. 
 
 a Montferrand, at the distance of a quarter of a league from Cler- 
 mont (half a league, M. B.,) forms with it a single municipality, by the 
 name of Clermont-Ferrand. Encyc. Meth. 1784. — P. 
 b Chamalieres. (Vosgien.) 
 
 c “ Tlie small town ( bourg ) of Chamaillere contains a church built 
 in the fourth century.” 
 
 d — “ known to Caesar, whose name it still bears.” 
 e “ It is thus that they call an cboulemcnt (mass of debris or shingle) 
 which covers the side of the mountain, and in which may be found 
 grains of rye and wheat, slightly carbonized.” 
 
 f M. Blanqui, in his Account of a Journey to the South of France 
 ( Relation d'un voyage au midi de la France.) He makes the absolute 
 elevation equal to 5000 feet. 
 
 s Besides the work last mentioned, see also that entitled : L'Ermite 
 in province, tome viii. p. 328. 
 
 h Laminae of specular iron (Daubeny.) — Domite is a trachytic rock 
 consisting of an aggregation of imperfect microscopic crystals of glassy 
 felspar, with several other minerals imbedded, among which are spec- 
 ular and titaniferous iron in dispersed grains, blade-shaped laminae or 
 
 regular octohedrons. Scrope on the Geology of Central France, p. 
 51.— P. 
 
 1 “ The second, attesting the elevation ( soulevcment ) of those conic 
 masses without craters of which it is an example, exhibits a mixture 
 of different varieties of domite, granite and basalt.” — The Puy Cho- 
 pine consists of a mass of primitive rocks showing signs of great dis- 
 turbance, included between a bed of domite on one side and basalt on 
 the other. Scrope’s Geol. of Cent. France, p. 70. — P. 
 k “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 1 Pont-Gibaut. 
 
 m “ It possesses a fine mineral spring ( fontaine d’eauz minerales,) an 
 excellent flour mill, and several saw mills (scicries hydrauliqitcs ;) it 
 has the prospect of deriving great advantage from a mine of argen- 
 tiferous lead in the neighbourhood.” 
 
 n “The Puy de Nugere, the base of which ie covered by a small 
 wood, in which oaks and brambles contend with the hazelnut tree for 
 the layer of vegetable earth formed by the decomposition of its scorite 
 has vomited” — 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLIV 
 
 272 
 
 Chabrol. A school of drawing and sculpture was found- 
 ed, casts of ancient figures were collected, the method of 
 mutual instruction was introduced, and village lads soon 
 became draughtsmen and sculptors. Different machines' 
 moved by water were also erected, and three times the 
 number of hands were employed in extracting the lava. A 
 ready market was found for the different products in Par- 
 is, and the lava, which had been before only used in build- 
 ing houses or in paving streets, is now changed by means 
 of the lathe into columns, and by the chisel into elegant 
 capitals ; it serves also to multiply the master-works of an- 
 tiquity, and is converted into cippi and funeral monuments ; 
 its sombre colour, its solidity, and its texture not affected 
 by the atmosphere, render it more valuable for the last 
 purpose than marble or even granite. It would not be 
 easy to calculate the advantages that might accrue to the 
 department, from the trade in these articles of luxury and 
 utility, if canals made to communicate with the rivers that 
 descend towards the capital, gave greater facility to their 
 conveyance, for in the present state of communication, 
 they are quadrupled in price by the mere expense of 
 transport. 
 
 The importance of Riom may be attributed to its courts 
 of law, and to the litigious propensities of the people in 
 Auvergne ; at all events, industry is at a low ebb, and the 
 trade of the place is almost confined to articles of primary 
 necessity. The town, which is well enough built, and wa- 
 tered by several fountains, stands on a hill above the Am- 
 bene ; it is separated from its suburbs by ramparts and for- 
 tifications. * 1 ' It might be attended with advantage to the 
 department if the courts of justice were transferred to 
 Clermont. 0 The tribunal, the holy chapel and the prison, d 
 the latter a large and well-aired edifice, are the finest 
 buildings. Riom has produced several distinguished men, 
 Out none more so than Gregory of Tours. Although there 
 is only one long and broad street in Aigue-Perse, 6 the 
 population amounts to five thousand inhabitants ; the neigh- 
 bouring country abounds in picturesque scenery, and that 
 circumstance together with its mineral springs may account 
 for it being a place of resort in the fine season. Two cel- 
 ebrated men, the chancellor De L’Hopital and the poet 
 Delille, were born in the town. 
 
 The impulse that a canal and good roads might give to 
 the commerce and consequently to the wealth of the de- 
 partment, may be estimated, in some degree at least, by 
 the industry observable along the course of the Dore and 
 the Allier, and on the road lately opened to Lyons, in the 
 district 1 of Thiers. The town of the same name, enclosed 
 on all sides by a wild and romantic country, consists of 
 
 s A turning-mill {tour.) 
 
 b — “ by well planted boulevards.” 
 
 c “ It is the seat of a royal court, which ought rather to be located 
 at Clermont.” 
 
 d “ The hall of justice,* the holy chapel, t and the central prison!” — 
 
 * Palais, so called, either in imitation of that at Paris, which was originally 
 a royal palace, and was ceded to the parliament and different tribunals by 
 Louis X., or because it was itself originally cither a house of the king or of 
 some noble, or simply because justice was there rendered in the name of the 
 king. — P. 
 
 t La Sainte Chapelle, a church so called, founded by John, duke of Berry, 
 in the 15th cent. — P. 
 
 1 Maison centrale de detention — See note d p. 931. 
 
 • Lat. Aqua Sparsa. — P. 
 
 f “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 s “ It has carried on the manufacture of coarse cutlery for three 
 
 hundred years.” 
 
 h “ The manufacture of paper dates from a period almost equally re- 
 
 singularly painted but not inelegant houses. The inhabit- 
 ants have carried on a trade in hardware and coarse cut- 
 lery during three hundred years, s and the same sort of in- 
 dustry furnishes employment at present to more than twen- 
 ty thousand persons in the town and neighbouring hamlets. 
 The paper made in the same place dates from a period 
 almost as remote, but in consequence of the improvements 
 that have been successively introduced, the quantity now 
 manufactured is much greater, and the quality much finer. h 
 Ten or twelve other works are in an equally prosperous 
 state,' and it may be added that the Durolle, the great 
 mover of all its manufacturing establishments, is only a 
 small stream that rushes through a narrow ravine. The 
 village k of St. Remy participates with Thiers in the same 
 kind of industry ; it carries on a trade in cutlery and hard- 
 ware goods, 1 and contains nearly four thousand inhabitants. 
 The fir trees cut on the neighbouring heights, m are divided 
 into planks by means of hydraulic saws, at the burgh of 
 Puy-Guillaume on the banks of the Dore. Maringues rises 
 on the Morge, not far from the Allier ; many of the in- 
 habitants are employed in dressing chamois and kid skins.” 
 Courpierre, 0 the chief town in an agricultural district, 11 con- 
 tains about three thousand individuals ; one or two mills 
 have been built in it for the purpose ot grinding bones, 1 1 
 which are afterwards used as a manure. 
 
 The district' of Ambert, although not so favourably situ- 
 ated as the last, is still very important on account of its in- 
 dustry. The best cheeses in Auvergne are exported from 
 the town, which gives name to the district ; r the stream 
 which traverses it, and which throws itself into the Dore, 
 puts in motion more than sixty paper mills and different 
 works. 3 * * Arlant 1 is situated above Ambert in a pleasant 
 valley on the banks of the Dolore ; the principal manufac- 
 tures are lace and ribbons ; Marsac and Viverols carry on 
 a trade in articles of the same sort." Mines of argentifer- 
 ous lead are worked with profit in the neighbourhood of 
 St. Amans-Roche-Savine : x lastly, the burghs of Oliergues 
 and CunlhaO export the same products 2 as Ambert. 
 
 All those who have visited the department, agree that its 
 commerce and resources might be greatly increased ; to 
 judge from the antimony, lead and coal mines, considera- 
 ble wealth might be extracted from the depths of the earth. 
 The fruitful soil of Limagne might be covered with the 
 richest harvests, if the prejudices of the peasantry were 
 not opposed to every improvement. The rich meadows 
 of Mont-Dor, and the fine pastures that cover all the sides 
 of the volcanic Puys, are admirably adapted for rearing 
 cattle ; but at present the breeds are of an inferior kind, 
 and require to be improved by introducing oxen from 
 
 mote, and the numerous improvements which have been introduced, 
 have served to maintain its reputation.” 
 
 * “ Ten or twelve tanneries are equally prosperous.” 
 k Small town ( bourg ) and capital of a canton. (Vosgien.) 
 
 1 “ It also manufactures cutlery.” 
 
 m “ On the mountains to the N. W. of Thiers.” 
 
 n “ In preparing shammy (chamoiscrie .)” 
 
 0 Courpiere, Courpieres. p “Canton. 
 
 <i “ It contains a mill for grinding bones.” 
 
 r “ Arrondissement.” _ . . 
 
 » “ — more than 60 paper mills, besides manufactories of tammies, 
 cords and woollen garters ( d'itamines , de lacets et de ■‘arretiires de 
 laine.)” 
 
 1 Arlanc. _ . 
 
 u “ — are engaged in the same kind of industry.” 
 
 1 St. Ainand-Roche-Savine. 
 y Cunlhac. 
 
 z “ are engaged in the same manufactures.” 
 
 L 
 
BOOK CXLIV.] 
 
 Switzerland, and sheep from Spain. The wretched con- 
 dition of the people in the rural districts may be readily 
 inferred from the following remarks. A peasant, encum- 
 bered with unwieldy wooden shoes, may be seen holding a 
 long goad in his right hand, and driving oxen attached to a 
 wooden cart, of which the wheels without iron make the 
 air resound with the shrill and disagreeable noise produced 
 by the friction on the axle-tree. The ancient araire , a 
 very clumsy plough, a is still used in the fields ; the plough- 
 man stops his oxen by repeating the Latin words, sta bos, 
 words introduced by Roman masters, from whom they 
 have been handed down to men ignorant of their meaning. 
 The cottages of the peasantry proclaim their poverty ; the 
 windows do not admit sufficient light, and the doors, and 
 even the walls, hardly afford shelter against the blast. The 
 labourer is seen in his wretched dwelling, borne down by 
 want and toil ; his principal food is cheese or milk, which 
 
 a “ A nlnuirh without wheels.” 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 50 85 
 
 273 
 
 cannot be of a very good quality, for the cows are ill-fed, 
 and they are used in common with oxen in the plough. 
 But the people are laborious and worthy of a better fate ; 
 the country-women, who carry on their heads the provisions 
 which they sell in the towns, are generally employed in 
 knitting stockings, or in turning the spindle, as tiiey go to 
 market. It is not uncommon for the peasants in their 
 leisure hours to carry sackfuls of earth to places difficult 
 of access, and which the kindness of the proprietor allows 
 them to cultivate. 1 * They are degraded by the prejudices 
 which prevailed throughout France about three centuries 
 ago, and by ignorance, not of their duties, for they are 
 honest and upright, but of whatever regards their comfort 
 and welfare ; it may be truly said that more knowledge 
 and less superstition might enable them to enjoy the bless- 
 ings, of which their laborious perseverance renders them 
 not unworthy. 
 
 b “ The peasants carry earth in baskets to almost inaccessible 
 places, and thus render them proper for cultivation.” 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 - 
 
[BOOK CXI/V 
 
 274 EUROPE. 
 
 BOOK CXLV. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued. — France. — Fourth Section. — Eastern 
 Region. 
 
 Lyonnais, Burgundy, Franche-Comte and Alsace make 
 up the eastern region. The inhabitants are more enlight- 
 ened and more wealthy than those in the central depart- 
 ments ; the relative population is also greater. The su- 
 perficial extent is equal to 2960 square leagues, and the 
 number of individuals to 4,192,000; consequently the 
 mean number in every square league is equal to 141 6. a 
 The mountains of Forez separate the two regions; in the 
 one the people are comparatively ignorant, poor and 
 wretched ; in the other they are well informed, industrious 
 and happy : how happens it that such differences exist in 
 a country, of which all the inhabitants enjoy the same rights 
 and privileges, and are governed by the same laws ? They 
 may be accounted for by many concurring causes, but the 
 facility of communications is perhaps the most effectual of 
 any. The region we are about to enter is better provided 
 with roads, navigable rivers and canals * 1 * * * * ’ than any other that 
 has been yet described, and it possesses no other advan- 
 tage which exerts a greater influence on the industry of 
 the inhabitants, or contributes more to improvements of 
 every kind. 
 
 The department of the Loire is traversed from the 
 southern to the northern extremity by the river of the same 
 name, which flows between two chains of mountains, con- 
 sisting partly of granite and partly of sandstone and lime- 
 stone, 0 and which waters a country of little fertility, as the 
 insufficiency of its harvests attests ; the department how- 
 ever contains valuable mines of iron and lead, and the rich- 
 
 a 1416.216 nearly. — P. 
 
 b “ Roads ( routes ) of different classes, common highways ( chemins 
 communaux, roads passing from one commune to another or for the use 
 of a particular commune,)* several considerable secondary rivers 
 (rivibres — navigable branches,) two large primary rivers (fleuves — the 
 Rhone and the Rhine,) and many canalst” 
 
 * In 1809, the roads of France were classed as follows : viz. 1. great roads 
 ( grandes routes) passing from one frontier of the empire to another through 
 Paris; 2. roads I routes ) passing from one frontier to another, but not through 
 Paris; 3. roads (routes) connecting the different towns (villes) of the same 
 
 province »r of neighbouring provinces ( the regulation was founded on an 
 
 edict of Feb. 6, 1776, whence the term province is ncre used ;) and 4. private 
 roads ( chemins particuliers, corresponding to chemins communaux in the orig- 
 inal text, and to our cross roads or common highways,) connecting small towns 
 or villages ( petites villes — bourgs.) Code Administratif. Part. Police. Tom. 
 II. p. 432.— P. 
 
 I The principal canals in eastern France are, 1. the Canal of Forez, intend- 
 ed to open a communication between the Rhone and the Loire ( — completed 
 8 miles from Givors on the Rhone below Lyons to Rive de Gier. Ed. En- 
 cye.) ; 2. the Canal of the Centre, from Digoin on the Loire to Chalons on 
 the Saone ( — completed, length 71 miles. Ed. Encyc.) ; 3. the Canal of Burgun- 
 dy, intended to connect the Seine and the Saone ( — the line extends 148 miles 
 from Brinon on the Armanfon, a branch of the Yonne, by Dijon to St. Jean 
 de Losne on the Saone — navigable (1814) from the Saone 13 leagues to Pont 
 de PaiTy 5 leagues west of Dijon, and from Brinon to the vicinity of Ancy le 
 Franc — the summit not completed. Ed. Encyc.); 4. the Canal of Monsieur, 
 intended to connect the Doubs and the Rhine (Aim an. Royal, 1822.) — P. 
 
 est coal mines in Fiance. Metals rendered subservient to 
 many domestic purposes, flax and hemp woven to satisfy 
 the luxury of the rich, or the wants of the poor, silk made 
 to assume a thousand different tints, and converted into ar- 
 ticles' 1 which the caprice of fashion multiplies almost to in- 
 finity, yield greater profits to the inhabitants than any that 
 could be derived from the culture of the richest soil. 
 
 Of the three districts 6 into which the department of the 
 Loire is divided, that of St. Etienne is the most industrious 
 and the most populous. The people in the small town of 
 Bourg-Argental rear many silk worms ; they are also em- 
 ployed in manufacturing crapes and different stuffs/ The 
 inhabitants of Chambons work their coal mines, manufac- 
 ture ribbons, and export a great many nails, knives, and 
 files ; h Firmini carries on a trade in the same articles. 1 A 
 fine walk leads to St. diamond, k a town of six thousand 
 inhabitants, where public baths have been lately erected. 1 
 The waters of the Ban and the Gier m serve to move differ- 
 ent works and not fewer than thirty ribbon manufactories. 0 0 
 Rive de Gier m contains not less than eight thousand inhab- 
 itants ; the wealth of the town may be attributed to its 
 glass and iron works, and to its mines of excellent coal, 
 worked by means of forty steam engines ; it is situated 
 near the junction of three vallies on the small river 
 Gier, and at the commencement of the canal of Givors. 
 The village of Berardiere in the neighbourhood of the 
 chief town, may be mentioned on account of its steel foun- 
 deries. 
 
 The immense progress that industry has already made 
 in France, renders it difficult to assign any limits to future 
 
 c “ Calcaire ancien.” 
 
 d “ Ribbons.” The principal manufactures are hardware, silk 
 
 ribbons, hempen cloth, glass and leather. Peuchet, p. 113. — P. 
 
 e “ Arrondissements.’ 
 
 1 “ Crapes and cords ( lacets .) 6 “ Le Chambon.” 
 
 b “ — manufacture ribbons, nails, files and knives.” 
 
 ' Firminy possesses coal mines, iron founderies and nail manufac- 
 tories (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 k St. Chaumont. 
 
 1 “At St. diamond there is a fine promenade and public 
 
 baths.” 
 
 m Giez — Rive de Giez, Rive de Gie. 
 
 n « are employed in carrying on the same manufactures as those 
 
 last mentioned. The town contains more than thirty manufactories 
 of ribbons and cords (lacets.)’’ 
 
 o An iron work constructed after the English method (forge a VAn- 
 o-laise,*) in the suburb of St. Julien, furnishes annually more than six 
 million lbs. of iron. M. B. — St. Julien en Jarrets, a small town ( bourg ) 
 one league N. of St. diamond. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 * The English generally use coke in reducing iron, instead of charcoal which 
 is more conimonly used on the continent. Consequently, their furnaces are 
 constructed so as to furnish a more powerful blast and to sustain a more intense 
 heat. As the iron work above mentioned is situated in the heart of one of the 
 greatest coal districts in France, it was undoubtedly constructed for using 
 coke. — P. 
 
book cxlv.j DESCRIPTION 
 
 improvements, but from what has been already done, it is 
 reasonable to suppose that much more may be accomplish- 
 ed. A rail-way, now almost finished, extends from St. 
 Etienne to Lyons, so that goods may soon be conveyed 
 from the one place to the other in half the time that is at 
 present necessary. The distance may be equal to twenty-five 
 or twenty-six miles ; a the work was commenced near the close 
 of the year 1827, and what has been already accomplished, 
 has entirely changed the appearance of the country. Hills 
 and vallies have been levelled, 620,000 cubic yards' 5 of the 
 hardest rock have been torn from the soil, 120,000 cubic 
 yards c of earth have been taken away, and in order to fill 
 up the inequalities in the ground, 110,000 have been re- 
 moved from one place to another ; d on the whole line, not 
 fewer than a hundred and twelve arches, each of them 
 forming a bridge, have been raised, and it has been neces- 
 sary to cut through a high hill in the neighbourhood of St. 
 Etienne.® It is calculated that at no distant period steam- 
 engines travelling at the rate of five miles an hour, and 
 dragging each fifteen loaded waggons/ may be substituted 
 for the eighteen hundred vehicles that pass daily between 
 the two towns. 
 
 St. Etienne, says a good judge of such places, s is built 
 without regularity ; there as well as in many commercial 
 towns, order and beauty are of secondary importance. 
 Workshops covered with tiles, darkened with smoke and 
 without windows, resembling the abodes of the Cyclops, 
 surround the elegant and modern town-house, which the 
 inhabitants have erected on the Place Neuve.' 1 The streets 
 are filled with a dark and light dust, which covers clothes, 
 houses and even furniture. It is, however, in these very 
 streets that the people manufacture the light gauze, the 
 lace* and the dazzling ribbons, for which the whole of Eu- 
 rope is tributary to France. Contiguous houses are inhab- 
 ited by armourers and embroiderers ; the movement of the 
 loom is heard in the streets, and the noise of the anvil re- 
 sounds in the fields. “ I have seen,” continues M. Blan- 
 qui, “men on horseback, who to judge from their squalid 
 dress, might be thought unable to afford linen, but I after- 
 wards discovered that they were the proprietors of produc- 
 tive iron works. Miners without shirts refuse to take char- 
 ity, while beggars with shirt-ruffles walk the streets of Paris. 
 The houses, which not long since formed part of the sub- 
 urbs, are now in the heart of the town, and the number of 
 inhabitants bas increased within a period of less than ten 
 years from twenty to forty thousand. What a contrast to 
 Montbrison, the capital of the department, which is inhab- 
 ited principally by the wealthy and the idle ; there the 
 population decreases incessantly, and all the mendicants in 
 Forez resort to it !” 
 
 St. Etienne contains a royal armoury, forty in which 
 arms of every sort are made, fifty-five places in which 
 
 OF FRANCE. 275 
 
 hard-wares and cutlery are wrought, a hundred and fifty 
 ribbon and velvet manufactories. 15 Montbrison might rival 
 it both in trade and in manufactures, for the Vizezy 1 which 
 flows through the town, furnishes enough of water to move 
 the most important works. But the inhabitants do not de- 
 vote themselves to any branch of industry, and the town is 
 ill-peopled and ill-built. The only edifice to which any 
 additions have lately been made, is the royal college ; it is 
 unnecessary to add that these additions were made by 
 government." 1 Many suppose that the present town was 
 founded in the twelfth century by Brison, whence it re- 
 ceived the Latin name of J\lons Brisonis. The mineral 
 waters are held in great reputation, and several remains of 
 antiquity prove that they were not unknown to the Romans. 
 It was from the summit of the volcanic rock which com- 
 mands Montbrison, that the sanguinary baron of Adrets" 
 precipitated the catholics whom he had taken prisoners 
 during the civil wars. The small town of St. Galmier car- 
 ries on a trade in wax-lights for the use of churches it 
 stands on an eminence not far from the Croize. A min- 
 eral spring rises from a rock near the town, and the waters 
 that issue from it, have a strong vinous flavour. Feurs is 
 situated on the road between Thiers and Lyons ; it is the 
 Forum Segusianorum, the ancient capital of the Segusiani, 
 of which the name was afterwards extended to the prov- 
 ince of Forez. 
 
 The Gand flows below the small town of St. Sympho- 
 rien de Lay, a place of some importance from its trade 
 and manufactures. It is situated in the district 15 of which 
 Roanne is the capital ; the latter, occupying the site of an 
 ancient town which Ptolemy calls Rodumna, was consid- 
 ered a mere village about the commencement of the eigh- 
 teenth century, but the industry of the inhabitants has 
 since restored it to something like its former rank ; it is at 
 present well built, and the population amounts to more 
 than eight thousand individuals. Some remains of Roman 
 monuments have resisted the vicissitudes of time and bar- 
 barism. 
 
 If there is any department in France, which may be said 
 to prove the superiority of manufacturing over agricultural 
 industry, it is certainly the department of the Rhone. The 
 soil, intersected by hills and vallies, is not very fruitful ; it 
 does not yield one half of the grain or timber necessary 
 for the consumption. But if the harvests are scanty, the 
 vineyards are productive, and the wines of an excellent 
 quality ; the best are those of Cote Rotie and Condrieux. 
 Artificial meadows afford pasture to many herds of oxen, 
 and to numerous flocks of sheep and goats. It would be 
 incorrect therefore to ascribe the deficiency in corn to the 
 negligence of the husbandman ; on the contrary, he ap- 
 pears to derive from the fields all the profit that can be 
 obtained from them. The flourishing state of the country 
 
 1 “Length of the route 55.000 metres” — 34.18 miles nearly. — St. 
 Etienne is 12 leagues from Lyons. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 b “ 500,000 cubic metres.” 
 
 c “ 100,000 cubic metres.” 
 
 d “ 900,000 cubic metres have been employed in filling up tne ine- 
 qualities in the surface.” 
 
 ' “ On the whole line, 112 bridges (ponceavx) have been construct- 
 ed, and a tunnel has been opened through a hill ( montagne ) near St. 
 Etienne.” 
 
 f “ Steam-carriages, each consuming 70 kilogrammes of coal and 
 350 kilogrammes of water per hour, travelling two leagues in 60 min- 
 utes, and drawing fifteen waggons carrying altogether a weight of 
 1,200,000 lbs. ” 
 
 6 M. Ad. Blanqui, Relation d’un voyage au midi de la France, pen- 
 dant les mois d’Aodt et de Septembre, 1828. 
 
 h New Square. 
 
 1 “ Tulle” — a kind of thin silk lace. 
 
 k “ — a royal manufactory of fire-arms, 40 manufactories of arms of 
 every kind, 10 of cutlery, 45 of hardware ( quincaillcrie ,) and 150 of 
 ribbons and velvet.” 1 Vezize, Vecize. 
 
 m<< The only edifice to which any recent additions have been made, 
 is that of the college.” The original does not call it a royal college, 
 nor does it say that the additions were made by government. No 
 royal college at Montbrison is mentioned in the Alman. Royal, 1822. 
 Montbrison had before the revolution, a college belonging to the priests 
 of the Oratory.— P. 
 
 " Francis de Beaumont, baron des Adrets — lived in the 16tk cen' 
 — P. 
 
 0 “ — manufactures wax tapers ( cierges .)” 
 p “ Arrondissement.” 
 
276 EUR 
 
 must be attributed to its manufactories; if tbe department 
 of North be excepted, there is no other in France, which 
 contains so great a population relatively to the surface, for 
 tbe mean number of inhabitants on every square league is 
 equal to two thousand nine hundred and fifty-four. Cop- 
 per and coal, the most valuable of its productions, furnish 
 the materials with which the numerous founderies are sup- 
 plied. 
 
 The population of Tarare does not exceed seven thou- 
 sand inhabitants ; it contains, however, not fewer than six- 
 ty-five muslin manufactories, and twenty-five of embroider- 
 ed work ; the latter are the first of the kind that were 
 established in France; they afford employment at present 
 to more than fifty thousand workmen, who are scattered in 
 different districts. The town stands at the foot of a bill 
 which bears its name, and on the left bank of the Tardine, 
 a small river that sometimes inundates the neighbouring 
 fields, but the devastations thus occasioned, are amply re- 
 deemed by the advantages tbe manufacturer derives from 
 it. Thizy and Amplepuis rival each other in their cotton 
 manufactures. The village of Tours carries on a trade in 
 the mixed stuffs, with which it supplies different depart- 
 ments ; they are made of linen and cotton, and known in 
 France by the name of beaujolaises . a Beaujeu, a small 
 but well-built town, is finely situated on the Ardiere ; it 
 stands at the base of a bill, on which rise the ruins of the 
 strong castle that belonged to the lords of Beaujeu. Jt pos- 
 sesses several paper mills, and carries on no inconsiderable 
 trade in wine. The same trade and the sale of embroidered 
 works tend to enrich Belleville sur Saone. The two last 
 towns contain nearly an equal number of inhabitants ; the 
 population of each amounts at least to three thousand indi- 
 viduals. Ville-Franche, b the capital of the wealthy district 
 in which they are situated,' consists of a broad street about 
 a mile and a half in length, and of houses grouped round 
 it, which form the suburbs. The lands watered by the 
 Saone and the Morgon are very fruitful ; the neighbouring 
 bills are covered with vineyards. It must be admitted, 
 however, that the picturesque scenery round Ville-Franche 
 has not been much improved by cultivation f as a manufac- 
 turing town, it is a place of considerable importance. The 
 village of Chessy near the left bank of the Arbresle, is about 
 three leagues on the south of it ; it contains six hundred 
 inhabitants, and is well known on account of its copper 
 mines, tbe most productive in France. 
 
 Lyons is remarkable for the beauty of its situation, and 
 for the magnificent view presented by the country houses in 
 its neighbourhood, by its four suburbs, 6 and by the twenty 
 quays on the Saone and the Rhone. The gentle current 
 of the first river and the rapidity of the second form a strik- 
 ing contrast. The Saone offers an emblem of peace — 
 favourable to tbe arts, to commerce and to industry ; boats 
 
 ^PE. [BOOK CXLV. 
 
 are continually passing up and down its stream, and seven- 
 teen harbours' - are situated on its banks. The Rhone, em- 
 blematic of war and civil discord, is an impetuous torrent 
 which tbe temerity of man does not always brave with im- 
 punity ; tbe loud noise of its waters is tbe only sound that 
 can be beard on its dismal and deserted banks/ Other and 
 less pleasing contrasts may be observed in tbe same town ; 
 in its fifty-six squares, mean and sorry buildings rise by tbe 
 side of the most sumptuous edifices ; its two hundred and 
 forty-five streets are ill-paved, narrow and dirty, and as rain 
 is of frequent occurrence, they are very often wet. All the 
 inhabitants must be equally indifferent about tbe cleanliness 
 of their town, otherwise the same filth could not be seen 
 near mean shops and costly warehouses, tbe humble abode 
 of the artisan, and tbe habitation of the wealthy merchant. 
 The canuts or silk weavers prepare in their smoky gar- 
 rets light crapes, brilliant satins and pliable taffetas of the 
 richest colours ; no sooner have they been taken from their 
 dirty hands, than they are sent to Paris, where they assume 
 tbe various shapes that fashion renders indispensable. 
 
 Lyons or the ancient Lugdunum was one of the principal 
 cities in the dominions of the Segusiani at the time that 
 Caesar took it from tbe Gauls. About forty years before 
 the vulgar era Munatius Plancus received instructions from 
 the Roman senate to allow the people of Vienne, who had 
 been driven from their town by the Jillobroges, to settle in 
 Lugdunum. It became not long afterwards one of the most 
 flourishing Roman colonies in France ; Strabo says that it was 
 only inferior in population to Narbonne. The importance and 
 the admirable position of the town rendered it frequently the 
 residence of the governors of Gaul.e It was first built on the 
 declivity of a hill, which rises on the right bank of the Saone ; 
 it was embellished by many noble monuments, but they 
 were all destroyed by fire in a single night. 1 * This disas- 
 trous event, of which history affords fortunately but few ex- 
 amples, happened in the year 59 of the Christian era, during 
 the reign of Nero, by whom it was rebuilt. It does not 
 require a minute examination of ancient edifices to be con- 
 vinced that the Romans knew well how to avail themselves 
 of the inequalities in the surface, and thus to give their 
 towns an air of majesty, which we look for in vain in mod- 
 ern cities. The palace of the emperors rose on the bill of 
 St. Just, where the monastery of Antiquaille,* now changed 
 into an hospital for Incurables, was afterwards built. The 
 name of the convent appears to have been derived from the 
 number of medals and oilier antiquities, which were discov- 
 ered in digging the foundation. An amphitheatre was 
 erected on the same height, and some remains of it are still 
 seen in the gardens round the convent of the Minims. The 
 w'aters of die Rhone and the small river F uraut were con- 
 veyed by means of an aqueduct at least two leagues in 
 length, to different pails of the town. k Sixty Gallic nations 
 
 I “ Thizy and D’Atnplepuis are employed in the manufacture of 
 calicoes, and of the cotton stuffs ( cotonnades ) called gai'cts, as well 
 as in the spinning of cotton ; the mixed cloths of linen and cotton call- 
 ed beaujolaises, are made in the village of Cours.” 
 
 b Villefranche. 
 
 c “ — arrondissement” — in which all the preceding towns in the de- 
 partment arc situated. — P. 
 
 II “ Picturesque scenery, embellished by cultivation, surrounds it 
 on every side.” 
 
 c The suburb of St. Ircnce on the right of the Saone, including the 
 hill of Fourviere ; that of Vaize on the same bank of the Saone, higher 
 up the river; that of La Croix Rousse (the Red Cross) on the heights 
 overlooking the north part of the city, between the two rivers; and 
 that of La Guillotiere on the left bank of the Rhone. — P. 
 
 1 “ Ports” — landing places. 
 
 _- 
 
 s “ — rendered it the residence of the governor of Gaul.” — Forty-six 
 years after its foundation, Lyons was considered the metropolis of 
 Gaul. Ed. Encyc. — P. 
 
 h “ The city was destroyed by fire in a single night.” — Inter mag- 
 nam urbem et nullam, nox una interfuit. Seneca, Epist. — P. 
 
 ■ “ L’Antiquaille.” — The hospital, called the Antiquaille, is situated 
 on the declivity of Fourviere. Ed. Encyc. — P. 
 
 k Ancient Lyons was supplied with water by four aqueducts, two 
 of which are confounded in the text. The great aqueduct, some re- 
 mains of which may be seen near the gate of St. Irenee and in other 
 parts of its course, extended for seven leagues, from the stream called 
 Furens, near the town of St. Etienne, to the gates of Lyons. A second 
 .aqueduct, some remains of which appear in the valley of Ecully, 
 conducted the waters of Mont D Or to the hill of Lyons (Fourviere). 
 A subterranean aqueduct conveyed the waters of the Coise and the 
 
book cxlv.1 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 277 
 
 raised at the confluence of the Saone and the Rhone an 
 altar to Augustus, of which the four principal columns have 
 been removed to the altar in the church ol St. Martin d’Ai- 
 nay. But the two rivers meet no longer at the same place ; 
 more than fifty years have elapsed since Perrache the 
 sculptor thought it practicable to divert the course of the 
 Saone, * 1 which now falls into the Rhone below its former 
 confluence ; the ancient channel was thus drained, and it 
 now forms a public walk. b The four Roman roads traced 
 by Agrippa passed through Lyons, one of which extended 
 through Auvergne and Aquitaine to the Pyrenees, another 
 to the Rhine, a third through Picardy to the Ocean, and a 
 fourth through Narbonnese Gaul to the Mediterranean. A 
 rock that was cut by order of Agrippa, still bears the name 
 of Pierre-Scise ; Buchard of Burgundy built on it in the elev- 
 enth century, a formidable castle, which was in later times 
 changed into a state prison. The names of many other 
 places in the towrn and neighbourhood of Lyons are con- 
 nected with ancient associations. In the time of the Romans, 
 Bella Curia was the name of the place, from which the 
 praetor pronounced his decrees ; it is at present the square 
 of Bellecour. 0 The elegant buildings which adorned it, 
 were demolished by a furious conventionalist, but they were 
 raised anew by Napoleon. It forms a regular oblong square, 
 and the fronts of two very large edifices adorned with pilas- 
 ters and surmounted by ballustrades, terminate the two opposite 
 extremities ; it is bordered by rows of lime trees. The hill 
 of Fourviere d formed part of the original enclosure of the 
 city ; on it was situated the Forum Fetus, or according to 
 some antiquaries, the Forum Veneris, that Trajan erected. 
 The hill was called after the forum, and an ancient chapel 
 on it was restored to the catholic worship by Pius the Sev- 
 enth during his short residence in the town in 1805. The 
 square of Terreaux® may recal events of a different nature, 
 events that have left an indelible stain on the page of his- 
 tory ; there Cinq-Mars suffered death for having attempted 
 a change in the administration of his country, or rather for 
 having conspired with some others against the proud and 
 vindictive minister of Louis the Thirteenth ; there too the 
 virtuous president De Thou was beheaded, because he 
 chose to die rather than betray his friend/ 
 
 Lyons is connected with many historical events. When 
 after the death of Pertinax, Albinus and Severus contended 
 for the empire, the town declared for the former, and opened 
 its gates to him after his defeat ; it was consequently levelled 
 
 Brevenne to St.. Irenee ; and a fourth aqueduct extended from Mont- 
 luel along the Rhone and terminated in the hill of St. Sebastian. Ed. 
 Encyc. — P. 
 
 1 “ Conceived the project of turning the course of the principal river” 
 (lejlcuve, the Rhone — the Saone being only a tributary ( riviire .) — P.) 
 
 b “ A public walk (promenade) extends along the former channel.” 
 Before 1772. the Rhone and the Saone joined their waters near Ainay. 
 The sculptor M. Perrache conceived the idea of removing their con- 
 fluence to the village of Mulatiere, and in 1770, he obtained letters 
 patent for the purpose. A company was formed, and a new bed was 
 excavated for the Rhone, which was compelled to take another direc- 
 tion, by a magnificent causeway nearly a mile and three quarters long, 
 planted with Italian poplars and forming a continuation of the quays 
 of Lyons. Ed. Encyc. — The Rhone formed a kind of delta at its junc- 
 tion with the Saone. A canal formerly connected the two rivers at 
 the Place Terreaux, now in the heart of the town, below which point 
 there was formerly a group of islands, which have been artificially 
 united by made ground, and are now covered with houses. — P. 
 
 c Place Belle Cour. d Fourvieres. 
 
 e Place Acs Terreaux — so called from its occupying the site 
 of the canal which connected the two rivers ( terre , land — eau, 
 water.) — P. 
 
 f Not the president De Thou, but his eldest son Francis Aug. De 
 Thou.— P. 
 
 s It was pillaged and partly burnt by Severus in 198, in order to 
 
 with the ground by the victor ;* a hundred and fifty years 
 elapsed before it rose from its ruins. It formed a part of 
 the Burgundian kingdom during the fifth century. It was at 
 one time subject to the kings of France, at another under 
 the power of its archbishops, but it was taken from the latter 
 by Guy, count of Forez/ 1 After many wars between the 
 descendants of die count and the clergy, the latter recovered 
 their authority ; but the town was not therefore more fortu- 
 nate, for the canons of Lyons assumed the title of counts, 
 and the people had to submit to a double tyranny — the arro- 
 gance of the nobility, and the rapacity of the church. Louis 
 the Gross by introducing the municipal system into his do- 
 minions, rendered the sword and mitre less oppressive. It 
 might be shown indeed that the effects of the change were 
 felt at Lyons before the town was added to the monarchy. 
 But during a hundred years after the same period, the arch- 
 bishops continued their depredations, and the people were 
 frequently excited to revolt ; at last St. Louis declared 
 himself the arbiter of the scandalous exactions on the part 
 of the church, and of the resistance which such proceedings 
 rendered lawful on the part of the people ; by the decision 
 of the same prince, Lyons was included within the domin- 
 ions of the crowm. From that epoch the citizens had the 
 right of electing their own magistrates, of controlling their 
 receipts and expenses, and of providing for their own de- 
 fence ; personal liberty was also secured to them ; no citi- 
 zen could be cited in judgment beyond the walls of the 
 town. It was at the general council held at Lyons in 1245, 
 that the cardinals by an order of pope Innocent the Fourth, 
 clothed themselves for the first time in scarlet/ This 
 wealthy city was destroyed in 1793 by the revolutionary 
 army after a siege of sixty-five days, because the inhab- 
 itants attempted to free themselves from popular tyranny. 
 Two deputies of the convention at the head of sixty 
 thousand men could not effect a capitulation until the 
 town had been bombarded, and until the besieged had suf- 
 fered all the horrors of famine. The principal edifices were 
 demolished, and in conformity to a decree, the town was 
 called Fille Jlffrancliie. Cruel mockery, worthy of the 
 period ; the anarchists confounded freedom with the work of 
 destruction ! 
 
 The commercial prosperity of Lyons dates from the reign 
 of Francis the First; the inhabitants learnt from the Geno- 
 ese the art of manufacturing silk. The town contained 
 about forty years ago 180,000 individuals, and there were 
 
 revenge himself on the inhabitants for having given shelter to Albinus, 
 his enemy. In 202, he persecuted the Christians in Lyons with the 
 greatest severity. Irenaeus suffered in the persecution with 19,000 of 
 his fellow Christians, the bones of which are said to be preserved in a 
 vault in the church of St. Irenee. — P. 
 
 h “ By turns subject to the kings of France and its archbishops, it 
 was taken from the latter by Guy, count of Forez.” During the reign 
 of Honorius, it was ceded by Stilicho to the Burgundians, who made it 
 the capital of their kingdom. About the year 532 it came into the 
 possession of the kings of France, who in 955 ceded it to Conrad, king 
 of Burgundy beyond Jura ( Burgundia Transjurana.) On the divis- 
 ion of the kingdom of Burgundy after the death of Rodolph III., the 
 archbishop of Lyons and the counts of Forez long disputed the posses- 
 sion of the city. The latter finally prevailed and retained it until 
 1173, when Guy II. and Guy III. ceded it to the archbishop Guichard 
 and the chapter. Finally, the temporalities of the city were surren- 
 dered to Philip the Fair, who already possessed the sovereignty, by 
 the archbishop Philip of Savoy, (A. D. 1307.) Moreri. — P. 
 
 ' “ It was at the general council held at Lyons in 1245, for the pur- 
 pose of renewing the crusades,* that pope Innocent IV. for the first 
 time invested the cardinals with the purple.” Innocent IV. conferred 
 the red hat on the cardinals, at the council of Lyons 1245, and Paul 
 II. the red garment in 1464. Moreri. — P. 
 
 * The eighth crusade, conducted by St. Louis. 
 
278 EUR< 
 
 not fewer than 18,000 looms, which were annually supplied 
 with 12,000 quintals of raw materials. In consequence of 
 the acts of the convention, the population was greatly di- 
 minished, and in 1802 the number of looms was reduced to 
 seven hundred. When France by colossal strides extended 
 her frontiers from the Tiber to the Elbe, Lyons became 
 again an important manufacturing town ; still, however, the 
 population is not so great as it once was, for with the sub- 
 urbs of Vaise, La Croix Rousse and La Guillotiere, it 
 amounts only to 172,000 persons; but it may be observed 
 that the manufactures have become more extensive than 
 they were even during the period when silks were generally 
 worn. The number of looms at present is equal to nearly 
 twenty thousand ; manual labour has been abridged by im- 
 proved machinery, and the products of each workman are 
 greater. Thus, with a diminished population it manufac- 
 tures more than it did forty years ago, and as the inhabitants 
 consume much more, the revenue has increased in propor- 
 tion ; according to the last accounts, it is not less than 
 3,120,000 francs, or about L. 130,000. 
 
 The Lyonese allow that their town is very dirty, but they 
 insist that some of the edifices are very magnificent ; as if 
 fine buildings were in good keeping with filthy streets. The 
 time in which the cathedral* was founded, has not been as- 
 certained ; it may be admired for the imposing simplicity of 
 the interior, and the richness of the portal. The palace of 
 the archbishop was built in the reign of Louis the Thir- 
 teenth ; in point of size it might serve as a residence for 
 kings. Two fine edifices, namely, the Great Theatre, 
 which reflects the highest credit on the architectural talent of 
 the celebrated Soufflot, and the tow T n-house, which, with a 
 single exception, may be allowed to be the finest in Europe, 
 are situated at no great distance from each other, in the 
 quarter of St. Clair, the most fashionable part of Lyons. 
 Within the chamber of commerce and the arts are the ex- 
 change together with the collections of paintings and anti- 
 quities, 1 ’ an union descriptive of the character of the people, 
 who estimate the arts and sciences only inasmuch as they 
 may be made subservient to trade and industry. The ancient 
 convent of the Trinity has been changed into a royal college ; 
 it contains the most valuable provincial library in France, a 
 library consisting of a hundred and six thousand volumes 
 and eight hundred manuscripts in different languages. 
 
 In Lyons, as well as in other places, the desire of knowl- 
 edge has increased of late years ; it is to be hoped that it 
 may become still more general, and that it may extend to 
 every class of the community. The wealthy by diffusing 
 the blessings of education, have it in their power to confer 
 the greatest benefits on the poorer citizens, and to secure 
 the prosperity of their town, for the concomitants of diffused 
 knowledge are additional industry, improvements of every 
 sort, public tranquillity and public happiness. There are at 
 present five scientific societies in Lyons, namely, the royal 
 academy of sciences, arts and belles lettres, the LinnBean 
 
 DPE. [BOOK CXIiV 
 
 society, the society of agriculture and natural history, and 
 those of medicine and pharmacy. Among the places of 
 education, we may mention the school of rural economy and 
 the veterinary art, that of arts and trades, and that of draw- 
 ing ; c public lectures are besides delivered on natural history, 
 chemistry, geometry and physics. A botanical garden and 
 a royal nursery may be also enumerated among its useful 
 establishments. 
 
 The beneficent institutions attest that in Lyons at least, 
 philanthropy is not an empty sound, a word void of mean- 
 ing. The infirmary d is the best institution of the kind in 
 France. Fourteen hundred children are admitted every 
 year into an hospital, in which four times that number are 
 educated and maintained.® A religious house has been set 
 apart for such as are afflicted with the loss of reason, and in 
 another building the best means are provided for the instruc- 
 tion of the deaf and dumb ; f in addition to these places may 
 be mentioned a savings-bank for the whole department, to- 
 gether with different friendly and benevolent societies. 
 
 The names of tire distinguished men that have been born 
 at Lyons from the earliest times to the present period, might 
 form a long list. Germanicus, Claudius, Marcus Aurelius, 
 Caracalla, Geta, the bishop Sidonius Apollinaris, Peter 
 Valdo the reformer^ Philibert Delorme the architect of the 
 Tuilleries, Coustou and Coysevox the celebrated statuaries, 
 Anthony de Jussieu the botanist, Morellet the political econ- 
 omist, Rozier, a writer on agriculture, Patrin the mineralo- 
 gist, and Marshal Suchet, are the most remarkable persons 
 whose names occur at present to our recollection. 
 
 The minute description which such a city as Lyons re- 
 quires, may be apt to make us forget that there are other 
 places in the neighbourhood. The people of St. Genis- 
 Laval manufacture oil, different colours and banners ; the 
 pictures with which they supply several churches, may with 
 equal accuracy be denominated manufactures . h Arbresle 1 
 is situated at the confluence of the Brevanne k and the Tar- 
 dine ; the town was completely destroyed by inundations in 
 1715, but it was soon afterwards rebuilt; the inhabitants 
 carry on a considerable trade in hemp. 
 
 The course of the Rhone on the east and the south, and 
 that of the Saone on the west, form the limits of the depart- 
 ment 1 which the Ain traverses from north to south. The 
 last river divides it into tw r o regions : the western on the 
 right consists of an undulating plain,™ in which the lands are 
 argillaceous and in many places humid and marshy ; the 
 eastern on the left is covered with heights about 2,600 or 
 3000 feet in elevation," which are attached to the Alps by 
 the chain of Jura. The same country is watered by impet- 
 uous torrents, and intersected by deep rallies, almost all of 
 which extend from north to south. In the first region, agri- 
 culture forms the principal occupation of the inhabitants, and 
 the harvests are sufficient for the consumption ; the only 
 mineral productions are peat and coal. The people in the 
 second cultivate fruitful vallies, rear a great number of sheep 
 
 a The church of St. John. M. B. 
 
 b “ The palace of commerce and the arts, which contains the ex- 
 change and the museum of paintings and antiquities — ” The building 
 of St. Pierre, (formerly the monastery of St. Pierre,) forming the prin- 
 cipal facade of the Place des Terreaux. It contains a school of de- 
 sign, a chemical laboratory, a physical cabinet, the collection of pic- 
 tures, and the museum of antiquities. The various societies also hold 
 their meetings in the same place. Ed. Encyc. — The Academy of Fine 
 Arts — P. 
 
 c The school of design. — P. 
 
 d “ IIotel-Dieu — founded in the reign of Childebert I.” — The present 
 building was erected from the designs of M. Soufflot. — P. 
 
 e “ The hospital of La Charite receives annually 1400 children, and 
 provides for the support and education of four times that number.” 
 f “ An institution for the deaf and dumb, and a religious house for 
 the reception of lunatics.” 
 
 s The leader of the Waldenses — born at the village of Vaux 
 (Vaud) in Dauphiny, on the banks of the Rhone near Lyons; became 
 a wealthy merchant in that city. — P. 
 
 h “ St. Genis-Laval, where they manufacture oil, colours, pictures 
 for churches, and standards ( banniercs .)” 
 
 * L’Arbresle. k Brevenne. 
 
 1 Department of the Ain. 
 
 m “ Plateau” — elevated plain or table-land. 
 
 o “ — mountains, from 700 to 900 toises in elevation.” 
 
book cxlv.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 and horses,* and work iron mines and different quarries, the 
 last of which afford excellent materials for building, and the 
 best lithographic stones in France. 
 
 Few towns of any importance are situated in the depart- 
 ment. Trevoux, built like an amphitheatre on the left bank 
 of the Saone, is the capital of a district, 1 * in which the prin- 
 cipal places are Montluel, a town of three thousand eight 
 hundred inhabitants, many of whom are employed in manu- 
 facturing cloth, and Thoissy,® the birthplace of die celebrated 
 anatomist Bichat. The small but neat town of Pont de 
 Vaux on the banks of the Ressouse, communicates with the 
 Saone by means of a canal ; the inhabitants have erected a 
 fountain in the form of a pyramid to the memory of General 
 Joubert, dieir townsman. Bourg en Bresse, so called from 
 the name of the ancient province of which it was the capital, 
 is at present the chief town in the department. It rises on 
 the site of Tanus, which was founded about die end ol the 
 fourth century ; d it is well built, watered by fountains, and 
 embellished with agreeable walks on the Ressouse and the 
 Veyle f its commerce might be greatly improved if it were 
 within reach of navigable rivers. It has given birth to two 
 distinguished men, namely, Vaugelas the grammarian, and 
 the astronomer Lalande. 
 
 The territory between die Rhone and the Ain, constituting 
 the districts 1- of Belley and Nantua, was formerly called 
 Bugey, a country connected with ancient recollections, and 
 abounding in picturesque sites. Polybius was of opinion 
 that this small region might be termed the Celtic Delta, a 
 name to which it is still entitled from its triangular form. 
 Belley, s die capital, existed at the time that Brennus under- 
 took his expedition against Rome, and was destroyed by the 
 people, who fled at the approach of the fierce Gaul ; it did 
 not become again a place of importance until after the coun- 
 try was conquered by the Romans. The ancient names of 
 Belley were Bellitium, Bellicum and Bellica . h Alaric burnt 
 it in the year 390 ; twenty years afterwards it was rebuilt 
 and enlarged by his nephew Wibert. 1 It was destroyed a 
 second time by fire in 1385; but Amadeus the Seventh, 
 count of Savoy, again rebuilt it and encompassed it with 
 walls. The small village of Frebuge near Nantua, is the 
 Forum Sebusianum , once the principal city of the Sebusiani, 
 which has been erroneously confounded by some authors 
 with Bourg en Bresse. Nantua derives its name from the 
 JVantuates ; it is situated in a narrow valley bounded by 
 steep rocks, near a small lake shaded with trees ; the banks 
 of the latter form an agreeable walk, and the waters abound 
 in excellent trout ; the inhabitants manufacture linen and 
 paper. k Oyonnax, 1 a burgh at no great distance from Nan- 
 tua, contains fifteen hundred inhabitants ; they carry on a 
 
 OF FRANCE. 279 
 
 trade in the same kind of goods." 1 An author who has 
 favoured the world with his etymological researches on 
 Bugey," maintains that Oyonnax was founded by the Rho- 
 dians three centuries before the vulgar era. The people 
 who inhabited the country of Gex, having encouraged the 
 invasion of Gaul by their neighbours the Helvetii, Caesar, 
 after he had subdued the invaders, united the territory 
 of Gex to that of the Sebusiani. The town of Gex is 
 ill built and difficult of access ; a terrace that rises above the 
 principal street commands an admirable view of the lake of 
 Geneva, and of the mountains of Savoy grouped round the 
 majestic Mont-Blanc. From the same terrace may be seen 
 F ernex or F emey in an agreeable valley ; it was only a 
 hamlet of fifty inhabitants when Voltaire made it the place 
 of his residence, but that great man introduced there a 
 new branch of industry, and at the time of his death, Fer- 
 ney contained more than eight hundred watchmakers ; their 
 number at present does not exceed a thousand. 0 
 
 The department of the Saone and Loire is separated 
 from the last department by the Saone. Fruitful in corn 
 and wine, and in other agricultural products, abounding in 
 coal, lead, iron and manganese, intersected by roads, canals 
 and navigable rivers, and peopled by industrious inhabitants, 
 it may be reckoned among the wealthiest departments in 
 France. Macon , p the capital, is situated on the right bank 
 of the Saone, and on the frontier of the department. The 
 position may be favourable for the trade in wine, but a 
 worse one could not be selected for the seat of the principal 
 authorities. The town was called Matisco by Caesar, who 
 strengthened it with fortifications, and rendered it a depot 
 for military supplies.’ Several ancient ruins are contained 
 in it, and an old bridge which still remains, is supposed to 
 have been erected by the Roman general. The houses are 
 by no means elegant, and the streets are narrow and ill 
 paved, but the quays are broad and well built. The san- 
 guinary St. Point, who flourished in the sixteenth century, 
 and rendered himself infamous during the religious wars by 
 the atrocities that were then termed the Sauteries of Macon, 
 w y as a native of the town. 1- The fine cathedral w r as destroy- 
 ed by the revolutionists, but they spared the former episco- 
 pal palace. 3 The village of Romaneche contains two thou- 
 sand inhabitants, and the country in the neighbourhood is 
 famous for its wines. 1 Cluny," a town of four thousand 
 souls, and a place of considerable trade, 1 was formerly cele- 
 brated on account of a magnificent abbey belonging to the 
 Benedictines. The convent has been changed into a college, 
 and it contains besides other useful institutions. y The town 
 was the birthplace of Prudhon the painter. Greuze, not 
 less celebrated as a painter, was born at Tournus ; the mon- 
 
 1 “ —rear oxen, sheep and horses.” 
 
 b “ Arrondissement.” c Thoissey. 
 
 d “ It is known to have existed about the end of the fourth century, 
 when it was called Tanus” ( Tanum , Moreri — Tumnum, Vosgien.) 
 Bourg is mentioned in the legend of St. Gerard, bishop of Macon, 
 who lived in 900. Moreri. — P. 
 
 e “ — embellished with promenades, and agreeably situated on the 
 Ressouse and near the Veyle.” 
 
 f “ Arrondissements.” s Beley, Bellay. 
 
 b Bclica, Rees’ Cyc. 
 
 ' “ Wibert, his nephew, rebuilt it in 412.” 
 
 k “ It contains spinning mills (filatures*), and manufactories of horn 
 combs and paper.” It is the principal manufacturing town in the de- 
 partment. (Peuchet.) — P. 
 
 * Filatures for cotton and silk (Vosgien.) 
 
 1 Oyonnaz — three leagues N. W. of Nantua (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 m “ It is equally noted for its combs.” 
 
 n M. P- Bacon, Recherches sur les origines Celtiques du Bugey, 
 tome i. 
 
 ■> “ It contains at present 200 at the farthest (deux cents au plus.)” 
 
 The translator probably supposed that the last phrase meant two hun 
 dred more ! — Population ofFerney 720 (Alman. Royal. 1822.) — P. 
 
 p French orthography, Macon ; formerly. Mascon. The name of the 
 town exhibits a fair example of the transition from ancient to modern 
 names. Lat. Matisco, by inversion Mastico, abl. Masticone, whence 
 Masticon, Mastcon, Mascon, Macon. — P. 
 
 a “ — qu’il rendit importante par ses approvisionnemens militaires” 
 — rendered it important for victualling his army. — Q. Tullium Cice- 
 ronem, et P. Sulpicium, Cabiloni et Matiscone in iEduis ad Ararim, 
 rei frumentariae causa, collocat. Csesar. Commentar. Lib. VII. § 83. 
 This is all the mention made of it by Ca?sar. — P. 
 
 r “ In the 10th century, it had its Carrier in St. Point, who rendered 
 himself infamous during the religious wars, by the atrocities called 
 Sauteries de Mticon (Macon leaps.)” 
 
 3 The bishopric of Macon has been suppressed. — P. 
 
 1 “ The wines of Moulin b. Vent and of Torrins are produced in its 
 neighbourhood.” 
 u Cluni. 
 
 x “ — a wealthy manufacturing town.” 
 
 y “ The convent contains a college and other useful establishments. ’ 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 280 
 
 ument which has been raised to his memory, is certainly 
 the greatest, perhaps the only ornament that can be found 
 in the town. a The population amounts to five thousand 
 individuals ; the principal manufactures are hats and cov- 
 erlets. 
 
 Charolles was formerly the chief town in the small prov- 
 ince of Charollais ; b it is at present the capital of a district 0 
 which possesses several manufactories and five or six iron 
 works. Bourbon-Lancy contains two thousand five hun- 
 dred individuals ; it is still frequented on account of its min- 
 eral waters ; the baths were constructed by the Romans : d 
 the town hears the name of Aqucc, JMisinei* in the Theodo- 
 sian table. It is unnecessary to go out of the road to ex- 
 amine Louhans f on the left hank of the Seille, for it consists 
 only of some old houses that project into the streets.? Cha- 
 lons sur Saone h rivals Macon in commerce and industry.* 
 An old bridge that leads to the suburbs' * 1 may recal an act 
 of cruelty committed by Lothaire ; that prince in order to 
 satisfy the hatred he bore the sons of the count of Toulouse, 
 ordered their sister, the fair and virtuous Gerberge, to be 
 dragged at a horse’s tail 1 along the bridge, and afterwards to 
 be put into a cask, and thrown into the Saone. The town 
 is well built, a fine quay has been constructed along the 
 river, and a lofty obelisk serves to adorn a public walk. 
 Chalons was an important military station in the time of 
 Caesar, by whom it is called Cabinolum , m but as Danville 
 remarks, there are few places in France, of which the an- 
 cient name has been written in so many different ways." 
 Denon was a native of Chalons. 
 
 The small town of Montcenis rises on a hill between two 
 mountains at some distance to the west of the Central Ca- 
 nal ;° coal and iron mines are worked in the neighbourhood. 
 The burgh of Creusot is a place of considerable trade ; it 
 exports glass and crystal to most parts of F ranee ; it has its 
 cannon founderies and iron works.P Autun rises at the con- 
 fluence of the Arroux and the Creusevaux ; it was the Bi- 
 bracte of the JEdui , but it received the name of Augusto- 
 dunum during the empire. Triumphal arches, the ruins of 
 temples and amphitheatres, and the extent of the old walls, 
 attest that it was much larger and without doubt much more 
 populous in ancient times than at present. It stands on an 
 
 a “ The only remarkable construction in his native town ” 
 
 b Charolais, Charolois. c “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 d The great bath, surrounded with circular walls, and paved with 
 marble, is a work of the Romans. (Encyc. Meth.) — It contains a large 
 edifice paved with marble, called the Great Bath — a work of the Ro- 
 mans. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 e Aquce JYisineii, D’Anv. — Aqua JVisinca, Encyc. Meth. Geog. 
 Anc. — P. 
 
 r Louans, Loans. 
 
 e “ — which still contains some old houses (de meilles maisons) that 
 project into the streets.” — One may pass under cover through the 
 whole town, owing to the projection of the second story in all the 
 houses. Encyc. Meth. — P. 
 
 b Chalon sur Saone. 
 
 > “ — and population.” — Population of Chalons 10,609 — of Macon 
 10,965. (Statistical Tables.) 
 
 k “ The bridge that crosses the river.” — St. Laurent les Chalons, a 
 suburb of Chalons, is situated on an island in the Saone, opposite the 
 town, with which it is connected by a bridge that crosses the two arms 
 of the river. Before the revolution, it was considered a separate mu- 
 nicipality. (Encyc. Meth. Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 1 “ — by the hair ( per les cheveux.)" 
 
 m This is probably a mistake. The word is twice used in Ceesar’s 
 Commentaries (Lib. VII. § 40, cx oppido Cabillono ; § 83, Cabiloni ct 
 Matisconc,) in which it is written Cabillonum and Cabilonum in several 
 different copies referred to, including the Elzevir edition 1635, ex 
 emendations Jos. Scaligeri. It is written Cabillonum in D’Anville, 
 Moreri, Encyc. Meth. (Geog. Anc.) and Vosgien. The translator has 
 altered the original to Cabinolinum. — P. 
 
 " Ptolemy calls it Cabidlinum ; Strabo, Cabyllinum ; and Ammianus 
 Marcellinus, Cubillo in the Itinerary of Autonine, it is called Cabel- 
 
 | BOOK CXLV. 
 
 eminence above an ancient Campus Martius, which has 
 been transformed into a fine walk shaded with trees.'! 
 
 The nature of the country has pointed out two different 
 occupations to the people in the department of the Cote 
 d’Or ; r the one consists in cultivating the ground, and the 
 other in working metals. 9 With more roads than the average 
 number in other departments, it is comparatively thinly peo- 
 pled ; but it may be urged that the occupations in which the 
 inhabitants are engaged do not require so many bands as 
 other branches of industry. If the vineyards be excepted, 
 the country is not well cultivated ; under better manage- 
 ment, a number of oxen and sheep sufficient for the con- 
 sumption might easily be reared. 1 The course of the Ouche 
 divides the department into two distinct regions ; the one on 
 the south, through which the small chain of the Cote d’Or 
 extends, is admirably adapted for the culture of the vine, 
 while the one on the north, which includes part of the pla- 
 teau of Langres, may be styled the region of iron, where 
 Vulcan seems to reign. 
 
 To judge of the richness of the southern region, it is only 
 necessary to travel the road which leads from Chalons sur 
 Saone to Beaune and Dijon. The burgh of Nolay, situated 
 not far from Beaune, and the birthplace of the celebrated 
 Carnot, is encompassed with the vineyards of Mont-Rachet. u 
 The different growths of Meursault rival each other, while 
 Pornard and Yolnay* are equally famous for their light 
 wines. The vineyards of Richebourg, Romanee and Clos- 
 Vougeot>' encircle the small but picturesque town of Nuits. 
 Beaune is situated in the middle of the same rich country, 
 and its successive embellishments may be attributed to an 
 improving trade. The most remarkable edifice in the town, 
 is the hospital founded in 1443 by Rollin, chancellor to 
 Philip, duke of Burgundy. 2 * * * * * * It is well known that the same 
 chancellor imposed very heavy taxes on the people ; “ as 
 he has reduced many to poverty,” said Louis the Eleventh, 
 “ he is right to build a house for them.”*® Monge, the phi- 
 losopher, and one of the founders of the Polytechnic school, 
 is one of the few great men that Beaune has produced. 
 The vineyards in the adjoining territory extend on die right 
 of the Saone to the small town of Jean de Losne, bb a place 
 of sixteen hundred inhabitants, and one diat holds no mean 
 
 lio ; in the Imperial Tables,* Caballodunum ; and in the Table of Peu- 
 tinger, Cabilio. 
 
 * “ Notice de l’Empire” ( Notitia Imperii.) ' 
 
 0 Canal of the Centre ( canal du Centre.) 
 
 p “ Creusot contains forges and iron works ( usines ,) founderies for 
 cannon and bullets, and the celebrated royal manufactory of crystals” 
 (crystal glass.) 
 
 "t “ It is situated on an eminence, and its Champ de Mars, which is 
 planted with several rows of trees, commands a magnificent prospect.” 
 — The Champ St. Lazare is the largest square in Autun. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 r So called from the Cote d’Or, a chain of lotv mountains or hills, 
 extending from Dijon, by Nuits, Beaune and Chalons, to Macon, 
 which derives its name from the excellence of the wines it pro- 
 duces. — P. 
 
 s “ — travaux des usines” (iron works.) There are iron mines and 
 numerous forges in the department (Peuchet. Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 1 “ It does not rear a sufficient number of oxen and particularly of 
 sheep for the consumption of the inhabitants.” 
 
 “ Montrachct. 1 Vollenay. 
 
 y La Romande — Le Clos de Vougeot (the enclosure of Vougeot — 
 Voujault or Vougeot, a village near the source of the Vouge,one league 
 from Nuits. Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 1 Nicholas Rolin, born 1419, died 1461. Beauvais. — P. 
 
 “ “ Louis XI. said of him, that he had made so many poor by his 
 
 exactions, that it was just he should build them a house.” A similar 
 
 repartee is related of Francis I. Cardinal Duprat had ordered an 
 
 addition to the Hotel Dieu at Paris, called the Legate’s Hall, to bo 
 
 erected at his own expense. “ It will be large enough,” said the king, 
 
 “ if it wall hold all the poor he has made.” — P. 
 
 bb St. Jean de Losne — Lone — Laune. (Lat. Fanum Sancti Johannis 
 
 de LotlonA.) — P. 
 
book cxlv .] DESCRIPTION 
 
 celebrity in the militnVy annals of France. It was besieged 
 in the year 1630 by the grand duke Galeas* * * at the head 
 of sixty thousand men ; it was defended by eight pieces of 
 cannon, fifty soldiers 1 * and four hundred inhabitants, de- 
 termiued to die rather than to surrender; among the latter 
 were Peter Desgranges and Peter Lapre, two magistrates 
 whose admirable example was imitated by the citizens. 
 The town supported two assaults, during which the women 
 fought at the side of their brothers and husbands. A fall of 
 rain that lasted twelve hours, afforded die besieged some 
 respite from continued labour ; in that interval they resolved 
 to spring their houses and to perish in the ruins ; but on the 
 ninth day the imperial army, daunted by their heroic efforts, 
 raised the siege. 0 A few hours afterwards, a body of 
 French troops came to the assistance of the town. Louis 
 the Thirteenth offered titles of nobility as a reward for so 
 great heroism, but the inhabitants had the spirit and good 
 sense to refuse them. 
 
 The vineyards in the neighbourhood of Beaune meet 
 others near Dijon ; the different growths of Brochon, Che- 
 nove, Beze and Chamberlin near Gevrav, d are so well 
 known that the reader may form somo notion of these vil- 
 lages from the commercial importance of their products. 
 Dijon stands in the middle of a pleasant and fruitful plain, 
 terminated by verdant hills. The streets are broad and 
 straight, and the houses are large and well built ; the Ouche 
 and the Suzon meet in the town,® and the ramparts that sur- 
 round it, are shaded by lofty trees. A Gothic castle built 
 by Louis the Eleventh, and flanked with massive towers, is 
 all that remains of the ancient fortifications. The front of 
 the ancient palace that belonged to the dukes of Burgundy, 
 adorns the Royal square/ the finest of the fifteen squares in 
 Dijon. In the same edifice are contained a library of forty 
 thousand volumes, together with valuable collections of paint- 
 ings, statues, antiquities and natural history ;s the old tower that 
 surmounts it, serves as an observatory. The cathedral is a 
 Gothic building, of which the boldness cannot be too much 
 admired ; the portal of St. Michael may be mentioned as a 
 specimen of finished workmanship ; while the church of St. 
 Benigne is surmounted ' by a steeple/ three hundred and 
 seventy-five feet in height. The park, a public walk, com- 
 municates with the town by a road or avenue formed by 
 four rows of trees. Science and literature have been long- 
 cultivated and honoured at Dijon : in proof of this assertion, 
 it is hardly necessary to mention the college, the schools of 
 philosophy, law and medicine , 1 or the names of Bossuet, 
 Crebillon, Piron, Freret, Rameau, Saumaise, Daubenton 
 
 a Matthias Gallas (Galas or Galasso,) field-marshal in the imperial 
 service. — P. 
 
 k 150 soldiers (Encyc. Meth.) — 100 soldiers (Vosgien.) — P. 
 c “ A rain of twelve hours’ duration, which discouraged the besieg- 
 ers, and the determined resolution of the inhabitants to blow up their 
 houses and perish in their ruins, at last induced the imperial army, 
 after nine days of unheard of efforts on the part of the besieged, to 
 abandon their enterprise and retire.” 
 
 11 “ The different vineyards ( clos , enclosures) of Brochon, that of the 
 king ( du. Roi) at Chenove, and those of Beze* and Chainbertin, near 
 Gevrayt — ” 
 
 * Baise. t Gevrey. 
 
 ' It is situated between the rivers Ouche and Suzon, the first of 
 which rises to the south of the town, while the latter flows past it on 
 the north. Ed. Encyc. — P. f Place Royale. 
 
 s “ — a museum of paintings, sculpture, antiquities and natural his- 
 tory” — The Museum of Dijon. — P. 
 
 i> “ — by a pyramidal spire” — The spire — has only a small diameter, 
 but it rises to the height of 375 feet. Ed. Encyc. — P. 
 
 i “The college, the faculty of sciences, the schools of law, medi- 
 cine and the fine arts, the agricultural society, and the academy of 
 sciences and letters.” — In the organization of public instruction, Di- 
 YOL. III.— NO. 51 36 
 
 GF FRANCE. 281 
 
 and Gnyton-Morvean. k Dijon was founded before the Ro- 
 man conquest; it was then called Dibio ; Marcus Aurelius 
 was the first wdio encompassed it with walls and thirty-three 
 towers. Gregory of Tours informs us that the emperor 
 Aurelian adorned it with temples, and rendered it an impor- 
 tant fortress ; much about the same period, it was known by 
 the name of Divio. 
 
 If there are other important places in the same depart- 
 ment, it may be attributed not to vineyards and wine presses, 
 but to forests, forges and iron works. The town of Aux- 
 onne consists of well built streets, and is surrounded by 
 ramparts forming pleasant walks ; it has a fine bridge across 
 the Saone, bounded on one side by a stone embankment 
 two thousand four hundred yards in length, a work which 
 was completed in the year 1505 to defend the town against 
 the inundations of the river ; l m it contains besides an arsenal 
 and a royal foundery. F ontaine-F ranqaise, a populous and 
 wealthy burgh, may be mentioned on account of a monu- 
 ment which was erected to commemorate the victory that 
 Henry the Fourth gained over the duke of Mayenne and 
 the Spanish troops ; it possesses several furnaces, and ex- 
 ports wheels for machinery. 11 
 
 Saulieu, a town of three thousand inhabitants, and the 
 birthplace of the celebrated Vauban, is situated on the west 
 of the canal of Burgundy ; it carries on a considerable trade 
 in fire-wood and in timber. The Armancon flows below the 
 neat and small town of Semur en Auxois, which is built on 
 the summit of a granite rock. Montbard, 0 a town of 2000 
 inhabitants, rises like an amphitheatre above the canal of 
 Burgundy ; it is commanded by the castle where Buffon 
 was born ; the forges and furnaces that were erected by the 
 great naturalist may be seen in the neighbourhood. There 
 are not many iron works in the district 11 of Semur, but there 
 are more than thirty in that of Chatillon sur Seine. The 
 town from which the last district? takes its name, was an 
 important stronghold during the twelfth century ; it was the 
 scene in 1814 of (he fruitless negociations between Napoleon y 
 and the allied powers. Different articles are now manufac- 
 tured within its ancient castle. i 
 
 The department watered by the Yonne r is less populous 
 than the last, but it produces more grain 3 than the inhabit- 
 ants consume. The woods and forests cover a great ex- 
 tent of surface ; the vineyards are not only valuable from 
 the quality of their produce, but they yield nearly twice as 
 much wine as those of the Cote d’Or. Agriculture, how- 
 ever, has not attained the requisite degree of perfection, for 
 in proportion to the surface, fewer oxen and sheep are reared 
 
 jon has an academy, faculties of law, sciences and letters, and a royal 
 college. (Alrnan. Royal. 1822.) — P. 
 
 k Freret was born in Paris, Daubenton at Montbard, and the cele- 
 brated Claude de Saumaise ( Salmasius ) at Semur en Auxois. Pure 
 Sauinaise, a relation of the preceding, and one of the fathers of the 
 Oratory, was born in Dijon. — P. 
 
 1 It was built by order of Margaret of Bavaria, duchess of Bur 
 gundy. 
 
 m “ — a fine bridge over the Saone, terminated by a levee in masonry, 
 2400 paces long, constructed in 1505 against the inundations of the 
 river.” — The stone causeway ( levie de pierre ), at the end of the bridge, 
 is 2350 paces long, and was constructed in 1505, by order of 
 Margaret of Bavaria, duchess of Burgundy. It has twenty-three 
 arched openings ( arcades ) to allow free passage to the watcis of the 
 river during inundations. Encyc. Method.— It is in fact a raised road 
 leading from the bridge across the low lands bordering the Saone. — P 
 n “ It possesses a furnace, which is employed in casting wheels for 
 machinery.” 
 
 0 Montbar. p “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 q “ Its castle contains several manufacturing establishments (itu, 
 blissemens d'industrie.)" 
 
 r Department of the Yonne. * “ Wheat and oats ” 
 
282 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [EOOK CXLY. 
 
 than in the rest of France; indeed if it were not for the 
 number of roads and navigable rivers, which enable the 
 inhabitants to carry on their commerce, it would be one of 
 the poorest departments in the kingdom, notwithstanding its 
 
 In a district* situated on the right of the road that passes 
 through the principal towns in the department, are united the 
 romantic beauties of Switzerland, and the fertility which 
 characterizes the vineyards of Burgundy. Avallon, b the 
 chief town in the district,* is mentioned by the name of 
 Aballo, in the Itinerary of Antonine, and as an important 
 fortress, in the capitularies of the French kings. It is known, 
 however, that it was besieged and taken in the year 931 by 
 Emma, the wife of king Raoul. Seventy-four years after- 
 wards, king Robert, coveting the fair country of Burgundy, 
 made himself master of the town ; but no sooner had his 
 son Henry the First ascended the throne, than it was taken 
 from him by his brother Robert who retained it with the 
 title of duke. c The houses are well built, and the situation 
 is very romantic ; the walk called the Petit Coursf owes 
 its chief charm to its position above the steep banks of the 
 Cousin, a small river that winds through a deep and seques- 
 tered valley, partly enclosed by precipitous rocks, towering 
 above verdant woods or gardens that seem to hang in the 
 air ; in another direction the same valley leads to fruitful 
 fields and extensive forests. e 
 
 The town of Vermanton contains about three thousand 
 inhabitants ; it carries on a trade in wine and timber ; on the 
 road that leads to it, and at no great distance above the vil- 
 lage of Arcy sur Cure, are situated the extensive grottos 
 which were formerly considered the greatest natural curios- 
 ities in the province. They consist of a great many halls 
 that communicate with each other by narrow passages, so 
 low in some places that it is necessary to stoop f in order to 
 pass through them ; one of them encloses a small lake of 
 which the depth has never been measured. All of them 
 ^ are lined with stalactites, which have the appearance of fes- 
 toons, immovable cascades, organs or colonnades, and which 
 
 when lightly struck emit sounds that are several times re- 
 echoed with different modulations. Beyond the confluence 
 of the Cure and the Yonne, and on the left of the last river, 
 may be seen the hills, which have given to Coulanges the 
 surname of la VineuscA Chablis, a town of two thousand 
 five hundred inhabitants, and famous for its white wines, is 
 situated on the right, near the Seray : in the vicinity are 
 the remains of a Roman way which led from Langres to 
 Auxerre. 
 
 The vineyards of Ligny le Chatel, Seignelay, Toucy, and 
 other places equally celebrated in the country, surround the 
 former capital of Auxerrois ; h it might be difficult to deter- 
 mine its ancient name with scrupulous accuracy, but anti- 
 quaries may choose between Altissiodornm, Autissiodorum 
 and Autissiodorum. 1 It is certain, however, that the Ro- 
 mans made it the chief town of a Pagus by rendering it 
 independent of Senones. k Some wealthy wine merchants 
 who have become collectors of antiquities, possess medals 
 and coins which were found in the town, and which prove 
 that money was once struck there. It was desolated at dif- 
 ferent times by the Huns, the Normans, the Saracens and 
 the English, and it was more than once pillaged during the 
 religious wars in the sixteenth century but the courageous 
 resistance of one man preserved it from the crimes and hor- 
 rors of St. Bartholomew. The inhabitants of Auxerre had 
 been included in the proscribed lists which preceded the 
 massacre ; a magistrate, afterwards president Jeannin, whom 
 historians call the most virtuous minister of Henry the Fourth, 
 had the glory of saving his native city. Amyot holds the 
 first rank among the learned men that were born in Auxerre ; m 
 it has also given birth to John Duval, an able antiquary, to 
 Royer de Pilles, the author of the lives of the painters,” to 
 the Abbe Leboeuf, who has left many valuable writings 
 concerning the history of Paris, 0 to St. Palaye, known by 
 bis memoirs of chivalry ,p to Retif de la Bretonne, whose 
 familiar style is well adapted for the task he undertook — a 
 faithful picture of the burgesses and manners of his day,'! 
 and lastly, to Sedaine, a dramatic writer of an inferior 
 
 1 Arrondissement. b Avalon. 
 
 c Robert, king of France, nephew of Eudes the last duke of Bur- 
 gundy of the first race, who died without children in 1001, took pos- 
 session of the dutchy as his heir, and gave it as an appanage to Robert 
 his third son, first of the dukes of Burgundy of the second race. Rob- 
 ert, king of France, died in 1031, and was succeeded by Henry I. his 
 second son. (Moreri.)— King Robert made himself master of Avallon, 
 after three months’siegc, in 1005 ; his son Robert, afterwards duke of 
 Burgundy, took it in 1031, and kept it with the dutchy. (Encyc. 
 Meth.)— P. 
 
 <t Little Corso. 
 
 e “ — a small river that winds through a valley a hundred feet in 
 depth, bordered by precipitous declivities, along which pointed rocks 
 rise amidst verdant thickets, and above which gardens seem suspended 
 in the air. The view along this narrow valley is at last terminated by 
 fertile fields and extensive forests.” 
 
 f “ To crawl on the hands and knees (d plat ventre.)” 
 s Colanges or Coulanges les Vineuses ( Colonies Vinosee,) so called 
 from the excellent wine produced on the adjoining hills. Encyc. 
 Meth. — P. 
 b Auxerre. 
 
 ‘ Ancient names of the town, according to different antiquaries and 
 the Itinerary of Antonine. M. B. — Autissiodureim, D'Anv. — Altissiodo- 
 rum, Autissiodorum ; according to the Table of Peutinger, Antessiodo- 
 rum ; and according to the Itinerary of Antonine, Antisiodorvm. 
 Encyc. Meth. art. Auxerre. — No less than thirteen Latin names of 
 the town are enumerated by Moreri. — P. 
 
 k “ — by detaching it from the territory of the Senones (cite des Se- 
 nones ” — riritas Senonnm .) The Roman provinces consisted of states 
 (ciritates,) which were subdivided into pagi. (Omnis civitas Helvetia 
 in quatuor pagos divisa est. Caesar. Comment. Lib. I. § 10.) — P. 
 
 1 “ It was disturbed (trouble) during the religious wars of the 16th 
 century.” The Huguenots pillaged it in 15C7. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 m “ It owed to the courageous resistance of president Jeannin its 
 deliverance from the horrible massacre of St. Bartholomew : that 
 magistrate, who became one of the worthiest ministers of Henry IV., 
 could not forget during that horrible proscription, his own native 
 place, and the town that gave birth to Amyot.” This sentence, pretty 
 closely rendered from the original, is not very definite, but appears to 
 contain some historical inaccuracies. The president Jeannin, then a 
 simple advocate in the parliament of Dijon, but chosen by the states 
 of Burgundy to manage the affairs of the province, resisted the execu- 
 tion of the orders for the massacre of St. Bartholomew, at Dijon, not at 
 Auxerre. He was a native of Autun, where he was born in 1540 
 Amyot was a native of Melun, but was appointed bishop of Auxerre, 
 where he died in 1593. Moreri. Beauvais. Diet. Hist. Caen, 1804. 
 Encyc. Meth. Geog. Mod.— P. 
 
 " “ — auteur dc In Vie des peintres ” — Roger de Piles, born at Clam- 
 eci, 1035 ; author of several works on painting, among others, of 
 a compendium of the lives of the painters (Abrigi de la Vie des Pein- 
 tres.) Beauvais. Diet. Hist — P. 
 
 ° “ — author of many writings on the history of the environs of Par- 
 is.” — Jean Le Beuf, born at Auxerre, 1687. The listof his writings, all 
 on different subjects of French history, amounts to not less than 173. 
 Among them are, Dissertations on the ecclesiastical and civil history 
 of Paris, 3 vols. 12mo., and a History of the city and diocese of Paris, 
 15 vols. 12mo. — P. 
 
 p J. B. de la Curne de Sainte Palaye, author of a work on the in- 
 stitution and early state of chivalry (Memoires sur l’Ancienne Che- 
 valerie.) — P. 
 
 a “ Retif de la Bretonne, an author whose trivial style paints with 
 much fidelity the manners of the lower class of citizens (la petite bour- 
 geoisie) during the period in which he wrote — ” Restif de la Bre- 
 tonne, born at the village of Sacy in Burgundy, 1734 — died at Paris, 
 1806 — author of numerous works of a light and indelicate character, 
 and at one time the would-be rival of Rousseau. Beauvais. — P. 
 
book cslv.] DESCRIPT10 
 
 order, but one who understood at least what has been since 
 termed stage-effect.** There are many well-built houses in 
 Auxerre, but the cathedral is the only edifice which attracts 
 attention ; it is adorned with a magnificent portal and finely 
 painted windows. The marshal of Chastelux, b after having 
 taken Cravant from the English, restored it in 1423 to the 
 chapter of Auxerre ; for this service the chapter granted a 
 canonry in perpetuity to the eldest sons of the Chastelux 
 family. They took possession of it in boots and spurs, armed 
 with a sword, and covered with a surplice, bearing the 
 canonical amice on the left arm, with a hawk perched on 
 the fist, and holding a hat with feathers in the right hand. 
 It happened in the year 1683 that one of the descendants of 
 the family appeared in this singular costume in the cathedral 
 before Louis the Fourteenth and his court, when some of 
 the young nobles could not refrain from smiling ; the king 
 reproved them by asking if they would not wish to have 
 such a proof of an ancestor’s valour. 0 
 
 Joigny was founded about the year 1000; it must have 
 been a wealthy and commercial town less than three hun- 
 dred years afterwards, for the inhabitants paid a very large 
 sum of money during the thirteenth century to free them- 
 selves from the authority of their counts ; it rises like an 
 amphitheatre above the banks of the Yonne, and is com- 
 manded by an old castle. 
 
 Sens is situated on the right bank of the Yonne ; the 
 ramparts may be seen from a great distance ; there is rea- 
 son to believe that they were founded before the time' 1 that 
 Julian maintained in Agedincum or Senones, a successful 
 siege against the Germans. The same town became the 
 capital of the Fourth Lyonnaise during the reign ofValens; 
 it rose afterwards to greater importance, for Theodosius 
 the Great made it the seat of an archiepiscopal see, of 
 which the prelates styled themselves primates of Gaul and 
 Germany ; but the archbishop of Lyons claimed the first 
 part of their pompous title. As the population of Sens 
 has been long almost stationary, it may be inferred that 
 industry has made little progress. In the year 1788, the 
 number of inhabitants amounted to 7000; at present it 
 does not exceed 9000.® Several councils have met at 
 Sens, of which the most celebrated is the one which was 
 held about the beginning of the year 1140; it was there 
 that St. Bernard, influenced by personal hatred, brought 
 about the condemnation of Abeilard, but that celebrated 
 theologian, not supposing his tenets damnable, appealed to 
 the pope. The cathedral has an imposing effect; it occu- 
 pies the centre of the finest square in the town. The mau- 
 soleum of the Dauphiness and of the Dauphin, father of 
 Louis the Sixteenth, Louis the Eighteenth, and Charles 
 the Tenth, has been restored since the return of the 
 
 ►N OF FRANCE. 283 
 
 Bourbon family ; it consists of many allegorical figures, 
 the work of Coustou the sculptor. A basso-relievo behind 
 the choir, represents the martyrdom of St. Savinian, the 
 first bishop of Sens. The painted windows attest the ge- 
 nius of John Cousin, one of the earliest French painters 
 and a native of Soucy, a village in the neighbourhood. 
 There are not more than six thousand volumes in the pub- 
 lic library ; one of the manuscripts, which has been remov- 
 ed to the town-house, is a folio containing the Officio, Stid- 
 torum, as they were formerly celebrated in the cathedral 
 of Sens/ and also a poetical panegyric of the Ass,® which 
 used to be repeated or chaunted in some of the churches. 
 The binding of the manuscript is studded with ivory figures 
 representing different subjects connected with the sacred 
 bacchanals of an ignorant and corrupt age, which some 
 have been pleased to style the good old time. 
 
 The festival of fools held the first rank among those in 
 which sacred, profane and obscene exhibitions were united. 
 It was celebrated about the beginning of the year, in some 
 places on the day of the Circumcision/ and in others on the 
 day of the Innocents.* Priests, deacons and choristers elect- 
 ed a bishop or pope for the occasion, who appeared with the 
 pontifical robes and the mitre, followed by a number of ec- 
 clesiastics, clad as kings, princes and dukes ; there were be- 
 sides many individuals in various disguises, some as women, 
 and others as different animals, or representing Bacchus, sa- 
 tyrs and heathen divinities. To this motley group his holiness 
 pronounced the benediction ; the priests then danced round 
 the choir, assisted in leading an ass covered with a mag- 
 nificent cope, sung the eulogy of the same animal, and ob- 
 scene songs, to which all the people brayed by way of re- 
 sponse. While the pope or bishop was offering prayers at 
 the altar, the other persons in the church sat down to a 
 feast, got drunk, played at dice, burnt old leather in the 
 censers, and committed every sort of impiety. The songs 
 which were sung on these occasions, have been attributed 
 to Peter De Corbeil, an archbishop of Sens, who died 
 about the beginning of the thirteenth century. The cathe- 
 dral has not been stained wdth these pollutions since the 
 year 1530. k The festival of fools, however, was not the 
 only one of the kind ; others of a similar nature were cel- 
 ebrated on the anniversaries of St. Stephen and St. John 
 the Evangelist. 1 
 
 Tonnerre is situated on the left of the canal of Burgun- 
 dy and of the Armancon, a feeder of the Yonne ; antiqua- 
 ries consider it a very ancient town, indeed it is not im- 
 probable that it was inhabited long before the Roman in- 
 vasion. 11 * The houses are well built, and the neighbouring 
 country is famous for vineyards, of which the wines are 
 exported to most parts of Europe. A spring issues from 
 
 1 “ Sedaine, a dramatic writer, who had no other merit than his 
 
 knowledge of stage effect” M. J. Sedaine, born in Paris 1719, son 
 
 of an architect, and himself originally a stone cutter. He first wrote 
 for the Comic Opera, to which he gave a great vogue, and then for 
 the Italian Opera and the Theatre Franqaise. His dramatic pieces 
 amount to 32 in number, some of which had a very great currency 
 (—one of them (the Deserter) was repeated a hundred times ;) they 
 show a perfect knowledge of stage effect, but the language, although 
 easy and natural, is full of inaccuracies. Diet. Hist. Caen. 1804. — P. 
 
 b Claude de Beauvoir, marshal of Chastellux (Chastelus. Moreri.) 
 — P. 
 
 c “ There is not one of you, said the king, who would not, for the 
 same price, be ambitious of such a privilege” — i. e. who would not 
 consider the canonry worth the oddity of the installation. — P. 
 
 d “ — they were probably founded about the time (dont les fonda- 
 
 tions dat.ent probablement de Vtpoque )” 
 
 e “ — does not contain 9000.” — Population in the Statistical Table, 
 6,685. — P. 
 
 f “ The fools’ service (“ office des foas,” Officium Stultorum,) such 
 as it was formerly celebrated in the cathedral of Sens — ” 
 
 s “ It (the service) contains, besides a collection of prayers and 
 chants suited to the occasion, a rhymed prose* in praise of the ass — ’ 
 The manuscript contains at the beginning a rhymed prose on the ass, 
 while the remainder consists of the prayers of the church mixed to- 
 gether in confusion. Encyc. Meth. 
 
 * Prose , a Latin composition in rhyme, in which only the number of the sylla- 
 bles is observed, without any regard to quantity — sung at the mass, on certain 
 occasions, immediately before the gospel. — P. 
 h January 1st. 
 
 > « — on the day of the Kings” — Epiphany, the adoration of the 
 three kings (magi,) Jan. 6. — The day ol the Innocents is Dec. 28. P 
 k “ This festival was celebrated in Sens as late as 1530.” 
 
 1 See the Glossary of Ducange, and the Traite des Jeux by Thiers 
 m “ It is supposed to have been founded in the time of the Romans.’ 
 
284 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOZT. CXLV. 
 
 a rock in one of its suburbs, tbe waters of wbicb are so 
 copious as to turn several mills a short distance from their 
 source. Tonnerre possesses a college and a school of 
 some celebrity, in which lectures are delivered on the ap- 
 plication of geometry to the arts. a It was the birthplace 
 of Chevalier D’Eon de Beaumont, a person who rendered 
 important services to his country, both as a diplomatist and 
 a general. 
 
 It is necessary to pass through part of the country which 
 has been described, and to cross the Upper Saone, in or- 
 der to examine the frontier departments in Franche-Comte 
 and Alsace. Before proceeding to the latter, the depart- 
 ment of the Upper Saone requires a brief description. 
 The heights and vallies between the Saone and Oignon 
 extend in the direction of those two rivers. Vineyards 
 which produce only weak and ordinary wines, are situated 
 nearer the hanks of the second than the first ; they cover 
 a fortieth part of the whole surface : the woods and forests 
 in different parts of the country occupy about a third part, 
 arable lands rather less than a half, meadows not more 
 than a tenth, and waste lands nearly a fifteenth part of the 
 whole. Although agriculture has made great progress 
 within the last twenty-five years, it is not unreasonable to 
 expect from the fertility of the soil, and from the number 
 and extent of tbe roads in the department, that additional 
 and important improvements in the same branch of indus- 
 try may ere long be carried into effect. A great quantity 
 of grain, however, is at present exported to the south, and 
 tbe culture of the potato has become general ; many oxen 
 are reared, but sheep have been so much neglected, that 
 the total number does not exceed forty-five thousand, or 
 in other words, there is not more than one sheep for six- 
 teen inhabitants. b Coal and iron mines, iron-works, forges 
 
 and furnaces furnish employment to 3500 individuals. The 
 wages of labourers, overseers, and other expenses connected 
 with these works, give rise to a circulation of L. 400, 000 ; c 
 the neat profit derived from the same source exceeds 
 L.33,000. d The wealth of the department may therefore 
 be said to consist in its agriculture, in the works already 
 mentioned, in the products of distilleries and different man- 
 ufactories. * * * * * 6 
 
 The district 4- of Lure, the most industrious of the three 
 into which the department has been divided, is situated at 
 the western extremity. The burgh of Hericourt exports 
 cotton stuffs,® and Vyles-Lure possesses a muslin manu- 
 factory, in which nearly five hundred workmen are em- 
 ployed. St. Bresson has been noted for its paper since 
 the year 1GG0; it supplies the Parisians with the finest 
 vellum paper that is sold in the capital. 1 ' The value of 
 
 a “ — a college and a course of geometry applied to the arts” 
 
 b This assertion does not agree with the population in the Statistical 
 
 Tables, 326,041.— P. 
 
 c “ Nearly 10 millions francs.” 
 
 d “ About 800,000 francs.” 
 
 6 “ Agriculture and the works just mentioned, together with distil- 
 leries, cotton mills ( filatures ,) and manufactories of hardware, form the 
 principal sources of wealth to the department.” 
 f “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 e “ — contains several manufactories of cotton stuffs (colonnades.)" 
 h “ St. Bresson contains one of the finest paper mills in France, 
 founded in 1660 ; the greatest part of its fine vellum paper is sent to 
 Paris.” 
 
 ‘ — “ amounts in some years to 400,000 francs.” Faucogney and 
 
 I.uxeuil are also noted for their kirschwasser. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 k “ Hardware (quincaillerie.)" 
 
 1 “ A manufactory of tinned iron at the village of Magnoncourt” — 
 m Tjuxovium, D’Anv. Encyc. Meth. Geog. Anc. — P. 
 
 " The inscription was discovered on the 23d of July 1755, among 
 
 the kirscliwasser, which the people of Fougerolles send to 
 the same place, varies from fifteen to twenty thousand 
 pounds.' St. Loup, a town of two thousand inhabitants, 
 is situated on tbe right bank of the Angrone ; it carries on 
 a trade in straw hats, woollen stuff’s, horse-combs and bird- 
 lime. Different articles of cutlery k are manufactured in 
 Plancher les Mines, which derives its name from a mine 
 of argentiferous lead that is still worked. The white iron 
 works near the village of Magnoncourt 1 afford constant 
 employment to more than two hundred and fifty workmen. 
 Few other places of any consequence can be mentioned 
 in the same part of the country; it maybe remarked,* 
 however, that good hones are exported from Faucogney 
 and Champagney, and that granite quarries might be 
 worked with profit near Melisey and Chateau-Lambert, 
 the latter a village well known for its excellent cheese. 
 
 The ancient town of Luxeuil or Luxeu stands in a fine 
 situation on the confines of a large and fruitful plain, wa- 
 tered by the Brouchin and the Lanterne, two rapid rivers 
 abounding in fish ; hills covered with lofty woods rise at 
 no great distance from the town. The present name ap- 
 pears to have been derived from Lug and Swi, two Cel- 
 tic words which signify warm water; it is certain, howev- 
 er, that the place was called Lixovium m by the Romans. 
 It appears from an inscription, that the baths were repair- 
 ed by Labienus in conformity to the orders of Caesar ;" the 
 most of them are now in ruins, but the ruins are not un- 
 worthy of the ancients ; so long as the waters were held 
 in repute, the inhabitants spared no expense to render the 
 town agreeable to strangers . 0 Lure, which is also consid- 
 ered a place of great antiquity, was formerly celebrated 
 for an abbey, founded by St. Deicole in tbe reign of Clo- 
 taire the Second. The chief of the monastery, which after- 
 wards adopted the rule of St. Benedict, took the title of 
 prince of the Holy Empire ; p the building which he occu- 
 pied serves at present as a residence to the subprefect. 
 
 According to the learned dissertations of certain anti- 
 quaries whose labour in illustrating the language and man- 
 ners of the Celts, merited better success, the name of Ve- 
 soul comes from two Celtic words, ves, tomb, and houl, 
 sun ; by a process of reasoning as ingenious as it is hypo- 
 thetical, it has been discovered that the tomb of the sun 
 was connected with an important part of the druidical wor- 
 ship. If the etymology be correct, the town must have 
 existed at a very remote period ; it happens unfortunately, 
 however, that it was unknown to the ancients. q No notice 
 of it can be found in the history of France before the tenth 
 century, and it is only mentioned as the theatre of two im- 
 portant events in the annals of Franche Comte. About 
 
 the ruins of the ancient tliermce, and is now preserved in the town- 
 house. Lixovu Therm. Repar. Labienus Juss. C. Jul. Coes. Imp. 
 
 0 “ Those which exist are worthy the magnificence of the ancients. 
 In the watering season, the inhabitants spare no pains to render their 
 town agreeable to strangers.” Luxeuil is, in fact, and long has been, 
 a noted watering place — It has five baths, viz. the Benedictines’ 
 bath, the Ladies’ bath, the Great bath, the Little bath or Poor’s bath, 
 and the Capuchins’ bath. Encyc. Meth. 1784. — P. 
 
 p The abbot of Lure (Lat. Luthra, Lvdcra ; Germ. Ludders) has the 
 title of prince of the empire. Encyc. Meth. 1784. — P. 
 
 "i “ According to the learned dissertations of the antiquaries who in- 
 vestigate the language and antiquities of the Celts, in order to discov- 
 er the etymologies of the names of our ancient towns, that of Vesoul 
 comes from two Celtic words, namely, vez, tomb, and hoill, sun ; this 
 appellation ( tomb of the sun) is also considered by them a precious 
 relic of the druidical worship. According to the above etymology, 
 the town must have existed at the remotest period of antiquity ; it 
 does not appear, however, to have been known to the ancients.” 
 
BOOK CXLY .] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 285 
 
 the middle of the sixteenth century, a German army re- 
 turning destitute of provisions and money from an expedi- 
 tion against Bresse, resolved to plunder Vesoul. The 
 general had called a council of war, in which it was agreed 
 that an attempt should be made to scale the walls, but 
 after a fall of rain that lasted twenty-four hours, the plain 
 was covered with water, and the terrified Germans attribut- 
 ing the phenomenon to an interposition of providence, fled 
 from Vesoul, leaving behind them their baggage and artil- 
 lery." * 1 The flight of the Germans was occasioned by a 
 natural cause, and the waters of Frais-Puits b had the merit 
 of saving the town. The bed of a torrent may be observ- 
 ed about the distance of a league from Vesoul; the same 
 bed remains dry the greater part of the year, and the ra- 
 vine through which it extends, terminates in a gulf not less 
 than fifty feet in depth by sixty in diameter ; it too in or- 
 dinary seasons is almost dry, but after heavy rains a great 
 quantity of water is suddenly discharged from it, which in- 
 undates the neighbouring meadows, reaching even to the 
 lower part of the town, and changes into a sort of lake the 
 country inclined tcnvards the Saone. This phenomenon 
 continues sometimes for three days, after which the waters 
 retire, the gulf empties itself, and the torrent ceases to 
 flow.' The siege, that has been mentioned, was by no 
 means creditable to the baron of Polwillers, who ought to 
 have respected a neutral territory, but in the same annals 
 the name of Turenne is associated with an act of bad faith. 
 No sooner had that hero presented himself in 1644 before 
 the gates of the town than it surrendered ; the conditions 
 of the capitulation were hardly signed, before it was given 
 up to pillage ; the convent of the Annunciates/ where the 
 inhabitants believed their wives, children and most precious 
 effects to be safe, was not considered inviolable ; the town- 
 house was demolished and the archives were destroyed. 
 It is added that it was necessary to pledge the sacred ves- 
 sels and to sell many valuable articles/ in order to pay 
 .lie contributions, and redeem the hostages. 
 
 Industry and wealth have been diffused over Franche- 
 Comte since it was united to France in the year 1678. 
 Vesoul since the same period has been enlarged and em- 
 bellished ; the principal church, which may be remarked 
 for the beauty of its altar, and also on account of an an- 
 cient sepulchre, was finished in 1745, the present town- 
 house in 1766, the courts of justice r in 1770, the market 
 in 1772, the new walk in 1774, the barracks in 1777, 
 and the prefect’s palace in 1822. The public library 
 has been placed in one of the halls of the college, it con- 
 sists of more than twenty-one thousand volumes ; in an 
 adjoining apartment is a collection of natural history, to 
 which valuable additions have lately been made.® 
 
 a Preparations were made to scale the walls, when a rain of twenty- 
 four hours’ duration having covered the plain with water, the terrified 
 Germans, attributing this sudden inundation to the sluices which the 
 inhabitants had opened for their defence, fled from the town, leaving 
 behind them their artillery and baggage.” 
 
 b “ The spring called Frais-Puits” 
 
 c Annuaire du departement de la Haute-Saone pour P annee 1825, 
 par MM. Baulmont et Suchaux. 
 
 d “ Annonciades” — Nuns of the Annunciation of the Virgin ( Annum - 
 data:). — P. 
 
 e 11 To sell the bells (cloches.)” 
 
 f “ Palacg of Justice.” 
 
 s “ The public library, placed in one of the buildings of the college, 
 contains 21,000 volumes; the physical cabinet and the collection of 
 natural history are annually increasing.” 
 
 b “ It employs annually in transporting its merchandise by land and 
 by water, 86,500 horses.” 
 
 Several places not unworthy of notice are situated in 
 the neighbourhood of Vesoul. The grottos of Echenos 
 les Molines, at a short distance from the walls, are remark- 
 able lor their extent ; they also contain many bones of an- 
 imals now extinct. The foundations of vast edifices, traces 
 of ancient ditches, and the remains of the Roman ways, 
 that have been discovered near Jussey, a town of two 
 thousand six hundred inhabitants, serve to strengthen the 
 tradition that it was built by a Roman colony in the 
 third century. Corre is probably situated on the ruins 
 of Didatium, a Gallic city ; statues, basso-relievos and 
 medals are found in this humble village, the only remains 
 of an important town. 
 
 Gray rises like an amphitheatre above the banks of the 
 Saone ; it contained before the revolution, not fewer than 
 eight convents ; it carries on at present a great trade in 
 grain, flour and iron. The number of horses employed 
 in conveying the goods by land, and in dragging them along 
 rivers, amounts nearly to 80,000.'' In one work, equal 
 perhaps to any other of the same sort in Europe, are saw 
 and oil mills, mills for tanning leather, and felting cloth, 
 and also a mill in which twenty-four thousand and sixty- 
 six quarters of corn are annually ground. 1 The streets 
 are steep and crooked ; the town is commanded by an old 
 castle, which was inhabited by Philip the Bold, John the 
 Fearless/ Philip the Good, and Catharine of Burgundy, 
 the widow of Leopold of Austria. 
 
 The lofty summits of Jura form part of the French ter- 
 ritory ; the chain has given its name to a very industrious 
 department, 1 * richer perhaps in cattle than any other, 
 abounding in woods, but ill provided with navigable rivers." 1 * * * 
 The eastern part is the most mountainous ; it may be said 
 to consist of three ridges : n the highest, contiguous to Swit- 
 zerland, is covered with snow six months in the year ; the 
 soil is comparatively sterile, but the inhabitants are labori- 
 ous : in the second, fir trees, box and juniper bushes pre- 
 dominate, but there are besides some rich pastures and 
 fertile valleys ;° the third, less elevated than the two others, 
 is also less unfruitful. At the foot of these ridges, in which 
 mines of iron, quarries of marble and saline deposits? are 
 worked, low hills covered with vineyards that yield good 
 wine, occupy a surface twenty leagues in length ; lasdy, 
 plains consisting chiefly of arable land form the base or arena 
 of this natural amphitheatre. 
 
 The northern part of the plain is traversed by the Doubs, 
 and extends below the forest of Chaux, a forest that covers 
 several hills and a surface of 50,000 acres.^ Dole r is situ- 
 ated on the banks of the river, at the foot of a hill 8 planted 
 with vineyards. The vast forest near the town, the Doubs 
 and the canal of Monsieur, which bathe the walls and fertil- 
 
 * “ Gray contains one of the finest works ( usines ) in Europe ; it 
 moves a saw mill, an oil mill, mills for tanning leather and fulling 
 cloth, and also a flour mill which grinds 70,000 hectolitres of wheat 
 per annum." 
 
 k “ Jean Sans-peur.” 
 
 1 Department of Jura. 
 
 m « — to one of the most industrious and best wooded departments, 
 as well as one of the richest in cattle and one of the poorest in naviga- 
 ble streams.” 
 
 " “ Plateaus” — table-lands. 
 
 0 “ The second, covered like the preceding with the fir, the box and 
 the juniper, contains also many pastures and some fertile valleys.” 
 
 p “ Salines.” — See the account of Salins, p. 967. 
 
 q “ 20,000 hectares.” 
 
 r Dole (Enc. Meth. art. Fr Comte. Aim. Royal.) Dole (Lat. Dole i) 
 (Moreri. Enc. Meth. in loco.) — P. 
 
 ! “ On the declivity of a hill (sur un coteau.)” 
 
286 EUROPE. [book cxlv. 
 
 ize the fields, the Loue, a the Cuisance and tlie Glantine, 
 that wind at a distance, the curtain formed by the mountains 
 from which the three latter rivers take llrcir source, and the 
 double summit of Mont-Blanc, the most distant object in the 
 picture, are all seen from the Cours or highest part of Dole. 1, 
 The town might be much improved if the streets were belter 
 paved, if the houses were more regular ; according to the ex- 
 pression of a flowery writer, c “ it might then look like a 
 nymph in the middle of a grove at present, however, it has 
 certainly the appearance of a faded belle. It is very doubt- 
 fid that Dole was ever a place of much importance ; anti- 
 quaries may affirm the contrary, but it does not follow from 
 a few medals, some remains of pilasters, some traces of Ro- 
 man ways, or even from the ruins of an amphitheatre, that 
 the town stands on the site of Didatium , besides it might 
 be shown that Didatium was an inconsiderable city, although 
 mention is made of it in the geography of Ptolemy. J The 
 antiquity of Dole may be very probable, but it ought not 
 to be forgotten that no traces of its ancient name have hith- 
 erto been discovered, and also that the surrounding coun- 
 try is well adapted for antiquarian research, since there is 
 hardly a village that does not possess a monument of the 
 Celts or Romans.® Several charitable institutions, a prison 
 that is said to he too elegant and too commodious/ two 
 or three manufactories, s public walks and romantic views 
 may enable the reader to form some notion of its edifices, 
 position and industry. 
 
 To prove the antiquity of Poligny/ it has been said that 
 it derives its name from Polls Solis, the city of the sun 
 This important discovery and many others of the like kind, 
 made by the antiquaries of Franche-Comte, may be the 
 results of a creative imagination, certainly not of patient re- 
 search. 11 The position of Castrum- Olinum, as it is indi- 
 cated in different itineraries, accords with that of Poligny. * 1 
 Although at present merely the residence of a subprefect, 
 it was inhabited in the time of the Romans by the lieutenant 
 of the Great Sequanaise, and it became under the dukes of 
 Burgundy, the summer residence of those princes ; it rose 
 then on the height which now commands it. The houses 
 
 a Louve. (Enc. Moth. Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 >> “ — form a rich landscape, when seen from the highest point of the 
 promenade called the Coins " (Corso.) 
 
 I M. Dusillet, mayor of the town. 
 
 d “ If the streets were better paved ( moins inegales.) and the houses 
 more elegant and regular, it might, according to the poetical expres- 
 sion of an elegant writer, be said to resemble a nymph in the midst of 
 a grove ; but it is not even a superannuated beauty. Dole has never 
 been beautiful ; it has never even been a place of importance, and 
 notwithstanding the dissertations of antiquaries, a few medals, a few 
 remains of pilasters, some traces of Roman roads, and some vestiges of 
 an amphitheatre, formerly discovered in its neighbourhood, do not prove 
 that it has ever occupied the site of Didatium, a city besides of little 
 importance, although mentioned by Ptolemy.” 
 
 e “ Its territory is one of those on which the sagacity of the learned 
 may be very easily employed ; there are few villages, where in exca- 
 vating the soil, some ancient remains may not be discovered.” 
 f '• A prison whose only defect is its elegance.” 
 s “ An important manufactory of chemical products.” 
 
 II Poligni. 
 
 ‘ See the Annuaire du Jura” by M. Bruand. 
 
 k “ In order to prove the antiquity of Poligny, the antiquaries of 
 Franche Comte have affirmed that it was formerly called Polls Solis, 
 the city of the sun, an opinion which we are far from adopting.” 
 
 1 “ The JVotitia Imperii makes mention of a residence called Castrum 
 Olinum, the position of which agrees very well with that of Poligny.” — 
 The ancient Castrum Olinum of the JVotitia Imperii, in which the 
 lieutenant of the Sequanaise ( Provincia . Maxima Scquanorum) resided. 
 (Enc. Meth. Geog. Mod. art. Poligny.) — P. 
 
 ln “ The canon Jean Molinet, who made a prose translation of the 
 poem of the Rose.” J. Molinet, a French poet of the fifteenth century, 
 born at Desurennes, a village in the diocese of Boulogne in Picardy, 
 was almoner and librarian to Margaret of Austria and canon of the 
 
 are well built, and the streets are kept clean by the waters 
 that flow from several fountains. It has given birth to 
 some celebrated men in their time ; we may mention the 
 prebend John Molinet, who translated the poem of the 
 Rose,'" James Coitier," physician to Louis the Eleventh, and 
 president of the court of exchequer, and lastly, Nicholas 
 Rollin, chancellor to Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy. 
 Many ancient monuments are situated in the neighbour- 
 hood ; two druidical stones are still held in great venera- 
 tion hy the peasantry, who believe that they turn round of 
 their own accord every year, precisely at the time of the 
 midnight mass. 0 The ruins of Roman edifices are situated 
 in different directions, but the purpose for which they were 
 built, has not been determined. The people call them the 
 Chambretlcs, the traces of many halls or chambers are still 
 apparent ; little attention has hitherto been bestowed on 
 them, it might be worth while, however, to make excava- 
 tions in the vicinity ; at least if we may judge from a large 
 piece of mosaic, which the count de Caylus considered the 
 finest specimen of the kind, and which lies at present some 
 feet below the surface of a cultivated field . p 
 
 The products of the vineyards form the principal wealdi 
 of the country round Poligny, but the best sorts are those 
 near Arbois, q a neat and well-built town, the birthplace of 
 general Pichegru, and a place of some celebrity from the 
 remains of Celtic monuments and Roman edifices. The 
 ruins of the ancient castle are imposing ; the people relate 
 the nocturnal visits of the evil spirits that haunt them ; it is 
 believed by them that the fairy JUelusina resides often in 
 the highest and largest of its black towers. If these old 
 traditions have not originated from an act of cruelty com- 
 mitted by Mahaut of Arbois, countess of Burgundy, they 
 were at all events strengthened by them ; during a severe 
 famine, a great many poor people fled to the countess for 
 refuge and subsistence, finding it impossible to provide for 
 them all, she confined them in a large building which, to- 
 gether with the inmates, was burnt by her orders. r 
 
 Situated at the entrance of a narrow mountain pass, 
 watered by the F urieuse, a small river, and commanded by 
 
 cathedral of Valenciennes, where he died, 3507. He made a prose 
 translation of the Romance of the Rose by Jean de Meung, and was 
 the author of many other works, both in prose and verse, among others 
 of a chronicle of the Low Countries. (Beauvais. Nouv. Diet. Hist. 
 Caen. 1804.) — P. 
 
 11 “ First president of the court of exchequer (cour des comptcs .)” — 
 Jacques Coytier or Coctier (chancellor of Louis XI.) Diet. Hist. Caen, 
 1804. — J. Coythier. Beauvais. — J. Coytier or Cottier. Moreri. — In allu- 
 sion to the last orthography, after he was driven from the court, he 
 placed over the gate of his residence in Paris, an apricot tree ( abri - 
 cotier,) with the motto 11 a Vabri Cottier ,” Cottier in security. — P. 
 
 c 12 o'clock P. M. Christmas Eve. — P. 
 
 p “The neighbourhood of Poligny is rich in ancient monuments: 
 two druidical stones are still held in veneration by the peasantry, who 
 believe that they turn round on themselves, every year, at the moment 
 of the midnight mass ; vast Roman constructions, the design of which 
 is unknown, and which the people call the Chambrettes (little cham- 
 bers.) because the traces of a great number of apartments may be still 
 distinguished, promise to repay the trouble of excavation, if we may 
 judge from a specimen of mosaic, which the Count de Caylus regarded 
 as one of the finest of the kind, but which is now concealed under 
 several feet of earth, in the midst of a cultivated field.” 
 
 a “ The territory of Poligny derives its principal wealth from its 
 wines; it is needless to boast of the vineyards of Arbois” — Wine is 
 made in considerable quantities in the department of Jura; and the 
 wines of Arbois and Poligni, particularly the former, are much es 
 teemed. (Ed. Encyc.) — Arbois is situated two leagues from Poligny 
 and in the same arrondissement. — P. 
 
 r “ Do not these old traditions derive their origin from a cruel act of 
 charity committed by Mahaut d'Arbois, countess of Burgundy, who 
 during a dreadful famine, finding it impossible to feed the multitude of 
 poor people who had taken refuge with her, ordered them to be burnt 
 in a barn {grange ) in which she had collected them.’ 
 
rook gxlt.j DESCRIPTION 
 
 the ruins of several old castles, Salins derives its name and 
 wealth from its salt springs, which were found to be very 
 profitable at so early a period as the sixth century, when 
 St. Sigismond, king of Burgundy, ceded them to the monks 
 i f the abbey of St. Maurice d’Agaune. These monks 
 
 worked the springs with so much zeal and intelligence, that 
 in a few years a large burgh rose in the neighbourhood ol 
 their abbey. Such was the origin of a town which has pro- 
 duced several distinguished men, among others, Fenouillot 
 dc Falbaire, the celebrated dramatist.® b A destructive fire 
 that lasted three days, laid Salins in ashes in the month of 
 Julv, IS25. The hospital and the salt works were the only 
 buildings that remained : the first was too small to afford shel- 
 ter to the numerous victims of the calamitous event ; the 
 second, although important, employed only a small number 
 of bands ; still these must have been the only resources of 
 the ruined inhabitants, had they not appealed to the gene- 
 rosity of their countrymen. Subscriptions were opened in 
 every town, and the money given by the benevolent and 
 the charitable, amounted to £.100,000, it was laid out in 
 rebuilding the city. c A spectacle was then exhibited, that 
 afforded a signal proof of the eagerness with which even the 
 lowest classes of the French receive instruction whenever it 
 is offered to them : the workmen flocked every evening 
 round a former pupil of the Polytechnic school, who applied 
 his knowledge of geometry and mechanics to teach them 
 the best and most economical method of rebuilding their 
 houses. d 
 
 The territory of Lons le Saulnier formed in the middle 
 ages the greater part of Scpding or Sco-d’In, literally the 
 country on the Ain^ e the inhabitants of which were distin- 
 guished then, as they are now, by their courage. The 
 people in the high country that extends to the east of the 
 town, are said to be more active anti intelligent than their 
 neighbours in the west, who prefer agricultural labour to 
 manufacturing industry. Lons le Saulnier was founded in 
 the fourth century ; f the name of the town signifies a meas- 
 ure of salt,s and it is to the salt, springs in its vicinity, that its 
 origin may be attributed. It is traversed by two small 
 rivers, theVaiiere and the Soivan, which flow through an 
 agreeable valley, surrounded wish vineyards that yield ex- 
 cellent wine. The ruins of two strong castles, those of 
 Montmorot and Pvrnc.nt, crown the two hills that command 
 the town. The Franciscan church, which was built in the 
 year 1200, that ol St. Desire, still more ancient, a large 
 hospital, in which mo#} than a hundred and fifty p.-aienis 
 
 OF FRANCE. 287 
 
 may be accommodated, and lastly, the salt works, of which 
 the annual produce is not less than twenty thousand quintals, 
 are the most remarkable buildings in Lons le Saulnier, ihe 
 birthplace of general Lecourbe, of the lyric poet Rouget de 
 Lisle, and of Roux de Rochelle, the author of the Three 
 Ages. 1 ’ About two leagues northwards, and at no great 
 distance from the village of Beaume, the sources of the 
 Scille issue in large volumes from the crevices in a calcare- 
 ous rock, which forms a frightful prec ipice not less than four 
 hundred feet in height, and on which pieces of ice may be 
 seen even in the fine days of spring. 
 
 St. Amour, a town of three thousand inhabitants, is situ- 
 ated near the western frontier of the department ; several 
 customs and ceremonies are preserved by the inhabitants, 
 which appear to have been handed down from a very remote 
 period. The evening of the first Sunday in Lent, or as the 
 people call it, the evening of ihe Brandons ,* is observed 
 with the greatest solemnity ; all the callage girls leave their 
 cottages, and illumine the neighbouring hills with a thousand 
 torches. k It is net unlikely that the custom originated from 
 a festival to commemorate the story of Ceres seeking her 
 daughter Proserpine. 1 If children lose their father, if a wife 
 becomes a widow, the relatives meet in the house of the 
 deceased, and partake of a repast ; the women may minister 
 consolation, but the men are only admitted to the feast, and 
 one of them with a glass in his hand pronounces a sort of 
 funeral oration." 1 The burgh of Arinthod 11 rises on the ruins 
 of a Celtic temple dedicated to JSIars Segomon, as is proved 
 by an ancient inscription discovered there in honour of that 
 divinity, to whom the Segoves, a powerful tribe in Brcsse, 0 
 consecrated part of the spoils which they took from their 
 enemies. The ruins of the ancient castle of Oliferne, near 
 Condes on the Ain, crown an almost inaccessible mountain, 
 the only one in Jura which affords shelter to bears. The 
 castle was destroyed by the French in the sixteenth century, 
 and on account of its obstinate resistance, all those who had 
 fled to it, were killed by the assailants. According to tradi- 
 tion, three noble ladies were pm into a eask, p and precipitated 
 from the summit of the mountain into the river. There are 
 few peasants in that part of the country who have not met 
 these noble dames during the night, or who have not seen 
 the lord of Oliferne and his attendants hunting in the neigh- 
 bouring woods. 
 
 Several industrious towns and villages are situated in the 
 district*! of St. Claude. Septmoncel is equally noted for its 
 toys and "cheese, neither ought it to be forgotten that more 
 
 ,i it Fenouillot de Falbaire, author of the Ho untie Criininel and the 
 Deux Amre$'' — He wrote a great nu nber of dramatic pieces, published 
 collectively under the title : (Euvrcs de FaUmire. ,2 vols. 1767. The most 
 remarkable are : L' Honni'tc Criininel, Its Dens, Acares, V Cro'.e lies. 'fours 
 and les Miffnes Japtmaises. (Beauvais.) — I’. 
 
 b The best pieces of Falbaire are L’llonnete criminel and the Deux 
 Avares. — Tr. 
 
 c “ Subscriptions were opened even in file smallest villages, and the 
 money thus collected, amounting to more than 2,000,000 francs, fur- 
 nished the means of rebuilding the town.” 
 
 11 M. Charles Dupin. Forces productives et commerciales de la. 
 France: in which the author has inserted the discourse pronounced 
 on that occasion, in the introductory lecture to his course at the Con- 
 servatoire Royal des Arts et M •tiers. 
 
 e M. Chevalier, Hist, de Poligni. (Enc. Moth. art. Seeding.) — Le 
 Sending, Pagus Scodi.ngorum. (Erie. Meth.)— If the etymology of M. 
 Chevalier be received, may not Sen bn equivalent to the' German Gnu, 
 a territorial division of Swabia in the middle ages, correspond' np - to 
 the Latin Pugns. (BJsching, Erdbeschr. Schwab. Kreis, Einleit. 
 §1X.)— P. 
 
 f “ — d lies from the fourth century." — According to Gollutand Chif- 
 flet, it was already very papulous in 332. It was then more than two 
 leagues in circuit, and extended to the east over the heights of 
 
 Richebourg, where the vestiges of ancient buildings may be still discov- 
 ered. ( F. neve . Meth.) — P. 
 
 « According to Go! lot. an author who has written more than one 
 valuable work on the early history and antiquities of Franclie Comte, 
 the long is a measure of salt, equivalent t,o 24 bushels. [“ According to 
 Golliit, *a.n authw who g ive much attention to the history of Franchc- 
 Comto. the long is a measure of salt water, containing 24 muids."] 
 *.Vuli>rof U’uioircs hi itorijn.es deli repab iijtis Sejuanaise et des princes dc la 
 Franrdte-Comte dr Fourgogne, 5ii2. — P. 
 
 b “ Author of a poem, the Three Ages.’’ 
 
 1 Torches. — Brandon, a wisp of Straw lighted. — P. 
 k The hills shine with the light of a thousand torches, borne by the 
 young villagers (rillogeo’s, mnsc.) as they traverse the fields.” 
 
 1 This custom is a relic of the ancient festivals celebrated in honour 
 
 of Ceres, in search of her daughter." 
 
 m “ At the death of the master of a family, all the relations ef the 
 deceased assemble in the principal apartrScnl of the mansion, where a 
 repast is provided ; the women console the widow, the men alone partake 
 of the banquet, and it is wit h glass in hand that the funeral oration is 
 pronounced.” 11 Arinthoz. Vosgien. 
 
 " “ The Segoves. one of the tribes in Bresse.” 
 
 p “ The three principal ladies of the castle were put into a cask 
 pierced with nails — ’ <i 11 Arroudissement.” 
 
288 EUR 
 
 than twelve hundred persons find employment in making and 
 cutting imitation gems. This village, which contains not 
 less than three thousand souls, was wholly destroyed by fire 
 in 1826 ; but in places remarkable for the industry of their 
 inhabitants, such calamities are soon forgotten. Chateau des 
 Pres supplies the neighbouring country with chairs, tables 
 and different articles of household furniture. 3 The burgh of 
 Morez b exports every year many clocks, watches, pendu- 
 lums and spits. 0 The people in Bois d’Amont, a small 
 village in the neighbourhood, make wooden cases for clocks, 
 and an immense number of props for the vine dressers in 
 the department. d St. Claude, a place of greater importance 
 than any that has been mentioned, is the only one that re- 
 mains to be described. 
 
 Two brothers, Romain and Lupicin, who are mentioned 
 in different legends, founded an abbey within the territory 
 of St. Claude about the beginning of the fourth century. 
 The wealth and revenues of the abbey were augmented by 
 the profuse donations of French kings and pious princes in 
 different parts of Christendom ; indeed in a short time the 
 abbots of the monastery became lords of all the country, 
 proprietors of all the lands, and sovereigns over all the in- 
 habitants. The people allowed themselves to be divested 
 of their privileges one after another ; every individual who 
 had resided in the country during a year, was enrolled 
 among the vassals of the monks, by whose influence and 
 example the inhabitants became inhospitable, indolent, cruel 
 and superstitious. A law was passed that completed their 
 degradation, the wife or children of a vassal could not suc- 
 ceed to his house, household furniture or moveable goods, 
 they were sold for the benefit of the abbey ; that iniquitous 
 custom, against which Voltaire employed all his eloquence 
 in vain, was not abolished before the reign of Louis the 
 Sixteenth.® St. Claude was originally known by the name 
 of Condat ; f extensive ruins in the vicinity induce us to be- 
 lieve that it was a place of some celebrity in the time of the 
 Romans ; it was afterwards called St. Oyant from one of 
 its abbots ; at a later period it took the name which it bears 
 at present, but which was changed during the revolution for 
 that of Condat-Montagne. It was completely destroyed by 
 fire in the year 1799, but the sum of 750,000 francs, granted 
 by the consular government, and subscriptions collected in 
 every part of F ranee, enabled the inhabitants to rebuild it 
 according to an improved and more regular plan. It is 
 situated in a low sequestered valley, bounded on one side by 
 mountains covered with forests, and on the other by arid 
 heights. There are' twelve works, in which five hundred 
 persons are employed ; it exports clocks and watches, musi- 
 
 OPE. [HOOK CXLV. 
 
 cal instruments, nails, pins, snuff-boxes, chaplets and toys.s 
 It possesses an hospital, a large college and several other 
 useful institutions. 
 
 The mountains that cover a portion of the department of Ju- 
 ra, extend into that of the Doubs, which, like the former, mav 
 be divided into three regions, namely, the higher, the middle 
 and the lower. The first is overspread with lofty calcareou- 
 rocks, the summits of which are covered with snow during 
 seven or eight months in the year, and are for the most par- 
 destitute of vegetation ; but on the southern declivities, there 
 are excellent pastures and fine valleys shaded with forests of 
 fir. The houses are scattered at great distances from each 
 other ; the inhabitants are hospitable, and they have pre- 
 served that simplicity of manners which distinguishes the 
 people in mountainous countries. The second or middle 
 region is under the influence of a milder temperature than 
 the preceding ; wheat is cultivated, and the vine grows on 
 some of the heights. But the highest hills are covered with 
 forests of oak or beech, which are in some places mixed 
 with fir, a tree that disappears in the lower part of the coun- 
 try. The lower region, or the plain, stretches along the 
 base of the mountains, and commences at the altitude of a 
 thousand feet h below their summits. No other region in the 
 department is so populous, none so fertile, and none so abun- 
 dant in com and wine. Most of the high plains ( plateaus ) 
 in the two other regions are covered with marshes which 
 seem to be the natural reservoirs of the principal rivers that 
 rise at the foot of the mountains. Among these rivers are 
 the Doubs, which bounds F ranee and Switzerland, but falls 
 first from a precipice eighty feet in height, into an abyss 
 that has never been fathomed ; the Loue, 1 which puts in mo- 
 tion several mills at no great distance from its source ; the 
 Dessoubre, noted for its trouts ; and the Lison, which forms 
 a cascade near a fruitful valley, and escapes through crevices 
 in the rocks into a different part of the country. k Lakes 
 and large marshes, subterranean labyrinths, grottos in the 
 form of glaciers, 1 coal mines m and mineral springs are situ- 
 ated at the base of the mountains. 
 
 Pontarlier rises on the Doubs at a short distance from a 
 pass across Jura, between France and Switzerland ; as the 
 same pass was known to the ancients, and is still defended 
 by a fort on Mount Joux, a name probably derived from 
 Mons Jovis, it may be readily believed that the town is a 
 place of great antiquity. D’Anville supposes it the ancient 
 Ariolica, which is mentioned in the Itinerary of Antonine ; 
 but Drotz, the erudite historian of“Franche-Comte, n has 
 shown that the opinion of the celebrated geographer is at least 
 doubtful. In the most ancient documents, it bears the names 
 
 a “ Chateau des Pr6s is noted for manufacturing chairs, buffets 
 and different articles of furniture from fir.” b Morey. Yosgien. 
 
 c “ — many clocks ( horloges , pendules) and jacks ( tourne broches.)” 
 d “ Bois d’Amont manufactures in wood, clock-cases, pails, boxes, 
 and vine props.” 
 
 e “ The domains of the abbey, enlarged by the immense donations 
 of the kings of France, of different princes, and of all the faithful, 
 became so important that the abbots of the monastery finally became 
 lords of the whole country, proprietors of all the lands, and possessed 
 of the power of life and death over all the inhabitants. Whoever 
 had resided a year in the country was inscribed in the list of their 
 vassals (slaves,) and in whatever place his property was found, it was 
 torn from his wife and children, and sold for the benefit of the abbey. 
 This monstrous custom, which was strenuously opposed by Voltaire, 
 was not entirely abolished till the reign of Louis XVI.” — The exer- 
 tions of Voltaire were not in vain. The affair was brought by him 
 before the King’s Council, who referred the decision to the parliament 
 of Burgundy, by whom the authority of the monks was greatly 
 abridged, and ultimately in consequence of his representations, it was 
 entirely abolished. So far had the privileges of the abbey been 
 abused, that the property of French merchants, who had only rented 
 
 a house for a year within their territories, and who had afterwards 
 lived and died in other parts of the kingdom, was after their death 
 taken from their families, and sold in the name of the abbey. (Enc. 
 Meth.) — P. 
 
 1 Latin, Condate, Condatisfum. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 e “ It contains 12 establishments for turnery, which employ more 
 than 500 workmen ; also manufactories of clocks and watches ( horlo - 
 gerie,) musical instruments, cords, nails, pins, snuff-boxes, beads, and 
 toys for children.” h “ 300 metres.” 
 
 * Louve. See note ", page 966. 
 
 k “ — the Lison, which just before it enters ( prbs cT arroser ) a 
 pleasant valley, issues in a fine cascade, from a cave in the rock.” 
 
 1 “ Grottos that form natural ice-houses ( glacibres :)” i. e. in which 
 ice is preserved throughout the year. — The chain of Jura contains 
 no glaciers ; but blocks of ice, and columns of .snow, are found in 
 some deep caverns. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 m “ — a coal mine ( une houillbre.)” 
 
 n “ Drotz, a learned writer, to whom we owe a history of Franche- 
 Comte, his native country” — Fr. N. E. Droz, born at Pontarlier, 
 1735, author of a history of Pontarlier ( Mi moire pour servir cl I'his- 
 toire dc Pontarlier, 1760. (Beauvais. 1 — P. 
 
book cxlv.j DESCRIPTION 
 
 of Pontalia and Pons Aelii. The streets are regular, and 
 the houses are well built ; the industry of the inhabitants and 
 the trade they carry on with Switzerland has doubled the 
 population within the last forty years. It exports annually 
 a great quantity of wormwood wine ; it possesses steel and 
 copper founderies, iron works and five tanyards.® General 
 D’Arson, the person by whose advice floating batteries 
 were employed at the siege of Gibraltar, was a native of 
 Pontarlier. b There are nineteen works or manufactories in 
 the district of which it is the capital ; the most important are 
 three of cotton, two of paper, and one of glass.' 
 
 The district of Besan^on is twice as populous as the pre- 
 ceding, and, in proportion to its size, still more industrious. 
 This city is the ancient Vesuntiof which Caesar chose as a 
 place of arms during his expedition against Ariovistus ; it 
 may therefore be reasonably inferred that it was no incon- 
 siderable town at the time the conqueror of Gaul entered 
 the country. Although devastated by the Burgundians in 
 the fifth century, and by the Hungarians in the tenth,® it re- 
 tained its importance ; Charlemagne ranked it among his 
 principal strong holds; it became under the dukes of Bur- 
 gundy, the seat of their courts of justice, and it was raised 
 in the twelfth century, by the emperor Frederick, to the 
 rank of an imperial city/ a dignity which it preserved until 
 Franche -Comte was united to France. The Doubs divides 
 it into two unequal parts, and almost encompasses the larger 
 or the upper town, winding at the base of the walls, accord- 
 ing to the expression of Caesar, in the form of a curve not 
 unlike a horseshoe/ A citadel erected on a steep rock 
 commands the town and the neighbourhood. This rock is 
 the ancient Mons Ccelius ; the two quarters of the town 
 communicate by means of a stone bridge, of which the foun- 
 dations were laid by the Romans. The promenade of 
 Chamars, the most agreeable walk in the town, occupies 
 the site of the Campus Martins. The Black Gate , h a 
 triumphal arch that was raised in honour of Crispus Caesar, 
 the son of Constantine, is perhaps the finest ancient monu- 
 ment in Besan^on. Within the walls are the remains of an 
 aqueduct, and beyond them the ruins of an amphitheatre ; 
 in short, eighteen centuries have elapsed, but Besan^on re- 
 tains its primitive form ; it may be compared to an antique 
 statue in a modern dress ; it is, however, one of the best 
 built towns in France. The public library and scientific 
 
 “ “ It manufactures annually about 90,000 litres of extract of 
 wormwood ; it also contains an extensive forge for iron and steel, a 
 copper foundery, and five tanneries.” 
 
 b J. C. E. L. D'Arcjon, born at Pontarlier 1733, general of division 
 and member of the National Institute, inventor of the celebrated float- 
 ing batteries at Gibraltar. (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 c “ In the arrondissement of Pontarlier, there are nineteen iron 
 works ( usines ,) three cotton manufactories ( falriqucs des cotonnadcs,) 
 two paper-mills, and one glass work.” 
 
 d Vesontio. (Caesar. D’Anv. Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 e It was taken and destroyed by the Alemanni and the Marco- 
 manni, near the close of the third century; about the year 413, it 
 submitted to the Burgundians, and was destroyed a second trine by 
 Attila (leader of the Huns,) in 451 or 452. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 f It was made a free and imperial city by the emperor Henry I. 
 in the tenth century. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 e Flumen Dubis, ut circino circumductum, pene totum oppidum 
 cingit. Caes. de Bell. Gall. I. 29. — The river Doubs, as if drawn 
 round by a pair of compasses, almost entirely surrounds the town. — P. 
 h Porte Noire. 
 
 ‘ “ Musees” — Museums, antiquarian and scientific. — P. 
 k “ It has numerous manufactories actively employed, and is the 
 centre of an extensive manufacture of clocks ( horlogerie ,) in which 
 more than 1800 workmen are engaged ; its commerce will increase 
 rapidly, as soon as the Canal of Monsieur shall pass through the town.” — 
 Besan<;on possesses a manufactory for swords and fire-arms, and a 
 large establishment for the manufacture of clocks. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 51 37 
 
 OF FRANCE. 289 
 
 collections 1 are very valuable ; the former contains more than 
 fifty thousand volumes. The products of the manufactories 
 are sent into most parts of the kingdom, one branch of 
 industry, the making of clocks and watches, affords employ- 
 ment to eighteen hundred workmen ; and the number is 
 likely to be much increased as soon as the town communi- 
 cates with the canal of Monsieur/ It is sufficient to men- 
 tion the names of Suard and Moncey, among the natives of 
 Besan^on, to show that it has contributed not a little to the 
 literary and military glory of France. Ornans, a small 
 place in the neighbourhood, is peopled by three thousand 
 inhabitants ; it contains extensive tan works, two paper mills 
 and other manufactories it was the birthplace of the Abbe 
 Millot. 
 
 Five hills forming a group, rise on the right bank of the 
 Doubs, about seven leagues distant from BesarKjon ; the 
 nearest is crowned by the ruins of what was formerly the 
 most important fortress in Franche-Comte, and the small 
 town of Beaume les Dames m stands at its base. The town 
 is supposed to be very ancient it derives its surname from 
 an abbey of canonesses, in which there were not fewer than 
 five nobles among the principal officers or attendants of the 
 abbess.® The columns that formerly supported the high al- 
 tar in the church, have been removed to that of St. Genevieve 
 in Paris. Beaume les Dames is at present the capital 
 of a subprefecture ; Leclerc/ the author of a history of 
 Russia, was a native of the town. The small town of St. 
 Hippolyte is situated at the confluence of the Doubs and 
 the Dessoubre, near the extremity of a valley enclosed by 
 hills planted with vineyards, and overtopped by mountains 
 covered with forests. The holy swaddling clothes, which the 
 faithful in Turin kiss and adore, were formerly preserved 
 with superstitious care in an old chapel at St. Hippolyte/ 
 The neighbouring valley may be mentioned on account of 
 numerous iron works, from which clouds of smoke rise day 
 and night/ 
 
 Before leaving the country watered by the Doubs, we 
 may cross the river to Montbelliard, 3 the former capital of a 
 principality/ and at present the chief town of a district." 
 The houses are well-built, and the streets are adorned with 
 fountains ; it is commanded by a castle, that was formerly 
 the residence of its princes, but which now serves the double 
 purpose of a barrack* * and prison. The market, and the 
 
 1 “ It contains seven valuable tanneries, a paper mill, a manufactory 
 of wormwood [See note 11 ,] and a public library.” 
 
 ln Bauine (Aim. Royal.) Baulme (Moreri.) Baume les Nones (Vos- 
 gien.) Baume les Dames, les Nones, or les Nonains (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 n “ — to have been an ancient fortress.” 
 
 0 M. Laurens, Annuaire statistique et historique du departement du 
 Doubs. 
 
 p Nich. Gab. Clerc or Leclerc, born 1726, died 1798. (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 q “ The chapel still exists in which they formerly preserved the holy 
 shroud ( saint-suaire ,*) which receives at Turin the kisses of the faith- 
 ful.” 
 
 *The shroud in which the Saviour is supposed to have been buried, and which 
 is said to retain the impression of his face and part of his body. Before the revo- 
 lution, there was one at Besancon, which attracted a crowd of pilgrims twice 
 every year. At that time, not less than seven of these relics were objects of 
 superstitious devotion in the different Catholic countries of Europe. (Enc. Meth.)— P. 
 
 r “ Cheese is made at St. Hippolyte, and the numerous iron works, 
 situated in the valley, attest by the clouds of smoke that rise from 
 them day and night, their activity and importance.” 
 
 > Montbeliard, Monbelliard ; in German, Mumpelgard.— Situated at 
 the foot of a rock, near the junction of the Allaine (Halle) with the 
 Doubs, and to the north of the latter. — P. 
 
 1 The principality of Montbelliard, previous to the revolution, 
 belonged to the house of Wirtemberg, (into whose possession it came 
 by marriage with the eldest daughter of the last count of Montbelliard,) 
 and was considered one of the immediate states of the German Em- 
 pire. (Enc. Meth.) — P . 
 
 u “ Arrondissement.” 1 “ Barrack for gendarmes.” 
 
290 EUR 
 
 church of St. Martin, in which a roof* eighty feet long by 
 fifty broad, is supported without pillars, are the only public 
 buildings of any consequence. The inhabitants carry on a 
 considerable trade, which consists in watches, fine cottons 
 and leather ; these products of industry represent an annual 
 value of £.50, 000. b 
 
 Some branches of Jura and the Vosges constitute on 
 the south and the west, the mountainous region in the de- 
 partment of the Upper Rhine ; the eastern part, bounded by 
 the Rhine, and watered by the 111, the Birse, and other small 
 rivers, and by the canal of Monsieur, forms a long plain ; 
 in both regions there are forests, vineyards and fruitful 
 fields. The number of horses and horned cattle corresponds 
 with the richness of the country ; but in some places more 
 sheep might be reared, in others the quantity of oats and 
 wheat is insufficient for the local consumption. 0 The wealth 
 of the department may therefore be chiefly attributed to the 
 works of which the materials are supplied by its copper, iron 
 and lead mines, to its forests and coal mines, and lastly to 
 its manufactories of woollen and cotton stuffs. 
 
 A. rock near the base of the Vosges is crowned by an 
 old castle that has been called Bel-F ort on account of its 
 position ; a small town of the same name, which from usage 
 is also pronounced and written Befort, rises at the foot of 
 the rock ; it was fortified by Vauban. Some of the streets 
 are broad and straight ; the barracks are large and well built ; 
 the Savoureuse, which washes the w'alls, turns a great many 
 mills. d A large cotton manufactory 0 has been erected at 
 Massevaux or Mamunster, a town of three thousand in- 
 habitants. Cernay contains a population of five thousand 
 individuals, who are employed in cotton works/ print-fields 
 and founderies. 
 
 The population and industry of Altkirch are of little im- 
 portance ; it need only to be mentioned as the chief town in 
 a district. s Huningen h , on the left bank of the Rhine, was a 
 well built town, fortified by Vauban, in the year 1814, when 
 it contained seven thousand seven hundred inhabitants ; the 
 number at present does not amount to nine hundred. It 
 was ruined by the invasion in 1815, a disastrous period in 
 the history of France, but one that has been signalized by 
 heroic and glorious achievements. Blockaded by twenty- 
 five thousand Austrians, and defended by a hundred and 
 forty men under the command of general Barbanegre, it 
 was not until the defenders had lost nearly half their number, 
 that the town capitulated with all the honours of war. The 
 small number of the defenders excited the surprise of the 
 
 OPE. (BOOK CXLV. 
 
 victor; not more than eighty soldiers passed before him, 
 and of these thirty were wounded ; no time, however, was 
 lost in demolishing the fortifications, and as the tomb erected 
 by Moreau, in 1803, to general Abbatucci, was not even 
 spared, it seemed as if the Austrian wished to punish the 
 dead for the noble resistance of the living. 
 
 Mulhausen 1 is one of the most commercial towns k in the 
 department of the Upper Rhine ; it possessed in the begin- 
 ning of the year 1828, thirteen woollen and cotton manu- 
 factories, eleven of cloth, seventeen of muslin, seventeen of 
 printed calico, several leather works and founderies. 1 It 
 contains fifteen thousand inhabitants, exclusively of six or 
 seven thousand workmen who are employed in the town,” 
 but who reside beyond the walls. It is situated on an 
 island formed by the 111 and the canal of New Brisach. 
 The streets are for the most part regular, and it is adorned 
 with several public buildings, the finest of which are the town- 
 house and the reformed church." 
 
 Seven or eight small towns, worthy of notice from the 
 industry of their inhabitants, 0 are situated in the district? of 
 Colmar. Kaisersberg q is well built, and encompassed with 
 walls ; it was formerly an imperial city. Ribauviller r is 
 adorned with an old castle. Munster carries on a con- 
 siderable trade in printed cottons and in kirschenwasser. 
 Ruffach* and Sultz 1 may each of them contain four or five 
 thousand inhabitants. Guebwiller" may be mentioned on 
 account of its sugar-works and cotton manufactory ; it sup- 
 plies different places with nails and hardwares. 1 New 
 Brisach* forms a regular octagon ; it was built by Louis the 
 Fourteenth, and fortified by Vauban. St. Marie aux Mines 
 is encompassed by metallic deposits, one of which only is 
 worked. Some writers affirm that Argentuaria z , a Celtic 
 city mentioned by Ptolemy, was situated near Colmar,** but 
 no traces of it bb can be found either in the town or in the 
 neighbourhood. Colmar, it is well known, was a mere ham- 
 let during the reign of Charlemagne; the emperor Frede- 
 rick the Second surrounded it with walls in 1220, but it was 
 not raised to the rank of an imperial city before the year 
 1552. The population was never greater than at present, 
 but the town has long been considered one of the wealthiest 
 places in Alsace ; the revenue amounted forty years ago to 
 100,000 francs/" it is now more than double. The court 
 of justice may be the finest modern edifice, but it is inferior 
 to an old building — the church of the Dominicans. Few 
 provincial towns in France possess so valuable a library, it 
 consists of more than sixty thousand volumes. dd Martin 
 
 1 “ Le plafond” — the ceiling. 
 
 b “ The town is enriched by its commerce with Switzerland, and by 
 the manufacture of watches ( [horloge.rie fine ,) cotton spinning, and 
 numerous tanneries, the products of all which represent an annual 
 value of 1,200,000 francs.” 
 
 c “ The territory, however, does not feed a sufficient number of 
 sheep, nor does it produce a supply of corn and oats adequate to the 
 local consumption.” 
 
 d “ Usines.” — Befort possesses forges and powder mills. (Vos- 
 gien.) — P. e “ Filature de coton” — cotton mill. f “ Filatures.” 
 
 s Subprefecture” — arrondissement. 
 
 h “Huningue,” Fr. — The population and also the names of the towns, 
 rivers, &c., in the eastern division of the department, including the ar- 
 rondissements of Altkirch and Colmar, as well as in the department of 
 the Lower Rhine, are German. 1 have in most instances preferred the 
 original German orthography of the names, giving the French in a 
 note. — P. ‘ “ Mulhouse,” Fr. — Muhlhausen, Germ. — P. 
 
 k “ — is the centre of manufacturing industry.” 
 
 1 “ Thirteen establishments for spinning wool and cotton ( filatures ,) 
 eleven manufactories of cloths, seventeen of muslins and cottons 
 ( cotonnades ,) and fifteen of printed goods ( toiles peintes,) besides 
 morocco works, tanneries and founderies.” 
 
 m “ — in its different manufacturing establishments (ateliers.)" 
 n Previous to the French revolution, Mulhausen constituted a 
 
 small republic, allied with Switzerland. It was originally a free town 
 of the German empire, but being threatened in its liberties by the 
 landgraves of Alsace, it formed an alliance of protection with the Swiss 
 cantons, in the fifteenth century. — P. 
 
 0 “ — from their manufactures ( fabriques .)” P “ Arrondissement." 
 
 “ Kayserberg” — Kaysersberg (Enc. Meth. Vosgien.) — Kaiser- 
 
 berg. — P. 
 
 r Ribeauviller, Ribeauville (Aim. Royal.) — Ribauvilliers (Enc. Meth. 
 Vosgien.) — Rappolzweiler (Germ. > — P. 
 
 5 “ Rouffach” — Ruffac (Enc. Meth.) — Rufach (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 1 “ Soultz” — Sulz (Germ.) — P. “ Gebweiler (Germ.) — P. 
 
 * “ Guebwiller, besides its cotton mills ( filatures ) and manufactories 
 of cotton stuffs (fabriques ties cotonnades,) possesses a sugar refinery, 
 and also manufactures nails and curry-combs.” 
 y “ Neuf-Brisach” — Neu Brisach (Germ.) — P 
 z Aroentovaria, Artzenheim. (D'Anv. Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 u “ Half a league from Colmar.” 
 i>b u No traces of the Roman period.” 
 cc “ More than 100,000 livres.” 
 
 dd “ it is the seat of a royal court ; its construction [that of the 
 edifice (palais)] is as beautiful, as its situation is commanding and 
 picturesque. The church of the Dominicans is the finest of its older 
 edifices, and its public library is one of the most important in the king- 
 dom; it contains more than 00,000 volumes.” 
 
hook cxlv.] DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 291 
 
 Schoen," the earliest engraver on metal, and Rewbell, one of 
 the members of the Directory, were hoin in Colmar. 
 
 Bounded, like the preceding, by the Rhine on the east, 
 and by a part of the chain of the Vosges on the west, the 
 department of the Lower Rhine is covered with hills, forests, 
 meadows, and fields of the greatest fertility. It joins to its 
 agricultural and mineral treasures, the wealth it derives from 
 different kinds of manufacturing industry, while its trade is 
 greatly promoted, by its numerous roads and navigable 
 water-courses. 
 
 Schelestat, b the first town beyond the territory of Colmar, 
 is situated on the banks of the 111.® The Vosges which 
 rise on the left, the ruins of ancient castles on different 
 heights, the vineyards that command many rich villages, the 
 forests on the right bank of the river, and the fruitful mead- 
 ows on the left, form a romantic landscape. The town, at 
 present the metropolis of a subprefecture, was formerly one 
 of the ten imperial cities in Alsace, and the third in point of 
 importance. The antiquity of Schelestat cannot be denied ; 
 long the principal city of the Tribocci, it bore in ancient 
 times the name of E/cebus, but although antiquaries assert 
 the contrary, it may be doubted that the neighbouring village 
 of Ell was so called from the ancient name of the tovvn. d 
 It was no mean place under the Carlovingians ; Charlemagne 
 and his court celebrated the festival of Christmas at Sche- 
 lestat in the year 776, and Charles the Fat chose it frequent- 
 ly for his residence. The decline of the town dates from 
 the tenth century ; it rose again into importance in the 
 course of the thirteenth, but it suffered much during the 
 thirty years’ war, and from that period until Alsace was 
 united to F ranee ; since the union it has continued to flour- 
 ish ; in 1802, the population amounted only to 5000; it is 
 now nearly double that number. Martin Bucer, one of the 
 ablest theologians in the cause of the reformation, was born 
 in Schelestat ; it was at the same place that the present 
 method of varnishing porcelain was invented.® The other 
 towns in the district 1 " of which it is the capital, may be brief- 
 ly mentioned. Barr, containing four thousand five hundred 
 persons, stands in a pleasant valley surrounded by vineyards. 
 Obernay,^ equal to it in the number of its inhabitants, is 
 situated at the base of Mount Holenburg, of which the sum- 
 mit is surmounted by the majestic ruins of the famous 
 monastery of St. Odile. Rosheim, h a town of three thou- 
 sand seven hundred persons, consists of a single street ; it 
 was formerly a free and imperial city. The village of 
 Klingenthal may be mentioned w'ith these towns on account 
 of the industry of its inhabitants, and also on account of a 
 royal armory, in which swords are made that rival any in 
 Syria. 1 
 
 a Martin Schoen, the earliest engraver on metal whose name we 
 are acquainted with, was born at Culmbach in Franconia, 1420, and 
 died at Colmar, 14S6. (Ed. Enc. art. Engraving. Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 b Schelestadt (Vosgien.) — Selestat, Scelestat and Schlestat (Enc. 
 Meth.) — The proper German orthography is Schlettstadt. — P. 
 
 c “ Schelestat is the first town that we pass through, after leaving 
 the territory of Colmar, in following the course of the 111.” — It is 
 situated on a canal that communicates with the 111. — P. 
 
 d “ In the time of the Romans, it was one of the principal cities of 
 the Tribocci, and bore the name of Elccbus* of which we find the 
 traces in the small village of Ell, situated at a short distance from its 
 walls.” 
 
 * Helcebus (Fill.) D’Anv. 
 
 c “ — that the method of glazing ( vernisser ) delft ( faience ) was in- 
 vented.” f “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 e Obernai (Aim. Royal.) — Oberehnheim or Obernay, situated near 
 the Ehn (Vosgien.) — Oberehenheim or Obernheim (Germ.) — P. 
 b “ Roshein.” 
 
 1 “ After these towns, all of which are engaged in manufacturing 
 industry, the village of Klingenthal may be mentioned for its royal 
 
 Mutzig and Molsheim, two small towns, each contain 
 about three thousand individuals ; the first is known for its 
 fire-arms, and the second for its excellent blades and steel ; 
 but we may leave these places on the left, and proceed to- 
 wards Strasburg.’ 1 The lofty hut light steeple of the 
 cathedral is seen from a great distance ; it rises to the height 
 of four hundred and thirty-six feet, and consequently is 
 higher than any other edifice in Europe ; indeed it is only 
 thirteen feet lower than the great pyramid in Egypt. The 
 cathedral may be considered a model of Gothic architecture ; 
 the clock that decorates the interior, is perhaps the most 
 complicated piece of machinery in France ;* * * it represents 
 the motions ol the constellations, and the planetary system. 
 Seven gates lead into Strasburg ; it is surrounded with 
 fortifications, and defended by a citadel, which was built 
 according to the plans of Vauban. It is traversed by the 
 111, over which there are several bridges built of wood. 1 " 
 The royal castle, at present the residence of the bishop," is 
 the finest edifice after the cathedral. The court of justice, 0 
 the town house, the prefect’s palace? and the new theatre are 
 not unworthy of so important a town. The church of St. 
 Thomas was built in the seventh century ; several elegant 
 mausoleums adorn the interior, of which the most remarkable 
 is that of Marshal Saxe, the work of Pigal. q The arsenal, a 
 large building, the barracks and the cannon foundery are 
 such as correspond with a fortified town of the first class. 
 The protestant academy" is one of the best in France, and 
 as a place of instruction it may rival the most celebrated in 
 Germany ; it possesses a good collection of philosophical 
 instruments, a museum of comparative anatomy, in which 
 all the articles are arranged according to the most approved 
 methods, a chemical laboratory and a valuable collection of 
 natural history. Each faculty has a separate library, but 
 there are besides two others in the city, one belonging to 
 the observatory, which contains a collection of antiquities, 
 and another open to the public, consisting of 55,000 vol- 
 umes ; in the last are preserved the sword of Kleber, and 
 the poniard of his assassin. 
 
 If it be recollected that the arts, sciences and letters have 
 been long cultivated at Strasburg, it need not excite surprise 
 that it has produced many eminent men. Kleber and 
 Kellermann have distinguished themselves in the military art, 
 Ramond in the physical sciences, Weyler and Manlich in 
 painting, and the virtuous pastor Oberlin, s by his enlightened 
 humanity. If we do not enter into any details concerning 
 the scientific and literary societies at Strasburg, it must not 
 be imagined that they are unworthy of notice, or that the 
 members who compose them are at all deficient in zeal and 
 knowdedge. The manner in which the charitable institutions 
 
 sword manufactory ( manufacture royale d’armes blanches,) in wliicu 
 damask blades ( dainas ) are wrought, that rival those of Syria.” 
 k “ Strasbourg.” 
 
 1 “ — is a work of surprising complexity.” 
 
 m There are eight bridges over the 111, two of which are of stone, 
 and also a large wooden bridge over the Rhine. (Bilsching.) — P. 
 
 » The episcopal palace, built in 1741 by Cardinal Rohan, is a mag- 
 nificent edifice. (BUsching.) — There is a royal palace ( maison royale) 
 at Strasburg. (Aim. Royal, 1822.) — P. 
 
 “ “ Palace (Palais) of Justice.” p “ Hotel de la prefecture.” 
 q J. B. Pigalle. (Beauvais. Diet. Hist. Caen, 1804.) — P. 
 r The Academy of Strasburg — formerly the University of Stras 
 burg, under the direction of the Lutherans. It at present consists of 
 five faculties, viz. : one of theology for the Confession of Augsburg 
 (Lutherans,) to which is attached a professorship of dogmatic theology 
 for the Calvinistic Confession ; one of law ; one of medicine, with 
 which is connected a special school of pharmacy ; one of the sciences 
 and one of letters. — P. 
 
 « Pastor of Waldbach, in the Ban de la Roche ( Steinthal , Stone Val 
 ley.)— P. 
 
 L 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 fliOOK CXLV 
 
 292 
 
 are managed, is most creditable to their directors ; the prison 
 discipline that was adopted eight years ago, ought to have 
 been imitated throughout France; if to effect the moral 
 improvement of the prisoners be the great object of prison 
 discipline, that object has been attained at Strasburg. a 
 
 The island of Robertsau b is the place of greatest resort in 
 the neighbourhood, it rises on the south-east of the town, 
 it is encompassed by the 111 and the Rhine. 0 A neat 
 village, several country houses and different works* * 1 * are situ- 
 ated on the island ; but the agreeable is also united with the 
 profitable, there are many fine gardens and walks shaded 
 with trees.® An obelisk to the memory of Kleber has been 
 erected on a piece of ground near the town, at present a 
 place for the exercise of artillery/ Another obelisk in hon- 
 our of Desaix rises behind the citadel, in the island opposite 
 the village of Kehl.s 
 
 Although the origin of Strasburg may be very un- 
 certain, still the name of Argentoratum , by which Ptole- 
 my designates it, h and which is derived from a Celtic 
 root, proves that it was anterior to the Roman conquest. 
 Drusus enlarged it and made it an important fortress ; much 
 about the same time, the arms and armour made at Stras- 
 burg were highly valued. 1 In the time of Julian, who de- 
 feated the Germans under its walls, and took their king 
 Chrodomaire prisoner, it was much frequented as furnishing 
 a convenient passage from Gaul into Germany ; from this 
 circumstance, it was called Strata-Burgus k in the fifth cen- 
 tury, whence the origin of its present name. 
 
 The inhabitants of provincial towns follow the fashions 
 of the capital ; it is not therefore in such places that one can 
 judge of a national costume. The peasants in the villages 
 between Strasburg and Haguenau go to mass or to the re- 
 formed church 1 in their best dresses. A square black coat 
 is purposely left open to show a red waistcoat with gilt but- 
 tons ; loose boots made of soft leather, or long gaiters are 
 attached to black rateen breeches ; a broad hat completes 
 the costume. 1 " The dress of the women has been thought 
 more graceful ; it is certainly more showy ; the hat does 
 not conceal floating ringlets or ribbons of various colours, 
 
 a “ The prison ( prison civile ,) in particular, has for the last eight years, 
 furnished a model which ought to be imitated throughout France, 
 above all for its complete success in the moral amelioration of the 
 prisoners.” b Ruprechtsau (Germ.) — Robert’s meadow (Eng.) — P. 
 
 c “ The first object which attracts attention, in a north-eastern* 
 direction from Strasburg, is the island of Robertsau, surrounded by the 
 111 and the Rhine.” 
 
 *This is the true direction. See Map accompanying Philippart’s Memoirs of 
 Moreau. — P. 
 
 d “ Usines.” 
 
 c “ Manufacturing establishments may be seen in every direction in 
 the vicinity of Strasburg, but in the island of Robertsau, the agreeable 
 is united with the useful ; the whole landscape has the appearance of 
 a beautiful English garden.” 
 
 i “ Near the town, and in the opposite direction [from that of Rob- 
 ertsau,] an obelisk in honour of Kleber rises in the midst of an open 
 space reserved for the exercise of artillery.” 
 
 e The promenades in this island are preferred to all others in the 
 vicinity of Strasburg. M. B. — P. 
 
 h — “ by which it was first designated by Ptolemy.” — Ptolemy is the 
 first author who makes mention of Strasburg. (Enc. Moth.) — P. 
 
 * “ The JVotitia Imperii informs us that it was celebrated for its 
 manufacture of arms.” 
 
 k Strateburgus (Bdsching.) — Lat. stratum, pin. strata, a paved street, 
 and burgus. German, strassc, a street, and burg, a castle or fortified 
 town. — P. 
 
 1 “ Preche” — meeting, either of the Lutherans or Calvinists, both of 
 whom prevail in Alsace. The term reformed church is applied to the 
 Calvinists in M. B. — P. 
 
 m “ The square open black coat of the men shows beneath it a red 
 vest with gilt buttons ; large soft boots or long gaiters fastened to black 
 rateen breeches, and a broad hat, complete the costume.” 
 
 but the latter are only worn by the young, never by married 
 women. Long gilt pins serve to fasten the hair, they rise 
 in the form of a coronet ; a black silk handkerchief covers 
 the breast ; the bodice is adorned with many ornaments, 
 broad sleeves of white linen descend to the wrist, the petti- 
 coat is made of green serge, and bordered with red ribbons." 
 
 Haguenau" contains several manufactories, and a popula- 
 tion of seven thousand five hundred individuals ; it was 
 founded by Frederick Barbarossa, and was included in the 
 number of the imperial cities in Alsace. The sandy lands 
 in the neighbourhood are very fruitful in madder, of which 
 more than 2,000,000 kilogrammes are annually sent to 
 different parts of France and England. 
 
 The small town of SaverneP is situated near the base and on 
 the lowest declivities of the Vosges; it is well built, and the 
 heights round it are planted with vineyards. The hill q that 
 bears its name, rises on the west, while on the southwest 
 are seen the ruins of Haut-Barr, a castle founded in the 
 twelfth century. Bouxviller r is commanded by a fine Gothic 
 castle, surrounded with agreeable walks ; it contains about 
 three thousand five hundred inhabitants, and is situated, 
 like the last, at the base of the mountains. 
 
 Two or three places may be mentioned in the most 
 northern district 3 of the Lower Rhine, which borders with 
 Rhenish Bavaria. Soultz sous Forets, 1 * * a town of two thou- 
 sand inhabitants, carries on a trade in the best wines that are 
 produced in the department ; coal mines and a saline spring, 
 that yields a great quantity of salt, are worked in the neigh- 
 bourhood." Seitz does not contain a greater population 
 than Soultz sous F orets, if it be better known, it may be 
 attributed to the gaseous and mineral water, of which more 
 than thirty thousand casks are annually consumed in Paris.* 
 Weissemburg or WissemburgJ a town on the Lauter, derives 
 the importance w T hich it possesses, from its position on the 
 northern frontier. Its fortifications have been celebrated in 
 the annals of war from the reign of Louis the F ourteenth to 
 the year 1815. The inhabitants carry on a trade in linen, 
 porcelain and leather ; the population has quadrupled since 
 the time that Alsace w T as united to France. 7 * 
 
 " “ The dress of the women is richer and more graceful. Their 
 headdress consists of a large straw hat, with a low crown, while float- 
 ing tresses, terminated by knots of ribbons, are worn only by the un- 
 married. I nstead of a hat, they often turn up their hair in the form of 
 a crown, and fasten it with long gilt pins ( fibches d'or.) A black silk 
 cravat falls over the breast. Their bodice ( corset ) is adorned in front 
 with golden ornaments and ribbons ; wide sleeves of fine white linen 
 are fastened at the wrist, where they terminate in plaited cuffs, and a 
 petticoat of green serge, bordered with a broad red ribbon, reaches only 
 to the middle of the leg, and shows a tight white stocking and a high 
 heeled shoe, fastened with a silver buckle.” 
 
 0 Hagenau (Germ.) — P. 
 
 p Zabern (Germ.)— called also Elsass-Zabern (Alsace Saverne,) to 
 distinguish it from Rhein-Zabern (Rhine-Saverne) in the former bish- 
 opric of Spire. — I*. 
 
 'i “ Cote” — ridge or long declivity. 
 
 r Bouxwiller (Aim. Royal.) — Bouxveiller (Vosgien.) — Bousseviller 
 (Enc. Meth.) — Bischweiler, Bilschweiler (Germ.) — P. 
 
 8 “ Arrondissement” — that of Weissemburg. 
 
 * Sulz-Unterwalden (Germ.) — P. 
 
 “ “ Soultz sous Forets is noted for its wines, which are esteemed the 
 best in the department, for its coal and bitumen, and particularly for 
 the salt spring worked in its .vicinity.” 
 
 * “ Seitz, a town equal in population to the preceding, possesses a 
 well known carbonated mineral spring ( source gazeuse,) from which 
 every year more than 30,000 bottles* of water are sent to Paris.” 
 
 * “ Cruchons de gres” — stone bottles or flasks. 
 
 y “ Weissembourg or Wissembourg,” Fr. — Weissenburg (Germ.) — P. 
 
 1 “ Its only manufactures are those of leather, linen ( toiles ) and 
 delft (faience,) but its commerce has always been flourishing since Al- 
 sace was united to France, and its population has nearly quadrupled ” 
 
hook cxLVi.i DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 293 
 
 BOOK CXLYI. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued. — Kingdom of France. — Fifth Section . — 
 Northern Region. 
 
 The twenty-one departments in the northern region are 
 formed by the ancient provinces of Lorraine, Champagne, 
 the Isle of France, a Normandy, Picardy, Flanders and 
 Artois. Education is more general, and wealth is more dif- 
 fused than in the rest of the kingdom ; the population rela- 
 tively to the surface is also greater, for the mean number of 
 inhabitants to every square league is nearly equal to one 
 thousand six hundred and forty. It surpasses the other 
 regions in the extent of the forests, in the number of horses 
 and oxen, in the industry of the inhabitants, and in tbe 
 amount of tbe revenue. 
 
 The department of the Moselle is contiguous on the north 
 to the possessions of Bavaria, Prussia and the Netherlands. 
 Its length from east to west is equal to thirty-nine leagues, 
 or to three times its greatest breadth from north to south. 
 Its territory, although uneven and woody, yields twice as 
 much corn as the inhabitants consume. It is well sup- 
 plied with horses, and if more attention were paid to the 
 breed, they might furnish a very valuable resource for the 
 light cavalry. Although many oxen are reared, they are 
 not sufficiently numerous ; it is however in the supply 
 of sheep, that the department is particularly defective. 
 The abundance of timber enables the inhabitants to carry 
 on many works or manufactories in which fuel is required, 
 and to derive a considerable profit from their iron mines. 
 The prosperity of the country may be attributed to the 
 extent of the roads and navigable rivers, and to the aptitude 
 for labour by which the lower orders (manufacturers -as well 
 as husbandmen) are distinguished. b Agriculture is general- 
 ly in a more advanced state than in the rest of France ; the 
 peasant, 0 as indefatigable in labour as he is brave in war, 
 adopts willingly every improvement, converts his old fallows 
 into artificial meadows, raises a great variety of products, 
 multiplies nurseries, and manages his fruit trees with much 
 intelligence ; the vineyards which he cultivates, particularly 
 those on the left bank of the Moselle, do not yield much 
 wine of a good quality, but it should be recollected that the 
 exportation of wine is not encouraged, and the petty propri- 
 
 a “ L’lle-de-France.” 
 
 b “ The abundance of wood, which furnishes the means of carrying 
 on a great many iron works ( usines ,) and of deriving a very considerable 
 profit from its iron mines ; the extent of its roads, the importance of 
 its navigable rivers, and the aptitude for labour, which may be re- 
 marked in all classes of its inhabitants, agricultural, manufacturing 
 and commercial, are the principal causes of its prosperity.” 
 
 0 “ Paysan messin.” — The country in the neighbourhood of Metz 
 was formerly called the Messin or the Pays Messin. — P. 
 
 d Bitche or Biche (Vosgien. Enc. Meth.) — Bitsch (Germ.) — P. 
 
 ‘ Saralbe (Vosgien.) 
 
 r “ 20,000 quintals.” 
 
 6 Sarguemines, Sarguemine (Vosgien.) — Saar-Gemtlnd (Germ.)-P. 
 
 etors do not think it worth while to substitute the best vines 
 of Burgundy for the inferior kinds of Lorraine. 
 
 Bitche, d situated at the foot of the western declivity of 
 the Vosges, contains tw T o thousand seven hundred inhabi- 
 tants ; it is considered a strong hold of the fourth class, and 
 is defended by an impregnable fortress on the summit of a 
 steep rock of red sandstone; the Prussians attempted in 
 vain to take it in the year 1792. Sarralbe e derives its name 
 from its situation at the confluence of the Albe and the 
 Sarre ; the number of inhabitants amounts to three thousand 
 three hundred ; the salt works in the neighbourhood yield 
 annually a thousand tons f of salt. Sarreguemines,? of which 
 the ancient German name, Gemunde, b signifies a river’s 
 mouth ( embouchure ,) is situated above the last mentioned 
 place, at the junction of the Sarre and the Blise. The popu- 
 lation has increased two-thirds since the year 1790.* * The 
 red porcelain made in the town, and generally used in the 
 department, and the snuff-boxes made in tbe neighbour- 
 hood are the principal articles of trade ; the yearly sale of 
 the latter is supposed to produce a sum almost equal to 
 £42,000. k The houses are well built; a broad street ex- 
 tends through the whole length of the town, and terminates 
 at the bridge over the Sarre. The road that communicates 
 with the same bridge, leads to Forbach, a small town of 
 three thousand inhabitants ; it was there that Charles the 
 Fifth encamped in 1552, when he determined to risk his 
 military glory before the ramparts of Metz. In this town, 
 which is situated at the foot of a hill, in an agreeable plain, 
 a custom-house is established. 
 
 Bouzonville is the most important place in the country 
 between Forbach and Thionville; the latter town was 
 founded in the eighth century as a strong hold, it belongs 
 to the third class ; part of the ramparts were constructed by 
 the Spaniards, from whom it was taken by Condc after the 
 battle of Rocroy. The riding-school is perhaps the finest 
 building, but there are few edifices of any consequence ; the 
 wooden br idge, more remarkable for its clumsy shape than 
 any thing else, is mentioned as a wonder both by ancient and 
 modern geographers, — it can certainly be quickly taken to 
 pieces in a case of emergency.'" The population of the 
 
 11 Gcmund (Enc. Meth.) — Gcmilnd (Germ.) — P. 
 
 * “ In 1790, its population was only two-thirds (dcs deux tiers ) of 
 irhat it is at present.” 
 
 k “ Its red pottery (faience,) which is widely circulated, and the paper 
 snuff-boxes (de ■pdtc de carton) manufactured in its neighbourhood, 
 are its principal articles of commerce ; the sale of the latter forms 
 an annual amount of nearly 800,000 francs.” 
 
 1 “ Its origin does not date from an earlier period than the eighth 
 century.” 
 
 m “ The riding-school is the only remarkable edifice ; the wooden 
 bridge, mentioned as a wonder in all the older and more recent geogra- 
 phies, has nothing to compensate for its ugliness, but the facility with 
 i which it may be taken to pieces in case of emergency.” 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLVI. 
 
 294 
 
 town, now the capital of a district,® is ten times greater than 
 when it was united to France by the treaty of 1G59. The 
 village of Cattenom is situated about two leagues below 
 Thionville, on the left bank of the Moselle ; it is the place 
 where the greatest cattle fair in the department is annually 
 held. b Sierck® on the banks of the same river, may be 
 about two leagues and a half distant from the village ; d it 
 stands at the foot of a rock, on the summit of which rises 
 a strong castle. It carries on a trade in different manufac- 
 tures ; the stones which are obtained from a neighbouring 
 quarry, are used in paving the streets of Metz and Nancy. 6 
 
 Longwy/ situated to the west of Sierck, and like the 
 latter, not more than half a league from the frontier, contains 
 hardly three thousand inhabitants, but is divided into an 
 upper and lower town.? The first stands on a rock, and 
 was fortified by Vauban ; the second occupies the site of an 
 ancient fortress, where many Roman medals have been at 
 different times discovered. There is reason to believe that 
 the same place was the station of a Roman camp, it bore 
 the name of Longus Vicus during the middle ages. h Brie, 
 the capital of the district, is a very insignificant town, con- 
 sisting of steep streets on the declivity of a hill which rises 
 above a fruitful and well wooded valley, watered by the 
 Voigot, a small river. 1 * 
 
 The most frequented road to the ancient capital of 
 Lorraine, k is not considered the best approach ; to judge 
 favourably of it, one must descend from the neighbour- 
 ing heights to the village of Rozerieulles, which is con- 
 cealed in a narrow valley, and surrounded by orchards 
 and vineyards. 1 The Moselle winds below the village, 
 waters fruitful meadows, and divides itself into several 
 branches which give perhaps a more imposing appearance 
 to the formidable fortifications of Metz. m The court of 
 justice," a white building, seen to most advantage from a dis- 
 tance, forms a quadrangular mass near the lofty trees on the 
 glacis, 0 the finest walk in the town. The blackness of the 
 cathedral contrasts well with the general colour of the 
 houses ; it may be admired also on account of a light and 
 bold steeple, not less than a hundred and forty-five feet above 
 the ground, and surrounded with others of a smaller size.? 
 
 a “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 b “ Its cattle fair is the most important in the country.” 
 c Sirck, Sirque, Sierck or Sierques. (Enc. Meth.) 
 d “ Two leagues beyond the village, the small town of Sierck rises 
 on the banks of the Moselle.” — Sierck is 4 leagues N. E. of Thionville, 
 on the eastern bank of the Moselle. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 e “ It has several manufactories, and supplies Metz and Nancy with 
 excellent paving stones from a rock of ferruginous quartz ( quarzite 
 ferrugineuz) in the neighbourhood.” 
 
 f Longui (Vosgien.) — Lonwic; in modern Latin, Longus Vicus. 
 (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 % Old and new town — the latter was built by Louis XIV. after the 
 peace of Nimeguen, and strongly fortified in the style of Vauban. 
 (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 h “ In the second, there was formerly a fortress, on the site of which 
 Roman medals have been often discovered. The public square is large 
 and regular. There is reason to believe that Longwy, which in the 
 middle ages bore the name of Longus Vicus, occupies at present the site 
 of a Roman camp.” 
 
 • “ Although a small town, and noted only for its bacon and hams, 
 it [Longwy] is much more important than Briey, its capital ;* * * the latter 
 consists of narrow streets, situated on the declivity of a steep hill, which 
 commands a pleasant valley bordered with woods and watered by the 
 small river Voigot.” 
 
 ♦Capital of tile arrondissement, in which Longwy is situated. — P. 
 
 k “ Pays Messin.” — Nancy was considered the capital of Lorraine. — P. 
 i u We shall not follow the most frequented road that leads from Briey 
 to Metz, formerly the capital of the Pays Messin. In order to judge fa- 
 vourably of the latter town, it is necessary to descend into its beautiful 
 valley ( bassin ) by the zig-zag road that leads from the highest plateau 
 
 The heavy modern portal is not in harmony with the grace- 
 ful Gothic architecture of the building; the nave is not less 
 than 363 feet in length and 73 in breadth. When the 
 great bell, called the Mutte, is rung, all the steeples are per- 
 ceptibly shaken. 
 
 Near the village of Longeville, where the waters of the 
 Moselle are confined by a dike, and form a cascade, that of 
 Ars sur Moselle is situated at the foot of the heights last 
 mentioned ; it contains two paper mills, a velvet and cloth 
 manufactory N Its name, derived from the Latin word Arx, 
 indicates the site of a Roman fortress. The remains of an 
 ancient aqueduct may be observed in the neighbourhood ; 
 pillars are seen in the vineyards and on the river, they extend 
 along the right bank to the village of Jouy, and support 
 the majestic arcades that the country people call the Devil’s 
 Bridge, J This aqueduct, it is supposed, was the work of 
 Drusus ; it supplied the baths and the naumachia of Divo- 
 durum, a city of the Mediomatrici , which in the time of the 
 Roman empire was called Metis, and afterwards corrupted 
 into Metz. 3 An ancient bath of red porphyry, an admira- 
 ble work of art, and much larger than any in the Louvre, 1 
 is preserved in the cathedral, where it is used as a baptis- 
 mal font. Roman tombs have been discovered at different 
 periods near the site of the former citadel, particularly at 
 the time when the building was pulled down in order that the 
 public walk might be enlarged and completed. Ruins attest 
 the past splendour of Metz, but the ancient edifices have 
 been destroyed by time and barbarians ; it might be difficult 
 to recognise the place from the pompous panegyric of Auso- 
 nius, which has been engraved below the peristyle of the 
 townhouse." 
 
 Metz was the capital of Austrasia, a country of which 
 Thierry was the first king. Louis the Debonnaire died 
 there in the year 810, and the body of that unfortunate 
 prince was deposited within the church of St. Arnoult, 1 then 
 in the suburbs, but now in the town. It became a free and 
 imperial city during the reign of Otho the Second ; it reach- 
 ed the height of its prosperity about the end of the fourteenth 
 century. It maintained long and bloody wars against differ- 
 ent sovereigns, and even many princes solicited the honour 
 
 in its neighbourhood, to the pleasant village of Rozerieulles, which is 
 concealed in a narrow pass, covered with orchards and vineyards.” 
 m “ At the foot of this descent, we perceive the Moselle winding in 
 the midst of beautiful meadows, and afterwards dividing into several 
 branches, which render the imposing fortifications of Metz still more 
 formidable.” n ‘ Palace of justice.” 0 “Esplanade.” 
 
 p “ The cathedral, whose dark hue forms a striking contrast with the 
 general colour of the other buildings, rises on the left of the court of 
 justice ( palais de justice,) and is crowned with a light and lofty spire, 
 not less than 345 feet in height, and surrounded by others, wrought in 
 open work in the form of obelisks.” 
 
 <i “ — two paper mills, a manufactory of velvet, and one of cloth for 
 the army.” 
 
 r “ The pillars that rise in the vineyards, and which form obstructions 
 ( ccueils ) in the midst of the river, are continued on the right bank in ma- 
 jestic arcades, as far as the village of Jouy,* the inhabitants of which 
 give to these ruins the name of the Devil’s Bridge ( Pont-du-Diahlc.)\ ” 
 ♦Jouy aux Arches. t Pont Jouy, an aqueduct built by the 
 
 Romans, crossing I lie Moselle between Metz and Pont & Mousson. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 8 “ — which the JVotitia Imperii mentions by the name of Metis, the 
 origin of that of Metz.” 
 
 1 It is ten feet long, four broad, and three and a half in depth. 
 
 u “ Many Roman tombs were discovered when the citadel was erected, 
 but they were buried again in its massive walls ; when the remains of 
 
 this fortress were destroyed, a few years since, for the purpose of en- 
 larging the public walk (promenade ,) they were again discovered, but 
 suffered to be buried anew, by the public authorities. The shafts of 
 many granite columns, now used for guard posts (homes,) are the re- 
 mains of sumptuous edifices which have been destroyed by decay and 
 violence. Ausonius, in some of his verses which have been engraved 
 below the peristyle of the townhouse, gives a pompous eulogiuui of the 
 ancient city.” * St. Arnold. 
 
book cxiiVi.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 of being enrolled among the number of its citizens. It was 
 added to the dominions of Henry the Second by the in- 
 trigues and address of the constable Montmorency. The 
 duke of Guise compelled Charles the Fifth to retire from 
 its walls, after he had attacked it with an army of more than 
 a hundred thousand men. Although very populous in pro- 
 portion to its size, it is much less so than when it was inde- 
 pendent. 3 
 
 The improvements made in the city, the number of broad 
 streets that have been built in modern times, b the quarter of 
 St. Thiebaud, c the large barracks, the arsenal, the military 
 hospital, the royal college, the church of St. Vincent, of 
 which the portal is adorned with a triple row of columns, the 
 new market-house, the theatre and five spacious squares 
 render Metz worthy of being ranked among the best built 
 towns in France. The public library consists of thirty-six 
 thousand volumes ; the places connected with education are 
 a school of artillery and fortification, an academy of com- 
 merce and drawing, schools of arithmetic and geometry in 
 its application to the arts, and lastly, an institution where 
 lectures are delivered on natural philosophy and chemistry. 
 Much certainly has been done for the intellectual improve- 
 ment of the inhabitants since the time of Voltaire but the 
 philosopher condemned Metz, because when he happened 
 to pass through it, he saw only one bookseller’s shop, and 
 read the signs of several confectioners and pastry-cooks. 
 Among the charitable institutions are an orphan-hospital and 
 a gratuitous school for the Jews. The citizens refused a 
 passage to the allied forces when they left the French ter- 
 ritory, and the troops had to cross the Moselle on a bridge 
 which was built for the purpose below the ramparts. A for- 
 eign flag had never been seen within the walls in time of war, 
 — such a spectacle was thought disgraceful in time of peace.* 1 
 
 The country through which the Meuse flows from south- 
 east to northwest,® is intersected in the same direction by 
 long fruitful valleys, and by lofty ridges/ where the air is 
 cold but wholesome. The lands are well wooded, and yield 
 plenty of grain, and the neighbourhood of Bar is noted for 
 its wine ; the inhabitants rear many horses, but the number of 
 other domestic animals might be increased with advantage. 
 
 Leaving the ancient province of Lorraine, s we may cross 
 
 OF FRANCE. 295 
 
 the heights that rise above the right bank of the Meuse/ and 
 arrive at Etain, 1 the first town in the department ; e it contains 
 three thousand inhabitants ; it is well built, but ill situated in 
 a marshy plain on the banks of the Qrnes, a river abound- 
 ing with fish. k 
 
 The ramparts of Verdun 1 are seen at no great distance 
 from Etain. Iron and glass-works, paper-mills and manu- 
 factories are situated in the neighbourhood : m the town rises 
 on both banks of the Meuse ; the houses are very well built, 
 but the streets which descend rapidly towards the river, are 
 paved with sharp stones, as inconvenient for foot passengers 
 as for carriages. The horse barracks" and the ancient epis- 
 copal palace are the finest buildings, indeed there are no 
 others of any consequence in the place. Verdun is men- 
 tioned in the Itinerary of Antonine under the name of Viro- 
 dunum. 0 A road along the banks of the Meuse leads to 
 Stenay, a pleasantly situated town of three thousand inhab- 
 itants, formerly a stronghold, and which still possesses very 
 large barracks. Montmedy/ although ill built and inferior 
 in population, is more important as a fortified town and as the 
 metropolis of a district.* 1 If the inhabitants are poor, it may 
 be attributed to the want of commerce and industry . r 
 
 Bar, one of the three cities of the same name in France, 
 and the chief town in the department, is watered by the Ornain. 
 It was formerly called Bar le Due, 3 because it was the capi- 
 tal of a dutchy which made up the small country of Bar- 
 rois. The town was founded in the tenth century by Fred- 
 erick, duke of Mosellabe/the brother-in-law of Hugh Capet. 
 It is supposed that on an average fifty thousand kilogrammes" 
 of cotton are annually manufactured at Bar ; that branch of 
 industry, the numerous iron works, the conveyance of the 
 timber which is obtained from the neighbouring forests, and 
 the transport of wines, account for the activity that prevails 
 in the harbour. x Four leagues above Bar, the Ornain 
 
 flows below the small but neat town of Ligny. 
 
 The other places that remain to be described in the de- 
 partment, are situated in the fruitful valley of the Meuse. 
 St. Millie]/ a town of five thousand inhabitants, was formerly 
 fortified, but the danger to which Louis the Thirteenth was 
 exposed when he besieged it, induced him to raze the forti- 
 fications. It is pleasantly situated, the river passes below 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 a It contained in the year 71 of the vulgar era . . 8,000 
 
 “ about the end of the fourteenth century . 60,000 
 
 “ in the year 1698 . . . 22,000 
 
 “ “ “ “ 1741 . . . 30,000 
 
 “ “ “ “ 1789 . . . 36,000 
 
 “ “ “ “ 1600 . . . 32,000 
 
 “ “ “ “ 1802 . . . 34,000 
 
 “ “ “ “ 1814 . . . 41,000 
 
 “ “ “ “ 1827 . . . 45,000 
 
 b “ The number of broad streets that have been substituted for those 
 which were narrow and crooked.” c St. Theobald. 
 
 d “ Its library which consists of 36,000 volumes, its important spe- 
 cial school of artillery and engineering, its schools of commerce and 
 design, its courses of instruction in arithmetic, geometry applied to the 
 arts, mechanics, physics, chemistry and midwifery, its society of medi- 
 cine, and that of sciences, arts and letters, together with its benevo- 
 lent associations, such as that of maternal charity, that of arts and 
 trades for the Jews, and that of mutual relief for the working classes, 
 all combine to prove that this city has made great progress in intelli- 
 gence, since the period when Voltaire, in passing through it, was 
 astonished to find only a single bookseller’s shop in the midst of a crowd 
 of pastry-cooks and confectioners. Metz has shown its patriotism in 
 refusing a passage to the allied armies, when they retired from the ter- 
 ritory of France. A bridge was ordered to be erected beneath its ram- 
 parts, by which they crossed the Moselle, and thus the city, which had 
 never seen a foreign plume within its walls, was preserved from the 
 disgrace of such a spectacle even in time of peace. Nothing less could 
 have been expected from the birthplace of Fabert,Custineand Lassalle.”* 
 •Distinguished French generals; the first under Louis XIV; the two latter during 
 the wars of the revolution. — P. 
 
 • The department of the Meuse f “Elevated plateaus.” 
 
 s “The Pays Messin.”— The former province of Lorraine included 
 the present departments of the Moselle, the Meuse, the Meurthe, and 
 the Vosges. — P. 
 
 h “ The plateau that extends along the right bank of the Meuse.” 
 
 > Estain ; Lat. Stagnum. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 k “ Noted for the fine quality of its fish and craw-fish.” 
 
 1 The birthplace of the illustrious Chevert.* M. B. 
 
 •A general distinguished for his bravery, during the reign of Louis XV - P 
 m “ Numerous forges, glass works and paper-mills are situated in 
 its neighbourhood, and in its interior are a great number of confection- 
 ers and distillers.” n “ The new barracks for cavalry.” 
 
 0 Vcrodunum. (D’Anv. Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 p Mont-Medi ; Lat. Mons Mcdius. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 a “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 r “ It is situated a league from the frontier, has little commerce, and 
 is without manufactures.” 
 
 s It is now called Bar sur Ornain, from its position on the river 
 Ornain, in order to distinguish it from the two other towns of the same 
 name, viz : Bar sur Seine and Bar sur Aube. — P. 
 
 1 Mosellane (Lorraine.) Moreri. Enc. Meth. — P. 
 
 u The kilogramme is equal to 21b. 5oz. 3dr. Avoirdupois. Tr. 
 [The kilogramme is equal to 21b. 3oz. 4.8dr. avoirdupois. (Rees’ 
 Cyc.)— P.] 
 
 * “ Its sweetmeats (confitures) are celebrated for their delicacy ; its 
 numerous spinning mills (filatures) prepare annually about 500,1*00 
 kilogrammes of cotton ; that branch of industry, together with the ex- 
 portation of its wines, of the iron from the forges in its vicinity, and of 
 the timber ( planches , boards and planks) from the neighbouring forests, 
 render the trade of its small port very active.” 
 
 y St. Miel, St. Mihel, St. Michel. (Enc. Meth.) — St. Mihuel 
 (Hubner .) — Sancti Michaelis Fanum (Lat.) — P. 
 
296 EUROPE. [book cxlvi. 
 
 well wooded banks, cultivated fields and hills covered with 
 vineyards. A monument, that judges are likely to appre- 
 ciate, may be seen within the modest cemetery of the parish 
 church ; it is a sepulchre made from a single block of gran- 
 ulated limestone, white as marble ; thirteen figures indicate 
 the hand of a master from the simple way in which they are 
 grouped, as well as by their finished workmanship ; they are 
 attributed to Legier-Michier, a pupil of Michael Angelo.® 
 Commercy, a neat town on the same river, encompassed 
 by a forest through which a road has been made, is situated 
 at the distance of four leagues above St. Mihiel. b The 
 Meuse leads also to Vaucouleurs, which derives its name 
 from the verdant meadows enamelled with flowers, that adorn 
 the valley in which it is situated. The town contains two 
 thousand souls, and is built-in the form of an amphitheatre; 
 a small canal supplied by the Meuse and the fountain of 
 Vaise, serves to augment the trade of the inhabitants, which 
 consists chiefly in leather and cotton stuffs. 0 It was the birth- 
 place of the Abbe L’Advocat, who published a geographi- 
 cal dictionary under the feigned name of Vosgien. d 
 
 It is necessary to ascend the Meuse the distance of four 
 leagues, to visit the village where the heroine of the fifteenth 
 century was born. Domremy la Pucelle* * * rises in a valley 
 embellished by the windings of the river. These verdant 
 meadows, these hills covered with pastures, were the places 
 where the young Joan of Arc f tended her flocks; her days 
 were spent in solitude and in peace until she left her rural 
 labours, and led the French to victory after they had been 
 disheartened by defeat. The house in which she was born, 
 stands near the church ; it may be easily discovered by a 
 Gothic door that supports three scutcheons, adorned with the 
 fleur-de-lyss, and a statue, in which she is represented in full 
 armour. In the year 1818, a Prussian count wished to 
 purchase the statue from the proprietor of this ancient abode ; 
 on his refusal to part with it, he was offered six thousand 
 francs for the house ; but the Frenchman unwilling to sell it 
 to a foreigner, ceded it to the department for a third part of 
 the sum. The house of Joan of Arc thus became national 
 property, and the former owner was decorated with the cross 
 of the Legion of Honour, as a reward for his patriotism. 
 Louis the Eighteenth granted the village' 1 twelve thousand 
 
 a “ Its picturesque situation is not the only motive which induces the 
 stranger to visit it. It contains within the humble walls of its parish 
 church, a specimen of sculpture worthy the admiration of connoisseurs. 
 It is a holy sepulchre,* formed of a single block of stone of the grain 
 and whiteness of marble, and adorned with thirteen figures, which by 
 the simplicity of their arrangement and the finish of their execution, 
 announce the hand of a master. It is the work of Ligier-Michier, a 
 pupil of Michael Angelo.” 
 
 * “ Saint-sepulchre” — a sepulchre of the Saviour. 
 
 b “ Commercy, a pleasant town on the Mouse, is situated at the dis- 
 tance of four leagues above St. Mihiel. Its streets are perfectly straight, 
 and one of them leads to the forest which surrounds the town. It con- 
 tains a fine castle built by Cardinal de Retz, and since converted into 
 barracks for cavalry.” 
 
 c “A small canal, fed by the Meuse and the fountain of Vaise, serves to 
 supply its tanneries and its manufactories of cotton stuffs (colonnades.)" 
 
 d J. B. Ladvocat, professor at the Sorbonne. The best edition of 
 his geographical dictionary is that of Letronne, Paris, 1813. (Beauvais.)- 
 The edition referred to by me, is that of Morel, Paris, 1813. — P. 
 
 c Domremi. (Beauvais.)— This and the following towns are situated 
 m the department of the Vosges. — P. f Jeanne d’Arc. 
 
 s The Maid of Orleans, when she took arms against the English, 
 carried on her banner a sword surmounted by a crown. This, with the 
 addition of a fleur-de-lys, the king of France afterwards assigned as 
 arms to her brothers, who were ennobled, by letters patent, in the year 
 1421), and took the name of Du Lys. (Ed. Encyc. art. Heraldry.) — P. 
 h “ Commune.” “ “ Communes.” 
 
 k “ The house was rebuilt according to the original plan ; a fine pic- 
 ture, the gift of the king, decorates the interior; the public square was 
 embellished with a regular plantation of poplars, in the midst of which 
 a fountain was erected, consisting of four pilasters supported by a quad- 
 
 francs to erect a monument to the memory of Joan, eight 
 thousand to found a school of mutual instruction, for tlx 1 
 education of young girls in Domremy and the neighbouring 
 hamlets, 1 and eight thousand besides as a fund for the support 
 of a sister of charity to teach the school. The house, which 
 had almost fallen into decay, was lately rebuilt, but the origi- 
 nal plan has not been altered ; a fine painting, the gift of the 
 king, decorates the principal room. The market-place is 
 surrounded with poplar trees, and watered by a fountain, 
 of which the quadrangular base supports four pilasters 
 crowned with an entablature and a double pediment, beneath 
 them is placed a statue of the Maid, which was also the gift 
 of royalty. 10 The inscription on this monument: To the 
 memory of Joan of Arc, 1 may recall the simple habits of the 
 person it is intended to commemorate. 111 
 
 The burgh of Grand, about three leagues on the west of 
 Domremy, stands on the site of an ancient city, and at no 
 great distance from it are the remains of a large amphithea- 
 tre ; the inhabitants carry on a trade in hard-wares. n The 
 neat town of Neuf-Chateau, 0 the capital of a subprefecture , p 
 is situated in the midst of high hills at the confluence of the 
 Mouzon and the Meuse. Mirecourt, also a chief town, 1 * is 
 watered by the Modon ; it bore the name of Mercurii Curtis 
 in the Latin of the middle ages ; it does not exhibit, however, 
 any traces of antiquity. It is for the most part ill-built, but 
 the neighbouring country is fruitful and well cultivated ; the 
 trade of the inhabitants consists chiefly in lace/ Contrexe- 
 ville, a small village encompassed by the waters of the Vair, 
 which divides itself into two branches, is noted on account 
 of a medicinal spring to which many persons afflicted with 
 obstructions resort ; more than four thousand bottles of the 
 water are annually sent to Paris. 
 
 Ramberviller or Rambervillers 5 carries on a great trade in 
 hops ; l the inhabitants are wealthy and industrious ; their 
 number amounts to not less than five thousand ; there is a 
 public library in the town, consisting of ten thousand volumes. 
 It is the last place of any consequence in the lower region 
 of the department of the Vosges. The lofty region is form- 
 ed by a series of rounded summits with gentle declivities, 
 very different in appearance from the heights that extend 
 on the side of Alsace." There are no old castles associated 
 
 rangular base, and crowned with an entablature and a double pediment, 
 beneath the last of which is a bust of the heroine, also granted by the 
 royal munificence.” “A la. memmre dc Jeanne d’Arc." 
 
 m M. le Baron Charles Dupin, Forces productives et commerciales de 
 la France, tome i. page 202. 
 
 n “ The small town (bourg) of Grand, three leagues to the west of 
 Domremy, contains five large nail manufactories; it stands on the site 
 of an ancient city, where the remains of an amphitheatre may still 
 be distinguished.” 0 Neufchateau, Neuchateau. 
 
 p — and the birthplace of one *who holds a distinguished rank among 
 the authors and statesmen of his country. M. B. 
 
 * Count Francois de Neufchateau, member of the Academie Francoise. — P 
 
 <1 The capital of a subprefecture or arrondissement. 
 
 r “ It contains several lace manufactories, and fabricates an immense 
 quantity of hand-organs (orgues.) serinettes, and stringed instru- 
 ments.” — It is noted for its wine and brandy, and for its manufactures of 
 lace, serinettes and musical instruments. (Vosgien.) — It manufactures 
 lace, turlutaines and excellent violins. (Enc. Meth.) — Scrinette, a bird 
 organ, from serin, a canary-bird. — Turlutaine, also a bird organ, from 
 turlutte, a lark (Diet, de Trevoux.) — P. s Rambervilliers. (Vosgien.) 
 
 1 “ Centre d une grande culture de houblon” — hops are extensively 
 cultivated in its neighbourhood. — P. 
 
 u “ The mountainous region exhibits in its whole extent that series 
 of summits, which from their rounded forms and gentle declivities, have 
 been called the Ballons (balls or balloons ;) but its appearance is en- 
 
 tirely different from that presented by the same chain* on the side of 
 
 Alsace.” — The broken summits along the eastern line of the Vosges 
 are primitive, containing remarkable deposits of specular iron at Fra- 
 mont, of fiuor spar at Giromagny, and of galena in granite at La Croix. 
 The rounded summits on the west are secondary. — V. 
 
 * The chain of the Vosges. 
 
BOOK CXLVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 297 
 
 with different periods of the middle ages, but scenery con- 
 stantly varied, and landscapes not unlike those in Switzerland, 
 although on a much smaller scale. The mountains abound 
 in iron, copper and lead ; a these metals are a source of 
 wealth to the inhabitants, and numerous works are set in 
 motion by the streams which descend from almost all the 
 heights. b Thus, although the products are different, the 
 two regions are equally favoured by nature ; the plains and 
 low valleys yield as much corn as the inhabitants require, 
 and a surplus quantity of oats equal to 1,800,000 bushels;' 
 it might be inferred from so great an excess that there were 
 not many horses in the country ; the contrary, however, is 
 the fact, for in proportion to the surface, it contains twice as 
 many as the mean number in other departments. The same 
 remark may be applied to the number of oxen, but little 
 attention is bestowed on the breeding of sheep ; it appears, 
 indeed, that there is not a tenth part of the average quantity 
 in the country. 11 * 1 * * * * * * 8 
 
 Epinal 0 is situated at the foot of the Vosges, and is water- 
 ed by the Moselle, which divides it into two equal parts ; 
 walks shaded by trees extend on both banks of the river ; 
 the town was formerly fortified, but the ruins of an old castle 
 are all that remain of the ramparts/ Although ill peopled, 
 it contains different places of education, a collection of 
 antiquities, and a library of more than seventeen thousand 
 volumes.® 
 
 The small town of Remiremont 11 rises on the left bank of 
 the Moselle, above Epinal ; it stood on the opposite bank 
 about the beginning of the tenth century, but its position was 
 changed on account of the devastations that were committed 
 by the Hungarian invaders. * 1 The name of Remiremont is 
 derived from a mountain that commanded the ancient site, 
 and on which count Romaric built the castle of Romari- 
 mont. k The same powerful and rich lord, despising the 
 vanities of this world, founded there two convents in the 
 
 “■ “ These mountains contain iron, copper, and particularly lead, all 
 of them more or less abundantly disseminated.” 
 
 b “ — which issue from the base of nearly all these mountains” — a 
 trait peculiar to limestone formations. — P. 
 
 c “ — to more than 600,000 hectolitres” — 1,458,600 bushels nearly. 
 The hectolitre is equal to 2.431 standard English bushels nearly. — P. 
 
 d “ Notwithstanding the great surplus of oats produced in the de- 
 partment, it rears twice the mean number of horses in the other depart- 
 ments, and a still greater number of other domestic animals ( bestiaux , 
 cattle,) with the exception, however, of sheep, which are ten times less 
 numerous than on an average in the rest of France.” 
 
 Espinal (Enc. Meth.) 
 
 f “ Pleasant walks ( promenades ) surround it and border the banks 
 of the Moselle, by which it is divided into two unequal parts, both of 
 them containing several straight and well built streets. It was former- 
 ly fortified, but its ramparts have been demolished, and there only 
 remains at present the ruins of its ancient castle.” 
 
 s “ — several establishments for public instruction, a museum, and a 
 library of 17,000 volumes.” 
 
 h Romarici Mons, in the Latin of the middle ages. Rumelsberg or 
 Romberg, in German. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 1 Remiremont was formerly situated on the east side of the Moselle, 
 on a mountain where Count Romaric had a castle. But this place was 
 entirely ruined at the commencement of the tenth century, by the 
 Hungarians or new Huns, who having passed the Rhine during the 
 reign of Lewis the son of Arnold ( Jirnou ,) laid waste the country.* It 
 was then transferred to its present site in the plain on the west bank 
 of the river. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 * The kingdom of Germany, under Lewis the son of Arnulf,f was invaded by the 
 Huns, who seized and settled on those extensive provinces on the Danube to which 
 they gave the name of Hungary. (Rankin’s Hist, of France, vol. II. p. 1 17.) — About 
 the year 9!)0 the Hungarians, who were in possession of Transylvania, by the res 
 sion of the late emperor (Arnold,) invaded Bavaria with great cruelty. The duke 
 of Bavaria raised an army to oppose them, and, indeed, defeated them ; but five 
 years afterwards, they renewed their invasions with the same barbarity as before. 
 The emperor (Lewis IV.) then took arms, but was defeated at Augsbulg by the 
 barbarians. (Guthrie and Gray’s Hist, of the World, vol. viii. pace 3t>7.) — These in- 
 vaders were the present Hungarians ( Magyars ,) who invaded the country on the 
 Upper Theiss, in Eastern Hungary, about the year 8S4. (Malte-Brun, tome VI. p. 
 385.) They even penetrated, during their incursions, into the mountains of Swit- 
 zerland, where they are still called Saracens in the traditions of the country. 
 
 Sitnond’s Travels in Switzerland.) The proper Huns under Attila entered France, 
 VOL. Ill— NO. 51 38 
 
 year 620, the one for men and the other for women, to 
 which he bequeathed all his wealth ; his liberality was re- 
 warded with the title of saint. One of these convents, the 
 abbey of lady canonesses, as it was afterwards called, be- 
 came in time very celebrated. 1 The inmates were not 
 required to take an oath, they enjoyed many privileges ; m 
 the abbess was entitled a princess of the Holy Empire ; on 
 occasions of ceremony she was preceded by a seneschal, 
 who held her crosier, and followed by a lady of honour, 
 who carried her mantle. It was customary for the same 
 person to review the burgesses, and to present them with 
 colours ; other prerogatives which are only conferred on 
 sovereigns, were attached to the office." Plombieres, a 
 small place in the neighbourhood, noted for its mineral 
 waters," is indebted to king Stanislaus for an hospital and a 
 large church. The village of Bussang near the sources of 
 the Moselle, is also well known for its cold mineral waters, 
 of which more than two hundred thousand bottlesf are 
 annually sent into different parts of France. The finest cas- 
 cade in the Vosges is situated at an equal distance from 
 Epinal and Remiremont, near the village of Tendon ; it 
 falls from the height of a hundred and twenty-five feet. 
 
 The small town of St. Die or St. Diey/ the capital of a 
 subprefecture, and the seat of a bishopric that was erected 
 about fifty years ago/ possesses little or nothing of any con- 
 sequence ; it is regularly built and encompassed with walls/ 
 and is situated on the banks of the Meurthe. The best 
 cheeses in the Vosges are made in the neighbourhood, but 
 the greatest number are exported from Gerardmer or Ge- 
 rome, a burgh of five thousand inhabitants, situated in a very 
 romantic part of the country ; Lac-Blanc and Lac-Noir, 
 the lakes of Longemer and Retournemer may be seen in 
 the vicinity, but the Gerardmer, the largest of any, covers 
 a surface of nearly a hundred acres, and gives birth to the 
 Valogne, a feeder of the Moselle/ 
 
 A. D. 450, and even laid siege to Orleans, hut were entirely defeated in a sanguina- 
 ry battle, near Chalons in Champagne— P. 
 
 ) Died Jan. 21, 912. (Guthrie and Gray. vol. viii. p. 388.) — P. 
 
 k “ On which a certain count Romaric possessed a castle called 
 Romarimont.” 
 
 1 “ The most celebrated of these two abbeys was that of the lady 
 canonesses.” 
 
 m “ They did not take any vows, but were obliged to exhibit proofs 
 of the highest nobility.” 
 
 n “ The citizens when under arms were reviewed by her, and in fine, 
 she possessed all the prerogatives of sovereignty.” 
 
 0 Warm springs — The hospital was established for the benefit of 
 those who frequent the waters. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 P “ More than 20,000 bottles.” 
 
 a St. Diez, St. Diei, or St. Die — Sancti Dcodati oppidum. (Enc. 
 Meth.)— P. 
 
 r Suppressed during the revolution. — P. 
 
 8 “ — surrounded with old walls.” — Its walls were begun by Matthew, 
 duke of Lorraine, and completed in 1282, under Frederick ( Fcrri ) II. 
 (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 1 “ Of all the small towns ( hovrgs ) and villages, which are engaged 
 in that kind of industry [cheese-making,] Gerardmer or Gerome is the 
 most considerable ; it contains more than 5000 inhabitants, and is situ- 
 ated in the most picturesque part of the Vosges. Several lakes may be 
 seen in the vicinity, such as the White Lake ( Lac-Blanc ,) the Black 
 Lake (Lac-Noir,) and those of Longemer and Retournemer ; but that 
 of Gerardmer* is the most important : it covers a surface of 36 hectares, t 
 and gives birth to the small river Valogne, a branch of the Moselle.” 
 
 •The termination mer, in these names, undoubtedly signifies lake or pond, from 
 tile German mcer (Fr. mare , a pond or pool ; Eng. mere, (in Cumberland and West- 
 moreland,) a large lake, in distinction from tarn, as in Winandermere — nicer (in 
 Huntingdonshire and Cheshire,) a small lake or pond, as in Whittlesey-meer, Com- 
 hermeer.) Gerardmer, then, is Gerard’s lake, and Longemer, probably long lake ; 
 Retournemer, if not of French derivation, may be a corruption of Rietlienmecr 
 (Germ.,) reed lake. The German mcer has indeed changed its meaning as a common 
 name, and now signifies the sea or ocean, although in the Netherlands it still signi- 
 fies a pond or lake. On the contrary, the German see signifies a lake, a singular 
 instance of transposition of meaning in cognate dialects. This distinction has not 
 been observed by some of the English (not American) translators of German poetry, 
 and their inadvertence has led them into rather singular absurdities. Thus, the 
 murmur of the lake or pond in the meadow, in the last canto of Schulze’s Enchant- 
 ed Rose ( Beiauberte Rose .-) 
 
298 EUR< 
 
 The department of Meurthe resembles that of Vosges ; 
 mountains not different in their component parts, although 
 less elevated, extend from south to north on the western 
 and eastern frontiers.* As to their products, the two de- 
 partments differ essentially from each other ; like that of 
 the Vosges, the department of the Meurthe produces much 
 more grain than it consumes ; the vineyards are more 
 abundant, and the forests more extensive ; there are fewer 
 oxen, but a comparatively greater number of horses and 
 sheep. b 
 
 Three places of some importance from their industry, 
 situated in the chain of the Vosges, may be briefly mention- 
 ed. Cirey is situated on the right bank of the Vezouse ; it 
 carries on a considerable trade in glass and crystal, which 
 the inhabitants manufacture ; the second or Saint-Quirin 
 possesses works of the same sort, and under the manage- 
 ment of the same company ; the third or Phalsburg, a strong 
 town, rises on a height, contains about three thousand inhab- 
 itants, and exports a great quantity of liqueurs and essences. 0 
 All the three are situated in the district 11 of Sarrebourg,® an 
 ancient city of Gaul, the Pons Saravi of the Romans, so 
 called from its position on the banks of the Sarre. The 
 inhabitants carry on a trade in plaster ornaments and in 
 cases for small clocks, which, although made of the same 
 substance, might be readily mistaken for gilt bronze. 
 
 It is not improbable that the Seille derives its name from 
 the saline lands it waters; leaving the marsh of Indre, it 
 passes through Dieuze, a town of four thousand souls, im- 
 portant chiefly on account of springs from which salt has 
 been extracted during eight hundred years. It must have 
 been more considerable in ancient times, for it was the 
 Decem-Pagi of the Romans. Some remains of antiquity 
 have been discovered at Marsal, a stronghold in an un- 
 healthy and marshy situation. Salt springs are worked near 
 Moyenvic, which was dismantled by Lewis the Fourteenth. 
 Vic contains twice as many inhabitants, and possesses a very 
 
 3PE. [BOOK CXLVI. 
 
 valuable mine of rock salt. Chateau Salins, at some leagues 
 on the north of Vic, is pleasantly situated on the banks of 
 the Little-Seille ; a small spring rises in the vicinity/ 
 
 Invalids repair to the mineral fountain of Lombrigny, 
 near the small town of Blamonts on the Vezouze, where the 
 former princes of Salm-Salm used to reside.* 1 Badonvillers 1 
 is watered by the Blette; it supplies different parts of 
 France with awls and puncheons that are little inferior to 
 the best in Germany.* 1 Baccarat stands on the banks of 
 the Meurthe, at the base of a lofty and steep hill, near a 
 large forest ; it may be mentioned among the industrious 
 towns of F ranee, for it possesses glass and crystal works, in 
 which more than three thousand persons are employed. 1 
 
 The Vezouze traverses a fruitful plain, and waters Lu- 
 neville, 1 " a place of some celebrity from the treaty conclud- 
 ed between France and Austria in 1801. It was a small 
 stronghold about the middle of the seventeenth century; 
 it was afterwards improved and embellished by duke Leo- 
 pold. The castle, which served as a residence to the dukes 
 of Lorraine and to king Stanislaus, has been converted into 
 barracks for cavalry. The new infantry barracks” may 
 serve as a model for other buildings of the same kind ; the 
 architecture is simple, and the interior commodious and well 
 aired ; indeed nothing has been omitted which can contri- 
 bute to the health of the inmates. The riding school, one 
 of the largest in France, is three hundred feet long by 
 eighty broad. 0 A fountain, in which the water issues from 
 eight different outlets, adorned the principal square ;P as it is 
 still mentioned in the most recent geographical dictionaries, 
 itineraries and descriptions of France, it does not appear to 
 be generally known that it was destroyed in the year 1796. 
 Luneville was die birthplace of Boufflers,'* Monvel r and the 
 eloquent Girardin. 3 
 
 The road from Luneville to Nancy extends along the 
 forest of Vitrimont, which borders the right bank of the 
 Meurthe ; Rosiere aux Salines rises on the opposite bank ; 
 
 Nur feme rausclit der See ni it leisem Laut — 
 
 Only the distant murmur of the lake — 
 is translated : 
 
 Alone is heard the far off ocean’s roar ! — 
 
 and in the fisher-boy’s song on the Lake of Lucerne, in the first scene of Schil- 
 ler’s Wilhelm Tell : 
 
 Der Knabe schlief ein am griinen Gestade (soil, des Seen) — 
 
 The boy falls asleep on the lake’s green shore — 
 is rendered : 
 
 The boy sleeps on the ocean’s brink 
 
 I may here add, in conclusion, that a great number of small round lakes in the 
 chain of the Eyfel, supposed to occupy the craters of extinct volcanoes, are called 
 maars, in the dialect of the inhabitants. (Daubeny on Volcanoes.) — 1’. 
 
 acres nearly. — V. 
 
 a “ The department of the Meurthe resembles in its general surface 
 that of the Vosges; its eastern and western extremities are traversed 
 from south to north by the same chains of mountains, although less 
 elevated.” 
 
 b “It abounds more in wine, horses and sheep; but it possesses 
 fewer oxen, and its forests are less extensive.” 
 
 c “ The first of them is the small town (ville) of Cirey, which stands 
 on the right bank of the Vezouze, and possesses a manufactory of plate, 
 common and crystal glass ( dc glares, de vc.rreries ct de cristaux ;) the 
 second is St. Quirin, which contains a similar establishment, belonging 
 to the same company ; the third is Phalsbourg,* a small fortified town 
 (villc forte) of 3000 inhabitants, built upon a height and noted for its 
 liqueurs.” 
 
 * 1 haltzbourg (Enc. Meth.) — Pfalzburg (Germ.) — P. 
 
 d “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 c Sarbourg or Saarbourg (Vosgien.) Sarbourg, or Sarbruck. (Enc. 
 Meth.) — The latter name, Sarbruck, in German, SaarbrUcke, signifies 
 the same as Pons Saravi, viz. the bridge over the Sarre. — P. 
 
 f “ Tl>e Seille probably derives its name from the saline lands 
 which it waters ; after issuing from the lake of Indre,* it flows by 
 Dieuze, t a town of 4000 souls, important from its saline springs, 
 which have been worked for at least S00 years, and a place of conside- 
 rable note under the Romans, from whom it received the name of 
 Dcccm Pagi ; then by Marsal, a small fortified town {place forte) in a 
 
 marshy situation, near which several remains of antiquity have been 
 discovered; by Moyenvic, which was dismantled by Louis XIV., and 
 which derives its support from its valuable saline springs; and lastly 
 by Vic, which contains twice as many inhabitants as the latter, and 
 which its mine of rock salt will undoubtedly render still more important. 
 Chateau-Salins, at the distance of some leagues to the north of Vic, on 
 the banks of the Little Seille, also possesses saline springs.” 
 
 *“Etang de 1’ Indre.” — Etang de Lindre, a lake in Lorraine, four leagues in 
 circumference, the source of the Seille. (Vosgien. Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 f Dieuso (Vosgien.) 
 
 6 Germ. Blankenburg (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 h “ Formerly the residence of the princes of Salm-Salm.” — The house 
 of Salm-Salm is now mediatized. — P. 
 
 ‘ Badonvilliers (Vosgien.) — Badenweiler (Germ.) — P. 
 
 k “ It manufactures awls and punches, which rival those of Ger- 
 many.” 
 
 1 “ It occupies an important place in the annals of French industry, 
 from its manufactory of crystal glass (cristaux,) in which more than 
 3000 workmen are employed.” 
 
 m “ Luneville* — rises in the midst of a fruitful plain, and is traversed 
 by the Vezouze.” — Luneville stands in an agreeable plain between 
 the Vezouze and the Meurthe, which unite below the town. (Enc 
 Meth.)— P. 
 
 * Fr. Luneviile. 
 
 n “ La caserne de l’orangerie” (the orangery barracks.) — The castle 
 of the duke of Lorraine was surrounded with groves and gardens. 
 
 (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 ° “ The great riding school is one of the largest in existence : it is 
 three hundred feet long, by eighty broad, without any support in the 
 interior.” 
 
 p “ A superb fountain with eight jets adorned the new square ( Place 
 Neure.y' 
 
 k Stanislaus, marquis de Bouflers. (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 r J. M. Boutet de Monvel. a celebrated actor and dramatist. — P. 
 
 s C. S. X. count de Girardin, the pupil of Rousseau, while the lat 
 ter resided at Ermenonville under the protection of his father, R. L 
 marquis de Girardin. — P. 
 
 — 
 
BOOK CXLYI.l 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 299 
 
 the inhabitants employed themselves formerly in extracting 
 salt from neighbouring springs ; at present, however, they 
 are no longer worked.® The river begins to be navigable 
 at St. Nicolas du Port, b a small town of three thousand 
 inhabitants, in which the only remarkable building is a fine 
 Gothic church. 
 
 Nancy consists of broad, straight, and almost deserted 
 streets; in the number of public buildings it surpasses most 
 towns of the same size ; the Royal Place forms the princi- 
 pal square, the others are large and regular, many of them 
 are adorned with fountains. The prefect’s palace, the the- 
 atre and the townhouse, little inferior to any other in France, 
 are the most remarkable edifices within the walls. Four 
 bronze fountains rise in the centre of the Royal Place, and 
 several long streets reach from it to the extremities of the 
 town, two of them extend in different directions, and meet 
 at a triumphal arch. The hospital and the barracks are 
 decorated with many ornaments, the churches are more 
 modest or at all events not so gawdy in point of architec- 
 ture.' The church of Bon-Secours in the suburb of St. 
 Nicholas, contains a master-piece by Girardon ; it is the 
 mausoleum erected to the memory of Stanislaus, king of 
 Poland, d the person to whom the city is indebted for its 
 principal embellishments. The tombs of the dukes of 
 Lorraine are much inferior as specimens of art ; they are 
 placed within the cathedral. e The old town resembles 
 
 what Nancy was before the virtuous Stanislaus, whose in- 
 come did not certainly exceed £.100,000, undertook to 
 build a new city/ which together with the improvements 
 made by him at Luneville, and the sums laid out in found- 
 ing a great number of schools and other useful institutions, 
 proves what may be done by economical and judicious 
 management. It is to the same prince that Nancy owes an 
 academy of sciences and letters, a valuable museum, a pub- 
 lic library of 26,000 volumes, and a botanical garden, in 
 which there are more than four thousand plants. Com- 
 merce and the various branches of industry connected with 
 
 1 “ Its salt springs have been long since abandoned. The govern- 
 ment, however, maintains there one of the finest studs (haras) in 
 France.” 
 
 b St. Nicolas, or Nicolasbourg, a town in Lorraine, with a very 
 fine church dedicated to St. Nicholas, a place of pilgrimage. (Enc. 
 Meth.) — P. 
 
 c “ Nancy consists of broad, straight and almost deserted streets. 
 Its edifices are of the greatest beauty ; its public squares are very large 
 and adorned with elegant fountains ; the Royal Square (Place Royalc) 
 is the most remarkable : the prefect’s palace (la prefecture,) the theatre 
 and the townhouse, the latter one of the finest in France, are the prin- 
 cipal edifices that surround it ; it is watered by four bronze fountains, 
 and from its centre the eye measures the whole extent of several long 
 straight streets which reach to the extremities of the city ; two of them, 
 opposite one another, are each terminated by a beautiful gate in the form 
 of a triumphal arch.* * The barracks and the hospital are magnifi- 
 cent, but the churches are less splendid in their architecture.” 
 
 * The eastern and western gates, which are similar, terminate two fine streets, 
 which unite in the square built by Stanislaus. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 d The ci-devant cloister of the Franciscans, at the end of the Faux- 
 bourg of St. Pierre, contains the mausoleum of king Stanislaus, which 
 is the chef-d’oeuvre of Girardin. (Ed. Encyc.)— The mausoleum of 
 king Stanislaus, erected by order of the municipality in the church of 
 St. Roch, was sculptured by Sentksen. The monument of Catharine 
 Opalinski his wife, is contained in the church of Notre-Dame de Bon- 
 Secours. (Enc. Meth.) — Girardon, the celebrated sculptor, died in 1715. 
 Stanislaus died in 1766. (Beauvais.) — Girardet (J.) painter to king 
 Stanislaus, was born at Luneville (1709,) and died at Nancy (1778.) 
 The Descent from the Cross, in one of the churches at Nancy, is con- 
 sidered his master-piece. (Beauvais. Diet. Hist. Caen.) — P. 
 
 ‘ “ The tombs of the dukes of Lorraine are contained in the cathe- 
 dral.* The finest promenade is that of the nursery ( pipinilre .)” 
 
 * In tile Franciscan church. (Vosgien.) 
 
 f “ The quarter called the old town, is still such as it was at the 
 
 it were not held in great estimation ; the town might have 
 been compared to a French noble of past days, who thought 
 himself degraded if he engaged in trade But these preju- 
 dices and other effects of ignorance have within the last ten 
 years been gradually removed ; the inhabitants are now 
 aware that their town possesses nothing royal but deserted 
 palaces and melancholy associations. It carries on a trade 
 in vulnerary drugs, embroidered stuffs, cloth and cotton, lor 
 which there are two large manufactories.^ The impulse 
 has been given, and the canal from Paris to the Rhine may 
 render Nancy one of the most industrious cities in France. 
 The inhabitants may then distinguish themselves in litera- 
 ture and in the arts, for they have not forgotton that Callot/ 
 whose patriotism was only equalled by his talents, that 
 Madame de Graffigny, 1 Palissot/ St. Lambert, 1 and other 
 celebrated persons still living, were born in the town. 
 
 The Meurthe joins the Moselle at the distance of two 
 leagues below Nancy. Pont a Mousson is situated on the 
 last river, at the foot of a high hill, in a valley surrounded by 
 fruitful declivities. The town is divided into two parts, 
 which communicate with each other by means of a bridge ; 
 it contains seven thousand inhabitants, the houses are well 
 built, one of the squares is encompassed with arcades. m It 
 was the birthplace of the brave Duroc, who fell in battle on 
 the twenty-third of May 1813. Remains of ancient times 
 have been discovered on the height from which it derives 
 its name, and which, it has been proved, was crowned with 
 a temple dedicated to Jupiter. n 
 
 The name of Toul has undergone during a period of 
 eighteen hundred years fewer changes than that of most 
 towns ; it was called Tullum when it was the capital of the 
 Lend in the time of Caesar. The Moselle flows beneath its 
 walls ; its public buildings are hardly worthy of notice ; the 
 ancient diocesan church is of Gothic architecture, but with- 
 out ornaments and without majesty. 0 The tow T n is not very 
 populous, the trade is insignificant, it consists chiefly in 
 earthen ware and leather.? 
 
 period when the virtuous Stanislaus, with a revenue of less than two 
 millions [francs,] undertook to build a new city — ” 
 
 “ Proud of its beauty. Nancy still bears some resemblance to the 
 old nobility, who thought themselves degraded by engaging in useful 
 occupations ; but this prejudice, which ill becomes a town that has no 
 longer any thing royal but its melancholy magnificence and its old 
 recollections, has, for the last ten years, been gradually disappearing. 
 It now joins to the preparation of vulnerary balls (boules vulncraires,*) 
 for which it has always been celebrated, embroidery on the lightest 
 stuffs, the manufacture of cloth, and cotton spinning, for the last of 
 which it possesses two large establishments.” 
 
 * Globuli Martiales (Fr. boules de Mars,) prepared by mixing two parts of cream 
 of tartar and one of iron filings ; employed externally in contusions, luxations and 
 gunshot wounds. The balls are soluble in water, and are thus used externally as a 
 bath or lotion, or taken internally. (Parr’s Med. Diet. Blancardi Lex. Med. Diet, 
 de Trevoux.) — P. 
 
 h J. Callot, distinguished as an artist, particularly as an engraver— • 
 born 1593. (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 ‘ Author of the Peruvian Letters (Lettres Pcruvicnnes.) — P. 
 
 k Ch. Palissot de Montenoy, born 1730, distinguished as a poet and 
 historian. — P. 
 
 1 St. Lambert, the author of the Seasons, was born at Veselise, in 
 Lorraine, a small town five leagues S. W. of Luneville. (Beauvais. 
 Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 m “ It has a population of 7000 inhabitants ; it is well-built, and con- 
 tains a square surrounded with arcades.” 
 
 " “ On the height from which it derives its name,* several remains 
 of antiquity were formerly discovered, which prove that in the time of 
 the Romans it was crowned with a temple dedicated to Jupiter.” 
 
 * La montagne de Jtfousson, Mount Mousson. 
 
 0 “ Its principal church, formerly the see of a bishopric, is built in 
 the Gothic style, but without ornament or majesty ; the portal is the 
 only part held in estimation.” 
 
 p “ Its population is not large, and its manufactures are unimportant ; 
 it has only a manufactory of pottery ( une faienccrie ,) two of embroide- 
 ry, and a few tanneries. There is no other town of any importance in 
 the arrondissement, of which it is the capital.” 
 
 L 
 
300 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 The inhabitants of Upper Marne are industrious; the 
 fields, the vineyards and the woods are productive. The 
 soil, unequal and mountainous, is richer in iron than any 
 other department; it is very fruitful in different kinds of 
 grain, and it is doubtful, if relatively to the superficial extent, 
 more horses and oxen are reared in any other part of the 
 kingdom ; in short, if the means of communication cor- 
 responded with the fruitfulness of the soil, or with the in- 
 dustry and activity of the inhabitants, it might be classed 
 with the most wealthy and most populous departments in 
 France.® 
 
 Bourbonne les Bains rises on the eastern slope of the 
 plateau of Langres ; it is built on a declivity at the conflu- 
 ence of two small rivers, the Borne and the Apance. 
 Many of the houses are old, most of the streets are crook- 
 ed, and the town does not contain more than three thousand 
 inhabitants ; but it derives some importance from the ce- 
 lebrity of the baths, and also perhaps from a large military 
 hospital in which there are more than five hundred beds. b 
 The temperature of the springs varies from thirty to forty- 
 eight degrees of Reaumur ; c a person, it is said, cannot hold 
 his hand in the water, but he may drink it without any pain- 
 ful sensation. The use of them is recommended in nervous 
 complaints, in paralysis and other diseases ; the first baths 
 were erected by the Romans, and the place was called Aqua, 
 Borvonis. d The Meuse takes its rise in a valley about four 
 leagues eastward of the town. Two small valleys on the 
 south of it are watered by two streams ; their junction 
 forms the Marne, which traverses the department from 
 south to north. 
 
 Langres is situated near the sources of the same river, 
 on the summit of a steep height ; e it exports a great quan- 
 tity of cutlery into different countries, and carries on a 
 considerable trade in fur with Switzerland. It seems as if 
 the prosperity of the town depended on these branches of 
 industry, and as the population was much diminished about 
 ten years ago, there is reason to believe that without them 
 it might fall into decay. There are different useful and 
 charitable institutions, the most celebrated perhaps are the 
 schools in which geometry and mechanics in their appli- 
 cation to the arts, are gratuitously taught. The cathedral 
 is considered a fine monument of the middle ages, but the 
 
 a “ The department of the Upper Marne is important from its manu- 
 facturing industry, its agriculture, its vineyards and its forests. Its 
 surface is hilly and uneven, but it is richer in iron mines, than any 
 other department in the kingdom ; it is also one of the most fruitful in 
 corn and oats, and one of those that rears the greatest number of horses 
 and cattle ; and in fine, if the means of communication were more ex- 
 tended, the activity of its inhabitants would soon place it among the 
 most productive and the most populous.” 
 
 b “ Th? town is ill-built, and contains only 3000 inhabitants; but it 
 is important from its magnificent bathing establishment, and from its 
 large military hospital in which there are more than 500 beds.” 
 c 99£° to 140 1 Fahrenheit. — P. 
 
 d “ These waters are considered efficacious in nervous diseases, and are 
 accounted a sovereign specific for the cure of paralysis and gunshot 
 wounds ; they were held in much estimation by the Romans, who 
 formed there an establishment that bore the name of Aquev Burvonis." 
 
 e Langres is situated at a greater height than any town in France. 
 (Ed. Encyc.) — It is the most elevated point in France; several rivers 
 rise in its neighbourhood, which fall into three different seas, viz. the 
 Meuse, into the German Sea; the Marne (a branch of t lie Seine,) into 
 the English channel ; and the Vingeanne (a branch of the Saone.) into 
 the Mediterranean. (Enc. Meth.) — It stands on the summit of an ele- 
 vated table-land, called the Plateau of Langres, which forms the prin- 
 cipal water-shed in the N. E. of France. — 1\ 
 
 f “ The fine quality of its cutlery, of which it exports considerable 
 quantities to every part of Europe, and the importance of its fur trade 
 with Switzerland, render it probable that it would find it difficult to 
 subsist without these two branches of industry, since for the last ten 
 vears its population has sensibly diminished. Its cathedral is a fine 
 monument of the middle ages ; its public library consists of 30,000 
 
 [BOOK CXliYl 
 
 public buildings form a sad contrast with narrow and de- 
 serted streets ; on the whole, it is a very different place 
 from what it was under the Roman emperors. It bore the 
 name of Andematunum, but the Romans called it Lingones, 
 for thus the inhabitants and the people in the neighbouring 
 country were designated ; f it had its senators, its capitol, its 
 temples and its theatres ; the people raised statues and tri- 
 umphal arches to their Roman masters, and it is certain that 
 inscriptions found within its walls, have served to illustrate 
 some difficult points connected with history and antiquarian 
 research. The town is mentioned in the writings of Tacitus 
 and Plutarch ; they have related the history of Sabinus, a 
 citizen of the place, who revolted against Vespasian, and 
 who after the defeat of his party, set fire to his habitation, 
 by which stratagem he was believed to have perished in the 
 flames. Sabinus concealed himself in a sepulchral vault,® 
 and confided only in the discretion of a faithful slave, and in 
 the affection of his wife Eponina ; h but the frequent absence 
 of the latter, and the birth of two children, revealed a secret 
 which had been kept nine years. They were conducted to 
 Rome, and brought before the emperor ; the sufferings of 
 Sabinus, the heroic devotedness of his wife, the sight of the 
 two children, their prayers, and the tears of their mother, 
 were all unavailing. Eponina was permitted to share the 
 fate of a husband with whom she had lived so long in a 
 tomb. Sabinus and Eponina, from their adventures and 
 the celebrity of their historians, may be mentioned among 
 the most remarkable natives of Langres, but it should not be 
 forgotten that Diderot was also born in the same place. 
 
 Nogent le Roi, a small town of two thousand inhabitants, 
 shares with Bourmont a trade in cutlery and hardwares ;' 
 the latter does not contain more than twelve hundred indi- 
 viduals ; it possesses, however, a public library ; both of 
 them are situated in the district 11 of Chaumont, 1 a well built 
 city on the declivity of a hill above the banks of the Marne. 
 It was fortified by Louis the Twelfth, and was formerly the 
 capital of Bassigny ; m Russia, Austria, and Prussia conclud- 
 ed there an alliance against Napoleon. As the capital of 
 the department, it possesses such useful and benevolent 
 institutions' 1 as in the present state of society may be con- 
 sidered indispensable ; the old walls have been repaired 
 since the year 1821, and it is now ranked among the strong 
 
 volumes. It possesses a theatre and a fine promenade, but its public 
 edifices, its assemblies, its courses of instruction in geometry and me- 
 chanics in their application to the arts, and its other establishments, 
 form a striking contrast with its deserted streets and ill-built houses. 
 It is far from retaining the importance it enjoyed under the Roman 
 emperors : it was an ancient city of the Gauls, and bore at first the 
 name of Andematunum ;* * but the Romans gave it that of Lingones, by 
 which the people in the surrounding territory were designated — ” 
 
 * Andomadunum. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 k “ Souterrain ’ — any subterranean place; not necessarily, a sepul- 
 chral vault. Plutarch {Eqvmxog — Opera, t. ii. (Moralia,) p. 770-1, edit. 
 Xylandri, Francof. 1620, fol.) says he hid himself in certain subterra- 
 nean excavations for storing commodities (subterranean granaries) — 
 aTTodtjxae /murmur onvxTac r.Toyem ; — which he afterwards calls sim- 
 ply subterranean places (ru rruytiu — latcbrcv, Tacit.) The original 
 says below that he lived in a tomb ( tombeau ,) but it might have there 
 only intended to say that he had lived as if buried in a tomb ; at any 
 rate, since its only authorities are Tacitus and Plutarch, in the first of 
 whom there is no detail of particulars (Histor. L. IV. § 67,) we may con- 
 sider the statements of the latter as best entitled to credit, and conclude 
 that he lay concealed, not in a sepulchral vault, but in one of those 
 subterranean granaries, so common among the ancients, and still in 
 frequent use in the countries around the Mediterranean. — P. 
 
 h Epponina (Tacitus) — Empona [Funon,] (Plutarch.) — P. 
 
 ‘ “ Nogent le Roi — shares with Langres in the manufacture^ of 
 cutlery ; Bourmont is also engaged in the same kind of industry — 
 
 k “ Arrondissement.” 1 Chaumont en Bassigny. 
 
 m “ Bassigni.” 
 
 n “ Establishments for public charity and education.” 
 
BOOK CXLVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 SOI 
 
 towns in France.* The celebrated men of Chaumont are 
 Bouchardon the sculptor, and Lemoine the jesuit. b 
 
 The windings of the Marne lead to Joinville, a small 
 town of four thousand inhabitants, still commanded by the 
 castle in which the companion of St. Louis 0 and the cele- 
 brated Cardinal Lorraine were born. It was at Vassy or 
 Wassy, situated at the distance of some leagues from the 
 Marne, d that the followers of the duke of Guise massacred 
 in 1561 a number of Protestants, while they were assem- 
 bled in their church, an event that proved the harbinger of 
 the civil wars. St. Dizier, e at the northern extremity of the 
 department, is well-built, and encompassed with pleasant 
 walks ; f it contains six thousand inhabitants, and is a town 
 of some consequence from its commerce and industry : twice 
 in the space of six months/ the allied armies were defeated 
 under its walls by the French. 
 
 The extent of the roads and navigable rivers in the de- 
 partment of the Aube, counteract the disadvantages ol an 
 unfruitful soil. The Seine and the Aube water it from 
 south-east to north-west ; the roads to Dijon, Befort, Sens, 
 Chalons sur Marne, and Paris, cross it in different direc- 
 tions. Undulated ridges form the sur 'ace, which may be 
 divided into two regions . 11 That on the north-west, consisting 
 of plains and hills, covered with a thin stratum ol alluvial 
 soil, is by no means productive ; oats, rye and buckwheat 
 are the only kinds of grain that succeed, but they yield so 
 scanty crops that a great part of the land is suffered to lie 
 was:e. The same region, wholly destitute of trees, has 
 been called Champagne Pouilleuse, a name that may be 
 considered very descriptive of it ; 1 the inhabi ants are as 
 poor as the soil. The region in the south-east differs 
 little from the last in its geological structure, but the chalk 
 is everywhere covered with thick and ve.y fertile alluvial 
 deposits ; in some districts, however, they are so heavy and 
 tenacious that it requires twelve horses to draw the plough. 
 The fruitfulness of the country forms a happy cont.ast 
 with the sterility in Champagne Pouilleuse, which might 
 indeed be rendered less unproductive by planting resinous 
 trees and others that thrive on light lands. Cattle, poultry 
 and bees are reared in the more fertile districts. The 
 population in the department falls below the mean term in 
 the rest of France, but the grain harvests are three times 
 more abundant, and the quantity of potatoes is still greater 
 
 a Its townhouse ( hdtel-de-ville ) is remarkable for its elegance. M. B. 
 
 b Pierre Lemoyne, author of the epic poem of St. Louis. (Beau- 
 vais.) — P. 
 
 c “ The historian and companion of St. Louis.”— John, sire de Join- 
 ville, author of Memoirs, containing a history of St. Louis, written 
 about 1305. (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 d Vassi, situated on the Blaise, four leagues N. W. of Joinville. 
 (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 e Sancti Desiderii. Fanum. 
 
 f “ It is well built, pleasantly situated, and surrounded with public 
 walks (promenades .)” 
 
 e “ — in the space of two months, in 1814.” 
 
 h “ The surface, which is formed by extensive plateaus of chalk, 
 slightly undulated, is divided into two regions.” 
 
 ‘ Pouilleux signifies poor and wretched. Tr. — The southern part of 
 Champagne, from Chalons to Troyes, has from its poverty acquired the 
 name of pouilleux or lousy [the literal meaning of the word.] (Ed. 
 Encyc.) — P. 
 
 k “The commerce and manufactures of the department are not with- 
 out importance ; the working of chalk, which is prepared and sold under 
 the name of Spanish white, and the manufacture of cloths and cotton 
 stuffs, are the branches of industry in which the inhabitants are most 
 successfully employed. The department is also noted for its different 
 kinds of sausages ( charcutcries .)” 
 
 1 Clervaux (Vosgien.) 
 
 m Founded by Thibaud IV. count of Champagne. (Moreri.) See 
 note a > page 982. — P. 
 
 in proportion. It produces excellent wines, ol which two- 
 thiids are expoited ; it is well supplied with horses, bill not 
 so with oxen and sheep. The industry and trade ol the 
 department are rising into importance ; the chalk so com- 
 mon in the country is fashioned into different shapes, and 
 sold as an article of commerce ; colton and cloth are the 
 principal manufactures/ 
 
 The burgh of Clairvaux, 1 on the left bank of the Aube, 
 was once famed for a very wealthy abbey, founded in the 
 year 1115, by Hugh count of Troyes, ,n and Stephen abbot 
 of Citeaux. St. Bernard was the first abbot, and a vat 
 may be seen, that is still called by his name, it can contain 
 eight thousand tuns. 11 The building has been partly con- 
 verted into manufactories, in which the workmen make 
 cloths, bed-covers and cotton stuffs. 0 The almost ruined 
 walls in the small town of Bar sur Aube bear testimony 
 to the devastations committed by the hordes of Attila / the 
 neighbourhood was the scene of a destructive combat be- 
 tween the allies and the French in the year 1814. 
 
 Brienne, at no great distance from the right bank of the 
 Aube, is divided into two parts, which are separated from 
 each other by a space not less than a thousand paces in 
 extent; the one is called Brienne la Vil!e, q and the other 
 Brienne le Chateau. The first rises near the river, and 
 the second on the declivity of an artificial height, crowned 
 by a castle that w ; as built lor a military school by Lomenil 
 de Brienne ; r the same school counts Napoleon Bonaparte 
 in the list of its pupils. The town was taken and retaken 
 in January 1814 by the French and allies; many of the 
 buildings were much injured, the population has been 
 greatly reduced, it does not exceed at present two thou- 
 sand inhabitants. 3 
 
 Bar sur Seine, although less populous, is better built 
 than Bar sur Aube ; a stone bridge of elegant architecture 
 communicates with both banks oi the river, and public 
 walks shaded wi h lofty trees extend in the neighbourhood. 1 
 The town of Les Riceys, containing 4000 inhabitants, is 
 formed by the union of Ricey-Haut, Ricey-Bas and Ricey- 
 Haute-Rive, u three burghs that were founded by an an- 
 cient Helvetic tribe. Ten thousand casks of excellent wine 
 are eveiy year expo, ted from the district into Belgium and 
 other countries in the north. * 
 
 Troyes/ the ancient capital of Champagne, stands in the 
 
 “ “ The vat (cute) of St. Bernard— might formerly be seen there ; its 
 contents were 81)00 tuns (tonneaux)" — 800 tuns. (Enc. Meth.) — The En- 
 cyclopedia uses the present tense ; the original M.B. the past — the con- 
 tents are expressed in words, in the former ; in figures, in the latter. — P. 
 
 ° “ The buildings of the convent have been converted into a peniten- 
 tiary (maison centrale de detention.) in which cloths (drops) coverlets 
 ( couvertures ,) cotton stuffs (percales) and cotton thread (cotons files) are 
 manufactured.” 
 
 p “ The small town of Bar sur Aube bears testimony in the ruins of 
 its thick walls to the ravages committed by the hordes of Attila.’ 
 The ancient town* was ruined by Attila. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 * Segcssera. D’Anv. 
 
 m “ Brienne la Ville, or Brienne la Vieille (Old Brienne.)” 
 
 r “ — by the minister Lomenil de Brienne.” — Et. Ch. Lomenie de 
 Brienne, cardinal, archbishop of Toulouse, and minister of Louis XVI. 
 in 1787-8. (Beauvais ) — P. 
 
 s “ The town, which was taken and re-taken in Jan. 1814, by the 
 allies and the French, has suffered much in consequence ; its diminish 
 ed population scarcely amounts to 2000 souls.” 
 
 1 “ It possesses fine promenades and a stone bridge of elegant 
 architecture.” 
 
 u Ricey le Bas (Lower Ricey) on the west bank of the Laigne, and 
 Ricey le llaut (Upper Ricey) and Ricey-Haute-Rive on the eastern 
 bank. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 * “ Its territory annually supplies 10,000 casks (pieces) of excellent 
 wine, much esteemed in Belgium and other countries in the north of 
 Europe.” * Troye. (Moreri.) 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLVI. 
 
 302 
 
 middle of a large and fruitful plain which the Seine waters ; 
 the river encompasses part of the town, and divides itself 
 into several artificial branches by means of canals that 
 were constructed in the twelfth century by Theobald the 
 Fourth,* * to whom the inhabitants are indebted for the 
 institutions that ensure the prosperity of their town. It is 
 long since the pa'aces inhabited by that prince and some of 
 his successors have disappeared, but the remembrance of 
 their wise administration is still preserved in the country. 
 The m image between Henry the Fifth, king of England, 
 and Catharine of France, the daughter of Charles the Sixth, 
 was celebrated at Troyes on the 21st of May 1420. The 
 same Charles was not ashamed to sign a treaty, by which 
 his son-in-law became master of his dominions ; b but nine 
 years afterwards the English were expelled by Charles the 
 Seventh, assisted by Joan of Arc. The town was encom- 
 passed with feeble ramparts anterior to the middle ages, at 
 which period it bore the name of Trecce. At the time 
 when the Huns desolated Gaul, St. Loup, the bishop, sent 
 a deputation consisting of seven clerks and a dean 0 to 
 Attil i ; the barbarian conqueror was about to receive them, 
 when the luminous rays reflected from the sacred ornaments 
 that were carried with great solemnity, terrified the horse 
 of one of his genera's, who was in consequence thrown 
 from his seat, and killed on the spot. Magic, Magic ! 
 cried the furious chief, and the poor clerks with their dean d 
 were put to death. Troyes, however, was spared ; but 
 Attila, compelled by the Roman general Aetius to retire 
 from Gaul, passed again through the town, and, in order to 
 protect his retreat, made St. Loup accompany him to the 
 Rhine. Troyes was a place of some importance when 
 Julian defeated the Germans, who threatened to besiege it. 
 Augustus conferred on it the privileges of a city, and gave 
 it the name of August olona. e It may be ranked from the 
 great number of wooden houses among the ill-built towns in 
 France ; still some of the sheets are broad and straight, 
 and some of the edifices are remarkable. The cathedral 
 may be mentioned for the elegance of its Gothic architec- 
 ture, the magnificence of its portal, and the boldness of its 
 arches. It was founded in the year 872, and demolished 
 by the Normans in 898; having been rebuilt in the foliow- 
 
 a “Count Thibaud IV.” — Count of Champagne, 1102 — 1152. (Mo- 
 reri.) — P. 
 
 b Charles VI. at the time of the treaty, was in a state of imbecility, 
 and in the hands of the Queen and the Duke of Burgundy, who 
 were inveterately hostile to the Dauphin, (afterwards Charles VII.) 
 The design of the treaty, on the part of those who directed the king, 
 was to crush the Dauphin. For this purpose it was stipulated that 
 Henry should espouse the princess Catharine, that he should not invade 
 or disturb the kingdom during the life of Charles VI., but that immedi- 
 ately on his death, the crown of France should descend to Henry and 
 his heirs forever, and that in the meantime he should preside as regent 
 in the government of France. The disgrace of the treaty does not 
 therefore attach to Charles VI., but to the active agents, the Queen and 
 the Duke of Burgundy. — P. 
 c “ Diacre” — deacon. 
 
 d “ Les pauvres envoyes” — literally, the poor envoys — the depu- 
 tation. — P. 
 
 e It was afterwards called Tricasses, from the name of the tribe of 
 which it was the capital. (D’Anv.) — P. 
 
 f “ The front ( facade ) of the town-house does honour to Mansard.” 
 s J. Jouvenel des Ursins (called also Juvenal des Ursins,) son of an 
 advocate of Paris, who became provost of the city, 1388. (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 h “The small town ( bourg ) of Piney.” — Piney-Luxembourg ; popu- 
 lation 1400. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 1 “ Well-ropes of linden bark ( corrlcs en tilleul pour lespuits .)” — The 
 bark of the linden tree is much used in making ropes for wells, and for 
 drawing in hay and straw from the fields [for country harness or 
 traces.] Most of the well-ropes of linden bark, sold in Paris, are brought 
 from Normandy. (Savary, Diet. Comm. t. III. p. 31)1.) — P. 
 k Sellieres, Scellieres. (Enc. Meth.) 
 
 ing century, it was destroyed in 1188 by a fire which con- 
 sumed the whole town ; the inhabitants began to build it for 
 the third time about the commencement of the thirteenth 
 century, but it was not finished before the sixteenth. The 
 church of St. Urban is considered a model of elegance 
 and lightness ; the townhouse was built according to the 
 plans of Mansard, the front of it is in every way worthy 
 of that great architect/ The public library, which con- 
 tains 55,000 volumes and 5000 manuscripts, may be classed 
 with the most valuable in France. We may mention 
 among the great men who were born at Troyes, pope Urban 
 the Fourth, the son of a cobbler, and who instituted the festi- 
 val of the Holy Sacrament, Passerat, one of the authors of 
 the Satire Menippee, Juvenal des Ursins, 1 & the historian of 
 Charles the Sixth, Girardon the sculptor, and Mignard the 
 painter. Piney, a flouiishing burgh, h in which more than a 
 hundred and twenty workmen are employed in making 
 cordage,' is situated in the neighbourhood. 
 
 Arcis sur Aube was much injured by the allied army in 
 1814, but it has since been enlarged and improved by the 
 industrious inhabitants. The burgh of Romilly, about two 
 leagues above the confluence of the Aube and the Seine, 
 carries on a trade in hosiery and cottons. The body of 
 Voltaire was interred in the neighbouring abbey of Selliere, k 
 in the year 1778, but the building has been since destroyed. 
 The river waters Nogent sur Seine, a neat town and the 
 capital of the district, in which are situated the ruins of 
 Paraclet, a monastery founded by Abeilard . 1 
 
 The department of Marne extends on the north of the 
 last; the soil, although of the same sort, may be considered 
 more fruitful ; long ridges of chalk are covered with allu- 
 vial lands, that yield very valuable wines and a great quan- 
 tity of corn. The wines are divided into two classes, those 
 of the river and the heights ; the vineyards near the Marne 
 belong to the first, the others at a distance from it to the 
 second. The people in the rural districts rear a greater 
 number of sheep than the inhabitants of most agricultural 
 departments, the lower orders in the towns find employ- 
 ment in manufactories and in different branches of industry.™ 
 The ancient town of Vitry" on the river Orne , 0 now the 
 village of Vitry le Brule , derives its surname from an act 
 
 1 “ Arcis sur Aube, by means of its cotton mills (filatures,) has been 
 able to repair the losses which it sustained in 1814 from foreign invasion. 
 At the distance of two leagues above the confluence of the Aube and 
 the Seine, the small town (bourg) of Romilly, in which they manufac- 
 ture needles and hosiery, extends for a league along the left bank of 
 the Seine (ftcurr, the main river ;) the abbey of Selliere, in which the 
 body of Voltaire was interred in 1778, stood formerly in its neigh- 
 bourhood. The Seine then flows by Nogent sur Seine, a small but neat 
 town, and the capital of an arrondissenient, which still retains some 
 traces of the invasion of 1814. Some remains of the convent of the 
 Paraclete ( Paraclet ) — may be seen in its vicinity.” 
 m “ The department of the Marne, on the north of that of the Aube, 
 resembles it in its surface, but is more fertile : it every where presents 
 extensive plateaus of chalk covered by an earthy and sometimes sandy 
 stratum, which produces considerable harvests of grain, and a great 
 quantity of excellent wine. Its wines are distinguished into two great 
 classes, viz. the river and the mountain wines ( rins de ririirc et de 
 montagne,) according as the vineyards that produce them are situated 
 on the banks of the Marne, or at some distance in the interior.* It 
 rears a greater number of sheep than most of the other agricultural 
 departments, and is thus enabled to carry on several important manu- 
 factures of woollen stuffs.” 
 
 * In the province of Champagne there are two kinds of wine ; the white wines, 
 called Riviere de Manic wines •, and the red wines, called Montagne de Rheims 
 wines. The white wines are produced fionr tire vineyards situated in the valleys, 
 and upon the sides of the hills. (Ed. Encyc. art. France.) — P. 
 
 n Vitri. (Enc. Meth. Vosgien.) 
 
 0 Orney. (Enc. Meth.) — It stands on the river Saulx. (Vosgien.) — 
 The Sault and the Orney both pass by Vitri le Brule, and soon after- 
 wards enter the Marne. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
cook cxlvi.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 of cruelty committed by Louis the Foung. While that 
 prince was engaged in war against Theobald, count of 
 Champagne, * 1 * 3 * he made himself master of Vitry, and put all 
 the inhabitants to death. b Actuated by scruples that cannot 
 he easily defined, he refused to pollute a church with blood, 
 to which 1300 persons had fled for refuge ; but he set it on 
 fire, assisted in destroying the victims, heard their cries, and 
 saw the flames extending their ravages without emotion, and 
 did not leave the place until the silent smoke rising from the 
 ruins announced that his vengeance was complete. The sad ■ 
 surname which the town had thus acquired, was confirmed 
 by new disasters in the sixteenth century ; it was burnt by 
 the troops of John of Luxemburg, and afterwards wholly 
 destroyed by Charles the Fifth. 0 Francis the First then 
 determined to rebuild it, but he chose a more advantageous 
 site on the banks of the Marne, and gave it his name, which 
 proves that it ought to be called Vitry le Francois, and not 
 le Frangais ; d at present, however, it is generally styled 
 Vitry sur Marne.® The founder intended to make it a 
 strong place, but it is merely encompassed by a ditch and 
 earthen ramparts ; the houses are well built, the streets are 
 broad and straight/ 
 
 The road from Vitry to Sezanne crosses large and monot- 
 onous plains, the scene of unequal struggles between the 
 French and allied armies, in 1814; the small town of Fere- 
 Champenoises was one of those which suffered the most. 
 Sezanne, formerly a strong place, and more populous than 
 at present, contains about four thousand inhabitants. It has 
 experienced many calamities ; the earl of Salisbury took it 
 by assault ; the protestants levelled it with the ground in the 
 reign of Charles the Ninth ; it was entirely destroyed in 
 1 G32 by a fire that lasted several days, and which occa- 
 sioned a loss of property, that was then thought equivalent 
 to £.250,000 ; it carries on at present a trade in different 
 articles, but principally in agricultural produce. h Montmi- 
 rail or Montmirel stands on a small eminence, on one of the 
 two roads that lead from Paris to Chalons ; it contains about 
 two thousand inhabitants, and is celebrated on account of a 
 
 ° Thibaud IV. See note a > page 982. 
 
 » A. D. 1143. (Moreri.) ° A. D. 1544. 
 
 Victoriacum Francisci, in Latin. 
 
 e “ — unless a preference is given to the name of Vitry sur Marne.” — 
 Vitry le Francois (Alin. Royal. Vosgien.)— P. 
 
 f “ It is a neat town, built of wood ; the houses are elegant, and the 
 streets broad and straight.” 
 
 e La Fere Champenoise. (Vosgien.) — It was the scene of an action 
 between the French and the allies, March 25, 1814. — P. 
 
 h “ — it was destroyed by the Protestants during the reign of Charles 
 IX. ; in 1632 it was consumed by a fire, of which the ravages were es- 
 timated at more than 6,000,000 livres ; at present, its commerce consists 
 principally in agricultural produce.” 
 
 1 Bonaparte attacked Blucher at Montmirail on the 14th of Feb., and 
 compelled him to retreat, to Chalons. He had previously defeated the 
 corps of Alsufief at Champaubert, and that of Sacken at Chateau-Thier- 
 ry, both on the 12th. He defeated Prince Schwartzenberg on the 
 17th, at Nangis, nearly annihilating the corps of Count Pahlen, and on 
 the 18th, carried the bridge and town of Montereau. — P 
 
 k Espernay. (Moreri. Enc. Meth.) — Epernai. (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 1 “ A gate, near the promenade, formed by two turrets ( tourellcs ,) is 
 all that remains of the fortifications — ” 
 m A. D. 1592. 
 
 n Arinand de Gontault, baron de Biron, and marshal of France, killed 
 by a cannon ball, at the siege of Espernay, while reconnoitering, July 
 26, 1592. His eldest son, Charles de Gontault, first duke of Biron, for 
 whom the barony of Biron was erected into a dutchy ( duch.i-pu.iric ) 
 in 1598, was executed for high treason at the Bastile, July 31, 1602. 
 (Moreri. Beauvais.! — P. 
 
 0 “ The suburb through which we pass in ascending the Marne, is 
 celebrated for its very large and deep cellars, dug in labyrinths in the 
 chalk.” — These ceilars are used for storing wine. — The wines of Cham- 
 pagne, after being put into circulation, preserve their good qualities for 
 ten years ; but when they are kept in the cellars of their native prov- 
 ince, which are superior from the nature of the soil, (being dug out 
 
 OF FRANCE. 303 
 
 victory which the French gained on the seventeeth of Feb 
 ruary 1814. 1 II 
 
 Epernay 1 ' is situated in a small valley on the left bank of 
 the Marne : a gate formed by two towers leads to the pub- 
 lic walk, and is all that remains of the fortifications 1 which 
 defended Epernay in the time of Henry the Fourth, who 
 made himself master of the town, m but not before the duke 
 of Biron," on whom lie leant, was killed at his side. The 
 principal suburb is built on the banks of the river, and very 
 extensive cellars have been cut in the chalky heights that 
 command it. 0 The inhabitants have a theatre and a public 
 library ;f their trade consists in fire proof or Champagne 
 earthen ware, of which the average quantity that is annually 
 exported into other departments does not weigh less than 
 five hundred tons.' 1 The wealth of Epernay is principally 
 derived from the sale of its white and red wines ; the latter 
 are chiefly produced on the left bank of the Marne, near the 
 small but ancient town of Vertus; the sparkling white 
 wines are partly obtained from the village of Pierry, and 
 the burgh of Avize, but the best sorts are those on the op- 
 posite bank, where Ai, a burgh of two thousand five hun- 
 dred inhabitants, rises in the form of an amphitheatre, where 
 the vineyards on the heights round Mareuil are not less 
 famous; Cumieres and Hautvillers on the left, are not per- 
 haps so well known, still they produce excellent wines. 
 The finest part of the country is formed by the line of popu- 
 lous villages and fruitful heights that are crowned by the 
 forest of Reims/ 
 
 The road on the left bank of the Marne commands a 
 view of the varied and romantic sites, that extend on the 
 opposite bank from Epernay to Chalons sur Marne. It 
 might be shown that Chalons, s or Chaalons, as it was for- 
 merly written, is derived from Catalaunum, the name it bore 
 in the time of Ammianus Marcellinus ; l it was a city of the 
 Catalauni , u and it is called Duro- Catalauni in the Itinerary 
 of Antonine. It stands between two plains in the midst of 
 meadows ; the larger plain was the place where the emperor 
 Aurelian defeated Tetricus, who had been proclaimed em- 
 
 of beds of chalk,) they will continue good for 20 or 30 years. (Ed. 
 Encyc.) — P. 
 
 i> “ It is a well built town, with a small theatre and a library.” 
 
 s “ Epernay carries on a great trade in a kind of fire-proof pottery, 
 known by the name of Champagne earthen (terre de Champagne,) and 
 manufactured in its neighbourhood; the quantity exported amounts to 
 500,000 kilogrammes per annum." 
 
 r “ The latter (red wines) are produced on the left bank of the 
 Marne, in the neighbourhood of the small but ancient town of Vertus; 
 the village of Pierry and the lourg of Avize * furnish sparkling I white 
 wines : the best localities,; however, are found on the opposite 
 bank; it is there that Ai,|| a boarg of 2,500 inhabitants, and very 
 celebrated for its vineyards, § Mareuil, whose white wines rival those 
 of the preceding, and on the left, IT Cumieres and Hautvillers/* whose 
 names are less classic among connoisseurs, but whose wines are not 
 without reputation, rise in the form of an amphitheatre. One can 
 never be weary of admiring this series of populous villages, and these 
 fertile hills ( cutcaux ,) crowned in their whole extent by the forest of 
 Reims.” 
 
 * Avize or A vise. (Vosgien.) 
 
 Monsseux” — frothy, effervescent. 
 
 I “ Coteaux” — declivities or hill sides, on which the vines are chiefly culti- 
 vated. — 1’. || Ay or AY. (Vosgien.) 
 
 $The white wines of Ay are the most esteemed in Champagne. (Vosgien.) — The 
 white wines of Ay rank at the head of the first class of the white wines of Cham 
 pagne. Ay also produces red wines, ranked the last but one in the second class of 
 the red wines of Champagne. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 H On the left of Epernay. — Ay is one league N. E., and Cumieres, one league N. 
 W. of Epernay. (Vosgien). — P. ** Hautvilliers. (Vosgien.) 
 
 a “ Chalons.” — Chaalons or Chalons sur Marne. (Vosgien.) — Cha- 
 lon sur Marne, or Chalon en Champagne. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 I “ The name of the latter [Chalons,] formerly written Chaalons, is 
 derived from that of Catalaunum , which it bore in the time of Ammii- 
 nus Marcellinus.” — The name is written Catelauni and Cathclauni, in 
 Amm. Marcell. (L. xv. xxvii,) edit. Valesii, Paris, 1636. — P. 
 
 II “The city (capital) of the Catalauni." 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLV1. 
 
 peror in Gaul. The position of Chalons is not unfavorable j| 
 for trade, an advantage it derives from its situation on the 
 Marne, and from the six important roads that traverse it. 
 
 It is encompassed with walls and ditches; most of the 
 houses are built of wood, but the streets are broad and 
 straight. 11 The townhouse is adorned with a fine front ; the 
 prefect’s palace, and the school of arts and trades, are re- 
 markable for the simplicity and elegance of their architecture ; 
 the cathedral might be admired, if it were not for two clumsy 
 pyramidical towers and a Greek portal, that accords ill with 
 the rest of the building.® The botanical garden contains 
 fifteen thousand plants ; there are also a collection of natural 
 history, and a good library. Lacaille, the celebrated 
 astronomer, 11 David Blondel the architect,® and Perrot 
 d’Ablancourt/ were born in the town. The gate on the 
 road to Strasburg leads also to the Jard, perhaps the finest 
 public walk in the department.^ 
 
 We may observe at the distance of two leagues on the 
 same road, an elegant Gothic building, the church of 
 Epine ; h it was erected by Louis the Twelfth for the pur- 
 pose of fulfilling a vow ; it is to be regretted that it was 
 thought necessary to pull down one of its towers in order to 
 raise a telegraph. The long village of Courtisols or Cour- 
 tisou is situated on the right, at no great distance from the 
 church ; it occupies an extent of nearly two leagues from 
 one extremity to the other ; it is formed by two parallel 
 streets, consisting of houses that are separated from each 
 other by plantations ; it is divided into three parishes, 
 namely, those of St. Julian, St. Mammie, and St. Mar- 
 tin. The population is not less than two thousand individ- 
 uals. The language which the inhabitants speak amongst 
 themselves, is not known in the neighbouring villages ; they 
 observe certain ceremonies of an ancient character, that are 
 not practised in other parts of the country ; they are excellent 
 husbandmen, indeed their lands are the best cultivated and 
 the most productive in the department. 1 From these facts, 
 it has been inferred that the Courtisians are descended from 
 
 a Tetricus was proclaimed emperor at Bordeaux (A. D. 2G8,) during 
 the reign of Claudius II. He continued to govern Gaul. Britain and a 
 part of Spain, until after the conquest of Zenobia, when wearied with 
 the insolence of his soldiers, he voluntarily surrendered his authority 
 into the hands of Aurelian, at Chalons, A. D. 274. He was afterwards 
 appointed by Aurelian, governor of Lucania. — P. 
 
 b *- — but as the principal streets are clean and straight, its appearance 
 on the whole is very agreeable.’ 1 
 
 c “ The cathedral, whose two pyramidal towers, wrought in open 
 work, are in rather a rustic style, is not without merit ; it is disfigured, 
 however, by a portal of Greek architecture.” 
 
 d N. L. De la Caille, the celebrated astronomer, was born at Rumig- 
 ny in the department of the Ardennes. (Beauvais. Vosgien. Diet. Hist. 
 Caen, 1804.)— P. 
 
 e David Blondel, a celebrated protestant minister, and professor of 
 nistory at Amsterdam, was a native of Chalons. — Francis Blondel, a 
 celebrated architect during the reign of Louis XIV., was the son of 
 Francis Blondel. lord of Croisettes, who dwelt at Ribemont in the dio- 
 cese of Laon. — j. Fr. Blondel, a native of Rouen, was also distinguished 
 as an architect. (Born 1705; died 1774.) (Beauvais. Moreri. Diet. Hist. 
 Caen.) — P. 
 
 f Nic. Perrot d’Ablancourt, born at Chalons, 1G0C; celebrated for his 
 numerous translations from the ancients. — P. 
 
 s “ On issuing from the town by the road to Strasburg, the justly 
 celebrated promenade of the Jard presents itself in all its beauty; its 
 alleys are magnificent.” — The promenade called Le Jard, is reckoned 
 the finest in France. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 h L'Epine, a village of Champagne, two leagues from Chalons. — 
 Courtisols, a bourg of Champagne, two leagues N. E. of Chalons. 
 (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 ' “ They are so far advanced in the knowledge and practice of agri- 
 culture, that their lands are the best cultivated and the most productive 
 in the whole country.” 
 
 k “ — that were established in Gaul by the successors of Constantine.” 
 1 Memoires de la Socict6 royale des antiquaires de France, tome V. 
 
 some one of the barbarous tribes that settled in Gaul after the 
 reign of Constantine ; k others have considered them a coiony 
 of Helvetians. 1 Their language, however, is merely a French 
 patois, and the name of their village signifies detached 
 houses. As to their origin, it is very doubtful that they 
 migrated from Valais, they are probably descended from 
 some of the ancient tribes in Gaul, they have preserved the 
 manners and customs of their ancestors. m The remains of 
 a Roman road, and the traces of the enclosure where Altila 
 and bis army encamped," may be seen in the neighbour- 
 hood. 0 The famous camp of Lune, and the village of Val- 
 my, where the king of Prussia was defeated in 1792 by an 
 army of volunteers under the command of Kellermann, are 
 situated on the road between Courtisou and St. Menehould, 
 the latter a town watered by the Aisne, and remarkable for 
 the regularity of the streets and buildings. Although the 
 works which defended it are now in ruins, it may be ob- 
 served that it was the first place which Louis the Fourteenth 
 besieged . p 
 
 The population and industry of Reims or Rheims render 
 it an important town ; as a place of antiquity it is not without 
 interest, but its celebrity depends principally on the histori- 
 cal associations connected with it. In ancient times it was 
 the chief town in the country of the Jiemi, who gave it the 
 name of Durocortum , but ancient geographers call it indif- 
 ferently Durocortorum and Durocortora. Jt was famed for 
 different schools in the time of Hadrian, and it then possess- 
 ed monuments, of which ruins or traditions are all that 
 remain. The gates of Phebus, Ceres and Bacchus indicate 
 so many temples beyond the walls; die gate of Mars forms 
 a triumphal arch which, it is believed, was erected by Julian ; 
 part of it was repaired by Napoleon, but an old wall that 
 conceals it, lias not been removed. The gate of Mars stands 
 near the Arena, where traces of an amphitheatre may be 
 easily discovered. 1 ! The tomb of Jovinus, a citizen of 
 Reims, who rose at Rome to the consular dignity in the 
 year 366, is preserved in the cathedral. It is a monument 
 
 a “ As for their origin, it does not seem necessary to search for it 
 in the Valais ; it may have been Celtic : is it not indeed probable 
 that the Courtisians are descendants of the ancient Gauls, who have 
 preserved the language and manners of their ancestors ?” 
 
 n Previous to the battle fought in the plains near Chalons, in which 
 he was totally defeated by Aetius, the Roman general, in alliance with 
 Merovaeus, king of the Franks, and Theodoric, king of the Visigoths.-P. 
 
 0 “ — may be seen on the left of the village.” 
 
 p “ The town (title) of Sainte-Mcnehould is built of stone and brick with 
 much regularity ; its town-house is an elegant edifice. It is surround- 
 ed by the Aisne, and was formerly fortified ; it was the first place 
 besieged by Louis XIV.” — It is situated in the midst of rocks, in a 
 marsh on the Aisne. (Vosgien.) — It has a castle on a rock. (Enc. 
 Meth.)— P. 
 
 9 “ Reims, or as it was formerly written, Rheims, is important from 
 its population and its industry, and interesting from its antiquity, 
 its historical associations and its monuments. The Rtmi, of whom 
 it was the capital, called it Durocortum, and the ancient geographers, 
 Durocortorum and Durocortora .* until after it had taken the name 
 of RemiA In the lime of Adrian, it was celebrated for its schools; 
 it also contained several monuments, of which ruins or traditions still 
 remain. The gate of Apollo ( Dint tinnier e .) and those of Ceres and 
 Bacchus, indicate so many temples beyond the walls ; that of Mars 
 is a triumphal arch attributed to Julian: Napoleon partly restored it, 
 but. it is not yet entirely disengaged from the wall in which it was 
 formerly concealed. Not far from this gate, without the city, is a 
 place called the Ar6n.es , } where the vestiges of an amphitheatre may 
 be distinguished.” 
 
 * It was called Duroncourt in the language of the Gauls, Durocortum by Casar,* 
 /fovoixuoTooa by Strabo, Ant noy.onToour by Ptolemy, and Durocortorum in the 
 Itinerary of Antnnine and the 'l’able of Pentinper. (Knc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 * This is probably a mistake, it is Durocortorum in the edition of Scaliger, Elzev. 
 163o, and in that of Maittaire, Lond. 1790. — P. 
 
 f Whence the origin of the present name. — P. 
 
 %Arcnes, plnr , from the I.atin arena, is used by the French for amphitheatre 
 Thus the amphitheatre of Niines is called Lcs Jlrcnca. — P. 
 
book cxlvi.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 in white marble, representing a lion-hunt. Most of the 
 streets are broad and straight ; the Royal Square 3 is adorned 
 with a bronze statue of Louis the Fifteenth, which was re- 
 moved at the time of the revolution, and replaced in 1819. 
 The hospital is a large and elegant building ; the cathedral 
 is one of the few Gothic edifices of the kind which have 
 been finished ; the portal is loaded with figures, in form it 
 resembles a pyramid ; b within the building the kings ol 
 France are consecrated. The ashes of St. Remi, the 
 benefactor and tutelar saint of the town, repose in the church 
 of the same name, a church much more ancient than the 
 cathedral, and the one where the holy ampulla is kept with 
 superstitious care ; but the famous phial was publicly de- 
 stroyed in 1793, a new one, however, has been obtained, 
 and according to report, it contains some drops of the oil 
 with which Clovis was anointed by St. Renti. c By an 
 anachronism not unfrequent in the monuments of the middle 
 ages, the king and the twelve peers of France are represent- 
 ed together on the tomb of the saint. d The statue of Hen- 
 ry the Fourth has been restored to its ancient place above 
 the portico of the townhouse, a large building, which con- 
 tains a valuable library. Old writers mention the church 
 of St. Nicaise on account of a shaking pillar that excited in 
 past times much curiosity, but many years have elapsed 
 since the pillar was destroyed. 6 The town is surrounded 
 with a wall flanked by old towers, and shaded by an inner 
 range of trees ; it is also encompassed by ditches, and a 
 public walk extends round them to the place where the 
 marshy banks of the small river Vesle bathe it on the south/ 
 It was destitute of good water from the nature of its soil, 
 until the prebend Gaudinot had a machine constructed at 
 his own expense, by which the streams of the river are now 
 distributed to every part of the town.s The same excellent 
 
 a Place Roijale. 
 
 b “ Near the square ( Place Roi/alc,) we may observe a fine hospital 
 ( Hdtel-Dieu ) and the cathedral ; the latter one of the few Gothic edi- 
 fices which have been finished. Its portal, although overloaded with 
 ornaments, is remarkable for its pyramidical figure, and its majestic in- 
 terior is adorned with magnificent painted windows ( vitraux .)” 
 
 c “ The church of St. Remi, much more ancient than the cathedral, 
 is celebrated for the tomb of that bishop, one of the benefactors of 
 Reims ; in it is preserved the holy ampulla ( saintc ampoule,) or at least 
 the phial which has supplied its place since its public destruction in 
 1793, and which still contains, it is said, some drops of the oil with 
 which St. Remi anointed Clovis.” 
 
 d The institution of the twelve peers of France is of much more 
 recent date than the time of Clovis. It is generally referred to the 
 reign of Louis VII., who assembled the twelve first nobles of the realm, 
 six ecclesiastical and six laic, at the consecration of his son Philip Au- 
 gustus, A. D. 1179. (Enc. Meth.) — St. Remi, archbishop of Reims 
 from 471 till after 523, was the contemporary of Clovis. (Morcri.) — P. 
 
 e “ The famous shaking pillar in the church of St. Nicaise has been 
 long since removed.” The church of St. Nicaise is frequented by stran- 
 gers on account of a pillar which shakes perceptibly when either of the 
 four bells in one of its towers is rung. (Enc. Meth. Geog. Mod. I784.)-P. 
 
 f t: The town is surrounded by ditches, and by a wall flanked with old 
 towers ; the latter is shaded by an alley of trees on the inside, while a fine 
 promenade borders the ditches on the outside, except near the marshy 
 banks of Vesle which bathes it on the south.”— The city is surrounded 
 with a ditch and earthen mound, planted with a double row of trees on 
 both sides. (Ed. Encyc.)— The other fortifications were removed in 
 1812.— P. 
 
 e The well water in Reims is very unwholesome, but the Abbe Godi- 
 not, a canon of the cathedral, having amassed, during many years, 
 from the sale of his wines, a very considerable sum, left it by his will 
 to his native city, for the purpose of introducing into every part of it 
 the waters of the Vesle, which now flow from a great number of foun- 
 tains. (Vosgien.) — N. Godinot, born at Reims 1GG1, expended more 
 than 500,000 livres (400,000. Enc. Meth.) in establishing public foun- 
 tains, constructing sewers, founding hospitals and schools, and embel- 
 lishing the choir of the cathedral. (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 h J. B. Colbert, minister of Louis XIV. ; born 1619 at Reims. — P. 
 
 ' “ The department of the Ardennes consists chiefly of a region entire- 
 ly covered with forests before it had been invaded by the wants of 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 51 39 
 
 OF FRANCE. 305 
 
 person may be mentioned among the distinguished towns- 
 men of Reims ; it was also the birthplace of Colbert, h Lin- 
 guet, and the Abbe Pliiche. 
 
 Before the region of Ardennes was peopled by civilized 
 inhabitants, it formed in all probability a vast forest ; the 
 Celts called it Ard from a mountainous chain, which steep 
 declivities and rugged summits render apparently more lofty 
 than it really is. But according to a different account, the 
 name of the country may be derived from the goddess 
 Ardeiana, the Diana of the ancient Belgians. The Romans 
 called it Arduena Sijlva ; at present, however, the forest of 
 Ardennes does not occupy a greater extent than 250,000 
 acres. The department may still be considered one of the 
 best wooded in France; timber forms the principal article 
 of commerce ; as the grain harvests are inadequate to the 
 consumption, and as comparatively few vineyards are situ- 
 ated in the country, the wood is exchanged for corn and 
 wine ; the remainder is used as fuel, and serves to supply 
 dilferent works and manufactories. The rocks on the moun- 
 tains are chiefly calcareous and schistous ; the people work 
 a great quantity of iron, some veins of lead, and extensive 
 slate quarries. The geological products are various, most 
 kinds of rocks from granite to chalk may be observed in the 
 department. The Meuse and the Aisne are the two most 
 important rivers, the extent of roads is not so great as in 
 other parts of the kingdom ; the population might be increas- 
 ed, if the means of communication were improved. 1 
 
 Vouziers is the capital of a poor and small district, that 
 contains little likely to attract attention ; k the town is situated 
 on the left bank of the Aisne, which afterwards waters At- 
 tigny, a place of some celebrity at an early period, because 
 the French kings of the first and second race chose it as 
 their summer residence ; at present, however, it can hardly 
 
 civilized society, and to which the Celts gave the name of Ard * * because it 
 was traversed by a chain of mountains that from their broken summits 
 and steep declivities are apparently more elevated than they really are. 
 The name of this region has, however, been derived from a goddess 
 Ardeiana, the Diana of the ancient Belgians. Either or both of these 
 etymologies may be adopted. t The Romans called it Arduena Silva, \ 
 but at present the ancient forest of the Ardennes occupies in France 
 only an extent of about 150,000 hectares. § The department to which 
 it belongs is, however, one of the best wooded in France ; the exportation 
 of wood is one of the principal means it employs in supplying itself 
 with oats, of which it produces but a very small quantity, and also with 
 wine, of which it is almost entirely destitute; the remainder of its 
 wood is used in carrying on its iron works (wsmcs.)|| The rocks of 
 which its mountains and plains are composed, are chiefly calcareous 
 and schistous ; they are, however, so diversified in their geological 
 character, as to exhibit specimens of almost every formation from 
 granite to chalk. Much iron, a few veins of lead, and very extensive 
 slate quarries, are wrought in the department. The Meuse and the 
 Aisne are its principal rivers ; the extent of its roads is less than in 
 any other region in France, and it is undoubtedly owing to this want of 
 communications, that its population has made no greater advances in 
 industry.” 
 
 * Ard, high, lofty, (whence the Latin arduus) — a word common in many names 
 of Celtic origin, particularly in Scotland and Ireland ; as A i dross, the headland or 
 height of the peninsula ; Ardglass, the green headland or promontory. — P. 
 
 t The author may here mean that both are derivable from the same Celtic root — 
 Ardeiana , the goddess of the heights or mountains. So in the Latin poets — Diana 
 montivaa-a — montium domina — lubet kortari celeres per juaa summa canes, tfc. — P. 
 
 X Arduenna Silva. (I). Anv. Enc. Meth. Caesar. De Bell. Gall. V. VI.) — The forest 
 is still called by the French, either Ardenne in the singular, or les Ardennes in the 
 plural, (the forest of Ardenne, or of the Ardennes.) (Morel i.)— There is a large for- 
 est between Sedan and Rheims called the wood of the Ardennes { bois des Arden- 
 nes-,) a part of the same forest between Ste. Menehnuld and Verdun is culled the 
 fore-t of Ardenne ( foret d' Ardenne.) (Enc. Meth.)— 'Pile present forest of the Ar 
 dennes is in the north of the department. (Peuchet.) — P. 
 
 $The ancient forest of the Ardennes ( Arduenna Silva) extended from the Rhine 
 through the territory of the Treviri , to the borders of the Remi , and to the Nervii,* 
 and was consequently far more extensive than that part of it now in France. A 
 part of the same forest still occupies a considerable extent of Luxemburg, from which 
 circumstance that province was called the department of the Forests (des Forets,) 
 when it was annexed to France. — P. 
 
 * Ctesar. De Bell. Gall. V. $3. VI. $97. 
 
 ||The department contains a very great number of forges and steel founderies. 
 (Peuchet.) — P. 
 
 k “ Vouziers, a small town and the capital of a sub-prefecture (petit 
 chef-lieu de sous -prefecture,) contains nothing worthy of notice.' 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 306 
 
 De called a town; the population is not equal to fifteen hun- 
 dred individuals. 3 The same river flows at the foot of 
 Rethel, which stands on a height near the site of an old 
 fortress 1 * * that the Romans called Cnstrum Rctcctum; the 
 inhabitants manufacture cloth, (lannels and woollen stuffs. 0 
 The Aisne begins to be navigable at Chateau-Portien. d 
 
 Many populous villages are scattered in the territory of 
 Sedan ; the inhabitants export different manufactures, and 
 are engaged in different sorts of industry ; if little attention 
 is bestowed on agriculture, it must be imputed to the ster- 
 ility of the soil. The capital or Sedan was, like Rethel, 
 originally a fortress. Charles the Bald took possession of it 
 in the year 880. It became an important place, after it was 
 made the chief town in a principality subject first to the 
 archbishops of Reims, then to the family of La Marck, 
 and at a later period to the house of La Tour d’Auvergne ; 
 it was ceded in 1642 to Lewis the Thirteenth in exchange 
 for the dutchies of Albert, Chateau-Thierry and the county 
 of Evreux. The woollen stuffs of Sedan were exported 
 into different countries, but when it was added to F ranee, 
 it lost with its freedom part of its trade. Colbert, however, 
 encouraged the manufacturers, and they derived considerable 
 profits by supplying the Parisians with a light-coloured cloth, 
 which Lewis the Fourteenth affected to admire, and which 
 on that account, became very fashionable ; it is in making 
 black cloth, however, that the present manufacturers of Se- 
 dan are said to excel. The town is well built, the streets 
 are broad and straight, the houses are large, and a fine 
 bridge rises on the Meuse. The arms of many famous 
 knights are preserved in the arsenal ; and an old castle in 
 the vicinity was the birthplace of Turenne.® Sedan is at 
 
 K esent included among the strong places of the third class. 
 
 onchery, situated on the right of the Meuse, and a flour- 
 ishing town before the principality was united to France, 
 
 a “ At present, however, it contains only 1500 inhabitants.” 
 b — which stands on a height ( montagne ) and occupies the site of 
 a fortress — ” c “ — flannels, cloths and cashmeres.” 
 
 d Chateau-Porcien — Lat. Castrum Portianum . — P. 
 e “ Covered with industrious villages, the territory of Sedan com- 
 pensates for its want of fertility by its numerous manufactures. The 
 town of Sedan, like that of Rethel, appears to have derived its origin 
 from a strong castle. Charles the Bald made himself master of it in 
 880. It was already a place of some importance, when it was erected 
 into a principality, at which time it belonged to the archbishops of 
 Reims. It afterwards passed into the house of La Marck, and then 
 into that of La Tour d’Auvergne, by which it was finally ceded, in 
 1042, to Louis XIII., in exchange for the dutchies of Albret and Cha- 
 teau-Thierry, and the county of Evreux.* It was even then noted 
 for its manufacture of woollen stuff’s; but on its union with France, 
 it lost with its municipal franchises ( franchise de sa commune ) a part 
 of its industry : Colbert, however, succeeded in restoring it to its for- 
 mer prosperity, by encouraging the manufacture of large quantities of 
 a fine light cloth, t which Louis XIV. affected to admire, and which on 
 that account became very fashionable, and a source of great profit -to 
 the manufacturers. At present, it excels principally in the manufac- 
 ture of black cloths. t It is a well built town, with several broad and 
 straight streets, and many elegant houses, and also with a fine bridge 
 over the Meuse, and an arsenal, in which the armour of many celebrat- 
 ed knights is preserved. The old castle of Sedan was the birthplace 
 of Marshal Turenne.” 
 
 * Sedan belonged formerly to the archbishops of Reims, with the title of sovereign 
 principality : it passed from them into the house of La Marck ; then by marriage 
 into that of I.a Tour d’ Auvergne, holding neither of the emperor nor of the king 
 of Fiance. lint Frederick Maurice de la Tour d’Auvergne, d ike of Pouillnn, and 
 father of Turenne*, ceded this sovereignly to Louis XI 11. in 1642, in exchange lor the 
 dutchies of Albret and Chateau-Tluerry and the county of Evreux, reserving, how- 
 ever, the title of Prince of Sedan. t (Etic. Meth.) — P. 
 
 * This is a mistake. He was the elder brother of Marshal Turenne. P. 
 t In 1642 ; he was compelled to surrender Sedan to the crown ; reserving, however, 
 the title of prince. In 1651, both the sovereignty and title were surrendered by 
 treaty, in exchange for the county of Auvergne and the b irony of La Tour, which 
 had been united to the crown by the marriage of Catharine de Medicis, daughter 
 of Magdalen de la Tour d’ Auvergne, and also f»r the dutchies of Albret and Cha 
 teaii-Thieirv, the county of Evreux, & c. (Moreri.) — See note under the head of 
 Tulle (department of the Correze.) — P. f “ Rrap I tiger.” 
 
 1 The department of the Ardennes is particularly noted for its superfine cloths, 
 called draps de Sedan, of which the black are remarkable for their beauty. (Peu- 
 chet.) — The cloths of Julienne, and the superfine fabrics of Sedan, as well in scar let 
 
 IBOOK CXLVI. 
 
 docs not now contain more than eighteen hundred inhabitants. 
 
 The Meuse forms many windings, and returns twice 
 nearly to the same place, it waters Mezieres, a town of 
 which the importance depends more on fortifications than 
 on the number of inhabitants/ It was made the capita, 
 of the department on account of its military position ; the 
 houses and streets are ill built, the walls are old and clumsy, 
 but it was there Bayard compelled Charles the Fifth and 
 his numerous army to retreat.^ It is only separated from 
 Charleville by the Meuse which in one of its windings forms 
 a small peninsula the latter town is much larger than 
 Mezieres ; it contains nearly eight thousand inhabitants, and 
 it also differs from it in other respects ; its streets are broad 
 and straight, and the regularity with which it is built, renders 
 the defects of the neighbouring city more apparent. The 
 four principal streets terminate in a large square, encompass- 
 ed by arcades, and decorated w ith a marble fountain. The 
 theatre is a large building, several valuable manuscripts are 
 contained in the public library, and some curious articles 
 may be observed in the collection of antiquities. More 
 industrious than Mezieres, it supplies the department with a 
 great quantity of cutlery, hardwares, nails and other goods 
 of the same kind ; there are different workshops in which 
 fire-arms are made, one of them was established by govern- 
 ment. A favourable position and a convenient harbour 
 account in some measure for its trade. 1 It was founded in 
 the seventeenth century by Charles de Gonzague, k duke of 
 Nevers and Mantua; but it was taken in the year 1686 by 
 the French, by whom its fortifications were destroyed. A 
 height in the neighbourhood, formerly commanded by a 
 strong castle, has been dignified with the classical name of 
 Olympus. The duke of Nevers and Mantua retired to the 
 castle after the loss of the town, he was at last compelled to 
 yield to his more powerful adversary. 1 
 
 as in other bright colours, and in black, are fit only for the rich. (Ed. Encyc. art. 
 France.) — The manufacture of fine cloth at Sedan, owes its oiigin to Nicholas Ca- 
 deau, a native of France, who had learned the mode of manufacturing fine cloths in 
 Holl md. He obtained letters p itent for twenty years in 1646, in conjunction with 
 J. Itinet and Vves de Marseilles, merchants of l’nris. That privilege having ex- 
 pired in 1666, new letters patent were granted by Louis XIV. during the adminis- 
 tration of Colbert, by which all the master manufacturers then in Sedan, and those 
 who should afterwards settle there, were erected into a community, to he governed 
 by a body of statutes u h.ch had been previously prepared by an assembly of the 
 magistrates and manufacturers. (Ed. Encyc. vol. IX. p. 426. travary, Diet. Comm, 
 t. III. p. 253, 1690.) — P. 
 
 f “ The Meuse, which in its course forms two large curves (sc re- 
 pliant deux fois sur cllc-memc ) and many windings, waters Mezieres, 
 a town of more importance from its fortifications than from the num- 
 ber of its inhabitants.” 
 
 s “ It has never been taken by an enemy, and although ill built, is 
 a place of much interest to a stranger, from the circumstance that 
 Charles V. with a numerous army, was obliged to retreat from before 
 its walls, in consequence of its vigorous defence by the Chevalier 
 Bayard.” 
 
 h “ Charleville is only’ separated from it by the Meuse, which again 
 bends on itself so as to form a small peninsula.” — Charleville is situat- 
 ed on the Meuse near Mezieres, with which it is connected by’ abridge 
 and a causeway. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 ‘ “ It possesses a handsome theatre, a large public library, and a 
 cabinet of natural history and antiquities, in which there are many re- 
 markable curiosities. More industrious than Mezieres, it manufactures 
 annually about 4,000,000 kilogrammes of nails, besides arms* and hard- 
 ware ;t the government also carries on there a manufacture of fire- 
 arms.! Its port is convenient and its commerce very active.” 
 
 * “ Amies de luxe” — arms of elegant and costly workmanship. — P. 
 
 t “ Ferronerie” — certain small articles ofh irdware, wrought with the hammer 
 only, particularly such as are used by coach, harness and trunk makers, and by 
 saddlers. (Savnry.) — P. 
 
 J It conta ns one of the five great manufactories of arms in the kingdom. 
 (Morse.) — P. 
 
 k Charles Gonzaga. 
 
 1 “ On a rock near the town, to which the name of Mount Olympus 
 ( Mont Ohjmpe ) has been given, a castle was formerly’ situated. After 
 the duke of Nevers and Mantua had lost the town, he remained pro- 
 prietor of Mount Olympus ; but the king of France was master of the 
 gates and walls of the castle, which made the sovereignty of the duke 
 a source of much pleasantry.” 
 
book cxlvi.] DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 307 
 
 Before the Meuse leaves France, it waters a longue of 
 land below Charleville, which comprehends the greater part 
 of the forest of the Ardennes. It passes by Fumay, a town 
 of 1600 inhabitants, of which the schistus quarries yield 
 annually forty millions of slates. The same river, near the 
 frontier, separates Givet-Notre-Dame from Givet-St. Hilaire 
 and Charlemont ; the two latter are situated on the left bank, 
 but all the three are united by their fortifications, and form in 
 reality only a single town, that is ranked among the strong 
 places of the first class. Charlemont, as its name signifies, 
 stands on a height ; the two Givets are situated below it, 
 the one on the declivity and the other near the base of a 
 hill in an opposite direction ; they are regularly built, adorn- 
 ed with large squares, and enriched by trade. The harbour 
 is convenient ; the duties were lately diminished, and the 
 commerce between it and the Netherlands has consequently 
 been increased. * 1 * * 4 * Givet was the birthplace of Mehul, one 
 of the best French composers. The origin of this double 
 town has been attributed to two villages, which according 
 to tradition were built before Caesar’s time the fortifications 
 were planned by Vauban. Charlemont was founded by 
 Charles the Fifth, but it has belonged to France since the 
 treaty of Nimeguen, which was concluded in 1678. Ro- 
 croy, a strong place, is situated in a fruitful plain, encom- 
 passed by the forest of the Ardennes ; it is celebrated on 
 account of a victory that the great Conde, then hardly 
 twenty-two years of age, gained over the Spaniards. 
 
 The Oise traverses the department of the Aisne from 
 north-east to south-west, whilst the river from which it has 
 taken its name, flows across it from east to west. The two 
 rivers first water a chalk region, but as they proceed, they 
 pass between calcareous rocks, to which the chalk serves as 
 a support. The heights are mostly confined to the south, 
 low plains extend on the north. c The Somme, the Scheldt 
 and the Sambre rise in the department.* 1 The temperature 
 is very variable, and the frosts in spring are often hurtful to 
 vegetation. 6 * 8 The forests are large and extensive ; indeed 
 the mast or fruit of the beech produces, in some years, a 
 quantity of oil, equal in value to £.20,000 ; f it is sold and 
 consumed in the country. s Agriculture has arrived at a 
 high degree of perfection ; more than two-thirds of the har- 
 vest are exported ; the number of horses, oxen and sheep, 
 relatively to the extent of surface, is much greater than in 
 most other parts of the kingdom. The department is well 
 
 ' “ Charlemont, as its name indicates, is situated on a height ( mon - 
 tagnc.) The two Givets, one of which is placed on the declivity of 
 the same height, and the other on a corresponding declivity on the op- 
 posite side of the river, are regularly built and adorned with fine public 
 squares ; they possess a convenient port on the river, from which they 
 carry on a flourishing commerce : it would, however, be much increas- 
 ed by a diminution of the duties that now (1829) obstruct communica- 
 tion with the Netherlands.” 
 
 b “—which existed, it is said, in the time of Ccesar.” 
 c “ The surface of the territory is characterized by heights on the 
 south, and by low plains on the north.” 
 
 ,l On its northern frontier. — P. 
 
 e During the last thirty years, the temperature of the climate appears 
 to have diminished ; this may perhaps be attributed to the increase of 
 the forests, since within that period the number of trees has been con- 
 siderably augmented. M. B. 
 
 f “ — to more than 200,000 francs” — about £.8,500. — P. 
 e M. Brayer, Statistique du departement de l’Aisne. 
 h “ It exports about one-third of the grain it produces, rears many 
 more sheep than most of the other departments, and possesses a much 
 greater number of horses. The extent of its roads and navigable waters 
 is greater than the medium extent in France, and its population, indus- 
 try and intelligence are in proportion to these advantages.”* 
 
 * M. le baron Ch. Dupin, Forces productives et cornmerciales de la France, t. 
 II. p. 87. 
 
 ‘ “-which carries on several kinds of manufacture ; it furnishes thread 
 for lace (fd a dentelles ,) chafing-dishes ( rechauils ,) nails and bar-iron.” 
 
 provided with roads and navigable rivers, and it seems as if 
 the knowledge and industry of the inhabitants were propor 
 tionate to their means of communication. 1 ' 
 
 The Oise is not larger than a rivulet at the burgh of 
 Hirson, which carries on a trade in lace, cutlery, nails and 
 iron bars. 1 Nouvion en Tierarche 1 ' contains three thousand 
 individuals ; glass forms the principal article of commerce, 
 and the glass-works are the most remarkable buildings in 
 the place. The rich pastures in the district enable the in- 
 habitants to supply different parts of France with excellent 
 cheese. 1 The small town of Guise, formerly a stronghold, 
 was erected into a dutchy™ by Francis the First in favour 
 of Claude of Lorraine ; n it is at present peopled by three 
 thousand five hundred inhabitants, and the lower orders are 
 mostly employed in manufacturing cotton. 0 Vervins, still 
 less populous, rises like an amphitheatre on the banks of the 
 Velpion ; it is mentioned in history on account of the treaty 
 concluded in 1598, between Henry the Fourth and Philip 
 the Second of Spain. 
 
 Many villages, burghs and small towns are scattered in 
 the district of St. Quentin ; the inhabitants manufacture 
 fine linen, gauze and shawls of different sorts.? All these 
 branches of industry are united in St. Quentin, *> the chief 
 town, of which the population has doubled within the last 
 forty years. It is well built, and a subterranean canal, 
 almost two leagues in length, r facilitates the conveyance of 
 goods. Its situation on the banks of the Somme, at the 
 distance of some leagues from its source, corresponds very 
 well with the position of Augusta Veromanduorum on the 
 Samara , s in ancient times, the chief city of the V eromandui. 
 It was sacked by the barbarians at the commencement of 
 the sixth century, and afterwards rebuilt, when it took the 
 name which it now bears, in honour of St. Quentin, because 
 St. Eloi pretended to have found his bones in the ruins of 
 the ancient city, three hundred and sixty years after his 
 martyrdom. 
 
 The Oise, at no great distance below its confluence with 
 the Serre, waters a large island, at the southern extremity 
 of which is situated the small fortified town of La Fere ; it 
 contains two thousand five hundred inhabitants, and has a 
 school of artillery, and an arsenal. A subterranean passage, 
 two hundred feet in length, supported by arcades sixty feet 
 in height, is said to be the work of Goujon, it is certainly 
 constructed with great elegance and skill. 1 A detachment 
 
 k Thierache (Vosgien,) Tierache (Encyc. Meth.) — a district of Pi- 
 cardy, in which Nouvion is situated. See page 1018. Tierarche must 
 be a typographical error - — P. 
 
 I “ Nouvion en Tierarche, a lourg of 3000 inhabitants, possesses a 
 large glass manufactory ( verrerie .) Its fertile pastures enable it to fur- 
 nish a great quantity of cheese similar to that of Marolles.*” 
 
 * A village iu the department of the North, one league E. of Landrecy. (Vosgien.) 
 — See note 1 page 1014.— P. 
 
 m “ Duche-pairie.” 
 
 II Younger son of Rene II. duke of Lorraine. — P. 
 
 0 “ It possesses several cotton mills ( filatures de coton.)” 
 
 p “ The arrondissement of St. Quentin is full of villages, boi/rgs and 
 small towns ( villcs ,) in which lawn, gauze and cashmere shawls are 
 manufactured.” 
 
 4 St. Quintin. 
 
 r “ — and its canal, which is carried under ground for an extent of 
 
 nearly two leagues” — St. Quentin communicates with the Oise by the 
 
 canal of La Fere, 11 leagues in length, and with the Scheldt by another 
 canal, more than 32 miles in length, in which there are two tunnels, 
 one of 1 191 yards, and another of 3 miles 1026 yards ; there is also a 
 third canal along the Somme below St. Quentin. These three canals 
 are called the canals of Picardy. (Ed. Encyc. art. Navig. Inland.) — P. 
 
 8 The ancient name of the Somme. — P. 
 
 1 “ It possesses a subterranean gallery 160 feet in length, of which 
 the arcades are 60 feet in height, and which from its elegant construe 
 tion has been attributed to Jean Goujon,” (a celebrated sculptor in the 
 16th century.) — P, 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLVI 
 
 308 
 
 of the Prussian army appeared before La Fere on the 2Gth 
 of February 1814, and as it was then only defended by four 
 hundred men, it was compelled to surrender ; the enemy 
 took possession of whatever there was in the arsenal and in 
 the library.* * The Prussians having been informed that it 
 was well supplied with provisions, b attempted to take it a 
 second time in 1815. The garrison was by no means 
 strong, but the troops, the national guard and even the 
 women displayed great bravery and determination ; they 
 suffered the severest privations during a blockade that lasted 
 nearly five months, when at last the enemy thought it pru- 
 dent to retire. The Prussians asked permission to pass 
 through the town, a condition which the citizens refused ; 
 the general then raised the blockade, and sent a letter to the 
 authorities, congratulating them on the courage of the inhab- 
 itants and the garrison. The burgh of St. Gobain c in the 
 same district/ is known in France for its mirrors and look- 
 ing glasses, some of the former are ten feet in height by five 
 in breadth ; e three millions of boitles are made every year 
 in the neighbouring burgh of Folembray/ 
 
 Laon, a strong and well built town about five leagues to 
 the south-east of La Fere, crowns a detached hill in the 
 middle of a large plain. It owes its origin to a Gallic for- 
 tress, which in the filth century bore the name of Laudu- 
 num ; K it was enlarged by Clovis,' 1 and it became a royal 
 residence under the kings of the second race ; indeed 
 Lothaire and Louis the Fifth were born in the town. The 
 most remarkable buildings are the old cathedral, 1 a fine 
 Gothic edifice, built in the year 1115, and the tower of 
 Lewis d'Outre-Mer, which the Vandals of the revolution 
 attempted in vain to destroy in the year 1794. k The burgh 
 of Notre-Dame de Liesse, 1 about three leagues to the north- 
 east of Laon, was built in the time of the crusades ; it was 
 formerly celebrated for a miraculous image of the Virgin, 
 which, according to the legends, was brought from Cairo in 
 a single night by the daughter of an Egyptian sultan. 
 
 Soissons, the capital of a district, m and the see of a bish- 
 
 a “ Library of the school of artillery.” 
 
 b “ — that its military establishments had been repaired and provi- 
 sioned — ” c St. Gobin. 
 
 A ‘‘—in the vicinity of the town” (La Fere) — 1 miles S. of La 
 Fere.— P. 
 
 e “ — is noted for its glass works, in which mirrors are cast, ten feet 
 in height and five in breadth.” — The glass manufactory at St. Gobin 
 was originally established in Paris, under the direction of a company 
 patented by Colbert 1C65. It was the first establishment in France in 
 which mirrors were manufactured. It was afterwards removed for the 
 advantage of fuel to the old castle of St. Gobin, situated near the Oise, 
 and in the vicinity of a large forest. — P. 
 
 f “ In the neighbouring village of Folembray, there is an establish- 
 ment ( verrerie ,) in which 150,000 bell-glasses and 3,000,000 bottles are 
 annually manufactured.” 
 
 e Laudunum, Lugdunum Clavatum. (Moreri.) — Laodunum, Lodunum. 
 (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 h “ Clovis built there a few houses ( quelqucs maisons.)” — Laon was 
 at first only a castle built on the summit of a hill, from which circum- 
 stance its original name (Laudunum.*) was derived. It is said to have 
 been made a town by Clovis, in whose reign an episcopal church (bish- 
 opric) was founded there by St. Remi. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 * Dun (Celtic,) a hill or mountain, or a fortress on a height. — P. 
 
 * “ The former cathedral (/’ anciennc eathidrale.)" — The bishopric of 
 Laon was suppressed during the revolution. — P. 
 
 k “ — and the tower of Louis the Stranger,’ 1 in the square of La 
 Hure ( Place de la llure,) which they attempted in vain to demolish 
 in 1794.” 
 
 * Louis IV. (d’Outre-Mer orihe Transmarine, so called from his exile in England 
 before his accession to the throne.) — 1‘. 
 
 1 “ The bourg of Notre-Dame de Liens, which has long bore the 
 name of Notre-Dame de Liesse” — Liesse or Notre-Dame de Liesse 
 (Nostra DomilUl de Leetitia.) The name was written Liens in the 
 time of Charles VI., and Liance or Lienee in the old French 
 geographers. (Enc. Meth.) — P m “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 opric, is a neat and well built town, and claims a very 
 ancient origin ; it was called Noviodumm " before the mu- 
 nificence of Augustus induced the inhabitants to change the 
 name to that of Augus-ta Suessionum. It is situated in a fruit- 
 ful valley watered by the Aisne ; it had its kings before the 
 conquest of Gaul, and even after the invasion of the Franks. 0 
 It was in its neighbourhood that the feeble remains of the 
 Roman power were destroyed by Clovis. The present 
 fortifications were erected by the duke of Mayenne, who 
 made it his principal depot of arms and ammunition.! 1 The 
 temporary works of defence that were raised in 1815, 
 enabled it to offer a long resistance to the allied armies. 
 
 The small town of La Ferte-Milon'i near the forest of 
 Villers-Cotterets, is built like an amphitheatre on the de- 
 clivity of a hill ; it is watered by the Ourcq, encompassed 
 with walls, and commanded by die ruins of a strong castle/ 
 It claims the honour of having given birth to Racine ; s the 
 bust of the poet decorates the public library, which contains 
 seventeen thousand volumes, but his statue ought to be 
 erected in the court of the town-house/ As there are three 
 churches, an hospital and different public institutions, it 
 might be supposed that the town was a place of some impor- 
 tance, the population, however, does not exceed two thou- 
 sand three hundred, individuals. 11 Chateau-Thierry* is 
 situated on the Marne ; a public walk extends on the right 
 bank of the river, and the town is separated by a modern 
 bridge from one of the suburbs. The new buildings con- 
 trast well with the ruins of the castle, from which the town 
 derives its name/ The castle itself was built by Charles 
 Martel in the year 720, as a residence for the young king 
 Thierry the Fourth/ It was inhabited by that prince, by 
 the counts of Vermandois, and by those of Champagne, by 
 Henry the Second, by the duke of Alen^on, who died in it, 
 by Louis the Thirteenth, and by the dukes of Bouillon; 
 houses were gradually built round it, and in one of them 
 still inhabited, the celebrated Lafontaine was born.** 
 
 The department of the Seine and Marne is traversed on 
 
 n It was the Noriodunum of Ciesar (De Bell. Gall. 11. §13.) — P. 
 
 0 Soissons was the capital of some of the French kings of the first 
 race, who were on that account called kings of Soissons. (EnC 
 Meth.)— P. 
 
 p “ It owes its present walls (enceinte) to the duke of Mayenne,* 
 who made it one of his principal strong holds (places tl’urmes.)” 
 
 * Chief of the League, after the death of Henry III. — P. 
 
 <1 Lat. Firmitas Milonis . — There are fifteen French towns, mention- 
 ed in Vosgien, that bear the name of Ferte, with a surname attached. — 
 Ferte (Lat. Firmitas) signifies a strong place, generally built on a rock, 
 and intended as a place of refuge from the incursions of enemies. (Enc. 
 Meth.)— P. 
 
 r “ — it contains the ruins of a strong castle.” — It possesses a very 
 fine castle (chdtcau,) called the great house (la grande maison,) which 
 belongs to the bishops of Soissons. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 s Racine was born at La Ferte-Milon, Dec. 21, 1C39. — P. 
 
 * “ — in the public square fronting the town-house (place de Vhdtcl- 
 de-rille .)” 
 
 u “ Its three churches and its hospital are well kept and of elegant 
 architecture. From this circumstance it might be concluded that the 
 town was a place of some importance ; its population, however, scarcely 
 exceeds 2000 souls : we can hardly need therefore a more striking proof 
 of the spirit and intelligence of its inhabitants.” 
 
 x Lat. Castrum Theodorici. 
 
 y “ Its promenade borders the right bank of the river, and an elegant 
 bridge separates it from one of its suburbs. It is a well built town, and 
 rises in the form of an amphitheatre. It presents a fine appearance 
 when seen from the left bank of the Marne, and contrasts strongly with 
 the ruins of the castle from which it derives its name.” 
 
 2 Thierry II. of the kings of Neustria (Soissons or Paris,) and IV'. 
 of the Merovingian dynasty. — There were several branches of the Me 
 rovingian family ; the three principal were those of Neustria, Orleans 
 and Austrasia. — P. 
 
 aa <- In consequence of this residence, the town of Chateau-Thierry rose 
 at the foot of the castle. It was the birthplace of Lafontaine, the cel 
 ebrated fabulist, and the house in which he was born still remains.” 
 
book cxlvi.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 the south by the first of those rivers, and on the north by 
 the second. La Ferte sous Jouare,® a small town on the 
 Marne, is situated in a pleasant and fruitful valley ; the 
 cleanliness which prevails, the elegant simplicity of the 
 houses, and the activity of the port on the Marne, indicate 
 an industrious city. The population amounts to about four 
 thousand souls ; there are two manufactories of carding 
 combs, in which forty thousand kilogrammes of leather and 
 iron are used every year ; it exports a great quantity of 
 mill-stones into different countries, and carries on a consid- 
 erable trade in wood and charcoal for the supply of the 
 capital. b The neat burgh of Dammartin to the north of the 
 Marne, rises on a detached hill, in the form of an amphithe- 
 atre, and commands a view which extends to a distance of 
 more than fifteen leagues ; a cattle fair of some consequence 
 is held every year in the month of December. 0 Juilly, a 
 place of some celebrity on account of a college, d is situated 
 near the burgh of Chelles/ where Chilperic was assassinat- 
 ed in 584 ; part of a rich abbey still remains, it was founded 
 in the seventh century by Batilda, the wife of Clovis the 
 Second/ 
 
 Meaux on the banks of the Marnes is the chief town in a 
 subprefecture, and the see of a bishopric. It was the an- 
 cient city of Jatinum, the capital of the Meldi ; hence it 
 was called Meldce after the Roman conquest/ It was a 
 place of some importance under the kings of the first race ; 
 at a later period the inhabitants were among the first in 
 France, who embraced the principles of the reformation, 
 and no other town suffered more during the religious wars 
 in the sixteenth century/ The Marne divides it into two 
 unequal parts, and the Ourcq canal (lows below the remains 
 of walls that were destroyed in the time of the League/ 
 The streets are regular, the houses are well built, and within 
 the cathedral are deposited the ashes of the celebrated 
 Bossuet. The town carries on a great trade with Paris in 
 oats and corn ; it sends besides into different parts of France, 
 more than 3.200,000 kilogrammes' of cheese, which still 
 bears the name of the ancient province. 1 " 
 
 Many places are supplied with quills from Brie-Comte- 
 
 OF FRANCE. 309 
 
 Robert; the church is elegantly built, the Gothic arches in 
 the interior are remarkable lor their lightness, and the tower 
 rises to a considerable height; ruins covered with ivy indi- 
 cate the site of an ancient castle, that belonged to the counts 
 ol Brie." Melun, the birthplace of James Amyot,° and the 
 ancient city of Mclodunum, is divided into three parts! 1 by the 
 Seine ; it stands at the base of a hill, and neat houses and 
 clean streets add perhaps to the effect of a picturesque situa- 
 tion ; the ruins of an old castle rise on the adjoining hill, it 
 was inhabited by queen Blanche and several kings of 
 France.'! Melun is the capital of the department, and a 
 road leads to Fontainebleau, from which it is distant about 
 four leagues ; the latter town is regularly built and surround- 
 ed by a large forest. The neighbouring country is covered 
 with the richest verdure, lofty oaks shade the walks and 
 alleys, inequalities in the soil, and masses of sandstone vary 
 the scenery. The plan of the royal castle was committed to 
 Primatice by Francis the First, it was afterwards embellish- 
 ed by five kings. Henry the Third was born in the same 
 edifice, and Pius the Seventh resided in it eighteen months; 
 it was there that the crime which has been attributed to 
 Christina of Sweden was committed, it was there that Na- 
 poleon abdicated. The town consisted originally of the 
 houses which were grouped round a castle built by Lewis 
 the Young in 11G9. It has been affirmed that it was first 
 called Fontaine-Belle-Eau , but the name of Foils Bliaudi 
 which occurs in several deeds, serves to confirm the com- 
 mon opinion concerning the discovery of a spring. A dog 
 named Bliaud, belonging to Lewis the Seventh, was missed 
 in the chase, and after a long search the king found it 
 quenching his thirst at a stream until then unknown; the 
 place was afterwards chosen as the site of a hunting resi- 
 dence. Dancourt and Poinsinet are perhaps the most dis- 
 tinguished literary men that the town has produced/ 
 
 Nemours is situated at the extremity of the same forest 
 below the old castle of Nemus ; the groves, by which they 
 were formerly surrounded, account for the names of the cas- 
 tle and the town. Nemours was erected into a titular dutchy 
 in the fourteenth century, and the duke who fell at the hat- 
 
 a La Ferte-Aucol ( Firmitas Auculplii) [-Aucout, Enc. Meth.] or La 
 Ferte sous Jouarre. (Vosgien.) — The latter name is derived from its 
 situation below the bourg of Jouare, formerly noted for its magnificent 
 abbey of Benedictines. — P. 
 
 b “ It derives its prosperity from two card* manufactories, in which 
 40,000 kilogrammes of leather and iron are consumed annually ; from 
 its large buhrstonet quarries, in which mill-stones are made to such an 
 extent that 50,000 kilogrammes of iron arc employed in hooping them, 
 and from which they are exported in great quantities to foreign coun- 
 tries ; and also from a considerable trade in wood and charcoal for the 
 supply of Paris.” 
 
 *“ Cardes” — cards for wool, cotton, Sec. 
 f“ Pierres meulieres.” 
 
 c “ It manufactures lace, and a cattle fair of considerable importance 
 is held there every year in the beginning of December.” 
 
 d Originally an abbey, but erected into a college by the Congrega- 
 tion of the Oratory, 1630. — P. 
 
 e “After passing through Juilly * — we arrive at the bourg of Chelles” 
 — Dammartin is on the northern frontier of the department, 5 leagues 
 N. W. of Meaux, and Chelles near the Marne, 4 leagues E. of Paris, 
 and consequently S. W. of Meaux. Juilly is 3 leagues N. W. of 
 Meaux, and of course on the route from Dammartin to Chelles. — P. 
 
 * Jnilli, or Jully. (Enc. Meth.) — Jully. (Moreri.) 
 
 f “ The building is all that remains of the rich abbey, founded in 
 the seventh century by Batilda, wife of Clovis II.” — An abbey of Ben- 
 edictine nuns, founded 662 — suppressed during the revolution. The 
 original does not say that a part of the abbey remains, but that nothing 
 is left of the institution but its buildings. — P. 
 
 s “Ascending the Marne [from Chelles] we arrive at Meaux — Meaux 
 is 12 leagues N. E. and Chelles 4 leagues E. of Paris. (Vosgien) — P. 
 
 11 “ — whence it afterwards took the name of Mel dec.” 
 
 1 “ It was one of those towns which most readily embraced the 
 reformation,* and also one of those which suffered most from the re- 
 
 ligious wars in the sixteenth century.” 
 
 * It was the first town in France, in which the Protestants began to preach their 
 doctrines. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 k “ The canal of the Ourcq* flows at the foot of its ruined walls, 
 which date Ironi the period of those religious troubles.” 
 
 * A canal drawn from the. river Ourcq, fur the purpose of supplying Paris with 
 water. — P. 
 
 1 The kilogramme is equal to 2 lbs. 3 oz. 5 dr. Avoirdupois. Tr. 
 
 m “ It is a well built town, and within its cathedral, a building of 
 elegant architecture,* the ashes of Bossuet are deposited. It is the 
 centre of an extensive trade in oats and corn, for the supply of Paris ; it 
 maufactures cotton stuff’s, and exports annually 3,200,001) kilogrammes 
 of cheese, which still retains the name of its ancient province. ”t 
 
 *The choir of the cathedral is considered a master-piece. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 f Meaux was the capital of Upper Biie ( Haute Brie.) (Vosgien.) See Note 1 p. 
 974 — The cheese made in Brie [fromages de Brie , Savary] is esteemed the best in 
 France. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 u “ Brie-Comte-Robert,* a small town of 3000 souls, in which writ- 
 ing quills are prepared, contains an elegantly built church — and some 
 remains of the ancient castle of the counts of Brie.” 
 
 *Now called Brie sur Yeres. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 0 The translator of Plutarch. — P. 
 
 p « — into several parts” — Melun, like Paris, is divided into three 
 parts by the Seine — one part on the north in Brie, another on an island 
 in the river, and a third on the south in Gatinois. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 4 “ Its position at the foot of a hill, its neat houses, and its straight 
 and regular streets, give it an agreeable aspect. It still preserves the 
 ruins of a castle, which Queen Blanche and several of the kings of 
 France inhabited.” 
 
 r “At the distance of four leagues to the south of Melun, the capital 
 of the department, Fontainebleau, regularly built in the midst of an ex- 
 tensive forest, which has become celebrated from the richness of its 
 vegetation, its old oaks, its broad and beautiful alleys, its uneven sur 
 
[BOOK CXLVI. 
 
 310 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 tie of Cerignole, was the last descendant of the family of I 
 \nnagnac. a The dutchy has been perpetuated in the house j 
 of Orleans since the time of Louis the Fourteenth. The 
 population amounts to three thousand seven hundred inhabi- 
 tants. An old castle rises above a modern bridge on the 
 Loing, hut the town is also watered by a canal, and it car- 
 ries on a considerable trade in proportion to its size. b The 
 same feeder of the Seine, and the same canal water the 
 ancient and pleasant town of Moret ; but the Yonne enters 
 the Seine about two leagues above it at Montereau-Font- 
 Yonnc, — the Condate of the Gauls, so called from its 
 situation at the confluence of two rivers ; the name of 
 Monasteriolum, which it obtained after the introduction of 
 Christianity into the country, lias been gradually corrupted 
 into Montereau.® The bridge in the town serves to recall 
 two important events : Charles the Seventh, then dauphin, 
 and John Sans Peur, duke of Burgundy, having agreed to 
 meet there in the year 1419, the duke was murdered by 
 assassins, who were suborned by Charles : it was near the 
 same bridge that the allied armies were defeated by the 
 French in I814. d The town possesses a considerable trade 
 in porcelain ; the population does not exceed four thousand 
 inhabitants.® 
 
 A road from the small town of Bray sur Seine extends 
 
 along the valley watered by the Vouzie, and leads to Pro- 
 
 vins, which is called Castrum Provinurrd in the chronicles 
 
 of the eighth century ; it is not, however, improbable that it 
 
 _ — — — ; 
 
 face, covered by a sandy soil, here and there interspersed with hillocks 
 
 formed by broken blocks of sandstone, and in short from the beauty 
 of its scenery, is remarkable for its royal palace ( chateau royal,) built 
 under the direction of Primaticcio by Francis I., and which live kings 
 have since embellished. This edifice has been the scene of many in- 
 teresting events, from the birth of Henry III. to the eighteen months’ 
 residence of Pius VII., and from the act of cruelty committed there by 
 Christina of Sweden,* * to the abdication of Napoleon. The town owes 
 its origin to the houses that were grouped round a castle built by Louis 
 the Young in 11(59. Its original name is said to have been Fontaine- 
 Belle-Eau ;t but that of Funs Bliuudi, which it bears in the documents 
 of the period, serves to justify the opinion, that the discovery of a 
 spring by one of the dogs of Louis VII., called Bliaud, who was found 
 quenching his thirst in it, led that prince to select the place as the site 
 of a hunting residence. Before this castle was erected, the surrounding 
 forest bore the name of the forest of Bievre. Philip the Fair may be 
 mentioned among the princes, and Dancourt and Poinsinet + among 
 the literary men, who were born in Fontainebleau.” 
 
 *The murder of iMonaldeschi, her master of horse, by iier orders, and almost in 
 her immediate presence — V. 
 
 t I.at. Funs Bcllaqujus — said to be so named from the beauty of a fountain in the 
 palace gardens. — P. 
 
 J F. C. Dancourt, the dramatist, born 1661 — A. A. II. Poinsinet, another dramatic 
 author, born 1735. — P. 
 
 a “ The pleasant town of Nemours rises on the skirts of the forest 
 of Fontainebleau, at the foot of a castle called JYemus, from its situa- 
 tion in the midst of woods. The name of the town is derived from 
 that of the castle.* Its lords first took the title of chevaliers, but in 
 the 14th century it was erected into a dutchy ( duchi-pairie .) The 
 duke of Nemours who fell in the battle of Cerignola,f was the last de- 
 scendant of the house of Armagnac.t” 
 
 * Its Latin name is Jfemus. It was formerly called JYcmox and JTemoux , the last 
 of which has been changed into Nemours. (Enc. Metli.) — 1‘. 
 
 f A town in Apulia, where the French were defeated in 1503. — P. 
 
 J 'l'he seignory of Nemours was purchased of its original feudal lords, (who mere- 
 ly Imre the title of chevaliers,) by Ft. Louis and Philip the Hardy, in the 13th cen- 
 tury. It was erected into a dutchy by Charles VI. in 1 104, in favour of ( harles HI. 
 king of Navarre *, but reverted to tite crown in 1425. Louis XI. ceded it, in 1461, to 
 James d’Armagnac, who left two sons, John and Louis, both of whom died without 
 issue ; the latter fell in the battle of Cerignola, 15J3. As the dutchy was descendi- 
 ble only in the male line, it again reverted to the crown on the death of Louis d’Ar- 
 magnac, and in 1517 was granted by Louis XII. [by a new erection. Enc. Metli ] 
 to his nephew, Gaston de Foix, who was killed at the battle of Ravenna, 1512. 
 Francis 1 gave it in 1515 to Julian de Medicis, and again in 1524, to lus uncle, Phil- 
 ip of Savoy, in whose family it continued till iis termination in 1659, on the death 
 of Henry of Savoy, the last of the in de lineage. The dun hy was finally granted 
 by Louis XIV., to his brother, Philip duke of Orleans, in whose family it still con- 
 tinues, whence the title of the second son of the present king of the French. (AIo- 
 reri. Enc. Metli ) — P. 
 
 b “ The streets in Nemours arc broad and straight ; it possesses a 
 large library in proportion to its population, an old castle, and a fine 
 bridge over the Loing ; it is also traversed by a canal,* and carries on 
 a considerable commerce.” 
 
 existed in the time of the Romans.^ It is encompassed with 
 old walls, and with ramparts ; h the upper town is built on a 
 hill, and the remains of a fort that the inhabitants attribute 
 to the Romans, rise on the summit several monuments of 
 the middle ages may be observed in different directions. It 
 has of late years become a place of resort on account of a 
 ferruginous spring. 1 The counts of Champagne used for- 
 merly to reside at Provins ; the number of its inhabitants, 
 inconsiderable in proportion to its extent, renders it probable 
 that it w 7 as then more important than at present. Rozoy k 
 on the small river Yeres 1 ' is surrounded with ramparts shaded 
 by lofty trees, and is adorned by a fine Gothic church, but 
 it is chiefly worthy of notice on account of the famous paper 
 manufactory at Courtalin, an adjoining hamlet ; the waters 
 that supply the works rise to the height of a hundred and 
 sixty feet. 1 Corn and leather are the principal articles of 
 trade at Coulommiers, the small capital of a subprefecture. m 
 
 Before we leajve the department of the Seine and Marne, 
 it may be remarked that it abounds in com" and wine, that 
 more sheep are reared in it than in most other departments, 
 and that it derives great advantages from numerous means 
 of communication. 
 
 The department of the Oise is more populous, and almost 
 as productive in corn, but it does not yield more than a fifth 
 part of the wine produced by the former department ; the 
 inhabitants rear a great many sheep ;° like all the depart- 
 ments that surround Paris, it is intersected by numerous 
 
 *Tlie canal of the Loing, communicating with the canals of Briare and Orleans, 
 below Montargis, and extending to the Seine at Marnort, below Moret. — P. 
 
 c “ The Loing, before it enters the Seine, waters the ancient and 
 agreeable town of Moret,* which is traversed by the canal that passes 
 through Nemours. T wo leagues above it, the Yonne falls into the 
 Seine, at Montereau-Faut-Yonne.t The Gauls gave the latter town 
 the name of Condate, from its situation at the confluence of those two 
 streams; but after the establishment of Christianity, it took that of 
 Monasteriolum, whence the origin of its present name.” 
 
 * Moret or Muret. (Moreri.) 
 
 f Montereau-Faut’Yonne. (Vosgien.) . 
 
 “ Charles VII., then dauphin, had an interview there, in 1419, 
 with John the Fearless ( Jean-Sans-Peur ,) duke of Burgundy, when the 
 latter was assassinated by a blow from an axe :* the same bridge, which 
 has been rebuilt since 1F14, was witness to a complete victory obtained 
 by the French over the allies.!” 
 
 *Tlie duke was assassinated by the followers of the dauphin, but it is uncertain 
 whether his murder was premeditated, or whether it only arose fiom the passion of 
 the moment. See Rankin’s Hist, of France, Vol. V. p. 51.— P. 
 
 t Bonaparte carried the bridge of Montereau (Feb. 1814,) after four desperate at- 
 tacks, in which he lost a great number ofsoldieis. — P. 
 
 ' “ Montereau is favourably situated for commerce, and possesses 
 important manufactories of pottery (faience, delft.) Its population 
 amounts to 4000 souls.” — It manufactures white porcelain and delft. 
 (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 f Pruvinum, Provinvm or Provignnm castrum, in the Latin of the 
 middle ages. (Enc. Metli.) — P. 
 
 g “ It existed, however, in the time of the Romans at least the 
 
 remains of an ancient fortress on the summit of the hill on which the 
 upper town is built, have been attributed to that people.” 
 
 (■ “ Boulevards.” 
 
 ■ “ It is much resorted to in the summer season on account of a 
 ferruginous spring.” k Rosoy — Hyeres. (Vosgien.) 
 
 1 “ At the hamlet of Courtalin, in the neighbourhood, there is one of 
 the most celebrated paper-mills in France. It is supplied with water 
 by an artesian well,* in which the water rises spontaneously to the 
 height of ICO feet. ’ 
 
 * A well formed by deep boring in districts where surface strata, suited for 
 the retention and transmission of water, have sunk to a considerable depth. The 
 water is there disposed to rise to the height occupied by the same strata where at the 
 surface, and consequently ascends spontaneously, when the superincumbent strata 
 are perforated. — P. 
 
 m “ Coulommiers, a small town and the capital of a subprefecture, 
 carries on a considerable trade in corn, and possesses important tan- 
 neries.” 
 
 “ “ Wheat ( froment .)” 
 
 0 “ It possesses a greater number of sheep than are necessary for it* 
 consumption.” 
 
book cxlvi.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 roads. Crepy or Crespy a is finely situated in a valley wa- 
 tered by two streams, which flow through the town ; b it was 
 formerly more flourishing than at present, and was defended 
 by a castle now in ruins. The old walls are flanked with 
 bastions, the number of inhabitants does not amount to more 
 than two thousand. c An excellent road communicates with 
 Senlis, which the Romans called Augustomagus , and where 
 the remains of the fortifications that they raised, are still ap- 
 parent. It obtained afterwards the name of Silrancctes, 
 probably on account of the forests with which it was sur- 
 rounded.' 1 It rises on the declivity of a hill, the base of 
 which is watered by the Nonette. e Most of the streets 
 are narrow and crooked ; the cathedral is remarkable for the 
 lightness of its Gothic architecture, and the height of its 
 steeple. The water in the small river is supposed to pos- 
 sess a peculiar quality, which renders it better adapted than 
 any other for washing wool ; the fact may be doubtful, but 
 it must be admitted that many persons are employed in that 
 branch of industry. There are not fewer than two hundred 
 and fifty workmen in the cotton manufactories ; the print- 
 fields furnish occupation to more than two hundred, and the 
 making of flour and other substances from potatoes to a 
 hundred and fifty. The forests of Hallate, Ermonville, 
 Pontarme and Chantilly are situated in the neighbourhood, 
 and the numerous streams in the large park of Mortefon- 
 taine add to the beauty of the country. Ermonville still 
 recalls the philosopher of Geneva, and associations connected 
 with the great Conde give additional interest to Chantilly/ 
 The magnificent castle, the residence of the hero, was de- 
 stroyed during the revolution ; while they were engaged in 
 demolishing the chapel, they found the remains of Coligny, 
 whose body had been secretly transported from the gibbet 
 of Montfaucon to the domain of Chantilly, which then be- 
 longed to the house of Montmorency.® The small castle 
 and the principal stables remain entire, the latter are the 
 finest buildings of the kind in France. The burgh might 
 
 OF FRANCE. 3n 
 
 be more correctly denominated a town, it carries on a trade 
 in porcelain, blond and lace. h Creil is situated on the left 
 bank of the Oise ; it may be mentioned on account of porce- 
 lain works, in which more than nine hundred persons are 
 employed. 1 Montataire k is situated in a fruitful valley, and 
 watered by the Therain, it supplies many places with iron 
 and the machinery in the works is moved by the river. I. 
 was an ancient village, the church rises on an eminence, 
 Peter the Hermit preached in it, and maintained the ne- 
 cessity of the first crusade. 1 The country round Creil m is 
 remarkable for the industry of the inhabitants ; in a space 
 not greater than four leagues in length by two in breadth, 
 there are not less than a hundred and seventy-nine manu- 
 factories and eight thousand workmen ; the annual proceeds 
 of their labour represent a value equivalent to 10,000,000 
 of francs. On the supposition that industry was as much 
 difliised over the rest of France, the number of workmen 
 in the kingdom would amount to 24,000,000, while the 
 products of their labour would indicate a value equal to near- 
 ly 48,000,000,000 francs, or £.2,000,000,000. Pont St. 
 Maxence’ 1 on the Oise is the only other town of any conse- 
 quence in the district 0 of Senlis ; the bridge over the river 
 was constructed by Peyronnet ; it is supported by detached 
 columns, and adorned on either side of the two extremities 
 by obelisks. 
 
 It is affirmed that Compiegne was a town in the time of 
 the Romans, that they called it Compendium , because it 
 contained ammunition or military stores. p A Roman way, 
 incorrectly denominated the Chaussee de Brunchault , q trav- 
 erses the forest in the neighbourhood, r and seems to attest 
 the ancient origin of the town. But Compiegne did not 
 become a place of importance before the time of Charles 
 the Bald. Louis the Fair 3 and Louis the Idler 1 were 
 buried in the church of St. Corneille ; u Pepin Le Bref x placed 
 in the same church the first organ that was seen in France, 
 and which he had received from Constantine the Sixth. > 
 
 a Crepi. (Enc. Meth.) 
 
 , b “ — which bathe its walls (enceinte.)” 
 
 c “ It is surrounded by walls flanked with towers, and contains at 
 present only 2000 inhabitants.” 
 
 . d “ A fine road leads from Crepy to Senlis, where the remains of 
 
 the walls which the Romans constructed, may still be distinguished. 
 Senlis was the Augustomagus of the Romans; it afterwards took the 
 name of Silvanectes. probably on account of the forests with which it 
 was surrounded.” — Senlis was the capital of the Silvanectes, a tribe 
 af the Gauls, and like most other such towns in Gaul, took the name 
 pf the people that inhabited it. (D’Anv.) — P. 
 c Nonnette (Enc. Meth.) — a branch of the Oise. — P. 
 f “ The water in the small river that flows by the town, is suppos- 
 ed to be peculiarly adapted for washing wool ; consequently, a great 
 number of hands are employed in the wash-houses ( lavoirs ) of Senlis.* 
 Its other branches of industry, are the spinning and weaving of cotton, 
 which employ 250 workmen ; the business of cotton printing (d'impri- 
 meric,) in which more than 200 are engaged ; and the preparation of 
 starch from potatoes, which furnishes occupation to nearly one hun- 
 dred and fifty. In the neighbourhood of Senlis. are situated the forests 
 of Hallate, Ermenonville, Pontarme and Chantilly ; the fine park of 
 Mortefontaine,! in which abundant supplies of water add to the beauty 
 of the scenery ; the park of Ermenonville, which still recalls the phi- 
 losopher of Geneva ; and that of Chantilly, alike associated with the 
 memory of the great Conde.)” 
 
 * A great quantity of wool is washed at Senlis for the manufactories of Beauvais. 
 (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 t Morte-Fontaine. (Vosgien.) 
 
 j Louis H. prince of Conde, son of Henry II. of Conde, and Charlotte Margaret, 
 heiress of the house of Montmorency. — P 
 
 e Chantilly passed from the house of Montmorency (branch of the 
 dukes of Montmorency) into the house of Bourbon-Conde, by the mar- 
 riage of Henry II, prince of Conde, with Charlotte de Montmorency, 
 daughter of Henry I. duke of Montmorency, on the death of her 
 brother Henry II., who died without issue [executed for high treason,] 
 1032— P. 
 
 h “ The only remains of this magnificent residence are the small 
 castle (petit ch&teau,) and the great stables, the latter a master-piece 
 
 of architecture. The hourg [of Chantilly,] which might rather be call- 
 ed a town (ville.) manufactures porcelain, blond and lace.” 
 
 ‘ “ It holds an important rank in the annals of French industry, 
 from its large manufactory of English pottery ( faience anglaise,) in 
 which 900 workmen are employed.” — Imitations of Staffordshire ware 
 are made at Chantilly. (Ed. Encyc.) — Chantilly is about two leagues 
 from Creil. — P. 
 
 k Montaterre. (Vosgien.) 
 
 ' “ Montataire is situated in a pleasant valley watered by the The- 
 rain, which serves to move the machinery of an important manufactory 
 of sheet-iron ; it was formerly a village, with a church built on a height, 
 in which Peter the Hermit preached, while engaged in exciting the 
 first crusade.” 
 
 m “ The canton of Creil — ” 
 
 " “ Pont-Sainte-Maxence” or Maixence (Pons Sanctie Maxentice.) — P. 
 ° “ Arrondissement.” 
 
 p “ It has been pretended that Compiegne existed in the time of 
 the Romans, and that its Latin name, Compendium, was given it be- 
 cause it was an important depot of military stores. — ”It was called 
 Compendium in the Latin of the middle ages — P. 
 
 q “ The highway of Brunehault.” — Brunehauld (Gothic, Brunch ild, 
 from brun, brown, and hild, love,) was the daughter of Athanagilde, 
 king of the Visigoths in Spain, and the wife of Sigebert I. king of 
 Austrasia (in the 6th century.) (Dreux du Radier, Mem. des Reines 
 de France, t. I. p. 231.) — P. 
 
 r “Its large forest”— The forest of Compiegne contains about 29,000 
 
 arpents. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 8 “ Louis le Bel.” — This must be a mistake — there is no such Louis 
 in the line of French kings. Louis the Stammerer (le Begue) died at 
 Compiegne, A. D. 879, and was buried in the abbey of St. Corneille. 
 (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 i “Louis le Faineant” — Juvenis qui nihil fecit, in the language of 
 the old chronicles. — P. 
 u St Cornelius. 
 
 1 “ Pepin le Bref ’ (the Short.) father of Charlemagne. — P. 
 y “ Constantine Copronymus” — Constantine IV. (Moreri) V. (Beau 
 vais. Platt's Chronol. Biography, vol. II. p. 497.) — P 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLVI. 
 
 r= 
 
 312 
 
 The royal castle is a large edifice f it was rebuilt by Louis 
 the Fifteenth, finished by Louis the Sixteenth, and embellish- 
 ed 1 ' by Napoleon. There are several fine buildings in the town, 
 but the streets are for the most part narrow and crooked. 
 It was formerly surrounded with walls ; the English besieg- 
 ed it in 1430, and in a sally, Joan of Arc was there taken 
 prisoner. A treaty of alliance between F ranee and Holland 
 was concluded at Compiegne by Cardinal Richelieu in 
 1624. Noyon is without doubt a place of greater antiquity ; 
 the Romans changed its Celtic name into that of Novioma- 
 gus ; it was the seat of a bishopric in the time of Charle- 
 magne, 0 who was crowned in the town ; the same monarch 
 finished the cathedral, which was begun by Pepin Le Eref. 
 Noyon was the birthplace of Calvin the reformer, and of 
 Sarrazin, a celebrated sculptor of the sixteenth century. 1 * * * * 
 Because the castle of Clermont-Oise stands on the summit 
 of a hill, and the town on the base, it has been concluded 
 that it was built by the Romans, although the ancient castle 
 does not in any way resemble a Roman edifice. It is at 
 present chiefly remarkable for the beauty of the surround- 
 ing country. 6 Philip the Fair was born in the town/ but it 
 is more renowned as having been the birthplace of the cele- 
 brated Cassini . s It was in the thirteenth century the capital 
 of a county, which St. Louis gave to his son Robert, the 
 founder of the house of Bourbon. A religious ceremony 
 was formerly observed on the anniversary of Saint Jengou/ 
 the tutelar saint of easy husbands ; it has been discontinued 
 probably on account of the additional number of good wives ; 
 at all events the moral improvement of the inhabitants may 
 be attributed to the progress of industry. The memory of 
 the duke De Liancourt is revered in the country ; the popu- 
 lation in the small village from which he derived his title, 
 was equal a few years ago to eight hundred inhabitants, it 
 exceeds at present thirteen hundred. Liancourt is about a 
 league and a half from Clermont, and the small manufacto- 
 ries in other places in the neighbourhood afford the means 
 of subsistence to laborious inhabitants. 1 
 
 a “ The royal castle ( chateau ) is one of the most remarkable for its 
 extent, the splendour and proper distribution of its apartments, and the 
 arrangement of its gardens’' — It is still one of the royal residences ( mai - 
 sons royalcs.) — P. 
 
 b “ Modernised.” 
 
 c The ancient bishopric of the Veromandui (Vermandois) was trans- 
 ferred to it from the ruined town of Augusta Vcromaiiduorum in 530. 
 (Moreri.) — The bishopric has been suppressed. — P. 
 
 d J. Sarazin, born 1598, died 1060. (Diet. Hist. Caen, 1804.) — P. 
 
 8 “ The singular construction of the castle of Clermont-Oise,* which 
 rises on the summit of a hill, at the foot of which the town is situated, 
 has led to the belief that it was built by the Romans, and that the origin 
 of the town itself t ascends to the remotest period : the castle, although 
 ancient, does not appear to exhibit the characters of a Roman building ; 
 the beauty and extent of the prospect it presents, form its principal re- 
 commendation.” 
 
 * So called from its situation in the department of the Oise. — Clermont. (Vosttien. 
 Alman. Koyal.) — Clermont en Beuuvoisis. (Enc. Meth. Moieri.) — It stands on the 
 small river Hreche, a branch of the Oise. — I’. 
 
 t “ I’etit chef lieu” — small town, and capital of an arrondissement. 
 
 1 Philip the Fair, king of France, was born at Fontainebleau. (Mo- 
 reri — Diet. Hist. Caen.) — P. 
 
 s “ — boasts of being the birthplace of our celebrated Cassini” — 
 probably Count Cassini, member of the National Institute. His father, 
 grandfather and great-grandfather were all eminent astronomers. The 
 two former were born in Paris, and the latter in the county of Nice. 
 His father, C. Fr. Cassini de Thury, was born in Paris, 1714. His 
 grandfather, J. Cassini, died at Thury, an estate he possessed near 
 Clermont, 1756. (Diet. Hist. Caen.) — P. 
 
 h “ They made formerly, in the month of May, a kind of pilgrimage 
 to Clermont, in honour of St. Jengou — *” 
 
 *f?t. Gengoux. (Enc. Meth.) 
 
 * “ The moral character of the people has been sensibly ameliorated 
 throughout the whole arrondissement, by the progress they have made 
 in industry, chiefly in consequence of the special encouragement given 
 it by the Duke of Liancourt, (whose memory is justly venerated,) on his 
 
 s I The same industry and activity are observable in the 
 
 - | villages round Beauvais ; indeed more than three hundred 
 , : workmen are employed in the burgh of Bresle. k Beauvais/ 
 . the former capital ol Beauvaisis, * 1 a small country ancienl- 
 
 - ly inhabited by the Bcllovaci, is said to have been called 
 i Bellovacum, before it received the name of Cccsaro-Ma- 
 1 gus. m The streets are sufficiently broad, but many of the 
 i houses are built of wood, which gives it a disagreeable ap- 
 ; pearance. The choir of the cathedral is complete, the nave 
 
 ■ and other parts of the building are still unfinished." The 
 
 ■ old ramparts have been changed into public walks. The 
 i English besieged it without success in 1 443, and Charles, 
 
 . duke of Burgundy, was not more fortunate in 1472. The 
 
 latter siege is mentioned in history on account of the noble 
 resistance ol the inhabitants ; they were not dismayed by 
 
 - an army ol eighty thousand men, and even the women 
 I sought the honour of defending the breach ; under the con- 
 ' duct of Joan Fouquet or Laine, surnamed the Hatchet, they 
 
 fought with as much intrepidity as the men. A Burgundian 
 • soldier had planted a standard on the wall, but Joan van- 
 quished him, and carried away the trophy ;° this heroic 
 action is represented in a picture which decorates the town- 
 house. The siege was raised in the month of July ; to 
 commemorate the event, a procession went forth every year 
 in the same month, and the women took precedence of the 
 men ; the ceremony was abolished at the revolution.^ 
 Beauvais is a place of considerable trade ; it has cloth, car- 
 pet and cotton manufactories.^ It has given birth to Philip 
 de Villers, to Del’ lle-Adam, great master of the order 
 of Malta, r to Restaut the grammarian, to the Abbe Du- 
 bos, and to Herman and Vaillant/ two distinguished anti- 
 quarians. 
 
 The Oise enters the department of the Seine and Oise, a 
 short way above the village of Noisy. Beaumont, the first 
 town through which it flows, contains two thousand inhabi- 
 tants ; it rises on a chalky height, and commands a view 
 of the plain which extends on the right bank of the riv- 
 
 estate situated a league and a half from Clermont. By his exertions, 
 the petty village of Liancourt which hardly reckoned 800 inhabitants, 
 now contains nearly 1300 : while its neighbourhood is full of small 
 manufactories that offer the means of subsistence to the labouring 
 population.” 
 
 k “ — Great quantities of peat are dug in the neighbourhood of that 
 town [Beauvais :] nearly three hundred workmen are employed in the 
 turbary near the bourg of Bresle.” 
 
 1 Beauvois — Beauvoisis. 
 
 m Beauvais, Bellovacum , Cccsaro-magus . (Enc. Meth. Geog. Mod.) — 
 Casaromagus, the capital of the Bellovaci, according to Ptolemy : it 
 afterwards took the name of the people, and was called Bcllovaci. (Enc. 
 Meth. Geog. Anc. D’Anv.) — P. 
 
 " “ The cathedral, which is still unfinished, and without a nave, is 
 celebrated for the beauty of its choir.” 
 
 0 Under the conduct of Jeanne Fouquet or Laine, surnamed Ila- 
 chettc. they fought with even more intrepidity than the men. She 
 herself tore down a standard, which one of the enemy had planted, and 
 threw him from the wall.” — She is generally known in history, by the 
 name of Jeanne Hachette. She is said to have been the first who met 
 the assailants in the breach, holding an axe ( hachcttc ) in her hand. 
 (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 p “ To commemorate the raising of the siege, a procession was made 
 every year in the month of July, in which the women took precedence 
 of the men ; it was, however, abolished during the revolution.” 
 
 <i “ It possesses cloth manufactories, cotton mills (Jilatures de coton,) 
 and a royal manufactory cf raised tapestry ( tapisserics de haute lice.)’’ 
 r “ — to Philip de Villers, de lVle-Adam, grand master of the order 
 of Malta” — Philip de Villiers de l’lsle-Adam, 43d grand master of the 
 order of St. John of Jerusalem [Malta.] (Beauvais.) — P. de Villiers, lVsle 
 Adam, 4th son of the lord of Isle-Adam. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 s Godefroi Hermant, doctor of the Sorbonne, born at Beauvais, 
 1617 — wrote lives of the fathers, translations of their works, an index 
 of ecclesiastical law, and several polemic treatises.— J. F. Vaillant, a 
 distinguished medallist, born at Beauvais, 1632. — (Diet. Hist. Caen. 
 Beauvais.) — P. 
 
book cxlvi.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 er. a Tlie abbey of Royaumont, about a league distant from 
 the small and agreeable town of Luzarches, b was founded by 
 St. Louis, but has recently been converted into a cotton 
 manufactory f a neat village was lately built in the vicinity.* 1 
 
 Pontoise rises like an amphitheatre at the confluence of 
 the Oise and the Viorne.® The streets are narrow and 
 steep, but many of the houses are handsome ; the walls have 
 been repaired, but part of those still remain, which were 
 scaled by the army of Charles the Seventh/ when the town 
 was taken from the English in 1442. The states-general 
 assembled at Pontoise in 1561 ; the parliament ol Paris 
 met in the same places in 1652, 1720 and 1753. The 
 Celts gave the name of Isar h to the river that waters it, 1 
 whence the town was called Brivisara, k which signifies lite- 
 rally, the bridge over the Isar. The Oise was called Inisa 
 in the seventh century, and the town Pons Iniscc : lastly, 
 JEsia having been substituted for Inisa, Pontoise took the 
 name of Pons JEsice , which was afterwards changed into 
 Pontcosia} It was traversed by a Roman road, which ex- 
 tended from Paris to Rouen ; some remains of it are still 
 observed in the neighbourhood. Philip of Burgundy, the 
 son of John the Second of France, 1 " and General Leelerc 
 were born in the town. 
 
 The small town of Mantes," surnamed La Jolie , 0 because 
 it is well built and finely situated on the left bank of the 
 Seine, was, according to some authors, founded at the time 
 when the druids still retained their authority. The Latin 
 name of Petro-Mantalum ,p and the mistletoe on its ancient 
 arms, seem to prove that the Celts venerated on the site 
 which it occupies, the sacred stones and other emblems of 
 the druidical worship. The church of Notre-Dame was 
 built by Blanche of Castile and Margaret of Provence/ the 
 one the mother, and the other the wife of Si. Louis. Ar- 
 ticles of consumption are not liable to any tax or toll on 
 entering the gates ; the economical way in which the town’s 
 
 OF FRANCE. 313 
 
 funds are managed, has enabled the magistrates to abolish 
 these oppressive duties. r Limay, which may be considered 
 as a suburb of Mantes, is only separated from it by the 
 Seine ; it is situated near the hermitage of St. Sauveur, 
 where a chapel and a house cut in a chalky rock, still attract 
 a great many pilgrims. 3 The castle of Rosnv/ the birth- 
 place of Sully, rises on the banks of the Seine at the distance 
 of two leagues below Mantes at present the property of 
 the dutchess of Berri, the same pious lady has built a church 
 and an hospital in the neighbourhood ; they are consecrated 
 to the memory of her unfortunate husband. v 
 
 Meulan on the right bank of the Seine, was probably 
 founded by the Celts, at all events the ancient name of Mel- 
 lentum indicates a Celtic origin ; w it contains a population of 
 two thousand souls ; some of the old fortifications may still 
 be seen, which enabled the inhabitants to resist the forces 
 commanded by the duke of Mayenne. Poissy,* the birth- 
 place of St. Louis, is peopled by two thousand six hundred 
 inhabitants ; it was formerly the capital of Pincerais, the 
 ancient Pagns Pinciacensis J It formed part of the crown 
 lands, and Charles the Bald assembled a parliament in the 
 town. It was there Blanche of Castile told her son 1 to value 
 his baptismal purity more than life, and to be assured that 
 whatever was onerous r.o the people could never be glorious 
 to the prince. A cattle market is held every week at 
 Poissy, and the town of Paris imposes an annual tax of 
 .£.60 on the sale of the cattle.*® The ancient convent of 
 the Ursuiines has been changed into a workhouse, bb large 
 enough to contain seven hundred and fifty paupers. The 
 famous colloquy at Poissy, between the Catholic doctors 
 and reformed ministers, who assembled in the convent during 
 the reign of Charles the Ninth, lasted two months, but it was 
 attended with no other result than that of exasperating the 
 two parties against each other. cc 
 
 The forest, dd which begins at a short distance from Poissy, 
 
 a “ Beaumont, the first town at the foot of which it flows, contains 
 2000 inhabitants; its promenade, situated on the summit of a chalky 
 plateau, commands a view of the plain on the right bank of the river.” 
 — Beaumont stands on the declivity of a hill, sloping down to the left 
 bank of the Oise. — P. b Luzarche. 
 
 c “ Cotton mill ( filature de coton.)” 
 
 d “ The ruins of its church have supplied materials for a handsome 
 village.” 
 
 e — the latter [Vionne. Vosgien] a small stream which serves to move 
 22 mills. (M. B.) 
 
 f “ The old walls, which partly surround it, are the same that were 
 scaled by the army of Charles Vll. — ” 
 
 6 “ — was transferred to the same place.” — The royal court ( cour du 
 roi.) or parliament was at first ambulatory, being held wherever it suited 
 the king to convene it. It, however, became sedentary at Paris, at 
 least as early as 1291, in the reign of Philip the Fair, and probably at 
 an earlier period, when it took the name of the parliament of Paris. It 
 was afterwards occasionally transferred to other places ; as in 1418 to 
 Poitiers, when Paris was occupied by the English ; in 1589 to Tours, 
 during the troubles of the league ; and in 1788 to Troyes, because it re- 
 fused to register certain royal edicts. — P. 
 
 h Isara. (D’Anv.) — P. ‘ The Oise. 
 
 k Briva Isara. (D’Anv.) — P. 
 
 1 CEsia — Pons (Esice — Pontesia. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 m Philip II. duke of Burgundy, fourth son of John II. king of 
 France (the one who was prisoner in England.) John I. of France, 
 was a posthumous son of Louis X., born five months after the death of 
 his father, and who lived only five days. Hence he is generally omit- 
 ted in the list of French kings, and John II. simply known as John, 
 king of France. — P. 
 
 n Mantes sur Seine, capital of an arrondissement. (Alman. Roy- 
 al.)— P. 
 
 0 The Pretty . — “ Mante, dite la Jolie.” (Moreri.) — P. 
 p Petromantalum. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 <1 “ — is a monument of their munificence.” — The collegiate church 
 of Mantes was founded by Jane of France ( Jeanne , fillc de France.) 
 (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 r “ The affairs of the town have been administered with such econ- 
 omy, that it has hitherto been able to provide for its municipal expen- 
 VOL. III.— NO. 52 40 
 
 ses, without subjecting to any local taxation ( droits d' octroi*) the arti- 
 cles consumed by the inhabitants.” 
 
 * Duties levied by a municipality, on the entrance or interior sale of commodities 
 Articles in entrepot or in transitu are not subjected to these duties. (Code Admin- 
 istratif, t. IV. p. 310 et seq .) — P 
 
 s “ — which consists of a chapel and a dwelling cut in the chalk. 
 Two pilgrimages, made to it every year, attract thither a great crowd 
 of people.” 
 
 1 Rosny, a bourg on the Seine, one league west of Mantes, with a 
 castle, the birthplace of Sully. (Vosgien. Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 u The mulberry was naturalized by Sully, in (he park of the castle. 
 (M. B.) — Before the reign of Henry IV. the mulberry had been prop- 
 agated for silk worms only in the southern provinces of France ; he 
 planted it, however, in the neighbourhood of Paris. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 v “ It is at present the property of the dutchess of Berry, who has 
 erected a chapel and a hospital ( hospice ) within the limits of the park, 
 in memory of her unfortunate husband.” 
 
 w “ Meulan, built in the form of an amphitheatre on the right bank 
 of the Seine, seems from its ancient name of Mcllcntum, to have been 
 of Celtic origin.” * Poissi. 
 
 y “ It was formerly the capital of a small country called Pincerais, 
 from its Latin name of Pagus Pinciacensis.” — Its Latin name is Pis- 
 ciacum, or rather Pinciacum, since the neighbouring country is called 
 Pagus Pinciacensis (Pincerais.) (Enc. Meth. 1784.) — P. 1 St. Louis. 
 
 aa “ The city of Paris derives from the sale of the cattle, an annual 
 revenue of 1,400,000 francs” (nearly £59,000.) — The government in 
 1786, derived from farming the taxes on the markets of Sceaux and 
 Poissy, a gross revenue of 1,100,000 francs (nett revenue 800,000 francs.) 
 (Enc. Meth. Finance.) — P. 
 
 bb “ Depot de mendicite” — House for the confinement of vagabonds 
 and beggars. — P. 
 
 cc “ The famous conference of Poissy ( coUoquc de Poissy) between the 
 catholic doctors and reformed [Calvinistic] ministers, was held in the 
 convent, during the reign of Charles IX. [1561 ;] it lasted two months 
 and a half, but had no other result than civil war.” — The conference 
 was summoned to meet Aug. 10, but did not commence till Sept. 4, 
 and was finally broken off by the quarrels of the parties, Nov. 25. (Mo- 
 reri.) — It terminated in confirming each party in his peculiar tenets, 
 and in increasing the persecuting spirit of the Catholics, and the zeai 
 of the Calvinists. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. dd The forest of St. Germain. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 314 
 
 and terminates at St. Germain, 1 forms a part of that called 
 the forest of Laye until the eleventh century, the time in 
 which the town of St. Germain was founded. It is encom- 
 passed with walls, and covers a surface of more than sixteen 
 thousand acres. 1 ** * Shaded by lofty and luxuriant trees, inter- 
 sected with broad avenues, there are few walks in France, 
 that can be compared with it. The castle rises on a terrace, 
 which is said to command a finer view than any in the 
 neighbourhood of Paris; the length of the terrace is equal 
 to two thousand four hundred yards, and the height to thir- 
 ty. 0 The castle of St. Germain* 1 was begun during the 
 reign of Francis the First, and was enlarged by Henry the 
 Fourth and Louis the Fourteenth; it serves at present as 
 barracks for a company of body guards. In the same edi- 
 fice were born Margaret of France, the daughter of Francis 
 the First, Henry the Second, Charles the Ninth and Louis 
 the Fourteenth. The town is well built, and is adorned 
 with a large market-place and a fine church ; e while the 
 workmen were digging the foundation of the latter in 1826, 
 they discovered the remains of James Stuart/ 
 
 The road from St. Germain to Paris extends along the 
 Seine, and communicates with Marly ,s and on the heights 
 above it are the remains of die machine that Lewis the 
 Fourteenth erected to supply the aoueduct that leads to 
 Versailles. 1 * ' Malmaison, at a greater distance from St. 
 Germain, was the residence of Napoleon when at the height 
 of his power, and also during the disastrous days that suc- 
 ceeded his defeat. 1 The small burgh of Ruel or Rueil 
 contains three thousand inhabitants ; it stands at the foot of 
 a hill planted with vineyards. The neighbouring castle was 
 inhabited by Cardinal Richelieu ; it was the scene of his 
 pleasures, and it was there he gratified his vengeance ; mak- 
 ing a confidant of none but the executioner, he there pri- 
 vately received those whom he had determined in secret to 
 put to death, with the utmost affability and kindness. The 
 tomb of the empress Josephine is situated within the church 
 of Ruel. Argenteuil stands on the right bank of the Seine ; 
 it contains four thousand six hundred inhabitants, and the 
 neighbouring country is very fruitful in wine. k The remains 
 of walls indicate the site of a monastery, which was founded 
 in the seventh century ; it is memorable as the retreat of 
 Heloise, who became the abbess 1 of it. A garment with- 
 
 * St. Germain en Laye. 
 b “ 8,500 arpents.” 
 
 c “ The beauty of its vegetation, and the broad avenues with which 
 it is intersected, render it a magnificent promenade for the town, which 
 also enjoys from a terrace 1200 toises in length by 15 in breadth, on 
 which the castle is built, one of the finest prospects in the neighbour- 
 nood of Paris.” 
 
 d The castle or palace (chAtcau) of St. Germain is still one of the 
 royal residences ( muisons royalest) — P. 
 
 e “ — a handsome market (term marclii ,) and a newly built church, 
 remarkable for its architecture and ornaments.” 
 
 f James II. of England, died at St. Germains 1701. — P. 
 e Marly le Roi. 
 
 " “ The road from St. Germain to Paris extends along the Seine, 
 and passes by Marly, where we may still observe the remains of the 
 machine erected by Louis XIV. in order to supply the aqueduct which 
 produces so magnificent an effect on the hill of Louveciennes, whence 
 its waters are conveyed by canals to Versailles. The machine is now 
 disused, and its place supplied by a powerful steam engine.”— The ma- 
 chine is situated on the river, by the current of which its wheels (14 
 in number) were moved; these gave motion to 225 pumps, by means 
 of which tlie water was raised to the top of a tower on a neighbouring 
 hill, whence it entered an aqueduct 330 toises in length. From this it 
 was conveyed by iron pipes to the reservoir of Marly, and thence to the 
 
 f ardens of Marly and Versailles. (Piganiol de la Force, Description de 
 aris, t. VIII. p. 10C.)— P. 
 
 ‘ Napoleon, after his second abdication, was required by the provis- 
 ional government to retire to Malmaison, where he continued only a 
 few days, previous to his departure for Rochefort. — P. 
 
 [BOOK CXLVI. 
 
 out any seams, according to tradition, worn by our Saviour, 
 and presented by the empress Irene to Charlemagne, has 
 been removed from the convent to the church, where it is 
 now preserved in a shrine above the altar. 
 
 St. Cloud on the left bank of the Seine, was called No 
 gent till after the death of Clodoald, the son of Clodomir, 
 king of Orleans ; aware that his uncle Clotaire, the mur- 
 derer of his brothers, had determined to put him to death, 
 he fled for refuge, and found safety in a cloister.” James 
 Clement assassinated Henry the Third in the old castle of 
 St. Cloud, then the property of Jerome de Gondy. The 
 heart of the unfortunate prince was deposited in the village 
 church, and the place where it rests, was marked with the 
 following inscription : Passenger, pity the fate of kings. 
 Louis the Fourteenth purchased the domain, and gave it to 
 his brother, the duke of Orleans, who built the present cas- 
 tle ; since his time, it has been a royal residence, it was 
 enlarged by Marie Antoinette. 11 Bonaparte, after his return 
 from Egypt, assembled there the council of Five Hundred 
 on the ninth of November 1799 ; the assembly was dissolv- 
 ed by an armed force on the same day, the eighteenth of 
 Brumaire, as it is called in the annals of the revolution. 
 The castle was Bonaparte’s favourite residence ; he embel- 
 lished and furnished it with royal luxury ; to improve the 
 view from the principal apartment, an obelisk was raised, 
 and a monument similar to the one erected at Athens by 
 Lysicrates the sculptor 0 , which antiquaries have surnamed 
 the Lantern of Demosthenes. Rabelais rendered Meudon 
 a place of celebrity before cardinal Lorraine built the castle 
 that Lewis the Fourteenth purchased for the dauphin. The 
 building rises on a hill, and the famous glass works are 
 situated below it. The long burgh of Sevres extends to 
 the village of Chaville ; it contains more than four thousand 
 inhabitants ; the royal porcelain works are certainly not in- 
 ferior to the finest in Europe . p 
 
 The entrance to Versailles by the road from Paris might 
 give one a favourable idea of a court-town, *i if the broad 
 avenue r were lined with regular buildings ; the approach 
 might thus be made to correspond with the magnificence of 
 the castle. 8 * * Neat houses are situated at the extremity of 
 the avenue, and at no great distance from them, a large 
 prison, of which the grated windows and iron doors may be 
 
 k “ Its vineyards produce annually on an average, more than 100,000 
 hectolitres of wine.” 
 
 1 “ — the superior” — not abbess, but prioress. The establishment 
 
 was a priory, dependent on the abbey of St. Denis. Heloise resided 
 
 there before she retired to the Paraclete. — P. 
 
 m “ — who retired there to an hermitage, in order to escape the death 
 with which he was threatened by his uncle Clothaire, the murderer of 
 his brothers.” — After the violent death of his father, and his two broth- 
 ers, he retired to a monastery which he had built at Nogent. (Mo- 
 reri.) — P. 
 
 n “ It became a royal residence, and was much enlarged, after its 
 purchase by Maria Antoinette.” — It was purchased of the duke of Or- 
 leans for the queen, in 1784. — P. 
 
 0 “ — an obelisk was raised in the park, crowned by a model in terra 
 cotta of the monument erected at Athens by the sculptor Lysicrates — ” 
 
 P “ The road that follows the river and leads to Sevres, passes 
 through the village of Meudon, which owed its reputation to Rabelais.* 
 before Cardinal Lorraine had built the castle ( chAteau ) that Louis XIV. 
 purchased for the dauphin. At the foot of the hill on which the castle 
 is situated, are the celebrated glass-works ( rerrerie ,) formerly establish- 
 ed at Sevres. The bourn of Sevres,! joined to a part of the village of 
 Chaville, is of considerable length, and contains more than 4000 inhab- 
 itants. It is celebrated for its royal manufactory of porcelain, which 
 surpasses in its products the finest in Europe.” 
 
 * Rabelais was pastor (cure) of Meudon. — P. 
 
 j Sevres, Sevre or Seve. (Vosgien.) 
 
 “ Ville royale.” 
 
 r “ — the broad avenue, planted with four rows of trees, that leads 
 to the parade ( Place d'.lrmcs).” 5 Palace (chAteau.) 
 
book cxlyi.] DESCRIPTI01N 
 
 seen from the triple entrance. Barracks front the private 
 treasury of the king, where the assemblies of the states- 
 general were held. The civil and commercial tribunals are 
 nearly opposite the mansion house, and the avenue termi- 
 nates on the right and on the left at the royal stables. A 
 broad walk surrounded with lofty trees extends from the 
 stables to the castle, where two Corinthian porches protrude 
 on each side of a brick building ; a such unsuitableness can 
 only be excused by the filial veneration which induced Louis 
 the Fourteenth to preserve the old hunting seat of his father. 
 The front on the side of the garden is wholly the work of 
 the great king; still even there the palace is not without 
 faults ; the centre or body of the building is out of propor- 
 tion, b and the wings are too long. The grounds are laid 
 out with admirable taste, a broad canal reaches to the verge 
 of the horizon, groves are scattered in verdant lawns, plants 
 more than four hundred years old, are preserved in the 
 orangery, water issues from fountains in every variety of 
 form, and jets rise above the highest trees. The largest 
 Trianon is covered with marble and surrounded by woods 
 that seem to realize the brilliant fictions of Tasso in the 
 description of the palace of Armida; the other is nothing 
 more than a simple pavilion.® These two edifices indicate 
 the character of the two kings by whom they were built ; 
 Louis the Fourteenth, when tired of his magnificent resi- 
 dence at Versailles, repaired to the first, which still retains 
 an air of pomp and grandeur, while Louis the Fifteenth, 
 preferring the solitude of the second to the cares of a crown 
 and the tiresome etiquette of a court, forgot in it the disas- 
 ters which marked his reign. 
 
 The magnificence of the royal buildings at Versailles 
 serves to justify the common opinion that Louis the Four- 
 teenth, surprised at the vast sums expended on them, deter- 
 mined to conceal the amount from posterity, and committed 
 the papers of Mansard* 1 to the flames. But Mirabeau, Vol- 
 ney and other writers have thought themselves sufficiently 
 informed on the subject to publish the results. 6 According 
 to an abstract of the expenses, that has been attributed to 
 Mansard, and according to other documents that are pre- 
 
 r OF FRANCE. 315 
 
 i served in the archives of the crown, we may arrive at the 
 following conclusion : namely, that all the sums expended 
 from 1G64 to 1702 in building and furnishing the royal 
 edifices, in laying out the grounds, in making the gardens, 
 and even in erecting the two principal churches in the town, 
 amounted to 95,800,000 livres which, according to the 
 mean value of silver during the last thirty-eight years, is 
 equivalent at present to 172,400,000 francs or nearly 
 £.7,184,000/ 
 
 After a revolution which has lasted almost forty years, 
 and which has changed the customs, manners and institutions 
 of France, Versailles is again a court town ; many nobless 
 reside in it, but the people are ignorant, idle and poor. But 
 if there are few works or manufactories in the town, it may 
 be partly attributed to its situation at a distance from every 
 natural current of water. 1 ' The population amounts only to 
 one-third of what it was in 1790 ; although it has increased 
 i rapidly since the restoration, 1 most of the broad and regular 
 ! streets are still gloomy and deserted. Versailles is not with- 
 out schools and charitable institutions ; there are several 
 preparatory schools to a military education, a large college, 
 in which lectures are delivered on geometry, mechanics, 
 music and drawing, and a public library containing 50,000 
 volumes. The royal hospital is the most useful of the chari- 
 table institutions/ The town was the birthplace of Louis 
 the Sixteenth, of the A.bbe De 1’Epee, and of Ducis, gene- 
 ral Hoche and marshal Berthier. The octroi or the tax 
 levied on provisions and other articles imported into the 
 town, is not much less than £.20,000 ; the greatness of the 
 sum may be partly attributed to the facility of communica- 
 tion ; more than six hundred stage coaches proceed from 
 the capital to the department of Seine and Oise, and the 
 most of them pass through Versailles, which is visited by 
 every stranger in Paris. 1 m 
 
 The country round Versailles is embellished with pleas- 
 ant walks, romantic sites and industrious villages. The in- 
 habitants of Villepreux manufacture shawls ; Gregnon has 
 been often visited by mineralogists on account of a cal- 
 careous stratum abounding in fossil shells, the lands in the 
 
 “ “ Neat houses first present themselves ; then a large prison, whose 
 triple entrance displays its wickets ( guichets ) and bolted doors ; beyond 
 it, extensive barracks front the former Hotel des Mcnus-Plaisirs, in 
 which were held the assemblies of the states-general ;* farther on, the 
 civil and commercial tribunals, and the hunting-house (la venerie.) t 
 rise opposite the mayoralty (batimcns dc la mairic,) and the avenue is 
 finally terminated on the right and left, by the great and little stables. 
 The fine fronts of these two buildings, the great alley which separates 
 them, the two others which border their sides, and the woods that sur- 
 round the city, produce a magnificent effect when seen from the en- 
 trance of the palace. But the front of the palace itself, where two 
 Corinthian porticoes protrude on either side of a brick building, exhib- 
 its a striking want of symmetry — ” 
 
 * The states-general held their first sitting in the Salle des Menus, May 5. 1789. 
 (Le Maire, Hist, de la Revul. Franr;. t. I. p. 55.) — P. 
 
 fThe Kennel {Chcnit.) (La Force, t. VIII. p. 75.) — P. 
 
 b “ — projects disproportionately.” 
 
 c “ But these defects are compensated by the splendour of the gar- 
 dens ; by the profusion of their statues, bronzes and vases ; by the 
 broad canal that extends to the verge of the horizon ; by the beauty of 
 the groves and shrubbery ; by the large basins, in the midst of which 
 fountains spout their waters in every variety of form and in jets that rise 
 above the highest trees; by the magnificent orangery, in which plants 
 are preserved of the age of four centuries; and lastly, by the great 
 and little Trianon, the former of which, covered with marble and sur- 
 rounded with elegant plantations, realizes the brilliant fictions of Tas- 
 so in his description of the palace of Armida, while the latter presents 
 only the modest appearance of a simple pavilion.” 
 
 d J. H. Mansard, the architect who constructed me palace of Ver- 
 sailles. — P. 
 
 e These results are as erroneous as they are different; Mirabeau, 
 in his nineteenth letter to his constituents, estimates the expenses at 
 welve hundred millions of francs ;* Volney T , in his Lemons sur l’His- 
 
 toire, makes them amount to fourteen hundred millions of limes tour 
 nois, which he considers equal to 4,600,000,000 francs 
 
 *“ — at 1200 millions ; — ” 
 
 1 M. Vaysse de Villars, Tableau descriptif, historique et pittoresque 
 de la ville, du chateau et du pare de Versailles, compris les deux Tri- 
 anons. 1827. — Le Comte d’Hauterive, Faits, calculs et observations sur 
 la depense d’une des grandes administrations de l’Etat a toutes les 
 epoques. depuis le regne de Louis XIV. et inclusivement jusqu’en 
 1825. 1828. e “Many of the old noblesse.” 
 
 h “ Consequently it contains few manufacturing establishments, a 
 circumstance that may, however, be partly attributed to its distance 
 from natural streams.” 
 
 ‘ “ — although its annual increase since the restoration, has been 
 very perceptible—” 
 
 k “ Versailles possesses several establishments for the purposes of 
 education and public charity ; it contains a great number of university 
 schools ( icoles universitaires,)* several preparatory institutions for the 
 military schools, a magnificent college, t public courses of instruction 
 in geometry and mechanics, music and drawing, a valuable library 
 of 50,000 volumes, and a royal hospital (hospice royal) of great im- 
 portance.” 
 
 * See note b p. 1030. fThe Royal College ( Lyceum ) of Versailles. 
 
 1 “ The town carries on a trade in articles of consumption of suffi 
 cient importance to enable it to realize a local revenue* of nearly 
 600,000 francs, which circumstance may be chiefly attributed to the 
 great resort of strangers, owing to its frequent communications with the 
 capital : more than 600 public conveyances (voitures) leave Paris for 
 the department of the Seine and Oise, and the greater part of them for 
 Versailles.” 
 
 * Arising from its entrance duties, &c. ( droits d’oetroi .) 
 
 m M. J. J . N. Iluot, Aper<;u topographique, physique, geologique, his 
 torique et statistique du departement (Annuai're de Seine-et-(3ise, 1819.) 
 
 
 
316 EUROPE. [book cxlvi 
 
 neighbourhood were purchased by his majesty, who has 
 lately presented them to an agricultural institution. 3 Tiie 
 military school at St. Cyr meets in the royal abbey, a large 
 edifice founded by Madame de Maintenon. b Jouy c is 
 situated in a fruitful valley, traversed by an aqueduct ; the 
 industry of the inhabitants is confined to their print-fields ; 
 during the imperial government more than sixteen hundred 
 workmen were employed, the number at present does not 
 exceed three hundred. J 
 
 The neat town of Montfort-PAmaury,® near the forest of 
 St. Leger, is built on the declivity and at the foot of a hill, 
 crowned by the ruins of an old castle ; one of the towers 
 still remains, and is adorned with handsome Gothic sculp- 
 tures. The town was the birthplace of Simon, count of 
 Montfort, who in the beginning of the thirteenth century, 
 rendered himself infamous by his cruelties in the crusade 
 against the Albigenses. 
 
 The small town of Rambouillet is situated on the other 
 side of the forest; during the imperial government it be- 
 came the capital of a subprefecture, perhaps on account of 
 a castle, which has nothing royal bat Lie name/ It is 
 flanked with towers, one of which is lurnished with battle- 
 ments and appears to be iess ancient than the others; on 
 the whole, the style of the building resembles that which 
 prevailed in the sixteenth century. Francis the First died 
 in the castle of Rambouillet in the year 1 547. The park 
 is one of the finest in F ranee, but there is nothing in the 
 town, at all worthy of notice ; the beauty of the former de- 
 pends on varied views, verdant groves and limpid streams.^ 
 Dourdan, which also gives its name to a neighbouring forest, h 
 was formerly a stronghold ; the castle in the middle of it 
 was built by Gontrand, king of Burgundy, in the sixth cen- 
 tury. It contains two thousand five hundred inhabitants, 
 and was the birthplace of La Bruyere. 
 
 Etampes 1 II covers a considerable space in a fruitful valley ; 
 
 a “ Grignon, which has been long celebrated among geologists for 
 a bed of limestone, rich in fossil shells, has acquired additional interest, 
 since an estate, purchased there by the king, has been gratuitously 
 appropriated to the establishment of an agricultural school.” — The stra- 
 tum at Grignon, so celebrated for its fossil sea shells, of which not less 
 than six hundred species have been enumerated by Defrance, consists 
 of a very tender and friable coarse-grained limestone (cutcaire grassier,) 
 which may in fact be considered a bed of calcareous sand, below anoth- 
 er stratum of hard limestone, also abounding in shells, but of a different 
 kind. (Cuvier et Brongniart, Geologie des Environs de Paris.) — P. 
 
 b “ St. Cyr* * * contains a special military school, established in the 
 extensive buildings of the royal abbey founded by Madame Maintenon.” 
 — Tliis school is intended for those only who have received a prepara- 
 tory military education. — P. 
 
 *St. Cir. (Vosgien.) 
 c Jouy en Josas. (Vosgien.) 
 
 ll “ It owes its prosperity to a manufacture of printed goods, in which 
 during the imperial government, not less than 1000 workmen were 
 employed, but which at present does not occupy more than 300.” 
 e Montfort-l’Amaulri. (Enc. Meth.) — Monfort-PAmauri. (Moreri.) 
 f “ After having traversed the forest of St. Leger, which is contin- 
 uous with that of Rambouillet, we arrive at the town that bears the 
 same name with the latter [Rambouillet.] During the imperial gov- 
 ernment, it owed to its castle* the rank of chief town of a subprefec- 
 ture. t The castle has nothing royal in its structure.” 
 
 » One of the royal residences ( maisoos royales.) — P. 
 
 t It was the chief town of an arrondissement (subprefecture,) in 1822. (Alman. 
 Royal.) — P. 
 
 e “ The park, which is laid out in the English fashion, is remarkable 
 for the purity of its water and the beauty of its prospects. It contains 
 a dairy ( laiterie ,) the interior of which, cased with marble and watered 
 by fountains, is adorned with a rock, representing a grotto in which a 
 nymph is bathing. The celebrated royal farm ( ferine royale,)* estab- 
 lished during the reign of Louis XVl.t for the naturalization of meri- 
 nos, is situated in the immediate vicinity of the park.” 
 
 * One of the royal sheep-folds ( bergeries royales.) t A. D. 1786. 
 
 •> In the same manner with Rambouillet. See note f of this page. 
 
 Estampes. (Enc. Meth. Moreri.) 
 
 it is watered by a small river that serves to turn several 
 mills. k It follows from different old deeds that the town 
 must have been founded before the sixth century, indeed 
 the appearance of the houses attests their antiquity. 1 Sa- 
 clas, a village about two leagues from Etampes, is much 
 more ancient ; it rises on the site of Salioclita, a city men- 
 tioned in the Itinerary of Antonine. The river Essonne m 
 waters the small town of the same name ; the inhabitants 
 manufacture cotton and woollen stuffs ;" they possessed for- 
 merly a powder manufactory, but as many of the houses 
 were demolished by an explosion, that branch of industry 
 has been removed to Bouchet, 0 a place near the confluence 
 of the Juine and the Essonne.P Corbeil, the capital of a dis- 
 trict, 'i is not more than a mile from Essonne ; r it possesses 
 several cotton and linen manufactories, and carries on a trade 
 with Paris in grain and flour. 3 
 
 The rich pastures in the department of the Seine and 
 Oise afford food to numerous flocks, and the same country 
 abounds in corn and wine. 1 The mineral substances, al- 
 though not highly valuable, are useful ; the gypsum furnish- 
 es the immense quantity of plaster that is consumed in the 
 capital, and the quarries afford excellent stone. 3 Several 
 mineral springs might be mentioned, but the only one of 
 any note, is that of Enghien in the valley of Montmorency. 
 
 The department of the Seine and Oise encompasses the 
 department of the Seine, in which Paris occupies nearly the 
 centre. When the Romans, under the command of Caesar, 
 
 | arrived about fifty-five years before the vulgar era, at the 
 mean and solitary city in the territory of the Parisii, which 
 the barbarians called Luthtouezy, and their conquerors Lu- 
 tetian the houses or rather cottages were built of clay, and 
 covered with straw, the country was poor, and the position 
 was not considered favourable lor a town J But the Parisii 
 adopted readily the usages of civilized life ; they were good 
 mariners, and brave in war. Lutelia was gradually enlarg- 
 
 k “ It is watered by a small river* that never freezes, and which 
 serves to turn a great number of mills.” 
 
 * The I, net or Etampes (Vosgien) — the Juine (Enc. Meth.) — the Ivette (Moreri.) 
 — The Juine rises at Neuville, passes by Malesherbes and Pithivieis, and unit- 
 ing with the Etampes, takes the name of the Essonne, and enters the Seine at Cor- 
 beil. The Ivette is a branch of the Orge, which enters the Seine opposite Ville 
 neuve St. George. (Vosgien.) — P 
 
 I “ It was the birthplace of Guettard the naturalist. It is a place of 
 considerable antiquity, since it is mentioned in documents of as early 
 a period as the sixth century ; some old buildings serve to confirm 
 their testimony.” 
 
 m Essonnes, Essone. 
 
 II “ Cotton stuffs ( cotonnadcs ) and ginger-bread ( pain d'lpice) — ” 
 Essonne manufactures paper and gunpowder. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 0 “ The powder-mill in its neighbourhood, which several accidents 
 had rendered formidable to the place, has been removed to Bouchet — ” 
 
 p Properly, near the confluence of the Juine and the Etampes, 
 which unite to form the Essonne. — P. 
 
 1 “Arrondissement.” 
 
 r “ A quarter of a league from Essonne.” 
 
 s “ It possesses several flour mills (mou/in. s,) a cotton mill {fila- 
 ture de coton,) and a manufacture of hempen tubes ( tuyaux ) without 
 seam ; it is one of the principal marts ( mogasins ) for the supply of Paris 
 with grain and flour.” 
 
 1 “ The department of the Seine and Oise is one of the richest in 
 corn, wine and sheep.” 
 
 u “They consist of chalk, building-stone* and gypsum, the last of 
 which furnishes the immense quantity of plaster that is consumed 
 in Paris.” 
 
 * Chiefly calcareous. — P. 
 
 * Lutetia. Caesar. De Bell. Gall. VII. § 54 . — Lutctia Parisiorum. 
 Caesar. De. B. G. VI. § 3 
 
 y “ When, fifty-five years before the vulgar era, the Romans, under 
 the conduct of Ctesar, arrived at this city, then a mean place, and the 
 only town belonging to the small tribe of the Purisii, by whom it was 
 called Luthtouezy, a name which the Romans changed into Lutetia, they 
 saw in its few dwellings, built of earth and cut straw, and situated on 
 the island which now comprehends that part of Paris called the Citi , 
 only an advantageous position in a miserable country.” 
 
BOOK CXI/VI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 317 
 
 eel and embellished ; it became the seat of a prefecture, 
 and the temporary residence of several emperors, particu- 
 larly of Julian, who styled it his dear Lutetia* The only 
 buildings connected with that remote period, are the baths, 
 which were attached to the imperial palace. b The feeble 
 Romans might have been aware of their danger at the ap- 
 proach of the Franks, but it was not foreseen that the city 
 was to become the metropolis of those barbarians, and four- 
 teen centuries afterwards, the capital of an empire as vast 
 as it was of short duration, and in which Rome itself was 
 merely a provincial town. 
 
 Paris was enlarged after Clovis chose it for his residence ; 
 pillaged several times by the Normans, it was encompassed 
 with fortifications by the weak successors of Charlemagne ; 
 but under the third dynasty, the limits both on the north 
 and south, having been considerably extended, it was divi- 
 ded into four parts or quarters, 0 and surrounded by a wall 
 which on a surface of six hundred and sixteen English 
 acres, d enclosed several villages beyond the boundaries that 
 were first traced under the Carlovingians. Different streets 
 may still serve to recall the names of these villages or burghs ; 
 the most remarkable were B our g-V Abbe, Beau-Bourg 
 and Bourg-Tiboud , the name of the last has been applied 
 to the street of Bourtibourg. 0 Two forts which have been 
 often rebuilt since the Roman conquest, defended the ap- 
 proaches to the city ; the one was the Great Chatelet on 
 the right bank of the Seine, at the entrance to the Pont an 
 Change ; the other or Little Chatelet guarded it on the 
 left. f Four large towers bounded the enclosure in the di- 
 rection of the river that called the Tournelle rose on the j 
 left bank of the river, near a wooden bridge, which although 
 since built of stone retains its ancient name ; h another, erect- 
 ed on the opposite bank at the extremity of Old Temple 
 Street, 1 served as a gate to the city ; it was first called Porte 
 Barbelle, and afterwards Barbette. The tower and the | 
 gate of Nesle were built at one extremity of the present 
 bridge of Arts, near the Mazarine library ; a large tower on 
 the other side defended the right bank of the Seine, it rose 
 opposite the castle of the Louvre, then an old edifice beyond 
 the walls, it was repaired or rebuilt by Philip Augustus.! 
 
 * Trr vhvxtTiur — dear Leucetia. — P. 
 
 b “ The only building belonging to that period, is that, of the Ther- 
 mo . :, which formed part of Julian’s palace.” — At the time of h is resi- 
 dence in Lutetia, Julian was governor of Gaul under the emperor 
 Constantius. — P. 
 c Qttar tiers. 
 d “ 739 arpents.” 
 
 c “ These villages or lourgs, which the names of certain streets still 
 serve to recall, were Bourg-l’Abbe, Beau-Bourg and Bourg-Tiboud, 
 the last of which gave its name to the street of Bourtibourg.” 
 
 f “ — the other, the Little Chatelet, on the left bank, at the head of 
 the Little Bridge ( Petit Pont.)" 
 
 g “ Four large towers, situated on the banks of the river, marked, 
 above and below, the limits of the city.” 
 
 h “ — at the head of a wooden bridge, which although since built 
 of stone, still retains its original name” — still called the Wooden 
 Bridge ( Pont, tie Bois.) — P. 
 
 ‘ “ La Vieille rue du Temple.” 
 
 i “ At one extremity of the present bridge of the Arts ( Pont ties 
 Jirts,) the tower and the gate of Nesle, then called the gate of Philip 
 Hamelin, rose in the place now occupied by the pavilion of the Maz- 
 arin library, while at the opposite extremity, fronting the old castle 
 (i chateau ) of the Louvre, which had been recently rebuilt by Philip 
 Augustus, and was then situated without the walls, a large tower de- 
 fended the right bank of the Seine.” 
 k “ 1284 arpents.” 
 
 1 “ During the reign of Francis I. the limits of the capital were ex- 
 tended only on the north.” 
 
 1,1 “ Place du Palais-Royal.” 
 
 “ Rue des Fosses-Montmartre — Rue Neuve-Saint-Eustache.’ 
 
 ° “ About 1400 arpents.” 
 
 Charles the Sixth enlarged the boundary on the north, 
 and divided Paris into sixteen quarters, which covered a 
 surface of 1,070 English acres. 11 It was also extended in 
 the same direction by Francis the First; * 1 the walls were 
 traced from the square of the Palais Royal" 1 along the streets 
 of Fosses Montmartre and Neuve-St. Eustache" to the 
 gate of St. Denis, and from that gate to the Bastille; the 
 surface thus enclosed was little less than 1,167 English 
 acres." The number was increased to fourteen hundred 
 in consequence of new additions made by Henry the Fourth . p 
 O thers were made on the north by Louis the Thirteenth ; 
 they may be still traced from the bridge of Louis the Six- 
 teenth,^ along the Royal Street 1- and the Boulevards, to the 
 bridge of Austerlitz ; but the former limit on the south was 
 not changed. On the right bank of the Seine and within 
 the boundaries, were the Louvre, the palace and garden of 
 the Tuileries, s the abbey of St. Martin, the Temple, the 
 j Royal Square, 1 and the house of Richelieu, then called the 
 j Palais Cardinal ; u the last edifice having been left to Louis 
 | the Thirteenth by his minister, became the residence of 
 Anne of Austria, when the name was changed into that of 
 Palais Royal, which it retained after Louis the Fourteenth 
 had given it to his brother, the duke of Orleans. The 
 court of justice and the cathedral, of which the fronts were 
 concealed by old buildings, the Sorbonne, founded by Rob- 
 ert de Sorbon, the chaplain of St. Louis, and rebuilt by 
 Richelieu, the college of Cluny, that was completed in the 
 thirteenth century, and the church of St. Genevieve, or the 
 burying place of Clovis and the shepherdess of Nanterre, 
 were situated in the southern part of Paris. v Several con- 
 vents and charitable institutions rose beyond the northern 
 enclosure ; the most remarkable were the pest-house of 
 St. Lazarus, w founded in the eleventh century, the hos- 
 pital of St. Louis, x built in 1607, and the abbey of St. 
 Anthony, 7 which was afterwards changed into an hospital. 
 Beyond the walls on the south were the abbey of St. Ger- 
 main des Pres, of which the foundation dates from the time 
 of Childebert the First ; the church of St. Sulpice, which was 
 finished by Louis the Fifteenth ; z the palace of the Luxem- 
 bourg, of which the foundations were laid by Mary de Me- 
 
 p ’‘Under Henry IV., new additions increased it to 1C60 arpents.” 
 
 ‘i “ Louis XIII. extended the limits on the north, and the line 
 drawn by him may be still traced from the bridge of Louis XVI. 
 ( Pont-Louis XVI .) — ” 
 r “ Rue Royale.” 
 
 I e Tuilleries. (Moreri. La Force.) — Thuilleries (Eng. authors.) 
 
 1 “ Place Royale.” 
 
 n “Hotel Richelieu, also called the Palais-Cardinal.”. — It was first 
 called the Hotel de Richelieu, then the Palais-Cardinal, and finally the 
 Palais-Royal. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 v “ The southern part of Paris comprehended, besides the island of 
 St. Louis and the City* ( Vile Saint- Louis — la Cite,) in which were the 
 cathedralt and the palace of justice (palais de justice,) the fronts of 
 which were concealed by masses of building, three other important 
 edifices: namely, the Sorbonne, founded by Robert de Sorbon, chap- 
 lain of St. Louis, and rebuilt by Richelieu ; the college of Cluny, 
 erected in the 13th century ; and the church of St. Genevieve, in 
 i which Clovis and the shepherdess of Nanterret were interred, and 
 which was reconstructed in 1175.||” 
 
 *The City occupies the island of Notre-Dame, in which the ancient Lutetia was 
 situated. — P. 
 
 f The church of Notre-Dame. 
 
 j St. Genevieve, born at Nanterre A. D. 419. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 || The old church of St. Genevieve was first erected by Clovis, but hnvinv been 
 ruined by the Normans, it was rebuilt at different intervals, and finally finished, in 
 1175, by Stephen bishop of Tournay. (Piganiol de la Force, t. v. p 231— 4.)— The 
 present church of St. Genevieve (the Pantheon) was built by Louis XV.— P. 
 
 w “ Leproserie de St. Lazare” — house for the reception of lepers - 
 lazar-house. — P. x “Hopital St. Louis.” 
 
 y “ Abbaye St. Antoine” — now Hopital St. Antoine. — P. 
 z The church of St. Sulpice was begun in 1655, during the reign of 
 Louis XIV.— P 
 
318 EUR 
 
 dicisin 1 G 1 5 : the abbey of Vul de Grace, which was founded 
 in 1G45 ; the Garden of Plants, which was begun in 1635 : 
 and the house of correction,® which was erected in 1656. 
 
 Paris was also enlarged by Louis the Fourteenth, and the 
 hospital of Invalids 1 * was comprehended within the enclo- 
 sure ; during the same reign the old ditches were filled up, 
 the ramparts and gates demolished, and two triumphal 
 arches substituted for the gates of St. Martin and St. Denis. 
 The boundaries of the city were so much enlarged in con- 
 sequence of these improvements, that at the accession of 
 Louis the Fifteenth, it covered a surface equal to 2,740 
 acres. 0 The village of Roule d was included some years 
 fterwards within the limits that were fixed in 1728, and the 
 extent was thus increased to 3 244 acres. e Lamps of the 
 same sort as those that are now seen in the streets, were 
 erected in the year 1766, but a hundred years before that 
 period, Paris was lighted by means of lanterns. To obviate 
 the inconvenience arising from crooked streets, a law was 
 first passed in 1785, regulating the plan according to which 
 they were to be built in future ; five years afterwards a 
 new wall was raised, the limits have not been since much 
 extended ; they enclose a space somewhat less than 8,400 
 acres/ 
 
 Having enumerated the principal additions made to Paris 
 at different periods, we may mention the monuments and 
 edifices by which it has been embellished from the acces- 
 sion of Louis the Fourteenth to the present day. The 
 Mazarin college, s now the hall of the Institute, 1 * 1 the colon- 
 nade of the Louvre/ the Gobelins manufactory, kl the Obser- 
 vatory , m the Foundling hospital," the hospital of Invalids, 0 
 the gates of St. Denis 1 * and St. Martin, q the Royal Bridge* % 
 and the edifices surrounding the Place Vendome/ were 
 raised during the reign of Louis the Great. 
 
 The monuments of the following reign" are the Bourbon 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CXliYI. 
 
 palace/ at present the ball of the Chamber of deputies, 1 ’' 1 
 the portal of the church of St. Roche/ z the massive foun- 
 tain of Grenelle/® the Military School/ 1 * the new church of 
 St. Genevieve, cc the corn market, ddee the equestrian statue of 
 Lewis the Fifteenth, the public buildings in the square that 
 bears the name of the king, ff Saint Martin’s market/ 1 * 11 and, 
 lastly, the mint.B kk 
 
 The embarrassed state of the finances did not prevent 
 Louis the Sixteenth from raising several useful and elegant 
 buildings. The College of France 11 was completed, and 
 the School of Medicine"* 1 " was commenced."” The court of 
 justice 00 was embellished with a new front ; pp the Odeon was 
 built for the representation of French comedies, qq and the 
 present Italian theatre for the comic opera." The magnifi- 
 cent front of the last building might have decorated one of 
 the most frequented streets in Paris, but it was determined 
 not to place it on a line with the minor theatres on the 
 Boulevards. 33 Some years afterwards, the stone galleries 
 ol the Palais Royal were constructed by the duke of Or- 
 leans ; u the fine bridge of Louis the Sixteenth"" was erected ; 
 the elegant fountain of the Innocents, a monument of the 
 revival ol the arts, vv was repaired ; ww and the French theatre” 
 adorned the street of Richelieu J? ” The limits of Paris were 
 also marked by fifty-five barriers, aaa raised at a great expense 
 and in bad taste/ 1 * 1 * and, lastly, the theatre of Feydeau 
 was built during the same reign. cccddd 
 
 It seemed as if Bonaparte was anxious to indemnify the 
 Parisians for the loss of liberty by improving their city. 
 The embellishments which he added to the capital in the 
 short space of twelve years surpassed those of the three 
 preceding reigns. eee The works of the period are the fine 
 streets of La Paix, Rivoli, Mont Thabor, Castiglione, and 
 many others. The quays of Orsai, Debilly, Desaix, Mor- 
 land, Catinat, Bignon, the Louvre, the Invalids, the City, 
 
 a “ Hospice de la Salpetriere.” — Properly, an alms-house for the 
 reception of sick and aged females (particularly, the insane) — also used 
 as a house of correction for disorderly females. — P. 
 
 b “ Hotel des Invalides.” c “ 3,228 arpents.” 
 
 d “ Le ltoule.” — Le Roulle or Le Rolle (Lat. Kotulus;) originally, 
 a village; erected into a suburb, A. D. 1722. (La Force, t. II. p. 
 438 — 40.) — P. e “ 3,919 arpents.” 
 
 f “ Paris was lighted with lanterns as early as 1660, but the lamps 
 now employed (rivcrbires, reflecting lamps) were substituted for them 
 in 1766. The first law regulating the laying out ( alignemcnt ) of streets, 
 was passed in 1783 ; five years afterwards, a new wall was erected, 
 which taking into account the slight additions it has since received , 
 gives to the capital an extent of 10,060 arpents.*” 
 
 *3,439 hectares 6S ares. 
 
 e “ College Mazarin” — called also the College of the Four Nations 
 (College des quatre Nations.) because founded by Cardinal Mazarin for 
 the education of 60 young noblemen from the four provinces recently 
 subjected to Louis XIV.. A. D. 1661. — After the revolution it was ap- 
 propriated to the National Institute, and to a school of the fine arts, and 
 receive.d the name of Palais des Arts, by which name, and that of Pa- 
 lais de I'lnstitut, it is now known. The Mazarin library occupies part 
 of the edifice. It was built on the site of the gate of Nesle (Enc. 
 Meth.) — P. 
 
 h “Palais de I'lnstitut” (Palace of the Institute) — also called the 
 Palace of the Fine Arts ( Palais des Arts.) — P. 
 
 ‘ Begun in 1662. i Begun in 1665. 
 
 k The royal manufactory of the Gobelins — a manufactory of the rich- 
 est tapestry, so called from G. Gobelin, a dyer of Reims, who estab- 
 lished a manufactory there in the 16th century. — The present establish- 
 ment was founded by Colbert in 1667. — P. 1 Begun in 1666. 
 
 m Begun in 1667. n Begun in 1669. 
 
 ° Begun in 1671, finished in 1706. p Begun in 1672. 
 
 4 Begun in 1674. r “ Pont- Royal.” ■ Begun in 1684. 
 
 1 From 1685 to 1701. u Louis XV. 
 
 7 “ Palais Bourbon.” 
 
 w “ Palais de la Chambre des deputes” — under the imperial govern- 
 ment, the Palace of the Legislative Body ( Palais du Corps Lcgisla- 
 tif .) — P. * Begun in 1722. t “ St. Roch.” * Begun in 1736. 
 
 “ a Begun in 1739. bb Begun in 1752. 
 
 tc Although the foundations were begun in 1757, the ceremony of 
 laying the corner-stone did not take place until the year 1764. 
 in « Halle au Ble.” ee Begun in 1763, finished in 1767. 
 n “ The equestrian statue and the buildings of the Place Louis XV.” 
 — The Place Louis XV. (Square of Louis XV.) is bounded by the 
 Seine on the south, by the gardens of the Tuileries on the east, by the 
 Chtnnps Elysies on the west, and by a lofty range of palaces on the 
 north. Its centre was occupied by an equestrian statue of Louis XV., 
 demolished in 1792. — P. e? Begun in 1763. 
 
 hh “ The Market of St. Martin ( Marclii St. Martin.)” 
 
 “ Begun in 1765. 
 
 ii “ Hotel des Monnaies.” kk Begun in 1771. 
 
 11 “ College de France” — College Royal (Enc. Meth.) — College 
 Royal de France (Ahnan. Royal)— founded by Francis I. A. D.1529 
 rebuilt at the period above mentioned. — P. 
 
 mm“ Ecole de Medecine.” nn In 1774. 
 
 00 “ Palace of Justice ( Palais de Justice.)” 
 pp In 1776. 44 In 1781. "■ In 17S2. 
 
 ss “ The Odeon was built for the Co mi die Franca isc, and the Italian 
 Theatre ( Theatre des Italiens*) for the comic opera (optra-comique ;) 
 the latter with a large and noble front, which would have decorated 
 the most frequented of the Boulevards, t if from a very singular preju- 
 dice, it had not been feared that by turning it in that direction, it would 
 have been confounded with the petty theatres of the Boulevards.” 
 
 * The present French Opera (Grand Opera or Rnyal Academy of Music) fronting 
 the Rue LepeReticr (Boulevard Italien.) (Herve.) — P. 
 f Boulevard des Italiens (Italian Boulevard.) 
 
 u In 1786. 
 
 “ u “ Pont Louis XVI.” 
 
 vv The present structure, said to have been built on the site of an 
 older one, was erected in 1550. — P. 
 
 From 1787 to 1791. xx “ Theatre Frantjais.” 
 
 yy “ Rue de Richelieu.” 11 From 1787 to 1790. 
 
 aaa “ Barrieres” — gates. bbb From 1786 to 1789. 
 
 ccc “ The Theatre of the Rue Feydeau was destined to receive the 
 company that had been previously established on the Boulevard des 
 Italiens.” In 1790. 
 
 eee “ — equalled them.” — This was published in 1829, under the gov 
 eminent of the Bourbons. — P. 
 
BOOK CXLVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 319 
 
 the Conference and Tournelle were constructed. The 
 bridges of Arts, a the City, Austerlitz b and Jena, c were suc- 
 cessively erected ; the canal of Ourcq facilitated the con- 
 veyance of goods, and thus increased the commerce of the 
 capital. d Twenty-four new fountains served to adorn and 
 purify the streets ; we cannot refrain from mentioning those 
 on Chatelet place, Vaugirard street, the market of St. Ger- 
 main, the court of the Medical School, the boulevard of 
 Bondi, and the fountain of the Elephant, the largest of them 
 all, but it remains still in an unfinished state. Eight covered 
 markets were begun and finished ; the old slaughter houses 
 were demolished, and others were raised beyond the barriers, 
 that the inhabitants might not be exposed to the disgusting 
 spectacles, which until then were not uncommon in many 
 parts of Paris.® Four spacious cemeteries were enclosed 
 without the walls, and granaries of a great size were built on 
 the site of the ancient arsenal/ s The same period of des- 
 potism and glory was marked by the commencement or 
 completion of different monuments. The colonnade of the 
 Louvre was embellished and perfected, the works by which 
 the same palace was to he united to the Tuileries, were 
 begun. 1 ' A triumphal arch loaded with ornaments, in di- 
 mensions the same as the one erected to Septimius Severus 
 at Rome, rose on the Carrousel to commemorate the Aus- 
 trian campaign of 1805. 1 A similar monument of colossal 
 size crowns the entrance to the Elysian Fields/ The 
 church of the Magdalen was enlarged, 1 ' and the present 
 peristyle was built round the chamber of deputies. 1 A pillar 
 after the model of the one raised to Antonine at Rome, cov- 
 ered with bronze basso-relievos, and surmounted by the co- 
 
 1 In 1804. 
 
 b In 1806. — Now called the bridge of the King’s Garden ( Pont du 
 Jardin du Roi) \ Pont du Roi (Herve’s Guide to Paris, p. 339.) It is 
 situated opposite the Garden of Plants. — P.] 
 
 c In 1813 — Now called the brido-e of the Invalids ( Pont des Inva- 
 lides.) >1 In 1809. 
 
 f They were begun in 1810, but they were not finished until after 
 the restoration. f Begun in 1807. 
 
 s “ Several fine streets were opened, among which those of La 
 Paix, Rivoli, Mont-Thabor* * and Castiglione may be enumerated ; 
 the quays of Orsai, Debilly, Desaix, Morland, Bignon, the Louvre, 
 the Invalids, the City ( Citi ,) the Conference, and the Tournelle, 
 were constructed ; the bridges of the City ( Pont de la Citi) and the 
 Fine Arts ( Pont des Arts.) and those of Austerlitz and Jena, were 
 successively erected ; the canal of the Ourcq and the large basin of La 
 Villette furnished additional facilities to commerce ;t the streets were 
 adorned and purified by 65 smaller fountains (homes jetant dc I’eau) 
 and by 24 new fountains of a larger size (nouvclles fontaitics) among the 
 last of which the most remarkable were those of the Place du Chatelet, 
 the Rue de Vaugirard. the Market of St. Germain ( marche St. Ger- 
 main) the School of Medicine, and the Boulevard of Bondy (boulevard 
 Bondi) and also the colossal fountain of the Elephant, which still remains 
 unfinished ; eight covered markets supplied the place of the wretched 
 booths of oil cloth, by which the hucksters had previously been pro- 
 tected ; several new sewers served to drain the streets ; five extensive 
 slaughter-houses, built in an elegant style of rustic architecture, were 
 erected on the skirts of the city, in order to put a stop to the disgust- 
 ing practice of slaughtering animals in private establishments, in the 
 heart of the town ; four spacious cemeteries, situated beyond the barri- 
 ers, were substituted for those within the walls ;t immense granaries 
 (greniers de reserve) occupied the site of the former arsenal ; and the 
 building of the wine market (Halle aux Vins ) was begun. ||” 
 
 * Mount Tabor— so called from a victory gained by Bonaparte over the Turks, at 
 Mount Tabor in Palestine, 1799. — P. 
 f l'lie canal of the Ourcq supplies several of the fountains in Paris. — P. 
 j In virtue of a decree issued in 1804. 
 
 || The corner stone was laid in 1811. 
 
 h In 1808. > From 1806 to 1809. 
 
 i From 1806 to 1814; but it is still unfinished. 
 k From 1807 to 1814. i In 1807. 
 
 m Finished in 1810. 
 
 n “ The magnificent colonnade of the Louvre was embellished and 
 terminated ; the gallery intended to complete the connexion between 
 the Louvre and the Tuileries,* was begun ; a triumphal arch, loaded 
 with ornaments, and built after the model of that of Septimius Seve- 
 rus at Rome, rose in the Place du Carrousel to commemorate the Aus- 
 
 lossal statue of its founder, adorned Vendome place.” 1 " Last- 
 ly, the exchange,” the most sumptuous edifice in Paris, was 
 founded on a site, formerly encumbered with old houses. p 
 
 Tlie fall of the extraordinary man by whom these works 
 were accomplished, and the exhausted stale of the finances 
 after two years of invasion and defeats, interrupted, but 
 did not prevent, the embellishments of the capital. The 
 blessings ol a long desired peace gave such an impulse to 
 individual enterprise, that more workmen were employed 
 than in the time of Napoleon. Gardens and fields were 
 changed into streets,' 1 and villages rose heyond the gates. 
 The mania ol building became the disease of the rich and 
 of speculator wilhout capital; it was not until many of 
 them were ruined, until whole districts or quarters were 
 deserted, that their folly was discovered.” Some works 
 that had been long projected or begun, were after many 
 interruptions continued ; the granaries, the slaughter-houses, 
 the markets of Saint Martin and Saint Germain were fin- 
 ished ; the statues of Henry the Fourth and Lewis die 
 Fourteenth were erected on the Pont-Neuf and the Place- 
 V ictoire. A monument was raised to Lewis the Sixteenth 
 by the city of Paris, and it was determined to place the 
 statue of Lewis the Thi.teenth on the Royal Square, noton 
 account of any admiration for the prince, but because his 
 statue had been there beiore. s 
 
 Every successive addition made to Paris was in all pro- 
 bability rendered necessary by a corresponding increase in 
 the population ; but nothing like accurate infoimation can 
 be obtained concerning the number of inhabitants before the 
 fourteenth century. It cannot be doubted that both before 
 
 trian campaign of 1805; a similar monument, remarkable for its co- 
 lossal dimensions, crowned the terrace (plate-forme) which terminates 
 the avenue of the Champs-Elysees ;t the church of La Madeleine, 
 modified in its construction, received the title of the Temple of Glory 
 (Temple de la Gloire ;) a peristyle, serving as a back-front (arriere- 
 facade) to the Palace of the Chamber of Deputies, was made to cor- 
 respond with that of the temple ; a column, after the model of that of 
 Antoninet at Rome, covered with bass-reliefs in bronze, and surmoun- 
 ted by a colossal statue of its founder, || decorated the Place Ven- 
 dome — ” 
 
 * The gallery connecting the Louvre and the Tuileries on the south, was begun 
 by Henry IV. Bonaparte formed the plan of connecting the two buildings on the 
 north by a similar range of building, which he begun and completed for about one 
 third of the distance. When entirely finished, the vast square of the Carrousel will 
 be completely enclosed. — P. 
 
 | The triumphal arch of L’Etoile (the Star) — called also the Barriere de I’Etoile ; 
 situated at the Barriere dc JVcuilly , at the extremity of the broad avenue which ex- 
 tends from that barrier tu the Place Louis XV. through tile whole extent of the 
 Champs Elysees. — P. {Trajan. (Ed. Encyc. Herve.) — P. 
 
 || Kemoved at the restoration. — It is now to be replaced. — P. 
 
 ° “ Palais de la Bourse.” 
 
 p From 1808 to 1814. 
 
 q “ New quarters were formed within the walls, xvhere there had 
 been only fields and gardens.” — A considerable part of the space in- 
 closed within the walls is still unoccupied. — P. 
 
 r “ The ruin of many of them served to check this extravagance, 
 and entire quarters, scarcely finished, attest by their solitude the extent 
 of the delusion.” 
 
 “ “ Several works, long since projected or begun, have been slowly 
 continued ; at the Tuileries, an iron railing, in a style of elegant sim- 
 plicity, has been substituted for the wall on the terrace of the Feuillans ; 
 some of the arcades of the Louvre have been built; the granaries (gre- 
 niers de riserve) the slaughter-houses, the wine market, the markets 
 of St. Martin and St. Germain, the canals of St. Denis and St. Mar- 
 tin, and the quays of Bignon and the Invalids, have been finished ; 
 the statues of Henry IV. and Louis XIV. have been erected, the former 
 on the Pont-Neuf, and the latter in the Place des Victoires ; the vast 
 buildings of the treasury department (ministire des finances) have 
 added to the beautiful regularity of the Rue de Rivoli ; the Exchange 
 and the Temple of Glory, the last of which has again become the 
 church of La Madeleine, have been completed ; a monument to the 
 memory of Louis XVI. has been raised in the square of Louis XV. 
 (Place Louis XL.) which the city of Paris has undertaken to embellish 
 at its own expense ; and lastly, the statue of Louis XIII. is to be rein- 
 stated in the Place Royale, not from any motives of admiration, but 
 because it formerly occupied the same locality.” 
 
320 EUR 
 
 •and after that early period, little or no attention was bestow- 
 ed on a subject, to which political writers of the present 
 day attach so much importance. It is difficult, however, 
 to suppose with M. Dulaure, that Paris contained only 
 forty-nine thousand inhabitants in the reign of Philip the 
 Fair.® The chroniclers of the time asset t that there were 
 fifty thousand men capable of bearing arms, which indicates 
 a population of more than a hundred and twenty thousand 
 individuals. It may be allowed that chroniclers are not the 
 best authority, but it should be recollected that the capital 
 consisted then of thirty-four parishes, and it might be shown 
 that the average number of inhabitants in each parish was 
 at least equal to three thousand. 15 If it were necessary to 
 bring forward other arguments, it might be remarked that 
 there were sixteen colleges in Paris in the year 1336,° and 
 that eight years afterwards a pestilential disease lasted sev- 
 eral months, and while it was at its height, not less than five 
 hundred persons died daily. The number of inhabitants 
 must have been much greater in the following century, for 
 a plague that began in 1418, and lasted three months, car- 
 ried off a hundred thousand individuals.* 1 In the year 1467, 
 Louis the Eleventh reviewed the men between sixteen and 
 sixty, capable of bearing arms, and their number amounted 
 to more than sixty and less than eighty thousand, so that 
 the population may be supposed greater than 180.000. If 
 25,000 studen's f.om foreign countries and different parts 
 of France, then in Paris, be included, the total population 
 was without doubt greater than 200,000 individuals.® The 
 number of houses in Henry the Second’s time amounted 
 to 12,000, from which it may be inferred that the popula- 
 tion was equal to about 240,000. When Henry the 
 Fourth besieged Paris in a season of famine and devasta- 
 tion, there were in the town, exclusively of the suburbs, 
 more than two hundred thousand persons. The total num- 
 ber of inhabitants amounted to 492,000 about the end of 
 Louis the Fourteenth’s reign ; since that period the popu- 
 lation has always been progressive/ 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CXLVI. 
 
 Paris contained before the revolution a hundred and 
 sixty catholic houses of worship: viz. fifty parish churches, 
 ten others possessing the same privileges, twenty collegiate 
 churches and eighty chapels of ease ; there were besides 
 eleven abbeys, three of which were inhabited by women, 
 fifty-three convents and forty-six nunneiies.s It does not 
 contain at present more than thirty-eight catholic churches, 
 namely, twelve parish churches and twenty-six chapels of 
 ease, besides thirty-five monasteries for women, four for 
 men, and as many monkish seminaries/ Six chapels' be- 
 long to different sects: viz. three to the Calvinists, one to 
 those of the Augsburg confession,! one to the eastern Chris- 
 tians, k and one to the Jews. 
 
 There are nine public libraries, many scientific collec- 
 tions, others connected with the arts, schools of law, medi- 
 cine and theology. It is foreign to our purpose to mention 
 all the schools, seminaries or colleges in which the various 
 departments of knowledge are taught; of these the poly- 
 technic school is not the least important, and it may be 
 remarked that the method of instruction which was first 
 introduced there, has been since adopted in different coun- 
 tries. The number of private institutions amounts to thirty- 
 six, of public schools to a hundred and thirty-five ; there are 
 twenty-three learned societies, independently of the Royal 
 Institute, the most celebrated of them all. Much good 
 has been effected by philanthropic societies, by benevolent 
 institutions ; knowledge has thus been communicated to 
 those, who otherwise must have remained ignorant, the evils 
 of poverty have thus been mitigated. As ostentation is not 
 a pretext for the noble duty of relieving the poor, or mitigat- 
 ing human suffering, the neglect of it cannot be imputed to 
 carelessness or indifference. The charitable institutions in 
 Paris, the numbers that subscribe to them, the zeal and 
 judgment with which they are managed, are the best proofs 
 of progressive improvement, the best answers that can be 
 given to the narrow-minded men, who have vainly attempted 
 to calumniate the present generation. 1 
 
 “ M. J. A. Dulaure, Histoire civile, physique et morale de Paris, 
 tcm. iii. p. 281, 3e edition, 12mo. 
 
 b “ We cannot, however, agree with a distinguished writer (M. Du- 
 laure,) who estimates the population of the capital, during the reign of 
 Philip the Fair, at only about 49,000 souls. Whatever be the exagge- 
 ration of the chroniclers of the time, in valuing at 50,000 the number 
 of individuals capable of bearing arms, which would indicate a popula- 
 lation of more than 120,000 souls, it cannot but be admitted, m our 
 opinion, that a city which then comprehended 34 parishes, must have 
 contained about that number of inhabitants, for each parish must have 
 reckoned at least 3000 individuals, in order to maintain the great num- 
 ber of priests that served them.” 
 
 c The colleges of the Sorbonne, Boissy, Huban, Mignon, Chanac, 
 Boncourt, Burgundy, the Lombards, the Germans, Tours, Lisieux, 
 Autun, Cambray, Aubusson, Tournay and Justin. 
 
 d “ — since in 1418, a plague that lasted three months, carried off 
 100,000 individuals.” 
 
 e “ In 1407, Louis XI. reviewed the men between sixteen and sixty, 
 and as their number amounted to between sixty and eighty thousand, 
 the whole population may be reckoned at more than 180,000, and if 
 the 25,000 students then in Paris, from different parts of France, be 
 included, at more than 200,000.” 
 
 f The registers afford better means of determining the increase and 
 fluctuations in the population since the accession of Louis the Fif- 
 teenth :* the following are some of the results. 
 
 In 1719 .... 509,000 
 
 In 17f>2 ... - 570,000 
 
 In 1770 - - - - 058,000 
 
 In 1785 ... - 085,000 
 
 In 1791 .... 600,000 
 
 In 1798 .... 040,000 
 
 In 1802 .... 672,000 
 
 In 1815 - - - 7141000 
 
 In 1827 .... 8901000 
 
 The remarkable decrease in the above series from the year 1791 to 
 1802, must be attributed to revolutionary troubles. t 
 
 * “Since the accession of I.ouis XV., the public registers may be relied on with » 
 good degree of confidence, and by means of them we may safely establish the pro 
 gressive increase and fluctuations in (he population of Paris — ” 
 
 f “ The population in this series, is calculated accotding to the births, to which has 
 been added the number of illegitimate children, taking care to retrench one third tor 
 these which, although horn in Paris, do not ac tually belong to the. city. It will be 
 perceived that the revolutionary troubles occasioned a considerable diminution from 
 1791 to 1802 ;* but since the return of peace, the increase of the population lias again 
 become rapidly progressive.” 
 
 * Rather from 1785, or at least 1789, to 1798. — P. 
 
 “ There were besides 3 abbeys for men and 8 for women, and also 
 53 convents ( commy.nav.lis ) for men and 40 for women.” 
 
 h “ 35 convents ( communautis ) for women, 4 convents ( congrega- 
 tion. s) for men, and 4 seminaries.” 
 
 * “ Temples” — churches. 1 Lutherans. 
 
 k “ — to the Greek Church.’ 
 
 1 “ Among the establishments for the purposes of education and 
 public instruction, Paris possesses 9 public libraries, numerous collec- 
 tions connected with the sciences and the arts, celebrated schools of 
 theology, law and medicine, public courses of instruction in all the 
 branches of human knowledge, 7 colleges, 7 special schools, namely, the 
 school of civil engineering ( ponts et chaussies.) that of mines, that of 
 geographical engineers, that of the staff ( itat mtijur,) and those of music, 
 the fine arts, and the oriental languages, the polytechnic school, one of 
 the most important, of which the plan and mode of instruction have been 
 imitated in many foreign countries, 37 private institutions, 50 boarding 
 schools ( pensionnats ,) 135 primary schools (icoles popntaircs,) the Royal 
 Institute, and 23 other learned societies. There are also 16 philan- 
 thropic societies, besides a great number of charitable establishments. 
 These institutions for the diffusion of light and knowledge, and for the 
 relief of indigence and misfortune, are not founded through ostenta- 
 tion, nor neglected through indifference : the schools, the libraries and 
 the collections, the learned societies and the benevolent associations, are 
 frequented with a zeal which places this city in the highest rank of 
 intelligence, and notwithstanding the vain calumnies of certain narrow 
 and retrograde minds, attests the increasing improvement of the present 
 generation.” 
 
BOOK CXI/VI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 321 
 
 Paris is subdivided into twelve mayoralties,® and its envi- 
 rons form the two subprefectures of St. Denis and Sceaux. 
 The small town of St. Denis b may be mentioned on account 
 of an ancient Benedictine abbey, and also on account of 
 a church, a Gothic building, perhaps more remarkable for 
 lightness than any other in France, it was begun in the 
 seventh century, and finished in 1181. The orphan daugh- 
 ters of the Legion of Honour are at present educated and 
 maintained in the ancient abbey. A feeder of the Ourcq 
 canal passes at the extremity of the town, and contributes to 
 the trade of the inhabitants. Saint Denis is also a place of 
 some importance on account of four fairs that are held in 
 the course of the year ; it is calculated that on an average 
 £.02,500 worth of cloth, £.25,000 of linen, and £.16,000 
 of woollen stuffs are sold. More than ninety thousand 
 sheep are bought at the fair of Landit, a neighbouring 
 burgh.® 
 
 Vincennes is situated in the district of Sceaux ; the old 
 towers and the dungeon which were long used as a state 
 prison, are built on the royal manor of Philip Augustus ; d 
 they were begun by Philip of Valois, and finished by Charles 
 the Fifth. The first of these kings® changed the wood into 
 a park by enclosing it with a wall, and it was under a vene- 
 rable oak, which is said to have existed at so late a period 
 as the sixteenth century, that St. Louis administered jus- 
 tice/ Lewis the Tenth, Charles the Fourth, Charles the 
 Fifth, Charles the Ninths and Cardinal Mazarin * 1 ’ died in 
 the castle of Vincennes. The village of Bercy on the banks 
 of the Seine is the principal depot of the wines, brandy and 
 oil that are consumed in the capital. The aqueduct of 
 Arcueil is built on the site of the one that was raised by the 
 emperor Julian, an ancient work of which some imposing 
 ruins still remain/ The neat village of Fontenay aux Roses 
 possessed the privilege of supplying the court and the par- 
 
 a “ Paris forms only a single arrondissement, and even a single com- 
 mune subdivided into twelve mayoralties ( mairics .)” — The prefect of 
 the department of the Seine performs the duties of subprefect with- 
 in the limits of the city or commune of Paris, in the same manner as 
 the prefects of the other departments officiate as subprefects in the 
 arrondissement in which they reside ; in this sense, Paris may be said 
 to form a single arrondissement. The twelve divisions into which the 
 commune of Paris is divided are called mayoralties ( mairies ) and com- 
 munal arrondissements, and also cantons or judicial districts. — P. 
 
 b St. Denys. 
 
 c “ The small town of St. Denis was formerly celebrated for its an- 
 cient abbey of Benedictines. The church, which was begun in the 
 seventh century, and finished in 1181, is a Gothic edifice, remarkable 
 for its lightness/ The buildings of the abbey are at present occupied 
 by the royal establishment for the education of the orphan daughters 
 of the members of the Legion of Honour/ The commerce of St. Denis 
 has been rendered more active by the canal which passes by the skirts 
 of the town and afterwards unites with that of the Ourcq ;t it, however, 
 owes its importance to the fairs which are held there four times in a 
 year, and in which, it is calculated, there are annually sold, on an 
 average, 1,500,000 francs worth of cloths (drops,) 300,000 francs worth 
 of linens (toilcs,) 200,000 francs worth of woollen stuff’s ( lainages ,) and 
 800,000 francs worth of Rouen goods (roucnncries.) At the fair of 
 Landit, more than 90,000 sheep arfe sold annually.” 
 
 * The remains of the royal family of France, since the time of Daeobert, have 
 been deposited in the church of £t. Denis, in crypts or subterranean chapels round 
 the choir. By a decree of the convention in 1793, the bodies of the princes of France, 
 buried at St. Denis, were ordered to be removed from the vaults, and thrown promis- 
 cuously into two larpe pits without the church, where they still remain. A chapel 
 has been erected by Louis XVII I. in expiation of this sacrilege, in which are inscrib- 
 ed. on black marble tablets, the names of the princes whose tombs were violated. 
 (Herve.) — P. 
 
 t Maison Roynle de St. Denis. } Canal of St. Denis. 
 
 d “ Vincennes, in the arrondissement of Sceaux, is remarkable for 
 its Donjon. These old towers, which were long used as a state prison 
 ( prison d'Etut,) occupy the site of the royal mansion-house ( manoir 
 royal) of Philip Augustus.” — The old castle of Vincennes consists of a 
 Donjon and nine other square towers. The Donjon has a separate 
 ditch and drawbridge. In 1270, there was a royal mansion (maison 
 royal e ; Lat. manerium regale) at Vincennes, which appears to have 
 been built by Philip Augustus, who enclosed the wood with walls. 
 
 VOL. in.— NO. 52 il 
 
 liament vvilli roses, a privilege that accounts for its name. 
 It was customary for the peers and magistrates to hold an 
 assembly in the month of May, and each person received a 
 bunch of flowers in which the number of roses was arranged 
 according to the rank of the individual ; but the ceremony 
 gave rise to so many disputes about precedence that it was 
 at last abolished/ It is certain, however, that more roses 
 are at present cultivated at Fontenay than in any other place 
 round Paris. The burgh of Sceaux k on the small river 
 Bievre shares with Poissy the advantage of a cattle market 
 for the supply of Paris. The luxury of the Parisians exerts 
 a great influence in the surrounding districts, and village 
 girls appear on Sundays in the same dress as the belles of 
 the capital. 1 
 
 The department of the Eure, formerly included in the 
 ancient province of Normandy, is contiguous on its eastern 
 boundary to that of the Seine and Oise. A great many 
 horses, and the finest oxen that appear in the markets of 
 Sceaux and Poissy, are reared in the pastures and artificial 
 meadows in the department ; the inhabitants manufacture a 
 considerable quantity of corn, cloth and cotton stuffs." 1 Sev- 
 eral places are connected with historical events that are not 
 uninteresting even in the present day : the troops of Charles 
 the Bad, king of Navarre, were defeated between Evreux 
 and Vernon" by Duguesclin in 1364; sixty years after- 
 wards, the English gained a victory over Charles the Seventh 
 in the neighbourhood of Verneuil ; lastly, the army under the 
 command of the duke of Mayenne was destroyed on the 
 plains of Ivry by Henry the Fourth. 0 
 
 Vernon rises on the left bank of the Seine, and abridge 
 of twenty-two arcbes serves as a communication between 
 the town and one of the suburbs. The public records are 
 preserved in an old tower, all that remains of the fortifica- 
 tions. Evreux, a town built of wood, is situated in a fruit- 
 
 (Piganiol de la Force, t. VIII, 41, 43.) — The castle of Vincennes is still 
 used as a prison, not for those confined by lettres de cachet or secret 
 imperial orders (happily, such despotism is abolished,) but for such as 
 are imprisoned by due process of law, as in the case of the ministers of 
 Charles X. — P. e Philip Augustus. 
 
 f The castle contains a neat Gothic chapel, built by Henry II. 
 The Duke D'Enghien was executed at Vincennes, March 21, 1804; 
 a granite column and a weeping willow, placed in one of the ditches, 
 serve as monuments of the fatal deed. (M.B.) — The Duke D’Enghien 
 was shot in one of the ditches, by the orders of Bonaparte, just after 
 midnight, March 20, 1804.— P. 
 
 s Charles V. was born in the castle of Vincennes, A. D. 1338, and 
 died at the castle of Beaute sur Marne, A. D. 1380. Louis X. (A. D. 
 1310,) Charles IV. (A. D. 1328,) and Charles IX. (A. D. 1574,) died 
 in the castle of Vincennes. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 h “ — Cardinal Mazarin, who had been appointed governor of the 
 castle — ” 
 
 * The aqueduct of Julian was intended to supply the ThcrmcE in his 
 palace, (now Palais des Thermes.) The modern aqueduct was con- 
 structed by Mary de Medicis — finished 1624. Arcueil has become a 
 place of interest to men of science, from the valuable memoirs (Mi- 
 moires d .Arcueil) published by a society for the cultivation of the 
 physical sciences, established at the country residence of Berthollet. — P 
 i “ The neat village of Fontenay aux Roses derives its name from 
 the privilege it formerly possessed of supplying the court and the par- 
 liament with roses. In the month of May, in a public assembly, each 
 of the peers and magistrates received, according to his rank, a bouquet 
 of roses ; but the disputes that arose about precedence led to the aboli- 
 tion of the ceremony.” k Seaux. (Vosgien.) 
 
 1 “ The luxury of Paris exercises such an influence on the surround- 
 ing country, that the village girls in their dress have preserved nothing 
 of the ancient costume ; on the contrary, they have assumed that of 
 the belles (grisettes) of the capital, with whom they mix freely in the 
 rustic balls (bals champetres,) which on festival days, attract to Sceaux 
 a numerous crowd of visiters.” 
 
 ra “ It exports a considerable quantity of corn, and its numerous iro 
 works (usincs,) cloth manufactories and cotton mills (filatures de coton 
 prove the activity of its industry.” 
 
 » Near the village of Cocherel. M. B. 
 
 0 “ In 1590, the plains of Ivry were the scene of the victory gained 
 by Henry IV. over the duke of Mayenne.” 
 
322 EUR( 
 
 ful valley, watered by the Iton. It is a place of great anti- 
 quity ; excavations have been made at different times, and 
 many ruins have been discovered ; indeed it cannot be 
 doubted that it occupies the site of the Celtic city, original- 
 ly called Mediolanum , and at a later period Eburoviccs by 
 the Roman conquerors. The iron arches that support the 
 bridge of Arts and the bridge of Austerlitz, were founded 
 at the iron works near Conches, at no great distance from 
 Evreux ; the industrious inhabitants are casting at present 
 the different parts of an iron steeple, which is to weigh | 
 900,000 kilogrammes or 884 tons, it is intended to be plac- 
 ed on the cathedral of Rouen. a 
 
 Other towns are situated in the country on the north of 
 the Seine. Gisors contains three thousand inhabitants ; the 
 principal building is a church, of which the ornaments were 
 sculptured by John Goujon. b The old tower that rises on 
 an eminence, is all that remains of a castle once inhabited bv 
 queen Blanche. The road from Gisors traverses a long 
 ridge on the left of the Great and Little Andely, two small 
 towns which at present form only one. c Nicholas Poussin 
 was born in an adjoining hamlet ; d a monument has been 
 erected to his memory at Little Andely. At no great dis- 
 tance are the ruins of a fortress which according to tradition 
 was built by Richard Coeur de Lion. 
 
 The village of Fleury is situated in the middle of the 
 valley through which the Andelle flows. e The sinuous 
 course of the small river, the manufactories at irregular dis- 
 tances, Charleval on one side, and the hill of Deux-Amans r 
 on the other, the declivities covered with pastures, and the 
 woods which crown their summits, render the valley as 
 agreeable as any in Normandy. Charleval bore the name 
 of Nogeon sur Andelle until the time that Charles the Ninth 
 laid the foundation stone of a country seat, that was never 
 finished, but different chambers in it were converted into 
 dwellings for the peasantry. e Romilly rises on the Andelle 
 near its confluence with the Seine ; the river puts in motion 
 the works on which the importance of the town depends ; 
 more than three hundred persons are employed in making 
 wire, kettles and different articles of brass or copper ; it is 
 believed that the weight of the products which issue every 
 year from these works cannot be less than 900,000 kilo- 
 grammes. 11 
 
 3PE. [BOOK CXLVI. 
 
 Louviers on the light of the Eure may be seen from the 
 heights that command Romilly ; it is well known on account 
 of its numerous cloth manufactories, in which only two thou- 
 sand workmen were employed forty years ago, but which 
 furnish occupation at present to more than six thousand. 1 
 The wealth and industry of the inhabitants have enabled 
 them to adorn their town with several fine edifices, an ele- 
 gant theatre and different public walks. Pont de 1’ Arche, 
 a small place of fifteen hundred inhabitants, was built by 
 Charles the Bald ; it is situated below Louviers on the right 
 bank of the Seine,! at a point in the river where the tide is 
 already perceptible. 
 
 The small town of Quillebeuf k at the mouth of the river, 1 
 was originally called Erricarville ; it was a strong place of 
 some consequence before the fortifications were razed by 
 Louis the Thirteenth ; it does not contain at present more 
 than fifteen hundred persons. As the moving sands that 
 are accumulated by the Seine, render it impracticable for 
 merchant vessels to ascend to Rouen, their cargoes are trans- 
 ported in lighters from the harbour of QuiUebeuf. 01 Neat 
 villages are scattered through the country between the river 
 and Pont-Audemer ; they are surrounded by orchards and 
 meadows. The time in which the last town was founded, 
 cannot be exactly determined ; it is known, however, that it 
 was called after Audemer, a Frenchman, who built a bridge 
 on the Rille" in the thirteenth century. It is encompassed 
 with walls and ditches, the houses are built of brick, lhe_ 
 streets are straight and regular. 0 Bernay, to the south of 
 Pont-Audemer, may be mentioned as the capital of a sub- 
 prefecture ; the small river Charentonne p flows below its 
 walls. It contains, at a certain season of the year not fewer 
 than forty thousand persons, the most of whom repair to it 
 on account of a fair, in which more horses are sold than in 
 any other in France. q 
 
 It would be tedious to enumerate all the manufacturing 
 establishments in the department ; suffice it to say that they 
 amount to fifteen hundred, that they furnish employment to 
 thirty thousand persons, and that the value of their products 
 amounts to at least 26,000,000 francs or £.1,083,000. 
 
 The Orne gives its name to a department, r in which cal- 
 careous rocks, granite and others of an ancient date form 
 high hills and narrow valleys covered with pastures or arable 
 
 “ “ Conches possesses important iron-works, in which were cast the 
 iron arches of the bridge of the Fine Arts ( Pont lies Arts) and of the 
 bridge of Austerlitz, and where they are now casting the spire of the 
 cathedral of Rouen, the weight of which is to be 900,000 kilogram- 
 mes ” more than 900 tons. See note 1 p. 989. — Conches is 4 
 
 leagues S. VV. of Evreux. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 b “ The ornaments of its church were sculptured by J. Goujon.” 
 
 There is only one parish-church in Gisors. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 c “ The road to Rouen traverses a long plateau, beyond Gisors, 
 leaving on the left* the Great and Little Andelys, t two small towns 
 which are at present considered as forming only one.” 
 
 * Consequently the road is on the right of the Andelys. (See Tableau des Postes 
 de France .) — 1*. 
 
 f The Andelys ( Les Andelys ;) at present, the chief town of an arrondissement — 
 eonsistinz of two small towns, separated by a paved road, and only a quarter of a 
 league distant from each other: namely, Little Andely (Le Petit Andely) on the 
 right bank of the Seine, and Great Andely (Le Grand Andely) on a small stream 
 called the Gambon. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 d Nicholas Poussin was born in Great Andely. (Moreri. Enc. 
 Meth.) — P. 
 
 e “ The road to Rouen [note c of this page] descends into the pleas- 
 ant valley of the Andelle, in the middle of which the village of Fleury 
 is situated.” 
 
 f “ Hill of the Two Lovers ( montagne des Deux-Amans.)” 
 z “ — but of which there still remain a guard room and several gild- 
 ed chambers, that serve as dwellings for the peasantry.” 
 
 h “ The foundery of Romilly,* situated near the point where the 
 Andelle unites with the Seine, is the principal manufacturing estab- 
 lishment supplied by the former of those rivers. Three hundred work- 
 men are there employed in making copper plates, brass and copper 
 
 kettles and brass wire ; the annual amount of the products is estimated 
 at 900,000 kilogrammes.” 
 
 * Romilly sous Andelle, a village of Normandy, celebrated for its copper foundery. 
 (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 ' “ — but which have latterly employed more than six thousand.” — 
 The very superfine French cloths are made at Louviers in Normandy. 
 (Ed. Encyc.)— P. 
 
 i Situated on the left bank of the Seine. (Enc. Meth.) — It is sit- 
 uated at the confluence of the Andelle and the Eure with the Seine 
 It has a bridge over the latter of 22 arches. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 k Quillebceuf — Lat. Henricopolis . — P. 1 The Seine. 
 
 m “ Owing to the difficulties of the navigation, arising from the shift- 
 ing sands accumulated by the Seine, ‘which prevent large vessels from 
 ascending the river to Rouen, and compel them to discharge their car 
 goes at Quillebeuf, the harbour of the latter is of considerable coinmer- . 
 cial importance.” — There is a quay at Quillebeuf, at which all the ves- 
 sels moor, that are destined for Rouen, and where the largest are dis- 
 charged, on account of the shifting sand banks in the river. (Vosgien.) — 
 Ships of 150 to 200 tons can ascend to Rouen by the aid of the tide, 
 larger ones being lightened further down the river. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 11 “ — Audomer, a French lord (seigneur,) who built there a bridge 
 over the Rille — ”It stands on the Rille, over which there is a bridge, 
 built by one Audomer or Audemer, whence its name. (Enc. Meth.) — P 
 0 “ The houses are built of brick and with a certain degree of ele- 
 gance, the streets are handsome, and tile public squares regular.” 
 p Carentone. (Vosgien.) 
 
 a “ One of the most considerable fairs in France is held there annu- 
 ally, at which the sale of horses is so extensive as to attract to it more 
 i than 40,000 persons.” 
 
 1 r Department of the Orne. 
 
book cxlvi.i DESCRIPTION 
 
 land. Tlie people do not cultivate much corn, but they 
 rear a great many horses and oxen. Linen, cotton and 
 different manufactories furnish employment to great num- 
 bers ; wealth is thus diffused among the four thousand in- 
 habitants of Vimoutiers® on the Vie, and among twenty 
 thousand persons of both sexes in the neighbourhood. 15 Ar- 
 gentan rises on the Orne, and is commanded by the ruins 
 of a strong castle, the only remains of its fortifications ; its 
 ramparts have been long since changed into public walks ; 
 it carries on a trade in a particular kind of lace, which the 
 F rench call Point-cV -Alengonf d The village of Sante- 
 Honarine-la-Guillaume has become more flourishing since 
 granite quarries were worked in the vicinity ; e it contains at 
 present two thousand inhabitants. The Rille flows near a 
 lofty forest that bounds the department of Eure, and passes 
 through the neat town of Aigle/ a place that carries on a 
 great trade in pins and needles ;£ one of its manufactories 
 is provided with machinery by which two hundred thousand 15 
 needles can be made in a day. The straight and well built 
 streets of Mortagne are situated on the declivity of a bill 
 the town may be considered the centre of a considerable 
 trade in the coarse and fine linens that are exported to the 
 colonies.-! Belesme k stands on an eminence that commands 
 a plain and the forest that bears its name ; it is regularly 
 and well-built, and the inhabitants manufacture coarse linens 
 and cotton stuffs. 1 
 
 We have had occasion to mention the Sail in the account 
 of the Roman provinces in Gaul. The Orne waters Seez, 
 anciently Saturn, m their principal city, which was built be- 
 fore the conquest of Caesar. The Normans destroyed it in 
 the ninth century Lewis the Young set fire to it in the 
 
 OF FRANCE. 323 
 
 twelfth, and it was taken in the fourteenth by the English 
 who razed the fortifications. 0 It was a more important 
 place before the Norman invasion than at present;" it does 
 not now contain five thousand inhabitants . p The cathedral 
 is a fine Gothic edifice : the diocese is very ancient ; q St. 
 Latinian, the first bishop, died about the beginning of the 
 fifth century. r 
 
 The distance from Seez to Alencon is not more than 
 five leagues ; few visit the last place without remarking the 
 simple and elegant architecture of the prefect’s residence, 5 
 and the fine appearance of the corn market, a circular 
 building, and also ol the townhouse, in the last of which the 
 two towers are the remains of the castle that was inhabited 
 by the dukes of Alenqon. Marshal Malignon who had the 
 courage to disobey the commands of government on St. 
 Bartholomew’s day, the historian Mezeray, and the deputy 
 Valaze were born in the town. Although less important 
 than it once was, it carries on a greater trade in lace than 
 at any former period ; and it appears that more than two 
 thousand persons are employed in embroidering and manu- 
 facturing muslin. 1 
 
 Domlront, an insignificant and ill-built town near the 
 western extremity of the department, is only remarkable for 
 its position ; it rises on the summit of a steep rock, divided 
 by a vertical fissure more than two hundred feet in depth, at 
 the bottom of which flows the small river Varennes. The 
 industry of the inhabitants consists chiefly in making coarse 
 linen and different stuffs ; but it is the capital of a district" 
 in which the smallest villages are engaged in manufactures. 
 Some of these villages are called burghs, they contain about 
 three or four thousand inhabitants ; we may mention four 
 
 a Vimoutier or Vimontier. Lat. Vimonasterium. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 b “ The department of the Orne is as varied in its physical constitu- 
 tion as in its industry. Chalk,* limestone of an earlier date,! and 
 granite, the last of which forms lofty hills and narrow valleys,! are 
 covered with soils suited for cultivation and pasturage. But little corn 
 is raised in the department, but it rears many horses and oxen, and 
 possesses important iron-works (vsincs ||) and several cotton mills (jila - 
 ture.s de coton.) The linen manufacturelT is also one of its branches of 
 industry ; it is that which diffuses prosperity among the 4000 inhabit- 
 ants of Vimoutiers, a flourishing town situated on the small river Vie, 
 and which employs more than 20,000 persons of both sexes in the 
 neighbourhood.” 
 
 * “ Calcaires ctayeuses” — chalky limestone. Q,u. hard chalk or lower chalk— sit- 
 uated below the soft white chalk, sometimes resembling limestone in colour, hard- 
 ness and texture, hut distinguished by the chalk fossils. — P. 
 
 t Secondary limestones, situated below the chalk. Transition limestones, near 
 the granite? — P. 
 
 ! The great Chalk Basin of S. England and N. France skirts the department on the 
 north, while the projection from the primitive region of Brittany, extending east- 
 ward towards the plateau of Beauce, skirts it on the south. In the intermediate 
 parts are found the secondary limestones above indicated. — P. 
 
 || Iron is wrought in the department to the amount of 501)0 tons of cast, and 3000 
 of wrought iron annually. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 If “ Fabrication de toile de crotonne” [cretonne] — manufacture of cretonnes. Cre- 
 tonne, a kind of mixed cloth of hemp and linen, made in Normandy — the chain of 
 hemp and the woof of linen. (Savary, Diet. Comm. t. II. p. 769. Enc. Metb. Diet. 
 Comm t I. p. 756 ) — P. 
 
 c “ It manufactures that kind of lace formerly celebrated under the 
 name of Point-d'Alencon.” The point lace of Alenqon has long enjoy- 
 ed a great reputation through France, England, Germany, &c. The 
 point lace of Argentan ( point d' Argentan ) is also celebrated. (Ed. 
 Encyc.) — P. 
 
 d The royal stud (haras) of Le Pin is situated in the neighbourhood 
 of Argentan. M. B. 
 
 e “ The village of St. Honorine la Guillaume (Sainte- Honor i.nc-la- 
 Guillaume,) a few leagues to the west of Argentan, has become of 
 considerable importance from its granite quarries — ” 
 
 f L’Aigle (Vosgien,) Laigle (Aim. Royal,) Aigle (Enc. Meth. Mo- 
 re ri.) — P. 
 
 s “ Near a large forest that borders the department of the Eure, the 
 small river Rille flows through the neat town of L’Aigle, which is 
 celebrated for its pins and needles — ” 
 
 h Two thousand, according to the translator . — P. 
 
 ' “ On the declivity of a hill, fronting the east.” 
 
 ) “ It, is the centre of a considerable manufacture of strong and light 
 linens ( toiles fortes et toiles ligires) for the supply of the colonies.” — 
 
 The distinction in these linens is not in the degree of fineness of thread, 
 but in that of thickness and closeness of texture.— They manufacture 
 at Mortagne, great quantities of very strong hempen cloths, and also 
 moderately strong hempen cloths for napkins. They also manufacture 
 coarse hempen cloths called canvas (canevas.) (Savary' t. III. p. 
 425.)— P. 
 
 k Beleme, Bellesme (Enc. Meth.) Belleme (Aim. Royal.) — Situated 
 4 leagues S. of Mortagne. (Vosgien.) — P. * ^ 
 
 1 “ Toiles communes— cotonnades.” 
 
 m Sail. (D’Anv. Enc. Meth. Geog. Anc.) — Seez, Sees, Sez, Sais or 
 Setz ; Lat. Sagium, Saturn , Saiorum Civitas (Enc. Meth. Geog. 
 Mod.)— P. 
 
 n “ About the ninth century, when the Normans destroyed it, it was 
 much more considerable than at present.” — The diocese of Seez is 24 
 leagues in length, by 13 in breadth ; it was much more extensive in 
 the ninth century, when the Normans invaded it. (Enc. Meth.) — (?) — P. 
 
 0 15 It was burnt in the twelfth century by Louis the Young, and in 
 the fourteenth, by the English, who razed its fortifications.” — Louis the 
 Young besieged it in 1174, but the resistance of the inhabitants com- 
 pelled him to raise the siege ; in 1353, it was burnt by the English. 
 (Enc. Meth.) — (?)• — P. 
 
 p “ It contains 5000 inhabitants.” — Population 5400 (Vosgien.) — 
 5500 (Aim. Royal, 1822.) — P 
 
 <i Seez is still the seat of a bishopric. — P. 
 
 r “ St. Latinian was the first bishop of Seez, at the commencement 
 of the fifth century.” 8 “ Hotel de la prefecture.” 
 
 1 “ In other respects, although some of the streets are broad, clean 
 and well paved, the town has a gloomy aspect ; a defect that may be 
 attributed to the grayish colour of the granite of which its houses are 
 constructed. Marshal Matignon,* who refused to perpetrate the hor- 
 rible massacre of St. Bartholomew, was born at a little distance from 
 one of its five suburbs ; but the historian Mezeray, t and the deputy 
 Valaze,! were born within the town. Although the manufacture of 
 lace is less important than it was formerly, it is still carried on to a 
 considerable extent at Alencon ;|| more than 2000 persons are also 
 employed there in manufacturing and embroidering muslin.” 
 
 * J. de Matignon, born at Lonray in Normandy, A. D. 1526. He refused to mas- 
 sacre the Protestants on St. Bartholomew’s day, 1572, at Alencon and St. Lo, of 
 which places he was then governor. — P. 
 
 t Fr. Eudes de Mezeray [Mezerai,] the historian, was born at the village of Ry 
 near Argentan [at the village of Mezeray, near Argentan. Moreri.] He took the 
 name of de Mezeray , from that of a hamlet in the parish of Ry. (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 J: C. E. Dufriche de Valaze, born at Alenyon, 1751. He was an active member ol 
 the Gironde party, and was consequently condemned by Robespierre, but he antici- 
 pated his fate by suicide, Oct 30, 1792. — P. || Spe note c of this page. 
 
 u “ Arrondissement ” 
 
324 EUR 
 
 of them: Atliis is noted for cloth and silk, Ferte Mace for 
 cottons and ribbons, Flers for tools and snuff-boxes, Titi- 
 chebrai for iron works and paper mills.® 
 
 The Channel 11 bounds the extensive coasts of the depart- 
 ment ' 1 into which we are about to enter. Metals, argil well 
 adapted for porcelain, slate and granite quarries are worked 
 on the hills ; the plains are fruitful in corn and pastures, but 
 the whole country is almost destitute of timber. Such are 
 the principal products in a department ill provided with 
 roads and other means of communication ; it may excite 
 surprise therefore that it is one of the most populous in 
 France, but the inhabitants are laborious and well informed, 
 they devote themselves to fishing, agriculture, commerce 
 and manufacturing industry .* 1 
 
 Mortain, the small capital of the most southern district , 6 
 is encompassed with granite rocks ; the inhabitants manufac- 
 ture paper and earthen ware/ Avranches,® one of the most 
 ancient Armorican cities, is situated on a hill 1 * at no great 
 distance from the sea ; it bore the Celtic name of Ingena, it 
 was afterwards called AhrincatcE, and at a still later period, 
 Abrinca or Avrinca. The early inhabitants, the Abrincatee 
 or Avrincatcc , were formerly settled in the country of 
 Avranchin. The present cathedral dates from the twelfth 
 century, but before that time Avranches was the capital of 
 a diocese, and a place of importance, as a fortified town . 1 
 The safe and convenient harbour of Granville was con- 
 structed in 1784; eight years afterwards the inhabitants 
 defended themselves successfully against an attack of the 
 English. J The town contains a population of eight thou- 
 sand souls ; it is ill-built and encompassed with walls ; most 
 of the people are engaged in commerce, they equip many 
 vessels for the coasting trade and cod fisheries/ Coutances 1 
 is probably a place of as great antiquity as Avranches ; it 
 was the Cosedia of the Celts and the Constantia- Castro. 
 of the Romans ;" 1 the country round it was formerly called 
 Cotentin," a name by which it is still designated in Norman- 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CXL.VI. 
 
 dy. The Bulzard flows beneath the walls , 0 and the remains 
 of a Roman aqueduct may be seen in the fruitful meadows 
 near the banks of the river. The town is the seat of a 
 bishopric ; the cathedral may be compared with the finest 
 Gothic edifices in France. 
 
 The works which were begun during the reign of Lewis 
 the Sixteenth, continued under the imperial government, 
 and almost neglected since 1813, have rendered Cherbourg 
 an important place both as a strong town and a sea-port. 
 Eight formidable redoubts guard the entrance, while three 
 forts and a large battery are placed in such a manner as to 
 defend the anchorage, of which the depth at low tide is not 
 less than forty feet. It is enclosed by an embankment 3866 
 yards in length, 80 in breadth at the base, and 30 at the 
 summit. Although the embankment was commenced in 
 the reign of Lewis the Sixteenth, it is not yet finished, but 
 so many difficulties have been already overcome, that it 
 may be considered a gigantic undertaking. It was neces- 
 sary to construct a great many conical flames 69 feet in 
 height, 60 in diameter at their summit, and 140 at their base ; 
 they were afterwards filled with stones, and let down into 
 the water. The spaces between them were covered with 
 loose stones, still the barrier was insufficient to resist the im- 
 petuosity of the waves, and the work was only accomplished 
 by successive accumulations. The whole mass is formed 
 by enormous blocks of granite and sand-stone together with 
 40,000,000 cubic yards of loose stones. The former har- 
 bour of Cherbourg was merely adapted for merchant ves- 
 sels, more than 50 ships of the line may ride at anchor in 
 the present during the lowest tides. It is encompassed with 
 store-houses and dockyards, in which the largest ships may 
 be built ; but the town is an assemblage of clumsy houses, 
 of narrow and crooked streets ; the only monument worthy 
 of notice, is the one that was erected to commemorate the 
 landing of the Duke de Berry in 1814 . p The temperature 
 of Cherbourg is very mild relatively to the latitude ; in 
 
 “ “Some places, to which they have given the name of bourgs, ought 
 rather^from their population of three or four thousand inhabitants, to 
 be considered as towns (viltes ;) four of them only will be mentioned : 
 namely. Atliis, noted for its plain and ribbed cassimeres ( reps et casi- 
 mirs',) La Ferte-Mace, for its plain cottons (toiles de coton,) its tapes 
 ( Cubans defil ,) and its box-wood snuff-boxes ( tabutibres debuis ;) Flers. 
 for its tools* and twilled cottons ( 'colonnades croisis ;) and lastly, Tinche- 
 brai.t for its forges and paper mills.’’ 
 
 Outils.” — Q.u. coutil. 9 , tent-cloths, tickings — a very strong and coarse kind of 
 cloth, generally made of hemp, manufactured in the greatest quantities in Normandy 
 and Brittany. (Savary, t. II. p. 750.) — P. 
 fTinchebray. (Vosgien.) 
 k “ La Manche” — English Channel. 
 
 c Department of the Channel ( Department de la Manche.) 
 d “Bounded by the Channel, as its name indicates, the long and 
 narrow department we are about to enter, comprehends a great extent 
 of coast, some land that is fertile, principally in corn, but little forest, 
 much pasture, and a chain of low hills (j)ctites montagnes,) that furnish 
 slate and granite, besides metals and clay suitable for porcelain.* From 
 this brief enumeration of its natural advantages, connected with the 
 fact that it is not provided with sufficient means of communication, we 
 should be surprised to learn that it is one of the most populous depart- 
 ments in France,! did we not know that its inhabitants are very indus- 
 trious, and devote themselves successfully to agriculture, fishing, 
 commerce and manufactures.” 
 
 * These hills form the eastern front of the primitive region in N. W. France, and 
 are immediately connected with the similar region in S. W. England ; a line drawn 
 from Cape La Hogue N. W., striking the granite of Daitmoor. — P. 
 
 t Population of the department (1802,) 1, G63 inhabitants per square league — that 
 of the whole of France, on an average, being 1,086, that of the Lower Seine 1800, 
 and that of the Seine and Oise, in the immediate vicinity of Paris, 1502. (Peuchet, 
 Statist, de la France, p. 153, 230, 97,95.) — P. 
 
 e “ — the small capital of a subprefecture (arrondissement,) that first 
 presents itself in the most southern part of the territory.” — The arron- 
 dissement of Mortain occupies the south-eastern extremity of the 
 department, and is the only one contiguous to the department of the 
 Orne, last mentioned — that of Avranches is directly west of it, and 
 occupies the south-western extremity of the department. — P. 
 
 1 “ Stone ware (]>oteries de grbs)" s Avranche. 
 
 h “ Declivity ( coteau .)” — Situated on a hill, at the foot of which flows 
 the See [Seez,] half a league from the sea. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 ' “ Its Celtic name was Ingena, afterwards exchanged for that of 
 Abrincatee* which finally became Abrinca or AvrincaA The people to 
 whom it belonged were the Abrincatee or Arrincatce* and the territory 
 which they inhabited was formerly called Avranchin {V Avranchin . )} 
 Avranches was the seat of a bishopric [before the revolution,] and its 
 cathedral dates from the twelfth century. § At that period, it was a 
 place of importance as a fortified town {place d'armes.)\\'' 
 
 * Abrincatui. (D’Anv. Enc. Meth .) — Ingena (Avranche,) afterwards called Abrin- 
 catui.. (Enc. .Meth. Geo?. Anc.) — P. 
 
 1 Abrinca (Moreri. Enc. Meth.) — Abrinca, Arbinca (Robert Cenalis.) Moreri. — P. 
 
 j Before the revolution. — Avranchin, a small district in Lower Normandy, be- 
 tween Cotentin on the north, and Maine and Brittany on the south — so called, from 
 Avranches, its capital. (Enc. Meth. 1782.) — P. 
 
 « Built in 1121. 
 
 [| In 1203, the Bretons took it and demolished the fortifications, hut they were 
 afterwards rebuilt. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 1 Situated on a rock projecting into the sea. (M. B.) — Partly built 
 on a rock of difficult access, and partly in a plain around the harbour. 
 (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 k “ The coasting-trade, the oyster-fishery, and particularly the cod 
 fishery, enable it to carry on an active commerce.” 
 
 1 Constance, Coutance. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 m “ Its original name was Cosedia ; in the JVotitia Imperii, it bears the 
 name of Constantia Castra.*" — Cosedia, a town of Gaul, in Lugduncn- 
 sis Secunda. D’Anville places it on the sea coast to the north of Con- 
 stantia (near Montgardon. Tab. Geog. de la Gaule.) (Enc. Meth.) — 
 Constantia . (Coutances.) (D’Anv. Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 * Castra Constantia. (Ammian. Marcell. L. XV.) 
 
 " “ Le Cotentin” (Cotantin, Constantin. Moreri) — a maritime dis- 
 trict of Lower Normandy, bounded by the sea on the north and west, 
 and partly on the east, by Avranchin on the south, and by Bessin and 
 the Bocage, (or the districts of Bayeux and Vire,) on the east; form- 
 ing the promontory at the N. W. extremity of Normandy. — P. 
 
 0 It stands partly on a height, and partly in a plain, near the small 
 river Siole. (Enc. Meth.) — Situated on the Burd. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 p “ The immense works, that were begun during the reign of Louis 
 XVI., and continued under the imperial government, but which have 
 
book cxlvi.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 winter the thermometer is always five degrees higher titan 
 at Paris, a fact which tends to confirm what has been al- 
 ready said concerning the influence of the sea in modifying 
 climate. TL'e proximity of Cherburg to Cape Hogue ren- 
 ders it very probable that it occupies the same position as 
 the ancient Corialum. It bore the name of Carasbur in 
 the tenth century ; a it was included at a later period in the 
 appanage of Charles the Bad, who delivered it to the En- 
 glish, and it was the last conquest made by Charles the 
 Seventh. b The English, having made themselves masters 
 of the town in 1756, plundered the inhabitants, razed the 
 fortifications, and destroyed the harbour. It was more for- 
 tunate in 1815, for the Prussians attacked it without success. 
 Cape Ilogue or Hougue, the Caput Oga of the ancients, is 
 about six leagues on the south-east of Cherbourg ; it is 
 mentioned in history on account of the naval engagement 
 which took place between the French and English in 1692. 
 Marshal Tourville had not more than forty-six ships, Admi- 
 ral Russel commanded a fleet of more than ninety sail. 
 The Frenchman fought gallantly during ten hours, and was 
 at last completely defeated, but his science and courage 
 extorted the admiration of his enemies. 0 
 
 been almost interrupted since 1813, have rendered Cherbourg a place 
 of great importance, not only as a military and naval station ( place de 
 guerre — port militaire), but as a commercial town. Eight redoubts de- 
 fend the town, while three forts and a large battery are placed in such 
 a manner as to guard the entrance of the road. The depth of the lat- 
 ter, at low tide, is not less than forty feet. It is closed by a dike 1033 
 toises in length, of which the breadth at the base is forty toises, and at 
 the summit fifteen. Although this dike was began in the reign of 
 Louis XVI., it is not yet entirely completed. Its progress has been ob- 
 structed by so many difficulties, that it may be regarded as a gigantic 
 enterprise. They at first employed conical frames, G9 feet in height 
 by GO in diameter at their summit and 140 at their base ; these were 
 loaded with stones and sunk to the bottom, and the intervals between 
 them filled up with loose stones; but the force of the sea overturned 
 them, and it is only by means of accumulated masses of stone, that 
 they have been able to resist the fury of the waves. 500,000 cubic 
 toises of materials, consisting of loose stones and enormous blocks of 
 granite and sandstone, have been employed for this purpose. The 
 dike serves as a shelter to the vessels moored in the road. There was 
 formerly at Cherbourg, only a harbour for merchant vessels, but a har- 
 bour for ships of war (port militaire) has been since excavated, suffi- 
 ciently large to contain 50 sail of the line always afloat, even at the 
 lowest tides. It is surrounded with storehouses and dockyards, in the 
 last of which ships of the first, class may be constructed. The town is 
 irregularly built ; the marine hospital is the only remarkable edifice, 
 and the only monument worthy of notice is that of granite, on the 
 parade {place d,' armies,) erected to commemorate the landing of the Duke 
 of Berry in 1814. ” — The road is capable of holding 500 ships, and en- 
 ormous sums of money have been expended in the attempt to construct 
 a mole, bv sinking cones to render it a secure station for line of battle 
 ships, [i. e. to form what is now called a Breakwater.] This mole or 
 dike crosses the entrance of the road, leaving a passage at each end 
 1000 feet wide, on which are block-houses and forts. In order to form 
 a port for a fleet, Buonaparte had a basin cut in the solid rock, the bot- 
 tom of which was sunk thirty feet below the level of the sea at low 
 water. This work was finished in 1813, and opened in the presence of 
 the Empress with an imposing ceremony. (Tuckey’s Mar. Geog. v. ii. p. 
 17, 18.) — The excavation for the basin is 1000 feet long, 770 wide, and 
 50 deep. A wet dock of the same dimensions was begun by Buona- 
 parte in 1813, and nearly completed in 1822, at which time it had cost, 
 with the basin, the sum of nearly five millions sterling.— P. 
 
 a “ The proximity of Cherbourg to Cape La Hogue renders its posi- 
 tion identical with that of Coriallum. It was called Carusbur in the 
 tenth century, at which period it was fortified and commercial.” — 
 Coriallum is placed by D’Anville in the immediate vicinity of Cape La 
 Hogue [at Havre de Gouril.] (Enc. Meth. Geog. Anc.) — Latin name 
 of Cherbourg, Ccesaris Burgus (Enc. Meth.) Ccesarisburgum, Carobur- 
 gum, or Caroburgus (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 b A. D. 1453. (Moreri.)— P. 
 
 c “ In 1758,* * the English pillaged it, and destroyed the harbour and 
 fortifications ; but the Prussians tried in vain to get possession of it, in 
 1815. Cape La Hogue or La Hougue, t called Caput Oga by the an- 
 cients,! is about six leagues to the north-west of Cherbourg ; it is cele- 
 brated for a naval engagement in 1692, in which Marshal Tourville, 
 after having fought a whole day with 46 ships against an English fleet 
 of 90 sail, was completely defeated, but not until he had exhibited pro- 
 
 OF FRANCE. 325 
 
 Valognes is situated in a pleasant valley watered by the 
 Merderet, at no great distance from Alauna, an ancient 
 city now in ruins. d Carenlan, a place of 3000 inhabitants, 
 is defended by a strong castle ; it was formerly surrounded 
 with fortifications that have fallen into decay. Saint Lo, 
 the capital of the department, was the Celtic Briovera, 
 which signifies a bridge on the V ere or Vire, the river that 
 waters the town. Saint Laudo who was horn there, had 
 the honour of giving his name to his native city ; he lived 
 during the reign of Clovis, and became bishop of Coutances. 
 The ancient cathedral of Saint Lo is a light and graceful 
 building, and the church of the Holy Cross is certainly the 
 finest monument of Saxon architecture in France. The 
 town was one of the most populous in Normandy, before 
 the province was conquered by Edward the Third ; it has 
 risen into importance of late years, it carries on a trade in 
 cotton manufactures and hardwares.® 
 
 The ship Calvados formed part of the fleet which Philip 
 the Second sent against England in 1 583 ; it was wrecked 
 on the rocks that extend to the distance of six leagues be- 
 tween the mouths of the Vire and the Orne. The same 
 rocks were afterwards called Calvados, and they have given 
 
 digies of science and valour which even extorted the admiration of his 
 enemies. § ” 
 
 * The translator is wrong in his date of 1756. See Hume and Smollet, Jones’ Ed. 
 vol. 1 1. p. 438. — 1*. 
 
 f Called also Cape La Hague. (Tuckey.) — P. 
 
 I Lat n n une of Cape La Hogue (pronounced La Ilougue , in the neighbourhood,) 
 Ogas (Vitalis, 12th cent.,) Oggice (Ce nalis, 16th cent.,) Caput Ogee (Baudiand, 17th 
 cent.,) Oga (generally.) (Enc. Meth. Geog. Mod.) — P. 
 
 v\The 1'iench fleet under Tourville consisied of about 50 sail of the line. (Ed. Enc.) — 
 The French rieet did not exceed 03 ships of the line. (Smollet’s Hist. Eng. vol. VIII. 
 p. 446. 3d Ed. 1769. Jones’ Ed. vol. II. p. 36.) — French fleet 46 ships (Enc. Meth.) 44 
 ships (Beauvais.) — Allied fleet, consisting of the Englisn squadron under Admiral 
 Russel, and three united Dutch squadrons, S9 ships of the line, besides frigates and 
 fire ships. (Smollet, ut supra.) — r l he fleets hove in sight of each oilier at 3 o’clock 
 A. M. May 19rh, and the battle began about 8 o’clock A. M. and continued till 3 
 P. M., when the fleets were parted by a fog ; but this abating, a chase commenced, 
 and at 8 in the evening there was another brief engagement. [The battle lasted J2 
 hours. Beauvais.] May 22d, about half the French fieet were driven into La Ilogue 
 and destroyed, and the rest escaped through the Race of Alderney. — P. 
 
 d ‘ ■ The neat town of Valognes,* five leagues to the south-east of 
 Cherbourg, is situated in a pleasant valley watered by the Merderet, 
 at a little distance from the ruins of the ancient city of Alauna; t it 
 was the birthplace of Letourneurf and the celebrated Physician Vicq- 
 d’Azir.H” 
 
 * Valogne. 
 
 f Alauna, Moutiers d’Alaune. (Enc. Meth. Geog. Anc.) — Crociatonum , Valognes. 
 (D’Anv. Enc. Meth. Geog. Anc. Tab. de la Gaule.) — At Aleaume, near Valognes, 
 are Roman monuments, the remains of the ancient city of Crociatonum , the capital 
 
 of the Unelli. (Vosgien.) Crociatonum is generally supposed to have occupied 
 
 the site of Carentan. (Enc. Meth. Geog. Anc. au mot.) — P. 
 
 I P. Le Tourneur, born at Valognes 1736, known by numerous translations from 
 the English (Young’s Night Thoughts, Ossian, Shakspeare, &c.) — P. 
 
 || F. Vicq-d’Azyr, born 1748, more particularly celebrated as an anatomist and 
 physiologist. — P. 
 
 e “ Carentan, a town of three thousand inhabitants, defended by a 
 strong castle, and surrounded with fortifications now in ruins, is situat- 
 ed in the midst of unhealthy marshes. St. Lo,* the capital of the de- 
 partment, is traversed by the Vire. It is supposed to have borne origi- 
 nally the name of Briovera , which signifies in Celtic, the bridge over 
 the Vere,t or rather the Vire. The name which it bears at present is 
 derived from St. Laudo, who was born during the reign of Clovis, and 
 was afterwards bishop of Coutances. + The ancient cathedral of St. Lo 
 is remarkable for its elegance and lightness, and the church of the 
 Holy Cross ( 6glisc de Sainte- Croix) is considered the best preserved of all 
 the monuments of Saxon architecture in France. Before the conquest 
 of Normandy by Edward III., this town was one of the most important 
 in the province for its industry, and at present it contains numerous 
 manufactories of stufFs (£&ssu£)|| and is noted for its cutlery.” 
 
 * “Saint L6.” — St. Lo (Enc. Meth. Savary.) St. Lo (Aim. Royal.) — P. 
 
 f “ Pont sur la Verc — The river is now called the Vire. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 j Some writers pretend that the town is of ancient origin, and that its earliest name 
 was Briovera , composed of two words, bria or briva , a bridge, and Vera , the rivei 
 Vire. But it is more probable that it owes its origin and its earliest name to a church 
 built under the auspices of St. I jo (Sanctus Laudus or Laudo,) bishop of Coutances^ 
 who was born in a castle there situated, and who lived under the successors of Clo- 
 vis. (Enc. Meth.) — St. Lo was raised to the see of Coutances, A. D. 528. The reign 
 of Clovis extended from 481 to 511. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 || The term tissu is applied generally to all kinds of cloth (texture) woven by the 
 shuttle in a loom, whatever he the materials. It is also applied particularly to a 
 kind of coarse girth or webbins. (Savary.) — St. Lo manufactures serges and shalloons 
 (serges, ras.) (Enc. Meth.) — It has manufactories of cloths (drops. I stuffs (icoffes,) 
 galoons. thread and serges. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
32G 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLYI. 
 
 their name to a maritime department ; they form during 
 high tides a flat surface several hundred yards in length, 
 and about thirty in breadth ; sometimes, however, they arc 
 wholly concealed by the ocean. Calvados is bounded on 
 the side of the continent by the departments of Manche, 
 Orne and Eure ; it yields rich harvests, it abounds in cattle, 
 it is well supplied with coal." 
 
 Isigny b rises on the bay in which the Vire throws itself 
 into the channel ; it possesses a small harbour, and carries 
 on a considerable trade in the produce of the neighbouring 
 country. The town contains only 2000 inhabitants, and it 
 sends annually more than 3,000,000 pounds of butter into 
 different parts of France. 0 The country between Isigny 
 and Bayeux, a distance of seven leagues, is covered with 
 orchards, rich pastures and fruitful fields. The latter place 
 was the ancient Arcegcnus or Baiocasses , d which in the time 
 of Ctesar, was surrounded with forests, and possessed a cel- 
 ebrated school under the direction of the Druids. A spa- 
 cious and elegant street extends from one extremity of the 
 town to the other, forming an exception to the rest, which 
 are for the most part ill built. The cathedral, a fine Gothic 
 edifice, is adorned with a magnificent portal, surmounted by 
 three lofty towers : but the exterior is not the only part that 
 fixes the attention ; it has a treasury in which there are sev- 
 eral curiosities, among the most remarkable of which, is the 
 tapestry worked by queen Matilda, representing the exploits 
 of William the Conqueror. Lace and porcelain are the 
 principal articles manufactured in the town ; it has given 
 birth to the eloquent Alain Chartier and to Oliver Basselin, 
 a lyric poet, celebrated as the inventor of the Vau de Vire ; 
 his lively songs were at first confined to the banks of the 
 Vire, but having become fashionable at Paris, they were 
 styled vaudevilles. 0 Vire, so called from the river that 
 waters it, was gradually built round the castle which dates 
 
 a “ A chain of rocks that extends from east to west, to the distance 
 of six leagues, between the mouths of the Vire and the Orne, derived 
 its name of Calvados* from the wreck of a ship of that name, which 
 formed part of the fleet that Philip II. sent against England in 1588. t 
 In high tides, these rocks present above the water only a flat surface 
 of a few hundred metres in length bv about thirty in breadth, and some- 
 times even entirely disappear. They have given their name to a 
 maritime department,} bounded on the land side by the departments of 
 the Channel, the Orne and the Eure, and important from its corn, cat- 
 tle, coal mines|| and manufactures.” 
 
 * Le Calvados. 
 
 t Not 1533, as in the translation. See Hume’s Erie. p. 510 — 13, Jones’ Erl. — P. 
 
 } Depir! intuit of Calvados ( dcpartement du Calvados.) — P. 
 
 |1 There are mines of coal and iron in tire department. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 b Isigni. (Vosgien.) 
 
 c “ At. the bottom of the bay, in which the Vire enters the Channel 
 in the midst of shifting sands, Isigny possesses a small port and carries 
 on a considerable commerce in the products of its territory, noted for 
 the goodness of its cider and the excellent quality of its butter, of the 
 last of which it exports annually more than 1,600,000 kilogrammes; it 
 
 has a population of only 2000 inhabitants.” Isigni is situated at the 
 
 mouth of the Vire (Vosgien) — at the confluence of the Esques with the 
 Vire, eight miles from the sea ; vessels of 8 or !) feet draft go up to it 
 with the tide (Tuckey. vol. II. p. 16.) — The Vire becomes navigable 
 t St. Lo, leaves Isigni on the right, receives the river Esque and then 
 jails into the Channel, where it forms a small bay (golfe ,) fordable at 
 jow tides. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 d The name of Arccgenus, which belonged to the little river Aure 
 [on which Bayeux is situated,] as well as to the city of the Bajocasses, 
 has been replaced by that of Bayeux. (D’Anv.) — The people who 
 anciently inhabited the diocese of Bayeux. are supposed to have been 
 the Bellocassi, mentioned by Ctesar (L. VII. §6!).) Bayeux has been 
 variously named by Latin authors, Bajoccc, Bajocassium Civ it as, Julio- 
 bona Biducassium, and Bajocum. Gregory of Tours calls the people 
 who inhabited it the Bawcassini, and Ausonius (Carm. 4*) the Baiocas- 
 ses. (Moreri.) — The Bellocassi, of Caesar, have been confounded by 
 some authors with the Vclocasscs , but the latter inhabited the territory 
 of Cassel in Flanders. (Caesar. Edit. Scalig. Elzev. 1635 — Nomenclator 
 Geographicus A.Ortelii adj.) — P. 
 
 * Tu Raincassis stirpe Druidorurn satus, 
 
 Si lama non fallit lideiu, 
 
 from the time of Philip Augustus/ Conde sur Noireau,® 
 situated in a deep valley at the confluence of the Drouance 
 and the Noireau, contains five thousand inhabitants, together 
 with several cotton and linen manufactories.* * 1 
 
 A hill rises in a district covered with woods, fruit trees, 
 and pastures; the Ante, a small river, flows below it, and 
 Falaise, a Norman city, is built near the base. 1 The town 
 is encompassed with three suburbs ; Guibray, one of them, 
 might be sufficient to render it a place of celebrity, for two 
 very important fairs! are held there every year, the first of 
 which begins on the tenth, and lasts to the twenty-fifth of 
 August, while the other continues eight flays from the eighth 
 of September ; an immense number of horses are sold du- 
 ring the first fair ;** the second is set apart for the sale of 
 cattle and different articles of merchandise. In the same 
 suburb are situated the remains of a strong castle with a 
 tower in a good state of preservation ; it was the birthplace 
 of William the Conqueror. 1 An excellent road leads from 
 the town to the capital of the department. 
 
 It is vain to determine the time in which Caen was built • 
 it does not appear to be very ancient, but the date of the 
 foundation is unknown. It was formerly encompassed with 
 walls, and flanked with twenty towers : many of the streets 
 are broad and adorned with well built houses ; the public 
 buildings are imposing, and such is the excellent quality of 
 the stone in the neighbouring quarries, that Caen may in time 
 become one of the finest towns in France. The Royal 
 Place forms a large square ; the townhouse, a simple and 
 elegant edifice, rises at one extremity, and a public walk 
 extends round the centre, which is adorned with a bronze 
 statue of Lewis the Fourteenth. The abbey church is finer 
 in point of architecture than any in Caen, within it are con- 
 tained the tombs of William the Conqueror by whom it was 
 built, and of his wife Matilda." 1 The town is chiefly impor- 
 
 Belani sacratum ducis e templo genus — 
 
 Ausnnii Commemoratio Professorum Burdigalensium, IV. Attius 
 Patera. — P. 
 
 e “ It gave birth to Alain Chartier, the father of French eloquence, 
 and to Oliver Basselin, no less celebrated for having invented the Vau- 
 de-Vire, a kind of satirical song, first confined to the banks of the Vire, 
 but which having become fashionable in the capital, took the name of 
 Vaudeville.” — Alain Chartier, born at Bayeux 1386, was called in his 
 time, the father of French eloquence ( Pere de V eloquence francaise.) 
 (Beauvais.) O. Basselin, a fuller of Vire in the 15th cent., com- 
 
 posed many convivial songs {chansons a Loire,) which he sung at the 
 foot of a hill, called the Vaux, on the banks of the Vire, whence they 
 took the name of Vaux-de-Vire, afterwards corrupted into I'avdcrille. 
 (Diet. Hist. Caen. Beauvais.) — The Vaudeville originated in the val- 
 leys {vaux) of the Vire. (Vosgien.) — Vaudevilles are short comic dra- 
 mas, with a song (the Vaudeville) every few minutes — performed more 
 particularly at the Theatre Vaudeville in Paris.— P. 
 
 f “ — is a neat town, which in the time of Philip Augustus was 
 only a castle.” s Conde sur Nereau. (Moreri.) 
 
 ii “ — together with a great number of cotton mills {filatures de cotov) 
 and manufactories of different stuffs ( tissus .)” — It has manufactories of 
 serges, particularly the kind called lingettes (Savary) — cloths {drops) 
 (Enc. Melli.) — P. 
 
 ■ “ Falaise, a long and narrow town of Norman origin, is built on a 
 hill near the hanks of the small river Ante, in the midst of a territory 
 covered with woods, pastures and fruit trees.” — It rises on an emi- 
 nence in the form of a ship, and its castle, which is built on a rock, 
 occupies the place of the stern. (Moreri.) — It derives its name from its 
 position on a rock [falaise, a bluff.] (Enc. Meth. — Its situation resem- 
 bles that of the old town of Edinburgh. — P. 
 
 j “ — two of the largest fairs in Europe.” — The fair of Guibray is 
 the most celebrated in the kingdom after that of Beaucaire. (Enc. 
 Meth.)— P. 
 
 * “ The first is noted for the sale of fine horses ( chevaux de luxe.)" 
 
 1 William the Conqueror was born in the castle of Falaise, A. D. 
 1027.— P. 
 
 ® “ The Place Boyale* is a spacious and regular square ; the town- 
 house, a simple and elegant edifice, rises at one extremity, while the 
 centre, which serves as a promenade, is adorned with a bronze statue 
 of Louis XIV. t The churches are not at all remarkable, with the sin 
 
BOOK CXLVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 tant on account of an university, a botanical garden, a pub- 
 lic library of forty thousand volumes, and 3 very valuable 
 collection of natural history. It possesses also an academy 
 of science and belles-lettres, Linnean, antiquarian and agri- 
 cultural societies ; the transactions which are published every 
 year, attest the zeal and knowledge of the members . 3 The 
 celebrated Lamouroux, by whose premature death science 
 sustained no ordinary loss, occupied a few years since, the 
 chair of natural history in the university . 11 The town has 
 given birth to Malherbe, Segrais, Malfilatre c and Huet, bish- 
 op of Avranches. It stands in a fruitful and pleasant valley, 
 at the confluence of the Odon and the Orne ; activity reigns 
 in its small harbour, and a public walk, remarkable for its 
 beauty, d is hounded on one side by verdant meadows, and 
 on the other by the river. If it he added that the inhabit- 
 ants are alike distinguished by their knowledge and indus- 
 try, it cannot be wondered that the good effects of their ex- 
 ample extend to most places in Normandy. 
 
 The remaining towns in the department are comparative- 
 ly of little importance. Lisieux 0 is encompassed with ditch- 
 es and old walls ; r it was formerly the capital of a diocese, & in 
 which the first bishop was Litarde, who flourished in the 
 sixth century . 11 There is reason to believe that it occupies 
 the site of Noviomagus, a Celtic city, and it is certain that it 
 
 g-le exception of that of the abbey of St. Stephen, * 1 in which are con- 
 tained the tombs of William the Conqueror, by whom it was founded, 
 and of his wife Matilda. Among the other public buildings, the ancient 
 strong castle, which formed part of the fortifications built by that prince, 
 and a large hospital, are also deserving of attention. 1 ’ 
 
 * Royal Square. f An equestrian statue, in a Roman habit. (Ed. Encyc.) 
 
 f L’Abbaye aux Hommes.”— There were two abbeys in Caen, viz. that for men 
 (Abbaye am: II ommes , Enc. Met h. — St. F.t.cnne de Caen , Moreri,) and that for women 
 ( Abbaye aur Dames, Enc. Meth. — Ste. Trinite , Moreri) — the former founded by Wil- 
 liam the Conqueror, and the latter by iiis wife Matilda. — P. 
 
 a “ The town is chiefly important as the seat of a university, in con- 
 nexion with which it possesses a botanical garden, a public library 
 containing 40,000 volumes, a cabinet of natural history at the town- 
 house, remarkable for its extent and arrangement,* and also several 
 learned societies, viz. the academy of sciences and belles-lettres, the 
 Linnean society, the society of antiquaries and that of agriculture ; 
 the memoirs published annually by these societies, attest the zeal and 
 knowledge of their members.” — The university was first founded in 
 1431 by Henry VI. of England, for the study of civil and canon law ; 
 the faculties of theology and the arts were added in 1436, and that of 
 medicine in 1437. (Ed. Encyc.) — The academy [university] of Caen 
 consists of three faculties, viz. those of law, sciences and letters. There 
 is also a royal college [lyceum] at Caen. (Aim. Royal.) — P. 
 
 * The collections of Lamouroux, which were very complete and extensive, particu- 
 larly in marine productions (animal and vegetable,) are now deposited in the muse- 
 um of Caen. — P. 
 
 b J. J. N. Huot, Notice sur la vie et les travaux de J. V. F. 
 Lamouroux (Annales des Sciences Naturelles, t. V.) — [Lamouroux 
 died at Caen in 1825. — P.] 
 
 c Three distinguished French poets — Malherbe b6rn 1555, Segrais 
 1624, and Malfilatre 1733.— P. 
 
 d “—a fine promenade called the Course ( Cours .)” 
 
 e “ Lizieux.” 
 
 f The edifices most worthy of attention, are the cathedral and the 
 episcopal palace, the last of which is noted for a fine staircase. M. B 
 
 e Suppressed during the revolution. — P. 
 
 h Present at the first council of Orleans, A. D. 511. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 ' “ It bore among the ancients the name of Noviomagus, which was 
 afterwards exchanged for that of Lixovium.” — Noviomagus, afterwards 
 Lr.xovii, Lisieux. (D’Anv. Enc. Moth. Geog. Anc.) — The Latin names 
 of Lisieux are, Civitas Lexoviorum s. Lixuviorum , Lexovium and Lixo- 
 vium. (Enc. Meth. Geog. Mod .) — Lexobii (Caesar. edit. Maittaire,) Lcx- 
 ovii (Pliny,) Lexobii or Lexovii (Strabo,) Lcxubii (Ptolemy,) was the 
 name of the people, afterwards that of their capital. — Neomagus, the 
 capital of the Lexubii. (Ptolemy .) — Lixovium does not occur in either 
 of these ancient authors. It is the modern Latin name of Lisieux. — P. 
 
 i “It is the centre of an extensive manufacture of linens ( toiles ,) 
 blankets ( couvertures ) and ribbons ( rubans ,) which furnishes employ- 
 ment to more than 3,000 workmen.” — It has manufactories of linens and 
 flannels (Vosgien)— linens, particularly cretonnes [see note b IT p. 1003,] 
 and woollen stuffs ( serges , frocs.) (Savary.) — The term couvertures, 
 without qualification, is used for woollen blankets, by Savary. (It is 
 now also used for cotton coverlets.) He observes that Normandv is 
 
 OF FRANCE. 327 
 
 was one of t!ie places that the Romans called Livovium .* 
 It carries on at present a considerable trade in linen, cotton 
 stuffs and ribbons, a trade which furnishes employment to 
 three thousand workmen. i The inhabitants of Font l’Eve- 
 que k are engaged in the same sort of industry, hut it is thin- 
 ly peopled and ill built. 1 
 
 The heights above Honfleur are covered with lofty trees, 
 but a vista reveals the rich country in the neighbourhood — 
 the embouchure of the Seine, and the sea that bounds the 
 horizon. The town itself is an irregular assemblage of dirty 
 houses, and the most frequented church is built of wood. 
 Two pharos direct vessels to the harbour; although it is 
 small, the commercial intercourse between Honfleur and 
 Havre, and the equipments necessary for the herring, cod 
 and mackerel fisheries, render it the scene of much activity 
 and confusion. But the port was once more flourishing 
 than at present; some distinguished navigators were born 
 there ; it was from Honfleur that Chinot-Palmier arid cap- 
 tain Gonneville departed in the sixteenth century on their 
 voyages of discovery. The town is called Ilonnejleu in 
 several old charts, a name which, according to an antiquary 
 of some celebrity, signifies in northern languages a hamlet on 
 a small gulf; the etymology, it must be admitted, accords 
 with the position. 111 “ 
 
 one of the provinces in which blankets are manufactured in greatest 
 quantity. — P 
 
 k Pont-l’Evesque. (Moreri.) 
 
 1 “Pont-l’Eveque, although a town ofless interest than the preceding, 
 carries on, however, a considerable manufacture of linens (toiles,) but 
 it is poorly peopled and ill built.”— Population about 2000. — P. 
 
 m From ham, hamlet, and fluct, a small gulf. See Notice des Gaules 
 by Valois. 
 
 n “ The traveller on the road from Pont-l'Eveque to Honfleur, can- 
 not fail to admire the fine prospect that presents itself at the extremity 
 of the high plateau which commands the latter : he finds himself sur- 
 rounded by woods, but through a vista that serves to heighten the 
 beauty of the landscape, he perceives at a distance the mouth of the 
 Seine, the sea stretching to the horizon, and the houses of Honfleur 
 rising along the declivity of the Cdlc de Gr6.ce, the summit of which is 
 shaded with trees, and crowned by a chapel held in veneration by 
 mariners. The town is irregular and dirty, and the most frequented 
 church is built of wood; but the harbour, which can receive only 30 
 ships, and the entrance to which is pointed out by two light-houses 
 ( phares ,) exhibits a great degree of activity from its constant intercourse 
 with Havre, its general commerce, and its herring, whiting* and mack- 
 erel fisheries. The port was formerly more flourishing than at pres- 
 ent; it has supplied France with many good seamen ( marins .) It was 
 from Honfleur. in the ICth century, that Chinot-Paulmier, and a few 
 years afterwards, Captain Gonneville, departed for the discovery of the 
 Terra Australis. \ The town is designated in old charters (churles) by 
 
 the name of Honncjleu, the root of which signifies in the northern lan- 
 guages, a hamlet on a small gulf — an etymology that appears to be very 
 probable. 1 ” 
 
 * “ Merl.in ” — Gadus Merlan^us, Linn. — P. 
 
 t Chinot-Paulmier, a gentleman of the vicinity, who in 1503 first discovered the 
 Terra Australis, which lie called the Southern Indies (hides Jllcridionales,) sailed on 
 his voyage from the port of Honfleur. (Enc. Meth.) — N. Binot Paulmier de Gonne- 
 ville, born at Honfleur about the middle of the 15th cent., was employed in 1503 to 
 conduct an expedition to the East Indies. On his return he pretended to have dis- 
 covered a country (terre australe) beyond the Cape of Good Hope, which has never 
 yet been revisited. He brought with him a son of the king of the country, named 
 Essomeric, whom h< constituted his heir. The Abbe Paulmier de Gonneville, great 
 grandson of Essomeric, published an account of his discovery in 1663. (Beauvais.) — 
 Burney supposes the country discovered by him, to have been Madagascar — others 
 New Holland, or e ;en New Zealand- Essomeric married into the family of the Sieur 
 de Gonneville, whence his descendant, the Abbe, derived his name. In 1738, M. Lo- 
 zier Bouvet sailed from L’Orient, in search of the land discovered by Gonneville, 
 and Jan. 1, 1739, discovered the island of Cap de, la Circovcision , in 54° 2<V S., and 25 s 
 47' E. from the meridian of Teneriffe (13° 6' E. from Greenwich.) (Burney’s Hist, 
 of Voyages and Discov. in the S. Sea. Vol. I. p. 378 — 9. Vol. III. n. 275—7. Vol. V. 
 p. 31— 4.)— It is obvious from this statement, that the Chinot Paulmier of the Enc. 
 Meth. is the Binot Paulmier de Gonneville of Beauvais (the Sieur de Gonneville of 
 Burney,) and that the compiler of the original (M. B.) has bisected his long name, 
 and thus made two separate navigators and two distinct voyages, where there should 
 he but one only. A fine parallel to this mistake may be found in the Diet. Ihsi et 
 Biooraph. de Prudliomme, in which the Abbe Paulmier de Gonneville is called the Abbe 
 Paul Myer. Such writers as these seem to think that one name, and even half a 
 name, is enough for one man. — P. 
 
 I “ From ham , hamlet, and fleat , a small hay (ffolfe.) See Valois, Notice des 
 Gaules.” — [Honfleur is called in old documents ( litres ,) Honnefleu and Hunneflotum ; 
 this name, according to M. de Valois, Notit. Gall. p. 241,* is derived from ham a vil- 
 lage or hamlet, and fleot or fleat , written vliet in the Low Countries,! which signifies 
 a small bay (gotfe de mer .) (Enc. Meth.) — P.j 
 
[BOOK CXLVI. 
 
 328 EUROPE. 
 
 The distance by sea from Honfleur to Havre* * * is not more 
 than three leagues, and steam vessels sail from the one 
 place to the other in less than an hour. b The first object 
 that a stranger observes on entering the port of Havre, is 
 the tower of Francis the First, an old building connected 
 with the fortifications that were erected by the same prince ; 
 it serves at present as a station to watch the approach of 
 ships. 0 Three basins communicate with the harbour; it is 
 defended by a citadel, and the whole town is surrounded 
 with bastions. The streets in the Old Quarter are suffi- 
 ciently regular, hut the houses are ill built; the New Quar- 
 ter extends along the basin of Ingouville, and it accords 
 better with the commerce of the port, which has constantly 
 increased since the peace. But the finest part of Havre 
 fronts the iron works and the dock yards ; a large court 
 planted with trees forms a public walk, and well built quays 
 or spacious streets traverse the town from the gate of Ingou- 
 villc to the harbour. d It may be remarked, however, that 
 the public buildings correspond ill with the wealth of the 
 inhabitants ; the customhouse is a very large edifice, hut 
 the townhouse, the subprefecture, the exchange, the court- 
 house® and the two churches are very ordinary in point of 
 architecture. The town has produced a few distinguished 
 men, but it was the birthplace ofBernardin de St. Pierre/ 
 Many country houses are situated near the suburb of Ingou- 
 ville which contains five thousand inhabitants. Two light- 
 houses are erected on the hill behind Havre at the extremi- 
 ty of the ridge that forms Cape Heve ; 6 they were built to 
 indicate during the night the dangers of the coast. 
 
 A fruitful valley extends from the northern extremity of 
 the same ridge to the sea, and terminates at Fecamp, h a 
 town of eight thousand inhabitants ; it possesses several cot- 
 ton manufactories, 1 and equips a number of vessels for the 
 cod fisheries. Another valley on the south of it, perhaps 
 the most picturesque of any in the department, is watered 
 by the Bolbec, a small river, that has given its name to an 
 industrious town of seven thousand inhabitants, who carry on 
 a trade in muslin and different manufactures/ Before the 
 river falls into the Seine, it passes by Lillebonne, k a burgh 
 that stands on the site of the ancient city of Julia-Bona ', the 
 
 importance of which is attested by the ruins of three Roman 
 ways, and by recent excavations that have led to the dis- 
 covery of a theatre and of several statues and other objects 
 of antiquity. 
 
 Caudebec was formerly the capital of Caux, m a small 
 country in which agriculture has attained a high degree of 
 perfection, and in which every house, surrounded by trees of 
 different kinds, contributes so much to adorn the landscape, 
 that the country watered by the Seine from Havre to Rouen, 
 may vie with the vaunted banks of the Loire. Caudebec 
 was a very flourishing town before the revocation of the 
 edict of Nantes; it was almost ruined in consequence of 
 that impolitic measure, and although it still possesses a con- 
 venient harbour, the population does not exceed three thou- 
 sand souls." It is situated in the district 0 of Yvetot, a small 
 town p of which the lords, before the reign of Louis the 
 Eleventh, were styled kings by their vassals. 
 
 Rouen is situated in a fine valley enclosed by chalk hills, 
 and covered with verdant meadows or cultivated fields 
 The Seine flows through the same valley, and waters, sev- 
 eral islands ; the ramparts of the town rise above the river, 
 and the port is crowded with vessels of every nation. A 
 modern bridge leads to the suburb of St. Severe, part of 
 which is formed by large barracks and an open space that 
 is reserved for military exercises. The town may be 
 enriched by the commerce and industry of the inhabitants, 
 but many of the streets are disfigured by wooden houses, 
 and almost all of them are crooked ; those of a very recent 
 date form the only exception. Although Rouen is not re- 
 markable for modern edifices, it possesses several monu- 
 ments of the middle ages ; St. Ouen, an old church, equal- 
 ly worthy of notice for the architecture and the beauty of 
 the painted windows, the cathedral of which the steeple was 
 lately destroyed by fire, the linen market, an old and large 
 building, and the court of justice, an elegant Gothic edifice 
 are those perhaps which have been most admired ; it may 
 be remarked too, that the infirmary is larger than any other 
 in Fi ■ance. The inhabitants are devoted to trade, but they 
 possess a collection of valuable paintings, a library of forty 
 thousand volumes, a good botanical garden, schools of med- 
 
 * Adrian de Valois, Notitia Galliaruin, 160G. fol. (Beauvais.) 
 
 f Vlict, a stream, river. (Wilcocke.) — Flic, although not found in the common 
 Dutch dictionaries (Kilianus, I [alma, Wilcocke) is also used by the Dutch for an inlet 
 (as in the Flit-Stroom ) or for a tide creek, ns the Flic in New Vol k, which gave name 
 to the Fly Market. Fleet Street in London is so called from having been built over 
 a fleet or creek which there opened into the Thames. — An". Sax. fleet, an arm of the 
 sea, a place where the tide flows, a bay or road ; also, a river, or running stream. 
 (Somner’s Ang. Sax. Diet.) — 1’. 
 
 “ “Le Havre” — Le Havre (Aim. Royal.) Havre de Grace — Le Havre 
 de Grace ( Pnrtus Gratice, )so named from an ancient chapel adjoining.-- P. 
 
 b “ The time of high water approaches ; the vessels aground in the 
 harbour, rise slowly with the tide ; the quicksands that render the mouth 
 of the Seine so dangerous, disappear beneath the waves ; the bell of 
 the steam-boat warns the traveller who wishes to cross to Havre that 
 the hour of departure has arrived ; and in less than an hour, after a pas- 
 sage of about three leagues, he is landed at Havre, next to Rouen, the 
 most important town* in the department of the Lower Seine.” The 
 general view of the department, p. 1010, ought regularly to be placed 
 before the description of Havre ; but it has been displaced by the itine- 
 rary form of the original. — P. 
 
 * “ Chef-lieu” — capital of an arrondissement. 
 
 c “ — as a signal station.” 
 
 d “ Three basins communicate with the harbour, which is defended 
 by the citadel, while the town itself is surrounded with bastions. The 
 town is divided into two sections, namely, the Old Quarter, in which 
 the streets are quite regular, but ill built, and the New Quarter, that 
 borders the basin of Ingouville, in which the beauty and regularity of 
 the buildings correspond with the high degree of commercial importance 
 that the port has enjoyed since the peace. It is particularly in front 
 of the marine arstmal (forges de la marine) and the mast-houses ( ateliers 
 de la mdture,) that the interior of Havre presents the most imposing 
 aspect : an elegant square planted with trees and forming a promenade 
 within the walls, a fine quay, a spacious street that traverses the city 
 
 from the gate of Ingouville to the harbour, the front of the new theatre, 
 the coffee houses and the private mansions are there exhibited to the 
 best advantage.” 
 
 e “Tribunal.” — Havre has a tribunal de premitre instance and a tribu- 
 nal de commerce. (Aim. Royal.) — P. 
 
 f Havre was the birthplace of the Scuderys (George and Magdalen,) 
 the former of some distinction in his day as a poet, and the latter still 
 celebrated for her voluminous romances; also of the Countess La Fay- 
 ette, the novelist. — P. 
 
 fi “ After passing through the suburb of Ingouville, which contains 
 several fine country houses and 5G00 inhabitants, and after having climb- 
 ed the declivity (rote) on which it is situated, the traveller perceives at 
 the extremity of the plateau that terminates in Cape La Heve ( Cap dela 
 Here.) two light-houses constructed in a style of elegant architecture.' 
 
 ■* “ At the northern extremity of the plateau, a pleasant valley de- 
 scends to the sea and terminates at the port of Fecamp” [Fescamp. 
 Enc. Meth.]— P. 
 
 “ “ Manufactories of cotonnades .” 
 
 i “ Another valley to the south of the former, and one of the most 
 picturesque imaginable, is watered by the small river Bolbec, which 
 traverses a neat town of the same name, enriched by its cotton mills 
 (filatures) and its calicoes ( indicants ,) and with a population of 7000 
 inhabitants.” 
 
 k lslebonne (Moreri.) Juliobona. (D’Anv.) 
 
 m “ Le Pays de Caux.” — Caux or Pays de Caux . (Moreri.) — It oc- 
 cupies the triangular point between the Channel and the Seine. — P. * 
 
 11 “ Caudebec stands in an agreeable situation, at the foot of a woody 
 hill, on the banks of the Seine. Before the revocation of the edict of 
 Nantes, it was very flourishing ; at present, although its population does 
 not exceed 3000 souls, it derives great advantages from the convenient 
 position of its harbour.” ° “Arrondissement.” 
 
 p “ — a neat town ( jolic ville .)” — Population 9853. — P. 
 
book cxlvi.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 icine and pharmacy, two theatres, an academy of sciences | 
 and belles-lettres, an agricultural and antiquarian society, i 
 It has produced some great men, among others Fontenelle 
 and the two Corneilles ; the modest house that the latter 
 inhabited may still be seen in the street of La Pie. The 
 etymology of Rouen has given rise to different opinions, 
 some antiquaries derive the name of the ancient capital of 
 Normandy from the small river of Robec, the Latin liot- 
 obecum ; others believe it to have been so called from Rotho, 
 an idol which they affirm, the Veliocassi adored. It might 
 be difficult to form a correct opinion on the subject, but it 
 is certain that Rothomagus was a very insignificant place in 
 the time of Caesar, the Roman general does not mention it, 
 and the first notice of it appears in the geography of Ptolemy. 
 
 It fell into the power of the English in 1419, they kept pos- 
 session of it during twenty years. It was in 1431 that sev- 
 eral prelates, rebels to their lawful king, deaf to the voice of 
 patriotism, instruments in the hands of foreigners, judged 
 and put to death the heroine who saved her country. A 
 statue of Joan d’Arc, afterwards erected on the market 
 
 a “ Whether we arrive at Rouen by the road from Yvetot or by that 
 from Paris, its position in a magnificent valley, formed by chalk hills 
 covered with cultivated fields and pastures ( pres ) ; the broad current of 
 the Seine, which bathes several islands and Hows in the midst of fertile 
 meadows {prairies ) ; the boulevards that border the river as it passes 
 by the city ;* the spacious quays ; the port filled with ships of all na- 
 tions ; the fine bridge of stone that leads to the suburb of St. Severe ; 1 
 the extensive barracks which occupy a wide space between that suburb 
 and the left hank of the Seine; and the activity that prevails in every 
 quarter ; all combine to give the most favourable idea of its opulence 
 and industry. Most of the streets, however, with the exception of a 
 few that have been recently built, are disfigured by wooden houses, 
 and nearly all of them are irregular and crooked ( mal alignees.) Al- 
 though Rouen is not remarkable for its modern edifices, it possesses 
 many interesting monuments of the middle ages. Passing by several 
 fountains of that period, we may mention the church of the former 
 abbey of St. Ouen, I equally worthy of notice from its architecture and 
 its magnificent painted windows ; the cathedral, the spire of which was 
 lately destroyed by fire, || but is now rebuilding ;§ the linen market 
 (hallc aux toiles,) an old and extensive edifice; and the palace of jus- 
 tice ( palais de justice, )11 a Gothic building remarkable for its elegance. 
 The hospital ( Hdtcl-Dicu ) is one of the largest in the kingdom. Al- 
 though the inhabitants of Rouen are devoted to trade and manufactures,** 
 it possesses, however, a museum rich in excellent paintings, a library 
 of 40,000 volumes, a fine botanical garden, two theatres, an academy 
 of sciences, arts and belles lettres, a central society of agriculture, a 
 free society of emulation ( sociiti librc d' emulation j a society of medi- 
 cine and one of pharmacy, another society destined to promote the 
 progress of commerce and industry, and lastly, a commission charged 
 with the investigation and description of antiquities. It was the birth- 
 place of Fontenelle and the two Corneilles, and the modest dwelling 
 inhabited by the latter may still be seen in the street of La Pie (Rue de 
 la Pie.)\ t Various opinions have been entertained with regard to the 
 etymology of the original name of Rouen 41 some derive it from the 
 small river Robec, called in Latin Rotobccum, while others trace it from 
 the idol Rotho, said to have been worshipped by the Veliocasses . ||][ §§ 
 However it may be, it cannot be doubted that Rothomagus was a place 
 of little importance in the time of Csesar, for no mention of it occurs in 
 his writings, and the first notice of it appears in the geography of Pto- 
 lemy. It is well known that it fell into the power of the English in 
 14111, and that they kept possession of it during twenty years,' IT IT and also 
 that in 1431, while acting under the influence of foreigners, several 
 prelates, rebels to their lawful king, and deaf to the voice of patriotism, 
 tried and condemned to death the heroine who had saved her coun- 
 try.*** A statue of Joan of Arc, erected in the market-place, is an 
 evidence of the esteem with which her memory is now regarded.” 
 
 * The Cours. — The beautiful promenade of the Corns on the banks of the river. 
 (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 t The bridge of boats over the Seine, which rests on nineteen large barges, rising 
 and tailing with the tide, was to be replaced by a handsome bridge of stone, which 
 must now be nearly finished. (Ed. Encyc. 1899.) — The construction of the new bridge 
 was in progress as early as 1890. (Morse.) — It was one of the public works (extraordi- 
 nary) under the direction of the general commission of civil engineers ( Direction 
 generate ties Ponte et Chaussees,) in 1822. (Aim. Royal.)— The old bridge of boats was 
 paved with stone, and occasionally opened for the passage of vessels. It was also 
 removed almost every winter, to prevent injury from the ice in the river. (Vosgien. 
 Enc. Meth.)— There was formerly a bridge of stone at Rouen, but it was destroyed 
 in the 16th century. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 t“ E’ancienne eglise de St. Ouen.”— The finest churches in Rouen, are the ca 
 thedral of Notre Dame, the abbey-church of St. Ouen, the parish church of St. Maclou, 
 and the church belonging to the coliege of the Jesuits. (Moreri.)— The abbey, 
 which bears the name of St. Ouen, and which belongs to the reformed Benedictines, 
 enjoys a revenue of more than 80,01)0 livres. (Enc. Meth.)— The church of St. Maclou 
 VOL. III.— NO. 62 42 
 
 OF FRANCE. 329 
 
 place, proves that her memory is revered in the town where 
 she was unjustly condemned. a 
 
 Elbeuf b is situated about four leagues to the south of 
 Rouen, in a pleasant valley watered by the Seine ; c it is a 
 place of considerable importance from its cloth manufactories, 
 which furnish employment to eight thousand workmen . 11 
 Gournay carries on a great trade in butter ; several mineral 
 springs rise in the neighbourhood ; the houses round one of 
 them — the fountain of Jouvence, form a small town of three 
 thousand five hundred inhabitants.® Aumale, tbe ancient 
 Albemarle, is an ill-built town on the north of Jouvence ; it 
 is enclosed by large meadows, and watered by tbe Bresle, 
 on which a bridge lias been erected ; the two columns at 
 one extremity indicate the place where Henry the Fourth 
 was wounded by a shot from an arquebuse during the battle 
 that was fought against the troops of the League/ No town 
 of any consequence can be mentioned in tbe district of Neuf- 
 Chatel, a district that supplies many parts of France with 
 excellent cheese leaving it on the right, h we may proceed 
 to Dieppe, a well-built city, in which there are six public 
 
 is much admired, and also that of St. Ouen, which is a fine Gothic structure near the 
 centre of the city. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 || Destroyed by lightning. 
 
 § The spire is to be formed of cast iron See page 1002, art. Foundery at 
 Conches. — P. 
 
 IT Parliament house. (Ed. Encyc.) — Rouen, before the revolution, had a parliament 
 of its own, one of the first in the kingdom ; originally, the sovereign court of the 
 dukes of Normandy. — P. 
 
 ** Rouen has long been one of the principal manufacturing cities in France. 
 Coarse cottons are made there to a great extent, and finer ones have been making 
 great progress. Woollen and linen goods are also manufactured, together with wax 
 cloth, paper, hats, pottery and hardware. The dying of cotton and woollen has 
 been long carried on to a great extent, and there are several sugar refineries. It has 
 been estimated that 50,000 of its population* are employed in manufactures, and that 
 the annual value of its industry is about £.2,000,000 sterling. (Ed. Encyc.) — Rouen is 
 the principal seat of the cotton manufacture in France — it has been called not inaptly 
 the Manchester of France. (Ed. Encyc. art. France.) — P. 
 
 * Population 90,000. M. R. 
 
 tt It was also the birthplace of Bnsnage (History of the Jews,) Bochart, Brumoy 
 (Greek Theatre,) Father Daniel (History of France,) Lemery (the chemist,) St. 
 Amand and Pradon (poets satirized by Boileau,) Sanadon (the translator of Horace,) 
 Madame Dubocage (the poetess,) and J. F. Blondel (History of French Architec- 
 ture.) — P. H Rothomagus. — Rotomagus. (D’Anv.) 
 
 HD Velocasscs. (D’Anv. Ctesar. De Bell. Gall. II. §4. Edit.Scaliger. 1635, Elzev.)— P. 
 cannot be doubted that the ancient name of Rouen ( Rothomagus ) was of Cel- 
 tic origin ; but its etymology is uncertain. Some derive it from the Idol Rotho, there 
 worshipped, and from magus or magum, which signifies a town, in Celtic : others 
 adopt the same word magus, and unite it with the two first syllables of Ratvbecum, 
 the Latin name of the small river Robec, which flows by Rouen. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 HIT The English held possession of Rouen from 1418 to 1449 (Moreri) — consequently 
 about 30 years.— Normandy was conquered from the English in the space of about a 
 year from July 1419, at which time it was invaded by four French armies. (Rankin’s 
 Hist, of France. Vol. V. p. 100.)— P. 
 
 *** She was burnt in the old market place of Rouen, May 30, 1431 (Rankin’s Hist. 
 Vol. V. p. 77, 80)— May 30, 1430 (Moreri.)— P. 
 
 b Elboeuf. (Vosgien.) 
 
 c “ — on the left bank of the Seine.” 
 
 d “ — which in a population of 10,000 souls, furnish employment to 
 8000 workmen.” 
 
 e “ Gournay, a town on the eastern limits of the department, which 
 carries on a great trade in butter, and which also possesses several 
 mineral springs, one of them called the fountain of Jouvence, is sur- 
 rounded by pleasant boulevards and agreeably situated on the banks 
 of the Epte ; it contains 3500 inhabitants and possesses a public 
 library.” 
 
 f “Aumale, formerly called Albemarle,* an ill built town to the north 
 of Gournay, is situated in the midst of large meadows (une vaste prairie) 
 watered by the Bresle ;t two columns at the extremity of the bridge 
 which crosses the river, indicate the place where Henry IV. was wound 
 ed by a shot from an arquebuse in the battle that he fought before the 
 town with the troops of the League.” 
 
 * Aumale or Albemale (Vosgien.) Ear. Jllbamahi (Moreri.) Aumale or Albemarle, 
 Eat. Aiha-Murla (Enc. Meth.) — It was called Albemarle when in possession of the 
 English, and from it the Earls of Albemarle took their title. The title was first 
 conferred by William the Conqueror on Stephen son of Odo, descended from the 
 counts of Champagne. The present title was conferred on Arnold Van Keppel bv 
 William III. — P 
 
 t It is situated on the declivity of a hill, on the borders of a meadow ( prairie ) wa- 
 tered by the Bresle. (Enc. Meth.) 
 
 s “ Neuf-Cluitel, the capital of an arrondissement,* is only noted for 
 its excellent cheese.” — Excellent cheese is made at Neufchatel en 
 Bray, the capital of an arrondissement (subprefecture) in the depart- 
 ment of the Lower Seine. (Vosgien.) 
 
 * “ La sous-prefecture de Neuf-Cliltel.” — This merely refers to the town of Neuf 
 Ohatel, not to the arrondissement. Gournay and Aumale are situated in the arron- 
 dissement of Neufchatel (Aim. Royal.) — P 
 
 h The principal route from Aumale to Dieppe passes through Neuf 
 chatel, but the direct line from Aumale to Dieppe passes to the north 
 
330 EUR( 
 
 squares and not fewer than sixty-eight fountains, the last of 
 which are fed by a brick aqueduct more than a league in 
 length. The harbour is safe and commodious, but the en- 
 trance is narrow ; although the inhabitants clean it at regular 
 intervals by opening the sluices of a basin which was built 
 for the purpose, it is often encumbered with the gravel that 
 the sea accumulates.® b The battle of Arques, in which 
 Henry the Fourth defeated the duke of Mayenne, was fought 
 in the neighbourhood. The navigators that discovered Ca- 
 nada, and the first Frenchmen that founded commercial 
 stations on the coasts of Africa, set sail from Dieppe. 
 
 The department of the Lower Seine is one of the most 
 commercial in France ; the products of the fisheries are equiv- 
 alent to five millions of francs or to more than £.20S,300; 
 the value of the cotton manufactures amounts to thirty-five 
 millions or nearly £.1,500,000; all the other manufactures 
 have been estimated at seventy millions or £.3,125,000. c 
 As a proof that agriculture is in a very improved state, it 
 may be mentioned that not more than a sixteenth part of 
 all the arable land remains fallow.* 1 
 
 The department of the Somme consists of the chalky 
 plains watered by the Somme and its feeders. The soil of 
 these plains is for the most part fruitful ; corn, flax and 
 hemp are cultivated, and the inhabitants rear a great many 
 cattle and sheep, the breeding of the last of which is a branch 
 of industry too much neglected in France. The country, 
 it must be admitted, is ill supplied with wood, but the val- 
 leys abound in peats, which make up in some measure for 
 the deficiency of other combustibles. 
 
 The small port of St. Valery e is situated at the mouth of 
 the Somme ; three or four hundred vessels enter it every 
 
 )PE. [BOOK CXLVI 
 
 year, and it was thence that William departed to conquer 
 England with a fleet of eleven hundred sail, and a hundred 
 thousand men/ Abbeville rises on the same rivers about 
 four leagues above St. Valery; it is a strong town 1 " of the 
 fourth class, and was fortified for the first time by Charle- 
 magne. 1 The houses are built of brick, but there are sev- 
 eral fine old buildings, among others the church of Saint 
 Vulfran,J a Gothic edifice/ The inhabitants boast of the 
 poet Millevoie, 1 as their townsman, m and some of them too 
 have not forgotton that the Chevalier de la Barre, a youth 
 not more than fifteen years of age, was condemned at Abbe- 
 ville to be beheaded, to have his right hand amputated, and 
 his tongue torn from his body, because he sung licentious 
 verses and remained uncovered during a religious procession." 
 
 Amiens is situated at the distance of nine leagues above 
 Abbeville ; it bore in ancient times the name of Samaro- 
 briva, which signifies a bridge over the Somme. It was 
 the capital of the Ambiani , and one of the places in Gaul, 
 in which good weapons were made. It was the principal city 
 in the kingdom of the Franks, under Clodion ; it is at present 
 a strong town of the third class ; it carries on a considera- 
 ble trade, the manufactures are linens, cottons and velvet. 0 
 The cathedral is considered a model of Gothic architecture/ 
 and the public library is not inferior to the one at Rouen. 
 Amiens has produced many great men, among the most 
 remarkable of whom are Peter the Hermit, who persuaded 
 the faithful to undertake the first crusade, Marshal D’Es- 
 trees, Voiture, Ducange, Cresset and the celebrated astrono- 
 mer Delambre. It was united to France in the reign of 
 Louis the Eleventh, but the Spaniards gained it by a sin- 
 gular stratagem in the time of Henry the Fourth.’ Some 
 
 of Neufchatel, consequently leaving it on the left. The route from 
 Gournay to Dieppe passes to the south of Neufchfitel, and consequently 
 leaves it on the right. See Tableau des Postes de France — also Atlas 
 of the Society of Useful Knowledge : France in departments, No. I. — P. 
 
 a “ The harbour is safe ; but its narrow entrance is liable to be ob- 
 structed by the pebbles which the sea accumulates, notwithstanding the 
 care that is taken to remove them by opening the sluices of a basin 
 reserved for the purpose." — Dieppe is situated at the mouth of the 
 Bethune, where it receives the Arques. Its harbour dries at low wa- 
 ter, but has three fathoms and a half at high water ; it is in the form 
 of a semicircle, and is enclosed by two fine moles of strong brickwork 
 about half a mile long. Dieppe is largely engaged in the home and 
 foreign fisheries ; a regular line of packet-boats sails from it to Brighton, 
 a distance of 66 miles. (Tuckey, vol. II. p. 14. Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 b The celebrity given to it by the Dutchess of Berry, as a place of 
 resort for sea-bathing, attracts to the town a great concourse of 
 strangers. M. B. (1829.) — This was written a year too early. — P. (1831.) 
 c “ The fisheries produce about 5,000,000 francs, cotton spinning 
 
 35.000. 000, and the manufacture of Rouen goods ( rouenncries )* 
 
 70.000. 000.” — Reckoning the franc at 10J d. sterling, which is not far 
 from its real value, these three sums will be respectively equal to 
 £.210,937. 10s., £.1,470,562. 10s, and £.2,953, 125.— P. 
 
 * Rouen cottons and linens. 
 
 <* Annuaire Statistique de la Seine Inferieure. 
 c St. Valeri, St. Vallery. 
 
 f The forces assembled by William at the mouth of the small river 
 Dive [in the department of Calvados,] consisted of a fleet of 3000 ves- 
 sels, great and small, and an army of 00,000 men. Several of the vessels 
 were lost, however, in his passage along the coast to St. Valori [St. 
 Valeri,] where he was detained for some time by contrary winds, before 
 his final departure for England. (Hume’s England, p.43, Jones’ Ed.) — P. 
 
 e “ Abbeville is traversed by the Somme.” — The Somme, which there 
 separates itself into several branches, divides the town into two parts. 
 (Ed. Encyc.) — Some of the branches into which the Somme divides itself 
 flow through the town, and some without. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 11 “ Place de guerre." — The fortified towns (jdaccs de guerre) in 
 France are distributed into four classes according to their importance, 
 and arranged under the respective military divisions. In the first class 
 there are only six, besides Paris: viz, Metz, Strasburg, Toulon, Brest, 
 Gravelines and Lille ; in the second, ten ; in the third, twenty-four ; and 
 in the fourth, seventy-three. In addition to these, there are a great 
 number of forts and military posts. (Alman. Royal, 1822.) — P. 
 
 ' It was first fortified by Hugh Capet, A. D. 992. (Enc. Meth. 
 Moreri.) — P. i St. Wulphran. (Enc. Meth.) 
 
 k “ The town is built of brick, and contains several edifices of an 
 
 early period ( anciens edifices) ; one of them, namely, the church of St. 
 Vulfran, is a fine specimen of Gothic architecture." — Abbeville lias 
 been long known for its manufacture of fine cloths, established in 1065 
 by Van Robais of Holland, under the auspices of Colbert. The cloths 
 made at Abbeville, though fine, are much inferior to the superfine cloths 
 of Louviers in Normandy. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 I C. H. Millevoye, born in 1782, died 1810. (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 m It was also the birthplace of Nicholas Sanson, the celebrated geog- 
 rapher. — P. 
 
 II “ Some of them still recollect the sentence pronounced in 1766, by 
 the tribunal of their town, by which the Chevalier de la Barre, then 
 only fifteen years of age, was condemned to have his right hand cut 
 off, his tongue torn out, to be beheaded, and finally to be delivered to 
 the flames, simply because he had sung licentious verses, and had refused 
 to uncover himself while a religious procession was passing.” It would 
 have been a dreadful crime indeed to have remained uncovered during 
 a religious procession, as the translator has it ! — J. Fr. Lefevre, cliev. 
 de la Barre, then a student at Abbeville, was accused of having muti- 
 lated a wooden crucifix on the bridge of the town, along with another 
 youth of the name of D’Etallonde, and of having blasphemed the eu- 
 charist, and sung impious songs. He was condemned to be burnt 
 alive, by the judges of Abbeville, but the parliament of Paris, by a 
 decree of June 4, 1706, so far mitigated the sentence, as to order 
 that he should be decapitated before he was thrown into the flames; 
 the sentence was executed at Abbeville on the first of July following. 
 
 Young D’Etallonde, who was condemned to a still more horrible pun- 
 ishment, escaped to Prussia, where he was protected by Frederick the 
 Great. (See the Account of the death of the Chev. de la Barre (Relation 
 de la mart da chev. de la Barre) by M. Casen (Voltaire,) 1766.) (Beau- 
 vais.) — P. 
 
 ° “ It is noted in commerce for its spinning mills (filatures.) its quilts 
 (piquds.) its velvets, and its dying, and among epicures for its duck 
 pies (pdtis de canards.)” — Amiens was formerly the seat of an exten- 
 sive manufacture of woollen stuffs (saletteries), established by Colbert 
 in 1665. Among the goods manufactured were serges, shalloons, 
 camblets, baizes, plushes, &c., and also some cloths. (Savary, Diet. 
 Comm. vol. I. p. 14.) — In the flourishing period of the manufactures of 
 Picardy, there were made in the city of Amiens only. 129,800 pieces 
 of woollen stuffs, and the value of the woollen manufacture at that 
 place was computed to amount to nearly 1,600,000 livres annually. 
 Besides cloths, properly so called, camblets. callimancoes, baizes, ker- 
 seys, and wool and hair plushes, are still made at Amiens. (Ed 
 Encyc.) — P. 
 
 p The nave is 366 feet in length and 132 feet in height. M.B. 
 
 i March, 1597. (Moreri.) 
 
 — — ±1 
 
BOOK CXLVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 soldiers, clad as peasants, conducted a cart loaded with 
 straw and nuts, as soon as they entered the town, the cart 
 was purposely upset ; while the burgesses were gathering 
 the nuts, the disguised soldiers put them to death, and de- 
 livered Amiens to their companions without the gates. It is 
 not in such a way that strong places are now taken, but six 
 months had hardly elapsed before it was again in the pos- 
 session of the French.® The people of Peronne boast that 
 their town was never conquered ; they repelled in 1563 a nu- 
 merous and warlike army under the command of Henry of 
 Nassau. b The ramparts are now planted with trees, and chan- 
 ged into public walks which the Somme serves to embellish. 0 
 
 Montdidier d is built on the summit of a hill above the 
 small river Don ; if need not be mentioned because it was 
 the residence of some of the French kings during the twelfth 
 century, but because it is the capital of a subprefecture, and 
 the birthplace of Parmentier.® Doulens f on the left bank 
 of the Authie, is not a place of greater importance ; it car- 
 ries on, however, a considerable trade in the coarse linens, 
 that are manufactured in the district. A double citadel adds 
 greatly to its strength ; it possesses a large cotton manufac- 
 tory and several oil mills, s 
 
 Boulonnais, h Artois and part of Picardy make up the 
 department 1 which derives its name from the narrow branch 
 of the sea that separates England and France.! Its surface 
 is divided by a chain of hills into two regions, namely, the 
 northern and the southern. The latter is intersected by 
 small valleys, and slopes gently towards the banks of the 
 Authie, which forms the boundary between the present 
 department and that of the Somme, while the former in- 
 clines more perceptibly towards the north. In both re- 
 gions the soil is productive, and the shores of the sea are 
 
 a “A number of soldiers, in the disguise of peasants, entered the 
 town with a cart loaded with straw and nuts ; scarcely had they pass- 
 ed through the gates, when by a premeditated accident the ground was 
 strowed with the nuts,* and while the attention of the citizens ( bour- 
 geois ,) who guarded the entrance,! was thus diverted, the disguised 
 soldiers slaughtered them, and delivered the town to a body of troops 
 that followed in their rear ; it is not in such a manner that strong places 
 are now taken. Scarcely six months had elapsed, however, before 
 Amiens was again in possession of the French.*” — P. 
 
 * Some of the sacks having been designedly opened, the pavement was covered 
 witli the nuts. (Enc. Meth.) 
 
 f The soldiers of the garrison. (Enc. Meth.) 
 
 j Henry with an army of 20,000 men, reinforced witli 4000 by Queen Elizabeth, 
 besieged and retook it the same year (1597.) (Ed. Encyc.) 
 
 b “ Peronne proud of its title of Maiden Town ( pucelle ), has never 
 allowed itself to be taken ; in 15313, it repelled a numerous and warlike 
 army commanded by Henry of Nassau.” — Peronne is called the Maiden 
 Town ( La Pucelle,) because, although several times besieged (in 1530, by 
 Henry of Nassau,) it has never yet been taken. (Enc. Meth. 1784.) — P. 
 
 c A few leagues above Peronne, the Somme waters the small town 
 of Ham, commanded by an old strong castle,* in which is a tower one 
 hundred feet in height and the same in diameter. t Although the town 
 is of little importance, it boasts of having given birth to one of our most 
 intrepid warriors, who was also a brilliant orator, and one of the ablest 
 defenders of our liberties, and whose children have been adopted by his 
 sorrowing country.* M. B. 
 
 * The citadel of Ham is used as a state prison, now occupied by the ministers of 
 Charles X. 
 
 t The walls of the tower are 36 feet in thickness, 100 in height and of equal diame- 
 ter. (Enc. Meth.) 
 
 1 General Foy, born at Ham, 1775. Immediately after his death (1825,) a subscrip- 
 tion was opened throughout France in order to provide for the relief of his children, 
 and for the erection of a monument to his memory. — P. 
 
 d Mont-Didier. 
 
 e Ant. Galland, translator of the Arabian Nights ( Mille et une JVuits,) 
 was born at Rollot, two leagues S. E. of Montdidier.— P. 
 
 f Doulens or Dourlens (Vosgien;) Dourlans or Dourlens (Moreri;) 
 Doullens (Aim. Royal.)— P. 
 
 s “ Doulens, on the left bank of the Authie, is not a larger town than 
 Montdidier ;* it serves, however, as a mart for the manufacture of bag- 
 ging (toilers d’emballage\ ) carried on in its vicinity. It is fortified by a 
 double citadel, i and possesses a large cotton mill ( filature de cotun ) and 
 an oil mill ( fabrique d'huile).” 
 
 * population of Doulens 3690 : of Montdidier 3730. — P. 
 
 OF FRANCE. 331 
 
 covered with sandy hills or downs on which agriculture is 
 continually making new conquests. 
 
 Montreuil rises on a hill above the banks of the Canche ; 
 it was founded in the ninth century by the first count of 
 Ponthieu ; the houses are built of brick, and the town is 
 defended by a citadel and ramparts. Hesdin k is situated 
 on the same river above Montreuil ; it contains about four 
 thousand inhabitants, and is encompassed with ditches and 
 ramparts. 1 Boulogne 1 " must be considered a place of greatei 
 importance than either of the two last ; it is also more an- 
 cient;" arms and other articles evidently of Roman origin 
 were discovered there at so late a period as 1823. It was 
 the Celtic 0 Gcsoriacum ,p a seaport of the JMorini, whom 
 Virgil calls the remotest inhabitants of Europe. It was 
 from the same port that the Roman fleets set sail for Great 
 Britain. Constantine gave it at a later period the name of 
 Bolonia , but the sea rose then to the highest part of the 
 town, and rings to which the ancients used to attach their 
 vessels, have been at different times discovered ; the antiqui- 
 ty of the same quarter is attested by narrow, crooked and 
 irregular streets ; the low town, on the contrary, is built with 
 great regularity, it was originally a small suburb. Although 
 the harbour was enlarged by Napoleon, it is still difficult of 
 access ; vessels are embedded in ooze during the reflux of 
 the tide, they are lifted by the flux which raises the waters 
 to the height of fourteen feet. While Napoleon menaced 
 England with an invasion, the army assembled on the coast, 
 resolved to erect a marble monument to their chief ; but it 
 was not finished until the restoration, and the purpose for 
 which it was intended, was of course changed, it now records 
 the arrival of the Bourbons in France." 
 
 Calais at the northern extremity of the department, pos- 
 
 f Coarse clotbs made of the tow of hemp, chiefly manufactured in Picardy 
 (Savary.) — P. 
 
 J Doulens is a military post < paste militairc.) (Aim. Royal.) — P. 
 h Boulonnois (Enc. Meth.) Boulonois, Boulenois (Moreri.) Boulogn- 
 ois (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 ■ Department of the Straits of Calais (Di'partement du Pas-de-Calais.) 
 i “ Boulonnais. Artois and a portion of Picardy are comprehended in 
 the department which derives its name from the narrowest part* * of the 
 Channel! ( arm of the sea — bras de mer) that separates England from 
 France.” 
 
 * Straits of Dover — Fr. Pas-de-Calais. 
 
 t The Channel is said to begin at the South Foreland, to the north of Dover 
 (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 k Hesdin or Hedin (Enc. Meth.) Hesdin-Fert (Moreri) — It took the 
 latter name from the ancient device of the house of Savoy (F. E. R. T.) 
 It formerly stood a league above its present site ; but having been 
 destroyed in the wars between Charles V. and Francis I., it was rebuilt 
 where it now stands, by the orders of the former, under the direction 
 of Philibert Emmanuel, duke of Savoy, A. D. 1554. (Moreri. Enc. 
 Meth.) — P. 1 It was the birthplace of the Abbe Prevost. M. B 
 
 m Boulogne sur Mer. (Savary.) " “ Its antiquity is undoubted.” 
 0 This is added by the translator. Gcsoriacum was a town of the 
 Belgcc, who although a kindred nation, differed in language and cus- 
 toms from the true Celts (Ccltcc.) They were mixed with the Germans, 
 and are supposed by Adelung to have belonged to the same race with 
 the modern Welsh and Bretons ( Kym-ry ,) while the Celtic were of the 
 same race with the Irish and Highland Scotch ( Ga£l .) — P. 
 
 p Gcsoriacum, afterwards Bononia. (D’Anv.) — It took the name of 
 Bononia, about the time of Constantine. (Enc. Meth. Geog. Anc.)— It 
 is supposed to have been the Partus Iccius s. Itius, from which Caesar 
 sailed on his expedition to Britain. It was also called Portus Morinus s. 
 Morinorum, Gcsoriacus Portus , Gesoi iacum Navale, Bononia and Bolo- 
 nia. (Moreri.) — The Portus Iccius s. Itius was more probably Witsand 
 [Vissent — Wuissan or Wuyssen (Vosgien)] half way between Boulogne 
 and Calais. (Enc. Meth. Geog. Anc.) — P . 
 
 ■) Extremique hominum Morini, Rhenusque bicornis. 
 
 yEneid. Lib. VIII. v. 727. Tr. 
 
 r “ Durino- the reign of Constantine, it took the name of Bolonia ;* 
 but the sea then extended to the foot of the upper town.t a fact that is 
 proved by the discovery made about forty years since, of a ring for fas- 
 tening cables, fixed in a rock which then formed the bottom of a cellar 
 (cave?) The antiquity of the upper town is indicated by its narrow and 
 irregular streets. The lower town, on the contrary, which was origi- 
 
332 EUR 
 
 sesses several advantages : it is a strong town of the first 
 class ; a it has a convenient, although a small and shallow 
 port ; it is encompassed with ramparts that form agreeable 
 walks; and the houses and streets are regular and well 
 built. b It may be remarked, on the other hand, that sand 
 is constantly accumulating in the harbour, 0 and the inhab- 
 itants have no other water than what is collected in cisterns. 
 A tower of finished architecture serves as a belfry, it rises 
 on the Place d’Armes near the large town-house. A column 
 was erected on the port to commemorate the arrival of Lewis 
 the Eighteenth in 1814. d The coasts of England are seen 
 from the pier, and it is even said that Dover castle is also 
 visible in clear weather. Calais, now so much frequented 
 by strangers, and peopled by about nine thousand individ- 
 uals, was only a village in the thirteenth century, but it was 
 so well fortified by Philip of F ranee, count of Boulogne, that 
 Edward the Third of England besieged it during thirteen 
 months, before he could render himself master of it, nor did 
 the inhabitants finally capitulate until they were compelled 
 to do so by famine ; it was then that the six persons whose 
 names are so honourably recorded in history, generously 
 devoted themselves to appease the anger of an exasperated 
 victor. 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CXLVI. 
 
 A marshy country extends on the south of Calais to 
 Guines, formerly a fortified city, and to the small town of 
 Ardres, now watered by a canal to which it has given its 
 name. It was in the same country that Francis the First 
 and Henry the Eighth agreed to hold an interview in the 
 year 1 520, and the place where they met was decorated 
 with so much magnificence that it still retains the name of 
 the Champ du Drop d' Or. e f The marshes of Aa near St. 
 Omer enclose several small islands ;s the town itself is forti- 
 fied and well-built, and its origin dates from the seventh 
 century ; it was the birthplace of Suger, abbot of St. Denis, 
 and minister of Louis the Young. h The neat and strong 
 town 1 of Aire k about four leagues from St. Omer, contains 
 nine thousand inhabitants ; it counts Malebranche in the 
 number of its townsmen. 1 Bethune is built on a rock, and 
 the fortifications that defend it,‘ were planned by Vauban. m 
 The small town of Lens may recall the victory of Conde, 
 by which he put an end in 1648 to the war between France 
 and Austria. 0 St. Pol is visited for its mineral waters ; it is 
 the capital of a district. 0 
 
 Arras, p a strong town of the third class, rises in a plain 
 surrounded by hills, and watered by the Scarpe q and the 
 Crinchon ; r it is divided into four parts, the high and low 
 
 nally only a small suburb, is built with much regularity, t Although 
 the harbour was enlarged by Napoleon, it is still difficult of access ; at 
 low water, the vessels are aground in the mud, but they float with the 
 tide, which rises to the height of fourteen feet. While Napoleon 
 threatened England with invasion, the army assembled on the coast 
 erected to its chief a marble column, which was not completed, how- 
 ever, until after the restoration, and which is now destined [1829] to 
 commemorate the return of the Bourbons. || Boulogne has a large 
 establishment for sea-bathing, furnished with twenty elegant bathing 
 machines, and several fine assembly rooms ( salons de riuniun.)" 
 
 * See note p p. 1011. 
 
 f At the time when Gesoriaeum took the name of Bnnania, it occupied only the 
 quarter called the upper town. The whole space now occupied by the lower town 
 has been since recovered from the sea. (Enc. Metli. Geog. Anc.) — i’. 
 
 ■ The upper town, placed on the declivity of the Chalk mountain, is surrounded 
 with a wall, and contains about 400 houses ; before the revolution it was inhabited 
 chiefly by nobility. The lower town, though much larger, and nearer the sea, is 
 without walls, very irregularly built, with narrow winding streets, and is inhabited 
 by trades-people. (Ed. Encyc.) — The upper town is much the most pleasant, contain- 
 ing a wide avenue with handsome houses, and several stately edifices. (Carter’s 
 Letters, vol. I. p. 384, Second Ed.) — The upper town is well built and is adorned with 
 several squares and fountains ; it contains the palace of justice, the cathedral of 
 Notre Dame, the abbey of St. Wilmer, and many other religious edifices. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 || On the summit of an eminence near the entrance into the town, stands a lofty 
 Corinthian column, 155 feet in height, and Id or 14 in diameter. It was begun by 
 Napoleon, as it is said, to commemorate his meditated conquest of England ; hut 
 the change in his fortunes left the monument to he finished by his less ambitious 
 successor. It is used merely as an ornament, and an observatory for viewing the 
 harbour and surrounding country. (Carter’s Letters, vol. I. page 384.) It is seen 
 from and commands a view of the English coast. (Herve’s Guide to Paris, p. 29.) — P. 
 
 a A place de guerre of the second class. (Aim. Royal, 1822.) — P. 
 
 b “ It consists of straight and regular streets, bordered by handsome 
 brick buildings.” — The town has the form of a parallellogram, with the 
 long side towards the sea. The streets are straight, well paved, and 
 tolerably clean, and the houses are well built. (Ed. Encyc.) — The town 
 of Calais is built of stone, with confined dirty streets. (Carter’s Letters, 
 vol. I. p. 381.)— P. 
 
 0 The harbour of Calais is formed by a small rivulet ; but it is now 
 in a great measure obstructed with sand. It commences at the gate 
 of the town,* where a large solid quay terminates in two long wooden 
 piers, which stretch into the sea. It is dry at ebb tide, and with a com- 
 mon flow has three fathoms at high water. At the beginning of the 
 18th century, this harbour admitted frigates of 40 guns ; if it were 
 properly deepened, it would still afford the same accommodation. (Ed. 
 Encyc.) — The harbour is formed by the mouth of the small river Hames, 
 and is enclosed by two jetties of wood, on one of which is a light-house. 
 (Tuckey’s Mar. Geog., vol. II. p. 12) — Calais is surrounded by a marshy 
 country watered by the Hames, which by means of sluices can be 
 overflowed at pleasure. — P. 
 
 * A strong barrier, with a handsome iron gate, separates the port from the town. 
 (Carter’s Letters, vol. I. p. 378.) — P. 
 
 d “ A tower of delicate architecture, which serves as a belfry,* rises 
 on the Place d’Armes near the town-house, and fronting the port is a 
 column erected in honour of the arrival of Louis XVIII. in 1814.” — This 
 column stands on the quay near the Custom-House. — P. 
 
 * “ Brffroi,” a watch tower, an alarm tower.* — Clorhcr, the belfry of a church. — P. 
 
 *The principal street in Calais extends from the land-gate to the port ; it passes 
 
 through the great square, on which stands the town-house, and near it the palace of 
 the auditory and the watch tower ( Tour de Guet.) (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 ' The Field of the Cloth of Gold. Tr. 
 
 f “ It was in the marshy country that extends to the south of Calais, 
 that Francis I. and Ilenry VIII. held an interview in 1520, between 
 Guines, formerly a fortified place, and the small town of Ardres, now 
 situated on a canal to which it has given its name,* on a spot decorated 
 with so much magnificence that it retained the name of the -Field of 
 the Cloth of Gold ( Champ du Drap d’ Or.)”— Guines! at that time be- 
 longed to the English, as a dependency of Calais, and Ardres to the 
 French. Henry lodged in a temporary wooden house near the castle 
 of Guines, and Francis in another near Ardres, both on their own ter- 
 ritories. The interview took place near the boundary line of their 
 respective possessions (in the valley of Arden. Smollet.) — P. 
 
 * The canal of Ardres communicates with that of Calais. (Enc. Meth.) 
 
 f Guisnes. (Hume. iSmollet.) 
 
 s “ The marshes of the Aa, near St. Omer, are still covered with 
 small floating islands.” — Aa, a river of the Low Countries, which rises 
 in the Boulonnais, passes by St. Omer, below which it forms marshes 
 in which are several floating islands, and after sending off lateral branch- 
 es that communicate with different canals, (that on the left with the 
 canal of Calais, and that on the right called the Colme, with those of 
 Dunkirk, Mardike, &c.,) enters the sea a little below Gravelines. (Enc. 
 Meth.) — Near St. Omer, in the marshes or rather lakes, formed by the 
 river Aa, there are several floating islands (tics fottantes,) covered with 
 grass and shrubs, and moveable from place to place at pleasure. (Enc. 
 Meth. art. St. Omer.) — Near St. Omer there is a large lake, in which 
 are small floating islands. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 h St. Omer is noted for its college for the catholic clergy of England 
 and Ireland ( — one of the British Colleges (Colleges Britanniqucs ) in 
 France.) — P. 
 
 ■ A fortified town of the fourth class. (Aim. Royal.) — P. 
 
 k Arien (Belgic ;) Aria (Lat.) Hubner, Kort Begryp der Geographic 
 1736.— P. 
 
 1 “ It was the birthplace of Malebranche (a ru naitre Malelranchc.)' 
 — Nicholas Malebranche, the celebrated metaphysician, and a father of 
 the Oratory, was born at Paris, 1638. (Moreri. Beauvais. Diet. Hist. 
 Caen.) — J. Malebrancq [Malebranche or Mallebranque. Diet. Hist. Ca- 
 en,] a Jesuit and the author of a Latin history of the Marini (De Morinis 
 &c..) was born at St. Omer, [or according to others, at Arras. Enc. Meth 
 Hist. Diet. Hist. Caen,] in the 16th cent. (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 m A tower ( heffroi ) of singular construction rises in the public 
 square. M. B. 
 
 n The victory gained by the great Conde over the archduke Leopold 
 at the battle of Lens, Aug. 20, 1648, is celebrated by Boileau (Lutrin 
 Chant 3e. v. 143 — 150 — 
 
 Lorsqu’ aux plaines de Lens — ) — P. 
 
 0 “ St. Pol,* situated at the bottom of a valley, is noted only for its 
 mineral waters, and as the capital of a subprefecture.'’ — St. Pol was 
 formerly the capital of a county between Artois and Picardy. (Moreri.' 
 
 *St. Paul (Lat. Fanum Sancti Pauli.) (Hubner.) 
 
 p Atrecht (Belg.) (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 4 Scharpe (Belg.) 
 
 r Crinchant. (Moreri.) 
 
book cxlvi.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 town, the city and the citadel.® Handsome houses built of 
 freestone, extensive squares encompassed with arcades, b a 
 Gothic cathedral remarkable for the boldness ol its architec- 
 ture, a large tovvnhouse in the same style, and spacious bar- 
 racks, render it one of the finest towns in France. Although 
 not a place of great trade, it possesses some cotton and lace 
 manufactories, beetroot sugar works and about twenty oil 
 mills. It contains also a public library of thirty-four thou- 
 sand volumes, a collection of paintings and antiquities, a bo- 
 tanical garden and two literary societies. 0 It has given birth 
 to several great and infamous men ; in the one class may be 
 mentioned Baudouin the historian, 11 Lecluse- the physician, 0 
 and Palissot the botanist/ and in the other, Damien the 
 fanatic/ the two Robespierres and Joseph Lebon. 1 ’ Arras 
 stands on the site of Nemetacum or Nemetocenn, the capital 
 of the Alrebantes ; as it was taken by Caesar, it must have 
 been founded at least fifty years before the Christian era. 1 
 
 If the department in which the capita] is situated be ex- 
 cepted, no other is so wealthy or so populous as the depart- 
 ment of the North / were the population diffused throughout 
 the whole kingdom in the same ratio as in that department/ 
 France would contain more than 85,000,000 of inhabitants. 
 The surface of the department is covered with lielcls, that 
 produce in proportion twice as much as those in the other 
 parts of France; it is intersected by twice as many roads, 
 and four times as many canals. It possesses the most abun- 
 
 OF FRANCE. 333 
 
 clant iron and coal mines ; it contains the greatest number 
 of populous towns and strong places ; and in short, it is the 
 bne in which the inhabitants are the most enlightened and 
 also the most industrious. 
 
 The Scheldt is by no means a large river at Cambray, 
 but the canal of St. Quentin that crosses it, contributes 
 greatly to the commerce of the town. The importance of 
 linen and cambric, as articles of trade, is admitted by all, 
 but it is not so generally known that Cambray claims the 
 honour of having first manufactured them. It is at present 
 the capital of a subprefecture ; as a place of war, it belongs 
 to the second class. Antiquaries have shown that it is a 
 very ancient town, it bears the name of Camaracum in the 
 Theodosian table and the Itinerary of Antonine. It possess- 
 es several fine buildings, of which the cathedral is not the 
 least remarkable ; the interior is adorned with the monu- 
 ment that was erected to Fenelon, who was both a native 
 and an archbishop of Cambray. The streets are for the 
 most part straight, but many of them are disfigured by the 
 gables of old houses. 1 
 
 Landrecy m rises in the middle of a plain covered with 1 
 
 meadows, and the Sambre, which is there navigable, divides 
 it into two parts. Although it contains hardly 4000 inhab- 
 itants, the present fortifications enabled it to resist Charles 
 the Fifth, who assembled an army of 50,000 men under 
 the walls, and besieged it in vain during six months. 11 
 
 a “ It stands on sloping ground ( terrain en pente ,) and is divided into 
 four parts : namely, the upper and the lower town (haute ct basse ville,) 
 the city (cite) and the citadel.” — It is situated on a mountain [hill] near 
 the river Scarpe, and is divided into two parts, called the town and the 
 city, by a ditch, a rampart, and a narrow valley, watered by the rivulet 
 Crinchon. (Ed. Encyc.) — It is divided into two towns, viz. the old town, 
 called the CM* and the new town, called the Ville. The two towns 
 are separated (as described in the preceding extract.] (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 * So called because it was the residence of the bishop, and under his jurisdiction.— 
 Arras is still the seat of a bishopric. — P. 
 
 0 It has two fine public squares, each of them surrounded with a peris- 
 tyle, viz. the great square in the city, and the little square in the town ; 
 the former of which is fronted by the cathedral, and the latter bv the 
 town-house.— P. 
 
 c “Although it possesses some cotton mills (filatures,)* lace manu- 
 factories and beet root sugar works, and about twenty oil mills, t it is 
 not, however, a place of much importance for its manufacturing indus- 
 try ;} but a public library of 34,000 volumes, a collection of pictures and 
 different works of art, a botanical garden, and two literary societies, 
 suffice to prove the intelligence of its inhabitants.” 
 
 * At the period of the revolution there were small manufactures of cotton goods in 
 French Flanders. (Ed. Encyc.)— P. 
 
 t Rape (Brassica Napus) and colza (B. arvensis) are extensively cultivated for oil in 
 Artois and French Flanders. — P. 
 
 t Arras was formerly celebrated for its tapestry, called arras. [Tapestries, or Arras 
 hangings, were originally made in this town. (Ed. Encyc.)] — P. 
 
 d Fr. Baudouin, born 1520 — professor of law at Bruges ; he wrote in 
 Latin, on jurisprudence, history and theology.— P. 
 
 e Ch. de PEcluse (Lecluse,) born 1526, better known by his Latin 
 name Clusius ; an eminent botanist. — P. 
 
 r Baron Palisot de Beauvois, born 1752 — known chiefly by his 
 
 Flora of Oware and Benin 1804 — 21 , 2 vol. fol. Ch. Palissot de Mon- 
 
 tenoy, born at Nancy 1730, known as a poet and historian. — This dis- 
 tinction of orthography ( Palisot and Palissot) is generally observed. — P. 
 
 / R. Fr. Damiens, born in the diocese of Arras [in the hamlet of La 
 Tieuloy, in the parish of Monchy le Breton in Artois, Jan. 9. 1715. 
 Diet. Hist. Caen] — executed at Paris 1757, for the attempted assassina- 
 tion of Louis XV. (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 h Born 1705 — originally a priest of the Oratory ; afterwards a member 
 of the National Convention, and commissary at Arras, where he rivalled 
 the ferocity of Carrier— executed at Paris, Oct. 5, 1795, aged 30 !— P. 
 
 1 “Arras, under the name of Nemetacum or JVem.etor.ena ,* was the 
 capital of the Atrebates , taken by Caesar ;t consequently its origin dates 
 from at least 50 years before the Christian era. In 1492, it was betray- 
 ed to tiie archduke Maximilian of Austria. It bore then for its arms, 
 three rats sable, } which led the Spaniards to place above one of its 
 gates, the following inscription : “ Quand les Francjais prendront Arras, 
 les rats mangeront les chats” (when the French shall take Arras, the 
 rats will eat the cats.) When the French made themselves masters 
 of the town in 1040, one of them, as if actuated by a spirit of prophecy, 
 erased the P from the inscription. || This conquest was in fact secured 
 
 ■o the French by treaty. §” 
 
 * JYemetacum or JVeiuctoceicna , afterwards Atrebates. (D’Anv.) — Nemctucenna. (Cas. 
 De Bell. Gall. VIII. $37,43.)— 1>. 
 
 ] C&‘sar wintered at J Yeme.tor.enna. (De Bell. Gall. VIII. $37.) — P. 
 
 [The arms of Arras were : azure, on a fess argent, three rats passant sable: in 
 chief, a mitre ; in point, two crosiers crossed saltierwise ; all proper. (Enc. Meth. 
 Blason.) — The rats in the shield allude to the name (Arras ;) the mitre and crosiers 
 to the jurisdiction of the bishop (see note a *.) — P. 
 
 II Substituting rendrunt for prendront ; so that the inscription would then read: 
 When the French shall surrender Arras, &c. Qu. was the inscription in French or 
 Spanish, or was it not rather in Latin, the common language of inscriptions ? — P. 
 
 $By the peace of the Pyrenees, A. D. 1059. — P. 
 
 3 “ Departement du Nord.” 
 
 k Population in the Department of the North, 2786 per square league. 
 (Peuehet, Stat. p. 90.) — P. 
 
 1 “ Cambray* is situated on the Scheldt, t which is only a small stream 
 as it passes through the town ;} but the canal of St. Quentin, || which 
 also traverses the town, contributes greatly to its commerce, ft is well 
 known that lawn ( linon ) and cambric (batiste) are its most important 
 branches of manufacturing industry, § and it even claims the honour 
 of having first manufactured them. As a fortified town (place de 
 guerre,) it only belongs to the second class ;1f but it is the capital of a 
 subprefecture. Its antiquity is undoubted ; it is mentioned by the 
 name of Camaracum in the Theodosian Table and the Itinerary of An- 
 tonine.** It possesses several fine buildings; the cathedral is admired 
 for the delicacy of its steeple (cl ocher, )\ t and in its interior is a fine mon- 
 ument erected to the memory of Fenelon, who was at once the child and 
 the father of Cambray;}, the parade (place d'armes) is sufficiently 
 large to contain the whole garrison in order of battle ; lastly, the streets 
 are spacious and regular (Lien perries,) but there is still a great number 
 of old houses, with their gables towards the street, which form a disa- 
 greeable contrast with the more modern buildings. ||]j The public libra- 
 ry is very valuable, and the society of emulation is zealously employed 
 in the cultivation of literature and the sciences.” 
 
 * “Cambr'u.” — Cambrai (generally by the French,) Cambray (Moreri.) — Belg. 
 
 Kamcnjk (Ilubner.) — P. t Schelde (Bele.) 
 
 I Cambray is divided by the Scheldt into two parts. (Enc. Meth. — Ed. Encyc.)— P. 
 
 || The third part of the canal of Picardy consists in joining the Somme to the Scheldt 
 
 between St. Quentin and Cambray. (Ed. Encyc.) — See also note r p. 987. — P. 
 
 $ In the year 1779, there were manufactured at Cambray, 1231 pieces of lawn and 
 7578 pieces of cambric. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 U To the third class. (Aim. Royal, 1822.) 
 
 ** Camaracum is first mentioned in the Theodosian Table and the Itinerary of An 
 tonine. (Enc. Meth. Geog. Anc.) — P. 
 
 ft The pyramidal steeple has been much admired, though inferior to the steep’es 
 at Vienna, Strasburg and Antwerp. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 }}This can only be considered a conceit, without any reference whatever to til 
 birthplace of Fenelon ; it refers merely to the mildness and simplicity of his manners 
 on the one hand, and to his paternal benevolence on the other. Fenelon was born 
 at the castle of Fenelon in Perigord [in Quercy (Diet. Hist. Caen)] A. D. 1651, and 
 was appointed archbishop of Cambray A. D. 1G95.— Cambray is now only the seat of 
 a bishopric. — P. 
 
 1111 The houses are all built in the Spanish fashion, with their gable ends to the street 
 (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 m Landrecie or Landrecy (Enc. Meth. Vosgien.) Landrccies (Moreri.) 
 Landreci (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 II “ Although at present a place of little importance, since it contains 
 hardly 4000 inhabitants, still its fortifications* serve to remind the 
 
334 EUR 
 
 Avesnes,* a small fortified town, watered by the Helpe, b is 
 the residence of a subprefect ; coal mines, extensive marble 
 and slate quarries are worked in the district. 0 Maubeuge, 
 a strong town of the third class, is situated on the Sambre 
 below the last place ; d it contains G000 inhabitants. 13a- 
 vay e to the west of it, is only remarkable for the remains of 
 antiquities ; it bore the Latin name of Bnyncum it was an 
 important town under Augustus, who embellished it with a 
 circus, an aqueduct and other edifices. An inscription on 
 an ancient pyramid informs us that three Roman roads, 
 which were constructed by the same emperor, terminated 
 in the market-place. s 
 
 It has been said that Valenciennes, h formerly the capital 
 of Hainault, 1 was founded by the emperor Valens, an error 
 that can only be accounted for by the similitude of the two 
 names ; it is certain that Valenciennes was merely a village 
 in the time of the early French kings.! If it is at present 
 one of the most important places in the kingdom, it may be 
 attributed to its situation at the continence of the Ronelle 
 and the Scheldt. Some of the squares are very imposing, 
 but the rest of the town is ill-built. k The manner in which 
 it fell into the power of Louis the Fourteenth 1 affords an 
 instance that rash daring may be sometimes attended with 
 more fortunate results than the wisest plans or the most skil- 
 ful combinations. The enemy’s patroles had advanced be- 
 yond the gates, when some French recruits, m impelled by 
 the impetuosity of youth, pursued them and entered the 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CXIiYI 
 
 town along with the fugitives ; the general" being informed 
 of this unexpected event marched to their assistance, and a 
 place which might have impeded the progress of the king 
 during several months, was taken in less than two hours. 
 Valenciennes was the native town of John Froissard, 0 a 
 priest, an historian and a poet, and also the birth-place of 
 Anthony Wateau,f a painter whose works are distinguished 
 by the grace and lightness of his touch. The cambric and 
 linen manufactures'' render it at present one of the most in- 
 dustrious cities in France. 
 
 The wealth in the village of Anzin may be attributed not 
 so much to glass works and manufactories as to the most 
 extensive coal mines in France ; there are sixteen pits, of 
 which the depth varies from 600 to 900 feet. The tota. 
 number of persons engaged in these works is not less than 
 16,000, and the annual products amount to 4,000,000 of 
 hundred weights/ The village of Famars, the Fanum 
 Martis of the Romans, has risen into celebrity of late years ; 
 dissertations have been written on the ancient fortress of 
 which the remains are still apparent ; excavations were at 
 different times undertaken, and many valuable objects of 
 antiquity have been found. 9 Denain about a league to the 
 west of Valenciennes, was the place where Marshal Villars 
 gained a memorable victory over the Imperialists and the 
 Dutch in 1712. Conde, 1 which during the revolution bore 
 the name of Nord-Libre , u contains 6000 inhabitants ; it pos- 
 sesses a frequented port on the Scheldt, and as a place of 
 
 stranger that Charles V. in vain assembled an army of 50,000 men 
 beneath its walls ;t after a siege of six months, he was finally obliged 
 to retire.” — This statement, with the omission, however, of the date, 
 is almost literally copied from Moreri. The Enc. Meth. (Geog. Mod.) 
 says it was retaken by Charles V. in 1543, having been previously 
 taken from him by Francis 1. This is, however, a mistake. Landrecy 
 was taken by Francis I. early in 1543, and fortified with great care. 
 Charles besieged it in Sept., assisted by 0000 English troops sent to 
 him by Henry VIII. The garrison having made a vigorous resistance, 
 and Francis having approached with all his forces and succeeded in 
 relieving the place, he was obliged to withdraw his army into winter- 
 quarters. (Robertson’s Charles V. p. 223, 220, Jones’ Ed.) — P. 
 
 * Tin- present fortifications were constructed by De Ville* and Vauban. (Enc. 
 Meth. Vosgien, 181U-) — P. 
 
 * Born 1662, died 1741 — a pupil of Vauban. — P. 
 
 t A. D. 1543. 
 
 a Avesne. 
 
 b “ — by the greater Helpe ( Helve majeure .)” — The Sambre receives 
 the Great and the Little Ilelpe. (Vosgien.) — Avesnes is situated on the 
 Hespre (Enc. Meth. Vosgien) — the Hepre (Hubner) — the Hepres 
 (Morse.) — P. 
 
 0 “ Great quantities of marble, slate and coal are dug in its neighbour- 
 hood ( terri-toire .)* A great trade is also carried on in the cheese made 
 at the village of Marolles.t” 
 
 ♦L'lndrery, Maubeuge and Bavay are situated in the arrondissement (subprefecture) 
 of Avesnes. — P. 
 
 t Marolles or Maroles, a village, one league E. of Landrecy, noted for its cheese. 
 .Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 4 “ Maubeuge — is situated on the Sambre to the north of Avesnes” — 
 not on the Sambre below Avesnes, since Avesnes is on the Helpe. 
 The Helpe flows from east to west and enters the Sambre between 
 Landrecy and Maubeuge. — P. 
 
 1 Bavais, Bavai, Bavey. 
 
 f “ Its Latin name is Bayacum ." — It was the Bagacum of the an- 
 cients, the capital of the JYervii before the fourth century. (D’Anv.) — 
 Baaacum in the Itinerary of Antonine, and Bagacum Nerviorum in the 
 Table of Peutinger — also called Baganum and Bavacum by Latin 
 authors. (Moreri.) — Lat. Bavacum,. (Hubner.) — Baganum, the capital 
 (i civitas ) of the Nervii. (Ptolem. edit. Mercator. 1584.) — P. 
 
 s “He constructed three great roads, which diverged from the centre 
 of the public square, as is proved by an ancient pyramid.” — Among its 
 most remarkable antiquities, is an heptangnlar stone placed in the mid- 
 dle of the public square {place ,) substituted in the third century for one 
 much more ancient, and of extraordinary elevation. This stone is the 
 point at which seven military roads, vulgarly called the highways of 
 Brunehault ( Chaussics Brunchaut,) either begin or terminate. (Enc. 
 Meth.) — P. h Valencyn (Belg.) 
 
 ‘ “ Hainaut.” — Ilenegouwen (Belg.) 
 
 1 “It is certain that m the time of the earliest French kings ( nos 
 
 premiers rois.) who possessed there a palace, it was merely a village 
 (bourgade.*)” 
 
 * Rather a small bourn or borough. 
 
 k “ Its position at the confluence of the Ronelle and the Scheldt, by 
 increasing the number of its sluices, has contributed to render it one of 
 the most important fortified towns (places)* in the kingdom. It is ill 
 built, but it has a very fine public square (place publique .)” — The square 
 or grand place is handsome, but the streets are in general narrow, dark 
 and crooked. (Rees’ Cyc.) — P. 
 
 * Place sometimes signifies a fortified town (place de guerre ) or fortress. (Diet de 
 l’Acad.) 
 
 1 A. D. 1677 — after a siege of seven days. — P. 
 
 m “ Some musketeers (m ousquetaircs .)” — Musketeers ( Mousque - 
 taires,) foot soldiers armed with a musket. — The Musketeers of the 
 Royal Guard ( mousquctaircs de la garde du roi) were two companies 
 of horse guards, armed with muskets ; the first called the Great Mus- 
 keteers (les grandes mousquctaircs,) was established by Louis XIII. in 
 1622, and the second, by Louis XIV. after the death of Cardinal Maz- 
 arin (1661.) — Louis XIV. conducted the siege of Valenciennes in per- 
 son. — P. " “The army.” — See note m . 
 
 0 J. Froissart, born 1333. (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 p A. Watteau, born 1684. (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 a “ The manufacture of cambrics (batistes,) linens ( toiles ) and cottons 
 (perkales ) — ” Pcrcalles, a kind of white cottons brought from India. 
 (Savary.) — P. 
 
 r “ The village of Anzin, in tne immediate vicinity of Valenciennes 
 (a ses portes,) derives its extensive population, not only from its glass 
 and iron works ( verrerics , usines.) but also from its coal mines, the latter 
 the most important of any in France. They are wrought by the aid 
 of steam engines, and by means of sixteen main pits (grands putts,) 
 from two to three hundred metres in depth. The working is continu- 
 ed night and day by relays of workmen, and the whole number em- 
 ployed is not less than 16,000. The annual produce amounts to 
 4,000,000 quintals.” 
 
 s “ Famars, in Latin Fanum Martis * a village situated in the vicini- 
 ty of Valenciennes,! has of late years become a place of some celebrity. 
 Many dissertations have been written on the ancient Roman fortress, 
 traces of which may be there distinguished, but different excavations, 
 skilfully conducted, have revealed so great a number of antiquities that 
 the site which the village occupies has become an object of speculation 
 to the learned.” 
 
 *It is mentioned as an important place in the JiTotitia Imperii. (Enc. Meth. Geog. Ane.) 
 t About a league S. of Valenciennes. — P. 
 
 1 Condat (Belg.) Condatum or Cordate (Lat.) — Its original name, 
 which signifies a confluence, is derived from its position near the con- 
 fluence of the Haisne and the Scheldt. (Vosgien.) — It has given its 
 name to the princes of Conde. — P. 
 
 u Eng. Free North. 
 
book cxlvi.] DESCRIPTIOI 
 
 war, it belongs to the first class.* St. Amand, a town of 
 9000 inhabitants, carries on a great trade in lint that is 
 mostly cultivated in the neighbouring country ; it may be 
 mentioned, too, on account of mineral springs which, al- 
 though much frequented by the Romans, were seldom vis- 
 ited afterwards until the reign of Lewis the F ourteenth. b 
 
 According to Csesar, Douay® was one of the principal 
 cities of the Calmci ; it stands in a situation favourable to 
 commerce ; the Scarpe waters it, communicates with the 
 Scheldt by the canal of Sensee, and thus enables it to carry 
 on a trade with the principal towns in the Netherlands. 
 Old walls flanked with turrets form a large enclosure, indeed 
 there are almost as many gardens as houses, and the streets 
 are for the most part straight. The principal buildings are 
 the townhouse, the church of Saint Peter, and an arsenal 
 supposed to be the largest in France. John de Bologne, 
 the celebrated sculptor to whom the Parisians are indebted 
 for the statue of Henry the Fourth, was a native of Douay. d 
 Orchies® about four leagues northwards/ was the ancient 
 Origiacum, the only city ot the Aircbates, according to 
 Ptolemy. 
 
 Lillet is situated in a very fruitful and highly cultivated 
 plain, and is watered by the Deule, a small navigable river, 
 and by a canal that communicates with the sea. h It was 
 founded by Baldwin the Fourth, count of Flanders, in the 
 beginning of the eleventh century. Seven large gates 
 adorned with sculptures lead into the town ; the fortifica- 
 
 i OF FRANCE. 335 
 
 tions are formidable, and it is said that the strong fortress 
 was one of the first works of Vauban. 1 The streets are 
 broad, and the houses are well built / the finest edifices are 
 the hospital/ the townhouse and the corn-market. 1 By 
 means of its roads and canals, the inhabitants of Lille are 
 enabled to carry on a great trade, 1 " and the activity that pre- 
 vails within its walls, renders it very different from most 
 strong towns, and makes the stranger apt to forget the seven 
 sieges it has supported at different periods and under differ- 
 ent masters, as well as the sad associations connected with 
 its fortresses and ramparts, the monuments of ambition and 
 cruelty. Loos, a village almost at the gates of Lille, con- 
 tains several manufactories and a large house of correction," 
 in which more than fifteen hundred men and women are 
 confined. A small port on the right bank of the Lys,° tends 
 to facilitate the trade of Armentieres/ a neat town of seven 
 thousand seven hundred inhabitants, most of whom are em- 
 ployed in manufacturing lint, hemp and cotton. t Quesnoy 
 sur Deule is a place of trade, and Commines is noted for its 
 ribbons ; the population in each of them may amount to four 
 or five thousand souls/ Roubaix/ a manufacturing town, 
 and Turcoing/ a large burgh that supplies different parts of 
 France with woollen and cotton stuffs, may together contain 
 fifteen or sixteen thousand inhabitants." All these places 
 are situated to the north of Lille, and the most remote of 
 them is not more than three or four leagues distant from it. 
 
 Bailleul, Cassel, Merville and Estairs are the four princi- 
 
 a To the fourth class. (Aim. Royal 1822.) — P. 
 
 b “ Three leagues to the west of Conde, the Scarpe passes by St. 
 Amand, a town of 9000 inhabitants, important from the great quantities 
 of flax cultivated in its neighbourhood, and also from its mineral 
 springs, which, although much frequented under the Roman govern- 
 ment, did not begin to be celebrated in modern times until the reign of 
 Louis XIV.” 0 “ Douai.” Lat. Daacum. 
 
 A “ The roads in the department are constructed and maintained 
 with a degree of excellence corresponding with the industry of the in- 
 habitants. Their breadth, however, may be considered excessive, a 
 defect common to them with most of the public roads (chaussies) in 
 France. That which leads from Cambray to Douay is magnificent. 
 The latter town, which Caesar mentions as one of the principal cities 
 of the Caluaci * is favourably situated for commerce. The Scarpe, 
 which waters it, communicates with the Scheldt, by the canal of the 
 Sensee,! and thus enables it to carry on a trade with the principal 
 towns in the department, as well as in the Netherlands.! Its enclosure, 
 formed by old walls flanked with towers, is very extensive, and contains 
 almost as many gardens as houses. It has broad and straight streets 
 (rues bicn pcrcies,) and a fine public square, and its principal edifices 
 are the town-house, the church of St. Peter and the arsenal, the latter 
 reckoned one of the most considerable in France. It was the birthplace 
 of John of Bologna, || the celebrated sculptor, to whom the Parisians 
 were indebted for the former statue of Henry IV. §” — Douay has long 
 been celebrated for its English colleges ( Colleges Britanniqucs,) for the 
 education of Roman Catholics from England and Ireland. It also car- 
 ries on an extensive manufacture of linens and cambric. (Ed. En- 
 
 c y c -)— p - 
 
 * Tt is supposed to have been the capital of the Catuad , of which Caesar makes 
 mention in his Commentaries. ( Moreri.) — Catuaci , the name of a people in Gaul, ac- 
 cording to some editions of Ceesar. It is considered a corruption of Aduatid. (Enc. 
 Meth. Geog. Anc .) — Aduatid and Atuatid , Edit. Scaliger. — Atuatici, Ed. Maittaire. — 
 For a description of the capital or stronghold of the Atuatid, see Ctesar. de Bell. Gall, 
 II. §29. — P. 
 
 t tc La Sensee.” — La Censee (Aim. Royal.) — The Sensee [ Le Scnset or Sanset , or 
 La Sansse , Enc. Meth.] is a small river which rises in Artois and enters the Scheldt 
 at Bouchain, 4 leagues S. E. of Douay. The canal of the Sensee connects Douay 
 with the Scheldt at Bouchain, where it communicates with the canal of St. Quentin 
 by the canal along the Scheldt from Cambray. There is also a canal along the Scarpe 
 from Douay to St. Amand, thus opening another communication with the Scheldt. 
 From Douay to the sea, the communication is opened, first by a canal to Lille, the 
 latter part of its course along the Deule ; then by the channel of the Deule and the 
 Lys to Armentieres, whence by a canal along the Lys, at variable distances from its 
 banks, to Aire ; then by a canal to the Aa at St. Omer, whence it is continued along 
 that river to the sea at Gravelines, sending off lateral canals in that pait of its course, 
 viz,, one on the left to Calais, and on the right, one by Berg to Fumes, whence to 
 Ostend, and another to Dunkirk. — P. 
 
 t Douay is situated on the Scarpe, and communicates with the Deule by a canal. 
 (Enc. Meth. 1784.)— Douay is advantageously situated on the navigable river Scarpe 
 fa branch of the Scheldt,] which communicates by canals with Lille, St. Omers, 
 Dunkirk and the Noith Sea, and by means of the Scheldt with Valenciennes, Cam- 
 bray and Tournay. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 || Giovanni di Bologna (in Italian) — a pupil of Michael Angelo. — P. 
 
 §The equestrian siatue of Henry IV., formerly erected on the Pont-Neuf (A. D. 1614 
 
 — not completed till 1635.) The horse was cast at Florence, by John of Bologna ; the 
 figure of the king was executed hy Dupre. (Enc. Meth.) This statue was destroyed 
 during the revolution. It has, however, been recently replaced (Aug. 25, 1818) hy 
 another equestrian statue of Henry IV. executed by Lemot. — P. 
 
 e Orchie. f Population 3000. M. B. 
 
 e Lille or Lisle (Ed. Encyc.) — LTsle, L’He, Lille (Fr.) Ryssel (Belg.) 
 Insulm (Lat.) (Hubner.) — The French call it LTsle or Lille. (Enc. Meth.) 
 — It is situated in a marshy soil, and is watered by the river Deule, from 
 which several branches traverse the city in different directions. Its 
 Latin name was Insula or Insula:, Isla or Castrum Illensc, and its 
 Flemish name Ryssel, from its having been once surrounded by sev- 
 eral marshes, which were drained by the industry of the inhabitants. 
 (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 h “ Lille — is watered by the canal which opens a communication 
 from the Sensee to the sea, and by the Deule, a small navigable river.” — 
 See note d t. 
 
 * “ Its citadel (fortcresse,) a work of great importance, is said to have 
 been the first attempt (roup d'essai) of Marshal Vauban.” — Its citadel, 
 the chef d. 'oeuvre of Vauban, is the first in Europe after that of Turin. 
 It is a mile in circuit, and is situated to the N. W. of the town, from 
 which it is separated by a spacious esplanade and a canal. (Morse.) — 
 Louis XIV. took Lille in 1607, and ordered a citadel to be constructed, 
 the government of which was conferred on Vauban in 1668. (Moreri.) 
 — P. 
 
 1 “ Its streets are broad, its houses well built, its squares large and 
 regular, and its public buildings constructed in the best style of archi- 
 tecture.”— The Great Square and the public buildings have been much 
 admired. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 
 k “ The great hospital ( lidpital giniral.)” 
 
 I “ Halle aux Bles.” 
 
 m Many of the merchants of Lille fit out vessels for foreign trade at 
 Dunkirk, Ostend and Calais, with which towns it has direct communi 
 cation by canals. Lille has important manufactures of woollens, cot 
 tons, linens, silks, lace, carpets, &c. About 200 windmills are employ- 
 ed in the neighbourhood, in the manufacture of the oil of colzat [colza.] 
 (Ed. Encyc.)— P. 
 
 II “ Maison centrale de detention.” See note 0 p. 981. — P. 
 
 ° Leye (Belg.) — The town itself is situated on the right bank of the 
 Lys. — P. a Armentiers (Hubner.) 
 
 “ — who are employed in spinning and weaving flax, hemp and 
 cotton.” 
 
 r “ Quesnoy sur Deule, which contains several iron works ( usines ,) 
 and Commines,* which carries on a manufacture of tape (rubans defil,) 
 have each of them a population of from 4000 to 5000 inhabitants.” 
 
 * Comines. — It was the birthplace of Philip de Comines. — P. 
 
 8 Roubais. 1 Turcoin. 
 
 u “ Roubaix, essentially a manufacturing town,* and Turcoing, a large 
 bovrer, enriched by its woollen and cotton stuffs, contain together from 
 14,000 to 16,000 inhabitants.” — Population of Turcoing, 11,998 — of 
 Roubaix, 8,724. Total 20,722. (Aim. Royal, 1822.) — P. 
 
33G 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLVI 
 
 al towns in the fruitful district of Hazebrouck ; the first is 
 uilt on a height, the second was once fortified, it rises on a 
 hill, and commands a view of the ocean and thirty-two 
 towns ; the third is situated in a marshy country, and the fourth 
 contains six thousand inhabitants.® Although the population 
 of Hondtschoote b does not exceed four thousand souls, it is 
 a place of celebrity from the victory which the French 
 gained over the English in 1793. Bcrgues, a place of 
 importance as a corn market, was formerly surrounded by 
 marshes, that have been partly drained ; the canals of Dun- 
 kerque, of Upper and Lower Colme meet at the base of the 
 hill on which it stands; the houses are regular, but all of 
 them are built of brick. As a strong place it belongs to the 
 third class, the possession of it, however, was considered a 
 matter of so much consequence that it has been eight times 
 taken and retaken, seven times sacked, and three times be- 
 sieged without success ; it does not contain more than six thou- 
 sand inhabitants. 0 Gravelines, d a town of three thousand 
 
 souls, was founded in 1160 by Henry, count of Flanders: 0 
 it is on the whole well-built, but the marshes near the mouth 
 of the Aa render it unhealthy/ It was first fortified by 
 Charles the Fifth, hut the greater part of the present works 
 were erected by the Chevalier Deville and Marshal Vauban. 
 
 The road from Gravelines to Dunkerque extends along 
 the sandy hills that rise on the sea shore. The last town 
 was gradually built round a chapel, which was founded by 
 St. Eloi in the middle of these sandy downs . s Large, well- 
 
 *It manufactures fine woollen stuffs, and also woollen thread for hosiery. (Vos- 
 gien.)— P. 
 
 a “Quitting the territory of the prefecture,* we shall proceed to 
 Hazebrouck, t the capital of one of the two remaining arrondissements,, 
 situated in one of the most fertile districts ( contrces ) in the former 
 French Flanders. || Around it as a centre, there are three towns wor- 
 thy of notice for their manufacturing industry: namely, Baillcul,§ a 
 well built town on a height; Merville,U in a marshy country; and Cas- 
 sel,** formerly a strong town, situated on a hill ( montagne ) which com- 
 mands a view of 32 towns and of the ocean; besides these, the village 
 of Estairstt may be mentioned, which from its population of 0000 in- 
 habitants and its linen manufactures, also deserves the name of a town.” 
 
 *The arrondisseinent of Lille, the capital of which is also the residence of the 
 prefect. — P. 
 
 fHazehrouk (Vosgien.) Iiazehrtick (Enc. Metli.) 
 
 [ Those of Hazebrouck and Dunkirk. 
 
 || French Flanders, in its narrowest meaning, signified that part of the conntyof 
 Flanders (Flem. Vlaandcrcn) annexed to France, and included all that portion of 
 the department of the North extending from Douay and St. Ainand on the east to 
 Ihe sea on the west. The former province or rather government of French Flan- 
 ders corresponded very nearly with the limits of the present department of the 
 North, including French Flanders properly so called, Cambresis, French llainault, 
 and certain districts in the county of Namur and the bishopric of Liege. — P. 
 
 tj Belle (Flemish.) Moreri. — Large quantities of thread, lace and woollen stuffs are 
 manufactured there. — P. 
 
 ir Situated on ihe Lys — manufactures table linen. (Vosgien.) 
 
 ** Cassel or Mont Cassel. Lat. Castellum Morinorum. (Hubner.) 
 ft Eslaires, Estaire. — Flem. Siegers. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 b Hondsclroote, Hondschote. — Tlris and the following places are in 
 the arrnndissement of Dunkirk. — P. 
 
 c “ Bergues,* a place of importance as a corn market, is situated in 
 a marshy country, that has been recently drained ;t the canal of Dun- 
 kirk and those of the Upper and the Lower Colrne, unite at the foot of 
 the hill on which it is built;|| its houses are regular, but all of brick. 
 It is a fortified town ( place de guerre) of the third class, § and the pos- 
 session of it lias always been regarded of such importance, that during 
 the last ten centuries, it has been eight times taken and retaken, seven 
 times sacked, and three times besieged without success.U It contains 
 a population of about G000 souls.” — Bergues was taken by the duke of 
 Parma in 1537, by the duke of Orleans in 1646, by the Spaniards in 
 1651, and by Turenne in 1658, when it was finally ceded to France by 
 the treaty of the Pyrenees. The English invested it in 1793, but were 
 foieed to raise the siege. — P. 
 
 * Berg St. Vino.x. (Vosgien.) — Bergues or Bergue St. Vinoc, Bcrgh St. Winoc. 
 (Moreri.) — YVynoxbergen (Flem.) J\luns Sancti Vinoci (Lat.) (Hubner.) — P. 
 f laterally, rendered wholesome by hydraulic works. 
 
 J The Colme is one of the branches into which the river Aa divides below St. 
 Oiner. See note s p. 1012. — P. 
 
 || It is built at the foot of a hill, on the Colme. (Vosgien.)— P. 
 
 $ Of the fourth class. (Aim. Royal, 1822.) — The fortifications were constructed by 
 Vauban. — P. 
 
 IT Literally, delivered from its enemies. 
 
 d Graveline [Moreri.) — Flemish, Grevelingen (Hubner,) Graveling 
 Enc. Metli.) — P. 
 
 peopled and well-built, its position between two seas, and 
 the proximity of England and the Netherlands, account for 
 its past prosperity. Baudouin the Young, count of Flan- 
 ders, conferred on it the rank and privileges of a city in the 
 tenth century ; since that time it has excited the jealousy or 
 covetousness of several princes. It was burnt by the Eng- 
 lish in I 38S ; built anew, it fell successively into the power 
 of Flanders, Spain and France. The Spaniards took it 
 from the English, and the latter were expelled by the 
 French. The treaty of Ghateau-Cambresis put Spain in 
 possession of it, but it was retaken by Conde in 1646. The 
 Spaniards having made themselves masters of it again, the 
 victory which Turenne gained at Dunes in 1658, rendered 
 it an easy conquest to the French. It was afterwards ceded 
 to the English ; Lewis the Fourteenth purchased it from 
 Charles the Second for five millions of francs, and rendered 
 it impregnable ; but by a shameful clause in the treaty of 
 Utrecht, the same monarch was obliged to fill up the har- 
 bour and to destroy the fortifications ; the works were re- 
 built by Lewis the Fifteenth. The duke of York besieged 
 it in 1 793 without success, indeed he was compelled to 
 leave his artillery in the hands of the enemy. The trade of 
 Dunkerque has increased since 1816; a large sluice was 
 lately constructed for the purpose of clearing the sand that 
 obstructs the entrance into the harbour/ 
 
 Every place of any importance in France has now been 
 mentioned ; we have adhered strictly to the political divi- 
 
 ' It was built by Theodoric, count of Flanders, about the year 1160. 
 (Enc. Metli.) — It is said that Thierry of Alsace, count of Flanders, 
 either built or rebuilt Gravelines, where he died 1168. (Moreri.) — Thier- 
 ry (Theodoric) of Alsace was count of Flanders from 1128 to 1168. 
 (Moreri.) — There is no one of the name of Henry in the list of the 
 counts (earls) of Flanders in Moreri. — P. 
 
 f “ It consists of spacious and regular streets, and is situated at the 
 mouth of the Aa, in the midst of marshes.” 
 
 e Dunkerque signifies in Flemish a church on the doxvns. 
 h “The road from Gravelines to Dunkirk* extends along the downs 
 or sand hills ( collinrs dc dunes )t that rise on the sea shore. The latter 
 place, a town of considerable population, and extent and of a regular 
 construction, and one that has long been important from its commerce, 
 owes its origin to a chapel built by St. Eloi || in the midst of the downs. § 
 It was indebted for its former commercial consequence to its position 
 between two seasll and its proximity to England and the Netherlands, 
 and it derives its present prosperity from the cod fishery.** Its seamen 
 have always been noted for their intrepidity, and many of them have 
 acquired distinction in naval warfare; of these the most celebrated is 
 John Barth, tt to whom a statue has been erected in the Place Dauphine. 
 Since the period when it took the rank of a city, in consequence of the 
 privileges conferred upon it in the tenth century, by Baldwin the 
 Young, earl of Flanders , H it has excited the covetousness and jealousy 
 of several powers. In 1388, it was burnt by the English; built anew, 
 it fell successively into the hands of Flanders. Spain and France. |||| It 
 was taken from the Spaniards by the English, and from the latter by 
 the French. §§ The treaty of Chateau-CambresislTf secured the pos- 
 session of it to Spain;*** it was, however, retaken by Condetit in 1646. 
 The Spaniards again made themselves masters of it;;,, but Turenne, 
 after his victory at the battle of the Downs ( des Dunes.) |||||| reduced it 
 anew in 1658. Having been ceded to the English by treaty,§§§ Louis 
 XIV. purchased it of Charles 11.111111 for the sum of five millions,**** 
 and rendered it impregnable; but by a shameful clause in the treaty of 
 Utrecht, tttt he was obliged to fill up the harbour and destroy the forti- 
 fications. tUt New works, however, were constructed by Louis XV.. |||||||| 
 which restored it to its former importance. The Duke of York besieged 
 it in 1793, but he was forced to retire after abandoning his artillery- to 
 the French. § § § § The late treaties were unfavourable to it in their stipu- 
 lations; but the privilege of a free port granted to it in 1816, H1I1I1T and 
 the large sluice constructed for the removal of the sand banks that ob- 
 structed the entrance of its harbour, have nearly restored it to its former 
 prosperity.” 
 
 *Fr. “Dunkerque,” Dunkerke, Dunquerque. Flem. Duinkerken (rfuin, a sand- 
 hill or down, and kerk, a church.) — P. 
 
 t The coast of the Netherlands from Calais northwards is faced by hillocks of sand 
 (Fr. dunes, Du. duinen,) of the greatest importance for the protection of Ihe country 
 against the sea — P. 
 
 - Population 24,517. M. B. 
 
 || 8t. Eloy, bishop of Novon in the 7th century : born 538, died 653. (Moreri.)— P 
 
 $ “Kerk, in Flemish, signifies a church. Dunkirk ( Dunkerque ) may therefore be 
 rendered the church of the downs .” — Dunkirk ( church of the Downs , ) from a church 
 said to have been built there by tit Eloi. (Tuckey, vol. II. p. 11.) — Faid to have been 
 
book cxlvi.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 sions of the country, and endeavoured to avoid as much as 
 possible the tediousness arising from a long and often uni- 
 lorm description, but to do so wholly was incompatible with 
 the nature of the subject. We cannot, however, leave the 
 kingdom without taking a rapid survey of the roads, canals 
 and finances. These causes and effects of public prosperi- 
 ty are more fully developed in the tables at the end of this 
 book, and from those tables the reader will also be enabled 
 to estimate the entire resources of France, as a commercial, 
 agricultural and military nation. 
 
 Every one admits that numerous roads and canals have 
 a powerful effect on the agriculture, commerce and general 
 industry of a country. While in animated beings we ad- 
 mire the order with which the vital functions are ramified 
 by the aid of vessels and organs constructed so as to diffuse 
 motion into every part of the individual, we cannot fail to 
 perceive that in like manner the welfare of a state depends 
 mainly on its means of communication, and that it is by 
 them, in fine, that life is made to circulate in every part of 
 it. A few of the great roads in France are kept with suf- 
 ficient care, but they form an exception, and it appears 
 from the estimates of the ablest engineers, that it would re- 
 quire sixty-seven millions of francs a or nearly £2,800,000 
 to prevent the remainder from becoming wholly useless. bc 
 The entire extent of the great roads in the kingdom is 
 equal to eight millions of leagues ; d but as sixteen thousand 
 square leagues are unprovided with them, their total length 
 must be doubled before the advantages of commerce can 
 be extended throughout the kingdom. To complete the 
 roads that are still unfinished, would require at least forty- 
 four millions of francs or £ 1,850, 000. e The sum of 111 
 millions of francs or £4,650,000 f is therefore necessary for 
 their improvement and completion. Twenty millions of 
 francs or less than £ 850,000 are annually expended on 
 
 so called becatise the tower of its church was the first object seen by mariners above 
 the clowns. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 IT The North Sea and the English Channel. — Situated at the entrance from the 
 former into the Straits of Dover. — P. 
 
 **The inhabitants derive their principal support from fishing and smuggling in 
 peace, and from privateering in war. The principal contraband trade is in gin and 
 tea to England. (Tuckey, vol. II. p. 11.) — It has, however, a regular foreign trade of 
 considerable importance. It has employed as many as 200 merchantmen in time of 
 peace. — P. 
 
 ft “ Jean (Jart ” of Barth, the son of a fisherman ; born 1651, died 1702 — noted for 
 prompt and daring enterprises. He was raised to the rank of commodore ( chef 
 d'cscadre) and ennobled, by Louis XIV. — P. 
 
 Ji It was built by Baldwin the Young, earl of Flanders, about the year 960. (Mo- 
 reri.) — In the 12th century, it equipped a fleet against the Norman pirates, for which 
 service important privileges were conferred upon it by Philip, earl of Flanders. 
 (Enc. Meth.) — Philip of Alsace, son of Thierry of Alsace (see note e p. 1016,) was 
 earl of Flanders from 1168 to 1191. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 1111 It belonged for several centuries to the Earls of Flanders, and passed in the 15th 
 century, to the house of Austria. It remained under the Spanish branch of that 
 house a considerable time, but changed masters more than once during the wars in 
 the Low Countries, previous to its final purchase by Louis XIV. in 1662. (Ed. Enc.) 
 — Dunkirk was held either immediately by the earls of Flanders, or as a fief de- 
 pendent on them, from its foundation in the tenth century till the 14th, when it 
 passed to the house of Burgundy, by the marriage of Philip II. with Margaret of 
 Flanders in 1369, and in the 15th to the house of Austria, by the marriage of the arch- 
 duke Maximilian (afterwards the emperor Maximilian I.) with Mary of Burgundy in 
 1477. Charles V. left it with the Low Countries to Philip II. of Spain, and it con- 
 tinued in the possession of the Spaniards with some interruptions, till 1655, when 
 it passed into the hands of the English, and in 1662, by purchase into those of 
 France. — P. 
 
 §$It was taken from the English in 1558, and was ceded to Spain by the treaty of 
 Chateau-Carnbresis in 1559. (Enc. Meth.)— The French under Marshal De Tennes 
 took it in 1558. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 1T1T“Cateau-Cambresis,” Chateau-Carnbresis, Catteau-Cambresis — a small town 
 five leagues S. E. of Cambray. — P. 
 
 *** A. D. 1559. 
 
 ftfThen Duke of Enghien. 
 
 ill A. D. 1652. (Moreri.) 
 
 Illlll The Downs (Zes Danes ) — the coasts of Flanders between Dunkirk and Nieu- 
 port, where Marshal Turenne gained a victory in 1658. (Enc. Meth.)— The battle 
 of the Downs was fought between the French commanded by Turenne and assisted 
 by the English auxiliaries furnished by Cromwell, and the Spaniards commanded 
 by the Prince of Conde and Don John of Austria, also assisted by the English Royal- 
 ists. (Guthrie and Gray’s Ilist. of the World, vol. XII. p. 25.) — P. 
 
 $$$ Bv treaty with Cromwell, the same year, 1658. 
 
 Wll A D. 1662. 
 
 **** Li vres.— Louis XIV. purchased it in 1662, for the sum of five millions (Mo- 
 reri)— £209,000 (Ed. Encyc.)— P. 
 
 fttt March 31, 1713. 
 
 ttti This was effected, in a considerable degree, in 1713, but Louis XIV. immedi- 
 VOL. III.— NO. 52 43 
 
 OF FRANCE. 337 
 
 them at present, it is vain then to expect that new roads 
 can be made, indeed a long period must elapse before the 
 present are finished and repaired. e Ninety-six canals are 
 
 mentioned in the statistics of France ; of these sixty-four 
 are completed, eighteen are in progress, and fourteen are 
 projected. Those which are completed and in progress 
 occupy an extent of six thousand and ninety-three English 
 miles, h an extent that must be more than doubled, before 
 France can derive from canals all the advantages which 
 England does at present. The sums necessary for the im- 
 provement and extension of the roads and canals are im- 
 mense, but the vast resources that France possesses, must 
 not be overlooked. The taxes may be estimated at nine 
 hundred and eighty millions of francs or £41,333,340; 
 Austria is the only state that has an equal population, Rus- 
 sia contains nearly twice the number of inhabitants, but in 
 Russia the taxes are less than a half, and in Austria they do 
 not amount to a third part of the above-mentioned sum. 1 
 The finances are in a much more prosperous state than in 
 England ; for if the products of both kingdoms were applied 
 to the extinction of the national debt, it might be liquidated 
 in the one in about four years and a half, while it could not 
 be cancelled in the other in thirteen. 
 
 The quantity of money in a country is a sign of wealth 
 inasmuch as it corresponds generally with the circulation o 
 commerce and industry : the money in flourishing states 
 according to political economists, ought to be equal to a 
 fifth part of the products; but in France it exceeds tha 
 amount, for the products of agriculture and industry repre- 
 sent 8,800,000,000 francs, while the money in circulation 
 amounts to more than two thousand millions. The kingdom, 
 it has been shown, has abundant means of improvement, 
 it is highly favored by nature, the inhabitants are distin- 
 guished by their genius and industry.! 
 
 ately cut a canal from Mardike (1 league S. of Dunkirk,) which gave the port almost 
 all its former advantages. England, however, obliged him to shut the canal, and to 
 abstain from any similar works within two leagues of Dunkirk ; but in 1720, during 
 the reign of Louis XV., the sea having broke through the bar formed across the har- 
 bour’s mouth, it became again accessible to ships, and England being at war with 
 Spain, France took advantage of this circumstance to reconstruct the jetties and 
 fortifications ; and though by the treaties of Aix la Chapelle (1748) and Paris (1763) 
 the destruction of these works was stipulated, the execution was always eluded. 
 (Tuckey, vol. II. p. 11, 12. Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 yilllll See note t|tp 
 
 The British under the Duke of York opened the trenches before Dunkirk, 
 Aug. §4, 1793. The works were carried on, though with trivial effect, till Sept. 6, 
 when the covering army, commanded hv the Hanoverian Field Marshal Freytag, was 
 unexpectedly attacked and defeated by the French General Houchard ; a successful 
 sortie was at the same time made by the garrison, and the besieging army was com- 
 pelled to retreat with the loss of all its heavy artillery. (Ed. Encyc. art. Britain.)—?. 
 
 1T1T1T1T Dunkirk was declared a free port by Louis XIV. after his purchase of it in 
 1GG2, and continued so till 1793. (Tuckey, veil 11. p. 11.) — This privilege was restored 
 in 1816.— P. 
 
 * “ Nearly 67,000,000 francs” (£2,826,562.)— P. 
 
 b Literally, to preserve them from the complete dilapidation with 
 which they are threatened. — P. 
 
 c Essais sur la construction des routes et des canaux, et la legisla- 
 tion des travaux publiques, par M. Cordier, inspecteur divisionnaire des 
 ponts-et-chauss6es, Paris, 1828, t. II. 
 
 d Each of these leagues is equal to four thousand metres. M. B 
 (The metre is equal to 39,371 English inches. Tr.) 
 
 « £1 ,856,250.— P. f £4,682,812.— P. 
 
 £ “Since only twenty millions of francs (£843,750) are employed for 
 that purpose at present, far from being able to add to their number, it is 
 difficult to determine when those that are now laid out, can be brought 
 to a state of entire completion.” 
 
 h “ — occupy a surface of 975 myriametres.” 
 
 ' “The produce of the taxes in France may be estimated at 980,000, 
 000 francs (£41,343,750,) which is more than three times the produce 
 of the taxes in the whole empire of Austria, the only power that has 
 the same population,* and more than twice and a half that of the taxes 
 in Russia, which contains nearly double the number of inhabitants.” 
 
 * Population of Austria(1827,) 32,000,000, in round numbers— that ofFrance (1827,) 
 31,820,000. (M. B.)— P. 
 
 1 “ A nation that possesses such important resources and such pow- 
 erful means of developement, will easily resume, when it chooses, the 
 rank to which it is by nature entitled.” 
 
338 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLrVI. 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES OF FRANCE. 
 
 COMPARATIVE TABLE OF FRANCE, IN WHICH IT IS DIVIDED INTO REGIONS, GOVERNMENTS AND DEPARTMENTS. 
 
 Ancient Provinces 
 or Military 
 Governments, a 
 
 1 French Flanders. 0 Lille 
 
 Capitals. Divisions in each Government, b 
 
 Northern Region. 
 
 { Maritime Flanders, 
 Walloon Flanders, d 
 Cainbraisis, e French 
 Hainault 
 
 f Ancient Provinces 
 The Departments or Mtlita 
 formed from them. Governments. 
 
 2 Artois Arras 
 
 { Amienais,« Santerre, h 
 Verinandois," ThierachcJ 
 Calaisis, k Boulonnais, 1 
 Ponthieu,™ Vimeux. 11 
 
 'Caux,P Bray,') Norman 
 Vexin, r Roumois, 8 
 Ouche, 1 Lieuvin," 
 
 4 Normandy 0 Rouen J Auge, v Marches," 
 
 Bessin, x Bocage, r 
 | Houlme, 0 Cotentin, 01 
 ^Avranchin. bb 
 
 North. 
 
 Straits of 
 ► Calais, 
 Somme. 
 
 Calvados, 
 
 Eure, 
 
 Channel, 
 
 Orne, 
 
 Lower 
 
 Seine. 
 
 “ Governments.” — France before the revolution was divided into 
 32 general governments or provinces. These were properly military 
 governments, and were each of them under the immediate administra- 
 tion of a governor in chief, and included one or more lieutenant-gene- 
 ralships. (Enc. Mcth. 1782.) — When the king assembled the States- 
 General, the ancient order was to assemble them according to twelve 
 
 I irincipal governments {prefecture generates,) viz. Picardy, Normandy, 
 sle of France, Champagne, Brittany, Orleannois, Burgundy, Lyonnois 
 including Auvergne, Provence, Dauphiny, Languedoc and Guienne. 
 Moreri, 1725. Hubner, 1736.)— P. 
 b “ Countries (pays)* dependent on each government.” 
 
 ► Not properly cotemporary divisions or subdivisions of the government, but an- 
 terior divisions of the kingdom included within its limits. — P. 
 
 0 “Flanders (Flandre.)” — The government, as a part of France, was 
 known simply as the province of Flanders, but the territory included 
 in it was called French Flanders, in distinction from Austrian Flanders, 
 Flanders in this sense being a common appellation for the Catholic 
 Netherlands (now Belgium) ; but Flanders in its strict historical sense, 
 is confined to the old county of Flanders, divided into French, Aus- 
 trian and Dutch Flanders. See note a || p. 1016. — P. 
 
 d Maritime and Walloon Flanders here embrace French Flan- 
 ders properly so called, or that portion of the county of Flanders an- 
 nexed to France — Maritime Flanders comprehending the western part 
 on the coast, and Walloon Flanders the eastern part, including the 
 former chatellanies of Lille, Douay and Orchies. Walloon Flanders also 
 extended into Belgium (the former Austrian Flanders,) including the 
 country around Tournay. Taking Flanders in its more enlarged sense 
 for the whole of the Catholic Netherlands, Walloon Flanders included 
 Artois, Hainault, Walloon Flanders proper, Namur, Luxemburg, Cam- 
 bresis, and according to some, Liege, or all that part of the country 
 occupied by the Walloons, by whom a dialect of French was spoken, 
 while in the rest of the Netherlands, the inhabitants spoke dialects of 
 the Low Dutch. — P. e Cambresis. 
 
 f Picardy was divided into Upper, Middle and Lower — the first in- 
 cluding Vermandois and Thierache; the second, Amienois and San- 
 terre; and the third, the Pays Rcconquis , Boulonnois, Ponthieu and 
 Vimeux. — P. s Amienois. h Peronne the capital. 
 
 ‘ St. Quentin the capital. i Including Guise and Vervins. 
 
 k The district including Calais and Guines, (here styled Calaisis,) 
 was called Lc Pays Rcconquis (the Reconquered Country,) from its hav- 
 ing been reconquered in 1558 from the English, who had held it since 
 1347, when it was reduced by Edward III. — P. 
 
 1 See note b p. 1011. m Abbeville the capital. 
 
 ” Vimeu. — St. Valery the capital. 
 
 ° Normandy was divided into Upper and Lower — the former includ- 
 ing Caux, Bray, Vexin, Roumois, Ouche, Lieuvin and Auge; the lat- 
 ter, the Marches, Bessin, the Bocage, Houlme, Cotentin and Avran- 
 chin. — P. 
 
 p “ Le Pays de Caux.” See p. 1008. 
 
 a “ Le Pays de Bray” (Brai) — a small district east of the Pays de 
 Caux, including Neufchatel and Gournay. — P. 
 r “ Vexin Normand.” — Gisors the capital. — P. 
 
 • Roumois or Rommois, Lat. Jlgcr Rothomagensis (Moreri) — a small 
 district between the Rille and the Seine. Quillebeuf the capital. — P. 
 
 5 Isle of France 00 
 
 6 Champagne 00 
 
 Capital*. Divisionc in each Government. 
 
 Beauvaisis, od Laonnois,' e 
 Soissonnais/t French 
 Vexin, e* Gouelle, l ’- b 
 Paris J, Parisis," Valois,)) 
 
 Mantais, kk Hurepoix, 11 
 French Brie, mm French 
 Gatinais."" 
 
 The Department* 
 formed from them. 
 
 f Rethelais,PP Rhemois/l'l 
 Brie , 1 n Perthois, 88 
 Troyes < Vallage, 11 Bassigny, lm 
 Senonais. vv ww 
 
 Aisne, 
 Oise, 
 Seine, 
 
 ► Seine and 
 Oise, 
 Seine and 
 Marne. 
 
 "I Ardennes, 
 Aube, 
 v Marne, 
 
 I Upper 
 J Marne. 
 
 I “ Le Pays d’Ouche,” Ouche (Vosgien) — including Conches and 
 Bernay. — P. 
 
 II Lat. Jlger Lexovicnsis — including Lisieux, and Plonfleur (Mo- 
 reri.) — P. 
 
 v “ Le Pays d’Auge,” La Vallhc d’Auge (Vosgien,) Auge (Enc. 
 Meth.) — including Pont-l’Eveque and Honfleur (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 w “ Les Marches” (the borders or marches) — included in the baili- 
 wick ( bailliage ) of Alemjon (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 * Bayeux the capital. 
 
 r “ Le Bocage” (the wood.)— Vire the capital. — P. 
 z “ Le Pays d’Houlme,” Houlme (Vosgien) — a small district be- 
 tween Domfront and Falaise. — P. 
 ua See note n p. 1004. bb See note ‘ t p. 1004. 
 
 00 “Ile-de-France.” dd See note 1 p. 992. 
 
 ee Laonnais (Vosgien.) — Laon the capital. — P. 
 
 Soissonnois (Enc. Meth.) 
 
 gg “ Vexin Francais” (Francois. Moreri) — Pontoise the capital. — P. 
 hh Goele (Vosgien,) Goelle (Hubner.) — Dammartin the capital. — P. 
 
 11 Isle of France proper (Enc. Meth.) — including Paris. A distinc- 
 tion is made between the Isle of France proper, or simply France, 
 and Parisis ; the former including the country around St. Denis, to 
 the north of Paris, as far as Montmorency, and the latter, that in the 
 immediate vicinity of Paris. All the places in the former are surnamed 
 cn France (in France,) as St. Denis en France. (Moreri. Hubner.) — P. 
 Si Formerly a dutchy. — Crespy the capital. — P. 
 kk Mantois. — Mantes the capital. 
 
 11 Hurepois (Vosgien) — including Corbeil and Dourdan, and accord- 
 ing to some, Fontainebleau and Melun (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 mm “ Brie Fran^aise.” — Brie, a country in France, partly in the gov- 
 ernment of Champagne, and partly in that of the Isle of France; the 
 former called Brie Champenoise, and the latter, Brie Parisienne or Brie 
 Frari<;oise. It was also divided into Upper Brie (Haute Brie) — Meaux 
 the capital; Lower Brie (Basse Brie) — Provins the capital; and Brie 
 Pouillcuse — Chateau-Thierry the capital. These three towns are situ- 
 ated in Brie Champenoise; Brie-Comte-Robert and Melun (Moreri) 
 were included in Brie Fran<;oise. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 "" “ Gatinais Francais” (Gatinois Francois Enc. Meth.) — Gatinois 
 (Gastinois, Lat. Vastinium. Moreri) is derived from gastinc, an old 
 French word signifying a clearing in a forest, or waste land, from the 
 Latin rasto, Fr. gaster, gdter. The country of Gatinois included the 
 forests of Fontainebleau and Montargis, and was divided into Gatinois 
 Francois and Gatinois Orleanois ; the former including Nemours, Moret 
 and Fontainebleau, and the latter, Montargis. (Enc. Meth. Moreri.) — P. 
 
 00 Champagne is divided into Upper on the S. and S. E. and Lower 
 on the N. and N. W. — P. 
 
 w Rethelois, Retelois — including Rethel, Rocroy, Charleville and 
 Mezieres (in the Ardennes.) (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 'll Remois (Enc. Meth.) — including Reims (the capital,) Epernay and 
 Ay. — P. rr Brie Champenoise. See note mm . 
 
 68 Pertois (Enc. Meth.) — including Vi try le Francois (the capital,) St. 
 Dizier, Vassy and Joinville (Moreri.) — P. 
 u Bar sur Aube the capital. 
 
 uu Bassigni (Enc. Meth.) — divided into Bassigny proper, in Upper 
 Champagne, (Chaumont the capital; including also Langres and Ande- 
 lot,) and the bailiwick (hailtiage) of Bassigny, inclosed in Barrois, 
 (Vaucouleurs the capital.) The bailiwick included, however, in its 
 jurisdiction, several towns properly belonging to Barrois: viz. Gondre- 
 court. La Motte, Bourmont, La Marche, Chatillon and Conflans. — P. 
 
 vv Senonois (Enc. Meth.) — forming the northern half of the depart- 
 ment of the Yonne ; Sens the capital. — P. 
 
 "'“Champagne Proper should also be added to this list. It included 
 Troyes, Chalons and St Menehould. — P. 
 
aooK cxLiYi.] DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 339 
 
 Ancient Provinces 
 or Military 
 Governments. 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 Divisions in each Government. 
 
 The Departments 
 formed from them. 
 
 7 Lorraine 
 
 Nancy - 
 
 ’ Messin, * 1 Toulo's, 
 Verdunois, French 
 Luxemburg, 11 * Princi- 
 pality of Bouillon, 0 
 ^Barrois. 1111 
 
 Meurthe, 
 
 Meuse, 
 
 ' Moselle, 
 Vosges. 
 
 
 Central Region. 
 
 
 8 Orleanais f 
 
 Orleans < 
 
 Beauce,® Gatinais, " 
 
 Orleanais, 11 Puyssage, 1 : 
 Blaisois,) Sologne. k 1 _ 
 
 Eure and 
 Loir, Loiret, 
 Loir and Cher. 
 
 9 Touraine 
 
 Tours 
 
 
 ’ Indre 
 and Loire. 
 
 10 Berry m 
 
 11 Nivernais" 
 
 12 Bourbonnais 0 
 
 13 Marched 
 
 Bourges 
 
 Nevers 
 
 Moulins 
 
 Gueret 
 
 
 
 Cher, Indre. 
 Nievre. 
 Allier. 
 Creuse. 
 
 14 Limousin 1 ) 
 
 Limoges 
 
 C Correze, 
 
 1 Upper Vienne. 
 
 a “ Le Pays Messin,” or Le Messin (Enc. Meth.) See note k p. 974. — P. 
 b “ Luxembourg Franqais” — a strip of land along the southern fron- 
 tiers of the dutchy of Luxemburg, ceded to France by the treaty of 
 the Pyrenees (1659,) including Thionville and Montmedy. — P. 
 
 c Before the revolution, the dutchy of Bouillon (Bullion. Moreri.) — 
 This dutchy, with the principality of Sedan, belonged to the house of 
 La Tour d' Auvergne, previously to 1G51. The dutchy was, however, 
 at that time in possession of the bishop of Liege, but claimed by the 
 house of La Tour. In 1G51, Frederick Maurice, duke of Bouillon, ce- 
 ded to France his sovereignty over Sedan, reserving to himself ail his 
 rights to the dutchy of Bouillon, and requiring that it should be re- 
 stored to him, in case it should be wrested by France from the bishop 
 of Liege. Louis XIV. having conquered the dutchy in 1G76, restored 
 it to Godfrey Maurice, then duke, in 1678. It continued in possession 
 of the family till the revolution. Prince Charles de Rohan possessed 
 it (1822) under the sovereignty of the king of the Netherlands. — P. 
 
 d Dutchy of Bar, or Le Barrois (Enc. Meth.) — situated on both sides 
 of the Meuse on the confines of Champagne, and including Bar le Due, 
 St. Mihiel, Longwy, Pont a Mousson and Varennes, in the three juris- 
 dictions of Bar, St. Mihiel and Clermont, and several towns in the 
 bailiwick of Bassigny. See note uu p. 1018. — P. 
 
 e Lorraine Proper, or the dutchy of Lorraine, should be added to the 
 list. It included Nancy, Luneville and Epinal. — P. 
 f Orleanois, Orleannois. (Enc. Meth.) 
 
 e Beauce, Beaulce or Beausse (Moreri) — situated between the Isle 
 of France and Orleanois Proper; Chartres the capital. (Enc. Meth.) — 
 Under the name of Great Beauce, the Pays Chartrain (Beauce Proper,) 
 Gatinois, Puissaye, Orleanois Proper, Sologne, part of Blaisois near the 
 Loire, and even Vendomois and Dunois, were included by some au- 
 thors. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 h “ Le Gatinais Orleanais ” — Orleanese Gatinais. See note nn p. 1018. 
 — Orleanais Proper is not mentioned in the original, although a place 
 would seem to be given it by the mistake of the translator. It includ- 
 ed the country around Orleans on both banks of the Loire; that on the 
 north, called Upper, and that on the south, Lower Orleanais. — P. 
 
 ‘ Puisaye (Enc. Meth.) Puysaye (Moreri) — a small country in Gati- 
 nois Orleanois, on the confines of Auxerrois and Nivernois; including 
 St. Fargeau, in the department of the Yonne, and St. Amand, in that 
 of the Nievre. — P. 
 
 i Situated on both sides of the Loire, west of Orleanais Proper — 
 Blois the capital. — P. 
 
 k Situated south of the Loire — Romorantin the capital. — P. 
 
 1 Dunois and Vendomois should be added to the list — Chateaudun, 
 the capital of the former, and Vendome, of the latter; also Perche- 
 Gouet (see note “ .) — P. 
 
 m Berri (Enc. Meth.) — divided into Upper and Lower by the Cher; 
 the former on the east and the latter on the west of the river. — P. 
 
 n Nivernois (Enc. Meth.) — Nivernois was divided into eight cantons 
 or districts, two of which are worthy of notice: viz. Morvan, a moun- 
 tainous country on the eastern limits, partly in Burgundy, including 
 Corbigny and Chateau-Chinon, and Bazois, at the foot of the moun- 
 tains of Morvan on the west, including St. Saulge and Decize. — P. 
 
 0 Bourbonnois — divided into Upper and Lower; Moulins in the 
 latter. — The small district of Combrailles is by some included in 
 Bourbonnois; by others in Marche (Auvergne. Enc. Meth.) — Evaux 
 Evaon) the capital. It is now included in the department of the 
 Creuse. — P. 
 
 p La Marche — divided into Upper and Lower; Gueret in the former 
 
 Ancient Provinces 
 
 or Military 
 Governments. 
 
 Capitals. Divisions in each Government. 
 
 The Department* 
 formed from them. 
 
 15 Auvergne r 
 
 Clermont 
 
 Limagne 8 * * 
 
 C Cantal, 
 
 ( Puy de Dome. 
 
 16 Maine 1 
 
 Western Region. 
 Le Mans Perche" 
 
 C Mayenne, 
 , ( Sarthe. 
 
 17 Anjou 7 
 
 Angers 
 
 Saumurois w 
 
 ( Maine 
 ( and Loire. 
 
 18 Brittany* 
 
 Rennes 
 
 . 
 
 f North Coast, 
 
 1 Finisterre,Ule 
 
 2 and Vilaine, 
 Lower Loire, 
 
 l^Morbihan. 
 
 19 Poitou 7 
 
 Poitiers . 
 
 • 
 
 C Two Sevres 
 < Vendee, 
 
 ^ Vienne. 
 
 20 Aunis 2 
 
 21 Saintonge* 1 
 and Angoumois bb 
 
 La Rochelle 
 | Saintes 
 
 Brouageais 00 
 
 } Charente, 
 > Lower 
 ) Charente. 
 
 and Bellac in the latter. The province of Marche is partly compre- 
 hended in the department of the Upper Vienne (arrondissement of Bel 
 lac.) — P. 
 
 fl Limosin — divided into Upper and Lower by the Vezere; the for 
 mer on the north, the latter on the south of the river — Limoges, the 
 capital of the former; Tulle, of the latter. — P. 
 
 r Divided into Upper and Lower — the former on the south (Auril- 
 lac the capital;) the latter on the north (Clermont the capital,) includ- 
 ing Limagne. Part of Auvergne is included in the department of the 
 Upper Loire (arrondissement of Brioude.) — P. 
 
 8 “ La Limagne” (Limane) — a fertile country in Lower Auvergne, 
 extending along the Allier, including Clermont, Riom and Issoire. — P. 
 
 1 The government of Maine was formed by the old province of Maine 
 and Perche ; the former on the west, the latter on the east. The prov- 
 ince of Maine, or Maine Proper, was divided into Upper and Lower; 
 the former on the east, (Le Mans the capital;) the latter on the west, 
 (Laval the capital.) — P. 
 
 u Perche was divided into Upper Perche or the County of Perche, 
 and Lower Perche or Perche-Gouet; the latter annexed to the govern- 
 ment of Orleanais. The former occupied the contiguous portions of the 
 departments of the Orne and the Eure and Loir, including Nogent le 
 Rotrou, Mortagne and Belesme, and also the district of Thimerais, on 
 the confines of Normandy and the Pays Chartrain — Chateauneuf the 
 capital. The latter, situated to the south of the former, occupied conti- 
 guous portions of the departments of the Eure and Loir and the Sarthe, 
 including Montmirail, Bazoche and Brou. — P. 
 
 7 Anjou was divided by the Loire into Upper and Lower — the for 
 mer on the south, (Saumur the capital) ; the latter on the north, (An- 
 gers the capital.) (Moreri.) — The Enc. Meth. reverses the order, placing 
 Angers in Upper Anjou. — P. 
 
 w Saumurois, a country in France, including certain districts in An- 
 jou and Poitou, formed into a separate military government by Henry 
 IV. — Saumur the capital. — P. 
 
 * The province of Brittany ( Bretagne ) included nine bishoprics, be- 
 fore the revolution: viz. Rennes, Nantes, St. Malo, St. Brieux, Dol, 
 Vannes, Cornouailles (Quimper-Coientin,) St. Pol de Leon and Tre- 
 guier; the five former occupied Upper Brittany on the east, (Rennes 
 the capital;) the four latter, Lower Brittany on the west, (Vannes the 
 capital.) The military government of Brittany was divided into two 
 lieutenant-generalships; one including the County of Nantes or the 
 Pays Nantois ;* the other, all the rest of Brittany (Upper and Lower.) — P 
 
 * Situated on both sides of the Loire ; the southern part ( d’outre-Lnire ) originally in 
 Lower Poitou ; tile northern (en deya la Loire,) in Upper Brittany. The whole was, 
 however, included in the military government of Brittany. — P. 
 
 y Poictou (Moreri) — divided into Upper and Lower ; the former on 
 the east, (Poitiers the capital;) the latter on the west, including La 
 Vendee, (Fontenay le Comte the capital.) — P. 
 
 2 Le Pays d’Aunis — the smallest province in France, including La 
 
 Rochelle, Rochefort, and the Isles of Rhe and Oleron; now included 
 
 in the department of the Lower Charente. — P. 
 
 ao Saintonge or Xaintonge (province) — divided into Northern and 
 
 Southern by the Charente; St. Jean d’Angely capital of the former; 
 
 Saintes, of the latter. — P. 
 
 bb A small province, forming with that of Saintonge, the single gen- 
 eral government of Saintonge-Angoumois (Enc. Meth.) — Angouleme 
 
 the capital. — P. 
 
 cc A small district in Saintonge, on the coast S. of the Charente, an 
 
 nexed to the government of Aunis. (Enc. Meth.) — P 
 
 L 
 
EUROPE 
 
 [BOOK CXLV1 
 
 f 
 
 340 
 
 Ancient Provinces 
 or Military 
 Governments. 
 
 22 Alsace a 
 
 23 Franche- 
 Comte 0 
 
 Capitals. Divisions in each government. 
 
 Eastern Region. 
 Strasburg Sundtgau b 
 
 f Bailiwicks of Amont, 
 Besan<;on < Aval, Besamjon, and 
 f Dole. 1 ' e 
 
 The Departments 
 formed from them. 
 
 Upper Rhine, 
 Lower Rhine. 
 
 Doubs, Jura, 
 Upper Saone. 
 
 8 The government or province of Alsace was formerly a part of the 
 German Empire, and was ceded to France by the treaty of Munster in 
 1048, with the reservation, however, of its imperial immunities; but by 
 the treaty of Ryswick in 1C97, a final cession was made to France in 
 full sovereignty. While a part of the German Empire, it included the 
 territories of Alsace (Germ. Elsass, Lat. Jllsatia.) and Sundgau; the 
 former divided into Upper and Lower (called the Upper and Lower 
 Landgraviates of Alsace) — Colmar, the capital of the one, and Hagen- 
 au, of the other. The greater part of the Lower Landgraviate was 
 possessed by the bishop of Strasburg, and most of the remainder of 
 the two Landgraviates, by the house of Austria. Besides these, the 
 province included the imperial abbeys of Murbach and Munster in 
 Gregorienthal, the bailiwick or prefecture (landvogtey) of Hagenau, 
 comprehending the ten united imperial cities of Hagenau, Colmar, 
 Schlettstadt, Weissenburg, Landau [now in Rhenish Bavaria,] Obern- 
 heim, Rosheim, Munster in Gregorienthal, Kaisersberg and Turkheim, 
 and also the free imperial city of Strasburg. — P. 
 
 b The territory ( landschaft ) of Sundgau or Suntgau (Suntgaw or 
 Sundgaw (Enc. Meth.) — Suntgaw or Sundgow (Moreri) — Suntgow 
 (Hubner) — one of the goirs (Germ, gauen, Lat. pagi) or districts, into 
 which the country on the Upper Rhine was divided in the middle ages) 
 included that part of the province of Alsace, south of the Upper Land- 
 graviate. It belonged chiefly to the house of Austria, and was origi- 
 nally possessed in a great measure by the counts of Pfirt (Fr. Fcrrette;) 
 it also included the free imperial city of Mulhausen, and the towns of 
 Altkirch, Befort and Huningen. — P. 
 
 c Formerly called the County of Burgundy (Fr. Comte de Bour- 
 gogne) or Upper Burgundy. It was originally governed by counts of 
 its own, but in 1309 it came into the possession of Philip the Bold, 
 duke of Burgundy, by marriage with Margaret heiress of the county, 
 and again in 1477, along with the Netherlands, into that of Maximilian 
 I. then archduke of Austria, by marriage with Mary, daughter of 
 Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. In 1512, Maximilian I. erect- 
 ed it, along with the Netherlands, into a tenth circle, that of Burgun- 
 dy, under the protection of the empire, but not subject to its charges 
 nor to the sovereignty of the emperor. Charles V. who had annexed 
 to it the dutchy of Lorraine, ceded this circle with Spain to his son 
 Philip II., in whose family Franche Comte remained till 1674, when it 
 was conquered by Louis XIV., and finally ceded to him by the treaty 
 of Nimeguen in 167S. Formerly Besanqon (Germ. Bisanz) was reck- 
 oned a free imperial city, and the archbishop of Besan^on and the abbot 
 of Lure (Germ. Ludders,) princes of the empire. These were imme- 
 diate states of the empire of early date, (the city of Besanqon from the 
 10th century.) and were included in the circle of the Upper Rhine. — P. 
 d 11 Dole.” — See note d p. 96C. 
 
 e Franche-Comte was divided into three parts, called great baili- 
 wicks (grands bailliages) viz. the upper or that of Amont (a mont) 
 the middle or that of Dole, and the lower or that of Aval (d val.) (Mo- 
 reri. Enc. Meth.) — It was divided into three upper-bailiwicks, viz. those 
 of Amont, Dole, and Besamjon or Salines. (Hubner.) This division 
 does not correspond with the former, since Besan^on was not included 
 in the great bailiwick of Aval, but in that of Dole. — Franche-Comte 
 was also divided into fourteen bailiwicks (bailliages) or subdelegations, 
 viz. Vesoul, Gray, Dole, Lons le Saulnier and Poligny, in the Low 
 Country (pays uni.) and Pontarlier, Orgelet, Salins, Ornans, Beaume, 
 St. Claude, Quingey, Arbois and Besancjon, in the High or Mountain 
 Country (pays de montagnes.) (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 f The term Burgundy (Bourgogne) has several significations in his- 
 tory and geography. The government of Burgundy included not only 
 the province of Burgundy (Burgundy Proper,) but also Bresse, with 
 Bugey and Valromey, and the country of Gex. The province of Bur- 
 gundy included the dutchy of Burgundy proper, with its dependencies, 
 the counties of Charolois, Mliconnois, Auxerrois and Bar sur Seine. 
 The dutchy proper included Dijonnois, Autunois, Chalonnois, Auxois, 
 and the Pays de la Montague. (Enc. Meth. Moreri.) — Burgundy in its 
 more enlarged sense, included Franche-Comte, called Upper Burgundy 
 or the County of Burgundy, as well as the Province or Dutchy of Bur- 
 gundy, called also Lower Burgundy. — The first kingdom of Burgundy 
 was formed by the Burgundians (Burgundioncs) in the 5th century. 
 It included the dutchy of Burgundy, Franche-Comte, Provence, Dau- 
 phiny, Lyonnois, Savoy and Switzerland. It was annexed to France 
 in 534 by the sons of Clovis. The kingdom of Burgundy on this side 
 the Jura (Burgundia Cisjurana ,) founded in 855 in favour of Charles, 
 third son of the emperor Lothaire I., included Provence and the dutchy 
 of Lyons. (Enc. Meth.) — The kingdom of Arles or Provence, which 
 was held by Charles, third son of the emperor Lothaire, consisted of 
 Provence, Dauphiny, and part of the ancient kingdom of Burgundy; it 
 terminated before 864, on the death of Charles. (Guthrie and Gray, vol. 
 X. p. 406, 408.) — The kingdom of Cisjurane Burgundy, or the first 
 kingdom of Arles, comprehended the countries situated between the 
 
 Ancient Provinces 
 or Military 
 Governments. 
 
 24 Burgundyf 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 Dijon 
 
 Divisions in each Government. 
 
 'Auxerrois , s Bailiwick' 
 of La Montagne, 11 
 Auxois," Dijonnais,' 
 Autunais, k Chalon- > 
 nais, 1 Charolais, m 
 Maconnais, 11 Princi- 
 pality of Dombes, 0 
 Bresse , p Bugey, *t 
 Gex r and Valromey. 8 
 
 The Departments 
 formed horn them. 
 
 Ain, Cote 
 d’Or, Saone 
 and Loire, 
 Yonne. 
 
 Saone, the Alps and the Sea; it was usurped by Boson, son in law 
 of the emperor Louis II., in 879, and was ceded in 929 to Rodolph II. 
 king of Transjurane Burgundy. (Moreri.) — The kingdom of Burgundy 
 beyond the Jura (Burgundia Transjurana ,) founded by Rodolph, son 
 of Conrad, count of Paris, in 888, included at first only Switzerland, 
 and Chablais (in Savoy.) Rodolph II. his son, united the two king- 
 doms of Cisjurane and Transjurane Burgundy, and formed the second 
 kingdom of Arles (also called Transjurane Burgundy.) Rodolph III. 
 his grandson, dying without issue, left it in 1032, to the emperor Con- 
 rad the Salic. (Moreri. Enc. Meth.) — The dutchy of Burgundy never 
 formed part of either of these two kingdoms of Cisjurane and Transju- 
 rane Burgundy, but was governed by its dukes, who held of the crown 
 of France. Philip the Bold, the first of the last line of dukes, acquired 
 by marriage, Franche-Comte and part of the Netherlands, and after- 
 wards the remainder of the Netherlands were annexed to the domains 
 of the family, rendering it one of the most powerful in Europe; but on 
 the death of Charles the Bold without male issue, in 1477, these estates 
 were dismembered — Louis XL seizing the dutchy of Burgundy as a 
 male fief, since which time it has remained in the possession of the 
 crown of France, and the other possessions passing to Maximilian I. 
 by marriage. (See note c .) — The circle of Burgundy is described in 
 note c . — P . 
 
 s Comprehending the N. W. corner of Burgundy Proper; possessed 
 by its counts till 1371, then united to the crown, and in 1435 transfer- 
 red to Philip duke of Burgundy by Charles Vll. — Auxerre the capi- 
 tal.— P. 
 
 h “ Le Bailliage de la Montagne ” (Le Pays de la Montagne or La 
 Montagne — so called from its hilly surface) — a small country on the 
 northern frontier of Burgundy, projecting into Champagne. It extends 
 along the Seine, and includes Chfitillon sur Seine and Bar sur Seine. — 
 Bar sur Seine, originally a county in Champagne, by which it is entire- 
 ly surrounded, was ceded to Philip of Burgundy in 1435, by Charles 
 VII— P. 
 
 ‘ Between Dijonnois and Auxerrois — Semur en Auxois the capital. 
 
 j Dijonnois — including Dijon, Auxonne and St. Jean de Losne. 
 
 k Autunois — bordering on Nivernois; including Autun the capital, 
 Bourbon-Lancy and Semur en Briennois. — Briennois or Brionnois, a 
 small district, extending along the Loire on the confines of Bourbon- 
 nois. — P. 
 
 1 Chalonnois, Chalonois — divided into two parts by the Saone ; that 
 on the west, called Chalonnois Proper or La Montagne, situated in 
 Burgundy, (Chalons sur Saone;) that on the east, (exclusive of the dis- 
 trict between the Saone and the Doubs (Verdun) — in Burgundy,) called 
 Bresse Chalonnoise, situated in Bresse, (Louhans.) — P. 
 
 m Charolois — a hilly country west of Chalons and Macon, traversed by 
 the canal of the Centre, and including Charolles and Digoin ; at first a 
 county held in fief of the dukes of Burgundy, but purchased by Philip 
 the Bold in 1390, and annexed to the dutchy of Burgundy. — P. 
 
 n Maconnois, Masconnois — on the west of the Saone, by which it is 
 separated from Bresse; including Macon. Cluny and Tournus — origi- 
 nally a county ; united to the crown in 1238, and ceded by Charles Vll. 
 to Philip of Burgundy in 1435. — P. 
 
 0 Situated on the E. bank of the Saone below Macon — Trevoux the 
 capital: erected into an independent sovereignty about the commence- 
 ment of the 11 tli century, with which title it continued in the hands 
 of different families till 1762, when Louis XV. purchased it and annex- 
 ed it to Bresse. — P, 
 
 p Bresse, in its more enlarged sense, included Bresse Proper, the 
 sovereignty of Dombes, and the countries of Bugey, Valromey and 
 Gex, and was bounded by the Saone on the west, the Rhone on the 
 south and south-east, Switzerland on the north-east, and Franche- 
 Comte and Burgundy on the north. — Bresse Proper included that part 
 of Bresse between the Saone, the Rhone, the Ain and the Seille, ex- 
 clusive of Dombes — Bourg the capital. — Bresse Chalonnoise, north of 
 the Seille, was annexed to the dutchy of Burgundy in 1289. (See note 
 1 .) — Bresse Proper, Bugey (including Valromey.) and Gex, belonged 
 to the house of Savoy, previous to 1601, at which time they were 
 ceded to Henry IV. in exchange for the marquisate of Saluzzo in Pied- 
 j mont. — P. 
 
 <i A small country between the Ain and the Rhone, including Bel- 
 ley, Seissel and Nantua. (See note p .) 
 
 r “ Pays de Gex.” — Bailiwick (Bailliage) of Gex. (Moreri.) — A 
 small district in Switzerland in the Pays de Vaud, situated between 
 Mount Jura on the north and the Rhone and the Lake of Geneva on the 
 south; ceded to France in 1601 by the duke of Savoy. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 3 Marquisate of Valromey — a very small district in Bugey on the 
 Rhone; Seissel the capital. — P. 
 
ROOK CXLVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 341 
 
 Ancient Provinces 
 or Military 
 Governments. 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 Divisions in each government. 
 
 The Departments 
 
 Ancient Provinces 
 or Military 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 Divisions in each Government. 
 
 The Departments 
 
 
 formed from them. 
 
 Governments. 
 
 
 
 formed from them. 
 
 25 Lyonnais 1 
 
 2G Languedoc 11 
 27 Roussillon 11 
 
 Lyons 
 
 Forez, b Beaujolais. 0 Loire, Rhone. 
 
 Southern Region. 
 
 c 
 
 Gevaudan, e 
 ivarais.s 
 
 Velay/ 
 
 G< 
 
 Toulouse < yj 
 
 l 
 
 C Valespir, Capsir, 
 Perpignan < T , : 
 
 1 = ) 1 rencli Cerdagne.' 
 
 J Avdeche, 
 
 Aude, (Jard, 
 Ilerault, 
 
 Upper Garonne, 
 Upper Loire, 
 Lozere, Tarn. 
 
 ) Eastern 
 5 Pyrenees. 
 
 28 County of 
 Foix.) 
 
 29 Guienne 1 
 and 
 
 Gascony" 1 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 Foix. 
 
 Bordeaux 
 
 and 
 
 Audi 
 
 Donezan k . 
 
 ''Bordelais," Bazadois, 0 
 Agenois/ 1 Perigord, i 
 Q.uercy, r Rouergue, 3 
 J Landes, 1 Basque 
 | Chalosse," Condomois, T 
 Gabardan, w Armagnac,* * 
 Bigorre/ 1 Comminge, 7 - 
 ^ Couserans. 111 
 
 Arriege. 
 
 Aveyron, 
 Dordogne, Gers, 
 Gironde, Lot 
 ..Lot and 
 ''Garonne, 
 Landes, Upper 
 Pyrenees, Tarn 
 and Garonne. 
 
 “ Lyonnois, Lionnois. — The government of Lyonnois included the 
 three provinces of Lyonnois Proper, Forez and Beaujolois — the former 
 containing Lyons (the capital.) Condrieux and St. Genis-Laval. — P. 
 
 b That part of the government extending along the valley of the 
 Loire, on the west of Lyonnois and Beaujolois — divided into Upper 
 and Lower; the former on the south, including Feurs, St. Etienne and 
 St. Chaumont; the latter on the north, including Roanne and Mont- 
 brison. — Forez was united to the crown by Francis I. — P. 
 
 c Beaujolois. — That part of the government north of Lyonnois Prop- 
 er — situated between the Saone and the Loire, and including Ville- 
 franche (the capital,) Beaujeu and Belleville sur Saone. — P. 
 
 d Languedoc, considered as a government, included Languedoc 
 Proper, Gevaudan, Velay and Vivarais, the three last of which were 
 comprehended under the general name of the Cevennes.* Languedoc 
 Proper was divided into Upper and Lower — the former on the west, 
 included the country of Toulouse {Le Toulousain or Tolosain ,) also 
 called Upper Languedoc Proper; Albigeois on the north, (Alby the 
 capital ;) Lauraguais on the east, (Castelnaudary the capital ;) and the 
 county of Foix on the south (see note i ) — the latter on the east, 
 along the Mediterranean, included the three quarters of Narbonne, 
 Beziers and Nismes. (Moreri.) — Languedoc is generally said to have 
 been derived from langue d’oc (the language of oc (yes) — that word 
 having been used by those who spoke the Tolosan language, while in 
 the north of France, oi was used for the same purpose — whence the dis- 
 tinction between the countries of the langue d'oc and the langue d'oi.) 
 Languedoc in this original sense, comprehended most of the country 
 to the south of the Loire, viz. Languedoc, Guienne, Limousin and 
 Auvergne ; but it was early restricted to the province of Languedoc, 
 which was annexed to the crown in 1361. — P. 
 
 * Languedoc was divided into three parts, viz. the Upper, the Lower, and the Ce- 
 vennes. The Cevennes ( Severnies ,) considered as a division of the government of 
 Languedoc, comprehending only Gevaudan, Velay and Vivarais, did not include the 
 whole of the mountains called by the same name, which extended into Lower Lan- 
 guedoc, and occupied a considerable part of the dioceses Of Alais, Uzes and Lodeve. 
 (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 e Givaudan (Moreri) — formerly Gabauldan, from the ancient Gaba- 
 li (Enc Meth.) — Situated to the west of Velay and Vivarais; including 
 Mende (the capital,) Chateauneuf de P«.andon and Florae. — P. 
 
 f A mountainous country, bounded by Gevaudan, Vivarais, Forez 
 and Auvergne, and now included in the department of the Upper 
 Loire — Le Puy the capital. — P. 
 
 e Vivarez (Moreri) — extended along the west bank of the Rhone 
 between Lyonnois Proper and Lower Languedoc; Viviers the capital. — 
 Divided into Upper and Lower; the former on the north, (Annonay 
 the capital;) the latter on the south, (Villeneuve de Berg the capi- 
 tal.)— P. 
 
 h The government of Roussillon comprehended Roussillon Proper, 
 the small countries of Valespir, Conflent (Conllans) and Capsir, and 
 French Cerdagne, all of which were conquered from Spain by Louis 
 XIII. and ceded to France by the treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659. — 
 Roussillon Proper, of which the three small countries above mentioned 
 were appendages, extended along the Mediterranean from Lower Lan- 
 guedoc to Catalonia — Perpignan the capital. Its name was derived 
 from the ancient city of Ruscino, near Perpignan, of which only a 
 tower remains, called the Tower of Roussillon {Tor Rosscillo, in the 
 language of the country.) It was originally a county, possesseil by 
 the counts of Roussillon and Ampurias (Ampurdan,) but in the 12th 
 century was united to the crown of Arragon. It continued in the 
 possesssion of Spain till it was annexed to France as above mentioned. — 
 Conflent (originally a county) and Capsir were situated in the north- 
 western part of Roussillon, towards the Pyrenees; Villefranche, the 
 capital of the former, and Puy-Val d’Or,of the latter. — Valespir includ- 
 ed Collioure and Port Vendre on the southern frontier of Roussillon 
 (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 1 “ La Cerdagne Fran<;aise.” — Cerdagne (Sp. Cerdana — Cerdaigne 
 or La Cerdagna. Moreri,) a small country in the Pyrenees to the west 
 of Roussillon, (originally a county,) part of which belongs to Spain 
 (Puycerda the capital,) and part to France (ceded in 1659— Mont- 
 Louis the capital.) — P. 
 
 1 This government included the county of Foix, properly so called, 
 (united to the crown of France by Henry IV.,) the country of Donezan* 
 {Pays de Donezan ,) and the valley of Andorre. (See for the latter, the 
 description of Spain, at the end.) — P. 
 
 *Donnezan or Dounezan — a small country in the Pyrenees, united to the govern- 
 ment of Foix ; Querigut the capital, it includes several passes from Catalonia to 
 Foix. (Diet. Trevoux.) — P. 
 
 k See note i *. 1 “ Guyenne.” 
 
 m The government of Guienne, (here called that of Guienne and 
 Gascony,) was divided into Upper and Lower; the former, on the east, 
 the latter, on the west. Lower Guienne included Bordelais, Perigord, 
 Agenois, Condomois, Bazadois, the Landes, Gascony Proper, and the 
 countries of Soule and Labour ; Upper Guienne, Quercy, Rouergue, 
 Armagnac, Comminges, Couserans and Bigorre. Guienne Proper in- 
 cluded Bordelais, Medoc (that part of Bordelais between the Gironde 
 and the sea — Lesparre the capital,) Buch ( Capitalat de Buck — a small 
 district of Gascony on the bay of Arcachon,) and the country between 
 two seas ( Pays d' entre deux mers — see note " .) (Enc. Meth.)— Gui- 
 enne, a province of France, with the title of dutchy, [Guienne Proper,] 
 including Bourdelois, L’Entre-deux-mers, Medoc, Bazadois, Agenois 
 and Condomois. Guienne in its more particular meaning {Guienne 
 jnirticuliire) included only the Sencchauss&e of Bordeaux. Guienne is 
 said to be a corruption of Aquitaine (first contracted into Quicnne ,) and 
 not to have been used till the 13th century. (Moreri.) — Gascony 
 {Gascogne,) a province of France, forming part of the government of 
 Guienne. Gascony Proper included the Landes, Chalosse, Tursan, 
 Marsan, and the Pays d'Albret; Gascony, improperly so called, also in- 
 cluded the Pays des Basques, Bearn, Bigorre, Comminges, Armagnac, 
 Condomois, Bazadois and Bourdelois. (Enc. Meth.) — The province of 
 Gascony included the Landes, Chalosse, Tursan, Marsan, Bigorre, 
 Comminges, Armagnac, Couserans, Gabardan, Lomagne, Astarac, Ri- 
 viere-Verdun, Nebouzan,-the Four Valleys {Quatre Vallies,) the Pays 
 d'Albret, Condomois, and part of Bazadois. (Vosgien.) — Tursan, in- 
 cluding Aire (the capital) and Miremont. — Marsan, originally a vis- 
 county under the dukes of Gascony— Mont de Marsan the capital. — 
 Pays d’Albret, (so called from the small town of Albret or l.abrit,) 
 originally a viscounty, then a dutchy ; Nerac the capital.- — Lomagne or 
 Laumagne (Lectoure the capital,) and Astarac or Estarac (Mirande the 
 capital,) were districts in Armagnac. — Riviere- Verdun, a district in 
 Armagnac along the Garonne, including Grenade (the capital) and 
 Verdun. — Nebouzan, a small country on the Garonne, adjoining Com- 
 minges; St. Gaudens the capital. — Lcs Quatre Tallies, a district in 
 Armagnac, now in the department of the Upper Pyrenees, consisting 
 of the four valleys of Magnoac, Aure, Neste and Barouse. — The Dutchy 
 of Guienne and Gascony (consisting of Guienne Proper and Gascony 
 Proper) was united to the crown of England in 1152, by the marriage 
 of Henry II. with Eleanor, heiress of the dutchy; it continued in the 
 possession of the English till it was annexed to France by Charles VII. 
 in 1453. — P. 
 
 11 Bourdelois.- — The country in the vicinity of Bordeaux (the capital,) 
 sometimes called Guienne Proper; including also Blaye, Libourne, 
 Bourg, Rions and Cadillac, (the latter the capital of the country be- 
 tween two seas {Pays d' entre deux mers ) — that part of Bourdelois 
 between the Garonne and the Dordogne.) (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 ° Bazas the capital. 
 
 p Agennois. (Moreri.) — Originally a county; then united to the 
 dutchy of Guienne. — Agen the capital. — P. 
 
 i Province, with the title of county; united to the crown of France 
 by Henry IV. (Moreri.) — Divided into Upper or White Perigord on the 
 Ille (Perigueux the capital,) and Lower or Black Perigord on the Dor- 
 dogne (Sarlat the capital.)— P. 
 
 r Querci (Moreri ;) formerly Cahourcin, from the ancient Cadurci 
 (Enc. Meth.) A province of France in the government of Guienne; 
 ceded to England by John, in full sovereignty; restored to France by 
 Charles V. — divided into Upper and Lower by the Lot; the former, 
 called Causse, on the north (Cahors the capital;) the latter on the 
 south (Montauban the capital.) — P. 
 
 s Province in the government of Guienne ; united to the crown ol 
 France by St. Louis (1258) — divided into the County (County of Ro- 
 dez. Moreri,) including Rodez (the capital,) Entraigues and St. Geniez 
 de Rivedolt; the Upper Marche, including Milhau (the capital,) St. 
 Afrique and Severac le Chiiteau; and the Lower Marche, including 
 Villefranche (the capital) and Sauveterre. — P. 
 
 < “ The Landes {Les Landes,)” sometimes called Landes de Bor- 
 deaux — a country of France in Gascony, extending along the sea coast 
 from Guienne Proper to Bearn and the Pays de Labour; including 
 Dax (the capital,) Tartas and Peyrehorade. — The term Landes is also 
 
 u v w x y z aa s ee next page for these notes. 
 
342 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLVI. 
 
 Ancient Provinces 
 or Military 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 Divisions in each Government. 
 
 The Departments 
 
 Governments 
 
 
 formed from them. 
 
 30 Bearn* 
 
 Pau 
 
 Lower Navarre b 
 
 ( Lower 
 ( Pyrenees. 
 
 
 1 
 
 f Baronnies,' 1 Gapen^ais, e 
 
 
 
 | Embrunais/ Brian^onnais,s 
 
 Upper Alps, 
 
 31 Dauphiny 0 
 
 Grenoble ( 
 
 ! Gresivaudan, h Royanes, 1 
 
 > Drome, 
 
 1 
 
 Tricastin,! Valentinois, 11 
 ^Lhois, 1 Viennois." 1 
 
 Isere. 
 
 
 Ancient Provinces 
 
 or Military Capitals. 
 
 Governments. 
 
 32 Provence 11 . Aix 
 Corsica 0 
 
 Comtat VenaissinP r ? . . 
 Conitat d’Avignom r \ Avignon 
 
 Divisions in each Government. The Departments 
 formed from them. 
 
 Lower Alps, 
 ■ Mouths of 
 | the Rhone, 
 [Var. 
 
 Corsica. 
 
 Vaucluse. 
 
 applied to all the country covered with sandy heaths ( landes ) and pine 
 forests, between the Garonne and the Adour ; divided into the Greater 
 Landes, between Bordeaux and Bayonne, and the Lesser Landes, be- 
 tween Bazas and Mont de Marsan. — P. 
 
 11 11 The country of the Basques (Le Pays dcs Basques,) Chalosse 
 (La Chalosse)" — The Pays ties Basques, called also Les Basques, Les 
 Pays Basques (the Basque or Biscayan countries,) and French Biscay 
 (Biscayc Pranqaise,) extended along the sea coast from the Adour to 
 the Spanish frontiers. It was divided into Labour (Lab our d (Moreri,) 
 Pays elc Labour,) including all the sea coast, with the towns of Bay- 
 onne (the capital.) Andaye and St. Jean de Luz ; Lower Navarre 
 (see note b p. 1022 ;) and Soule (Pays de Soule,) extending along the 
 Pyrenees between Bearn and Lower Navarre, (Mauleon the capital.) 
 See also the account of the department of the Lower Pyrenees 
 (notes.) — Chalosse, a country in Gascony, east of the Landes (proper) 
 — St. Sever the capital. — P. 
 
 v A country in Gascony (Guienne. Moreri) — Condom the capital. 
 (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 w A small country in Condomois — Gabaretthe capital. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 * A province of Franee, with the title of county — divided into Upper 
 (eastern) and Lower (western,) and including Auch (the capital,) Mi- 
 rande and Lecfoure. — P. 
 
 y A province of France, with the title of county (Vosgien;) united 
 to the crown by Henry IV. (Moreri) — situated at the foot of the Pyre- 
 nees, between Bearn and Comminges, and divided into the Mountains 
 (Montagues) on the south, containing the two principal valleys of 
 Lavedan and Bareges, the Plain (plains Ae Bigorre) north of the former, 
 extending from Bagneres and Lourdes to Vic de Bigorre, and including 
 Tarbes (the capital,) and Rustan on the north-east, bordering on Asta- 
 rac (a district in Armagnac — Mirande the capital.) — P. 
 
 z Comminges (Vosgien.) Cominge, Cominges (Moreri.) — A province 
 and county of France, finally united to the crown in the 16th century — 
 situated on the Garonne at the foot of the Pyrenees, between Bigorre 
 and Couserans ; divided into Upper Comminges on the south (St. Ber- 
 trand de Cojmninges the capital,) and Lower Comminges on the nortli 
 (Lombez the capital.) — A small part of the diocese of St. Bertrand de 
 Comminges, included in Languedoc, was called Little Comminges. — P. 
 
 aa Conserans or Couserans (Vosgien.) Coserans (Moreri.) — A small 
 country with the title of viscounty (ricomti ,) situated at the foot of the 
 Pyrenees, between Comminges and the County of Foix, (St. I izier the 
 capital) — united with the county of Bigorre 1257, whence it passed to 
 the house of Navarre, and was annexed by Henry IV. to the crown of 
 France. — P. 
 
 * The government of Bearn included Bearn Proper and Lower Na- 
 varre, both of which belonged to the house of Navarre and were united 
 by Louis XIII. to the crown of France in 1620. — Bearn Proper, or the 
 Principality of Bearn, was bounded by Bigorre on the east, the Pyre- 
 nees on the south, Soule and apart of Lower Navarre on the west, and 
 Gascony 1 Proper and Lower Armagnac on the north, and included Pau 
 (the capital,) Oloron and Ortliez. — P. 
 
 b 11 Basse-Navarre.” — The kingdom of Navarre consisted originally 
 of the Spanish province of Navarre (Upper Navarre) and Lower Na- 
 varre in France. It was divided into six bailiwicks (merindades,) five 
 in Spain, and the sixth consisting of Lower Navarre (the only part of 
 the kingdom that remained to John D ’Albret, after his possessions in 
 Spain had been usurped by Ferdinand in 1512.) Lower Navarre was 
 separated from Upper Navarre by the Pyrenees, along which it extended 
 between Soule and Labour, and also on the north of the former to the 
 Principality of Bearn. It included St. Jean Pied de Port (the capital) 
 and St. Palais. — P. 
 
 c Dauphiny (Dauphini) was divided into Upper and Lower — the 
 former including Gresivaudan, Brian<;onnois, Embrunois, Gapenqois, 
 Royannez and the Baronies; the latter, Viennois, Valentinois, Diois 
 and Tricastin. It was part of the second kingdom of Burgundy (found- 
 ed by Boson in 879) till its extinction in 1032. The counts of Albon, 
 who in the 12th century took the title of dauphins, then acquired the 
 greater part of it, viz. Gresivaudan, Viennois, Embrunois, Gapenqois 
 and Brianqonnois. Humbert II., the last of these dauphins, ceded his 
 territories in 1349, to Charles V., then grandson of Philip of Valois, on 
 condition that he and his heirs should bear the arms and title of dau- | 
 
 phin, and that the country should be possessed as a particular sovereign- 
 ty and not incorporated with the kingdom. Since then the eldest sons 
 of the kings of France have born the title of dauphins. — P. 
 
 d “ The Baronies (Les Baronnies)” — a mountainous country in the 
 southern part of Dauphiny (diocese of Gap — department of the Drome,) 
 consisting of the two great baronies of Mevillon (Mevillons. Moreri) 
 and Montauban. — P. 
 
 e Gapenyois (Enc. Meth.) Gapan^ois (Moreri) — formerly a county; 
 Gap the capital. — P. 
 
 f Embrunois, Ambrunois (Moreri) — Embrun the capital. — P. 
 g Brianyonnois, or Bailiwick of Briamjon. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 11 Gresivaudan (province of Grenoble.) (Moreri.) — Graisivaudan 
 (territory of Grenoble.) (Enc. Meth.) — A mountainous country extend- 
 ing along the Isere and the Drac ; Grenoble the capital — bounded W. 
 and N. W. by Viennois, N. and N. E. by Savoy, E. by Briamjonnois, 
 S. E. by Embrunois, S. by Gapemjois, and W. by Valentinois. — P. 
 
 1 “ Royanes.” — Royanez (Enc. Meth.) — A small country in Dau- 
 phiny, in the diocese of Die; Pont de Royan (Pont en Royans (Vos- 
 gien) — 7 or 8 leagues S. W. of Grenoble) the capital. — P. 
 
 i A country in Dauphiny. in the environs of St. Paul-Trois-Chateaux 
 (Augusta Tricastinorum.) — P. 
 
 k A country on the Rhone (originally a county,) ceded with Di- 
 ois to Louis XI., then dauphin, in 1446, and annexed to Dauphiny — 
 divided into Upper and Lower (the former extending from the Isere 
 to the Drome, and the latter, from the Drome to the county of Ve- 
 naissin,) and including Valence (the capital,) Romans, St. Marcellin 
 and Montelimart. — P. 
 
 1 A country on the Drome, between Gresivaudan, Gapenqois and 
 Valentinois — originally a county, annexed to Valentinois in 1189; Die 
 the capital. — P. 
 
 m Situated between the Rhone and the Isere — Vienne the capital. — P. 
 n Provence, which had been governed by its counts, was united to 
 the crown of France by Charles VIII. in 1487. It was divided into 
 Upper (on the north) and Lower (on the south,) and included within 
 its limits, besides the county of Provence, properly so called, the coun- 
 ty of Forcalquier (annexed to the county of Provence in 1193, whence 
 the kings of France, as taking the place of the counts of Provence, 
 were styled in all provincial acts, counts of Provence and Forcalquier,) 
 Avignon and the county of Venaissin, which belonged to the Holy See, 
 the county of Nice (detached from the county of Provence in 1388,and 
 annexed to Savoy, now Sardinia,) and the Principality of Orange,* 
 which belonged to the princes of Nassau, and was finally ceded to 
 Louis XIV. by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713, when it was annexed to 
 Dauphiny. — P. 
 
 * The Principality of Orange, (5 leagues long by 3 broad,) was enclosed in the 
 county of Venaissin. It was originally a county, but took the title of principality 
 about the beginning of the 12th century ; in 1531, it passed into the house of Nassau- 
 Orange, which terminated in the person of William III. of England in 1702. It was 
 then claimed by Frederick William I. of Prussia, who ceded his right to Louis XIV., 
 by whom it had previously been occupied, in 1713. — P. 
 
 » The island was not included in any of the ancient provinces [“ — in 
 any of the 32 great provincial governments.”] 
 
 p The County of Venaissin (Le Comtat Venaissin;) also called Ve- 
 naisse (Moreri) — situated between Provence, Dauphiny, the Rhone 
 and the Durance, and including Carpentras (the capital,) Venasque 
 (the former capital, from which it derived its name,) Cavaillon and 
 Vaison. It belonged to the counts of Toulouse till 1228, when it w T as 
 ceded to the Holy See by the agency of St. Louis; the popes, however, 
 yielded it again to the counts of Toulouse in 1243, but it w'as finally 
 restored to the Holy See by Philip the Hardy in 1273.— P. 
 
 <i The County of Avignon (Le Comtat d' Avignon ) — consisting of the 
 city and territory of Avignon and the hourg of Mauriere (Moreri.) The 
 city of Avignon formed itself into a kind of republic in the 11th cen- 
 tury, holding in common of the counts of Provence and Toulouse. In 
 1290 the sovereignty was vested entirely in the counts of Provence, of 
 whom it w r as purchased in 1348 by Clement VI. and thus came into the 
 possession of the Holy See. The two counties of Venaissin and Avig- 
 non formed the papal sovereignty of Avignon. — P. 
 
 r These two small countries were not ceded to France by the papal 
 government, as has been already remarked, till 1791. 
 
book cxlyi.j DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 343 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLE, 
 
 EXHIBITING 
 
 9 
 
 THE POPULATION, SURFACE, EXTENT OF ROADS* AND INLAND NAVIGATION, AND VALUE OF LAND, IN EACH DEPARTMENT. 
 
 Departments. 
 
 i 
 
 Population. 
 
 Surface 
 in geogra- 
 phical 
 square 
 leagues. 
 
 Number 
 of inhabi- 
 tants to 
 each 
 square 
 league. 
 
 Capitals of departments^ subpre- 
 fecturesc and dioceses.d 
 
 Relative extent 
 in metres e to 
 every square 
 league. 
 
 1 
 
 Number of hectares.f 
 
 Mean annual 
 value of the 
 hectare. 
 
 Revenue of the 
 land.g 
 
 Names. 
 
 Population . 
 
 a 
 
 T3 
 
 C3 
 
 O 
 
 Inland ; 
 Naviga- 
 tion. 1 
 
 Woods. 
 
 Vineyards. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Cen- 
 
 times. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Ain 
 
 341,628 
 
 295 
 
 1113 
 
 Bourg 
 B elley! 
 Gex 
 Nantua 
 Trevoux - 
 
 - - 8424 
 
 - - 5284 
 
 - - 2647 
 
 - - 3684 
 
 - - 3000 
 
 1408 
 
 779 
 
 65,100 
 
 18,000 
 
 25 75 
 
 16,076,000 
 
 Aisne 
 
 489,560 
 
 375 
 
 1226 
 
 Laon - - - 7354 
 
 Chateau-Thierry 4345 
 St. Quentin - 17,661 
 
 Soissonsf - - 7483 
 
 Vervins - - - 2687 
 
 1589 
 
 552 
 
 103,700 
 
 9400 
 
 35 65 
 
 23,994,000 
 
 Allier 
 
 285,302 
 
 293 
 
 953 
 
 Moulins^ - 14,525 
 
 Gannat - - - 5003 
 Palisse - - - 2268 
 
 Mont-Lu^on - 4567 
 
 1493 
 
 685 
 
 123,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 15 — 
 
 13,130,000 
 
 Alps (Lower) 
 
 153,063 
 
 368 
 
 405 
 
 DiGNF.f - - - 3955 
 
 Barcelonette - 1759 
 
 Castellane - - 1930 
 
 Forcalquier - - 2133 
 
 Sisteron - - - 3920 
 
 365 
 
 
 56,400 
 
 10,000 
 
 5 99 
 
 7,745,000 
 
 Alps (Upper) 
 
 125,329 
 
 275 
 
 441 
 
 Gap| 
 Brian^on 
 Embrun - 
 
 - - 7015 
 
 - - 2835 
 
 - - 2300 
 
 1213 
 
 
 72,300 
 
 7000 
 
 6 20 
 
 5,234,000 
 
 Ardeciie 
 
 328,419 
 
 277 
 
 1120 
 
 Privas - - - 4199 
 V ime»\s'f h 
 
 L’Argentiere - 2797 
 Tournon - - - 3606 
 
 1394 
 
 498 
 
 28,800 
 
 16,000 
 
 19 48 
 
 13,210,000 
 
 Ardennes 
 
 281,624 
 
 256 
 
 1043 
 
 Mezieres 
 
 Rethel 
 
 Rocroy 
 
 Sedan 
 
 Vouziers 
 
 - - 4159 
 
 - - 6147 
 
 - - 3500 
 
 12,608 
 
 - - 1880 
 
 1261 
 
 449 
 
 155,900 
 
 2500 
 
 16 93 
 
 11,234,000 
 
 Arriege 
 
 247,932 
 
 287 
 
 817 
 
 Foix - - 
 
 Pamiersf 
 St. Girons 
 
 - - 4958 
 
 - - 6246 
 
 - - 4450 
 
 981 
 
 21 
 
 57,500 
 
 16,200 
 
 15 20 
 
 9,841,000 
 
 Aube 
 
 241,762 
 
 306 
 
 752 
 
 Troyes! " - 25,587 
 
 Arcis sur Aube 2656 
 
 Bar sur Aube - 3758 
 Bar sur Seine - 2112 
 
 Nogent sur Seine 3325 
 
 1223 
 
 224 
 
 84,500 
 
 21,000 
 
 21 05 
 
 27,472,515 
 
 a “Royal roads” — great roads supported by the nation, in distinction 
 from those supported by the communes. — P. 
 
 b “ Prefectures.” c Arrondissements. 
 
 d The sign t denotes the capital of a bishopric, and the sign [, an 
 archiepiscopal town. — [The whole number of archbishops and bishops 
 marked in this table, is fourteen of the former, and sixty-six of the lat- 
 ter, corresponding with the numbers in the Table of the Clergy in 1828 
 (p. 1032.) — Before the revolution, there were eighteen archbishops in 
 France, (exclusive of Avignon,) and 114 bishops. (Enc. Meth. 1782.)— By 
 a decree of the National Assembly in 1790, the number of archbishops 
 was reduced to 10, (called metropolitan bishops,) and that of bishops to 
 83, one for each department. By the concordat of 1801, the number of 
 archbishops in France proper was fixed at 10, and that of bishops at 51. 
 (Ed. Encyc.) — In the Almanack Imperial of 1813, the number of arch- 
 bishops in France proper is stated at nine: viz. Paris, Besancon, Lyons, 
 Aix, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Bourges, Tours and Rouen; that of bishops, 
 at 41. In the Almanack Royal of 1822, the number of archbishops is 
 stated at twelve: viz. Paris, Besancon, Lyons, Aix, Toulouse, Bordeaux, 
 Bourges, Tours, Rouen, B-eims, Sens and Avignon ; that of bishops, at 
 44. Among the bishoprics marked in this table, the following are not 
 
 contained in the list of 1822: viz. Belley, Moulins, Gap, Viviers, Pa 
 miers, Rhodez, Marseilles, Tulle, St. Claude, Aire, Blois, Le Puy, 
 Chalons, Langres, Verdun, Nevers, Beauvais, Tarbes, Perpignan, 
 Montauban, Frejus and St. Die; and among the archbishoprics, those 
 of Audi and Alby. These bishoprics and archbishoprics all existed, 
 however, before the revolution, except that of Moulins. — P.] 
 e The metre is equal to 39.371 English inches. Tr. 
 f I The Hectare is nearly equal to two English acres. Tr. — [The Hec- 
 tare is equal to 11,960.46 English square yards, or 2 acres, 1 rood, 35.4 
 rods, nearly. — P.] 
 
 s “ Revenu territorial ” — returns from the soil. The total of these 
 sums amounts to 1,578,288,515 francs, (the department of the Doubs 
 not included.) — In a memoir on the commerce of France and her colo- 
 nies, published in 1789, the value of the produce of agriculture was esti- 
 mated at 1,826,000,000 livres. (Ed. Encyc.)— The value of capital vested 
 in agricultural pursuits is estimated at 37,522,061,476 francs; the gross 
 annual produce at 4,678,708,885 francs; the expenses of cultivation at 
 3,334,005,515 francs; and the nett profits at 1,344,703,370 francs. (Enc 
 Amer.) — P. 
 
 h Viviers is not the capital of a subprefecture. (Aim. Royal.) — P. 
 
344 EUROPE. [BOOK CXLVI. 
 
 Departments. 
 
 Population 
 
 Surface i 
 geograph 
 cal squar 
 leagues. 
 
 n Number ol 
 - inhabitant 
 e to each sq 
 league. 
 
 Capitals of Departments, Subpre- 
 fectures, and Dioceses. 
 
 Relative exten 
 in metres to ev 
 ery sq. league 
 
 Number of hectares. 
 
 Mean annu 
 al value of 
 the hectare 
 
 Revenue of the 
 land. 
 
 
 Names. j Population 
 
 • 
 
 TS 
 
 6 
 
 C5 
 
 Z > C 
 £* \ 
 
 Woods. 
 
 . 
 
 Vineyards. 
 
 c g Si 
 
 £ SJ 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Aude 
 
 265,991 
 
 319 
 
 794 
 
 Carcassonne’!" 
 
 17,755 
 
 906 
 
 43£ 
 
 56,300 
 
 35,000 
 
 23 07 
 
 17,387,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Castelnaudary 
 
 9989 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Narbonne* 
 
 10,097 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aveyron 
 
 350,014 
 
 445 
 
 762 
 
 Rhodez"!" 
 
 7747 
 
 1058 
 
 IE 
 
 59,600 
 
 20,000 
 
 14 57 
 
 12,943,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Espalion 
 
 2350 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Milhau 
 
 8582 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Afrique 
 
 6406 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Villefranche 
 
 9521 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Calvados 
 
 500, 95C 
 
 281 
 
 1749 
 
 Caen 
 
 38,161 
 
 1376 
 
 38C 
 
 32,800 
 
 
 55 38 
 
 35,503,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bayeuxf 
 
 10,060 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Falaise 
 
 1 0,303 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lisieux 
 
 10,706 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pont l’Eveque 
 
 2092 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vire 
 
 8116 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cantal 
 
 262,013 
 
 274 
 
 911 
 
 Aurillac 
 
 9576 
 
 1345 
 
 
 29,800 
 
 240 
 
 15 38 
 
 10,062,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mauriac 
 
 2455 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Murat 
 
 O4 5O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Flourf 
 
 6640 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Channel 
 
 611,206 
 
 304 
 
 1951 
 
 St. JLo 
 
 8,509 
 
 1168 
 
 407 
 
 16,300 
 
 
 40 59 
 
 31,813,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Avranches 
 
 6,966 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cherbourg 
 
 17,066 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coutances'f 
 
 9,037 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mortain 
 
 2,715 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Valognes 
 
 6,955 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Charente 
 
 353,653 
 
 280 
 
 1107 
 
 Angouleme+ 
 
 15,306 
 
 1023 
 
 
 22,100 
 
 66,500 
 
 26 93 
 
 17,906,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Barbezieux 
 
 3092 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cognac 
 
 3017 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Confolens 
 
 2213 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ruffec 
 
 2657 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ClIARENTE(LoYVer) 
 
 424,147 
 
 307 
 
 1333 
 
 Saintes 5 
 
 10,300 
 
 1306 
 
 896 
 
 38,100 
 
 90,600 
 
 30 37 
 
 22,637,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jonsac 
 
 2501 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Marennes 
 
 4588 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rochefort 
 
 12,909 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 La Rochelle t b 
 
 1 1,073 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Jean d’Angcly 5766 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cher 
 
 248,539 
 
 369 
 
 665 
 
 BourgesJ 
 
 19,500 
 
 848 
 
 389 
 
 15,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 12 74 
 
 9,985,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Am and 
 
 5923 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sancerre 
 
 3103 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CoRREZE 
 
 284,882 
 
 273 
 
 940 
 
 Tulle| 
 
 8479 
 
 866 
 
 
 
 13,400 
 
 20,000 
 
 12 69 
 
 7,715,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Drives 
 
 7211 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ussel 
 
 2551 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Corsica 
 
 185,079 
 
 495 
 
 376 
 
 AjAcciof 
 
 7658 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 225,000 
 
 9000 
 
 
 
 2,635,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bastia 
 
 9527 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Calvi 
 
 1 175 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Corte 
 
 2841 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sartene 
 
 2137 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cote d’Or 
 
 370,943 
 
 440 
 
 814 
 
 Dijon"!" 
 
 23,845 
 
 1468 
 
 182 
 
 256,000 
 
 24,000 
 
 24 60 
 
 25,829,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Beaune 
 
 9366 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chatillon sur Seine 3986 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Semur 
 
 4220 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Creuse 
 
 252,932 
 
 269 
 
 925 
 
 Gueret 
 
 3448 
 
 953 
 
 — 
 
 39,000 
 
 — 
 
 10 36 
 
 6,812,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aubusson 
 
 4136 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bourganeuf 
 
 1687 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Boussac 
 
 757 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dordogne 
 
 464,074 
 
 476 
 
 953 
 
 Perigueux| 
 
 8588 
 
 695 
 
 435 
 
 67,500 
 
 72,000 
 
 20 51 
 
 21,327,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bergerac 
 
 8412 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yontron 
 
 1902 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^liberac 
 
 3604 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sarlat 
 
 5573 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 “ Limoux is also the capital of a subprefecture in the department of || b Tlie capital of the department is La Rochelle, not Saintes. Saintes 
 the Aude. (Aim. Royal.) — P. || is, however, the capital of a subprefecture. (M. B. Aim. Royal.) — P. 
 
book cxlvi.] DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 345 
 
 Departments. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Surface in 
 geographi- 
 cal square 
 leagues. 
 
 Number of 
 inhabitants 
 to each sq. 
 league. 
 
 Capitals of Departments, Subpre- 
 fectures, and Dioceses. 
 
 Relative extent 
 in metres to ev- 
 ery sq. league. 
 
 Number of hectares. 
 
 Mean annu- 
 al value of 
 the hectare. 
 
 Revenue of the 
 land. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Roads. 
 
 Inland 
 
 Navi- 
 
 gation.' 
 
 Woods. 
 
 Vineyards. 
 
 tn . • 
 
 C c « 
 
 S « s 
 
 fa «-* 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Doubs 
 
 254,312 
 
 276 
 
 878 
 
 Besan^onJ 
 
 28,795 
 
 1038 
 
 362 
 
 1 13,300 
 
 8000 
 
 20 99 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Beaume 
 
 2235 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pontarlier 
 
 4549 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montbelliard 4605 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Drome 
 
 285,791 
 
 336 
 
 824 
 
 Valence! 
 
 10,283 
 
 818 
 
 479 
 
 92,500 
 
 19,000 
 
 17 75 
 
 12,813,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Die 
 
 3187 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montelimart 7589 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nyons 
 
 2744 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eure 
 
 421,665 
 
 298 
 
 1418 
 
 Evreux| 
 
 9729 
 
 1396 
 
 876 
 
 97,800 
 
 18,000 
 
 40 43 
 
 29,741,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Les Andely 
 
 s 3460 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bernay 
 
 4738 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Louviers 
 
 9242 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pont-Audemer 5398 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eure and Loir 
 
 277,782 
 
 304 
 
 868 
 
 Chartres! 
 
 13,703 
 
 1201 
 
 99 
 
 45,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 31 01 
 
 19,419,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chateaudun 6452 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dreux 
 
 6247 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nogent le Rotrou 6658 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Finisterre 
 
 502,851 
 
 350 
 
 1376 
 
 Quimper! 
 
 10,032 
 
 1142 
 
 143 
 
 12,700 
 
 
 19 80 
 
 15,328,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Brest 
 
 26,655 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chateaulin 
 
 2426 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Morlaix 
 
 9761 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quimperle 
 
 4724 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gard 
 
 347,550 
 
 303 
 
 1103 
 
 Nimes| 
 
 39,068 
 
 1636 
 
 346 
 
 81,300 
 
 100,000 
 
 26 30 
 
 20,656,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alais 
 
 10,252 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ITzes 
 
 5622 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Le Vigan 
 
 4246 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Garonne (UpperJ 
 
 407,016 
 
 339 
 
 1153 
 
 Toulouse! 
 
 55,319 
 
 943 
 
 498 
 
 48,300 
 
 57,300 
 
 30 42 
 
 22,448,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Muret 
 
 3301 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Gaudens 5629 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Villefranche 2515 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gers 
 
 307,601 
 
 311 
 
 967 
 
 AuchJ 
 
 10,844 
 
 1336 
 
 — 
 
 11,400 
 
 74,000 
 
 22 09 
 
 16,415,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Condom 
 
 4149 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lectoure 
 
 3104 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lombez 
 
 2243 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mirande 
 
 2243 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gironde 
 
 538,151 
 
 517 
 
 1010 
 
 Bordeaux^ 
 
 93,549 
 
 699 
 
 550 
 
 85,600 
 
 110,000 
 
 31 72 
 
 39,907,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bazas 
 
 1903 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Blaye 
 
 2881 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 La Reole 
 
 2600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lesparre 
 
 950 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Libourne 
 
 8943 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Herault 
 
 339,560 
 
 315 
 
 1029 
 
 Montpelier! 35,842 
 
 1176 
 
 70 
 
 70,400 
 
 75,000 
 
 27 17 
 
 21,580,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Beziers 
 
 16,515 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lodeve 
 
 9842 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Pons 
 
 6121 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ille and Vilaine 
 
 553,453 
 
 321 
 
 1661 
 
 Rennes! 
 
 29,377 
 
 1956 
 
 181 
 
 20,000 
 
 306 
 
 26 40 
 
 19,477,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fougeres 
 
 7880 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montfort sur Meu 1316 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Redon 
 
 2998 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Malo 
 
 9838 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vitre 
 
 9085 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Indre 
 
 237,628 
 
 354 
 
 649 
 
 Ciiateauroux 11,010 
 
 1056 
 
 — 
 
 102,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 12 22 
 
 9,944,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Le Blanc 
 
 4642 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Issoudun 
 
 11,223 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 La Chatre 
 
 4272 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Indre and Loire 
 
 290,160 
 
 321 
 
 879 
 
 Tours! 
 
 20,920 
 
 905 
 
 1058 
 
 73,600 
 
 36,000 
 
 21 18 
 
 14,978,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chinon 
 
 4406 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Loches 
 
 3500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Isere 
 
 525,984 
 
 420 
 
 1204 
 
 Grenoble! 
 
 22,149 
 
 1135 
 
 381 
 
 130,700 
 
 22,000 
 
 24 45 
 
 24,134,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 La Tour du Pin 1770 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Marcellin 2540 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vienne 
 
 13,780 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 53 44 
 
346 EUROPE. [BOOK CXI/VI 
 
 
 
 Surface 
 
 Number 
 of inhabi- 
 
 Capitals of Departments, Subpre- 
 fectures and Dioceses. 
 
 Relative extent 
 in metres to 
 every square 
 
 Number of hectares. 
 
 Mean annual 
 value of the 
 hectare. 
 
 Revenue of the 
 land. 
 
 Departments. 
 
 Population. 
 
 in geogra- 
 
 
 
 
 league. 
 
 
 
 
 piiical 
 
 square 
 
 each 
 
 square 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 w 
 
 •s s> • 
 
 
 
 m . „• 
 
 
 
 
 ieagues. 
 
 league. 
 
 Names. 
 
 o 
 
 « 
 
 = — C 
 « > C 
 
 Woods. 
 
 Vineyards. 
 
 c Co 
 
 5 « c 
 2 o .5 
 fa w 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Jura 
 
 310,202 
 
 254 
 
 1160 
 
 Lons le Saulnier 7864 
 
 1294 
 
 — 
 
 135,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 17 24 
 
 15,351,000 
 
 
 
 
 Dole 
 
 9847 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Poligny 
 
 5555 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Claude! 
 
 5533 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lanpes 
 
 265,309 
 
 459 
 
 558 
 
 Mont de Marsan 3088 
 
 911 
 
 311 
 
 127,400 
 
 19,500 
 
 6 25 
 
 7,537,000 
 
 
 
 
 Dax 
 
 5045 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Sever 
 Jlire\ x 
 
 2604 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Loir and Chf.r 
 
 230,666 
 
 319 
 
 708 
 
 BloisI 
 
 1 1 ,337 
 
 690 
 
 362 
 
 66,000 
 
 28,000 
 
 17 15 
 
 11,721,000 
 
 
 
 
 Romorantin 
 
 6820 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vendome 
 
 6805 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Loire 
 
 369,298 
 
 234 
 
 1471 
 
 Montrrison 5156 
 
 950 
 
 227 
 
 36,400 
 
 13,000 
 
 24 90 
 
 14,368,000 
 
 
 
 
 Roanne 
 
 8916 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Etienne 
 
 30,615 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Loire (Lower) 
 
 457,090 
 
 308 
 
 1405 
 
 NANTEsf 
 
 71,739 
 
 1563 
 
 751 
 
 37,400 
 
 45,000 
 
 29 89 
 
 18,904,000 
 
 
 
 
 Ancenis 
 
 3145 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chateaubriant 2145 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Paimboeuf 
 
 3646 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Save nay 
 
 1845 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Loire (Upper) 
 
 285,673 
 
 250 
 
 1105 
 
 Le Puy| 
 
 14,998 
 
 1162 
 
 80 
 
 36,400 
 
 13,000 
 
 18 59 
 
 10,400,000 
 
 
 
 
 Brioude 
 
 5262 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yssengeaux 6908 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Loiret 
 
 304,228 
 
 356 
 
 818 
 
 Orleans^ 
 
 40,340 
 
 1158 
 
 764 
 
 95,700 
 
 39,000 
 
 24 12 
 
 17,516,000 
 
 
 
 
 Gien 
 
 5149 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montargis 
 
 6653 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pithiviers 
 
 4012 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lot 
 
 280,815 
 
 263 
 
 1046 
 
 Cahors| 
 
 12,413 
 
 839 
 
 623 
 
 23,000 
 
 47,000 
 
 18 57 
 
 11,306,000 
 
 
 
 
 Figeac 
 
 4790 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gourdon 
 
 5990 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lot and Garonne 
 
 336,886 
 
 242 
 
 1363 
 
 Agen| 
 
 11,971 
 
 1774 
 
 813 
 
 26,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 34 60 
 
 20,943 000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Marmande 
 
 4160 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nerac 
 
 3418 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Villeneuve d’Agen 9495 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lozere 
 
 138,778 
 
 257 
 
 521 
 
 Mende| 
 
 5445 
 
 1430 
 
 — 
 
 21,600 
 
 
 10 94 
 
 5,904,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Florae 
 
 1962 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Marvejols 
 
 3370 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Maine and Loire 
 
 458,674 
 
 365 
 
 1213 
 
 ANGERsf 
 
 29,978 
 
 1086 
 
 764 
 
 43,200 
 
 35,000 
 
 28 61 
 
 23,979,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bauge 
 
 3400 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Beaupreau 
 
 2964 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Saumur 
 
 10,314 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Segre 
 
 909 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Marne 
 
 325,045 
 
 410 
 
 738 
 
 Chalons| 
 
 12,419 
 
 1221 
 
 459 
 
 81,600 
 
 20,600 
 
 20 16 
 
 16,290,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 Epernay 
 
 5080 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Reims? 
 
 34,862 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Menehould 2933 
 
 Vitry le Francois 7194 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Marne (Upper) 
 
 244,823 
 
 315 
 
 737 
 
 Chaumont 
 
 6027 
 
 1050 
 
 318 
 
 215,900 
 
 17,500 
 
 16 93 
 
 13,652,000 
 
 
 
 
 Langresj 
 
 7180 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vassy 
 
 2345 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mayenne 
 
 354,138 
 
 261 
 
 1314 
 
 Laval 
 
 15,850 
 
 981 
 
 172 
 
 25,800 
 
 600 
 
 24 78 
 
 13,093,000 
 
 
 
 
 Chateau-Gonthier 5946 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mayenne 
 
 9799 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Meurthe 
 
 403,038 
 
 282 
 
 1350 
 
 Nancy! 
 
 29,122 
 
 1521 
 
 270 
 
 218,900 
 
 13,500 
 
 24 12 
 
 17,500,000 
 
 
 
 
 Luneville 
 
 12,378 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sarrebourg 
 
 1955 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Toul 
 
 7507 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Meuse 
 
 306,339 
 
 305 
 
 958 
 
 Bar le Du 
 
 c 12,520 
 
 1679 
 
 164 
 
 180,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 22 — 
 
 14,281,000 
 
 
 
 
 Commercj 
 
 3714 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montmedy 
 
 2146 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Verdun! 
 
 9882 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » Aire is not the capital of a subprefecture. (Aim. Royal.) — P. 
 
book cxiiVi.j DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 347 
 
 Departments. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Surface in 
 geographi- 
 cal square 
 leagues. 
 
 Number of 
 inhabitants 
 to each sq. 
 
 Capitals of Departments, Subpre- 
 fectures, and Dioceses 
 
 Relative extent 
 in metres to ev- 
 ery sq. league. 
 
 Number of hectares 
 
 Mean annu- 
 al value of 
 the hectare. 
 
 Revenue of the 
 land. 
 
 
 
 
 -o 
 
 o 
 
 03 
 
 Inland 
 
 Navi- 
 
 gation. 
 
 Woods. 
 
 Vineyards. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Cen- 
 
 times. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 league. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Morbihan 
 
 427,453 
 
 360 
 
 1157 
 
 VANNEsf 
 
 11,289 
 
 1605 
 
 489 
 
 18,300 
 
 600 
 
 20 -- 
 
 14,741,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lorient 
 
 15,310 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ploermel 
 
 5984 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pontivy 
 
 7770 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Moselle 
 
 409,135 
 
 339 
 
 1110 
 
 Metz| 
 
 45,276 
 
 1222 
 
 280 
 
 132 000 
 
 4,500 
 
 25 63 
 
 16,528,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Briey 
 
 1717 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sarreguemines 3608 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thionville 
 
 5821 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mouths of the Rhone 
 
 326,302 
 
 256 
 
 1225 
 
 Marseilles'! 115,943 
 
 953 
 
 625 
 
 41,000 
 
 26,500 
 
 26 77 
 
 23,588,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 AixJ 
 
 23,132 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arles 
 
 19,869 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nievre 
 
 271,777 
 
 334 
 
 772 
 
 N EVERS"! 
 
 15,782 
 
 1122 
 
 — 
 
 188,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 16 85 
 
 12,050,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chateau-Chinon 2214 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Clamecy 
 
 5447 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cosne 
 
 5973 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 North 
 
 962,648 
 
 283 
 
 3188 
 
 Lille 
 
 69,860 
 
 2061 
 
 205 
 
 57,000 
 
 — 
 
 69 56 
 
 44,206,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Avesnes 
 
 3311 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cambrayf 
 
 17,031 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Douay 
 
 19,880 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dunkirk 
 
 24,517 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hazebrouck 7644 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Valenciennes* 19,841 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 North Coast 
 
 581,684 
 
 375 
 
 1470 
 
 St. Brieux! 9963 
 
 1043 
 
 149 
 
 19,000 
 
 — 
 
 22 68 
 
 19,258,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dinan 
 
 7175 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Guingamp 
 
 5919 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lannion 
 
 5269 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Loudeac 
 
 7033 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oise 
 
 385,124 
 
 297 
 
 1332 
 
 Beauvais'!" 
 
 12,865 
 
 1787 
 
 374 
 
 83,300 
 
 3,500 
 
 39 80 
 
 25,906,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Clermont 
 
 2406 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Compiegne 
 
 7362 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Senlis 
 
 5049 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Orne 
 
 434,379 
 
 283 
 
 1492 
 
 Alen^on 
 
 14,071 
 
 975 
 
 — 
 
 58,900 
 
 
 29 22 
 
 22,096,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Seezf 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Argentan 
 
 6044 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Domfront 
 
 1670 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mortagne 
 
 5405 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pur de Dome 
 
 566,573 
 
 409 
 
 1353 
 
 3o,mo 
 
 995 
 
 220 
 
 54,200 
 
 22,000 
 
 24 28 
 
 22,428,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Issoire 
 
 3649 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Riom 
 
 6095 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thiers' 
 
 11,613 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pyrenees (Lower) 
 
 412,469 
 
 386 
 
 1036 
 
 Pau 
 
 11,761 
 
 1824 
 
 189 
 
 11,200 
 
 16,700 
 
 16 79 
 
 15,392,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bayonnef 
 
 13,498 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mauleon 
 
 1054 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oloron 
 
 6423 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Orthez 
 
 6834 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pyrenees (Upper) 
 
 222,059 
 
 233 
 
 907 
 
 Tarbes| 
 
 8712 
 
 1216 
 
 — 
 
 67,500 
 
 11,000 
 
 13 85 
 
 7,769,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Argeles 
 
 878 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bagneres 
 
 7037 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pyrenees (Eastern) 
 
 151,372 
 
 205 
 
 699 
 
 Perpignan - ! 15,357 
 
 1569 
 
 — 
 
 47,200 
 
 53,500 
 
 16 30 
 
 7,351,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ceret 
 
 3078 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Prades 
 
 2795 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rhine (Lower") 
 
 535,467 
 
 210 
 
 2384 
 
 Strasburg"! 49,708 
 
 1565 
 
 958 
 
 156,600 
 
 14,400 
 
 42 38 
 
 24,692,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Saverne 
 
 4993 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Schelestat 
 
 9600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Weissemburg 6146 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rhine (Upper) 
 
 408,741 
 
 194 
 
 1903 
 
 Colmar 
 
 15,496 
 
 1778 
 
 617 
 
 160,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 37 19 
 
 19,196,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Altkirch 
 
 2395 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Befort 
 
 4803 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *■ Valenciennes was in the subprefecture of Douay in 1822. (Aim. 
 Royal.) — P. 
 
 h Seez is not the capital of a subprefecture. (Aim. Royal.) — P. 
 
 c Ambert is also the capital of a subprefecture ip the department of 
 Puy de Dome. (M. B.) — P. 
 

 348 
 
 
 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 [BOOK CXLVI. 
 
 r 
 
 | 
 
 
 Surface 
 in geogra- 
 phical 
 square 
 leagues. 
 
 Number 
 of inhabi- 
 
 Capitals of Departments, Subpre- 
 fectures and Dioceses. 
 
 Relative extent 
 in metres to 
 every square 
 league. 
 
 Number of hectares. 
 
 Mean annual 
 value of the 
 hectare. 
 
 Revenue of the 
 land. 
 
 
 
 Department*. 
 
 Population. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 square 
 
 league. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Population. 
 
 ■o 
 
 rt 
 
 o 
 
 « 
 
 Inland 
 
 Naviga- 
 
 tion. 
 
 Woods. 
 
 Vineyards. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Cen- 
 
 times. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 
 
 Rhone 
 
 416,575 
 
 141 
 
 2954 
 
 Lyons! 
 
 145,675 
 
 1362 
 
 863 
 
 12,000 
 
 13,800 
 
 39 — 
 
 21,353,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Villefranche 5275 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Saone (Upper) 
 
 326,641 
 
 262 
 
 1175 
 
 Vesoul 
 
 5252 
 
 1202 
 
 763 
 
 130,300 
 
 12,000 
 
 31 89 
 
 18,336,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gray 
 
 7203 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lure 
 
 2808 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Saone and Loire 
 
 515,776 
 
 290 
 
 1150 
 
 Macon 
 
 10,965 
 
 1266 
 
 825 
 
 132,000 
 
 12,000 
 
 30 — 
 
 28,480,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Autunj - 
 
 9936 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chalons 
 
 10,609 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Charolles 
 
 3013 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Louhans 
 
 3170 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sarthe 
 
 446,519 
 
 323 
 
 1326 
 
 Le Mans! 
 
 19,477 
 
 1105 
 
 415 
 
 58,600 
 
 10,400 
 
 28 16 
 
 19,596,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 La Fleche 
 
 5412 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mainers 
 
 5846 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Calais 
 
 3752 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Seine 
 
 1,013,373 
 
 24 
 
 34,398 
 
 ParisJ 
 
 890,431 
 
 5498 
 
 381 
 
 4,100 
 
 4,800 
 
 216 — 
 
 54,418,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Denis 
 
 5731 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sceaux 
 
 1529 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Seine (Lower) 
 
 688,295 
 
 300 
 
 2181 
 
 RouenJ 
 
 90,000 
 
 2556 
 
 674 
 
 70,600 
 
 20,000 
 
 51 11 
 
 30,305,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 Dieppe 
 
 17,077 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Havre 
 
 21,049 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 Neufchatel 
 
 3169 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yvetot 
 
 9853 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Seine and Marne 
 
 318,209 
 
 301 
 
 1007 
 
 Melun 
 
 7199 
 
 1898 
 
 499 
 
 84,100 
 
 
 
 67 85 
 
 44,523,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coulommiers 3530 
 
 Fontainebleau 7400 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Meauxf 
 
 7836 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Provins 
 
 5076 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Seine and Oise 
 
 440,871 
 
 278 
 
 1585 
 
 Versailles! 29,986 
 
 1722 
 
 834 
 
 73,400 
 
 16,900 
 
 40 27 
 
 25,421,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Corbeil 
 
 4051 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Etampes 
 
 7867 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mantes sur 
 
 Seine 3701 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pontoise 
 
 5370 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rambouillet 2958 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sevres (Two) 
 
 288,260 
 
 296 
 
 947 
 
 Niort 
 
 15,799 
 
 763 
 
 162 
 
 39,200 
 
 20,000 
 
 23 87 
 
 13,849,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bressuire 
 
 1344 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Melle 
 
 2228 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 526,282 
 
 
 
 Parthenay 
 
 4184 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Somme 
 
 305 
 
 1667 
 
 Amiens! 
 
 42,032 
 
 1907 
 
 367 
 
 55,000 
 
 — 
 
 45 38 
 
 29,064,000 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 Abbeville 
 
 19,520 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Doulens 
 
 3690 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montdidier 
 
 3730 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Peronne 
 
 3777 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Straits of Calais 
 
 648,969 
 
 338 
 
 1852 
 
 Arras! 
 
 22,173 
 
 2006 
 
 479 
 
 46,600 
 
 — 
 
 45 43 
 
 32,305,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bethune 
 
 6830 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Boulogne 
 
 19,314 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Montreuil 
 
 4194 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Omer 
 
 19,019 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Pol 
 
 3556 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tarn 
 
 327,655 
 
 290 
 
 1083 
 
 AlbyJ 
 
 10,993 
 
 1072 
 
 248 
 
 41,900 
 
 23,000 
 
 24 97 
 
 15,562,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Castres 
 
 15,663 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gaillac 
 
 7476 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lavaur 
 
 7037 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tarn and Garonne 
 
 241,586 
 
 114 
 
 2083 
 
 Montauban! 25,466 
 
 Castel-Sarrasin 7067 
 
 2296 
 
 1093 
 
 11,300 
 
 30,000 
 
 38 76 
 
 16,453,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Moissac 
 
 10,115 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Var 
 
 311,095 
 
 368 
 
 828 
 
 Draguignan 8035 
 
 1102 
 
 — 
 
 111,700 
 
 42,000 
 
 27 17 
 
 22,000,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Frejus'l 
 
 Brignolles 
 
 6170 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Grasse 
 
 12,716 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Toulon 
 
 30,171 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
BOOK CXLVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 349 
 
 Departments. 
 
 Population . 
 
 Surface in 
 geographi- 
 cal square 
 leagues. 
 
 Number of 
 inhabitants 
 to each sq. 
 league. 
 
 Capitals of Departments, Subpre 
 fectures, and Dioceses 
 
 Relative extent 
 in metres to ev- 
 ery sq. league. 
 
 Number of hectares. 
 
 Mean annu- 
 al value of 
 the hectare. 
 
 Revenue of the 
 land. 
 
 Names. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Roads. 
 
 Inland 
 
 Navi- 
 
 gation. 
 
 Woods. 
 
 Vineyards. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Cen- ! 
 times. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Vaucluse 
 
 233,048 
 
 167 
 
 1342 
 
 AvignonI 
 
 Apt 
 
 Carpentras 
 
 Orange 
 
 31,180 
 
 5433 
 
 9756 
 
 8864 
 
 457 
 
 299 
 
 74,100 
 
 45,000 
 
 29 78 
 
 13,614,000 
 
 Vendee 
 
 322,826 
 
 341 
 
 928 
 
 Bourbon- Vendee 3129 
 Fontenay 7493 
 
 Lm;on\ 
 
 Les Sables d'Olonne 4783 
 
 974 
 
 252 
 
 19,600 
 
 16,000 
 
 19 80 
 
 15,607,000 
 
 Vienne 
 
 267,670 
 
 349 
 
 747 
 
 PoiTiERsf 21,563 
 
 Chatellerault 9241 
 
 Civray 2192 
 
 Loudun 5044 
 
 Montmorillon 3539 
 
 1008 
 
 122 
 
 57,500 
 
 33,000 
 
 15 30 
 
 12,082,000 
 
 Vienne (Upper) 
 
 276,351 
 
 290 
 
 949 
 
 Limoges] - 25,612 
 
 Bellac 3400 
 
 Rochechouart 1550 
 
 St. Yrieix 2746 
 
 1062 
 
 
 21,600 
 
 3000 
 
 12 85 
 
 8,189,000 
 
 Vosges 
 
 379,839 
 
 552 
 
 1420 
 
 Epinal 7951 
 
 Mirccourt 5608 
 
 Neufchuteau 3667 
 
 Remiremont 4148 
 
 St. Dief 7339 
 
 2051 
 
 
 216,400 
 
 4000 
 
 18 66 
 
 14,335,000 
 
 Yonne 
 
 342,116 
 
 364 
 
 915 
 
 Auxkrre 
 
 Avallon 
 
 Joigny 
 
 SensJ 
 
 Tonnerre 
 
 12,348 
 
 5261 
 
 5263 
 
 8685 
 
 3650 
 
 1198 
 
 494 
 
 156,900 
 
 36,000 
 
 20 57 
 
 17,520,000 
 
 TABLE, 
 
 EXHIBITING THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE SURFACE IN FRANCE, ACCORDING 
 TO THE USES TO WHICH EACH PART IS APPLIED. 
 
 Hectares. 
 
 Arable Land ..... 22,818,000 
 
 Vineyards .... . 1,977,000 
 
 Kitchen Gardens ..... 328,000 
 
 Gardens and Orchards .... 687,000 
 
 Miscellaneous Culture - - 780,000 
 
 Olives ...... 43,000 
 
 Hops ...... 60,000 
 
 Chestnuts ...... 406,000 
 
 Parks, Groves, Nurseries .... 39,000 
 
 Woods and Forests ( Bois ) .... 6,521,000 
 
 33,659,000 
 
 Amount brought up, 
 Willows and Alders, 
 
 Pastures ... 
 
 Meadows ... 
 
 Waste Lands ( Torres incultes) 
 Turbaries ... 
 
 Mines and Quarries - 
 Buildings ... 
 
 Canals (navigable and for irrigation) 
 Ponds ... 
 
 Marshes ... 
 
 Roads, rivers, mountains, rocks 
 
 Hectares. 
 
 33,659,000 
 
 53.000 
 
 3.525.000 
 
 3.488.000 
 
 3.841.000 
 
 7.000 
 
 28.000 
 213,000 
 
 9.000 
 
 213.000 
 
 186.000 
 
 6.555.000 
 
 Total 51,777,000 
 
 [The superficial extent of France has been recently estimated by 
 Baron C. Dupin at 53,533,426 hectares, or 132,694,000 English a^s 
 (Enc. Amer.) — P.l 
 
[BOOK CLXVI 
 
 350 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLE 
 
 OF COURTS 1 AND ACADEMIES, 6 EXHIBITING THE NUMBER OF CRIMINALS, AND ALSO THAT OF SCHOLARS (MALES,) RELATIVE 
 TO THE POPULATION. ACCORDING TO THE TABLE (Carte) OF M. M. BaLBI AND GuERRY. 
 
 Seats of the Royal Courts 
 and Academies. 
 
 Departments subject to their jurisdiction. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Those cond 
 
 the person, 
 one out of 
 every 
 
 CRIMI NAL3- 
 
 emned for 
 
 property, 
 one out of 
 every 
 
 crimes against 
 
 both property 
 and person, 
 one out of 
 every 
 
 SCHOLARS 
 
 (Males), one 
 out of every 
 
 Agen c 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 Lot and Garonne, Lot, Gers - 
 
 925,000 
 
 29,839 
 
 17,130 
 
 10,882 
 
 55 
 
 Amiens - 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 Somme, Oise, Aisne - - - - 
 
 1,401,000 
 
 72,466 
 
 10,061 
 
 9596 
 
 12 
 
 Angers 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 Mayenne, Sarthe, Maine and Loire 
 
 1,259,000 
 
 51,740 
 
 11,694 
 
 9536 
 
 58 
 
 Aix d 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 Lower Alps, Mouths of the Rhone, Var - 
 
 790,000 
 
 23,700 
 
 10,727 
 
 7383 
 
 
 BASTIA d 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 Corsica _______ 
 
 185,000 
 
 2968 
 
 9098 
 
 2237 
 
 > oU 
 
 Besan^on 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 Upper Saone, Doubs, Jura - 
 
 892,000 
 
 39,940 
 
 1 1 ,066 
 
 8663 
 
 12 
 
 Bordeaux 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 Charente, Dordogne, Gironde - 
 
 1,356,000 
 
 43,277 
 
 15,048 
 
 11,115 
 
 55 
 
 Bourges 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 Indre, Cher, Nievre - 
 
 758,000 
 
 18,488 
 
 14,125 
 
 11,147 
 
 67 
 
 Caen 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 Calvados, Channel, Orne - 
 
 1,547,000 
 
 48,858 
 
 9675 
 
 8085 
 
 29 
 
 Colmar 8 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 Lower Rhine, Upper Rhine - 
 
 944,000 
 
 21,456 
 
 7613 
 
 5608 
 
 14 
 
 Dijon 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 Upper Marne, Cote d’Or, Saone and Loire - 
 
 1,132,000 
 
 45,892 
 
 12,767 
 
 9988 
 
 13 
 
 Douay 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 North, Straits of Calais - 
 
 1,606,000 
 
 46,327 
 
 7296 
 
 6298 
 
 15 
 
 Grenoble 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 Isere, Drome, Upper Alps - 
 
 937,000 
 
 26,271 
 
 1 1 ,244 
 
 7874 
 
 20 
 
 Limoges 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 Upper Vienne, Oreuse, Correze 
 
 814,000 
 
 59,771 
 
 20,183 
 
 15,654 
 
 89 
 
 Lyons 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 Loire, Rhone, Ain _____ 
 
 1,114,000 
 
 41,259 
 
 11,367 
 
 8912 
 
 28 
 
 Metz 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 Ardennes, Moselle - 
 
 691,000 
 
 34,435 
 
 9092 
 
 7148 
 
 13 
 
 Montpelier 
 
 
 - 
 
 Aude, Aveyron, Herault, Eastern Pyrenees 
 
 1,107,000 
 
 21,565 
 
 15,514 
 
 9024 
 
 34 
 
 Nancy 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 Meurthe, Meuse, Vosges - - - - 
 
 1,089,000 
 
 36,300 
 
 10,404 
 
 8094 
 
 12 
 
 Nimes 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 Ardeche, Gard, Lozere, Vaucluse - 
 
 1,048,000 
 
 18,027 
 
 13,941 
 
 7841 
 
 30 
 
 Orleans 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 Indre and Loire, Loiret, Loir and Cher 
 
 825,000 
 
 33,000 
 
 8594 
 
 6818 
 
 36 
 
 Paris 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 Aube, Eure and Loir, Marne, Seine, Seine 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Marne, Seine and Oise, Yonne 
 
 2,967,000 
 
 57,057 
 
 4075 
 
 3563 
 
 15 
 
 Pau 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 Lower Pyrenees, Upper Pyrenees, Landes 
 
 900,000 
 
 37,000 
 
 12,736 
 
 9507 
 
 19 
 
 Poitiers 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 Lower Charente, Two Sevres, Vendee, Vienne 
 
 1,303,000 
 
 44,931 
 
 8966 
 
 7460 
 
 42 
 
 Rennes - 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 North Coast, Finisterre, Ule and Vilaine, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lower Loire, Morbihan - 
 
 2,523,000 
 
 37,661 
 
 10,906 
 
 8457 
 
 97 
 
 RlOM f 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 Allier, Cantal, Upper Loire, Puy de Dome 
 
 1,400,000 
 
 37,500 
 
 38,214 
 
 12,844 
 
 16 
 
 Rouen 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 Eure, Lower Seine - 
 
 1,110,000 
 
 26,016 
 
 5268 
 
 4382 
 
 22 
 
 Toulouse 
 
 - 
 
 
 - 
 
 Arriege, Upper Garonne, Tarn, Tarn &. Garonne 
 
 1,224,000 
 
 25,151 
 
 11,823 
 
 8070 
 
 46 
 
 
 Mean term for the whole kingdom 
 
 31,847,000 
 
 32,411 
 
 9322 
 
 7285 
 
 23 
 
 a The Royal Courts ( Cours Royalcs) have original jurisdiction, both 
 civil and criminal, and are also courts of appeal from the inferior tribu- 
 nals ( Tribunaux dc ■premiere Instance — Tribunaux de Commerce,) both 
 in civil and criminal cases; they correspond to the Circuit Courts in the 
 
 U. States. — There are in France: 1. the Court of Cassation, or Supreme 
 Court; II. the Court of Exchequer ( Cour des Comptes) ; III. the Royal 
 Courts (27 in number, as in the table;) IV. the Inferior Tribunals 
 ( Tribunaux de premiere Instance — District Courts,) both civil and crimi- 
 nal in their jurisdiction, of which there is one in each arrondissement; 
 
 V. the Justice Courts ( justices de pair,) of which there are one or more 
 in each of the cantons, into which the arrondissements are subdivided ; 
 and V I. the Commercial Tribunals ( Tribunaux de Commerce,) establish- 
 
 d in different towns ( villes ) — 213 in number in 1822 (Aim. Royal.) — P. 
 b Education (Public Instruction) in France is under the general di- 
 rection of the Council of Public Instruction, acting under the authority 
 of the Minister of the Interior. (Under the Imperial government, 
 public education was subject to the general contro of the Grand Mas- 
 ter and Council of the University. The University, which included 
 all the schools in the empire, was divided into as many Academies as 
 there were Imperial Courts.) The number of the Academies now 
 corresponds to that of the Royal Courts, with one exception. These 
 Academies have a Rector and Inspectors, who exercise a supervision 
 
 over the schools of every grade in their district. These are: 1. The 
 Faculties, of which there were in 1822, six of Catholic, and two of 
 Protestant Theology, eight of Law, three of Medicine, seven of the 
 Sciences, and six of Letters: II. the Royal Colleges (Lyceums, under 
 the empire,) of which there were 38, including five in Paris; III. the 
 Secondary Schools, auxiliary to the Faculties, as the Secondary Schools 
 of Law and Medicine; IV. the Institutions (High Schools) and Board- 
 ing Schools (Pensions) ; and V. the Primary Schools. To these may 
 be added different Special Schools, supported by the government, such as 
 the Normal School, the Polytechnic School, the Military and Veteri- 
 nary Schools, &c. — P. 
 
 c Agen is the seat of the Royal Court — Cahors, that of the Academy, 
 in the district. — P. 
 
 d The Royal Courts of Aix and Bastia [Corsica. Aim. Royal] form 
 two districts, both under the jurisdiction of only one Academy [that of 
 Aix.] M. B. — There was an Academy at Ajaccio, under the Empire. 
 (Aim. Imp. 1813.) — P. 
 
 e Colmar is the seat of the Royal Court — Strasburg, that of the 
 Academy. — P. 
 
 1 Riom is the seat of the Royal Court — Clermont, that of the 
 Academy. — P. 
 
4 
 
 book cxjlyi.] DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 351 
 
 TABLES, 
 
 EXHIBITING THE LAND AND NAVAL FORCES. 
 
 STAFF OFFICERS, &c.a 
 
 
 ~ >» 
 
 V & • 
 
 
 
 
 
 Us • 
 
 
 Staff Officers, &c.» 
 
 5.3 g 
 
 0) 
 
 0) 
 
 a 
 
 °§ 
 3 Z 
 
 O 
 
 H 
 
 rt 
 
 u cn 
 -C o 
 e. 3i 
 ra -5 
 
 Is 
 
 O 
 
 
 Royal 
 
 Line, 
 
 | Div 
 
 < 
 
 a 
 
 W 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 a 
 
 CD tt’ 
 O 3 
 
 « a 
 0 
 
 fn 
 
 Marshals of France - 
 
 12 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 12 
 
 Lieutenant-Generals 
 
 88 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 67 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 155 
 
 Major-Generals 11 
 
 119 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 169 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 288 
 
 Colonels 
 
 48 
 
 37 
 
 27 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 116 
 
 Lieutenant-Colonels 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 104 
 
 Majors 0 - 
 
 90 
 
 72 
 
 59 
 
 19 
 
 — 
 
 9 
 
 249 
 
 Captains - - - 
 
 248 
 
 170 
 
 244 
 
 68 
 
 — 
 
 36 
 
 766 
 
 Lieutenants 
 
 2 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 Sub-Lieutenants 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 ' — 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Pupils at the Royal Staff) 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 School 11 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pupils and Sub-Lieutenants 0 
 
 — 
 
 80 
 
 50 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 6 
 
 136 
 
 Governors and Lieutenants ) 
 of the king ) 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 110 
 
 — 
 
 no 
 
 Majors and Adjutants of forts f 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 231 
 
 — 
 
 231 
 
 Chaplains and Secretaries of 
 
 
 
 
 
 409 
 
 
 409 
 
 the different garrisons? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Guards, Artillery and En- ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 gineers h ) 
 
 Superintendents overwork- ) 
 men, &c. h ) 
 
 — 
 
 560 
 
 516 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1076 
 
 Secretaries and Commissary) 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 General (Swiss) - 5 
 
 Military Intendants & Sub-) 
 Intendants - - 5 
 
 196 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 34 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 230 
 
 Total 
 
 878 
 
 955 
 
 924 
 
 363 
 
 750 
 
 75 
 
 3945 
 
 KING’S MILITARY HOUSEHOLD. 
 
 King’s Military Household. 
 
 Military 
 
 Intendants. 
 
 Marshals 
 and Avant- 
 Courier.k 
 
 Officers and 
 Guards of the 
 Line.l 
 
 Staff of the 
 Body Guard. 
 
 Body Guard. 
 
 Foot Guards 
 (ordinary 
 number.) n ‘ 
 
 "B 
 
 o 
 
 h 
 
 Officers and Guards - 
 Chaplains and Medical Offi-) 
 cers) - - - 5 
 
 Total, 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 25 
 
 17 
 
 1394 
 
 356 
 
 1808 
 
 56 
 
 1864 
 
 a “ General Staff ( Etat-Major Giniral) of the army.” — The General 
 Staff under the imperial government (1813,) consisted of the following 
 grades of officers, viz. lieutenants of the emperor ( 2 ), marshals of the em- 
 pire (20), colonels-general (5), inspectors-general ( 6 ), generals of divis- 
 ion, generals of brigade, and adjutants-commandant. — Under the late 
 government of the Bourbons (1822,) it consisted of the following grades, 
 viz. colonels-general (4,) marshals of France (12,) lieutenant-generals, 
 bearing the title of governors of military divisions (13,) lieutenant- 
 generals, and marshals de camp. Besides these, there was the Royal 
 Staff Corps ( Corps Royal de V Etat-Major,') created by a royal ordinance 
 of May (5, 1818, consisting of the following grades, viz. lieutenant-gen- 
 erals ( 8 ) and marshals de camp (16,) detached from the general staff, 
 colonels, lieutenant-colonels, majors ( chefs de bataillon ,) captains, lieu- 
 tenants, lieutenants aides-majors, sub-lieutenants aides-majors, and sub- 
 lieutenants il&ves. Attached to this corps, there was a school of appli- 
 cation at Paris, under the direction of a military staff, nine military pro- 
 fessors, including three adjuncts, and five civil professors. — P. 
 
 b “ Marechaux de camp” — Marshals de camp, officers on whom the 
 inferior duties of the marshals, in arranging and marshalling the army, 
 were devolved. (Rees’ Cyc.) — P. 
 
 c “Chefs de bataillon” — Commandants of battalions, correspond- 
 ing to majors in the British service. — P. 
 
 d “ Pupils ( ildves ) of the Royal Staff Corps.” 
 
 ARMY. 
 
 
 
 
 Sub-officers, 
 
 
 
 
 Army 
 
 Officers of 
 all ranks. 
 
 Brigadiers/ 
 
 Corporals, 
 
 Total. 
 
 Total in 
 each Body .o 
 
 
 
 
 Soldiers. 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 0) 
 
 fl 
 
 Chosen men” 
 
 16 
 
 301 
 
 3171 
 
 
 
 Depart- ( Foot ) 
 
 mental ( Horse ) 
 
 587$ 
 
 o o 
 O Q 
 
 12,687 > 
 
 13,425 
 
 1 
 
 Corsican light troops 0 
 
 16 
 
 405 
 
 421 J 
 
 
 "2 
 
 r Infantry j 
 
 528 
 
 10,200 
 
 10,728) 
 
 
 3 
 
 182 
 
 4462 
 
 4644 
 
 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 520 
 
 5916 
 
 6436 I 
 
 23,641 
 
 Artillery 
 
 102 
 
 1487 
 
 1589 
 
 
 o 
 
 S ationaiy companies p 
 ritieers 
 
 8 
 
 236 
 
 244 J 
 
 
 En; 
 
 234 
 
 4639 
 
 4873 
 
 4873 
 
 ( T r , (French 
 Infantry j gwiss 
 
 6840 
 
 364 
 
 109,104 
 
 7532 
 
 115,944 ) 
 7896) 
 
 123,840 
 
 Line 
 
 Cavalry 
 
 2402 
 
 28,679 
 
 31.171 
 
 31,171 
 
 Artillery 
 
 1131 
 
 14,399 
 
 15,530) 
 
 16,255 
 
 
 Military Equipage 
 
 49 
 
 676 
 
 7255 
 
 
 Stationary companies? 
 
 220 
 
 5480 
 
 5700 
 
 5700 
 
 
 
 13,289 
 
 205,616 
 
 
 218,905 
 
 Brought ) Staff 
 
 
 
 3945 
 
 
 
 
 over <j Military household 
 
 1864 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 224,714 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' “ Eleves sous-lieutenans” — Pupils with the rank of sub-lieuten- 
 ant. — P. 
 
 f “ Places ” — Places de guerre (garrisons), including fortified towns, 
 forts and military posts. — P. 
 
 s “Almoners ( aumdniers — chaplains,) secretaries and porters (portiers 
 — gate-keepers) of the garrisons (places.)” 
 
 h These two items stand thus in the original : 
 
 “ Gardes d’artillerie et du genie professant. I — I 1 1 — I — I — I ] 
 
 Chefs d’ ouvriers, &c. ... | — |560|516| — | — ) — ]1076|” 
 
 This is doubtless a mistake, and should read : 
 
 “ Gardes d’ artillerie et du genie professant, 
 
 chefs d’ ouvriers, &c. - | — 1560|516| — | — | — 11076|” 
 
 The following are enumerated, in Taylor’s Statistics, under the head 
 of Military Employments, not connected with the line of the army, and 
 ranking in pay with company officers, viz. Guards and conductors of 
 artillery, master artificers, and chiefs of workmen at arsenals. Guards 
 of artillery are attached to the schools of engineers. — P. 
 
 ■ “ Not employed ( disponibles .)” 
 
 1 “ Almoners and Health Officers ( officiers de santi.)” 
 
 k “ Quarter-masters ( maricliaux etfourriers de logis.)” 
 
 1 “ — of the corps of engineers (du ginie .)” — A detachment of the 
 corps of engineers, commanded by two lieutenant-colonels and a cap- 
 tain, was attached (1822) to the King’s Military Household. — P. 
 
 m “ Ordinary Foot Guards (Gardes a pied ordinaires .)” — The Guards 
 of the King’s Household (1822) consisted of four companies of body 
 guards (gardes du corps — cavalry) and one company of ordinary foot 
 guards. — P. 
 
 “ “ Gendarmerie d’ elite” — instituted for the service of the royal 
 residences at Paris. — P. 
 
 0 “ Voltigeurs.” 
 
 p “ Compagnies sedentaires” — veteran companies. — P. 
 
 <i “ Total effective force.” 
 
 r Subalterns in the cavalry, corresponding to corporals in the infan- 
 try.— P. 
 
 s “ Corps.” — The military force of the kingdom, exclusive of the 
 King’s household, consisted (1822) of the following corps, viz. Royal 
 Staff, Royal Guard, Gendarmes (Gendarmerie,) Artillery, Engineers 
 (Ginie,) Geographical Engineers, Infantry and Cavalry. — P. 
 
352 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLVI 
 
 NAVY.» 
 
 Vessels. 
 
 Naval Staff 
 
 1 Ship of the Line .... 
 14 Frigates ------ 
 
 6 Sloops b of war ..... 
 18 Brigs from sixteen to twenty guns 
 
 5 Sloops of eighteen guns (Advice-Boats) c 
 13 Schooners 11 of sixteen guns 
 1 Small Brig ..... 
 
 1 Gun-Brig ..... 
 
 29 Schooners ..... 
 
 9 Cutters, Luggers, Advice Boats, e &c. 
 
 1 Flotilla-ship ..... 
 
 4 Steam Vessels .... 
 
 7 Sloops 1 ’ of Burden .... 
 18 Flat-bottomed Barges 1 ... 
 
 1 Transport - 
 
 2 Vessels in commission ... 
 
 Slave Ship h ... 
 
 128 
 
 Men. 
 
 It) 
 
 500 
 
 4198 
 
 840 
 
 1608 
 
 500 
 
 1040 
 
 63 
 
 48 
 
 1185 
 
 279 
 
 28 
 
 164 
 
 924 
 
 852 
 
 33 
 
 3716 
 
 217 
 
 12,926 
 
 TABLE OF THE FRENCH COLONIES. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Martinique 
 Guadaloupe - 
 
 92,500 
 
 Dependencies. 
 
 Mariegalante ... 
 The Saintes 1 
 Deseada - 
 
 St. Martin (Eastern part of) 
 Guiana .... 
 St. Pierre and Miquelon 
 
 12 009 
 1,200 
 1,300 
 4,000 
 
 98,000 
 
 ► 111,000 
 
 18,400 
 
 600 
 
 228,000 
 
 Bonati and La Cal'e. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 Factories for the Coral Fisheries 
 
 ► 20,000 
 
 > 101 . 000 ' 
 
 SENEGAL. 
 
 Arrondisscment of St. Louis. 
 
 Island of St. Louis; neighbouring islands of Ba- 
 baghe, Safal and Ghibar; different settlements on 
 the river, the Escalcs or Gum Markets; 11 part of 
 the coast from Cape Blanco to the Bay of Iof 
 
 Arrondissement of Goree. 
 
 Island of Goree ; the coast from the Bay of Iof to 
 the factory of Albreda on the Gambia __ 
 
 Island of Bourbon .... 88,400 
 
 Island of St. Mary, near the eastern coast of Mada- ) qqq 
 gascar ..... ) 
 
 11 “ Navy — Effective force.” b “ Corvettes.” 
 
 c “ Corvettes-avisos of 18 guns.” 
 
 d “ Schooner-brigs (goi'lettes-bricks .)” e “Avisos.” 
 
 1 “ 18 Gabares, of which nine are fitted as merchantmen ( armis com- 
 mercial cment .)” — Gabarc is a French word signifying, indeed, a flat bot- 
 tomed barge, with sails, employed as a lighter, or in navigating rivers; 
 but in the French navy, it signifies a flute or store ship, sometimes of 
 400 or 500 tons. (Enc. Meth. Diet. Mar.) — P. 
 s “ School-ship ( vaisstau-icole ) - - 253 
 
 Vessel in commission - - 118 
 
 h “ Prison-ships ( bdtimens de servitude.)’’ 
 
 1 The Saintes are six rocky islets, three leagues S. E. of the south 
 point of Basse-Terre (Guadaloupe.) Two of them are large ; one four, 
 the other three miles in circumference : between these two is a third, 
 a large rock. (Tuckey’s Mar. Geog. vol. IV. p. 271.) — The Saintes ( Les 
 Saintes) are three small islands S. E.of Basse-Terre. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 J Bona. (M. B. t. IV. p.581. Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 k Escale or Echelle, originally a Provencal term signifying a port 
 for shelter ; now used chiefly in the Levant, for a sea port in which 
 there is a factory or consul. (Enc. Meth. Marine.) — The great gum 
 market is held on a desolate sandy plain on the north bank of the Sen- 
 egal, between Podor and St. Louis. (Ed. Encyc.) — Ascending the Sen- 
 egal, twenty-five leagues from St. Louis, is L' Escale dc Desert, on the 
 right bank, a considerable trading place for gum. Sixty leagues 
 above St. Louis is the fort of Podor on the left bank. (Tuckey, vol. II. 
 p. 509, 510.)— P. 
 
 1 The total of the sums, here included, is 109,000. The Facto- 
 ries on the coast of Algiers are not here included, in the original, 
 
 H 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 HINDOSTAN. 
 
 Ccast of Coromandel. 
 
 Pondicherry and the districts of Villenour and Ba- 
 hour ra ..... 
 
 Karikal," and the four neighbouring maganons or 
 districts ..... 
 
 Coast of the Northern Circars. 0 
 
 Yanaon, and its Aldeas? or dependencies; factory at 
 Masulipatam .... 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 Chandernagore and its territory; Gorettii and dif- 
 ferent factories .... 
 
 Coast of Malabar. 
 
 Mahe and its territory; factory at Calicut 
 Gulf of Cambay. 
 
 Factories at Surat ... 
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 Factories at Muscat r and Mocha* 
 
 Total Population 
 
 179,000 
 
 M 79,000 
 
 508,000 
 
 TABLE OF THE CLERGY IN 1828 . 
 
 Cardinals ..... 
 
 Ecclesiastical peers of France ... 
 Archbishops ..... 
 
 Bishops ...... 
 
 Vicars general ..... 
 
 Titular canons ..... 
 
 Honorary canons .... 
 
 Cusates 1 ...... 
 
 Officiating ministers 11 .... 
 
 Vicars .... 
 
 Chaplains ..... 
 
 Almoners ...... 
 
 Parish priests, who preach or confess* 
 
 Priests appointed to teach or direct different seminaries'* 
 Ecclesiastical pupils in the seminaries and colleges, and 
 curates ( curis ) - 
 
 Ecclesiastics employed in the universities, 1 exclusively 
 in the primary schools .... 
 Number of women and girls? in 3024 religious houses 
 
 Total 
 
 5 
 20 
 14 
 66 
 468 
 684 
 
 - 1788 
 3083 
 
 - 22,475 
 5765 
 
 439 
 839 
 
 - 1976 
 1044 
 
 with the 
 
 - 44,244 
 of those 
 
 673 
 
 - 19,340 
 
 102,923 
 
 COMMERCIAL TABLE, 
 
 EXHIBITING THE MEAN QUANTITY OF THE PRINCIPAL IMPORTS AND El- 
 PORTS FOR THE YEARS 1826, 1827, AND 1828, ACCORDING TO 
 OFFICIAL REPORTS. 
 
 [The kilogramme is equal to 2 lb. 3 oz. 5 dr. Avoirdupois. The franc is equal to 
 tenpence. The litre is equal to 61.028 English cubic inches. Tr.] 
 
 Raw and carded silk, 7 
 Ravv and wrought wax, 
 Grease 1 ’ 1 ' and tallow, 
 
 Kilog. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 1,160,000 
 
 480.000 
 
 940.000 
 
 Exports. 
 
 300.000 
 240j000« 
 
 350.000 
 
 or it might be supposed that the sum total was intended for 110,000. 
 — P. m Villenoor and Bahoor. 
 
 “ Karical. (Tuckey.) 0 “ Scrkars.” 
 
 p “ Atdi.cs " — Aldea (Port.) a village. — P. 
 q “ The residency (residence) of Goretti.” 
 
 1 “Mascate” — Mascat. * “ Moka” 
 
 1 “Cures” — parish priests. u “ Desservans” — officiating priests. 
 * “ Priests settled (habituis) in parishes, with the privilege of preach- 
 ing and hearing confession.” 
 
 w “ Priests employed as directors and teachers in seminaries.” 
 
 1 “ — the university.” — See note b p. 1030. 
 y “ — of nuns ( religienses .)" 
 
 7 “ Raw silk, in cocoons, reeled (grige) or carded .” — Grige is silk sim- 
 ply wound or reeled from the cocoons, without the ulterior operations 
 of spinning and twisting, such as most of that imported from the Le- 
 vant. (Enc. Meth. Diet. Comm.) — The refuse of raw silk, after reel 
 ing, is carded and spun into a thread called floss ( fleuret .) — P. 
 
 " a In 1788, the value of the wax candles exported to the French 
 Colonies, was 591,000 francs. (Taylor’s Stat.) — P. 
 
 bb “ Graisses.” — This term includes all animal oils, whether fluid, as 
 whale and fish oil, or consistent, as tallow. (Enc. Meth. Diet. 
 Comm.) — P. 
 
BOOK. CXLV1.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 oDO 
 
 Bones and horns, - Kilog. 
 
 Tobacco (in leaf) ... 
 
 manufactured, 
 
 Raw and dressed 1 hemp, 
 
 Raw and dressed 1 flax, 
 
 Cotton, - 
 
 'Lead, ... 
 
 Copper, - 
 
 Tin, - - - 
 
 Metals./ Iron and steel, - 
 
 Gold in ingots and money , h 
 Silver in ingots and money, 
 Platina, ... 
 
 Salt and rock salt, 1 - 
 
 Sugar, - 
 
 Coffee, - 
 
 Wines, - - Litres. 
 
 Brandy and liqueurs - Idem. 
 
 Flax and hemp (manufactured,) 11 Idem. e 
 Lace and blonds, (Value in Francs,) 
 
 Woollen stuffs, - - Kilog. 
 
 Silks and gauze, - Idem. 
 
 Cotton stuffs, - - Idem. 
 
 Felt Hats, - - Number. 
 
 Cutlery and hardware/ - Kilog. 
 Articles of Fashion, (Value in Francs,) 
 Furniture, - - Idem. 
 
 Approximate value of the 
 imports and exports, 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Imports. 
 
 1.900.000 
 
 3.830.000 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 1.800.000 
 
 35.000. 000 
 
 10 . 000 . 000 
 
 5.800.000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 15.000. 000 
 
 25.000 
 
 670.000 
 100 
 
 4.500.000 
 
 59.000. 000 
 17,200,000 
 
 2.400.000 
 
 1.400.000 
 
 5.180.000 
 
 1.580.000 
 
 50.000 
 
 40.000 
 
 130.000 
 600 
 
 1.050.000 
 9,000 
 
 180.000 
 
 555,000,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 1.780.000 
 180,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 1.750.000 
 
 3.000. 000 
 
 51.000 
 
 18.000 
 
 6,000 
 
 850.000 
 
 30.000 
 
 90.000 
 5 
 
 64,000,000 
 
 8.500.000 
 
 8.500.000 
 109,500,000 
 
 57,950,000 
 
 1.800.000 
 
 1.750.000 
 
 1 . 000 . 000 
 
 570.000 
 
 2.050.000 
 
 220.000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 3.200.000 
 1/380,000 
 
 610,000,000 
 
 COMPARATIVE BUDGETS OF FRANCE 
 
 IN 1789, IN 1802 (YEAR XI.) AND IN 1830. 
 
 STATE OF THE FINANCES OF THE KINGDOM PRESENTED BY NECKER TO 
 THE STATES-GENERAL, IN 1789. 
 
 RECEIPTS. 
 
 General revenue,? ... 
 
 Of the Posts, 11 - 
 
 Different Conveyances, 11 
 
 Excise and customs, 1 ... 
 
 Domains and forests,! 
 
 Lotteries,! .... 
 
 Casual revenues,! ... 
 
 Marc d'Or, k i 
 Powder and saltpetre,! 
 
 Certain fixed revenues, - 
 
 Ordinary imposts, 1 poll tax, and twentieths," 1 
 
 Francs. 
 
 12,000,000' 
 
 1,100,000 
 
 50.220.000 
 
 50.600.000 
 14,000.000 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 1.500.000 
 800,000 
 
 1.620.000 
 
 150,107,000 
 
 >134,240,000 
 
 155,655,000 
 
 I “ Heckled (jpeignis )” b “ — in coin and bullion ( brut .)” 
 
 c “ Rock salt (sal-gem) and that from salt works (salines.)” 
 
 d “ Linen and hempen stuffs (tissus tie lin et tie clnnivre.)” 
 e This must be a mistake — the litre being a measure for liquids. 
 It is probably intended for kilogrammes, as under woollens, silks and 
 cottons.— P. f “ Quincaillerie” — hardware in general. 
 
 s “ Ferme gencrale” (General farm or lease.) — Certain branches of 
 the revenue leased to a company of farmers-general, for a certain sum, 
 durinv a certain term of years. This company were bound to account 
 for the sum engaged, and to bear all the losses and expenses of collec- 
 tion, and were entitled to all the profits they could realize above the 
 sum stipulated. Among the branches of revenue annexed to th efcrmc 
 giniralc, were the monopolies of salt and tobacco, duties on the en- 
 trance, issue and circulation of merchandise ( droits de traites,) stamp- 
 ing ( marque ) of iron, and of gold and silver, &c. By a decree of Jan. 
 9, 1780, a new distribution was made; the revenues intrusted to the 
 ferme ginirale, being confined to the duties on imports and exports, 
 and to those arising from the peculiar privileges or monopolies to be 
 protected on the frontiers of the kingdom, at the barriers of the capital, 
 and on the limits of the provinces reputed or treated as foreign, whilst 
 those from the excise were intrusted to the regie gin&rale, and those 
 from the domains, including stamp duties, to the general administra- 
 tion of the domains. The number of the farmers-general, previous to 
 1756, was 40 ; it was then increased to 60. The number in 1789 was 
 44.— P. 
 
 II “ Ferme des postes — Ferme des messagcries” (Farms of the Post- 
 Office and the public conveyances.) — The revenue of the Post-Office, 
 and that of the public conveyances, were each leased to a company for 
 a certain fixed sum. — P. 
 
 1 “ Regie des aides et droits reunis.” — Certain branches of the 
 revenue intrusted to a company, called the Regie Giniralc (general ad- 
 ministration or direction,) the members of which, called regisseurs 
 (directors,) were bound to collect and account for the revenue faithfully, 
 for which they received certain salaries and commissions, the govern- 
 VOL. III.— NO. 53 45 
 
 Imposts on the countries in which the states are held," 
 Languedoc, ... - 9,707,250’’ 
 
 Brittany, .... 6,611,460 
 
 Burgundy, .... 4,128.196 
 
 Provence, .... 2,892,463 
 
 Pau, Bayonne and Foix, - - 1,156,658^ 
 
 Poll tax, twentieths commuted, and deductions 
 
 on pensions, .... 6,865,000' 
 
 Imposts for the fortifications of towns, 575,000 
 
 Benefice on the coin, 0 - - 580,000 
 
 Revenue from the commercial fund,p - 636,000 
 
 Different rents, - - 180,000 
 
 Interest on sums lent to the United States, 1,600,000 
 Interest on six millions due from a German prince, 300,000 
 
 FraDca 
 
 24,556,027 
 
 10,736,000 
 
 Nett amount of the receipts, ... . 475,294,027 
 
 Expense of collection, &c. - - 230,000,000 
 
 Total amount of the receipts, - - 705,294,027 
 
 Result. 
 
 Expenses, ...... 531,444,000 
 
 Nett receipts, ... . 475,294,027 
 
 Yearly deficiency, 
 
 56,149,973 
 
 EXPENSES. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 King’s household, Children of France,? 
 
 Princes of the blood ..... 
 
 Foreign Affairs, Swiss Lines" ... 
 
 War department ..... 
 
 Navy and Colonies - ... 
 
 Roads and bridges 11 ..... 
 
 Royal studs - - ... 
 
 Perpetual and life-rents 1 .... 
 
 Different interests ..... 
 Salaries of the different offices in the financial department 
 
 Aunts of the King 25,000,000 
 
 8.240.000 
 
 7.480.000 
 
 - 99,160,000 
 
 40.500.000 
 
 5.680.000 
 814,000 
 
 - 162,486,000 
 
 44.300.000 
 
 14.692.000 
 
 ment sustaining all unavoidable losses, and providing for the expenses 
 of collection. The revenues, so collected, were certain branches of the 
 excise and internal duties. — P. 
 
 i “Administration (Regie) of the domains and forests — of the lot- 
 teries — of the casual revenues [such as arose from the duties paid on 
 the transfer of property dependent on the royal domains] — of the 
 marc d'or [tax on offices, grants, commissions, &c.] — of gunpowder and 
 saltpetre.” — Each of these branches of the revenue formed the subject 
 of a particular administration (regie.)— P. 
 
 k The Marc d’Or is a sum paid to the king by a person appointed to 
 an office. Tr. [Whenever an individual received any grant, permis- 
 sion, office or commission from the king, he was obliged to pay a 
 certain tax called the marc d'or, before he could enjoy the privileges of 
 the one, or perform the functions of the other. (Enc. Meth. Fi- 
 nance.) — P.] 
 
 1 “ Impositions.” — The taxes in France were divided into two classes, 
 viz. impositions (direct taxes) and perceptions (indirect taxes ;) the 
 former including the tailles (taxes on real estate, and on personal profits 
 and income), the poll tax (capitation) and the twentieths (vingtiimcs.) 
 — P. 
 
 m Twentieth (vingtieme) — an income tax, amounting to the twentieth 
 of the income (revenu) of those subject to it. — There were three 
 twentieths in operation in 1789; the first imposed in 1749; the second, 
 in 1756; and the third, in 1782. — P. 
 
 n “ Impositions des pays d’etat.” — The provinces, called pays d'itat, 
 retained their provincial estates (nobility, clergy and towns,) which, 
 however, had only the privilege of distributing and providing for the 
 collection of the taxes imposed upon them. These provinces were 
 Artois, Bearn, Brittany, Burgundy, Walloon Flanders, Languedoc, 
 Provence, Bigorre, Foix, Labour, Marsan, Nebousan, Soule, and the 
 Four Valleys (Quatre Vallees.) They, however, enjoyed different 
 degrees of exemption ; as for instance, Burgundy was subject to the 
 monopoly of salt (gabelle,) and to that of tobacco ; Brittany and Bearn 
 were subject to the monopoly of tobacco, but not to that of salt ; while 
 Artois was subject to neither. — P. 
 
 ° “ Profits on coinage and forges.” — The profits on coinage amounted 
 to 500,000 livres ; those on the royal forges, to 80,000 livres. (Taylor’s 
 Statistics of France, p. 255.) — P. 
 
 p “ Caisse du commerce” — Commercial bank. 
 
 ? The king’s children. 
 
 r “ Lignes Suisses.” — This is doubtless a typographical error for 
 ligues Suisses, Swiss leagues. (See Enc. Meth. Diet. Fin. t. II. p. 144, 
 and Taylor’s Statistics, p. 255.) — Capitulations or treaties were entered 
 into between the king of France and the different Swiss governments, 
 for the regular supply of the Swiss troops in the service of the 
 former. Tlfese amounted in 1784 to 15,500 men. (Enc. Meth. Diet. 
 Econ. Pol. t. 1. p. 669.)— P. 
 
 B “ Ponts-et-chaussees” 
 
 ‘ “ Rentes perpetuelles et viageres” — Perpetual and life annuities. 
 — P. 
 
354 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLVI. 
 
 Interest and expense of anticipations for 1790 and 1791 
 Stipulations with the clergy ... 
 
 .Indemnities ------ 
 
 Pensions ------- 
 
 King’s counsel, chancellor, keeper of the seals, secretary 
 of State, &.c." ..... 
 
 Governors' 1 of Provinces .... 
 
 Police and Guard of Paris .... 
 
 Marshalsea c of the Province of the Isle of France 
 Roads, streets, works and quarries near Paris' 1 
 Expenses of the poll tax and twentieths in the provinces" 
 Sums allowed to collectors and farmers of the revenue 1 
 To the officers, paymasters, &c. of the treasurys 
 Ministerial offices' 1 ..... 
 
 Charitable fund, sums granted to foreigners' 
 
 Sums for building churches and sacred edifices 
 Gifts, alms, works of charity, mendicity 
 Commercial bounties, &c.) .... 
 
 Public Instruction, King's Garden and Royal Library 
 Public buildings ...... 
 
 Expenses of criminal justice ... 
 
 Variable expenses in the provinces - 
 
 Different expenses, mines, &.c. ... 
 
 Unforeseen expenses ..... 
 
 Francs. 
 
 15.800.000 
 
 2.500.000 
 
 3.235.000 
 
 29.500.000 
 
 3.173.000 
 
 1.495.000 
 
 2.708.000 
 
 250.000 
 
 1.027.000 
 
 7.120.000 
 
 20.094.000 
 3,753 ,( >00 
 
 2.048.000 
 
 1 . 002.000 
 
 2,188,000 
 
 6.078.000 
 
 3.804.000 
 
 1.227.000 
 
 1.900.000 
 
 3.180.000 
 
 4.500.000 
 
 990.000 
 
 5.400.000 
 
 Total amount 
 
 531,444,000 
 
 STATE OF THE FINANCES OF FRANCE, COMPREHENDING 108 DEPART- 
 MENTS, IN 1802 (VEAR XI.) 
 
 RECEIPTS. 
 
 Francs. 
 
 Excess of the receipts above the expenses in the pre- 
 ceding year - - - 
 
 Land and heritable taxes 1 - 
 
 Personal and moveable taxes 
 Additional centimes for departmental expenses 
 Doors and windows .... 
 
 Patents and tolls™ .... 
 Registers and forests" .... 
 Customs ..... 
 
 Post Office ..... 
 
 Lotteries ..... 
 
 Salt works ..... 
 
 Suretiship for justices of the peace, clerks, <£x.° 
 Accidental and miscellaneous receipts 
 
 Foreign ReceiptsP - - 
 
 Total ..... 
 
 EXPENSES. 
 
 National Debt. 
 
 2 , 000,000 
 
 220,200,000 
 
 32.800.000 
 
 15.783.000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 17.500.000 
 190.000,000 
 
 40.000. 000 
 
 11.000. 000 
 12,000,000 
 
 3.500.000 
 4,000,000 
 
 4.717.000 
 
 509,500,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 589,500,000 
 
 To the creditors of the state 
 To the sinking fund 
 Liferent debt 1 ! 
 
 Perpetual debti of six new depart- 
 ments ... 
 
 Liferent debt, Idem 
 
 39,570,918 J 
 1,272,055 
 
 19,980,074 l G 4 j0 23 4 sa 
 
 2,077,277 ) 
 510,558 > 
 
 3,193,835 
 
 “ “ Salaries of the council, the chancellor, the keeper of the seals, 
 and the secretary of state of the royal household.” 
 b “ Intendants” 
 
 c A company of horse police. — P. 
 
 ■' “ Paving of Paris, and labour in the quarries in its neighbourhood.” 
 e “ Decharges sur la capitation et le vingtieme de province.” — This 
 item, in Taylor’s Statistics, is as follows: Remissions and discharges, 
 and abatements on the 20ths and capitations. — P. 
 
 f “ Allowance ( traitement ) to receivers, farmers, &c.” — including 
 charges of collection (expenses of recovery. Taylor's Stat.) — P. 
 
 “ To the administrators of the treasury, paymasters, &c.” — To 
 the five administrators of the royal treasury, payers of interest, &c. 
 (Taylor’s Stat.) — P. 
 
 b “ Bureaus of the general administration.” 
 
 1 “ Refugees.” 
 
 ) “ For the encouragement of commerce.” 
 k Garden of Plants, at Paris. — P. 
 
 1 “ Contribution fonciere” — taxes on real estate. — P. 
 m “ Patents (patentes )” — tax on the right of exercising any trade or 
 profession. — P. 
 
 " “ Administration (rigte) of the registry (enrcgistremejit) and for- 
 ests.” — See note llb . — P. 
 
 GENERAL EXPENSES. 
 
 Department of Justice 
 of Foreign Affairs 
 
 n .. jz o 
 
 & 5 2 6 
 c = ^ - 
 
 Ordinary service 
 Extraordinary 
 
 Subsistence purchased in 1801 
 g ^ ( Ordinary service 
 
 e £ 2 ) Sureties partly reimbursed" - 
 c g* § j Interest on sureties’ 
 iZ "3 " ^ Pensions - - 
 
 Service of the treasury 1 
 War department ... 
 
 Ministry of war" 
 
 =' ( Ordinary service 
 
 ( Extraordinary 
 
 Negotiations ... 
 
 Balance* - - - - 
 
 17.000. 000 ; 
 22,500,000 
 
 7,610,000 \ 
 29,047,788 j 
 
 5.000. 000 r 
 
 2.000. 000 I 
 
 20.000. 000 J 
 
 153.000. 000 ; 
 
 90.000. 000 1 
 
 70.000. 000 ; 
 
 56.000. 000 < 
 
 Franca. 
 
 23,318,730 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 47,110,000 
 
 56,047,788 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 > 243,000,000 
 
 1 126,000,000 
 
 9.000. 000 
 
 8 . 000 . 000 
 
 Total 
 
 589,500,000 
 
 The army consisted of 569,000 men, viz. 
 
 Infantry ...... 441,540 
 
 Cavalry ....... 68,980 
 
 Artillery ...... 46.480 
 
 Engineers ...... 5,800 
 
 Consular Guard ..... 6200 
 
 The navy consisted of thirty-four ships of the line, thirty frigates, 
 150 sloops"’ and 1000 armed pinnaces, besides six ships of the line and 
 several frigates on the stocks. 
 
 Note. — France was at peace in 1802 with the European powers. 
 
 STATE OF THE FINANCES OF FRANCE, ACCORDING TO THE BUDGET OF 
 1830, PRESENTED TO THE CHAMBERS IN 1829. 
 
 RECEIPTS. 
 
 Direct Taxes 
 
 Land tax 11 .... 
 
 Personal and moveable taxes 
 Doors and Windows ... 
 
 Patents, tollsy ... 
 
 Charges and advertisements* 
 
 Additional tax on timber"" 
 
 Registers and domains bb 
 Forests .... 
 
 0 “ Sureties ( cautionnemcns ) of justices’ clerks (greffiers de justice de 
 pair.)"- — Receivers of direct taxes, paymasters of the departments, no- 
 taries, clerks ( greffiers ,) brokers, &c. were obliged to deposit in the 
 sinking fund ( caisse d' umortissement,) a certain sum as bail or surety, 
 the interest of which was paid them at a certain rate fixed by law. 
 (Peuchet. p. 545.)— P. 
 
 p “ Recette exterieure.” — Contributions levied in the conquered 
 countries. — P. 
 
 'i “Dette viagere — Dette perpetuelle.” — See note * p. 1033.— P. 
 
 r “ Reimbursement of a part of the sureties deposited in the sinking 
 fund.” — See note °. — P. 8 See note 0 . — P. 
 
 1 “Department of the Public Treasury” ( — of the imperial treasury, 
 1813.) This department was united with that of the Finances, after the 
 restoration.— P. 
 
 11 “ Department of the Administration of War.” — Under the imperial 
 government there was a department of War, charged with the organiza- 
 tion, pay and operations of the arm} 1 , and the general superintendence 
 of military affairs, and a department of the Administration of War, or 
 commissary department. Both were united into one (the War depart- 
 ment,) after the restoration. — P. 
 
 v “Fund in reserve” — contingent fund. — P. 
 
 w “ Gun-boats ( chaloupes canonnibres .)” 
 
 1 “ Contribution fonciere.” — See note 1 . — P. 
 
 r “ Patents.” — See note™ . — P. 
 
 * “ Costs (fruis) and advertisements.” — Advertisement, in finance, is 
 an official notification by a receiver or collector to such as delay the 
 payment of their taxes. (Enc. Meth. Diet. Jurispr.) — P. 
 
 08 “ Additional tax on the woods of the communes.” — The extent of 
 the national forests, as given by Peuchet (Stat. de la France, 1805,) 
 was 2,393,000 hectares ; that of the woods belonging to the communes, 
 2,000,000 hectares ; and that of those belonging to individuals, 1,500,000 
 hectares. — P. 
 
 bb “ Registry and domains.” — Under the empire, the administration 
 ( rigic ) of the registry and domains was charged with the revenue 
 arising from the fees for the recording of all legal instruments in the pub- 
 lic registers, the stamp tax, duties on the manufacture of tobacco, rents 
 and sales of the national domains, including the sale of wood from the 
 national forests, and other minor branches of revenue. (Peuchet.) — P. 
 
 Franca. 
 
 243,793,500'! 
 
 40.988.000 
 
 15,327,500 327,563,000 
 
 26.804.000 
 650,000 j 
 
 1,558,000 
 - 185,337,000 
 
 27,300,000 
 
BOOK CXLVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF FRANCE. 
 
 355 
 
 104,165,000 "| 
 
 1.448.000 
 
 54,250,000 )■ 103,590,000 
 
 2.972.000 
 755,000 J 
 
 100,098,000'! 
 
 33.502.000 I 
 
 07.989.000 f 
 4^096,000 J 
 
 Customs. 
 
 Duties on imports ... 
 
 exports ... 
 
 salt - 
 
 navigation ... 
 
 different articles 11 
 
 Indirect Taxes 
 
 Duties on wines, spirits, &c. b 
 carriages, &c. c 
 tobacco 
 gunpowder 
 
 Post Office - - ... 
 
 Lottery ... ..... 
 
 Gaming houses' 1 - ... 
 
 Miscellaneous Products. 
 
 Salt works and salt mines' - - 
 
 Benefice of the mint - - 
 
 Produce of the mines - - 
 
 Receipts from different debts f - - 
 
 Products in different departments of the state 
 
 Indemnities for military supplies'! - 
 
 Restitutions made to the state - 
 
 Receipts from schools and places of exercise 11 
 
 Services in arrear 1 - - 
 
 Eventual receipts - - - 
 
 Verification of weights and measures . - . 
 
 Eventual receipts from the departments) - 
 
 Improvements in the customs, domains, and indirect taxes k 
 
 Interest on the Spanish debt of 80,000,000 francs - 
 
 Total .... 
 
 Excess of the expenses 
 
 Sums payable on order. 
 Royal council of public instruction 
 Tax on brevets of invention 1 
 Management of powder and saltpetre works™ 
 Gold and silver, retained after coinage 11 
 
 212.285.000 
 
 30.523.000 
 
 12.500.000 
 
 5.500.000 
 
 1.800.000 
 
 140.000 
 
 240.000 
 
 500.000 
 
 1,200,000 
 
 150.000 
 
 70.000 
 
 50.000 
 50,000 
 
 1,601,000 
 
 800.000 
 
 746.000 
 
 3.500.000 
 
 2.349.000 
 
 979.352.000 
 
 2.158.000 
 
 981.510.000 
 
 3,992,500 
 
 150.000 
 - 3,426,500 
 
 ■ 2,067,000 
 
 Civil List, 
 National debt, 
 
 EXPENSES. 
 
 Registered 
 
 pensions. 
 
 General ser- 
 vice. 
 
 'Legion of Honour, - 3,400,000 
 
 Peers, retired senators, &c. 2.763,000 
 Civil, - - 1 £00 ,000 
 
 •{ Military, - - 45.600,000 >• 
 
 Ecclesiastical, - 5,450,000 
 
 Donees, 0 - - 1,510,000 
 
 Superannuated fund,i’ 783,000 
 
 f Chamber of peers, - 800,000' 
 
 | deputies, 600,000 
 
 J Mint - - 1,440,000 
 
 1 Registry ,s - - 5,500,000 
 
 I Sums paid to emigrants ) ^q- 
 
 and colonists, 5 ’ 
 
 9,636,000 
 
 32,000,000 
 
 269,918,000 
 
 61,006,000 
 
 8,745,000 
 
 11 “ Miscellaneous duties.” b “ — on liquors in general” 
 
 c “ — on carriages, cards (cartes), salt, navigation, &c.” 
 d “ Ferme des jeux k Paris.” — The revenue arising from the gaming 
 houses at Paris is farmed by the government. — P. 
 
 e “ Salt works and salt mines in the eastern part of France” — 
 in Lorraine and Franche-Comte, particularly the extensive salt works 
 at Salins in the latter. — P. 
 
 f “ Debets des finances” — sums due to the treasury from individuals 
 charged with the collection or disbursement of the public monies 
 (comptables,) as determined by the court of exchequer (cour des comptes.) 
 (Enc. Meth. Diet. Fin.) — P. s “ — remplacemens militaires.” 
 
 11 “ Recettes sur les exercices clos.” — Exercice, in finance, is the pe- 
 riod of service of an officer, as of a collector or receiver. The accounts 
 of the period are called comptes de V exercice. Accounts are said to be 
 closed (clos,) when balanced and settled.— P. 
 
 1 “ Capital de rentes (service de l'arrierc.)” 
 i “ Eventual resources of the departments.” 
 
 k Fines for forfeiture to the customs, &c. (amendes sur les douanes, 
 &c.)” 1 Patent rights. — P. 
 
 m “ General direction ( direction ginerale) of powder and saltpetre 
 works.” — This is the name of an office in the war department, establish- 
 ed at the arsenal in Paris. — P. 
 
 n The original properly signifies : “ Sums retained at the mint for the 
 expenses of coinage” — called also the seignorage of the coin, or the 
 royal profit (binifice du roi) on coinage. — P. 
 
 ° 11 Donataires.” p “ Subvention aux fonds de retenue.” 
 
 s “ Cadastre” — register of real estate, grand list. — P. 
 r “ Central administration” — Office of the minister of justice.— P. 
 
 * “ King's councils.” — Under the late government of the Bourbons, be- 
 sides the council of ministers and the cabinet councils, which had no 
 special members, there was a privy-council and a council of state. — P. 
 
 Justice. 
 
 Foreign af- 
 fairs. 
 
 Ecclesiastical 
 
 affairs. 
 
 5 
 
 Court of Exchequer, 
 
 f Administration of justice, 1 
 | King’s council,” 
 
 Courts and tribunals, 
 
 Criminal justice, - 
 Supplementary pension fund 
 Seals and titles, 1 
 ' Administration of foreign ) 
 affairs, 11 ) 
 
 Diplomatic agents, &c. T 
 Expenses of the foreign 
 service, 
 
 Ecclesiastical department, 
 
 Salaries and expenses of' 
 
 . the clergy, 
 
 (^Aids to the clergy, 
 
 Public Instruction, 
 
 f Home department, 1 
 Roads, bridges, canals, or- 
 dinary expenses, 
 
 Public works, 
 
 Sciences and arts, 
 
 Non-catholic clergy 1 
 Studs, 
 
 Useful institutions, 
 
 Departmental expenses, 
 
 Special expenses (Paris,) 
 
 Departmental (hail, fires, &c.)l ,8] 9,000 
 Commercial department, 1111 894,000 > 
 Cod and whale fisheries, 2,400,000 ) 
 
 War department, 1111 - 1, 577.000 “j 
 
 Staff, - - 16,844,000 
 
 King’s military household, 3,140,000 
 Gendarmes, - 15,849,000 
 
 Pay and maintenance of) 107 
 the troops, 5 
 
 Artillery (material,) 7,179,000 
 
 Engineers (material,) 8,325,000 
 
 Military schools, depots' 1 , &c .2,004 ,000 
 Quarters, reforms, aids, &c. dd 4,486,000 
 ’ Different expenses, 34,919,000 
 
 Navy (material,) 22,267,000 
 
 Colonies, - - 7,000,000 f 
 
 Hospitals, - - 1,184, 000 J 
 
 ( Expense of collecting the public money, 
 £ Different expenses, 
 
 Interior. 
 
 Commerce. 
 
 552,000'! 
 
 686.500 
 
 14.564.000 
 
 3.400.000 f 
 
 371.500 | 
 75,000 J 
 
 1 . 020.000 
 
 4.834.000 
 
 3.146.000 
 370,000^ 
 
 33.071.000 V 
 
 2.480.000 J 
 
 1,451,000') 
 
 39.900.000 
 
 3.657.000 
 
 2.491.000 
 720,000 
 
 1.840.000 
 
 1.425.000 
 47,956,500 
 
 1.040.000 
 
 War. 
 
 Navy 
 
 and 
 
 Colonies. 
 
 Finances. 
 
 Sums borrowed for canals, roads and bridges, 
 
 T otal , 
 
 Expenses that may be incurred. 
 Council of public instruction, 
 
 Tax on brevets of invention, ee 
 Powder and saltpetre, 
 
 Money, (expense of coinage,) 
 
 1.255.000 
 
 19.649.000 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 35.921.000 
 
 1.995.000 
 
 105.600.000 
 
 3.294.000 
 
 187.200.000 
 
 65.270.000 
 
 117.473.000 
 
 59.584.000 
 
 977.910.000 
 
 3.600.000 
 
 981.510.000 
 
 3.459.000 
 150,000 
 
 3.428.000 
 
 2.067.000 
 
 9.104.000 
 
 39,900” 
 
 1 “ Caisse du sceau des titres.” — The Commission of the Seal is 
 charged, among other duties, with the decision of all claims relative 
 to titles, coats of arms, &c. — P. 
 
 “ “ Central administration, &c.” — See note 1 . 
 
 " “ Salaries of diplomatic agents.” 
 
 w “ Central administration” — Office of the minister of religion. — P. 
 x “ Central administration” — Office of the minister of the interior. — P. 
 y “ Roads and bridges C Ordinary expenses 31,000 
 (Ponts et chaussics) ( Canals 8,900 ; 
 
 1 “ For the support of public worship (eultes,) not catholic.” — At 
 present (1817,) the Roman Catholic religion is declared that of the 
 majority of the French people, and is supported by the state; but the 
 state provides equally for the ministers of the protestant churches, 
 either Lutheran or Calvinist, and even superintends the synagogues of 
 the Jews. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 1111 “ Central administration and the different departmental administra- 
 tions.” — In 1822, there was a general council of commerce, under the 
 administration of the minister of the interior, and thirty-one chambers of 
 commerce in the departments, each of which was represented by a 
 member in the general council. — P. 
 
 bb “ Central administration” — Office of the minister of war. — P. 
 cc “ Depot de la guerre” (Military Depot) — an office at the war de- 
 partment for the collection of historical memoirs relative to war, 
 geographical maps and plans, and topographical details, and also for 
 drawing and publishing maps, particularly the great map of France. 
 (Aim. Royal.) — P. 
 
 dd “ Traitemens, reformes, secours, &c.” — Should not this read • 
 Traitcmens de reforme, secours, &c. — half-pay and pensions J — P. 
 
 °- e See note 1 . 
 
[BOOK CXLiVII. 
 
 • 
 
 356 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 BOOK CXLYII. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued. — Description of the Scandinavian Pe- 
 ninsula. — First Section. — Kingdom of Norway. 
 
 At the northern extremity of Europe, in those regions 
 where winter, characterised hy long and severe frosts, and 
 losing the grey complexion which it presents in temperate 
 climates, covers the ground with a dazzling carpet of snow, and 
 adorns itself with the brilliant fires of the Aurora Borealis ; 
 where the long days of summer, even hotter than under the 
 sky of Italy, are indebted to the scorching rays of the sun 
 for the blessings of a vegetation which unfolds itself with sur- 
 prising rapidity, there lives a people, which, in the bosom of 
 an advanced civilization, has religiously preserved the laws 
 and manners of its ancestors. This people is the Norwegian. 
 
 Descended probably from the same source, the Norwegian 
 speaks a language, which has the same origin with that of 
 the Swedes and Danes. 3 In the eighth century one dialect 
 formed of them only one great family, and in this dialect 
 were composed the songs consecrated to the mysteries and 
 mythological creed of the Scandinavians. The brilliant fic- 
 tions which still enliven our poetry, appear to have been, if 
 not produced, at least tastefully coloured under the beautiful 
 sky of Greece; yet we find a part of their lustre in the 
 ancient Edda, b the most valuable collection we possess of 
 Scandinavian poems. 0 Let us open one of these poems, the 
 Voluspa, or the Oracle of the Prophetess Vola , d in which 
 the creation of the world, and its destruction, are described 
 in glowing language. We there read that in the beginning 
 a vast chaos reigned over the universe ; the gods themselves 
 slumbered in the repose of a long and dark night. At last 
 appeared the giant Ymcr , with his brothers, in the midst of 
 that ocean of vapours which filled the immensity of space, 
 and framed a world, gigantic indeed, but without proportion, 
 and as yet enveloped in darkness. But Odin, the god of 
 
 ■* The Danish, Swedish and Icelandic are three dialects of one great 
 division of the Gothic family of languages, viz. the Scandinavian. 
 This, before the discovery of Iceland (in the ninth century,) was com- 
 mon to all the Scandinavians. The Icelandic approaches nearest to 
 this old language, of the three written languages; the High Norse, still 
 spoken by the peasants in the remoter districts of Norway, is also near- 
 er to it than the Danish and Swedish. These languages are character- 
 ized by two remarkable peculiarities, by which they differ essentially 
 from the Teutonic languages, although very many of their words are 
 closely allied to the corresponding words in the latter. These peculiar- 
 ities are : 1. the possession of two definite articles — one separate and 
 prefixed (Dan. and Sw. den, masc. and fern, det, neut.) and the other a 
 suffixed syllable (en or n, masc. and fern, et or t, neut. in Dan. and Swed. 
 — enn or nn and cd or d, in Icelandic) ; 2. the formation of the passive 
 verb by simply suffixing s to the active, in Dan. and Swed. (e. g. elshe, 
 to love, clskes , to be loved,) and si. in Icelandic, (as gcfti, to give, gefast, 
 to be given.) — P. 
 
 b The poetical or elder Edda; called also Stemund’s Edda ( Edda 
 Stcmundar kins Froda , Edda of Stemund the Wise,) from Siemund Sig- 
 fuson, an Icelander, by whom it was compiled about the beginning of 
 the twelfth century. — The prose or younger Edda (Snorro’s Edda) is 
 said to have been compiled in the 13th century, by Snorro Sturleson, 
 also an Icelander. — P. 
 
 light, e accompanied by his two brothers Ve and Vile / ex- 
 tended his reign over this universe, still shapeless and rude : 
 then the sun, hitherto wandering in space, drew the other 
 stars after him around our planet ; the seasons succeeded 
 each other with regularity; Ymer fell under the blows of 
 Odin, and in his blood the giants his brothers were drowned, 
 one excepted, who, more fortunate than the rest, took refuge 
 in the mountains, where he propagated a race destined one 
 day to embrue the earth with blood. 
 
 Odin, intent upon beautifying the universe, created man 
 and woman from the trunk of a tree thrown by the waves 
 upon the shore. Does not this incident conceal a philo- 
 sophical idea ? May we not discover in this wreck, tossed 
 upon the ocean, and which becomes the origin of the human 
 race, the cause of the stormy life that attends man in this world ? 
 Whatever there may be in this, the deities hastened to adorn 
 this new race of beings with the finest qualities : the earth 
 presented the image of happiness ; innocence and knowledge 
 reigned in it ; the arts diffused themselves ; and gold became 
 the most common of metals. But the daughters of the giants 
 descended from their mountains ; one of them, Gullveiga,% 
 or the Weigher of Gold, spread among men avarice and 
 the love of gain ; thrice the gods delivered her over to the 
 flames, and thrice she revived from her ashes. She still 
 lives : she it is who first caused human blood to flow, and, 
 through her influence, it will never cease flowing. 
 
 Asagard h is the Scandinavian Olympus. There, amidst 
 surrounding clouds, rises, resplendent with light, Valhalla , 1 
 or the palace of Odin, the abode of the gods, and the asylum 
 destined for those mortals, who by their virtues have rendered 
 themselves worthy of it. There the hero slain in battle is 
 admitted to the banquet of the gods. There Freya, the 
 daughter of the god of the sea,j as Venus is of the foam, 
 
 c “ Scaldic poems” — poems of the Scalds (Scandinavian bards.) — P. 
 d Voluspa, the prophecy (spae) of the Vala. — The Yalas were the 
 Northern Sybils, prophetesses inspired by the Nornir or Destinies. 
 (F. Q. It. No. III.) — They were of the race of giants ( Jotun .) — P. 
 
 e Odin was called Alfadcr, the father of all the gods (A sir.) The 
 Aser (celestial deities) were opposed to the giants or evil genii (Jotun.) 
 Odin, the leader of the former, corresponds to the Persian Ormuzd, re- 
 presenting light, and Loke, the leader of the latter, to Ahriman, or 
 darkness. In this sense, Odin may be called the god of light ; but he 
 was not the Northern Apollo. Balder (the vernal sun.) and Freyr, the 
 sun-god, the brother of Freya, the moon-goddess, better correspond 
 with that deity. Odin is compared by Finn Magnusen, to the Grecian 
 Zeus, the father of gods and men — P. 
 
 f Odin, Vile antf Ve constitute one of the Northern Trinities (the 
 cosmogonic trinity of the prose Edda.) Odin is regarded by Magnusen 
 as the air, Vile as light, and Ve as fire. — P. 
 
 s Gullveig, gold matter. (For. Qu. Rev. No. 111.) — P. 
 
 11 Asgard — Aser-yard, the city of the gods (Ascr.) — P. 
 
 * “ Valhal.” — Valhall. (For. Quart. Rev. Nos. 111. and VII.) — P. 
 i Freya was the daughter of Niordr, a deity who presided over the 
 wind, to whom travellers and mariners addressed their prayers. (For 
 Q. Rev. No. VII.) — P. 
 
book cxlvii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 adorns herself with all the charms of youth. She is the 
 goddess of love and of beauty, and, under the name of 
 Vanadis, also the goddess of hope. She shares with Odin 
 the empire of the dead, a because it is often unsuccessful love 
 which hurries its victims into the heat of battle. Frigga, 
 the chaste spouse of Odin, the Ceres and Juno of the Scand- 
 inavians, 1 ’ receives, after death, such wives as have been 
 distinguished by a heroic fidelity ; while Thor, her eldest 
 son, who, with his club, terrifies the giants, and makes them 
 retire within the limits of Jotunheim, 0 the prison reserved for 
 them, in like manner rewards after their death faithful slaves. 
 In the palace of the immortals, Bragor , the god of the arts 
 and of music, d charms the ears of the deities with the notes 
 of his golden harp. Idunna, his wife, distributes among the 
 inhabitants of heaven the apples which perpetuate their im- 
 mortality. Forsete, another son of Odin,® has for his em- 
 ployment the preserving peace among mankind ; and the 
 goddess Vara presides over the sacredness of oaths. With- 
 out this hallowed mansion, the god Uller , gliding on his spark- 
 ling skates, cuts the air with the rapidity of lightning, sur- 
 passing the winds in swiftness ; while the watchful Heimdal, 
 a sentinel ever attentive to the motions of the evil genii, 
 guards night and day that aerial arch, the seven colours of 
 which are so often seen by men. But the object beloved 
 by all the gods is Balder / the son of Odin, the most amiable 
 and the most brilliant of the immortals, endowed by destiny 
 with every good quality of the heart, with every intellectual 
 gift, and with every physical advantage. Nothing equals his 
 beauty : his eyes shine with a lustre more radiant than that 
 of the morning star. To him alone belongs the power of 
 appeasing tempests. A stranger to the passions which agi- 
 tate the other gods, to their warlike projects, and their ob- 
 streperous mirth, he seldom appears at their assemblies, 
 living peaceably in a palace, whose site is pointed out by 
 that white belt, which during clear nights shines in the vault 
 of heaven. 
 
 But this world, organized by Odin, wall one day fall in 
 ruins, and again become part of the empire of chaos : the 
 death of Balder has been predicted, and Odin has read this 
 terrible secret in the Book of Fate.s Siona, the goddess of 
 sympathy and love ; Snotra, who bestows prudence and mod- 
 eration ; Lowna, who presides over conjugal fidelity ; the 
 three Nornies, who regulate the destiny of mortals ; h the 
 twelve Valkiries, 1 nymphs who accompany heroes to battle ; 
 in short, all the gods tremble in the knowledge of the future 
 that threatens them. All these deities have compelled the 
 parts of nature, which are subject to them, by an oath to fur- 
 nish no arms fatal to the life of Balder.! Fire, water, vege- 
 tables and rocks are bound by this oath ; one parasitical plant, 
 
 OF NORWAY. 357 
 
 the misletoe, was alone forgotten. Lolce , the genius of evil, 
 has discovered the fatal omission, and he will employ this 
 contemptible vegetable to accomplish the decree of fate. 
 Assured that all the elements respect his life, Balder, amidst 
 the warlike exercises of Valhalla, feels a pleasure in pre- 
 senting his invulnerable breast to the darts thrown at him by 
 the gods ; but Loke, at one of these celestial assemblies, will 
 engage Hoder , k the son of Odin, to take part, although blind, 
 in the tournaments. Putting into his hand a branch of the 
 misletoe, and directing his arm, the genius of evil will see his 
 wishes accomplished by an unintentional fratricide. Loke 
 will then assemble the giants his sons ; he will open the gates 
 of Nastrond, a frozen hell, where rivers of poison alone pre- 
 serve their fluidity, and he will bring from thence perjurers 
 and assassins, and the dreadful Hela, the goddess of death. 
 Surtur ,’ the genius of fire, will at the same time escape from 
 Muspelheim, his abode of flames. Then all these monsters 
 and their attendants will attack the gods ; the serpent Jor- 
 mungandur m will crush the earth in his immense folds ; the 
 wolf Fenris will devour the sun and the valiant Odin"; the 
 stars will fall from the azure vault ; the two celestial armies 
 will perish, annihilated by each other ; and the universe, dis- 
 organized by so many opposing struggles, will present only a 
 vast collection of elements confusedly mixed. 
 
 The predictions, however, of the sybil Vola,° do not ter- 
 minate with this frightful catastrophe. She invokes a deity 
 greater than all those who are to perish in the general con- 
 flagration. This Being, superior to all others, will appear 
 to establish eternal laws ; a new earth will proceed from 
 chaos, in the splendour of youth ; the climates of the north 
 will no longer have either ice or frost, but a perpetual spring 
 will reign there, and Balder, the god of peace, raised again 
 from the dead, will gather around him all virtuous men.? 
 
 In this exposition of the Scandinavian mythology, we per- 
 ceive resemblances to the writings of Plato, and many fic- 
 tions similar to those which distinguish the philosophical sys- 
 tems of the Slavonians, Persians, and Indians. Do these 
 different points of analogy prove, that in every climate man 
 has given the same form to his religious ideas, as an author 
 of merit supposes ? q Or, do they not rather point out to us, 
 that the ancient dogmas of the north derive their origin from 
 the sacred reveries, which are regarded as having had their 
 birth in India ? Or, lastly, have they not rather been car- 
 ried from the regions of the north even as far as the east? 
 The study of such monuments as have survived the destruc- 
 tion of ages, the knowledge of the ancient languages of the 
 north, and a comparison of them with those of India, have 
 probably not yet thrown sufficient light upon these ques- 
 tions. It is difficult not to recognise the striking resem- 
 
 1 “ She shares the dead equally with Odin.” — When she goes to the 
 battles of men, one half of the slain fall to her and the other to Odin. 
 (For. Q. Rev. No. VII.)— P. 
 b Frigga was the goddess of the earth. — P. 
 c Jatunheim , the abode (home) of the giants ( Jotun .) — P. 
 d Braga, the god of song and poetry (F. Q. R.) — Bragur. — P. 
 e Forseti (prudent) was the son of Balder ; it was his office to pro- 
 nounce true and righteous judgement. (For. Quart. Rev. No. VII.) — P. 
 f Baldur, the good — called also the White God. — P. 
 
 K “ — in the fountain of destiny.” — Odin descends to the realm of 
 death (Hela’s abode) on his horse Sleipner, and there evoking one of 
 the Valas (prophetic giantesses,) learns from her the secret of Balder's 
 death.* (For. Q. R. No. VII.) — The fount of destiny is called Urda’s 
 fount, situated in the south, and the source of life, light and warmth. 
 (F. Q. R. No. III.) — On the approach of the twilight of the Gods (de- 
 struction of the world,) Odin in vain seeks advice at the well of Mimer, 
 in the north, the source of wisdom. — P. 
 
 ♦ See Gray’s ode : The descent of Odin. 
 
 h Nornir — the three maids, Ur da, Verande, and Skuld (Past, Present 
 
 and Future,) who dwell by Urda’s fount, and appoint the life-time of 
 mortals — the Northern Fates. (F. Q. R. No. III.) — P. 
 
 ‘ Valkyriur (choosers of the slain.) — P. 
 
 1 Frigga compelled all beings animate and inanimate to take an oath 
 that they would spare the life of Balder. (For. Rev. No. II.) — P. 
 
 k Hodur. (F. Q. R.) 
 
 1 Surtur (the black, swart,) lord of Muspelheim, destroyer of the 
 world by fire. — P. 
 
 m JOrmungandur (earthly monster) or Midgardsormr (earth s serpent.) 
 — He lay at the bottom of the earth-surrounding ocean, completely 
 encircling the earth, with his tail in his mouth. — The habitable earth 
 was called Midgard (Middle-yard or city,) also Mannheim, or Man’s 
 abode, and was supposed to be surrounded by the sea, and that by Ut- 
 gard (Outer-yard) or Jatunheim. — P. 
 
 n The wolf Fenris will swallow Odin, and after him the sun and 
 moon, but will fall by Vidur, the son of Odin. (For. Rev. No. II.) — P. 
 
 0 See note d p. 1036. 
 
 p See the work entitled : Edda Rhythmica seu Antiquior, vulgo Scb- 
 mundina dicta, &c. Copenhagen, 1827. 
 
 1 Ch. Coquerel, Resumb de l’histoire de Suede, 2e edit. 1825. 
 
358 EUR 
 
 blance that exists between the Normanno-Gothic,* the lan- 
 guage of the Scalds, and that in which the two poems of the 
 Edda and Voluspa b are written, and the Sanscrit. The Ru- 
 nic alphabet, which resembles the Phoenician characters, and 
 those of the ancient inscriptions at Persepolis, had been in use 
 in the north from time immemorial.® Shall we admit, with 
 certain modern authors, that the conqueror, who, under the 
 name of Odin, was deified in the humid and icy regions of 
 Scandinavia, where he founded a new creed and a new em- 
 pire, proceeded from Asiatic Tartary, when a crowd of tra- 
 ditions and monuments prove, that the Scandinavian worship, 
 or that of Odin, had been, when the Romans penetrated in- 
 to Germany, established there from the remotest antiquity ? 
 Does not history present to us, in every country of the globe, 
 the people of the north subduing the nations of the south, 
 and the latter only here and there, through an instinct of 
 self-preservation, re-acting upon the north, in order to keep 
 back the masses ready to pour in upon them ? If the affin- 
 ity 11 of languages is not a chimera ; if the first language, if the 
 first alphabet, if the first arts adopted by every people, are 
 not the natural and universal results of the physical and moral 
 organization of man ; if they do not resemble each other for 
 the same reason that in every country the drawings sketch- 
 ed by a child, or by an uneducated man, bear an identical 
 character : we would say, that in order to ascend to their 
 origin, we must advance towards the north rather than the 
 south, because it is not natural that people should quit warm 
 or temperate regions for northern ones, which have not even 
 sufficient attractions to retain the natives, as is proved by the 
 frequent migrations sent by the North to more favoured cli- 
 mates. It appears to us then difficult to prove that the 
 Scandinavians are not descended from a primitive race, indi- 
 genous to the countries which it still inhabits.® 
 
 Under the name of Scandia, the ancients designated all 
 the countries which now comprise Norway and Sweden. 
 Pliny calls it Scandia insula. 1 The origin of this appella- 
 tion arises from this circumstance, that in the time of the Ro- 
 man naturalist, they were only acquainted with that part of 
 the country called Skanen or Skonenf and that merely 
 through the report of some Germans. This is the former 
 province of Schonen or Scania, the most southern of Swe- 
 den. h The name was afterwards changed to Scandinavia. 
 
 The Scandinavian tribes were much more addicted to the 
 chase, and to fishing, than to agriculture. These occupa- 
 tions formed the principal guarantees of their independence. 
 With them the representative form of government seems to 
 have originated. They obeyed chiefs or kings who were at 
 once judges and high-priests, but whose power was limited 
 by the national assemblies composed of free men. The sov- 
 
 ,OPE. [BOOK CXLVII. 
 
 ereign authority was partly hereditary and partly elective, 
 and this mixed organization was long preserved in Sweden. 
 Their habitations lay dispersed, and to them, like the Ger- 
 mans, the confinement of a city would have proved an in- 
 supportable prison. Their manners were severe. With 
 them, hospitality was the first of duties; cowardice and 
 adultery were the two greatest crimes. They interred their 
 warriors in such parts of the sea-beach, as were alternately 
 covered and abandoned by the waves : “ These tribes,” 
 says an author, whose testimony has already been referred 
 to, “ imagined that the shades of heroes preferred the ma- 
 jestic noise of the billows to the silent repose of a valley or 
 a plain, and that their ghosts, rising amidst the obscurity of 
 the evening, loved to contemplate the sons of Odin return- 
 ing from their foreign expeditions, and repealing the war- 
 like songs with which they had inspired them.”* 
 
 The respect which they had for their women was carried 
 much farther than even that of the Cells and Germans. At 
 their festivals, at their public meetings, and at their feasts, 
 the women always occupied the place of honour. They, on 
 the other hand, rendered themselves worthy of the respect 
 of the men, by their virtues, and by their attachment to their 
 husbands. Often they accompanied them to battle, perish- 
 ed with them, or re-assembled the troops to avenge their 
 death. Sometimes, but this was not a general custom, they 
 immolated themselves on their husbands’ funeral pile. The 
 deep regard which the Scandinavians had for chastity, form- 
 ed the principal safeguard of their morals ; the women did 
 not live apart from the men ; the young women might re- 
 ceive into their apartments their relations, and even their fu- 
 ture husbands. If, during a journey, two individuals of dif- 
 ferent sexes, and unmarried, were obliged to sleep upon the 
 same bed, the man placed his naked sword between the 
 woman and him, and it formed a more secure barrier than 
 modern bolts. The education that women of rank receiv- 
 ed, proves also the respect with which they were treated. 
 They were taught to read and to engrave the Runic char- 
 acters, a knowledge interdicted to slaves ; music and poetry 
 formed also their employment, and the Sagas, or ancient 
 historical relations, cite a great number of princesses who 
 aspired to the title of poet. The women alone practised 
 medicine and surgery ; they alone dressed the wounded. 
 They excelled also in the art of interpreting dreams, of pre- 
 dicting the future, and discovering the character of individ- 
 uals from their features and physiognomy. Yet this supe- 
 rior education did not exclude domestic occupations ; even 
 their queens were acquainted with sewing, embroidery, ba- 
 king, and brewing. 
 
 If the religion and manners of the ancient Scandinavians 
 
 a See note a p. 103C. 
 
 b This is a mistake. The Edda (poetical Edda) and Voluspa are not 
 two distinct poems. The poetical Edda is a collection of mythological 
 songs or poems, one of which is the Voluspa. — P. 
 
 c The Runic characters are so called from the old Latin word rvna 
 (a javelin)*, because they are of a sharp or pointed form ; the Persepo- 
 litan writing is formed of letters which are called wedge-shaped (cunei- 
 form), from their resemblance to a wedge or an arrow-head. 
 
 The Runic characters, which also resemble the Samaritan, the an- 
 cient Greek, and the Celtiberian, are in number sixteen. 
 
 * Runic is derived from rim, signifying in the old Scandinavian language, line or 
 stroke, and in the old northern tales (sagas,) speech, song, and also letterand writing. 
 In Ulphilas it signifies secret, and is thence used in the northern tales for a mysteri- 
 ous spell, song or letter. (For. Itev. No. II.) — P. 
 
 d “ Filiation ” — affinity by descent or derivation. — P. 
 
 ' “ God hath made of one blood all the nations of the earth.” Paul, 
 in Acts XVII. 26. — Translator's JVotc. [“ God — hath made of one blood 
 all nations of men for to dwell on all the face of the earth.” Acts 
 XVII. 26. — This is not the first time that the local, or rather autochtho- i 
 
 novs, creation, we might saj spontaneous production, of the different 
 tribes or races of men, has been more or less distinctly stated in the 
 original — a doctrine generally considered in English science, as equally 
 opposed to religion and philosophy. Aside from the express declara- 
 tions of scripture to the contrary, and the general conformity of the 
 different races of men, in their physical, intellectual and moral consti- 
 tution, there are certain circumstances connected with the doctrine of 
 animal species, which render the opinion in the text, extremely im- 
 probable, if not absolutely groundless. — P.] 
 
 f Scandia, insula : in the index ; not in the text. — Sunt qui et alias 
 [i/iyu/fl-s] prodant, Scandiam, Dumnam, Bergos : maximamque omnium 
 Nerigon — . Plin. Nat. Hist. 1. iv. c. 16. — The author should have said, 
 Pliny calls it an island. — P. 
 
 e “ Slcane or Skone." — Skanen or Skonen is merely the word with the 
 definite article cn suffixed. See note * p. 1036. — P. 
 
 h Sweden was formerly divided into provinces, but at present is di- 
 vided into prefectures. (See Statistical Tables.) — P. 
 
 > Ch. Coquerel, Resume de l'histoire de Suede. 
 
 L — 
 
book cxlvii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 present a picture interesting from the view it gives of the 
 Norwegians and Swedes before their acquaintance with 
 Christianity, that which they now present equally merits our 
 attention. Let us begin with Norway. In spite ol the 
 vague ideas which the ancients entertained of the northern 
 countries of Europe, it cannot be doubted that the country 
 which Pliny a calls Nerigon b is Norway. Many geogra- 
 phers 0 have asserted that the name signifies the Way to the 
 North; d e but its true etymology is Nor-Rige, Kingdom of 
 the North/ or rather, perhaps, assuming the word Nor as 
 signifying Gulf, Kingdom of Gulfs, because in effect its 
 coasts are much more indented than those ol Sweden. We 
 thus see that the name of Nerigon has much more analogy 
 with that of Norrige than with that of Norweg, which at the 
 first glance appears to be the origin of the modern name. 
 
 The petty sovereignties, into which Norway was divided, 
 were, from times the most remote, independent, acknow- 
 ledging, however, a kind of supremacy in the kings of Swe- 
 den and Denmark, till about the year 940, when Harold Har- 
 fagre (the Fair-hair ed after long fighting, formed one king- 
 dom of all these principalities. Olof Trygvason, 1 ' known 
 also by the name of Olaus, wltose bold adventures astonished 
 the North, and possessor of the Norwegian throne in 991, 
 endeavoured, by violence and cruelty, to extirpate the wor- 
 ship of Odin in his new states. But another Olof, 1 at the 
 commencement of the eleventh century, surpassed his pre- 
 decessor in tyranny, and in zeal for the church, or in other 
 words, for the clergy. In return, the church made a saint 
 of him : even at Constantinople they erected temples to his 
 memory, and his tomb was visited by pilgrims, not only from 
 the North, but from all Europe. Down to the fourteenth 
 century, many kings, whose vices and virtues we shall not 
 even sketch, succeeded one another in the midst of political 
 storms. Towards the close of the fourteenth century, the 
 three kingdoms of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway were 
 united under one sovereign, Margaret, daughter of Waldemar 
 of Denmark. In the lifetime of Margaret, she appointed 
 her grand-nephew, Eric, surnamed of Pomerania, her suc- 
 cessor, who, on the death of Margaret, in 1412, succeeded 
 , to the three crowns, as Eric II. of Norway, IX. or X. of 
 Denmark, and XIII. of Sweden. 1 After various attempts 
 had been made on the part of the Swedes, the oppression 
 and cruelty of Christian II. led to a final separation of Swe- 
 
 OF NORWAY. 359 
 
 den in 1 520/ under the renowned Gustavus Ericson (Vasa,) 
 but Norway and Denmark remained under one sceptre till 
 their separation in IS 14, when Norway was united to the 
 crown of Sweden. 1 
 
 It is known, that the Norwegians were opposed to the 
 separation from Denmark and union to Sweden that took 
 place alter the downfall of Napoleon’s empire in 1815.™ 
 To compensate Sweden for the loss of Finland, to reward 
 her for her assistance under Bernadotte, then crown prince 
 of Sweden, in the important campaign of 1813, and at same 
 time to punish Denmark for her adherence to Napoleon, 
 or rather her neutrality in what was considered the common 
 cause of Europe, the allies, in the plenitude of their power, 
 determined upon the violent separation of two states that 
 had been united for ages, and the junction of Norway with 
 a state that had for ages been considered her natural enemy. 
 It was in vain that the Norwegians remonstrated, and at- 
 tempted resistance : they were threatened with starvation 
 by a blockade of their ports; and they at last agreed to the 
 union, on condition of being allowed to choose a constitution 
 of their own. The constitution they made choice of w as em- 
 inently popular, indeed democratic. All orders of nobility 
 were abolished, with this exception, that those who possess- 
 ed titles under the old regime, were allowed to retain them 
 during their lives, and their children who were born, pre- 
 vious to the new order of things, are allowed to succeed 
 them, but with them the title of nobility expires. The king 
 is chief magistrate, but no taxes can be imposed, or laws 
 passed, without the consent of the Storthing, n or great coun- 
 cil of the nation, which meets every three years, in the 
 month of February, except in extraordinary cases, when it 
 may be assembled, without regard to the ordinary time. 
 It is composed of seventy-seven deputies, twenty-six from 
 the towns, and fifty-one from the country. A spirit of in- 
 dependence runs through all the proceedings of the Stor- 
 thing, which has led to continual differences between them 
 and the Swedish government, the latter accusing the Nor- 
 wegians of an unreasonable and factious opposition, while 
 they, on the other hand, charge the government with at- 
 tempts to innovate upon and change the constitution. A 
 traveller who lately (1827) visited Norway, was present at a 
 meeting of the Storthing: “ There were,” he says, “ about 
 fifty members present, some of whom had come from the 
 
 1 Lib. IV. cap. 16. 
 
 b Nerigos, D’Anv. — Nerigon , in the index to Pliny. It is also Neri- 
 gon in the text of Pliny, but it there occurs in the accusative. See the 
 passage quoted in note f p. 1038. — P. 
 
 c See the article Norway ( Norwdge ) in the Geographical Dictionary 
 of the Encyclopidie. [The name of Norway {Norweg c) is formed from 
 nord and weg, northern way ( clicmin du nord.) (Enc. Meth. Geog. 
 Mod.) — The natural signification of Norway is, the Northern-way. 
 (Guthrie.) — Norway, anciently Norrik, or the Northern kingdom. 
 (Pinkerton.) — Its present name is Norge, in Danish. — P.] 
 
 d “ Chemin du Nord ’’—literally, way of the north ; northern way. — P. 
 t From nord and vug (way :) Norweg. [IVeg is German. Vei is the 
 same word in Danish, and vtzg, in Swedish. — P.] 
 
 1 Nord, north, and rige, kingdom, (Danish.) — P. 
 e “ Harald aux beaux cheveux ” — Harald the Fair-haired. — The sov- 
 ereignty originally founded in the south-east part of Norway, around 
 the modern city of Christiania, was extended by degrees, and Harald 
 Harfagre about A. D. 910 became master of all Norway. (Pinkerton’s 
 Geog. vol. I. 4to, p. 342.) — Norway was originally divided into a num- 
 ber of petty principalities, which were first united into one monarchy 
 by Harold Harfager, A. D. 875. (Ed. Encyc.) — P. 
 h Olaf I. (Pinkerton.) 
 
 1 Olaf II. the saint, 1014 — 1030. (Pinkerton.) 
 
 1 It is altogether a mistake in the original to say that Eric XII 1. 
 reigned in Sweden only. He was the same person who was Eric II. in 
 Norway, and Eric IX. or X. in Denmark. — Tr. 
 k Gustavus Vasa excited the revolt in Dalecarlia in 1520, but did 
 
 not complete the restoration of Sweden till the capture of Stockholm in 
 1523. (Pinkerton, vol. 1. p. 366.) — P. 
 
 1 “ In 1350, Norway, Denmark and Sweden were united under the 
 same sovereign; Eric XIII., however, some years afterwards, reigned 
 alone in Sweden, and the two other kingdoms remained almost contin- 
 ually under the same sceptre, until the definitive union of Norway with 
 Sweden in 1814.” — The marriage of Hakon VI. king of Norway, with 
 Margaret daughter of Waldemar III. king of Denmark, A. D. 1363, 
 produced the memorable union of the crowns of the north. On the 
 death of her young son (Olaus,) Margaret ascended the throne of Den- 
 mark and Norway in 1387, and that of Sweden in 1389. (Pinkerton, vol 
 1. p. 341.) — The three kingdoms were not formally united, till the union 
 of Calmar in 1397. ('Ed. Encyc. art. Denmark.) — The crowns of Den- 
 mark and Norway \ 2 re united by the marriage of Hakon and Marga- 
 ret; the two countries, however, continued separate so far as to have 
 distinct constitutions and codes of law, and were not formally conjoined 
 as one kingdom till the year 1537. (Ed. Encyc. art. Norway.) — Eric of 
 Pomerania, who succeeded Margaret in 1412, reigned 26 years after her 
 death, when he was compelled to abdicate, A. D. 1448. — P. 
 
 m Qu. in 1814, or rather after his expulsion from Germany in 1813. 
 The king of Denmark was compelled to sign a treaty at Kiel, Jan. 14, 
 1814, by which he ceded Norway to Sweden in exchange for Swedish 
 Pomerania and the island of Rugen. The Norwegians, however, re- 
 sisted the union with Sweden, but in an assembly at Christiania, Oct. 
 1814, it was agreed that Norway should be permanently governed by the 
 same king as Sweden, but as an integral state, and with the preserva 
 tion of its constitution and laws. — P. 
 
 “ Star, great, and thing (Dan. ting,) court or tribunal. — P 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLVII. 
 
 3G0 
 
 unfrequented parts of the country, and surprised us by the 
 patriarchal simplicity of their appearance. They were drest 
 in the coarse grey woollen cloth of the peasants, with long 
 hair reaching to their shoulders, and their whole costume 
 reminded one of the fashions of other centuries ; they seem- 
 ed beings of a different era from ourselves.” “Were not,” 
 the writer adds, “ the senators of Rome, when virtuous and 
 poor, somewhat such men as these ?” By an article of the 
 constitution, the king must pass some time every year in 
 Norway, unless prevented by urgent circumstances ; and 
 by another, public employments are conferred only on Nor- 
 wegian citizens, who profess the established religion, which 
 is declared to be the Lutheran. Jews, by an express article, 
 are prohibited from entering Norway.® 
 
 In a country where man seems to have always enjoyed 
 his rights, and preserved the exercise of his dignity ; where 
 the peasant, far from being subjected to that kind of moral 
 and political non-existence, under which he has been every- 
 where else oppressed, lives a free-man, and is represented 
 by deputies in the national assemblies ; where the rich pro- 
 prietor is, so to speak, merely a rich peasant ; where the 
 order of nobility is almost unknown ; and where large estates 
 and mansion-houses corresponding, are less frequent than in 
 any other country ; the epoch of the reformation would na- 
 turally be an era for consolidating the institutions dear to a 
 population jealous of its liberty, and thus Protestantism was 
 easily established in Norway in the year 1525. The Nor- 
 wegian clergy, no less charitable and virtuous than those of 
 other Christian countries, are superior to them in informa- 
 tion. It is amongst this respectable class that the peasantry 
 find well-informed teachers, indulgent reprovers, assiduous 
 comforters, and models of behaviour. Every plan which is 
 conducive to the general interest, public utility, and the 
 prosperity of the country, finds wise appreciators of its value 
 in the simplest country curates. It is thus to their advice 
 and to their influence that government is anxious to have 
 recourse, when it is intended to establish granaries, to re- 
 pair bridges and roads, or to introduce some new mode of 
 cultivation. It is rare not to find among the clergy well 
 informed mineralogists, economists, botanists, and agricul- 
 turists. There have been amongst them many sufficiently 
 acquainted with astronomy to find pleasure in diffusing the 
 knowledge of this science, and so zealous, as at their own 
 expense to erect observatories furnished with every neces- 
 sary instrument. They have been even known to introduce 
 among their parishioners the art of making watches and 
 clocks. 
 
 In travelling through Norway, we at this day discover 
 the truth of what has been said above of the taste of the 
 Scandinavians for detached habitations: a village is often 
 composed of houses scattered here and there, and forming 
 an entire parish extending over a space of several leagues. 
 On Sundays the roads are seen covered with light car- 
 riages, b which transport the peasant, with his whole family, 
 in their best array, to church to assist in divine service ; the 
 churches, although large, can rarely contain the crowds 
 eager to listen to the voice of their pastor. After sermon 
 the whole population give themselves up to the amusement 
 
 a The above paragraph is added by the translator. — P. 
 
 b “Carrioles” — a kind of small chaises. For an account of them, 
 tee Conway’s Journey through Norway, Sweden and Denmark (Con- 
 stable's Misc.) p 41. — P. 
 
 c “ While employed in their household, they wear simply a petticoat 
 with a chemise, &c.” — The women of the lower order wear a jacket, 
 with a shining black apron over their petticoat, and a turban handker- 
 
 j of the dance, to games, and to various gymnastic exercises 
 The young men often meet together to go through military 
 I manoeuvres. At a fixed time every year, the youth, who, 
 still inheriting the warlike inclinations of their ancestors, vol- 
 untarily enrol themselves in the militia, assemble together 
 under the command of their officers, and form disciplinary 
 camps, where they are instructed in the manual exercise 
 and in military evolutions. 
 
 Industry and frugality, the sources of the civil virtues, 
 form prominent features in the Norwegian population : in- 
 telligence and education strengthening these valuable qual- 
 ities, shelter it from corruption of manners, and maintain 
 in all hearts the sacred fire of the love of independence. 
 Christmas is the only time of the year, when the assembling 
 of families, and the accompanying festivities, make the 
 Norwegians deviate from their simple and frugal habits. It 
 is also about the same time, and during the month of Janu- 
 ary, that the peasant, trusting to the swiftness of his sledge, 
 travels to the towns, to exchange the produce of his crops 
 for country implements and for different articles of manu- 
 facture suitable to his wants and inclinations. The aptitude 
 of the Norwegians to imitate every thing is such, that dur- 
 ing the long winter-evenings, they are seen in every family, 
 assembled around the fire-place, the men employed in mak- 
 ing knives, spoons, shoes, and buttons for their clothes, and 
 the women, in preparing linen and woollen stuffs for their 
 dress, and even in dyeing them with the colouring lichens 
 in which the country abounds. The skill which distin- 
 guishes the population in some districts is even such, that it 
 transforms every habitation into a little manufactory, the 
 products of which are exported into the less industrious 
 districts. 
 
 In Norway there are few great proprietors, but, on the 
 other hand, extreme poverty is unknown. Nothing is more 
 uncommon than to meet with a beggar. If age or infirmities 
 disable some unfortunate creature from working, he finds 
 assistance and generous attention in the bosom of his fam- 
 ily or his parish. Compassion towards indigence and mis- 
 fortune is with the Norwegian rather an ancient virtue, than 
 the effect of Christian charity. It is the same as to hospi- 
 tality, which with him is a sacred duty. To these personal 
 qualities there is joined great quickness of apprehension, a 
 character lively and frank, and unflinching fidelity. He 
 loves with enthusiasm his country and his sovereign, and 
 respects his superiors, but refuses them slavish homage. 
 His manners are gentle, polite and affectionate ; his mien is 
 noble, his gait easy, and his dress always neat. The cos- 
 tume of the females is simple and graceful ; at home they 
 wear a plain morning gown, with a linen chemise of a daz- 
 zling whiteness, plaited around the neck and fastened by a 
 collar. 0 A complexion of the lily and the rose, beautiful 
 flaxen hair, and a person tall and w r ell-shaped, give them a 
 peculiar grace, which a stranger would be tempted to take 
 for coquetry, if Scandinavian modesty and pride did not 
 betray themselves in their look and behaviour. A few dis- 
 tricts situated in the mountains have preserved some re- 
 mains of the old Scandinavian costume ; such as that of 
 Valvers, d where the inhabitants are no longer seen, accord- 
 
 chief upon the head, beneath which appears a clean laced mob tied 
 under the chin ; but while emploj'ed in their household affairs, they 
 frequently wear nothing more than a petticoat and a shift, with a collar 
 reaching to the throat, and a black sash tied round the waist. (Ed 
 Enc.) — -P. 
 
 d Qu. Valders or Walders — a district in the diocese of Drontheim. 
 — P. 
 
book cxlvii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 ing to an ancient custom, fighting with the knife, after being 
 tied together by their girdles f that of Tellemark, where 
 mutual trust and good faith leave them in ignorance of the 
 use of locks ; and the valleys, in fine, where some families 
 of peasants, that marry only with one another, pretend to 
 be descended from the ancient kings of the country. 
 
 Such are the manners of the peasantry ; the morals of 
 the inhabitants of the towns are, it is true, less irreproach- 
 able and less pure ; some seeds of corruption may be al- 
 ready remarked there, hut there is nothing at all resembling 
 the depravity which we see in the cities in other parts ol 
 Europe. 
 
 Let us now cast a glance at the physical state of Norway. 
 The mountains which traverse this kingdom and Sweden 
 form of themselves a range b which we may call the Scan- 
 dinavian, and which is divided into three groups. That 
 of the Kcelen mountains, 0 the most considerable from its 
 length, extends from the northern extremity of Lapland, to 
 its junction with the Dovre mountains, near the source of 
 the small river Nidelv. d Strictly speaking this forms but one 
 great chain, but the branches it throws off to the right and 
 Vo the left, the mountainous isles of Lofoden, which are 
 merely the summits of some of its branches, and the moun- 
 tains which terminate near Lake Enara in Russian Lap- 
 land, merit for it the name of group. That of Dovre or 
 Dovrejield e may be considered as forming with the moun- 
 tain of- $nce-H(£ttan r to the west, and with those of Seve- 
 bergz and Svuku : h which terminate in plateaus in southern 
 Sweden, a second group. Lastly, this group is separated 
 by the course of the Vog, from that which is composed of 
 the mountains of Lnngfiehl Soynefield J or Sunnanfidd, 
 and Hardangerjidd, and the branches which they send out 
 to the west, the east and the south. This last group oc- 
 upies all the southern part of Norway . k 1 
 
 a This may be rendered : while holding each other by the ends of 
 their girdles. — P. 
 
 b “ Form a single system — ” 
 
 c The mountains of Kolen (Pinkerton) — of Kiolen (Ed. Enc.) — 
 properly, of Iuoelcn (Iciaeb-e.n (Dan.) kcel-en (Swed.) the keel.) — From 
 Dovrefieldt, a long branch, decreasing in elevation as it proceeds, 
 stretches northward between Norway and Swedish Lapland, forming 
 at its farthest extremity the mountains of Kiolen. (Ed. Enc.) — The 
 chain of Kolen extends from the north of lake Oresund (where the 
 Dofrafiall terminates) and the vicinity of the copper mines of Roras, 
 between Norway and Swedish Lapland. (Pinkerton.) — P. 
 
 d Elv, in Danish and Norse, (elf, in Swedish,) signifies a river. — In 
 Norway, as in Sweden, the largest rivers are called Elven or Elben. 
 (Pinkerton.) — Elven is the word in the singular with the definite article 
 cn suffixed. Nidelvcn consequently signifies the Nidelv, or the river 
 Nid. The Nid passes by Drontheim. — P. 
 
 ■' Dovrefieldt (Ed. Enc.) — Dofrafiall, Dofrafiell (Pinkerton.) — Dovre- 
 field (Dan.) Dofraficell or Dofrafiell (Swed.) — Fiel [fall or fell. P] in 
 the Swedish, and fieldt, in the Norwegian language, [field, in Danish. 
 P,] properly denotes those elevated summits, where vegetation entirely 
 ceases ; but it is a common denomination for all lofty mountain ridges. 
 (Ed. Enc.) — Ejcell, a ridge or chain of mountains. (Widegren’s Swedish 
 Diet.) — The Dovrefield, or Dofrine chain, extends east and west from 
 the province of Romsdal, where the Langf eld terminates, to the com- 
 mencement of the chain of Kicelen. — P. 
 
 f Sneehattan, height 8115 Eng. feet. (Ed. Enc.) — Sneehatta [with- 
 out the article,] Lat. 62° 18' N. (Morse.) — Sncehcettcn (Dan.) Sncchcettan 
 (Swed.) the snow cap, from snee, snee, snow, liectte, heetta, cap, and the 
 article era. — P. 
 
 g A branch from the eastern termination of the Dovrefield, extends 
 to the south-east, forming the common boundary between Norway and 
 Sweden, and is sometimes called Seveberg. (Ed. Enc.) — Pontoppidan 
 calls this central chain, Sevebierg or the seven mountains. (Pinkerton.) 
 —Syv (Dan.) sju (Swed.) seven ; bierg (Dan.) berg (Swed.) moun- 
 tain. — Some writers regard the Sevebierg os the same with Pliny’s 
 Scvn, which was in Germany. (Pinkerton.j — The Sevo mons of Pliny, 
 which it is thought accords with the Riphaean mountains, (said to have 
 been near the source of the Tanais or Don,*) can be no other than the 
 great chain of Norway. (D’Anv.) — P. 
 
 * Perhaps the Ural mountains, or the ridge of Waldai in central Russia.— P. 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 53 46 
 
 OF NORWAY. 361 
 
 The average distance of the summit of the Kcelen moun- 
 tains from the sea-coast of Norway being only about twenty 
 leagues, the rivers proceeding from them and running into 
 the North Sea, m can be of no great length. The most im- 
 portant is the Namsen, which, from its exit from the lakes 
 that give rise to it, has only a course of thirty leagues. 
 Other more considerable streams descend from the moun- 
 tains of Dovrefield and Sunnanfield : these are the Glom- 
 men , the Drammenselv," and the Lougenf which empty 
 themselves into the strait of Skagcr Rackfi separating Den- 
 mark from Norway. The Glommen't is a river of one 
 hundred and fifty leagues in length, the principal tributary 
 of which, the Vormen-dv, T has a course of not less than 
 fifty leagues. The Glommen has a great many falls, and 
 on the melting of the snows, or after great rains, it acquires 
 a frightful rapidity, and its inundations desolate the fields. 
 One of these falls is at Hafslun, about ten miles distant 
 from Fredericstadt. Here the Glommen, about the size 
 of the Thames at Richmond, “ gradually contracts itself 
 with more hurried current, till it arrives at the deep gorge 
 formed by the projecting rocks, and then bursts headlong 
 into the abyss beneath. The fall is not quite perpendicu- 
 lar. Some idea may be given of the body ol' water that 
 descends, from the circumstance that a three-masted ship 
 was loading at some distance below.” * i * 3 4 * * * The height of tl e 
 fall is seventy-two Norwegian feet. A melancholy catastro- 
 phe occurred here on the 5th February 1702. The family 
 seat of Borge, situated over against Hafslun, together with 
 every thing in it, sunk down into an abyss of a hundred 
 fathoms deep, the gap being instantaneously filled up by a 
 sheet of water of between three and four hundred ells long, 
 and half the breadth. The house was doubly walled ; but 
 of these, as well as several high towers, not the least trace 
 was seen ; fourteen persons and two hundred head of cattle 
 
 h Swukku, Swuckustoet (Pinkerton) — one of the highest of the 
 Norwegian mountains, near lake Fsemund. — Svuchu is the name of the 
 mountain, and Svucku-stcct (Svucku Peak,) that of its summit. (W. 
 Hisinger, Anteckningar i Physik och Geognosi under resor uti Sverige 
 och Norrige, Forsta Ildftet, p. 51.) — P. 
 
 * Langfieldt. (Ed. Enc.) — Langfiall, the Long Mountains. (Pinker- 
 ton.) — Langfiehl (Dan.) Langfjall (Swed.) — Long Mountain. — P. 
 
 i Sognefield. (Pinkerton.) — P. 
 
 k It extends south and south-west towards the Naze, from the west- 
 ern termination of Dovrefield. — P. 
 
 1 For the height of these mountains, see Table of European Alti- 
 tudes, Book XCIV. vol. II. p. 366. 
 
 m Properly, the Northern Ocean. — The term North Sea, is generally 
 limited to the German Ocean, south of the latitude of the Shetland Isl- 
 ands. — P. 
 
 “ Drammenelv (Ed. Encyc.) Drammen (Conway.) The Dramme 
 (Pinkerton.) — Flows into the west side of the bay of Christiania. — P. 
 
 0 Among other rivers in the south of Norway are the Loven ( Louvcn 
 [the Louve.] Conway. Pinkerton — Louen. Tuckey) and the Laugen. 
 (Ed. Enc.) — The Louven passes by Kongsberg, and enters the sea at 
 Laurvig, west of the entrance of the bay of Christiania. — It may be here 
 remarked, once for all, that the termination en or n, in Scandinavian 
 names, does not, in general, belong to the name itself, but merely ex- 
 presses the definite article, as Glommen, Louvcn, the Glomme and the 
 Louve. It is therefore as improper to say the Glommen as the La 
 Seine. — P. 
 
 p Scagerack (Tuckey.) Scaggerac (Ed. Enc.) Called also the Sleeve. 
 — The Skager Rack, which derives its name from the reef or sand-bank 
 (the Skagen-rack) that surrounds the north point of Jutland (called 
 Shagen, the Skag, by the Danes, and the Scaw, by English seamen,) 
 is properly the strait extending north-east, at the entrance of the Baltic, 
 and is succeeded by the Cattegat (a Dutch word signifying Cat-Chan- 
 nel,) which stretches south and terminates in the Sound and the Belts. 
 — P. 
 
 4 The Glom or Glomen [properly, Glomme or Glommen. P,] called 
 
 also the Stor Eh, or great river. (Pinkerton.) — Glommen Elv (Conway.) 
 —It rises in Lake Oresund in 62° N., in the angle formed by the Dovre- 
 
 field and Seveberg mountains, and enters the sea at Frederickstadt. — P 
 
 r The Worm. (Ed. Encyc. Pinkerton.) — Vormcn Elv, the river Vorm 
 
 (Conway.) — P. 8 Everest’s Journey through Norway, & c. 
 
[BOOK CXliYII. 
 
 362 EUROPE. 
 
 perished. The cause of this melancholy occurrence is at- 
 tributed to the Glommen having undermined the founda- 
 tion. a The declivity of the surface does not admit of the 
 
 lakes of Norway being equal in magnitude to those of Swe- 
 den. The largest is the Micesen, b twenty leagues long by 
 two in breadth, which is traversed by the Vormen-elv. The 
 most important waterfalls are those of Fciumfos near Lister, 
 six hundred feet in height, and Rcegenfosf in the province 
 of Tellemark, eight hundred and fifty feet in height. 
 
 The geological constitution of Norway is, in general, 
 primitive. In the Hardangerfield mountains, the summit of 
 Vetta-Kelden is composed of red porphyry, which, at the 
 depth of from twenty to thirty feet, assumes all the charac- 
 ters of the rock called sienite. In the highest mountains of 
 the group, gneiss predominates ; from the mountain of Lie 
 to the rivulet called the Totak, we find on the contrary mi- 
 caceous schistus ; in all that mountainous region, schistus d 
 shows itself at every step, and supplies slates which readily 
 split into long and narrow plates, or else, as in the neighbour- 
 hood of Graven, furnish quarries of whetstones. On the 
 banks of the Totak the surface is strewed with blocks of 
 stone from thirty to forty feet in height ; the position which 
 they occupy is too far from the mountains to explain their 
 origin ; however, they can only be the result of alluvions 
 formed at one of the latest geological epochs by currents of 
 fresh water proceeding towards the sea. e At all times these 
 blocks have been objects of wonder to the natives of the 
 country ; according to a mythological tradition, it was the 
 god Thor who broke them with his hammer, and who after- 
 wards having let fall that instrument, threw them about on 
 all sides in seeking it. A geologist breaking specimens from 
 these stray blocks, might, even at this day, be taken by the 
 inhabitants for a worshipper of Thor. Near Bergen, in the 
 island of Hiertoen/ there appears above the waves, a mass 
 of black and porous lava, from twenty to thirty feet in thick- 
 ness. Tiie whole southern part of Norway has frequently 
 experienced earthquakes. A naturalist® maintains, that die 
 mass of lava just referred to, may have been thrown up from 
 the bosom of the waves ; it is even said, that fifteen leagues 
 to the south of Bergen, at the bottom of the bay of Buk- 
 fiord, h fire sometimes issues from a crevice, in a precipitous 
 rocky shore formed of gneiss. 
 
 All the mountains, and especially those of the south, con- 
 tain a great number of minerals, sought after in collections, 
 and of metals in use by man : the environs of Drontheim, 
 at the foot of the Kcelen mountains, and of Raraas, * 1 at the 
 base of the Dovrefield mountains, contain copper of the best 
 quality ; the best iron mines are wrought in the district of 
 
 a The above account of the fall at Hafslun [that of Sarpen, above (10 
 feet perpendicular,] and of the destruction of Borge, is added by the 
 .ranslator. — P. 
 
 b The lake of Mioss. (Ed. Enc. Pinkerton.) — Lake Miosen. (Con- 
 ivay.) — Properly, Mitrscn , the Mices, or Micescn See, the IVIiocs lake. — 
 Phis must not be confounded with the Mios-Vand (Conway) or Mios 
 Mices) Water, west of Kongsberg. — P. 
 
 c Fos signifies a waterfall, in Danish — Rcrgcvfos, the smoke fall, from 
 erg, smoke, in Danish. — P. 
 
 d “ Schiste” — Argillite. — P. 
 
 e They belong undoubtedly to that class of loose rocks, out of place, 
 called bowlder «, which by some have been attributed to general diluvial 
 currents, and by others to mere local alluvion. — P. 
 
 1 Properly, Hiertceen. Qu. the Heart island, from hierte, heart, and 
 me, island, in Danish. — P. 
 
 e See Observations on the Physical Geography of Scandinavia, by 
 Professor Steffens : Hertha, vol. X. and XI. 
 
 h Fiord (Dan.) fjmrd (Swed.) a bay or gulf — generally applied in 
 Norway to narrow creeks or gulfs, which run far into the land, some- 
 times to the extent of 30 or 40 miles. — P. 
 
 Arendal. The abundance of these metals in part indemni- 
 fies Norway for the diminished wealth of the silver mines of 
 Kongsberg, the working of which has, however, been reviv- 
 ed since 181 5J In other places there are found lead, co- 
 balt and plumbago. Different kinds of marble are dug from 
 the sides of several mountains ; some of them are employed 
 in the arts, principally in the environs of Bergen. 
 
 In southern Norway the mountains are, many of them, 
 surmounted with rounded summits, crowned with wood ; in 
 the north, on the contrary, the mountains, although less ele- 
 vated, are almost always covered with snow, and conse 
 quently destitute of vegetation, but the hills, most generally 
 composed of sand, give birth to many cryptogamous plants. 
 Those whose surface is formed of mould are covered with 
 different species of saxifrages, and other plants scattered here 
 and there : here the Diapensia lapponica presents its ever- 
 green tufts ; there the elegant andromeda ( Andromeda ccz- 
 raha, Linn.) rises in small thickets by the side of the trail- 
 ing azalea ( Azalea procumbcns,) whose creeping branches 
 preserve their freshness in the midst of the rigours of win- 
 ter. At the foot of these hills, the birch, a tree whose sap, 
 collected by the Norwegians, is used in making a liquor 
 which resembles sparkling white wine, waves in the breeze 
 its light and flexible branches, and often forms with the ma- 
 ple, the pine, and the fir, forests of an immense extent. The 
 pyramidal form of these resinous trees is in harmony with 
 the pointed rocks which serve them for a base, and with the 
 icicles, which, during several months, load their branches 
 with elegant stalactites. The fir attains a height of a hun- 
 dred and sixty feet. It is much in request for masts and 
 carpentry work. After being cut down, it is thrown from 
 the top of the steep summits into the little rivers which de- 
 scend from the mountains to the sea. Hurried along by the 
 rapidity of these streams, it rushes over the cataracts, and 
 does not stop in its progress till it reaches the ranges of piles k 
 fixed at a short distance from the creek or bay, where it be- 
 comes an object of commerce. In the low lands, the creep- 
 ing strawberry-tree, 1 the scarlet-flowered camarina m ( Empe - 
 trim nigrum ), and the dwarf birch, whose seeds, concealed 
 under the snow, are sought after during the winter by the 
 ptarmigan," rise amidst the lichens which form the food of 
 the rein-deer. In the central provinces 0 the aspen grows 
 vigorously ; in the environs of Drontheim, beyond the six- 
 ty-third degree of latitude, the oak begins to appear, and 
 near Christiania, we see it flourishing, but it is only in die 
 southern provinces that there are fine forests of this tree. In 
 the south of Norway, apples and cherries arrive at perfect 
 maturity ; near Drontheim they do not ripen, but the mild 
 
 ‘ Roras, Roraas. — Rcsras (Tuckey.) Rceraas (Stat. Tab.) — P. 
 
 ) “ The abundance of these metals indemnifies Norway for the pov- 
 erty (pen de richcsse) of the silver mines of Kongsberg, the working 
 of which has, however, been resumed ( reprise ) since 1815.” — These 
 mines were accidentally discovered in 1623 by two peasants. They 
 used to yield about £70,000 annually, but it is supposed that the pro- 
 duce now barely defrays the expense (Pinkerton, vol. I. p. 358 — 9, 3d 
 Ed. 1811.)— P. 
 
 k “ Rows of stakes” — placed across the river to intercept the float- 
 ing timber. — P. 
 
 1 “ Arbousier trainant” — trailing arbutus, bear-berry, (Arbutus Ur a- 
 ursi.) — P. 
 
 m “ Camarine a fleur 6carlate” — Camarigne noire (Demonst. de 
 Botan. Lyon, 1796.) — Black crow-berry or crake-berry — flowers red- 
 dish, berries black. — P. 
 
 " “ White gelinotte” — White grous. The plumage of the ptarmigan 
 turns white in winter. — P. 
 
 0 “ Middle region” — between the northern and southern extremities 
 of Norway. — P 
 
BOOK CXLVXI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 influence of the sea, which we have already had occasion to 
 remark, is so sensibly felt in the island of Toutercee, two de- 
 grees and a half from the polar circle, that these fruits ripen 
 there without difficulty. In some gardens in the south, the 
 peach, the apricot and the melon are cultivated, and suc- 
 ceed perfectly ; and it seems even probable, that when hor- 
 ticulture shall have made some progress among the peasant- 
 ry, they will be able to naturalize many plants of our tem- 
 perate climates. Even now they cultivate with much care 
 and success flax, hemp and hops, and the culture of the po- 
 tato has shown, that it would be always easy for Norway to 
 avoid the scourge of famine, by multiplying this vegetable 
 so as to supply the place of grain. There is little wheat rais- 
 ed ; barley is more abundant ; but oats is of all other grains 
 that which succeeds best in this country , a where agriculture 
 has a thousand obstacles to surmount, where the low lands 
 are frequently exposed to inundations, and where the heights 
 are rendered sterile at one time by cold, and at another by 
 heat. 
 
 The increase of population has caused in Norway a dim- 
 inution in the number of wild animals. The elk is now very 
 rarely to be met with ; the bear, rearing upon his hind feet, 
 still attacks the hunter who awaits him armed with his knife ; 
 the wolf continues to be the terror of the herds and flocks ; 
 but whilst the bear takes refuge in the woody mountains, the 
 wolf seems to dread the woods and hedges, and establishes 
 himself in the open country, and even sometimes upon the 
 ice. b Different kinds® of foxes inhabit the shores washed 
 by the Icy Ocean, and the lemming descends in troops from 
 the Kcelen mountains, and marching in close columns, rav- 
 ages the cultivated fields. A multitude of birds inhabit the 
 shores of the ocean, and Norway furnishes the greater part 
 of the eider-down on which our delicate dames rest during 
 their frequent headachs. Nothing is more dangerous than 
 the manner in which the Norwegian goes to collect upon 
 the rocks which border the sea, this down sought after by 
 the effeminate. Suspended above the waves, he hoists him- 
 self up by the aid of a rope in order to reach the clefts and 
 cavities where the birds build their nests. d If the cord should 
 give way, or if the staff on which he leans should break, 
 the unfortunate adventurer, thrown from the top of the pre- 
 cipice, finds a frightful death amidst the rocks and reefs be- 
 low. The Norwegian rears in his valleys numerous herds 
 and flocks. His horses are small, but lively and sure-foot- 
 ed, like all those of mountainous countries : his horned cat- 
 tle feed at liberty in the islands that border the western 
 coast ; there they often become so wild, that they are oblig- 
 ed to shoot them. His sheep are formed like deer, with 
 long legs and small muzzles.® Numbers of goats are also 
 kept on the hills. Fish abound in the seas, lakes and riv- 
 
 OF NORWAY. 363 
 
 ers, and the bold Norwegian derives considerable profit from 
 his fishing. 
 
 The climate of Norway presents more variety than is gen- 
 erally believed : it is not everywhere equally cold and se- 
 vere ; towards the east, and in the interior, the winter is 
 longest, and the cold the most intense. This season is the 
 most favourable part of the year for the mutual intercourse of 
 the people, and the interchange of commercial transactions. 
 It is also the season for those parties of pleasure so little 
 known in milder climates. At that time there take place, in 
 the neighbourhood of the towns, splendid races f upon the 
 snow, where the elegance and richness of the sledges, the 
 splendour of the harnessing, and the beauty of the horses, 
 which, swift as the wind, make the air resound with the 
 clear sound of their little bells, surpass by their lustre and 
 their speed the brilliant assemblies of equipages at Paris, 
 Vienna, and London. The spring announces itself by the 
 sudden and terrible ravages occasioned by the melting of the 
 snows.s During the month of April, and the greater part of 
 May, the country is impassable, and in the mountains, trav- 
 elling is impracticable till about the month of September, 
 when the snows that cover them are in a great measure 
 melted, and the heats of the summer have lost their force. 
 At Bergen the length of the longest days in summer is about 
 nineteen hours, whilst in the neighbourhood of Drontheim, 
 it is not less than three weeks. The average temperature 
 of the year is at Christiania, five degrees above zero of 
 Reaumur’s thermometer, while at Petersburg, under the 
 same latitude, it is only three degrees. Near the s^nthern 
 coast, the temperature in certain districts allows them to 
 have two crops of grain, and in warm summers they have 
 even three. Generally the climate is healthy. But towards 
 the western coast the country assumes a different aspect : 
 the saline exhalations from the sea are injurious to vegeta- 
 tion ; the bays never freeze ; the cold is not felt, except 
 when the east wind prevails, which crosses the high moun- 
 tains, on the north, which comes from the Icy Ocean ; fogs, 
 rains and tempests extend their pernicious influence, one of 
 the effects of which is to favour the ravages of the scurvy. h 
 
 We see from the preceding statements, that, situated be- 
 tween the fifty-eighth and seventy-first degrees of latitude, * 1 
 and in length more than four hundred leagues by a breadth 
 of about twenty in the northern and eighty in the southern 
 parts, J Norway presents an aspect, in some parts, of the 
 most pleasing, and in others, of the wildest description 
 Here, dark forests of resinous trees rise on the confines of 
 ravines frightful from their depth ; perpetual glaciers bear 
 sway, and the loud cry of the eagle alone interrupts the si 
 lence of the desert. k There, dwellings covered with red 
 tiles, 1 and placed on the sides of hills, isolated spires reflect- 
 
 a Oats are the most generally cultivated in Norway ; barley and rye 
 hold the next rank ; but wheat, buckwheat, and peas, are far from be- 
 ing common. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 b In the long twilights of the winter season, the wolves become for- 
 midable to travellers, especially on the extensive lakes, where they as- 
 semble on the ice in great numbers. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 “ Species.” — In Norway, there are white, red and black foxes. 
 (Ed. Enc.) — The common European red fox, and the cross fox, from 
 the north of Europe, characterized by a black line along its back and 
 across its shoulders, both belong to the same species ( Canis vulpes.) 
 The white fox ( Canis lagopus — Isatis or blue fox, its colour being bluish 
 grey and sometimes white,) is a distinct species. — P. 
 
 d The common mode of gathering the down and eggs from the 
 nests, is as follows. An individual seated on a stick, attached to a rope, 
 with a guiding staff in his hand, is lowered over the edge of the preci- 
 pice by others, and in this way is raised or descends, or advances along 
 the shelves, according as is necessary in prosecuting his search. — P. 
 e This sentence is added by the translator. — P. 
 
 f “ Courses” — drives. 
 
 g “ — by the dibdcles ” — breaking up of the ice in the rivers. 
 
 h See Excursion to the Fieldstuen Mountains, by W. M. Carpelan, 
 published in Sweden in 1824. 
 
 “ It extends from the Naze in 57° 58' N. to the North Cape in 71“ 
 11' 30".— P. 
 
 i “ — by a breadth of about twenty leagues north of 04°, and of eighty 
 south of that latitude.” — It extends about 950 miles from north to south. 
 Its breadth, in the southern provinces, is between 150 and 240 miles, 
 but beyond the 67th of north latitude, does not exceed 60, nor in some 
 places even 30 miles. (Ed. Enc.)— The breadth of Norway diminish- 
 es very considerably about the latitude of Drontheim, between 63° and 
 64“.— P. 
 
 k “ — perpetual glaciers predominate [i. e. the country is, in general, 
 covered with perpetual snow and ice,] and the roaring of the north-wind 
 ( aquilon ) alone disturbs the silence of the desert.” 
 
 1 The roofs of the houses are frequently covered with tiles, but more 
 commonly with planks, upon which is laid the bark of the birch tree 
 with a coat of turf above all. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 Li 
 
1 ■ ■■ ' 
 
 3G4 EUR 
 
 ed on the surface of the lakes, and forges and mills hanging 
 over the torrents, announce a country where civilization and 
 industry advance without opposition in the march of improve- 
 ment. On the coast, arms of the sea surrounded with rocks 
 succeed each other with the most melancholy sameness. 
 But on entering them the scene all at once changes, present- 
 ing at the bottom of these bays and creeks, whose narrow 
 and gloomy entrance is often dangerous, towns of a cheer- 
 ful appearance. Let us notice some of the most important 
 of these, beginning at the north and proceeding to the 
 south. 
 
 Ilammerfest, near the North Cape, is a thriving little 
 place. The Spitzbergen trade is its principal support. 
 Small sloops, from thirty to forty tons burden, are usually 
 fitted out for expeditions to that quarter. This trade has 
 given Hammerfest a more enterprising set of seamen than 
 any port in Norway. Drunkenness is very prevalent among 
 the Laplanders here. Tromso'e , a farther to the south, with 
 its eight hundred inhabitants, is, says a traveller already quo- 
 ted, “ quite the pride of the North.” It lies on an island 
 covered with birch shrubs, and carries on some trade with 
 the Russians from Archangel. 15 
 
 Drontheim or Trondhiem c lies at the bottom of an arm 
 of the sea of great extent. It is a walled city, d but its walls 
 and its two forts® are falling in ruins. It is built of wood, 
 but the frequent fires, to which it has been subject, have led 
 to the erection of tastefully constructed houses, in room of 
 the old habitations, and to the substitution of wide and straight 
 streets, in place of narrow and crooked lanes. It was found- 
 ed in 997 by Olof Trygvason upon the site of the old Scan- 
 dinavian city of Niderosd At the distance of half a league 
 from its walls, the church of Hladc covers the ground where 
 stood the temple of Thor and Odin destroyed by Olof. 
 Drontheim was long the residence of the Norwegian kings : 
 the ancient throne of these princes is still to be seen in the 
 palace, now used as an arsenal. Drontheim formerly posses- 
 sed a magnificent cathedral, compared by the Norwegians 
 to St. Peter’s at Rome ; but in 1719, it was destroyed by a 
 frightful conflagration. It has been replaced by a church, less 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CXL.V1I. 
 
 magnificent indeed, but still remarkable for its extent, its or- 
 naments, and its marble columns.^ By the treaty of union, 
 this church enjoys, as the former building did, the privilege 
 of being the basilicon, h where the kings of Norway are crown- 
 ed. 1 The most considerable buildings, after the cathedral, 
 are the government housed and that of the Society of Sci- 
 ences, 11 the last of which contains a good library, and a cabi- 
 net of natural history. The environs of Drontheim have an 
 agreeable aspect, being adorned with neat and pleasant vil- 
 las that rise here and there in the country, and on the bor- 
 ders of the bay. They are, besides, embellished by two 
 beautiful waterfalls, called the great and the little Leerfosd 
 Bergen, also at the bottom of a long bay, bristled with 
 reefs, and surrounded by rocks, carries on a great trade in 
 timber, spars, hides, and especially dry and salted fish. 
 Seven mountains rise in a semicircle around the town, which 
 is defended by batteries fronting the sea, but has no regular 
 fortifications. m The old castle built in 1 070, by king Olof 
 Kyrre, served as a residence to the sovereigns of Norway, 
 until the celebrated epoch of the union of Calmar, about the 
 end of the 14th century ; it is now used as a prison, a store- 
 magazine," and a habitation for the governor® of the place. 
 Bergen, as a town, cannot be compared with either Dront- 
 heim or Christiana. In place of the wide streets crossing 
 each other at right angles, which we find in both these towns, 
 in Bergen you are involved in a labyrinth of narrow lanes, 
 and a stranger who once quits sight of his own door, is for- 
 tunate if he has not to hire a man to show him the way home 
 again. p Amongst its 3000 houses, which are almost wholly 
 of one story and painted on the outside, there are to be seen 
 several of stone. There are in Bergen four churches, ma- 
 ny schools, amongst others a Lancasterian school, where 350 
 boys and girls are instructed, and several charitable institu- 
 tions. A museum is forming under the care of some indi- 
 viduals of the place, and the collection has enlarged so as to 
 fill a handsome room : its principal riches are ancient re- 
 mains of the country. 1 * It was the native place of Eric Pont- 
 oppidan," who became its bishop, and founded its universi- 
 ty. 5 It was also the birthplace of Lewis Holberg, 1 an author 
 
 Properly, Tromscee or Tromsoe. — Tromsce (Tuckey.) — P. 
 b The above paragraph is added by the translator. — P. 
 c Heim (Germ. Du.) Idem (Dan.) and hem (Swed.) signify home, 
 and in the names of towns are the same as hum (Eng.) — P . 
 d “ It is the only walled town (rille fermie) in Norway.” 
 e The town is protected by the fort of Christianstein, and by the cas- 
 tle of Munkholm, situated on a rock in the harbour. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 f It was anciently called Nideroos (mouth of the Nid,) whence its 
 Latin name, Jhidrosia. (Tuckey’s Mar. Geog. vol. I. p. IDG.) — It is situ- 
 ated on a small gulf on the south side of the river Nid, from which it 
 received the name of Nideroos [Nidaros. Pinkerton ,J or the outlet of 
 the Nid. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 e The cathedral, dedicated to St. Oluf, was formerly a magnificent 
 building of marble ; but it was burnt down in 1530, with the exception 
 of the choir, which still forms part of the present cathedral. This cathe- 
 dral is still the finest and largest edifice in Norway. (Ed. Enc.) — The 
 cathedral, founded by St. Oluff, was of marble, and exceeded in size, 
 as well as in magnificence, every thing of the kind in the north. It 
 was almost entirely burnt in 1530, the choir alone remaining, which 
 now serves as the principal church of the town. (Tuckey. vol. 1. p. 
 107.)— P. 
 
 h “ Basilique” — Basilic (Lat. Ital. Basilica,) a church ; properly, a 
 large church, or one of royal foundation. The term Basilica is applied 
 to several of the larger churches at Rome, such as St. Peter's and St. 
 John of Lateran. Basilicon is the name of a well known plaster, but, 
 we believe, is not applied to a church. — P. 
 
 ‘ Reise durch das westliche Schweden, Norwegen und Finnland, 
 von Fried. Wilh. von Schubert — [Travels through the western part 
 of Sweden, and through Norway and Finland, by Fred. Wm. Von Schu- 
 bert.] 
 
 1 “ H6tel du gouvernement.” — The town-house (Stiflsamthuus) is 
 now the residence of tlxe chief magistrate and the public bodies of the 
 
 district. It is a large palace, which overtops the other buildings, built 
 of wood, in a simple and noble style of architecture. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 k A Society of Sciences was established at Drontheim in 17C0, and 
 sanctioned by the king in 1767. Its meetings are held in a large and 
 beautiful stone edifice, recently erected, partly occupied by the society, 
 and partly by the high school and its teachers. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 1 See note c p. 1042. 
 
 m “ It is defended by several fortifications and by high walls.” — This 
 must be a mistake in the original, and besides contradicts its own state- 
 ment respecting Drontheim. It has probably mistaken the mountains, 
 with which the town is surrounded, for walls. — Bergen is built in the 
 form of a crescent round a gulf of the sea, and is defended by seven lofty 
 mountains, and by several fortifications, particularly that of Fredericks- 
 burg. (Ed. Enc.) — It is situated in the centre of a valley, forming a 
 semicircle round a small gulf, and is defended on the land side by high 
 mountains, and by several fortifications towards the sea. (Pinkerton. 
 Tuckey.) — The town is protected by the castle of Fredericksburg, which 
 defends it towards the sea, and by very high mountains towards the 
 land. (Enc. Meth.) — P. » 
 
 n ‘* Magasin d'approvisionnement” store-house for public sup- 
 plies. — P. 0 “ Commandant." 
 
 P The two last sentences are added by the translator. In place of it, 
 in the original, it is only stated that Bergen is irregularly built. — P. 
 
 <i This sentence, and the account of the Lancasterian school, are ad- 
 ded by the translator. — P. 
 
 r Eric Pontoppidan, bishop of Bergen, and author of a natural his- 
 tory of Norway, was born at Aarhuus in Jutland, 1698. (Gorton's Biog. 
 Diet.) — P. 
 
 s “ College.” — There was no university in Norway, previous to the 
 establishment of that at Christiania. — There is an academy or high 
 school at Bergen, as well as at Drontheim. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 1 Ludvig Holberg. (Dan.) 
 
book cxlyii.] DESCRIPTION OF NORWAY. 365 
 
 distinguished as a historian and writer of comedies. During 
 the middle ages, Bergen was a factory of the Hanseatic 
 League; its harbour is large and well fortified. From this 
 city, 1003 electors send four representatives to the Stor- 
 thing* of Norway. * 1 * * * 
 
 Christiansancl, on the southern coast, is the fourth city in 
 the kingdom. It was founded in 1 641, by Christian IV. 
 king of Denmark, who wished to make it the principal sta- 
 tion for his navy. In 1807 it was destroyed by the Eng- 
 lish. Its harbour has been repaired : it is deep, and well 
 fortified, and forms the principal refuge of vessels that have 
 suffered damage in the dangerous passage of the Cattegat. 
 The cathedral is the finest edifice in the city. Half a league 
 from the coast, a quarantine establishment is erected on an 
 island. Jlrendahl 0 is a small but neat town, built on rocks that 
 project into a channel of the sea, and is inhabited by merchants 
 and fishermen. Ships lie close to the houses. 4 * * * * * Frederik- 
 stadt, e at the mouth of the Glommen, carries on a consider- 
 able trade in timber. Batteries erected on several islands, 
 and two forts which communicate by a subterranean passage, 
 defend the entrance to its harbour. It is the only city in 
 Norway which is built of stone. Kongsberg, celebrated for 
 its silver mines and its manufacture of children’s toys, is 
 watered by the Lauven/ which flows in a deep and wild 
 valley. 
 
 Twelve leagues to the east of Kongsberg, the gulf of 
 Christiania branches out into many bays. The length of 
 this gulf is twenty -two leagues from south to north ; its great- 
 est breadth is five leagues, but in the narrowest part only a 
 league and half.® It is surrounded by high mountains, and 
 studded over with islands, some of which are pretty large. 
 Several small towns rise on its shores ; amongst others that 
 of Moss, where was concluded, on the 14th of August 1814, 
 the convention which led the way to the union of Sweden 
 and Norway. Christiania, h the capital of Norway, 1 stands 
 at the extremity of this gulf, and its houses and gardens, 
 grouped in a circle around the harbour, seem to rest upon 
 an amphitheatre of rocks and forests. The appearance of 
 
 a “ Storting" — the Danish orthography. See note 11 p. 1030. — P. 
 b See Description of Bergen ( Bcrgens bcshrivetse ,) by L. Sagen, 1 
 vol. 8vo. 1824. — (in Dan.) 
 c Usually written Arendal. 
 
 d This account of Arendal is added by the translator. — P 
 e “ Friderihstadt." — Freilerikstad , in Danish — usually written Freder- 
 ickstadt, in English authors. — P. 
 f The Louve ( Louvcn .) — P. 
 s “ Not more than half a league (une demie)." 
 
 h Christiania is the proper orthography. (M. B. Enc. Meth. Ed. Enc. 
 (art. Norway.) Tuckey. Conway.) — Christiana. (Trans. Pinkerton. Ed. 
 Enc. sub nom.) — P. 
 
 ' Christiania, under the Danish government, was the residence of 
 the viceroy, and the seat of the high court of justice for Norway ; it is 
 at present the place where the Diet ( Storthing ) holds its sittings. — No 
 viceroy had been appointed after the reign of Christian VI. (A. D. 
 1746,) but the governor of Christiania was invested with the general 
 superintendence of the whole kingdom. (Ed. Enc.) — Norway has in 
 lact three capitals, Christiania, Bergen and Drontheim. (Conway.) — 
 Drontheim was the original royal residence, and afterwards the eccle- 
 siastical capital; Bergen was the residence of the latter Norwegian 
 kings ; Christiania is the more modern capital. Bergen is mentioned 
 as the capital in all the older geographies, and even as late as Pinker- 
 ton. — P. 
 
 i Harold the Fair-haired ( Harfager ) reigned about the beginning of 
 the 10th century. (See note s p. 1039) Harold III. (son of St. Olaf,) who 
 was slain in battle against Harold king of England, Sept. 25, 1066, 
 has been confounded by the English historians with Harold Harfager. 
 (Pinkerton.) — -P. 
 
 k Christiania is divided into the city and suburbs of Waterlandt, Pe- 
 terwigen and Fierdingen, the fortress of Aggerhuus, and the town of 
 Opsloe. (Ed. Enc.) — Christiania is divided into three parts — 1. the city 
 
 this capital is pleasant, as well as majestic ; its streets are 
 broad and well paved, and, if it contained fewer houses of 
 wood, it would be one of the finest cities in the North. Its 
 suburbs are considerable ; one of these, called O/d Opslo, 
 is all that remains of the ancient capital of Norway, founded 
 by Harold the Fair-haired, in the eleventh century ,J and de- 
 stroyed by a fire in 1624. k The modern capital bears the 
 name of Christian IV. its founder. Its regular buildings 
 increase from day to day with the population. The finest 
 edifices are the cathedral, the government palace, 1 the new 
 town-house, the military school, the new exchange, and the 
 university, the number of students at which is about 120. 
 The number of professors is 1 5, whose salaries are paid in 
 corn. In the hall of this establishment are annually held 
 the sittings of the constitutional assembly, called the Stor- 
 thing. Founded in 1813, it was intended as an university for 
 the kingdom. Its library already contains many thousand 
 volumes ; m it possesses, besides, a fine cabinet of natural 
 philosophy, an observatory, a botanical garden, and a collec- 
 tion of natural history. Christiania is an episcopal see, the 
 incumbent of which enjoys a revenue of £700 sterling.” 
 There are in Christiania many benevolent institutions, and, 
 among others, two orphan houses : one for those born in the 
 city, and the other, called the house of Anker, 0 for the re- 
 ception of orphans throughout the whole kingdom. The 
 latter, the most important of them all, gives assistance to the 
 modest poor, and to indigent families, and furnishes instruc- 
 tion, free of expense, to those children whose parents have 
 not the means of educating them. Christiania enjoys a con- 
 siderable foreign trade. 
 
 To the east of the mouth of the Glommen, near the fron- 
 tiers of Sweden, Frederikshall ,p whose harbour can re- 
 ceive large vessels, q has joined to its ancient name of Haldcn 
 that of Frederic, given to it by Frederic III. in 1665, on 
 account of its courageous defence against the Swedes. This 
 is a neat town, with paved streets : the houses are of wood, 
 and painted of different colours, as in Sweden. It stands 
 prettily in a valley surrounded with rocks, on an arm of the 
 
 proper [Christiania,] founded in 1624 by Christian IV., when Apshe the 
 ancient capital was consumed by fire ; it has three suburbs : 2. the for- 
 tress of Aggershuus, on an eminence to the west of the city : and 3. the 
 ancient city of Apslce or Anslce, in which is the episcopal palace. (Tuck- 
 ey’s Mar. Geog. vol 1. p. 200.) — Anslo or Christiania was built by 
 Christian IV. in 1624, and forms only a single town with what re 
 mained of Obslo, which about that time was almost entirely reduced to 
 ashes. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 1 “ Palais du gouvernement” — government house. 
 
 m The original has “80,000 volumes,” which, in so recent an insti- 
 tution, is most probably a mistake. A recent traveller says, “ many 
 thousands.” — Translator. 
 
 n “ — and the great college ( grand college.) In the refectory of this 
 establishment, are annually held the sittings of the constitutional assem- 
 
 bly called the Storting. Since 1813 there has existed in Christiania a 
 
 university for the kingdom. Its library contains 80,000 volumes ; it 
 also possesses a fine collection of philosophical apparatus ( cabinet dc 
 physique,) an observatory, a botanical garden, and a cabinet of natural 
 history ; fifteen professors are attached to the institution.” — The univer- 
 sity, called Fredericia [in honour of Frederick VI.,] was founded in 
 1811.’' (Enc Araer.) — Previous to the establishment of the university, 
 there was a gymnasium or Latin school, in Christiania, endowed by 
 
 Christian IV. in 1635. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 * Dec. 11, 1811. See a poem for the festival (Dec. 11, 1811) on the occasion of cel- 
 ebrating the establishment of a ui iversity in Norway, by C. Pram (Sang for festen, 
 den 11 Dec. 1811, til at hbitidcligholde oprettelsen af en Jtiiiskole i JTorrig, af C. 
 Pram.) — P 
 
 0 “ Maison d’ Anker” -Dan. Anker-huus (Anker-house;) so called in 
 honour of Baron Anker. — P- 
 
 p “ Friderikshald" — properly, Frederikshald (Dan. ;) with the article, 
 
 Frederikslialden. Usually written Frederickshall, in English authors 
 — Frederickshald (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 q .“ Ships of the line ( vaisseaux de haut-bord .)” — P. 
 
 * 
 
[BOOK CXLVI1. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 366 
 
 sea, and carries on a considerable trade in timber. 8 At the 
 foot of its fortress, called Frcderiksteen, b Charles XII. of 
 Sweden was killed by a cannon-ball 0 on the 11th of De- 
 cember 1718. In 1814 the Swedes raised a pyramid d on 
 the spot where this great captain expired. Charles XII. 
 has been styled a great man, 0 but certainly with little pro- 
 priety, if men understood their true interests aright. Has 
 the experience of nearly 6000 years not yet convinced the 
 world, that men such as Alexander of Macedon, Julius Cte- 
 sar, Timur, Charles XII., or Napoleon, whose only merit 
 lies in the satisfying their own ambitious desires at whatever 
 expense, have no claim to the name of great ? and that it is 
 only rightly bestowed when conferred on an Alfred, a Wash- 
 ington, a Granville Sharp, or a Howard — on men who, in 
 some shape or other, have truly benefited and not destroyed 
 their fellow-creatures ? f 
 
 The Norwegian Isles may be comprised under the de- 
 nomination of the Norwegian Archipelago, s and divided in- 
 to three groups : those of Bergen and Drontheim, washed 
 by the North Sea, and that of Lofoden, h in the ley Ocean. * 1 11 
 The first commences at the gulf of Bukfiord J on the south : 
 its principal islands are Carmoe k and Fuljc ,' where, it is 
 said, Harold, the first king of Norway, long had his resi- 
 dence. On a small island, part of this group, stands a stone 
 cross of silver-white mica slate, about twelve feet high and 
 four in breadth. Nothing is known of its history, but that it 
 has stood there for centuries. 1 " In the group of Drontheim, 
 three islands are remarkable for their size, namely, Smcelen , 
 Averoen or Frojen , n and Hitteren, the latter the largest 
 of the three ; but the most celebrated are the small islands 
 of Vigten, 0 from whence departed, for the conquest of 
 Normandy, the Norwegian or Norman chieftain Rolf, bet- 
 ter known by the name Raoul or Rollo. The group of the 
 Lofoden Isles occupies a length of sixty leagues ; the most 
 considerable are the long Andoen, the irregular Langcen, 
 Hindcen, the most important of them all, Mageroe, in which 
 the North Cape is situated, Seyland , where there is to be 
 seen a peak of great elevation, Soroe ,p deeply indented by a 
 
 great number of bays, and Ost-Vaagen, the central point 
 of the important expedition, which, every year, during the 
 months of February and March, assembles in these lati- 
 tudes more than 20,000 fishermen. *< Between Vceroe and 
 Mosken Moskencesoe r lies the dangerous whirlpool of Mal- 
 Strcem , s so dreaded by navigators. 
 
 The principal branch of Norwegian industry is undoubted- 
 ly the fishery : the annual exportations which the kingdom 
 makes in herrings and cod, are valued at from six to seven 
 millions of francs. In 1 827 there were sent to England more 
 than 1,100,000 lobsters. A recent traveller informs us 
 that the trade with London in these creatures is so great, 
 that, all the way from Stadt Land 1 to Lindenoes," an Eng- 
 lishman and a devourer of lobsters are almost synonymous 
 terms. There is an English Lobster Company, and theii 
 agents are busy all along the coast. Twice or thrice a-week 
 their packets sail from Christiansand. T The merchant of 
 Bergen supplies Spain and Italy with the immense quantity 
 of fish that is there consumed during lent. During the win- 
 ter the Norwegian feeds even his cattle with the entrails of 
 fish. By the sale of his iron, he purchases in the ports of 
 the Baltic, the quantity of corn necessary for his consump- 
 tion ; the British merchant buys up the masts and planks 
 of Christiania ; the firs of Drontheim, less esteemed, are 
 carried off by the Irish. With these articles, and many 
 others of less importance, the inhabitant of Norway procures 
 for himself not only the comforts of life, but also the enjoy- 
 ments of luxury : the women of the most retired valleys 
 wear around their necks the handkerchiefs of Masulipatam ; 
 in the Dovrefield mountains, the hospitals are always abun- 
 dantly supplied with tea, sugar and coffee ; while the rich 
 cover their tables with the wines of Bordeaux and Cyprus, 
 with oranges from Malta, and with raisins from Corinth. In 
 fine, in this country, which is regarded as so poor, mahoga- 
 ny furniture, valuable porcelain, and curious eatables, are 
 not more rare under tbe hospitable roof of the merchant of 
 Bergen and Christiania, than in the house of the rich mer- 
 chant of London, or the magnificent banker of Paris. 
 
 p A mitten (the duck island,) Langceen (the long island,) Hindaen 
 (the hind island,) Magcrae (bare island,) Sejland ( sej , black cod, coal 
 fish, Gudus earbonarius, Linn.) Some. — P. 
 
 <i Vaagce [properly, Vatigac ] is the central rendezvous of the fishing 
 boats. (Tuckey, vol. I. p. 194.) — Von Buch calculates that more than 
 20,000 individuals are engaged in fishing at the single station of Lo- 
 fodden, during the months of February and March. He also calculates 
 that at these islands of Vaage nearly sixteen millions of large cod and 
 tusk are taken every year. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 r The island of Moskoe [Mosktre] lies between the mountain of 
 Hesleggen in Lofoden and the island of Ver [Vartrel] The current of 
 the Malestrom flows on both sides of the island of Moskoe ; the chan 
 nel on the Lofoden side being deep, and that on the Ver side shallow. 
 (Guthrie.) — The Maelstrom or Moskoestrom is situated between the 
 island of Moskoe and that of Moskoenaes. (Blisching.) — Moskoe is also 
 called Moskenes. (Rees’ Cyc.) — P. 
 
 5 Malestrom or Moskoestrom (Guthrie.; — Maelstrom (Rees’ Cyc.) — 
 Dan. Mtelstrcem. — P. 
 
 1 Stadtland — a promontory north of Bergen, w'here the coast begins 
 to trend east towards Drontheim. — P. 
 
 u Properly, Lindesntes — the Naze. JVees signifies a cape or promon- 
 tory, in Danish. — P. 
 
 v Rev. Robert Eve-est Journey through Norway, &c. Lond. 1829. 
 
 “ The two last sentences are added by the translator. — P. 
 
 b “ Friderilcstcen" — properly, Frcderikstecn (Dan.) Fredericksteen 
 (in English authors.) — P. 
 
 0 In the original, it is simply : fatal ball. It has been disputed whether 
 Charles XII. was killed by a cannon or a musket or pistol ball. Vol- 
 taire says, a half pound shot. Those who assert he was killed by a 
 musket or pistol ball, attribute his death to assassination. — P. 
 
 d An obelisk — by command of Bernadotte ; with only this inscrip- 
 tion — “ In the fight against Frederickshall.” (Conway, p. 274 — 5.) — P. 
 
 ' In the original. 
 
 1 These remarks on the character of Charles XII. are added by the 
 translator. — P. 
 
 e M. Ad. Balbi first proposed this name and division. 
 
 11 “ Loffoden ” (M. B. Pinkerton.) Lofodden (Ed. Enc.) Loffodden 
 (Tuckey.) — P. 
 
 1 Frozen Ocean, Arctic or Northern Ocean, or Icy Sea. — P. 
 
 I “ Berkeford ” (-fiord.) 
 
 k Knrm (Fe (Karin Island.) 
 
 1 Fidjtte? 
 
 Rev. Robert Everest, Journey through Norway, &c. Lond. 1829. 
 
 n Averccen or Froijen. — P. 
 
 0 Vikten or Viktor (Pinkerton — north of Drontheim in about G5 C 
 N P. 
 
BOOK CXLVIII.l 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SWEDEN. 3G7 
 
 BOOK CXLVIII. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued. — Description of the Scandinavian Pen- 
 insula. — Second Section. — Description of Sweden. 
 The character of the inhabitants of Sweden, and in 
 some respects the physical constitution of the country, pre- 
 sent more than one trait of resemblance to the people and 
 climate of Norway. The Laplanders , who inhabit the 
 northern parts of the Swedish monarchy, have been repre- 
 sented as men of short stature, with a swarthy or yellowish 
 complexion, and a disagreeable physiognomy ; but the 
 view thus given of them is far from being correct. In 
 the northern parts of Norwegian and Swedish Lapland, 
 they are taller than in the south, yet their height does not 
 exceed five feet and two or three inches: their copper 
 complexion is rather the result of a habitual residence in 
 smoky huts than a character of the race. The mountain 
 Laplanders, who live almost always in the open air, have a 
 skin slightly dark ; the greater part of the females are even 
 tolerably fair ; and among both sexes there are seen figures 
 as agreeable as among other nations. Their temper is al- 
 ways equable ; never does their cheerfulness forsake them. 
 Their honesty is proof against every temptation ; robbery 
 and murder are crimes almost unknown amongst them. 
 They are laborious and naturally temperate, but they can- 
 not resist the temptation of drinking strong liquors.® Trav- 
 ellers tell us, that in Wcstro-Bothnia, b physical strength and 
 beauty distinguish both the sexes, while an unbounded hos- 
 pitality towards strangers, a cheerful temper, and an enter- 
 prising disposition, are qualities common to the whole popu- 
 lation, which extends to the polar circle. The people of 
 Josmtland c have the light shape, the agility of body, and 
 the fair hair of the Norwegians. The Hdsingian' * 1 is brave : 
 in attacking the bear, he displays as much intrepidity as the 
 mountaineer of Norway ; even the young shepherdess has 
 been frequently known to defend her flock with success 
 against one of these animals : it is true, however, that, ac- 
 cording to an old superstition, the bear can do nothing 
 against a virgin. The people of Nericia e have a melan- 
 choly and taciturn air : their character is a mixture of hon- 
 esty and pride, distrust and obstinacy. In the provinces of 
 
 a Reise durch das ncerdliche Schweden und Lappland, &c. von 
 F. W. von Schubert. Leipzig, 1823. — [Travels through northern Swe- 
 den and Lapland, &c. by F. W. Von Schubert. Leipsic, 1823.] 
 b West Bothnia — Wester-Botten (Swed. Vestcr-Bottcn .) — P. 
 c “ Jemtie.” — Lat. Jcmptia. Jempterland (Enc. Meth.) Hiemtland 
 (Catteau.) — Also in different authors, Jemptland or Jemtland, Jampt- 
 land or Jamtland. Properly, Ja.mtla.nd (Swed.) — P. 
 d Native of Helsingland (Lat. Helsingia.) — P. 
 e “ Nericie.” — Lat. Nericia ; Swed. Nerilce. — P. 
 f u Westmannie .” — Westrnanland ; Lat. JVcstmania . — P. 
 s “ Dalecarlie.” — Lat. DalccarLia ; Swed. Dalland, or Dalarne (the 
 Dais,) so called from the river Dal, formed by two branches, the 
 eastern and western Dal. — P. 
 
 Upland , Wcstmania f and Dalecarlia,z the population, re- 
 nowned for its bravery, still preserves the physical charac- 
 ters of the most northern tribes : dark hair, sunk eyes, a 
 look somewhat fierce, but full of expression and vivacity, 
 muscles strongly marked, prominent bones, and a stature 
 almost gigantic. In Westro-Gothia b and above all, in Go 
 thia, 1 fair hair, blue eyes, a middle stature, a light and slen- 
 der figure, and a physiognomy indicating frankness, gentle- 
 ness, and a certain sentimental elevation of mind, especially 
 among the fair sex, are predominant. The people in the 
 other provinces partake of these different physical and 
 moral qualities, i 
 
 Sweden is separated from Norway by the mountains of 
 Kcclen, Svuku and Seveberg. v The distance between these 
 mountains and the sea being much greater than in Norway, 
 the surface has less declivity, the rivers are considerably 
 larger, and the lakes more numerous and of greater extent; 
 yet none of the Swedish rivers surpass in length the Nor- 
 wegian river Glommen ; 1 the largest scarcely traverse a 
 course of 100 leagues. One of the most considerable is 
 the Tornea, which issues from the lake of that name, situ- 
 ated at the foot of the Kcelen mountains, and which, among 
 the rivers received by it, reckons the Muonio, the natural 
 barrier that separates Sweden from Russia, as far as its 
 junction with the Tornea, after which the Tornea forms 
 the boundary between the two states. The Lulea and the 
 Umea do not yield in length to the preceding. All these 
 rivers, and many others that we do not name, traverse 
 lakes of a great extent of surface, and throw themselves into 
 the gulf of Bothnia. The most important lakes of the 
 Scandinavian peninsula are, in the order of their size, the 
 Wener, m 35 leagues long by 20 broad ; the JMcelar , n 25 
 leagues in length, and from 9 to 18 in breadth ; the Wetter ,° 
 24 leagues in length, and from 6 to 7 in breadth ; and 
 the Hielmar, 16 leagues in length by 4 in breadth. All 
 four are situated in southern Sweden, and the first (the 
 Wener) is, after lakes Ladoga and Onega in the Russian 
 empire, the largest lake in Europe. It gives rise to the 
 Gceta, p a small river, which, after making its way through 
 
 h “ Westro-Gothie.” — Lat. Westro-Gothia. West Gothland — Wester- 
 Gothland ( Vestcr-Gatliland , Swed.) — P. 
 
 * “ Gothic.” — Lat. Gothia. Gothland (a term including the whole 
 southern part of Sweden, and among other provinces, comprising West 
 Gothland.) — P. 
 
 i Melanges Scientifiques et Litteraires, tome I. 
 
 k See p. 1041. 
 
 1 The Glommen is the greatest river in Scandinavia. (Conway.) — 
 This arises from its flowing north and south, between two branches of 
 the great dividing chain of Scandinavia. — P. 
 
 m Wenner (Morse.) — Swed. Venercn (the Vener.) — P. 
 
 n Meier (Pinkerton,) Malar or Maler (Morse.) — Swed. Malaren (the 
 Mselar.) — P ° Weter (Pinkerton.) 
 
 p Gotha (Pinkerton .) — Gatha Elf (Swed.) — P. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLYI11. 
 
 368 
 
 steep rocks, forming frightful cataracts, throws itself into the 
 Cattegat." 
 
 There is no country in which it is more easy to form 
 canals than in Sweden, and, since the reign of Charles XI. , b 
 the Swedish government has profited by the disposition of 
 the ground, to multiply the means of water communication. 
 The canal, which hears the name of the river Arboga, con- 
 ducts its waters from lake Hielmar to lake Moelar ; the 
 canal of Sccdcrtelge, 0 finished in 1819, unites the waters 
 of the Moelar with those of the Baltic ; the canal of JVoed- 
 dcn d shortens the navigation from the Gulf of Bothnia to the 
 Baltic, by avoiding the dangerous arm of the sea situated 
 between Sweden and the isles of Aland ; and that of Al- 
 marc-Stak, finished in 1S23, establishes a ready communi- 
 cation between Upsal and Stockholm.® Other canals have 
 been begun or executed, with the view of making several 
 rivers navigable, and of rendering more valuable the im- 
 mense forests situated in the northern provinces ; but the 
 most important of these works is the canal of Gceta, now 
 almost completed, which, by the aid of several small lakes, 
 will open an easy passage between lake Wetter and the 
 Baltic Sea. f It may be noticed here, that the roads in 
 Sweden are admitted by travellers to be excellent, and in- 
 ferior to none in Europe. s 
 
 In the Baltic Sea Sweden possesses two important islands, 
 namely, Oeland h and Gothland. The first is separated 
 from the main land by the strait of Calmar. It is thirty 
 leagues in length by from three to five in breadth. Its soil 
 is composed of schistous, siliceous and calcareous rocks. 
 Its valleys are pleasant and well watered. It is rich 'in pas- 
 turage and meadow-ground, and supports much cattle. Its 
 population is numerous. Gothland,' much more considera- 
 ble than the former, being 25 leagues in length and 10 in 
 breadth, is a calcareous and sandy plateau from 1 50 to 200 
 feet in height, on which there rise hills, whose bare and dry 
 summits have nearly the same elevation; one of these hills, 
 called HoborgJ contains a great number of caverns. Goth- 
 land is watered by several lakes and rivers ; one of the lat- 
 ter, called the Lummelund, issues from the small lake of 
 JVIarteba, Hows for some time in a subterranean canal, and 
 
 a The Gotha, besides some lesser falls and rapids, is precipitated 
 over the great falls of Trolhatta [Trollhoetta — with the article, Trollhait- 
 tan.] a height of about 130 feet. (Conway.)— The descent of the Trol- 
 hatta falls is 114 feet. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 b Canals were constructed in Sweden at a very early period, particu- 
 larly side cuts on the rivers. A canal was opened from Upsal to the 
 Baltic in 1030. The Arboga canal was constructed in 1(133, during the 
 minority of Christina. These, and various other works, were anterior 
 to the reign of Charles XI. That monarch began to reconstruct the 
 Arboga canal in 1691, and completed it in 1701. He, however, fol- 
 lowed the channel of the river, instead of cutting an artificial canal 
 along its banks. — P. 
 
 c Sodertelje (Ed. Enc.) Sodertelge, a town 16 miles W. S. W. of 
 Stockholm. (Morse.) — Swed. Seeder, south, and Tclge or Tcljc. — P. 
 
 d “ The canal of IVicddr.." 
 
 e Consult the Summary of the Reports made to the king of Sweden 
 and Norway, upon the public works executed in 1823: Revue Encyclo- 
 pedique, 1824. 
 
 f The canal here mentioned, by the name of the canal of Gieta (Go- 
 tha or Gnet.ha,) is the line of inland navigation across Sweden, from the 
 Cattegat to the Baltic, by the river Gotha, and the lakes Wenern (the 
 Wener.) Wiken, Wettern (the Wetter,) Boren and Roxen, to the 
 town of Soderkoping (Said er keeping) . It is intended for the passage 
 of smaller vessels, and has consequently 10 feet depth of water. The 
 navigation of the Gotha to the lake Wener is perfected by tbe lock at 
 Akerstrom and that at Edit, the canal at Trolhatta (with nine locks,) 
 and the locks at Karlsgraff. The remainder of the route was surveyed 
 by Mr. T. Telford, at the expense of Count Platen, in 1808 ; a company 
 was then formed, and a charter granted by Charles XI 11. in 1810. The 
 operations have been since carried on with much assiduity and success, 
 and a considerable portion of the canal rendered navigable. The 
 
 again issuing from an opening 12 feet in breadth, throws it- 
 self into tbe sea. The climate is much milder than that of 
 those parts of Sweden lying in the same latitude. The isl- 
 and is rich in forests and in game, in arable land and in 
 cattle; merinos are there perfectly naturalized, and goats 
 attain a great height. Agriculture is susceptible of great 
 improvements ; but as the island possesses no noble fami- 
 lies, and is divided into many small properties, the inhabi- 
 tants live in easy circumstances and procure colonial mer- 
 chandise, wine and other objects of primary necessity, in 
 exchange for their wood, tar, marble, fish and cattle, and the 
 excellent turnips which they cultivate. Hucn, k a small 
 island at the entrance of the Sound, is chiefly remarkable 
 for having been the residence of the celebrated Tycho 
 Brahe, who there constructed the observatory, to which he 
 gave the name of Uranicnborg. 
 
 The physical constitution of Sweden has been the sub- 
 ject of the observations of several distinguished naturalists, 
 one of whom, in a work drawn up with much precision and 
 distinctness, gives so just a view of it, that we can in a few 
 words trace its principal characters. 1 W e have already 
 seen that gneiss and granite predominate in the mountains, 
 which we consider as forming the Scandinavian range." 1 
 Wherever these two kinds of rock are seen, they alternate 
 with each other, the one passing insensibly into the other, 
 as if they had been formed at the same time, but the first 
 always occupies an extent much more considerable than the 
 second. Granite, however, appears chiefly by itself on the 
 banks of the Muonio, on the coasts of the Baltic to the 
 north of Calmar, and in the provinces of Upland, of West- 
 mania, and of East and West Gothland. The richest veins 
 of iron, copper, and argentiferous lead," that are worked in 
 Sweden, are contained in the gneiss ; this rock contains a 
 much greater number of strata of other rocks than are to be 
 found elsewhere ; in the mountains they are generally in- 
 clined from north-east to south-west. The oldest forma- 
 tions containing organic remains are, in Sweden, much 
 more extensive in proportion to their thickness, than in the 
 other countries of Europe ; we there see succeeding each 
 other, strata of compact limestone, enclosing the spoils of 
 
 length of the route from the Wener to the Baltic, including lakes, is 
 about 120 miles ; that of the artificial canals is about 55 miles. The 
 ascent from the Wener to the summit, or surface of lake Wiken, is 162 
 feet; the descent to the Baltic, 307 feet. The number of locks is to be 
 56. — Gustavusl. projected in 1526, a different line of inland navigation 
 across the kingdom, by the lakes Madar, Hielmar, Skager and "Vv ener; 
 but the Arboga canal, between the Madar and the Hielmar, was the 
 only part executed. — Besides the canals already mentioned, there are 
 others in Sweden, particularly the Strcemsholm canal, between the 
 Madar and the province of Dalarne, (60 miles in length, partly natural 
 water courses,) completed in 1795. (Ed. Enc.) — P 
 
 s There is nothing with which one is more struck, in travelling 
 through Sweden, than the excellence of the roads. Macadamized Re- 
 gent Street is not smoother, and scarcely even broader, than the whole 
 of the road for upwards of 200 miles, from Frederickshall to the Sound. 
 (Conway, p. 278 — 9). — P. 
 
 h “ CEland.” — Oland or CEland (Pinkerton,) CEland (Tuckey,) Oe- 
 land (Guthrie, Morse.) — CEland is the proper orthography. The 
 island abounds in freestone, called CEland stone (CEtands sten,) by tbe 
 Swedes. — P. 
 
 ‘ Gothland or Gottland (Morse.) Gottland (Tuckey.) — Those who 
 believe that this island was the cradle of the Goths, write Gothland ; 
 but most of the Swedes write Gottland (good country.) (Tuckey, vol. I. 
 p. 278 .) — God or godt, good, in Swedish. — P. 
 
 i Hoberg. (T uckey.) 
 
 k Huen or Hwen (Tuckey.) — Dan. Ilrcn. — P. 
 
 I See the Introduction to the Mineralogical Geography of Sweden, 
 by M. Hisinger, translated into German by Dr. Wcehler. 
 
 m “ Scandinavian system.” 
 
 II Argentiferous galena — chiefly at what is called the silver mine of 
 Sala, west of Upsal. — P. 
 
hook cx l viii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 (hose marine animals, with multilocular shells, called | 
 orthocerntites, argillaceous schists containing the small 
 organized bodies to which Linnteus first gave the name 
 of graptolithi, and which belong to the same family as 
 the preceding, and lastly, sandstones and different kinds of 
 rocks formed of various agglomerated substances. a Dale- 
 carlia, Jempteland, b Nericia and East Gothland' are cov- 
 ered with these older deposits. 11 In Scania we begin to 
 perceive more recent formations, comprehending the coal 
 formation and the older shell limestone,® called musch- 
 clkalk by the Germans, to which succeed, in the order 
 of their formation, sandy and calcareous strata/ as well 
 as thick beds of chalk. In this province, rocks which 
 bear the marks of an igneous origin, traverse the different 
 formations, and appear on the surface. It is in this prov- 
 ince, that one of our savans® has recognised in the vast 
 diluvial deposits, ( terrains de transport ,) composed of 
 sand, rolled pebbles, and enormous blocks of granite, (the 
 accumulation of which forms here and there, in the en- 
 virons of Upsal, on the borders of Lake Wener, and as 
 far as the Sound, those hills called ose in Swedish/) the 
 origin of the deposits of the same nature which cover the 
 dutchy of Mecklenburg, Pomerania, and the Russian 
 Provinces, as far as the mouth of the Neva. Thus, from 
 Norway and Sweden have been conveyed by immense 
 currents of water, those masses of debris which one is 
 astonished to find on both sides of the Baltic, and which 
 undoubtedly were there deposited, when that sea had as 
 yet no existence, or when the country, more covered 
 with forests than at present, and consequently colder, 
 beheld the Sound and the other straits covered with ice, 
 and presenting during the rigours of winter, a ready pas- 
 sage to these eruptions. In conclusion, one word will 
 suffice to give an idea of the richness of the Swedish iron 
 mines. They are wrought in the open air like stone 
 quarries, and it is calculated, that they can scarcely be 
 exhausted in fifteen centuries. 
 
 From the similarity of climate, it is to be expected, 
 that the animals which are found in Norway, will also be 
 found in Sweden, and, accordingly, this is the case. The 
 bear and the wolf have their abode in Sweden, as well 
 as in Norway, and the latter especially is destructive, 
 
 OF SWEDEN. 309 
 
 attacking not only tbe feebler animals, but sometimes 
 man himself. The elk has become a rare animal, but is 
 still met with ; and the rein-deer exists in abundance, in 
 the northern parts of the country, especially among the 
 Laplanders. The domestic animals are in general small, 
 but strong and useful. Fish in great variety and abun- 
 dance are to be found in all the waters. The eagle and 
 falcon are frequent in the northern and more inaccessible 
 parts ; and domestic fowls, and the smaller birds, are to 
 be met with, as in Great Britain/ 
 
 What we have said of the vegetation of Norway, ap- 
 plies to that of Sweden. We will add, however, after 
 the researches of a learned botanist/ that the primrose 
 ( Primula clatior ),' which flourishes in our woods in the 
 early days of spring, is common in Scania ; that the 
 common maple (Acer campestrc') , the smallest of this 
 genus, grows by the side of several of our forest trees ; 
 that the humble asarabacca (Asarum Europeeum) is found 
 creeping on the surface of the ground in sandy soils ; that 
 the St. John’s-wort ( Hypericum ) shows itself with its 
 yellow flower in the sands of Bleking ; and that the 
 almond-leaved willow (Salix amygdalina ) , with its flexi- 
 ble branches, abounds in moist grounds, and sees growing 
 at its feet the lively mouse-ear, m with flowers of the most 
 beautiful blue. Towards the 62d or 63d degree of lati- 
 tude, fruit-trees cease to prosper ; the cherry-tree be- 
 comes there a sorry shrub ; but nature has multiplied 
 from that latitude to the northern extremities of Sweden, 
 along with several wild small fruits" known to the rest 
 of Europe, two species, wdiose delicious fruits would be 
 tasted with pleasure, even in our ou T n climates. The 
 one is the Rubus arcticus its refreshing berry, of a 
 sweet and aromatic flavour, holds a place between the 
 strawberry and the raspberry. It has been in vain at- 
 tempted to cultivate it in the south of Sweden : it may 
 be said to have been given to northern Bothnia, in order 
 to indemnify it for the want of fruit-trees. The other, 
 (the Rubus chamcemorus ,)p more widely diffused, de- 
 scends to the 60th degree. It supplies the Swedes with 
 a kind of lemonade both pleasant and wholesome. The 
 abundance of these berries, and the benefit derived from 
 them, have prodigiously increased their use.i 
 
 a Puddingstones or conglomerates. — P. 
 b “ Jemtie.” — See note c p. 1047. 
 
 c “ Ostro-Gothie.” — Lat. Ostro-Gothia. Oster-Gothland ( (Ester - 
 
 G<rthland, Swed.)— P. 
 
 d If a line be drawn across Dalecarlia (Dalarne) from south-west to 
 north-east, through the parishes of Malung and Venjan to Siljan, and 
 thence through the parishes of Rilttvik and Ore to the borders of Hel- 
 singland, and if the same line be continued northward through Jemt- 
 land, leaving Herjedalia ( Ilerjcdalen ) and a part of Jemtlanh on the 
 north, and southward, from Trandstrandsfiaell, through Norway, pass- 
 ing by Tryssild and the Os and Mices lakes ( Osen-Sce — Miaesen-Scc,) 
 and then along the western side of the gulf of Christiania to Skeens- 
 fiord (about 40 miles S. W. of Christiania,) it will form a dividing 
 line between the primitive region on the south, (consisting chiefly of 
 gneiss, in which are included, however, subordinate beds or strata 
 of hornblende, compact felspar, granite, limestone, mica-slate, and 
 hornblende slate, and also different metals, particularly iron and 
 opper,) and the transition region on the north, in which the prevail- 
 ing rocks are sandstone, greenstone, porphyry, grauwacke and lime- 
 stone. North-west of this transition region is another primitive region, 
 (occupying the high ridge of mountains between Drontheim and Jemt- 
 land, and indeed the great range of Norwegian mountains, extending 
 along the western coast to the south point of Norway,) in which the 
 prevailing rock is mica-slate, including talcose and chlorite slates, and 
 flanked on either side by argillite. The transition region thus forms 
 a trough between two primitive regions, extending along the great 
 valley of southern Norway and through the provinces of Dalecarlia 
 (north-western part,) Herjedalia and Jemtland in Sweden. See Phys- 
 ical and Geognostical Observations during journeys in Sweden and 
 VOL. III.— NO. 53 47 
 
 Norway, by W. Hisinger. Part i. p. 24, 75. Part ii. p. 54. ( Antcck - 
 
 ningar i Physik och Geognosi under resor uti Sverige och Norrige, 
 af IV. Hisinger. FOrsta Hdftct, sid. 24, 75. Jindra Haftet, sid. 54 
 Upsala, 1819— 20.)— P. 
 
 e “ Shell limestone deposited by the former ocean ( ancicmic mer.)” 
 1 Strata of sandstone and limestone. — P. 
 
 s Al. Brongniart, Notice sur les blocs de roches des terrains de trans- 
 port en Suede : Ann. des Sciences Naturelles, tome xiv. 
 
 h Swed. (is [Dan. aas,\ a ridge or chain of hills; also, the ridge 
 of a roof, or a ridge formed by the plough. — P. 
 
 ‘ The above paragraph is added by the translator. — P. 
 k M. Fries, author of a memoir, entitled : Botanical Excursions in 
 some provinces of Sweden. 
 
 1 The Primula elatior is the oxlip or greater cowslip — the common 
 primrose is the Primula vulgaris. — P. 
 
 m “ Myosotide vivace” — perennial Myosotis . — This is the Myosotis pa- 
 lustris, Water Scorpion-grass, growing in wet grounds, and perennial — 
 the Myosotis scorpioidcs, var. palustris, Linn. The Myosotis scorpioides 
 Mouse-ear Scorpion-grass, (Myosotis scorpioidcs, var. arvensis, Linn.,) 
 grows in dry soils, and is annual. — P. 
 
 n “ Several brambles ( ronces " — Genus Rubus.) — P. 
 
 ° Dwarf Crimson Bramble — flowers crimson ; fruit yellow, with a 
 purplish tinge. — A small plateful of the fruit fills an apartment with a 
 more exquisite scent than the finest perfumes. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 P Mountain Bramble, or Cloudberry — flowers white ; fruit crimson, 
 turning yellow when ripe, and of an acid taste, like the cran- 
 berry.- — P. 
 
 i “ The abundance of these berries, and the necessity of employing 
 them, have greatly multiplied their use.” — Does the original mean by 
 
 
370 EUROPE. [book cxlviii. 
 
 All that part of Sweden, lying between the Sound 
 and the course of the Dala/ has made within the last 
 twenty years great progress in agriculture ; it produces 
 wheat, rye, barley, oats, and farinaceous vegetables, b in 
 considerable abundance. In Dalecarlia, in Jemteland,® 
 and in Angermania, d they cultivate everywhere flax, 
 hemp and potatoes ; but to the north of these provinces, 
 the insufficiency of the crops compels the inhabitants to 
 mix with their grain the bark of the Pinus sylvcstris 
 (Scotch fir), in order to procure a greater supply of 
 food. 
 
 The climate of Sweden, generally less severe than 
 that of Norway, is always a subject of astonishment to a 
 stranger. In Gothland, the mildness of the temperature, 
 and the fertility of the soil, have so favoured reproduc- 
 tion, that although this province is scarcely equal to a 
 fourth of the whole kingdom, its population forms nearly 
 two thirds of it. At Stockholm, the German from the 
 diores of the Baltic, does not find those fogs, which ex- 
 tend over a great part of Germany; the Frenchman does 
 not regret the climate of the north of France; he does 
 not even feel those sudden and frequent changes, which 
 lessen the pleasure of an abode at Paris. In the capital 
 of the kingdom, the longest days and nights are eighteen 
 hours and a half. At Calix, near the northern frontier, 
 the winter lasts nine months, and the summer three, the 
 latter terminating with the month of September ; the sun 
 never quits the horizon during the period of the longest 
 days, and never shows itself during that of the longest 
 nights. In general the air of Sweden is pure, and the 
 ravages of contagious diseases are never experienced. 
 The beauty of a warm and dry summer, which, in its 
 short duration, sees the frost disappear all at once, and 
 almost immediately the vegetation adorned with leaves 
 and flowers, makes it a matter of indifference that spring 
 is there unknown. Southern Europe, it may be said 
 with justice, knows nothing of the mild clearness of a 
 Northern morning or evening, the slow disappearance of 
 the rays of the sun reflected in an ocean of purple clouds, 
 and the nights that are embellished by the feeble glim- 
 mer of twilight, even till the moment when the dawn of 
 morning shows itself in the east. 
 
 Let us now survey Sweden in all its extent ; let us 
 visit its cities, and sketch the manners of its principal 
 provinces ; and when, after having arrived at the south- 
 ern extremity of the Scandinavian peninsula, we shall 
 have examined its institutions, its industry and its com- 
 merce, the reader will be prepared to appreciate the 
 Swedish monarchy, in all its relations. 
 
 The cities of Sweden are in general thinly peopled, 
 nor ought this to astonish us. That crowd of idle peo- 
 ple, who spend in the heart of towns their pensions, or 
 the revenue of their lands, is unknown in Sweden. The 
 
 the necessity of employing them, that arising from the want of other 
 fruits merely, or does it refer to their salubrious qualities ? These fruits 
 are considered valuable as antiscorbutics, and are very generally used 
 in tne north of Europe, as an article of cookery. — P. 
 
 1 Dal (Ed. Enc.) Dahl (Pinkerton.) 
 
 b “ Pulse {legumes farineux.)" — P. c See note c p. 1047. 
 
 d “ Angermanie” — Lat. Jlnger mania ; Angermanland. — P. 
 
 • Luleo — also Piteo, Umeo and Torneo. (Tuckey.) — The termi- 
 nation in o, or in a, pronounced as o, [the Swedish a,] signifies river. 
 (Tuckey, vol. i. p. 270). — P. 
 
 1 Population 1000 (Stat. Tab.) 700 to 900 (Tuckey.) — P. 
 
 s “ Proletaires” (proletarii,) dependents, labourers — that class who 
 live on the frontiers, in a state of dependence on the Swedes. — In the 
 Ed. Enc. art. Lapland, the Laplanders are distinguished into the 
 mountain Laplanders, who live by their herds of rein-deer ; the mari- 
 
 proprietors of land, and even the nobility, enjoy in the 
 country, and in the bosom of their family, all the sweets 
 of domestic life and rural occupations, abandoning the 
 towns and sea-ports to manufacturers and merchants. 
 Lulea, or Luleo, e in Northern Bothnia, is a small town 
 of not more than 4000 inhabitants/ whose port, at the 
 mouth of the river of the same name, carries on some 
 trade with the Laplanders. The alluvions formed by 
 this river have led to the abandonment of the old town 
 of Lulea, now too far distant from the sea. Piiea is of 
 still less importance than Lulea. Umea, in Westro- 
 Bothnia, with 1100 inhabitants, supports a society of 
 agriculture and a school ; like the two preceding towns, 
 it is situated at the mouth of a river, whose name it bears. 
 
 Northern Sweden, whose three principal towns we 
 have just enumerated, is peopled by Laplanders and 
 Swedes. Of the Laplanders, four classes are distin- 
 guished, namely, mountaineers, inhabitants of the forests, 
 fishermen, and beggars. s The first live by the produce 
 of their herds of rein-deer ; they spend the summer 
 upon the mountains, and the winter in the plains ; their 
 nomadic life obliges them to transport with them their 
 families, their animals, and their dwellings. 11 The Lap- 
 landers of the second class are stationary ;* their herds 
 of rein-deer are less numerous than those of the former; 
 they lead them into the forests, or rather suffer them to 
 feed at liberty, while they themselves are occupied with 
 the cultivation of their lands. The Lapland fishermen 
 have still fewer animals than the preceding; they in- 
 trust them to their countrymen of the forests, or while 
 they are themselves employed in fishing in the different 
 lakes, they send their wives and children to take care 
 of the herds on the mountains. The begging Lapland- 
 ers live, as their name indicates, by begging, or by 
 hiring themselves out to the Swedish peasantry. * 1 Some 
 of them, after having witnessed the destruction of their 
 flocks by the attacks of wolves, or other untoward events, 
 employ themselves in making wicker panniers and bas- 
 kets. The rigour of the climate, the misery which the 
 Laplanders frequently suffer, and the unfruitfulness of 
 their women, prevent the increase of their population. 
 The Westro-Bothnians, and the other Swedish inhab- 
 itants of the same regions, animated by the love of labour, 
 and united by the most friendly cordiality, live happy 
 in their families, where order and neatness reign. Their 
 women heighten their natural charms by a certain ele- 
 gance in their dress. These northern provinces contain 
 few nobles and merchants ; the clergy form the most re- 
 spectable, the most influential, and also the happiest 
 class of society, because they owe the consideration in 
 which they are held to the gratitude which the people 
 feel for the benefits conferred by them. 
 
 Herncesand / more considerable than the cities of the 
 
 time Laplanders, who live by fishing ; and those who inhabit the 
 woody country bordering on Sweden. — P. 
 
 h The mountain Laplanders have no fixed habitations, but live in 
 tents, which they move from place to place, in quest of food for their 
 rein-deer. These tents are constructed of poles nearly meeting at the 
 top, and covered with the cloth called wadmal. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 1 The mountain Laplanders are continually moving from place to 
 place to procure food for their rein-deer. The maritime Laplanders 
 change their habitations only twice in the year, namely, in spring and 
 autumn. Those who inhabit the woody region, are more stationary. 
 (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 k “ The Laplanders of the fourth class (Lapons proletaires) live by 
 begging, or hire themselves out to the Swedish peasantry.” — Sea 
 note e . — P. 
 
 1 Hernosand. 
 
cook cxLiViii.] DESCRIPTION OF SWEDEN. 371 
 
 north,* bears the name of the small island of Herncenf 
 on which it is situated. Its position, at the mouth of a 
 bay, c gives importance to its harbour ; it is the seat of 
 a bishopric, is regularly built, contains several manufac- 
 tures, and possesses a university, 11 * a botanic garden, and 
 a printing office, which publishes works in the Lapland 
 tongue. Gejic, at the mouth of a small river called 
 Gefie-An, e has irregular, but broad and well paved 
 streets, a tolerably good harbour, two docks for ship- 
 building, sundry manufactures, several schools, and a 
 celebrated academy/ At Falun, e situated in a valley, 
 and divided into two parts by a small river, which con- 
 nects lake Varpan with that of Rums, h they manufacture 
 cloths, ribbons and tobacco-pipes ; several manufactories 
 of chemical products, and others for the spinning of cotton 
 and wool, have been also established there. Its school 
 for miners enjoys some reputation. In the environs of 
 this town are situated the most valuable copper-mines in 
 the kingdom, besides several mines of gold and silver. 
 About 500 workmen are there employed. 
 
 The Dalecarlians carry on a great trade with Norway. 
 In the depth of winter they cross the mountains, and 
 carry their productions to the markets of Drontheim. 
 These journeys are made by caravans of from 300 to 400 
 men, and more than 1000 horses. It is a singular spec- 
 tacle to witness these peasants making the air resound 
 with their merry songs, mounted on light sledges, gliding 
 with the rapidity of the wind over the snow, or over the 
 surface of lakes rendered firm by the frost. The 
 Helsingians, inhabiting a maritime country, enjoy a cli- 
 mate less severe than the Dalecarlians ; their soil is not 
 fertile, but by means of labour and industry, the province 
 which they inhabit is perhaps one of the most flourishing 
 in Europe. They cultivate enough of grain for their 
 subsistence ; their herds and flocks yield them abun- 
 dance of butter and excellent cheese ; their forests are 
 peopled with game of the best quality ; their rivers are 
 full of fish and delicate salmon ; and their exports in iron 
 and hemp are considerable. Their habitations are com- 
 modious, substantial, and furnished with every thing 
 necessary ; among the rich, one apartment is ordinarily 
 full of more linen and clothes than the family could use 
 in a century. Order and foresight are the leading vir- 
 tues of this people. 
 
 In approaching Upsal, we perceive on a rising ground 
 a castle built by Gustavus (Vasa) I. Upsal or Upsala, 
 formerly called (Ester-Aros , is watered by the small 
 river Fyrisa/ It is celebrated for its university, found- 
 ed in the fifteenth century , k in which there are sixty pro- 
 fessors, and more than 800 students. 1 Its situation in a 
 fertile plain, fifteen leagues from Stockholm, is favourable 
 
 1 “ Cites du nord” — properly, the towns situated farther north, in 
 Northern and Western Bothnia. — Population of Hernoesand 1800 (Stat. 
 Tab.) 2500 (Tuckey ;) of the others, 800 to 1100 (Stat. Tab.) 700 to 
 900 (Tuckey.)— P. 
 
 b The Hern island — ae, island, in Swedish. — P. 
 
 c It is situated on the island of Hernce, at the mouth of the princi- 
 pal river in Angermanland. — P. 
 
 d “ College.” — The only universities in Sweden are those of Upsal 
 and Lund. — The colleges {gymnasia ) hold the next rank after the uni- 
 versities. (Catteau.)— P. 
 
 e Properly, Gefle-An (the river Gefle) — a, river, in Swedish. — P. 
 
 f “ Gymnasium.” 
 
 ? Fahlun. (Ed. Enc. Pinkerton.) 
 
 •> Fahlun is situated between the two lakes of Run and Warpen. 
 (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 i I is divided into two almost equal parts by the small river Sala. 
 (Rees' Cyc.) — P. 
 
 to an establishment of this kind, which, as far as possi- 
 ble, ought to be placed at a distance from the objects of 
 temptation always to be found in a capital. Linnceur, 
 Cronstedt, Bergman, Wallerius, and several other great 
 men, have filled chairs in Upsal. The buildings occu- 
 pied by the university are, without contradiction, the 
 finest in the city. The Gustavian academy, erected by 
 Gustavus Adolphus, contains a library of 80,000 vol- 
 umes, besides a valuable collection of manuscripts. In 
 the hall allotted for this purpose, there are to be seen 
 two coffers deposited there by Gustavus III., and 
 to be opened fifty years after his death. In 1842,™ 
 that time will have arrived. The same building con- 
 tains an anatomical amphitheatre : to the observatory, 
 which is finely situated, there is annexed a considerable 
 library, composed of astronomical works ; the chemical 
 and physical laboratory, the museum of natural history, 
 and the new botanic garden, are very rich collections. 
 The university buildings also comprehend fencing and 
 dancing halls, besides a magnificent riding-school. The 
 present crown prince of Sweden, Oscar, received his 
 education at Upsal, and resided while there in the pal- 
 ace of the archbishop." The city likewise possesses 
 other useful establishments : the society of sciences, 0 
 founded in 1712 by Eric Berzelius, p at first librarian 
 and afterwards archbishop of Upsal ; the cathedral 
 school, a kind of secondary school, in which are taught 
 literature and the sciences ; Sunday schools, which are 
 held in one of the halls belonging to the sacristy of the 
 cathedral ; a school for the poor ; a house of voluntary 
 labour for the indigent ; a private institution for the re- 
 lief of persons of distinction, principally females, the 
 victims of the vicissitudes of fortune ; an hospital for in- 
 valids, of which one part serves as a house of correction , 
 and lastly, a Bible society. Upsal is the seat of an 
 archbishop, with a revenue of upwards of £1000 ster- 
 ling. The house and garden of Linnseus are still shown 
 to travellers. 
 
 The houses of Upsal are built, some of stone* and 
 others of wood ; the finest have gardens, from whence 
 there is an extensive view of the neighbouring country. 
 The streets are broad and straight, particularly those 
 which lead to its large and superb square. The cathe- 
 dral is the largest and most magnificent church in the 
 Swedish monarchy : its gothic architecture resembles that 
 of Notre Dame at Paris. It was begun in 1258, and 
 finished in 1435. It is covered with sheets of copper. 
 Its length is 330 feet, its breadth 140, and its height 
 105. At the entrance of this church, we see the figure 
 of St. Olof, king of Sweden, trampling under foot a 
 monster, the symbol of idolatry ; and in the nave, the 
 
 k In 1476,* by Steen Sture, regent of the kingdom after the death of 
 Charles Canutson. — P. 
 
 * 1478 (Coxe.) 
 
 1 Number of professors about 20 ; ordinary number of students, 
 about 500. (Coxe. 1779.) — Number of professors 21 ; of students, more 
 than 1000. (Morse.) — P. 
 
 m In the original, 1830. But Gustavus was assassinated March 
 1792, and fifty years from that brings us to 1842. — Trans. 
 
 n This sentence is added by the translator. — P. 
 
 ° The Royal Society of Sciences and Literature at Upsal ( Socie - 
 tas Regia Literaria et Scicntiarum Upsaliensis.) — P. 
 
 p Eric Benzelius. (Catteau. Beauvais. Gorton.) — The Royal Acade- 
 my* of Sciences, founded at Upsal in 1720, by Eric Benzelius, then 
 librarian to the university, and afterwards archbishop. (Catteau’s View 
 of Sweden, p. 368. Eng. Trans.) — P. 
 
 * Society. — See note °. 
 
 <1 The two last sentences are added by the translator. — P. 
 
 Lb 
 
1 ■ ' '■ 
 
 372 EUR< 
 
 Swedish sovereigns were formerly crowned, and assumed 
 the title of kings of Upsal. a The interior of this edifice 
 is filled with tombs and other objects of still greater in- 
 terest. Near the altar, repose the ashes of Olaus Petri, 
 the Swedish reformer ; a little farther off, a monument 
 of alabaster incloses the remains of Gustavus Vasa and 
 his three wives. Here we see the silver coffin of Eric 
 IX., and the sarcophagi of several Swedish kings ; there, 
 the magnificent marble monument erected to the memo- 
 ry of Baron Charles De Geer, the historian and natural- 
 ist, 1 ’ presents itself : another monument, that of Linnaeus, 
 erected in 1798 by the friends of that great man, is re- 
 markable for its simplicity. In the two sacristies, other 
 objects strike the eye : one contains the portraits of the 
 most celebrated Swedish ecclesiastics ; in the other we 
 see the dress worn by the unfortunate Nils Sture, so un- 
 justly accused of treason by Eric XIV., and poignarded by 
 the hand of that prince in the castle of Upsal ; the 
 whetstone, three feet in length, sent in derision by Albert 
 of Mecklenburg, king of Sweden, to Margaret, queen 
 of Denmark, — an intimation to lay aside her sword, and 
 attend to sharpening her needles ; and the colours which 
 she sent him in return, patched with bits of her shifts. 
 It is known that Albert called Margaret the breecliless 
 queen, and that this epigrammatic war terminated in the 
 battle of Falkosping,® in which victory placed the crown 
 of Sweden upon the head of Margaret. Another apart- 
 ment contains several objects of great value, such as a 
 gilded cross, d containing a piece of the wood of the true 
 cross sent by pope Alexander III. ; a golden cup e sev- 
 enteen inches in height, enriched with diamonds, which 
 was taken at Prague by Kcenigsmarck ; and an old 
 wooden idol, representing the god Thor. Gustavus 
 Vasa erected a magnificent palace at Upsal, the greater 
 part of which was consumed by fire in 1702, leaving 
 only one wing habitable, where the king resides when 
 he visits this city. f 
 
 Nature, munificent in her gifts, has collected with so 
 much prodigality in the environs of Stockholm situations 
 the most diversified, that this city appears as if placed 
 in the midst of a large and magnificent garden. On one 
 side rise majestic mountains adorned by the dark foliage 
 of the pine-tree, mixed with the leafy branches of the 
 elm and oak, while, on the other, a pleasant valley 
 opens to the view. Here the lake Madar spreads out 
 its surface irregularly indented by bays and promonto- 
 ries, and covered with a multitude of granite rocks, some 
 of them steep and bare, others decorated with villas and 
 clumps of trees ; there rises a forest on a declivity 
 adorned with verdure ; farther off the eye rests on dis- 
 tant hills or islands. Palaces, the summer-residences 
 
 3PE. [BOOK CXL.V1I1. 
 
 of the royal family, country-houses and gardens, ani- 
 mate the landscape. The capital of Sweden is in a 
 singular and romantic situation, which strikes all stran- 
 gers with surprise. It occupies two peninsulas, and 
 several islands/ washed by the Madar, at the bottom 
 of the gulf where that lake discharges itself into the Bal- 
 tic Sea ; and hence Stockholm has been called the 
 Venice of the north. Canute, son of Eric the Holy, 1 * 
 laid the foundations of Stockholm towards the close of 
 the twelfth century,* in a spot which then contained only 
 a few miserable huts of fishermen, with the view of mak- 
 ing it a place of defence against the attacks of pirates. 
 Norrmalm and Scedermalm , k its two principal suburbs, 
 occupy several islands, and are partly built upon piles. 
 Its ten divisions 1 are separated by different arms of the 
 Madar and by the sea, but they communicate with each 
 other by thirteen large stone bridges, besides several 
 others of wood ; many houses are surrounded by gar- 
 dens, the walls of which rise from the water’s edge ; 
 others, as in Scedermalm, are built against rocks which, 
 higher than the roofs, rise like walls in the midst of 
 these islands. Stockholm is irregularly built ; the great- 
 er part of it is of stone and brick, but many of the 
 houses are of wood painted red. Its twenty public 
 squares are small and inelegant; Norrmalm contains the 
 broadest and finest streets, the longest of which is the 
 Drottninggata , m adorned by the fronts of several palaces. 
 The harbour, defended by two forts, is difficult of ac- 
 cess, but within it is spacious and safe ; the water is 
 clear as crystal, and so deep that the largest ships can 
 go to its very extremity in the centre of the city, and 
 unlade their cargoes on the quay, which is bordered by 
 elegant mansions and vast warehouses. Many streets 
 in the city rise in a circuit,” one above another, on the 
 declivity of a hill, and form a fine amphitheatre crowned 
 by the king’s palace. This building, from its foundation 
 to the sixteenth century, was merely a fortress. It 
 has been since repeatedly rebuilt, the date of the last 
 rebuilding being 1753. It is a square building, four 
 stories in height, flanked by two wings, and built in a 
 superb style, and is filled with rich furniture and col- 
 lections of so great a value, that it may be compared to 
 the finest regal abodes in Europe. There are many 
 curiosities preserved in this place : amongst others, the 
 cradle and small garden-carriage of Charles XII., with 
 the clothes, stained with blood, worn by him when he 
 fell at the siege of Fredericstein 0 in Norway, his hat 
 pierced with a musket-shot/ and his walking cane ; the 
 masquerade costume worn by Gustavus III. on the night 
 of his assassination ; the clothes of the great Gustavus 
 Adolphus, with the swords of several of the Swedish 
 
 a The last sovereign who was crowned at Upsal was Ulrica Eleano- 
 ra, A. D. 1719— P. 
 
 b Qu. natural historian. — De Geer is chiefly known by his History 
 of Insects ( Memoires -pour servir a V Histuire des Insectcs, 7 vols. 4to.) 
 published at Stockholm, in French. — P. 
 
 c Anno 1396. Trans. — This is an error. The union of Calmar took 
 place in 1397, previous to* which several years had elapsed since the 
 battle of Falkceping, during which Albert had been long prisoner to 
 Margaret, and afterwards liberated on condition of his abdicating the 
 throne of Sweden and retiring to Mecklenburg. — The battle took place 
 in 13H7. Albert was detained prisoner seven years. (Moreri.) — P. 
 
 1 “ Cross of silver gilt (vermeil.)'’ c “ Chalice.” 
 
 1 This sentence is added by the translator. — P. 
 
 e Stockholm is generally described as standing on seven islands. — P. 
 
 “ Eric le Saint” — St. Eric. 
 
 Stockholm is said to have been founded by Birger Jarl, regent of 
 
 the kingdom, about the middle of the thirteenth century. (Catteau. 
 Pinkerton.) — P. 
 
 k North and south suburbs. — .Vorr, north; seder, south; and malm, 
 suburb. — P. 
 
 1 “ Quarters.” — The different quarters into which Stockholm is di- 
 vided are the city, the Riddarhohn (Knights’ Island.) the Hdjeands- 
 holm (Island of the Holy Ghost.) the Blasieholm (Island of St. Blaise.) 
 the Skeppsholm (Ship or Admiralty Island.) the Kongsholm (King’s 
 Island,) the Ladugordsland [ladvgiird, farmyard,) and the northern 
 and southern suburbs (A "orrmahn and Sedermalm .) (Catteau. p. 16.) — P. 
 
 Queen Street — ilrottning, queen, and guta. street. — P. 
 
 " “ — h l’entour” — around the quay. — At the extremity of the har- 
 bour several streets rise one above another in the form of an amphithea- 
 tre, and the palace, a magnificent building, crowns the summit. 
 (Coxe’s Travels, vol. iii. p. 95.) — P. 
 
 0 Fredericksteen. p See note c p. 1046. 
 
book cilviii.j DESCRIPTION 
 
 monarchs.® The chapel is a very splendid one : there 
 every year, on the 20th of December, they celebrate a 
 festival in honor of Gustavus Adolphus, in order to 
 keep up the remembrance of the noble perseverance, 
 with which that monarch fought for the liberty of the 
 protestant communion. The royal library contains 
 40,000 volumes, besides numerous manuscripts, and pos- 
 sesses the prayer-book of the emperor Ferdinand the 
 Second, one of the trophies of Gustavus Adolphus dur- 
 ing the thirty years’ war, and the copy of the Vulgate 
 Bible, which belonged to Luther, with notes in his own 
 handwriting. The collection of paintings is composed 
 of different works of the great masters of the Italian 
 school, and of the best Swedish painters. The museum 
 of antiquities is rich in Grecian statues and in medals. 
 At the foot of the platform occupied by the palace, 
 stands the statue of Gustavus III. erected by the bur- 
 gesses of Stockholm ; and in the square of Riddarholm- 
 en, b there is a bronze statue of Gustavus Vasa. The 
 square of Gustavus Adolphus is decorated with a bronze 
 statue of that prince on horseback ; and in the Royal 
 Garden, we see that of Charles XIII. cast at Paris in 
 1821. The beautiful church of St. Nicholas, that of 
 Riddarholmen (the Knights’ Island,) decorated with 
 5000 foreign standards, and inclosing the ashes of seve- 
 ral kings, and of the most celebrated Swedish generals, 
 and the great church or cathedral, called Storlcyrkaf are 
 buildings of the first order. The last is the most an- 
 cient: it has been used for the coronation of the Swedish 
 kings, since that ceremony ceased to be performed at 
 Upsal. d Its altar, incrusted with gold, silver and ivory, 
 representing the birth of Christ ; a chandelier of silver, 
 weighing 78 pounds ; and the plume and spur of St. Olof, 
 are only a few of the curiosities to be seen there. Join 
 to these edifices, the magnificent building of the ex- 
 change, the opera-house, where Gustavus III. was as- 
 sassinated, the town-house, the mint, the immense build- 
 ing where iron is stored, the artillery-park, the docks 
 and the admiralty, the palace of the princess Sophia, 
 sister to Gustavus III., and, at the northern extremity 
 of the Drottninggata, on an isolated rock, the beautiful 
 building of the observatory : and is it not a matter of 
 regret, that the greater part of the private buildings in the 
 city are so little in harmony with the beauty of these pub- 
 lic monuments? Our limits oblige us to pass by the cen- 
 tral veterinary institution, and the forest institution, in- 
 tended for forming able scholars, the scientific collections, 
 the learned societies, such as the academy of sciences 6 
 and that of belles-lettres/ and the schools of medicine 
 and of mineralogy ,s and others no less useful. Among 
 the philanthropic institutions, supported by the wisdom 
 
 OF SWEDEN. 373 
 
 of government, and by the zeal of individuals, we can 
 only mention the society “ Pro Patria,” the object of 
 which is to promote virtue amongst all classes ; for this 
 purpose, distributing silver medals, as a reward for the 
 long and arduous labours of teachers of primary schools, 
 the services of midwives, the good behaviour of work- 
 men, the fidelity of servants, and the attention of the 
 farmers and peasantry in endeavouring to improve and 
 bring agriculture to perfection. 
 
 The commerce of Stockholm is of great importance. 
 This city, sheltered from the violence of winds, ought ap- 
 parently to be healthy, yet the mortality is greater, in pro- 
 portion to its population, than in any other capital in Eu- 
 rope ; the cause can only be ascribed to the exhalations 
 from the waters and from the marshy grounds that sur- 
 round it. We have spoken of the royal palaces that are 
 seen in approaching its walls : that of Drottninghohn h is 
 the finest ; it presents some resemblance to that of Ver- 
 sailles, but its position on the northern point of the island 
 of Lofoe, in Lake Mselar, the beauty of its gardens, and 
 the abundance of its waters, render it much more remark- 
 able. Carlsberg, on the borders of the lake, is distinguish- 
 ed also as a royal dwelling, but especially for its military 
 school, which contains 200 pupils. Haga, a small lodge 
 surrounded by enchanting prospects, is the ordinary resi- 
 dence of the king during the fine season. Lastly, the beau- 
 tiful residence of the Botanical Villa is that to which he 
 prefers inviting strangers who are presented to him. 
 
 After quitting the borders of Lake Mafiar, we see 
 (Erebro i near the Ilielmar, and Carlstad, on the banks 
 of the Wener. These two, which are places of note, 
 but with a population of from only 2000 to 3000 souls/ 
 possess, like the greater part of the Swedish cities, more 
 educational establishments than are to be seen in larger 
 cities of France. Gdrebro is occasionally the place of 
 meeting of the Swedish Diet, 1 and contains, besides 
 other schools, a normal school, and an agricultural so- 
 ciety. Carlstad is a pretty town, and possesses, like 
 (Erebro, an agricultural society, besides an academy, an 
 observatory, and a cabinet of natural history. 1 " Weners- 
 borg, at the southern extremity of Lake Wener, is one 
 of the principal marts for iron. It is a small, but neat 
 town, with a spacious square. The houses are of wood, 
 and painted, as in many Swedish towns, of different 
 colours. The Lake Wener presents here the appear- 
 ance of a sea, and like the sea is ruffled with tempests, 
 and the navigation often dangerous." JV ylcceping ,° with 
 a small harbour on the Baltic, exports cannon and bul- 
 lets. In its old castle, a part of which is used for a 
 prison, Birger king of Sweden, who showed himself an 
 able prince, but whose talents formed no apology for his 
 
 a This sentence is added by the translator. — P. 
 
 b “ Place de l’hdtel des chevaliers” — square of the palace of the 
 nobility (Swed. Riddarhus ; literally, knight’s house.) — The Riddar- 
 hus is a house belonging to the nobility, in which they meet during 
 the diets. — P. 
 
 c Stor, great; kyrka , church. — P. * 
 
 d See note a p. 1052. 
 
 e The Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, founded in 1738. 
 (Catteau.) — It had its origin from six persons of distinguished learn- 
 ing, one of whom was Linnreus, who, in 1739, formed a society for 
 reading dissertations on literary and scientific subjects. It was incor- 
 porated, March 31, 1741, under the name of the Royal Swedish Acad- 
 emy of Sciences ( Konglig Svenska Vetenslcaps Academien.) (Ed. 
 
 f The Academy of Belles Lettres at Stockholm, founded in 1753 by 
 Louisa Ulrica, mother of Gustavus III. — remodelled in 1786, by Gus- 
 
 tavus III., who gave it the name of the Academy of Belles Lettres, 
 History and Antiquities. (Catteau.) — P. 
 
 s “.Ecole des mines” (mining school) — College of Mines (Cat- 
 teau .) — P. 
 
 h Queen’s Island. 1 Orebro. (Ed. Enc.) 
 
 k “ These two chief towns,* with a population of from two to three 
 thousand souls — ” 
 
 * Capitals of provinces. See Stat. Tab. — P. 
 
 1 This statement is made by the translator. — P. 
 
 m “ Carlstad possesses a similar society, a gymnasium, an observato- 
 ry, and a cabinet of natural history.” 
 
 n The three last sentences are added by the translator. — P. 
 
 ° Swed. ny, new, and keeping , a kind of market town, from ktrpn, to 
 buy. — The name of this town is also written, but incorrect'y, Nyko- 
 ping, Nykioping, and Nicoping. — P. 
 
374 EUR* 
 
 crimes, caused, in 1318, two of his brothers to be im- 
 prisoned, and starved to death. Linkaping* in the 
 midst of one of the most fertile plains of East Gothland, 
 is regularly built ; several fairs, well frequented, are held 
 there ; its academy b possesses a fine library, besides a 
 museum of natural history and antiquities; its cathedral 
 is, next to that of Upsal, the largest and finest in the 
 kingdom. Jankwping f well built upon the southern 
 shore of Lake Wetter, possesses several regular streets, 
 which have been laid out since the period when it was 
 almost entirely destroyed by fire in 1790. Gottenburg, 
 or Gotheborg, d is reckoned the second city in Sweden, 
 but from its situation and the excellence of its harbour, 
 with the actual extent of business carried on, may 
 probably, in a commercial point of view, be regarded the 
 first. It lies in the province of West Gothland, near the 
 mouth of the river Goeta or Gcetha/ in the Cattegat, and 
 was once strongly fortified, but its fortifications have 
 fallen into disrepair. It is built, partly on a rocky emi- 
 nence, and partly on a marshy plain : the streets are in 
 straight lines, and in the principal ones a canal general- 
 ly runs through the middle, large enough to admit ves- 
 sels of considerable size, which can thus be unloaded 
 close to the houses of their owners. Four bridges con- 
 nect one part of the town with another, and in many of 
 the streets trees are planted, creating altogether a re- 
 semblance between this city and those in Holland. The 
 population exceeds 20, 000. r Gottenburg has at differ- 
 ent times suffered severely from fire arising from the 
 houses having been built chiefly of wood. Since 1746 
 almost all the new buildings have been of stone or brick, 
 but even subsequently to that year destructive fires 
 have taken place. One fire in 1804 consumed two 
 hundred houses, and another in 1813 one hundred. In 
 general the houses are two or three stories in height. 
 The principal buildings are the cathedral, the town- 
 house, and the governor’s house. It is a bishop’s see, 
 and the revenue is about £750 sterling per annum. 
 The burial-grounds here are at some distance from the 
 town, and tastefully laid out in walks planted with trees. 
 The foreign trade of Gottenburg is considerable : iron 
 and timber are the principal articles of export, and the 
 herring fishery is carried on to a considerable extent. 
 Six newspapers are published here. Many English and 
 Scotch merchants are settled in Gottenburg. s Uil dev al- 
 
 ia, to the north of Gottenburg, is a neat, clean town, 
 
 3PE. [BOOK CXLVI1I 
 
 beautifully situated on a bay, with an extensive amphi 
 theatre of rocky hills in the back ground, and carries on 
 some trade in timber. 11 Halmstad / situated, like Got- 
 tenburg, on the borders of the Cattegat, k would be a 
 place of importance, were not its harbour choked with 
 sand and pebbles. Lund, near the hill of Lybers, on 
 which the ancient Goths elected their kings, possesses a 
 university. Malma, 1 the principal town in Scania, is 
 peopled by Germans and Swedes ; it possesses some fine 
 houses occupied by merchants, and one of its two 
 churches, dedicated to St. Peter, is large and magnifi- 
 cent. There is, in that church, a superb monument 
 erected to the merchant Tullstrcem, who bequeathed 
 one half of his property for the building of an organ, 
 and the other for the support of several benevolent 
 institutions. Christianstad, a handsome town, and the 
 capital of a prefecture, at the bottom of a gulf in the 
 Baltic,™ is regularly fortified, but its trade is inconsidera- 
 ble. It was founded in 1614 by Christian IV. king of 
 Denmark. Its church is very neat : a part of it was 
 built by the subscriptions of the inhabitants, who, having 
 learnt with joy, in 1814, that Norway and Sweden were 
 united, caused to be engraved upon the church the arms 
 and names of the different members of the royal family, 
 namely, Charles XIII., Charles John,” Francis Oscar, 0 
 and Eugenia Bernardine.P Carlscrona *> is the principal 
 station of the Swedish navy. Its harbour is capable of 
 holding more than one hundred ships of war. For its 
 defence a strong fortress has been recently constructed/ 
 and with the view of forming sailors, a school for ship- 
 boys has been founded. The town is well built, but, 
 with the exception of those in the neighbourhood of the 
 admiralty,* almost all its streets are deserted. The old 
 basin or dock is deserving of notice, being dug out of the 
 rock/ it is eighty feet in depth, and two hundred in 
 breadth ; u it is easily rendered dry, when necessary to 
 repair vessels. The new dock/ constructed in the same 
 way, is not inferior to the preceding ; it is in part cov- 
 ered with a roofing of copper. The arsenal, no less re- 
 markable, contains models of ships of all classes and of 
 all nations : in the armoury is preserved a variety of 
 armour used by the ancient Goths ; the sabres of these 
 ancestors of the Swedes are not less than four inches in 
 breadth. The church of the admiralty, which is built of 
 wood, is not the finest in the city ; it is, however, very 
 large, being capable of containing five thousand persons. 
 
 1 Linkoping (Ed. Enc.) Linkioping (Morse.) Lincoping, Lind- 
 koping ( Vosgien.)— P. 
 b “ Gymnasium.” 
 
 c Jonkioping (Morse.) Jonkoping, Jenkoping (Vosgien.) — F. 
 d Gottenburg or Gotheborg (Ed. Enc.) Gotheborg or Gothenburg 
 (Pinkerton.) Gothenburg (Tuckey.) — Swed. Gcetheborg. — P. 
 e See note p p. 1047. ( 24,000. (Stat. Tab.) 
 
 s “ Grrtcborg, situated on the Gacta-Elf, at its entrance into the 
 Cattegat, is, next to Stockholm, the most commercial city in Sweden ; 
 it is also one of the most important from its population.” This is all 
 the account of Gottenburg in the original. — P. 
 
 h This account of Uddevalla is added by the translator. — P. 
 
 ' Helmstadt (Trans.) Halmstadt (Conway.) Halmstad (Tuckey. 
 Pinkerton. Morse.) — Stad, city or town, in Swedish. — P. 
 
 k Halmstad is situated on the Cattegat, at the mouth of the 
 Nissa. — P. 
 
 1 Malmoe (Tuckey.) Malmo (Pinkerton. Morse.) Malmoe (Trans. 
 Vosgien.) — Situated on the Sound, nearly opposite Copenhagen. — P. 
 
 It is situated on the Helge, which empties itself into a gulf that 
 separates the provinces of Schonen and Blekingen. (Tuckey. vol. i. 
 p. 208.) — P. 
 
 u Bernadotte — the present king. 
 
 0 Joseph Francis Oscar, prince royal. 
 
 P “ Eugenie Bernardine Desiree”— the present queen. 
 
 <i Swed. Carlscrona, or Karlskrona, (Charles’ crown.) — Carlscroon, 
 Carelscroon (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 r The entrance to the harbour is defended by two strong forts, on 
 islands, whose fires cross. (Tuckey, vol. i. p. 269.) — Ships of war can 
 only enter the harbour between the islands of Aspoe and Turkoe, and 
 these are furnished with batteries which completely command the 
 passage. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 5 “ — in the quarter of the admiralty.” 
 
 * “ In the quarter of the admiralty, is the old basin or dock ( Docke ,)* 
 dug out of the rock.” 
 
 * Swed. docka, a dock for ships. (VVidegren.) — P. 
 
 " On the island of Lindholm is a dock for four sail of the line, ex- 
 cavated in the rock 80 feet deep. Besides this dock, Gustavus III. 
 commenced an immense basin, which is still unfinished. (Tuckey, 
 vol. i. p. 269.) — The new docks consist of a basin divided into four 
 divisions from the centre to the circumference, each division having 
 separate receptacles for five vessels. They were begun in 1757, dur- 
 ing the reign of Adolphus Frederick, but the work was soon neglected ; 
 it was afterwards warmly patronised by Gustavus III. and again al- 
 lowed to languish; so that only one of the four divisions has been 
 executed, and that not fully completed. (Ed. Enc. 1814.) — P. 
 
 1 “Basin.” — See note “. 
 
book cxiiVHl.] DESCRIPTION OF SWEDEN. 375 
 
 On the coast of the strait formed by the Isle of CEland 
 and the main land,® stands Colmar , regularly built, al- 
 though the greater part of its houses are of wood. Its 
 finest edifice is the cathedral, erected in the centre of 
 a large square, and whose lofty arched roof is supported 
 without pillars. Its old castle, situated in the suburbs, 1 * * 
 was formerly esteemed one of the keys of the kingdom ; 
 it is celebrated in the history of Sweden for the Con- 
 gress of July 20th, 1397, in which the fatal act of union 
 was agreed to, which placed Sweden and Norway under 
 the power of the Crown of Denmark. The hall where 
 this congress assembled serves as a reserve store-house ; 
 and the rest of the building has been transformed into a 
 house of correction and industry. Opposite this build- 
 ing floats the flag of the united kingdom of Sweden and 
 Norway, announcing the happiness of two friendly na- 
 tions, and the wisdom of a prince, who has accomplished 
 a union better compacted than that of Calmar. Calmar 
 has several tanneries and cloth manufactories, but it 
 formerly possessed a trade much more considerable than 
 at present : its harbour, small but secure, is sheltered on 
 the south by Cape Stensce, where Gustavus Vasa land- 
 ed in 1520, to deliver his country from a tyrannical 
 yoke. Louis XVII I., during his exile, fixed himself 
 some time at Calmar, where his misfortunes and his 
 affability gained him all hearts. A worthy admirer of 
 the virtues that distinguished the Swedish hero, he 
 caused a stone, bearing an inscription written by him- 
 self, to be erected to the memory of Gustavus on Cape 
 Stensoe. c 
 
 The Island of Gothland, which of itself forms a de- 
 partment, has for its capital Wisby, the only town in 
 the island, the whole manufacturing industry of which 
 consists in its marble-works, and the whole trade by sea 
 in a few small vessels. Many antiquities found in its 
 environs, and in other parts of the island, give room to 
 believe that it was inhabited by those warlike Goths, 
 who made themselves masters of the finest provinces of 
 the Roman empire, and who, also inhabiting Gothland 
 proper, d or Southern Sweden, sent out those armed 
 colonies, which founded several kingdoms in the south 
 of Europe.® 
 
 The philosopher of Geneva has said, that we ought 
 to visit the south in summer and the north in winter. 
 The capital of Sweden presents, during the latter season, 
 a scene of activity difficult to describe : we have already 
 seen, that the commencement of frost is the signal for 
 the inhabitants of the interior of the Scandinavian Pen- 
 insula immediately to resort to the cities. The society 
 of Stockholm, at all times animated by the most cordial 
 politeness, and the most unaffected cheerfulness, but in 
 general not numerous, becomes so when the long frosts 
 have recovered their empire. Entertainments and 
 pleasure-parties succeed each other day after day ; the 
 borders of Lake Maelar are covered with sledges, which 
 in circuitous courses wander in long files over the frozen 
 
 1 Straits of Calmar, Calmar Sound. 
 
 b “ — in the suburb.” — On an eminence behind the old town, stands 
 the castle. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 c Besides the towns above mentioned, those of Norrkaping* and 
 Sader leaping, 1 the former on the river Motala, the outlet of Lake 
 Wetter, and the latter on the south shore of the gulf of Slretbacken, at 
 
 * Svved. Non-keeping (north town.) — Norkoeping. (Catteau.) Norkoping, 
 Nordkoping, Nordkioping. (Morse.) — P. 
 
 t Swed. Sa derkaeping (south town.) — Soderkoping. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 waters, or the snow that whitens the fields ; military 
 music attends these joyous companies, which, after 
 dinner, return to the city by torch light. In the even- 
 ing, crowds repair to the theatre, to witness the repre- 
 sentation of some national drama. On the first of May, 
 a stranger sees with astonishment the promenades around 
 the capital covered with a triple row of brilliant equi- 
 pages, which remind one of the splendid retinues that, 
 during the three last days of Passion-week, frequent 
 the road from Longchamp to Paris. During the sum- 
 mer, a select society assembles at the waters of Ramlo- 
 sa in Scania, and at those of Meclcri 1 in East Gothland, 
 or the attraction of a military spectacle, a powerful one 
 to a people naturally warlike, draws the curious to the 
 camps where the national troops are exercised. These 
 meetings do not resemble any of those that take place 
 in our climates : an eye-witness of these festivals tells 
 us, that dinners under tents and balls in the open air 
 succeed the military evolutions ; the sound of the violin 
 mixes itself with the rolling of the drum ; valour and 
 beauty there divide empire. 
 
 The Scandinavian-Pehinsula, much more enlightened 
 than France, surpasses in information not only Prussia 
 but the British isles : in Norway, the system of mutual 
 instruction is spread over the remotest parts of the coun- 
 try ; saving-banks are established in every province ; 
 granaries for the surplus grain are to be found in differ- 
 ent places; and an improved prison discipline has 
 brought back to honourable sentiments, those unfortu- 
 nate beings who would otherwise have been hardened 
 in crime. In Sweden every peasant can read, all know 
 their rights, all join to a reasonable attachment to their 
 religion, an attachment no less ardent to a form of gov- 
 ernment, which has for centuries protected their liberty. 
 There is thus little depravity of manners, especially out 
 of cities, and no need for those restraining measures, 
 which, under the guise of securing tranquillity, are too 
 often made use of to render legitimate the abuse of force, 
 when we ought only to have in view the maintenance 
 of order and justice. The security of the roads is not 
 intrusted to gendarmes : that military police is in Swe- 
 den unknown, because it is there useless : at intervals 
 we meet with peace-officers, to whom the inhabitants lend 
 their aid when necessary. The recruiting of the army 
 is done by publishing in the churches the names of 
 those who ought to make part of the militia, and this 
 simple appeal is enough to lead the youth to complete 
 the number wanted. s The taxes are levied in the same 
 way, by announcing from the pulpit the quota of each 
 citizen : these burdens, which press equally upon all, 
 do not amount to more than five per cent, on income 
 indirect taxes are unknown. The Swedish navy occu- 
 pies the third rank in Europe ; it draws its recruits from 
 the merchant service, and, although not considerable, 
 because government is not sufficiently rich to increase 
 the materiel, yet, to give an idea of its merit, it is suffi- 
 
 the point where the canal across Sweden meets the Baltic, are places 
 of considerable commerce. — P. d “ Gothia.” 
 
 e Wisby is celebrated in the history of commerce, for a maritime 
 code, compiled by its merchants and burgesses in the 12th century, 
 called the laws of Wisby. (Azuni’s Maritime Law. vol. i. p. 381 — 5. 
 Eng. Trans.) — P. 
 
 f Medewi [Medevi.] (Rees’ Cyc.)— P. 
 
 s Men from twenty to twenty-five years of age are obliged to serve. 
 They form five classes. 
 
r " 
 
 376 EUR 
 
 cient to say, that in battle a Swedish ship of equal force 
 has the advantage over a Russian. 
 
 The laws are wise, clear, and precise. With the ex- 
 ception of some modifications adopted under Gustavus 
 III. (who abolished the torture) and under the succes- 
 sors of that prince, the code in use is that which was 
 drawn up in the early part of the eighteenth century, 
 during the reign of Frederic I. The punishment of 
 death is not abolished, but the application of it is rare, 
 because there are fewer murders committed in Sweden 
 than elsewhere, and also because this punishment is not 
 pronounced except when the accused makes confession 
 of his crime. In civil cases, the two parties bear each 
 their proportion of the expense : he who loses is never 
 condemned to pay the costs. A new code of laws is 
 about to he discussed by the Diet. a 
 
 The constitution established during the reign of Gus- 
 tavus III., in consequence of the revolution which 
 baffled the plans of the senate and nobility, serves as the 
 basis of the Swedish government. The monarchical 
 power is hereditary, but females are excluded. The 
 king of Sweden is perhaps, of all the constitutional 
 monarehs in Europe, the one whose power is most lim- 
 ited. He does not attain majority till twenty-one ; from 
 his eighteenth year to that age, he may sit in the differ- 
 ent councils, but he has no deliberative voice ; if he 
 place himself at the head of the armies, or if he quit the 
 kingdom from any other motive, he must confide the 
 administration to a regency, composed of four members 
 of the council of state and of the minister of justice. 
 If his absence lasts more than a year, or if any indispo- 
 sition prevents him during the same space of time from 
 attending to public affairs, the Council of State convokes 
 the Diet (JStcenderne) b or States General, which must 
 adopt some measure for the security of the country. 
 Until this is done, the foreign ambassadors cannot ap- 
 proach within twenty-four leagues of the place where 
 the States are assembled. The Senate or Court of 
 Peers is composed of twenty-two members. Twelve 
 counsellors of the crown form a council corresponding to 
 the Council of State in France ; c it gives its advice, and 
 the king decides. The king appoints to all offices and 
 employments, and has the right of conferring pardons, 
 but he cannot make any new laws, or interpret old ones, 
 levy taxes, or declare war, without the consent of the 
 states, which he alone has the power of convoking. No 
 judgment can be given by a warrant. The law guaran- 
 tees the rights and property of the citizens. The liber- 
 ty of the press is among the number of fundamental 
 laws, which cannot be modified without the participa- 
 t'on of both monarch and states. The States have un- 
 d< r their management the public debt and the national 
 
 — 
 
 OPE. [BOOR CXL.VII1. 
 
 bank. They are composed of four orders, namely, the 
 nobility, in which order each family has its representa- 
 tive ; d the clergy, represented by the bishops, as well 
 as by pastors chosen in each chapter ; e the burgesses, 
 whose deputies are chosen by the principal towns in 
 the kingdom ; f and the peasantry ,s who choose their 
 own representatives in their assemblies. Each deputy 
 must be 25 years complete, must belong to one of these 
 orders, and profess the protestant religion. The depu- 
 ties of the nobility are the most numerous, an inconven- 
 ience modified by an important regulation, which does 
 not admit of voting individually, but by orders. The 
 States assemble usually every five years, unless in 
 case of extraordinary circumstances. The kingdom of 
 Norw'ay participates in the advantages presented by this 
 constitution, which in time the progress of intelligence 
 will doubtless improve, but it has only one legislative 
 chamber ( Storthing ,) h whose members enjoy no distinc- 
 tion one above another. 
 
 Industry is but little developed in Sweden, and slill 
 less in Norway. There are reckoned in Sweden only 
 7000 manufacturers of all kinds, and 3000 traders.' 
 
 The government has for several years made the greatest 
 efforts to encourage the manufacture of steel and of 
 cloth, of glass and of china, k but the amount of these is 
 far from supplying the consumption of the country, an 
 unanswerable argument against the partisans of the 
 prohibitory system. It would be more advantageous for 
 Sweden to abandon several branches of manufacture, 
 which are only supported by a system of severe custom- 
 house regulations, and to give fuller scope to the work- 
 ing of her mines of iron, copper and cobalt; to her 
 trade in timber, which may be regarded as a source of 
 inexhaustible wealth, if the reproduction of the forests 
 is attended to ; to the manufacture of mathematical and 
 philosophical instruments, for which Stockholm enjoys 
 some celebrity ; to her tanneries, and the manufacture 
 of gloves, a branch of industry in which the Swedes 
 have few rivals ; to her founderies, which procure for 
 her so great advantages ; to her cordage manufacture, 
 in which the town of Fahlun excels ; to the making of 
 vases and other ornamental articles in porphyry, which 
 occupies a part of the population of Elfcvedrt ] ,' in the 
 prefecture of Stora Kopparberg ; m to the productive fishery 
 of the cod and the herring ; and lastly, to the building 
 of ships, so much in request by foreigners. The exten- 
 sion of these different branches of industry would pre- 
 sent to her the means of augmenting her trade, already 
 so important, and would procure her a multitude of arti- 
 cles which she cannot fabricate at the same price with 
 other nations. By this means she might renounce the 
 prohibition of wine, tea, rum, and other commodities 
 
 1 “ At the next session.” (M. B. 1829.) 
 
 •> Swed. stand, rank, class, order — plur. slander, states, estates — 
 SUendcrnc, the States— Rilcscns Stamdcrnc, the States of the King- 
 dom. — P. 
 
 c Svcrigcs och JYorrigcs Calender far &rct 1829 (Almanack of Sweden 
 and Norway for 1829.) 
 
 d There are reckoned to be in Sweden 1300 noble families: the 
 eldest of eacli family sits in the diet, under the name of caput familia 
 [Swcd. familiens hvftrnd .] The nobility is divided into three classes, 
 viz. that of counts and barons, that of knights [riddarer] or ancient 
 gentlemen, without titles, and that of esquires [svenner,] comprehend- 
 ing all untitled gentlemen who have obtained letters of nobility since 
 the reign of Charles XI. (Catteau.) — The diet of 1780 consisted of 
 48 counts, 130 barons, 188 knights, and 390 gentlemen [srenner,] be- 
 sides 51 ecclesiastics, 94 burgesses, and 105 deputies of the order of 
 peasants. (Pinkerton.) — P. 
 
 e The fourteen prelates of the kingdom, namely, the archbishop of 
 Upsal and the thirteen bishops, are ex officio members of the diet, and 
 each archdeaconry deputes one or two representatives. (Catteau.) — P. 
 
 f The citizens are represented by the deputies of cities. Stockholm 
 has ten; cities of the second class have two or three, and the rest send 
 only one. Sometimes, for the sake of economy, two small cities are 
 represented by the same person. (Catteau.) — P. 
 
 B “ The order of peasants.” — Farmers who cultivate lands belonging 
 to them and their descendants, as long as they fulfil their engagements 
 with the crown, constitute in the diet, the order of peasants. Each 
 bailiwick appoints a deputy, and defies his expenses. (Catteau.) — P 
 h “ Storting." — .See note " p. 1039, and note a p. 1045 — P. 
 
 ' “ 7000 manufactories ( fabriques ) — and 3000 merchants (nigo 
 dans.)” 
 
 k “ Faience.” 1 Elfdal or Elfvedal (Ed. Enc 1 
 
 * n The former province of Dalecarlia. 
 
BOOK CXLVI1I.1 
 
 foreign to her climate, a prohibition which has no other 
 advantage than to keep up bands of smugglers ; by this 
 means she might also find, in her more extended rela- 
 tions, the means of increasing the productions of a soil, 
 in which agriculture is perhaps more advanced than in 
 any other agricultural country, and which even exports 
 corn ; and by this means, too, she might increase the 
 advantages which she derives from transporting in her 
 vessels, to different ports of Europe, as well as to her 
 own, the merchandise of foreign nations.* But the 
 Swedish nation may expect every thing from the future ; 
 the accomplishment of her wishes has nothing to fear 
 from Gothic prejudices ; the States are unanimous in 
 their desire to secure the public prosperity. The stub- 
 born partisans of commercial restrictions have not been 
 able to prevent the reduction of the duties on colonial 
 commodities imported by tbe North Americans; 11 free- 
 dom of trade is on the eve of being proclaimed in 
 Sweden. 
 
 3 That is. from the carrying trade. — P. 
 
 b “ The United States.” 
 
 « “ Government favors everywhere the employment of vaccination, 
 the division of landed property, the draining of marshes, the establish- 
 ment of colonies for the improvement of lands recently brought under 
 cultivation, and also that of nurseries for the propagation of the oak, 
 and of farms (berberies) 1‘or ameliorating the breed of sheep.” 
 
 d “—have just been adopted” (1829.) 
 
 e In Norway the conscription has been several years established; 
 the duration of military service is from five to seven years. 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 54 48 
 
 377 
 
 The government favours everywhere the use of vac- 
 cination, the division of lands, the draining of marshes, 
 the establishment of colonies to render useful the lands 
 newly brought under culture, the cultivation of the oak, 
 and the ameliorating the quality of wool. 0 Canals and 
 roads are multiplying ; measures are adopting 3 * to render 
 more equal, and consequently more supportable, tbe 
 burden of military service ; e tbe organization of the 
 communes and departments is undergoing the changes 
 desired by the people ; f the lands are almost all of them 
 registered ;S steam-vessels establish frequent communi- 
 cations between the maritime towns ; h lastly, the increase 
 of population since 1821 has been such, that in 61 
 years it will be doubled' — an evident proof of general 
 prosperity. We may then say with confidence, that the 
 people of Sweden and Norway enjoy, under the pro- 
 tection of a government strictly constitutional, a hap- 
 piness guaranteed by the present generation to pos- 
 terity. 
 
 f Statement of the general administration of the kingdom, made at 
 the palace ofStockholm, Nov. 15th, 1828. (Bulletin des Sciences de 
 Fevrier 1829.) 
 
 s *• enrolled and valued in the public land register [terrier] ( cadas - 
 tries)" 
 
 h Report made by the minister of the interior to the last legislative 
 assembly of Norway. 
 
 • Report of the Royal Commission of Statistics, made to the king 
 on population, &c. Stockholm, 1828. (Bulletin des Sciences de Mars 
 1829.) 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF SWEDEN. 
 
878 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 IBOOK CXLVI1I 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 
 THE SWEDISH MONARCHY. 
 
 Table of the past and present Divisions, Geographical and Adminis- 
 trative, of the Scandinavian Peninsula 
 
 KINGDOM OF SWEDEN. 
 
 Surface, 22,051 Square Leagues. 
 
 Population per Square League, 127 Inhabitants. 
 
 I. Southern Region — Gothland 11 or Gothia. c 
 
 Fortner Provinces. 
 
 CEster-Goethland or 
 Ostrogothia f 
 
 Srnceland or Sma- 
 lands 
 
 Bleking m 
 
 Dalsland 0 and West- ) , 
 
 rgothlandP \ Elfsbor S 
 
 Prefectures.^ 
 | Linkoeping 
 
 Calmar 
 
 Joenkoeping 
 
 Kronoberg 
 
 Bleking 
 
 Westergothland or 
 WestrogothiaP 
 
 Skaraborg 
 
 Goeteborg or Got 
 tcnburg, s and 
 Bohns' 
 
 Towns.® 
 
 { LlNKCEPINGt 
 Norrkoeping 
 Wadstena 
 Soederkueping 
 
 { CALMARt 
 
 Westervvik 
 Borgholm 1 * 
 f JcenkcefingI 
 Adelfors' 
 (_Ekesjce k 
 Wexio 1 
 
 { Carlscrona 
 Ronneby 
 Carlshamn" 
 
 f Wenersborg 
 J Boeroest 
 j Trollhaettan 
 Amal 
 
 C Mariestad 
 < Lidkeeping 
 t^Skara 
 
 f Gottenburg 
 J Marstrand 
 | Uddevalla 
 (_ Stroemstad 
 
 Population. 
 
 3,000 
 
 2,900 
 
 1.400 
 900 
 
 4.500 
 3,000 
 
 500? 
 
 3.000 
 500? 
 
 1,100 
 
 1,300 
 
 11,000 
 
 300 
 
 3.400 
 
 1.500 
 
 2.000 
 500 
 800 
 
 1,100 
 
 1,500 
 
 1,000 
 
 24,000 
 
 1,200 
 
 4.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 a M. Ad. Balbi calls it the Norwegian- Swedish monarchy;* but he 
 proposes the name of Sicedo-Norwegian,\ as softer in pronunciation. 
 
 * “Monarchic NorwJgieno-SuMoise.” f “ Suedo-Norwegienne.” 
 b “ Goethland” (Swed.) — See note ' p. 1047. 
 
 c M. Hagdstam, a learned Swedish geographer, divides the king- 
 dom into three great regions ; and these again are subdivided into 
 twenty- four laen* or prefectures, which have been substituted for the 
 former division into provinces. 
 
 * Swed. Icen, a government or district. 
 d Governments. (Catteau.) 
 
 e The bishoprics and archbishoprics are pointed out by the marks 
 ( and L* 
 
 * There is only one archbishopric in Sweden, that of Upsal. The number 
 of bishops in Sweden, in 1790, was thirteen (Catteau) — in 1825, eleven (Ed. 
 Ene.) Only seven are marked in the Table. — P. 
 
 1 See note c p. 1049. 
 
 s “ Smceland.” — Generally written Smaland, in English authors — 
 Smoland (Catteau. Tuckey.) — Swed. Smaland. — P. 
 h In the Isle of CEland. 
 
 1 .Edelfors (Catteau.) k Ekesio (Vosgien.) 
 
 1 Vexjoe (Catteau) — the Swedish orthography. — P. 
 m Blekingen (Tuckey, Catteau, &c.) — with the article ere suffix- 
 ed.— P. 
 
 “ Swed. hamn, haven. — P. 0 Lat. Dalia. 
 
 v See note h p. 1047. a Borohs (Vosgien.) 
 
 r See note c p. 1048. 
 
 • See note d p. 1054, and note * p. 1054. 
 
 Former Provinces Prefectures. 
 
 Halland Halmstad 
 
 Christianstad 
 
 Malmoehust 
 Gothland bb (Island of ) Gothland 1 * * 
 
 Towns. 
 
 (Halmstad 
 Warberg 
 I Laholm u 
 
 Population. 
 1,500 
 1 ,30C 
 900 
 
 Scaane or Scania 1 
 
 'Christianstad 
 Engelholm 
 Cimbrishamn 
 ' Majlmce 
 Ystad 
 Lund 
 
 Landskrona 1 
 
 Helsinborg“ 
 
 Wisby 
 
 3.000 
 500 
 700 
 
 6.000 
 2,600 
 3,200 
 3,800 
 4,000 
 
 3,800 
 
 II. Central Region — Svealand cc or Sweden. 
 
 Upland 
 
 Upsala 
 
 u £ n „1,“d s ‘* d "' 
 
 Socdermanland or 
 Sudermania bh 
 
 Westmanland or 
 Westmania 
 
 Westmanland and 
 Nerike or Nericia 
 
 Wertneland mm 
 
 | Nykceping 
 
 Westeras kk 
 
 CErebro 
 
 Carlstad 
 
 f UPSALAt 
 Lcefsla dd 
 Elskalerby ee 
 Soederfors 
 Dannemora 
 
 'Stockholm 
 
 Drottningholm 
 
 Norrtelge ff 
 
 Soedertelge 
 
 Vexholmss 
 
 fNYKCEPING 
 ■( Strengnoes" 
 (_Eskilstuna 
 
 { Wester Ast 
 Sala 
 A rboga 
 Koeping 11 
 
 { Qlrebro 
 Nora 
 
 Askersund 
 C CarlstadI 
 ( Christineham' ,,, 
 
 4.500 
 
 1.500 
 600 ? 
 500 ? 
 400 
 
 79,000 
 
 3.500 
 800 
 500 
 500 
 
 2,300 
 
 1,100 
 
 1.500 
 
 3.000 
 
 2.000 
 1,500 
 1,200 
 
 3.000 
 800 
 800 
 
 2,200 
 
 2.000 
 
 1 Balms (Vosgien.) 
 
 u Laholm or Lageholm — on the river Laga. — P. 
 
 x Lat. Scania or Scandia. — Fr. Scanie. — Germ. Sclionen. — Du. Schoon- 
 en. — Swed. Shone or Shane ( Shonrn or Shanen, with the article.) — 
 Dan. Shaane ( Shannon , with the article.) — P. 
 
 r Malmohus-Lan (Swed. Malmahus-Lan ) or Government of Malmo- 
 hus (Morse.) — P. 
 
 I Landscrona, Landscroon or Landskroon. 
 
 “ Helsingborg, Helsingburg. 
 
 bb “ Gottland.” — See note ‘ p. 1048. 
 
 cc Swed. Svea or Sverige, Sweden ; Svea Rihe, the kingdom of Swe- 
 den ; Svear, the Swedes. — P. 
 
 dd Lofsta or Hammerwerke (Morse.) Lrefstad (Catteau.) 
 
 ee Elfkarleby (Rees’ Cyc.) Norr-Telje (Tuckey.) 
 
 ss Waxholm (Morse.) — Swed. Veexholm . — P. 
 
 bb Sodermanland, Sudermanland — Swed. Sadermanland , Lat. Suder - 
 mania. — P. 
 
 " Swed. Stramgnas. — Strengnes (Vosgien.) Strengnas or Strenge- 
 nas (Morse.) — P. 
 
 kk “ Vesteras’’ — Swed. Vcsterds, Lat. Arosia. — Westeraas (Hubner ) 
 Westerns (Catteau.) — P. 
 
 II Koping (Vosgien.) 
 
 mm « Vermeland'' — Wermeland, Wermland, Warmeland, Harm- 
 land. — P. , 
 
 Christinaham (Morse.) — Swed. Christinaliamn (Christina s ha- 
 ven.) — P. 
 
book cxLYin.] DESCRIPTION OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 
 
 370 
 
 Former Provinces. 
 
 Dalame or Dale- 
 carlia 
 
 Gestrikland or Ges-' 
 tricia, c and 
 Helsinaland or Hel- 
 
 Prefectures. 
 
 Stora-Kopparberg 1 
 
 ■Gefleborg 
 
 Towns, 
 f F alun 
 < Hedemora 
 (_ Avesta b 
 
 { GefleI 
 Soederhamm d 
 Huddikswall 6 * * * * * 
 
 Population. 
 
 4,700 
 
 800 
 
 700 
 
 6,000 
 
 1,400 
 
 1,500 
 
 III. Northern Region — Norrland f or the country of the North. 
 
 Wester-Botten or "] Norr-Botten or 
 Western Bothnia, s ) Northern Bothnia 
 and 
 
 Lappraark or 
 land h 
 
 ■ > 
 
 Medelpad and 
 germanland 
 Angermania 
 Joemtland > or 
 Jemptia and 
 Herje G£dalen k 
 
 Lap- [ Wester-Botten or 
 J Western Bothnia 
 AnO 
 
 or > Wester-Norrland 1 
 
 j Joemtland 
 
 { PlTEA 
 Lulea 
 Gellivara 
 
 | Umea 
 
 C PlERNCESANrt 
 \ Sundswall 
 
 C GilsTERSUND 1 
 \ Ljusnedal 
 
 800 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,100 
 
 1,100 
 
 1,800 
 
 1,600 
 
 200 
 
 150 
 
 KINGDOM OF NORWAY.™ 
 
 Surface, 16,668 Square Leagues. 
 
 Population per Square League , 63 Inhabitants. 
 t Southern Region — Scendenfield, or to the south of the mountains. 11 
 
 Dioceses. 
 
 Aggershuus® 
 
 Chnstiansand 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Aggershuus® 
 
 Smaalehnen r 
 
 Hedemarken 
 
 Christian" 
 
 Buskerud 
 
 County of Jalsberg 
 County of Laurvig? 
 
 Bradsberg 
 
 Nedences * 1 * 3 * * ® 
 
 Mandal 
 
 Stavanger 
 
 Towns. 
 
 C ChristianiaP 
 ( Droebaks 
 C Moss 
 
 J Frideriksliald 3 
 
 ^Friderikstad 1 
 
 fHoff 
 
 Kongsvinger 
 ^Elverum 
 C Lessoe 
 £ Bin 
 
 { Kongsbcrg 
 Modum 
 Drammen 
 Eger 
 
 Tonsberg 1 
 C Laurvigi 
 ( Frideriksvcern z 
 C Skeen 
 ( Porsgrund 
 Arendal 
 
 ( CHRISTI ANSAND 
 
 l Mandal 
 Stavanger 
 
 Population. 
 
 20,600 
 
 1,400 
 
 1,400 
 
 4.000 
 2,300 
 
 400 
 
 3.000 
 
 7.000 
 
 4.500 
 
 6.000 
 2,000 
 
 1.500 
 1,800 
 
 600 
 1,800 
 1,500 
 1,700 
 4,900 
 1 ,600 
 2,400 
 
 II. Central Region — Nordenfield, or to the north of the mountains 
 Dioceses. 
 
 Bergen 
 
 Drontheim 
 
 Districts. 
 
 f Soendre Bergen- 
 huus bb 
 
 Towns. Population 
 
 C Bergen 20,800 
 
 ( Rosendahl (barony) 
 
 f Indvig 
 
 Nordre Bergenhuus" 1 < Viig 
 (_ (_Leganger 
 
 f Soendre Drontlieim dd I Drontheim 
 ( Koeraas™ 
 
 { Levanger 
 Stoerdalen fr 
 Skogn 
 
 „ , . ( CHRISTI ANSUND 
 
 Romsdal J Mo lde 
 
 3,900 
 
 3,200 
 
 9.000 
 
 3.000 
 300 
 
 > 
 
 ) 
 
 1,600 
 
 800 
 
 III. Northern Region — Nordland or the country of the north. ss 
 
 'Bodcee 300 
 
 Alstahang bh ? 
 
 Islands of West 1 
 NordVand ^ Vaagen and East I 
 
 Vaagen" >4,00 
 
 Island of Langoeen 
 Island of Hindceen j 
 'Tromscee 800 kk 
 
 Altengaard 2,000 
 
 Hammerfest "1 
 
 Finmark Wardcechuus 11 
 
 Island of Senjen > ? 
 
 Sorcee 
 
 Mageroee J 
 
 Drontheim 
 
 COLONIES OF THE SWEDO-NORWEGIAN MONARCHY. 
 Archipelago of the Antilles. — Island of St. Bartholomew 16,000 
 
 Stale of the Population according to the last Census. 
 
 ’Nobles 20,500 
 
 Ecclesiastics 14,000 
 
 Burgesses (not including civil ^ ^ 
 
 functionaries) 
 
 Sweden -( Peasantry 
 
 Civil Functionaries 
 i , f Officers 2,200 
 
 i my an J Soltli e r S a.nd 
 av y \ Seamen 40,160 
 
 Total population in 1826 
 
 Total population in 1815, accord- 
 ing to M. Hagelstam"" 
 
 Increase from 1815 to 1826 
 
 5 
 
 2,636,540 
 9,270 
 
 42,360 mm 
 
 2,800,000 
 
 2,800,000 
 | 2,465,000 
 335,000 
 
 1 Great Copper Mountain — so called from the copper mine at Fali- 
 lun. — P. 
 
 b Avestad (Morse.) 
 
 c Gestrikeland (Swed. Gcestrikeland.') Lat. Gestricia. — P. 
 
 d Soderham (Morse.) Soiderhain or Suderhafen (Vosgien.) Swed. 
 Scederltamn (South-haven.) — P. 
 
 e Hudwiksvvall (Tuckey.) Hudwickswall or Hudikswall (Morse.) 
 Swed. Hudviksralt. — P. 
 
 ( Dan. Nordland, Swed. Norrland — North-land — Northern coun- 
 try. — P. 6 See note b p. 1047. 
 
 b “ Laponie” — Lat. Lappoma. 
 
 ' West Norrland — called also the government of Hernoesand. — P. 
 
 > Swed. Jeemtland, or Jemtland — jcemn, neut. jcemt, even, level, and 
 land, country. — P. 
 
 k Lat. Herjedalia (Catteau.) — Herjedalen (Morse) — Herjedal, with- 
 out the article. — Herjeodal (Ed. Enc.) — Herjeadalen (Pinkerton.) — 
 Swed. Herjeadalen (the dale or valley of the river (Swed. a) Herje.) — P. 
 
 1 Ostersund (Morse.) 
 
 m Norway is divided into three physical regions, and also into four 
 
 dioceses, composed of sixteen districts or bailiwicks and two counties. 
 
 " A third branch [of the Norwegian mountains,] called Langfieldt 
 
 [Langfield,] proceeds westward and then southward towards the Naze, 
 
 dividing Norway into two principal regions, Sondenfieldts and Norden- 
 
 fieldts. (Ed. Enc.) — Sacndenfields and Nordenfields would be literally in 
 
 Danish, the south and the north of the mountain. The chain dividing 
 
 Norway into these two regions, includes the Dovrefield and the Lang- 
 
 field ; it first proceeds west between Aggershuus and Drontheim, 
 and then south between the former and Bergen. — P. 
 
 0 Aggerhuus (Ed. Enc.) 
 
 P We do not mark the capital of each district, because neither the 
 travels of Von Schubert, nor the map of Mr. Hagelstam, nor the royal 
 almanack of Sweden point them out. s Drobak (Tuckey.) 
 
 r Dan. Smaa-lchn-tn (the small fief or district.) See note c p. 1058. — P. 
 “ See note p p. 1045. 1 See note e p. 1045. 
 
 u Christianslehn. — P. 1 Tcensberg (Tuckey.) 
 
 ? Laurwig (Tuckey.) Larwigen (Morse.) — Dan. vig or viig, Swed. 
 vik, a creek or small bay. — P. 
 
 z Staviern or Fredericks-viern (Tuckey.) — Dan. Frederiksvcern. — P 
 “ Neden$s (Conway.) See note u p. 1046. 
 
 bb Southern Bergenhuus. — Bergen buns (Lat. Prcefectura Bergensiq 
 government of Bergen) — literally, Bergen-house. — P. 
 
 “Northern Bergenhuus. — P. 
 
 dd Northern and Southern Drontheim. — P. 
 
 ee See note 1 p. 1042. Stordalshalsen (Tuckey . ) 
 
 66 See note f. bh “ Alstahaug.” 
 
 ii << West Vaagen and Ost-Vaagen” — Dan Vest-Vaagceen — Ost-Vaag- 
 ceen (East and West Vaage Islands.) — P. 
 
 kk “ 200.” — Population 150. (Tuckey.) See p. 1044. — P. 
 
 11 Wardhus, Wardhuys — Dan. Vardrzekuus. — P. 
 mm The translator has made this sum 62,360, and that of the soldiers 
 and seamen 60,160. I have followed the original, which is supported 
 by the statement of the amount of the army and navy in 1827, p 1060 
 — This alteration was probably made by the translator, in order to 
 make up the full sum of 2,800,000; the sum of the items included be- 
 ing only 2,780,000. There is a similar discrepancy in the total 
 amount of the population of the two kingdoms. — P. 
 
 nD Ruise durch das westliche Schweden, Norwegen und Finnland, 
 von F. W. von Schubert. 
 
380 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXLVIII. 
 
 Brought 
 
 Norway 
 
 forward 
 
 ('Inhabitants of the Towns 
 
 k of the Frontiers 
 
 (_ of the Country 
 
 105,000') 
 
 10,600 y 
 934,400 J 
 
 2,800,000 
 
 1,050,000 
 
 
 Total population in 1826 
 Total population in 1815 1 
 
 1,050,000 
 
 886,400 
 
 
 
 Increase from 1815 to 1826 
 
 163,600 
 
 
 
 Total population of the two kingdoms 
 
 3,866,000 
 
 Talle of Births in Sweden. 
 
 Years. 
 
 • 
 
 Legitimate. 
 
 Illegitimate. 
 
 Sum 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Female*. 
 
 Total. 
 
 total. 
 
 1821 
 
 1822 
 
 1823 
 
 1824 
 
 1825 
 
 43,938 
 
 41,647 
 
 46,639 
 
 44,477 
 
 47,751 
 
 41.863 
 42,737 
 44,440 
 42,606 
 
 45.863 
 
 85,806 
 
 87,334 
 
 91,079 
 
 87,083 
 
 93,614 
 
 3,218 
 
 3,595 
 
 3,518 
 
 3,316 
 
 3,314 
 
 3.018 
 
 3,330 
 
 3,632 
 
 3,173 
 
 3,357 
 
 6,266 
 
 6,925 
 
 7,180 
 
 6,494 
 
 6,701 
 
 92,072 
 
 94,309 
 
 98,259 
 
 93,577 
 
 100,315 
 
 Total 
 
 227,452 
 
 217,514 
 
 444,966 
 
 17,021 
 
 16,515 
 
 33,566 
 
 478,53.2 
 
 Average lor these 5 y ? rs. 
 Average for the 5 pre- 'j 
 
 ‘15,490 
 
 43,503 
 
 88,993 
 
 3,404 
 
 3,309 
 
 6,713 
 
 95,706 
 
 ceding years, viz. 1 
 from 1316 to 1820, f 
 inclusive J 
 
 40,634 
 
 38,724 
 
 79,358 
 
 2,997 
 
 2,898 
 
 5,895 
 
 85,253 
 
 inual increase of^ 
 jirths during the 5 > 
 ast years } 
 
 4,856 
 
 4,779 
 
 9,635 
 
 407 
 
 411 
 
 818 
 
 10,453 b 
 
 
 Table of Mortality 
 
 in Sweden. 
 
 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1821 . . 
 
 
 32,950 
 
 66,416 
 
 1822 
 
 
 28,890 
 
 59,390 
 
 1823 . . 
 
 
 27,265 
 
 56,067 
 
 1824 .* . 
 
 . . . 29,071 
 
 27,185 
 
 56,256 
 
 1825 . . 
 
 
 27,285 
 
 56,465 
 
 Total 
 
 . . . . 151,019 
 
 143,575 
 
 294,594 
 
 Children under one year . 8,316 
 
 6,887 
 
 15,203 
 
 In the above five years there were reckoned among the deaths — 
 
 1. Children still-born 12,623 
 
 2. Children stifled in bed by their mothers or nurses . . . 388 
 
 3. Children murdered 12 
 
 4. Adults do 35 
 
 5. Persons drowned 1,126 
 
 6. Suicides 151 
 
 7. Deaths from drunkenness 36 
 
 8. Killed by lightning 6 
 
 9. Condemned to death and executed .... ... 7 
 
 Tables of Marriages in Sweden. 
 
 
 Between unmarried 
 persons. 
 
 Between widowersc and 
 unmarried persons. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1821 . 
 
 . . . 17,708 
 
 5,182 
 
 22,890 
 
 1822 . 
 
 . . . 19,026 
 
 5,405 
 
 24,431 
 
 1823 . 
 
 . . . 19,017 
 
 4,976 
 
 23,993 
 
 1824 . 
 
 . . . IS, 971 
 
 4,936 
 
 23,907 
 
 1825 . 
 
 . . . 19,097 
 
 4,543 
 
 23,640 
 
 Total 
 
 . . . 93,819 
 
 25,042 
 
 118,861 
 
 * See work last cited. 
 
 b The illegitimate births during the last five years are to the total 
 births as 1 to 13.3 nearly.* During the five preceding years they 
 were as 1 to 14.5. 
 
 * More exactly, as 1 to 13.256. — P. 
 
 Classification of Families in Siveden, according to the Number of 
 Individuals composing them. End of 1825. 
 
 Of 2 individuals 77,334 
 
 Of 3 to 5 244,641 
 
 Of 6 to 10 181,361 
 
 Of 10 to 15 16,076 
 
 Above 15 2,643 
 
 Total of families 522,055 
 
 Pauperism in Sweden. End of 1825. 
 
 Poor residing in private families 9,664 
 
 receiving aid at home 8,991 
 
 in alms-houses 2,033 
 
 in hospitals 528 
 
 Total 
 
 21,216 
 
 Prisoners in both Kingdoms in 1827. 
 
 In Sweden, about 1,838 ) „ _ nn 
 
 In Norway 862 > iJ,7UU 
 
 Average of Trade in Sweden. 
 
 1050 manufactories, employing 7,200 
 workmen, produce annually 
 The exports in iron and other metals, 
 and also in corn, may be estimated 
 at about 
 
 Imports of all kinds 
 
 6,840,000 rixd. or 15,390,000 fr. 
 
 12.188.000 rixd. or 27,423,000 fr. 
 
 14.294.000 rixd. or 32,161,500 fr. 
 
 Statement of the different Professions in 1827. 
 
 Clergymen 
 
 Other individuals belonging to the church . . 
 
 Professors and teachers 
 
 Public functionaries 
 
 Physicians and surgeons 
 
 Architects 
 
 Persons holding offices connected with the 
 
 saltpetre works 
 
 Do. domains of the crown 
 
 Do. customs, &.c. d 
 
 Do. mines, forests, &c. e 
 
 Do. police 
 
 Bridges and roads 
 
 'Land and sea officers 
 
 Subalterns 
 
 Cadets (at the Academy of Carlsberg) . 
 
 Soldiers and seamen 
 
 Musicians and drummers 
 
 Pilots and lighthouse keepers . . . . 
 
 Army 
 and - 
 Navy 
 
 In Sweden. 
 
 In Norway 
 
 3,193 
 
 415 
 
 . 3,753 
 
 
 763 
 
 47 
 
 . 4,375 
 
 304 
 
 391 
 
 118 
 
 . . 11 
 
 
 j 300 
 
 
 . 1,180 
 
 460 
 
 . 1,326 
 
 313 
 
 474 
 
 37 
 
 
 103 
 
 . . 483 
 
 15 
 
 . 1,872 
 
 798 
 
 2,511 
 
 1,153 
 
 130 
 
 70 
 
 43,113 
 
 12,533 
 
 711 
 
 417 
 
 779 
 
 1,613 
 
 Navy of Sweden and Norway. 
 
 VESSELS OF WAR. 
 
 Ships of the line. Frigates. Inferior vessels. Total. 
 
 12 13 60 85 
 
 Finances of the two Kingdoms. 
 
 Revenue in fr. 42,000,000. Debt in fr. 200,000,000. 
 
 c “ Veufs” — married persons of either sex ? — P. 
 
 1 “ Customs and octrois (interior customs or tolls.)” 
 • Mines, chases ( chassis ) and forests.” 
 
ROOK CXLXX.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION (.T DENMARK 
 
 381 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued. — Description of Denmark and of 
 the Faroe Isles.* 
 
 What sublime recollections are connected with the 
 history of the small Peninsula, which, bathed on the west 
 by the north sea, on the east by the strait of the Cattegat, 
 and on the north by that of the Skager-Rack, and flanked 
 on the east by large islands, and on the west by a small 
 archipelago, is interposed between Sweden and Norway ! 
 The cradle of the formidable Cimbri, the ancients called 
 it the Cimbric Chersonese ( Chersonesus Cimbrica.) 
 From this country there issued, about 100 years before 
 our era, b those tribes which, joined by several others 
 inhabiting the borders of the Baltic, ravaged Gaul and 
 Helvetia, made Italy tremble, several times defeated 
 the Romans, and were at last themselves defeated by 
 Marius. The same people, under the name of Jutes 
 and Angles,® some centuries afterwards, d invaded Eng- 
 land, and, being hardy navigators, contributed to swell 
 that swarm of pirates from Norway and Sweden, which, 
 confounded during the middle ages under the name of 
 Normans, were the terror of the rest of Europe for a 
 period of several centuries.® 
 
 Jutland , which comprehends the whole peninsula, in- 
 habited by the Jutes, whose name it bears; the dutchy 
 of Sleswiclc, an isthmus, which, with Holstein and the 
 dutchy of Lauenburg, adjoining to it, was peopled by 
 the Angles ; and the islands of Funen, Zealand and 
 Laaland, together with several others of less impor- 
 tance, form the kingdom of Denmark, and present an 
 outline of more than 1500 leagues of coast. 
 
 At the sight of these countries, which are separated 
 by several straits, dangerous from their shoals as well 
 as from their inconsiderable breadth, such as the Sound, 
 and the Great and Little Belt, one is tempted to broach 
 a question that has been more than once agitated, and 
 the solution of which divides in opinion several literary 
 men, who, inhabiting the borders of tbe Baltic, are fa- 
 vourably situated for verifying known facts and making 
 new observations. — Is it a fact that the level of this sea 
 is subsiding ? Olof Dalin says, that on the coast of 
 Sweden, it annually loses half an inch; Andreas Celsius 
 
 a See note k p. 1075. 
 
 b The Cimbri left their country A. C. 115, and having been joined 
 by the Teutones, first entered Italy A. C. 109. The Teutones were 
 defeated by Marius near Aix in Provence, A. C. 102, and the Cimbri, 
 on the river Adige, A. C. 101. — P. 
 
 c Lat. Jutee and Angli. 
 
 d The Jutes first invaded England A. D. 449, and the Angles, A. D. 
 547. (Pinkerton.) — P. 
 
 ' In the 9th century, these words were added to the Litany: A fu- 
 rore JVormannorum libera nos, O Domine. 
 
 1 In his Geography, entitled : Danish Atlas 
 
 s A very obvious elevation of the soil was observed, after an earth- 
 
 has calculated that its diminution is four inches five lines 
 every hundred years ; Pontoppidan has made the same 
 observation on the coast of Denmark ; f Bergman re- 
 garded this fact as incontestable. After a careful exami- 
 nation, we have arrived at the conclusion, that this 
 diminution is very unequal ; that in the Gulf of Bothnia, 
 it may be estimated at four feet in a century, while it is 
 only two feet on the coast of Calmar, and still less on 
 that of Denmark. The inhabitants of the islets in the 
 northern part of the Baltic, persuaded of this change of 
 level, attribute it, not to the diminution of the waters, 
 but to the elevation of the soil. Many geological facts 
 prove, it is true, that the older rocks have been raised 
 at a very remote period, by a force acting from the 
 centre of the earth towards its surface ; but it is not 
 very probable that such elevations occur at this day.s 
 Besides, although it is natural to think that the accumu- 
 lation of the remains of marine animals, and other causes 
 equally slow, ought to contribute, in the course of ages, 
 to diminish the depth of seas, yet after all, the diminu- 
 tion of the waters of the Baltic, a sea without either 
 flux or reflux, may be a mere illusion. The alluvions 
 which the larger and smaller rivers bear thither, drive 
 back, as in other seas, its boundaries in some places ; 
 and the retiring of its waters, after having been raised 
 by the violence of the winds, also favours the idea of its 
 diminution. In one place, cities, formerly on the coast, 
 are now at a distance from it ; elsewhere, rocks, covered 
 at one time by the highest waters, are now visible : 
 these facts seem to confirm a diminution of the level, — 
 a theory which, upon the whole, is more probable than 
 the contrary hypothesis, in spite of the opinion of cer- 
 tain old observers, that the waters of the Baltic are 
 higher than those of the Ocean. hi 
 
 Denmark is only a prolongation of the vast plains 
 which, to the east and south, border this sea. The 
 highest inequalities of the surface in the dutchies of 
 Holstein and Sleswick, do not exceed 1000 feet. It is 
 the same in the Danish islands ; the mountains of 
 Funen, and those in the centre of Zealand, being only 
 hills. The soil, even to a very considerable depth, is 
 
 quake that occurred a few years since on the coast of Chili. Rocks 
 that had before been submerged, were permanently elevated above the 
 surface of the sea. — P. 
 
 h “ Here, towns, formerly situated on the coast, are now at a dis 
 tance from it; there, rocks, covered by the highest waters, and at 
 other times visible, appear to establish a change of level, so much the 
 less probable, however, as it is false, notwithstanding the opinion of 
 some of the earlier observers, that the waters of the Baltic are more 
 elevated than those of the Ocean.” 
 
 ■ Consult the Observations of Mr. N. Brunrona on the Diminution 
 of the Baltic Sea, accompanied with Remarks by Mr. Hccllstrcein 
 Memoirs of the Academy of Stockholm, 1823, 1824. 
 
 L 
 
1 
 
 382 EUR< 
 
 composed of sand and clay, consisting merely of alluvial 
 deposits which every where cover a chalky substratum. 
 The clay supports the sand : in the former, which is 
 ordinarily of a bluish colour, are found a great number 
 of marine shells, which have in part preserved their 
 original colours, and many of which are similar to shells 
 now found in the sea, as if to prove to the observer, that 
 this clay is one of the most recent formations that has 
 been distinguished in geology. On some parts of the 
 coast, this formation contains trunks of trees half decom- 
 posed, and not only impressions, but entire strata of 
 plants of the family of Aroidece, several individuals of 
 which perfectly resemble the Zostcra marina .* The 
 upper sand is sometimes mixed with reddish clay, and 
 remains of plants are found there, which would seem to 
 have been carbonized. In Northern Jutland, this dilu- 
 vial sand does not appear to contain any remains of the 
 bones of those large animals, so frequent elsewhere in 
 similar deposits ; but in several other parts of Denmark, 
 these remains are found in the same sand. The 
 savant who has furnished us with these remarks, b asserts 
 that he has never found, but in one place, those rolled 
 blocks of granite, which are supposed to have been torn 
 from the Norwegian mountains. Another savant® is of 
 opinion, that these masses of rock have been conveyed 
 to Denmark by the ice, as is still to be seen in some 
 countries farther to the north. What proves that this 
 sand belongs to another period than that of the clay 
 which it covers, is, that, even when the clay presents 
 an irregular or undulated appearance, the sand is always 
 in a horizontal position. In the VindsysscJ , d in place 
 of the sand there are strata of peat or turf of a great 
 extent, which, on the borders of the sea, are covered by 
 the sand of the downs. This peat forms a good article 
 of fuel. The island of Funen presents the same geo- 
 logical organization as continental Denmark ; thus, while 
 the upper marine sediments, e represented by the blue 
 clay in Jutland, develope themselves in Holstein in such 
 a manner as to present in the hilly part of that dutchy, 
 beds of stone fit for building, in the same way, chalk, 
 clay, coarse limestone f proper for building, and peat, 
 may be found in Funen. In Zealand, the chalk ap- 
 pears to have again undergone the action of water since 
 its first formation. The island of Bornholm, which is 
 much nearer Sweden than Denmark, differs from the 
 latter country and its islands ; there, granite rocks sup- 
 
 3PF. [BOOK OXLIX 
 
 port deposits of different periods, even including those 
 which belong to the commencement of the chalk forma- 
 tion. s After the view we have just given of the 
 geological constitution of Denmark, it will excite no sur- 
 prise to learn that it does not contain any metals in 
 sufficient quantity to be wrought. 
 
 W e have already observed that the straits which di 
 vide the Danish isles, present a difficult navigation ; we 
 may also observe that shallows, rapid currents, and 
 short and precipitous waves, concur to render the whole 
 coast very dangerous, especially that of Jutland. The 
 rivers of Jutland, and of the riutchies of Sleswick and 
 Holstein, are inconsiderable, but the country is com- 
 pensated for this loss by the narrow arms of the sea h 
 which penetrate into the country to a great distance, 
 and render more commodious the sea-ports established 
 there. The Danes call them Fiords .* Some years 
 ago, the most important was the Lym-Fiord , k in the 
 northern part of Jutland: its entrance was into the 
 Cattegat, and it terminated at a neck of land washed 
 by the North Sea; but this narrow isthmus could not 
 resist the violence of the waves; in February 1825, a 
 breach was made in it, and the Lym-Fiord, which to- 
 wards the west takes the form of a large lake, in the 
 midst of which rises the island of Mors, 1 now open to 
 the east and west, has transformed the northern extrem- 
 ity of Jutland into a long and irregular island. The 
 opening which has been thus made is unfortunately of no 
 commercial advantage : it is not navigable, and probably 
 never will be so, for it would occasion an expense too 
 considerable to finish what nature has begun. The 
 most important of the other inlets of the sea m are the 
 It ingle ue b ing- F i o rd n and the Nissum-Fiord , on the 
 western coast of the Peninsula ; the Flcnsburg-Fiord 0 
 and the Schley ,p on the eastern coast of Sleswick ; the 
 Odensee-Fiord , 1 1 on the north side of Funen ; and last- 
 ly, the Ise-Fiord T and the Rceslcilde-Fiord , s on the 
 north side of Zealand. There are a great number of 
 lakes in continental Denmark, and in its islands. Jut- 
 land contains twenty-five, Sleswick one, and Holstein 
 three ; in the island of Zealand they count at least 
 twelve, and several are also to be seen in Funen. It 
 is calculated that the lakes and marshes cover a one 
 and twentieth part of the surface of Denmark, and that 
 a seventy-eighth part is occupied by the channels of 
 rivers ; so that, without counting the bays, inlets of the 
 
 1 The genus Zostera was arranged by Jussieu, in his Genera Planta- 
 rum, in the family of Aroidece ; it is at present arranged in the family 
 of Fluviales ( JYaiadcs , Juss.) See Lindley’s Introd. Nat. Syst. Bot. p. 
 287. Amer. Edit.— P. 
 
 b Memoir by Dr. Pingel, on the diluvium and alluvium of Northern 
 Jutland. 
 
 c Geological and mineralogical observations on Northern Jutland, 
 by Dr. BredsdorfF. 
 
 d Wendsussel [Dan. Vendsyssel — syssel, a district] — including the 
 north-eastern part of the peninsula [now island] north of the Lym-Fiord, 
 and extending from the Scaw to that gulf — so called from the ancient 
 Wends. (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 e “ Scdimens marins superieurs” — Tertiary marine formations. The 
 French geologists call the tertiary formations, upper sediments (stdi- 
 mens superieurs,) or formations of upper sediment ( terrains de sedi- 
 ment sup&ricur ,) in distinction from the secondary formations, which 
 they call lower sediments ( sidimens infirieurs,) or formations of lower 
 sediment ( terrains de sidiment infiricur.) The tertiary deposits here 
 referred to, viz. blue clay (London clay) and coarse limestone ( calcaire 
 yrossicr,) belong to the lower tertiary marine formation ; the upper 
 tertiary marine formation consisting of marles, sands, and sandstones. 
 Of the deposits found in Funen, the lowest or the chalk, also the sub- 
 stratum in Jutland, is the uppermost of the secondary formations; the 
 clay and coarse limestone belong to the lower tertiary marine forma- 
 
 tion, (the sand above the clay in Jutland, belonging probably to the 
 upper tertiary marine formation ;) while the peat is an alluvial or rather 
 lacustrine formation. — P. 
 f “ Calcaire grossier.” 
 
 5 Geological Observations on Scania and the island of Bornholm, 
 by Mr. Forchhammer. 
 
 h “ Bays.” — Gulfs (Tuckey.) — P. 
 
 ‘ In Scotland, Firths, Freta. Tr. [Dan. fiord; S\ved.fja:rd; Iceland- 
 ic, fiordr — Lat. frclum, plu .freta. — P.] 
 
 k Gulf of Limfiord. (Tuckey. Ed. Enc. art. Denmark.) — Gulf of 
 Lymfiord. (Ed. Enc. art. Jutland.) — P. 
 
 1 Isle of Mor (Tuckey) — Dan. Morscec (Mor’s island.) — P 
 m See note h . 
 
 " Gulf of Rinkcehing (Tuckey.) 
 
 0 Gulf of Flensborg (Tuckey .) 
 
 P The Sley (Morse.) The Sleye (Ed. Enc.) Gulf of Slev (Enc. 
 Meth.) Gulf of Slie (Tuckey. Vosgien.) Du. Schleistroom (Hubner.) 
 — Schley is the German orthography. — P. 
 a Gulf of Odensee (Ed. Enc.) 
 
 r The Gulf of Isefiord. divided into two branches On the west 
 
 branch of Isefiord are Nykoebing and Holbek. and at the head of the 
 east branch is Roskild, the ancient capital of Denmark. (Tuckey, vol 
 i. p. 283— 4.)— P. 
 
 * See note r and also note 01 p. 1070. — P 
 
book cxlix.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 sea * 1 * * * * and canals, the waters form one sixteenth of the 
 surface of the kingdom, computed at 2865 leagues, of 
 which 2210 belong to the continent, and 655 to the 
 islands. The three principal canals in Denmark are, 
 that of Odensee, which, although of small extent, is im- 
 portant to the commerce of that town, from its opening a 
 communication with the Great Belt ; that of the Stecke- 
 nitz, which by the junction of that branch of the Trave 
 with the Delvenau, a feeder of the Elbe, connects the 
 latter river with the Baltic ; b and the canal of Sleswick- 
 HoJstein, the largest of the three, which, conveying the 
 waters of the Eider 0 to the gulf of Kiel, unites the North 
 Sea with the Baltic. Other canals are projected, with 
 the view of forwarding the commercial relations of the 
 kingdom. 
 
 The length of the continental provinces, from the 
 course of the Elbe, which forms in part the southern limit 
 of the dutchies of Holstein and Lauenburg, to Cape Ska- 
 gen on the north, which separates the Cattegat from the 
 strait of Skager-Rack, d is 107 geographical leagues ; 
 their greatest breadth is 38 leagues, and their smallest 
 breadth 11. In the widest part of the Danish Peninsu- 
 la, there is no place more than 14 leagues distant from 
 the sea ; whence it happens, that, in spite of its situa- 
 tion, at the northern extremity of the northern tempe- 
 rate zone, the climate of Denmark is warmer than its 
 latitude indicates. The abundance of its waters, and 
 the proximity of the sea, cover the country with va- 
 pours and humid fogs ; during the winter, the thermom- 
 eter descends from 3 to 11 degrees, and during the 
 summer it rises from 12 to 18 degrees; 8 the winds, 
 whose force is not arrested by any mountains, usually 
 disperse the exhalations and mists. Under this foggy 
 sky, spring does not adorn itself with those charms, 
 which, in more temperate regions, announce the revival 
 of nature : during this season, the weather is by turns 
 humid, tempestuous, or frosty/ Summer, almost always 
 very variable, lasts only from June to the middle of 
 August : to the heat of the day, the longest of which is 
 1 7 hours, succeeds the coolness of the night. Autumn 
 is the finest of the seasons, but its duration is short : 
 the cold weather returns in October, and the month of 
 November passes in cold rains and in storms. Winter, 
 subject to almost incessant snow or rain, especially in 
 the months of January and February, rarely however 
 sees the coasts covered with ice : the shortest day lasts 
 about seven hours. 
 
 The constant humidity of the atmosphere favours vege- 
 tation in Denmark, but the violence of the tempests 
 opposes the growth of forest-trees ; a wind from the north- 
 west, called skai, whose pernicious breath is especially felt 
 in May and June, withers the tops of the trees, whilst the 
 
 1 “ Gulfs.” 
 
 b The Trave has a communication with the Elbe by the canal of 
 Steckenitz, which unites the little river of that name, falling into the 
 Trave, with the Devenau, a rivulet emptying into the Elbe at Lauen- 
 burg. (Tuckey, vol. i. p. 254.) — P. 
 
 c Eyder (Ed. Enc. Tuckey.) 
 
 d See note p p. 1041. 
 
 e “ During winter, the thermometer descends to 3° at least, and 
 at most to ll° ; during summer, it attains an elevation of from 12° to 
 18°” — i. e. supposing the scale to be Reaumur’s, it descends during 
 winter, at least to 25^° Fahr. (6^° below freezing,) or at most to 7 
 Falir. (24|° below freezing,) and ranges during summer, between 
 5!i° Fahr. (27° above freezing) and 724° Fahr. (404° above freezing.)—. 
 Though the thermometer, in general, does not fall beyond 12° or 13° 
 below freezing, nor rise to more than 25° above it, yet sometimes the 
 
 OF DENMARK. 383 
 
 west wind is sufficiently frequent to give them a very mark- 
 ed inclination. Of the dark and gloomy forests, which, in 
 the tenth and eleventh centuries, covered the peninsula 
 of Jutland, there now only remain long and narrow belts 
 along its whole eastern coast ; Holstein has only pre- 
 served a few fragments in the midst of its heaths ; 
 Lauenburg, to the south of Holstein, contains the forest 
 of Sachsenwald, formerly much more extensive. In 
 these three provinces, the woods are composed of the ash, 
 the alder, the oak, and especially the birch : the pine and 
 the fir are rare. The island of Funen is interspersed 
 with small woods; the north-east part of Zealand, next 
 the borders of the Sound, and the island of Falster, still 
 contain several ; and in that of Bornholm, there are to 
 be seen forests of birch. The whole of the woods of 
 Denmark form a surface of 130 square leagues. Their 
 improvident destruction near the sea-coast has exposed 
 the soil to invasion from the sands. s On the coasts grow 
 the common glass-wort ( Salsola Soda) ; h the juniper, 
 the myrtle, 1 the bramble, and several other berry-bear- 
 ing shrubs, border the high-ways and the skirts of the 
 woods ; a plant which the Danes call manna (Festuca 
 jluitans, Linn.) k throws out spontaneously its useful 
 shoots in several of the islands, and especially in that 
 of Laaland : the grain of it yields very good meal. 
 Several other indigenous vegetables are found useful in 
 medicine, and also in dyeing. The meadows of Den- 
 mark present a verdure as fresh as those of England : 
 for a long time the cultivator of the ground has been in 
 the practice of increasing its value by draining the 
 marshes and multiplying artificial meadows. 1 * There are, 
 however, on the western coasts of South Jutland and 
 Holstein, pasturages naturally so rich and so fertile as to 
 render all culture superfluous. In Holstein, Sleswick, 
 and Jutland, they cultivate flax and hemp ; but although 
 the soil there has been found to suit these plants, they 
 are yet much neglected. In Jutland they also raise 
 tobacco, and sow a good deal of buck-wheat. m The 
 different kinds of grain succeed everywhere ; the pro- 
 duce, estimated at seven millions of tons,” or at 
 1,300,000,000 kilogrammes, exceeds the wants of the 
 population. The oats of Bornholm, the rye of Jutland, 
 the wheat of Laaland, and the barley of Zealand, Sles- 
 wick and Holstein, are everywhere esteemed. Potatoes, 
 cumin and mustard, as well as other useful plants, 8 
 are much cultivated ; and the kitchen-gardens abound 
 in artichokes, cauliflowers, asparagus, and melons, of an 
 excellent quality. These plants are also cultivated in 
 the fields, but less extensively than in France and Ger- 
 many. The grape does not ripen except in hothouses ; 
 but in the orchards, if peaches and apricots are rarer than 
 in France, the inhabitants find an ample compensation 
 
 heats of summer are very intense, and there are occasionally winters 
 of extreme severity. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 1 “ Humidity alternates with winds and frost.” 
 
 s “ Downs (dunes )” — sand hills on the sea coast. 
 
 h Salsola Soda, French salt- wort (Rees’ Cyc.) — The Salsola Kali 
 (prickly salt-wort) is the more common species. — P. 
 
 ‘ “ Myrtille ” — Vacdnium Myrtillus, common Bilberry or Blaeberry 
 of Europe. — P. k Floating fescue grass. 
 
 1 “ Agriculturists have been long engaged in increasing their extent, 
 
 by draining marshes and multiplying artificial meadows.” 
 
 m The sandy ridge, which pervades the whole length of Jutland, is 
 
 fit only for oats or buckwheat. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 " Not tons Eng., but tcender or barrels Dan. — The tasnde of Copen- 
 
 hagen is equal to about 34 bushels Eng. — P. 
 
 ° “ Plantes economiques” — plants u««d in domestic economy.— P. 
 
384 EUR 
 
 in the culture of the plum, the cherry, the pear, and 
 especially the apple : the apples of Gravenstein in Sles- 
 wick are much celebrated ; fruits form an article of con- 
 siderable export, especially to Sweden and Russia. 
 
 In losing their vast forests, the Danish territory and 
 its islands have witnessed the extinction of the tribes of 
 the larger wild animals : the wolf, which formerly rav- 
 aged this country, has entirely disappeared ; a the wild 
 boar has become very rare ; the stag and the fallow deer 
 exist only in parks ; the fox, the martin, b the polecat,® 
 the rat, and several other small quadrupeds, are the 
 only ones that do injury to property, from the circum- 
 stance of their existing in great numbers. Game is 
 everywhere abundant, especially on the coasts of Jut- 
 land ; hares are in demand as agreeable food ; d wild 
 geese and ducks, partridges, snipes, and thrushes, peo- 
 ple the marshes and the fields ; swans live at freedom in 
 the gulf of Lym-Fiord and on the islands of Amak and 
 Bornholm, which they do not quit till compelled by the 
 severity of the frost ; the duck known under the name 
 of eider-duck, lines with its soft down the nests which it 
 makes in the clefts of the rocks and precipices ; e the 
 eagle and the other large birds of prey are seldom seen ; 
 they seem to despise a country, which offers no heights 
 sufficiently elevated for their dwelling. 
 
 Domestic animals form the principal riches of Den- 
 mark : geese and other fowl afford a considerable profit 
 to those who breed them/ The Danish horses are of 
 two kinds the one, small but vigorous, abounds in the 
 islands ; the other, large, strong, and elegantly shaped, 
 is peculiar to Jutland and Holstein, and sought after by 
 strangers. Horned cattle are also smaller in the islands 
 than on the mainland ; their great number, as well as 
 that of sheep, whose breed has undergone the most im- 
 portant amelioration during the last twenty years, by 
 crossing them with the breeds of Spain and England, 
 attest the progress of agriculture. The swine of Jut- 
 land, sent in considerable herds into Holstein, form, in 
 that dutchy, a double branch of industry, being fattened 
 and salted for foreign export. Lastly, Denmark has 
 long supplied the Continent with that race of dogs called 
 Danish, renowned for their strength and their fidelity, 
 and also with the small black-muzzled dog called by the 
 French Carling so much sought after in France during 
 the last twenty-five years. 
 
 Although not so well supplied with fish as those of 
 Norway, yet the seas that wash Denmark amply reward 
 
 OPE, [BOOK CXLR 
 
 the active fisherman. They not only furnish a supply 
 of food to the greater part of the inhabitants, but afford 
 a surplus for exportation : the plaice ( Pleuronectes pla- 
 tessa ), which is taken in the neighbourhood of Cape 
 Skagen, is sold in a dried state to the Lubeckers, who 
 pack it up neatly and send it as far as Italy ; the west- 
 ern coast of Sleswick and Jutland is supplied with beds 
 of oysters ; on the shores of the Cattegat they catch 
 abundance of lobsters ; porpoises and sea-dogs 1 are fre- 
 quently caught in the nets which they at the same time 
 injure by their size ; the small river Slie in Sleswick 
 furnishes a species of herring which is in high estima 
 tion, k and that of Guden-A'a, 1 the most considerable in 
 Jutland, excellent salmon. 
 
 The Dane thus finds a certain means of subsistence 
 in the produce of the soil, in the animals which he rears, 
 and in the fish of his lakes, rivers and seas. He ex- 
 ports grain, cheese, wool, salted provisions, tallow, horse 
 and ox hides, feathers, and fish. His manufacturing in- 
 dustry supplies besides, as articles of trade, coarse pot- 
 tery, hosiery, lace and cotton stuffs ; but the greater part 
 of these exports have been diminishing for several years 
 back, owing, in part at least, to the restrictions which 
 custom-house duties impose upon commerce, and to the 
 obstacles which indirect taxes present to the develop- 
 ment of industry. Government ought to encourage the 
 culture of hops, woad and oleaginous plants, the rearing 
 of bees, the improvement of wool, and the making of 
 cheese. m 
 
 With the exception of a few thousand Jews, the greater 
 part of whom are established at Altona and Copenhagen, 
 the inhabitants of Denmark descend, as has been already 
 said, from one of those ancient nations, whose assem- 
 blage forms the Germanic stock. The idiom which is 
 spoken in Jutland, Sleswick, and the Danish archipela- 
 go, 0 is a dialect of the Scaldic or Scandinavian language ;° 
 that of Holstein, and that of the small archipelago lying 
 near the western coast of Sleswick , p are two dialects of 
 the old Saxon. It is in these idioms that we find the 
 signification of the names given to the islands and prov- 
 inces which compose Denmark. The name of this 
 country signifies low lands , -< i Fionia/ a beautiful coun- 
 try ; Laaland, low country; and Zealand, a country 
 surrounded with water. 3 Belt means a girdle :* and in 
 point of fact, the two Belts are long and narrow. The 
 name of Jutland appears to be merely a corruption of 
 the word Gothland : u it too was a country of the Goths. 
 
 a “ — appears to have entirely disappeared.” The wolves are re- 
 duced to a very small number. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 b “ Martre” — Mustda. martes, Linn. Pine martin, Pine weasel, or 
 Yellow-breasted martin. — P. 
 
 c “ Fouine ” — Mustela foina, Linn. Common martin, or White- 
 breasted martin. — P. 
 
 d “ The hares are esteemed for their delicate flavour.” 
 
 ' “ Falaises” — bluffs. 
 
 r Poultry are raised in great numbers in Denmark, particularly 
 geese and ducks, whose feathers form an important article of com- 
 merce. — P. 6 “ — belong to two races” (breeds.) 
 
 k “ The small black-nosed pug-dogs ( carlins ) — ” Qu. The small 
 Danish dog, leopard, or spotted dog. — P. ' Seals ( Phoca ritulina.) — P. 
 
 k In the river or bay of Slie [the Sley or Schley, on which Sleswick 
 is situated. See note p p. 1062] and the gulf of Flensburg, are taken 
 a small species of herring of excellent quality. Besides what are con- 
 sumed in the country, they export annually of the herrings taken 
 here, nearly 1000 tons to Germany and Copenhagen. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 1 “ Guden-Aae” — Guden river . — dae (J. Baden, Ordbog,) Aa (L. 
 llasse, Handlex.,) signifies river, in Danish. — P. 
 
 m See the work of J. Collin, counsellor of state, entitled : “ For his- 
 toric, og statistik isar Fwdrdandets [Contributions to History and Sta- 
 tistics, particularly to tliose of Denmark,]” vol. ii. Copenhagen, 1825. 
 
 n A German or Low Saxon dialect is spoken in a part of Sleswick, 
 and a Frisian dialect on the western coast of that province, and in the 
 adjoining- islands. In the rest of Denmark Proper, the language is 
 Danish. — P. ° See note a p. 1036. 
 
 p The popular language of Holstein is Low Saxon (Germ. Platt 
 Deutsch .) — The language of the islands here mentioned, and of parts 
 of the adjacent mainland, is a dialect of the Frisian language, other 
 dialects of which are spoken in East and West Friesland. See note 
 P. 
 
 a From datm, low, and mark, fields. [“From daun, below [Eng. 
 down.] and mark, fields .” — Daun is not a modern Danish word. Mark 
 signifies field, sing., in Danish. — Denmark is said to be derived from 
 dan or dann, signifying lowlands. (N. Am. Rev. No. 62.) — P.] 
 
 r “ Fionie” — Funen (Dan. Fyen.) — Dan. fiin; Swed .fin; Icelandic, 
 
 Jien ; Eng .fine. — P. 
 
 5 The ancient name of this island was Sia-Lvnd, which signifies a 
 forest in the sea ; from sia, sea, and hind, forest. [The present Danish 
 name is Sjaland (See note a p. 107?) — The present Danish word for 
 sea, is sw (Swed. sja.) Lund now signifies rather a grove than a 
 forest. — P.] 
 
 ' Dan. hcltc, ba:Ite, a girdle. — P. 
 
 ® Rather a corruption of Jutcland, from the Jutes, its original inhab- 
 itants. See p. 10G1. — P. 
 
 
 
rook cxlix.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 Holstein, which the Hibernian chronicles* call Ilolsatur- 
 (and, is Holsatia or woody Saxony . b The Danish language, 
 as spoken by persons of education, is soft and harmonious : 
 what distinguishes it chiefly from the Swedish, is the sub- 
 stitution of e in place of a in the greater part of words. 
 
 The climate of Denmark is not injurious to the health 
 of the inhabitants, as is proved by the proportion which 
 the population bears to the surface of the country. 
 Possibly, however, the humidity of the atmosphere, and 
 the quantity of salted meat and fish used by the Danes, 
 may have contributed to render their character dull, 
 patient, and difficult to move. “ Formerly an insatiable 
 conqueror, now brave but pacific ; of little enterprise, 
 but laborious and persevering ; diffident but proud, hos- 
 pitable but not officious ; cheerful and open with his 
 countrymen, but somewhat cold and ceremonious to- 
 wards strangers ; loving his ease more than show ; more 
 economical than industrious, and that too sometimes 
 from vanity, and sometimes from laziness ; an imita- 
 tor of others, a judicious observer, a profound thinker, 
 but slow and minute ; indued with an imagination more 
 strong than rich ; constant, romantic and jealous in his 
 affections ; capable of great enthusiasm, but rarely of 
 those flashes of intellect, or sallies of wit, which, by 
 their unexpectedness, demand and obtain victory and 
 applause ; strongly attached to his native soil, and to 
 the interests of his country, but caring little about na- 
 tional glory ; accustomed to the calm of monarchy, but 
 the enemy of slavery and arbitrary power ; such is the 
 portrait of the Dane.” c The inhabitant of Holstein 
 would not recognise himself in this portrait, because in 
 effect he differs in many respects from the inhabitant of 
 Denmark ; he is economical and industrious like the 
 Hollander, and not less bold in his commercial views. 
 The Dane is generally middle-sized, well-made, fair, 
 and of a mild and agreeable physiognomy ; the native of 
 Holstein rarely displays in his features the nobleness 
 and delicacy of northern countenances. In both na- 
 tions, private virtues, morals more severe in reality than 
 in appearance, and manners polite rather than refined, 
 distinguish the higher ranks ; among the lower ranks, 
 the love of order is not a rare quality, excepting with 
 the seaman, who, by his kind of life, is led to adopt the 
 vices of different nations. The peasant is laborious ; he 
 dresses himself with neatness, loves to sing and to dance, 
 
 a “ Chroniques irlandaises” — This is doubtless a typographical error 
 ( irlandaises for islandaises.) It should be : Icelandic chronicles. — P. 
 b Holz signifies wood [in German.] 
 
 c Geogiv.phie mathematique, physique et politique, &c. tom. ii. 
 [This refers to the Geography published by Malte-Brun and Mentelle 
 ( Gtog . math. phys. et poL. Paris 1804 — 7, 10 vol. 8vo.) — P.] 
 
 d “ The servitudes ( corvies ) to which the peasant was subjected — ” 
 e “ Hereditary leases (bail, hiriditaire.)” — The great proprietors, in 
 order to enable the peasants the better to improve the soil, grant them 
 hereditary leases. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 f “ It comprehends also the study of their national language and 
 history, geography, and natural history.” 
 
 s See Extract from the Report to the king of Denmark, inserted in 
 the Revue Encyclopedique for April 1828. 
 
 h It is entitled : Peders Pors. [ Peder Paars (Dan.) (Enc. Amer.) — 
 Peter Paars. (Gorton.) — Pierre Pors. (Beauvais.)- — P.] 
 
 ■ Holberg was a native of Bergen in Norway. — P. 
 k Christian Pram, born in Norway, died at St. Thomas, W. I. 1821 
 — author of an epic poem entitled Stterkodder, and three tragedies, be- 
 sides other poems. — P. 
 
 1 Thormodus Torfinus (Thormod Torvesen,) a native of Iceland — 
 author of a history of the Orcades, and another of Norway, besides many 
 other historical works, all in Latin. — P. 
 
 m J. Gram, historiographer and royal librarian, a native of Aalborg 
 m Jutland — author of several critical works in Latin. — P. 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 54 40 
 
 Ob DENMARK. 385 
 
 and appears to be happier than in the rest of Europe, 
 and especially than in France. He has become a 
 proprietor, as in the latter country, by the advantage 
 which the disposal of seignorial lands in small portions 
 offers to their proprietors. The personal services due 
 hy the peasantry to their landlords 11 have been long 
 since abolished, or an annual payment substituted in 
 their place ; and many farms are let on perpetual leases,® 
 a circumstance which has contributed not a little to the 
 advancement of agriculture. 
 
 There is much more education in Denmark than in 
 France. It is rare to meet a peasant, or any other of 
 the lower class, who cannot read. In 1822, govern- 
 ment permitted the introduction of the system of mutu- 
 al instruction into the elementary public schools : the suc- 
 ceeding year, the number of schools which had adopted 
 this method amounted to 244, and in the beginning of 
 1829, it was about 2500. At that date there were 
 reckoned in all more than 4500 primary schools, of 
 which 400 were private. This rapid progress is due to 
 the zeal of the Society for Elementary Instruction 
 established at Copenhagen. In Denmark, this instruc- 
 tion is not confined, as in France, to reading, writing, arith- 
 metic, and religious instruction ; it comprehends also his- 
 tory, geography, and natural history/ e The higher studies 
 enjoy the same favour as the earlier branches of education. 
 
 Many learned men and writers of distinction have 
 added celebrity to the Danish nation. Holberg, a com- 
 ic author, has enriched the national literature with a 
 heroi-comic poem, regarded as classical by his country- 
 men ; h his comedies have procured for him the surname 
 of the Plautus of the North. 1 Pram has made himself 
 known by a fine epic poem, and by some good tragedies/ 
 Thormodus-Torfoeus, 1 Gram,™ Langebeck,® Schjonning, 0 
 and some others, have employed the resources of a vast 
 erudition in the study of the history and antiquities of the 
 north. Mailing, among the historians, has distinguished 
 himself by the elegance of his style. We are indebted 
 for several philosophical treatises to Boye, Gamborg and 
 Treschow, the last of whom has refuted the opinions of 
 Kant. Among the men who have cultivated with suc- 
 cess the physical and natural sciences, Laurensberg, 
 Steno, and Gaspard Thomas, have left valuable works 
 on mineralogy ;P Erasmus Bartholin^ discovered the 
 double refraction of that variety of carbonate of lime, call- 
 
 n “ Gram-Langebeck” — an error faithfully copied by the translator. 
 — James Langebeck, a native of the diocese of Aalborg in Jutland, 
 appointed keeper of the royal archives — author of different historical 
 works in Danish, German and Latin, but best known for his historical 
 collection : Scriptores Rerum Danicarum medii mvi, 7 vols. fol., only 
 three of which were published before his death. — P. 
 
 0 Schjcenning. — Gerard Schoening or Schioening. (Beauvais.) 
 
 P Qu. Should not this read : “ Laurenberg, Steno, and Caspar (Gas- 
 pard) and Thomas Bartholine, have left valuable works on medicine.” 
 — Steno and the Bartholines are well known as medical writers, par- 
 ticularly as anatomists. There were three physicians of the name of 
 Laurenberg (Peter, John and William,) of some note for their writings, 
 particularly Peter Laurenberg. I cannot find any notice of any such 
 mineralogical writers as are mentioned in the text, in which the trans- 
 lator has faithfully followed the original. I merely find it stated that 
 William Laurenberg wrote an historical description of the eagle-stone 
 (cctitcs,) then celebrated for its magico-medical virtues, (Descriptio his- 
 torica atitis,) that Caspar Bartholine wrote a dissertation on the ne- 
 phritic stone and the most remarkable amulets (Dissert, de lapide ne 
 phritico ct prcecipuis amuletis,) that Thomas Bartholine, father and son, 
 each wrote a paper on the Iceland crystal, and that Steno wrote a 
 treatise on myology (Myologia Specimen.) — P. 
 
 4 Lat. Bartholinus — Bartholine, in English authors. — P. 
 
386 EUR 
 
 ed Iceland spar ; a Pontoppidan, bishop of Bergen in 
 Norway, has made us acquainted with the minerals of 
 Denmark and Norway ; Briinnich first composed in 
 Danish a manual of mineralogy ; b Abildgaard, a learned 
 physician, wrote on minerals and animals; Winslow 
 passes for the founder of descriptive anatomy; Borch, c 
 at once a physician, chemist and philologist, has left 
 numerous writings; Thomas Bartholin, d the author of 
 a multitude of works, was considered the first physician 
 of his age ; Fabricius, so celebrated as an entomologist, 
 has carried the torch of his genius into many questions 
 of natural history and political economy. If so many 
 distinguished names are not enough for the glory of 
 Denmark, let us remember that the name of Tycho 
 Brahe alone throws a lustre on this country. It is less 
 rich in celebrated artists, a natural consequence of the 
 small number of large fortunes in Denmark ; several 
 Danes, however, more alive to glory than to the favours 
 of fortune, have obtained a name in painting, engraving 
 and sculpture. 
 
 Previous to the year 1660, the constitution of Den- 
 mark was, like that of Norway and Sweden, a limited 
 and elective monarchy. The sovereign was elected by 
 the States-General, consisting of the nobility, clergy, 
 and commons, — the last including burgesses and peas- 
 antry. This has been admitted by all historians, and 
 the memorable answer of Waldemar III. in the four- 
 teenth century to the Pope’s nuncio, who was attempt- 
 ing to assume authority in the kingdom, may be here 
 quoted to show the opinion of royalty itself in a matter, 
 where, had not the fact been indubitable, silence would 
 have been preserved. “ Our nature,” says the prince, 
 
 “ we have from God, our kingdom from our subjects, 
 our wealth from our parents, and our religion from the 
 Church of Rome, which last we are willing to renounce, 
 if you envy us the felicity it brings.” The king was in 
 general chosen from the royal family, but without re- 
 gard to hereditary succession ; and, if he conducted him- 
 self in opposition to the laws and constitution, the States 
 made no difficulty of bringing him to trial, and deposing, 
 banishing, imprisoning, and even putting him to death, 
 if occasion required. The laws required that frequent 
 convocations of the States should be held, and by them 
 
 OPE. [COOK CXI.IX 
 
 all matters connected with government were transacted, 
 questions as to peace or war, the imposition of taxes, 
 the enactment of new laws, and abolition or alteration 
 of the old. It was the duty of the king to see the laws 
 well administered, and justice done impartially to all, to 
 command the army in time of war, and to prevent one 
 order in the State from usurping power over the other 
 orders. He had no support from the people, and his rev- 
 enue arose entirely from his own estate, from the crown 
 lands, as they might be called. But since 1660, Denmark 
 has been a hereditary monarchy, submissive to the most 
 absolute authority that exists in Europe, having no other 
 limits than the will of the prince. The revolution took its 
 rise from the usurpations of the nobility, and the advan- 
 tage taken by the reigning prince of the discontents that 
 arose out of these usurpations. The States, which 
 ought to have been frequently called together, were 
 seldom convoked, and the nobility, who had taken ad- 
 vantage of this circumstance to increase their own privi- 
 leges, and incroach upon those of others, were not anx- 
 ious that assemblies should be called, which might 
 reduce, or attempt to reduce the power they had unjustly 
 acquired. The grand cause of offence was their having 
 contrived, in the imposition of taxes, to lay the great 
 burden of these taxes upon others, and to free them- 
 selves almost entirely from that burden, under the pre- 
 text of the peculiar privileges of their order. To per- 
 petuate this state of things, partial assemblies of the 
 States were convoked, and the clergy and commons 
 came to be considered as mere cyphers in the govern- 
 ment, the whole power falling into the hands of the 
 aristocracy, and some creatures of the court. The 
 Senate, for so it appears was the States-General called,® 
 which exercised without responsibility, what, under the 
 circumstances mentioned, became an usurped power, 
 lost with time the imposing character which had long 
 drawn to it the respect of the nation/ It is in a politi- 
 cal crisis, such as this, that we can judge of the real 
 strength of a government. When it has not for its 
 foundation the interests of the whole, it resembles a frail 
 scaffolding, which a breath of wind can overturn. The 
 war declared against Sweden by Denmark [in 1657] 
 drew upon the latter kingdom the disasters of an inva- 
 
 * “ Spath d’lrlande" — spath of Ireland (Trans.) — Irlande, in the 
 original, is merely a typographical error for Islande (Iceland.) — P. 
 
 b Brunnich wrote an elementary work on zoology ( Zoologia Funda- 
 mcnta) in Latin and Danish. — P. 
 
 c Dan. Olav Borcli — Lat. Glaus Borricliius — died 1090. — P. 
 d See note i p. 1065. 
 
 e The Senate was a body entirely distinct from the States-General, 
 as is stated in the original. (See note f .) It was in fact an execu- 
 tive council, in which, with the king, the executive authority was 
 vested. As it had by the constitution, no legislative authority, which, 
 together with the right of electing the sovereign, was vested in the 
 States, the right which it assumed of voting the laws, during the dis- 
 continuance of the assemblies of the States (diets.) as stated in the 
 original (see note f ,) was obviously an usurpation. — Before the revo- 
 lution in 1000, the right of electing the sovereign, and the supreme 
 legislative authority, resided in the three estates of the kingdom, the no- 
 bles, the clergy, and the commons, assembled in a diet by means of rep- 
 resentatives. The executive power was vested in the king and sen- 
 ate, the latter composed of the principal nobles. The king was little 
 more than president of the senate, and commander of the army, the royal 
 prerogative being circumscribed by the charter of rights, always ratified 
 by the sovereign at his accession. It was the custom also for the states 
 to communicate their plans or wishes respecting the subjects on which 
 the diet was convoked, to the king through the senate; but this was 
 disregarded, during the diet that brought about the revolution, by the 
 clergy and commons, who then communicated directly with the king. 
 
 (Ed. Enc.) — When the Christian religion was established in Denmark, 
 the clergy were admitted, not only to be an order of the states, but 
 also to have seats in the senate. (Guthrie.) — After the reformation, the 
 estates of the clergy having been annexed to the royal domains, they 
 of course lost much of their temporal influence, and being commoners 
 by birth, were no longer admitted to the senate, which at the time of 
 the revolution was monopolized by the nobility. — P. 
 
 1 ; ‘ Denmark had, for several centuries, like Sweden and Norway, 
 been an elective monarchy, in which the power of the sovereign was 
 restricted by a national assembly; but since 1001, it has been an 
 hereditary monarchy, subject to the most absolute authority that ex- 
 ists in Europe, since it has no other limits than the will of the prince. 
 Before the revolution by which this change was effected, the govern- 
 ment resided in the States-General, composed of the nobility, the 
 clergy, the citizens (burgesses,) and the peasantry, and in the royal 
 authority ; but the States were rarely convoked, and the nobility, care- 
 less of the public interests, did not desire that an assembly should be 
 called together, in which they exercised but a limited influence. The 
 senate became then, in fact, the only depository of a part of the au- 
 thority. Its members, who wore nearly all dispersed in the provinces 
 as governors, assembled once a year to vote the laws, in concert with 
 certain court personages. This senate, which exercised without re- 
 sponsibility, and without any legal right, an usurped authority, lost in 
 time the imposing character which had long secured to it the respect 
 of the nation.” — This is all. in the original, that corresponds to the pre- 
 ceding part of the paragraph. — P. 
 
 -- --J 
 
».doic oxLix.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 sion, [in which Copenhagen was twice besieged* by 
 Charles Gustavus, b king of Sweden, and only saved 
 from destruction by the heroism of Frederick III., and 
 the sudden death of the king of Sweden.] Peace was 
 soon concluded, but several provinces were lost,® the 
 public treasury was greatly in debt, the fields were deso- 
 lated, industry and commerce had received a fatal blow, 
 the collection of the taxes was embarrassed, the troops 
 demanded the arrears of their pay, and the navy stood in 
 need of urgent repairs : discontent was general. It was in 
 this state of matters, that, towards the end of the year 
 1660, d an assembly of the States was convoked. That, at 
 this time, the court meditated a great change, is proved 
 by the fact that the order of the peasantry was not repre- 
 sented in this assembly, which was made up of deputies 
 from the clergy, nobility and burgesses. The nobility 
 renewed their old pretensions to supremacy ; the clergy, 
 jealous of the nobility, vowed to see that order humbled ; 
 the burgesses of Copenhagen, proud of the confidence 
 which had been expressed towards them by the govern- 
 ment,® and full of hope in expectation of future favours, 
 manifested their devotion to the crown. They called to 
 mind the dangers which the monarch [Frederick III.] 
 had encountered during the sieges I * * 4 * * * * * * II * 1 " of the capital, and 
 the traits of character by which he had acquired a great 
 popularity. While his subjects were in this state of 
 mind, the prince affected to know nothing about what 
 was in agitation, but the agents of the court took their 
 measures in secret. Already some influential men in the 
 three orders had been gained, when the assembly un- 
 dertook to examine the means of remedying the calami- 
 ties which overwhelmed the country. The nobility 
 proposed a tax upon articles of consumption, in which 
 they consented to bear their part, but with so many 
 restrictions, that the burden would have been insupport- 
 able by all classes, themselves excepted this was the 
 signal for dissension. 11 While the discussion was going 
 on between the nobles and the clergy, the latter, in con- 
 junction with the burgesses, drew up memorials, in 
 which, for the first time, transpired ideas of hereditary 
 
 I Copenhagen was thrice besieged by Charles Gustavus. Although 
 the Danes defended themselves with great energy, the first siege was, 
 
 however, raised by the mediation of Cromwell’s envoy, Meadows, and 
 
 the two latter by the Dutch fleet. Advantage was taken of Charles’ 
 death, which occurred soon after the last siege was raised, to conclude 
 a treaty (March 1GG0.) — P. 
 
 4 Charles X. 
 
 c The provinces of Scania, Halland, and Bleking, at the southern ex- 
 tremity of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Trans. [By this treaty (1660), 
 the island of Rugen, and the provinces of Bleking, Halland and Scho- 
 nen, were ceded to Sweden. — P.] 
 
 d Sept. 8lh, 16G0. — P. 
 
 e Several of the rights of nobility had been granted to the citizens 
 of Copenhagen, as a reward for their patriotic and gallant behaviour 
 during the siege. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 f “ Siege.” — Here, as in the passage quoted from the Ed. Enc. 
 
 (note ',) no distinction is made between the different sieges of the 
 capital, but the whole are considered as one. In fact, the Swedish 
 army remained, during the whole time, on the island of Zea- 
 land, and the sieges were raised only by foreign intervention. 
 They may indeed be considered only as three acts of the same 
 drama. — P. 
 
 s They offered to contribute equally to this tax ; but when their 
 offer was explained, it was found in fact to amount to almost nothing. 
 They consented to pay this tax only when they were in town, and not 
 at all while they resided on their own estates ; nor would they subject 
 themselves to it, even with this limitation, for a longer period than 
 three years, while they insisted that the farmers (peasantry) should 
 pay it as a permanent tax, and to its full amount. (Ed. Ejie.) — P. 
 
 II “ The senate made common cause with the nobility, and thus 
 completely destroyed the last remains of its popularity.” — This is 
 
 OF DENMARK. 387 
 
 monarchy, which found partisans among the public, but 
 especially in the court. The proposal of a stamp-duty' 
 increased the confusion ; murmurs were heard from 
 amongst all the three orders ; one of the influential 
 deputies of the burgesses ventured to propose hereditary 
 succession, “with a view,” he added, “that the king 
 might be master the same motion was made amongst 
 the clergy, and it was adopted by these two orders. 
 At first the nobility refused their concurrence, but 
 writings being circulated in which their privileges were 
 vigorously attacked, in the end they gave their consent 
 to this important change. 11 The making the succession 
 to the crown hereditary nullified the agreement 1 which 
 the king had signed on his coming to the throne ; be- 
 sides, great alterations became necessary in the relations 
 that were to exist between the Crown and the 
 States, and the burgesses were anxious to rise above 
 the state of political nullity, in which, by means of 
 the assemblies having been convened only at remote 
 intervals, they had hitherto been held. In the mean 
 time their minds were too much agitated to be able 
 to examine, with the necessary prudence, the ques- 
 tions relative to a new constitution ; it was therefore 
 decided that this important matter should be intrusted 
 to a committee, and, in order that the nomination of this 
 committee might not be influenced by the general 
 agitation, the appointment of the members was left 
 to the king. This committee, unanimous as to the 
 nullity of the oath that had been taken by the king, could 
 not, whether under a pretext, or from a real difference 
 of opinion, come to any agreement as to the terms of 
 the new constitution ; m the bishop of Zealand, one of 
 the members gained by the court, then moved that the 
 decision of a question, in which those interested found 
 so much difficulty in coming to an agreement, should be 
 left to the impartiality of the king. n The three orders 
 approved of this motion ; they put a new oath into the 
 hands of their now hereditary monarch, 0 and in order to 
 give more solemnity to this imposing ceremony, the 
 order of the peasantry was convoked, but merely to join 
 
 omitted by the translator, as not agreeing with his mistaken notion of 
 that body. See note e p. 1066. — P. 
 
 ' “ — of an edict for levying a stamp tax.” 
 
 k The nobility having farther irritated the other orders, by materially 
 altering a tax bill which had been sent to them, the bishop of Copen- 
 hagen immediately proposed to his order to sign a declaration, making 
 the crown hereditary in the royal family. This proposal was readily 
 accepted ; the declaration was signed by the clergy, sent to the rep- 
 resentatives of the people, who as readily gave their sanction to it, 
 and on the very same day transmitted to the speaker of the nobles, to 
 receive the concurrence of that order. The nobles, being now alarm- 
 ed, proposed to Frederick, that the crown should be hereditary in the 
 male line only ; but this proposal was rejected by the king. On the 
 next day, this order found itself under the necessity of acceding to the 
 declaration. (Ed. Enc.) — After the clergy and the citizens had formed 
 their resolution, they went in a body to the hall of the nobles, where 
 John Nansen, chief of the order of citizens, after enumerating the evils 
 of the state, and the important services rendered by the king, proposed 
 that the crown should be hereditary in his family. — P. 
 
 1 “ Capitulation.” — The Danish kings signed a capitulation or char- 
 ter on their accession to the throne — a species of contract between the 
 king and the people, defining and limiting his power, and determining 
 the privileges of the different orders. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 m “ — as to the form of a new capitulation.” 
 
 " In the midst of the clamorous debates, arising from the differ- 
 ence of opinion as to the terms of the capitulation, the bishop of Zea- 
 land (Copenhagen) suddenly proposed, that the crown should be made 
 hereditary, without any stipulation or condition ; this was agreed to, 
 only with the exception, that the right of primogeniture, and the in 
 divisibility of the monarchy, should be guarded. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 ° “ They took a new oath to the new hereditary monarch — ” 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 388 
 
 [BOOK CXU 
 
 1 
 
 X 
 
 their oath to that of the other orders. To the pomp of 
 festivals and great entertainments succeeded the delibera- 
 tions of the Slates upon the privileges which they ought 
 to preserve ; the agitation, the hesitation and the exas- 
 peration of the parties were greater than they ever had 
 been, and at last, worn out or corrupted, the States re- 
 nounced their rights. A solemn act of January 10th, 
 1661, declared that the king was invested for ever with 
 absolute power.® [It is remarked by an old writer, 
 “ that this is the only legal absolute monarchy, perhaps, 
 in the world ; the king being declared so by the States of 
 the kingdom, who had that power by the constitution.” 
 Was this deed irrevocable ? b j c 
 
 Four years after this extraordinary event, the reign- 
 ing sovereign (Frederic III.) issued a decree, bearing 
 date 14th Nov. 1665, J regulating the order of the suc- 
 cession, and declaring what the new constitution of the 
 kingdom was. One article of this decree declares, that 
 “ the hereditary kings of Denmark and Norway shall be, 
 and indeed ought to he, looked upon by all their subjects 
 as the only supreme chiefs which they have upon the earth. 
 They shall be above all human laws ; and shall acknowl- 
 edge, in all ecclesiastical and civil affairs, no other judge 
 or superior than God alone.” By another, it is declared, 
 “ the king alone shall have the right of imposing taxes, 
 and of raising contributions of all kinds ; since it is clear 
 that we can only defend kingdoms and provinces with 
 armies, and maintain troops, by means of supplies which 
 are levied upon the subjects.” It is also declared, that 
 “ the king shall not be obliged,” on coming to the 
 throne, “ to take any oath, or to make any engagement, 
 under whatever name or title it may be, since in quali- 
 ty of a free and absolute monarch, his subjects cannot 
 impose on him the necessity of an oath, or prescribe any 
 conditions which limit his authority.”® f 
 
 In terms of the same decree, the king is major on 
 completing his 13th year.s He presides in the council 
 of state, which takes special cognizance of all matters 
 
 * On the 16th of October 1660, the three estates annulled, in the 
 most solemn manner, the capitulation or charter signed by the king at 
 his accession, absolved him from his engagements, cancelled all the 
 limitations imposed on his sovereignty, and on the following day, 
 closed the whole by the public ceremony of doing homage, and of 
 taking the new oath of allegiance ; but the three orders did not sign a 
 separate act, consenting that the crown should be hereditary, invest- 
 ing the sovereign with absolute power, and giving him the right to 
 regulate the succession and the regency, till the 10th of January 1661, 
 nor even after this, was the new constitution explained or sanctioned 
 by any promulgated law, till the accession of Christian V. in 1670. 
 This law, called the royal law, was drawn up by the bishop of Zealand 
 and Count Griffenfeld, and received the king’s sanction on the 14th 
 of November 1665, but was kept in the royal archives till the period 
 above mentioned [1670.] (Ed. Enc.) — It is well known that this revo- 
 lution was brought about by the clergy and commons, for the purpose 
 of punishing the insolence and oppression of the nobility, and of com- 
 pelling them to bear an equal part in the burdens of the state. It was 
 the intention and expectation of the lower orders that the power de- 
 posited with the king, should have been restored, with a more equal 
 distribution of rights, to the people. In this, however, the monarch 
 proved too crafty for his subjects ; but as if in return for their surrender 
 of authority, he and his successors have so administered affairs, as to have 
 rendered themselves, perhaps, the most popular sovereigns in Europe. 
 The liberation of the peasants (1787,) the encouragement of learning 
 and general education, particularly the recent extension of the sys- 
 tem of mutual instruction, and in general, the mild and equitable ad- 
 ministration of the laws, are so many proofs that the government has 
 not forgotten the source from which its absolute authority is de- 
 rived. — P. 
 
 b By one of the articles of the royal law, the king may annul all 
 laws, which either he or his predecessors shall have made, excepting 
 this royal law, which must remain irrevocable, and be considered as 
 the fundamental law of the state. (Ed. Enc.) — It is obvious, however, 
 
 of consequence. The different ministerial functions are 
 exercised by colleges or councils with presidents : h the 
 college or council of the chancellorship 1 has the admin- 
 istration of justice, general police, the church, public 
 instruction, and all that regards the interior of the king- 
 dom ; that of the finances lays on taxes, k watches over 
 all the pecuniary affairs of the state, and has under its 
 administration the exchequer, the revenues, crown lands, 
 &c. the college of economy and trade has under its 
 care manufactures and whatever regards industry.™ The 
 bailiffs have nearly the same power as the prefects in 
 France ; n a supreme court, in which the king himself 
 sometimes presides, determines civil and criminal causes 
 in the last resort : the punishment of death is very rare- 
 ly pronounced. 
 
 The clergy do not form a separate order : the only 
 distinct classes in the state are the nobility, the bur- 
 gesses, and the peasantry. Every royal functionary 
 belongs to the class of nobles. The counts and barons 
 enjoy great privileges : these titles, and some others, are 
 subjected to a tax, called the tax upon rank ; and the 
 honour of being styled his excellency >s given to those 
 who choose to pay for it. The nobles have preserved 
 many peculiar rights, which, however, vary in the 
 Danish and German provinces ;° thus, in Holstein and 
 Lauenburg, where their ancient constitution has been 
 guaranteed by the Germanic diet, the noblesse exercise 
 supreme power in their own domains ; on the other 
 hand, the Frieslanders of the islands which border the 
 western coast of Slpswickj* * and the inhabitants of the 
 city of Altona in Holstein, enjoy a very ample liberty. 
 [Till 1787 the peasantry on the estates of the nobility 
 were in a most degraded condition. They and their 
 posterity were unalterably fixed to the estates on which 
 they were born ; and, when it was sold, the peasants, with 
 their wives and children, were transferred along with it. 
 These abominable chains were broken in the year above 
 mentioned, through the exertions of the present king of 
 
 to present ideas, that this whole system of absolute authority is easily 
 revocable by the will of the people. — P. 
 
 c The passages in the above paragraph, inclosed in brackets, are in- 
 serted by the translator. — P. d See note a . 
 
 e See copy of this decree in Travels, by William Rae Wilson, Esq. 
 in Norway, &c. App. No. xvi. London, 1826. 
 
 1 The above paragraph is added by the translator. — P. 
 s “ By a royal decree [the Royal Law of Nov. 14, 1665,] the king 
 is of full age at fourteen.” — P. 
 
 h “ — colleges composed of several members and a president.” 
 
 1 “ The college of the chancery — ” 
 k “ — proposes taxes.” See note m . 
 
 1 “ — the treasury, the public debt ( rentes , funds,) the domains, (See.’ 
 The king is assisted in theexercise of his royal functions by a privy 
 council [council of state,] in which the laws are proposed, discussed, and 
 receive the royal sanction, and all the important affairs of government 
 are transacted. The business is prepared in the different colleges or 
 chambers to which it more immediately belongs, and through which all 
 applications to the council must come. These different offices of gov 
 ernment are : 1. the Chancery of Denmark and Norway; 2. the 
 Chancery of Germany, for Sleswick and Holstein ; 3. the Office of 
 Foreign Affairs ; 4. the College or Chamber of Revenue ; 5. the 
 Chamber of Customs; 6. the College of Finances; 7. the College of 
 General Economy and Commerce ; 8. the War Office ; and 9. the 
 Admiralty Office. (Ed. Enc. 1817.) — P. 
 
 “ Denmark is divided into seven provinces, or grand bailiwicks, call- 
 ed Stifts-ampts [Dan. stiftumt, sing.] each of which is governed by a 
 Stifts-ampts-man [Dan. stiflamtmand .] These are subdivided into 
 districts or bailiwicks, called arnpts [Dan. amt, sing.] under the su- 
 perintendence of inferior governors, called ampts-men [Dan. amtmand 
 sing.] (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 0 The nobility of Sleswick and Holstein form a distinct body, and 
 enjoy more extensive privileges. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 p See note p p. 1064. 
 
book CKLix.i DESCRIPTION 
 
 Denmark, * 1 then crown prince, by the issuing an edict 
 which restored them to their liberty. ] b Finally, the 
 Danish government manifests a paternal spirit in the 
 exercise of its power, and is very tolerant in regard to 
 religion : the confession of Augsburg 0 is the predomi- 
 nant religion ; but Roman Catholics, Calvinists, Men- 
 nonites, d and even Jews, are admitted without distinc- 
 tion to public employments and dignities. His German 
 provinces constitute his Danish majesty a member of 
 the Germanic confederation, to which he furnishes a 
 corps of 3000 men ; they give him also a voice in the 
 Diet. e 
 
 We have neglected nothing to give a correct view of 
 this country as a whole ; an excursion through the prin- 
 cipal cities and towns still remains to be made: it will be 
 short, because they are not numerous. The coasts of 
 Denmark are as pleasant and well cultivated as those of 
 Sweden are barren and wild : their thick groves, says a 
 traveller/ the gentle declivities of their hills, the meadows 
 which descend softly to the very border of the sea, and 
 the emerald green, which, during the fine season, forms 
 the general colour of this agreeable landscape, produce 
 an enchanting coup-d’oeil. We cannot see the strait of 
 the Sound , s covered with vessels of every nation sub- 
 mitting to a duty h which brings in two or three millions 
 of francs annually to the crown of Denmark, without 
 being astonished that a power of the fifth order should 
 have been able to render tributary all the nations which 
 trade to the Baltic. The first commencement of this 
 impost is unknown : it is certain, however, that in the 
 15th century it rested upon a very ancient custom. It 
 is probable that it had for its origin the expense of the 
 building and maintaining several light-houses placed by 
 the Danes on the coast for the benefit of navigators, and 
 which, according to stipulations now forgotten, they 
 consented to defray the expense of, by a toll imposed 
 on every ship passing the Sound/ 
 
 Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, called in the 
 language ol the country Kiocbenhavn k occupies, in the 
 Sound, the bottom of a gulf in the island of Zealand, 
 besides a part of the northern extremity of the small 
 island of Amalc or Amager. Its foundation is attributed 
 to bishop Axel, who, in 1168, obtained from the reign- 
 ing king of Denmark the concession of a small piece of 
 ground occupied by a hamlet of fishermen, and protect- 
 ed it by raising fortifications. 1 In less than a century it 
 had become considerable enough to obtain the privileges 
 of a city, and in the 14th century, it became the resi- 
 dence of the court." 1 Its buildings were originally of 
 
 1 Frederick VI. 
 
 b The sentences, inclosed in brackets, are added by the trans- 
 lator. — P. 
 
 c 1 Lutheranism, the established religion in Denmark — formally 
 established in 1536.— P. 
 
 d The Mennonites deny the baptism of infants, and hold that adults 
 alone ought, according to the New Testament, to be baptized. They 
 baptize by immersion. Some of their views correspond much with 
 those held by the Society of Friends or Quakers. Trans. 
 
 e He has three votes in the general assembly of the diet. — P. 
 
 1 Coxe, in li is Travels in Denmark, &c. 
 
 e Oresound (Dan. and Swed. CEresund.) — P. 
 
 h Toll of the Sound.- -Sound Tolls (Conway.)— P. 
 
 ' May not this toll have had its origin in the ninth or following 
 centuries, when the Danes were masters of these seas, and probably 
 chose, in this way, to declare their pre-eminence? Trans. 
 
 k Originally, Kiaebmandshavn (Merchant’s Haven.) — Lat. Jlaf- 
 ma. — P. 
 
 1 Copenhagen owes its origin as a city, to a castle which was built 
 
 OF DENMARK. 389 
 
 wood, but having been consumed by destructive fires in 
 1728, 1794 and 1795, were replaced by elegant build- 
 ings and regular streets. It was regarded as one of the 
 finest cities in Europe, when, in 1807, surprised in time 
 of peace by a British squadron, it endured a dreadful 
 bombardment, which destroyed its cathedral, and a part 
 of its university, mutilated several of its principal edi- 
 fices, and destroyed several hundred houses. 11 Its fleet, 
 and the greater part of the military stores of all kinds, 
 accumulated in its magazines and arsenals, were carried 
 off to England. It was thus that Great Britain repaid 
 the refusal given by Denmark to enter into the coali- 
 tion against France. On the 18th of November 1824, 
 a dreadful hurricane drove the waters of the sea into the 
 city, and caused great destruction. In spite of disasters 
 so recent, Copenhagen, defended by 24 bastions, by 
 fosses filled with water, and by a strong citadel, is still 
 one of the finest capitals in Europe. There are in the 
 city 10 public squares and 5 markets, 3 royal palaces, 
 9 parish churches, a Roman Catholic chapel, 3 con- 
 vents, 1 Moravian meeting-house, 5 Jewish synagogues, 
 14 hospitals, including one for foundlings/ and 30 houses 
 for the reception of the poor.P Seen from the narrow 
 entrance of the harbour, which is capable of containing 
 500 merchant ships, besides the royal navy, it presents 
 a magnificent appearance ; its three quarters, the old 
 town, the new town, and Christiansavn/ which former- 
 ly bore the peculiar characters of their more or less an- 
 cient origin, owe to contemporary repairs their modern 
 elegance. The o'd town, or Copenhagen properly so 
 called/ separated from the new town by the new canal, 
 is not surpassed by it : it is even larger and more popu- 
 lous ; its houses, though built of brick and wood, have a 
 fine appearance : there is here seen the large square of 
 the new market/ the irregularity of which almost dis- 
 appears in presence of the buildings which ornament it, 
 such as the palace of Charlottenburg, formerly the resi- 
 dence of the court, and now occupied by the academy 
 of fine arts, and by a superb gallery of paintings, — the 
 artillery depot, the theatre, and the equestrian statue of 
 Christian V/ On the side of the harbour stand the 
 exchange and the bank. The old town also contains 
 the palace of prince Frederick; the arsenal, in which 
 may be seen the royal library composed of 250,000 
 volumes, and the Arabic manuscripts of Niebuhr ; the 
 university, which possesses a fine library ; several scien- 
 tific collections, a botanical garden, and an observatory 
 established in a tower of a singular construction. 11 The 
 finest part of the new town is that which is called Fred- 
 
 here in 1160, by Archbishop Wide, to defend the coasts against the 
 pirates which then swarmed in the Baltic. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 m It became the seat of the court in 1443, during the reign of Chris 
 topher of Bavaria. (Ed. Enc.) — Christopher III. (of Bavaria) was 
 elected in 1438, but not crowned till 1445. — P. 
 
 " The cathedral with 305 houses were destroyed, and about 600 
 damaged by the bombardment. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 0 “ One foundling hospital (hospice.) 13 hospitals ( hdpitaux )— ” 
 p There are 22 hospitals and 30 poor-houses. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 1 Christianshafen (Ed. Enc.) — Dan. Christiansham (Christian’s 
 Haven.) — P. 
 
 r “ — or the city properly so called.” — Old Copenhagen (Ed. Enc.) — P 
 s Dan. Kongens nye Torn , the king’s new market. — P. 
 
 1 In the centre of the area, is an equestrian statue of Christian V 
 in bronze. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 “ It is built in the form of a cylinder, about 70 feet in diameter, and 
 130 feet in height, and has a spiral carriage road of brick to within 20 
 or 25 feet of the top. (Ed. Enc.l — P. 
 
390 EUROPE. i book cxlix 
 
 er:cstadt. a The two principal edifices in this quarter 
 are, the old royal castle of Rosenburg, which contains a 
 fine collection of antiquities, and the magnificent hall in 
 which the king opens the sittings of the high court of 
 justice, and whose garden serves as a public walk ; and 
 Amalienburg, a group of buildings composed of four dis- 
 tinct palaces, namely, those of the king, his son and his 
 brother, and the navy school, ranged around an octago- 
 nal square, the centre of which is occupied by the 
 equestrian statue of Frederick V. In the isle of Amak, 
 Christiansavn, b which bears the name of Christian IV., 
 its founder, presents regular and well-built streets ; its 
 squares are large and elegant ; it contains docks for ship- 
 building, tbe large warehouse of the India Company, 0 
 the port for ships of war, and the church of the Saviour, 
 the finest in Copenhagen : that of the Trinity, the dome 
 of which contains the university library and the large 
 globe of Tycho Brahe, d cannot, notwithstanding its 
 beauty, be compared with it. 
 
 Copenhagen possesses a great number of literary 
 establishments and academical societies ; the most im- 
 portant of these are, the royal society of sciences, and 
 those of natural history, medicine, oriental languages, 
 and Scandinavian literature, a branch of which last 
 mentioned institution is established at Reikiavik in Ice- 
 land.® Till a very recent period, Copenhagen might be 
 considered as tbe centre of the industry and trade of 
 the kingdom. In 1826, there were reckoned in Co- 
 penhagen about two hundred and forty distilleries, fifty 
 breweries, twenty-nine tanneries, thirty manufactories 
 of tobacco, twenty of woollen clotbs, fifteen of cotton 
 goods, eighteen of hats, twenty-four of gloves, thirty of 
 linen, and various others, which together employed more 
 than 1 1 ,000 people, or nearly one-tenth of the population. 
 It was at that time calculated that more than 5000 ves- 
 sels entered the port ; but the prohibitory system has 
 since that date brought upon this city the results which, 
 sooner or later, are to be expected from it ; strangers no 
 longer come to Copenhagen to seek the spirits distilled 
 there ; r its other products can no longer support foreign 
 competition, and the English and Americans have, by 
 their rivalship, given a mortal blow to its commercial 
 relations with the East Indies. Its commerce is now 
 reduced to the single branch of home consumption, and 
 the whole business of Denmark is concentrated at Alto- 
 na, which has been long a free port. The ruin of in- 
 dustry has considerably lowered the value of houses at 
 
 1 “ Friedrickstadt” — Dan. Frederikstad. — P. b See note i p. 10G9. 
 
 c “ Compagnie des Indes” — The East India or Asiatic Company, 
 established in 1732. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 d The great celestial globe of brass, placed in the hall of the Royal 
 Academy (1033,) by Udalric, son of Christian IV. — P. 
 
 c The principal literary societies in Copenhagen are, the Royal 
 Academy of Sciences, founded in 1743 ; the Royal Economical Socie- 
 ty, in 1768; the Medical Society, in 1772; the Society for Icelandic 
 Literature, in 1779; and the Board of Longitude, in 1784. (E3. Enc.) 
 —In 1779, a society was instituted at Copenhagen for aiding the lite- 
 rature of Iceland, and bettering the condition of the inhabitants. In 
 1790, a project was formed for transferring the society to Iceland, 
 which occasioned such dissensions as suspended all the proceedings, 
 and the society now exists only in name. A second Icelandic socie- 
 ty was established in the island in the year 1794, by the present chief 
 justice Slephansen ; but various occurrences, particularly the war 
 between Great Britain and Denmark, occasioned its almost total ex- 
 tinction. A new society was established in 1816, by the exertions of 
 Mr. Rask, the celebrated philologist. (Ed. Enc. art. Iceland. 
 1818.)— P. 
 
 f In 1800, the distilleries in Copenhagen consumed 287,824 tons of 
 grain, which yielded 2,347,850 gallons of spirits. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 Copenhagen : very recently indeed, proprietors of 
 
 houses have been known to sell them, from inability to 
 pay tbe taxes. 
 
 The police of this capital is under the superintendence 
 of a special establishment; the public safety is intrusted 
 to the garrison, and to the national guard; companies 
 of fire-men are distributed through the different quarters ; 
 a commission of physicians and surgeons has the charge 
 of watching over the public health, a duty so much the 
 more necessary, as the air of Copenhagen is moist and 
 unwholesome, the water bad, and tbe mortality greater 
 than in the other towns of the kingdom. 
 
 The following are among the most remarkable places 
 in the environs of Copenhagen. Frederilcsbcrg, a mag- 
 nificent castle, the usual summer-residence of the king, is 
 built upon a height ; the public enjoy the splendid sight 
 of its fine gardens, which are open to them.® Frecle- 
 riksborg, another royal castle, is a fine specimen of the 
 architecture of the seventeenth century ; h the hall of the 
 knights * 1 is deserving of much attention. RcvsTdlde*- a 
 small city of 2000 souls, formerly the capital of Den- 
 mark, now receives the mortal remains of her kings. 
 Jmgcrs-Preis 1 is still a royal residence, where repose 
 the ashes of the ancient heroes of the North, and of 
 many celebrated men ; m we see there the tomb of the 
 great Bernstorf and that of Tycho Brahe. Flsineur, in 
 Danish Helsingcer ,° is situated on the coast, eight leagues 
 to the north of Copenhagen. It is a well built town, 
 but many geographers speak erroneously of its harbour ; 
 it has no harbour but a small road-stead, where the 
 ships that pass the Sound cast anchor, to take in sup- 
 plies and to pay the toll, to which all vessels are sub- 
 jected, and which amounts to one per cent, on the value 
 of merchandize belonging to privileged nations, and one 
 and a fourth in regard to others and even the Danes 
 themselves. Near Elsineur rises on the coast the for- 
 tress of Kronborg or Kroncnburg , 0 where was confined, in 
 1771, the unfortunate queen of Denmark, Caroline Ma- 
 tilda of England, the sister of George III., the victim of 
 intrigue and calumny. A royal mansion, not far from 
 Kronenburg, is pointed out to strangers as the spot where, 
 in olden time, stood the palace or castle, the scene of 
 Shakspeare’s play of Hamlet . p 
 
 The island of Bornholm, situated thirty-two leagues 
 from that of Zealand 1 ! in the Baltic sea, is peopled by 
 20,000 inhabitants ; it contains seven towns and twenty- 
 one parishes ; the capital is Ba-nne , T known for its 
 
 s “ Its fine gardens, which are open to the public, command a mag 
 nificent prospect.” 
 
 h Built by Christian IV. (died 1648.) — P. 
 
 ' Dan. Riddersal (knight-hall) — the hall of ceremony. — P. 
 
 k Roschild (Ed. Enc.) Roskild (Tuckey.) — P. 
 
 1 Dan. Jagcrspriis, Germ. Jagcrspreis. — P. 
 
 m In the gardens of the palace, monuments have been erected to 
 the illustrious men of the country. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 n Fr. “ Elseneur" or Elsenor. Eng. Elsineur or Elsinore. Dan. 
 Helsingacr. — P. 
 
 0 Cronborg or Cronenburg. — Dan. Kronborg (Crown Castle.) — P. 
 
 p This sentence is added by the translator. — Half a mile from the 
 castle of Cronborg, on an eminence, commanding a fine view of the 
 Sound, is the new palace of Marienlyst [Marienborg], near which is a 
 garden, in which the murder of Hamlet’s father is supposed to have 
 been committed, and which is thence called Hamlet’s garden. (Tuck- 
 ey, vol. i. p. 285.) — P. 
 
 q “ — to the east of Zealand.” — Bornholm is 7 leagues and a half 
 distant from the coast of Sweden, and upwards of seventeen from the 
 island of Rugen. (Tuckey.) — Rccnne is 93 miles E. S. E. of Copenha- 
 gen. (Morse.) — P. 
 
 r Ronne (Tuckey.) — Ronne or Ronde (Morse.) — P. 
 
book cxLix.i DESCRIPTION 
 
 potteries and clock and watch making : a it annually ex- ! 
 ports watches to the value of about 13,000 rix-dollars. 
 The little isle of Muscn, b at the southern extremity of 
 Zealand, containing 7000 inhabitants, has for its chief 
 town Sleege , c in which the only manufacturing estab- 
 lishment is a tannery. The island of Funen, A in Danish 
 Fyen, between Sleswick and Zealand, is eighteen 
 leagues in length by twelve of average breadth, and has 
 154 of surface and 110,000 inhabitants. Odcnsee, its 
 capital, was first named Othins-Ey, e that is, the domain 
 of Odin. It stands in the centre of the island, in the midst 
 of a large plain. Gloves, soap and woollen cloths are man- 
 ufactured there. Its cathedral is handsome ; it has a uni- 
 versity 1 " and two libraries, and is one of the neatest towns 
 in Denmark. Svendborgs has tanneries and stocking- 
 manufactures, and carries on a great trade in the exporta- 
 tion of rye. The island of Langeland , h which signifies 
 long land, extends from south-east to north-west, 1 between 
 Funen and Laaland, and contains 11,000 inhabitants; 
 Rudkiaibing, k its principal town, also exports rye. Laa- 
 land or Lolland, 1 peopled by 4000 souls," 1 has for its chief 
 town Mariebcec ," which is enriched by its trade in grain. 
 The small island of Falster, to the east of Laaland, num- 
 bers 16,000 inhabitants : Nikicebing, 0 its chief town, is 
 magnificently situated; the king possesses there a fine 
 castle, formerly the abode of the queens-dowager of 
 Denmark. Sam-Sxe,v Fanrxe ,i Anholt, where there 
 is a light-house, r Lyscee, 3 and other small islands, are 
 too unimportant to be particularly noticed. 
 
 In the Danish peninsula, Aalborg, 1 in North Jutland," 
 the seat of a bishopric, is a city surrounded by moats, 
 and contains soap-works, an academy, 1 schools and 
 libraries, an hospital and two alms-houses. Its harbour, 
 in the Lym-Fiord, receives annually 500 vessels, ? which 
 
 OF DENMARK. 391 
 
 export grain and herrings. Fiborg, z one of the oldest 
 cities in Denmark, was formerly of more importance 
 than now ; there is still held there, about the end of 
 June, a fair which attracts a great number of strangers 
 Aarhus,™ on a gulf of the eastern coast, bb has manufac- 
 tories of tobacco, and of woollen and cotton cloth, with 
 a small harbour from which grain and cattle are export- 
 ed. Its cathedral, a Gothic monument, is said to be 
 the loftiest in Denmark. Handers , cc on the Guden- 
 Aae, dd possesses manufactures similar to those of Aarhus. 
 The finest horses and the best cattle in Denmark come 
 from the environs of this town. Ripe or Ripen, ee at 
 the mouth of the Nibes, ff on the western coast, carries 
 on a great trade in cloth, ss and contains a cathedral, in 
 which are to be seen the tombs of several Danish kings. 
 Frcdericia, hh which wants a good harbour to render it 
 of importance, stands upon a promontory commanding 
 the northern entrance into the Little Belt. There is 
 collected here a duty on all the vessels which pass 
 through this strait. 11 In South Jutland, kk Sleswick 11 is 
 the capital of the dutchy to which this city gives its 
 name, whose true orthography is Schlcswig, mm because it 
 is situated at the extremity of the arm of the sea called 
 the Schley, "" on the border of which it rises in the form 
 of an amphitheatre. The finest of its buildings is the 
 castle of Gottorp, 00 the residence of the Governor-Gen- 
 eral of this dutchy, and of that of Holstein. FlcnsburgVP 
 or Flensborg , six leagues to the north of Sleswick, is a 
 neat and well built town ; its public squares are adorned 
 with fountains ; the town-house, exchange and theatre 
 are handsome buildings. It is the most flourishing town 
 in Jutland; it contains 10 sugar refineries, besides soap- 
 works, oil-mills, and tobacco manufactories. Without 
 its ill-preserved walls, there is a brass-foundery'i't and 
 
 * “ Horlogerie.” — Among the manufactures of the island, are coarse 
 pottery* and chimney clocks [small clocks for mantle pieces.] (Tuck- 
 ey.)— P. 
 
 * Ronne manufactures porcelain. (Vosgien.) — Clay proper for potteries, and 
 particularly useful in the manufacture of porcelain, isiound in Bornholm. (Ed. 
 
 b Moen (Pinkerton.) Mona, Mohn (Ed. Enc.) Mone (Enc. Meth.) 
 Mone, Lat. Mona (Hubner.) — P. c Stege (Tuckey.) 
 
 d “ Fionie.” — Lat . Fionia. Fr. Fune, Fionie (Vosgien.) Germ. Fuhn- 
 en (Enc. Araer.) — P. 
 
 ' Dan. Eje, possession or property. — Odcnsee is said to be a corrup- 
 tion of Ottcnse. (Conway.) — P. 
 
 1 “ College.” — Odensee has a college, or gymnasium, with four pro- 
 fesors. (Ed. Enc.) — There are only two universities in Denmark, viz. 
 those of Copenhagen and Kiel. — P. 
 
 6 Svenborg (Morse.) — Schwinburg (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 h Langland, or Long Island. (Tuckey.) — Dan. lang, long, and 
 land. — P. 
 
 ‘ Properly, from north-east to south-west, or nearly from north to 
 south. — P. 
 
 k The correct Danish orthography. It is variously spelt in differ- 
 ent authors, not Danish — Rudkoebing (Tuckey.) Rudkioping (Morse.) 
 Rudcoping (Vosgien.) The same remark will apply to the names of 
 other Danish towns with the termination kicebing, which corresponds 
 with the Swedish keeping. See note ° p. 1053.— 5 1 . 
 
 I Laland. 
 
 m This is doubtless a mistake for 40,000. — Population 40,000 (Tuck- 
 ey,) 34,000 (Morse.) — P. 
 
 II Mariebo (Morse.) — Mariebce (Tuckey.) — Marieboe (Rees’ Cyc.) — 
 Qu. Dan. Marie, Mary, and boe, to dwell. — P. 
 
 0 Dan. JVyhiccbing or Nyelciaebing (New Town.) — P. 
 
 P This should be written Samsaee (Sams Island.) — Samsoe (Tuckey.) 
 Samsoe or Sams (Morse.) — P. 
 
 t Situated in the Little Belt, between Colding and Middelfart. — P. 
 
 r There are two lights on Anholt. (Ed. Enc.). — P. 
 
 5 Doubtless a mistake for Lesscec. — Lessee (Tuckey.) Lessoe (Morse.) 
 Lajssoe (Pinkerton.) — P. 
 
 < Aalburgh, Alburgh (Eng.) — Aalbourg, Albourg (Fr.) — Dan. Aal- 
 borg (Eel-town.) — P. 
 
 “ Jutland Proper, or the Province of Jutland. — P. 
 
 * “ Seminary ” — It has a college with six professors. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 y “ 130 to 150 vessels arrive and clear out annually, and it has 00 
 to 70 trading vessels belonging to it. (Tuckey, vol. i. p. 298.) — P. 
 
 z Dan. Viborg. — Wiborg, Wiburg (Ed. Enc.) — Wibourg (Fr.) — Wi- 
 burgh, Wyburgh (Eng.) — P. 
 
 “Dan. Aarhuus. — Aarhuus, Aarhus, Aarhusen (Ed. Enc.) — Arhus, 
 Arhusen (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 bl> The bay of Kalce. (Tuckey.) — Dan. Kullccc Viig. (Pinkerton.) — 
 It is situated in a fine plain between the sea and lake Gudde, from 
 which a broad canal passes through the town, dividing it into two equal 
 parts, and communicating with the harbour. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 cc Randersen [with the article] (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 dd Guden Aae or Aa, Guden river. — It is situated on the north shore 
 of its gulf [the estuary of the Guden-Aae,] five leagues from its en- 
 trance. — P. 
 
 ee Ribe, Ripen, Rypen — Lat. Ripa. — P. 
 ff Nipsaa (Tuckey. Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 ss“ Toiles” — linens. — There are two linen manufactories in Jutland, 
 besides which a considerable quantity of linen is manufactured in the 
 villages throughout the country. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 bh Lat. Fredcricia ( Fridericia . Enc. Meth.) — Dan. Frcderiksodde 
 (Frederick’s Cape.) — P. 
 
 “ The merchant vessels passing through the Little Belt pay toll at 
 Fredericia. — The toll (duty) on all merchant vessels passing through the 
 Great Belt, is paid at Nyborg [Nyeborg] in Funen. (Tuckey, vol. i. 
 p. 299.— 239.)— P. 
 kk The Dutchy of Sleswick. — P. 
 
 11 “ Sleswig.” — Sleswick, Sleswich, Sleswig. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 mm Germ. Schlesicig. — Dan. Slesvig. — Du. Sleesicyk (Hubner.)— 
 Eng. Sleswick. — P. nn See note p p. 1062. 
 
 00 The old palace of Gottorp, which is a large brick building, encir- 
 cled with a rampart and moat, stands close to the town. (Ed. Enc.) — 
 Gottorp, a strong and handsome castle, not far from the town of Sles- 
 wick, surrounded by the Schley ( Schl cistroom .) (Hubner, Korte Be- 
 o-ryp der Geoo\ p. 386.) — The castle of Gottorp is on an island in the 
 river Sley, 2 miles N. W. [S. W. Vosgien] of Sleswick. (Morse.) — P. 
 
 pp “ Flensbourg,” Fr. — Dan. Flensborg. — Germ. Flensburg. — Eng. 
 Flensburgh. — P. « “ Copper foundery.” 
 
r 
 
 392 EUR 
 
 extensive tile-works. Its harbour, situated at the west- 
 ern extremity of Flensborg-Fiord ," is frequented an- 
 nually by more than 800 vessels, 250 of which belong 
 to the place. The territory lying between Flensborg 
 and Sleswick still bears the name of Angeln . b It is 
 highly probable that this was a part of the country of 
 the Angli, a people who perform so important a part in 
 history, but who, according to the learned Weddegen, 
 were only a colony of the Angrivarii, who occupied 
 Holstein and a part of Westphalia. 
 
 Husum, at the mouth of the Hover ; c Tondern , d on 
 the Widau ; Apenrade , e whose small harbour, at the 
 bottom of a gulf, carries on a considerable trade ; and 
 Hadersleben / on the eastern coast ; small towns which 
 we cannot entirely omit, because they are the capitals 
 of bailiwicks, present nothing particular. Nor ought we 
 to forget the small islands which border the western 
 coast. Fan one, more considerable than the island of the 
 same name, which lies in the Little Belt,® is inhabited 
 by fishermen and builders of small merchant vessels : 
 Rxmcvd' is less industrious : Sylt rears cattle, and pro- 
 duces good seamen : Fcelir ,* peopled by 6000 souls, is 
 frequented for the purpose of sea-bathing, and possesses 
 a bed of oysters, of which it sends a vast quantity to 
 Hamburg ; it is the rendezvous of so great a number 
 of wild ducks, that it is estimated more than 100,000 
 are taken annually , k Nordstrand possesses a valuable 
 breed of horned cattle ; its cows give each day 22 pints 
 of milk: Pelworn, 1 without the strong dikes that protect 
 it, would be swallowed up by the sea; it forms, with 
 Nordstrand and several small islets, the remains of a 
 large island, the greater part of which disappeared under 
 the waves in 1634. m Near the eastern coast, Alsen, 7 
 leagues in length, and 2 in breadth, with a population 
 of about 16,000 souls, is, from its woods, its small lakes, 
 and its high state of cultivation, one of the most agreea- 
 ble islands in the Baltic. Sonderborg, its chief town, 
 possesses a royal castle," a good harbour, and an acade- 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CXLIX 
 
 my.° Avrcee , p consisting of lands fertile in grain and 
 kitchen vegetables, supports more than 8000 inhab- 
 itants. i Femern , r not less rich than the preceding, is 
 better peopled ; s its inhabitants have preserved their 
 ancient and simple manners. Burg, an ancient town 
 which stands in the centre of the island, is the capital 
 of a bailiwick. 
 
 The dutchy of Holstein has several subdivisions, 
 namely, Holstein properly so called, Ditliviarschcn ,‘ the 
 lordship of Pinneberg, the county of Randza v, u and 
 the territory of the thirty parishes of the nobility.* 
 The capital of this feudal assemblage is GluckstadiJ It 
 is regularly built on the right bank of the mouth of the 
 Elbe ; z many canals intersect it, but drinkable water is so 
 scarce, that the inhabitants are obliged to collect rain 
 water in cisterns. It was founded in 1617, by Christian 
 IV. Kid is the most ancient town in Holstein, being men- 
 tioned in history as early as the eleventh century. It is 
 distant about four miles from the Baltic, at the inland 
 extremity of a small gulf, called the Kider Fiord,™ 
 justly celebrated for its beauty. The harbour is secure, 
 and well situated for trade : more than 500 vessels an- 
 nually enter it. There is no extensive manufacture but 
 that of hats. Kiel is a handsome town, and stands in 
 the midst of delightful scenery. The borders cf the 
 firth are eminently beautiful, being lined with gentle 
 rising grounds clothed with woods sweeping down to the 
 edge of the water, while the lands around are in a high 
 state of cultivation. Along the shore are several little 
 villages, which enliven the prospect ; and among the 
 hills glides the river Swentin, bb till it loses itself in the 
 firth. On a hill, in the environs of the city, is seen a 
 handsome royal palace built by the inhabitants. The 
 church of St. Nicholas is a fine old building. The 
 university, which was founded in 1665 by Christian 
 Albert, duke of Holstein, is a plain and not very capa- 
 cious building, affording no accommodation for the resi- 
 dence of students, nor even a sufficiency of apartments 
 
 * Flensburgh Wick (Ed. Enc.) — Dan. Flensborg Viig. — P. 
 
 b Angeln or Anglen, a district on the E. coast of Sleswick, between 
 the bay of Flensburg and the river Schley. (Morse.) — P. 
 
 c The Hever (fleever. Tuckey) is the name given to the gulf or 
 arm of the sea between the island of Nordstrand and the mainland, as 
 well as to tlie river on which Husum is situated. — P. 
 
 d Tonder (Pinkerton.) — Tonderen or Tundern (Vosgien.) — Toen- 
 dern (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 e Appenrade, Abenrade (Ed. Enc ) — Apenrade, or Apenrode (Vos- 
 gien.) — Aabenraade (Pinkerton.) — Situated on a bay of the Baltic, N. 
 of Flensborg. — P. 
 
 1 Haderslev (Pinkerton.) — Situated on a narrow bay making up from 
 the Little Belt. — P. 
 
 e See note a p. 1071. 
 
 h Rom (Tuckey.) — Rom or Roam (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 ' Folir or Fora (Morse.)— Fore or Fcehr (Enc. Meth.) — Fora, gene- 
 rally. — P. 
 
 k Sylt is celebrated for its oysters, and for being visited in winter by 
 vast flocks of wild ducks, of which 40,000 are said to be killed annual- 
 ly. (Turkey, vol. i. p. 420.) — P. 
 
 I Pelworm (Tuckey. Pinkerton.)— P. 
 
 m Nordstrand, after repeated attacks in 1350, 1354, &c., was at length 
 almost totally swallowed up in 1034. Such an inundation arose at 10 
 o'clock in the evening of Oct. 11, that there perished 0408 persons 
 with 50,000 cattle ; 1332 houses, 30 windmills and 6 churches were 
 swept away by the waves. There remained but a high part of the 
 isle now called Pelworm. (Pinkerton.) — P. 
 
 II Near the town, is the ancient castle of Sonderborg, in which Chris- 
 tian II. passed 17 years of captivity. (Tuckey.) — P. 
 
 0 “ Gymnasium.” 
 
 P Doubtless a mistake for Arrcee. — Aaroe or Arroe (Morse.) — iEroe 
 (Pinkerton.) — zErae (Tuckey.) — Situated in the Baltic, to the south of 
 Funen. — P. 
 
 i “ Nearly 8000.” — Population 7,573. (Morse.) — P. 
 r Femeren. 
 
 s “ — has a somewhat greater population.” — Population 7,000. 
 (Morse.) — P. 
 
 1 Ditinarsh, Dithmarsh (Eng. authors.) — Ditmarsen (Morse.) — 
 Dithmarsen, Lat. Dithmarsin (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 u Rantzow (Hubner.) — County of Barmstadt or New Ranzaw 
 (Morse.) — The county of Pinneberg formerly belonged to the counts 
 of Schaumburg. The line having become extinct, the county of Pin- 
 neberg was divided between the king of Denmark and the duke of 
 Holstein-Gottorp, the latter taking the two parishes of Ba misted 
 [Barmstadt] and Elmshorn. This division was acquired in 1649. by 
 the counts of Rantzow, in exchange for Rantzow and other possessions, 
 [whence the county of Barmstadt or New Ranzaw.] (Hubner, p. 389 — 
 90.)— P. 
 
 1 Holstein, under the empire, was divided into Holstein Proper 
 (Lat. Holsatia Propria,) on the north — Rendsburg, capital of the royal, 
 and Kiel, of the ducal portion; Wagerland (Lat. Ilagria.) on the 
 eas t — Ploen, in the royal, and Rantzow and Eutin, in the ducal por- 
 tion ; Stormar (Stormarn, Lat. Slormaria,) on the south — Gluekstadt, 
 capital of the royal, and Trittow, of the ducal portion ; and Ditinarsh 
 (Lat. Dithmarsia,) on the west — Meldorf (Meldorp,) capital of the 
 royal, and Lunden, of the ducal portion. The greater part of Holstein 
 was divided between the king of Denmark and the duke of Holstein- 
 Gottorp. There were besides, the county of Barmsted (see note ",) 
 the jurisdiction of the four cities (Kiel, Rendsburg, Itzeho and Oldeslo.) 
 the two imperial cities of Hamburg and Lubec, &c. (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 y Germ. Gluekstadt (Fortunate Town.) — Lat. Tijchopolis, or Fanum 
 Fortuna:. (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 1 On the right bank of the Elbe, near its mouth.— Brunsbuttel, at 
 the mouth of the Elbe, is 13 miles N. W. of Gluekstadt. — P. 
 
 aa Gulf of Kiel (Tuckey.) — Kieler Wick [Dan. Viig, bay.] — (Enc 
 Meth.) P. bb Schwentin. — P. 
 
BOOK CXL1X.1 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DENMARK. 
 
 393 
 
 for the professors’ use, many of whom (thirty in num- 
 ber)* give lectures in their own houses. It is particu- 
 larly distinguished for medical science, and the number 
 of students is upon the increase. In 1806, they 
 amounted to only 100 : in 1820, they had increased to 
 270, of whom 50 were students of medicine. 5 The 
 opening of the new year is celebrated by the students 
 in the following manner. Before midnight, they assem- 
 ble in the market-place within a circle formed of torches, 
 and when the clock has struck twelve, they sing Voss’s 
 celebrated hymn, beginning, “The year’s last hour;” 
 after which a general huzza hails the entry of the new 
 year. They then go round the streets with their torches, 
 halting at the professors’ doors ; while a deputed select 
 body enter and present the students’ congratulations. 
 After receiving the professors’ answers, a bonfire and 
 hymn to liberty close their proceedings. The library 
 of the university contains 60,000 volumes. The tone 
 of society in Kiel is decidedly literary ; and the univer- 
 sity contains among its professors names of distinguished 
 literary eminence. English literature is held in high 
 estimation. Besides the university, it contains a cele- 
 brated Latin school , c an orphan-house, a poor-house, 
 two infirmaries, and a botanic garden ; besides valuable 
 private collections of pictures and antiquities. d 
 
 Rendsburg e is probably the best built city in Holstein ; 
 it stands upon the banks of a canal which unites with 
 the Eyder. It is important on account of its arsenal, its 
 magazines, its barracks, and above all, its fortifications. 
 It is the principal fortress of continental Denmark, since 
 the fortifications of Gluckstadt were razed. Rendsburg 
 is interesting, as being the ancient limit of the Roman 
 empire, notified by an inscription on one of the gates. 
 Heyde r is a small town only interesting from its schools. 
 Preetz, % upon the river Swentin, some miles to the 
 south-east of Kiel, contains about 400 houses and 
 3000 inhabitants, and carries on some trade in the 
 making of shoes and of soap. It contains what was 
 originally a convent, hut now converted into a sanctuary 
 for the daughters of the Sleswick and Holstein nobility. * 1 ' 
 It possesses also an orphan and a poor house ; and the 
 pastor’s library, as it is called, founded in 1681 by a 
 Hamburg clergyman, a native of Preetz, contains 9000 
 volumes. The Probsty 1 of Preetz is a district to the 
 eastward of Kiel, and on the east side of the Fiord, 
 containing a population of 6000 souls, occupying twen- 
 ty-four towns or villages. The name is as old as the 
 thirteenth century ; and the people, who have lived 
 during several centuries secluded from their neighbours, 
 are believed to be a colony of the Wendians k or Van- 
 
 1 Number of regular professors 1!), besides 10 extraordinary. (Morse.) 
 — Number of professors, in 1785, twenty-four. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 b There were about 300 students in 1785, when Mr. Coxe visited 
 Kiel. (Ed. Enc.) — In 1818, the number of students was only 107. 
 (Morse.) — P. c College — established in 1708. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 d “ Kiel, a handsome town, in the midst of delightful scenery, is 
 important from its literary and charitable institutions. The library of 
 its university contains 60,000 volumes. It is built on a tongue of 
 land, at the extremity of a gulf of the Baltic, and has a secure harbour 
 and a flourishing commerce ;* more than 500 vessels enter its port 
 annually. On a hill in the neighbourhood of the town, is a handsome 
 royal castle! built by the inhabitants.” — This is all the account of 
 Kiel in the original. — P. 
 
 * The commerce of Kiel has been much facilitated by the canal of Kiel, 
 which unites the North Sea with the Baltic. It commences on the gulf of 
 Kiel, three miles north of the town, and terminates at Rendsburg in the Eyder, 
 which is navigable to its mouth in the North Sea. It admits vessels of 120 
 tons. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 1 The castle, which is finely situated, has an observatory. tEd. Enc.) — P. 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 54 50 
 
 dais, who inhabited the borders of the Baltic Sea, 
 towards the months of the Oder and the Vistula. They 
 are large in stature, with a physiognomy essentially dis- 
 tinct from both Danes and Germans ; and their dress 
 and manners also differ materially from the people 
 around them, retaining, at their marriages and other 
 great occasions, a variety of customs and ceremonies 
 peculiar to themselves. Till within the last 40 or 50 
 years, the Probsteiers had no intercourse with strangers : 
 it was positively forbidden, and the young people that 
 married out of their own tribe were excluded from the 
 society ; but this state of seclusion is gradually wearing 
 away, and probably, before the lapse of another half 
 century, they will be completely mingled with the sur- 
 rounding population. They are an agricultural people, 
 and many of them in the harvest season go to a consid- 
 erable distance for employment. They are also skilful 
 in thatching, in plaiting of straw and similar works, be- 
 sides weaving and spinning. The coast of the Baltic 
 here is subject to great changes, and severe injury has 
 been done by tempests and inundations, large tracts of 
 land having been overflowed, and villages overwhelmed 
 or insulated. The town of Preetz is the residence of 
 the probst or provost of the Probsty} 
 
 To the south of Preetz lies the small town of Ploen, m 
 romantically situated on a stripe of land between two 
 lakes, so narrow as scarcely to afford room for a single 
 street. The southernmost of these two lakes is particu- 
 larly beautiful, being adorned with overhanging woods 
 and highly cultivated hills, with an island finely wooded. 
 The town is crowned with a castle built on the summit 
 of a steep hill, rising from the end of the principal 
 street. About ten miles to the north of Gluckstadt, 
 and on the river Stor or Stoer, n stands Itzehoe, 0 anciently 
 Essefeld, sheltered on the north by considerable woods. 
 The streets are handsome, and many of them are plant- 
 ed, as usual, with trees. It is a town of some impor- 
 tance, and has ships employed in the Greenland trade. 
 It has two churches. As early as 809, a strong castle 
 was built here by Charlemagne. Near Itzehoe, on 
 a sandy heath to the south, are to he seen a variety 
 of green hillocks. These are artificial, are called H'u- 
 nengraber ,p and are monuments of the old warriors of the 
 North. They are not uncommon throughout Holstein. 
 Many of them have been opened, and an apartment, 
 rude enough, is generally found within, containing, be- 
 sides an urn, an old sword, axe, or other weapon. Near 
 Albersdorff, on the confines of Sleswick and Holstein, 
 in what is called De Brut-Kamp (the “ Spouse’s 
 Plain”), i an oblong field inclosed with hedges and 
 
 e “ Rendsbourg.” — Rensburg (Tuekey.) — Rendsborg (Conway.) — P. 
 
 1 Heide (Hubner.) — P. e Preez (Hubner.j — P. 
 
 h Originally a priory for nuns — since the reformation, appropriated 
 by the Lutheran nobility of Holstein as a place of retreat for females 
 of their number. It is governed by a prioress, assisted by a provost 
 (male) for the management of its affairs and the protection of its rights. 
 The provostship ( probstcy ) of Preetz is the domain attached to the con- 
 vent. There are two other similar establishments in Holstein, viz. the 
 abbey of Itzehoe and the priory of Utersen. — P. 
 
 1 Germ, probstcy, provostship. — P. 
 
 k Wends (a Slavonic people.) — P. 
 
 1 See Downes’ Letters from Mecklenburg and Holstein. Lond 
 1822. m Plaen (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 n Stor, Stoer. — P. 
 
 0 Itzeho (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 P Germ. Hiinengrtlbcr, Giants’ graves. — P. 
 
 1 Germ. DerBraut-Kamp (The Bride’s Field or Enclosure.) — Dc Brut 
 Kavip, must be in the Low Saxon dialect of the country. — P. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 394 
 
 nearly encompassed with trees, is to be seen an im- 
 mense mass of granite supported by five much smaller 
 stones, and forming a kind of circular chamber within. 
 All round the bottom of the hillock, on which this stone 
 stands, grow oak-trees, thorns, sloe-trees, &lc. In ap- 
 pearance it is similar to the cromlechs or Druidical 
 altars, as they are supposed to be, which abound in Ire- 
 land, and their origin is probably similar. To the south 
 of Itzehoe, in the middle of an elevated sandy plain, 
 the famous obelisk is erected, which, according to popu- 
 lar tradition, was built by Henry, Count Ranzau,® in the 
 16th century, in consequence of a wager he laid with 
 Frederic II. of Denmark. “The conditions of this 
 wager were, that the Count should build on his estate 
 in one night a pyramid or obelisk, the top of which 
 should be higher than that of the steeple of Krempe, a 
 neighbouring village. 1 * * He accordingly chose the loftiest 
 situation he could find ; and, assembling a number of 
 workmen, raised within the limited time, and on the 
 summit of the hill of Nordho, a low and rude obelisk of 
 granite, supported by a square base, the top of which 
 was thus more elevated than that of the steeple.” 6 The 
 obelisk still remains ; but the steeple and church of 
 Krempe were blown up in January 1814, when em- 
 ployed by the Swedes as a powder-magazine. The 
 obelisk has several curious inscriptions upon it. Henry, 
 Count Ranzau, was a man of eminence in his age, at- 
 tached to literature, and himself an author. In his 
 castle of Wardsbeck d did the celebrated Tycho Brahe 
 find an asylum, when, persecuted by his enemies, he 
 withdrew from the island of Huen, and there did he re- 
 main, till invited to Prague by the emperor Rodolph II., 
 where he died. 
 
 Elmshorn e is an extensive and handsome town, lying on 
 the banks of a small river, along which its streets sweep 
 in a direction nearly circular. Some of the houses are 
 very old, with pious sentences inscribed upon them. 
 Pinncberg is a pretty little town, situated on the skirt 
 of a forest, and watered by a small river. The approach 
 to it is lined with oaks. OldesJolce / another handsome 
 town, is situated on the river Trave, and is distinguished 
 for its baths and salt-works. These last were establish- 
 ed in the twelfth century by Count Adolphus II. of 
 Holstein. Altona.% on the right bank of the Elbe, at a 
 short distance from the great trading city of Hamburg, 
 is the second city in the Danish dominions. Its trade 
 is considerable, and it carries on different manufactures, 
 besides embarking deeply in the herring and whale fish- 
 eries : but the contrast is striking between the constant 
 stir and bustle of the one city, and the comparative 
 quiet and silence of the other. Altona seems a desert 
 when compared with the never-ending activity that pre- 
 vails in Hamburg. It is built partly on the declivity of 
 a hill, and the streets are for the most part wide and 
 airy. The Palmaille (Pall Mall) is a fine street of 
 considerable length, with handsome houses, and along 
 the middle of it runs a shady walk, bordered on each 
 side by a double row of lofty trees — oaks, lindens, and 
 
 a llenry Rantzau or Ranzovius. (Ed. Enc.) — See note u p. 1072.— P. 
 
 b Krempe, a town in Holstein, near Itzehoe — population, 1000. 
 (Morse.) — P. 
 
 c Downes’ Letters from Mecklenburg and Holstein. Lond. 1822. 
 
 d Wansbeck, Lat. if’andeaburgum. (Ed. Enc.) — Wandsbeck (Bilsch- 
 mg.y— P. 
 
 • Elmeshorn (Morse.) — P. 
 
 [BOOK CXLIX 
 
 acacias. Altona was founded about the time of the Ref- 
 ormation by refugees of the old religion, who did not enjoy 
 in Hamburg all the liberty they wished and were en- 
 titled to. Its vicinity to that city excited jealousy in 
 the Hamburghers, and when it was burnt down in 1547, 
 an ineffectual exertion was made to prevent its being re- 
 built. Frederick III. of Denmark took it under his 
 especial protection, and conferred upon it many favours. 1 ' 
 Notwithstanding its original inhabitants were Roman 
 Catholics, Altona has ever been noted for religious tole- 
 ration ; and at this moment there are to be found in it 
 all classes of religious parties, with perfect freedom of 
 worship. There are in it churches or chapels belonging 
 to the Lutherans, German and French Reformed, Ro- 
 man Catholics, Mennonites, German and Portuguese 
 Jews. The most remarkable event in the history of 
 Altona, is its destruction by the Swedes on the 9th Jan- 
 uary 1713, a blot in the history of that honourable peo- 
 ple. Voltaire relates it in his usual lively manner. The 
 Danes had burnt Stade, a city in the dutchy of Bremen, 
 then part of the Swedish dominions. After the victory 
 obtained by Steinbockj the Swedish general, at Gade- 
 busch in Mecklenburg, over the Saxons and Danes, he 
 determined to avenge the loss of Stade by the destruc- 
 tion of Altona, then a flourishing city. “ Arriving in 
 sight of Altona,” says the historian, “ he by a trumpet 
 commanded the inhabitants to withdraw from the place 
 with what they could carry with them, as he was deter- 
 mined to destroy it from the foundations. The magis- 
 trates threw themselves at his feet, and offered one 
 hundred thousand crowns in name of ransom. Stein- 
 bock demanded two hundred thousand. The Altonese 
 begged time to send to their correspondents in Ham- 
 burg, and promised payment by the day following. The 
 Swedish general replied that the money must be in- 
 stantly paid, otherwise Altona would be set on fire 
 The soldiers were already in the suburbs with torches 
 in their hands ; and the city was without defence, ex- 
 cept a wooden gate and a ditch completely dry. On 
 the 9th January 1713, during an exceedingly cold season, 
 and in the middle of the night, these unfortunate people 
 were compelled to fly. A violent wind from the north, 
 while it increased the cold, helped to spread the flames 
 throughout the city, and to render more insupportable 
 the sufferings to which the people were exposed in the 
 open fields. Men and women, bending under the bur- 
 den of such moveables as they were able to take with 
 them, hurried along, weeping and lamenting, towards 
 the neighbouring rising grounds, at the time covered 
 with snow. Some people were to be seen carrying on 
 their shoulders the aged and paralytic. Several women 
 newly accouchees escaped with their infants, only to 
 die of cold on the rising grounds, from whence they be- 
 held their homes in flames. The inhabitants had not 
 all of them left the city, when the Swedes set fire to it. 
 The houses were almost wholly of wood, and so quickly 
 did the flames perform their work, that next day it 
 would scarcely have been known that a flourishing city 
 
 f Qu. Oldcslolie . — Oldeslo (Hubner.) — Oldesloe (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 e Altena or Altona (Vosgien. Morse.) — Altenau, Lat. Altcnavia 
 (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 h In 1640 it became subject to Denmark, and was constituted a city 
 in 16(54. (Ed. Enc.) — The reign of Frederick III. extended from 1648 
 to 1670.— P. 
 
 ‘ Magnus Steinbock (Swed. btenbock .) — P 
 
book cxlix.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 had stood there ! To add to the misery of these poor 
 people, thus ferociously driven from their homes, — when 
 the aged, the sick, and the women of feeble constitutions 
 dragged themselves to the gates of Hamburg, and 
 begged admission, it was refused, on the pretext that 
 there had been in Altona contagious sickness, and that 
 they durst not expose their own city to the risk of in- 
 fection !” a How true are the words of the English poet : 
 
 “ There is no flesh in man’s obdurate heart; 
 
 It does not feel for man !” 
 
 COVVPER. 
 
 The remains of Klopstock lie in a burial-ground at Ot- 
 tensen, a village, which, from its proximity, may be reck- 
 oned a suburb of Altona. b Between Altona and Ham- 
 burg are the cemeteries belonging to the latter city, re- 
 markable for their neatness and simplicity, being laid out 
 in compartments, intersected by avenues, and planted 
 with the black poplar, weeping ash, lindens, See. The 
 fishing- village of Blankanese," on the banks of the Elbe, 
 below Altona, is deserving the attention of the traveller 
 from its cleanness and picturesque situation. d 
 
 The small dutchy of Lauenburg formerly made part 
 of the French department of the Mouths of the Elbe; 
 by the treaty of 1815 it fell to Prussia, and was by that 
 power exchanged for Swedish Pomerania, which had 
 been given to Denmark by Sweden in exchange for 
 Norway. This dutchy is divided into two bailiwicks. 
 Ratzeburg is its capital, picturesquely situated in an 
 island on a lake to which it has given its name, and 
 communicating by two bridges with the opposite shores. 
 The town itself is built entirely of red bricks, and the 
 houses are roofed with red tiles, so that to the eye it 
 presents a clump of red brick dust. It is a place of 
 great antiquity, the church having been erected in 1157. 
 
 OF DENMARK. 395 
 
 The small river of Wackenitz forms a means of active 
 communication between Ratzeburg and the port of Lu 
 beck. But the greatest peculiarity about Ratzeburg is 
 that two of its quarters, called Domholt and Palmberg, 
 belong to the grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. e 
 Lauenburg, the capital of a bailiwick, is the most soutn 
 ern city in Denmark ; it stands upon the right bank of 
 the Elbe, at the point of junction of that river and the 
 canal of Steckenitz. It contains soap-works, breweries, 
 and manufactories of common Dutch-ware : f the toll 
 established upon the Elbe brings in 75,000 florins per 
 annum. Lauenburg derives its name from an old castle, 
 of which the remains are still seen, built by Henry the 
 Lion, and named in honour of him, Lcewenburg (Fort 
 of the Lion.)s In this castle was signed, in 1803, the 
 treaty by which Hanover was given up to France. 
 
 Situated between the Shetland Islands and Iceland, 
 the archipelago of Fceroe h is attached to the government 
 of Iceland. However, this small archipelago, w b Ln 
 rises in the midst of the Atlantic Ocean, belongs to Eu- 
 rope ; whilst Iceland, considered in a physical relation, 
 is a dependency of Greenland, a country which forms 
 part of America. 1 The Faroe or Faraer Islands’ 1 were 
 discovered during the ninth century by the Norwegians, 
 who formed a settlement there. 1 They gave them the 
 name of Faraer, from the word faar, which, in the 
 Scandinavian language, signifies sheep, because that ani- 
 mal was found in sole possession of the islands. 1 " These 
 islands are thirty-five in number, seventeen of which are 
 inhabited." The total population is about 6000 souls." 
 Strcemcee? is the largest ; it is thirteen leagues in length 
 by five in breadth; Astercee, to the west, 4 and Suderoec, 
 to the south," are the next in importance : the others, 
 namely, Sandcee, Waargae, Bordoee, Winder ae, s dimin- 
 
 a Voltaire, Histoire de Charles XII. liv. 7. 
 
 b Altona was originally a village in the parish of Ottensen. (Ed. 
 Enc.) — Ottensen was one of the parishes, constituting the old county 
 of Pinneberg, that fell to the share of Denmark, after the extinction 
 of the house of Schaumburg in 1040. See note “ p. 1072. — P. 
 c Blankenese (Morse.) — Blankennie (Tuckey.) — P. 
 d “ Rendsbvrg may be considered the best built town in Holstein; it 
 is situated on the banks of a canal which unites with the Eyder.* It 
 is a place of importance from its arsenal, its magazines, its barracks, 
 and especially its fortifications. It is the principal fortress in continent- 
 al Denmark, t now that the fortifications of Gluckstadt have been razed. 
 Heyde and Preetz are small towns, interesting only from their schools. 
 Pinneberg is merely a village, but Altona, on the right bank of the Elbe, 
 is, next to Copenhagen, the largest city in the kingdom, and the only 
 one that carries on a flourishing commerce ; it also possesses the most 
 important manufactures. It contains all the useful institutions and 
 places of amusement that distinguish opulent cities, and it is exten- 
 sively engaged in the herring and whale fisheries.” — This is all the 
 account, in the original, of the towns in Holstein, from Rendsburg to 
 Altona, inclusive. — P. 
 
 * Rendsburg is situated at the point where the canal of Kiel joins the Eyder. — 
 It is divided by the Eyder into the old and new town ; the former in Sleswick ; 
 the latter in Holstein. (Tuckey.) — P. 
 
 t Its yarn son is usually 3000, but it has accommodations for 15,000. (Tuck- 
 ey.)— P. 
 
 e “ Ratzeburg is its capital , it is situated on an island in a lake, to 
 the last of which it has given its name. By means of the small river 
 Wackenitz, it carries on an active communication with the port of 
 Lubeck. But what is peculiar to Ratzeburg, is the circumstance that 
 two of its quarters, called Domholt and Palmberg, belong to the 
 grand duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.” M. B. — The town of Ratze- 
 burg originally belonged in part to the county of Ratzeburg, and in 
 part to the bishopric of Ratzeburg ; the greater part to the former, and 
 the cathedral ( dnmldrche ,) with the quarter called Palmberg, in its 
 vicinity, inhabited by the principal families dependent on the bishop- 
 ric, to the latter. The bishopric possessed only this part of Ratzeburg, 
 and the bailiwick (amt) of Schoenberg, not far distant, in the direction 
 of Lubeck. The county of Ratzeburg afterwards fell to the dukes of 
 Lauenburg, and the bishopric to the dukes of Mecklenburg, whence 
 the present division of the town. — P. 
 
 f “ Faience” — delft. 1 
 
 s Literally, Lion-Fort or Castle. — P. 
 
 h This is probably intended for Faroe [Farae ?] — at least, it is so ar- 
 ranged in the Index to the original. — See notes k and"'. — P. 
 
 ' Iceland is described, book lxxvii. 
 
 k Faro or Ferro Islands (Guthrie.) — Faroe (Ed. Enc.) — Faroe or 
 Faroer Islands (Morse.) — Feme Islands (Tuckey.) — Fero, Fare, Faro, 
 or Faroer (Enc. Meth.) — Fero, Ferro, or Farre; Lat. Insults Glessaria. 
 (Hubner.) — See note 1 ”. — P. 
 
 1 The Faroe Islands appear to have been resorted to long before Ice- 
 land was discovered [Iceland was discovered about the year 860, by 
 a Norwegian pirate named Naddodr, who was accidentally driven on 
 the coast while on a voyage to the Faroe Islands ;] and the same 
 cause, the subjugation of the petty states of Norway by Harold the 
 fair haired, led to the colonization of both in the ninth century. [Ice- 
 land was colonized from Norway, in the year 874.] (Ed. Enc.) — The 
 Feroe (Fcrocr) Islands were discovered about the year 861, and be- 
 tween 860 and 872, three navigators visited Iceland. (Malte-Brun, 
 Hist. Geog. p. 390.)— P. 
 
 m The proper Danish orthography, according to this etymology, is 
 Faaraer (Sheep Islands,) from Dan. faar, Swed. far, sheep, and 
 Dan. aer (pin. of a,) islands. — Their name is thought to be derived 
 from far, a sheep, and a, an island, or from fer, feathers, or finally 
 from far, distant, as relative to their position with respect to Norway. 
 (Tuckey, vol. iv. p. 408.) — These words, in Tuckey, are not all in the 
 Danish. Far should be faar, and far, fern, in that language. — P. 
 
 D The group consists of 22 islands,* of which seventeen are inhab 
 ited. (Ed. Enc. Tuckey.) — P. 
 
 *25. (Morse.) — 24; 12 large, and 12 small. (Vosgien.) 
 
 0 5,500, in 1827. (Stat. Tab. 5500.) — 5209, in 1812, by census. (Ed 
 Enc.)— 4409, in 1782. (Tuckey.)— P. 
 
 p Dan. Stramae (Stream Island ;) the central island of the group. 
 — Stromce (Tuckey.) — Stromoe (Ed. Enc.) — Stromoe (Morse.) — P. 
 
 <1 This should be (Estcrcec (Dan.,) Eastern Island. — Osteroe (Tuckey.) 
 — Osteroe (Ed. Enc.) — Osteroe (Morse.) It is situated to the east of 
 Strcemoee, from which it is separated by a narrow channel. — P. 
 
 r Suderae (Southern Island,) the southernmost of the group. — Su- 
 deroe (Tuckey ) — Suderoe (Ed. Enc.) — Suderoe (Morse.) — P. 
 
 5 Sundae (Sand I .) — Vaagate (Waargoee is erroneous) — Vaagoe (Ed. 
 Enc.) Vaagoe (Tuckey.) — Bordae (Table I .) — Vidercce (Farther I.) is 
 the correct orthography, not Winderose — Videroe (Tuckey.) — P 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 396 
 
 ish gradually in size, and are surrounded by twenty- 
 eiglil still smaller islands, the extent of some of which 
 is less than a square league. The greater part of these 
 islands are covered with mountains of igneous origin, 
 which rise from 1800 to 2000 feet above the level of 
 the sea ; the decomposition of the rocks of which they 
 are formed, produces a gravelly and blackish earth, 
 which is covered with pasturage so much the richer 
 from its being watered by numerous rivulets ; bays 
 deeply indented surround these islands, and increase 
 the dangers presented by a navigation full of rocks and 
 rapid currents. The climate is not so cold as the lati- 
 tude would seem to indicate ; a the frosts last little more 
 than a month, and the winter is seldom rigorous enough 
 to cover the bays with ice. Summer, however, con- 
 tinues only during the two months of July and August; 
 but by one of those compensations which the wisdom of 
 nature presents, the furious storms which desolate these 
 
 1 They lie between 01° 20' and 02° 30' of north latitude, and be- 
 tween 7° 55' and 10° 25' of west longitude from Paris. [They lie be- 
 tween 01° 20' and 62° 25' N. and between 6° 15' and 7° 43' W. long, 
 from Greenwich. (Ed. Enc.) — P.] 
 
 b “ Legumes.” — This may signify vegetables cultivated for their 
 roots or leaves, such as turnips, potatoes, cabbages, &c. as well as 
 pulse or leguminous plants. — Barley and rye are the only cultivated 
 grains, and carrots and potatoes the only vegetables. (Tuckey.) — The 
 inhabitants being regularly supplied from Denmark with barley and 
 rj'e, and sometimes with pease, the cultivation of grain is carried to 
 a very small extent. Barley, turnips and potatoes are the principal 
 crops cultivated. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 c This might be translated very fine (asscz fine .) — In the Shetland 
 Islands, is a breed of sheep, running wild among the hills, remarkable 
 for the fineness and softness of its wool, which is chiefly employed 
 for knitting gloves and stockings. Some of the stockings have been 
 knit so fine as to sell at 40 shillings the pair. This breed is also found 
 in the mountainous parts of Sweden and Norway. Its wool is short 
 and very fine, like down, intermixed with some long hairs. The Ar- 
 gali or wild sheep, to which it approaches nearest of any breed appro- 
 priated by man, has the same fine close down, particularly in winter, 
 under a covering of coarse hair. Ed. Enc. art. Shetland. Rees’ Cyc. 
 
 [BOOK CXLIX. 
 
 islands purify the air, by dispersing the pestilential mi- 
 asmata which otherwise would threaten the inhabitants. 
 Wheat rarely ripens, but barley, rye and leguminous 
 plants b succeed well. However, the rearing of cattle is 
 much more attended to than agriculture. The horse, 
 the ox, and other domestic animals, are of a good 
 breed, but small size ; the sheep are covered with a 
 tolerably fine fleece.® The whale and herring fisheries, 
 and the pursuit of aquatic birds, d bring great profits to 
 the inhabitants. The knitting of woollen stockings is 
 also beneficial ; e they export about 120,000 pairs per 
 annum. The Foeroe Islands are divided into six dis- 
 tricts and seventeen parishes/ the government of which 
 is confided to a bailiffs who resides at Thorshavn , h the 
 only town in the islands. It is situated on the eastern 
 side of the island of Stroemoee ; a small fort defends it, 
 and a church, an academy,' a Latin school, and an hos- 
 pital, are its principal edifices. 
 
 art. Sheep. Sinclair’s Stat. Acc. Scot. vol. i. p. 394 (Delting,) vol. v. 
 p. 188 (Unst,) and vol. x. p. 198 (Bressay.) — P. 
 
 d Bird-catching is extensively pursued on the rocky coasts of these 
 islands, in a manner similar to that mentioned in the account of Nor- 
 way, p. 1043. — P. 
 
 e “ The knitting of woollen stockings is, next to these, the most 
 profitable employment.” — Stockings and knit jackets are at present 
 the chief articles of export. (Ed. Enc. 1817.) — P. 
 
 f There are seven parishes, and 39 places of worship, in the islands. 
 The religious establishment is under the superintendence of a provost. 
 (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 s The civil establishment is under the direction of a military officer, 
 commanding 30 men. Under the commandant are, the landfoged* or 
 treasurer, who also performs the duties of high-sheriff, and the syssel- 
 ment or governors of districts. The commandant and the landfoged 
 both reside at Thorshavn (Ed. Enc.) 
 
 * Dan. land, and foged, badiff or judge, 
 t Dan. sijsselmcvnd—syssel, a district, and mand, man. 
 h Dan. Thorshavn. — Eng. Thorshaven. (Tuckey.) — P. 
 
 * “ Gymnasium.” — It contains a Latin school, and a wooden church 
 covered with slate. (Tuckey.) — P. 
 
BOOK CXLIX.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF DENMARK. 
 
 307 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 
 THE DANISH MONARCHY. 
 
 Administrative Divisions of the Danish Possessions in Europe. 
 
 I. DENMARK PROPER. 
 
 1. DANISH ISLANDS. 
 
 Provinces and Dutchies. Islands. 
 
 Zealand 1 
 
 Zealand 1 
 
 Funen 
 
 Laaland 
 
 Aalborg 
 
 Viborg 
 
 Ribe' 
 
 Aarhuus t 
 
 Sleswick 
 
 Moen c 
 
 Bornholm 
 
 Stromose' 1 
 
 { Funen 
 Langland 1 
 C Laaland 
 ( Falster 
 
 Towns. 
 
 { Copenhagen ^ 1 
 Rceskilde 
 Frcderihsborg 
 Elsineur 
 Steege 
 Rasnne 
 Thorsliavn 
 ( Odensee 
 l Svenborg e 
 Rudkicebing 
 Maribcee 
 xVykioebingS 
 
 Holstein 
 
 Lauenburg 
 
 2. NORTH JUTLAND. 
 
 C Aalborg 
 ( Thistcd h 
 Viborg 
 C Ribe' 
 
 ( Fredericia 
 C Aarhuus 1 
 \ Handers 
 
 3. SOUTH JUTLAND. 
 
 Sleswick 
 Flensborg 
 Husum 
 Tondern 
 Apenrade 
 Hadersleben 
 Alsen Sonderborg 
 
 , Femern Burs 
 
 II. GERMAN PROVINCES. 
 
 "Gluckstadt 1 
 Kiel 
 
 Rendsburg 
 Heyde 
 Preetz 
 Altona 
 Ratzeburg 
 Lauenburg 
 
 Population. 
 
 104,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 1,200 
 
 7.000 
 
 1.000 
 
 2.500 
 
 1.500 
 
 7.000 
 
 2.000 
 1,200 
 2,000 
 1,000 
 
 6.500 
 
 1,000 
 
 5.000 
 
 2.000 
 
 4.000 
 
 6.000 
 
 4.500 
 
 8,000 
 
 16,000 
 
 4.000 
 
 2.500 
 
 3.000 
 
 3.500 
 
 2.500 
 
 1.500 
 
 5.000 
 
 7.000 
 
 6.000 
 
 2,500 
 
 3.000 
 24,000 
 
 2.000 
 
 2,500 
 
 Population of the States of Denmark , according to the census 
 made at the end of 1827. 
 
 1,937,150 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Danish provinces, comprising the dutchy of 
 
 Sleswick 1,521,270' 
 
 Dutchy of Holstein 374,740 
 
 Do. of Lauenburg 35,640 
 
 Feroe Isles'" 5,500 J 
 
 1 “ Seeland.” — Selande or Seelande (Enc. Meth.) — Selande or Ze- 
 lande (Vosgien.) — The above are French. — Zealand, generally in 
 English authors. — Lat. Selandia (Vosgien ;) Zeelandia (Hubner.) — Du. 
 Zeeland (Hubner.) — Germ. Seeland. — Dan. Sjceland, or Siceland. — P. 
 
 b The names in small capitals are those of the chief towns of 
 provinces; the names in italics, those of the chief towns of bailiwicks. 
 c Mccen, p. 1071. (See note b .) d Stroemoee, p. 1075 — 6. 
 
 e Svendborg (M. B. (p. 1071.) Tuckey. Pinkerton.) — Svenborg 
 (Morse.)— Sevenborg (Ed. Enc.) — Suevenborg,Sevenborg (Vosgien.) — 
 Schwinburg (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 f Langeland, p. 1071. (See note h .) 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Iceland 49,820 ) KK Krn 
 
 Greenland 5,740 J 515,560 
 
 f Island of St. Thomas') 
 
 Antilles 2 St. John 46,290 46,290 
 
 [ St. Croix J 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 Coasts of Guinea — Christiansborg, Frederiks- 
 borg, and some forts 25,000 25,000 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Hindostan — Tranquebar and Serampore" . . . 61,000 61,000 
 
 Total of the Danish possessions . . . 2,125,000 
 
 Views of the Danish Population in Europe. 
 
 Surface in square leagues 2,865 Inhabitants per square league 677 
 
 Legitimate. Illegitimate. . Total. 
 
 Births in 1827 . . . 34,315 2639 36,954 
 
 Deaths in 1827 . . . 26,160 
 
 Excess of births over deaths 10,794 
 
 Proportion of illegitimate to legitimate children . . . . 1 to 14 
 
 of deaths to births 2 to 3 
 
 of births to the population 1 to 52 
 
 of deaths to the population . 1 to 74 
 
 European Population according to their Language. 
 
 Speaking Danish 1,320,000 individuals. 
 
 German 550,000 
 
 Anglo-jutic" 18,000 
 
 FrieslandiCP 49,000 
 
 JVumber of Domestic Animals. 
 
 Horses 500,000. Horned cattle 1,100,000. Sheep 1,500,000 
 
 Average Exports of Domestic Animals. 
 
 Stallions 3,000. Mares 12,000. Cows 4,000. Swine 18,000. 
 
 Military and JYaval Force. 
 
 Army 38,800 men.i 
 
 f Ships of the line 4 
 
 Navy < Frigates 7 
 
 (_ Vessels of inferior size 18 
 
 Finances. 
 
 Revenue in francs 40,000,000. 
 
 Public debt 270,000,000. 
 
 s See note 0 p. 1071. 
 
 h Tysted (Morse.) — Situated on the north side of the Lym-Fiord, 
 near its western extremity. — P. 
 
 * See note ee p. 1071. k See note 11 p. 1071. 
 
 1 “ Gluckstadt.” — See note J p. 1072. 
 m See note k p. 1075. 
 n “ Tranquebar and Frederiknagor.” 
 
 ° “ Anglo-iotic.” 
 
 p “ Frisian or Frisic ( Frison .)” — See notes " and P p. 1064. 
 i According to M. Thaarup, Danish counsellor of state, the army 
 in 1825, was 60,000 strong. 
 
308 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 IBOOK C J. 
 
 BOOK CL. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued — Belgium, or the Netherlands , a 
 The country inhabited by the different tribes of the 
 Belgce, from whom Belgium takes its name, was of 
 much greater extent than the modern territory which 
 goes by that name. From the general description given 
 of it by Caesar, and a comparison of the particular 
 districts, (so far as it can be ascertained,) inhabited by 
 the tribes forming the nation of the Bclgcc, its bounds 
 seem to have extended from the mouth of the Seine 
 in the English channel to, or nearly to, the banks of the 
 Rhine, the Seine ( Sequana ) and the Marne ( Matrona ) 
 forming the southern boundary, and thus to have em- 
 braced not only the Netherlands or Belgium properly so 
 called, but the whole province of Picardy, and such 
 parts of Normandy, the Isle of France, Champagne and 
 Lorraine, as lie within the above line, besides part of 
 the Prussian States, lying to the westward of the Rhine. 
 In this country lay the immense forest of the Ardvenna 
 ( Silva Ardvenna, Ctesar, 1. 5.) b embracing, it appears, 
 great part of the country lying between the Meuse and 
 the Rhine, and the remains of which are still extant in 
 the Forest of the Ardennes. The Belgre distinguished 
 themselves by their bravery and their determined oppo- 
 sition to Roman encroachment and usurpation. Caesar 
 styles them “the bravest of all the Gauls,” and he as- 
 signs, as reasons for this, their distance from the civili- 
 zation and politeness of Roman Gaul, their thus little 
 intercourse with their more civilized neighbours, and 
 their frequent wars with the Germans on the other side 
 of the Rhine.' It is obvious from his own account, that 
 he had but little to boast of in his wars with these high- 
 spirited tribes, but ultimately they were borne down 
 under the overwhelming pressure of the gigantic power 
 of Rome, and compelled to acknowledge her authority. 
 Yet it would appear, that, all along, some of the tribes 
 upon the coast, as well as their maritime neighbours on 
 the north side of the Rhine, yielded but a nominal sub- 
 iection to the supremacy of Rome, and maintained, till 
 the fall of that empire, a considerable share of inde- 
 
 » This and the following Book are greatly modified by the transla- 
 tor, in order to adapt them to the present state of Holland and Belgi- 
 um. The title of the Book, corresponding to this in order, in the 
 original, is : Description of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. — Section 
 First. — Dutch Provinces ; — that of the Book, corresponding to the next, 
 is : Description of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. — Seciion Second. 
 — Belgic Provinces, and the Grand Dutchy of Luxemburg. — The term 
 Netherlands, here given as synonymous with Belgium, properly in- 
 cludes all the Low Countries, and is so used in the expression, King- 
 dom of the Netherlands. Indeed, Low Countries (Fr. Pays-Bas) is 
 only a translation of Netherlands, the Teutonic form of the word (Du. 
 Nederland en ; Germ. Niedcrlande.) When the people of the Nether- 
 lands revolted against Spain, the seven Northern Provinces, having 
 united under a confederacy, and also having embraced the Protestant 
 religion, were called the United Netherlands (United Provinces, or 
 United States,) and also the Protestant Netherlands, while the ten 
 
 pendence. When Rome, in the fourth and fifth centu- 
 ries, fell by its own weight, and through the incessant 
 attacks of the northern nations, the Belgian provinces 
 became the prey of these intruders, principally of the 
 Saxons and Franks. Without attempting, where in 
 point of fact history gives but little information, to trace 
 the early history of Belgium, suffice it to say, that it 
 formed part of the great empire of Charlemagne, but 
 during the feeble reign of his successors both in France 
 and Germany, it fell under the power of independent 
 chieftains, with territories more or less extensive. Dur- 
 ing the same period, many of the cities acquired not 
 only immense wealth in the pursuit of commerce, but 
 privileges amounting almost to independence of their 
 local sovereigns. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centu- 
 ries, Belgium fell under the power of the powerful 
 house of Burgundy, from which it passed by marriage 
 to the house of Austria about the commencement of the 
 sixteenth century, and at the division of the Austrian 
 family into two branches, the Spanish (the elder branch) 
 and German, it became part of the immense possessions 
 of the Spanish branch. From various causes, it failed 
 to acquire its liberty when the seven more northerly 
 provinces threw off the Spanish yoke, and remained part 
 of the Spanish monarchy till the war of the succession 
 in the beginning of the eighteenth century, when, at the 
 peace of Utrecht, Belgium became part of the posses- 
 sions of the German branch of the house of Austria. 
 With that family it continued till conquered by the 
 French in 1794 and 1795, and with them it remained 
 as a part of the French empire, till the downfall of Na 
 poleon’s power in 1814. In opposition to the wishes 
 of the people, who utterly disliked an alliance or union 
 with the Dutch, Belgium, by the fiat of the allied pow- 
 ers, became part of the new kingdom of the Netherlands 
 under the Orange family. d 
 
 Let us now cast a glance on the political organization 
 of what was the monarchy of the Lhiited Netherlands.' 
 According to a constitutional law promulgated on the 
 
 Southern Provinces, remaining under the power of Spain, and ad 
 hering to the Catholic religion, were called the Spanish Netherlands 
 (afterwards, having passed under the House of Austria, and partly into 
 the possession of France, the Austrian and French Netherlands,) and 
 also the Catholic Netherlands. The term Netherlands has, however, 
 though improperly, been confined to the Belgic Provinces, and is so 
 employed by Pinkerton, while the term Holland, properly the name of 
 a single province, has in like manner been extended to the whole of 
 the Dutch Provinces. — P. 
 
 b Sylra Ardvenna. Ctesar. Bell. Gall. lib. v. § 3. — P. 
 
 c Ctesar. de Bel. Gal. lib. I. c. i. 
 
 d The above paragraph is added by the translator. — P. 
 
 e “ — on the political organization of the Netherlandish monarchy 
 ( monarchic ne.erlandaise)” — kingdom of the Netherlands. (See note 
 a .) — The original was published in 1829. — P. 
 
 J 
 
book cl.j DESCRIPTION OF BELGIUM. 399 
 
 24th of August 1815, it was governed by a king, who, 
 sharing the legislative power with the States General 
 divided into two chambers, alone had the right of ma- 
 king peace or war, of concluding alliances, and of ratify- 
 ing treaties. There was, however, an obligation upon 
 him to advise with the States, 1 whenever the interest or 
 the safety of the country demanded it. The sovereign 
 disposed of civil and military employments, conferred 
 the order of nobility, and governed at his pleasure the 
 colonies. He proposed laws to the Chambers, but they, 
 on the other hand, had also the power of submitting 
 propositions to him which he might adopt or reject. 
 The crown was declared hereditary in the male line, 
 following the right of primogeniture ; but females might 
 be called to the throne, after the complete extinction of 
 the male line. The nation was divided into three 
 classes, viz., the nobility or equestrian order, the order 
 of the citizens or mercantile order, and that of the in- 
 habitants of the country or landed and agricultural in- 
 terest. b The order of the nobility was represented in 
 the States General by the Upper Chamber, composed 
 of from forty to sixty members, whose prerogatives, 
 conferred by the king, were not hereditary, but for life 
 merely. The Lower Chamber comprehended 110 
 deputies, nominated by the provinces, one half by the 
 Belgian, and the other half by the Dutch provinces. 
 These two Chambers, forming the national representa- 
 tion, were assembled every year. In each province, 
 questions of a more immediate or local interest were sub- 
 mitted to the deliberation of deputies from the three 
 orders, who formed the Provincial States, and whose 
 members enjoyed equal rights, equal independence, and 
 equal freedom. These States assembled as often as the 
 king called them together, but at least once a-year. 
 
 There are perceivable, in the ensemble and in the 
 details of this organization, advantages not possessed by 
 either the English constitution or French charter.' 
 But the parliamentary debates of the Low Countries 
 revealed to Europe the vicious tendency of many law's 
 then in force, and certain alterations were imperiously 
 called for, such as an alleviation in the burden of taxes, 
 and the introduction of various institutions indispensable 
 to the happiness of the nation, viz. the entire free- 
 dom of the press, the establishment of juries, and the 
 irremovability of judges. The punishments attendant 
 upon delinquencies of the press, were of a severity not 
 proportioned to the present state of things. One law 
 allowed judges to inflict, for the repression of certain 
 offences, arbitrary punishments, and those of the most 
 degrading nature, such as branding and whipping. It 
 cannot be said that the government of the United Neth- 
 erlands' 1 was altogether opposed to the necessities of the 
 country ; several abuses were redressed, and the new 
 methods of instruction were not, as in France, through 
 the instigation and clamours of a stationary but powerful 
 faction , e stigmatized as both immoral and dangerous. 
 Hence the number of scholars has been, in Belgium, 
 
 a “ — to communicate his measures to the States.” — The person of 
 the king was inviolable, but his ministers were responsible. — P. 
 
 b “ The nobility or equestrian order,* the order of the towns, and the 
 order of the country” — the last corresponding to the order of peasants 
 in the Swedish diets. — P. 
 
 *In all the nations on the continent of Gothic origin, the nobility is called 
 the class or order of Knights (Germ. Ritterstand, Du. Dan. Ridderstand, 
 Swed. Riddarstdnd .) — P. 
 
 * This has a reference to the state of things in France previous to 
 the revolution in 1830. — Trans. 
 
 l L- ■ l ■ —= : 
 
 nearly twice the number of that in France, in proportion 
 to the population of the two countries/ 
 
 It has been already remarked, that the people of Bel- 
 gium were not consulted, when the Belgian provinces 
 were, along with the seven Dutch provinces, formed 
 into one kingdom. The object of the great European 
 powers, who took upon them to model the smaller states 
 as they thought proper, in carrying through this union, 
 was to form, in a quarter which had always been open 
 to French attack, and presented no proper barrier of 
 resistance, a state sufficiently powerful, especially when 
 supported by Great Britain and Prussia, to repel ag- 
 gression on the part of its southern and powerful neigh- 
 bour, and prevent Belgium from becoming what had 
 been so often the case, a mere arena of contention be- 
 tween France and Austria. There were many things, 
 however, that tended to make this union disliked by the 
 Belgians. There existed strong feelings of aversion to 
 the Dutch, arising from different causes, among others, 
 the difference of their religion, the Dutch being of the 
 Reformed religion, while the Belgians were bigoted 
 Roman catholics. Besides, having been for twenty 
 years united to the French empire as an integral part of 
 it, and finding a ready market there for their internal 
 productions, their interests, and their habits and predi- 
 lections were all French. This was particularly the 
 case in the southern provinces, and in the grand dutchy 
 of Luxemburg. In such a state of things, much wis- 
 dom and deep and continued attention to the interests 
 and feelings of the different parties, was on the part of 
 the rulers necessary, to reconcile conflicting opinions 
 and prejudices on one side and another. To give con- 
 sistence, and insure duration to a body formed of such 
 heterogeneous materials, it became necessary that a pa- 
 ternal government should guarantee to all, by means of 
 the advantages of a representative system, liberty civil 
 and religious, showing impartiality in the conferring the 
 rewards of the state, and taking care not to shock the 
 prejudices of the Roman catholics in Belgium, who were 
 naturally jealous of a protestant sovereign, and of the 
 predilections which be might be supposed to have 
 towards his Dutch and Protestant subjects. 
 
 There is too much ground to believe that the Belgi- 
 ans had just cause of complaint against the government 
 of the King of the Netherlands. The severe measures 
 which were adopted to check, as was said, the licentious- 
 ness of the Brussels press, with the manifest partiality of 
 the government towards its Dutch subjects, combining with 
 other causes of complaint, and with the dislike that had 
 all along been felt towards the union with Holland, pro- 
 duced a spirit of almost universal dissatisfaction through- 
 out all the Belgian provinces ; and the revolution at 
 Paris in the close of July 1830 was the signal for 
 another at Brussels in the month of August following, 
 which has ended in the separation of Belgium from 
 Holland. It appears that the allied powers have con- 
 sented to this, but difficulties have arisen in the final 
 
 d “ Pays-Bas” — Netherlands or Low Countries. — See note a p 
 1078.— P. 
 
 « “ A powerful stationary party” — party opposed to the progress of 
 improvement. — The royalists and liberals, in France, in relation to this 
 circumstance, are called the stationary and moving parties (parti sta- 
 tionnaire — purti du mouvemcnt.) — P. 
 
 f This statement, in the original, refers to the whole kingdom of the 
 Netherlands in 1829. — “ The number of scholars, in proportion to the 
 population, is nearly double that in France.” — P. 
 
400 EUR 
 
 settlement of the Belgian affairs and the choice of a 
 sovereign, in consequence of the opposition expressed 
 in Belgium to any member of the Nassau family occupying 
 the throne, and the offence that may be given to the great 
 powers of Europe in the object of their choice. A short 
 time will decide a matter, it appears, intimately con- 
 nected with the peace of the world. 3 Let us now pro- 
 ceed with our description of the country. b 
 
 In Belgium the asperities of the ground are merely 
 small mountains, so small indeed that they may well be 
 considered simply hills : they belong to a group of the 
 Alpine range which predominates in France, and which 
 we have called the Franco-Celtic.® In like manner, 
 those which extend into the grand dutchy of Luxem- 
 burg and province of Liege, are merely a prolongation 
 of the chain to which we have formerly given the name 
 of the Ceveniio-Vosgian. i 6 The branch of the Ar- 
 dennes, which belongs to the same chain, extends into 
 Hainault, and the provinces of Namur and Limburg. 
 
 The Low Countries are, by the smallness of their 
 rise above the level of the ocean the rendezvous of sev- 
 eral rivers which flow majestically across the sandy 
 plains of this flat country. The Scheld (£/ Escaut, ) c 
 on quitting the French territory, traverses part of Hai- 
 nault, forms on the east the boundary of West Flanders, 
 divides East Flanders into two parts, and forms the line 
 of demarcation between East Flanders and the province 
 of Antwerp. It then divides itself into two principal 
 branches, which, in falling into the sea, form the islands 
 that compose the province of Zealand. The Meuse, 
 by the Belgians called Maas,s takes its rise in Lorraine, 1 ' 
 
 OPE. l book el- 
 
 and seven leagues from the frontiers of France, at the 
 city of Namur, is joined by the Eambre ; it then, after 
 watering the provinces of Namur, Liege and Limburg 
 separates Nortli Brabant from Holland, and, uniting it- 
 self to the Waal 1 or the Rhine, takes its course to the 
 German Ocean. After this junction, a popular error 
 gives the usurped name of the Maas or Meuse to the 
 united stream, proceeding upon the mistaken notion that 
 the Waal or Rhine, the greater river, throws itself into 
 the lesser river, the Meuse; whilst it is the Waal, the 
 principal arm of the Rhine, which conveys the united 
 waters to the ocean. Other arms less considerable pre- 
 serve the name of the Rhine, and disappear amidst the 
 sands near Leyden and in the gulf of Zuyderzee. kl 
 
 In Belgium there is no lake of any importance : the 
 marsh called the Peel, in the provinces of Limburg and 
 North Brabant, covers a great extent of ground. 
 
 A geological examination of the different formations 
 in Belgium, m exhibits in the most elevated part of it, 
 namely, in the mountains of the grand dutchy of Lux- 
 emburg, deposits of argillite" which extend towards the 
 north, surrounded by granitic rocks,® and on which there 
 repose, towards the east, reaching as far as the Moselle, 
 the older limestones? containing organic remains ; to the 
 west, on the contrary, in descending towards Brussels, 
 the argillite forms a great basin, filled with limestones 
 containing anthracite, the combustible of the older 
 formations, next with sandstone, and lastly, with all the 
 rocks of the coal formation/ What is most remarkable 
 about these deposits, thus imbedded in the midst of the 
 schists 3 from whence the slate 1 is taken, is, that the rocks 
 
 3 The allied powers have agreed by protocol to acknowledge the 
 independence of Belgium, as a kingdom, and have guarantied its 
 political existence as such, and the integrity of its territory. The 
 boundaries between Belgium and Holland are to be such as they were 
 between the Seven United Provinces and the Austrian Netherlands, 
 previous to the French revolution. The Belgian Congress have elect- 
 ed Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg for their sovereign, who now (Nov. 
 1831) occupies the throne as king of Belgium. The Dutch have re- 
 cently invaded the country, and been driven back by the troops of 
 France. The line of boundaries with Holland remains yet unsettled, 
 and also the position of Luxemburg, the province having sent depu- 
 ties to the Belgian Congress, and being claimed by the Belgians as a 
 part of their territory, while the fortress of Luxemburg is held by the 
 Dutch troops, and the dutchy is claimed by the German Diet as a part 
 of their confederacy, vested under their sanction in the king of the 
 Netherlands, and reversible to the duke of Nassau, one of their con- 
 federates, consequently inalienable without their consent. (See note 
 c p. 1092.) — Since writing the above, a treaty for the settlement of 
 Belgium has been formed by the Allied Conference at London, which 
 was immediately accepted by Belgium, and soon ratified by Great 
 Britain and France. The other powers delayed their ratification, but 
 the most recent accounts have stated its ratification by Austria and 
 Prussia; its ratification by Russia, and acceptance by Holland, re- 
 maining still undecided. (May 1832.) — P. 
 
 b The two last paragraphs are added by the translator. — P. 
 c Description of France, p. 878. d Ibid. 
 
 e “In Belo-ium, the greatest inequalities of the surface ought rather 
 to be considered as hills than as mountains : they belong to that group 
 of the Alpine system, which extends through the interior of France, 
 and to which we have given the name of the Franco-Celtic. Conse- 
 quently, those which extend into the grand dutchy of Luxemburg and 
 the province of Liege, are merely a prolongation of the chain which 
 we have styled the Ceveno-Vosgian .” — It should be recollected that 
 system, group, chain, and branch, form the series of divisions, accord- 
 ing to which mountains are arranged in this geography. The Franco- 
 Celtic is a group of the Alpine system; the Cevcno- Fosgian, a chain 
 of the Franco-Celtic group; and the Ardennes, a branch of the Ceve- 
 no Vosgian chain. — P. 
 
 < “ The Escaut, called the Schelde in the dialect of Brabant ( Braban - 
 <;on.)" — Scheldt, in most English authors ; Scheld (Pinkerton); Germ. 
 Du. Schelde; Fr. Escaut, Escault ; Lat. Scaldis. — P. 
 
 s Du. Germ. Maas — Maase (Kilian, 1G42); Fr. Meuse; Eng. Maes, 
 Maese or Meuse ; Lat. Mosa. — P. 
 
 11 This statement is added by the translator. — The Meuse rises in the 
 
 department of the Upper Marne in Champagne, and then flows through 
 the departments of the Vosges and the Meuse in Lorraine, and that 
 of the Ardennes also in Champagne, before it enters Belgium. — P. 
 
 1 “ Wahal.’’— Du. Waal — Wad (Kilian) ; Lat. Vahalis . — P. 
 
 k Usually called, the Zuyder Zee (Southern Sea.) — P. 
 
 1 See p. 1093 of this vol. 
 
 "■These remarks in the original refer to the whole kingdom of the 
 Netherlands. They, however, apply chiefly to Belgium, Holland con- 
 sisting almost entirely of alluvium, or at most of tertiary deposits. — P 
 
 n “ Schistes ardoisiers” — literally, roof-slate schists (clay slate, ar- 
 gillaceous schistus, or argillite.) — P. 
 
 0 Argillite sometimes occurs in beds in gneiss and even in granite, 
 it is then considered primitive, and furnishes some of the finest roof 
 slates. The most extensive deposits of argillite, however, are transi 
 tion, surrounding and overlaying the gneiss and granite, and associ- 
 ated with graywacke. Transition argillite also furnishes roof 
 slates. — P. 
 
 p “ Calcaires anciens" — transition limestones. — In the country lying 
 between the Ardennes on the west, and the Moselle on the east, and 
 pervaded by the chain of the Eyfel, noted for its extinct volcanoes, the 
 fundamental rock is chiefly clay slate, associated with gray-wacke, and 
 saccharoid magnesian limestone, containing trilobites, consequently 
 transition, and covered in a few places with horizontal layers of new 
 red sandstone. (Daubeny on Volcanoes.) — In the account of the Prus- 
 sian province of the Lower Rhine in this geography (Book cxx.,) the 
 limestone in the same district is called transition (intermediaire.) — P. 
 
 a Anthracite is more frequently imbedded in clay slate or graywacke j 
 but some of the black transition limestones contain imbedded masses 
 of anthracite, of which there are examples in the north of France. 
 (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 r The following is the translation of the above sentence, copied lite- 
 rally as it stands in the English edition. The reader may consider it 
 as a fair sample of the manner in which the translator has treated 
 matters of science. “ A geological examination of the different earths 
 ( terrains ) in Belgium shows us, in the most elevated part of it, viz., in 
 the mountains of the grand dutchy of Luxemburg, quarries of slate- 
 stone which stretch towards the north, surrounded by granitic rocks, 
 and above which there lie towards the east, as far as the banks of the 
 Moselle, ancient limestone strata with organic remains ; towards the 
 west, on the contrary, descending towards Brussels, the schisti form a 
 great basin filled with limestone and containing anthracites, the com- 
 bustible of ancient earths, then sandstone, and lastly all kinds of rocks 
 of carbonized earth.” 
 
 * Argillite. * “ Roof-slate ( ardoise V 
 
vook cl. j DESCRIPTION 
 
 v'hicli compose them, in place of presenting themselves 
 in inclined beds, rise vertically to the surface of the soil, 
 and hence the immense coal-mines in the environs of 
 Namur and Mons must be worked by means of shafts. a 
 Wliat convulsions must have been necessary in order to 
 give to these strata, originally horizontal, the disposition 
 which they now present, whether we seek the cause of 
 this disturbance in frightful sinkings of the ground, or in 
 elevations from beneath proceeding from the terrible 
 action of subterraneous fires ! Above the deposits thus 
 reposing on the argillite, other more recent deposits, 
 covered by the chalk formation, and this again by the 
 clay and sand belonging to the tertiary formations, ex- 
 tend over the greater part of the Low Countries, from 
 the frontiers of France to the mouth of the Ems, while 
 the older formations occupy, beyond a line which may 
 be traced from Tournay to Maestricht, all tbe country 
 extending as far as the Moselle. 
 
 This country b is furrowed by a great number of val- 
 leys and dales. This irregularity of surface,” says a 
 Belgian savant, 0 “ the existence of a multitude of small 
 streams, and the mixture of naked rocks with meadows, 
 arable lands and small forests, give it a very picturesque 
 appearance ; but, as is the case in almost every country 
 where the primitive formations predominate, the soil is 
 unfruitful, with the exception, however, of the parts 
 situated to the north of the Sambre and the Meuse, 
 over which loose deposits of secondary formation have 
 spread themselves ; consequently, agricultural and min- 
 eral riches are there found united, which has led to the 
 remark, that the miner and the mineralogist, accustom- 
 ed to inhabit barren mountains, were astonished to find 
 themselves, in Hainault, in the midst of plains covered 
 with a brilliant vegetation, and where cultivation is car- 
 ried to the highest pitch of perfection.” The same ob- 
 server has remarked, that, on the right bank of the 
 Meuse, the disposition of the valleys presents two dis- 
 tinct modifications. Some of these valleys are straight, 
 wide, and of little depth, bordered with gently sloping de- 
 clivities, and extending from north-east to south-west ; but 
 they are intersected by irregular valleys of greater depth, 
 running in every direction, and serving as beds to rivers : d 
 a disposition arising from the geological constitution of 
 the country. The other valleys have no relation to the 
 nature of the soil : they have not made their way through 
 the hard rocks, and are stopped by arenaceous deposits. 
 They appear to demonstrate that the excavation of val- 
 leys cannot be attributed to the erosive action of water, 
 
 a “ Pits (putts)’’ — not levels. — P. 
 
 b That occupied by the older formations (primitive, transition, and 
 older secondary.) — P. 
 
 c M. J. J. d’Omalius d’Halloy, Memoires pour servir h la descrip- 
 tion geologique des Pays-Bas, de la France. 
 
 d “ — serving as outlets ( ecoulement ) to rivers.” 
 
 e There is to me an obscurity and a degree of contradiction in these 
 remarks on the two classes of valleys, which I have not been able to 
 remove. Is it not intended to state that the long, regular valleys, ex- 
 tending from north-east to south-west, are those which intervene be- 
 tween the ridges formed by the outgoings of the different formations, 
 and that the irregular and deeper valleys, are those which cross these 
 ridges ? Such is the arrangement of the valleys in England between 
 the tertiary basin of London, and the slate mountains of Wales; the 
 different secondary formations from the chalk downwards, particularly 
 those between the chalk and the new red sandstone, forming by their 
 outgoings, long parallel ridges, from north-east to south-west, be- 
 tween which intervene valleys or troughs, of equal length and par- 
 allelism. These ridges are crossed by irregular secondary valleys, ev- 
 idently of posterior formation, and apparently, from the rolled pebbles 
 with which they are strowed, and which abound at their outlets, of 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 54 51 
 
 OF BELGIUM. 401 
 
 but to tbe disruptions that have taken place in the hard 
 est rocks, of which the waters have taken advantage to 
 make themselves a passage. e 
 
 The quartzose rocks, and those which contain am- 
 phibole and form strata in the midst of the slate forma 
 tion/ are quarried to a great extent for the purpose 
 of paving roads : in the formation which contains anthra- 
 cite is found that great variety of marbles, constituting 
 an important part of the mineral riches of the Low 
 Countries, and especially that kind which derives from 
 the numerous remains of marine organized bodies imbed- 
 ded in it, tbe name of small granite ( petit granite .) 
 Tbe same formation also contains in abundance rich ores of 
 iron and lead, and gives birth to the celebrated thermal 
 waters of Chaudfontaines near Liege. In the midst of 
 the schistous rocks * 1 ' on the right bank of the Meuse, a 
 country either barren or covered with forests, there are 
 quarried those whetstones 1 which are sent to every part 
 of Europe, and those schists charged with alum k which 
 are sold under the name of carpenters’ pencils lastly, 
 from the same slate formation proceed the mineral 
 waters of Spa, which have acquired in Europe so great 
 celebrity. 
 
 In regard to climate, the provinces of Belgium differ 
 from each other chiefly in their being subject to a great- 
 er or lesser degree of humidity. In the dutchy of Lux- 
 emburg, the climate is healthy and temperate, but 
 rather moist than cold. The oak, the ash and the 
 beech predominate in the extensive forests of that 
 province ; horned cattle find abundant pasturage ; the 
 vine is there cultivated to some extent, but produces an 
 indifferent wine ; fruit-trees are rare ; wheat succeeds 
 with difficulty, but the inhabitants derive great advan- 
 tage from the cultivation of rye and oats, and particu- 
 larly the potato. In the province of Liege the at- 
 mosphere is often hazy ; its valleys, fertile and well 
 cultivated, especially that watered by the Ourthe and 
 the Embleve, yield, in addition to the productions of 
 Luxemburg, wheat of excellent quality, and its territory 
 is equally rich with the other in forests, in game, in 
 swine, and in horned cattle. The air in the province 
 of Namur is sharp and healthy; the soil, extremely 
 various, readily admits of cultivation ; the sheep have a 
 finer wool, and their flesh is much more succulent, than 
 in the two other provinces. In Hainault an air equally 
 healthy is breathed, they enjoy a climate equally tem- 
 perate, the same fertility is observable, and the forests, 
 although more scattered, produce timber excellent for 
 
 aqueous formation, and frequently serving as passages for rivers, 
 which commencing in one of the parallel valleys, and running for 
 some distance in the line of its course, turn abruptly, without being 
 obstructed in their direct progress by any solid impediment, and cross 
 one of the ridges by a secondary valley into the next trough, and so 
 on to the lowest. The corresponding formations in Belgium are ar- 
 ranged in the same way, the longitudinal ridges and valleys are the 
 same, and the course of the rivers is similar; hence, I infer that the 
 two classes of valleys are such as I have mentioned. — P. 
 
 1 Argillite. 
 
 6 Chaude-fontaine (For. Qu. Rev.) — Chaufontaine — in a valley, two 
 leagues from Liege. (Vosgien.) — P. h Argillite. 
 
 ‘ “ Hones (pierres a. rasoir)’’ — novaculite. Generally found in 
 argillite ; the striped variety occurs in the vicinity of Namur. — P. 
 
 k Aluminous Slate — a variety of argillite ; employed in the manu- 
 facture of alum. 
 
 1 “ Carpenters’ crayons” — black chalk, drawing or marking slate ; 
 a variety of argillite. It occurs usually in the vicinity of alum slate, 
 and is very nearly allied to it ; but it contains more carbon, and less iron 
 pyrites. (Ed. Enc.) — It is from the decomposition of the pyrites that 
 the alum in these slates is formed. — P. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 402 
 
 [BOOK CJL , 
 
 carpentry-work.* * West and East Flanders lie under 
 the influence of a humid climate which frequently gives 
 rise to dangerous fevers ; the summer is hot but rainy, 
 and the winter cold ; the north-west winds often render 
 the winter formidable in West Flanders, by the inunda- 
 tions which they occasion. Both these provinces rear 
 horses, too heavy, indeed, for riding, but well adapted 
 for the draught. The other domestic animals are re- 
 markable for their fine condition, and for this they are 
 indebted to the excellence of the pasturage. The 
 vegetables which succeed best in Flanders are tobacco, 
 hemp, madder, and, above all, flax, the principal riches 
 of the country. Destitute of forests, but possessing 
 abundance of peat, they make great use of this as fuel. 
 The provinces of South and North Brabant, and Ant- 
 werp, are healthy, although moist ; the soil is particu- 
 larly fertile, except in the northern part of North Bra- 
 bant, where heaths and forests of pine still cover some 
 sandy wastes, and where peat accumulates at the bottom 
 of extensive marshes. Yet, doubtless, here, as has been 
 done in the territory of Antwerp, assiduous labour might 
 transform useless plains into fruitful meadows. Lim- 
 burg, no less marshy, is occupied to great advantage 
 in the rearing of cattle and bees. The province of North 
 Brabant, noticed here from its immediate proximity to 
 South Brabant, belongs to the kingdom of Holland. 
 
 In general, it may be remarked, b with regard to the 
 agriculture of the Netherlands, that it has long been 
 distinguished both for its productiveness and variety ; 
 and that the excellence of the Flemish system of ma- 
 nuring, their disuse of fallows, and skill in the rearing 
 of cattle, have been noticed and recommended by the 
 most experienced British agriculturists. The farms in 
 East and West Flanders are in extent commonly aboul 
 ten, and seldom exceed twenty hectares, 0 while, in what 
 are called the Walloon Provinces/ they are usually 
 from two to three hundred hectares. The industry of 
 the Flemings, without the use of the wheel plough or 
 strong English harrow, has within two hundred years 
 converted a tract of land, originally a barren and sandy 
 heath, into a rich and beautiful garden ; and the produce 
 of wheat here is often not less than 32 bushels to two 
 of seed, — of oats 60 bushels to three, — whilst scarcely 
 in any part of Great Britain does wheat yield more than 
 from eight to 10 times. Considerably more grain is 
 produced than the population requires. The total value 
 of the capital employed in agriculture, in both the Bel- 
 gian and Dutch provinces/ has, from apparently accurate 
 tables, been estimated at £433,153,333 sterling, and 
 the gross annual produce of agricultural industry at 
 £50,095,166 sterling, and deducting two-thirds of the 
 gross produce, to defray the price of seed and manure, 
 of labour, of repairs of buildings, and farming utensils, 
 loss arising from the mortality of cattle, and the cost of 
 the food of men and beasts, the net yearly produce is 
 £16,698,389 sterling. 
 
 Mines of iron, lead, copper, and coal, are worked v. 
 the provinces of Liege, Namur, Hainault, and Luxem 
 burg, and in these provinces, there were in 1822, 93 
 great furnaces, 206 forges, 68 martinet houses (for 
 hammering), 19 founderies, 17 laminoirs or rolling 
 houses, and 12 tin factories. Excellent bar and sheet 
 iron, axletrees and nails, machinery and implements of 
 all kinds, are there manufactured. Articles of steel, 
 copper, and bronze, are made in Hainault and Namur: 
 the cutlery of Namur is excellent, and the hardware of 
 Liege of the best quality. The woollen manufacture is 
 carried on briskly at different places, and the Nether- 
 lands cloths are much sought for, both from their quality 
 and price, and are exported both to the north of Europe 
 and America. The manufacture of linen, of sail-cloth, 
 of ticking, and of thread both for sewing and lace, is 
 carried on to some extent in a great variety of towns, 
 both in Brabant and Flanders. In East Flanders there 
 are 31,697 looms employed in weaving flax, 6124 for 
 cotton, and 639 for mixed stuffs. The lace trade 
 has not much increased of late years, but the laces 
 of Brussels and Mechlin retain all the delicacy and 
 richness for which they have so long been famed. The 
 cotton trade, both in the spinning and weaving depart- 
 ments, is carried on to a considerable extent. The 
 spinning establishments are principally in East Flanders 
 and Brabant ; and stuffs of all kinds are made in abun- 
 dance at Ghent, Brussels, Antwerp, Courtray, Bruges, 
 Ypres, Lokeren, and St. Nicholas. At Ghent, in par- 
 ticular, this trade flourishes, as may be judged by the 
 fact of its containing 68 steam engines for spinning and 
 weaving, while 25 years ago there was not one in all 
 Flanders, the first having been erected in 1805. Ghent 
 imports annually 40,000 bales of cotton wool, and the 
 new canal, intended to communicate with the Scheld at 
 Ternengen/ will give additional facilities for procuring 
 the raw material. There are considerable breweries at 
 Louvain, at Brussels, and at Mechlin. The breweries 
 at Louvain brew about 4000 tuns monthly.? There are 
 sugar refineries at Ghent and its neighbourhood ; but no 
 distilleries in Belgium of any importance. By a recent 
 calculation/ the annual amount of the manufacturing 
 industry of the Netherlands, embracing both Dutch and 
 Belgian provinces, is 675 million francs, or £28,125,000 
 sterling, and the profit to the manufacturer on this is said 
 to be 184 million francs, including the interest upon his 
 capital and stock. 
 
 The foreign trade of Belgium is carried on almost en- 
 tirely from Antwerp, and, it would appear, is greatly on 
 the increase. In the year 1822 the number of ships 
 that entered this port was only 580, while in 1829, they 
 amounted to 1028, and its imports in a recent year 
 (1827) exceeded, in all great articles of consumption, 
 excepting tea and tobacco, the two great sea-ports of 
 Amsterdam and Rotterdam. 
 
 In this growing country new roads are making, and 
 
 a “ — produce excellent timber ( bois de charpente.)” 
 b The Editors [English] beg to notice that, for most of what follows 
 regarding the agriculture, manufactures, &c. of the Belgian States,* 
 they are indebted to a very able article in the “ Foreign Quarter- 
 ly Review,” No. X. Vol. v. 
 
 * Included ill this, and the five following paragraphs. — P. 
 c A hectare is equal to two and a-half English acres. Eng. Ed. 
 [2 acres 1 rood 35.4 rods. — P.] 
 
 d The Walloon dialect is spoken in Liege, Namur, Hainault and 
 South Brabant. (Malte-Brun, t. viii. p. 819.) — P. 
 
 e The estimates were made before the Revolution in 1830, which 
 has separated these provinces. 
 
 f Terneuzen (For. Quart. Rev. No. X. vol. v.) — Ter Neuze (Hub- 
 ner.) — Temeuse (Vosgien.) — Situated on the West Scheldt, 12 miles 
 S. E. of Flushing. — P. 
 
 e There are between 30 and 40 breweries in Louvain which make 
 about 4000 tuns each monthly. (For. Qu. Rev. loc. «'<•)- -P. 
 h See Table at end of Book CLI, page 11] I. 
 
 J 
 
&oo*:cjl.i DESCRIPTION 
 
 some of those lately made are not inferior to any in 
 Europe. In addition to the numerous old canals, which 
 tend so much to facilitate commerce and promote inter- 
 course among the people, two canals are on the point 
 of completion, viz. one from Ghent to Ternengen,® 
 which will connect that city with the mouth of the 
 Scheld ; and another from Charleroi b to Brussels, and 
 round its whole circuit, so that coals may be brought by 
 water to every part of the city. A third, of far greater 
 magnitude, is in execution, to connect the Meuse and 
 the Moselle, by a course of fifty leagues, from Liege to 
 Wasserbillig, with two subordinate branches.® This is 
 expected to be finished in 1835. 
 
 in place of entering into any details here on the im- 
 portant subjects of education, literature, &,c. the reader 
 is referred to the Tables which are placed at the close 
 of Book cli, and which refer, it will be seen, to both 
 divisions of the late kingdom of the Netherlands. 
 These tables convey all the information which it would 
 be- warrantable to introduce into a work necessarily so 
 general in its nature as the present. 
 
 It has been already observed, that the great bulk of 
 the Belgians are of the Roman Catholic persuasion. 
 Under the recently dissolved kingdom of the Nether- 
 .ands this conferred no peculiar privileges : no religion 
 was considered as being that of the state ; all enjoying 
 the same rights, and equal liberty. The newly estab- 
 lished state of Belgium has recognised the same princi- 
 ple. It is deserving of notice here, that, under the 
 United Kingdom, the charges for religion, which sup- 
 plied the spiritual wants of the whole community, 
 excepting the Jews, did not on the whole exceed 
 £252,056 sterling, for a population of six millions. 
 The revenues of the church of England are four mill- 
 ions sterling ! 
 
 It may be remarked that the Belgic provinces assimi- 
 late in some respects both to Holland and France. 
 Their soil, higher than that of the Dutch provinces, but 
 less elevated than that of the neighbouring French de- 
 partments, is not so humid as the former, and better 
 cultivated than the latter. The towns in Belgium are 
 better built than in France, and equally neat, equally 
 clean with those in Holland. d The inhabitants present 
 several points of resemblance with the two nations be- 
 tween which they are situated. The Belgian is as 
 honest, and as much a friend to independence as the 
 
 OF BELGIUM. 403 
 
 Hollander ; but by bis gaiety, his politeness, bis gen- 
 erosity, and bis love of luxury and show, be closely 
 resembles the Frenchman. 
 
 Let us commence our description of the cities and 
 towns of Belgium with Antwerp (Flem. Antwerpen, 
 Fr. Anvers ) e on the eastern bank of the Scheld, which 
 deserves our attention, both from the recollections of two 
 memorable epochs, and from its own actual importance. 
 After having been, as is believed, the city of the Ambi- 
 vareti , r a people of whom Ctesar speaks, and after 
 having survived the ravages of the Normans in the 9rh 
 century, it went on, increasing in greatness, till the 1 6th 
 century, at which time it was regarded as one of the 
 richest and most flourishing cities in Europe, possessing 
 a population of more than 200,000 souls. s The Dutch, 
 after they had thrown off the Spanish yoke, ruined the 
 commerce, and destroyed the prosperity of Antwerp, 
 by sinking vessels loaded with stones at the mouth of 
 the Scheld, thus interrupting the navigation of the river, 
 excepting to vessels of small burden.' 1 Become, after the 
 union of Belgium with France, the capital of the depart- 
 ment of the Two Nethes, ik under the fostering care of 
 Napoleon, who saw its importance in different respects, 
 immense labours raised Antwerp, almost immediately, 
 to the rank of one of the principal maritime cities of the 
 French empire. Its cathedral is the wonder of the Low 
 Countries, and one of the finest Gothic buildings in Eu- 
 rope ; it is 500 feet in length, 230 in breadth, and 360 
 in height ; its arches are supported by 125 pillars, form- 
 ing 230 arcades. 1 Several paintings of Rubens and 
 other great masters decorate the interior; marble pillars 
 of different colours ornament the choir, the chapels, and 
 the portal ; its spire rises 451 feet above the ground, 
 and it contains one of the finest sets of bells in Belgium.® 1 
 Let us ascend to the highest gallery of this pyramidal 
 tower, and throw a glance over the magnificent specta- 
 cle which presents itself to view. We are then placed 
 in the centre of a panorama with a radius of fifteen 
 leagues; we see around us in every direction the 212 
 streets of the city, and its twenty-two public squares ; 
 we see the town-house, famous for its fine architecture, 
 and the houses which surround it, whose height is so 
 great that they much surpass the highest in Paris, and 
 whose triangular pediments, with noble flights of steps,® 
 indicate their antiquity ; the exchange, one of the finest 
 in Europe, and the church of St. James, where is to be 
 
 1 See note f p. 1082. 
 
 b Charleroy. 
 
 c One to the Meuse above Dinant ; the other to Mersch on the small 
 river Else, which is to be made navigable to the town of Luxemburg. 
 (For. Qu. Rev.) — P. 
 
 d “ The towns are as well built as in France, and as neat and as 
 contiguous as in Holland.” 
 
 e Du. Germ. Antxoerpen. — Germ. Antorff (Hubner.) — Eng. Antwerp. 
 — Fr. Anvers. — Span. Amberes. — P. 
 
 f “ Ambivarites" — the French orthography for Ambivariti, a people 
 in Brabant. (C®sar. Bell. Gall. iv. § 6.) — The Ambivarcti were a peo- 
 ple in the Vivarais, dependent on the JEdui. (C®sar. Bell. Gall. vii. 
 § 69.)— P. 
 
 ? This statement of the population is added by the translator. — In 
 1568 the trade is supposed to have been at its greatest height, and the 
 number of inhabitants was computed at 200,060. (Pinkerton.) — Ac- 
 cording to Guicciardini, the population of Antwerp, when its com- 
 merce was most flourishing, was 100,000; but Busching makes the 
 number of inhabitants 200,000, about the middle of the 16th century. 
 (Ed. Enc.)— ^he present population is 65,000. — P. 
 
 b This sentence is added by the translator. — The Dutch fort ofLillo 
 commanded the approach to the harbour ; as to the supposed impedi- 
 ments, they are found to have been fabulous. (Pinkerton.) — The 
 Dutch had the complete command of the Scheldt by means of fort 
 
 Lillo ; it was also agreed by Philip IV., by an article in the treaty of 
 Munster (1648,) that no large merchant vessel should sail to this city, 
 but that the cargo should first be unloaded in the Dutch ports, and 
 then carried in small vessels to Antwerp. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 1 “ Deux-N&thes.” 
 
 k So called from two rivers of that name ( JYcthcs ) which join the 
 Scheld near Antwerp. Tr. [The Great and the Little Nethe (Du. 
 JYctte) water that part of Brabant to the east of Antwerp ; they unite 
 near Lier to form the Nethe (proper,) which itself unites with the 
 Dyle to form the Rupel, which finally enters the Scheldt at Rupel- 
 monde, 8 miles S. of Antwerp. The Dyle receives the Demer from 
 the east, and the Senne from the west, before it meets the Nethe. — P ] 
 
 1 It has 230 vaulted arcades, supported by 125 columns. (Delices des 
 Pays-Bas. t. i. p. 264. Liege, 1769.) — P. 
 
 m The tower of the cathedral is 466 feet in height, including the cross, 
 which is fifteen ; its dial-plate is 30 feet in diameter, and 90 in circum- 
 ference. It has 33 large bells, and two chimes ( carillons .) (Delices des 
 Pays-Bas, t. i. p. 264.) — P 
 
 “ “ Etages en forme de gradins” — rising, story above story, in the 
 form of steps. — These houses are built in the Flemish style, with the 
 gable to the street, and with the stories successively diminishing, till 
 the upper part of the front, here called fronton (pediment,) assumes a 
 triangular form. — P. 
 
 t _ _ 
 
1 
 
 404 EUR 
 
 seen the tomb of Rubens ; and, in the fine square of 
 Mccr , a the former imperial palace, built by order of 
 Napoleon. The six gates of the city, its superb quays 
 and docks, the magnificent suburb of Bergerbout, the 
 port capable of containing more than a thousand vessels, 
 the extensive arsenal, and the citadel, one of the strongest 
 in Belgium, and the Scheld, whose breadth at some dis- 
 tance from the port is 1(500 feet, all render magnificent 
 the appearance of this city, the birth-place of Teniers, 
 of Rubens, b of Van Dyck, of Jordaens, and of other 
 pelebrated men. Looking towards the north-east, there 
 is seen, nine leagues from Antwerp, the town of Turn- 
 hout, where are manufactured laces and different fabrics 
 of linen, hemp and wool; and five leagues to the south, 
 Malines or Mechlin* a large and well-built city, whose 
 ancient cathedral is a very beautiful edifice. 
 
 These boundless plains, whose rich and fertile extent 
 the eye measures without obstacle, do not present one 
 single rising ground ; there is nothing but a succession 
 of meadows, arable land, and woods. Towards the west 
 East Flanders is seen stretching out, with its twenty 
 towns, all of them rivalling each other in importance. 
 Four leagues from Antwerp, we arrive by a magnificent 
 load at the elegant town of St. Nicholas, d rich from its 
 manufactures ; three leagues beyond that, Lokeren is 
 watered by the Durme, which, rendered navigable to 
 the mouths of the Scheld, favours the important trade 
 carried on by this town in grain and in merchandize of 
 every description. Still farther on, three leagues from 
 Lokeren, shine the steeples of Gand or Ghent,* the an- 
 cient capital of Flanders, which, in the time of Charles 
 V., surpassed Paris in extent of ground. Its form is 
 triangular ; the Scheld, the Lys, and the two small 
 rivers Lieve and Moere, form more than twenty-six 
 islands/ united by more than 300 bridges. Traces of 
 Spanish domination are still to be recognised in trav- 
 ersing this city ; many of its houses resemble those of 
 Madrid in their architecture, which forms a singular con- 
 trast with the number of its canals, in which Ghent 
 resembles Amsterdam. Magnificent quays, spacious 
 public squares, and agreeable walks, in a walled in- 
 closure of four leagues in circumference, place Ghent in 
 the rank of large and beautiful cities ; but the popula- 
 tion being only about 70,000 souls, and therefore small 
 in proportion to the extent, the aspect of the city is 
 after all monotonous and melancholy. The citadel 
 built by Charles V. is one of the largest in Europe ; it 
 is, however, of no great strength, and only gives the 
 city a secondary rank among the fortified towns of the 
 Low Countries. The cathedral, a monument of the 
 munificence of the same Emperor, is overloaded with 
 
 OPE. [DOCK 
 
 ornaments, but the na\ r e is magnificent. The neigh- 
 bouring tower, called the belfry, has a set of bells cele- 
 brated for their number and variety. Philanthropy, 
 together with the arts and sciences, possesses rich and 
 valuable establishments in this birth-place of the hellen 
 ist Daniel Heinsius, of the sculptor Delvaux, and of 
 the astronomer Philip Laensberg,? — in this rich and 
 industrious city, which for thirty years was the capital 
 of the French department of the Scheld. Charles V. 
 w r as born in this city ‘24th February 1500. h His being 
 a native of Ghent did not, however, prevent the cruel 
 usage it met with from himself in person in 1540. The 
 crime of the citizens was the assertion of unquestionable 
 rights secured to them by their sovereigns, the ancestors 
 of the emperor, and their inconsiderately taking up arms 
 in support of these rights. Sensible of their folly in 
 attempting to resist a power so overwhelming, they sent 
 ambassadors imploring his mercy. His answer was a 
 terrible one. “ Though he chose to enter the city on the 
 twenty-fourth of February, his birth-day, he was touched 
 with nothing of that tenderness or indulgence, which was 
 natural towards the place of his nativity. Twenty-six 
 of the principal citizens were put to death ; a greater 
 number were sent into banishment ; the city was de- 
 clared to have forfeited all its privileges and immunities ; 
 the revenues belonging to it w r ere confiscated ; its an- 
 cient form of government was abolished ; the nomination 
 of its magistrates was vested for the future in the Em- 
 peror and his successors ; a new system of laws and 
 political administration was prescribed ; and in order to 
 bridle the seditious spirit of the citizens, orders were 
 given to erect a strong citadel, for defraying the ex- 
 pense of which a fine of 150,000 florins was imposed 
 on the inhabitants, together with an annual tax of 6000 
 florins for the support of the garrison.” 1 Ghent never 
 recovered this blow. An old traveller 1 * says, “ If Ghent 
 has had the honour of giving birth to so great a prince, 
 it was used so roughly afterwards by him, that we may 
 say it had been better for that city he had never been 
 born.” 
 
 Alost (Flem. Aalst,') on the banks of the Dcnder, 
 five leagues to the south-east of Ghent, contains a town- 
 house remarkable for its antiquity. It had formerly the 
 title of an imperial city. Oudcnarde (Flem. Ouden- 
 aardeny is celebrated for the battle in 1708, in which the 
 French were compelled to yield to the numerical force 
 of the confederated army of Austrians, Dutch and Eng 
 lish, under the command of Prince Eugene and the 
 Duke of Marlborough.” It was dismantled by the 
 French in 1745. 
 
 Satisfied with the magnificent spectacle beheld from the 
 
 a The street called the Mere is so wide that six carriages can pass 
 abreast. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 b This is added by the translator. — Rubens was born at Cologne 
 1577. He was son of a counsellor at Antwerp, who had retired to 
 Cologne, during the troubles in the Low Countries. He however 
 returned at an early age to Antwerp, where he was educated and 
 spent the greater part of his life, and where he died 1640. — P. 
 
 c “Malines or Mechelen." — Du. Mechelen; Germ. Mecheln ; Eng. 
 Mechlin; Fr. Malines. — P. 
 
 d Du. St. JViklaas. — P. 
 
 e “Gand or Gent." — Du. Gent — Ghcndt (Kilian ;) Eng. Ghent; 
 Fr. Gand. — P. 
 
 f It is advantageously situated at the conflux of the rivers Scheldt, 
 Lys, Moere and Lieve, which intersect it in various directions, and 
 divide the town into 26 small islands. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 6 Ph. Lansberghe or Lansbergius (Gorton) — Lansberghe or Lands- 
 berghe (Diet. Hist. Caen) — Lansberg (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 h This and the remaining sentences in the paragraph are added by 
 the translator. — P. 
 
 ' Robertson’s History of Charles V., B. VI. anno 1540. 
 
 k Misson, Voy. d’ Italie, &c. [Max. Misson, born in France, of 
 protestant parents, about the middle of the 17th century ; a refugee in 
 England after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, he accompanied a 
 young nobleman, as his tutor, on a tour through Holland, Germany 
 and Italy (1687), and on his return, published his observations with 
 the title: JVouveau Voyage d' Italie; died at London, 1721. (Beau- 
 vais.) — P.] 
 
 1 Fr. “ Andenarde" (M. B.,) Ondenarde (Vosgien ;) Du. Audenaardt 
 or Ovdenaarde (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 m The battle of Oudenarde was fought 11th July (N. ^) 1708. Ac- 
 cording to Tindal (continuation of Rapin), the French were superior 
 in number to the allies ; and their own accounts admitted the loss of 
 10,000 killed and taken prisoners, besides cannon, &c. — Translator' s 
 JVote. 
 
book cl.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 top of the cathedral of Antwerp, let us now traverse the 
 province that we have just run over with our eyes ; let 
 us follow one of the fine roads that lead from Ghent, its 
 central point, and direct our course towards Bruges, the 
 capital of West Flanders. Whoever has travelled this 
 country, must have remarked the freshness and beauty 
 of the higher class of females, whose likenesses we cannot 
 avoid thinking we have already seen in the pictures of 
 the great Flemish masters, and the plump and cheerful 
 countenances of the jolly village dames which the pencil 
 of Teniers has so faithfully represented in his village 
 festivals and tavern scenes. The cities, towns and 
 hamlets stand so thick together in this populous country, 
 that, astonished at the sight, one can only exclaim with 
 Philip 11. of Spain, “ It is one great city.” 
 
 Bruges or Bruggen , a which, while Belgium remained 
 united with the French empire, was the capital of the 
 department of the Lys, is one of the most ancient Flem- 
 ish cities. It was a fortified town in 867, and it is even 
 possible that some parts of its walls are of as old a date 
 as the above year. The streets are wide, but the houses I 
 with triangular gables give them a very disagreeable 
 Gothic aspect. The principal church, dedicated to 
 Our Lady, b is surmounted with a very tall spire, which 
 is seen without difficulty in coming out of the river 
 Thames. 0 This city has given birth to several great 
 men, amongst others, to Louis Bergen, d who invented 
 the art of cutting diamonds. It possesses, besides an 
 academy of painting and sculpture, several libraries and 
 rich collections. Its harbour e may contain more than 
 100 ships ; but after having been, from the thirteenth 
 to the fifteenth century, one of the first commercial 
 cities in Europe, its prosperity has ever since been on 
 the decline. Still, however, it maintains frequent com- 
 munications with Ghent, by means of a fine canal which 
 bears its name, and by another canal, vessels of from 
 200 to 300 tons, come up from Ostend. [Bruges stands 
 in the midst of a fertile and highly cultivated country, 
 and living is abundantly cheap; but the population, al- 
 though still considerable (upwards of 30,000)/ is scanty 
 when compared with the size of the town, and the de- 
 serted look it has, reminds the traveller that it has lost 
 the high rank it enjoyed before the evil days of Philip II. 
 of Spain. In the great church of Our Lady, there 
 stands the monument of the last Duke of Burgundy, 
 Charles the Rash,s who was killed in the battle of Nan- 
 
 1 “ Bruges or Brugge.” — Eng. Fr. Bruges ; Du. Brugge . — P. 
 b “ Notre Dame.” — -The church of Notre Dame is a very beautiful 
 structure, and its lofty steeples serve as a sea-mark to the ships that 
 visit the port of Ostend. (Ed. Enc.) 
 
 c “ Which is seen soon after leaving the mouth of the Thames.” — 
 The steeple of Notre-Dame is very lofty, and is observed by mari- 
 ners as they approach the harbour of Ostend. (Del. des Pays-Bas, t. 
 ii. p. 377.) — P. 
 
 d Louis Berghen [Robert de Berghen. Ed. Enc.] discovered the 
 method of cutting and polishing diamonds by means of their own 
 powder, in 1456. (Rees’ Cyc.) — P. 
 
 e “ Basin.” — Its port is at the extremity of the canal which leads to 
 Ostend, and is capable of containing 100 merchant vessels, and from 
 the sluices which are constructed on the Reye canal between Bruges 
 and the sea, at Lecke and Plassendal, vessels of 400 tons can easily 
 approach the very centre of the city. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 f 36,000. (Stat. Tab.)— P. s Charles the Bold. 
 
 h Killed at the siege of Nancy, Jan. 5, 1477. (Moreri. Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 ' The sentences inclosed in brackets are added by the trans- 
 lator. — P. 
 
 k “ Ostende,” Fr. — Du. Germ. Ostende. — Du. Oost-Ende (East-End), 
 from its position in relation to the village of Wcst-Ende (West-End.) 
 (Hubner.) — Eng. Ostend. — P. 
 
 1 It was lately stated in the newspapers, that since the revolution 
 
 OF BELGIUM. 405 
 
 cy 1476. h His remains were transferred from Nancy to 
 Bruges by his great grandson, the Emperor Charles \ .]* 
 
 Ostend , k with less than a third of the population of 
 Bruges, since it contains only 10,000 inhabitants, is also 
 threatened with the destruction of its trade ; already its 
 harbour, encumbered with sand and gravel, cannot re- 
 ceive large vessels, except at high water. 1 * We ought 
 not to pass by here the famous siege of Ostend in the 
 war for Dutch independence. 1 " Indifferently fortified, it 
 yet resisted the attacks of the Spaniards for more than 
 three years, (from 5th July 1601, to 20th September 
 1604.)” Above 300,000 cannon shot were fired by the 
 besiegers, whose loss in killed amounted to 73,000 men, 
 while that of the besieged is said not to have been 
 greatly inferior. 0 When at last it surrendered, it was 
 “ reduced to a mere mass of ruin. The victors marched 
 in over its crumbled walls and shattered batteries. 
 Scarcely a vestige of the place remained beyond these 
 terrible evidences of destruction. Its ditches filled up 
 with the rubbish of ramparts, bastions, and redoubts, left 
 no distinct line of separation between the operations of 
 its attack and its defence. It resembled rather a vast 
 sepulchre than a ruined town, a mountain of earth and 
 rubbish, without a single house in which the wretched 
 remnant of the inhabitants could hide their heads — a 
 monument of desolation on which victory might have sat 
 and wept.”? 
 
 Nine leagues to the south of Ostend, on the banks of 
 the Yperlee, stands Ypresp formerly the rival of Bruges 
 in industry and commerce, but its population was then 
 more considerable than at present. It has still manu- 
 factures of woollen stuffs and lace, but its real impor- 
 tance lies in the fortifications erected since the peace in 
 1815. If, however, we wish to see an industrious city, 
 let us turn our steps to Courtray, T divided by the Lys 
 into two nearly equal parts ; its trade is supported by its 
 manufactures of fine cloths, napery, and lace, which 
 equal those made at Valenciennes. 3 Two considerable 
 fairs are held there annually. Cortryclc, its Flemish 
 name, appears to come from Cortoriacum, a city of the 
 Gauls, whose site it undoubtedly occupies. Its environs 
 are famous in history for a great number of battles. In 
 1302, a French army was defeated by the Flemings in 
 the battle called the battle of the Spurs, because the 
 victors found upon the field more than 4000 gilded spurs. 
 In 1382, Charles VI. of France avenged this defeat in 
 
 in August and September 1830, the government of Belgium has begun 
 to clear out the harbour of Ostend, which had been neglected by the 
 Dutch government. — Trans. 
 
 ni This account of the siege is added by the translator — P. 
 
 " Taken by Spinola, Sept. 14, 1G04. (Enc. Metli.) — P. 
 
 0 The Spaniards lost more than 80,000 men, and the besieged, whose 
 garrison was several times renewed, more than 50,000. (Enc 
 Meth.) — P. 
 
 P History of the Netherlands by T. C. Grattan. Lond. 1830. 
 
 ‘i Fr. Eng. Ypres, Iprcs ; Lat. Jpra, Iprcc ; Du. Yperen — Yper or 
 Ijper (Kilian ;) Germ. Ypern. — P. 
 
 r Fr. “ Courtray ” — Covrtrai (Vosgien ;) Eng. Courtray ; Du. Kort- 
 ryk (Hubner) — Cvrtrijck (Kilian.) — P. 
 
 s “ — fine linens, table linen and lace, the last in imitation of that 
 made at Valenciennes.” — The flax which grows in the neighbour- 
 hood has the character of being the strongest and the finest in 
 Europe, and the goods which are manufactured from it, are particu- 
 larly celebrated. The manufacture of linen cloth and table linens is 
 carried on to a great extent. There are in the town, 22 bleachfields, 
 17 for linens and 5 for thread. The lace which was made here, in imi- 
 tation of that of Valenciennes, had a great demand both in France and 
 England. (Ed. Enc.) — The most important manufacture in Valen 
 ciennes, is that of lace, called Valenciennes. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 406 
 
 :t victory obtained at Rosebecke, where the Flemings 
 sustained a loss of 40,000 men, in which battle their 
 leader James Artavelde, the far-famed brewer of Ghent, 
 was killed.® In 1794, an army of young and newly 
 raised Frenchmen twice defeated at Courtray the old 
 troops of the Austrians, supported by the English and 
 Hanoverians. 
 
 On the right bank of the Scheld, Hainault contains 
 several places memorable in the annals of war. Near 
 Tournay, Fontcnoy recalls to memory the victory ob- 
 tained in 1745, by the French under the celebrated j 
 Marechal Saxe over the allied army commanded by the ! 
 Duke of Cumberland. Fleurus is celebrated in the 
 Spanish annals for the victory gained by the troops of 
 Spain over Count Mansfeldt in 1622; for that of Mare- ' 
 sehal Luxemburg in 1690 ox er the imperial army ; for 
 the battle of 26th June 1794. where Jourdan defeated 
 the Austrians under the Prince of Saxe-Cobourg, which 
 led to the entire conquest of Belgium by the French; 
 and for that of 15th June 1315 (ihree days before the 
 Hattie of Waterloo), where Napoleon defeated the 
 Prussians, and compelled them to retreat. In the en- 
 virons of Mons, St. Denis and Steenkerke witnessed, 
 in 1678 and 1692, the defeat by Luxemburg of the 
 allied forces under the command of Wiliam Prince of 
 Orange (king William III.) ; and at Jemaj/pe, Dumou- 
 riez xvas covered with glory on the 6th November 1792. 
 In this battle the present king of the French, Louis 
 Philip, greatly distinguished himself. The Austrians 
 met with a total defeat. b 
 
 Tournay, e two leagues from the frontiers of France, 
 is divided by the Scheld into the old and the new town. 
 In the latter, a superb quay planted with trees, forms 
 the finest and most frequented promenade in the city ; 
 the houses are well built, and the streets clean and 
 straight. The other quarter, much inferior in elegance, 
 is the city which served as a residence to several kings of 
 France of the first race, and which was erected into a 
 bishopric in the fifth century. The cathedral, whose 
 four dark spires are seen from a considerable distance, is 
 admired for its beauty ; the interior is overloaded with 
 sculpture and the richest ornaments. It is believed to 
 have been founded by Childeric I., whose tomb was ac- 
 cidentally discovered in 1655, in taking down some old 
 bouses which surrounded the church. An excavation 
 seven feet in depth, brought to light a leathern bag 
 
 1 This statement respecting Artavelde is added by the translator. — 
 James Artavelde, the far-famed brewer of Ghent, was killed in a tu- 
 mult at Ghent, A. D. 1345. It was his son Philip Artavelde, who was 
 Killed in the battle of Rosebecke. — P. 
 
 b “ Fontenot/, near Tournay, recalls the victory at which Louis XV. 
 was present;* Fleurus\ is celebrated in the annals of Spain by the 
 victory which its troops g%ined over Mansfeldf in 1022, and in the 
 lonir series of French victories, by that in which Marshal Luxemburg 
 defeated the imperial army in 1690, by that in which Jourdan defeated 
 tlie English and Austrians, and which delivered Belgium into the 
 power of the French, and lastly, by that two days preceding the cele- 
 brated defeat in 1815. § At St. Denis and Steenkerke, \\ in the envi- 
 rons of Mons, Luxemburg defeated the allied forces commanded by 
 William of Orange, in 1078 and 1692,11 and at Jemmappes** in the 
 same vicinity, Dumouriez covered himself with glory on the 0th of 
 November, 1792.” 
 
 * Louis XV. is said by his firmness to have turned the victory in favor of the 
 French. (Russell’s Mod. Eur.) — P. t Fleury (Hubner.) 
 
 t Not Count Mansfeld, but Ernest, natural son of Peter Ernest, Count Mans- 
 field.— 1>. 
 
 § This is doubtless intended for the battle of June 16th, usually called the 
 battle of Ligny. The campaign commenced on the 15th, during which day 
 the French drove the Prussians from Thuin to Fleurus, where the latter look a 
 oosition, but were compelled to retreat again in the evening. On the 16th, the 
 
 [KOOK CL. 
 
 containing more than one hundred pieces of gold and as 
 many of silver, the iron part of an axe and also that of a 
 javelin, a sword-blade, five clasps, a case containing a 
 steel pen or style, the binges of two writing tablets,* * 1 a 
 small head of an ox in enamel,® and two rings, one of 
 which bore a seal with the words, Childerici regis. 
 These different ornaments in gold xvere accompanied 
 with several figures of bees in gold and silver, which ap- 
 peared to have belonged to a royal mantle ; the whole 
 was mingled with bones, among which xvere distinguish- 
 able txvo human skulls and the skeleton of a horse, afford- 
 ing a proof that the Franks were accustomed to be 
 interred with their arms, their clothes, their battle horse, 
 their most precious jewels, and perhaps with some spoils 
 of their enemies, for one of the txvo skulls was most 
 probably that of a slave or of a vanquished warrior. 
 Tournay, which might accommodate more than 60,000 
 souls, contains but little more than half that number : f 
 it is, however, an industrious and commercial town, and 
 its carpeting, its cloths, s its camlets, and its porcelain 
 wares, are known over all Europe. 
 
 Quitting the fine road to Brussels at Ath, h a small 
 city, known from its college, and whose fortifications 
 have never been able to resist the attacks of enemies, 1 
 we take on the right hand the road which leads to Mons. v 
 This city, which derives its principal wealth from its 
 coal mines, is the capital of the province of Hainault. 
 It is large, and strongly fortified, and there are few 
 places that have suffered more from the inevitable ca- 
 lamities of war. In 1572, Louis of Nassau employed a 
 singular stratagem to make himself master of it. He 
 disguised some of his soldiers as wine-sellers, who con- 
 ducted into the city several carts loaded xvith casks 
 having a double covering, the outer containing xvine, 
 and the inner concealing arms. After having paid the 
 duties, the pretended wine-sellers slew the guard and 
 custom-house officers, and opened the gates to their 
 commander. At the coal-mines at Hornues, near Mons, 
 M. de Gorges employs 2000 workmen, for xvhom he 
 has built a handsome town, consisting of 260 neat houses, 
 with a garden to each. The streets are laid out with 
 uniformity, and well paved ; and in the centre of the 
 village is a large square, planted xvith trees, in which is 
 the ball-room for Sunday amusements, the town-hall, and 
 the school of mutual instruction, xvhere 400 children 
 are gratuitously educated. The workmen have the 
 
 French, with their centre east of Fleurus, attacked and defeated the Prussians 
 at St. Amand and Ligny. — P. 
 
 || Steenkerken (Hubner.) — Steenkerck, Sleinkerck, Sleinkerque. (Enc. 
 Meth.) — Steenkirk (Eng.) — P. 
 
 IT William III. then prince of Orange, attacked the quarters of the duke of 
 Luxemburg at St. Denis near Mons, after the treaty of Nimeguen was signed 
 (1673,) but gained no decided advantage. (Russell's Mod. Eur.) — William III. 
 attempted to surprise the French army, under Luxemburg, at Steinkirk in 
 1692, but in consequence of his mistakes, the battle was totally lost. (Rus- 
 sell.)— P. 
 
 ** Jemappes, Jemappe, Gemappe, Jemmapes. — P. 
 c Tournai. — Du. Doornik (Hubner) — Domick (Kilian.) — P. 
 d “ — a case containing a style for writing, the hinges of two tab- 
 lets — ” 
 
 e In gold enamelled. (Del. des Pays-Bas.) — P. 
 f Population, 38,000. (Stat. Tab.) — P. 
 e “Linens ( toiles .)” h Du. Anth. Aeth . — P. 
 
 * It xvas taken by the French in 1697 and 1701, by the allies in 
 1707, and again by the French in 1745. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 k Fr. Eng. Mons ; Lat. Mons or Montes Hannon ia ; Du. Bergen in 
 Heneeromcen (Hubner) — Berghen in Hcnegmnce (Kilian ;) Germ. Berg- 
 en im Hennegau . — The Latin, Dutch and German names signify, the 
 hill or hills in Hainault. — Mons is situated partly on a hill and partly 
 in a plain on the Trouille. — P. 
 
book cl.] DESCRIPTION OF BELGIUM. 407 
 
 gratuitous use of store-houses for all purposes, and of 
 the luxury of baths, and appear happy and comfortable. 
 The benefits which a great capitalist has it in his power 
 to confer, were never more strikingly exemplified than 
 in this village of Hornues.® 
 
 Five leagues beyond the Sambre, which we cross 
 near the town b of Merbesle, we see on a hill the small 
 but strongly fortified town of Philippeville, originally 
 the village of Corbigni, 0 but fortified in 1555 by order 
 of Mary, queen of Hungary, the sister of Charles V., 
 and to which she gave the name of her nephew Philip 
 II. ; two leagues to the south-west lies the town of Ma- 
 rienbourg, A a fortress of still less importance, built by 
 the same queen. Dinant, on the right bank of the 
 Meuse, is defended by a good citadel, and contains 
 several churches, one of which appears to be of great 
 antiquity ; we dare not, however, admit the truth of the 
 tradition, that it occupies the site of a temple of Diana, 
 which gave its name to the town. 
 
 A road alike beautiful and picturesque borders the 
 left hank of the Meuse, and leads to Namur, e built at 
 the junction of the Sambre with that river. It is be- 
 lieved that this place, renowned in all the wars of the 
 Low Countries, and become stronger than ever since 
 the erection of the kingdom of the Netherlands, has 
 succeeded to the Oppidum Atuaticorum, mentioned in 
 Ctesar’s Commentaries/ The situation of Namur, at j 
 the confluence of two great rivers, favours its trade and | 
 industry. Its fine cutlery, and the manufacture of com- 
 mon pottery and leather, occupy a great number of 
 hands ; the sale of its marbles forms one of the most 
 important branches of its trade. Nothing can be more 
 enchanting than the environs of this city. At first, you 
 see the river confined betwixt steep mountains, crowned 
 with thick forests ; farther on, its bed widens, its descent 
 becomes more rapid, the ground lowers, and its waves 
 press rapidly onwards ; soon you see meadows extend 
 along its banks ; it then proceeds slowly, taking large 
 windings, as if to enjoy longer the freshness of the beau- 
 tiful verdure ; its surface covered with barges, and its 
 bed bordered by a road crowded with travellers and 
 fields fertilized by labour, present a moving picture, 
 which renders the variety in the landscape more inter- 
 esting ; but w r e must quit this animating scene, rise from 
 hill to hill towards the west, and descend again into the 
 beautiful plains of South Brabant. 
 
 The first town we pass through is Nivelles, e once a 
 place of much importance. At the commencement of 
 the thirteenth century it was surrounded by walls. It 
 has three suburbs, five churches, and an hospital. Forty 
 
 a For. Quart. Rev. No. X. (Vol. V.) art. “ Netherlands.” [The 
 above account of the village of Ilornues is added by the translator. — P.] 
 b “ Bourg.” c The bourg of Corbigni. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 d Du. Germ. Marienburg. — P. 
 e Du. Namcn (Hubner) — N'ame (Kilian.) — P. 
 
 f Caesar de Bel. Gal. lib. ii. cap. 2!) — 34. Tr. [In the description 
 of the town of the Atuatici [ Aduatici ,] in the passage here quoted, no 
 mention is made of its position on the Meuse ( Mosa ) or Sambre ( Sabis .) 
 It is merely stated that it was surrounded on all sides by steep rocks 
 and precipices, except a single gentle acclivity, not more than 200 
 feet in width, fortified by a double wall. — D’Anville places the Oppi- 
 dum Aduaticorum at Falais on the Mehaigne, a" small river that enters 
 the Meuse a little above Huy (10 miles E. of Namur.) — P.] 
 e Nivelle (Enc. Meth.) — Du. Nivel, Nijvel (Kilian.) — P. 
 k “ — to enjoy the diversions of society ( des distractions de la vie 
 mondaine.)” — There is no sign of exclamation in the original. — This 
 was an abbey of secular canonesses, of noble family, who had the 
 privilege of resigning their places and marrying. They wore the re- 
 ligious habit in the morning, and the secular habit in the evening. 
 fEnc. Meth. Moreri.) — P 
 
 years ago it was celebrated for an abbey of canonesse3, 
 who, in the evening, quitted the religious habit to enjoy 
 the distractions of a worldly life ! h Their abbess took 
 the title of Princess of Nivelles. The clock tower bears 
 on its summit the figure of a man in iron that strikes the 
 hours with a hammer, called in the country John of 
 Nivelles. It is not, however, to this bell-man that we 
 are to attribute the well-known proverb : “ lie resem- 
 bles the dog of John of Nivelles, who flics when he is 
 called .” This proverb arose from the following circum- 
 stance : — According to the accounts of several historians, 
 John II. of Pflontmorencyj father of John, lord of Ni- 
 velles, and of Louis, baron of Fosseu, k married as his 
 second wife Margaret of Orgemont ; the two young 
 men, who probably were not very well pleased with their 
 stepmother, withdrew to the court of the count of Flan- 
 ders, and became the origin of the two branches of the 
 house of Montmorency. Their father summoned them 
 in vain to return, and on their refusal, treated them as 
 dogs, and disinherited them. The summons had been 
 given to the elder brother, John of Nivelles, which gave 
 rise to the popular saying above quoted. 
 
 Quitting the small plateau of Nivelles, let us advance 
 into those plains where the armies of France and Eng- 
 land, under Napoleon and Wellington, met to decide 
 the destiny of Europe. * 1 Quatre Bras, La Belle Alli- 
 ance, Mont St. Jean and Waterloo are before us, places 
 which recal to remembrance the bloody struggle, which 
 the soldiers on both sides maintained with heroic courage, 
 in spite of the faults of the two chiefs, and in which vic- 
 tory, faithless to him who thought he had gained it, turned 
 to the side of him who did not expect it. Brussels or 
 Bruxelles , m the metropolis of all the Belgian provinces,” 
 and also the capital of the province of South Brabant, 
 is only four leagues from this field of battle, which is now 
 conspicuous from a hill raised by the art of man, and 
 surmounted with the Belgic lion, a gigantic figure, in 
 cast iron. The origin of this city dates from the eighth 
 century. St. Gerius,° bishop of Arras and Cambray, 
 founded a chapel in a small island formed by the Senne, 
 and this island became the city of Brussels , p chosen, 
 from its agreeable situation, by Otho II. as his residence, 
 and which afterwards became that of the dukes of Lor- 
 raine, the dukes of Brabant, and the Austrian govern- 
 ors. Joseph II. transformed its ancient fortifications'' 
 into a fine promenade ; it was a city surrounded merely 
 by a wall, when, from the rank of the capital of the 
 Austrian Netherlands, it descended in 1794 to that of 
 the chief place of the French department of the Dyle. 
 It is built on uneven ground, and several of its streets 
 
 ‘ Baron of Montmorency. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 k Fosseux (Moreri. Enc. Meth.) — Fosseux, a bourg in Artois, 3 
 leagues S. W. of Arras. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 1 “ — where all the armies of Europe met to overthrow a famous 
 conqueror.” 
 
 m “ Bruxelles or Brussel.” — Eng. Brussels ; Fr. Bruxelles ; Du. Brus- 
 sel — Bruessel (Kilian;) Germ. Brussel. — P. 
 
 “ At present, the capital of the new kingdom of Belgium.— P. 
 
 ° “ St. Geri.” — St. Gery, in the beginning of the 7th century, built 
 a chapel in a small island, formed by two branches of the Senne, and 
 preached the gospel to the neighbouring peasants ; numerous huts 
 were consequently erected along the banks of the river ; in a short 
 time, they increased to a considerable village, to which was given the 
 name of Brussel ( hermitage bridge,*) and as early as the year 800, it 
 had both a market and a castle. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 * Du. brug [brugge. Kilian,) a bridge, and celle. a cell. — P. 
 
 p “ Brussella .” — See note °. 
 
 q Its walls were erected in 1379. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 408 
 
 are very steep. The lower part of the city, the least 
 healthy and the least regular, contains many houses in 
 the Gothic style ; but the quarter adjoining to the Park, 
 a magnificent promenade, ornamented with marble 
 statues, is composed of wide streets, regularly laid out, 
 and of houses elegantly built ; some of them, however, 
 are painted green, yellow, or grey, according to a cus- 
 tom prevalent in both Holland and Belgium. There 
 are reckoned in the whole city 290 streets, 13,000 
 houses, 27 bridges, and 8 public squares. The finest 
 square is the Place Royale, a the quadrangular outline 
 of which is formed by the fine portal of the church of 
 St. James of Condenberg, b by many magnificent edifices, 
 and by four porticoes. The great square 0 offers an as- 
 pect altogether different ; the buildings that surround it 
 are of various kinds of architecture, Spanish, Flemish, 
 and Gothic ; the principal is the Hotel de Ville, d a 
 building flanked by five hexagonal turrets, and sur- 
 mounted by a steeple 366 feet in height, crowned with 
 a statue of St. Michael, e in gilt copper, 17 feet high, 
 and turning upon a pivot by the slightest wind. The 
 building of this tower took place in 1445/ The interior 
 of the edifice is still in the same state of decoration as 
 when Charles V., in 1555, excited to it by the embar- 
 rassments caused by a clergy who reproached him with 
 his pretended toleration, abdicated the sovereignty of 
 half the world in favor of the fanatical Philip II. It is 
 in front of this Hotel de Ville, as in front of that in 
 Paris, that municipal ceremonies and executions of 
 criminals take place, a monstrous conjunction, which it 
 is painful to take notice of as existing in the nineteenth 
 century. The great square of Sablon^ is ornamented 
 with a beautiful fountain in white marble, representing a 
 Minerva seated. The square of St. Michael is not of 
 great extent, but it is planted with trees, and surround- 
 ed with buildings of elegant architecture. Among the 
 buildings that surround the square of the mint, h most 
 of’ which are deserving of notice, the great theatre-royal 
 is especially distinguishable. On the small rising 
 ground 1 II called Molenbcrg, at a short distance from the 
 great square, the ancient church of St. Gudula k displays 
 its imposing Gothic front ; the ascent to it is by a long 
 flight of 36 steps; the sculpture of its pulpit, in wood, 
 highly merits attention. In the church of St. Nicholas 
 there are valuable pictures and numerous relics. The 
 city is supplied with water by several fountains, almost 
 all of them adorned with sculpture, and these fountains 
 are fed by the waters of a small lake, situated about a 
 third of a league from the walls, towards the east. That 
 of Stcenporte , ! and that of the great new street, are 
 among the most beautiful, but they do not enjoy the 
 
 I Royal Square. 
 
 b “ St. Jacques de Condenberg.” — St. Jacques de Caubergue (De- 
 lices des Pays-Bas. Ed. Enc.) — It should read in English, St. James of 
 Coudenberg, from the name of one of the seven Patrician families in 
 Brussels. — P. 
 
 c The great market-place. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 J Townhouse — Du. Stadhuis. — P. 
 
 e St. Michael and the dragon. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 f The Hotel de Ville was begun in 1380, and finished in 1442. (Ed. 
 Eric.) — P. 
 
 e “ Place du Sablon” — Du. Sandsplaats, Sand Square. — P. 
 
 h “ Place de la Monnaie” — Du. Muntsplaats. — P. 
 
 ' “ Monticule” — small hill. — The church of Ste. Gudule is situated 
 In a high part of the city, and approached by a flight of steps. (Ed. 
 Enc.) — P. 
 
 II “ Sainte-Gudule.” — Ste. Gudule (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 ’ Du. Stccnpourt , Stone Gate. — P. 
 
 [BOOK CB 
 
 popular reputation of the Mannekcnpisse, a child in 
 bronze, whose name expresses the indecent way in 
 which it throws out a stream of water. This statue, 
 which is not very ancient, has replaced one whose ori- 
 gin goes back, it is said, to the twelfth century. It is 
 called by the people the oldest burgess of Brussels, and 
 on festival days they dress it in blue. Many other edi- 
 fices, which we have not yet named, adorn this city ; 
 such are the palace of the States-General, the new 
 court-house, m and the king’s palace, the last of which 
 has been erected within these few years. 
 
 The capital of Belgium, within a circumference oi 
 two leagues and a half, is as it were an assemblage of 
 several small cities, differing in their language, their oc- 
 cupations, and their manners. The quarter of the Park 
 is inhabited by the ministers of state, the nobility, and 
 the rich bankers, and it is also preferred by the English. 
 In the neighbourhood of its handsome buildings resides 
 a small colony of French, whilst towards the southern 
 extremity of the city, a Spanish colony, escaped from 
 the revolutionary horrors of the Peninsula, has fixed its 
 abode. Towards the south-east, a population active and 
 keen, but not numerous, is composed of Walloons, who 
 are easily distinguishable by their physiognomy and 
 language. The lower town is almost exclusively peo- 
 pled by Flemings, who are attached to their own idiom 
 and to their ancient customs. The quarter situated be 
 tween the lower town and that of the Park is the centre 
 of trade and amusements, the abode of jewellers, of 
 mercers, and of all who support themselves by the 
 luxury of the rich, and the point in which are assem- 
 bled the finest warehouses. The Jews do not, as at 
 Amsterdam, inhabit a separate quarter; the poorest 
 concentrate in the meanest streets, and the more wealthy 
 are scattered throughout the rest of the city.” The ad- 
 ditions that are making to different parts of the city, 
 prove that industry and trade are in a flourishing state. 
 In effect, manufactures of all kinds are to be found in 
 Brussels, and charitable establishments for the aged, for 
 orphans, for strangers, 0 and for the sick and the blind, 
 are well endowed and carefully superintended. The 
 academies of sciences and belles lettres, two royal socie- 
 ties of literature, one of botany, an athensum, acade- 
 mies of painting and drawing, a museum, a cabinet of 
 natural philosophy,? a fine public library established in 
 the old palace of the governors-general ,4 a botanical 
 garden which occupies the site of the gardens of the 
 former court, r and several other establishments which 
 we pass without notice, might lead us to form a pecu- 
 liarly favourable opinion of the philanthropic virtues and 
 intellectual faculties of the inhabitants of Brussels, did 
 
 m “ Palace of Justice.” 
 
 n See the work entitled : Quntre Mois dans les Pays-Bas. Paris, 1829 
 
 0 “ — for the insane (alicnts .)’’ — There is an hospital at Brussels 
 where strangers are maintained free of expense three days. (Ed. 
 Enc.) — P. 
 
 p “ Cabinet de physique” — collection of philosophical appara- 
 tus. — P. 
 
 s The Ducal Palace, begun in 1300, by John II. duke of Brabant, 
 and finished by the successors of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, 
 in 1521. Originally the residence of the dukes of Brabant, then of 
 the dukes of Burgundy, and finally of the governors-general of the 
 Austrian Netherlands — converted, under the empire, into a central 
 school for the department of the Dyle, to which were attached a pub- 
 lic library, a botanical garden, and a collection of paintings. (Ed 
 Enc.) — P. 
 
 r That of the governors-general of the Austrian Netherlands. — P 
 
book cl.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 not our excursions both in Holland and Belgium prove 
 to us, that the greater part of the cities in the Low 
 Countries enjoy nearly the same advantages, in both 
 these points of view. Among the distinguished men, to 
 whom Brussels has given birth, the two Champagnes, 
 painters of eminence, and Bochius, a known by his Latin 
 verses, ought to be placed in the first rank. Lipsius, a 
 celebrated critic of the 16th century, was born near 
 Brussels, and died in the neighbouring city of Louvain 
 in 1600. b 
 
 The inhabitants of this city, more active than those 
 of Amsterdam, love to enjoy their fine walks. They 
 have a Tivoli, which only resembles in name that at 
 Paris. It is not so large, but is much more pleasant, 
 and greatly more varied in the amusements to be found 
 in it. On the banks of the canal which communicates 
 by the Rupel c with the Scheld, the green ivalk d is a 
 charming promenade composed of three avenues nearly 
 half a league in length, of which the one in the centre is 
 reserved for carriages and equestrians. Frequented 
 every day, it assumes on Sunday the brilliant appear- 
 ance of that of Longchamps at Paris. This beautiful 
 promenade extends to the bridge of Laeken, not far 
 from the village of that name,' where the wealthy citizens 
 of Brussels have their country houses, and where the 
 king of the Netherlands possessed a park and magnifi- 
 cent palace/ the place of his residence during the 
 summer season. 
 
 We cross the Senne and the canal of Brussels at Vil- 
 vordep a town of 3000 souls, where Joseph II. erected 
 a bridewell ( maison de detention ) h remarkable for the 
 beauty of its work-shops. Four leagues to the east, we 
 perceive on another canal, the city of Louvain or Leu- 
 ven / which possessed in the fourteenth century 4000 
 manufactories of cloths, whose 18,000 workmen, forced 
 to expatriate themselves in consequence of a revolt 
 against the Duke of Brabant, carried their industry to 
 
 a John Boch (Lat. Bochius,) called the Belgic Virgil — died 1609. — P. 
 b This account of Lipsius is added by the translator. — Justus Lip- 
 sius, the celebrated critic, was born at Isch, a village between Brus- 
 sels and Louvain 1547, and died at Louvain 1606. — r. 
 c See note ' p. 1083. d “ Green Alley ( allie verte.)" 
 
 e The village of Laecken. (Del. des Pays-Bas.) — P. 
 f The palace of Laeken. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 e Du. VUvorden (Hubner ) — Vilvorde (Kilian.) — P. 
 h Penitentiary, or House of Correction. — P. 
 
 ' Fr. Eng. Louvain; Du. Leuven, Loven, or Locven ; Germ. LOw- 
 en. — P. 
 
 k “ 150,000 tuns ( tonneaux .)” — Compare statement of For. Qu. Rev. 
 in note s p. 1082. — P. 
 
 1 It is situated on the Dyle and the canal of Louvain, the last of 
 which extends to Mechlin. Vessels of 150 tons can come up to the 
 town. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 m “ Hotel des invalides.” 
 
 n Re-established by a royal edict of Sept. 25, 1816, which also insti- 
 tuted the two new universities of Ghent and Liege. (Morse.) — P. 
 
 0 Fr Tirlemont or Tillemont. (Vosgien.)— -P. 
 
 p Du. Thienen, or Tienen — properly, Tienhoven. (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 <t “ Gaette.” — Ghete (Vosgien.) — Gliete (Ed. Enc.) — Du. Geete — 
 Glieete (Kilian.) — A southern branch of the Demer. — P. 
 r St. Tron or St. Truyen. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 » “ — in its lace, and in the products of its forges.” 
 
 * Loss, Lotz, Lootz or Borchloen (Enc. Meth.) — Loots or Borohloen. 
 (Hubner.) — Formerly capital of a county of the same name, in the 
 bishopric of Liege, including Hasselt, Tongres and Maaseyk. — P. 
 
 “ Fr. Tongres, Tongre. — Du. Tongcren. — P. 
 
 1 It does not appear that there is such a people as the Tungri men- 
 tioned by Ccesar. His words are, speaking of Jltuacuata, Lib. vi. c. 30. 
 
 “ Id castelli nomen est. Hoc fere est in mediis Eburonum finibus.” 
 The Eburones seem to have possessed the country about Liege. 
 Tongres is about four leagues distant from that city. — Transl. Note, 
 fit does not appear that there is such a town as Atuacuata mentioned 
 bj' Ctesar. The name of the town or fortress, in the passage above 
 
 VOI,. III.— NO. 55 52 
 
 OF BELGIUM. 409 
 
 England. At present it is only celebrated for the brew- 
 ing of excellent beer, of which it annually exports more 
 than 15,000 casks. k Its canal, which admits vessels of 
 a considerable tonnage, and the river Dyle, give activity 
 to this branch of trade. * 1 * * * * * * * Two fine institutions still con- 
 fer importance on this city : the one is a hotel for in- 
 valids™ which can receive 2,500 persons ; the other is 
 the university, which was founded in 1426, suppressed 
 by the French in 1797, and re-established since 1815." 
 The walled enclosure of Louvain, too large for a popu- 
 lation of about 16,000 souls, contains fields and gardens, 
 and streets tolerably regular, but the houses are ill 
 built, and there are few fine edifices. It is the same 
 with Tirlemont, 0 which the Brabanters call Tlieenen t 
 Watered by the Geete/ its ramparts are more than a 
 league and a half in circumference, and its population is 
 scarcely the half of that of Louvain. 
 
 We enter the province of Limburg, by the road 
 which passing through Tirlemont, conducts to Aix-la- 
 Chapelle. St. Trond, v the first town we arrive at, car- 
 ries on a trade in lace and iron-work. 9 Leaving the 
 town of Looz 1 on the left hand, whose magnificent 
 castle is seen in passing along, we reach the banks of 
 the Jaar, where Tongres (Flem. Tongeren') a is resort- 
 ed to on account of its ferruginous mineral waters. This 
 city was, in the time of Caesar, a fortress of the Tungri* 
 called Atuatuca; it was destroyed by Attila in 451, 
 and in 881 by the Normans ; at present, it contains 
 scarcely 4000 inhabitants. 
 
 A valley stretching out before us, brings to view in the 
 distance Maestricht,? and the mountain of St. Pierre com- 
 manding it, and lying between the Jaar z and the left bank 
 of the Meuse. aa This calcareous mountain, from which, 
 for more than fifteen centuries, there has been taken a 
 soft and chalky stone, bb is traversed by so great a number 
 of galleries, that there has been formed an inextricable 
 labyrinth of about six leagues in circumference. In this 
 
 quoted, is Atuatuca. — The Eburones, a people of German origin, occu- 
 pied a part of the dutchies of Cleves, Juliers, and Gelders, and the 
 country of Tongres [in the bishopric of Liege.] Their principal city 
 was Atuatuca. Caesar nearly exterminated them, in revenge for the 
 defeat of one of his legions, stationed among them, by Ambiorix, one 
 of their chiefs ; at least, no mention is made of them by subsequent 
 authors. The Tungri, also a German people, succeeded them, and 
 gave their name to Atuatuca, whence the modern name of the town. 
 (Enc. Meth. D’Anv.) — Tongres is 6 [Fr.] leagues (Vosgien,) 9 miles 
 (Morse,) N. W. of Liege. — P.] 
 
 y Maastricht." — Mastricht or Maestricht (Vosgien.) — Maastricht 
 (Eng. authors.)— Du. Maastricht or Mastricht (Hubner) — Macstrich 
 (Kilian.)— P. 
 
 z Jeker (Enc. Meth. Ed. Enc.) — Jaar (Fr. ;) Jecker (Flem.) (Del. 
 des Pays-Bas.) — P. 
 
 aa Maestricht lies on the left bank of the Meuse, at its confluence 
 with the Jaar, and on the north of the latter. The Jaar enters the 
 Meuse obliquely from the south-west, and in the angle between the 
 two rivers, rises the mountain of St. Pierre (Du. Sant-Pietcrsbrrg — St. 
 Peter’s Mount,) on the northern declivity of which, adjoining the 
 south side of the town, stands the strong fort of St. Pierre, the citadel 
 of the place. The Meuse is crossed by a bridge, and at its extremity 
 is the small town of Wyck, a sort of suburb to Maestricht. — P. 
 
 bb This soft limestone is considered by geologists as analogous to 
 the chalk formation, inasmuch as it contains not only flints, but some 
 of the same fossil shells, that occur in the chalk of Paris. (Ed. Enc 
 art. Org. Remains.) — It is probably a transition from the upper chalk 
 to the lowest tertiary formation, few of its fossils being identical with 
 those in the chalk, and the most remarkable being of a peculiar and 
 more recent character. (Lyell’s Geology, p. 139 — 140.) — The upper 
 part of this limestone is hardest — the lower and softer part is the 
 principal repository of the remarkable bones, which characterize it. and 
 also of the shells and flints analogous to those in the chalk of the Paris 
 basin. The analogy of this limestone to chalk is farther shown by its 
 gradually changing into true chalk a few leagues south of Maestricht. 
 (Ure’s Geology, p. 215.) — P. 
 
410 EUROPE. [book cl. 
 
 mass different fossil bones have been discovered of great 
 interest to science ; among others, two heads of gigantic 
 lizards of a species which no longer exists on the sur- 
 face of the globe, and which savans have agreed to 
 designate under the name of Mosasaurus . ab One of 
 these heads is to be seen in the museum of Haarlem, 
 and the other in the museum of Natural History at Paris ; 
 the length of the last is three feet nine inches, which 
 leads to the presumption that this monstrous lizard was 
 twenty-four feet in length. The mountain of St. Pierre, 
 was, during the middle ages, called the Mountain of the 
 Huns (Mans Hunnorum), apparently from some tra- 
 dition connected with Attila’s visit of destruction to this 
 country in the fifth century, referred to above, in speak- 
 ing of Tongres. It derives its modern name from the 
 village of St. Pierre, adjacent to, and now considered a 
 suburb of the city of Maestricht, or more properly from 
 the church of St. Pierre, which is of greater antiquity 
 than the village. An old tower on the summit of the 
 mountain, has preserved the name of the “ Tower of 
 Ciesar,” and a little farther off, it is believed there ex- 
 isted a Roman camp. Let us add to these traditionary 
 names, that the Brabancon name of Maastricht or 
 Maestricht, 0 is simply the translation of the Latin words, 
 Trajectum ad Dlosam, d passage of the Meuse. Ought 
 we not then to conclude, that the Romans possessed 
 nothing here but an intrenched camp ? There is no 
 reason to suppose that Maestricht existed prior to the 
 fourth century. The ramparts, the ditches and the bas- 
 tions which defend it, as well as Fort St. Pierre, e render 
 Maestricht one of the strongest places in the Low Coun- 
 tries. It is well built ; the beauty of its town-house, 
 of its public market, and of the church of St. Gervais, 
 are especially deserving of notice. It possesses manu- 
 factories of fire-arms, pins and cloths, and the Meuse 
 gives activity to its commerce. After Maestricht, the 
 other towns in the province possess very little interest. 
 Without quitting the banks of the river, we can see 
 Maaseyk / containing a population of only 3000 souls, 
 and the native place of John Van Eyck,® better known 
 by the name of John of Bruges, who, in the beginning 
 
 1 Faujas de St. Fond, Histoire de la montagne de St. Pierre de 
 Maestricht. — Bory de St. Vincent, Memoire sur le plateau de St. 
 Pierre : Ann. Gen. des Sciences Physiques, tom. i. 
 
 b Dr. Buckland first conferred on the Maestricht lizard the generic 
 name of Mosasaurus (Meuse lizard.) Its lower jaw is 4 feet long, and 
 consequently its whole length is about 2li feet. It resembles the croco- 
 dile in the proportionate length of its head, and the monitor in the 
 general structure of its lower jaw, but differs from both in the short- 
 ness of its tail, and its palate teeth, in which last circumstance it re- 
 sembles the common lizard and iguana. It has the greatest resem- 
 blance to the monitor in its general structure, but on the whole has a 
 peculiar generic character. Its figure was compact and robust, and it 
 was undoubtedly a marine animal, formed for swimming. (Ure's Ge- 
 ology, p. 21(5 — 219.) — P. 
 
 c “The Brabancon name, Maastricht" — better: Maastricht, the name 
 of the town in the dialect of Brabant ( Brabanron .) — P. 
 
 <■ Dictionnaire abrege gcographique et historique du Brabant hol- 
 landais. 
 
 e On the south side of the town, on the declivity of a hill towards 
 l.iege, there is a strong fort, called St. Pierre, built in 1703, and capa- 
 ble of holding 14,000 men. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 f Maseyck or Maaseyk (Morse.) — Maeseck or Maeseyck (Enc. 
 Metli.) — Du. Maaseik (Hubnor) — Maeseyck or Maseyk (Kilian.) — P. 
 
 s “ Jean Van-Eyk.” — Van Eyck is said to have invented oil paint- 
 ing about the year 1410. On the contrary, however, it is asserted that 
 the art was known in Germany as early as the 11th or 12th century, 
 and in England two centuries before the birth of Van Eyck. (Van 
 Eyck was born 1370.) Me at least first brought it into successful 
 practice, and is said to have been the first who made use of drying 
 oils. (Ed. Enc. Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 of the fifteenth century, invented painting in oil. A 
 little farther off is seen, on the left hand, the small but 
 commercial town of WcrtJ the birth-place of the famous 
 John de Wert,' who, from a shoemaker’s boy, became .i 
 soldier, then rose to be a general, and lastly, became 
 viceroy of Bohemia, and by the capture of several 
 places in Picardy, during the reign of Louis XIII., car- 
 ried terror to the very heart of Paris, where his name 
 served as the burden of the song to the ballad-singers 
 of Ponl-Neuf, as in the following reign was the case with 
 that of Marlborough. We cross the Meuse at Venloo , k 
 a city of 6000 souls, whose principal branch of industry 
 is the manufacture of pins. In ascending the river on 
 the right bank, there is seen, at the mouth of the Roer, * 1 
 Ruremonde or • Roermond , m the birth-place of the cele- 
 brated geographer Mercator. 11 
 
 In continuing our journey in the same direction, we 
 arrive near Limburg, 0 the former capital of the dutchy of 
 that name, a small city of 2000 souls, now comprehend- 
 ed in the province of Liege. Vcrviers, in the vicinity 
 of Limburg, has been enriched by the sale of its woollen 
 cloths which are much esteemed, and by means of which 
 it has, in a few years, risen to a population of 16,000 
 souls . p It lies in the midst of a rich and fertile valley, 
 presenting an animating picture of the united results of 
 increasing wealth and industry. 4 We pass through 
 
 this pretty town before arriving at Spa, a town known 
 for its elegant works in varnished wood and its mineral 
 waters, the last of which, every year to the end of May, 
 are frequented by more than 1000 strangers, brought 
 there as much by pleasure as by the care of their health. 
 All the trade of the country centres at Liege, called 
 Luik in the dialect of Brabant/ Liege lies on the 
 banks of the Meuse. 8 Gloomy and dirty, it is yet the 
 mart for the merchandise of the Low Countries, France, 
 and Germany. The working of coal-mines, forges, can- 
 non founderies, the manufacture of fire-arms, and various 
 other kinds of industry, occupy the inhabitants. Ten 
 suburbs, 1 seventeen bridges, twelve public squares, an 
 arsenal, an exchange, a chamber of commerce, a univer- 
 sity founded in 1817, u and also several schools and learn- 
 
 h Weert (Vosgien) — Du. Weerdt — ll'eert or It'iert (Kilian.) — P. 
 
 ' “ Jean de Wert" — John Van Wert. — P. 
 
 k Du. Vcvlo. — P. 
 
 1 Du. Roer ; Germ. Ruhr. — P. 
 
 m Fr. Ruremonde ; Du. Roermond. — The Dutch name signifies the 
 mouth of the Roer. — P. 
 
 n Gerard Mercator. 
 
 0 Limburg is situated on a hill near the Vese [Weze or Veze (Ed. 
 Enc.) Vesder (Pinkerton) — a branch of the Ourthe,] (5 leagues S. E. 
 of Liege. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 P This statement of the population is taken from the For. Quart. 
 Rev. No. x. art. i. — P. 
 
 q This account of the population and situation of Venders is added 
 by the translator. — P. 
 
 r Eng. Liege; Fr. Li'ge or Liige ; Du. Luik (Hubner) — Luyck or 
 Luyk (Kilian ;) Germ. Litttich ; Lat. Leodium or Leodirum. — P. 
 
 s Liege was formerly divided into the upper or old town, and the 
 lower or new town. The former is built on the declivity of a hill, 
 and stretches south to the left bank of the Meuse. The latter compre- 
 hends the quarter called the Isle, situated on an island in the Meuse, 
 and the quarter beyond the Meuse, situated on a peninsula on the 
 right bank of the river. — Liege was formerly the capital of the bishop- 
 ric of the same name, one of the principalities of the German Empire. 
 The episcopal palace was at the foot of the mountain of St. Walburg, 
 on which the citadel was erected. — P. 
 
 ' Liege has ten great suburbs, and two small ones. (Ed Enc.) — P. 
 
 " The university of Liege was created, along with that of Ghent, by 
 the same edict (1816,) which re-established that of Louvain. (Ed 
 Enc.) — P. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF BELGIUM. 
 
 411 
 
 ROOK CL.] 
 
 ed societies, attest the wealth and importance of Liege. 
 Its fortifications had ceaoed to be kept in repair by the 
 French government ; but a vast citadel has been erected, 
 within these few years, on the site of the old one, and 
 Liege now ranks in the second class of fortified towns. 
 Its public edifices possess little deserving notice, if we 
 except its massy cathedral, and its new theatre con- 
 structed upon the model of the Odeon at Paris. Liege 
 has given birth to several celebrated men, whose memo- 
 ry must be dear to her, if we may judge from the price 
 which she appeared to put upon the possession of the 
 heart of our inimitable Gretry. a 
 
 At the time we are writing, there seems a strong 
 probability that the province we are next to speak of, 
 the farthest south of the kingdom of the Netherlands, 
 will be separated from the Belgian States, on the ground, 
 it appears, of its not having formed part of Belgium, but 
 a constituent part of the Germanic empire. Whatever 
 there may be in this, and whatever may be the destina- 
 tion of Luxemburg, the province in question, it is neces- 
 sary to describe it here, Gerprany having been already 
 described, and our continental labours closing with the 
 following book. b 
 
 The grand dutchy of Luxemburg, with a surface of 
 about 230 square leagues, rs peopled by 292,000 inhab- 
 itants, which makes the population equal to 1269 indi- 
 viduals for every square league. If we except the 
 capital,® this territory contains no city of importance. 
 At the foot of the mountains which separate the Ourthe 
 from the Lesse, we perceive the small town of St. Hu- 
 bert, where are preserved the remains of the patron of 
 huntsmen, whose chapel is frequently visited by such 
 of the peasantry as wish to place their persons and their 
 flocks under his protection. 11 The position of Bouillon , e 
 in a deep and narrow defile through which the Semoy 
 
 * Gretry, the musician, was a native of Liege (born 1741.) After 
 his death, his heart was claimed by the city of Liege, through his 
 relatives, to whom it was adjudged by a judicial decision. (Beau- 
 vais.) — P. 
 
 b The above paragraph is added by the translator. ‘ It is simply 
 stated in the original (published 1829:) that the possession of the 
 grand dutchy of Luxemburg, its southernmost province, gives the 
 kingdom ol the Netherlands a place in the Germanic Confederation. 
 For an account of the relations of Luxemburg to the kingdom of the 
 Netherlands, on the one hand, and the Germanic Confederation, (not 
 the Germanic Empire — that has ceased to exist since 1806,) on the 
 other, the reader may consult a note to the account of the dutchy of 
 Nassau, near the close of Book CXXI. — Since the revolution in Belgi- 
 um, Luxemburg has formed part of the new state, and sent deputies to 
 its congress Leopold, the new king, in his address on assuming the 
 sovereignty, encouraged his people to expect such an adjustment in re- 
 gard to Luxemburg, as would free it from its relations to the family of 
 Nassau and the Germanic body, and thus allow it to remain a con- 
 stituent part of Belgium. More. -ee» nt aceounts have stated that a 
 
 takes a winding course, gives it a melancholy but yet 
 romantic aspect. The old castle, which commands this 
 former capital of a dutchy/ would prove no defence 
 against a powerful enemy, because it is itself command- 
 ed by the surrounding mountains. In the midst of for- 
 ests, upon one of the hills where the Semoy has its 
 origin, we see the small town of Arlon, which carries 
 on a trade in iron and grain ; it occupies the site of an 
 ancient city, mentioned under the name of Orolaunum 
 in the Itinerary of Antonine. Frequently, when its soil 
 is turned up, different objects of antiquity are found. 
 In 1793 and 1794, the French, at this place, twice put 
 the Austrians to flight. 
 
 Advancing towards the east, we observe on the hanks 
 of the small river Alzette,® the important fortress of 
 Luxemburg , h which, for twenty years, was the capital of 
 the French department of the Forests. 1 The river 
 waters the lower town, dividing it into two quarters, which 
 may be considered as properly the suburbs of the fortress. 
 The latter, forming the upper town, stands on the sum- 
 mit of a rock in which is cut a winding road that leads 
 to it, so steep that carriages cannot ascend it without 
 difficulty. Ditches of great width, and not less than 
 eighty feet in depth, would be enough for the defence 
 of the place, and yet, besides these, a double row of 
 exterior works defends the approach to it. It is then 
 no exaggeration to say that Luxemburg is one of the 
 strongest places in Europe ; in a military point of view, 
 it has been viewed as more than merely a part of the 
 kingdom of the Netherlands, the nomination of the 
 governor 11 being subject to the approbation of the 
 Germanic Confederation. The strength of Luxemburg 
 alone constitutes its importance ; it would be a matter 
 of difficulty to mention, among its edifices, one single 
 building 1 worthy of the rank which this city occupies. 
 
 motion has been made in the diet at Frankfort, to consider the pro- 
 priety of immediately occupying the grand dutchy of Luxemburg 
 with the troops of the Confederation. — P. 
 
 c “ Without excepting its capital.” — The original does not even 
 consider its capital a place of importance. See the last paragraph in 
 this Book.— P 
 
 d “ — to secure their persons and flocks from the hydrophobia (rage.)” 
 — It is a famous place of pilgrimage for men and animals suspected 
 of having been bitten by rabid animals, the relics of St. Hubert being 
 supposed to possess a miraculous efficacy in effecting their cure. (Enc. 
 Meth. Vosgien.)— P. 
 
 e Formerly, Bullion (Enc. Meth.) — Du. Bullon, Bulion (Kilian.) — P. 
 f The dutchy of Bouillon, formerly a sovereignty. — P. 
 s Alz (Enc. Meth.) — Else (Vosgien.) — Alsitz (Morse.) — P. 
 
 11 Germ. Lntzelburg. — Du. Lutsenburg. — Luxemburg is also common 
 to the English, German and Dutch languages. — Fr. Luxembourg. — P. 
 
 * “ Departement des Forets.” 
 k “ Governor or commandant of the fortress. 
 
 1 “ Bktiment civil” — building - not mililarv — P. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 .. . 
 
 412 
 
 IBOOK CLI. 
 
 BOOK CLI. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Description of Europe continued — Holland , or the 
 Seven United Provinces . a 
 
 The early history of Holland is the same with that 
 of Belgium, b down to the war of Independence and 
 Existence, as it may also he called, with Spain. In 
 Holland, a spirit of inquiry had kept alive the ancient 
 love of independence and liberty, in preserving from the 
 attempts of Charles V. himself, a system of national 
 representation which placed the principal strength of 
 government in the Assembly of the States; and when 
 the tyranny of his son thought it had found in the doc- 
 trines of a blind fanaticism, a solid support against the 
 ideas of civil and religious liberty that were becoming 
 predominant in the age, his yoke only became the more 
 insupportable to a people possessing courage enough to 
 he free, and sufficiently enlightened to comprehend the 
 advantages of religious toleration. The Hollanders, by 
 seventy years of resistance,' conquered their indepen- 
 dence, and founded a republic equally formidable and in- 
 dustrious. The treaty of Munster in 1648 drew from 
 the reluctant Spaniards an entire recognition of the In- 
 dependence of the Seven United Provinces, while the 
 Belgic provinces, divided among themselves, and not 
 possessed of that love of freedom, which led their more 
 northern neighbours to overcome every obstacle, re- 
 mained submissive to Spain and to the Roman Catholic 
 church. Conquered by the French in 1795, d it was 
 allowed to retain a nominal independence, till Napoleon, 
 in 1810, made it an integral part of his empire. The 
 losses of Napoleon in the campaigns of 1812 and 1813, 
 led to the emancipation of Holland at the close of the 
 last mentioned year ; and this was followed by the ill- 
 assorted union of Belgium and Holland in the Nassau 
 family, under the name of the kingdom of the Nether- 
 lands, — a union which very recent events in Belgium 
 have broken up and dissolved. 
 
 a See note 1 p. 1078. — P. b See Book CL. 
 
 c The revolt in the Low Countries commenced in 1566, when the 
 people rose in many towns in Flanders, and forced the prisons of the 
 Inquisition. William, prince of Orange, commenced military opera- 
 tions in 1568. The Seven United Provinces formed their treaty of 
 Union at Utrecht, Jan. 23, 1579. A truce of twelve years was con- 
 cluded.^by the mediation of France and England, at the Hague, in 
 1609, Spain acknowledging the United Provinces as a free republic. 
 Hostilities were not afterwards renewed, and a definitive treaty was 
 signed in 1647, and ratified at the peace of Westphalia [treaty of 
 Munster] in 1648, when the seven provinces were acknowledged by 
 all Europe as an independent state, under the title of the United 
 Provinces (United States, in old authors.) — P. 
 d The French took possession of Amsterdam, Jan. 18th, 1795. — P. 
 e Council of State. — P. 
 
 ' The deputies to the States-General were chosen by the States of 
 the provinces, but each province, whatever might be the number of 
 its deputies, had only one vote in the States-General The acts of the 
 
 The government of the Seven United Provinces, pre- 
 vious to their conquest by the French in 1795, is now 
 a matter of past history, a tale that is told. Yet it may 
 be right to refer to it, and a very few words will suffice. 
 It was a confederation of seven independent republics, 
 which were united by the bonds of similarity of manners 
 and pursuits, and especially by the remembrance of the 
 long-protracted and bloody struggle, which they had 
 maintained together for liberty and life against the whole 
 power of the Spanish monarchy, and in which, as al- 
 ready noticed, they at last succeeded. The States- 
 General and Senate' were composed of deputies from 
 the Seven provinces, whose business it was to take 
 charge of all matters, involving the interests of the 
 whole, such as war, peace, the laying on of taxes, &c., 
 but in all matters of importance no steps could be taken 
 by these bodies, without a reference to the States of the 
 Provinces, and these again required to consult their con- 
 stituents in the cities and country/ The Stadtholder’s 
 office was merely executive, and even that was much 
 limited, though his rank and influence were often pro- 
 ductive of inroads upon the constitution of the States, 
 and induced jealousies that proved the means more than 
 once of abolishing the office. s 
 
 Of the government established in 1814, after the ex- 
 pulsion of the French and union of the Dutch provinces 
 with Belgium, we have already spoken in our account 
 of the Belgian provinces, and to that we beg to refer the 
 reader. It is presumed, that so far as Holland is con- 
 cerned, the same form of government will subsist, with- 
 out being at all affected by the defection and separation 
 of Belgium. 
 
 The most ancient accounts of Holland represent it as 
 one extended swamp, alternately covered and relin- 
 quished by the advancing and retiring waters of the 
 ocean : and yet it appears from the Roman natural liis- 
 
 States-General were merely resolutions, and did not acquire the force 
 of law till they were sanctioned by every province, and by every city 
 and community in that province. The Council of State consisted of 
 twelve members, also chosen by the provinces. These deputies, how- 
 ever, voted personally, and not provincially . like the deputies to the 
 States-General. Their office was to direct the armed forces and 
 finances, and to prepare business to be laid before the States-Geue- 
 ral.— P. 
 
 s The office of Stadtholder has always been held by members of the 
 Orange family, but it was not declared hereditary in that family, till 
 that object was effected in 1672 by the influence of W illiam III. (of 
 Orange and of England.) On his death, however, the office was 
 abolished, nor was it revived till 1747, when it was again declared 
 hereditary in the Orange family, in the person of William II ■ When 
 the kingdom of the Netherlands was constituted in 1814. the sovereign- 
 ty was vested in the same family in the person of William 1 I. of 
 Orange, the present king of Holland. — P. 
 
book cli.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 torian,* that miserable, and to all appearance uninhab- 
 itable, as a country like this was, it was not destitute of 
 inhabitants, who, subsisting on the produce of the sea, 
 endeavoured to find habitations on every hit of land not 
 taken possession of by the waves. It has been a question 
 among inquirers into matters of this kind, — at what time 
 the inhabitants began the erection of dikes to preserve 
 themselves from the inundations of the sea ; and there is 
 strong ground to believe that, so early as the first or 
 second century of the Christian era, this great work was 
 commenced, and since that time there has been a con- 
 tention between the inhabitants and the ocean, which 
 has ended, however, in the country being brought to its 
 present state of high improvement and cultivation, and 
 comparative safety from the attacks of its powerful 
 assailer. A great part of Holland, it is calculated, is 
 between twenty and forty feet below high watea mark 
 on the surrounding coast ; but the inhabitants seem to 
 have no fear of their safety. At different times, howev- 
 er, the ocean has burst the barriers raised to control its 
 waters, and, on such occasions, the effects have been 
 disastrous in the extreme. As we proceed, we shall 
 have occasion to notice some of the most remarkable of 
 these inundations. 
 
 In Holland, it may be said, there are no mountains : 
 we see nothing but plains, interrupted occasionally by 
 rising grounds, not even deserving the name of hills, and 
 much smaller than those that are to be found in Belgium. 
 
 We must refer to our account of Belgium for an ac- 
 count of the principal rivers of Holland, there being few 
 that deserve the name but those already noticed there, 
 viz : the Rhine , the Waal, the Meuse, and the Scheldt. 
 To these may be added, the Yssel, h which proceeding, 
 by an artificial cut, 6 from the Rhine above Arnheim, 
 takes a north-east direction to Doesberg, d where it is 
 joined by the Old Yssel, the proper channel of the 
 stream, flowing from Westphalia. It then passes by 
 Zutphen and Deventer, and after receiving a number 
 of smaller tributary streams, falls into the east side of 
 the Zuyderzee, below Campen. The Wecht or Vecht e 
 is a river of less importance than the Yssel, which 
 takes its rise in Westphalia, and, after uniting with sev- 
 eral other streams, falls into the Zuyderzee not far from 
 the mouth of the Yssel. The Hunse is a small river 
 which, passing by the fine city of Groningen, takes its 
 course to the German Ocean/ 
 
 There are many lakes in Holland/ especially in 
 
 a Plin. Hist. Nat. Lib. xvi. § 1. 
 b Issel (Pinkerton.) — Du. Yssel — Isel (Kilian.) — P. 
 c Canal of Drusus— Lat. Fossa Drusi (D’Anv.,) Fossa Drusiana 
 (Euc. Meth.) — The Rhine divides itself into two branches, between 
 Huissen and Arnhem, one of which passes by the Canal of Drusus to 
 Doesburg, where it unites with the Old Yssel, and finally falls into the 
 Zuider-Zee. (Busching, Aardryksbeschryving, vertaald door J. de 
 Jongh, Deel iv. Stuk i. p. 14.) — The Canal of Drusus was dug by Cl. 
 N. Drusus, the brother of Tiberius. — P. 
 
 d The proper name is Doesburg. The diasresis has no place in this 
 word, the oe, in Dutch, being a diphthong, pronounced like oo 
 Eng. — P. e Du. Vecht . — P. 
 
 f All the above paragraphs are added by the translator. — P. 
 s “ The Dutch provinces.” 
 
 h Du. Haarlemmer Meer or Meir — properly, Haarlem Lake. — P. 
 
 ‘ “ Gulf of the Y”— called also the river Y, and more generally, the 
 Y (Du. Iiet Y, Ye, or Ie .) — It is properly an arm of the Zuyderzee. — P. 
 k The two last sentences are added by the translator. — P. 
 
 1 “ Nearly 20,000 arpents.” 
 
 m<1 — into a fertile polder." — Polder is a Dutch word, signifying a 
 tract of land drained and embanked, with a special administration for 
 securing the embankments ( waterstaat .) — P. 
 
 " Du. JVaarder Meer (Naarden Lake) — situated near the town of 
 
 OF HOLLAND. 413 
 
 Friesland; but the only one deserving particular men- 
 tion is that which is called the Sea of Haarlem , h in the 
 province of Holland. It communicates by the gulf of 
 Y * l with the Zuyderzee, is five leagues in length, by two 
 and a half in breadth, and is everywhere navigable. 
 Its navigation, however, is impeded by the violent squalls 
 and storms it is subject to. In one of these did the un- 
 fortunate Frederic, Elector Palatine and king of Bohe- 
 mia, when an exile in Holland, lose his eldest son and 
 save his own life with difficulty, by the upsetting the 
 boat in which they were crossing the lake during a dark 
 night. k A neck of land about two leagues broad, sepa- 
 rates it from the North Sea. This lake was formed 
 three centuries and a half ago by an inundation of the 
 ocean. The Jews of Amsterdam have offered to drain 
 it, under the condition that the property of the land 
 should be made over to them, but other interests have 
 stood in the way of the execution of this project, which 
 would transform an extent of water of more than twenty 
 thousand acres 1 into fertile meadow ground.” 1 Among 
 the lakes which have undergone this useful metamorpho- 
 sis, chiefly in North Holland, the most important is the 
 Sea of Naarden ." The Bies-Bosch ,° on the frontiers 
 of North Brabant/ is a lake of about twelve square 
 leagues in extent, which originated in a calamity more 
 disastrous than that which formed the Sea of Haarlem. 
 It was produced on the nineteenth of November, 1421, 
 by the rupture of several dikes, in consequence of which 
 seventy-two villages and a population of about 100,000 
 souls were submerged. Into this lake, several arms of 
 the Meuse throw themselves, but on issuing from it, 
 they form only one broad stream under the name of 
 Hollands-Dicj).^ Among the numerous marshes of this 
 country, the Bourtong, in the provinces of Groningen 
 and Drenthe/ covers a considerable extent of land. 
 
 Of all the gulfs which border the coast, and serve as 
 estuaries to the principal rivers, the two most important 
 are the Hollart / between the province of Groningen 
 and the kingdom of Hanover/ and the Zuyderzee, be- 
 tween Holland and Friesland.” The first, which re- 
 ceives the waters of the Ems, is three leagues in breadth, 
 and from seven to eight in length. It is the result of a 
 dreadful inundation of the sea, which, in 1277, swallow- 
 ed up several villages. The second, into which the 
 Reest, the Yssel, and several other rivers, throw them- 
 selves, was formed in 1225 by an irruption of the sea, 
 which covered thirty leagues of country ; x its name sig- 
 
 Naarden (Naerden) in South Holland, E. by S. of Amsterdam. — In 
 1C28, an attempt was made to drain and embank the Maarder Meer ; 
 but owing to the sponginess of the ground, by means of which the in- 
 flux of the water was too powerful to be resisted, the project was aban- 
 doned ( dock wegens de voosheid van den grond, die de doorzypering 
 van water te sterk maahte, is dit onticerp bhjvcn stehen.) The lake has 
 been noted for its fish and its duck decoys ( ecndc-koojcn .) (Busching, 
 vertaald door De Jongh. 1773.) The most important of the drained 
 lakes in North Holland, are the Zype, defended from the sea by an im- 
 mense dyke, called the Ilondswoud (Hound's wood ;) the Beemster 
 the Purmer, the Wormer, and the Schermer. These lakes have been 
 drained by means of wind-mills. — P. 
 
 0 Du. Biesbosch — literally, a thicket of bulrushes. — P. 
 
 p To the south-east of Dort, in South Holland, and on the northern 
 frontiers of North Brabant. — P. 
 
 1 Eng. Holland’s Deep. Diep, as a substantive, in Dutch, signi 
 fies a channel, or gulf. — P. 
 
 r The Bourtang lies on the eastern frontier of these provinces, and 
 partly in Westphalia. — P. 
 
 s Dollart or Dollert (Enc. Meth.) — Du. Dollaardt (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 • East Friesland. — P. 
 
 u Between the Dutch provinces of Holland and Friesland. — P. 
 
 x The south part of the Zuyder-Zee was originally a lake, of com- 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 414 
 
 nifics the Southern Sect,* because it is to the south of 
 the Ocean. 
 
 The original state of Holland, as almost one extend- 
 ed swamp, has already been noticed. In connexion 
 with the building of dikes to preserve it from the in- 
 roads and attacks of the Ocean, the importance of drain- 
 ing the land by means of canals and ditches, would 
 naturally occur to the inhabitants, and to such an extent 
 has this been carried, that the whole country is covered 
 with them. They are indeed innumerable, and most 
 useful for travelling and facilitating internal trade ; and 
 being lined with rows of trees, tend to adorn the face of 
 this Hat and naturally uninteresting country. So flat is 
 it, that to those approaching by sea, the spires and trees 
 appear to rise out of the water. b 
 
 The Dutch islands form two distinct groups.® The 
 southern group comprehends the largest, washed by the 
 different arms of the Scheld, the Meuse and the Rhine; 
 these are Walcheren, North and South Bevelnnc/,' 1 Tho- 
 len, e Schouwen,Over-Flakee, { Voorne,% and Beyerlandd 1 
 The northern is composed of the islands of Wieringen , 
 Texel, 1 Vliclnnd , k Ter- Schell ling, 1 and Ameland, all 
 lying at the entrance of the Zuyderzee and on the coasts 
 of Friesland. m 
 
 For the Geology of Holland, the reader is referred to 
 the remarks on the geology of Belgium , 11 111 which, from 
 the similarity of the two countries, are intended to em- 
 brace both . 0 
 
 The Dutch provinces, conquests of Man over the 
 Ocean, derive their fogs and humidity from the mists of 
 the sea, and the exhalations of the marshes. During 
 the winter, however, which lasts four months of the 
 year, and which covers the ground with hoar-frost and 
 ice, the east wind, which blows frequently in that season, 
 dissipates the miasmata of an insalubrious atmosphere. 
 The industry of the cultivator multiplies cattle and pas- 
 turage. Although this country does not present the 
 
 paratively small extent, called the Flcvo, which received the Old Ys- 
 sel, and discharged itself into the ocean by the river Flevo. When the 
 canal of Drusus, now the New Yssel, had become one of the prin- 
 cipal outlets of the Rhine, the lake was enlarged, and by its encroach- 
 ments, and by incursions of the sea, the extensive tract of country 
 which separated it from the ocean, and by which West Friesland in 
 North Holland, and the present province of Friesland, were contiguous, 
 being separated only by the river Flcvo, was submerged. The exact 
 period when this occurred is not known ; indeed it is probable that it 
 took place gradually, and at different periods. The breach, that form- 
 ed the inlet to the Texel (Jl lars-Diep,) is said by an old chronicle 
 to have taken place in 1170; others say as late as 1400. (Ed. Enc.) — 
 Busehing states that West Friesland and the province of Friesland 
 were connected till the 13th century, but does not specify the period 
 when they were disjoined. The river Flevo is supposed to have fol- 
 lowed the course of the present channel called the Flie Stroom. The 
 entrance to the sea is now chiefly occupied by shallows, the only im- 
 portant channels beiirg the Texel Stroom, and the Flie Stroom. — P. 
 
 a Du. Zuiderzee or Zuider- Zee — Suydcr-See (Kilian;) from zuider, 
 southern, and zee, sea. — P. 
 
 0 This paragraph is added by the translator. — P. 
 c M. Ad. Balbi, Abrege de Gbographie. 
 d Du. Noord- and Zuid- Beveland. — P. 
 e Du. Thoolen (Busehing;) Tolen (Hubner.) — P. 
 f Overflackee (Ed. Enc.) — Overflacque or Zuidvoorn [South Voorn] 
 (Morse.) — Du. Overflakkee (Hubner;) Overvlakkee, Over-Flakkee, or 
 Over-Flacquee (Busehing.) — It lies on the south side of the island of 
 Voorn. — P. 
 
 K Du. Foorn — Forn or Forne (Kilian.) — The island of Voorn is di- 
 vided by creeks into Voorn (proper,) Beyerland, Stryen and Putten. 
 Voorn proper, with the islands of Overflakkee and Goree (Du. Goeree ) 
 on the south, forms the district called Voornland, divided into East 
 Voorn (Du. Oostvoorn) or Voorn proper, South Voorn or Overflakkee, 
 and West Voorn or Goree. — P. 
 
 h Beierland ( Busehing.) — P. * Tessel or Teksel (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 k Flieland (Busehing) — so called from the ancient river Flcvo , now 
 the channel called the Vliestroom, or the Vlie Uict Flic!) — P. 
 
 [BOOK CLI. 
 
 agreeable variety of an irregular surface, yet the fine 
 season adorns it with its charms ; vast meadows, daz- 
 zling witli the richest verdure, are during eight months 
 of the year covered with cattle, whose plumpness an- 
 nounces an abundant and healthy nourishment, and the 
 great number of these domestic animals attests no less 
 the ivealth of their owners, than in other quarters the 
 cultivated fields indicate the intelligence and patient 
 attention of a laborious population. Wheal, flax, and 
 madder, in the north, and in the south, tobacco, and 
 different kinds of fruit-trees, cover the best lands . p It 
 is among the Hollanders that horticulture has made the 
 greatest progress, and where the culture of a thousand 
 ornamental plants, and especially hyacinths and tulips, 
 has been carried to such a length, that the price of a 
 single flower often exceeds what would support twenty 
 families for a year. 
 
 The population of Holland, viewmd in a religious 
 aspect, is divided into a great number of religions, com- 
 munions and sects. No religion is there considered as 
 being that of the state ; all enjoy the same rights and 
 equal liberty. The Reformed communion^ is, however, 
 the most numerous ; the Christians of the confession of 
 Augsburg 1, occupy the next rank ; Mennonites, various 
 other sects, and Jews, much less numerous than the two 
 first mentioned, are scattered over all the provinces . 3 
 
 In regard to the language, with the exception of the 
 Jews, the origin of the different dialects that are spoken 
 may be traced to the German .* The different dialects 
 spoken in Friesland and the islands of the Zuyderzee, 
 in the province of Holland, in Gueldres, in Zeeland, 
 and in Dutch Brabant, are all of this description. The 
 Jews, who came originally from Portugal, have pre- 
 served the idiom which was familiar to them when they 
 established themselves in the Low Countries . 0 
 
 The most ancient inhabitants of the country were the 
 Frisii, ancestors of the Frieslanders, who occupied from 
 
 1 Du. Schelling, Ter Schelling, or Der Schelling. — The hypheD 
 
 should not be used in this word. — P. 
 
 111 The four first of the northern group belong to the province of 
 Holland ; the last, to that of Friesland. — P. 
 
 “ Book CL. 
 
 ° This sentence is added by the translator. — The geological remarks 
 in the original refer to the whole kingdom of the Netherlands, but 
 they chiefly apply to Belgium. All the older formations there noticed, 
 the valleys there described, and the particular minerals enumerated, 
 belong to Belgium. The Dutch Provinces consist almost entirely of 
 the alluvium occupying the deltas of the rivers, and contain besides 
 only loose tertiary deposits. — P. 
 
 p" There is very little land under tillage in the province of Holland, 
 and what is under tillage is almost exclusively confined to South Hol- 
 land. The best wheat is produced in the neighbourhood of Grave- 
 sande, near the mouth of the Meuse. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 a Calvinists. r Lutherans. 
 
 s These remarks on religion apply in the original to the whole king- 
 dom of the Netherlands It is there stated that the Roman Catholics 
 hold the first rank in point of numbers, but are chiefly confined to the 
 Belgic provinces, in which they predominate, and that on the contrary, 
 the reformed communion is the predominant sect in the Dutch 
 provinces. The others are ranked in the order in which they occur 
 in the text. — P. 
 
 • Not' the German, but the Germanic or Teutonic «tock. — P. 
 
 “ These remarks on language also apply in the original to the whole 
 kingdom of the Netherlands. They are so mutilated and falsified in 
 the translation, that I have thought it proper to give a closer version. — 
 “ Ethnographical]}- considered, the population exhibits still more nu- 
 merous diversities. The languages spoken belong to three great 
 classes. The most important of these, is the Germanic : the people 
 of Friesland and of the islands in the Zuyder-Zee. those who speak 
 the Dutch language ( HoUandais ,) those who retain the Netherlandish 
 dialects of Gelders, Zealand, and the other northern provinces, the 
 Flemings of the northern Belgic provinces, and the inhabitants of 
 the adjoining districts in Germany, all belong to this division. The 
 
BOOK CLI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF HOLLAND. 
 
 415 
 
 south to north the country comprehended between the 
 Rhine and the Ocean. Their Latin name ( Frisii ) 
 probably comes from an old word in the Germanic lan- 
 guage, frisson , a which signifies to grub up, to dig or 
 drain marshes. b They were one of the most powerful 
 nations of Western Germany. Brave, and jealous of 
 their liberty, they were long the devoted auxiliaries of 
 the Romans ; their independence was never disputed ; 
 we see them, after the death of Drusus, choosing chiefs 
 or dukes from amongst themselves. The Batavi were, 
 it is believed, a colony of the Catti, a German people ; 
 forced by a series of intestine dissensions to quit their 
 own country, they planted themselves in the sandy and 
 marshy country, circumscribed by the Rhine and the 
 Meuse ; their neighbours called them, for this reason, 
 TVaitawerf an appellation which the Romans changed 
 into Batavid When Csesar undertook the conquest of 
 Gaul, they were already powerful, and masters of part 
 of the country to the south of the lower Meuse. Their 
 cavalry was formidable ; their horses were trained to 
 swim across rivers without breaking their ranks. At the 
 battle of Pharsalia, they decided the victory in favour 
 of Ccesar. Their bravery and loyalty gave them the 
 privileged title of friends and brothers of the Romans, 
 and the honour of forming the praetorian guard. In all 
 important expeditions, in every dangerous enterprise, 
 the Batavians were selected. They composed the for- 
 lorn hope of the Roman army, sustained the first shock 
 of the enemy’s attack, and made the first attack with 
 a boldness and impetuosity peculiar to themselves. e 
 Tacitus says, that no tribute was imposed upon them ; 
 they remained faithful to the empire till its fall. Their 
 territory was comprehended in the province of Germa- 
 nia Secunda. 
 
 From these generalities, which it would be unprofitable 
 
 Gratco- Latin comprehends those who retain the Walloon and the 
 French Flemish, two dialects of the French, and who inhabit the two 
 provinces of Flanders, and those of Liege, Namur, South Brabant and 
 Hainault. The Jews belong to the Shemitic class: having come 
 originally from Portugal, they retain the language which was familiar 
 to them when they established themselves in the Low Countries.” 
 
 a “ Friessen." — Busching derives the name from frissen, to dig, to 
 turn up the ground. — P. 
 
 b The name of the Frisii has been derived from the Frisic word frie 
 (Germ .frey,) free, and it is stated by Alting that they have always 
 been styled free Frisians ( frie Friesen.) Others have derived it from 
 fris (Germ . frisch,) fresh, new, because they occupied the lands newly 
 recovered from the sea, such lands being still called Friesselanden, 
 in distinction from the old lands ( Oldelantlcn .) Others, finally, have 
 derived it from fris, cold, (from the root of freeze,) from the cold and 
 damp climate which they inhabited. (J. H. Steffens, Gesch. der alten 
 Bewohner Teutschlandes, p. 271. 1752.) — P. 
 
 c In Dutch and Low German,* * watt still signifies sand bank ; awe 
 or ave, low land, meadow. [In Dutch, watte, or waade, signifies a ford ; 
 w alten, plu. flats or shoals. The word is spelt variously in Kilian’s 
 Low Dutch Dictionary, 1642, viz. wat, wad, wade, watte, waede, all 
 rendered ford ( vadum .) (This Dictionary includes words, not only in 
 the Dutch proper (Hollandish,) but in the Flemish, the dialect of Bra- 
 bant, and those of other provinces in the Low Countries, and also in 
 those of Lower Germany.) Wat still signifies a shallow ( untiefc ) in 
 German. Dan. vad or vod, a ford. (Baden). Swed. vad, a ford. The 
 word is from the root of the English, wade, Latin, vadum. — In Ger- 
 man, au. or aue, signifies meadow or pasture. The same word, in 
 Kilian, is written auwe, and ouwe. The word is not at present re- 
 tained in the Dutch. The corresponding word, now used in that lan- 
 guage, is wei, or tceidc, (Germ, weide .) — P.] 
 
 * Germ. Platt Deutsch , or Niederdcutsch, including all (he vulgar dialects of 
 the North of Germany, such as the Low Saxon, Westphalian, &c. — P. 
 
 d The name Batavi (Germ. Batt-Auer) signifies the Batti (synony- 
 mous with Catti) of the meadows ( auen ) — so called because they in- 
 habited the meadows on the Lower Rhine, particularly on the island 
 included between the Rhine and the Waal (the ancient Insula Batavo- 
 rum.) still called Betuwe. (Steffens.) — P. 
 
 e These two last sentences are added by the translator. — P. 
 
 to extend farther, let us pass on to the important cities 
 and towns of the different Dutch provinces. When 
 these provinces rose up against the tyranny of Philip II., 
 and bound themselves by the treaty of Utrecht in 1579, 
 they were seven in number : the lordships of Groningen, 
 Friesland, Over-Yssel, and Utrecht, the dutchy of Guel- 
 dres, and the counties of Holland and Zeeland, and to 
 these may be added, the territory of Drenthe. Dutch 
 Brabant and East Flanders, having been in their pos- 
 session when peace was made with Spain, were given 
 up to them. Tims matters continued till the invasion 
 and conquest of Holland by the French republic in 1795. 
 In 1798, having been called upon by the republican 
 government of France to adopt some new organization, 
 they took the name of the Batavian republic. Their 
 political division changed ; they were divided into eight 
 departments/ s This division lasted only eighteen 
 months, when that which recalled the good old days of 
 Dutch independence was again resorted to, and contin- 
 ued till the time when Napoleon imposed a sovereign in 
 the person of his brother, upon the descendants of those 
 republicans who had cemented their independence by 
 the blood of the Spanish phalanxes. Their country 
 w r as then divided into eleven departments. h L T nited, the 
 9th of July 1810, to the French empire, Holland form- 
 ed seven departments;' but since its erection, after the 
 downfall of Napoleon, into an independent state, the 
 original division has again prevailed/ 
 
 Groningen ,* the capital of the province of that name,™ 
 is the most important city in the north of the kingdom. 
 Watered by the small river Hunse, and situated at the 
 junction of three great canals, which give it a communi- 
 cation with several commercial cities ; possessing also a 
 port which, although five leagues from the mouth of the 
 Ems, receives the largest merchant vessels, it is not 
 
 f Known by the names of Delft, Donnnel, Amstel, Ems. Scheld 
 and Meuse, Rhine, Texel, and Old Yssel, from the names of the prin- 
 cipal rivers which traversed them. [Those of Delft and Texel, the 
 former from the city, the latter from the island of the same name, not 
 from rivers. — P.] 
 
 s “ When these provinces, after having risen against the tyranny of 
 Philip II., united themselves by the treaty of Utrecht in 1579, they 
 were seven in number, namely, the lordships of Groningen, Friesland, 
 Overyssel and Utrecht, the dutchy of Gelders, and the counties of 
 Holland and Zealand. The country of Drenthe was their ally * 
 Dutch Brabant and East Flanders were their dependencies.! In 1793, 
 the republican government of France, whose armies had invaded the 
 territory of the Seven United Provinces, induced them to modify their 
 organization, when they took the name of the Batavian Republic. 
 Their political division was changed ; they were divided into eight 
 departments.’^ 
 
 * The Country (Landschap) of Drenthe was under the protection of the 
 Commonwealth, but had no seat in the States-General. The Seven United 
 Provinces were alone considered as sovereign states. (Busching.)— P. 
 
 t The Dutch possessed, previous to the French revolution, that part of 
 Flanders lying along the left bank of the West Scheldt, called Dutch Han- 
 ders, and including Axel, Sluvs and Hulst ; North Brabant, then called Dutch 
 Brabant, including Bois-le-Duc, Breda, Bergen-op-Zoom, Fort Lillo, and 
 Grave ; Venloo and Stevenswaerd, on the Meuse, in Upper Gelderland ; and a 
 part of the old province of Limburg, on the Meuse, including Maestro ht, Da- 
 lem and Valkenburg. These districts are now claimed by Holland. — P. 
 
 h Amstelland, Brabant, Zealand, Utrecht, Gelders, Maasland, Fries- 
 land, East Friesland, Overyssel, Drenthe, and Groningen. 
 
 * Eastern Ems, Western Ems, Friesland. Mouths of the Yssel, Up- 
 per Yssel, Zuyderzee, and Mouths of the Meuse. 
 
 k “ But when, in connection with Belgium, it was erected into the 
 kingdom of the Netherlands, the original division again prevailed. 
 
 1 Du. Groningen — Groeningen (Kilian.) — Fr Groningue. P. 
 
 m The province of Groningen (Du. Groningerland) consisted of the 
 City of Groningen and its territory, and the Ommelanden (literally, 
 surrounding country ;) forming two districts, separately represented 
 in the provincial states. Hence the province was styled officially, the 
 City of Groningen and the Ommelanden (Du. Stad Groningen en Om 
 melanden.) — P. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CJLI. 
 
 41G 
 
 astonishing that this flourishing city has a good universi- 
 ty, besides several schools, fine collections and scien- 
 tific societies. It has given birth to several distinguished 
 savans, among others, to Rudolph Agricola, the first in- 
 troducer of the Greek language into Germany,® to Al- 
 bert Schultens, the orientalist, and to Muntinck, who 
 founded there the botanical garden, at present so much 
 admired. 1 * * Its finest edifices are the Gothic church of 
 St. Martin, the spire of which is 330 feet high, and the 
 town-house, built in 1793, upon a spot 0 which passes 
 for one of the finest in Holland. One of its bridges 
 called Botering-lloog, is regarded as a chef-d’oeuvre. 
 These buildings, and many others which might be men- 
 tioned, together with the cleanliness and regularity of 
 its streets, rank Groningen among the finest cities in the 
 Low Countries. It was formerly a member of the Han- 
 seatic league. It is pretended, upon some very uncer- 
 tain evidence, that it was built around the Roman fortress 
 called by Tacitus Corbulonis monumentum ; d yet the 
 first time it is mentioned in history is in the ninth cen- 
 tury, and it was not till the fourteenth that they raised 
 the fortifications which have been kept up ever since 
 with much care. 
 
 Leeuwarden ,° in the province of Friesland, commu- 
 nicates with Groningen, and also with Dockumf Sneek, % 
 and other towns, by means of canals, and thus carries on 
 an active trade. This pretty town 1 * is surrounded by a 
 ditch and an earthen rampart ; one of its twelve churches 
 contains the tombs of the princes of Orange, and their 
 
 a Remark of the translator. — The same remark is found in Lem- 
 priere and Platt. — Rodolphus Agricola was born at Bafflom [Bafflen] 
 near Groningen, in 1442; he studied Greek under Theodore Gaza at 
 Ferrara. — P. 
 
 b Henry Munting, professor of botany at Groningen, formed a large 
 collection of plants, of which he published a catalogue. Abraham 
 Munting, his son and successor, also published several works on 
 botany. (Beauvais.) — The genus Muntmoia was named from them. 
 — P. 
 
 c “ Fronting a square (sur une place.)” 
 
 d Corbulonis Munimentum, a fortress in Germany near the country 
 of the Cauchi [ Chauci, Tac.J Tacitus relates that Corbulo, after hav- 
 ing defeated the Frisii, compelled them to give hostages, and to settle 
 in the territory he allotted to them. He gave them magistrates and 
 laws, and erected a fortress among them. The latter is supposed to 
 have occupied the site of Groningen. (Enc. Meth. Geog. Anc.) — His 
 name was given to a place ( Monumentum. ) in Germany, which some 
 suppose to be modern Groningen. Tacit. Ann. xi. c. 18. (Lempriere's 
 Class. Diet. edit. Anthon.) — The following is the passage referred to 
 in Tacitus (Annal. xi. c. 19.) “ Et natio Frisiorum post rebellionem — 
 datis obsidibus consedit apud agros, a Corbulone descriptos. Idem 
 senatum, magistratus, leges imposuit ; ac, ne jussa exuerent, presidium 
 immunivit.” — The “ Monumentum” is not mentioned in Ann. xi. c. 
 18.— P. 
 
 e Du. Leeuwarden — Leeuwaarden, or Lecwaerde (Kilian.) — Frisic, 
 Licvcrden (Busching) — Lieuwerd (Hubner) — Fr. Lcicardc (Enc. Meth.) 
 — Leuarden (Tuckey.) Leewarden (Vosgien.) Leuwarden, Leewaer- 
 den (Guthrie.) — The name is said to be derived from leeuw, lion, or 
 lieve, dear, or the small river Le or Lea, or finally, from one Lew, the 
 original proprietor, and werd or waard, an artificial mound for retreat 
 in case of floods. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 f Du. Dokkum, properly Dokkenheim, or Dokko' slicim (Busching) 
 — Dockoin or Dockem (Kilian) — situated on the river Ee, N. E. of 
 Leeuwarden. — P. 
 
 e Du Sneek — Sneeck (Enc. Meth.) — Frisic, Suits. — S.W. of Leeu- 
 warden, on the west side of the Sneeker Mcer (Sneek Lake,) from 
 which a canal passes through the town. — P. 
 
 h “Capital” — of the province. — P. 
 
 1 This is stated in D 'dices dcs Pays-Bas, vol. v. p. 318. — P. 
 
 k Du. Harlingen. — Fris. Harlinga ; originally, Ilarliga, from a no- 
 ble Frisian family of that name. — Harlingen was at first a hamlet 
 ( buurt ) and afterwards a market town ( rlek .) gradually formed around 
 the castles of the two noble families of Harliga and Harns. The western 
 side of the town was at diff 'rent intervals submerged by the waves, 
 and in the mean time a suburb, called Ahnenum, extended on the east, 
 and was finally incorporated. Although it had earlier acquired the 
 privileges of a city (stud,) it was not surrounded with walls till the 
 
 palace is one of its principal edifices. Upon the site of 
 a hamlet swallowed up by the sea in 1134,* stands Har- 
 lingen. , k important on account of its fortifications, and 
 also a place of very considerable trade ; near the har- 
 bour may be seen a monument erected in honour of 
 Gaspard Robles, who, by repairing at his own expense 
 the dikes of the province, 1 merited the gratitude of his 
 fellow-citizens. m 
 
 Assen, the capital of the province of Drenthe,** is a 
 handsome small town, which, by a canal, communicates 
 with Meppel, a town of 4000 souls, and with the Zuy- 
 derzee. There have been discovered in its environs, 
 several tombs of the ancient Germans. Koevorden, 0 
 built in the form of a pentagon, is surrounded by fortifi- 
 cations which are by some regarded as the chef-d’oeuvre 
 of Coehorn ;P it is besides environed by a marsh , q which 
 renders it difficult of access 
 
 The province of Overyssel 0 contains several towns of 
 importance : in Zwool , s the capital, the church of St. 
 Michael is remarkable for its fine organ and the sculp- 
 ture upon its pulpit ; Campen ,* upon the left bank of 
 the Yssel, at a short distance from its entrance into the 
 Zuyderzee, is surrounded by walls and ditches. Its 
 trade, which has been long on the decline, is menaced 
 with total destruction by the sand-banks which obstruct 
 its harbour." Deventer, which boasts of its hard ware, 
 beer and gingerbread, possesses some fine buildings ; 
 it was the native place of the philosopher Grono- 
 vius. x 
 
 fifteenth century. (Busching.) — Harlingen is situated on the sea, west 
 of Leeuwarden, and opposite the Vliestroorn. — P. 
 
 1 “ — by improving the dikes of the province.” — Nearly one half of 
 the town on the west side having been formerly carried away by the 
 sea, it became of great importance to strengthen its defences on that 
 side, which consist not only of dikes, but of wall, pile and coffer work. 
 The Spanish governor, Caspar Robles, having done much to promote 
 the work, a stone column, called the Stone Man (de Stcene Man,) with 
 an inscription in honour of him, was erected on the dike to the south 
 of Harlingen, but afterwards removed. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 m Franeker, formerly the seat of a university (now college or athe- 
 nffium,) on the canal between Leeuwarden and Harlingen, may also 
 be mentioned among the towns of Friesland. Under the old Dutch 
 government, there were eleven cities in the province, having a voice 
 in the States, including besides those already mentioned, Bolswert (Du. 
 Bolstcerd, or Bolsicaanl — Fris. Bolu-ard,) Staveren (Starorcn.) Slooten 
 Sloten,) Workum (originally Woldcrkum,) Ylst (Fris. Ylts.) and Hinde- 
 lopen ( Hindlopcn , Hinlopen, or Hinloupen). The people in the prov- 
 ince are mostly of Frisian origin, and still retain their peculiar lan- 
 guage, to which they show a strong attachment. It possesses many 
 literary remains of different periods, and not a little zeal is at present 
 exhibited in its cultivation. — P. 
 
 “ Drent (Kilian. Pinkerton.) — P. 
 
 0 Du. Koevorden — Covordcn (Kilian.) — In different English and 
 French authors, Coevorden . — “ Koevorden.” M. B. — This is a mistake, 
 the diphthong ce not occurring in the Dutch language. See note d p. 
 1093. 
 
 p “ It is regarded as the chef-d’oeuvre of Coehorn.”*— The same ex- 
 pression is used in the Enc. Meth.— Bergen op Zoom was regarded by 
 Cohorn as his masterpiece. (Ed. Enc.) — Koevorden is one of the 
 strongest fortresses in Holland. — P. 
 
 * The name of this celebrated engineer is generally written Cohorn — Coe- 
 horn (Enc. Meth.) — Do. Koehoorn. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 a “ By marshes.” — It is surrounded by a great marsh. (Enc. 
 ]VI e th.)— P. r “ Over-Yssel.” 
 
 » Du. Zwol, Zwolle — Swol (Hubner ) — Swolle (Kilian.) — Zwoll (Tuck- 
 ey.) — z i s very often used now in Dutch, where s was formerly used. 
 Oo, in Dutch, is merely long o. — P. 
 
 1 Kampen (Hubner.) — P. 
 
 " Its harbour is now much choked up with sand. (Morse.) — P. 
 
 1 Doubtless, James Gronovius, the celebrated critic and philologist, 
 son of John Frederick Gronovius. a native of Hamburg, also a learned 
 critic. James Gronovius is chiefly known by his Thesaurus Antiqui 
 tatum Grtecarum, in 13 vols. fol. He became professor of Greek at 
 Levden, where he died. John Fr. and Lawrence Theod. Gronovius, 
 the first his son, and the second his grandson, were distinguished as 
 naturalists. — P. 
 
 1 
 
BOOK CL.I.1 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF HOLLAND. 
 
 417 
 
 Gueldres or Guelderland ,* which has preserved the | 
 name of a city ceded to Prussia, more than a century 
 ago, b was formerly inhabited by the Sicambri, a people 
 of ancient Germany. The first city we come to, follow- 
 ing the course of the Yssel, is Zutphen 0 defended by 
 some fortifications. English readers will connect with 
 Zutphen, the renowned and gallant Sir Philip Sydney, 
 who was killed at the siege of this town, then in the 
 hands of the Spaniards, in 1586. d Upon the right bank 
 of one of the arms of the Rhine, e stands Arnheim, { not 
 less strong, and the seat of government of the province. 
 It was fortified by the celebrated Coehorn. Its ram- 
 parts are planted with beautiful elms, and form an 
 agreeable promenade. It possesses a good harbour, its 
 streets are straight, and the principal church contains 
 the tombs of the ancient dukes and counts of Gueldres. s 
 Some leagues to the south of this capital, lies the much 
 more considerable city of Nimeguen ; h it bore in an- 
 cient times the name of Noviomagus, which, during the 
 middle ages, was changed to that of Numaga. 1 [Nime- 
 guen is built on a steep rising ground, reaching down 
 to the edge of the Waal, and the steepness is so great, 
 that some of the streets are scarcely passable for wheel 
 carriages. Most of the streets are narrow and dark ; but 
 some of them are of a tolerable breadth and well formed. 
 The principal church is a handsome structure, and the 
 town-house, a very old building, is also worthy of notice. 
 Fiona the top of an ancient tower, called the Belvidere, 
 there is a most extensive view.” k “ All Holland,” 
 says a traveller, describing it, “ seemed to lie like a map 
 
 1 “ La Gueldre.” — Du. Geldertand, Gelder — in the provincial dia- 
 lect, Gelre — Gel derlandt, Ghelderland (Kilian.) — Germ. Gelderland or 
 Geldern (the country.) Gelder (the town.) — Fr. Gueldre, Gueldres, or 
 Guelderland. — In English authors, generally written Gelderland, or 
 Gelders ; sometimes Guelderland. The u, in the French orthography, 
 is merely used to give the hard sound of the g, in the Dutch and Ger- 
 man. The h, in the old Dutch orthography, answered the same pur- 
 pose. — Gelderland was originally adutchy. North Gelderland, united 
 ivith the county of Zutphen, formed one of the provinces of the Dutch 
 confederacy, the states of which bore the title of States of the Dutchy 
 or Principality of Gelre and the County of Zutphen. South Gelder- 
 land remained to Spain after the treaty of Munster, and passed to the 
 house of Austria on the accession of the emperor Charles VI., who 
 ceded to Frederick William I. of Prussia, in 1713, the city of Gelders, 
 and its territory. Previous to the French revolution, South Gelder- 
 land was divided between Prussia, who possessed the quarter of Gel- 
 ders, Austria, who possessed that of Roermond, and the Dutch, who 
 possessed that of Venloo. — P. 
 b A. D. 1713. 
 
 c Du. Zutphen (Busching) — Zutfcn (Hubner) — Sutfen (Kilian.) — P. 
 d This sentence is added by the translator. — P. 
 e The north arm, just after it sends off the Yssel. — P. 
 f “ Arnhem.” — Du. Arnhem or Aarnhem (Hubner)- -Arnhem, prop- 
 erly Arnheim, vulgarly Arem (Busching.) — P. 
 s See note a . 
 
 h “ Nimegue,” Fr. — Eng. Nimeguen. — Du. Nymegen, Nimwegen, or 
 Nimmegen ; contracted from Nieuic-Megen (Nieumeghen, Kilian,) the 
 translation of its Latin name (See note ',) which is said in old Ger- 
 man to signify new town ( magen or megen, Lat. magum, a town or 
 city.) (Busching.) — P. 
 
 ‘ Ancient name, Noviomagus Batavorum (D’Anv.) — in modern 
 Latin, Nuviomagum or Neomagum (Busching.) — P. 
 
 k The finest view in Nimeguen is from a projecting angle of the 
 city wall, at the extremity of a walk planted with trees, called the 
 Kalverbosch. The Duke of Parma, governor under Philip II., gave to 
 this spot the name of Belvidere, and a lofty building, used as a place 
 of amusement ( speelhuis ,) has been erected there. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 1 The sentences inclosed in brackets are added by the trans- 
 lator. — P. 
 
 n ‘ A separate treaty of peace and commerce was concluded between 
 France and Holland, at Nimeguen, Aug. 10, 1678; a joint treaty of 
 truce, between France, Spain and Holland, in the camp at Mons, Aug. 
 10, 1678; and a separate treaty of peace, between France and Spain, 
 at Nimeguen, Sept. 17, 1678. A treaty of peace, between France and 
 the Emperor Leopold, was concluded at Nimeguen, Feb. 5, 1670; 
 VOL. III. — NO. 55 53 
 
 before me, presenting a flat of such extent, that the eye 
 is almost wearied with wandering over the boundless 
 space, and which is so intersected in every direction with 
 rivers, canals, and swamps, that the whole country looks 
 as if but yet half recovered from the mighty universal 
 flood. From Arnheim in the north, to Gueldres in the 
 south, and from Utrecht in the west, to the forests of Guel- 
 derland, and even of Westphalia in the east, the whole 
 country here lies open to the view ; and at a fearful 
 depth below, is traced the broad majestic Rhine (Waal) 
 sweeping onward in its full and steady course through 
 this wide favouring land, to where the horizon, sinking 
 into earth and water, terminates the scene.”] 1 Nime- 
 guen is celebrated for two treaties of peace ; the first 
 concluded in 1678, between Spain, France, and Holland, 
 and the second, the following year, between the Ger- 
 manic Empire and Sweden. m 
 
 One of the arms of the Rhine 11 flows through Utrecht, 0 
 a city of much more importance than any we have yet 
 mentioned. The name of Trajectum, by which it is 
 designated in the Itinerary of Antonine, announces it to 
 have been one of the fifty fortresses which Drusus caused 
 to be erected amongst the B atari, in order to secure 
 the navigation of the principal rivers. This rising city 
 was several times destroyed by the Barbarians during 
 the reign of Valentinian ; Ulpius Trajan rebuilt it, 
 which procured for it the name of Trajectum Ulpii T 
 [Utrecht stands, what does not often occur in Holland, 
 on a rising ground, and lying on the banks of the Rhine, 
 and in the midst of a country, every part of it cultivated 
 
 another, between the Emperor and the King of Sweden, in which 
 France was included, of the same date ; and a treaty for the execution 
 of peace (definitive,) between the Emperor and France, July 17, 1679. 
 (Fr. Leonard, Recueil des Traitez, t. iii. iv. v. 1693.) — P. 
 
 “ The old Rhine, entering the sea near Leyden. — Utrecht stands at 
 the point of union of four navigable waters, viz. the Holland Vecht 
 ( Hollandsche Vecht.) the Crooked and Old Rhine ( Kromme and Oudc 
 Rlnjn,) and the Rhine Canal ( Vaartsche Rhyn or Rhynsche Vaart.) 
 The Crooked Rhine is that part of the old arm of the Rhine, extend- 
 ing from the origin of the Leek to Utrecht, whence it is continued to- 
 wards Leyden in the Old Rhine ( Oude Rhyn.) The Vecht separates 
 from it near Utrecht, and flows N. W. into the Zuyderzee, and the 
 Rhine Canal extends from the Leek opposite Vyanen to the Old 
 Rhine at Utrecht (Busching.) — P. 
 
 0 Uitrecht (Hubner.) — Uttrecht, Uttricht (Kilian.) — Pronounced by 
 the Hollanders, Uitert ; by the inhabitants, Oitcrt. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 P The original name of Utrecht is said to have been Antonin, which 
 some have supposed was one of the fifty fortresses erected by Drusus 
 along the left bank of the Rhine. (See note c p. 1093 ) It is called 
 Trajectum (ferry) in the Itinerary of Antonine. It was also called 
 Trajectum ad Rhenum (ferry over the Rhine) to distinguish it from 
 Trajectum ad Mosam (ferry over the Meuse,) now Maestricht ; Tra- 
 jectum Infcrius (lower ferry) ; and in the middle ages, Trajectum Ve- 
 tus (old ferry.) It is called Utricesium and Utriccsima, in Ammianus 
 Marcellinus, which has been supposed by Hadrian Junius, to signify 
 the station of the 35th legion (V. TR1C. LEG. STAT.) The modern 
 Latin name, Ultrajectum, has been derived, by contraction, from Ulpii 
 Trajectum, or Ulptrajectum, a name supposed to have been given it 
 from Ulpianus Trajanus (the emperor Trajan,) who commanded the 
 legions in Lower Germany during the reign of Domitian. Others 
 derive it, by translation, from Trajectum Vetus, which in the Frisian 
 language is rendered Old-Trecht, softened into Outrecht, from the first 
 of which the Latin Ultrajectum, and from the second the modern 
 name, Utrecht, is derived. Others derive it from the Wiltes or Vultee 
 (Du. IVilten or Vulten, whence Vultrajectum ,) a Slavonian people, who 
 destroyed the fortress of Antonia, and erected another called Wiltenlurg, 
 in 186. But Alting denies the existence of such a people. (Busch- 
 ing.) — There is apparently an error in the text, in stating that the 
 ancient city was destroyed by the Barbarians in the reign of Valen 
 tinian. and rebuilt by Ulpius Trajan. The Alemanni, a nation of an- 
 cient Germany, thrice invaded Gaul (365, 366, and 368,) during the 
 reign of Valentinian 1. Ulpius Trajan was undoubtedly the emperor 
 Trajan, who commanded the legions in Lower Germany, A. D. 91, 
 consequently, nearly 300 years before the reign of Valentinian. — P. 
 
418 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CL!. 
 
 like a garden, the situation is pleasing, and the appear- 
 ance of the city agreeable. As usual, a number of 
 canals run through it, and the public mall or promenade* 
 through numerous avenues of fine trees is highly orna- 
 mental. Its cathedral was destroyed by a violent storm 
 in the latter part of the seventeenth century, and is now 
 in ruins. b The tower of the cathedral is very lofty,® 
 and from the top, it is said that fifty or sixty walled 
 cities and towns may be seen.] d There repose in this 
 cathedral the ashes of several emperors. e The edifices 
 in Utrecht possess a character of antiquity, which in- 
 spires respect : in examining them, the remembrance of 
 the act of union of 1579/ which proclaimed the inde- 
 pendence of the republic of the Seven United Provinces/ 
 and that of the peace which was signed here in 1713/ 
 present themselves to the mind. We are reminded 
 that in this city, the cradle of pope Adrian VI., the 
 preceptor of Charles V., was formed that mighty mari- 
 time power, which long struggled against England, which 
 was humbled by Louis XIV., but which made that great 
 king to tremble. Its university, its scientific collections, 
 and its societies of arts, of sciences, and for benevolent 
 and useful purposes, * 1 * * are worthy of the rank which 
 Utrecht occupies in the annals of Holland. Burman/ 
 the editor of the classics, was a native of Utrecht. 
 The learned Graevius, 1 who resided and died here, was 
 a native of Saxony. It has given name to a kind of 
 velvet which is still manufactured here. [The road 
 from LTtrecht to Amsterdam is considered as passing 
 through the most beautiful and picturesque part of Hol- 
 land. The whole line is over a fiat but fertile country, 
 along the banks of the great canal, m which is ornamented 
 on both sides with nearly one continued range of coun- 
 try seats, belonging to the wealthy merchants. The 
 extremely rich appearance of this part of the country, 
 
 1 Du. Mnliebaan. — P. 
 
 b The nave of the cathedral (St. Martin’s) was destroyed by a 
 storm Aug. 1, 1074 ; the choir and the transepts, together with the 
 tower, from which they are separated by the open place, formerly oc- 
 cupied by the nave, are the only parts remaining. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 c More than 380 feel high. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 d The sentences enclosed in brackets are added by the translator. — P. 
 
 e On the pavement of the church are the following inscriptions : 
 Ext a, Cimradi II. Impcr. 1039, and Exta Ilenrici V. hnper. 1125. 
 (Busching.) — P. 
 
 f Called by the Dutch, the treaty of union ( Vereenigings Ver- 
 bond,) or the Union of Utrecht ( Unievan Utrecht.) — P. 
 
 e See note c p. 1092. 
 
 h The peace of Utrecht was concluded, by separate treaties, on the 
 evening of April 11, 1713, in the council chamber ( Raadkavier ) of the 
 town-house ( Stadhuis ) o r that city, between France on the one side, 
 and England, Holland, Savoy, Portugal, and Prussia, on the other, 
 thus including all the belligerents, except the Emperor, with whom a 
 separate treaty was concluded at Rastadt, March 6, 1714, and ratified 
 by the treaty of Baden, Sept. 7, of the same year. By these treaties, 
 the war of the Spanish succession was concluded, and the crown of 
 Spain confirmed to Philip V., he renouncing, for himself and his succes- 
 sors, all claims to the throne of France, and on the contrary, all others 
 who had then claims to that throne, renouncing all pretensions to that 
 of Spain. (Leonard, Recueil. t. viii. Rousset, Recueil. t. i.) — P. 
 
 ' “ Its societies of arts, sciences, and the public good” (Du. tot nut 
 van 't algrmeen, for the promotion of the public good.) — There is a 
 society of the same name at Amsterdam. — P. 
 
 k Peter Burman, born 1CC8 — noted as an editor of the Latin clas- 
 sics. — Peter Burman, his nephew, born at Amsterdam 1714, was also 
 distinguished as an editor of the Latin poets — P. 
 
 1 J. G. GriEvius (Grafe,) a native of Naumburg in Saxony — died at 
 Utrecht, where -he was professor of history, in 1703. He is chiefly 
 known by his Thesaurus Antiquitatum Iiomanarum (12 vol.) et Ilalica- 
 rum (6 vol.,) an immense compilation in folio, continued by Burman 
 to 45 volumes. — P. 
 
 m This canal leads from the Vecht below Utrecht to the Amstel, and 
 is generally called the Vecht, the river of that name being called the 
 Old Vecht ( Oude Vecht.) (Busching.) — P. 
 
 “ The sentences enclosed in brackets are added by the translator. — P. 
 
 the noble breadth of the canal, ornamented with trees, 
 and the quick succession of villas passing before the eye, 
 render the scene very interesting, possessing indeed 
 nothing of the sublime, but much quiet rural beauty.]” 
 Amersfooril 0 is the second city of the province of 
 Utrecht ; it is large and well fortified ; it prides itself 
 in having given birth to the celebrated Olden Barnevelt/ 
 the victim of the ambition and despotism of Maurice of 
 Nassau. 
 
 From the southern extremity of the Zuyderzee to the 
 island of Schiermonnik-Oog / the smallest and most 
 northerly of the islands which border the entrance of 
 this great gulf, the passage is forty leagues, and the 
 navigation very dangerous, because it is necessary to 
 pass between a great number of sand-banks. The 
 island just named, as well as that of Amelavd, which 
 contains 3000 inhabitants, and that of Ter- Schelling, 
 much larger/ but with nearly the same population, are 
 dependent upon the province of Friesland. 8 To the 
 south-west of these, Vlieland, surrounded by sand- 
 banks; the important island of Texel ; and that of 
 Wieringen, covered with meadows and cultivated fields, 
 and possessing a population of 1200 souls, belong to 
 North Holland. 4 * * * The Texel is celebrated for several 
 naval engagements which w r ere fought near its coasts, 
 and especially for one in 1653, in which the celebrated 
 Van Tromp” lost his life. [To the south of the Texel, 
 opposite the village of Camperdown / in North Holland, 
 w T as fought on the lltli October 1797, an engagement 
 between the British fleet under the command of Admi- 
 ral (afterwards Viscount) Duncan, and the Dutch com- 
 manded by De Winter, each fleet sixteen sail of the 
 line in number/ besides frigates. The Dutch were de- 
 feated with the loss of ten ships of the line and two 
 frigates captured/ with their admiral and vice-admiral. ] aa 
 
 0 Amersfoort (M. B. Busching — the proper Dutch name.) — Amers- 
 fort (Kilian.) — Amersfoord (Hubner.) — Amersford (Vosgien.) — Situ- 
 ated on the river Eem, N. E. of Utrecht. — P. 
 
 P Johan van Oldenbarncveld. (Busching.) — John Olden Barneveldt. 
 (Gorton.) — In different authors he is referred to by the name of Barne- 
 veldt simply. — P. 
 
 9 Schiermonnikoog (Busching.) Schiermonickoog (Guthrie.) 
 
 This island lies off the mouth of the Hunse or gulf of Groningen 
 ( Groeninger-dicp .) — Oog, a Frisian word, signifying island (Dan. cee,) 
 is a termination common to several islands off the coast of East Fries- 
 land. — Rottum and Bossels or Bosch, E. of Schiermonnikoog. and in 
 the province of Groningen, belong to Holland — P. 
 
 r Ter Schelling is three leagues long, and two broad — Ameland, 
 three leagues long, and one broad. (Tuckey.) — P. 
 
 s Ter Schelling formerly belonged to the province of Holland. 
 (Busching.) — P. 
 
 ' Formerly to the province of Holland, of which North Holland was 
 only a subdivision, including that part of it north of the Y. At pres- 
 ent, the old province of Holland constitutes the two provinces of 
 North and South Holland, for the relative extent of which, see Stat. 
 Tab. of the Dutch Provinces. — P. 
 
 u “Admiral Tromp.” — Du. Maarten Herperszen Tromp (Busching.) — 
 Martin Herbertson Tromp (Gorton.) — Generally written Tromp sim- 
 ply, in English historians. — P. 
 
 1 The Dutch fleet were drawn up about 9 miles off the coast, be 
 
 tween Camperdown and Egmont. (Miller’s Hist. Geo. III.) — Egmont 
 
 op Zee (on the sea) lies on the coast west of Alkmaar. The village of 
 
 Camperdown (Du. Kamp. Busching — Camp. Tuckey) lies on the coast 
 
 farther north. — The downs or sand hills, along that part of the coast, 
 are the highest and broadest in North Holland. (Busching.) — That 
 called Camperdown [Du. Kamper-duin , Camp-down,] south of the vil- 
 lage of Camp, is one of the most remarkable for its elevation. (Tuck- 
 ey.) — P. 
 
 > English fleet, Id sail of the line, besides frigates. (Miller.) — Dutch 
 fleet. 15 sail of the line. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 z The Dutch lost nine ships of the line and two frigates. (Miller. Ed. 
 Enc.)— P. 
 
 “The sentences enclosed in brackets are added bv the trans- 
 lator. — P. 
 
book cli.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 The island of Texel produces a considerable quantity of 
 tobacco ; its meadows are covered with cattle and sheep, 
 principally the latter, whose milk is employed in making 
 excellent cheese of a greenish colour,® for which it is 
 indebted, it is said, to the dung of the animals. The 
 population amounts to 4,400 : on its southern coast it 
 has a commodious road-stead, where ships assemble to 
 wait for a north-east wind, which is necessary to take 
 them through the dangerous current of Mars-JDiep, and 
 carry them to Amsterdam. b 
 
 The northern extremity of North Holland, which 
 stretches to a point opposite the island of Texel, is a 
 dry and sandy country, which bears the marks of a re- 
 cent recovery from the sea, and which the Hollanders 
 call their Siberia. The waves, at the entrance into the 
 Zuyderzee, wash the neat town of Helder, where the 
 British forces under the late Duke of York disembark- 
 ed in 1799, and where, after a fruitless attempt to raise 
 the Dutch, they were compelled to re-embark, after a 
 campaign of a few weeks duration ; c near to it is Wil- 
 liams Ord, d a maritime establishment, founded by Na- 
 poleon, and now under the protection of the reigning 
 sovereign, wdiose name it bears. He even possesses 
 there a small palace, whose park, planted with stunt- 
 ed trees, resembles an oasis in the midst of an arid 
 steppe. On the coast of the Zuyderzee, Medenblick , e 
 a small city f of 2000 souls, with a harbour, is during se- 
 vere tempests threatened with complete submersion ; 
 it is looked upon as the oldest city in North Holland, 
 and as having been the residence of the ancient kings of 
 Friesland.® IIorn, h at the bottom of a bay, was the 
 birth-place of William Schouten,* who discovered, in 
 1616, the American cape, to which he gave the name 
 of his native city. It is a well built town, and possesses 
 a good harbour ; its environs are embellished with gar- 
 
 OF HOLLAND. 419 
 
 dens and country houses. In 1557 the waters of the 
 Zuyderzee burst their dikes, and threatened to swallow 
 it up. [Enckhuysen k is another sea-port in the Zuyder- 
 zee, surrounded towards the land by gardens it was 
 the birth-place of the excellent Witsius, professor of 
 theology at Utrecht and afterwards at Leyden. 1 " Alk- 
 maar n lies away from the sea, 0 and is so environed by 
 gardens, orchards, canals, avenues, and meadows, that it 
 may be pronounced one of the most highly-cultivated 
 spots to be found anywhere. Thus far did the united 
 British and Russian army, under the Duke of York, ad- 
 vance in the ill-advised invasion of Holland in 1799, 
 already referred to.P] f i At the point where the Zaan en- 
 ters the long gull of Y, r Zaandam or Saardam , 8 a con- 
 siderable town, divided into two parts, 1 is celebrated for 
 the residence of Peter the Great, of Russia, in the 
 quality of a simple carpenter. The wooden hut which 
 he inhabited is visited by travellers as a curiosity. What 
 appears, to travellers at least, a great curiosity, is the 
 vast number of windmills (said to be from two to three 
 thousand) about the place, used for various purposes, 
 but chiefly for the sawing of timber. Zaandam has con- 
 siderable timber yards ; and carries on a great trade in 
 wood for building, and in paper." There is not in Eu- 
 rope a city of 10,000 inhabitants, whose population is 
 equally opulent. 
 
 Before proceeding to Amsterdam, it would be unjusti- 
 fiable, in a work like this, to pass without notice the 
 town or village of Broek or Brock* in North Holland, 
 the admiration of all visitors, where Dutch cleanliness 
 and nicety seem to be carried to the very acme of per- 
 fection, indeed probably without a parallel all the world 
 over. No carriages of any description are allowed to pass 
 through the streets, one only excepted, which is consid- 
 ered as polluted, and is but thinly inhabited. The streets, 
 
 a Called Texel cheese ( Tcxelsche Kaas.) — P. 
 
 b This road-stead (called the Merchantmen’s Road (Du . Koopvaard- 
 ers-Rccdc), and in the south part of it, the Muscovy Road) lies on the 
 eastern or south-eastern side of the island, near the village of Schil, 
 and is protected by a fort ( schans ,) south of the village. It is fre- 
 quented by outward bound vessels from the Zuyderzee, who there 
 wait for an east or north-east wind, necessary to take them out to sea 
 through the channel of Marsdiep, between the south point of Texel, 
 and the Helder or north point of North Holland. The main channel 
 from this road towards Amsterdam, called the Texel- Stroom , runs first 
 north-east and then south-east and south, between the great sand banks 
 at the entrance of the Zuyderzee ; consequently a north-east wind 
 would prevent the approach of vessels to Amsterdam. The original 
 has here confounded the inward with the outward passage. — P. 
 
 c “ The waves wash the neat town of the Helder.” — It is properly 
 called the Helder (Du. JJe Helder.) It is situated on the south side 
 of Marsdiep, and has strong fortifications which protect the road off 
 the mouth of this channel called the Landsdiep. (Tuckey. Busching.) — 
 The first column of the Anglo-Russian expedition, as it is called, land- 
 ed under Sir Ralph Abercrombie to the south-west of the Helder point, 
 Aug. 27. Oct. 17, an armistice was concluded, by which it was stip- 
 ulated that the Anglo-Russian army should evacuate the territories of 
 the Batavian Republic, Nov. 30. — P. 
 d “ IVillerns-Ord.” — Du. JVillems-oord (William’s Place.) — P. 
 e Du. Medenblik. — Fr. Medcmblik, Medemblick . — Called by seamen, 
 Memelik (Busching.) — The name is said to be derived from the Frisic 
 medem, meadows, and leek, lake. (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 f It was formerly one of the towns or cities, of which there were 
 seven in North Holland, that had a voice in the Provincial States. 
 These towns were called by the Dutch, Stemmende or Stem hebbende 
 Steden (voting or voice having towns or cities.) — P. 
 
 s That part of North Holland, in which Medenblick is situated, in- 
 cluding all its northern extremity, is still called West Friesland. The 
 old Frisian kings are said to have held their residence in the castle (slot) 
 of Medenblick, situated at the east end of the town. (Busching.) — P. 
 h Du. Hoorn — Horne (Kilian.)— P. 
 
 1 Du. Willem Knrnelisze Schovtr.n (Wm. Cornelison — ) — He discov- 
 ered Cape Horn [Du. Kaap Hoorn . — Cape Horne (Burney)] Jan. 29, 
 1610.— P. 
 
 k Du. Enkliuizen (Busching) — Enckhuyscn, Enkbuisen (Kilian.)— P. 
 
 1 It stands on the easternmost point of N. Holland in the Zuyderzee, 
 from which it is protected by a strong dike, and on the land side sur- 
 rounded by an earthen wall, strengthened with bastions (bolwerken.) 
 (Busching.) — P. 
 
 m Herman Witsius, professor of theology successively at Franeker, 
 Utrecht and Leyden — chiefly known by his Comparison of the Hebrew 
 and Egyptian Rituals, and his Economy of tin Covenants. — P 
 
 n Du. Mkmaar — Alcmaer, Mckmaar (Kilian.) — Alkmaer (Pinker- 
 ton.) — Alcmar (Morse .) — Aa and ae express the same sound, that of 
 long a; the former is now chiefly used ; the latter is the old orthogra- 
 phy. — The town is said to have been originally called Almeer (Lat. 
 Almeria,) from til, all, and meer, lake, because it was surrounded with 
 lakes and marshes. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 0 It is situated nearly in the centre of North Holland, rather nearer, 
 however, to the western coast, behind the downs of Egmont. — P. 
 
 p The Anglo-Russian army after repeated actions drove the enemy 
 to their position between Beverwyk and Wyk-op-Zee, at the southern 
 extremity of N. Holland, Oct. 6; but on the night of the 7th, it re- 
 treated to Alkmaar. (Miller’s Geo. III.) — P. 
 
 a This account of Enckhuysen and Alkmaar [ ] is added by the 
 translator. — P. 
 
 r “ Gulf of the Y.” (See note ■ p. 1093.) — It stands on the north 
 shore of the Y, nearly opposite Amsterdam, and is a considerable town 
 with extensive ship-building establishments belonging to Amsterdam. 
 (Tuckey.) — P. 
 
 s Du. Zaandam, properly Zaanrcdam or Zaanerdam (so named from 
 the dam or sluice by which the Zaan communicates with the Y ;) 
 commonly called Saardam. (Busching.) — Sardam (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 1 Called East and West Zaandam, from their position on the oppo- 
 site banks of the Zaan. The name of Saardam or Sardam was par- 
 ticularly applied to the former. These two parts were considered as 
 two separate villages ( dorpen ), Zaandam not ranking among the cities 
 represented in the States. — P. 
 
 u “ The hut which he inhabited is the only curiosity in the place ; 
 all travellers inscribe their names in it. Zaandam has extensive ship 
 yards ( chantiers ) and carries on a great trade in timber and paper.” 
 
 x The village of Broek in Waterland, the capital ( hooftltlorp ) of the 
 bailiwick of Waterland — situated about 20 miles N. of Amsterdam. — P. 
 
420 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLI 
 
 with the above exception, are clean beyond all compari- 
 son ; not a dog or cat is to be seen in them at liberty ; and 
 there is a regulation by which no person is allowed to 
 smoke within doors or without, without a guard over 
 the ball of the pipe to prevent the ashes from falling 
 out ! Notice to this effect is posted up at the entrances 
 into the village. The pavement of the street is inlay 
 or mosaic work, formed of pebbles of every shape and 
 colour, shells, pieces of glazed brick, &s c. &,c. The 
 houses are painted, every part of them, within and with- 
 out, with the most costly colours, and their whole ap- 
 pearance bespeaks the most minute attention to neatness ; 
 the windows are without a speck, every thing has an air 
 of freshness, and a stranger looks in vain for a grain of 
 dirt, or even a particle of dust. The houses are roofed 
 with tiles so glossy, that in the sunshine they glitter like 
 spar. Small gardens extend from one end of a street 
 to the other, all ornamented in the way most suitable to 
 the owner’s taste, and not a blade of grass or withered 
 leaf is allowed to rest on the ground. The town is 
 built partly round the banks of a small circular lake, 3 
 and from this lake are carried through most of the streets 
 small streams in a channel lined with brick on both sides. 
 The numerous bridges required over these small canals 
 afford opportunity for exhibiting the taste of the inhabit- 
 ants in fanciful devices, and in the intermixture of bright 
 colours. The houses have each two entrances, the one 
 of which, generally painted black, is never opened but in 
 the case of death occurring in the family. The internal 
 cleanliness of the houses corresponds in every part with 
 the external, and the people are equally cleanly in their 
 persons, dress, and habits. Let not strangers laugh at 
 all this particularity. It may be in this instance carried 
 to a fanciful excess, but how conducive would an assimi- 
 lation to the spirit of the people of Broek be to the 
 health and comfort of mankind ? b 
 
 From the northern bank of the gulf Y, c the passage 
 is only half a league to the entrance of the port of Atn- 
 sterdam. A A vast extent of meadow-ground, strewed 
 with villages and scattered houses, surrounds the capital of 
 
 a Near the village, on the south-west, lies the Broeker Meer (Broek 
 Lake,) which was diked and drained in 1028. It contains 304 morgen 
 [040 acres nearly.] (Busching.) — P. 
 
 b The above paragraph is added by the translator. — P. 
 
 c “ Gulf of the Y.” (See note ' p. 1003.) 
 
 ^ Originally , Amstel red a in ; then Amsteldam and Amsterdam : the last 
 has prevailed.--Properly, according to the present form of the Dutch 
 language, Amstelerdam (the dam of the Amstel ;) so called from its hav- 
 ing been built round the dam or sluice at the mouth of that river. — 
 Lat. Amstclodamum. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 e Tour in the Netherlands, ike. by C. Tennant, Esq. [Trans.] 
 
 f “ Converted into boulevards" (public walks or promenades.) — Boule- 
 vard is a French corruption of bulwark [Germ, bollwcrk, Du. boheerk, a 
 bastion,] and originally signified a fortification or rampart (see Boyer, et id 
 genus,) but its meaning is now entirely changed. It at present signifies 
 [in the plural] a line of streets, or a single circular street, surrounding 
 a city, and occupying the site of the demolished walls, such as the 
 Boulevards at Paris and Nismes, or a public walk or promenade, gen- 
 erally planted with trees, along the top of the walls, as is the case in 
 most of the old walled, but now unfortified towns in France. The 
 meaning of the original is therefore the reverse of that given in the 
 translation ; the ramparts which were originally meant for defence, 
 being now converted into pleasure walks for the inhabitants.. — In 
 earlier times, Amsterdam was a strong fortress ; but in consequence 
 of the changes which have taken place in the mode of conducting 
 sieges, it can now be defended only by inundating the surrounding 
 country. It is said, however, that in the last years of the reign of the 
 ex-king Louis, a plan was formed for the regular fortification of Am- 
 sterdam. (Enc. Amer. 1830.) — Amsterdam is of a semicircular form, 
 about 04 miles in compass, surrounded with a ditch 80 feet wide, full 
 of running water, and with a rampart faced with brick [stone. Busch- 
 ing ] having 20 bastions, on each of which there has been placed a 
 
 Holland, and when we add to this the tranquil course of 
 the Amstel, a little river which passes through the city, 
 and whose banks are bordered, during the fine season, with 
 flowery meadows and trees covered with a beautiful fo- 
 liage, the whole presents a rich and brilliant picture to 
 the eye of the delighted spectator. “ I know no city,” 
 says a recent tourist, “ the distant view of which is so 
 striking as that of Amsterdam. The eye travels over 
 one vast flat meadow of the richest herbage, and, at the 
 extremity of this, the view is bounded by a thick crowd 
 of towers, cupolas, and spires. On a nearer approach, 
 so level is the wide expanse around, that the eye seems 
 to embrace at once the whole of this magnificent city, 
 and crowds of masts are seen mingling with the houses. 
 It is a sight truly imposing, and worthy of a great 
 commercial nation. ” e The city, surrounded by ditches 
 and ramparts converted into fortifications (boulevards,) * 1 * 
 has no occasion to dread the approach of an enemy, as 
 by means of sluices the whole surrounding countrv can 
 be inundated. A multitude of canals, the greater part of 
 them bordered by rows of trees, traverse the city, forming 
 ninety islands, which communicate with each other by 
 means of 280 bridges, of which that over the Amstels is 
 the finest ; it is 6G0 feet in length, 70 in breadth, and is 
 composed of 35 arches. h The brackish and muddy 
 water of these canals, although frequently put in motion 
 by the opening and shutting of the sluices, yet spreads 
 through this vast city dangerous miasmata, which, joined 
 to the humidity of the atmosphere and ground, render it 
 an unhealthy place of abode. One great inconvenience 
 is the want of good water ; that of the Amstel is bad ; 
 they make use of the water of the small river Veclit,' 
 several leagues from the city, but the best is that which is 
 brought from L T trecht at a great expense. The streets, 
 almost all of them in straight lines on the banks of the 
 canals, are well paved, furnished with foot-paths, fc and 
 carefully lighted during the night ; the two finest called 
 the Heeren- Gragt and the Keisers-Gragt, are mag- 
 nificent, and are more than half a league in length.' 
 Nothing can equal their splendour ; but it is not, as in 
 
 wind-mill. On the side towards the harbour, which is 14 miles in 
 length, and of a semicircular form, giving to the city the shape of a 
 crescent, there is no line of walls and bastions, the only defences be- 
 ing a double row of piles, connected by large horizontal beams, on the 
 north side of the harbour, separating it from the road in which the 
 larger ships anchor. (Ed. Enc. Busching.) — P. 
 
 s “ Bridge of the Amstel ( Pont de 1’ Amstel)” — Amstel Bridge (Enc. 
 Amer.) — P. 
 
 h This bridge, called the Pont Neuf [Du. J\’ieutcc Brugge, New 
 Bridge.] is 600 feet long, and 70 broad, and consists of 30 arches. (Ed. 
 Enc.) — There is another bridge over that part of the Amstel called 
 the Damrak, adjoining the Corn Market ( Koom-beurs ,) called the Old 
 Bridge ( Oude Brugge.) (Busching.) — P. 
 
 * An arm of the Old Rhine, parting from it at Utrecht, and running 
 N. W. to the Zuyderzee at Muiden. — P. 
 
 k “ Trottoirs" — side-walks. — All the streets are paved with brick, 
 and have no raised side-paths for foot passengers ; but as wheel car- 
 riages are neither numerous in this city, nor allowed to be driven with 
 speed, a person may walk here with as much security as on the flag- 
 stone pavements of London. (Ed. Enc ) — P. 
 
 1 Kiezer’s [properly, Keizers-\ gragt, or emperor’s street, Heeren 
 gragt, or lords’ street, and Prissen’s [properly, Prinsens- ; Prince- 
 (Busching)] gragt. or princes’ street, are upwards of 140 feet wide, and 
 are lined with houses, whose princely splendour would do honour to 
 any town in Europe. (Ed. Enc.) — Gragt [ Grarht . Busching] properly 
 signifies a ditch or canal, and as applied to a street, it indicates that it 
 
 has a canal in the centre, or is built along the sides of a canal. The 
 three spacious canals called Keizers-gragt, Heeren-gragt, and Prinsens- 
 gragt, run parallel to each other and to the city walls, in a semicircu- 
 
 lar form, thus constituting three concentric curves within the fourth 
 formed by the line of fortification, and extend through the whole 
 
BOOK CLI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF HOLLAND. 
 
 421 
 
 Italy, palaces that are the ornament of these streets ; 
 the houses, all built of brick and painted with different 
 colours, are tastefully fitted up with the most splendid 
 furniture,® and the profusion of warehouses and shops, 
 stored with all the productions of the two worlds, an- 
 nounce the wealth of a city which long possessed the 
 commerce of the universe. The Kalver-Straat b and 
 the Nievedek c especially resemble exhibition galleries 
 in the open air, in which are displayed all the treasures 
 of industry. 
 
 Fine public edifices still farther display the commer- 
 cial riches of Amsterdam ; in the square of Dam, d the 
 most magnificent building is the royal palace, formerly 
 the Stadtbouse. e The only fault found with this build- 
 ing is in its proportions, which are not in harmony with 
 each other ; thus, its height, which is 116 feet, not com- 
 prehending a tower of 41 feet, is too much for its length 
 which is 282, and for its depth which is 222 feet/ It 
 is built upon 13,659 piles. The interior attests the 
 splendour of the capital, at the time when a building so 
 sumptuous was erected for its magistrates: no decora- 
 tions have been spared ; marbles, statues and pictures 
 abound even to profusion. The royal halls is one of 
 the largest in Europe: it is 120 feet in length, 56 in 
 breadth, and 98 in height ; h it is crossed by a meridian 
 line traced by the celebrated Huygens ;* the marbles with 
 which the floor, the walls, and the ceiling, are covered, 
 the pillars which support the latter, k and the standards 
 taken from the Spaniards, decorate it with a magnifi- 
 cence which nothing could replace. The royal apart- 
 ments are still in the state in which Louis Bonaparte 
 ornamented and furnished them. The Exchange, * 1 2 * * * * * * built 
 
 length of the city, bordered on each side by lines of houses, forming 
 the streets above mentioned. — P. 
 
 » “ — tastefully garnished with the most brilliant stuffs” — i. e. as 
 we should say in America, with the goods displayed at the doors and 
 windows of dry-goods stores ; in other words, these are the Broadways 
 and Bond Streets of Amsterdam. — P. 
 
 b Kalvcrstraat, along the Rockin (a part of the course of the Amstel, 
 so called.) (Busehing). — P. 
 
 c Qu. Nieuwe-dek (New Bazaar or Arcade.) — P. 
 d “ Square of the Dam ( place du Dam)" — properly, the square called 
 the Dam (Du. de Dam,) from its occupying the place where the old 
 dam or sluice was erected at the mouth of the Amstel. — The Stadt- 
 house stands isolated in an open square in the centre of the city. (Enc. 
 Meth. Morse.) — P. 
 
 e Du. Stadhuis — town house (Fr. hotel de ville.) — This word is ren- 
 dered State house, in Pinkerton; a translation by the sound, rather 
 than the sense. It literally signifies city house. — P. 
 
 1 Length, 282 feet ; breadth, 235 feet. (Busehing.) — P. 
 s Burghers’ or marble hall (Ed. Enc.) — Du. Burgerzaal, or Mar- 
 merzaal. — Burgomasters’ Ha'l. — This hall was prepared for the recep- 
 tion of his throne by Louis Bonaparte. — P. 
 
 h Length, 120 feet; breadth, 57; height, 80. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 ‘ The celestial and terrestrial globes are delineated upon the floor 
 in three large circles, 22 feet in diameter, and 69 in circumference, 
 composed of brass and various coloured marbles; the two lateral cir- 
 cles representing the two hemispheres of the earth, and the central, 
 the planisphere of the heavens. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 k This hall is wholly composed of white marble ; over the entrance 
 is a colonnade of Corinthian pillars of red and white marble. (Ed. 
 Enc.)— P. 
 
 1 Du. Rmsterdamschc Beurs (Amsterdam Exchange.) — P. 
 m It rests upon five vaulted arches, under which the Amstel flows 
 into the Damrack water. (Enc. Amer.) — The Damrah is only a con- 
 tinuation of the course of the Amstel. (Busehing.) — P. 
 
 n Viz. 11 for the Reformed religion,* 2 French, 1 English, 1 Scotch, 
 
 2 for the Confession of Augsburg, t 1 Armenian, 3 Anabaptist, 24 
 
 Roman Catholic, 1 Quaker, and 3 Jewish Synagogues. [The churches 
 
 are numerous; among them, the Dutch Reformed have 10, the French 
 
 1, the English 1, the Roman Catholics 18, and even the Greeks and 
 
 Armenians have a church. (Enc. Amer.) — In 1773, the Dutch Re- 
 
 formed ( Hcrvnrmde Gem.eente) had 11 churches ( Irerkcn ) and 30 minis- 
 
 ters ; the Walloons ( IVaalsche Gcmeente — formed by the protestant re- 
 
 fugees from the Walloon districts in the Spanish Netherlands, and the 
 
 upon a large bridge which conceals the couise of the 
 Amstel," 1 is an edifice in the Gothic style, 250 feet in 
 length by 140 in breadth ; its principal front is ornament- 
 ed with a Mercury of a colossal size. The churches 
 and other religious edifices in Amsterdam are forty-nine 
 in number." That of St. Nicholas, called also Ouder- 
 Kerlc 0 or the Old Church, is a fine building ; the roof is 
 supported by forty-two stone pillars, and above it rises 
 a tower 240 feet in height, in which there is a chime 
 composed of thirty-six bells. That of St. Catharine , p 
 or the New Church, Nieuwc-Kerk, is one of the finest in 
 the kingdom, and also contains the tomb of the cele- 
 brated admiral, De Ruyter. In the fine street called 
 Heeren-Gragt, meets the society Felix Mentis, which, 
 from its embracing the sciences, literature, and com- 
 merce, is one of the most important and most popular 
 in this capital. 3 [It was established within the last fifty 
 years, and is divided into five classes. The first is di- 
 rected to agriculture, commerce, and manufactures ; the 
 second to mathematics and natural philosophy ; the 
 third to painting, sculpture, and architecture ; the fourth 
 to music ; and the fifth to general literature. Each 
 class has its separate museum, library, and hall of assem- 
 bly, and the rules of each department are as liberal as 
 the objects are enlarged. The building where this so- 
 ciety holds its sittings is neat and commodious, and may 
 be regarded an ornament to the city . ] r The finest gate 
 of the city is that of Haarlem. There are in Amster- 
 dam three theatres, and a considerable number of hos- 
 pitals and almshouses, six of which are for orphans 
 alone, and an equal number are houses of correction and 
 hard labour. 9 * These establishments, much better at- 
 
 French refugees after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes.) 2 churches 
 and 6 ministers ; the English Episcopalians and Presbyterians, each one 
 church, and the latter two ministers ;t the Lutherans, 2 churches and 
 6 ministers; the Roman Catholics (Roomsgezinden,) ten places of 
 worship ( kerkhuizen ) within, and 2 without the city ;] and the Jews, 
 two synagogues (the Portuguese and the German.) Besides these, 
 there was a church for the Armenians, and places of worship for 
 the Remonstrants [Arminians], Mennonites, Quakers, &e. (Busch- 
 ing.) — P.’] 
 
 * Calvinists — the established sect in Holland. — P. 
 
 + Lutherans. 
 
 ( Before the French invasion, the English had three places of worship; one 
 for the Presbyterians, whose clergymen were paid by the magistracy ; another 
 for the Church of England, the expense of which was defrayed by his Britannic 
 majesty; and a third for the Brownists, whose ministers were maintained by 
 their congregations. The Roman Catholics had 27 places of worship, and 
 were supposed to amount to a third of the population. The Dutch Reformed 
 (established church.) and the three English churches comprehended another 
 third. (Ed. Enc.)— P. 
 
 0 This should read Oudc-Kerh (old church) — dedicated to St. John 
 the Baptist ( S . Johannes de Doper) and St. Nicholas (Sant JYiklaas.) — P. 
 
 P This church, like the former (see note °,) had two patrons, viz. 
 the Holy Virgin Mary (Heilige Maagd Maria) and St. Catharine 
 ( Sante Katharina.) — P. 
 
 1 “ — which, from its courses of instruction ( cours ) in the sciences, 
 literature and commerce, is one of the most important and most fre- 
 quented in this capital.” — The beautiful Trippen-house, where the 
 Academy of arts and sciences assembles, is now a temple of the arts 
 and sciences. The society felix meritis (established by the merchants ;) 
 the society doctrina et amicitia [of learning and friendship ;] that tot nut 
 van 't algemeen [for promoting the public good,] devoted to the liberal 
 arts and sciences ; the excellent reading room ; several musical socie- 
 ties ; the hortus medievs [botanical garden,] belonging to the jithena- 
 um Illustre, and the famous Latin schools,* prove the taste of the 
 citizens of Amsterdam for science and learning. (Enc. Amer.) — P. 
 
 * In 1773, there was in Amsterdam, a Latin School ( Latynsche School,) 
 and another School, called the Gymnasium R/ustre, with seven professors, viz. 
 1 of theology, 1 of law, 3 of medicine, 1 of Oriental languages and antiquities, 
 and 1 of Greek, history, &,c. (Busehing.)' — P. 
 
 r “ The building in which the society holds its sittings, may be 
 considered one of the finest in Amsterdam.” — This is all in the original 
 corresponding to the sentences enclosed in brackets. — P. 
 
 s “ — a considerable number of hospitals and almshouses (hospices ;) 
 six of these are for orphans alone, and there is an equal number of 
 
422 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLI 
 
 tended to than in most countries of Europe, are an in- 
 evitable scourge in a city, the rendezvous of a crowd of 
 strangers, who spend their gold there, and corrupt the 
 lower classes. We must see the vast East India House, 
 the buildings of the Admiralty,® which, of themselves, 
 resemble a city, the docks for ship-building, and the 
 majestic extent of the harbour, in order to judge of 
 what was formerly the activity of Amsterdam, by the 
 stir which still prevails. There annually enter the har- 
 bour 3000 vessels, but its trade with the two worlds is 
 not the only support of its population. It manufactures 
 a great variety of stuffs, besides chemical products, 
 tobacco, hard-ware and jewelry ; from the juniper a 
 great quantity of Geneva is distilled, * 1 * * and the art of the 
 lapidary is carried to the highest degree of perfection. 
 This great capital was founded in the twelfth century at the 
 foot of a castle on the banks of the Amstel, from whence 
 it derived its name.' About the middle of the four- 
 teenth century it received the title of a city ; in 1482, 
 it was surrounded with walls, d but it was not till 1578, 
 when it declared its adherence to the pacification of 
 Ghent, 6 * * * that it acquired importance ; a century later it 
 had drawn within its walls the whole trade of which 
 Antwerp had been so long in possession/ At the com- 
 mencement of the sixteenth century it contained only 
 2500 houses ; at present the number exceeds 27,000. 
 If we are to believe a well informed geographer^ the 
 expense of maintaining the bridges, the canals, and 
 the dikes of this city, and those which are within its bills 
 of mortality, 1 * amounts to thirty million francs per day. 
 What treasures must not Holland be possessed of to 
 retain the billows of the ocean within the artificial bar- 
 riers opposed to them! We conclude our account of 
 this great city, by noticing the canal formed some years 
 
 penitentiaries and work houses (maisons lie correction et de travail.)" — 
 The most remarkable of the latter are the Rasphouse ( Rasphvis ,) the 
 Spinhouse or workhouse ( Spinhuis ,) and the house of correction (Bet- 
 tering house — Vcrbeterhuis .) — P. 
 
 1 Admiralty House (Admiral iteits Huis.) — P. 
 
 *> “ It distils a great quantity of brandy and gin ( cau-de-vic — ge- 
 nilvre.)'' 
 
 c At the beginning of the 14th century it was a fishing village, 
 in the possession of the lords of Amstel. (Enc. Amer.) — It was origi- 
 nally a fishing village, built around the dam at the mouth of the Am- 
 stel. and at the place of a ferry over the Y to North Holland. It was 
 under the jurisdiction of the lords ( hceren ) of Amstel, who built a 
 castle near the village, and made it their place of residence. It after- 
 wards came under the rule of the counts ( graven ) of Holland, who 
 granted it extensive commercial privileges. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 d It was surrounded with a wall and ditch before the year 1400. In 
 consequence of the great increase of commerce under the rule of the 
 Counts of Holland, extensive suburbs were erected without the old 
 walls, which were inclosed by a new wall in 1482, since which the 
 city has received four enlargements ( vergrootingni ,) also surrounded 
 by walls, viz. in 1585 and 1503, in consequence of the decline of Ant- 
 werp,* in 1012, and lastly, in 1658. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 * Following its second capture by the Spaniards in 1585, when its commerce 
 was in a great measure transferred to Amsterdam. Antwerp was first taken 
 in 157(1, when it was plundered and burnt — P. 
 
 e The Pacification of Ghent was a convention or treaty (formed 
 1576, after the first capture of Antwerp) between the Catholics and 
 Protestants throughout the Low Countries, in which all the provinces 
 united themselves in the same confederacy with Holland and Zealand, 
 and a<rreed in the expulsion of foreign troops, and in their demands for 
 recovering the privileges they held under the house of Burgundy. Am- 
 sterdam was one of the last cities in the Low Countries that embraced 
 the reformed religion, and it was only when it capitulated, after a 
 siege of 10 months by the Hollanders, that it acceded to the Pacifica- 
 tion. One of the terms of its capitulation was that the Roman Catho- 
 
 lics should be allowed the free exercise of their religion. — P. 
 
 ( See note 11 *. 
 
 s M. Reichart* counsellor of the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 
 
 author of the work entitled : “ Guide des voyageurs en Europe.” 
 
 * Reichard. — I’. 
 
 ago to the Texel, 1 by which the dangerous navigation 
 ol’ the Zuyderzee is avoided, and not only merchant 
 ships, but ships of war, sail direct from the Texel to the 
 port of Amsterdam/ 
 
 A canal, four leagues in length, conducts from Am- 
 sterdam to Haarlem ,* an important city, surrounded by 
 ditches and by ramparts flanked with towers, which 
 recall to remembrance the horrors of the too famous 
 siege which this city sustained in 1573™ against the 
 Spaniards, commanded by the Duke of Alva. n After a 
 series of bloody conflicts, in which the besiegers and 
 besieged suffered almost equal loss, and a resistance 
 of six months, 0 the duke forced the place to capitulate, 
 on the promise of an amnesty, but perjured himself, by 
 putting to death, within three days from the surrender, 
 in cold blood, and accompanied by the most frightful 
 punishments, the magistrates of the city, the reformed 
 ministers, 2000 citizens, and the remains of the garrison. p 
 T he buildings of this city are handsome ; the streets are 
 not broad ,8 but they are furnished with foot paths, r bor- 
 dered with balustrades, and are traversed by canals 
 planted with trees ; taken as a whole, they present an 
 aspect so much the more agreeable, as the greater part 
 of the houses are decorated with marble, with dazzling 
 sheets of brass, and with paintings. The finest of its 
 buildings is the town-house. 3 * * The church of St. Bavo 
 is celebrated for its magnificent organ, composed of 8000 
 pipes, the harmony of which surpasses the highest melo- 
 dy we can conceive. In the market-place 1 a statue, 
 erected to Laurence Koster, u announces that the city 
 boasts of having given birth to this man, who passes, 
 especially at Haarlem, for the true inventor of printing, 
 and from whom Faust and Guttemberg stole his types, 
 his secret, and his title to the gratitude of posterity.* 
 
 h “ Within its jurisdiction ( hanlicue .)” — Banlieue, a certain extent 
 of territory surrounding a city, and dependent upon it — its jurisdic- 
 tion, precincts or liberties. (Dict.de 1’ Acad.) — The citiesin the United 
 Provinces possessed a territory, without their walls, of greater or less 
 extent, subject to their municipal government, and called in Dutch, 
 Stads Rcchtsgcbied (city’s jurisdiction.) They also possessed mano- 
 rial rights over other districts, called their lordships ( A mbu gts- Heerlyk - 
 heden.) (Busching.) — P. 
 
 * The Helder canal — extending from the port of Amsterdam to the 
 extreme point of North Holland near the Helder, and passing thrqjigh 
 the centre of North Holland by the towns of Purmerende and Alkmaar. 
 Its length is50.^ miles, though the direct distance is only 41 miles; its 
 breadth at the surface is 124£ feet, and at the bottom, 36 feet; its 
 depth, 20| feet. It has only two tide locks, one at each extremity, 
 and two intermediate sluices or flood-gates. It has been formed by 
 the present government. — P. 
 
 k This sentence is added by the translator. — P. 
 
 1 “ Harlem.” — Du. Haarlem — Harlem (Kilian.) — Haerlem (Ed. Enc. 
 Guthrie.) See note 11 p. 1099. 
 
 “The siege ben-an in the winter towards the close of 1572, and con 
 tinued till the beginning of July, 1573. when the city was compelled 
 by famine to surrender. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 " Frederick of Toledo, son of the Duke of Alva, commanded the 
 Spaniards at the siege of Haarlem. (Busching, &c.) — P. 
 
 0 Eight months. (Ed. Enc. Moreri.) — P. 
 
 P Two thousand of the soldiers and inhabitants were massacred in 
 cold blood. (Ed. Enc.) — More than two thousand of the garrison were 
 put to death, besides several ministers and a great number of the citi- 
 zens. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 q The streets are broad and regular. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 r “ Side walks ( trottoirs .)” s Stadthouse ( Stadhuis .) 
 
 1 Du. Marht — a large square in the centre of the city, surrounded, 
 amono- other buildings, by the Stadthouse and the Great Church 
 ( Groote Kcrli — that of St. Bavo.) The statue of Koster is on the front 
 of the house which he is said to have inhabited, which also stands on 
 one side of the market place, nearly opposite the Great Church. 
 (Busching.) — P. 
 
 “ Coster, in the original, and generally in French and English au- 
 thors — Du. Laurens Koster. 
 
 1 The types are said to have been stolen by one of the servants of 
 
book cli.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 This city was also the birth-place of the learned hellenist 
 Cornelius Schrevelius, and of Wouvermans, Van der 
 Heist, and several other celebrated painters. Its socie- 
 ty of sciences,* which ranks several distinguished men 
 amongst its members, and that called the Teylerian, h 
 which every year proposes prizes for the solution of 
 different scientific questions, place Haarlem in the rank 
 of the learned cities in Holland. It is also famed for its 
 bleacheries,® its manufactures of silk and woollen stuffs, 
 and of carpeting and velvets, its soap-works and type- 
 founderies, and above all for its gardens, in which the cul- 
 ture of tulips has almost degenerated into a mania. All 
 the surrounding grounds' 1 are consecrated to this species 
 of industry, thus adding to the beauty of its environs, in 
 which w r e may distinguish a magnificent promenade 
 called the Wood , e pleasure-houses 1 in the finest style, 
 and the ruins of the old fortress of Brederode, whose 
 red towers rise majestically in the air. 
 
 The road from Haarlem to Leyden, s traced between 
 a canal and the calm sea of Haarlem, is as beautiful, 
 and as well kept, as the walks of an English garden ; it 
 is not annoyed by carts, every thing in Holland being 
 transported by canals. During the whole distance to 
 that city, an extent of six leagues, it is one continued 
 agreeable promenade in the midst of meadows, country 
 houses, and elegant villages. Leyden, the birth-place 
 of Rembrandt, 1 ' of Gerard Dow, 1 of Muschenbroeck, k of 
 Isaac Vossius, and of John of Leyden, 1 the leader of the 
 German fanatical and misled anabaptists of the sixteenth 
 century , m was formerly celebrated for its industry, and 
 for its trade in books, which the printing-presses of the 
 Elzevirs rendered so active ; it still contains a popula- 
 tion of more than 28,000 souls. n Its university, founded 
 in 1575, possessing fine collections, a library of 60,000 
 volumes and 14,000 manuscripts, and enjoying a high 
 
 OF HOLLAND. 423 
 
 reputation in the learned world, is at all times much 
 resorted to. Of great extent, encompassed with ditches 
 and with walls, and communicating with the surround- 
 ing country by eight gates, Leyden is composed of nu- 
 merous islands, intersected by canals bordered with trees, 
 and covered with wide and straight streets, which com- 
 municate with each other by a vast number of bridges, 
 principally of stone. The principal street, called the 
 Rupenburg, 0 is a very fine one, and considered by the 
 people of Leyden as unrivalled in Europe : whatever 
 may be in this, the whole appearance of the town is 
 pleasing ; and the number of handsome bouses and ven- 
 erable-looking buildings give it an air of importance.? 
 In its town-house may be seen one of the finest pic- 
 tures of Lucas, one of its painters, representing the 
 last judgment. s The Gothic church of St. Peter r con- 
 tains the tomb of the celebrated and excellent Boer- 
 haave. 3 The old castle, 1 a witness of the famous siege 
 which this city sustained in 1574 against the Spaniards," 
 during which more than 6000 persons perished by fam- 
 ine, presents a labyrinth visited by strangers. Several 
 parts of this fortress appear to be of Roman construc- 
 tion, which would seem to confirm the opinion, hitherto 
 uncertain, that Leyden occupies the site of Lugdumim 
 Batavorum, mentioned in the Theodosian Table,* in the 
 Itinerary of Antonine, and by Ptolemy, as the most im- 
 portant city of the Batavi. This city, and the Hague, 
 which is but three leagues from it, are in South Holland.! 1 
 [It is deserving notice in a geographical work, that it is 
 at Leyden where the Rhine, till very lately, in the 
 words of an old traveller, “ faintly finished its course, by 
 losing the small remainder of its w’aters in two or three 
 canals, w ithout having the honour to enter into the sea.” 
 The fate of this mighty river is singular and hard. 
 After rolling its majestic stream from the Lake of Con- 
 
 Koster, while the family were at mass. It is generally agreed that his 
 name was John ; Busching says John Faust, but this must be a mis- 
 take ; Meerman seems to have ascertained that it was John Geins- 
 fleisch, who became eminent as a printer at Mentz, whither he ab- 
 sconded. In 1443, three years after he left Haarlem, he associated 
 himself with John Faust, a wealthy citizen of Mentz, and in 1444, 
 with Guttemberg of Strasburg, in connection with whom he first de- 
 vised the use of cut metal types, cut wooden types having previously 
 been employed. In 1445, the partnership was dissolved, and Faust 
 associated himself with Peter Schaeffer, who completed the invention 
 by first casting types in matrices. (Ed. Enc. art. Printing. Thomas’ 
 Hist, of Printing.) — P. 
 
 a Academy of Sciences. (Ed. Enc.) — Dutch Society of Sciences 
 ( Hollandsche Maatschappy dcr IVetenschappen.) (Busching.) — P. 
 
 b Founded by Peter Teyler Vander Hulst, a rich merchant of Haar- 
 lem. (Ed. Enc.) — P 
 
 c Its bleacheries are famous for the delicate whiteness which they 
 give to linens, which has been attributed to a peculiar quality in the 
 waters of the lake of Haerlem. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 d “ All the banlieue." — See note h p. 1102. — P. 
 
 e Du. Haarlemmer-Hout (Haarlem Wood.) — It consists of two dis- 
 tinct portions ( bosclien , woods), one called the New and the other the 
 Old Wood (Oude- en Nieuwe- Hout,) and, including the intervening 
 meadows and pleasure gardens, contains about 60 -morgen (125 acres 
 nearly.) It is full of fine oaks and beeches, and is intersected with 
 long avenues (dreeven, drives,) crossing each other in different direc- 
 tions. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 I Du. iusthuizen. — P. 
 
 * Du. Leiden; generally pronounced Leyen (Busching) — Leyden 
 (Kilian) — also Leijden, the ij having the sound of i or y. — Fr. Leyde. — P. 
 
 II Rembrandt was born at a mill on the banks of the Old Rhine near 
 Leyden — not in the city. — P. 
 
 ' Generally written Gerard Douw — the proper Dutch orthogra- 
 phy. — P. 
 
 £ According to some, born at Utrecht. — P. 
 
 1 John Boccold — Du. Jan Beukelze or Bockliolt (Busching.) — P. 
 
 m “ Leader of the Anabaptists.” 
 
 “ 29,000. (Stat. Tab.)— P. 
 
 The Rapenburg, adjoining the university. — The finest street in 
 
 Leyden is the Broad Street (Brc(- or Breede-Straat,) which runs 
 through the whole city. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 p This sentence is added by the translator. — P. 
 
 q A very capital painting of the last judgment, by Lucas of Ley- 
 den, is in the burgomasters' chamber. (Ed. Enc.) — Lucas Damineszen, 
 called Lucas of Leyden, because a native of that city. (Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 r Du. .S'. Pieters Kerk — built in the form of a cross (en Kruisgcbuuw.) 
 (Busching.) — P. 
 
 s “ The tomb of Boerhaave” — with the simple inscription : Saluti- 
 fero Boerliavii genio sacrum (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 1 Du. Lcidsche Burgt (Leyden castle or citadel) — situated in the 
 middle of the city ; its only remains are the circular mound on which 
 it stood, and a wall surrounding it. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 u Leyden was first besieged, or rather blockaded, by the Spanish 
 general Valdez, Oct. 1573, three months after the surrender of Haar- 
 lem ; but this siege was raised March 21, 1574. The siege was re- 
 newed, May 26, 1574, and so closely pressed for five months, that the 
 city was reduced to the last extremities by famine and pestilence. It 
 was however relieved by cutting the dikes on the Meuse, and over- 
 flowing the country between it and Delft, by means of which a 
 supply of provisions and ammunition was introduced, and the Span- 
 iards compelled to retire in October. (Busching ) — P. 
 
 x The table of Peutinger (Tabula Peutingeriana,) so called from its 
 having been found in the library of Conrad Peutinger (died 1547,) and 
 published 1598. It was discovered in a monastic library at Spires by 
 Conrad Celtes, towards the close of the 15th century, and presented to 
 Peutinger. It is a rude chart of the military roads in the greater part 
 of the western Roman empire, drawn in the time of Theodosius the 
 Great. (Rees’ Cyc. Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 y South Holland included, under the old government, all that part 
 of the province of Holland, situated south of the Y. It contained at 
 that time, 11 cities having a voice in the Provincial States (Stemmende 
 Stcden,) viz. Dordrecht, Haarlem, Delft. Leyden, Amsterdam, Gouda, 
 Rotterdam, Gorcum (Gorinchem,) Schiedam, Schoonhoven and Brief 
 The Hague, although the seat of government of the whole confede- 
 racy, had not the rank of a city, nor any representation in the States 
 of the province. — For the present division of the old province of 
 Holland, into the two provinces of North and South Holland, see 
 Stat. Tab. p. 1109.— P. 
 
424 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLI 
 
 stance to the frontiers of Holland, it is there robbed of 
 its name by the Waal, which carries off the largest half 
 of its waters. Before its arrival at Arnheim, the canal 
 of the Yssel, running to the eastward, deprives it of 
 another part of them ; and again, below Arnheim, the 
 Leek has usurped the name of the principal branch of 
 the stream, leaving the smaller and now much-diminished 
 brand), under the splendid name of the Rhine, to pass 
 on to Utrecht, where the Veclit carries off another part 
 of its waters. What remains of this mighty river was 
 formerly lost in a marsh,® without reaching the sea, but 
 is by a canal, cut between the years 1804 and 1810, 
 carried to the sea, which it joins at the village of Kat- 
 wyk. b \ c 
 
 The number of considerable cities which cover the 
 territory of the small province of South Holland* *1 is ex- 
 traordinary ; we can only notice the most interesting. 
 The Hague (Dutch, Haag, or S' Growenhgaa f Fr. 
 La Ha ye), as the residence of the court, and the place 
 where the States-General assemble, merits the first no- 
 tice. Before the revolution of Brussels in 1830, the 
 Hague divided this honour with that city. It is not of 
 very great importance from its size and population, but 
 it must, notwithstanding, be reckoned among the finest 
 cities in Europe. It is one of the small number of those 
 in the Low Countries, the soil of which is dry, and the 
 air pure and healthy. Two thirds of its streets are in- 
 tersected by canals bordered with trees ; fine plantations 
 cover also its squares, and render the regularity of its 
 buildings more agreeable to the eye. An air of ease is 
 observable in every part of the Hague, which may be 
 considered a parliamentary rather than a commercial city. 
 The mercantile quarter 1 " is composed of streets, narrow 
 indeed, but yet of great neatness ; in the quarter where 
 the burgesses reside/ the houses have a fine appearance, 
 and the streets are broad, straight, and paved with bricks ; 
 the finest is the Prinzen-Gracht.% The old Palace- 
 Royal/ an immense building, but an ungraceful com- 
 bination of different orders of architecture, contains a fine 
 library, a collection of medals, valuable pictures, and 
 the archives of the kingdom. The new palace, built 
 
 * The Old Rhine sends off a branch near Leyden, which conveys 
 the greater part of its waters to the lake of Haarlem. The remainder 
 is lost in the sands or downs near Katwyk. (Busching.) — The old 
 mouth of the Rhine, at Katwyk, was obstructed by an incursion of 
 the Ocean, A. D. 860 (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 b Du. Katwyk — Catwijh, Catioijck (Kilian.) — Catwick (Tuckey.) — 
 So called from the ancient Catti, who settled there, according to Taci- 
 tus. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 c The sentences enclosed in brackets are added by the transla- 
 tor. — P. 
 
 d See note r p. 1103, and Stat. Tab. p. 1100. 
 
 e This is doubtless an error of the press, in the original, from which 
 it is copied strictly by the translator; at least the French writer must 
 have intended it for S' Grnwenhaag. But even that must be an error, 
 or at least not the usual Dutch orthography. — Du. 's Graven Huge, 
 
 den Haag or Hage (Busching) 's Graavenhage, or den Haag 
 
 (Hubner) — 's Graavenhaage, or den Haag (Wilcocke) — Graven-Haghe, 
 or Hughe (Kilian.) — Germ. Haag. — Lat. Haga Comitis . — The ortho- 
 graphy of Wilcocke is the most recent . — 's Graavenhaage signifies the 
 Count's wood (des Graaven haag.) from Graaf, count, and haag, wood 
 or thicket; den Haag, the Wood — so called from a wood or forest 
 there, frequented by the Counts of Holland for hunting. — P. 
 
 f “ Quartiers marchands (business or trading quarters) — ceux de 
 bourgeoisie (those occupied by men of fortune, wealthy citizens.)” — P. 
 
 K Prinsen-Gracht, or Prinsensgracht (Prince Street.) — Grar.kt prop- 
 erly signifies a street with a canal in the middle ; or originally a canal 
 simply. (See note 1 p. 1100.) — The Voorhout, which is accounted 
 the principal street, is about half a mile in length, with a mall in the 
 middle, and contains a number of buildings, in the purest style of ar- 
 
 by William III., and those of the Count of Benthenn and 
 Prince Maurice of Nassau, are each of them splendid of 
 their kind. The palace last mentioned contains the Mu- 
 seum, which is visited by all the curious : more than 400 
 pictures recall the ancient splendour of the Flemish and 
 Dutch schools. A museum, filling several apartments, 
 contains a magnificent collection of Chinese and Japanese 
 curiosities, besides objects of great value in the eyes of 
 such Hollanders, as are acquainted with the history of 
 their country. There are here preserved the clothes 
 worn by William of Nassau, the founder of the Dutch 
 republic, when struck by a ball from the fanatic Balthasar 
 Gerard / the dress of the stadtholder William III. ; the 
 hair of William IV. ; the hat of De Ruyter ; the silver 
 goblets of the Marquis Spinola ; and also the silver trowel 
 employed by Alexander of Russia in laying a stone in the 
 hut of his great progenitor at Saardam. The Stackhouse/ 
 the corn-market, and the new church, 1 are likewise fine 
 edifices; the last is especially remarkable for its frame 
 work. We should enter upon by far too extensive a 
 field, were we to enumerate or describe the hospitals, 
 the almshouses, the schools, the collections, and the 
 scientific societies, of the Hague. All the cities of the 
 Low Countries possess similar establishments. Let us 
 only notice, before proceeding, that this royal city was 
 the birth-place of the astronomer Huygens, and of the 
 poet Johannes Secundus, who imitated with so much 
 grace and ease the language of Ovid. The environs of 
 the Hague, so agreeable and verdant, are besides adorn- 
 ed with charming houses and magnificent promenades. 
 The beauty of the promenade called the JVood, m sur- 
 passes every thing imaginable ; majestic trees intertwine 
 their thick foliage in the air, and at the extremities of 
 the walks, pavilions, concealing, under elegant fronts, 
 garden or coffee-houses, serve as places of entertainment 
 for visitors, for the Dutch prefer shutting themselves up 
 in these pavilions, to which they are attracted on Sun- 
 days by excellent bands of music, to enjoying the pure 
 and open air under the silent arches of this magnificent 
 wood. Near this promenade is situated the beautiful 
 royal mansion of OrangenzaaL' 1 A fine avenue con- 
 
 chitecture. (Ed. Enc.) — The Voorhout is the most elegant street at 
 the Hague. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 h The Palace of the Stadtholder (consisting chiefly of old buildings, 
 erected at different periods, without any regularity of design.) (Ed. 
 Enc.) — The court or palace (containing several chambers allotted to 
 the different branches of government, besides the apartments of the 
 Stadtholder.) (Pinkerton.)— Du. Hof (the Court;) divided into the 
 Outer and Inner Court ( Buiten - and Binnen- Hof,) which communi- 
 cate with each other by means of the Stadtholder's gate (Stadhovdcr- 
 lyice poort.) (Busching.) — The Stadtholder's gate had by long custom 
 been opened only to the Stadtholder's family ; but in 1784, the States 
 of Holland decided that it should be opened every day. during their 
 sittings, to the members. A conspiracy was formed by the Orange party 
 to prevent the execution of this act ; only two of the members, Messrs. 
 Gyselaer and Gevaerts of Dort, ventured through the gate, and al- 
 though arrested in their progress, safely cleared the passage, and 
 triumphantly vindicated the majesty of the people. (Mirabeau, aux 
 Bataves sur le Stathouderal, p. 1D0 — 5.) — P. 
 
 ‘ Balthazar Gerard assassinated William of Nassau, the first stadt- 
 holder, by shootimr him v ith a pistol as he was going out of his palace 
 at Delft, A. D. 1584.— P. 
 
 k Du. Raadhuis , or Stadhuis (Council House, or Town House.; — P. 
 
 1 Du. JVieuwe Kerb — built in 1649 ; it is ot an oval figure, and cover- 
 ed with a cupola. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 m I) u . Haagsche Bosch (Hague Wood.) — On the north side, about 
 a mile from the town, is a noble wood, about two English miles in 
 length, and nearly one in breadth, and full of the finest walks and 
 most pleasing views. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 " Du. Oranjezaal (Orange Hall) — also called, the House in the wood 
 (Jict Huis in het Bosch — Fr. Maison du Bois.) — The palace called Maison 
 
book ciii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 ducts to the village of Scheveling or Scheveningen ,* 
 where are to be found different places of amusement. 
 [Its length is said to be nearly two miles in a straight 
 line, having a spacious path in the centre for carriages, 
 with a separate path for equestrians and pedestrians on 
 each side of the centre path. The spire of Scheveling 
 church is seen at the extremity of the avenue, and the 
 effect of the whole is very striking.] 11 To the south- 
 east of the Hague' lies the castle of Ryswick , d where was 
 signed in 1697 the treaty of peace between the Germanic 
 Empire, Spain, England, Holland, and France. An obe- 
 lisk has been erected to record the memory of this event. 
 
 The country between the Hague and the Delft is “ a 
 piece of animated tranquillity. All that art has done is 
 to give appropriate decoration to rural objects, and every 
 cottage bears the marks of comfort and prosperity. 
 Canals, raised above the level of the sea, and of the 
 neighbouring plains ; windmills, curiously and beautiful- 
 ly thatched ; large farms, overspread with flourishing 
 cattle ; level and excellent roads ;” e villas, walks, and 
 gardens, are some of the features of the agreeable land- 
 scape spread before the traveller/ Delft, % two leagues 
 from the Hague, occupies a fine position on the banks 
 of the Schie. It is a place of defence 11 of the third 
 class, a city without stir, and almost without trade, 
 although possessing manufactories of cloth, carpeting 
 and soap, besides breweries of reputation. 1 For- 
 merly it was celebrated for its potteries, and hence 
 the name of Delft-ware. v It is 800 years old, but 
 the houses are well built, and the public build- 
 ings are even magnificent. “ The deserted streets 
 declare that the best days of Delft are passed away. 
 Every thing about the streets and houses shows remark- 
 able attention to neatness ; and Delft, although without 
 
 OF HOLLAND. 425 
 
 the interest attending the bustle of trade, remains a true 
 specimen of an old Dutch town.” 1 We see in the old 
 church the tombs of Admiral Heyn and the celebrated 
 Tromp : m the new church contains those of Grotius” and 
 the physician 0 Leuwenhoeck/ both natives of Delft, 
 which they have thus rendered illustrious ; but the most 
 remarkable monument in this church, is the mausoleum 
 of William I. ;*t at the P rinsen-Hof , r a few steps from it, 
 this prince was assassinated by Balthasar Gerard.’ 
 From Delft, in less than two hours, we arrive at Rotter- 
 dam, the most commercial and the most populous city 
 in Holland next to the capital. [Rotterdam, besides 
 being one of the most beautiful cities in Holland, is most 
 advantageously situated for trade, both foreign and in- 
 ternal. It stands on one of the branches of the Meuse, a 
 about twenty miles from the German Ocean, and by 
 this river vessels of a large size come up to it, and, by 
 means of canals, are carried to different parts of the city, 
 and to the very doors of the houses. ££ Nothing,” says 
 an old traveller quaintly, ££ can be compared with the 
 pleasant mixture of chimneys, tops of trees, and stream- 
 ers of vessels ; one is astonished to behold so beautiful a 
 confusion, and can hardly tell whether it be a fleet, a 
 city, or a forest.” The city is well paved and clean, 
 the houses well built, and every thing appears to indi- 
 cate an active and prosperous commerce. There are 
 no remarkable public buildings ; but the quay, called the 
 Boompjes ,* presents a long line of handsome houses, the 
 mansions of wealthy merchants. ] b It possesses schools 
 and learned societies ; it was the native place of Eras- 
 mus, whose house may still be seen, and to whom they 
 have erected a statue in bronze / and yet it is perhaps 
 the only large city in the Netherlands which does not 
 possess a public library. 2 With this fact before us, shall 
 
 de Bois, a house of retirement for the Stadtholder, has nothing re- 
 markable in its appearance or situation, but resembles the residence 
 of a plain country gentleman. (Ed. Enc.) — The epithet in the original, 
 (jolie,) signifies rather, neat, pretty, than beautiful. — P. 
 
 a “ The village of Schweningen.” — Du. Scheveningen, or Schevelingen 
 (Busching.) — Scheveling (Ed. Enc.) — Schevening (Rees’ Cyci) — 
 Situated among the downs on the coast, about two miles N. W. of the 
 Hague. — P. 
 
 b The sentences enclosed in brackets are added by the translator. — P. 
 
 c About two miles distant. — P. 
 
 d “ Riswick.” — Du. Rysicyh — Rijswijk (Kilian.) — Ryswick is the 
 usual orthography in French and English authors. — Ryswick is a vil- 
 lage, said to be one of the neatest in Holland, with a castle, or rather 
 palace, built in the modern style in 1634, by Prince Frederick Henry 
 of Orange. This palace is called by the Dutch, het Huis te Rysicyk 
 (the House at Ryswick — Ryswick House,) and also Ncuburg (Germ.) 
 or Kieuwburg (Du.), from the corner stone having been laid by the 
 Duke of Pfaltz-Neuburg. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 e For. Quart. Review, No. IX. vol. v. p. 227. 
 
 1 The preceding part of the paragraph is added by the translator. — P. 
 
 s Du. Delft or Del f — so called, it is said, from a canal, called the Oude- 
 Delft (old digging,) which runs through the city. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 h “ Place de guerre” — fortress or fortified town. — P. 
 
 1 Delft has been long celebrated for its breweries, formerly more 
 considerable than at present. It was noted for a kind of strong beer, 
 sent in great quantities to the Cape of Good Hope and the East In- 
 dies. (Busching, 1773.) — P. 
 
 k This sentence is added by the translator. — Delft has been long 
 celebrated for its earthen ware [called Delft ware, Fr. faience,'] manu- 
 factured in imitation of the porcelain of China and Japan. It is made 
 of baked earth covered with an enamel. (Ed. Enc.) — The only manu- 
 facture at present flourishing, is that of pottery, which far surpasses 
 all others in strength and beauty of ornament. (Busching, 1773.) — P. 
 
 1 The above quotation is inserted by the translator. — P. 
 
 “Peter Peterson [Pieterze] Hein, and Martin Herbertson Tromp. 
 (Busching.) See note u p. 1098. — P. 
 
 “ Du. Hugo dc Groot. — His tomb is in the choir of the New Church. 
 (Busching.) — P. 
 
 ° “ Physicien” — natural philosopher. Leuwenhoek, a Dutch philoso- 
 pher celebrated for his microscopical observations and discoveries. He 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 55 54 
 
 does not appear to have had a learned education, but was first distin- 
 guished for his skill in grinding optical glasses, and afterwards for his 
 microscopical observations with instruments of his own contrivance 
 and manufacture. (Ed. Enc. Beauvais.) — P. 
 
 p Du. Anton, van Leeuwenhoek. — His monument is at the entrance 
 of the Old Church, not in the New. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 4 The tomb of William I. was erected in 1609, at the expense of 
 the general government, in the choir of the New Church, above the 
 vault of that prince, since the burial place of the Orange family 
 (Busching.) — P. 
 
 r Prince Hof (Busching.) — The old palace of the stadtholder — origi- 
 nally, the nunnery of St. Agatha. Delft having become the seat ot 
 government of Holland, after the revolt against Spain, William I. 
 converted the building into his place of residence, whence the name 
 signifying Prince’s Court. It stands on the Oude-Delft, directly 
 opposite the Old Church. — The New Church stands in the great 
 market-place ( Groote Markt,) opposite the Stadthouse. (Busching.) — P 
 s See note ‘ p. 1104. 
 
 1 Du. Rotterdam — Roterdam (Kilian. Vosgien.) — The name signifies 
 the dam or sluice of the Rotte, a small river that rises in the marshes 
 to the north of the town, and flowing through it, enters the Meuse. 
 (Busching.) — P. 
 
 u On the north side of the Meuse (proper.) — The Meuse divides into 
 two arms at Dort, of which the one on the north, passing by Rotter- 
 dam, is called the Meuse (Maas) simply; that on the south, the Old 
 Meuse ( Oude Maas.) (Busching.) — P. 
 
 x This quay or promenade (Du. weg) extends along the Meuse 
 between the mouths of the two havens or inlets from the. river, 
 by which ships pass into the heart of the city, called the Oude (Old) 
 and Leuve Haven. It is very broad, and closely planted with trees, 
 and is called from the latter circumstance, the Boomtjes (de Bonmtjens) 
 or Under the Boomtjes (Ondcr dc Boomtjens.) — Du. boom, a tree — di 
 min. boomtje (boompje. Wilcocke.) — P. 
 
 y In the great square or market place (Groote Marltt.) — P. 
 z Amono- the literary collections and institutions of Rotterdam, are 
 a cabinet of natural history and antiquities, a public library, and an 
 academy of sciences, instituted in 1771.* (Ed. Enc ) — P. 
 
 * This society, called the Batavian Society (Bataefsch Genootschap,) was 
 established in 1769. It is principally devoted to experimental philosophy 
 Rotterdam has also a Gymnasium IUustre (high school) with six professors 
 (Busching, 1773.)— P. 
 
426 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CL1 
 
 we be guilty of injustice towards the inhabitants of Rot- 
 terdam, in pronouncing them the Boeotians of the Low 
 Countries. * 1 * 1 * * * * * * 8 Absorbed by their commercial occupations, 
 the moments must be very few which they can devote 
 to the study of letters and the sciences ! b The name 
 of this city signifies the dike of Rotter, c because it is 
 situated at the place where the small river of that name 
 throws itself into the Lower Meuse. d Between an arm 
 of this river and the lake of Biesbosch, e stands Dor- 
 drecht or Dort, { a city which disputes the palm of an- 
 tiquity with Delft. It is distant from Rotterdam about 
 four leagues, and is fortified ; but its situation in the 
 midst of an island would prove a much better defence 
 than the old ramparts that surround it. [The trade of 
 Dort was once very considerable, and its situation is 
 said to be more favourable for foreign trade than Rotter- 
 dam, the harbour admitting vessels of greater burden ; 
 but, whatever be the cause, the trade now is very limit- 
 ed, and confined very much to timber, which is floated 
 down the Rhine in immense rafts. e The buildings of 
 Dort are chiefly old-fashioned.] 1 ' Within the bounds 
 of this city was held, in 1618 and 1619, the famous 
 synod which condemned the doctrines of Arminius ; and 
 at the same time the States-General, influenced by Prince 
 Maurice, sentenced and put to death the grand pension- 
 
 * “ We shall not, however, draw from this circumstance, as some 
 have done, the too rigorous conclusion, that the inhabitants of Rotter- 
 dam are the Boeotians of the Low Countries.” 
 
 b “ We speak advisedly,” say the Foreign Quarterly Reviewers, 
 “ in saying that Rotterdam has among its inhabitants writers of a high 
 order, and that a literary spirit is widely diffused among them.” — For- 
 eign Quarterly Review, jVo. IX. Vol. v. p. 227. Trans. 
 
 c Digue de Rotter." — Properly, the dam of the Rotte. See note 1 p. 
 1105.— P. 
 
 d “ — into the channel (cours d' euu ) called the Lower Meuse.” — See 
 note u p. 1 105. — P. 
 
 e Dort stands on an island, on the south side of the Meuse, which is 
 there called the Merwe (Du. Merwee, or Merwede,) a name which it 
 takes after its junction with the Waal near Gorcum, and which it 
 continues to bear till it divides into two branches, just below Dort, 
 called the Meuse and the Old Meuse. (See note u p. 1105.) Previ- 
 ous to 1421, Dort was bounded on the south by a large district between 
 the Merwe and the Meuse, the last of which then flowed in a straight line 
 to the sea by Heusden and Gertruydenberg ; which district was called 
 the Dortscke IVaard (Dort island.) In that year, however, a dreadful 
 inundation broke through the Merwe dike, and overflowed 72 parishes, 
 forming in place of them the lake called the Biesbosch (or Bcrgsveld.) 
 The channel of the Meuse was also altered, its old one by Heusden 
 being obstructed. The only remains of the Dortsche IVaard was the 
 small island on which Dort stands, called the Island ( eiland ) of Dort. 
 (Busching.) — P. 
 
 1 Du. Dordrecht, or Dort ( Dordl . Kilian.) — Dortreclit ; by contrac- 
 tion, Dort. (Busching.) — Durdreckt, from the river Durd (Dort,) and 
 dreclit , trecht, or tricht (Lat. trajectum,) a ferry. (Had. Junius.) — The 
 river Durd has, however, disappeared, unless it be the same with the 
 Merwe. (Busching.) — Lat. Dordracum. — P. 
 
 e These floats [rafts] are sometimes so enormous, that 500 men are 
 necessary to conduct them. The timber is cut in the saw-mills, which 
 are numerous in the vicinity of Dort, or exported unwrought to Britain, 
 Spain and Portugal. Dort is also the magazine for the Rhenish 
 wines, and the coal, lime and iron of Liege and Namur. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 b The sentences enclosed in brackets are added by the transla- 
 tor. — P. 
 
 ‘ “ Within this city was held, in 1618 and 1619, the synod which 
 condemned the doctrines of Arminius, and which, devoted to Prince 
 Maurice, sentenced to death the grand pensionary Barnevelt.” — The 
 synod was held in a large hall in the building called the Kloveniers 
 Doete. (Busching.) — It commenced its sittings in November, 1618. 
 The Arminians refused to appear in the synod; and as the popular 
 feeling was strong against them, Maurice ventured to imprison Barne- 
 veldt, Grotius, and others of their leaders, in the castle of Louvestein 
 ( Loecestecn .) The States-General were also compelled by him to ap- 
 point a commission, all the members of which belonged to the Orange 
 party, to try Barneveldt, by whose sentence he was beheaded at the 
 Hague, May 19, 1618. (Guthrie and Gray. ix. p. 352.) — Grotius was 
 imprisoned in May 1619, and escaped in a large chest in which clothes 
 and books had been transmitted to him, prepared for that purpose by 
 
 ary Barnevelt at the advanced age of 72, 50 of which 
 he had spent with integrity and ability in the service of 
 his country. The learned Grotius was imprisoned along 
 with Barnevelt, and after a detention of several years, 
 escaped through a stratagem of his wife. The two 
 brothers, John and Cornelius De Witt, who were torn 
 to pieces by an insurrection of the populace in 1672, 
 were natives of Dort. 1 
 
 The province of Zealand, k formed by the islands 
 which lie at the mouth of the Scheld, has for its capital 
 Middleburg, 1 in the island of Walcheren. This is an 
 industrious commercial city, wealthy, and even attached 
 to learning, or at least possessing an academy of sci- 
 ences, m besides being the birth-place of Leydeker,” author 
 of a work on the Hebrew republic. A large canal, 
 constructed in 1817, supplies the place of its former 
 harbour. 0 Flushing, or Vlissingen , p in the same island, 
 is defended by important fortifications, and possesses a 
 large and secure harbour, docks'! which can contain 80 
 sail of the line, r ship-yards and immense store-houses, 
 erections for which it is indebted in a great measure to 
 the French, who, after having expelled the English in 
 1809, s kept possession of this place till 1814. It was 
 the first city which, in 1572J erected the standard 
 of liberty, and had also the glory of giving birth to the 
 
 his wife, in March 1621 ; consequently he was imprisoned less than 
 two years. (Dumourier, Mimoires de Holtande.in Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 k Du. Zeeland — Zcelandt, See-land (Kilian.) — Lat. Selandia. — Eng. 
 Zealand. — Fr. Ztelande (M. B.) Zilande (Vosgien.) — Germ. Seelund.— 
 It literally signifies, Sea-land. — P. 
 
 1 Du. Middelhurg. — Fr. Middelbourg. — P. 
 
 m In 1773, Middleburg possessed a Gymnasium Tlhistre, with pro- 
 
 fessors in theology, law, medicine, literature and the sciences. (Busch- 
 ing.) — P. 
 
 “ Melchior Leydecker [Lcydeliher (Busching),] author of many vo- 
 luminous works ; among others, of a curious work : “ On the Repub- 
 lic of the Hebrews (De RepublicA Ilcbreeorum,)" in 2 vols. fol — Middle- 
 burg is better entitled to notice as the birth-place of Cornelius Van 
 Bynkershoek, a celebrated writer on international law. — P. 
 
 0 Middleburg communicates with Flushing by a canal fit for large 
 vessels. (Tuckey, 1815.) — Middleburg has two harbours or basins, 
 called the Outer and Inner Harbours (Buiten- and Binnen-Hazen.) 
 (Busching, 1773.) — P. 
 
 p Du. Vlissingen — F7 issinge (Kilian) — Vlissinghen (Enc. Meth.) — 
 Originally, Vtcssingcn, from a flask or cruise (Du. vies,) said to have 
 been bequeathed to the city by St. Willibrord. The arms of the city 
 are a silver flask (vies) in a red field (gules, a flask argent.) (Busch- 
 ing.) Fr. Flessingue. — Eng. Flushing. — P. q “ Basins.” 
 
 r Flushing has a beautiful port within two moles, capable of holding 
 80 sail of the line, besides extensive docks and basins. (Tuckey.) — The 
 port lies between two moles, that break the waves of the sea, which 
 enters the town by means of two canals, forming two basins. (Ed. 
 Enc.) — Inside of the town are two basins, one of such size and 
 depth as to contain a fleet of men of war. (Morse.) — Previous to the 
 French revolution, Flushing was one of the principal naval stations of 
 the Dutch republic. It contained two ports or harbours, viz the Old 
 Harbour (Oude Haven) on the west, constructed in 1315, and the New 
 Harbour (M euwe Haven) on the east, constructed in 1614. at the com- 
 mon expense of the republic. The latter communicated by three 
 sluices or locks (scliutsluizen) with a dock or basin, farther within the 
 city, called the Government Dock ('s Lands Dole,) constructed for 
 ships of war, and capable of holding 80 of the largest vessels. At the 
 end of this dock was a fine promenade, called the Boschaadje (grove.) 
 On the south side of the Government Dock, was the Dry Dock 
 (Drooge Dole.) The entrance to this latter dock was by gates open- 
 ing on the south side from a basin called the Broadwater (Brccdewutcr.) 
 (Busching.) — P. 
 
 8 The French had taken possession of Flushing with the rest of the 
 United Provinces in 1794—5. During the Walcheren expedition, as 
 it is called, Flushing was taken by the English, after a bombardment 
 of two days, Aug. 15, 1809. but evacuated, with the whole island, 
 Nov. 23, of the same year. — P. 
 
 • It was the first city in the Netherlands, which voluntarily (rrmcilhg) 
 declared against the Spaniards, and in favour of William I. of Orange, 
 April 6. 1572. The centurial anniversary of that day is celebrated as 
 a festival* in Flushing. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 * Called the Centurial Festival (Hondertjaarig Eeuic-Fest 
 
book cli.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 renowned De Ruyter.* The house where he was born 
 is still shown to strangers. 
 
 In North Brabant, the farthest south of the Dutch 
 provinces, and the most important from the rank which 
 it occupies in the States -General, ten cities would merit 
 being mentioned, if we did not wish to avoid the mo- 
 notonous repetitions which would follow the description 
 of a great number of places presenting the same appear- 
 ance. The three principal places are fortified towns. 
 On the right bank of the eastern Scheld, b and in the 
 midst of swamps,® stands Bergen-ojt-zoom , d celebrated 
 as a fortress, and regarded as a chef-d’oeuvre of the 
 celebrated Coehorn. e It is fameu for the anchovies 
 which are caught in its neighbourhood, and for its earth- 
 en ware/ The tower of its castle widens as it rises, 
 seems ready to fall, and shakes with the least wind. 
 Bois-lc-Duc , in Dutch Hertogenbosch, % is the capital of 
 the province. Watered by the Dommel and the Aa, 
 which unite lower down, and fall into the Meuse, h it 
 can, by inundating the environs, 1 augment the means 
 of defence which its citadel and two forts k already 
 afford. Its streets are straight and well built ; its canals 
 branch into nine divisions ;* the town-house and cathe- 
 dral" 1 are its finest edifices, and its trade is considerable. 
 Among its celebrated men, are reckoned the painter Je- 
 rome Bos," and the mathematician S’Gravesande. 0 
 Between these two cities, and eight leagues from both 
 of them,? stands Breda ,' ’ defended by fortifications 
 which are nearly a league in circumference, and by vast 
 marshes. r It is celebrated in the annals of war : in 
 1590, Maurice of Nassau made himself master of it by 
 concealing in a boat loaded with turf, s which he caused 
 to enter the place by night, eighty soldiers, 1 who secured 
 
 OF HOLLAND. 427 
 
 the governor and opened the gates. Spinola, the Span- 
 ish general, thirty-five years later," forced it to surrender, 
 and burned the famous boat. The French seized it in 
 1794 ; x but in 1813, during a sortie which they made to 
 attack the besieging Russian army, the inhabitants rose 
 up, closed the gates and prevented the garrison from re- 
 entering. One of its finest buildings is the great church, 
 the spire of which is 360 feeD high. 
 
 There are few countries where the physical constitu- 
 tion of the soil appears to have more influence upon the 
 character and manners of the inhabitants than the 
 Dutch provinces. The humidity of the climate renders 
 them dull, phlegmatic, and slow ; they are rarely affected 
 by violent passions, but their apathy ceases whenever 
 their interest is affected. Selfishness is said to be the 
 basis of their actions, love of gain their chief stimulant. 
 Let us acknowledge, however, that these two failings 
 have been the causes of their past greatness, their riches, 
 and their patriotism, and even of the wisdom of their in- 
 stitutions, and that economy has become one of their po- 
 litical virtues. If their parsimony led them to throw off 
 the yoke of Spain which loaded them with taxes, and to 
 refuse to pay tithes to the clergy, and indulgences to 
 the Roman pontiff, in the great struggle which they 
 sustained in the sixteenth century, their calculating 
 spirit and their perseverance triumphed over every ob- 
 stacle. They felt that religious liberty was the basis of 
 civil liberty, and that this last secured freedom of trade 
 and industry ; and, in the knowledge of this, they pre- 
 served as long as they could, the advantages of a repre- 
 sentative government. On this account, whatever may 
 have been the moving spring of their great actions, they 
 have at least the merit of having directed their interested 
 
 a “Admiral Ruyter.” — Michael Ruyter (Gorton.) — Du. Michiel de 
 Ruiter (Busching.) — P. 
 
 b The Scheldt divides into two branches, near Zandvliet below Ant- 
 werp, fronting the S. E. point of the island of South Beveland, of 
 which the one on the east, called the East Scheldt (Ooster- Schelde,) 
 flows north between that island and North Brabant to Bergen op Zoom, 
 where it receives the Zoom from the east, and then west between the 
 islands of Zealand, to the North Sea, between those of Schouwen and 
 Walcheren, while that on the west, called the West Scheldt ( Wester - 
 Schelde,) and also the Hondt, Hond, or Honte, flows in a westerly 
 direction, between Zealand and Dutch Flanders, and enters the North 
 Sea near Flushing. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 c Bergen op Zoom stands on a rising ground [Du. berg \ in the mid- 
 dle of a morass, on the river Zoom, where it joins the Scheldt. (Ed. 
 Enc.)— P. 
 
 d Du. Bergen op Zoom — Bergen op den Zoom (Busching ) — Bergen 
 op Soom, or Berglien op de Zoom (Kilian.) — Berg-op-Zoom (Enc. Meth. 
 Vosgien.) — The name in Dutch, signifies the Hill or Hills on Zoom, 
 or on the Zoom. — P. 
 
 e It was regarded as his master-piece by Cohorn. (Gorton ) — P. 
 f “ Berg-op-Zoom or Bergcn-op-Zoom , celebrated as a fortress, and 
 noted for the anchovies caught in its neighbourhood, and for its man- 
 ufacture of pottery.” 
 
 s Du. 's Hertogenbosch — Hertoghen-boscli (Kilian.) — Germ. Herzog- 
 enbusch. — Fr. Bois-le-Duc — Bos-le-Duc (Vosgien.) — Lat. Sylva Duds. 
 — Bois-le-Duc, or Bosch (Morse.) — The Dutch name, 's Hertogenbosch 
 ( des Hcrtogen Bosch,) of which the French and Latin names are trans- 
 lations, signifies the Duke’s Wood. — P. 
 
 h “ — which there unite, and a league lower down fall into the 
 Meuse.” — It is situated at the confluence of the Dommel and the Aa, 
 in a low, sandy, but cultivated tract, almost surrounded by a morass. 
 (Ed. Enc.) — Situated at the confluence of the Dommel and the Aa, 
 whose united waters form the Dies [Diese,~] and enter the Meuse at 
 the fort of Crevecoeur [a league and a half from Bois-le Due. Vosgien.] 
 (Enc. Meth.) — P. 
 
 * The adjacent country can be easily laid under water, and some- 
 times in winter the town can be approached only by boats. The 
 approaches to it by land are on causeways. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 k It is defended by a castle [citadel,] called Papen Briel ; by the 
 fort of Crevecoeur, near the Meuse; the large fort of Isabella; and a 
 small fort towards Brabant, called St. Antoine. (Ed. Enc.) — Under 
 the military governor of Bois-le-Duc (1773,) were the city (Du. Stud 
 
 's Hertogenbosch,) and the two dependent forts, viz. Fort Isabella 
 {'t Fort Isabelle), and Crevecoeur. (Busching.) — P. 
 
 1 “ Its canals divide it into nine quarters.” 
 
 m The cathedral, built in 1366, is one of the finest edifices in the 
 Low Countries. Its wooden tower, which was so lofty as to be seen 
 all the way from Antwerp, was supported by four stone pillars, but 
 was destroyed by lightning in 1584. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 n One of the first who painted in oil, in which he excelled — born 
 1450.— P. 
 
 ° W. J. S’Gravesande (Gorton. Beauvais.) — Du. Willem Jacob, 
 ’s Graavezande . — Chiefly known by his Elements of Natural Philoso- 
 phy, according to the Newtonian System (Physices Elementa Mathe- 
 matica, experimentis confirmata, sive Introductio ad Philosophiam 
 Newtonianam,) translated into English by Desaguliers. — Du. V Graave- 
 zande (' s Gravcsande, or ’s Graavesande. — Eng. Gravesand) is the 
 name of a town or village, situated among the downs on the coast, 
 south-west of the Hague, signifying the Count’s Sands, from its hav- 
 ing been a residence of the old Counts of Holland. — P. 
 
 p Nine leagues W. of Bois-le-Duc ; 8 leagues N. E. of Berg-op- 
 Zoom. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 <i The name of this city is the same in the Dutch, English, French 
 and Latin languages. — P. 
 
 r Breda is situated at the confluence of the rivers Aa and Merck, in a 
 fertile but marshy country, and capable of being surrounded with 
 water, so as to be altogether inaccessible to an army. It is regularly 
 fortified, surrounded with a wall three miles in circumference, pro- 
 tected by bastions and a strong citadel. The city is of a triangular 
 form, with a gate at each angle, and the ramparts are adorned with 
 rows of elms. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 8 “ Tourbe” — peat. 
 
 1 Sixty soldiers. (Ed. Enc.) — Charles de Heraugieres, captain of 
 infantry, with seventy chosen men. (Del. des Pays-Bas.) — P. 
 
 “ A. D. 1625. (Ed. Enc.)— P. 
 
 * In 1793, though the fortifications had been greatly augmented 
 by the Dutch, this important place was surrendered to the French 
 after a siege of ten days; but, in the same year, it was again deliver 
 ed up by capitulation to the States. (Ed. Enc.) — Breda was taken by 
 the French, Feb. 24, 1793, and again in 1794, and 1795. It was taken 
 possession of by the Russian general Benkendorf, Dec. 1813. (Tegg’s 
 Chronology.)— P. 
 
 y 362 feet. (Ed. Enc. Del. des Pays-Bas.) — P. 
 
428 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 views towards what might contribute to promote the 
 prosperity of their country. Their traducers have 
 thought it sufficient to bring forward their faults, to di- 
 minish the favourable impression made upon the mind 
 by that crowd of useful works and establishments, main- 
 tained at so great an expense, which give to Holland so 
 peculiar an aspect. Those dikes, say these detractors, 
 raised to arrest the encroachments of the ocean, are only 
 owing to their care for their own preservation ; those 
 canals which intersect the country in every direction, 
 have been cut with no other view than to favour their 
 commercial relations ; those hospitals, and those chari- 
 table establishments, so excellent and so numerous, 
 have only been founded to shelter a rich aristocracy 
 from the attacks of the indigent ; and even their good 
 faith in matters of business has no other foundation but 
 the necessity of securing confidence.® Man is a being 
 compounded of virtues and vices, and we ought not to ex- 
 pect from a people more disinterestedness than from an 
 individual. Who does not see that in attributing to 
 their interest alone, the institutions and spirit of order 
 which do honour to the Dutch, we render homage to 
 their judgment ? They are reproached with their na- 
 tional pride. Where is then the nation which does not 
 love to look back upon its past splendour? The French 
 themselves, the most lively people in the world, do they 
 not rather prefer to think upon their military glory, than 
 upon that which they have acquired in the arts, in lite- 
 rature, and in the sciences? 
 
 The manners of the Dutch are not dissolute : this has 
 
 * See the work entitled : Quatre mois dans les Pays-Bas, tom. ii. 
 
 b “The only assemblies much frequented, are those of men, and 
 even those are regulated by the different classes and employments 
 into which society is distributed. Such are those of ship-owners 
 
 [BOOK CLI 
 
 been attributed with some reason, to the coldness of 
 their character, and to their parsimonious disposition. 
 Not very delicate in their affections, those who have 
 mistresses choose them from the class of servants, and 
 sometimes the women show themselves not more diffi- 
 cult to please in the choice of the objects of their fondness. 
 There is much less depravity found among the lower 
 classes in Holland than in any other part of Europe. It 
 is very seldom that we hear thefts spoken of, and still more 
 rare to hear of crimes committed. To go little abroad, 
 to smoke much, and to eat and drink often, almost con- 
 stitute the principal amusements of the rich Hollanders. 
 They do not appreciate the pleasures of society, but they 
 can taste the quiet enjoyment of domestic life. The 
 only intercourse in society that does take place, is regu- 
 lated by business or profession. Thus, there are cap- 
 tains of vessels, rich merchants and bankers, persons in 
 public office, traders, courtiers, shopkeepers, burgesses ; b 
 but these classes never mix, and even live in a sort of 
 jealousy of each other. Artists and men of letters are 
 little thought of, and though there is no country in 
 which there are found more museums, scientific collec- 
 tions, and literary and learned societies, the brilliant 
 days when so many literary characters, savans, and 
 celebrated painters, w r ere seen to shine in Holland, are 
 for ever past ; the sciences and the arts are now only the 
 relaxations of the industrious rich, who, appreciating 
 properly the noble efforts of the human mind, spare no 
 expense to give to their children an education wffiich will 
 dispose them to give themselves up to similar enjoyments. 
 
 ( armateurs ,) wealthy merchants and bankers ( riches negocians ,) magis- 
 trates, traders ( commer<;ans ,) brokers ( courtiers ,) shopkeepers (mar- 
 chands,) and burgesses (bourgeois.* *)" 
 
 * Capitalists, wealthy citizens not in trade. — P. 
 
book cli.] DESCRIPTION OF BELGIUM AND HOLLAND. 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLE 
 
 OF 
 
 THE BELGIAN PROVINCES. 
 
 429 
 
 
 Population 
 
 Superficies 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 in 1827. 
 
 in hectares. 
 
 
 
 
 ‘Brussels 
 
 100,000 
 
 South Brabant 
 
 492,736 
 
 307,733 < 
 
 Louvain 
 
 Tirlemont 
 
 16,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 
 
 
 Nivelles 
 
 7,000 
 
 
 
 
 ‘Mons 
 
 20,000 
 
 Hainault 
 
 546,245 
 
 377,390 - 
 
 Tournayt 1 
 
 33,000 
 
 
 Ath 
 
 8,000 
 
 Namur 
 
 190,482 
 
 345,610 1 
 
 NAMCRt 
 
 Dinant 
 
 17,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 
 
 
 ‘LlEGE! 
 
 49,000 
 
 Liege 
 
 337,556 
 
 282,593 < 
 
 Verviers 
 
 Huy c 
 
 ‘Maestricht 
 
 16,000 b 
 
 5.000 
 19,000 
 
 6.000 
 
 Limburg 
 
 324,368 
 
 455,316 - 
 
 Venloo 
 Ruremonde 
 Hasselt d 
 ^St. Trond 
 
 4.000 
 
 6.000 
 7,000 
 
 65,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 Antwero 
 
 319,285 
 
 282,293 - 
 
 Turnhout 
 
 Malinesf 
 
 10,000 
 
 18,000 
 
 
 
 
 _ Liere 0 
 
 11,000 
 
 * The signs t and t in this and the following table indicate the bish- 
 opricks and archbishopricks. 
 
 b “ 10,000.” The population in the text is taken from the For. Quart. 
 Rev. — P. 
 
 c Hui or Hoei (Hubner.) — Huy or Hoye (Morse.) — Situated on the 
 Meuse, about half way between Liege and Namur. — P. 
 
 d Situated on the Demer, 5 leagues N. W. of Maestricht. (Vos- 
 gien.) — P. 
 
 • “ Liere,” Fr. — Lire (Vosgien.) — Lierre (Morse.) — Du. Lier (Hub- 
 ner.) — Situated at the confluence of the two Nethes, 10 miles S. E. 
 of Antwerp. — P. 
 
 Provinces 
 
 East Flanders 
 
 West Flanders 
 
 Luxemburg 
 
 Population 
 in 1827. 
 
 689,158 
 
 671,034 
 
 291,759 
 
 Superficies 
 
 in hectares. Towns. 
 
 298,370 - 
 
 317,422 « 
 
 Ghent! 
 
 Oudenarde 
 
 Alost 
 
 Termonde f 
 
 Renaixs 
 
 St. Nicholas 
 
 Lokeren 
 
 Bruges! 
 
 Ostend 
 
 Cour'ray 
 
 Menin 1 
 
 Thielt' 
 
 626,343 - 
 
 Ypres 
 
 ' Luxemburg 
 Arlon 
 Bouillon 
 
 Population. 
 
 70.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 12.000 
 
 6.000 
 10,000 
 
 14.000 
 
 13.000 
 
 36.000 
 
 10.000 
 
 16,000 
 
 5.000 
 
 10,000 
 
 15.000 
 
 10.000 
 
 3.000 
 3,000 
 
 Total 3,862,623 3,293,070 
 
 f Du. Dendermonde (Hubner) — Denremonde, Dermov.de (Kilian.)— . 
 
 Dendermonde, Dermonde, Tenermonde, or Tenremonde. (Enc. Meth. 
 — Dendermonde, or Termonde. (Morse.) — Lat. Teneramunda. — So call 
 ed from its situation at the mouth of the Dender ( Denre . Kilian — • 
 
 Fr. Dendre.) — Du. mond, mouth. — P. 
 
 t Fr. Rcnaix. — Flem. Rouse — Ronsse (Kilian.) — Situated 3 leagues 
 
 S. of Oudenarde. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 h Flem. Meenen. — Fr. Menin. — Situated on the Lys, 4 leagues N. of 
 Lisle. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 1 Tielt (Kilian.) — Situated 5 leagues S. E. of Bruges. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLE 
 
 OF 
 
 THE DUTCH PROVINCES. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 North Holland 
 
 South Holland 
 
 Population 
 in 1827. 
 
 405,929 
 
 440,662 
 
 Superficies 
 
 in hectares. Towns. 
 
 229,200 - 
 
 277,830 - 
 
 Amsterdam! 
 
 Haarlem 
 
 Horn 
 
 Alkmaar 
 
 Zaandam 
 
 Rotterdam 
 
 The Hague 
 
 Delft 
 
 Leyden 
 
 Dordrecht 
 
 Gorcum 1 * S. 
 
 Population. 
 
 201,000 
 
 21,000 
 
 10,000 
 
 9.000 
 10,000 
 66,000 
 
 49.000 
 
 14.000 
 
 29.000 
 
 11.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Zealand 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 Gelderland c 
 
 Overyssel 
 
 Population 
 in 1827. 
 
 132,321 
 
 122,395 
 
 284,266 
 
 157,158 
 
 Superficies 
 
 in hectaies. Towns. 
 
 158,036 £ 
 127,617 £ 
 
 517,098 
 329 
 
 ,961 1 
 
 Middleburg 
 
 Flushing 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 Amersfort 6 
 
 Arnheim 
 
 Nimeguen 
 
 Zutphen 
 
 Harderwyk d 
 
 ZwOLL e 
 
 Deventer 
 
 Campen f 
 
 Population 
 
 13.000 
 
 5.000 
 
 36.000 
 
 9.000 
 
 10.000 
 
 13,000 
 
 7.000 
 3,800 
 
 13.000 
 
 10.000 
 
 7,000 
 
 * Du. Gorinchem, also Gornichem and Gorichem; usually abbrevi- 
 ated to Gorkum (Busching) — Gorcum or Gorkom (Hubner) — Gorck- 
 hom (Kilian.) — One of the former represented cities ( Stemmende Steden ) 
 in the province of Holland — situated on the north side of the Merwe, a 
 little below the confluence of the Meuse and Waal. — P. 
 b See note 0 p. 1098. c See note 1 p. 1097. 
 
 d Du. Harderwyk — Hardcrwijk, Harderwijck (Kilian.) — Harderwick, 
 and Harderwyck, in English authors.— Harderwik (Tuckey. Vosgien 1 
 Situated in the province of Gelderland (quarter of Arnhem or Vel- 
 uwe,) on the Zuiderzee, N. E. of Utrecht. (Busching.) — It had for- 
 merly a university, now suppressed. — P. 
 e See note ’ p. 1096. 1 “ Kampen.” — See note 1 p. 1096. 
 
430 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLI. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Drenthe 
 
 Groningen 
 
 Friesland 
 
 North Brabant 
 Dutch Colonies 
 
 ropulTtion 
 in 1627. 
 
 Superficies 
 in hectares. 
 
 56,979 
 
 223,852 
 
 157,973 
 
 205,059 
 
 200,654 
 
 260,732 
 
 327,326 
 
 434,896 
 
 2,285.663 
 
 9,400,000 
 
 2,814,281 
 
 Towns. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Assen 
 
 1 
 
 Meppel 
 
 4,000 
 
 Coeverden b 
 
 2,000 
 
 Gronimgen 
 
 24,000 
 
 Delfzyl 1 
 
 3,000 
 
 Leuwarden 1 
 
 17,000 
 
 Harlingen 
 
 7^00 
 
 BolS-LE-DUct 
 
 13,000 
 
 Breda 
 
 11,000 
 
 Bergen-op-Zoom 
 
 e 6,000 
 
 1 1 ,085,663 
 
 1 Population, 768. (Alin. Imper. 1813.) — P. b See note c p. 1066. 
 
 c Deltziel (Hubner.) — Delfsil (Kilian.) — Delfzil (Vosgien.) — Delf- 
 zyl is situated at the mouth of the Fivel or Damster Diep [Dam- 
 ster river* (Malham’s Naval Gazetteer)], which joins the Dollart 
 [rather the strait that opens into the Dollart] ; it is a strong fortress. t 
 (Tuckey.) — Situated 6 leagues N. E. of Groningen. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 
 * So called from the small town of Dam, situated on it, one league from 
 Delfzyl. — P. 
 
 t The key to the provinces of Friesland and Groningen. (Vosgien.) — P. 
 d See note e p.1006. e “ Berg-op-Zoom.” — See note b p. 1107. 
 
 < “ Saint-George de la Mine,” Fr. (so called, says Vosgien, from 
 the gold mines in its neighbourhood.) — St. George de la Mine (some- 
 times called Delmina, and Elmina) is the principal establishment of 
 the Dutch on the coast of Africa. It is a square castle, mounting 100 
 pieces of cannon, situated on a rocky coast, near the river Benja, and 
 at the foot of it is the large Negro town of Oddenna. (Tuckey.) — St. 
 George’s Castle, or Del Minas. (Malham.) — Elmina, or St. George del 
 Mina. (Morse.) — The forts and factories belonging to the Dutch West 
 India Company (1773,) on the coasts of Guinea, Benin and An- 
 gola, were under the superintendence of the head-factory ( Huofd - 
 kantoor) at Elmina, or the Castle of St. George del Mina (built on a 
 rock, and near it, a small town called Mina ) (Busching.) — P. 
 
 e The Dutch colonies in Africa, are thirteen small forts on the coast 
 of Guinea. (Ed. Enc. art. Netherlands, 1822.) — The Dutch have fac- 
 tories and settlements on the Slave Coast, as well as on the Gold Coast. 
 
 DUTCH COLONIES. 
 
 9,400,000. 
 
 Elmina, or St. George of the Mine. f "1 
 
 Various small forts on the Gold Coast in ^ 
 Guinea.® J 
 
 Sumatra (the greatest part of this island with 5 
 Bencoolen. 1 ') 
 
 Java, whose capital, Batavia, is also that of 
 all Dutch Oceanica. 
 
 Madura, the whole. 
 
 Celebes, in part. 
 
 Borneo, do. 
 
 Archipelago of Sumbava and Timor, almost ( 
 entirely. 
 
 Archipelago of the Moluccas, almost entirely. 
 
 Land of Papua' in New Guinea.. 
 
 Islands of Papua .* 
 
 Riou, a small island, now become of little com- 
 mercial importance. 11 
 
 Islands of Bunair, m Curacao p St. Eustatius, 0 ' 
 part of the island of St. Martin, Saba, and some 
 smaller islands of little importance. 
 
 Colony of Surinam in Guiana. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 Oceanica. 1 
 
 America. 
 
 (Ed. Enc. art. Guinea, 1817.) — In 1773, the Dutch West India 
 Company possessed on the coasts of Guinea, Benin and Angola, 
 fifteen forts and factories, of which Elmina was the capital. (Busch- 
 ing.)— P. 
 
 11 Bencoolen is the principal establishment of the British East In- 
 dia Company in Sumatra, and is incorporated with the presidency of 
 Bengal. (Enc. Amer. Morse.) — P. 
 
 1 “ — of the Papous" (Papuans.) 
 
 k “ Riow, a small island, become recently ( depuis peu) important 
 from its commerce.” 
 
 1 The Dutch colonies in Asia, are Java, with the lesser govern- 
 ments of Amboyna, Banda, Ternate, Malacca and Macassar, and also 
 some factories on the coasts of Coromandel and Persia. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 m Bonaire, or Buenaire. — P. 
 
 ” Curaijoa (Tuckey.) — Curasao (Vosgien.) — Curazao (Pinkerton.) 
 
 0 “ St. Eustache." — St. Eustatia (Tuckey.) — St. Eustatius (Busch- 
 ing.) — The last the proper name. — P 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES 
 
 CONNECTED WITII 
 
 THE LATE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS, 
 
 EMBRACING BOTH DUTCH AND BELGIAN PROVINCES. 1 
 
 I. Movement of the Population for ten years. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Births. 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 Marriages. 
 
 Divor- 
 
 ces. 
 
 1815. 
 
 18*25. 
 
 Zealand 
 
 111,108 
 
 129,329 
 
 55,331 
 
 42,43u 
 
 10,645 
 
 27 
 
 Gelderland 
 
 264,097 
 
 284.363 
 
 90,862 
 
 59,818 
 
 19,337 
 
 13 
 
 North Brabant 
 
 264,087 
 
 326,617 
 
 100,863 
 
 69,507 
 
 20,380 
 
 1 
 
 North Holland 
 
 375,257 
 
 393,916 
 
 145,744 
 
 121 ,725 
 
 34,789 
 
 209 
 
 South Holland 
 
 388,505 
 
 438,202 
 
 165,741 
 
 143,850 
 
 34,942 
 
 148 
 
 U trecht 
 
 107,947 
 
 117,405 
 
 41,038 
 
 29,928 
 
 8,982 
 
 30 
 
 Friesland 
 
 176,554 
 
 202,530 
 
 65,565 
 
 38,219 
 
 15.327 
 
 46 
 
 Overyssel 
 
 147,229 
 
 160,937 
 
 51,951 
 
 37,479 
 
 11,629 
 
 13 
 
 Groningen 
 
 135,642 
 
 156,045 
 
 51,673 
 
 30,539 
 
 11,492 
 
 37 
 
 Drenthe 
 
 46,459 
 
 53,368 
 
 16,723 
 
 9,858 
 
 3,954 
 
 3 
 
 Limburg 
 
 287,613 
 
 321,246 
 
 101,781 
 
 70,549 
 
 22.960 
 
 5 
 
 Liege 
 
 58,185 
 
 331,101 
 
 113,623 
 
 82,698 
 
 24,367 
 
 24 
 
 Namur 
 
 364,400 
 
 189.393 
 
 58,690 
 
 34,134 
 
 12,592 
 
 8 
 
 Luxemburg 
 
 113,597 
 
 292,610 
 
 921142 
 
 56,695 
 
 18,740 
 
 1 
 
 llninault 
 
 288,595 
 
 546,190 
 
 183,198 
 
 118,289 
 
 39,591 
 
 27 
 
 South Brabant 
 
 441,649 
 
 495,455 
 
 169,161 
 
 119.109 
 
 36,423 
 
 5 
 
 East Flanders 
 
 615,689 
 
 687,267 
 
 218,830 
 
 162,834 
 
 43,120 
 
 0 
 
 West Flanders 
 
 516,324 
 
 563,826 
 
 191,139 
 
 141,310 
 
 37,882 
 
 6 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 291,565 
 
 323, 678 
 
 101,471 
 
 70,623 
 
 23,075 
 
 2 
 
 The Kingdom 
 
 5,424,502 
 
 6,013,478 
 
 2,015,646 
 
 1,441,600 
 
 430,247 
 
 605 
 
 1 The greater part of these tables are added by the English Editors 
 (from the For. Quart. Rev. No. X.) Those taken from the original 
 are pointed out in notes. — P. 
 
 II. Table showing the Ratio of Population to Deaths, Births, fyc. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Rate of in- 
 crease of 
 population 
 for 5 years 
 to 18*25. 
 
 Ratio ol 
 Deaths. 
 
 populat 
 
 Births. 
 
 ion in 1824 to 
 Marriages. 
 
 Ratio of 
 female 
 to male 
 births 
 in 1824. 
 
 Ratio of 
 births 
 to mar- 
 riages in 
 1824. 
 
 North Holland 
 
 0.040 
 
 34.5 
 
 23.2 
 
 104.4 
 
 0.956 
 
 4.50 
 
 East Flanders 
 
 0.051 
 
 44.8 
 
 28.4 
 
 165.3 
 
 0.946 
 
 5.82 
 
 Limburg 
 
 0.053 
 
 47.5 
 
 29.2 
 
 90.3 
 
 0.956 
 
 3.09 
 
 Antwerp 
 
 0.056 
 
 48.8 
 
 30.7 
 
 142.9 
 
 0.960 
 
 4.65 
 
 Zealand 
 
 0.056 
 
 31.4 
 
 20.7 
 
 113.7 
 
 0.9C0 
 
 5.49 
 
 North Brabant 
 
 0.059 
 
 51.4 
 
 29.2 
 
 150.0 
 
 0.974 
 
 5.14 
 
 Namur 
 
 0.062 
 
 57.9 
 
 29.8 
 
 150.9 
 
 0.907 
 
 5.06 
 
 Liege 
 
 0.065 
 
 46.2 
 
 28.9 
 
 154.1 
 
 0.942 
 
 5.33 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 0.068 
 
 36.3 
 
 24.3 
 
 118.2 
 
 0.939 
 
 4 86 
 
 South Brabant 
 
 0.068 
 
 38.2 
 
 261 
 
 142.2 
 
 0.970 
 
 5.45 
 
 Gelderland 
 
 0.069 
 
 53.7 
 
 27.6 
 
 131.1 
 
 0.P52 
 
 4.75 
 
 South Holland 
 
 0.070 
 
 35.0 
 
 23.9 
 
 113.3 
 
 0.959 
 
 4.74 
 
 Overyssel 
 
 0.071 
 
 43.5 
 
 26.5 
 
 121.9 
 
 0.937 
 
 4.60 
 
 West Flanders 
 
 0.073 
 
 40.7 
 
 '27. 5 
 
 137.7 
 
 0.930 
 
 501 
 
 Hainault 
 
 0.073 
 
 51.1 
 
 27.4 
 
 136.5 
 
 0.921 
 
 4.98 
 
 Groningen 
 
 0.078 
 
 49.3 
 
 28.9 
 
 149.3 
 
 0.898 
 
 5.17 
 
 Luxemburg 
 
 0.080 
 
 53.8 
 
 27.9 
 
 149.9 
 
 0.967 
 
 5.37 
 
 Friesland 
 
 0.086 
 
 46.1 
 
 27.1 
 
 128.7 
 
 0.944 
 
 5.75 
 
 Drenthe 
 
 0.087 
 
 55.0 
 
 27.8 
 
 130.3 
 
 0.895 
 
 4.69 
 
 Average for the 
 kingdom 
 Do. for 1825. 
 
 0.062 
 
 43.8 
 
 27.0 
 
 132.4 
 
 0.947 
 
 4.90 
 
 — 
 
 41.0 
 
 27.1 
 
 127.2 j 
 
 0.943 
 
 4.70 
 
BOOK Clil.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF HOLLAND. 
 
 431 
 
 III. Land in Cultivation . a 
 
 Hectares of land Hectares in 
 Provinces. in the whole.b cultivation. 
 
 Zealand 158,410 148,029 
 
 Gelderland 509,195 289,802 
 
 North Brabant 501,293 277,183 
 
 North Holland 245,114 203,008 
 
 South Holland 287,181 244,213 
 
 Utrecht 133,194 110,281 
 
 Friesland 263,018 235,705 
 
 Overyssel 328,712 175,803 
 
 Groningen 204,899 173,063 
 
 Drenthe 229,206 74,229 
 
 Limburg 460,087 310,514 
 
 Lie<re 288,992 237,579 
 
 Namur 347,083 278,397 
 
 Luxemburg 650,210 463,423 
 
 Hainault 372,469 356,258 
 
 South Brabant 328,426 316,883 
 
 East Flanders 282,361 264,988 
 
 West Flanders 316,585 296,915 
 
 Antwerp 283,830 197,303 
 
 Total . . 6,198,131 4,653,636 
 
 IV. State of the present Manufacturing Interest in the JVetherlands. 
 
 Substances. Value in Fr. 
 
 Iron 46,000,000 
 
 Copper 5,000,000 
 
 Woollens .... 80,000,000 
 
 Linens 95,000,000 
 
 Cottons 50,000,000 
 
 Suo-ar (refined) . . 14,000,000 
 Salt (do.) .... 10,000,000 
 
 Spirits 40,000,000 
 
 Beer 112,000,000 
 
 Tobacco 28,000,000 
 
 Oil 30,000,000 
 
 Soap 10,000,000 
 
 Lace 25,000,000 
 
 Leather 28,000,000 
 
 Earthen ware and Pottery 4,000,000 
 Bricks and Tiles . . 6,000,000 
 
 Printing and Books . 15,000,000 
 Bleaching .... 10,000,000 
 
 Carry forward 608,000,000 
 
 Substances. Value in Fr. 
 
 Brought forward . 608,000,000 
 
 Dyeing 10,000,000 
 
 Paper 8,000,000 
 
 Caps and Bonnets . . 7,000,000 
 
 Cheese 10,000,000 
 
 Jewellery .... 4,000,000 
 
 Starch 3,500,000 
 
 Acids and Salts . . 1,500,000 
 
 Cordage 3,000,000 
 
 Hats 6,000,000 
 
 Glass 2,000,000 
 
 Clocks 4,000,000 
 
 Cards 1,200,000 
 
 Embroidery .... 1,200,000 
 
 Turnery 600,000 
 
 Lead and Zinc . . 1,000,000 
 
 Miscellaneous . . . 4,000,000 
 
 Total 675,000,000 
 
 V. Principal Branches of the Expenditure of the JVetherlands. 
 
 IN FLORINS. 
 
 Finances. 
 
 Revenue in Fr. 161,836,000. Debt in Fr. 3,800,000,000. 
 VI. Publications in the JVetherlands. 
 
 Jurisprudence, Medicine, Physics, &c. . 
 
 1825. 
 
 1826. 
 
 1827. 
 
 Ill 
 
 103 
 
 99 
 
 93 
 
 105 
 
 146 
 
 94 
 
 96 
 
 96 
 
 135 
 
 134 
 
 114 
 
 246 
 
 325 
 
 286 
 
 679 
 
 763 
 
 741' 
 
 a There are some slight differences in the quantities of land as exhib- 
 ited in this table, and the tableson pages 1109 and 1110. The present ta- 
 ble is taken from the Foreign Quarterly Review, No. X. art. JVetherlands. 
 
 b A hectare of land is equal to 2£ English acres. [The hectare is 
 equal to 2 acres, 1 rood, 35.4 rods. — P.] 
 
 c Expenses of dikes, canals, and navigation in general. [ Watcrstaat 
 signifies literally, water administration. — P ] 
 
 d The charges for education are now included under the head of 
 Interior.” 
 
 e The preceding part of this table is taken from the original. — P. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1826. 
 
 1827. 
 
 Translations from German 
 
 
 
 . 107 
 
 120 
 
 Do. 
 
 French . . 
 
 
 
 . 57 
 
 58 
 
 Do. 
 
 English 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 Do. 
 
 Spanish 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 195 
 
 203 
 
 VII. Students of the 
 
 Universities of the 
 
 JVetherlands , 1st Jan. 
 
 1826. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Philosophy 
 
 
 
 Theology. 
 
 Law. 
 
 Medicine. 
 
 Sciences. 
 
 and Letters. 
 
 Total 
 
 Leyden 
 
 103 
 
 138 
 
 60 
 
 8 
 
 227 
 
 536 
 
 Utrecht 
 
 154 
 
 103 
 
 20 
 
 33 
 
 170 
 
 480 
 
 Groningen 
 
 94 
 
 73 
 
 28 
 
 14 
 
 91 
 
 300 
 
 Louvain 
 
 0 
 
 154 
 
 70 
 
 63 
 
 335 
 
 622 
 
 Liege 
 
 0 
 
 197 
 
 84 
 
 63 
 
 115 
 
 481 
 
 Ghent 
 
 0 
 
 144 
 
 124 
 
 33 
 
 54 
 
 35o 
 
 
 351 
 
 809 
 
 '386 
 
 214 
 
 992 
 
 2774 
 
 The Increase, during a 
 
 period of three -years, 
 
 in the Students 
 
 of the 
 
 whole six establishments, is thus exhibited : 
 
 
 
 1824. 
 
 1825. 
 
 1826. 
 
 Theology 
 
 
 325 
 
 351 
 
 Law .... 
 
 
 807 
 
 809 
 
 Medicine 
 
 
 374 
 
 386 
 
 Sciences 
 
 233 
 
 226 
 
 214 
 
 Philosophy and Letters 
 
 718 
 
 904 
 
 992 
 
 
 Total 2275 
 
 2636 
 
 2752 
 
 
 1816. 
 
 1821. 
 
 1826. 
 
 Average for the 
 eleven years. 
 
 King’s household 
 
 2,600,000 
 
 2,600,000 
 
 2,100,000 
 
 2,531 ,636 
 
 Great offices of state 
 
 1,468,635 
 
 1,211,285 
 
 1,065,430 
 
 1,202,811 
 
 Foreign affairs 
 
 937,838 
 
 705,503 
 
 766,969 
 
 787,638 
 
 Justice 
 
 Interior, and Water- 
 
 3,394,511 
 
 3,221,347 
 
 2,191,049 
 
 3,243,567 
 
 staat c 
 
 Religions, except the 
 
 7,245,910 
 
 5,019,322 
 
 6,159,249 
 
 5,744,439 
 
 Catholic 
 
 1,264,261 
 
 1,423,449 
 
 1,327,311 
 
 1,351,813 
 
 Catholic religion 
 Education, arts, com- 
 
 1,325,176 
 
 2,086,730 
 
 1,631,413 
 
 1,662,863 
 
 merce and colonies 
 
 3,894,736 
 
 1,723,882 
 
 73,019 J 
 
 2,155,520 
 
 Finances 
 
 23,314,342 
 
 34,309,517 
 
 38,707.562 
 
 31,553,101 
 
 Navy 
 
 6,554,531 
 
 5,037,745 
 
 6,582,842 
 
 5,775,711 
 
 Army 
 
 27,128,574 
 
 17,427,732 
 
 18,444,535 
 
 22,852,651 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 432 
 
 BOOK CLI. 
 
 IX. Commercial Movement of the principal Ports of the King- 
 dom, during the years 1826 — 1828. 1 
 
 
 1826. 
 
 1827. 
 
 1828. 
 
 Vessels entered at Amsterdam 
 
 1,887 
 
 1,982 
 
 2,132 
 
 Do. at Rotterdam 
 
 1,587 
 
 1,731 
 
 2,085 
 
 Do. at Antwerp 
 
 928 
 
 822 
 
 955 
 
 Do. at Ostend 
 
 482 
 
 501 
 
 574 
 
 Do. employed in the Herring Fishery 
 
 131 
 
 142 
 
 
 X. Army and Navy in 1829. 
 
 Army 43,297 men. 
 
 'Crews in actual service 4,314 men. 
 
 Navy - 
 
 Ships of the Line 
 Frigates 
 Corvettes 
 Smaller Vessels 
 
 33 I 
 36 f 
 50 J 
 
 131 vessels. 
 
 XI. Charitable Institutions of the Netherlands. 
 
 Nature of Institutions. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Individuals 
 
 Expenses 
 
 Expense for 
 
 
 Institutions. 
 
 relieved. 
 
 of Relief. 
 
 each Individual. 
 
 Administrations for') 
 
 
 
 
 
 relieving the Poor 
 at home 
 
 >■ 5,129 
 
 745,652 
 
 5,448,740 
 
 7.31 
 
 Commissions for dis- ) 
 tributing Food, &c. j 
 
 | 36 
 
 22,056 
 
 82,424 
 
 3.73 
 
 Societies of Maternal ] 
 
 • 4 
 
 1,448 
 
 13,493 
 
 9.32 
 
 Charity j 
 
 1 
 
 
 99.37 
 
 Hospitals 
 
 724 
 
 41,172 
 
 4,091,157 
 
 Funds for Military i 
 
 Service < 
 
 S 1 
 
 2,277 
 
 110,942 
 
 48.73 
 
 R.oyal Hospital of ] 
 Messine b 1 
 
 1 
 
 1,56 
 
 23,290 
 
 149.30 
 
 Poor Schools 
 
 285 
 
 147,296 
 
 247,176 
 
 1.67 
 
 Workhouses of Charity 34 
 
 6,169 
 
 406,704 
 
 65.92 
 
 Depots of Mendicity 
 Societies of Benefi-' 
 
 8 
 
 ) 
 
 2,598 
 
 229,587 
 
 88.37 
 
 cence for the Colo- 
 nies 0 
 
 2 
 
 8,553 
 
 353,529 
 
 41.33 
 
 Establishments for the ' 
 Deaf and Dumb 
 
 L * 
 
 239 
 
 41,994 
 
 175.70 
 
 Total 6,228 
 
 977,616 
 
 11,049,036 
 
 [Average 11.30 
 
 Monts de Piet6 4 
 
 124 
 
 
 4,208,068 
 
 
 Savings Banks 
 
 50 
 
 18,035 
 
 2,771,608 [Average 153.93 
 
 » Tables IX. and X. taken from the original. — P. 
 b In West Flanders, for the daughters of soldiers invalided or killed 
 in service. (For. Qu. Rev.) — P. 
 
 c Poor Colonies, or Colonies of Industry, under the superintend- 
 ence of two Societies of Beneficence, one for the Northern, the 
 other for the Southern Provinces; the Northern colonies are estab- 
 
 XII. State of Crime in 
 
 the Netherlands in 1826. 
 
 Crimes against Persons. 
 
 Nature of Crimes. 
 
 Accused. 
 
 Acquitted. 
 
 Condemned 
 
 Political Crimes 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Rebellion 
 
 68 
 
 26 
 
 42 
 
 Breach of Sanitary Laws . . 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Escapes from Detention . . . 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 Perjury and Subornation . . . 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 Assassination 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 Poisoning 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Parricide 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Murder 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 Assaulting and Wounding . . 
 
 123 
 
 26 
 
 97 
 
 Assaults upon Authorities . . 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 Arbitrary Arrests 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Menaces 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 Mendicity with violence . . . 
 
 i 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Bigamy 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 Abortion 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Infanticide 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 Child-stealing 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Rapes and Attempts .... 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 Rapes on children under 15 years 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 Total 
 
 304 
 
 73 
 
 231 
 
 Crimes against Property. 
 
 Nature of Crimes. 
 
 Accused. 
 
 Acquitted. 
 
 Condemned. 
 
 Exaction and Corruption 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 Embezzlement of the public money 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 Burning of Buildings .... 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 of other objects . . . 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Destruction of Property . . . 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 False Coining 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 Counterfeit Seals, &c. . . . 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Fraud by False Pretences . . 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 in Commercial Writings . 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 Other Frauds 
 
 40 
 
 12 
 
 28 
 
 Fraudulent Bankruptcy . . . 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 Robbery in churches .... 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 on the Highways . . 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 in Dwelling Houses . 
 
 198 
 
 24 
 
 174 
 
 Other Robberies 
 
 744 
 
 91 
 
 653 
 
 Alteration of Bills. Bonds, &c. 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Embezzlement of Titles and Deeds 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 Breaking Seals 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Importing Prohibited Goods 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 Total 
 
 1085 
 
 150 
 
 935 
 
 lished among the heaths in Drenthe, and the Southern among those 
 near Turnhout in Antwerp. (For. Qu. Rev.) — P. 
 
 d Equitable loan banks, which advance money to the poor, either 
 without interest or at an interest much below what any pawnbroker 
 would take. (For. Qu. Rev.) — P. 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 r 
 
 BOOK CL.II.] 
 
 433 
 
 BOOK CLII. a 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued. — Great Britain. — England. — First 
 Section . — Civil Geography. — Early Inhabitants . — 
 Roman Conquests. — Saxon Invasion. — Normans . — 
 History , progress and settlement of the Constitution. 
 The island of Great Britain was originally called the 
 country of Green Hills, afterwards the island of Honey, 
 and at a still later period Bryt or Prydain, from which 
 the name of Britain appears to have been derived. 
 The rivers Forth and Clyde are the natural limits of 
 two large but unequal portions of the same country. 
 The northern portion was called Alben, or the region of 
 mountains ; the name of Kymru was applied to the west- 
 ern part of the other, and that of Lcegr to the southern 
 and eastern. The two latter names, unlike the former, 
 were not derived from the nature of the soil or the character 
 of the country, but from two distinct races, the Cambrians 
 and the Laegrians, the early inhabitants of Southern Britain. 
 
 Of these two nations, the Cambrians claim the higher 
 antiquity ; according to imperfect traditions, they came 
 from the eastern extremities of Europe, and having 
 crossed the German Ocean, many of them settled in Gaul, 
 while others landed on the opposite shores of Britain. 
 Before this period, if credence can be given to the same 
 traditions, Britain was destitute of inhabitants, bears 
 found shelter in the forests, and wild cattle roamed in the 
 plains. The names of many places, not derived from 
 the Cambrian language, and the monuments of an 
 unknown age, attributed by vulgar superstition, to a race 
 of hunters, who, instead of dogs, trained foxes and wild 
 cats for the chase, render it probable that before the 
 arrival of the Cambrians, Britain was inhabited by men 
 of a different origin and a different language. The early 
 inhabitants were gradually forced into the west and north 
 by the successive influx of strangers from the east. 
 Some passed the sea, and reached the large island of 
 Erin, or settled in the western isles, which were peopled 
 by men of the same race as the aboriginal Britons. The 
 high mountains, which stretch from the banks of the 
 Clyde to the extremities of the island, proved an 
 impregnable barrier against new aggressions to as many 
 as retreated into the north, where they assumed and have 
 still preserved the name of Gaels. Increased at different 
 times by their brethren from Ireland, they formed the 
 population of Albania, or the Highlands ; different from 
 the inhabitants of the plains in the south, and mindful 
 of former injuries, they handed down to their descendants 
 the memory of their conquest and their flight. It is 
 
 a This and the following books on Great Britain and Ireland, are 
 rewritten by the English Editor. — P- 
 
 b Coritani. (D’Anv.) — P. 
 
 impossible to determine the time in which these migra- 
 tions took place, but according to traditional and other 
 evidence, they were anterior to the landing of the Laegrians 
 on the southern shores of Britain. The Lregrians inhab- 
 ited the south-western parts of Gaul ; they were of the 
 same origin, and spoke the same language as the 
 Cambrians, who, compelled to give way to these new 
 settlers, retired to the shores of the wmstern sea, and 
 scattered themselves over a country, which, from that 
 period, has retained the name of Camliria. The Laegrians 
 took possession of the southern and eastern coasts ; a 
 third horde of the same race migrated from the coun- 
 try between the Seine and the Loire, and obtained a 
 settlement, it is said, without war and without contest. 
 The name of Britons is exclusively applied to these last 
 settlers in the national poems and ancient annals. Their 
 territory was probably situated on the north of Cambria 
 and Laegria, near the frontier of the Gaelic population, 
 between the firths of Forth and Solway. These bar- 
 barians, sprung from a common origin, were some- 
 times exposed to the invasions of foreign tribes. 
 One of these hordes inhabited that part of Gaul which 
 has since been denominated Flanders ; many persons 
 amongst them were destroyed by an inundation, and as 
 many as escaped were compelled to leave for ever their 
 native land ; they made themselves masters of the Isle 
 of Wight, and the southern coast of England. The 
 territory of the Laegrians was afterwards divided into two 
 portions by the Caritanians, b a Teutonic tribe that entered 
 by the mouth of the Humber, and settled on its banks 
 and on the neighbouring shores.® 
 
 The memory of these remote events is partly preserved 
 in obscure traditions, and in the less erring indications, 
 which ancient languages afford. Little, however, was 
 known of Britain before the arrival of the Ro- 
 mans .' 1 The Phoenicians, Carthaginians and other 
 nations may have repaired to the island, and car- 
 ried on a trade with the inhabitants, but it was not 
 their policy to make known their route, lest others might 
 participate in the profits of their traffic, much less to 
 explore the country. The pretext which Caesar uses to 
 justify his expedition, was to make the Romans familiar 
 with the coasts, harbours and landing places, to which 
 the Gauls were strangers. None but merchants resorted 
 to the island, and if the land opposite Gaul be excepted, 
 foreigners were ignorant of the country.® But Caesar, it 
 is well known, did not penetrate beyond the banks of the 
 
 c See the Horae Britannicse, Archaeology of Wales, and the Intro- 
 duction to Thierry’s History of the Norman Conquest. 
 
 <i B. C. 55. 
 
 e Caesar’s Commentaries, Book iv. ch. 18. 
 
 VOL III.— NO. 55 55 
 
434 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CL.II. 
 
 Thames ; more important projects recalled him to Rome, 
 and according to the observation of Lucan, he may be 
 said to have lied from the enemy be sought. — Territa 
 qucesitis ostendit terga Britannis. During the reign of 
 Augustus, Britain continued a terra incognita to the 
 Romans ; it was first subdued in the time of Domitian by 
 Agricola, who ascertained it to be an island.® 
 
 A difference of complexion observed among the 
 inhabitants, was supposed to indicate a different origin. 
 The red hair and tall stature of the northern tribes, con- 
 vinced Tacitus that they had migrated from Germany; 
 while the swarthy complexion and curled locks of the 
 Silures, b caused them to be considered of Iberian descent. 
 
 If, in the time of Caesar, the natives of the south-east- 
 ern part of the island were more refined or less barbarous 
 than the other inhabitants, it was owing to a more fre- 
 quent intercourse with their Gallic neighbours. Their dis- 
 tricts were better peopled ; agriculture was not unknown 
 to them ; they used marie as a manure, and raised more 
 corn than was necessary for their consumption. The 
 people may be said to have been husbandmen, at a time 
 when the rest of their countrymen were shepherds ; con- 
 sequently to have made the first step towards civilization. 
 
 But at the early period of which we speak, all the 
 Britons were little removed from the savage state. 
 Their towns were built in thick woods, fortified with a 
 ditch or rampart to serve as a place of retreat against 
 their enemies, and well adapted, from their situation, to 
 favour their escape on any emergence. Their houses 
 were very rude ; a stone foundation supported walls made 
 of timber or reeds, while the interior consisted of a small 
 chamber with a fire in the middle ; the floor was strew- 
 ed with straw or rushes, on which the inmates and visitors 
 slept. Ten or twelve persons resided in a single house ; 
 they had their wives in common, but the offspring was 
 always attributed to him who married the mother. 0 The 
 zeal of some historians in defending the morals of their 
 ancestors may be commendable, but it cannot by any 
 means invalidate the statement of Caesar, which is con- 
 firmed by Dion and other ancient writers. “ It is very 
 likely,” says Dr. Henry, “ that the Roman general was 
 deceived by appearances, and led to entertain this opinion 
 of the promiscuous intercourse of the sexes by observing 
 the promiscuous manner in which they lived, particularly 
 in which they slept. ” d It is doubtful that Caesar ever 
 observed the manner in which the Britons slept ; his 
 information was derived from the natives themselves, who 
 would not have avowed the practice, had it not been 
 general, or if it had been considered disgraceful. The 
 well known story of Cartismandua, the queen of the 
 Brigantes, does not prove that she lost her dominions 
 for the reason that is commonly alleged, but because 
 she raised her standard-bearer to the throne. e 
 
 1 Tacitus. Life of Agricola. 
 
 b South Welsh. 
 
 c Caesar’s Commentaries, Book v. Chap. 10. 
 
 d Henry’s History of Britain, Book i. Chap. 7. 
 
 e The story is thus related by Tacitus. “ In the reign of Claudius, 
 Cartismandua had treacherously delivered up Caractacus to swell the 
 pomp of that emperor’s triumph. From that time riches flowed on her, 
 but riches drew after them their usual appendages, luxury and dissi- 
 pation. She banished from her presence Venusius her husband, 
 and raised Vellocatus her armour-bearer to her throne and bed. By 
 that criminal act she lost all her authority. Convulsions shook her 
 kingdom. The discarded husband had the people on his side, while 
 the adulterer had nothing to protect him but the libidinous passions of 
 the queen and the cruelty oflier reign. Venusius was in a short time 
 at the head of a powerful army. The subjects of the queen flocked 
 to his standard, and a body of auxiliaries joined him. Cartismandua 
 
 The southern Britons stained their bodies with an 
 infusion of woad, which gave their skins a blue colour, 
 and made them appear terrible in battle ; they wore long 
 hair, and shaved all the rest of the body except the head 
 and upper lip. f The custom of tattooing themselves was 
 confined to the northern tribes ; the outlines of animals 
 were punctured in the skin during infancy, and a strong 
 dye was rubbed on the punctures ; the figures expanding 
 with the growth of the body, retained their appearance 
 through life.s Strabo judged from the few he saw at 
 Rome, who were of lofty stature, but ill made and inactive. 
 Want of activity was no characteristic of these tribes. 
 They delighted in war and martial occupations ; nay, 
 their chieftains thought the time lost which was spent in 
 peace. The first food given to a male child was put into 
 bis mouth on the point of his father’s sword, who prayed 
 that he might prove a brave warrior and die in battle ; 
 such they deemed the most honourable death. h The 
 children contended with each other in wrestling, in swim- 
 ming, and in the race ; to the want of restraint, almost 
 constant exercise and simple diet, their bodily strength 
 and daring spirit have with some justice been attributed. 
 Arrived at manhood, the vicissitudes and toils of war were 
 familiar to them ; in bearing fatigue, hunger, thirst and 
 cold, they surpassed their conquerors. 
 
 “ They use chariots in war, they scour the field on 
 every side, throw their darts, and create disorder among 
 the ranks by the terror of their horses, and the noise of 
 their chariot wheels. When they mingle with the 
 cavalry, they leap out and fight on foot ; meanwhile the 
 charioteers retire to a short distance, and place them- 
 selves in such a manner that if the others are overpow 
 ered, they may be secure of their retreat. Thus they 
 act with the agility of cavalry and the steadiness of infan- 
 try ; expert from constant practice, they can stop their 
 horses at full speed, check and turn them, run along 
 the pole, stand on the harness, and dart into their chari- 
 ots.” 1 The different tribes never formed a lasting union 
 with each other, they fought separately against the com- 
 mon enemy, and they were therefore subdued. 
 
 Their money consisted of brass or iron rings of a 
 certain weight ; they practised hospitality, but it was 
 not considered a crime to plunder the territory, or rob the 
 inhabitants of a different tribe. Their virtues were those 
 of barbarians ; frank, generous, and free from deceit, 
 “ they are absolute strangers to the pernicious cunning 
 and dissimulation of the men of our times. ” k 
 
 The numerous clans were under the government of 
 chieftains, but the latter seldom possessed unlimited 
 power. Much exactness was not observed in the order 
 of succession, and, what is a singular custom among a bar- 
 barous nation, females were not excluded from the high- 
 est dignities ; Cartismandua was queen of the Brigantes, 
 
 was reduced to the last extremity. She implored the protection of the 
 Romans, who sent some cohorts and squadrons of horse to her relief. 
 Several battles ensued with various success. The queen, however, 
 was rescued from impending danger, though she lost her kingdom. 
 Venusius wrested the sceptre from her hands, and the Romans were 
 involved in a war.” Tacitus’ History, Book III. chap. 45. The em- 
 press Julia alluded to the prevalence of this vice in Britain be- 
 fore a British princess, the wife of Argetocoxus ; the latter did not 
 deny the charge, but retorted it against the Romans. 
 
 f CtEsar’s Commentaries, Book v. Chap. 11. [“ Capilloque sunt 
 
 promisso; atqueomni parte corporis rasa, prater caput, et labrum supe- 
 rius.”] 
 
 s Solinus, xxii. 43. 
 
 h Solinus, Chap. 53. 
 
 ■ Ca'sar, Book v. 
 
 k Diodorus Siculus, Book v. chap. 21. 
 
BOOK CUT.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 435 
 
 while the famous Boadicea reigned over the leeni. 
 “ There is no rule of distinction to exclude the female 
 line from the throne, or the command of armies.”* It 
 was the right of the monarch to command the army, but 
 he could not depend on the obedience of his troops ; they 
 compelled him to make war or peace against his inclina- 
 tion. It appeared a sufficient apology for the imprison- 
 ment of Comius, a deputy sent by Ccesar, that it was the 
 act of the multitude, not of the chiefs, who remonstrated 
 in vain. In a barbarous state, men cannot estimate the 
 benefits of government ; they are unwilling to surrender 
 any portion of their liberty, that they may enjoy what 
 remains in greater security ; it is by acting on the 
 imagination, and by taking advantage of the passions and 
 fears, that barbarians are effectually enslaved. 
 
 Accordingly, the authority of the priests was much 
 greater than that of the kings. The druids arrogated the 
 right of making laws, and the power of enforcing them. 
 They declared their decisions the decrees of God, 
 and themselves the only persons who coidd make them 
 known to the people ; so gross an artifice was believed 
 in so rude an age. Their excommunications were as 
 terrible as any that ever emanated from Rome ; their 
 doctrines were concealed from the people ; sometimes 
 several persons lived together in the same house, that 
 they might perform together their services in the 
 sanctuary ; at other times, they retired to caves and 
 desert places, that they might obtain a greater reputation 
 for piety. They abstained from certain meats ; “ it is 
 unlawful to eat hares, pullets or geese, but many individ- 
 uals breed them for their diversion or pleasure. ” b 
 To enable these men to pass their time in the contem- 
 plation of divine truths, undisturbed by worldly cares, 
 they were exempt from every contribution. No sacred 
 rite was performed without them ; the prayers, thanks- 
 givings and sacrifices of the people could only be offered 
 by the druids. In times of peace, when the royal authority 
 was much abridged, the whole frame of civil society, loose 
 and imperfect as it must have been, was held together by 
 the same class. 
 
 It is natural to suppose that the Roman conquest had 
 the effect of improving the inhabitants, of creating com- 
 merce, and of diffusing the comforts which accompany 
 it. Before the invasion of Caesar, tin was the only article 
 of trade ; and it is unnecessary to add that the advantage 
 derived from it was confined to a very small number. 
 In the list of British exports in the time of Agricola, 
 Tacitus specifies corn, cattle, hides, gold and silver, tin, 
 lead and iron. The British sagum or plaid was substi- 
 tuted for the undressed skins with which the natives 
 covered themselves, and the sagum was afterwards 
 superseded by the Roman toga. The Romans styled 
 
 a Tacitus, Life of Agricola, chap. 16. 
 
 b Caesar’s Commentaries. Book v. 
 
 c Tacitus, Life of Agricola, chap. 21. 
 
 d The Cantii, Regni, Bibroces, Attrebates, Segontiaci, Belgae, Du- 
 robriges, Hoedui, Carnabii and Damnonii possessed the country from 
 the shores of Kent to those of Cornwall. The Silures, Ordovices and 
 Dimetoe inhabited Wales. The country between the Thames, the 
 Severn, the Mersey, the Humber and the Ocean, was peopled by the 
 Trinabanles, Iceni, Coritani, Cassii, Dobuni, Huiccii, Ancalites and 
 Cornabii. The Setantii, Volantii and Brigantes inhabited Lancashire, 
 Westmoreland, Cumberland, Yorkshire, Durham and part of North- 
 umberland. Valentia was peopled by the Ottadini, Gadeni, Selgovas, 
 Novantes and Damnii. Vespasiana by the Harestii, Vecturones, 
 Taixali, Vacomagi, Albani and Attacotti. The tribes in independent 
 Scotland were the Caledonii, Cautae, Logi, Carnabii, Calini, Mertae, 
 Carnonancos, Cerones, Creones and Epidii. — [The tribes in Britain, 
 mentioned by Ptolemy, were the following, viz. Novantae, Selgovffi, 
 
 Agricola the conqueror of the Britons, but he secured for 
 himself a more imperishable fame ; he was their bene- 
 factor. Promotion became the consequence of merit, 
 and the affections of the people were conciliated by an 
 impartial administration of justice. It was by no means 
 an easy task to obtain corn and other provisions for the 
 army, but the burden was lightened by equal contributions. 
 In former times, the extortions of the tax-gatherer were 
 more oppressive than the tax itself, and if the Romans 
 were long in making themselves masters of the island, 
 it may be imputed to the injustice and rapacity of their 
 governors. The natives were often defeated in battle, 
 but they were not subdued. It was the object of 
 Agricola to reclaim them from a savage life. “ He 
 encouraged by public assistance and by his individual 
 efforts, those who built temples, courts of justice, and 
 commodious dwelling houses. Praises were lavished on 
 as many as cheerfully obeyed ; the slow and uncomplying 
 were branded with reproach, and emulation was found to 
 be a more powerful motive for exertion than a sense of 
 duty. To establish a plan of education, and give the sons 
 of the leading chiefs a taste for letters, was part of his 
 policy. By way of encouragement he praised their tal- 
 ents, and already saw them, by the force of their natural 
 genius, rising superior in attainments to the Gauls.”® 
 Monkish historians affirm that the martial spirit of the 
 inhabitants w r as destroyed by a taste for the refinements 
 and arts of Rome, as if the undisciplined courage of 
 barbarians were a virtue, or in any way worthy of 
 admiration. 
 
 The Romans had an imperfect knowledge of the 
 northern tribes in Scotland. Marshes and fens, ravines 
 and mountains, vying with each other in sterility, were 
 the only obstacles to the arms of Agricola after the battle 
 at Mons Grampius ; but it was not the policy of that 
 celebrated general, or of the people whom he commanded, 
 to expose themselves needlessly to danger. 
 
 It may be observed that the name of Caledonians was 
 extended by the Greek and Roman writers of the three 
 first centuries, to all the independent clans or tribes 
 between the frontier wall and the northern extremity of 
 the island. The Caledonii, however, were confined to 
 the long and narrow belt, that stretches from the Firth 
 of Tay on the eastern, to Loch Fine on the western 
 coast. 
 
 There is reason to believe that forty-five distinct tribes 
 or clans inhabited Britain during! the Roman period .* 1 
 
 Conquered Britain was divided by the Romans into six 
 provinces of irregular boundaries. The country that 
 extends from the western extremity of Cornwall to the 
 south foreland of Kent, partly insnlated by the Bristol 
 Channel on the west, and the course of the Thames on 
 
 Damnii (Damnii,) Gadeni, Otadeni (Otodini,) Epidii, Cerones, Cre- 
 ones, CarnonaeEE, Careni (Carini,) Cornabii (Cornavii,) Caledonii, 
 Cantas, Logi, Mertos, Vacomagi, Venicontes (Vennicones,) Texali 
 (Taixali,) Brigantes, Parisi, Ordovices, Cornavii, Coritani, Catyeu- 
 chlani (Cassii,) Simeni (Iceni,) Trinoantes (Trinobanf.es,) Deme- 
 tas, Silures, Dobuni (Boduni,) Atrebatii, Cantii, Regni, Belgae, 
 Durotriges, and Dumnonii (Damnonii, Danmonii.) Besides these, the 
 following are mentioned by Caesar, viz. the Bibroci (supposed to have 
 inhabited Berks,) the Segontiaci (in Hants,) the Ancalites (in Oxford- 
 shire and Bucks,) and the Cenimagni (considered by Camden, the 
 same as the Iceni.) The Huiccii (Jugantes of Tacitus) were included 
 in the Cornavii. The Horesti of Tacitus occupied Angus, under the 
 Vacomagi. The Attacotti are supposed to have occupied some part of 
 the north of Scotland. The Vecturiones included all the tribes north 
 of the Forth, not included in the Dicaledones ; the latter occupied 
 Argyle, Perth, and the Highlands adjoining those two coun- 
 ties. — P.] 
 
436 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLII 
 
 the east, made up Britannia Prima, then the most 
 wealthy region in Britain. Wales and the tract that is 
 bounded by the circuitous course of the Severn obtained 
 the name of Britannia Sccunda. Flavia Cresariensis 
 was bounded by the two last provinces, and also by the 
 Humber, the Don and the German Ocean. Maxima 
 Casariensis comprehended all the country between the 
 two seas, from the Humber to the Eden and the Tyne. 
 Valentia extended from the northern limits of the last 
 province to the Firths of Forth and Clyde.® Vespasiana 
 was separated from independent Caledonia by the moun- 
 tainous chain that stretches from Dumbarton to the Firth 
 of Murray. But the Romans exercised a doubtful au- 
 thority in the last province, and it may perhaps be more 
 correct to consider the pratentura of Agricola, as the 
 northern boundary of Roman Britain. 
 
 To complete this part of the subject, it is necessary to 
 take some notice of the Roman monuments of the period. 
 Of these none were more important than their military 
 works, their chains of forts, their ramparts and their walls. 
 The troops under the command of Agricola were em- 
 ployed during part of the third, and the whole of the 
 fourth summer, in building forts between the Firths of 
 Forth and Clyde ; b in his opinion, the most advantageous 
 frontier of the Roman territory in Britain. Such a choice 
 was not unworthy so great a general. “ Men of skill 
 and military science thought no officer more able than 
 Agricola in choosing the most advantageous situation, 
 and accordingly not one of the stations fortified by his 
 direction was taken by storm. At every post to enable 
 the garrison to stand a siege, a year’s provision was laid 
 up; although frequent sallies were made, the besiegers 
 were always repulsed, and the Romans passed the winter 
 without danger.” e It was shown, however, that the pos- 
 session of the province depended more on the character 
 of the general than on the works which he had erected. 
 The forts were no defence against the weakness of his 
 successors ; and during the period that elapsed from the 
 departure of Agricola to the arrival of Hadrian, the tribes 
 in the Lowlands of Scotland, and in the north of England, 
 had thrown off the yoke. 
 
 Hadrian, like Augustus, was more desirous of securing 
 his dominions, than enlarging their limits ; for this pur- 
 pose he contracted the boundaries of Roman Britain, and 
 raised a new barrier against the incursions of the northern 
 tribes. The vallum of Hadrian reached from the Solway 
 Firth on the west to the north of the Tyne on the east, 
 or more definitely, from the neighbourhood of Burgh on 
 the Sands to the present town of Newcastle. It was not 
 carried across the heights, but in an oblique direction 
 along the vallies. The works were a rampart, a ditch, 
 and two aggercs or mounds. The earthen rampart or 
 vallum was probably twelve feet in height ; some parts 
 of it rise, even in the present day, six feet above the sur- 
 face. The dimensions of the ditch may be more correctly 
 ascertained ; it passes through a limestone quarry near 
 I larlow-Hill, where it is eleven feet deep, and nine in width. 
 
 1 Flavin CtBsariensis included all that part of the island south of the 
 Bristol Channel and the Thames ; Britannia Prima, that part be- 
 tween the Thames, the Severn, the Humber and the German Sea; 
 Britannia Secunda, all west of the Severn, or rather more than 
 Wales; Maxima Ctesariensis, between the Humher and the wall 
 of Severus, from sea to sea ; and Valentia, all between the walls of 
 Severus and Antoninus. (Henry's Hist. Great Britain, vol. I. p. 
 847-!).)— P. 
 
 1 Tho Pratcntura of Agricola. 
 
 The two mounds were parallel to the ditch, the one on 
 the north, the other on the south. The southern was a 
 military road, and the original work of Hadrian; the 
 other, it has been conjectured, was added as a military 
 way for the wall of Severus, when the vallum was no 
 longer a w T ork of defence. The fortifications were more 
 than sixty miles in length ; forts and stations at short dis- 
 tances from each other served as quarters for the troops. 
 
 But the peace which had been restored by Hadrian, 
 was repeatedly broken by the different tribes of the 
 Mseatffi d on the north of the vallum, and on the south by 
 the incursions of the Brigantes into the territory of the 
 Ordovices. Lollius Urbicus was appointed proprator of 
 Britain by Antoninus, the adopted son and immediate suc- 
 cessor of Trajan. The different tribes were not only 
 reduced to obedience during his government, but a new 
 vallum® was erected near the site of the prastentura, proba- 
 bly from Caer Ridden on the Forth to Alchuid on the 
 Clyde/ According to an inscription that is still pre- 
 served, the whole was finished in the third consulship of 
 Antoninus, the year 140 of the vulgar era; not more 
 than twenty years after the vallum of Hadrian had been 
 completed. It appears from several measurements, that 
 the length of this new fortification was not less than thirty- 
 seven miles. The principal parts were a broad ditch, the 
 rampart, of which the foundation was twelve feet wide, a 
 well paved military way on the south side of the vallum, 
 and eighteen forts or stations at convenient distances from 
 each other. Although almost seventeen hundred years 
 have elapsed since this work was finished, and although it 
 is at present in a very imperfect state, yet the troops by 
 whom it was raised, and the portions allotted to the dif- 
 ferent divisions, may be determined by inscriptions that 
 are still extant. This monument of the Roman power 
 was achieved by the soldiers of the second legion, together 
 with the vexillations of the sixth, the twentieth legions, 
 and one cohort of auxiliaries. If the respective divisions 
 were complete, which was not always the case, the total 
 number could not have been greater than seven thousand 
 eight hundred men. 
 
 A battle fought on the plain of Trevoux in the year 
 197, made Severus master of the empire, and his reign 
 forms an era in the history of Roman Britain. To di- 
 minish the too great power of the prefect, the island was 
 divided into two governments ; by this means, it was sup- 
 posed, acts of flagrant injustice were likely in future to 
 be less frequent, and the knowledge of them more readily 
 communicated to the emperor. The northern govern- 
 ment was conferred on Varius Lupus, but he found him- 
 self unable to repel the Mteatas and Caledonians. The 
 same person was the first Roman governor in Britain, 
 who had recourse to the dangerous expedient of pur- 
 chasing with money a temporary peace; the conditions, 
 it may be readily supposed, were broken by the fierce and 
 independent Britons, and the measure led to new and re- 
 peated aggressions. It was then that Lupus made known 
 the disturbed state of Britain to the emperor, and counsel- 
 
 c Tacitus, Life of Agricola. — Chapter 22. 
 
 d The Maeatse included all the tribes between the walls of Severus 
 and Antoninus, viz. the Novantae, Selgovte, Damnii, Gadeni, and 
 Otadeni. (Henry’s Hist. G. Britain. Book I. Append.) — P. 
 
 • Vallum of Antoninus — Graham’s Dike. — P. 
 
 r According to Bede, it terminated at Alcluyd. (Camden's Britannia, 
 p. 1222.) — It extended from Waltown, in the parish of Carriden, oil the 
 Forth, to Dunglass, in the parish of West Kilpatrick, on the Clyde. 
 (Sinclair’s Stat. Account.) — P. 
 
BOOK CLII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 437 
 
 led him to appear in the province, and to bring along with 
 him a more effective army; the advice was followed ; the 
 emperor arrived, punished the insurgents, and restored 
 peace to the island. Having advanced to the Firth of 
 Cromarty, he became acquainted with the habits of the 
 northern tribes, and no earthen rampart was thought suffi- 
 cient to protect the southern provinces against their incur- 
 sions. A new sort of defence was chosen, and a wall of 
 stone® was erected near the vallum of Hadrian. It was 
 not parallel to it in its whole length, as it was determined 
 not to follow the winding course of the vallies, but to carry 
 it across the loftiest heights, and the most abrupt preci- 
 pices. The work was built of polished stone ; the height 
 was twelve feet, exclusively of the parapet, and the 
 breadth, eight ; such at least are the dimensions accord- 
 ing to the venerable Bede, who lived at the east end of 
 the wall, and in whose time it was in many places entire. 
 The length of the fortifications from Segedunum, Cousins- 
 House, on the east, to Tunnocelum, Boulness, on the 
 west, is more than sixty-eight English, and less than 
 seventy-four Roman miles. The wall was defended by 
 stations, castles, and turrets ; the first amounted in number 
 to eighteen ; they w r ere fortified with strong walls and 
 deep ditches ; the smallest station could contain a cohort 
 or six hundred men. A town, possessed by Roman and 
 British artisans, was built in the neighbourhood of each 
 station, and the inhabitants were protected by the garrison. 
 The castles, situated in the intervals between the stations, 
 were neither so large nor so strongly fortified, hut they 
 were not fewer than eighty-one. The turrets served the 
 purposes of watch-towers, and places for sentinels, who 
 being within hearing of each other, could convey any 
 intelligence along the line in a short time. b 
 
 Such was the wall of Severus, which Spartian, the his- 
 torian of the emperor, calls the greatest glory of his reign ; 
 for nearly two hundred years, it proved an impassable 
 barrier to the incursions of the fiercest tribes; during the 
 greater part of a thousand years, it served as a quarry for 
 all the towns and villages that were built near it ; its 
 ruins, imperfect as they are, cannot at present be viewed 
 without admiration. 
 
 This stupendous work was raised by the second and 
 sixth legions. The Roman soldiers, not less skilled in 
 the useful arts than in the arts of war, were never degrad- 
 ed, in time of peace, by indolence and its consequent 
 vices. The military ways of the Romans were afterwards 
 the principal roads of the Anglo-Saxons, and Roman 
 stations became the most important of the Anglo-Saxon 
 towns. 
 
 It has been conjectured that the population of the 
 island at the time of the first invasion of the Romans, was 
 not greater than three hundred thousand individuals. The 
 conquest may have been favourable to the progress of 
 civilization, but the sway of the Romans was cruel, and 
 their government unjust. The Britons could not rise to 
 
 a The Wall of Severus — called also the Piets’ Wall. — P. 
 b According to the Notitia Imperii, the wall was guarded by the 
 following troops. 
 
 Twelve cohorts of infantry, consisting of six hundred men each, 7200 
 
 One cohort of mariners in the station at Boulness, GOO 
 
 One detachment of Moors, equal probably to 600 
 
 Four wings of horse, at the lowest computation, four hundred 
 ea cl» 1G00 
 
 10,000 
 
 the dignity of consulates or presides; they were thus 
 excluded from the highest offices, and it was unlawful 
 for the strangers, by whom these offices were held, to 
 marry natives, or to purchase land in the island.® 
 
 But the British soldiers in the Roman armies were 
 distinguished for their bravery. It might be shown that 
 there were at least fifteen thousand six hundred men, or 
 twenty-six cohorts of British infantry, under the emperors. 
 The number was, in all probability, much greater ; and 
 some of the cohorts, it is certain, received as the reward 
 of their courage, the title of invincible ; d it was not, how- 
 ever, the policy of Rome to suffer them to serve in their 
 native land. 
 
 Corn was not the least important of the British prod 
 ucts, and merely on account of that article, the island 
 was of value to the Romans. It is now impossible to de- 
 termine the quantity it afforded, but it was perhaps more 
 considerable than is commonly imagined. While Julian 
 commanded in Gaul, the Franks, Saxons and Alemanni 
 passed the Rhine, devastated the country, laid forty towns 
 in ashes, and carried the inhabitants into captivity. Julian 
 compelled them to restore the prisoners, but they might 
 have perished from hunger, had not the granaries of 
 Britain furnished a plentiful supply. Their wants were 
 thus relieved, and corn was afterwards imported from 
 England to sow their lands. e 
 
 The towns are enumerated, but not described, in the 
 different itineraries. They were of different denomina- 
 tions, viz. the colonial, the municipal, the Latian, the 
 stipendiary, and others to which less important privileges 
 were attached. The number of the first sort was nine ; 
 there were only two of the second, and no additions were 
 made to them, because the inhabitants were not subject 
 to the imperial statutes, because they had the power of 
 appointing their own magistrates, and because they pos- 
 sessed the rights of Roman citizens. Ten cities claimed 
 the Latian right ; they might be governed by native magis- 
 trates, who claimed the freedom of Rome at the expira- 
 tion of their office. The number of stipendiary towns 
 was equal to twelve. 
 
 The conquered countries were divided by the Romans 
 into districts or civitates, each of which had its chief town, 
 the seat of a senate, whose jurisdiction extended over all 
 the inhabitants of the civitas. Gaul was divided into a 
 hundred and seventeen districts ; Britain probably into 
 thirty-three. Honorius, when he gave up the island, ad- 
 dressed his letters to the civitates or states of Britain, and 
 warned them to provide for their own safety. 
 
 However barbarous Britain may have been when it w T as 
 visited by Julius Caesar, it could not have continued a 
 Roman province during four hundred years without par- 
 ticipating in Roman civilization. The beneficent influence 
 of Christianity succeeded the debasing superstition of the 
 Druids ; the injustice of barbarians was exchanged for the 
 laws and civil institutions of the Romans. The legisla- 
 
 d The British troops in the Roman armies were: — 
 
 Ala Britannica Milliaria. 
 
 Ala Quarta Britonum in Egypto. 
 
 Cohors Prima JElia Britonum. 
 
 Cohors Vigesima Sexta Britonum in Armenia. 
 
 Britanniciani sub Magistro Peditum. 
 
 Invicti Juniores Britanniciani ) . , . -t r> i ,• 
 
 , , , t, •. • • • > inter Auxiha Palatina. 
 
 i'.xculcatores Juniores Uritanniciani ) 
 
 Britones cum Mao-istro Equitum Galliarum. 
 
 Invicti Juniores Britones intra Hispanos. 
 
 Britones Seniores in Illyrico. 
 
 c Zosimus, III. 
 
 c Pandects, xxiii. tit. ii. N. 38, 57, 33. 
 
438 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLII. 
 
 tive triumphs of that celebrated people were not less 
 wonderful than their warlike achievements ; by the latter, 
 distant provinces were conquered; by the former, discord- 
 ant tribes were blended into one nation. The laws im- 
 posed on conquered states, and the rights and privileges 
 conferred on the inhabitants, produced an union which 
 could not be effected by military occupation. The towns 
 of the Britons were no longer begirt with forests ; their 
 houses consisted no longer of wood. The conquered 
 strove to imitate the conquerors; cities were built after 
 the model of those in Italy, and were adorned with market- 
 places, temples, mosaic pavements, porticos, and baths. 
 The emulation of the inhabitants was not confined to the 
 useful, it extended to the liberal arts. Juvenal alludes 
 to the skill of the Britons in one department of letters, 
 certainly not of the highest order — •“ Gallia causidicos 
 docuit facunda Britannos.” Martial bears witness that 
 the Roman poets were read in the island — “ Dicitur et 
 nostros cantare Britannia versus.” The more respecta- 
 ble authority of an historian indicates the similarity of 
 institutions, customs, and manners in the two countries — 
 “ Ita ut non Britannica sed Romana insula censeretur.”* 
 
 The names of two people b appear for the first time in 
 history during the fourth century ; it ought not, however, 
 to be inferred that the older writers were ignorant of their 
 existence. The Scots inhabited Ireland, which, in the 
 Roman language, is indifferently called Hibernia and 
 Scotia. The frequent intercourse between the British 
 mountaineers and the Irish, and the numerous emigrations 
 from the one country to the other, led in time to a com- 
 munity of names. The Scots possessed the north-western 
 coasts and archipelago, while the Piets dwelt in the east 
 on the confines of the German Ocean ; their respective 
 territories were divided by the chain of the Grampian 
 hills. The Scots, living in the mountains, became hunt- 
 ers or wandering shepherds; the Piets, having a more 
 fruitful soil, and a more level country, cultivated the 
 ground, and built solid habitations, of which the ruins still 
 remain. When united together for an irruption into the 
 south, they lived on friendly terms, and their two chiefs, 
 one of whom resided at the mouth of the Tay, and the 
 other between the lakes of Argyll, joined their standards ; 
 on other occasions, their friendship was interrupted by 
 mutual depredations. 
 
 A small territory in the Cimbric Chersonesus was peo- 
 pled in ancient times by the ancestors of the English.® 
 More important tribes have been exterminated or sub- 
 dued, but a different fate was reserved for a horde of 
 freebooters, too insignificant to be mentioned by Tacitus 
 with the other inhabitants of Germany. The descendants 
 of the same tribe are now the people of England, the 
 citizens of the great republick in the new world, and the 
 settlers in the vast colonial possessions of Great Britain. d 
 
 Ptolemy of Alexandria is the first writer who mentions 
 the Saxons; they inhabited, before the middle of the 
 second century, the western side of the Cimbric Cher- 
 sonesus, between the Elbe and the Eyder, and three 
 small islands at the mouth of the Elbe. The same peo- 
 ple formed at a later period the great Saxon confedera- 
 tion which extended from the Elbe to the Rhine. The 
 Angles, supposed to have been originally a tribe of the 
 
 Suevi, the bravest of the German nations, settled in the 
 Cimbric Chersonesus, and inhabited the present dutchy 
 of Sleswick. Their name is still preserved in the district 
 of Anglen, between Flensburg and Sleswick. The Jutes, 
 a tribe of the Getas, inhabited the extremity of the Cim 
 brie Chersonesus, which from them is still called Jutland. 
 Of these, the Saxons were the dominant tribe ; the two 
 others were in a state of subjection. 
 
 No conquest was more complete, and none more durable 
 in its effects, than that of England by the Saxons. Dis- 
 astrous at first, as the inroads of savages must ever be, 
 destructive of Roman civilization, and bringing back the 
 country into the barbarism from which it had been saved, 
 the advantages that followed seemed uncertain and re- 
 mote. 
 
 The chiefs or powerful men among the Saxons erected 
 separate sovereignties in the island ; new divisions were 
 thus formed, and the old abolished. This period of Eng- 
 lish history is generally styled the time of the heptarchy; 
 the name, although incorrect, is sanctioned by usage. It 
 is necessary, however, to allude to the error, otherwise 
 the limits of the petty kingdoms might not be readily 
 understood. It may perhaps be better to describe these 
 states according to the dates of their foundation, than their 
 vicinity to each other. 
 
 Kent, the first Saxon kingdom in Britain, was not more 
 extensive than the county of the same name. It was 
 founded about the year 455, and the new settlers em- 
 braced Christianity, while the rest of their countrymen 
 in England adhered to their pagan superstitions. 
 
 The second state, or the kingdom of the South Saxons,® 
 comprehended the two counties of Sussex and Surrey. 
 Ella and his three sons, accompanied with a band of ad- 
 venturers, landed in the year 477, but he did not make 
 himself master of his small sovereignty until the year 490, 
 when he took the town of Anderid, in the midst of the 
 forest of Anderida. Chichester, the Rcgnumo{ the Ro- 
 mans, and the Caer Cei of the Britons, appears to have 
 been the capital of his kingdom. It was converted to 
 Christianity in the year 678, and contained at that time 
 about seven thousand families. f 
 
 Cerdic arrived in England five years after the taking of 
 Anderid, but several years elapsed before Wessex or the 
 kingdom of the West Saxons was founded. It consisted 
 of the counties of Hants, Berks, Wilts, Somerset, Dorset, 
 Devon and part of Cornwall. It was not until the year 
 519, after a destructive battle had been fought at Charford 
 on the Avon, that the Saxons, under Cerdic, established 
 themselves in the country. The Isle of Wight, one of 
 the earliest conquests of the West Saxons, was made over 
 to the nephews of the conqueror. 
 
 Erkenwin assumed the sovereignty of Essex or the 
 East Saxons in the year 530 ; he ruled over Essex, 
 Middlesex and part of Hertfordshire. The princes of 
 Essex acted no distinguished part during the heptarchy ; 
 they appear to have been dependent on the kings of Kent. 
 
 The Angles, allured by the success of the Saxons, 
 left their native land. They settled in the country on 
 the north-east of the Saxons; Uffa was chosen their 
 leader, and from him, his successors were styled Ujjingas. 
 Cambridge, Suffolk, and the Isle of Ely, made up the 
 
 d Manners and Customs of the Anglo-Saxons, Sharon Turner. 
 e Called also the Kingdom of Sussex. 
 f Bede’s Ecclesiastical History. Book IV. Chap. xiii. 
 
 a Gildas, chap. 5. 
 
 11 Tlie Scots and Piets. 
 c The Saxons, Angles, and Jutes 
 
COOK CLII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION O* GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 439 
 
 kingdom of the East Angles ; a St. Edmund’s Ditch sep- 
 arated it from Mercia. Dunwich, the capital, is the 
 Domnoc of the venerable Bede ; although now covered 
 by the sea, it was a place of considerable importance 
 during the Roman and Saxon periods. b 
 
 But the Angles were not confined to East Anglia ; the 
 greater number of them invaded the north of England, 
 and founded the kingdom of Bernicia, which extended 
 from the Tyne to the Forth. Ida, their leader, built a 
 castle on a lofty promontory, and called it Bebbanburgh 
 in honour of his wife Bebba ; the same place is now better 
 known by the name of Bamburgh. c 
 
 Deira, the third Anglian kingdom, was bounded on the 
 south by the Humber, and on the north by the Tyne. 
 The Britons in that part of England were subdued in the 
 year 560 by Sella, an Anglian chief, but the country re- 
 tained the name of its early inhabitants. Thus the king- 
 doms of Bernicia and Deira stretched from the Humber 
 to the Forth, and from the eastern to the western sea. 
 
 Cridda passed the Humber in the year 586, defeated 
 the Britons on the coast, and extended his conquests to 
 the heart of England. The powerful kingdom of Mer- 
 cia comprehended the counties of Huntingdon, Rutland, 
 Lincoln, Northampton, Leicester, Derby, Nottingham, 
 Oxford, Cheshire, Salop, Gloucester, Worcester, Stafford, 
 Warwick, Buckingham, Bedford, and part of Hertford. 
 Sometimes called the kingdom of the Central Angles, it 
 derived the more common name of Mercia from being 
 contiguous to Wales and all the other Saxon kingdoms. 
 
 Thus it has been shown that eight separate states were 
 founded in Britain by the Saxons. Bernicia and Deira 
 were often under the same sceptre, and it has been sup- 
 posed that they formed one kingdom, but some of the 
 others were at different times united under the same 
 monarch. An octarchy denotes the total number of 
 Anglo-Saxon states in Britain ; a triarchy the different 
 tribes that subdued the country^ 
 
 The present chorography of England derives its origin 
 from the Saxon period, or to speak more precisely, from 
 the time of Alfred the Great. Certain districts were 
 governed by ealdormen or aldermen, a dignity, which in- 
 dicated the age of the individuals on whom it was con- 
 ferred ; but when England was afterwards invaded by the 
 Northmen, these persons were styled juris, and the title 
 of earl has been'substituted for that of ealdorman. The 
 districts which were thus governed, corresponded in some 
 degree with the present counties, but their limits were 
 not the same. England in the time of Alfred contained 
 only thirty-two counties ; Durham and Lancashire formed 
 part of Yorkshire, while Cornwall was united to Devon- 
 shire, and Rutland to Northamptonshire ; Northumber- 
 land, Westmoreland and Cumberland were subject to 
 Scotland. The districts were entrusted by the ealdormen 
 to the care of deputies, who were called shire-reeves, 
 shrieves or sheriffs, the Anglo-Saxon word shire being 
 synonymous with the English word share, and reeve 
 signifying to manage or govern. 
 
 In the Norman period, England was enlarged by the 
 accession of Cumberland and Westmoreland; Northum- 
 
 a East Anglia. 
 
 b Dunwich was formerly one of the most flourishing maritime towns 
 in England. It had attained its highest prosperity in the reign of 
 Henry II. In the reign of Edward III. after it had considerably de- 
 clined, it had eleven ships of war, thirty-six merchant ships, and twenty- 
 four fishing vessels. It had eight parish churches, of which only one 
 remains As it is situated on a high loamy bank, continually under- 
 
 berland, exposed to the incursions of the Scots, was little 
 more than a nominal part of the kingdom. Wales was 
 then independent, and it continued so until the time of 
 Edward the First, who defeated the Welsh, abolished the 
 line of their kings, and annexed the principality to the 
 English throne. It was, however, at a much more recent 
 period that the counties in England and Wales were di- 
 vided according to their present limits. The improve- 
 ment, if on the whole it can be called one, was not effected 
 before the thirty-fourth year of Henry the Eighth. An 
 act was passed in that year, by which the marches or inter- 
 mediate lands between England and Wales, were divided 
 anew, or annexed to old counties. The new counties are 
 Monmouthshire, then declared an English county, and 
 Brecknockshire, Denbighshire, Montgomeryshire and 
 Radnorshire in Wales. Additional land was annexed to 
 Gloucestershire, Herefordshire and Shropshire, and also 
 to Cardiganshire, Caermarthenshire, Glamorganshire, 
 Merionethshire and Pembrokeshire. 
 
 The districts 6 were divided into trethings, trithings or 
 tridings, a division which is still preserved in the ridings 
 of Yorkshire. They were governed by a trithing-reeve, 
 an officer subordinate to the sheriff. Lathes and rapes 
 cannot be correctly defined ; they were probably less 
 than trithings ; it is certain they were larger than hun- 
 dreds. Kent is still divided into lathes, and Sussex into 
 rapes. 
 
 The divisions into hundreds and tithings have been at- 
 tributed to Alfred ; it is more probable they were estab- 
 lished by the Saxons at an earlier period, at least they 
 corresponded with the pngi and vici into which the 
 country of the ancient Germans was divided. The hun- 
 dreds were so called because they contained a hundred 
 free families. It has been maintained that they depended 
 not on the population, but on the size of the district ; it 
 is difficult, however, to reconcile this opinion with the 
 fact that the most populous districts in the Saxon times 
 were divided into a greater number of hundreds than more 
 extensive but less fruitful tracts. The tithings, as their 
 name imports, were the tenth part of a hundred. 
 
 The northern counties were not made up of hundreds, 
 but of wards and wapentakes. They were called wards 
 because the inhabitants, in ancient times, were obliged to 
 watch and ward against the incursions of their enemies. 
 Wapentake and weapon-take are evidently synonymous. 
 Cumberland, Westmoreland, Northumberland, Durham 
 and Lanarkshire are divided into wards ; Yorkshire into 
 wapentakes. 
 
 It has been seen that the present divisions of England 
 may be traced to Saxon times ; the names of ancient 
 offices and titles of honour are referable to the same 
 period ; the greater number of towns, burghs and villages 
 retain, with little variation, the names which were given 
 them by the Saxons. The Anglo-Saxon language re- 
 sembles the English in its structure, grammar, and idio- 
 matic expressions ; the genius of the two languages is the 
 same, and the one may be considered the daughter of the 
 other. A knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon enabled an 
 English philologist* - to analyze all the indeclinable parts 
 
 mined by the sea, almost the whole of the town has been washed away 
 In 1801, it contained only forty-two houses, and 184 inhabitants 
 (Shoberl’s Suffolk.)— P. 
 
 c Bamborough Castle — fourteen miles S. E. of Berwick. — P 
 
 d Turner’s History of the Anglo-Saxons. Yol. i. 
 
 e Counties. 
 
 1 Horne Tooke. 
 
440 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIl 
 
 of speech in Ins own language, and to trace them to 
 their source. The studies of Johnson rendered him ill 
 fitted for his laborious task ; of the only language that 
 could guide him in his researches, the author of the 
 dictionary was ignorant ; his etymologies are generally 
 erroneous ; his ingenuity is exhausted in fanciful and 
 unmeaning analogies. Few men could have raised such 
 a monument from so imperfect materials ; but it may 
 be doubted if the dictionary has tended to render Eng- 
 lishmen more familiar with the power and copiousness 
 of their vernacular tongue.* 
 
 A Saxon king, it might seem, had enough to do to 
 conquer his enemies, to give laws to his subjects, and to 
 administer justice among them in person ; but Alfred 
 found time to cultivate letters, and some of his writings 
 are still extant. “ In three pages of Alfred’s Orosius,” 
 says Sharon Turner, “ I found seventy-eight words 
 which had become obsolete in English out of five hun- 
 dred and forty-eight, or about one-seventh. In three 
 pages of his Boethius, I found a hundred and forty-three 
 obsolete out of six hundred and sixty-six, or about one- 
 fifth. In three pages of his Bede, I found two hundred 
 and thirty obsolete, out of nine hundred and sixty-nine, or 
 about one-fifth. The difference in the proportion between 
 these and the Orosius proceeds from the latter containing 
 many historical names.” 1 Not more than one-fifth part 
 of the words in the Saxon are now wholly obsolete in 
 English ; this must not be considered a mere asser- 
 tion ; the truth of it has been proved, in some degree 
 at least, by Mr. Turner. The English language is 
 principally derived from the Saxon, and it has been 
 remarked that the idiomatic phrases, those on which 
 the characteristic differences of languages depend, are the 
 same in the one and in the other. It need not, therefore, 
 excite surprise, that the English writers, who are the 
 most remarkable for the purity of their style, abound 
 most in Saxon expressions. 
 
 It could not have been foreseen, at the time Britain was 
 inhabited by the civilized Romans, that the island was to 
 be conquered by an obscure, nay, almost an unknown tribe, 
 much less that works comparable to those of the best peri- 
 ods of Greece and Rome, were to be written by Englishmen 
 in a language handed down to them by northern barbarians.® 
 
 It is of importance, in examining the historical geogra- 
 phy of a country, to ascertain its population at any re- 
 markable epoch, such as that of the Saxons in England ; 
 but, unfortunately, this can seldom be done with any 
 thing like precision. It is not easy to find the truth in 
 the conflicting statements of different writers. The low 
 state of the arts, the wretched condition of the ancient 
 Britons, the destructive wars with the Danes, and above 
 all, the division of the people into two classes, the ser- 
 vile and the free, must have had a tendency to perpet- 
 
 * Want of candour was no part of Johnson’s character; he ac- 
 knowledged his errors, and declared that, if he lived to give another 
 edition of his dictionary, he would adopt Mr. Horne’s derivations. 
 Di versions of Parley, edited by Taylor, vol. i. page 154. 
 
 b History of the Anglo-Saxons, Appendix, chap. iii. 
 
 c “ Of sixty-nine words which make up the Lord’s prayer, there are 
 only five not Saxon, the best example of the natural bent of our lan- 
 guage, and of the words apt to be chosen by those who speak and write 
 it without design. Of eighty-one words in the soliloquy of Hamlet, 
 thirteen only are of Latin origin. Even in a passage of ninety words 
 in Milton, whose diction is more learned than that of any other poet, 
 there are only sixteen Latin words. In four verses of the authorized 
 version of Genesis, which contain about a hundred and thirty words, 
 there are no more than five Latin. In seventy-nine words of Addi- 
 son, whose perfect taste preserved him from a pedantic or con- 
 
 uate barbarism, and to check the progress of popula- 
 tion ; but the total number of inhabitants is supposed to 
 have been less than, in all probability, it really was. It 
 has been affirmed that the population was not much 
 greater in the time of the heptarchy than before the 
 Roman invasion, and much less than in the flourishing 
 times of the Roman government.* 1 This opinion rests 
 chiefly on the evidence afforded by Domesday-book, 
 but according to that register, there is reason to believe 
 that the population of the Anglo-Saxon counties amounted 
 to a million and a half. e Those, however, who have 
 examined the work most minutely, do not think it con- 
 tains the data on which such a calculation can be made. 
 Some of the northern counties are omitted, and many of 
 the burgesses are not mentioned. Thus, there were not 
 more than seventy in Yarmouth, fifty-two in Buckingham, 
 ten in Bristol, then an important town, nine in Bedford and 
 five in Sudbury. No notice is taken of Winchester ; the 
 monks and almost all the secular clergy are not enumerated. 
 If allowances are made for these defects, the result can 
 only be considered an approximation. There is besides 
 another source of error, and one which is not always taken 
 into account ; in other words, it may easily be shown 
 that the population was greater in the time of the 
 Saxons than at the time the register of Domesday was 
 taken. It is necessary to calculate the effects of the ex- 
 terminating wars waged by the conqueror, of whole dis- 
 tricts withdrawn from cultivation, of the signal punish- 
 ments inflicted on the northern rebels, and of the almost 
 total depopulation of their country. 
 
 The Saxons were a barbarous people ; the superior 
 genius of a few was obscured in the general darkness. 
 The example of the venerable Bede was not imitated ; 
 his moral worth and intellectual attainments formed a 
 bright contrast to the greater number of the clergy, and 
 to the greater number of his countrymen. The thanes 
 or powerful men were more ignorant than the peasantry 
 of the present day; none of them could read or write, 
 and when something like a better change was effected 
 by the authority, encouragement and remonstrances of 
 Alfred, many regretted that they had neglected letters in 
 their youth, believing it impossible for a man of mature 
 age to learn to read or write. Kings put a cross to 
 charters as a substitute for their signature, and Alfred’s 
 brothers were as ignorant as the rest of their countrymen/ 
 “ It is known,” says Alfred, “ how few of the clergy can 
 read ; still they are the only instructors of the people.” 
 
 The arts during the same period indicate a rude state 
 of society ; the home trade was almost confined to the 
 necessaries of life, while foreign commerce was very in- 
 significant ; some encouragement, however, must have 
 been given to it, for a merchant who went three times 
 over sea in his own craft, might become a thane. s It 
 
 strained preference for any portion of the language, we find only fifteen 
 Latin In later times the language has rebelled against the bad taste 
 of those otherwise vigorous minds, who. instead of ennobling their 
 style like Milton, by the position and combination of words, have tried 
 to raise it by unusual and far-fetched expressions. Dr. Johnson l ira 
 self, from whose corruptions English style is only recovering, in eighty- 
 seven words of his fine parallel between Dryden and Pope, has found 
 means to introduce no more than twenty-one of Latin derivation.” 
 History of England, by Sir James Mackintosh, page 82. 
 
 Robertson and Hume have been submitted to a similar analysis, and 
 the result is equally satisfactory. 
 
 d Henry’s History of Britain, vol. iii. p. 319. 
 e According to Sir James Mackintosh, to 1,700,000. 
 f Asser’s Annals of Alfred. 
 i Wilkins, Leges Saxonicae. 
 
BOOK. CliII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 441 
 
 sometimes happened that abbots and influential persons 
 requested their friends on the Continent to send artificers in 
 different articles, that could not be made in England. Goat- 
 skin coverlets and pillows stuffed with straw were the lux- 
 uries of the rich, and ladies of rank bequeathed their bed- 
 linen to their daughters. The dialogues of Elfric throw 
 some light on the occupations and trades of the Saxons. 
 
 It is incorrect to judge of their private houses from 
 the comparative magnificence of their churches. The 
 former were small, ill huilt, and not comparable, in point 
 of cleanliness at least, to those that are now inhabited by 
 the lower orders in England. Alcuin, an Anglo-Saxon 
 ahhot of immense wealth, but more remarkable as being 
 one of the few great men of his day, lived in a mean and 
 dirty house. Some costly articles, such as gold cups 
 and silver gohlets, adorned the rude halls in which the 
 feasts of the nobles were held ; but the wealthiest amongst 
 them never enjoyed the luxuries which are now com- 
 mon to every peasant. The collective happiness or mis- 
 ery of a people is proportionate to their knowledge or igno- 
 rance ; the diffusion of wealth or luxury, if a term can be 
 used, the meaning of which varies in different states of so- 
 ciety , is one effect of the progress of knowledge, and not the 
 least beneficial, as it extends to all orders and ranks of men. 
 
 The nobles passed their time on their estates ; the 
 tedium of indolence, and the absence of social or intel- 
 lectual enjoyment, was relieved by manly exercises. 
 They shared with their sovereign in the pleasures of 
 the chase ; to excel in this amusement was the boast of 
 princes. The imperfect state of cultivation, the great 
 extent of waste lands, and the number of wild animals, 
 some of which are now extinct in England, were favora- 
 nle to an occupation which accorded well with the man- 
 ners and habits of the Saxons. 
 
 The people, it has been already observed, consisted of 
 two classes, the free and the servile ; among the former, 
 there were distinctions of rank ; among the latter, 
 different degrees of slavery ; the cottars, bordars, and 
 villeins were subject to a bondage more or less oppressive. 
 Some were liberated by the benevolence or generosity of 
 their masters ; others might amass property, and purchase 
 their freedom ; still, it is certain, the servile population 
 was much more numerous than the free. The influence 
 of the church and the new religion might have tended 
 to soften the rigours of slavery ; in latter times, it was 
 unlawful to alienate a Christian from the land.® Extraor- 
 dinary changes take place in the affairs of nations ; if a 
 slave now lands on the English shores, at that moment he 
 obtains his freedom, but formerly the English themselves 
 were sold as slaves in a barbarous and revolting manner. b 
 
 The authority of the Anglo-Saxon princes w r as limited 
 by the nobles, and in some measure dependent on the 
 national councils. Not arbitrary, but more of a mixed 
 
 a An Anglo-Saxon noble gave his lands to the church, and the teams 
 of men are enumerated with the teams of oxen. Turner, vol. iii. 
 appendix. 
 
 b The custom of selling their nearest relations for their own advan- 
 tage, is said to be natural to the people of Northumberland. Malm. lib. 
 i. chap. 3d. “ There is aseaporttown called Bristol, opposite to Ireland, 
 
 into which its inhabitants make frequent voyages on account of trade. 
 Wolfstan cured the people of this town of a most odious and inveterate 
 custom which they derived from their ancestors, of buying men and 
 women in all parts of England, and exporting them to Ireland for the 
 sake of gain. The young women they commonly got with child, and 
 carried them to market in their pregnancy, that they might bring a bet- 
 ter price. You might have seen with sorrow, long ranks of young per- 
 sons of both sexes and of the greatest beauty, tied together with ropes, 
 VOL. Ill NO. 56 56 
 
 character, their government resembled that of the an 
 cient German kings, as it is described by Tacitus. Their 
 monarchies were elective rather than hereditary, at least 
 the person in the regular order of succession was often 
 omitted, and another appointed by the wittenagemot. If 
 the power of the kings was afterwards increased, and if the 
 government tended towards a despotism, it may be attrib- 
 uted to the force of circumstances, and to the genius of 
 the individuals who reigned, not to any change in the 
 character of the people. 
 
 Antiquarians have traced the commencement of par- 
 liaments to the time of the wittenagemot. Although 
 the members of the latter may have been the most 
 influential persons in the country, it was widely different 
 from either house of parliament ; it resembled more the 
 assemblies of the ancient Germans. The institution of 
 juries is commonly believed to be of Saxon origin, and it 
 is not unlikely that the germs of them existed in the time 
 of Alfred. He is said to have put a judge to death for 
 condemning a criminal, when the jury were in doubt 
 about their verdict, “ for when in doubt, they ought 
 rather to save than condemn.”® 
 
 The virtue of chastity was common to the Anglo- 
 Saxon women with those of ancient Germany. Bede 
 bears his testimony to the virtue of his countrywomen, 
 and Tacitus deplores that what could not be effected by 
 the refinement of Greece and Rome, was accomplished 
 almost by the natural instinct of barbarians. 
 
 The subjugation of England by William the Bastard, 
 Duke of Normandy, is the last territorial conquest that 
 has taken place in the west of Europe, but it was by no 
 means the most complete of its kind ; it was insuffi- 
 cient, it has been already seen, to destroy the language, 
 much less the memory of the Saxons. The destinies 
 of the vanquished were changed ; reduced to slavery, 
 they could not engage in the military profession, or ex- 
 ercise command. Soldiers left their castles or forts, 
 and repaired to towns, where they subsisted, not by arms, 
 but by toil and servile employments. In these towns, it 
 has been shown, d the embers of Roman civilization were 
 preserved, and it is certain the rise of the conquered class 
 corresponded with the decline of the feudal nobility, the 
 descendants of the conquerors. Historians narrate the 
 victories of the Normans, and affirm that the destruc- 
 tion of the Saxons was the inevitable consequence of the 
 battle of Hastings. A people are not so easily destroyed ; 
 their inveterate hatred against their oppressors is cher- 
 ished by the memory of past independence ; the state 
 of England under the Normans has with more truth been 
 compared to that of the Greeks under the Turks. In 
 both countries many lost their lives in the vain attempt 
 to regain their freedom. 
 
 The history of England from the year 1066, the epoch 
 
 and daily exposed to sale : nor were these men ashamed. O horrid 
 
 wickedness ! to give up their nearest relations, nay their own children 
 to slavery. Wolfstan knowing the obstinacy of these people, some- 
 times stayed two months amongst them preaching ; by which in process 
 of time, he had made so great an impression on their minds, that they 
 abandoned their wicked trade, and set an example to all the rest in Encr- 
 land to do the same.” Henry’s History of Great Britain. Gregory 
 the Great pitied the fate of the English (Angles), who were often 
 sold as slaves at Rome, and was thus led to think of converting the 
 islanders. 
 
 c Mirroir des Justices, p. 297. See also Turner’s History, Book v 
 chap. 6. 
 
 d Savigny’s History of the Roman Law, translated by E. Cathcart 
 Esq. See Mr. Cathcart’s valuable notes at the end of the volume. 
 
442 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLir. 
 
 of the conquest, to 1215, the date of the great charter, 
 appears to confirm these remarks. It consists of changes 
 in the government, insurrections among the people, 
 domestic spoliation and foreign warfare ; many, who 
 escaped these calamities, were cut offby famine or pesti- 
 lence. 3 * * William made over the land to seven hundred 
 of his officers, who divided it among their followers ; from 
 this period, the vanquished classes are placed too much 
 out of view ; it has been ascertained, however, that super- 
 stition was not the sole cause of the long and violent quar- 
 rel between Henry the Second and Archbishop Becket, 
 and that Englishmen are indebted to others besides the 
 barons for the charter of their liberties. b 
 
 The seeds of freedom began to spring during the long 
 reign of Henry the Third ; but, marked as it was with 
 faction, the consequence of weakness, and with civil 
 war, the result of turbulence, the advantages were of short 
 duration. The following reigns of the Edwards have 
 been considered “ the most glorious in the English an- 
 nals.” It is almost unnecessary to remark that one of 
 these kings was inhumanly murdered by his own subjects, 
 and that during a period of not less than a century, the na- 
 tion en joyed scarcely ten years of peace. The reigns of 
 the Edwards may be admitted to have been remarkable 
 for the splendour of victories, the pomp of triumphs, and 
 the acquisition of distant territories, not so on account 
 of the happiness of the people. Military renown was a 
 poor recompense for the waste of war, a decreasing pop- 
 ulation, and a neglected husbandry. The laws indicate 
 the Wretched condition of the inhabitants. “ Every able- 
 bodied man under sixty years of age, not having suffi- 
 cient to live on, being required, shall be bound to serve 
 him that doth require him, or else shall be committed to 
 gaol, till he finds security to serve. If a servant or work- 
 man depart from service before the time agreed on, he 
 shall be imprisoned. If any artificer take more usages than 
 were wont to be paid, heshall be committed to gaol.” c 
 
 Thus superior and inferior skill were equally rewarded, 
 but the severity of these statutes was increased by the 
 34th Edward the Third. According to that act, if a 
 labourer or servant flee to a town, the chief officer shall 
 deliver him up, and if he depart to another county, the 
 letter F shall be burnt on his forehead. Those who 
 affect to admire the past, might do well to examine it 
 more minutely, to convince themselves of the poverty and 
 ignorance of the people, and the unjust oppression to 
 which they were subject, to estimate correctly the barba- 
 rism of such enactments as have been mentioned, and the 
 collective misery co-existent with them. The tendency 
 of industry and civilization is to diffuse happiness among 
 every order of the community, to increase the enjoy- 
 ments which wealth commands, and to diminish the evils 
 to which poverty is exposed. The mental and moral 
 education of the lower orders, which has lately been put 
 into practice, is conducive to the same end; it tends, be- 
 sides, to strengthen government. Knowledge does not 
 breed discontent ; ignorance, on the contrary, seems the 
 parent of anarchy : the whispers of faction have over- 
 thrown despotisms ; the loudest clamours of sedition 
 are sounded in vain in a free country. If the perfec- 
 
 1 Not fewer than twenty-one dearths and famines are enumerated by 
 
 Ilowe between the years 100!) and 1325. 
 
 b Thierry 's History of the Norman Conquest. 
 
 c Anderson’s Chronological Account of Commerce, vol. i. p. 204. 
 
 The following were the juices fixed by parliament. A fat ox fed 
 
 tion of government consists in giving the governed, with 
 the least possible inconvenience, all the advantages of 
 which it is susceptible, it is difficult to conceive how 
 this can be effected in any other way than by successive 
 meliorations. It is thus that something like a self-cor- 
 recting principle has been introduced into the English 
 constitution, preventing the permanence of abuses with 
 out endangering the government, and leading to improve- 
 ment without the bad effects of innovation, and to the re- 
 dress of wrongs without the calamities of revolution. These 
 reflections arise naturally from considering what England 
 was in the fourteenth century, and what it is at present. 
 
 The subject may be more minutely examined. It is 
 impossible to read the history of the middle ages without 
 being convinced that famines, of which happily but an 
 imperfect idea can be formed in modern times, were 
 among the greatest evils to which nations were liable. 
 The progress of commerce, of agriculture, and, above all, 
 of knowledge, have enabled men to elude these wrathful 
 dispensations. Land is much more productive than 
 formerly, and the excess of one country is trans- 
 ported with ease to supply the deficiencies of another. 
 The famines, so common in past times, are now’ unknown ; 
 but the extent of country over which they once raged, 
 their duration, and the misery occasioned by them, are 
 historical facts that cannot be disputed. No man recol- 
 lects any calamity so great as that which befel England 
 in the reign of Edward the Second ; for three years the 
 people groaned under the double scourge of pestilence 
 and famine. Parliament fixed in vain the maximum 
 price of provisions in 1315; the measure w 7 as of no 
 avail, every article of consumption sold at a much higher 
 rate, and it was found very difficult on some occasions to 
 obtain bread for the king’s table, a circumstance from 
 which some notion of the scarcity may be inferred.* 1 * 
 The misery, however great during 1315, w r as more 
 than doubled in the follou’ing year ; the early crops were 
 spoiled by incessant rains, and the late never arrived at 
 maturity ; the want of nourishment, and unwholesome 
 food, produced dysenteries and epidemic disorders among 
 the people. The maximum prices w T ere repealed, and 
 wheat rose until the quarter was sold for ten times its 
 usual value. The cravings of hunger constrained the poor 
 to feed on roots, horses, dogs and the most loathsome 
 animals ; instances more revolting to humanity are men- 
 tioned by cotemporary writers ; many expelled from 
 their castles the crowds of domestics, with which they 
 usually swarmed, and these unfortunate men, without 
 the lawful means of support, were necessitated to live by 
 the plunder of their former patrons or their inoffensive 
 neighbours. Every county was infested with bands of 
 robbers, whose desperate rapacity was not to be checked 
 by the terrors or punishments of the law. The inhabitants 
 were forced to combine for their own protection , asso- 
 ciation was opposed to association ; summary vengeance 
 was inflicted by each party, and the whole country pre- 
 sented one great theatre of rapine, anarchy and bloodshed.® 
 
 Little more than thirty years after these distressing 
 events, the inhabitants were exposed to other evils more 
 destructive in their effects. The great pestilence which 
 
 with corn. 24s. ; not fed with corn. 10s. ; a fat cow. 12s. ; a fat hog, two 
 years old. 3s. 4d. ; a fat sheep, unshorn, Is. 8d. ; shorn. Is. 2d. ; a fat 
 (JOOSP, 2Ad. ; a fat capon, 2d. ; a fat hen, Id. ; two chickens, Id. ; four 
 pigeons, Id. ; twenty-four eggs, Id. 
 
 <-■ Lingard’s History of England, volume iii. 
 
BOOK CL.II.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 443 
 
 passed from Asia to the banks and Delta of the Nile, and 
 onwards to the Greek Islands, Italy, and other countries 
 in Europe, was as general and fata! as any recorded in 
 history. Mr. Hume supposes it to have cut oft' about a 
 third part of the people in England ; Dr. Mead makes 
 the number amount to more than a half, and adds, cor- 
 rectly, that the time of the pestilence was the period of 
 the greatest mortality which has been recorded in Eng- 
 lish history. According to Stowe, those who died in the 
 metropolis were not fewer than fifty thousand. No ca- 
 lamity of a similar nature has taken place in England 
 since the year 1665 ; how remote then are the chances of 
 them in modern times ! The intercourse with the east, 
 nay, with every region of the globe, has decupled, and the 
 seeds of disease, it might be reasonably inferred, are now 
 more easily transported. The contrary, however, is the 
 fact, and it is mainly owing to the precautions taken by 
 European governments, and to the diffused comforts which 
 the people enjoy. 
 
 The proportion between the population and the surface 
 of the country indicates, with some exactness, the intel- 
 lectual advancement of the inhabitants. The population 
 and the extent of England are now known ; it is inter- 
 esting to determine what the former was in past times. 
 According to the fifty-first of Edward the Third, a poll- 
 tax of four-pence was imposed in the year 1377, on 
 lay persons, male and female, of fourteen years of age 
 and upwards; mendicants only were excepted. An offi- 
 cial return of those who paid the tax in each county, city 
 and town, is fortunately preserved. 1 The persons who 
 paid it appear from the subsidy roll to have been equal 
 to 1,367,239. If the number of mendicants and those 
 who eluded payment could be discovered, the total pop- 
 ulation might at once be known ; for it may be assumed, 
 with sufficient accuracy, that all the individuals under 
 fourteen years of age are less numerous than a third part 
 of the inhabitants. If the poor, the young under fourteen 
 years of age, and the omissions in collecting the tax, be 
 supposed equal to one half of the original number, the 
 lay population amounted to 2,050,858. But the bene- 
 ficed clergy, who contributed, were equal to 15,229, and 
 the non-beneficed clergy to 13,932. Wales is not in- 
 cluded in the roll, but it is supposed to have contained as 
 many inhabitants as Yorkshire, or 196,560. Cheshire 
 and Durham had their separate receivers ; the first is 
 ranked with Cornwall, 51,411, and the second with 
 Northumberland, 25,213. All the inhabitants of England 
 and Wales were thus equal to 2, 353, 203. b This approxi- 
 mation is more probably above than below the truth, for 
 there is reason to believe that W ales was less populous 
 than Yorkshire, Cheshire than Cornwall, and Durham 
 than Northumberland. Although the data may be defec- 
 tive, they indicate, with sufficient accuracy, a very scanty 
 population, the result of an imperfect state of society, 
 foreign wars, domestic dissensions and pestilential diseases. 
 
 A great council appears to have shared the legislative 
 authority with their sovereign, after the Norman con- 
 quest. These councils were founded on feudal princi- 
 ples, and the royal revenue was derived from the royal 
 demesnes, and by dues from military tenants. The king 
 might receive extraordinary contributions from the great- 
 
 er vassals, but the consent of the latter was implied, 
 and it was their duty to consult with the inferior vassals, 
 of whose rights and interests, as their lords, they were 
 the natural protectors. The changes by which these 
 great councils merged into parliaments have been ob- 
 scurely handed down to posterity. 
 
 The earliest records from which the existence of the 
 house of commons can be regularly traced, date from the 
 twenty-third year of Edward the First. It then consisted 
 of seventy-four knights from all the counties in England, 
 except Chester, Durham and Monmouth, and of a vary- 
 ing number of members from cities, towns and burghs, 
 amounting sometimes to two hundred and sixty, and at 
 other times to not more than a hundred and seventy-four. 0 
 The variation may be attributed to the negligence, re- 
 missness or partiality of the sheriffs, to whom the returns 
 were committed, and also, but in a less degree, to the 
 little value attached to a seat in parliament in early times, 
 for the inhabitants of different places were allowed, at 
 their own request, to discontinue the exercise of the 
 elective franchise. Not long afterwards, other places, 
 either because they had risen into importance, or, in some 
 instances, for other reasons, obtained the right of sending 
 members to parliament. It is proved by constitutional 
 writers, that all who possessed landed or moveahle prop- 
 erty, ought to be bound by no laws, more particularly, 
 ought to be liable to no taxes, to which their consent 
 had not been obtained by means of their representatives. 
 “This is so much the case,” says Mr. Hallam, “ that if, 
 in examining the map, we find any sea-port, as Sunder- 
 land or Falmouth, or any inland town, as Leeds or Bir- 
 mingham, which has never enjoyed the elective franchise, 
 it may at once be concluded that it has emerged from 
 obscurity since the reign of Henry the Eighth. ” d 
 
 If it were necessary to trace the parliamentary history 
 to an earlier period, it might be shewn from the innova- 
 tions attributed to Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, 
 that the towns had risen before the year 1264, from the 
 degradation in which they were placed after the conquest. 
 So great a change was accomplished in two centuries ; 
 during that interval, the citizens and burgesses availed 
 themselves of the poverty of their lords to purchase im- 
 portant privileges. The latter received a common rent, 
 and they exacted no longer individual services ; the guilds 
 were incorporated by charters, and the towns were en- 
 titled to levy tolls, hold fairs, enact laws, and elect their 
 own magistrates. Much about the same time, gifts were 
 substituted for tollages, or in other words, the towns ob- 
 tained the right of taxing themselves. e It is of little con- 
 sequence if, in some corporate burghs, the elective right 
 was vested in freemen, for all those who were assessed 
 for their landed or moveable property, were included in 
 that class ; the great distinctions between freemen and the 
 other inhabitants of towns, are of later origin. 
 
 Although the government of Henry the Eighth was 
 practically despotic, he is entitled to the merit of having 
 extended the elective franchise. The whole of Wales, 
 the counties of Chester and Monmouth, and even the 
 towns of Berwick and Calais, were for the first time rep- 
 resented ; thirty-three new members were thus added 
 to the commons. Edward the Sixth erected fourteen 
 
 1 This record was laid before the Antiquary Society in 1784, by the 
 late Mr. Topham of the Paper Office. 
 
 b Chalmers’ Domestic Economy of Great Britain, page 15. 
 
 c Hallam’s Constitutional History of England, chap. xiii. 
 d Hallam, chap. xiii. 
 e Lingard’s History, chap, v 
 
444 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLII. 
 
 burghs, and restored ten that had discontinued their privi- 
 leges. Mary added twenty-one, Elizabeth sixty, and 
 James twenty-seven members. Five Cornish towns were 
 represented at the accession of Edward the Sixth, and 
 twenty-one at the death of Elizabeth. The oppressive 
 jurisdiction of the stannary courts, and the burdens to 
 which some of the inhabitants in Cornwall were subject, 
 were not the real causes of such innovations. The prac- 
 tice of conferring the elective right on insignificant places 
 and small burghs, commenced in the reign of Edward the 
 Sixth, a practice occasioned by the importance of the 
 popular part of the government, and adopted by the 
 crown to increase its influence. It is remarkable that the 
 inhabitants of the town and county of Durham were over- 
 looked during this long period ; the right was first con- 
 ferred on them in 1673; the cause of their exclusion 
 cannot be easily explained ; it has been attributed to the 
 prevalence of popery. a Liability to local and perhaps 
 general taxes, was without doubt the principle on ac- 
 count of which the elective franchise was first conferred, 
 but it has been confined in later times to particular classes, 
 such as burgage tenants, the freemen of corporations, or 
 the magistrates of towns. 
 
 The aristocratical branch of the government 1 ’ may be 
 traced to the Norman conquest. This assembly was 
 composed of the barons and prelates, who were afterwards 
 styled the greater barons in the great charter. Baronies 
 by tenure or in fee are of a later date, but at a still later 
 period, the introduction of barons by writ, produced an 
 important change in the character of the assembly. 
 Notable persons, not possessing any previous title, were 
 summoned by John to attend hi^ first parliament. Similar 
 writs of summons became more frequent in the succeed- 
 ing reign, for the same policy was adopted by Henry the 
 Third to strengthen himself against the more powerful 
 lords. The crown might withdraw the writs of summons, 
 so that the privileges of the titular barons depended on 
 their subserviency to the court. If a person be now sum- 
 moned to parliament, he and his heirs are ennobled, but 
 this improvement was first introduced in the sixteenth 
 century. 0 
 
 The period, from the accession of Edward the First to 
 the death of Edward the Third, cannot be considered un- 
 favourable to the development of constitutional princi- 
 ples. To carry on the expensive wars in which the last 
 of these monarchs was engaged, heavy taxes were ne- 
 cessary ; these were borne by the people, but they do not 
 appear to have been backward in asserting their rights — 
 their money was not spent in vain. The utility of fre- 
 quent parliaments was acknowledged as the only means 
 of amending errors, redressing grievances, and abolishing 
 abuses. It was ordained in the preceding reign that a 
 parliament should be held at least once a year, but as the 
 power of those who made the law might be called in 
 question, the same statute was again solemnly passed and 
 faithfully observed. Although Edward the Third may 
 
 a IIallam,chap. xiii. 
 
 House of Lords. 
 
 c History of England, by Sir James Mackintosh, vol. i. 
 
 d Idem. ibid. 
 
 c Grose’s Antiquities, Vol. i. Preface, p. 32. 
 
 f “ Italians, some Greek refugees, Frenchmen, Germans and Flem- 
 ings formed a fraternity of architects, possessing particular privi- 
 h ge n and obtaining papal bulls for their protection. They styled them- 
 selves freemasons, and went from one nation to another, as they found 
 churches to be built (for very many in those ages were everywhere ; 
 
 have wished, he had not the power to break it ; his wants 
 rendered him depen. lent on the aids of his people, and 
 more than seventy writs were issued for assembling parlia- 
 ment in his fifty years’ reign. 
 
 Purveyance had become an intolerable hardship; the 
 right of exacting it extended to the royal suite, which 
 amounted often to more than a thousand persons ; it was 
 much curtailed by parliament. The sources of justic 
 were corrupt, and judges -were accessible to bribery ; to 
 lessen the temptation, the salaries were increased, but 
 their integrity continued doubtful. The F rench language 
 was the language of the tribunals, but as it was unknown 
 to the greater number of Englishmen, the proceedings of 
 the different courts may be said to have been secret. It 
 was enacted that all informations should be laidj and all 
 pleadings delivered in English ; a great improvement 
 was thus accomplished. 
 
 The celebrated statute of treasons was the greatest 
 benefit that was conferred on Englishmen in this reign. 
 An able writer has shewn that the effect of this law was 
 to weaken the power of oppression in England more than 
 in other countries. 11 The light of knowledge began to 
 dawn in the same period. Wycliffe has been styled the 
 “Morning Star of the reformation;” but he lived in too 
 early an age ; the spirit of his innovations was not com- 
 municated to the people ; still the zeal of his followers, 
 and the boldness of the lower orders, broke out in rebel- 
 lions during the succeeding reign. 
 
 Religious edifices are the noblest monuments of the 
 architecture of the period. If it be denied that this art 
 was then carried to a degree of perfection in England, 
 which it has not since attained, it may be admitted that 
 some of the finest structures in the same country were 
 raised in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. As a 
 proof of this remark, it is only necessary to mention the 
 cathedrals of York, Winchester, Salisbury, Lichfield, 
 and many others. It is said that not fewer than a hun- 
 dred and fifty-seven abbeys and other religious houses 
 were founded in the reign of Henry the Third. 6 Rome 
 encouraged those who engaged in such works, and for its 
 vain promises, men consented to spend their time, their 
 labor and their wealth. The associations which the 
 sanctuary recalled, accorded with the feelings of the age, 
 and these it was the policy of Rome to cherish — the 
 hopes giving rise to enthusiasm, and the fears terminating 
 in superstition, both alike fatal to truth, but well adapted 
 to strengthen the power of the church/ 
 
 These buildings indicate the progress of an important 
 art, and improvement cannot be made in any art or 
 science without communicating something of it to others. 
 Thus, to have clocks for the cathedrals, Edward the Third 
 invited John Uniman, William Uniman and John Lutuyt 
 of Delft to come into England, and granted them the 
 royal protection to exercise their trade in any part of the 
 kingdom. e Englishmen learnt the art from these foreign- 
 ers, and a clock made by Richard de Wallingford, abbot 
 
 building through piety or emulation :) their government was regular ; 
 and where they fixed near a building, they made a camp of huts. A 
 surveyor governed in chief; every tenth man was called a warden, 
 and overlooked each nine. The gentlemen in the neighborhood, 
 either out of charity or commutation of penance, gave the materials 
 and carriages. Those who have seen the accounts or records of the 
 charge of the fabrics of some of our cathedrals, cannot but have a <rreat 
 esteem for their economy, and admire how soon they erected such lofly 
 structures.” Wren’s Parentalia, pages 30G, 307. 
 s Henry, book iv. chap. 5. 
 
JBOOK CLII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 445 
 
 of St. Albans in the succeeding reign, is described by a 
 writer who appears to have examined it. a 
 
 The inhabitants of Flanders and the Netherlands had 
 acquired wealth from the sale of their woollen stuffs. The 
 importance of English wool was well known even at this 
 time, and it was the object of government to encourage 
 its manufacture. John Kempe, a celebrated woollen 
 manufacturer of Flanders, accepted the invitation of Ed- 
 ward the Third, and arrived in England in 1331, with 
 his apprentices and workmen ; the royal protection was 
 promised at the same time to all weavers and fullers who 
 settled in the island ; in consequence, seventy Walloon 
 families came in the same year, and their example was 
 followed by greater numbers in the succeeding years ol 
 the reign. 
 
 The most remarkable trading companies or rather cor- 
 porations were the brotherhood of St. Thomas a Becket, 
 afterwards the merchant adventurers, the German mer- 
 chants of the Steel Yard, and the merchants of the Sta- 
 ple. It was the object of the last to purchase the sta- 
 ple commodities of the kingdom, viz. wool, wool-fells, 
 leather, lead and tin, and to convey them to certain 
 towns, called staple towns , that the king’s customs might 
 he collected with ease, and that foreign merchants might 
 know where to find the commodities. One of the regu- 
 lations was very impolitic ; natives might be employed 
 in collecting and conveying the different articles, but no 
 Englishman was allowed to export them. The people 
 complained that the trade was in the hands of foreigners, 
 and it is certain the greatest merchants then in England 
 were merchant strangers. Those of Lombardy were per- 
 haps more opulent than the rest, but their usurious prac- 
 tices brought popular vengeance more than once upon 
 them. The Caurisini of Rome, according to Matthew 
 Paris, charged sometimes sixty per cent, interest. Ed- 
 ward the Third acknowledged a debt of 12,000 marks to 
 the Bardi of Florence, and granted them a present of 
 two thousand pounds for their good services. b However 
 imperfect or unjust the traffic of these foreigners may 
 have been, the country was really improved by them ; 
 they shewed others the road to wealth, and they made 
 Englishmen acquainted in some degree with the civiliza- 
 tion of Italy. 
 
 The tumults in the next reign 0 indicate the rising im- 
 portance of the people, and the decline of servitude, 
 if not of vassalage. To enforce the arbitrary laws 
 which had been enacted, required all the energy of Ed- 
 ward ; the task was too great for his feeble successor. 
 The excesses of the people are sometimes the conse- 
 quences of oppression and injustice on the part of their 
 rulers ; in the reign of Richard, the brutality of a tax- 
 gatherer was the signal of a revolt, which endangered 
 the throne, and levelled with the ground the finest build- 
 ings in London. The doctrines of Wycliffe were per- 
 haps the remote causes of the same event ; it was diffi- 
 cult to restore Christianity to any thing like its original 
 
 a “ Being now nn abbot, and possessed of wealth and leisure, he re- 
 solved to leave a lasting monument of his ingenuity , art and learning. 
 With this view he fabricated, at a great expense of money, thought 
 and labour, a most wonderful clock, which represents the revolutions of 
 the sun and moon, the fixed stars, the ebbing and flowing of the tides, 
 and an almost infinite number of other lines and figures. When he 
 had finished this wonderful piece of mechanism, to which, in my 
 opinion, there is nothing in Europe comparable, he composed a book of 
 directions for managing and keeping it in order, that it might not be 
 ruined by the ignorance of the monks.” Leland de Scriptoribus Bri- 
 tannicis. 
 
 purity, without exposing the corruptions that prevailed. 
 Preachers embraced the new opinions, and although they 
 could not correct the abuses of the church, they roused 
 the people to an insurrection pernicious in its immediate 
 consequences, but productive afterwards of great good. d 
 
 An evil resulting from the feudal system called forth 
 the interference of the legislature ; although it was not 
 abolished until a later period, it may be mentioned ns 
 descriptive of the state of society. Numerous depend- 
 ents wore the badges or livery of their respective chiefs, 
 engaged in their quarrels, and participated in their crimes. 
 The chieftains were often at enmity with each other, and 
 the people obtained protection not from the government, 
 but from the lord whose cause they espoused ; improve- 
 ment was thus retarded, the useful arts were neglected, 
 and the indolence and predatory habits of the nobility 
 were imitated by their followers. It might be urged that 
 the first peer, whose title depended on letters patent, was 
 created by Richard the Second, but it was merely by the 
 remote consequences of the innovation that the feudal 
 system was weakened. 
 
 The solemn deposition of Richard the Second by the 
 parliament, may indicate the dependence of kings on their 
 subjects ; but this violent proceeding has been quoted to 
 extenuate other measures of the same kind ; it is to per- 
 vert history to suppose it was in any way brought about 
 by the people. In feudal times and in so rude an age, 
 their influence is very insignificant, and it might with equal 
 truth be imagined that the Russian people and not the 
 Russian nobles had the guilt or merit of putting the em- 
 peror Paul to death. 
 
 The period from the year 1399 to 1455,® is eventful in 
 foreign wars, brilliant victories, civil discord and national 
 calamities. The doubtful title of Henry the Fourth gave 
 rise to a civil war that was not terminated before the bat- 
 tle of Bosworth. In these contests, the wealth of Eng- 
 land was wasted, and her nobles slain. It is uncertain 
 whether the conquests by which Henry the Fifth extend- 
 ed his dominions, or the defeats by which they were lost, 
 were more fatal to the prosperity of the country. Men’s 
 minds were averted from the arts of peace by wars 
 abroad ; civil dissensions, religious persecution and the 
 rancour of faction at home produced the same effect. 
 
 The church had reached the acme of its power in the 
 same reign ; f persecution then began, and William Sau- 
 tre was the first Englishman whose life was sacrificed on 
 account of his religious belief; not long afterwards, many 
 others obtained the honour of martyrdom. Henry, when 
 Duke of Lancaster, was suspected of favouring the Lol- 
 lards, but no sooner had he ascended the throne, than he 
 became their persecutor; as a subject, he embraced the 
 popular opinion ; as a king, be thought differently ; the 
 church might strengthen his authority, or sanction his 
 usurpation. 
 
 On one occasion, the commons instead of granting sup- 
 plies, advised the king to seize the temporalities of the 
 
 b Anderson’s History of Commerce. 
 
 c Richard the Second. 
 
 d John Ball, the orator of the lawless multitude, preached from the 
 following text : — 
 
 “ When Adam delved and Eve span, 
 
 Who was then the gentleman ?” 
 
 e From the accession of Henry the Fourth to that of Henry the 
 Seventh 
 
 f That of Henry IV. — P. 
 
443 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 BOOK CBII. 
 
 church ; the lauds of the clergy, they insisted, amounted 
 to a third part of the kingdom ; they contributed noth- 
 ing to the exigencies of the state ; their great wealth 
 made them neglectful of their duties. The advice was 
 lollowed in a later reign. 
 
 The exigencies of the sovereign were at least attended 
 with one advantage ; they made him more dependent on 
 the commons. It is impossible to read the history of the 
 period, without being convinced of the increasing impor- 
 tance of the lower house, perhaps the only real advantage 
 that was obtained in these troublous times. Acts of mis- 
 governinent, unjust exactions on the part of the prince, 
 or prodigality of the public money, seldom escaped the 
 vigilance of the commons, and they were not slow in re- 
 monstrating against them. Sir John Tibetot, speaker of 
 the lower house, in a speech addressed to the throne, 
 told Henry the Fourth, that the country was impover- 
 ished by excessive impositions, while nothing was done 
 for its benefit. Ninety-six towns and castles, he added, 
 were taken in Guienne ; Ireland was almost lost, although 
 much money had been expended in its defence; the 
 Scottish marches w r ere in a had condition, the rebellion 
 still continued in Wales, the sea was ill guarded, and 
 the merchants ruined ; the expenses of the household 
 were excessive, and the court was filled with worthless 
 men.* 
 
 Such remonstrances were sometimes of little use ; in 
 the present case, Henry had the address to obtain from 
 the same parliament a considerable sum ; although many 
 other instances might be mentioned, in which the same 
 means were unavailing, still the effect of remonstrances 
 continually urged, and of grievances always exposed, 
 was to obtain concessions from the sovereign, and sup- 
 plies from the people, to raise and strengthen the fabric 
 of English liberty. 
 
 It is of consequence to mark the changes that have 
 taken place in the representative system. Before the 
 year 1429, every man, who possessed a freehold, how- 
 ever small, had a vote in electing a knight of the shire ; 
 but in the same year, the law was changed, and the small 
 freeholders were deprived of their rights. It is declared 
 in the 8th Henry VI., “ that the knights of the shire shall 
 be chosen in every county, by people dwelling and resident 
 in the same counties, whereof every one of them shall 
 have free land or tenement to the value o f forty shil- 
 lings the year , at least, above all deductions” He who 
 possessed a freehold estate of forty pounds a year, was 
 qualified to become a knight of the shire, or the mem- 
 ber of parliament for a county. As to the towns and 
 burghs, the electors were directed by the writs to choose 
 the most fit and discreet freemen, resident amongst them, 
 and none others upon any pretext. 
 
 The business of parliament was not so well understood 
 in those times as at present, elections were not conduct- 
 ed with the same regularity, and the powers of sheriffs 
 
 1 Parliamentary History, A. D. 1406. 
 b Henry's History of Great Britain. Book v. chap. 3. 
 c “ Diverse sheriffs of the counties of the realm of England, for 
 their singular avail and lucre, have not made due elections of the 
 knights, nor in convenient time, nor good men and true, returned, and 
 sometimes no returns of the knights, citizens, and burgesses, lawfully 
 chosen to come to the parliament ; but such knights, citizens, and bur- 
 gesses, have been returned, which were never duly chosen, and other 
 citizens and burgesses than those which, by the mayors and bailiffs, 
 were, to the said sheriffs, returned. And sometimes the sheriffs have 
 not returned the writs which they had to make of elections of knights 
 
 were less accurately defined. Thus, it is certain, the 
 number of members in the lower house was indetermi- 
 nate, while the sheriffs appear to have exercised a discre- 
 tionary power ; they sent precepts sometimes to more, 
 sometimes to fewer towns and burghs in the different 
 counties. It happened also that precepts were sent to 
 some places, from which no returns were made, and that 
 others excused themselves on the plea of poverty. 
 
 To regulate the proceedings at elections many laws 
 were made, but these w r ere not always effectual. From 
 the year 141 1 to 1447, the knights for the large and 
 populous county of York were not returned by the free- 
 holders, but by the attornies of a few nobles. b 
 
 The corruption of sheriffs was one of the most com- 
 mon abuses that prevailed in those times. By different 
 statutes it was enacted, that if a sheriff made a false re- 
 turn, he was liable to a fine of £100 to the king, and 
 of a like sum to the injured party, and to a twelvemonth’s 
 imprisonment.® It has been well observed that this se- 
 verity was necessary, for if a member was deprived of 
 his seat by a false return, the sessions of parliament were 
 so short, that he had little chance of recovering it. 
 
 It was not imagined, in this period, that members for 
 parliamentary influence, or for the distinctions and emol- 
 uments to which parliament leads, should devote their 
 time and attention to the public service, and, in particu- 
 lar, to the interests of the counties and towns, of which 
 they were the representatives. Coeval with the origin of 
 the lower house, was the practice of remunerating its 
 members, a practice not sanctioned by any enactment, 
 but founded rather on a principle of justice. These 
 wages, if they may be so called, varied at different times ; 
 they were fixed, in the reign of Edward the Third, be- 
 sides travelling expenses, at four shillings a day for a 
 knight of the shire, and at two shillings for a citizen or 
 burgess. It is almost unnecessary to add that no mem- 
 ber disdained to receive his hire. This custom enables 
 us to explain why the inhabitants of so many places con- 
 sidered the elective privilege a burden, and prayed to 
 be excused from exercising it. d 
 
 It would have been of little avail to pay members for 
 their services, if they were prevented from performing 
 them. It was therefore declared unlawful to arrest them 
 for debt, or any civil obligation, during the sitting of 
 parliament ; but the same rule was not then applicable 
 to the intervals between the sessions ; the extension of 
 the privilege was of more recent origin. 
 
 The greatest improvement in the parliamentary history 
 of the period related to the manner in which laws were 
 framed. In early times the commons presented petitions 
 at the end of every session ; of these, some were either 
 granted or refused by the king, while the consideration 
 of others was deferred to a future period. In the reign 
 of Henry the Fifth, in place of petitions, acts were drawn 
 up by the judges before the close of the session. Such 
 
 to come to the parliaments; but the said writs have imbisiled. and 
 moreover, made no precept to the mayor and bailiff, or to the bailiff or 
 bailiffs, where no mayor is, of cities or boroughs for the election of citi- 
 zens, or burgesses to come to the parliament.” 23d Henry VI. chap. 14. 
 
 d In the longest parliament of Henry IV. the members sat one bun 
 dred and fifty-nine days. “The two knights of the shire for Cumber- 
 land received £80, 8s. ; because, besides the one hundred and fiftv-nine 
 days that the three sessions lasted. they were allowed wages for fortv-two 
 days for (heir three journies.” Henry, book v. chap. 3. It is needless 
 to make any comment on the rate of travelling; the three journies may 
 now be performed in less than ten days. 
 
BOOK CLII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 447 
 
 a power, it was evident, could not long continue in such I 
 hands ; accordingly, in the succeeding reign, bills and | 
 acts were framed by the commons, and one enacting 
 clause sufficed for as many as were passed in a session, 
 or in other words, for all those to which the lords agreed, 
 and the king gave his royal assent. 
 
 The rights of the subject were held by a very pre- 
 carious tenure, the people had often no control over 
 their king, and so long as he was independent of them, 
 the latter were exposed to all the evils of a despotic gov- 
 ernment. There were so many illegal methods of ob- 
 taining money, and these were so frequently resorted to, 
 as to preclude the necessity of having recourse to the 
 commons. Thus, Edward the Fourth having expended 
 all the supplies that were granted by parliament, ob- 
 tained a benevolence or free gift from his subjects, by 
 which the wealthiest amongst them were impoverished. 
 
 The dispensing power of the king was incompatible 
 with the existence of a free community ; it enabled a 
 monarch to dispense with the most solemn laws, and to 
 extend alike indulgence to individuals and whole classes 
 of men. Wilkins mentions an extraordinary instance of 
 the exercise of this power ; to gain the support of the 
 clergy, Edward the Fourth, in the second year of his 
 reign, allowed them to violate every law, and the judges 
 were prohibited to try or punish an archbishop, bishop 
 or clergyman for treason, ravishing women, or any other 
 crime. a The same power, it may be added, was exer- 
 cised in many other instances, although perhaps never 
 in so iniquitous and absurd a manner. 
 
 The English government resembled a military des- 
 potism during the worst period of the civil wars. The 
 high constable was vested with a commission, by which 
 he might put any subject to death secretly, and without 
 the salutary constraint of legal forms, if he wished to 
 discover the guilt or innocence of those whom he con- 
 demned, (an act of humanity by no means necessary), 
 recourse was bad to the torture. A monument of these 
 times is still preserved in the tower of London ; the 
 rack, called the Duke of Exeter’s daughter, was in- 
 vented by that nobleman when he filled the office of 
 high constable. 
 
 The arts of peace, and the varied resources of com- 
 merce and industry, were almost destroyed in the con- 
 fusion of wars and civil discord. The population, there 
 is reason to believe, w r as much reduced ; many towns 
 were changed into villages, and others w x ere levelled with 
 the ground. A great part of the country was laid waste, 
 agriculture was neglected, and arable lands w T ere con- 
 verted into pasturage. It w T ould be incorrect, however, 
 to imagine that nothing was gained from these conten- 
 tions ; they were the precursors, perhaps the causes of 
 the rapid improvements, that may be dated from the 
 accession of Henry the Seventh. An important change 
 took place in the condition of the great body of the 
 people ; if the decline of slavery commenced before the 
 reign of Henry the Third, the period of the civil wars 
 determines the decline of villeinage. 
 
 The country having been desolated with numerous 
 armies during the greater part of a century, these armies, 
 and the others that engaged in the expeditions against 
 France, consisted of the lower orders ; but, according to 
 the genius of feudalism, the villein, who was released 
 
 from the soil, and who fought in the cause of nobles and 
 kings, could not afterwards he degraded by servitude 
 The church was unfavourable to bondage even in the 
 darkest times ; in England the laws and the nature of 
 the government were equally against it; but the princi- 
 pal cause of the change must be attributed to the pro- 
 gress of knowledge. While the spirit of commerce 
 created a greater demand for labour, which could be 
 only supplied by a scanty population, it was discovered 
 that the hired labour of freemen was far more pro- 
 ductive than the forced toil and the habitual indifference 
 of slaves. 
 
 The changes that had been made from time to time 
 in the currency, tended to create embarrassment and 
 confusion ; the higher orders suffered most from the evils 
 springing from such causes ; the revenue of the king, 
 and the incomes of the nobles, remaining nominally the 
 same, were necessarily diminished. Commerce had to 
 contend not merely against impolitic decrees and unwise 
 regulations, the arbitrary power of princes was destruc- 
 tive of its true interests ; in those days the king could 
 not only press mariners and soldiers, but artificers of 
 every kind, and all the merchant vessels of his subjects. 
 Thus, Henry the Fifth, preparatory to his first expedition 
 against France, pressed all the ships of twenty tons and 
 upwards, in all the English ports. Letters of marque, 
 so common in that pei'iod, and frequently obtained on 
 false pretences, by making it unsafe even in time of 
 peace, to transport commodities, increased the risks to 
 which trade was unnecessarily exposed. But in spite 
 of every disadvantage, the most absurd regulations, an 
 arbitrary government, and the unjust system of reprisals, 
 commerce must have been even then a road to wealth. 
 Norburg and Hende lent large sums of money to their 
 sovereign, and adorned the capital with public buildings. 
 Sir Richard Whittington rebuilt Newgate, the library of 
 the Grey-Friars, and part of St. Bartholomew’s hospital, 
 and also founded a college of priests in the street that is 
 still called College Hill. William Canning was five times 
 mayor of the trading city of Bristol ; some notion of his 
 wealth may be formed from the fact that he paid Edward 
 the Fourth a fine of 2470' tons of shipping. 
 
 The population of England in 1485 may be vaguely 
 estimated by comparing the imperfect census in 1378, 
 with one equally loose in 1588; and although nothing 
 more than a rude approximation can be obtained, it is 
 certain the total number of inhabitants was not more 
 than three millions ; it was distributed in a very different 
 way from what it is at present ; Lancashire and Cumber- 
 land were ill peopled, while London and Westminster 
 did not contain more than sixty or seventy thousand 
 persons. 
 
 The germs of liberty are sometimes the consequences 
 of civil wars and revolutions, but they did not spring after 
 the contests between the roses. Freedom was repress 
 ed, if not crushed, by the Tudors ; the moral degrada- 
 tion of the people, the result of political servitude, was 
 completed by Henry the Eighth, and faint indications of 
 a better spirit are all that can he discovered in the long 
 and glorious reign of Elizabeth. The ancestors of the 
 English had left them a noble example ; on some occa- 
 sions they had maintained their rights by constitutional 
 means ; at other times by resisting despotic acts. Their 
 children submitted to a new line of kings, and instead of 
 extending the privileges which their fathers had won, 
 
 a Wilkins, Concil. torn. iii. p. 583. 
 
448 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLII. 
 
 they relinquished them without a struggle. English 
 historians have endeavoured to account for this change 
 in the character of their countrymen. “ It is now the 
 generally received opinion, that to the provisions of that 
 reign (viz. of Henry the Seventh) we are to refer the 
 origin, both of the unlimited power of the Tudors, and of 
 the liberties wrested by our ancestors from the Stuarts : 
 that tyranny was their immediate, and resistance their 
 remote consequence; but he must have great confidence 
 in his own sagacity, that unaided by subsequent events 
 could, from a consideration of the causes, have foreseen 
 the succession of events so different.”* It is not per- 
 haps inaccurate to attribute immediate submission to 
 some of the measures in that reign, and remote resist- 
 ance to others of a very different character. To account 
 for the former, much must he ascribed to the state of 
 England at the time ; a reaction must have certainly 
 been produced by the civil wars ; the memory of the 
 contest was fresh in the minds of many ; the evils at- 
 tending it were perhaps exaggerated by their interests 
 or their fears; at all events, repose seemed an invaluable 
 blessing. 
 
 The aristocracy had always resisted the power of the 
 crown, but their order had been much reduced in the 
 wars between the rival houses of York and Lancaster. 
 So many peers had been attainted, so many had fallen 
 in battle or perished on the scaffold, that thirty only 
 could be summoned to the first parliament of Henry the 
 Seventh ; it was not his policy to increase them ; ac- 
 cordingly, not more than thirty-eight temporal peers 
 attended the first parliament in the succeeding reign. 
 It must also be allowed that the contests tended to 
 weaken liberty, and to strengthen faction. The blood 
 of the nation had been shed, not for their rights, but for 
 the claims and pretensions of their rulers. Henry the 
 Seventh ascended the throne, and although his real title 
 was that of conquest, no attempt was made on the part 
 of the people to secure their rights, none to redress 
 grievances, or abolish abuses. It is well remarked by 
 Lord Bolingbroke, that all the power with which the 
 victory of Bosworlh had invested the earl of Richmond, 
 was employed in having the act of settlement so framed 
 that his right to the crown might appear inherent in him- 
 self and independent of parliament. The wisdom of his 
 policy in other respects may be doubted ; he ruled more 
 like the leader of a faction than the king of a great na- 
 tion ; every opportunity was taken to elevate the Lan- 
 castrians, and to humble the Yorkists. The reign was 
 by no means a quiet one, but the people took no part in 
 the disturbances ; the opposition sprang from factions, of 
 which the puppets were a Simnel and a Warbeck. An 
 insurrection was no sooner repressed, a rebellion no 
 sooner subdued, than the king strengthened his authority, 
 and arbitrary power w T as gradually established ; the dan- 
 ger to which the kingdom had been exposed, seemed to 
 justify every new encroachment, until the first of the 
 Tudors ruled by force, and the nation, too desirous of 
 tranquillity, suffered its rights to be taken away one alter 
 another. 
 
 The measures, of which the remote result was favour- 
 able to freedom, were of a very different nature ; some of 
 
 them related to the internal government of the country ; 
 commerce was increased, agriculture was improved, and 
 the useful arts were encouraged and promoted. The 
 taxes imposed in this reign, however oppressive, were 
 borne by the people ; the treasures amassed by the king, 
 however unjustly acquired, were much greater than any 
 of which mention is- made in a former age. Wise laws 
 were enacted, and it is comparatively of little conse- 
 quence to whom the merit of them maybe due. All the 
 effects of the king’s policy were probably unknown at 
 the time ; while he humbled the peerage, the condition 
 of the middling and the lower orders was improved ; but 
 it was not thought that they could become at a future 
 period a more formidable enemy than the aristocracy to 
 arbitrary power. The personal services of the tenants 
 were now commuted into rents, and much about the same 
 time the nobles were allowed to alienate their lands ; the 
 means were thus acquired by the commons of increasing 
 their property and influence in the state. b 
 
 It is impossible, in a work of this nature, to enter into 
 details on any part of English history ; still it might be 
 considered an omission to take no notice of the Court ot 
 Star Chamber, which is commonly supposed to have had 
 its origin in this reign. It is not indeed imagined that it 
 then existed in all its iniquity ; the jurisdiction of the 
 tribunal was gradually extended. Had the purposes, for 
 which it was first instituted, been always adhered to, it 
 might have been more deserving the praise which has 
 been bestowed on it by Bacon ; many deviations had 
 been made in his time, and if there were no reasons to 
 suspect his commendation, it was necessary at least to 
 place its proceedings wholly out of view, to consider what 
 it might have been, or even what it was in the reign of 
 Henry the Seventh. The inherent vice of the court, if 
 it may be so termed, was manifest in its construction. 
 The judges were the chancellor, the treasurer, and the 
 lord privy seal ; they might claim the assistance of a 
 bishop, a temporal lord of the king’s council, and the 
 two chief justices. The judges, it might be urged, were 
 afterwards altered, still they were always confined to the 
 members of the council ; they became more numerous, 
 but not more independent. It may be right to observe 
 that the encroachments of the Star Chamber were for a 
 time restrained by the bishops ; they appear to have 
 possessed considerable influence, and they exerted it in 
 mitigating severe penalties.® The power of the court, 
 it is equally true, was greatly increased by Cardinal 
 Wolsey, then chancellor of England, and archbishop of 
 York. It assumed an almost indefinite jurisdiction in 
 cases of offences, and it could inflict any punishment 
 short of death ; fine and imprisonment were the earliest, 
 perhaps the most frequent; the pillory, whipping, brand- 
 ing and cutting off ears became common in later times ; 
 hands and noses were cut off in the reign of Elizabeth . 4 
 If subject to salutary and wise regulations, the method 
 of punishing by fines, may ribt be liable to serious objec- 
 tions ; but it never has been maintained that the fines 
 imposed by the Star Chamber were either proportionate 
 to the offences, or inflicted for the purpose of preventing 
 them. It became customary to impose fines that were 
 wholly ruinous to individuals, and the judges part ici- 
 
 
 l 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 “ Fox's History of James the Second. 
 
 b Letters on the History of England by Lord Bolingbroke. 
 
 c Hallam's Constitutional History of England. 
 d Idem, chap. 8. 
 
BOOK CLII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 449 
 
 patecl in the ill-gotten wealth, a temptation too great 
 perhaps for ordinary virtue to resist in any age, particu- 
 larly under the dynasty of the Tudors. 
 
 The influence of the Star Chamber may be traced in 
 some parts of the English law; the court did not exist in 
 all its rigour before the time of the Stuarts; to enumerate 
 all its proceedings in the reign of Charles the First, all 
 the unjust decisions that were pronounced, and all the 
 cruel punishments that were inflicted, might fill a volume. 
 Thus a tribunal, which had been originally instituted to 
 restrain the lawless power of the nobles, and to prevent 
 the recurrence of crimes that had been too often com- 
 mitted with impunity, became gradually subversive of 
 freedom, and extended its oppressive jurisdiction over 
 every class of the community. 
 
 The reign of Henry the Eighth, inasmuch as it is con- 
 nected with the reformation, forms an era in English his- 
 tory ; it may therefore be necessary to state succinctly 
 bis religious creed and that of his subjects ;_ in reality, it 
 differed less from Catholicism, than is commonly imagin- 
 ed. The creed that was finally imposed on Englishmen 
 by the monarch, is contained in the law of the six articles, 
 which are confirmatory of the Catholic faith. It was the 
 boast of Henry, that he retained the religion of Rome, 
 after having shaken off the supremacy of the Pope. Ac- 
 cording to the first article, there remains no substance 
 of bread and wine in the sacrament of the altar after 
 the consecration, but under the forms of bread and wine, 
 the natural body and blood of Christ. According to the 
 second, the communion in both kinds is not necessary to 
 the salvation of all persons by the law of God. Thirdly, 
 priests may not marry by the law of God. Fourthly, 
 vows of chastity ought to be observed by the law of God. 
 Fifthly, the use of private masses ought to be continued, 
 since they are agreeable to God’s law, and men derive 
 great benefit from them. Lastly, auricular confession is 
 expedient and necessary, and ought to be retained by 
 the church. 
 
 It was not until the reign of Edward the Sixth, while 
 the Duke of Somerset was protector, that the actual 
 reformation took place in England. It was then that 
 prayers to saints were declared superstitious, and that 
 masses, dirges and prayers in a foreign tongue, were pro- 
 hibited. To write or speak against the dispensation of 
 the sacrament in both kinds was made unlawful by act 
 of parliament, the liturgy of the church of England was 
 introduced, and the statute of the six articles was re- 
 pealed. In this drama, the king and the nobles were the 
 principal actors ; it may be inferred that the people were 
 not ripe for the change, because insurrections broke out in 
 many parts of the country, and because it was easy in the 
 next reign, to bring back the nation to its ancient faith. 3 
 The Pope, it is natural to suppose, might have been 
 more compliant; his refusal was certainly a deviation 
 from the usual policy of Rome, but one for which the 
 state of Europe sufficiently accounts. b The power of 
 Charles the Fifth continuing on the ascendant in Italy, 
 Clement the Seventh concluded a treaty with him on 
 the most advantageous terms ; the latter obtained the 
 great object of his desire ; the Medici were restored, and 
 Tuscan liberty was lost. The taking of Genoa, and the 
 
 a Essay on the English Constitution, by Lord John Russell. 
 
 *> This sentence, and the following, doubtless refer to the Pope’s 
 refusal to annul the marriage of Henry with Catharine of Spain. The 
 VOL. III.— NO. 56 57 
 
 destruction of the French army in Naples, compelled 
 Francis to submit to the league of Cambray ; Henry was 
 deserted by his allies, and the Pope sacrificed the in- 
 terests of the church to those of his family. If a differ- 
 ent policy had been pursued, the separation from the 
 catholic church might have been retarded ; to prevent it 
 from ever taking place, was beyond the power of any 
 English monarch or any Roman pontiff. 
 
 Vanity and presumption were as conspicuous in the 
 character of Henry, as cruelty and ungovernable passion ; 
 these may have been the immediate causes of the rup- 
 ture, but the wealth of the church increased the resources 
 of the king, and rendered him independent of his people. 
 Never had so much been gained by the crown from the 
 confiscations that followed subdued rebellions, as from 
 the suppression of monasteries. The clear yearly reve- 
 nue was rated at £ 131,607, but, according to Bishop 
 Burnet, it amounted to ten times the sum; although the 
 last sum may have been overrated, the other, it is cer- 
 tain, was much too low ; besides, it is well known to 
 have been the practice of the courtiers to undervalue 
 the estates, that they might purchase them on easy terms. 
 The king, it is said, was advised to divide the abbey 
 lands, and to make them over on easy terms to the nobles 
 and gentry ; if they were bound, it was argued, by the 
 ties of private interest, there could never be a lasting 
 reconciliation with the court of Rome. The soundness 
 of the argument was made evident in Mary’s reign, for 
 although her parliaments exhibited the most perfect obse- 
 quiousness in all matters relative to religion, they could 
 never be made to consent to the alienation of the church 
 lands. The justice or injustice of Henry the Eighth’s 
 conduct has been maintained by different writers accord- 
 ing to their protestant or catholic views. These lands 
 escheated not necessarily to the crown because the au- 
 thority of the pope was denied ; but the seizure of them, 
 it is asserted, was a violation of private property ; there 
 is some difference, however, between the property of 
 individuals and of corporations ; the one is considered 
 more sacred than the other. 0 The justice of the meas- 
 ure may be called in question, but the advantages of it 
 cannot be reasonably doubted. The weakness and 
 almost total extinction of the nobility accounts for the 
 despotic sway of the Tudors ; to strengthen the aris- 
 tocracy, therefore, was to raise a barrier against farther 
 encroachments ; now, with a few exceptions, all the great 
 English families rose first into notice in the time of Henry 
 the Eighth ; the weight of their influence was thrown 
 into the opposite scale ; it became adverse to tyranny. 
 Independently of this high consideration, much benefit 
 resulted from the diffusion of property ; in those days 
 the English nobles were given to profuse hospitality , 
 they now encourage the liberal and the useful arts. Many 
 of the church lands had been left by pious persons on 
 condition of performing masses for their souls, or other 
 ceremonies, which, although sanctioned by the church, 
 are deemed superstitious. The necessary consequence 
 of such property remaining in such hands, was to pro- 
 mote idleness and mendicity, to encourage ignorance, 
 and to check improvement by an obstinate adherence to 
 antiquated customs and erroneous opinions. 
 
 preceding, as it now stands, to the reign of Edward VI.; but it might 
 equally apply to the suppression of the monasteries by Henry VIII. — P. 
 c The question has been ably treated by the learned Mr. Hallam. 
 
450 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLII 
 
 If Henry the Eighth was tyrannical, parliament put 
 the seal of its authority to the laws which confirmed 
 arbitrary power. The first part of the reign is distin- 
 guished by the persecution of heretics, the last by the 
 murder of catholics ; in short, no man’s life was safe, 
 who believed more or less in matters of religion than the 
 monarch prescribed. If the king wished to repudiate his 
 queen, parliament condemned her on the most unjust and 
 frivolous pretexts. If any man eminent for learning or vir- 
 tue incurred the royal displeasure, he was put to death, but 
 without any violation of the forms and ceremonial of law. 
 The people could not contend against the impetuosity of the 
 prince, and the abject complacency of parliament. The 
 king threatened to cut off the heads of refractory commons, 
 and the threat silenced the loudest murmurers. To levy 
 an oppressive tax, archbishop Morton used an unanswera- 
 ble argument ; the merchants who lived sumptuously were 
 informed that their wealth was evident from their expen- 
 diture ; those who lived frugally, it was urged by the same 
 person, must have amassed great sums by economy ; both 
 were forced to contribute. On one occasion, an attempt 
 to raise a sixth on the goods of the laity, and a fourth on 
 those of the clergy, was resisted ; the commissioners were 
 recalled, and the project was abandoned. 
 
 Queen Elizabeth had the merit of having first firmly 
 established the protestant religion ; in the reign of the 
 same princess, England rose to a state of greatness, of 
 which there had been no parallel in past times. It is 
 doubtful if there ever was a greater queen in any other 
 country ; it is certain she was superior to English sove- 
 reigns in the art of ruling. In her reign, England became 
 the guardian of the protestant faith, the mistress of the 
 sea, the scourge of Spain, and the mediatrix of the fac- 
 tions in France. The nature of the government, how- 
 ever, was very different from the present. The vague 
 jurisdiction of the Star Chamber extended to whatever 
 was not cognizable at common law. The established 
 church was guarded by the high court of commission for 
 ecclesiastical affairs ; it punished with equal severity the 
 catholics on the one side, and the puritans on the other; 
 boundaries were assigned to faith, and men were command- 
 ed to believe particular tenets and speculative doctrines. 
 The right of printing was not only a monopoly, but the fa- 
 vored few who enjoyed it, were restrained by a most vigi- 
 lant censorship. The importation of foreign hooks was 
 prohibited, and some individuals were punished for hav- 
 ing the works of catholics in their possession. Judges 
 allowed themselves an extraordinary latitude, and they 
 could do so with impunity, while the semblance of juries 
 was all that had been preserved, and while fines and im- 
 prisonment awaited every juryman who gave a verdict 
 according to his conscience. The royal proclamations 
 had the force of statutes, and such a power seems incom- 
 patible with the existence of a mixed monarchy. While 
 these acts of injustice were committed, many persons, it 
 is undeniable, were not forgetful of ancient rights, and if 
 they were unsuccessful in maintaining them, it must be 
 attributed to the profound dissimulation, the consummate 
 wisdom, and the extreme popularity of the queen. It 
 required all the address of Elizabeth to maintain the pre- 
 rogatives of which she was so jealous ; had a less able 
 hand guided the government, the people might have 
 vindicated their rights. Knowing the danger of having 
 recourse to parliaments, the queen practised the utmost 
 economy ; in truth, the new institutions were subversive ol 
 
 the old, both could never be amalgamated, and the sur- 
 est method of establishing the former, was to destroy the 
 latter ; this, however, no English sovereign was able to 
 accomplish. To grant subsidies, which could not be 
 raised by any other method, to propose statutes, which 
 were not binding without their consent, to examine 
 grievances, and to obtain their redress either by law or 
 by petition to the crown, were the acknowledged privi- 
 leges of the commons. The speaker claimed the free- 
 dom of debate and free access to the royal person at the 
 commencement of every session. The history of the 
 house of commons brightens the darkest pages in the 
 reign of Elizabeth. The queen, some commons insisted, 
 was amenable to the laws ; others connected the cause of 
 the puritans with that of freedom. Morice wrote a let- 
 ter from his prison to Lord Burleigh, expressing his sor- 
 row for having offended the sovereign, but avowing his 
 resolution to strive, while life should last, for freedom of 
 conscience, public justice, and the liberties of his country.® 
 Every member in the house of commons, it was admitted, 
 is deputed to serve not only his constituents, but the 
 whole kingdom, a power never possessed by the parlia 
 ments of Paris, or by the deputations of the estates of 
 other countries ; it resulted in England from the election 
 of non-resident burgesses. The commons wrested the 
 right of monopolies, which the queen termed “ the bright- 
 est gem in her crown, the fairest flower in her garden.” 
 
 On the whole, if the people submitted to encroach- 
 ments on their rights, it may be attributed to the illus- 
 trious qualities of the princess, to the wisdom and talents 
 of her advisers, to such men as Cecil and Bacon; but 
 in the latter years of her reign, the nation became 
 weary of her sway, and the spirit of freedom revived in 
 England. 
 
 If the affection of a people for their rulers depends in 
 any degree on the prosperity of their country, the na- 
 tion had good reason to be satisfied with their queen ; 
 never before was the commerce of England so important, 
 its shipping more numerous, or industry more flourishing. 
 The trade to Russia and Persia was, perhaps, the first 
 indication in England of that commercial enterprise, 
 which forms so striking a feature in the history of the 
 sixteenth century. The earliest commercial treaty be- 
 tween the English and the Ottomans was concluded in 
 1575, and the former derived many advantages in con- 
 sequence of their direct communication with Turkey. 
 Thus, the Venetians and Genoese, who had enjoyed al- 
 most exclusively the carrying trade of the Levant, were 
 gradually supplanted by the English. 
 
 The establishment of an East India company was the 
 last, and in its results, the most important event during 
 the reign. The original stock of a company destined to 
 govern territory, more extensive and more populous than 
 the Roman Empire, amounted only to £72,000; their 
 first fleet consisted of four ships under the conduct of 
 Captain Lancaster. 
 
 The bigoted Philip and his sanguinary general contrib- 
 uted most to increase the internal resources of England. 
 The Flemish manufacturers who fled before the Duke 
 of Alva, were received by Elizabeth with kindness ; they 
 peopled the deserted streets of Canterbury, Maidstone, 
 Norwich, Southampton and other towns, and they taught 
 the inhabitants to manufacture important articles. It 
 
 * Lodge’s Illustrations. 
 
BOOK CLII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 451 
 
 was in the same reign that the ingenious Mr. Lee erect- 
 ed a loom of his own invention for weaving silk stockings. 
 Knives were first made in London about the year 1563 ; 
 it is almost needless to add that English cutlery is now 
 superior to any other. The firs* pin manufactory was 
 established in the reign of Henry the Eighth, but it was 
 not until the year 1566 that Elias Grouse, a German, 
 taught the English the art of making needles. 
 
 The activity which pervaded every branch of the gov- 
 ernment under Elizabeth, was communicated to indi- 
 viduals; navigators sailed round the globe, and voyages 
 of discovery were made with success. But it cannot be 
 disputed that commerce might have been extended, and 
 the wealth of the country increased, had the queen fol- 
 lowed a different policy ; her avarice and importunate 
 favorites prompted her to grant monopolies and exclu- 
 sive privileges, injurious to an industrious community. 
 
 It would be incorrect to follow the example of differ- 
 ent writers, and to attribute the origin of the poor laws 
 to a statute passed in this reign, it is declared in the 
 forty-third of Elizabeth that the aged and infirm should 
 be maintained, but that the strong and healthy should be 
 made to work. To provide for all the old and infirm 
 poor, although practicable, may not be expedient ; it 
 tends to weaken individual exertion, and to render men 
 indifferent about providing for the wants of old age. It 
 is needless to add that to furnish employment to all the 
 healthy and robust is in ordinary cases beyond the power 
 of government. The English system of poor laws, so 
 different from that of most countries, may be attributed 
 to two causes, the necessity of providing for the poor at 
 the Reformation, then deprived of the charitable aid and 
 the means of subsistence, which they received from the 
 monasteries, and the rapid and great increase in the price 
 of provisions, which took place in the sixteenth century. 
 The act of 1601 is framed with all the deliberation and 
 wisdom for which the ministers of Elizabeth were so re- 
 markable, and if it had been strictly enforced, the condi- 
 tion of the poor in England might have been little differ- 
 ent from that of those in Scotland. It was thought after- 
 wards obligatory on the government to find work for all 
 the unemployed, and in dear seasons to make up to 
 those who had families, the difference between the price 
 of bread and the rate of wages. The meaning of the act 
 was thus perverted by the ignorance or unfitness of over- 
 seers, and by the method in which relief was afforded. 
 
 It might be important to determine the gradual exten- 
 sion of the poor laws, but unfortunately little information 
 can be obtained from the imperfect state of the earlier 
 records. The number of persons receiving parochial aid 
 is said to have amounted about the close of the seven- 
 teenth century to as large a portion as at present, or to 
 one-tenth of the population of England and Wales.® The 
 money collected for the purpose cannot be ascertained ; 
 it is not supposed, however, to have been much less than 
 £ 1 ,000,000. The long peace and the reduced rate in the 
 price of provisions which followed the treaty of Utrecht, 
 were favourable to the diminution of poor rates. The 
 average amount of them during the three years ending 
 with 1750, did not exceed £700,000. Considerable 
 additions were afterwards made ; in 1760 they amounted 
 to £985,000, and in 1770 to £1,306,000. The con- 
 test with the North American colonies, the decline of 
 
 1 Clarkson on Pauperism. 
 
 trade, and the suspension of undertakings, in consequence 
 of the want of capital, or the higher rates of interest, 
 which capital commanded, raised them in 1780 to 
 £1,774,000. The increase in the population, and the 
 war that followed the French revolution, rendered the 
 price of bread so disproportionate to that of labour that 
 the poor rates rose in 1800 to £3,861,000, in 1810 
 to £5,407,000, and in 1812, to £6,680.000. The 
 average amount of them since the year 1812 has been 
 equal to more than £6,000,000. 
 
 Workhouses are in some degree peculiar to England, 
 for they are not, as in other countries, hospitals or houses 
 of correction. The plan of them was established about 
 a century ago, but it was greatly extended by an act, 
 which is commonly called Gilbert’s act, from the name 
 of the member by whom it was proposed. The object 
 of the act was to obtain from a number assembled in the 
 same place, all the advantages resulting from a minute 
 division of labour, and a joint disbursement ; magistrates 
 were authorized to consider any large workhouse as a 
 common receptacle for the poor throughout an area 
 of twenty miles. However just the theoretical princi- 
 ples on which these institutions were founded may ap- 
 pear, much practical advantage has not been derived from 
 them : the inmates are not separated according to their 
 ages, their habits, or their pursuits, and the division of 
 labour has not been carried to any degree of minuteness. 
 
 It is the effect of the poor laws to lower the rate of 
 wages, and although they were productive of no other 
 evil, that alone renders them hurtful to the labouring 
 classes. It appears from the following table that the 
 wages of the country labourers, estimated according to 
 the quantity of provisions they may command, have 
 continually decreased from the year 1742 to 1808. 
 
 Periods. 
 
 Weekly Pay. 
 
 Wheat per 
 quarter. 
 
 Wages in Pints 
 of Wheat. 
 
 1742 to 1752 
 
 s. d. 
 6 0 
 
 s. d. 
 30 0 
 
 102 
 
 1761 to 1770 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 42 
 
 6 
 
 90 
 
 1780 to 1790 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 51 2 
 
 80 
 
 1795 to 1799 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 70 
 
 8 
 
 65 
 
 1800 to 1808 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 86 
 
 8 
 
 60 
 
 Although other articles, particularly clothing, have 
 fallen in price since the middle of the last century, the 
 condition of the lower orders, it is certain, has not been 
 improved. The fluctuations in the price of grain, so 
 common in England, are more severely felt by the same 
 class than by any other of the community. In dear sea- 
 sons, the mortality among those whose means of sub- 
 sistence are partly derived from poor rates, is generally 
 greatest. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Average price of 
 Wheat per quarter. 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 1801 
 
 118 
 
 3 
 
 55,965 
 
 1804 
 
 60 
 
 1 
 
 44,794 
 
 1807 
 
 73 
 
 3 
 
 48,118 
 
 1810 
 
 106 
 
 2 
 
 54,864 
 
 The great objection against the poor laws, consists in the 
 inducement which they offer to the lower orders to con- 
 tract early marriages, and to depress their circumstances 
 
452 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK ClilT. 
 
 by an undue increase of their numbers : in other respects, 
 their effect is very pernicious ; the poor are exposed to 
 the petty tyranny and oppression of parish officers, and 
 gradually habituated to all the vices that spring from 
 humiliating dependence. It may be urged that whatever 
 tends to make them less dependent on parochial relief, 
 tends also to improve their condition. This is best done 
 by removing the taxes, which are imposed on the neces- 
 saries of life,- and which, from that very circumstance, 
 press most heavily on the poor. Such taxes may be 
 compared in their effects to dear corn ; in other words, 
 the increased rate of wages by no means corresponds 
 with them. Much good has already been accomplished 
 by taking away the taxes on different articles ; those on 
 beer and sea-borne coal, which have been lately repeal- 
 ed, are likely to be followed with similar results. The 
 increasing resources of the country, and a judicious plan 
 of taxation, may lead in time to many improvements, if 
 not to a total change, of the present system. 
 
 Adhering to the order of time, it may be necessary to 
 remark that the law by which every parish was obliged 
 to repair its own roads by four days’ labour of its in- 
 habitants passed in the reign of Philip and Mary. The 
 first act on a subject so much connected with the pros- 
 perity of a country, dates from the reign of Edward the 
 First, but it w-as intended to prevent robbery rather than 
 to improve the means of communication from one place 
 to another. The roads in several districts were amend- 
 ed, in conformity to different laws of Henry the Eighth. 
 It was not, however, before the reign of Charles the 
 Second, that turnpikes were established, and that those 
 who reap the advantages of easy conveyance, were made 
 to contribute the necessary expense. The rate of travel- 
 ling in those days was very slow ; Cowley having retired 
 from the hum of men, invited his friend Sprat to enjoy 
 the pleasures of St. Ann’s Hill, and informed him that 
 he might sleep the first night at Hampton Town ; the 
 same journey may now be performed before breakfast. 
 When at a later period, Sir Francis Wronghead was 
 chosen member of Parliament, great preparations were 
 made for his journey to town, and many accidents hap- 
 pened by the way, all of which were owing to the bad- 
 ness of the roads. A member at present, when there 
 is a call of the house, orders post horses from the next 
 stage, and calculates the hour of his arrival at West- 
 minster. 3 
 
 The defeat and dispersion of the armada, was one of 
 the most remarkable events in the reign of Elizabeth. 
 The subsequent war with Spain, and the romantic at- 
 tempt of twenty thousand volunteers under the com- 
 mand of Norris and Drake, to place Don Antonio on the 
 throne of Portugal, shewed the enthusiasm with which 
 the people were animated. An alarm having been given 
 of a second Spanish invasion in the year 1599, the queen 
 equipped a fleet, and levied an army in a fortnight to 
 oppose it ; from this promptness, foreigners formed a 
 very high notion of the resources of England. But if it 
 were necessary to enter into statistical details, it might 
 be shewn that the single county of Lancashire, from the 
 resources of its manufactures and extensive commerce, 
 can now offer a more effectual resistance to an enemy, 
 
 J Chalmers on the Domestic Economy of Britain. 
 b Many instances in which old laws were appealed to in vain, are 
 to be found in the works of Lingard, Hallam, and other writers. 
 
 than the whole kingdom could have done in the reign of 
 Elizabeth. 
 
 The Tudor line having presided over the destinies of 
 England, during a period of nearly a hundred and twenty 
 years, ended at the death of Elizabeth. It was suc- 
 ceeded by the Stuarts, a family less skilled in the art of 
 ruling than their predecessors, less conspicuous for their 
 great qualities, and better adapted to adorn a private 
 station, than to govern a kingdom in troublous times. 
 Every one acquainted with English history, must be con- 
 vinced that very valuable rights were obtained at an 
 early period from different sovereigns ; ever sin -e the 
 barons wrested from John the great charter of their lib- 
 erties, the government, unless that charter had been 
 violated, could never have been a pure monarchy. But 
 in a rude age, government depended more on the charac- 
 ter of princes, than on the force of laws ; concessions 
 reluctantly made by one king, were little regarded by 
 his more able or more fortunate successor, and the sway 
 of the Plantagenets was milder than that of the Tudors. 
 Institutions subversive of freedom were first introduced 
 and gradually sanctioned, if they were not accompanied 
 with the most pernicious consequences ; the ancient 
 laws, it may be recollected, were never repealed ; on 
 the contrary, their authority was often asserted in par- 
 liament, at a time when their power was of no effect. 1 * 
 It was evident, however, that the people must either 
 vindicate their rights, which could only be done by pre- 
 venting regal encroachment, and by making kings sub- 
 ject not superior to the laws, or give up for ever the 
 great work which their ancestors had begun. A family 
 unable to maintain, and unwilling to give up what they 
 considered their prerogative, ascended the throne, when 
 the people were more powerful than at a former period, 
 and when their additional power was not so much the 
 consequence of greater wealth as of greater knowledge. 
 The study of the Greek and Roman authors, which may 
 be dated in England from the reign of Elizabeth, had 
 enabled the higher orders to form better and juster no- 
 tions on the subject of government. The stern puritans, 
 now acquainted with the abuses of the Romish church, 
 were naturally enlisted in the cause of freedom ; their 
 inflexible spirit might have been prognosticated from the 
 first petition that was presented to James on his road to 
 London, and fortunate had it been for his family and the 
 happiness of the kingdom, had be acceded to its terms. 
 But such lessons left little impression on the mind of the 
 king ; his learning betrayed his incapacity to govern ; 
 his notions of kingly power accorded ill both with public 
 opinion and English institutions. The puritans could by 
 no means admit of a comparison between the regal and 
 the divine government, but according to the sovereign, 
 the one was emblematic of the other, and resistance to 
 either was impious. Such doctrines were avowed by a 
 prince, who had no legitimate right to the throne of 
 England, and although there is reason to believe that he 
 may have possessed a more sacred title, founded on the 
 people’s choice, still it is certain he must have despised 
 it for other reasons than that it was contrary to a positive 
 enactment. 0 The acknowledgment, more than the exer- 
 cise of absolute power, gratified the weakness of the 
 
 c “ The declaration, which Mr. Hume asserts Elizabeth to have 
 made on her death-bed, intimating her wish that her kinsman, the 
 king of the Scots, should succeed her, is not confirmed by cotc-m- 
 
BOOK CLII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 453 
 
 prince, but his doctrines cannot be reconciled with the 
 existence of a limited monarchy. They were put in 
 practice by venal judges and an ambitious priesthood. 
 By a sort of sophistry, difficult to understand, it was 
 declared in England, for the first time, that the king’s 
 power is of two kinds, a power ordinary, and a power 
 absolute. “ He is above the law by his absolute power, 
 and though for the better and equal course of making 
 laws, be do admit the three estates into council, yet this 
 in divers learned men’s opinion is not of constraint, but 
 of his own benignity, or by reason of the promise made 
 upon oath at the time of his coronation. Of these two 
 one must be true, either that the king must be above the 
 parliament, that is the positive laws of the kingdom, or 
 else not an absolute king, and I hold it incontrovertible 
 that the king of England is an absolute king.” a The de- 
 cisions of judges were influenced by this strange doctrine. 
 
 The clergy were well aware that their authority w r as 
 derived from the king, and if they were the most strenu- 
 ous assertors of his power absolute, it was from motives 
 connected with their own aggrandizement. The convo- 
 cation held in 1606 , drew up a set of canons, and it may 
 be sufficient to mention, that the tenets to which the 
 bishops gave the sanction of their name, might have 
 alarmed the most indifferent. The origin of government 
 is not traced to popular election, but to the authority 
 that a father has over his family ; the power of kings is 
 of God ; that of the parliament, only of man ; passive 
 obedience in every case is inculcated. Tbe character of 
 the king was ill adapted to sustain his lofty pretensions ; 
 although a stranger, his conduct was generally at vari- 
 ance with the opinions or prejudices of his people ; in- 
 deed, one effect of his learning was to heighten his 
 contempt of public opinion. The English have been 
 considered a loyal people, but few amongst them either 
 loved or feared James, and his government exhibited a 
 strange contrast with that of Elizabeth. Dignity was 
 incompatible with his easy but passionate temper, with 
 a character in which pusillanimity was the most con- 
 spicuous feature; accordingly, his parliaments became 
 indifferent to his noisy threats, and it is not too much to 
 assert that he compromised national honour, and disgust- 
 ed his subjects, by his peaceful policy towards Spain. 
 
 The commons, during the whole of this reign, never 
 lost sight of one great object — their country’s freedom. 
 The right of impeachment, which had fallen into disuse, 
 was restored by their efforts ; they asserted their privi- 
 lege to debate on all matters of public concern, and 
 resisted tbe authority of proclamations. The king had 
 issued a proclamation, according to which certain build- 
 ings should be pulled down, but this was declared unlaw- 
 ful ; in other words, a sovereign cannot, by a proclama- 
 tion, create an offence where none had before existed. 
 
 The exclusive privilege of the commons to determine 
 contested elections was put in this reign beyond the 
 reach ot controversy. Much, however, was still im- 
 perfect ; others had to finish what was now commenced. 
 
 porary authority. The determination of the queen’s council to pro- 
 claim his accession could give him no right to the throne. It might 
 be shown that the choice of the nation was in his favour, although 
 their choice was not expressed by suffrages, or any formal deed. It 
 may be doubted, however, in a legal point of view, if the nation could 
 exercise such a power in the present instance, because it was contrary 
 to a provision in the will of Henry the Eighth, which had been ratified 
 by a solemn act of the legislature. A king of England, with the con- 
 sent of parliament, can make such statutes to limit the succession as 
 
 The nation were animated with tbe hope of freedom 
 this sentiment pervaded, with one exception, every order 
 of the community, but the excepted order was the priest- 
 hood. The clergy, in their vain attempt to realize the 
 dreams of their monarch, brought against them the hatred 
 of the people ; popish ceremonies w r ere still retained, 
 these were offensive to the greater number, and the law 
 of uniformity, establishing one rule of faith throughout 
 the kingdom, connected religious with civil liberty. 
 
 No concessions on the part of the prince to the great 
 change in public opinion, the disputes between the crown 
 and the commons, and the imprisonment of Coke, Sel- 
 den, Pym, Mallory and Phillips, prepared the way for 
 “ the fatal contests, which marked with a line of blood 
 the dynasty of the Stuarts.” 
 
 Elizabeth is justly hated on account of her conduct to 
 the unfortunate Mary, but James was guilty of the blood 
 of another victim, the no less unfortunate although less 
 celebrated Arabella Stuart ; the state policy that influ- 
 enced the two sovereigns was in both cases the same 
 A magnanimous prince would never have condemned 
 the great Sir Walter Raleigh ; bis execution, and the 
 proceedings during his long imprisonment, prove the 
 timidity and injustice of the king. The best feelings of 
 the nation were outraged at the murder of Sir Thomas 
 Overbury ; the weakness of the king was made manifest 
 by the influence of his favourite, and to pardon Somerset 
 was to participate in his crimes. These and other trans- 
 actions shewed the necessity of limiting the power of the 
 crown, and of hindering princes from perverting just 
 laws. The subserviency and venality of judges may be 
 ranked among the indirect sources of corruption. It 
 would be incorrect to infer, from tbe penalty imposed 
 on the great Bacon, that bribery was of rare occurrence ; 
 the sentence passed against him has been considered a 
 harsh one, and it is certain that other judges, guilty of 
 like offences, were more fortunate in their obscurity. 
 
 No period of English history has been more diligently 
 examined than the reign of the first Charles, both on 
 account of the great lessons it affords, and because it is 
 intimately connected with the rise of freedom. But the 
 events of this memorable reign are foreign to the nature 
 of the present work ; even to mention such only as are 
 connected with the progress of the constitution, is incom- 
 patible with its limits. If liberty was the end in view, it 
 may be regretted that other means were not employed 
 to obtain it. If the royal prerogative was stretched be- 
 yond its just boundaries, little advantage could be gained 
 by transferring arbitrary power from the king to the 
 commons. Charles had recourse to the last argument of 
 kings, but it was not until the commons had left him only 
 the trappings of royalty, nor before the due influence of 
 the upper-house was destroyed. It may then be doubted 
 if any concessions, even a presbyterian establishment, or 
 the abolition of episcopacy, could have effected a lasting 
 reconciliation between the king and his people, such were 
 the fatal effects of his insincerity and too great facility 
 
 may seem fit. An act, passed in the 35th year of Henry the Eighth, 
 confirmed his last will, signed with his own hand. The succession 
 was thus limited to the issue of his own children, and in default of 
 them, to the descendants of his younger sister Mary, duchess of Suf- 
 folk, before those of Margaret, queen of the Scots. The descendants 
 of Mary were alive at the death of Elizabeth.” Hallam’s Constitu 
 tional History of England, chapter vi. 
 a Cowell’s Law Interpreter, 1607. 
 
454 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLII 
 
 But the triumph of the commons was of short duration ; 
 independents succeeded presbyterians, and republicans 
 yielded to a military tyranny, that was established in the 
 government of Cromwell. Many causes contributed to 
 these calamities, but the consideration of them belongs 
 not to the present subject. While it is admitted that the 
 people abused their victory, it cannot be denied that the 
 declamations of churchmen, and the intrigues of courtiers, 
 were attended with the worst effects. The king was thus 
 persuaded of his right to absolute dominion, and to an 
 uncontrolled power, not only over the temporal, but spir- 
 itual concerns of his people. To obtain what he believed 
 his right, a policy, which has been often imitated in later 
 times, was adopted. The offices, honours and emolu- 
 ments of the crown were employed to turn aside the 
 parliamentary leaders from the cause of the people, and 
 men not actuated hy more elevated views, whose chief 
 motive was selfishness or worldly aggrandizement, were 
 easily made to support an authority in which they par- 
 ticipated. An unjust sentence and an ignominious death 
 have been urged to extenuate the infamy of Strafford. 
 The excesses of the commons may be regretted ; their 
 services need not be forgotten. Ship-money was declar- 
 ed illegal and arbitrary, the sentence against Hampden 
 was cancelled, the exclusion of the forest laws was 
 condemned, and patents for monopolies were annulled. 
 Later proceedings are worthy of admiration ; a bill was 
 unanimously passed by both houses for the suppression 
 of the Star Chamber and High Commission Courts, and 
 hy the same bill the jurisdiction of the Privy Council was 
 regulated, and its authority abridged. Other arbitrary 
 courts were abolished, and the king, at the request of his 
 parliament, instead of patents during pleasure, gave all 
 the judges patents during their good behaviour ; an im- 
 provement of the greatest importance towards the impar- 
 tial administration of justice, and the exclusion of the 
 influence of the crown from the ordinary courts of law. 
 It would have been fortunate had the commons been 
 satisfied with these and other triumphs of a like nature ; 
 hut moderation was not the virtue of a period in which 
 religious zeal was associated with extravagant notions of 
 liberty. It was evidently the design of the ruling party 
 to subvert the constitution, not to reform or improve it by 
 enforcing ancient and wise laws, and by cancelling others 
 of a different description and a more recent origin ; not 
 to limit, but to abolish monarchy. 
 
 The offers made by the commons w’ere such as no 
 English king could receive with honour. They are con- 
 tained in nineteen propositions of which the following 
 are the most remarkable. The privy council and officers 
 of state, it w r as proposed, should be approved by parlia- 
 ment, and take such an oath as the two houses might 
 prescribe. No vacancy in the council could be supplied 
 during the intervals of parliament without the assent of 
 the majority, and an election thus made, required for its 
 ratification the subsequent assent of both houses. The 
 education and marriage of the king’s children were to be 
 under parliamentary control. Popish peers should not 
 he permitted to vote. The church government and 
 liturgy should be reformed according to the wisdom of 
 both houses. The regulation of the militia should be 
 committed to parliament ; the command of all fortified 
 places should be intrusted to such persons as parliament 
 
 appointed. All peers made in future were not to sit in 
 parliament unless with the consent of both houses. 
 
 To these propositions it was not doubtful that another 
 would be added ; according to the right meaning of the 
 old coronation oath, the king, it was maintained, must 
 give his consent to all the bills which were passed by the 
 two houses. It is not wonderful that Chailes refused to 
 divest himself of his crown, for he must have done so 
 had he accepted such conditions ; no prince of any spirit 
 could, in his situation, have acceded to such terms, but 
 the commons thought what they had already obtained, 
 insecure without farther concessions. The high notions 
 Charles entertained of his prerogative, notions inherited 
 from his father, prevented him from giving due weight 
 to public opinion ; he encroached continually on his sub- 
 jects’ rights, while he may have thought perhaps that he 
 was defending his own ; hence the belief in the necessity 
 of a republic or nominal monarchy. But while it was 
 determined to have recourse to arms, royalists ard re- 
 publicans were little aware of the calamities of a civil 
 war. The probable consequences of the contest, how- 
 ever dangerous to liberty, were not regarded; chimerical 
 notions of freedom are akin to fanaticism, and the blood 
 of the nation was spilt to elevate a soldier of fortune, and 
 to establish a military power, to which unhappily the 
 king fell a victim, and which, in this as in every other 
 instance, proved incompatible with freedom. The long 
 struggle between the king and his people was not marked 
 by tire same cruelty or the same treachery, that disgraced 
 the annals of France during the wars of the League. As 
 to the general calamities of the contest, it may be suffi- 
 cient to remark that from the year 1642 to 1649, com- 
 merce was obstructed, while property and life were 
 endangered by constant skirmishes and frequent sieges. 
 Agriculture was interrupted, for there was hardly a 
 county in England that was not at one time or other the 
 scene of devastations, and to add to the misery, capitula- 
 tions were violated, and mutual faith was disregarded by 
 both parties. 0 
 
 It would be incorrect to suppose the nation guilty of 
 the crimes that followed the civil war; there was no 
 longer any freedom in England, when the king went 
 through the mockery of a trial, and perished on the 
 scaffold. Occasion has been taken, in a former part of 
 this work, to mention the causes that led to the death of 
 Louis the Sixteenth. Anarchy and misrule in France 
 were accompanied with the abolition of Christianity, and, 
 according to some writers, the prevalence of infidelity 
 accounts for the worst crimes that were committed during 
 the French Revolution. Very different notions prevailed 
 in England ; very different were the motives that induced 
 the regicides to condemn Charles. It was imagined that 
 the sovereign ought to die to expiate the sins of the war, 
 that the sins of the people should be borne by him and 
 not by them. Ludlow quotes the following passage from 
 the book of Numbers; “Blood defileth the land, and 
 the land cannot be cleansed of the blood shed thereon, 
 but by the blood of him that shed it. And, therefore, I 
 could not consent to the counsels of those who were con- 
 tented to leave the guilt of so much blood on the nation, 
 when it was most evident that the war had been occa- 
 sioned by the invasion of our rights, and the open breach 
 of our laws and constitution on the king’s part. b “ As 
 
 a Italian), volume 2d. 
 
 b Ludlow’s Memoirs, vol. 1st, 267. 
 
r 
 
 book cLii.i DESCRIPTION OI 
 
 for Mr. Hutchinson,” says one of the best writers of the 
 period, “ although he was very much confirmed in his 
 hidgment concerning the cause, yet being here called to 
 an extraordinary action, whereof many were of several 
 minds, he addressed himself to God by prayer, desiring 
 the Lord, that if through any human frailty, he were led 
 into any error or false opinion in those great transactions, 
 he would open his eyes, and not suffer him to proceed, 
 put that he would confirm his spirit in the truth, and 
 lead him by a right enlightened conscience ; and finding 
 no check but a confirmation in his conscience that it was 
 his duty to act as he did, he, upon serious debate, both 
 privately and in his address to God, and in conferences 
 with conscientious, upright, unbiassed persons, proceeded 
 to sign the sentence against the king.” 1 Such, in all 
 probability, were the real sentiments of Ludlow and 
 Hutchinson, the most virtuous among those who decided 
 the fate of Charles. It was necessary for Cromwell to 
 act in the same manner that he might regain his influence 
 over the army, and that he might render it subservient 
 to his ambition ; skilled in concealing his real motives, 
 those which he alleges, indicate the infatuation, and the 
 strange fanaticism, that prevailed. “ Should any one 
 have voluntarily proposed to bring the king to punish- 
 ment,! should have regarded him as the greatest traitor; 
 but since providence, and necessity have cast us upon it, 
 
 I will pray to God for a blessing on your counsels, though 
 I am not prepared to give you any advice on this impor- 
 tant occasion. Even 1 myself, when I was lately offering 
 up petitions for his majesty’s restoration, felt my tongue 
 cleave to the roof of my mouth, and considered this 
 supernatural movement as the answer which heaven, 
 having rejected the king, had sent to my prayers. ” b 
 The judges of Louis were nowise actuated by religious 
 scruples ; so far their opinion was participated by the 
 people, who embraced a system of which the ceremonies 
 were borrowed from the Greek mythology. A debasing 
 superstition, and a perverted religion, inconsistent with 
 moral rectitude or common justice, influenced the judges 
 of Charles; their notions were those of the ruling party ; 
 those who adopted better sentiments or a milder creed, 
 were ranked among the vanquished royalists. The dis- 
 solution of the monarchy and the English constitution 
 succeeded the death of the king. The commons voted 
 that kingly power should be annulled, because it was 
 “ unnecessary, burthensome, and dangerous ;” the house 
 of peers was considered “ useless and dangerous,” and 
 on that account it was abolished. A new great seal was 
 made with the date on one side, while on the other the 
 assembled commons were represented, and the following 
 inscription was engraved: In the first year of free- 
 dom by god’s grace restored. The care of the great 
 seal was committed to certain persons, who were denomi- 
 nated the conservators of the liberties of England. The 
 king’s statue in the exchange was pulled down, and the 
 following words were inscribed on the pedestal : Exit 
 Tyrannus Regum ultimus. 
 
 If to gain freedom were the cause of the civil wars, 
 the end was not attained after their termination. The 
 English government, from the death of the king to the 
 year 1658, was first changed into a military oligarchy, 
 and afterwards into a despotism. Although disturbed by 
 seditions and intrigues of which the object was to rid the 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 455 
 
 nation of a tyrant, and at other times to restore the house 
 of Stuart, it has held together after the battle of Worces- 
 ter by an army of forty-five thousand men, and many 
 were compelled to swear fidelity to the commonwealth. 
 The government of Cromwell, it is undeniable, could 
 not have been secure a single day without so great a 
 military force ; but even the army was not the sole in- 
 strument by which his power was wielded. It enabled 
 him in 1656 to exclude many members from the house 
 of commons, and to mould it to his will. A military 
 guard demanded a certificate from the council before 
 any member could obtain admission. So novel a pro- 
 ceeding excited unusual disapprobation, but to the re- 
 monstrances of the excluded members, it was answered 
 that the qualifications of members were vested in the 
 lords of the council, who had exercised their right ac- 
 cording to the best of their judgment. The most revered 
 institutions were abolished, and to condemn men, who 
 would not have been condemned by jurymen, the use 
 of juries was dispensed with in the new high court of 
 justice. It is needless to add that such a tribunal was 
 contrary to law, and to the very oath that Cromwell had 
 taken ; prisoners protested against the legality of the 
 court, ancient statutes were quoted, and the words Mag- 
 na Charta were pronounced in vain. One individual, 
 believing that to defend himself was to betray the liber- 
 ties of his country, remained silent, but his silence has- 
 tened his fate, it was considered a confession of guilt. 
 Not only were juries abolished, but the accused were 
 not allowed the benefit of counsel. The court was “ of 
 sufficient counsel to the prisoner and the common- 
 wealth,” but men declared it was of counsel for the 
 commonwealth and against the prisoner. In some in- 
 stances, however, this was not the case ; more than one 
 judge had the boldness to decide justly, while others 
 chose rather to resign their office than to pervert the 
 law's. Although it was declared high treason by a new 
 act to assert that the government w r as tyrannical, unlawful 
 or unjust, many were not deterred from expressing their 
 real sentiments; Cromwell was generally called an artful 
 hypocrite, and a dissembling villain, while the republi- 
 cans deplored that they had fought for a worse tyrant 
 than Charles Stuart. 
 
 The decimation of the property of the royalists w y as an 
 act of tyranny without a parallel in the history of the 
 Tudors. England was divided into eleven military gov- 
 ernments under as many major-generals. These per- 
 sons were authorized to raise forces within their jurisdic- 
 tions, to exact the decimation and different taxes, to sup- 
 press tumults and insurrections, to disarm catholics and 
 cavaliers, to inquire into the conduct of ministers and 
 schoolmasters, and to imprison all dangerous and suspect 
 ed persons. The powers, such a commission conferred, 
 great as they w'ere, appeared too limited to these milita- 
 ry prefects ; their rapacity more than their hatred against 
 the royalists excited them to acts of injustice ; they 
 thought the number of exempted persons too great, they 
 took care to make it less, and as many as had remained 
 neutral were ranked with the proscribed. The fruits of 
 the civil wars were now r apparent, and bitter disappoint- 
 ment succeeded the hopes of the republicans ; if the 
 Star Chamber had been abolished, a more iniquitous tri- 
 bunal was established in its place ; if illegal taxes had 
 
 a Hutchinson, page 303. 
 
 b Parliamentary History, vol. xviii. 
 
456 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK Clill 
 
 been resisted, others infinitely more onerous were im- 
 posed. Jt required but little reflection to conclude that 
 the property and the lives of men were insecure, while 
 the Protector could erect a high court of justice, and di- 
 vide the country into prefectures. The “ good old cause ” 
 was thus connected with dismal associations, and the 
 friends of royalty were increased ; many remembered 
 ancient and better institutions, and forgot, under the ac- 
 tual despotism, the abuses which had led to their subver- 
 sion. If the sense of the nation could have been taken, 
 it might have been shown that notan individual out of a 
 thousand was friendly to the new government. Had the 
 moral qualities of Cromwell at all corresponded with his 
 intellectual faculties, he might have been as much loved 
 as he was hated by his countrymen. Extraordinary pre- 
 cautions, movements concealed from the nearest attend- 
 ants, fears of assassination, and sleepless nights, proved 
 him not ignorant of the execration in which he was held. 
 The history of the commonwealth and the protectorate 
 may be distinguished by national greatness, and by the 
 increased importance of England among European pow- 
 ers, but it forms a dark era in the history of the consti- 
 tution. 
 
 It was not before the restoration that any advantages 
 were gained from the civil wars ; many, who had exposed 
 themselves to the dangers, lived not to enjoy the fruits 
 of the contest. If the individual who placed Charles 
 the Second on the throne, had entered into conditions to 
 abridge the royal authority, and to extend the rights and 
 privileges of the people, lie might have added immeas- 
 urably to his own fame, rendered the government more 
 secure, and prevented perhaps the subsequent exile and 
 misfortunes of the Stuarts. The monarchy, it is admit- 
 ted, was milder during the reign of the second Charles 
 than in the time of preceding kings, but it was owing to 
 the efforts of upright men and resolute patriots, not cer- 
 tainly of General Monk, who had it in his power to con- 
 fer the greatest benefits on his country. The anomalies 
 introduced after the civil wars survived not the usurper, 
 the concessions made by Charles the First were not ren- 
 dered nugatory by alarming innovations, and government 
 began to assume the character which it now bears. 
 Royal proclamations were seldom issued, the Star Cham- 
 ber was anew abolished, and the right of Habeas Corpus 
 was enforced. It must be confessed, on the other hand, 
 that many acts of injustice were perpetrated ; the condem- 
 nation of Sir Henry Vane was a violation of a solemn 
 promise ; the sentences passed against Sidney, Russel 
 and others, marked the latter part of the reign with a 
 character of despotism ; the deaths more than the lives 
 of these patriots strengthened the cause they maintained. 
 It is incorrect, therefore, to conclude with some writers 
 that “ the constitution had arrived at its full vigour, that 
 the balance between prerogative and liberty was hap- 
 pily established.” The next reign a affords the best ref- 
 utation to such a remark ; it may be sufficient to observe 
 that attempts to exercise the dispensing power, to repeal 
 the test laws, and to establish Catholicism, ended in the 
 final expulsion of the Stuarts. William of Orange, the 
 son-in-law of James, and one of the greatest princes 
 that appears in modern history, continued a watchful ob- 
 server of these violent measures. To preserve the lights 
 
 and privileges, which it was the open design of the king 
 to destroy, seven persons, eminent from their rank and in- 
 fluence, invited William to land in England. b The in- 
 vitation was accepted, and the revolution of 1688 was 
 achieved. No event of a like nature has been attended 
 with fewer calamities, or followed with greater advan- 
 tages ; it rendered the different kinds of government, 
 which are blended in that of England, more secure, and 
 at the same time, independent of each other ; the con- 
 stitution acquired a degree of stability which it had not 
 obtained since the Norman conquest ; it took away every 
 pretext for the destructive contests between kings and 
 their subjects, contests equally fatal to civil liberty, wheth- 
 er they terminated in the death of the monarch, or in 
 the oppression of the people ; since the same period the 
 chances of faction have been diminished, it is no 
 longer apt to be confounded with party. The English 
 monarchy can hardly be said to have been united with 
 free institutions before the revolution, otherwise the in- 
 defeasible right of kings, and their absolute prerogative, 
 could never have been so boldly maintained ; parliament, 
 it was insisted, owed its existence to the sovereign ; it 
 might be destroyed by the same power that called it into 
 being. The great practical difficulty in the science of 
 government was now overcome, and Parliament became 
 an inseparable part of the government ; whatever may 
 have been the right of other kings to the throne, what- 
 ever sophistry may have alleged, William the Third and 
 his successors could claim only a parliamentary title. 
 The influence of public opinion on government is often 
 as beneficial as positive enactments ; it is now very pow- 
 erful in England, but it was not so before the same period. 
 
 The conditions by which the throne is held, are partly 
 enumerated in the declaration of rights, which was pre- 
 sented to William before both houses of parliament by 
 the Marquis of Halifax, the speaker of the lords. To 
 suspend laws or the execution of laws by regal authori- 
 ty, without consent of parliament, is declared to be illegal. 
 The pretended power of dispensing with laws, as it hath 
 been exercised, is contrary to law. The commission for 
 erecting the court of commissioners for ecclesiastical 
 causes, and all other commissions and courts of the like 
 nature, are illegal and pernicious. To levy money for 
 the use of the crown by pretence of prerogative without 
 consent of parliament, is illegal. The right of the sub- 
 ject to petition the king is confirmed ; all commitments 
 for, and abstractions against the exercise of this right, are 
 illegal. The raising or keeping a standing army within 
 the kingdom in time of peace, unless it be with con- 
 sent of parliament, is illegal. The elections of members 
 of parliament ought to be free ; the freedom of speech 
 or debates or proceedings in parliament ought not to be 
 impeached or questioned in any court or in any place out 
 of parliament. Excessive bail ought not to be imposed, 
 nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Juries 
 ought to be duly impannelled and returned, and jurors 
 that pass on men in trials of high treason ought to be 
 freeholders. All grants and promises of fines and for- 
 feitures of particular persons before conviction, are ille- 
 gal. Lastly, parliaments ought to be frequently held, in 
 order that all grievances may be redressed, and that the 
 laws may be amended, strengthened and preserved. Such 
 
 1 James II. 
 
 b These persons were the Earls of Danby, Shrewsbury and Devon- 
 
 shire, Lords Delamere and Lunrley, the Bishop of London, and Admi- 
 ral Russel 
 
BOOK CLII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 are some of the conditions which were afterwards more 
 solemnly confirmed in the bill of rights, and which have 
 served as the basis of the later improvements m the Eng- 
 lish constitution. 
 
 That the money voted by parliament should be appro- 
 priated to specified purposes had been considered the 
 practice of government in the reign of Charles the Sec- 
 ond ; it was not, however, strictly followed ; the house 
 of commons that sat in 1685, betrayed their trust to 
 gratify the king, and boasted of not having appropriated 
 their supplies. The same practice has been invariably 
 adhered to since the revolution ; it has given the com- 
 mons such a control over the executive power that no 
 administration can subsist without their concurrence ; the 
 naval and military forces are placed at their disposal, for 
 by refusing the supplies, neither the one nor the other 
 can be maintained. It is obvious too, from what has 
 been remarked, that no longer period than a twelvemonth 
 can intervene between the sessions of parliament. In 
 war or during any emergence, considerable sums may be 
 raised by a vote of credit, and the crown may have per- 
 haps applied them during the intervals of parliament to 
 different purposes than those for which they were grant- 
 ed. It has sometimes happened that the annual sums 
 appropriated for the public service are inadequate to the 
 charge of it. The means thus obtained of corrupting 
 the commons, and increasing the influence of the crown, 
 have in some periods given rise to abuses against which 
 no provision has been devised ; they are not, however, 
 of a permanent character, for if sanctioned by one par- 
 liament, it does not follow that they must be so in 
 another, and they are not likely to excite reason- 
 able apprehensions so long as there is an urgent ne- 
 cessity for public economy in every department of the 
 state. 
 
 The long duration of the second house of commons in 
 the reign of Charles the Second, was not forgotten after 
 the revolution; if the king were enabled to lengthen the 
 existence of a parliament to an almost indefinite period, 
 the connexion between the people and their represen- 
 tatives, it was feared, might be destroyed. It was not 
 likely that an evil from which so much inconvenience 
 had been felt, could be tolerated in the changed state of 
 public opinion, when liberal notions prevailed, and when 
 the people recollected that they had changed the line of 
 succession on account of the misgovernment of their 
 rulers. The bill for triennial parliaments received the 
 royal assent in 1694, six years after the landing of Wil- 
 liam. It declares that parliament shall cease and deter- 
 mine three years from its meeting, and provides against 
 the intermission of parliament for a longer period. The 
 last clause is also mentioned in an act of Charles the 
 Second ; in practice it was unnecessary, since the appro- 
 priation of the revenue, and the mutiny bill, which is 
 always passed for a limited time, and without which a 
 standing army is illegal, render the intermission of par- 
 liament for a much shorter period than three years, in- 
 compatible with the government of the state. 
 
 The law was changed in 1717, and the duration of 
 parliament was extended to seven years. The new bill 
 was introduced for temporary purposes by the ministry 
 of the day ; it has continued in force for more than a 
 hundred years, and has been attended with important ad- 
 vantages. Great corruption still prevails during elections ; 
 but in consequence of this change the people are less habit- 
 
 VOL, HI— NO. 56 58 
 
 457 
 
 uated to them, and their demoralizing influence is necessa- 
 rily diminished. It is the chief duty of a member of par- 
 liament to watch over the liberties of his countrymen ; but 
 if he were not independent of the people, the democratic 
 part of the constitution might be liable to such defects 
 as those, which were so conspicuous in the most celebrat- 
 ed republics of antiquity. 
 
 It was attempted in the same reign to restore the early 
 laws relative to treason their spirit, although obvious, 
 and their meaning, although definite, had not defended 
 them against the interpretations of corrupt judges. The 
 statute is remarkable in some respects, since different of- 
 fences which have no connexion with treason, are includ- 
 ed in it, and no mention is made of an intention, or even 
 actual preparations to make war against the king. If 
 the law of treason had always remained so defective, it 
 might have been as dangerous to the safety of the gov- 
 ernment as if it had depended on the will of the prince, 
 or the subserviency of the judge. The omissions, how- 
 ever, were supplied, and the limits of the monarchy, in as 
 much as they relate to this subject, were determined at 
 a comparatively recent period. The 57th of George 
 the Third, now the law of the land, supersedes the fa- 
 mous statute of Edward the Third. 
 
 The liberty of the press, in as much as it consists in 
 the exemption from a censorship or a licenser, was con- 
 firmed in the reign of William the Third. The licensing 
 act, it is true, expired in 1679, but it was renewed for 
 seven years in 1685, and, at the end of that period, it 
 continued in force during the greater part of 1693, when 
 it was finally abolished. It must not, however, be inferred, 
 that the press was as free as it has since become ; some 
 time elapsed before men were allowed to express their 
 opinions fully on public affairs ; to write against a minis- 
 try of the day was included in the number of libels, for 
 any attempt, by means of the press, to bring the servants 
 of the king into discredit, was thought, in some degree 
 at least, to extend to the sovereign. Ministers thought 
 it better to answer than to prosecute their adversaries, 
 the greatest men of the time defended or opposed 
 by their writings the measures of government, and the 
 public character of statesmen became gradually a fair 
 subject of discussion. 
 
 Another important advantage connected with a free 
 press was acquired at a later period. It is still suppos- 
 ed that the deliberations of the two houses are secret, 
 and it is competent for any member to insist on the ex- 
 clusion of strangers, not for any particular reason, but 
 that a standing order for the purpose may be enforced. 
 It has more than once been considered a high breach of 
 privilege to publish the speeches or proceedings in the 
 lower house of parliament ; for such offences different 
 persons have been committed, and it is still deemed ir- 
 regular in any member of the commons to allude to the 
 reports in newspapers, unless it be on account of a 
 breach of privilege. While the people were ignorant oi 
 what passed in parliament, it sometimes happened that 
 abridgments of the debates were published, and on some 
 occasions, for the sake of popularity, entire speeches 
 were printed, and circulated by the members who de- 
 livered them. It is undeniable, however, that after the 
 accession of George the First, a register of the debates was 
 annually published, until the year 1737 ; after that pe- 
 riod, they appeared monthly, in a less abridged form, in 
 the London and Gentleman’s Magazines. It is almost 
 
458 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK Clill 
 
 superfluous to remark that the presence of strangers must 
 have been tacitly sanctioned before such works were 
 published. It was not then customary to prefix the 
 names of members to their speeches, but merely the in- 
 itial letters, and in this way it was imagined the breach 
 of privilege might be evaded. The practice, however 
 ridiculous, was not wholly abolished during the American 
 war. From that time until the present, successive im- 
 provements have been made- in the method of report- 
 ing debates ; the art of short-hand writing has probably 
 attained the utmost degree of perfection of which it is 
 susceptible, and the speeches of the different members 
 are now regularly printed a few hours after they are 
 delivered. 
 
 It is impossible to estimate too highly this great ad- 
 vantage resulting from a free press ; it forms a new and 
 powerful connexion between the people and their rep- 
 resentatives ; to the former the conduct of public men is 
 thus made known, and it is thus that they judge if those 
 entrusted with their rights, are worthy of their confidence. 
 The same custom accounts in some degree at least for 
 the great influence of public opinion in England, an in- 
 fluence which it would be vain to attribute wholly to the 
 diffusion of wealth and knowledge among the middling 
 ranks. This important privilege has only been establish- 
 ed by usage, and that too from no remote period, but it 
 could not be destroyed without the worst consequences ; 
 indeed if it were possible to shut the doors of parliament 
 against strangers, no more effectual means could he de- 
 vised by a tyrant or an usurper to subvert the British 
 constitution. 
 
 Such were some of the later benefits that sprung from 
 the revolution ; the more immediate consequences, it has 
 been shewn, were equally salutary ; the notions concern- 
 ing the absolute right of kings had led to acts of tyranny 
 on the part of the prince, and to resistance on the part of 
 the people ; such notions it was impossible longer to en- 
 tertain ; the crown had been given by the people to Wil- 
 liam of Nassau, and to the gift conditions were annexed. 
 The theory of an original contract had been adopted by 
 parliament ; it was decided that it had been violated by 
 James, and that in consequence the throne had been abdi- 
 cated. An approximation was thus made to the truth, that 
 the power of kings is committed to them for the happiness 
 and welfare of their people. Although this principle was 
 not expressed by parliament, it appears to have been after- 
 wards sanctioned by their proceedings, and in particular 
 by the act of settlement. It was considered unnecessary 
 at the revolution to extend the line of succession beyond 
 the descendants of Anne and William ; the former be- 
 came a few months afterwards the mother of a son, so 
 that the provisions, which had been already made, were 
 not thought in any way too limited. It was manifest, 
 however, in the year 1700, that the first act of settlement 
 could not extend beyond the life of the king and the 
 princess of Denmark ; under such circumstances the ne- 
 cessity of a new one became imperative. The people 
 had to exercise a second time a most important right, that 
 of choosing their monarch ; in the first instance it had 
 been preceded with revolution and the deposition of a 
 king; in the second, the government was established, 
 and the chances of civil war were remote. It was sol- 
 emnly determined by parliament that the princess So- 
 phia, the wife of the elector of Hanover, and her de- 
 scendants, should succeed to the throne of England The 
 
 connexion between that princess and the house of Stuart 
 was certainly the cause of this resolution, hut neither 
 herself nor her descendants could claim their new dignity 
 from any hereditary title. Had the nearest relatives of 
 the Stuarts succeeded to the crown of England, it must 
 have first devolved on the duchess of Savoy, the daugh- 
 ter of Henrietta of Orleans, and on several members of the 
 Palatine family ; but these had abjured the reformed faith. 
 The genius and the research of Gibbon have been em- 
 ployed in illustrating the house of Brunswick, a house 
 which yields to none in antiquity or in renown; although 
 connected with Cerdic, the Conqueror, the Edwards and 
 the Henries, its right to the throne rests on the act of 
 settlement, a parliamentary title, which necessarily pre- 
 supposes the supremacy of the legislature. 3 
 
 It is superfluous to enumerate the conditions, which 
 were annexed to the Hanoverian succession ; all of them 
 are of a liberal tendency ; some made for temporary pur- 
 poses, have been since abolished ; it may be regretted, 
 however, that another was not added, by which the 
 king of England must have renounced the electorate of 
 Hanover. 
 
 The benefits which were derived from the revolution, 
 were confirmed by the act of settlement, and the consti- 
 tution was established. An end was put to the long 
 contest that, with some intervals, lasted for ages between 
 the sovereign and the people. Although the govern- 
 ment, since the admission of the commons into the legis- 
 lature, may have been nominally divided into three 
 kinds, its real character was that of a monarchy, and the 
 power of the crown was above the power of the nobility 
 and the people. The conqueror and his successors, to 
 the end of the sixteenth century, may bear a comparison 
 in many respects with the princes of the Capetian race. 
 The Stuarts aimed at arbitrary power, and sought by 
 illegal means to rule without parliament, to elude the 
 restraints on their authority, and to govern “after the 
 French method.” It would be incorrect to suppose that 
 all the great advantages obtained at the revolution were 
 felt immediately after it ; the divisions in England, and 
 the state of Europe at the time, seemed to justify deci- 
 sive, and to palliate arbitrary measures. 
 
 The personal qualities of William, and his consum- 
 mate skill in the details of government, rendered many 
 of the conditions irksome ; he is said to have been his 
 own minister, and it must be admitted that he was better 
 fitted to be so than most men in his dominions. A great 
 prince is dangerous to a limited monarchy ; but that the 
 constitution was not shaken, while so many circumstances 
 concurred to subvert it, may be considered a proof of the 
 spirit by which the people were actuated. 
 
 It is undeniable that important changes have taken 
 place, some of them greatly increasing the power of the 
 executive government, and others of so opposite a ten- 
 dency as to render it difficult to estimate their counter- 
 acting effects. It has been urged, not without reason, 
 that an excess of power, similar in some respects to that 
 wrested from the crown at the expulsion of the Stuarts, 
 has been gradually transferred to the aristocracy, and 
 that it is not sufficiently restrained by the king or the 
 people. 
 
 The great territorial proprietors may be classed with 
 the aristocracy, and their united influence has too often 
 
 1 Hallam, Idem, — ibid. 
 
BOOK CLII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 459 
 
 prevailed in the lower house of parliament ; but it is 
 more reasonable to believe that the evil may be reme- 
 died, than that it is of such a nature as to endanger per- 
 manently the rights and liberties of the people. 
 
 Although the origin of parties may be referred to an 
 earlier period, their increased importance forms a re- 
 markable feature in the history of England since the 
 revolution. The government of the country has been 
 committed nearly two centuries to whigs or tories ; under 
 one or other of these denominations, the members of 
 parliament, and almost all those who set any value on 
 their political privileges, may be classed. It is of con- 
 sequence, therefore, to ascertain their distinctive princi- 
 ples; this, however, is not easily done, both on account 
 of the latitude with which the meaning of the terms is 
 received, the variations they undergo, and the factions 
 that have used them for unworthy purposes. While the 
 number on either side is so great, there must be many 
 whose principles sit loosely on them, and it requires but 
 a superficial acquaintance with history to be convinced 
 that the attainment of power has too often been the lead- 
 ing motive of political conduct. 
 
 It would be unfair to derive the distinctions between 
 the parties from such examples. The tory and the whig 
 are equally attached to the constitution ; the one is not 
 a friend to unlimited monarchy, the other is not a repub- 
 lican. The one believes the constitution perfect, and 
 wishes to pi'eserve it unchanged ; the other considers 
 the welfare of the community, and the public good, of 
 paramount importance. The tory has been naturally 
 averse to innovation ; the whig, for such purposes, not 
 unfriendly to it. The one opposes whatever may tend 
 to endanger the prerogative ; the other resists every en- 
 croachment on the liberties of the people. The tory is 
 distinguished by his zeal for the established church ; for 
 its sake in past times catholics were persecuted, and un- 
 just restraints were imposed on dissenters ; the cause of 
 the church has been sometimes confounded with the 
 cause of loyalty, a fact which accounts in a great degree 
 for the slow progress of religious liberty in England. 
 
 It is natural to infer that tory principles are likely to 
 prevail among the hereditary aristocracy, an order which 
 derives its brightest lustre from the crown. It is equally 
 certain that whig principles are more comprehensive, 
 more philosophical, and more consonant with the pur- 
 poses of civil society, the progress of improvement, and 
 the temporary nature of human institutions. It is for- 
 tunate that they have been counteracted by each other : 
 from the excess of the one, too rapid innovations might 
 ensue, while the tendency of the other is to retard im- 
 provement. 
 
 If civil liberty was established at the revolution, the 
 commencement of religious liberty may be dated from 
 the same epoch. By the toleration act, the first act of 
 William and Mary, all their majesties’ protestant sub- 
 jects, dissenting from the church of England, were ex- 
 empted from penalties, and permitted the free exercise 
 of their religious duties, provided they took the oath of 
 allegiance. The same indulgence was not conferred on 
 the catholics ; the memory of their past conduct was 
 fresh in the minds of men, and the guilt of it was exag- 
 gerated by their fears or hatred. It must be confessed 
 that from the reign of Elizabeth to the time of William, 
 the government had been endangered by their conspira- 
 cies or plots ; in some of them the end was to assassi- 
 
 nate the monarch, in others to bring in a foreign army, 
 in all to subvert the liberties of Englishmen. New re- 
 straints were imposed on the catholics ; it was the object 
 of the legislature to exclude them from every dignity, to 
 destroy their political existence, to keep them poor and 
 ignorant, in a word, to make them helots in a free com- 
 munity. The consequence of such policy, it is unneces- 
 sary to add, increased the chances of conspiracies and 
 revolts. The effects of it are still apparent in the pres- 
 ent state of Ireland, and in the degraded condition of its 
 inhabitants. Some of the restrictions thus imposed, were 
 taken away at different times, but it is not more than a 
 year or two since they were all removed, and the person 
 who has so much extended the military glory of Eng- 
 land, may claim the merit of having brought about an 
 act of justice, from which it is not unreasonable to look 
 forward to the most beneficial results. 
 
 Thus, it appears, that the revolution is the era of many 
 improvements in the English constitution; from it the 
 doctrine of the responsibility of ministers may be derived, 
 a doctrine which is now fully established, and which, 
 so long as it continues in force, may be the best guaran 
 tee of the dignity of the crown, and the liberties of the 
 people. 
 
 But increased resources, extended commerce and 
 great diffusion of wealth form perhaps the most remark- 
 able features in the later period of English history. The 
 long and expensive wars of William and Anne must have 
 contributed to diminish the resources of the nation, but it 
 recovered in the prosperous and peaceful reign of George 
 the Second ; during the repose which was then enjoyed, 
 the country increased in strength, and was enabled to 
 undertake the gigantic efforts, which have been accom- 
 plished in our own times. If this be the fact, and it is 
 not doubted, it follows as a necessary consequence, that 
 additional influence must have been acquired by the 
 middling ranks. Other effects may be attributed to the 
 same cause, and a very remarkable one has been men- 
 tioned by the ingenious Mr. Hallam. “ The smaller 
 boroughs, which had been from the earliest time under 
 the command of neighboring peers and gentlemen, or 
 sometimes of the crown, were attempted by rich capital- 
 ists with no other connexion or recommendation than 
 one, which is generally sufficient. This appears to have 
 been first observed in the general elections of 1747 and 
 1754; and although the prevalence of bribery is attested 
 in the statute-book since the revolution, it seems not to 
 have broken down all flood-gates till near the end of the 
 reign of George the Second. The sale of seats in par- 
 liament, like other transferable property, is never men- 
 tioned in any book that I remember to have seen of an 
 earlier date than 1760. ” a 
 
 The widely scattered provinces and colonies under the 
 British government have been described in a different 
 part of this work. The dominion of England, it has 
 been shown, is acknowledged in every quarter of the 
 globe, while every nation that has made any advances in 
 civilization participates in its commerce. Every coast is 
 visited by English mariners, in every land the influence 
 of England may be traced, and the products of its indus- 
 try are seen in the most barbarous countries. It might 
 be readily supposed that colonies so remote from each 
 other, and above all from the mother country, might 
 
 a Hallam, Chap, xiv 
 
4G0 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLI1 
 
 hasten its decline. These circumstances, on the con- 
 trary, prove additional elements of strength, and the dis- 
 tance between the different stations renders any union 
 among them impracticable. Many ships are at all times 
 necessary to keep up the intercourse with the seat of 
 government, or rather to supply the wants of trade, and 
 to carry the products of British industry to the points 
 from which they are diffused over so vast a surface ; the 
 same ships serve on any emergence to repel aggression, 
 and to secure the means of defence. The naval re- 
 sources of England are proportionate to her commercial 
 greatness ; no nation can oppose the one ; it has no 
 rivals in the other. Secure from danger, and fearing no 
 competition, the restrictions in the navigation acts, origi- 
 nally introduced to protect the trade of the country, have 
 been repealed ; England claims only from others the 
 same liberty that they enjoy. But this commercial 
 greatness, without example in the history of any other 
 country, may give rise to higher considerations. The ele- 
 ments of civilization, if they may be so termed, are thus 
 transported from England to the remotest limits ; from 
 the same centre, knowledge is diffused, and free institu- 
 tions are gradually established. Already has one colony 
 assumed a high rank among nations ; whatever may be 
 the future greatness of the American republic, it is rea- 
 sonable to infer from its present state, that it must exert 
 a beneficent influence over the destinies of the new world. 
 The mother country too has gained by the independence 
 of the settlers; the sphere of her activity has been en- 
 larged, and additional outlets have been opened for her 
 products. England pursues the same career, and is still 
 founding free states for future generations. No other 
 nation has given the same encouragement to industry, 
 and the same extension to commerce ; none has so much 
 contributed to promote freedom, and to enlighten man- 
 kind in every quarter of the globe. It belongs more 
 particularly to the present subject, to describe the coun- 
 try of which the influence is so widely diffused, and to 
 examine the physical and moral causes that have con- 
 tributed to its greatness. 
 
 However numerous the natural advantages of England 
 for commerce may be, it is certain little was added to 
 them by art until a recent period. No canal was form- 
 ed, no artificial channels were cut, before the year 1756, 
 and this fact appears the more remarkable, if the in- 
 creased wealth of the country be taken into account, and 
 if it be considered that the rivers, although in general 
 ill fitted for the means of communication, are admirably 
 adapted to facilitate such works. 
 
 It was known that goods might be conveyed by means 
 of canals for a fourth part of the sum expended on them 
 by the ordinary method, and consequently that many 
 natural products as well as other articles, which, from 
 their remote situation, or different causes, were com- 
 paratively of little value, might be brought within the 
 sphere of commerce. The length of Great Britain from 
 north to south, being much greater than its mean breadth 
 from east to west, the best way of avoiding the long and, 
 in some places, dangerous circuit of the coasts, was to 
 connect, by means of canals at the most convenient posi- 
 tions, the eastern with the western shores. The dilatori- 
 ness of the English seemed the less excusable, because 
 the French preceded them in this branch of industry, 
 which had proved a source of wealth to the inhabitants 
 of Lombardy, Belgiuip and Holland. 
 
 Although the English were so long in beginning such 
 undertakings, Great Britain is now better provided with 
 canals than any other country, and in none are they so 
 extensive in proportion to the surface. It is unneces- 
 sary at present to enumerate them, or to enter into any 
 details concerning their history. 
 
 The most important run from east to west ; they are 
 grouped round Manchester, Liverpool, London, Bir- 
 mingham, Hull and Bristol, so that these wealthy and 
 industrious towns are thus connected with each other, 
 and with the fruitful country that separates them. By 
 means of these works, the manufactures and the various 
 products, which emanate from the same towns, are 
 quickly and cheaply conveyed to the numerous places 
 for which they are destined. It might be shown that 
 within a period not much longer than half a century, 
 canals have been made by which opposite seas are 
 united, by which basins, separated by lofty heights, are 
 joined together, and by which ports communicate with 
 fruitful plains and rich mines. 51 The length of these 
 navigable ways is more than 2500 miles, while the ter- 
 ritory they traverse is less than a sixth part of France. 
 
 The same remarks that have been made on the canals, 
 are applicable to the roads ; the greater number and the 
 improved method of making them date from the middle 
 of the last century. It results from the ingenuity and 
 practical skill of English engineers that travelling is easy 
 and rapid, that animal force is employed to much ad- 
 vantage, and that heavy loads are dragged by fewer 
 horses than in other countries, while light carriages are 
 impelled with greater velocity. These advantages, how- 
 ever great, are of secondary importance ; the roads in 
 England are not only better, they are more extensive in 
 proportion to the surface than in any part of Europe. 
 Those who are aware of all the benefits arising from im- 
 proved means of communication, can best appreciate how 
 much they contribute to promote commerce and diffuse 
 wealth. England contains 20,000 leagues of roads, 1500 
 leagues of canals, and 1200 leagues of rail-roads ; France, 
 which is so much more extensive, has only 3500 leagues 
 of roads, 500 leagues of canals, and 40 leagues of rail- 
 roads. 
 
 Numerous works have been raised within the same 
 recent period along the coasts ; piers, moles, breakwaters 
 and lighthouses have been erected to afford an easy 
 access and a safe shelter to ships, and to facilitate the 
 means of carrying on an immense trade, which consists 
 in the exportation of the various products of English in- 
 dustry, and in the importation of the products of every 
 quarter of the globe. In this trade 168,000 seamen are 
 employed, while the number of merchant vessels amounts 
 to 22,500, and their tonnage exceeds two millions. Some 
 notion of the resources of Britain may be inferred from 
 the fact that, within the last seventy years, more than 
 £30,000,000 have been expended on roads, more than 
 twice that sum on canals and rail-roads, and as much on 
 works along the coasts. The increase in the value of 
 land within the same period is well known ; it appears 
 as if the sums expended for the purposes already men- 
 tioned, had been laid out in improving the soil, and it is 
 difficult to suppose that agriculture could have otherwise 
 been brought to such perfection, and that land could 
 have been rendered so productive. 
 
 1 Baron C. Dupin, Force Coinmerciale de la Grande Bretagne, 
 Chap. C. 
 
BOOK CLiII.J 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 The inventions of great men, and the application of 
 science to the useful arts, have increased to an almost in- 
 definite extent the productive power of industry, and 
 rendered it proportionably independent of the labor of 
 man. The machinery now used in a single branch of 
 industry, namely, in manufacturing cotton, has enabled 
 one individual to perform the work of a hundred and fifty. 
 It appears from the lowest computation, that 280,000 
 persons are employed in the cotton manufactories, while 
 according to the highest, the number amounts to 350,000 ; 
 but by the aid of machinery, they are enabled to accom- 
 plish what must have required, less than a century ago, 
 the labor of at least 42,000,000 or at most 52,500,000 
 persons, or in other words, about three times the present 
 population of Great Britain. The wages of 42,000,000 
 of men, at the rate of a shilling a day, amount to 
 £756,000,000; but the actual wages of all the individ- 
 uals engaged in manufacturing cotton, and the expenses 
 attending the various works, including the interest of the 
 capital laid out in erecting them, are much less than 
 £56,000,000 ; consequently the saving effected by means 
 of machinery in this department of industry alcne, is 
 more than £700,000,000. It is hardly necessary to add 
 that the power employed in the cotton manufactories in 
 Britain, is greater than that in all the manufactories of 
 Europe. Occasion shall be taken in the subsequent 
 chapters to examine more fully the great resources of the 
 
 461 
 
 island ; to enter into all the minute details would greatly 
 exceed the limits of the present article. To increase the 
 productive energy of their country, the English have 
 availed themselves of the ingenuity of every nation. A 
 single instance may be mentioned ; the celebrated Mr. 
 Watt happened to be in Paris, when Berthollet discov- 
 ered the singular property which chlorine possesses, of 
 destroying vegetable colours, and proposed it as a sub- 
 stitute for exposure to the sun in bleaching. This great 
 discovery was applied to the useful arts in Lanarkshire 
 and Lancashire, before it was introduced into many parts 
 of France, and the same individual who invented the 
 steam-engine, had the good fortune to confer a second 
 obligation on his country. 
 
 Many other changes have taken place within the same 
 period ; the streets in almost all the towns are now 
 illumined with a brilliant light,® and the inhabitants are 
 no longer dependent on the produce of the Greenland 
 fisheries ; an immense improvement has been effected by 
 the use of steam-boats, and another, which may be at- 
 tended with still greater advantage, is now in progress ; 
 rail-roads and steam-carriages are likely ere long to be 
 common, and thus the rapid and cheap conveyance of 
 goods may ensure the success of British industry over all 
 its rivals. 
 
 r fJ op light. 
 
462 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIII 
 
 BOOK CLIII. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued. — England and Wales. — Scco7id Sec- 
 tion. — Physical Geography. — Extent. Climate . — 
 
 Coasts. — Rivers. — Mountains. — Productions. 
 
 The southern and larger portion of Great Britain, 
 comprehending England and Wales, is situated be- 
 tween 50° and 55° 45' north latitude, and 1° 50' east, 
 and 5° 40' west longitude. Bounded on three sides 
 by the sea, it is contiguous on the north to Scotland. 
 St. George’s Channel washes it on the west, the Ger- 
 man Ocean on the east, and the English Channel on the 
 south. The figure of the same country bears some re- 
 semblance to a triangle ; a line drawn from Berwick to 
 the South Foreland represents the eastern side, the west- 
 ern is formed by another line commencing at Berwick, 
 and terminating at the Land’s End in Cornwall, while 
 the base extends from the South Foreland to the Land’s 
 End. 
 
 Early geographers differ widely concerning the super- 
 ficial extent of England, some believing it not to be more 
 than twenty-eight millions of acres, and others making it 
 amount to forty-six millions nine hundred and sixteen 
 thousand. According to a traditional opinion, perhaps 
 more ancient than any other, the extent of South Britain 
 was supposed equal to twenty-nine millions of acres. 
 The data from which this opinion was derived, are not 
 known ; even the period in which it was formed cannot 
 be ascertained. Because it accords nearly with the ex- 
 tent of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, it has been inferred 
 that it dates from so remote an epoch. Although the 
 branch of science on which mensuration depends, was 
 not then known to the rude inhabitants of Britain, other 
 means might have enabled them to arrive at tolerably 
 correct results. The mode in which the revenues of the 
 Anglo-Saxon kings were collected, might afford sufficient 
 materials for the calculation, in as much as it is better 
 adapted for such a purpose than any other method that 
 has been since employed ; besides in Domesday-book, 
 remarkable for great minuteness and accuracy, continual 
 reference is made to a more ancient register of the same kind. 
 The correctness of the measurement does not appear to 
 have been doubted before the seventeenth century ; since 
 that period the subject has attracted the attention of nu- 
 merous writers, such as Gerard Malines, Sir William Petty, 
 Gregory King, the celebrated Halley, Grew, Temple- 
 man, Mr. Arthur Young and many others. The data 
 necessary for such a task were wanting, and the calcula- 
 tions differing widely from each other, afforded a con- 
 vincing proof of their inaccuracy. 
 
 Other errors of the same sort might be still believed, 
 had not the trigonometrical survey been undertaken by 
 direction of government ; in the course of it the maps, 
 
 not only of the whole country, but of the different coun- 
 ties, were discovered to be incorrect, and the distance 
 between the South Foreland and the Land’s End was 
 found to be less by about half a degree than the distance 
 formerly laid down. The difference between the paral- 
 lels of latitude of Greenwich and Paris, it was ascertain- 
 ed, is equal to 963,954 feet, or 182.567 miles, which 
 corresponds with 2° 38' 26". Thus, the length of a 
 degree of the meridian, in latitude 50° 10', amounts to 
 69. 1 4 miles. The difference of longitude between Green- 
 wich and Paris is equal to 2° 19' 51", or, in time, S m 19" 
 4'". It may be mentioned that a line drawn across the 
 English Channel, from the South Foreland to Blanc- 
 nez, a is equal to 20.025 miles ; such is the breadth of 
 the natural barrier which has secured Britain against for 
 eign aggression. A remarkable example of the accuracy 
 to which practical geometry had attained, was afforded 
 in the course of the survey. In two distances deduced 
 from sets of triangles, measured by General Roy in 
 1787, and by Colonel Mudge in 1794, the one of 24.133 
 miles, the other of 38.688, the two agree within a foot as 
 to the first distance, and within sixteen inches as to the sec- 
 ond. Formerly, the calculations, or rather the conjec- 
 tures, concerning the area of England and Wales, were 
 of such a nature that no reasonable confidence could be 
 placed in them ; now, the extent of the country may not 
 only be better determined than that of any other, but 
 with a degree of accuracy more than sufficient for the 
 purposes of geography. 
 
 It is vain to compare the climate of England with that 
 of other countries in more favorable latitudes. If the 
 genial influence of the sun is never long felt, it may be 
 attributed to a situation in the northern part of the tem- 
 perate zone, while the chilly and damp weather of so 
 frequent occurrence may be accounted for by an insular 
 position and other causes that may be afterwards men- 
 tioned. Stinted as it is of the light of the sun, and ex- 
 posed to frequent rains or blasting winds, the soil does 
 not yield those vegetable treasures which appear in such 
 luxuriance in tropical climates, and which, almost with- 
 out any labour, satisfy the wants or luxuries of indolent 
 inhabitants. England, it has often been remarked, is 
 better adapted for the growth than the ripening of the 
 productions of the earth. Extreme cold is not felt in 
 winter, and the summers are seldom oppressive ; hence 
 an appearance of verdure that continues in a greater or 
 less degree throughout the year, vegetation not being 
 destroyed by the winter’s cold, nor wholly parched and 
 withered by the summer’s heat. IV o charm in the rural 
 
 ■’ Blanc-nez (The White Cape,) a promontory 4 miles west of Calais. 
 The name is corrupted by English sailors into Blackness. — P. 
 
BOOK CLiIII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 4G3 
 
 districts is comparable to their perpetual verdure, none 
 is more characteristic of England ; the English them- 
 selves may be insensible to it from custom, foreigners 
 can appreciate it better. To enjoy such scenery, one 
 must visit the country in summer or in autumn, for even 
 in the fruit season, the freshness of spring is apparent, 
 and the flowers exhale the sit eetness of their early 
 perfume.® 
 
 The theoretic arrangement of the seasons, so well 
 adapted for the southern latitudes, is not equally applica- 
 ble to the climate of Britain ; on the continent their 
 commencement and duration may be predicted with suf- 
 ficient precision, while in England the weather is so varia- 
 ble, and all the seasons are so much intermixed, that it 
 is very difficult to determine the periods of their arrival 
 and departure. According to a common opinion, De- 
 cember, January and February are the winter months ; the 
 three following form the spring, while the summer begins 
 in June, and continues to the end of August; Septem- 
 ber, October and November are the autumnal months. 
 It must not however be imagined that the seasons are 
 confined to their respective months ; something like the 
 spring appears occasionally in January or February; 
 the air is mild, buds are seen on the hedges or the trees, 
 and the songs of the birds enliven the woods. But 
 these gleams of a warmer sunshine are soon dissipated, 
 winter resumes its horrors, and the intervals of fine 
 weather are not longer than what the French call un cte 
 de St. Martin, or Martinmas summer. Those who have 
 paid most attention to such subjects, and who have ob- 
 served with the greatest attention different indications or 
 probable signs, confess their ignorance of any by which 
 the severity or mildness of an English winter can be 
 foretold. It is known, however, that frost seldom sets in 
 before Christmas ; however severe the season may be, 
 it is much milder than in continental countries under the 
 same parallels. The sea-ports of Holland and Germany 
 are every winter blocked with ice, while those in Eng- 
 land are always open. 
 
 a Baron O. Dupin, Force Commerciale de la Grande Bretagne. 
 
 b Milton’s Ode to May,* * although the production of his younger 
 years, is an ode of uncommon beauty, but it is not descriptive of what 
 May is in England. 
 
 * Song- on May Morning. — P. 
 
 c Pinkerton’s Modern Geography, vol. I. p. 70. 3d Edit. 
 
 d Different maladies are produced or aggravated by the variableness 
 of the climate ; it is one reason of the frequency of pulmonary con- 
 sumption, it increases scrofula, and it gives rise to catarrhs, rheuma- 
 tisms and many other diseases. These remarks are generally applicable 
 to the climate of Great Britain, but what has been called the mild re- 
 gion of England forms an exception ; it is divided into four groups, of 
 which the first includes the tract of coast between Hastings and Port- 
 land Island, the second extends from the last point to Cornwall, the 
 third forms the district of the Land's End, and the fourth comprehends 
 the country on the borders of the Bristol Channel and the estuary of 
 the Severn. 
 
 The climate, with all its defects, has been extolled by many, among 
 others by the celebrated Sir William Temple. Numerous instances of 
 longevity are mentioned in his essay on health. — “ I must needs add 
 one thing more in favour of our climate, which I heard the king say, 
 and I thought new and right, and truly like a king of England that 
 loved and esteemed his own country ; it was in reply to some of the 
 company that were reviling our climate, and extolling those of Italy and 
 Spain, or at least of France : he said, he thought that was the best climate 
 where he could be abroad in the air with pleasure, or at least without 
 trouble and inconvenience, the most days of the year, and the most 
 hours in the day; and this he thought he could be in England more 
 than any other country in Europe.” 
 
 It has been maintained that a considerable change to the worse must 
 have taken place in the climate of Great Britain, because at an early 
 period the vine was cultivated, and not without success. The argu- 
 ments, or rather the alleged facts, on which this opinion is founded, 
 may be briefly examined. The Isle of Ely was called the Isle of Vines 
 
 March, April and May, it has been observed, are the 
 nominal spring, but there is certainly no month in which 
 the weather is more unsettled or variable than in March ; 
 when it does not assume the character of winter, it is wet 
 and boisterous, or accompanied with frequent storms of 
 hail. The injury thus occasioned to agriculture, has 
 probably given rise to the English proverb, “ a peck of 
 March dust is worth a king’s ransom.” April, although 
 a wet, is commonly a mild month, but the east winds 
 prevalent in May, seem ordained to destroy the efforts 
 of reviving nature, and to blast the hopes of the husband- 
 man. Warmth, and genial breezes or refreshing showers, 
 are the attendants of May in F ranee, and all nature appears 
 instinct with life. Constant disappointment has not con- 
 vinced the English that the same month is very different 
 in the two countries. 11 It has been often said that there 
 is no spring in England : the saying is true, if by spring 
 is meant a succession of fine weather, constantly improv- 
 ing and terminating in the warmth and luxuriance of 
 summer ; but intervals of spring, sometimes a week or 
 two at a time, are not unknown over the whole country. 
 
 The cold easterly winds prevalent in May, are often 
 felt in the early part of June; during their continuance, 
 the two months cannot be classed under any of the sea- 
 sons ; they belong as much to winter as to summer. 
 June, however, is much milder in the southern than in 
 the northern counties. July, August and September are 
 summer months throughout the country, but slight frosts 
 have been felt even in August in the north, and during 
 September in the south. October is the precursor of 
 winter in the northern, and November in the southern 
 counties. The weather then becomes disagreeable and 
 unsettled, and it is in November that the dark fogs gen- 
 erally take place in London and the neighbourhood. 
 Such are the seasons in England, and so great is their 
 uncertainty that a writer of some celebrity® does not 
 hesitate to affirm it might be better to divide them into 
 eight months of winter and four of summer, than accord- 
 ing to the ordinary method. d 
 
 by the Normans. It appears from the accounts in Domesday , that there 
 were vineyards in different parts of England; that they existed at so 
 early a period as the commencement of the eighth century is confirmed 
 by the authority of the venerable Bede. The bishop of Ely used to 
 receive three or four tuns of wine annually as tithes from the produce 
 of the vineyards in his diocese. A piece of ground near London was 
 withheld from a religious house by four successive constables of the 
 tower, in the reigns of Rufus, Henry and Stephen, and converted by 
 them into a vineyard “ to their great emolument and profit.” The 
 tithe on wine, it is said, was no uncommon article in the old accounts 
 of the rectorial and vicarial revenues in Kent, Surrey, and other coun- 
 ties. The sheriffs of Northamptonshire and Leicestershire were al- 
 lowed so much for the livery of the king’s vinedresser, and other ne- 
 cessaries of the vineyard. The following extracts are taken from the 
 church archives by the dean of Ely : — 
 
 Exitus Vineti £2 15 3 
 
 Idem Vinece 10 12 2^ 
 
 Ten bushels of grapes from the vineyard 0 7 6 
 
 Seven dolia inusti from the vineyard, 12 Edward II. .15 10 0 
 
 Wine sold for 1 12 0 
 
 Verjuice y 70 
 
 One doliumand one pipe filled with wine, supposed at Ely 
 
 Wine out of this vineyard 1 22 
 
 Verjuice from thence 0 16 6 
 
 No wine but verjuice made 9th Edward IV 
 
 According to the above valuable extract, verjuice only was some- 
 times obtained from the English vineyards ; it is reasonable, therefore 
 to conclude, that they yielded at best but imperfect wines in the most 
 favourable seasons. If sheltered spots were cultivated at present after 
 the same manner, and with as much care, the results, in all probabili- 
 ty, would be the same. It is incorrect, therefore, to derive any argu- 
 ments on the deterioration of the climate from such facts. But there 
 is reason to infer from registers of the weather that some change lias 
 
464 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIII 
 
 It may bo readily supposed, that the climate in so 
 extensive a country as England, is different in different 
 places. In the north the line season commences later, 
 and is still more uncertain and of shorter duration than 
 in the southern counties. The winters are not only more 
 severe, but they continue a greater length of time ; in- 
 deed, it is generally admitted that spring or summer 
 begins a fortnight later on the north of the Mersey and 
 the Humber, than in the south and the south-west. It 
 is doubtful, however, that there is so much difference in 
 the coldness or severity of winter in the northern and 
 southern parts of the country. The autumn is shorter 
 in the north, and frosty nights are of more frequent occur- 
 rence. The difference of the climate in the eastern and 
 western counties, although not of the same kind, is not 
 less remarkable than that between the north and the 
 south. The weather in the west is much more humid 
 and also milder than in the east ; the difference depends 
 on three causes, the vicinity of the western counties to 
 the Atlantic Ocean, the prevalence of the westerly winds, 
 and a ridge of hills that extends along the western side 
 of the island. 
 
 The west winds are saturated with the vapours that 
 rise from the Atlantic Ocean ; these being intercepted 
 in their passage across the range of hills, the aqueous 
 particles are disengaged, but before the same winds reach 
 the eastern part of the kingdom, their vapours are ex- 
 hausted in the form of rain. The winds that blow from 
 the continent on the east are much colder, and fewer 
 vapours are collected in their passage to England. The 
 temperature of the ocean, it is well known, is more 
 equable than that of the land, milder during winter, and 
 cooler in the summer. The western part of England 
 being exposed to the winds from the Atlantic, the win- 
 ters are wet but not severe, and snow seldom lies on the 
 ground any length of time. The same causes account 
 for the genial climate of the south-western counties ; the 
 proverbial mildness of Devonshire and Cornwall depends 
 in a great degree on their exposure to the winds from 
 the Bristol and English Channels. 
 
 It has been proved by careful observers that the south- 
 western coasts are much more exposed to rain than the 
 south-eastern side of the island. It is now more than a 
 century since the quantity of rain which fell at Townley 
 in Lancashire, was measured and compared with the 
 quantity that fell at Axminster in Essex. It was ascer- 
 tained that the annual quantity at Townley during a 
 period of six years from 1700 to 1705, inclusive, was 
 equal to forty-two inches and a half, while that at Ax- 
 minster amounted only to nineteen and a half. It ap- 
 pears from observations made in Rutlandshire that the 
 mean quantity of rain which falls in the county, is twenty 
 inches and a half. It is known that 36.98 inches were 
 the average quantity that fell at Selbourne in Hamp- 
 shire, between the years 1780 and 1786. 
 
 Devonshire, it cannot be doubted, is much moister, 
 and the actual quantity of rain much greater than in the 
 southern and south-eastern counties; still in 1731, the 
 rain measured only 17.266 inches, in 1741,20.344, and 
 in 1743, 20.998. ' 
 
 It appears from a meteorological journal kept by 
 Major Uooke, that the quantity of rain, which fell in 
 
 taken place within the last sixty years, that the winters are in general 
 milder, and the summers colder and more humid than formerly. 
 
 1 Less than the mean. 
 
 London in 1798, was 26.22, at West Bridgeford in Not- 
 tinghamshire, 27.22, at Lancaster, 48.19, and at Kendal, 
 60.85. The average gauge of rain at Sheffield is 33 
 inches, nearly the mean between that of Lancashire and 
 the eastern coast. 
 
 The annual rains in the midland counties are nearly 
 equal to the mean of those in the east and west, or more 
 correctly, they do not amount to so great a quantity. * 1 
 Thus Derbyshire, although a mountainous district, is 
 much less exposed to rain than Lancashire, Stafford- 
 shire, or even Shropshire. It appears, indeed, from a 
 register kept during fourteen years at Chatsworth in 
 Derbyshire, that the following was the average quantity 
 of rain, which fell in each season : — in spring, 4.959, in 
 summer, 7.547, in autumn, 8.181, and in winter, 6.686. 
 In that part of Derbyshire, therefore, most rain falls in 
 autumn, and least in spring ; the same remark is appli- 
 cable to Liverpool. 
 
 The average quantity of rain increases as we advance 
 northwards on the western coast. In Liverpool it is 
 ascertained to be equal to 34.41 inches, while at Lan- 
 caster it amounts to 40.3. In the last place too, the 
 greatest quantity falls in the autumn, or perhaps during 
 the months of July, August and September. 
 
 The counties in the neighbourhood of London are not 
 exposed to much rain. The observations in this part of 
 England may not have been made with sufficient accu- 
 racy, nor may they have been continued a sufficient 
 length of time; but in one place, at Youngsbury near 
 Ware in Hertfordshire, about twenty miles from London, 
 a register was kept during five vears ; there the annual 
 fall in 1787, was equal to 23.664 inches, in 1788, to 
 17.676, in 1789, to 29.493, in 1790, to 22.970, and in 
 1791, to 24. 200. b A tolerably correct notion of the 
 annual falls in the neighbouring counties, may be inferred 
 from these results ; at all events, the difference, if it be 
 great, must be attributed to local causes. 
 
 Some conclusions may be deduced from the above 
 details. The greatest quantity of rain falls near Kendal, 
 where the annual average exceeds sixty inches. Al- 
 though the southern parts of the western coast are less 
 liable to rain than the northern, it is doubtful if the rule 
 he equally applicable to the peninsula of Cornwall, and 
 the west of Devonshire. More rain falls in the north- 
 eastern than in the south-eastern counties; still in both, 
 the climate is much drier than in the western part of the 
 island. Norfolk is probably the county in which the 
 least rain falls during the year. July, August, Septem- 
 ber and October are the wettest months in the west- 
 ern ; November, December and January, in the eastern 
 counties. 
 
 It is very difficult to determine with any thing like 
 accuracy, the quantity of rain that falls annually in Eng- 
 land and Wales; a sufficient number of experiments have 
 not been made in different places, and the mean of all 
 the observations cannot be considered applicable to the 
 whole surface. Dr. Halley supposed the annual quan- 
 tity equal to twenty-two inches, but Mr. Dalton fixed it 
 with greater probability at 31.3. c The same philosopher 
 concluded from a series of experiments, that five inches 
 of water fall annually throughout the country in the form 
 of dew ; hence taking thirty-one inches for rain, and five 
 
 b See the article England in the Encyclopedia Edinensis [Edin- 
 burgh Encyclopedia.] 
 
 c See Mr. Dalton's paper in the Manchester TransacUons for 1798 
 
BOOK CLIII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 465 
 
 for dew, and supposing the whole extended over the 
 surface of England and Wales, it is equal to twenty-eight 
 cubic miles, or 11.500,000,000 tons in weight. 
 
 In England, the warmest months are July and August, 
 and a greater degree of cold occurs commonly about the 
 end of December, or beginning of January, than at any 
 other period of the year. The thermometer, it has been 
 ascertained, rises higher in the immediate vicinity of the 
 metropolis than in any other part of the island. The 
 north-eastern districts are exposed to the greatest degree 
 of cold, but the difference of temperature in winter is 
 not nearly so great as the difference during summer in 
 the northern and southern counties. The mean range 
 of the thermometer has been determined in different 
 parts of the island. The mean temperature at Liver- 
 pool, during a period of twenty-five years, was 53° of 
 Fab renheit at noon, the greatest degree of heat 86°, and 
 the lowest 22°. The greatest range of the thermometer 
 at the same place is 64°, and the mean annual range, 46°. 
 At Dover the mean heat is 57°; the highest degree ob- 
 served between the years 1790 and 1793, was 86°, and 
 the lowest, 16°; the greatest range, 70°, and the mean 
 annual range, 51°. The mean height of the thermome- 
 ter at Lancaster during seven years was 51°. 8 at two 
 o’clock in the afternoon, and 45°. 6 at ten o’clock at 
 night; the mean heat, noon and night, 48°. 7, the high- 
 est 82°, and the lowest 18°. 
 
 It appears from a series of observations, made at the 
 Royal Society from 1772 to 1780, that the mean annual 
 temperature is 51°. 9, and the monthly temperature as 
 follows : January 35°. 9, February 42°. 3, March 46°. 4, 
 April 49°. 9, May 56°.61, June 63°. 22, July 66°.3, 
 August 65°. 85, September 59°. 63, October 52°. 81, No- 
 vember 44°. 44, and December 41°. 04. The greatest 
 cold is 20°, and the greatest heat 81°; the former occurs 
 generally in January, and the latter in July. 
 
 Dr. Young remarks, that the mean temperature of the 
 six winter months from October to March at London, is 
 43°. 5, while it is 45°. 3 at Dawlish on the south coast 
 of Devonshire, and so high as 59° at Ilfracombe on the 
 Bristol Channel. The temperature in the most sheltered 
 parts of Devonshire, during winter, is 1°.5 above that 
 of London ; in the coldest months, it is 4°. 5 higher at 
 Penzance than in the metropolis. 
 
 It would be incorrect to infer from these observations 
 on the climate of England, that extremes of cold or heat 
 are unknown in the country. A degree of cold has been 
 felt in some years, that is of rare occurrence in more 
 northern parallels, in countries more remote from the 
 sea. In the years 1794, 1798, and 1813 — 14, the 
 thermometer, it is said, fell to five degrees above zero ; 
 it is certain that in the last of these years it was within 
 8° of the same point. The heat, on the other hand, is 
 sometimes excessive ; in the summer of 1808, the ther- 
 mometer rose higher than 89° in many places round 
 London. It happens sometimes in the southern dis- 
 tricts, if the sun shines bright, and the weather is serene 
 or unclouded, a few days or even hours in summer, that 
 the temperature becomes suddenly as warm as in the 
 south of France or even Italy ; but these moments of a 
 
 a In the course of the year, and on an average in the same part of 
 the country, the south-west winds blow 112 days, the south-east 32, 
 the north-east 58, the east 26, the north-west 50, the south 18 days, 
 the west 53, and the north 16 days. 
 
 VOL III.— NO. 56 59 
 
 more genial climate are commonly succeeded by cold 
 weather, storms of hail, or violent showers. 
 
 It has already been observed that the west and south- 
 west winds are most prevalent in England ; their con- 
 stancy may be attributed to the situation of the island, 
 and its exposure to the Atlantic Ocean. The same 
 winds are also the most violent, not only in the western, 
 but also in the midland and eastern counties. The trees 
 in every part of the country have an evident bending in 
 the same direction, and no other proof of the violence 
 and constancy of these winds can be more satisfactory. 
 The east and north-east winds are, next to the west and 
 south-west, perhaps the most regular ; it seldom hap- 
 pens, however, that they blow violently any length of 
 time. The north-west wind is not of common occur- 
 rence, but the most rare of any is that which proceeds 
 from the south. In the summer season, and in calm 
 weather, the wind veers frequently to different quarters 
 in the same day, or even in the course of a few hours. 
 Near the sea-coast, during the same season, and in this 
 sort of weather, the wind at break of day blows from the 
 land ; at noon, or a little before it, it changes to the 
 direction of the sea, and becomes again a land wind in 
 the course of the evening. A wind not unlike the Ital- 
 ian sirocco is sometimes felt in England, but the change 
 of temperature is comparatively inconsiderable. Occur- 
 ring commonly in April or May, the medium height of 
 the thermometer being about 45°, the barometer falls, 
 the winds, before variable, continue stationary at south- 
 west or south, and the thermometer rises suddenly to 
 65° ; no sooner, however, has the wind ceased, than it 
 descends again to the usual level. 
 
 The following facts are deducible from the observa- 
 tions which were made by order of the Royal Society. 
 In the vicinity of London, the south-west wind blows 
 more frequently every month in the year than any other, 
 particularly in July and August : the north-east wind 
 prevails during the months of January, March, April, 
 May and June ; it occurs most rarely in February, July, 
 September and December: the north-west wind is most 
 frequent from November to March ; it is less so in Sep- 
 tember and October than in any other months. 
 
 It follows from the careful observations made by Mr. 
 Hutchinson at Liverpool, that the south-east wind is 
 most common in that place, a fact at variance with the 
 general remark that has been made on the prevalent 
 winds in England. 1 Dr. Darwin attributes this remark- 
 able deviation to an atmospheric eddy, produced by the 
 situation of the town ; there can be no doubt that it is 
 occasioned by local causes. As to the connexion be- 
 tween the height of the barometer and the different 
 winds, it is well known that in England, nay, in every 
 part of the island, the mercury rises higher when the 
 wind proceeds from the north or east, or from any point 
 between these quarters, than when it blows from the 
 south or west, or from any point between them. Thus 
 it often rains during a north or east wind, when the 
 barometer remains at a height, which would be consid- 
 ered an indication of fair weather with a west or south- 
 west wind. b 
 
 b The author of the article England in the Encyclopedia Edinensis 
 [Edinburgh Encyclopedia] has collected the results of most of the 
 observations concerning the climate ; to mention them might lead to 
 too long details 
 
460 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXIII 
 
 The coasts, an important feature in the geography of 
 a maritime country, may he briefly described. The 
 western coast is formed on the north, by Cumberland, 
 Lancashire and Cheshire, by Flintshire, Denbighshire, 
 Caernarvonshire, Anglesea and Merionethshire in North 
 Wales, and by Cardiganshire and part of Pembrokeshire 
 jn South Wales. The remaining portion of the Pem- 
 brokeshire coast, and those of Caermarthenshire and 
 Glamorganshire, bound the Rristol Channel on the north, 
 while Somersetshire and the northern coast of Devon- 
 shire confine it on the south; lastly, the northern coast 
 of Cornwall forms the extremity of the western side of 
 the island. 
 
 The Esk separates Scotland from England at the ex- 
 tremity of the Solway Firth, 3 which is bounded in many 
 places by a marshy shore. The coasts of Cumberland 
 and part of Lancashire form a sort of semicircle from the 
 mouth of the Eden to the Isle of Walney. Between the 
 two last places, and on the south of the Derwent, the 
 small bay of Whitehaven is sheltered by naked hills and 
 by the white rocks from which its name has been derived. 
 Not more than six miles from Whitehaven, the promon- 
 tory of St. Bees Head, the resort of numerous sea-fowfl, 
 protrudes into the sea. 
 
 The rugged and indented coast of Lancashire may be 
 divided into three parts; the first comprehends the space 
 between the Dudden and the Ken, which separate it 
 from Cumberland and Westmoreland ; the second ex- 
 tends from the Ken to the Kibble ; and the third from 
 the Ribble to the Mersey, which separates the county 
 from Cheshire. The coast of Furness, the first of these 
 divisions, is nearly equal to thirty miles in length ; the 
 long and narrow isle of Walney, which appears to have 
 formed at one period part of the Lancashire coast, 
 now serves to protect it against the impetuous w r aves of 
 the Irish Sea. The broad estuary, which separates Fur- 
 ness from the rest of the county, is sometimes forded at 
 low water, but not without danger. The Dudden, the 
 Ken, the Lune and other streams discharge themselves 
 into the deep bay of Morecambe, opposite the town of 
 Lancaster. The second part is flatter than the first ; a 
 marshy tract almost encloses Poulton, and the coast be- 
 yond it, is indented by the estuary of the Ribble. 
 
 The Romans gave the name of the Port of Lancashire 
 to this part of the coast, which appears to be much 
 changed since their time. “Tradition,” says Mr. Whita- 
 ker, “ the faithful recorder of many a fact, that history 
 has forgotten, speaks confidently of the cause, ascribing 
 the final ruin of Ribchester to the overwhelming vio- 
 lence of an earthquake. And nothing but such an acci- 
 dent could have originally changed the nature of the 
 estuary, once the most remarkable in the county, or 
 have thrown out that large and broad barrier of sand, 
 which crosses the entrance, almost chokes the inlet into 
 the tide, and contracts the original breadth of the navi- 
 gable channel from the majestic extent of eight or nine 
 miles, to the narrow span of a hundred yards.” The 
 last part of the Lancashire coast between the Ribble and 
 
 1 This is not correct. The boundary from the head of Solway 
 Firth, is first formed by the Sark, a small river entering the Firth to 
 the west of the Esk ; then by a line drawn eastward from the Sark to 
 the Esk ; then by the Liddel, an eastern branch of the Esk ; and 
 lastly, by Kershope Water, a southern branch of the Liddel. — P. 
 
 k renmaenmawr* * is a promontory, 1550 feet high, projecting into 
 
 * Welsh, pen, head; maen, stone or rock; and maior, great. 
 
 the Mersey is nowhere bold or lofty, and it becomes 
 gradually flatter towards the southern extremity. 
 
 The short line of coast in the county of Chester, may 
 be compared to a headland stretching a considerable way 
 into the Irish Channel ; the Mersey and the Dee form the 
 northern and southern boundaries. The coast of Flint- 
 shire extends between the last river and the Clwyd ; it 
 is in general low and marshy, but in some places, par- 
 ticularly in the neighbourhood of Holywell, the hills rise 
 a considerable height above the sea. The county of 
 Denbigh begins beyond the Clwyd ; although rich in 
 lead mines, and famed for its manufactures, it has no 
 convenient port; it terminates in the peninsula and cape 
 of Great Ormes Head at the mouth of the Conway, the 
 boundary between Denbighshire and Caernarvonshire. 
 The long line of coast in the last county is bold and 
 lofty, broken by precipices, and indented by bays. An 
 excellent road has been cut across the once inaccessible 
 height of Penmaenmawr, which rises near the middle of 
 an extensive inlet between Aberconway and Bangor. b 
 At the last place commence the Menai Straits, a narrow 
 channel, which changes the character of the coast by 
 separating Wales from the Isle of Anglesea, sometimes 
 appearing as motionless as a lake, and at other times, 
 flowing majestically from north to south.® 
 
 The small island of Holyhead, on the w r est of Angle- 
 sea, at the entrance of St. George’s Channel, is well 
 known on account of its port, admirably adapted to af- 
 ford shelter to ships on their way from the north or 
 south. Hundreds of vessels unable to run out to sea from 
 contrary winds, are sometimes detained in the harbour ; 
 they have been seen setting sail at the same time, as soon 
 as the wind has changed in their favour. Returning 
 to the Welsh coast, we observe no harbour of any con- 
 sequence in tbe bay of Caernarvon, or the sweep from the 
 southern extremity of the Menai Straits to the promon- 
 tory of Bronhy-Swil, on the east of which are the road- 
 stead of Aberdaron, and the gulf of Hell’s Mouth. 
 Beyond these places, the Caernarvonshire coast turns 
 to the north-east, and reaches the limits of Merioneth 
 shire, a county in which the population, relatively to the 
 surface, is less than in any other in Wales. 
 
 Cardigan Bay, the largest of any on the western side 
 of the island, extending from the abrupt angle at Aber- 
 daron Point to the north of St. Davids, washes North 
 and South Wales. The coast of Merionethshire, part of 
 the same bay, is wild and rugged : Harlech Fort defends 
 a good anchorage, and Barmouth, the only port in the 
 county, is situated at the mouth of the Avon, on an arm 
 of the sea, into which other rivers and streams are dis- 
 charged. The coast of Cardiganshire fronts the west, a 
 considerable way below Aberystwith, and afterwards di- 
 verges gradually so as to front tbe north. The line of 
 coast in this county is nearly equal to forty miles ; it has 
 been much exposed to the encroachments of the sea ; 
 once covered with numerous towns, a few wretched vil- 
 lages are all that can now be seen. 
 
 The bold coast of Pembrokeshire is bounded by nu- 
 
 the eastern entrance of the Menai Straits, about half way between 
 Aberconway and Bangor. A road winds round it, on a ledge of 
 rock. — P. 
 
 c The Menai Straits sometimes appear land-locked, like a lake, 
 
 and at other times assume the form of a large navigable river, flowing 
 with several curves, nearly in a direction from north to south. (Ed 
 Enc. art. England.) — P. 
 
BOOK CLIII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 467 
 
 merous hills, or by steep and precipitous cliffs, and is cut in 
 many places by different bays. The first of any conse- 
 quence is that of Aberkikar, formed by Kenmaes-Head 
 on the north, and Pendrowy on the south. The last 
 promontory is the northern boundary of Newport Ha- 
 ven, which stretches towards the south-west to Di- 
 nas-Head. A larger bay, that of Fisguard, cuts deeper 
 into the land, and is limited on one side by Dinas- 
 Head, and on the other by Pen Anglas. The coast be- 
 yond it, bending towards the south-west, winds round 
 Strumble Head, and continues in a south-south-west di- 
 rection to Cape St. David. Having doubled the last 
 cape, we enter St. Bride’s Bay, of a semicircular form, 
 open on the west, and prolonged on the south by seve- 
 ral small islands. 
 
 On the south-east of these islands, and at no great 
 distance from them is situated Milford Haven, enclosed 
 by lofty mountains, sinuous, penetrating far into the 
 land, and of a sufficient depth to receive the largest 
 ships. In time of war, Milford Haven is of impor- 
 tance as a naval station ; in time of peace, it is equal- 
 ly so for the purposes of commerce, as a place of shelter 
 from storms or contrary winds, to the merchant vessels 
 that depart from or return to the Bristol Channel. The 
 Dugledy and the Cleddy, which are navigable to Haver- 
 ford and Narbeth, fall into the same bay ; it thus affords 
 an outlet to the produce of the coal mines and chalk 
 pits in the vallies watered by these rivers. 
 
 Leaving Milford Haven, and pursuing an easterly 
 course into the Bristol Channel, the coast of South Wales 
 continues rocky and broken by natural cavities to the en- 
 trance of Caermarthen Bay, bounded on one side by the 
 rock on which the small port of Tenby is built, and on 
 the other by Penryhn Gwye point, the extremity of 
 Gower, a remarkable headland of Glamorganshire ; its 
 limestone cliffs tower above the sea, and a great quantity 
 of lime is obtained and exported from it to the English 
 counties on the other side of the channel. 
 
 The bay, the peninsula and town of Swansea are 
 situated on the east of Gower, nearly midway between 
 Tenby and Bristol. The town, a convenient port, is 
 built near the mouth of the Towy, and in the neighbour- 
 hood of its banks, coal, iron-ore and limestone are obtain- 
 ed. The Bristol Channel is so much contracted beyond 
 the peninsula of Swansea, that all the heights on the op- 
 posite coasts of Devonshire and Somersetshire may be 
 distinctly seen from the bay of Glamorgan. 
 
 The province of Wales abounds in coal, iron-ore and 
 other valuable minerals ; their conveyance to the coasts 
 is facilitated by artificial communications, by rail-roads, 
 canals and other works, in the construction of which 
 much ingenuity has been exerted, and many natural ob- 
 stacles have been surmounted. It is by the same means 
 that the copper and tin ore dug in Cornwall are conveyed 
 to the extensive founderies near the rich coal mines in 
 Wales. 
 
 Of the Monmouthshire coast, it may be remarked that 
 one part is low and marshy, while the other in the neigh- 
 borhood of the Wye is rocky and precipitous. 
 
 The Bristol Channel enters an extensive bay on the 
 coast of Somersetshire, of which the curved and indented 
 outline is nearly equal in length to sixty miles. The Axe 
 and the Yeo convey their streams to the same coast ; the 
 former ascends to Glastonbury ; the latter passes by Bridge- 
 
 water and Langport. Beyond the Yeo, the coast turns 
 to the west, and in this part of it is situated the small port 
 ofWatchet, formerly famous for its herring fisheries, now 
 better known for a species of alabaster, which is con- 
 verted into hydraulic lime. Continuing our journey 
 westwards, we pass along a rocky and rugged shore, to 
 the safe and commodious port of Minehead, of which the 
 trade has ceased, since the herring has disappeared from 
 the neighbouring sea. Beyond the last place, the north- 
 ern coast of Devonshire joins that of Somersetshire ; the 
 port of Ilfracombe is defended by a semicircular range of 
 hills, which add greatly to the beauty and salubrity of its sit- 
 uation : it is visited by strangers in the bathing season, and it 
 carries on a regular intercourse with Bristol, Swansea and 
 Milford. The coast turns to the south from Ilfracombe to 
 the mouth of the Taw in the bay of Barnstaple, in which 
 the small town of Bideford may be remarked for the 
 industry of its inhabitants ; they carry on a great coasting 
 trade with Ireland and Scotland, convey to Wales the 
 produce of the mines in Devonshire and Cornwall, and 
 send a considerable number of vessels to the fisheries 
 on the banks of Newfoundland. The promontory of 
 Hartland Point forms the southern extremity of Barnsta- 
 ple Bay ; at no great distance from it, the northern part 
 of the Cornish coast, the last on the western side of 
 England, commences. A long and broken shore extends 
 from Beedshaven to St. Ives, between which and the 
 Land’s End, the most westerly point in the island, no 
 harbour of any consequence can be mentioned. Some 
 statistical results, relative to the population of the west- 
 ern coast, may be subjoined. 
 
 Inhabitants 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 Square 
 
 miles. 
 
 per square 
 mile. 
 
 Cumberland and Westmoreland 
 
 . 211,700 
 
 . 1,349,500 
 
 2241 
 
 94 
 
 Lancashire and Cheshire . . . 
 
 2882 
 
 468 
 
 Wales — western part of . . . 
 
 . 309,850 
 
 3331 
 
 111 
 
 Counties on the Bristol Channel 
 
 . 2,392,400 
 
 4146 
 
 1G0 
 
 Total 
 
 4,323,450 
 
 12,600 
 
 189 
 
 The southern side of England is bounded by the 
 southern coasts of Cornwall and Devonshire, by the 
 coasts of Dorsetshire, Hampshire and Sussex, and by 
 part of Kent. 
 
 Doubling the Land’s End, and passing between the 
 main-land and the Scilly Isles, we enter the bay of St. 
 Michael, on which are situated the three ports of Pen- 
 zance, Marazion and Helston. The same bay affords, in 
 the event of storms or contrary winds, a safe retreat to 
 the ships that return to or depart from England. It 
 terminates on the east near the promontory of the Liz- 
 ard, 1 which maybe mentioned as the southernmost point 
 in Great Britain, being somewhat below the fiftieth de- 
 gree of latitude. The shore is irregularly indented from 
 the same point to the southern extremity of the Ram Head, 
 that fronts the coast of Devonshire. Several bays and 
 havens lie on this part of the coast of Cornwall, among 
 others, Falmouth Haven, the estuaries of the Fowey and 
 the Looe, and lastly, that of the Tamar, where the har- 
 bour and sound of Plymouth, one of the first military 
 ports in England, pass between the counties of Cornwall 
 and Devon. The harbour is formed by the junction of 
 the Plym and the Tamar at their confluence with the 
 
 1 Lizard Point. 
 
4G8 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLUJ. 
 
 sea. The Eddystone rocks are irregularly scattered 
 about the distance of twelve miles from the middle of 
 Plymouth Sound. Exposed to the tremendous swells 
 from the Ray of Biscay and the Atlantic Ocean, the 
 waves break over them with great violence, and the 
 number of shipwrecks might be still as great as formerly, 
 were not vessels warned of their danger by a light-house, 
 which attests the skill and ingenuity of the late Mr. 
 Smeaton. 
 
 Start Point and Forward Point are the boundaries of 
 the spacious and safe bay of Dartmouth. The harbour 
 of the same name is defended by a fort and two batteries; 
 it may contain live hundred ships. Torbay, about five 
 miles to the north-east of Dartmouth, is not less than 
 twelve miles in circumference ; as it affords a secure re- 
 treat against westerly winds, it has become a rendezvous 
 to the royal navy. The coast is protected by a natural 
 rampart of rocks, crowned by thick woods and lofty 
 trees. The clefts in the rocks are very large ; Kent’s 
 hold, a one of the most remarkable, is a wide cave about 
 six hundred feet in length. The small river Teign and 
 the Exe enter the English Channel on the north-east of 
 Torbay ; from the mouth of the last river, the shore 
 turns gradually towards the south, b and unites at Lyme- 
 Regis with that of Dorsetshire. The shore fronts the 
 south-west at the last place, 0 and stretches as far south 
 as Portland-Bill. d Thus Start Point and Portland-Bill 
 may be considered the western and eastern extremities 
 of a large gulf, in which are included the numerous small 
 bays between them, and the greater part of the Devon 
 and Dorset coasts. A safe road for ships is situated on 
 the north of Portland, but the southern point or Port- 
 land-Race, so called from the rapid currents produced 
 by the tides, is perhaps more dangerous than any other 
 part of the Channel. Having passed Portland-Race, we 
 enter the bay of Weymouth on which the town of the 
 same name is built, and only separated from Melcombe- 
 Regis by a bridge over the Wye.° The harbour is com- 
 pletely sheltered by the surrounding hills, which by op- 
 posing a barrier to the north winds, add considerably to 
 the mildness and salubrity of the climate. The bays of 
 Swanwiclff and Studland are situated on the same coast, 
 on the north-east of Cape St. Albans ;S the spacious 
 haven of Poole communicates with the latter ; as its 
 entrance is very narrow in proportion to the width, that 
 circumstance accounts sufficiently for the stillness of its 
 waters. Pevrel-Point forms the eastern limit of the 
 county , h and at no great distance from it, is seen the Isle 
 of Wight, which from the mildness of its climate, and the 
 richness and variety of its vegetation, may be considered 
 one of the finest situations in Great Britain. It is twenty- 
 two miles in length and more than twelve in breadth ; 
 bounded by four sides that are almost rectilinear, the two 
 northern front England, and the two others, the open sea. 
 It thus affords shelter to the flourishing ports and the 
 excellent anchorages on the opposite shove. 
 
 To jud ge from the appearance of the rocks on the 
 island, and from the projecting point of Hurst Castle on 
 the opposite shore of Hampshire, it is by no means im- 
 probable that the Isle of Wight and the mainland were 
 
 1 Kent’s Hole. (Ed.Enc.) — V. *> So as to front the south. — P. 
 
 c The shore fronts the south- \y.eut from a little east of Lyme -Regis 
 to the Bill of Portland. — P. 
 
 d The Bill of Portland. 
 
 once united. The natural causeway on which Hurst 
 Castle stands, runs two miles into the sea, and approaches 
 within a mile of the island. The tide rushes with great 
 violence through the strait thus formed, and the depth 
 of the water is not less than twenty-eight fathoms. The 
 bold ledges on the side of the island may be attributed 
 to the impetuosity of the waves, but the opposite coast 
 is in many places undermined by the water which the 
 tide collects into a smooth and sequestered bay. 
 
 The Avon descends by Christchurch to the Hamp- 
 shire coast. The bay of Christchurch is formed by the 
 streams of the Avon and the Stour, which join each 
 other a short way below the town. As the promontory 
 of Hengistbury Head, its western limit, appears when 
 seen from the sea to be connected with the town, it is 
 generally known by the name of Christchurch Head. 
 
 Southampton Water or Trissanton Bay, a remarkable 
 inlet on the same coast, extends in a north-westerly 
 direction from Caldshot Castle to the distance of ten 
 miles ; large vessels can sail to its head. The shores of 
 the inlet are varied by picturesque scenery and romantic 
 sites ; on one side they terminate in the New Forest, 
 on the other are the majestic ruins of Netley abbey. 
 
 Further east, the coast of Hampshire fronts the south- 
 west, and that part of the Isle of Wight, where the river 
 Medina throws itself into the channel. The well known 
 road of Spithead, the common rendezvous of ships of 
 war and merchant vessels on their departure for long 
 voyages or distant expeditions, lies between the Isle of 
 Wight and the entrance to Portsmouth harbour. 
 
 The coast of Sussex begins on the east of Portsmouth 
 harbour, and is indented by a large basin or inlet, in 
 which several small islands are situated. The port of 
 Chichester is formed by a branch of the inlet, and a flat 
 shore extends beyond it to the headland of Selsea Bill. 
 Although some rocks are scattered in different directions 
 near Bognor, the coast continues low and apparently 
 almost level with the sea, to the neighbourhood of Little 
 Hampton. The South Downs form a better defined 
 barrier; approaching gradually to the shore, they are 
 broken by the lofty cliffs, which terminate in the bold 
 promontory of Beachy Head, the highest of any on the 
 southern coast of England, dreaded by mariners on ac- 
 count of numerous shipwrecks, and pierced by several 
 caves to which the sea finds a passage. A sandy shore 
 stretches from Beachy Head to Hastings Rock, but the 
 port of Hastings lies between two cliffs. On a capacious 
 bay near the eastern extremity of the county, are the 
 once frequented ports of Winchelsea and Rye; the sea 
 has now receded from the one, and the other is so much 
 encumbered with sand as to admit only very small ves- 
 sels. The long coast of Sussex, upwards of seventy 
 miles in length, is bounded on the east by Dungeness, 
 the extremity of Romney Marsh. 
 
 The part of the Kentish coast next to Sussex, is low, 
 flat and sandy ; a hilly district extends beyond Sandgate, 
 passes from the interior of the county to the shore, and 
 ends in the chalky cliffs that are familiar to the readers 
 of Shakspeare. Part of the same range forms a sort of 
 curve, and recedes a short way from the shore; the town 
 
 f Swanage Bay. s St. Albans Head. 
 
 h Peverell Point is the eastern extremity of the county (Ed. Enc.) 
 — rather of the Isle of Purbeck. fronting the Isle of Wight, and on the 
 south side of the entrance of Swanage Bay. — P. 
 
 e The Wey. 
 
BOOK CLIII.J 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 469 
 
 of Dover is situated below it, and occupies almost all the 
 space between the cliffs and the sea. The same chalky 
 range, broken in different places by intervening hollows, 
 stretches to the South Foreland, which may be consid- 
 ered the eastern extremity of the southern coast, for 
 beyond it the shore recedes and fronts the east, leaving 
 a large space that appears to have been abandoned by 
 the sea. a To complete the survey of the same part of 
 England, it may be necessary to subjoin a table of its 
 superficies and population. 
 
 . Inhabitants 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Square 
 
 miles. 
 
 per square 
 mile 
 
 Cornwall (a half) . 
 
 . 131,300 
 
 663 
 
 198 
 
 Devon (a half) . . 
 
 . 223,950 
 
 1,289 
 
 173 
 
 Dorset .... 
 
 . 147,400 
 
 1,005 
 
 1,628 
 
 147 
 
 Hants .... 
 
 . 289,300 
 
 177 
 
 Sussex .... 
 
 . 237,700 
 
 1,463 
 
 162 
 
 Kent (two fifths) . 
 
 . 134,600 
 
 615 
 
 248 
 
 Total 
 
 1,164,250 
 
 6,663 
 
 Mean 172i 
 
 The eastern side of England is formed by part of Kent, 
 and by the coasts of Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Lincoln, 
 Yorkshire, Durham and Northumberland. 
 
 The Downs, a much frequented road for ships, par- 
 ticularly in time of war, front the port of Deal, and are 
 not less than six miles in length from the South to the 
 North Foreland. b The dangerous Goodwiq Sands lie 
 off the port of Deal, and extend to the neighbourhood of 
 the North Foreland ; a vessel is always moored on them, 
 and lights are constantly burning to warn mariners of 
 their danger. 
 
 The Isle of Thanet, part of Kent, separated from the 
 rest of the county by the narrow channel of the Stour, 
 is about ten miles in length from the North Foreland to 
 Sarr Bridge, and eight miles from Westgate to Sand- 
 wich Ferry. It has undergone great changes; now 
 hardly a peninsula, it was an island in the time of the 
 Romans, and at the same period, the sea between it and 
 Kent, 0 was four miles in breadth. Such was the greatest 
 distance between tbe island and the mainland ; on the 
 southern side it was not more than two, and at Sarr or 
 the port, it did not exceed a mile and a half. The South 
 met the North Sea at the same place, which was called 
 Northmutha, the mouth or entrance of the latter. d An 
 accustomed passage to London by sea, at so late a period 
 as the middle of the fourth century, lay between the Isle 
 of Thanet and the mainland of Kent. The breadth of 
 the passage was considerably diminished in the time of 
 the venerable Bede, who says it was then only three 
 furlongs wide, and so shallow as to be fordable at two 
 places. It afforded, however, a passage for small vessels 
 about the period of the Norman conquest ; at last the 
 inhabitants observing that the tide flowed no longer with 
 any rapidity, began to erect dikes, and brought about the 
 present change. Formerly separated from the mainland 
 by the channel of the Portus Ritupensis, it is now at 
 most a river isle, having the Stour-Wantsome on the 
 
 a Between the North and South Forelands, the shore fronts the east. 
 Off the coast lie the Downs, and beyond them the Goodwin Sands, 
 supposed to have been originally a part of Kent, and submerged about 
 the end of the reign of William II. Near the South Foreland, the 
 chalk cliffs recede from the coast in a direction west by north, and 
 leave a low tertiary tract between them and the chalk of Thanet. — P. 
 
 b Between the North and South Forelands are the Downs. They 
 extend about six miles. The Goodwin Sands extend N. N. E. and 
 
 south, the Mill-stream on the south-west, and the 
 Nethergong-Wantsome on the west ; the rest of Tha- 
 net fronts the sea as before. The junction was thus 
 effected, and the sea, impeded in its course, threw up 
 immense quantities of sand; in this way, Estanore 
 on the eastern shore was formed, being originally an 
 island, which the monks united to Thanet by means of a 
 causeway. 
 
 The Kentish coast becomes marshy as it descends the 
 Swale, a narrow arm of the sea, which bathes the Isle of 
 Sheppey. 
 
 It turns eastwards' 5 to the entrance of the Medway 
 into the Swale, and on the north of the last place are 
 the projecting fort of Sheerness, and the mouth of the 
 Thames. The last river discharges itself into the sea 
 between the North Foreland in Kent, and the Naze, a 
 hooked promontory in Essex, or more definitely, be- 
 tween Sheerness in Kent, and Leigh in Essex. 
 
 The coast of Essex, the most southern of the three 
 maritime counties, that form the peninsula between the 
 Thames and the Wash, is bounded on the south by the 
 Thames, and on the north by the Stour. Essex, Suffolk 
 and Norfolk form a continuous tract of great extent, un- 
 distinguished by any considerable eminence or ridge, but 
 sufficiently elevated in most places to be dry, arable and 
 productive. The Crouch, the first river north of the 
 Thames, on the Essex coast, enters the sea at Foulness ; 
 it may be mentioned on account of the oysters, which 
 are taken at its mouth, and which are considered supe- 
 rior to any others in England. The coast runs north- 
 wards from the mouth of the Crouch to the distance of 
 about ten miles, where the fine bay formed by the Black- 
 water, is enlarged by a great number of small streams, 
 and by the Chelmer, which has been rendered navigable 
 to Chelmsford. 
 
 The Colne, which communicates with the northern 
 shores of the same bay, is now navigable for ships to 
 Wivenhoe, and for smaller vessels to Colchester. A 
 more important bay, on the northern confines of the 
 Essex coast, receives the waters of the Stour and Or- 
 well, the former of which is navigable to the distance of 
 twenty-eight miles. Harwich is built on a peninsula at 
 the mouth of the Stour, and the packet boats to Holland 
 and Belgium set sail from its harbour. More than once 
 during the great struggle between the English and the 
 Dutch, a hundred men of war, and three hundred mer- 
 chant vessels, have been moored at the same time in the 
 spacious haven of Harwich. The greater part of the 
 Essex coast is low, marshy and exposed to the encroach- 
 ments of the sea. According to tradition the outlets of 
 the Stour and Orwell were formerly situated on the north 
 of Landguard Fort, and the Fleets, as they are now 
 called, formed part of the channel. 
 
 The waving shore of Suffolk is chiefly composed of 
 loamy cliffs, continually falling down, and occasioning 
 great changes on the coast, so that whole towns and vil- 
 lages have been destroyed by the sea. The small town 
 
 S. S. W. about 12 miles. (Ed. Enc.) The South Foreland is m lat. 
 51° 12' N., long. 1° 25' E. The North Foreland, in lat. 51° 25' N., 
 long. 1° 2T E. The Downs begin near the S. Foreland, and lie off 
 the port of Deal. — P. 
 
 c On the south-west side. — P. 
 
 d The North Sea entered at what was, from this circumstance, called 
 Northmutha,, or North-Mouth. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 e So as to front the east. — P. 
 
470 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIII. 
 
 of Felix Stow* is situated to the north of Harwich Bay 
 at the mouth of the Deben, which is navigable to Wood- 
 bridge, a distance of ten miles. The Aide and the Blyth 
 are only navigable a few miles : Orford, near the mouth 
 of the former, was once a flourishing port ; it is now 
 wholly blocked up by sand and alluvial deposits. Aid- 
 borough, situated, as its name imports, on the same 
 river, has on the contrary been almost washed away by 
 the sea. The Suffolk coast stretches due north from 
 Orfordness to Southwold ; the last place is built at the 
 mouth of the Blyth, on Solebay, which was formerly 
 bounded by Eastonness, and another cape to the south- 
 east o f Du nvvich, but these limits have been removed by 
 the waves. The picturesque town of Lowestoff, near the 
 northern extremity of the coast, may be remarked on 
 account of its position on the most eastern promontory 
 in Great Britain. The sea coast of Norfolk is formed 
 either by clayey cliffs, continually a prey to the ocean, 
 or by low sandy shores, overspread with loose pebbles, 
 and rising in many places into a kind of natural bank, 
 covered with sand that is held together by the roots of 
 the sea reed grass. Behind these sand-hills are salt 
 marshes of considerable extent, occasionally inundated by 
 the tides, which find an entrance through gaps between 
 the hillocks. Hunstanton Cliff, at the mouth of the 
 Wash, is the only rocky eminence on the coast. Various 
 ports are formed on the northern side by creeks and 
 bays, but they can only admit small vessels. Sand- 
 banks, the dread of the coasting mariners, and the occa- 
 sion of numerous shipwrecks, lie oft' the coast; of these 
 the most remarkable run parallel to the coast of Yar- 
 mouth, and form the celebrated Yarmouth Roads, a 
 place of great resort for ships ; they may ride there in 
 security, although the entrance is difficult and dangerous. 
 
 A great part of the Norfolk coast fronts the north, and 
 hounds on the south the gulf of the Wash, which re- 
 ceives the waters of many streams and rivers. The same 
 gulf serves as a limit between Norfolk and Lincolnshire. 
 'File coast of Lincolnshire, like that of Holland, is pro- 
 tected by dikes against the waves. It is distinguishable 
 by churches, not by hills, being so low as to be seen only 
 a short way from the land. The sea has made encroach- 
 ments in some places, and the remains of forests have 
 been discovered under the water; in others, fruitful tracts 
 have been gained by its recession. Former ports are 
 now either obstructed with sand, or wholly deserted by 
 the ocean, a circumstance which has been adduced by 
 some writers to account for the decay of trade in this 
 part of England. The Lincolnshire coast is upwards of 
 a hundred miles in extent ; it stretches first to the north- 
 east, and then inclines westwards to the mouth of the 
 Humber, which separates it from Yorkshire. 
 
 The river Humber, as it is commonly called, is a large 
 gulf or arm of the sea, at the mouth of the Ouse, en- 
 larged by the Trent and its numerous feeders, and by all 
 the streams from Yorkshire. b The extremity of Holder- 
 ness or Spurn-Head, a long and curved promontory, 6 on 
 which a light-house has been erected for the direction of 
 ships, protects the mouth of the estuary. Sunk Island 
 
 '•Ylixtow, Felixstow. (Shoberl.) — P. 
 h The Humber is formed by the confluence of the Ouse and the 
 Trent. — P. 
 
 c The extremity of [Jolderness [the low country S. E. of the York- 
 shire Wolds] contracts into a neck of land, forming a curve towards 
 
 consists of the sand, which has been deposited on the 
 Yorkshire side. The sea has occasioned great changes 
 in this part of the country. Headon, a free port in the 
 time of King John, and so populous as to contain three 
 parishes, is now little better than a village with scarcely 
 any harbour. The shore continues low and flat from the 
 Humber to the neighbourhood of Bridlington Bay, which 
 is sheltered by Flamborough-IIead from the north-east 
 and north-west winds. The character of the coast 
 changes at the same promontory ; snow-white rocks and 
 lofty cliffs stretching far out at sea, serve as. beacons to 
 mariners. They are composed of mouldering limestone, 
 and their base is pierced by numerous caverns, and 
 broken by the violence of the waves. In the breeding 
 season, their summits are tenanted by countless multi 
 tudes of sea fowl, that animate the air and ocean all 
 around. A remarkable ledge called Filey-Bridge, con- 
 necting a kind of natural mole, runs nearly half a mile 
 into the sea from the other extremity of the bay ; d the 
 rocks are left dry at low water, and serve to protect the 
 coast against the high waves, which break upon them in 
 stormy weather. Further north are situated the town 
 and port of Scarborough in the recess of a bay, forming 
 a sort of amphitheatre crowned by a cliff or scar, from 
 which the name of the place has been derived. The 
 port is the only one between the Humber and the Tyne, 
 that affords, a secure refuge for large ships in violent 
 gales from the east. Lofty hills of alum rock bound the 
 coast beyond Scarborough ; on the north of them is 
 Robinhood’s Bay, in which the small but populous vil- 
 lage of the same name is inhabited by fishermen, who 
 supply Whitby with the produce of their industry. The 
 prosperity of the last place depends chiefly on its exten- 
 sive alum works, and the aluminous schistus which 
 abounds in the neighbourhood. A rude and precipitous 
 coast extends from Whitby to the mouth of the Tees ; 
 many fishing villages, singularly placed like nests on the 
 ledges of the rocks, are situated in different places, and 
 no part of the English coast abounds more with various 
 kinds of fish. 
 
 The river Tees, although not even navigable as far as 
 Darlington, forms at its mouth a considerable estuary, 
 which separates the coasts of Yorkshire and Durham. 
 The town of Hartlepool, built on a small promontory, sur- 
 rounded on all sides except the west by the sea, is the 
 first place on the north of the Tees. Sunderland stands 
 on the right bank of the mouth of the Wear, and Wear- 
 mouth on the left. The two towns are united by a 
 bridge of a single arch, of which the span is 236 feet, and 
 the height from the keystone to the level of the highest 
 tide, not less than ninety-eight. The view of the two 
 towns, and of the bridge that unites them, is remarkable ; 
 the arch appears suspended in the air, ships of consider- 
 able burden with topsails set, pass beneath it, while 
 heavy waggons are drawn by many horses along its aerial 
 causeway : vessels are constantly loading and unloading 
 on both banks of the Wear ; they sail down the river 
 when the tide is ebbing, while others arrive from the sea 
 when it is flowing. Coal and limestone are transported 
 
 the south-west. The extremity of this neck ofland is the Spurn Head, 
 a sickle-shaped promontory. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 d Filey Bay. between Flamborough Head on the south, and Filey 
 Point on the north. — P. 
 
BOOK CLIII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 471 
 
 in numerous waggons along iron rail-ways to the place of 
 embarkation ; lastly, two fine towns crown this magnifi- 
 cent amphitheatre, in which the varied resources ot art 
 and industry form a singular contrast with many natural 
 and picturesque beauties. The Tyne falls into the sea 
 at no great distance from the Wear, and serves equally 
 for the exportation of coal, lime and many other articles. 
 These two rivers, watering an extent of coast, which a 
 foot-passenger may w r alk over in three or four hours, 
 receive annually 16,000 vessels, and send them away 
 laden with the produce of their banks. It need not 
 therefore excite surprise, if six flourishing towns, con- 
 taining in all a population of 86,000 inhabitants, are sit- 
 uated on this narrow tract, of which the length is little 
 more than the breadth. 1 
 
 North Shields is the first port on the coast of North- 
 umberland ; beyond it, at the distance of about a mile 
 and a half, rise the majestic ruins of Tynemouth Castle. 
 Small vessels sail on the Wansbeck to Morpeth, a dis- 
 tance of five or six miles ; but the Coquet is not even 
 navigable to Rothbury, the only town that has been built 
 on its banks. Holy Island is situated on the north of the 
 Farn Isles, which lie nearly opposite to Bamborough Cas- 
 tle, once a strong hold of great importance. A sandy 
 
 shore extends from 
 Tweed. 
 
 Bamborough 
 
 to the 
 
 mouth of the 
 
 Eastern Coast. 
 
 Population, 
 
 Extent, 
 
 Inhabitants 
 
 
 census 18*21. 
 
 square miles, per square mile. 
 
 Kent (a part) . . 
 
 300,000 
 
 921 
 
 326 
 
 Essex 
 
 . 205,300 
 
 1532 
 
 192 
 
 Suffolk .... 
 
 276,000 
 
 1512 
 
 182 
 
 Norfolk .... 
 
 351,300 
 
 2092 
 
 167 
 
 Lincoln .... 
 
 288,800 
 
 2746 
 
 105 
 
 York 
 
 1,197,130 
 
 5961 
 
 200 
 
 Durham .... 
 
 211,900 
 
 1061 
 
 199 
 
 Northumberland . 
 
 203,000 
 
 1871 
 
 108 
 
 Total 
 
 3,123,430 
 
 17,696 
 
 Mean 185 
 
 It may be remarked, that no islands of any conse- 
 quence are situated near the eastern shores ; the Isle of 
 Wight, and a few others of a much smaller size, lie on the 
 south ; the Scillv Islands, Anglesea and Man front the 
 western coast. The estuary of the Exe is the principal 
 inlet on the south ; the most important on the east are 
 that of the Thames, the Wash, and the indentation by 
 which the Humber communicates with the German 
 Ocean ; lastly, Cardigan Bay and the Bristol Channel, the 
 largest inlet on the English coast, are situated on the west. 
 
 The remarkable resemblance between the British 
 coasts and the opposite shores of the continent, 
 has not failed to attract the attention of geologists. 
 “ In the neighbourhood of Aberdeen,” says M. Coque- 
 bert, “one might imagine himself transported to the 
 precipitous granite shores of Norway, and below Aber- 
 deen the coasts are very similar to those of Den- 
 mark.” There is a great resemblance between the Low 
 Countries on the continent and the marshy districts in 
 the south-east of England. Thus, the elevation of the 
 land, and the nature and stratification of the soil, are the 
 same in maritime Flanders, and in the low shores on the 
 
 * C. Dupin, Force Commerciale de la Grande Bretagne. 
 
 •° “ These deposits [viz. green sand ( glauconie ,) chalk, plastic clay, 
 and other formations analogous to those in the environs of Paris (i. e. 
 the tertiary formations of the Paris basin,) just mentioned as skirting 
 the English coast of the Channel,] which are continued beyond the 
 
 opposite side. The superficial suataonboth sides, con- 
 sist of clay silt and sand, which are mixed in many places 
 with vegetable remains. They cover on both sides, 
 a deep stratum of dark coloured clay, unmixed with ex- 
 traneous matter ; lastly, they are bounded on both sides 
 by lines of hills. Tropical plants have been discovered 
 in the British and the Belgic ridge. Cocoa nuts and the 
 fruits of the areca have been collected on the Belgic side ; 
 many petrified fruits of the same sort, and many impres- 
 sions of tropical plants, have been found in the Isl e of 
 Sheppey. The coasts of Devonshire and Cornwall may 
 be compared to those in the departments of Finisterre 
 and the North Coast. The same remark is also appli- 
 cable to the marshes in Sussex, and to others in the 
 Pays de Caux. Appearances render it highly probable 
 that France and England were once united ; the deposits 
 on the coast of Kent, extending to a great distance on 
 the other side of the Channel, the narrow strait sepa- 
 rating the two countries, and the nature of the rocks, 
 as easily undermined as clay, sand or chalk, may be con- 
 sidered the proofs of a disruption.* 
 
 Four rivulets, which rise from different parts of the 
 Cotesw r old Hills in Gloucestershire, form the sources of 
 the Thames, the most important of the British rivers ; these 
 streams are the Lech, the Colne, the Churne and the Isis. 
 The last is navigable to a considerable distance, but the 
 course is sinuous, and the river abounds in shallows. It 
 waters Oxford, and receives, below the same town, the 
 streams of the Chenvell. It is joined by the Thame in 
 the neighbourhood of Dorchester in Oxfordshire. The 
 last river is formed by different streams, some of which 
 have their sources in the central districts of Bucking- 
 hamshire, others on the confines of Hertfordshire, and 
 several in the lower part of Oxfordshire. The one and 
 the other, after their junction, form the Thames or the 
 Thame-isis, as it was originally called. The general 
 direction of its course is towards the south-east, but from 
 Wallingford to Pangbourn it is almost due south, and 
 from the latter place to Henley it bends to the north-east. 
 In the vicinity of the metropolis, it turns with a bold 
 swell to the east, and pursues the same direction, which 
 is only varied by broad reaches, until it falls into the sea. 
 
 The Thames receives not fewer than eleven navigable 
 rivers, and six of a comparatively large size, although 
 not navigable. The length of its course is equal to a 
 hundred and sixty miles, and the length of the navigation 
 to a hundred and thirty from its mouth. It is navigable 
 for vessels of almost any burden to Deptford, for vessels 
 of four hundred tons to the Pool, and of more than two 
 hundred to London Bridge. The effect of the tide 
 is perceptible at the distance of eighty miles from its 
 mouth. It waters a hilly country and the most fruitful 
 districts in England, but in no part of its course does it 
 assume the character of a rapid river. It is distinguished 
 by clear and limpid waters, which are only discoloured 
 after great floods ; when these happen, the banks are in 
 some places submerged ; still, the injury which the hus- 
 bandman sustains, is not so great as that occasioned by 
 smaller but more impetuous streams. 
 
 Straits of Calais, and even to a great distance in the interior of France, 
 are irrefutable proofs that Great Britain was originally united with the 
 continent. Does not the little width of the Straits of Calais also prove 
 that the ocean may have gradually undermined strata as easily broken 
 as sand, clay and chalk?” M. B. t. viii. p. 571. — P. 
 
472 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLII1. 
 
 The principal source of the Severn, the second river 
 in Great Britain, is a small lake on the eastern side of 
 Plinlimmon, at no great distance from the head of the 
 Wye, and on the borders of two shires, those of Cardigan 
 and Montgomery. Watering the last county, and also 
 Shropshire, Worcestershire and Gloucestershire, it dis- 
 charges itself into the Bristol Channel. It flows through 
 a hilly but well wooded country, in the upper part of its 
 course, and bears the name of the Hafren until it arrives 
 at Llanidloes; but, in ancient times, it was known to 
 the Britons by the same name through the whole of its 
 course.* Passing through the romantic vale of Mont- 
 gomeryshire, it enters fhe great plain of Shropshire, and, 
 after a considerable circuit, turns abruptly beyond Welsh- 
 pool, to the south-east. Continuing in the same direc- 
 tion, it almost encircles the town of Shrewsbury; it then 
 traverses the famous Coalbrook-dale, passes Bridgenorth, 
 bends to the south, leaves the county of Salop, and en- 
 ters Worcestershire at Bewdley. As it proceeds, it is 
 joined by the numerous canals that bear the treasures of 
 Birmingham, Kidderminster, and the trading towns in 
 Warwickshire, Staffordshire and Worcestershire. It 
 crosses part of the vale of Evesham, between the Mal- 
 vern Hills and the heights of Bredon. It divides itself 
 into two branches about a mile above Gloucester; these 
 unite below the same town, and enclose the tract, which 
 is called Alney Island. It is enlarged in this part of its 
 course by several streams, and communicates with the 
 canals that convey the products of the woollen manufac- 
 tories in the county. Lastly, it receives the Wye near 
 Chepstow, and the Avon from Somersetshire. 
 
 One might be apt to form an incorrect notion of the 
 Severn from the nature of the country in which it has its 
 source. Thus, it would be inaccurate to consider it an 
 impetuous river; in some places, it is broad and shallow, 
 and the fields on both sides are liable to inundations ; in 
 others, the waters are almost concealed by deep and 
 overhanging banks. Not broken by torrents below 
 Llanidloes, it resembles more the slow rivers in the ex- 
 tensive plains of England than the rapid streams that 
 flow through the narrow vallies and ravines in Wales. 
 It is connected by numerous canals with the principal 
 trading districts in the kingdom, being united with the 
 Thames on the east, and the Trent, the Mersey and the 
 Hu nrber on the north. b 
 
 The Washes serve as an outlet to many rivers, which 
 intersect a low and marshy country ; if it is not so popu- 
 lous as other districts in England, it may be attributed 
 to the stagnant and unwholesome waters that cover the 
 greater pait of it. Natural obstacles retarded the cultiva- 
 
 a Or Severn swift, guilty cf Maiden’s death. — Milton. 
 
 “ Locrine, king of the Britons, married Guendolen, the daughter of 
 Corineus, duke of Cornwall ; but he loved Estrildis, a fair captive, 
 whom he had taken in battle with llumber king of the Huns; and 
 had by her a daughter, equally fair, whose name was Sabra. The 
 secret of the king's love was confined to a very few, lest it should be 
 revealed to Corineus. But when his fear was removed by the death 
 of the duke, not content with secret enjoyment, he divorces Guendo- 
 len, and makes Estrildis his queen. Guendolen, tormented with 
 jealousy and rage, departs into Cornwall, gives battle to her husband, 
 who is shot with an arrow near the river Stour, and ends his life. 
 But not so ends the fury of Guendolen, who throws Estrildis and her 
 daughter Sabra into a river ; and to leave a monument of revenge, 
 proclaims that the stream be thenceforth called after the damsel's 
 name, which, by length of time, has been changed into Sabrina or 
 Serna, the ancient name of Hafren falling gradually into disuse.” 
 Such is the account, given by Milton, in the first book of his history 
 of England. 
 
 tion and improvement of the soil, and it was found neces- 
 sary at so early a period as the middle ages to obtain the 
 resources of Dutch industry, to secure the land against 
 inundations, and to recover plains which had been sub- 
 merged by the sea and by rivers. The superfluous water 
 has been partly directed of late years into different canals, 
 which, by facilitating inland navigation, have diffused 
 wealth among the inhabitants. The Great Ouse rises on 
 the confines of two counties, those of Northampton and 
 Oxford ; it first proceeds eastwards, and waters Bucking- 
 hamshire ; it then pursues a very sinuous course, until it 
 reaches Bedford, where it becomes navigable ; flowing 
 through Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, and the Isle 
 of Ely, it passes into Norfolk, and falls into the Wash 
 at Lynn-Regis. The principal feeders are the Nen from 
 Northamptonshire, the Cam from Cambridgeshire, the 
 Little Ouse from Norfolk, and the Mildenhall® from Suf- 
 folk, all of them navigable rivers. The course of the 
 Great Ouse is not less than a hundred miles in length. 
 In the latter part of its course, it communicates with the 
 extensive marshes which abound on this part of the 
 eastern coast. The Welland and the Glen flow' into the 
 bay of Foss-Dike Wash, so called from the ancient Fossa 
 of the Romans, which w'as repaired by Henrv the First, 
 and extended from Lincoln to the Trent ; at the former 
 place, the Witham becomes navigable, and afterwards 
 falls into the same bay. Such are the principal rivers 
 that communicate with the Washes, the natural drains of 
 the extensive marshes on the low shores of England. 
 
 The Trent, one of the finest rivers in Great Britain, 
 and the chief link in that vast chain of inland navigation, 
 which unites all the central parts of England, may be 
 more fully described. d It rises from the hills beyond 
 Newcastle under Lyne, in that part of Staffordshire near 
 the confines of Cheshire. Following first a south-east- 
 erly course, it turns abruptly by the east to the north 
 near Barton, and serves a short way as a boundary be- 
 tween Leicestershire and Derbyshire ; e it crosses the 
 southern part of the latter, skirts the north-western por- 
 tion of the former county/ and enters Nottinghamshire 
 a little below Thrumpton. It then waters Nottingham, 
 Newark and Gainsborough, enters Lincolnshire at Eas't 
 Stockworth,® and falls into the Humber about five miles 
 below Burton upon Strather. h Vessels sail on the Trent 
 to the distance of more than a hundred miles from its 
 mouth. 
 
 The same river waters verdant meadows, and flows 
 through populous districts. It meets with numerous 
 canals beyond Newcastle under Lyne, some of which 
 extend in a direction parallel to its course. Enlarged bv 
 
 ■’ The barges on the Severn are 120 feet long, 20 broad, and 5 deep ; 
 they carry more than 100 tons. 
 c The Larke, flowing by Mildenhall in Suffolk. — P. 
 
 d Or Trent, who like some earth-born giant spreads 
 His thirty arms along the indented meads. 
 
 Milton. 
 
 And bounteous Trent that in himself enseams 
 Both thirty sorts of fish, and thirty sundry streams. 
 
 Spenser. 
 
 “The name,” says Camden, “ is of Saxon origin; although some 
 ignorant and idle pretenders imagine the name to be derived from the 
 French word trente, and upon that account have feigned thirty rivers 
 running into it, and likewise as many kinds of fish swimming in it.” 
 e So in the Edinb. Encyc. It should read: Staffordshire and 
 Derbyshire. — P. 
 
 1 Of Leicestershire (correct.) — P. 
 s East Stockwith. (Luckombe.) — P 
 h Stather. (Luckombe.) — P. 
 
BOOK CLrlll.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 473 
 
 several streams, it enters the fruitful meadows that are 
 bounded on the left by the hills in Sherwood Forest. It 
 divides itself into two branches in the neighbourhood of 
 Newark, one of which flows beneath the walls of that 
 town, while the other waters Kelham. The two branches 
 unite in an extensive plain below the last place. It 
 passes through a number of fens in a very uninteresting 
 country beyond Gainsborough ; joined at last by tbe 
 Yorkshire Ouse, it forms the great estuary of the 
 Humber. 
 
 The Blyth, a river of some importance, joins the 
 Trent in the neighbourhood of King’s Bromley. The 
 Tame, which rises near Coleshill in Warwickshire, falls 
 into it a few miles above Burton. It receives the Dove 
 below the same place, a feeder which rises near the 
 Peak in Derbyshire, and passes through the dell of 
 Dovedale. The Derwent, like the Dove, has its source 
 near the Peak, and flows parallel to it until it reaches 
 Derby ; but as it proceeds, it bends eastwards, and unites 
 with the Trent at Savvley near the confines of Leicester- 
 shire and Nottinghamshire. The Soar issues from the 
 neighbourhood of Hinckley, passes through a rich graz- 
 ing country, and almost encompasses the town of Leices- 
 ter. Continuing its course along a very fruitful tract, it 
 receives the Wreke from the north-east, and falls into 
 the Trent at no great distance from Cavendish Bridge. 
 
 The tributary streams from the north 1 are not less im- 
 portant. The Don falls into the Northern Ouse near 
 Thorne. The Calder rises in Yorkshire, not far from 
 the borders of Lancashire, joins the Aire near Ferry- 
 bridge, and falls into the Ouse. It is remarkable on 
 account of the numerous canals by which it is intersect- 
 ed, and which form a communication between the east- 
 ern and western seas. The Ure issues from Wensley- 
 Dale in Yorkshire, rushes into a deep cascade at Ays- 
 garth, b joins the Swale at Aldborough, and their united 
 streams form the Ouse. The latter waters York, Ca- 
 wood, where it receives the Wharfe, Selby, and other 
 towns ; it takes the name of the Humber at its conflu- 
 ence with the Trent, below which it forms the great 
 estuary that divides Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. 
 
 If the basins of the rivers, which have been now men- 
 tioned, be determined, if their extent and relative popu- 
 lousness be ascertained, it may be easy to compare them 
 with each other, or to estimate their relative importance. 
 The basin of the Thames is included in the following 
 counties. 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Population, 
 census of 1821. 
 
 Square miles. 
 
 Inhabitants 
 to each 
 square mile. 
 
 Kent .... 
 
 . 300,000 
 
 921 
 
 326 
 
 Surrey .... 
 
 . 406,700 
 
 757 
 
 537 
 
 Berks .... 
 
 . 134,700 
 
 756 
 
 178 
 
 Oxford . . . 
 
 . 139,800 
 
 751 
 
 186 
 
 Buckingham . . 
 
 . 136,800 
 
 740 
 
 185 
 
 Hertford . . . 
 
 . 132,400 
 
 528 
 
 251 
 
 Middlesex . . 
 
 . 1,167.500 
 
 281 
 
 4,154 
 
 Essex .... 
 
 . 295,300 
 
 1,532 
 
 192 
 
 Suffolk . . . 
 
 . 276,000 
 
 1,512 
 
 182 
 
 Total 
 
 2,989,200 
 
 7,778 
 
 Mean 384 
 
 a As there is some confusion in the language here used, respecting 
 the connexion of the different streams forming the Humber, I will just 
 state, that the Humber is an arm of the sea or estuary, formed by the 
 union of the Ouse, from the north, and the Trent, from the south, and 
 that the Trent receives most of the streams from the Midland counties, 
 viz. the Blyth, Tame, Dove, Derwent, Soar, &c. and the Ouse, those 
 frim Yorkshire, viz. the Ure and Swale, which form it by their union, 
 
 VOX. HI.— NO. 57 60 
 
 It appears from the above table that the basin of the 
 Thames is the most populous part of Great Britain. In 
 extent it is equal to more than an eleventh part of 
 England and Scotland, while a fifth part of the British 
 population are collected on its surface. It has been re- 
 marked in the account of France that the population of 
 the basin of tbe Seine, is to the whole population of the 
 kingdom as one to five ; that of the basin of the Thames 
 is to the whole population of Great Britain in the same 
 proportion. The superficial extent of the former is to 
 that of France as one to nine, while that of the latter is 
 to the whole of England and Scotland as one to eleven 
 and a half. It has been seen that the average number 
 of inhabitants on each square mile of the basin of the 
 Thames is equal to three hundred and eighty-four per- 
 sons, but the mean number on each square mile of the 
 basin of the Seine does not exceed a hundred and eighty- 
 four. Thus on an equal superficies, tbe population of the 
 one is more than double that of the other. The country 
 watered by the Thames is naturally less productive than 
 the banks of the Seine ; the difference then in the num- 
 ber of inhabitants must be attributed to the more ad- 
 vanced state of commerce and industry. It is a remark- 
 able fact that the population of the basin of the Thames 
 has more than doubled since a comparatively recent pe- 
 riod ; in other words, since the canals were commenced, 
 and the numerous public works, which have been under- 
 taken and completed in England.® 
 
 The counties bordering on the Bristol Channel, or the 
 country from the most western promontory in Wales to 
 the Land’s End in Cornwall — the south-western extrem- 
 ity of England, may be included in the basin of the Severn. 
 This large tract is contained in the following counties. 
 
 Counties. 
 Pembroke . 
 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 . 37,750 
 
 Square miles. 
 
 305 
 
 Inhabitants to 
 each square mile 
 
 123 
 
 Caermarthen 
 
 
 . 92,000 
 
 974 
 
 97 
 
 Brecon . . 
 
 
 . 44,500 
 
 754 
 
 59 
 
 Glamorgan . 
 
 
 . 103,800 
 
 792 
 
 131 
 
 Monmouth . 
 
 
 . 72,300 
 . 105,300 
 
 459 
 
 158 
 
 Hereford 
 
 
 860 
 
 128 
 
 Radnor . . 
 
 
 . 23,500 
 
 426 
 
 55 
 
 Shropshire . 
 
 
 . 210,300 
 
 1341 
 
 157 
 
 Montgomery 
 
 
 . 61,100 
 . 188,200 
 
 1070 
 
 57 
 
 Worcester . 
 
 
 729 
 
 244 
 
 W arwick 
 
 
 . 280,000 
 
 902 
 
 310 
 
 Gloucester . 
 
 
 . 342,600 
 
 1251 
 
 273 
 
 Wilts (i). . 
 
 
 . 113,300 
 . 362,500 
 
 688 
 
 164 
 
 Somerset 
 
 
 1642 
 
 221 
 
 Devon (£) . 
 
 
 . 223,950 
 
 1289 
 
 173 
 
 Cornwall (£) 
 
 
 . 131,300 
 
 663 
 
 198 
 
 Total 
 
 
 2,392,400 
 
 14,145 
 
 Mean 169 
 
 Thus the basin of the Severn is almost twice as ex- 
 tensive as that of the Thames, but the population, rela- 
 tively to the surface, is not nearly so great. The coun- 
 try near the Bristol Channel furnishes numerous resources 
 to commerce, and various employments to industry. In 
 this part of England, the three natural kingdoms are 
 rendered subservient to the wants of the inhabitants. 
 
 the Nidd, the Wharfe, the Derwent, and the Aire, the last of which 
 receives, in its course, the Calder and the Don. — P. 
 
 b “ The Ure rises in the vale of Wenslev, and passes by Aysgarth, 
 
 where it forms a superb cascade.” M. B. t. viii. p. 569 Asgarth 
 
 Force is a cascade on the Tees, a few miles W. of Barnard Castle in 
 Durham, 23 yards in height. (Luckombe.) — P. 
 
 c C. Dupin, Force Commerciale de la Crande Bretagne. Book ii. 
 Chap 1. 
 
474 EUR 
 
 Gloucestershire and Somersetshire are fruitful in grain, 
 and abound in oxen and sheep ; Monmouthshire, Devon- 
 shire, Cornwall, and the opposite coast of Wales, are 
 not less distinguished for their mineral wealth. Addi- 
 tional facilities are afforded to an immense inland trade 
 by the Severn, from the extent of its course, from the 
 great difference in the soil and the natural productions of 
 the country which it waters, and also from the no less 
 striking difference in the products of industry to which 
 it furnishes the means of exportation. 
 
 The following counties make up the basin of the Wash. 
 
 Inhabitants to 
 
 Counties. Population. Square miles. each square mile. 
 
 Norfolk . . . 351,300 2092 167 
 
 Cambridge . . 124,400 858 145 
 
 Bedford . . . 85,400 463 184 
 
 Huntingdon . . 49,800 370 124 
 
 Northampton . 165,800 1018 163 
 
 Rutland . . . 18,900 148 127 
 
 Lincoln (f) . . 192,533 4831 105 
 
 Total 988,133 9780 Mean 145 
 
 If the population of the basin of the Wash is less con- 
 siderable than that of the Severn, it may be attributed 
 to the nature of the country. It is well known that great 
 difficulties had to be surmounted, before it could be ren- 
 dered habitable or fit for cultivation ; even at present, 
 many parts of it are covered with stagnant waters and 
 unwholesome marshes. 
 
 Six counties form the basin of the Humber. 
 
 Inhabitants to 
 
 Counties. Population. Square miles. each square mile. 
 
 Lincoln (1) . . 96,267 915 105 
 
 Leicester. . . 178,100 803 222 
 
 Nottingham . . 190,700 837 228 
 
 Derby .... 217,600 1033 210 
 
 Stafford . . . 347,900 1148 303 
 
 York . . . 1,197,130 5961 200 
 
 Total 2,227,697 10,697 Mean 208 i 
 
 Thus, although the basin of the Humber is not much 
 larger than that of the Wash, it surpasses it greatly in 
 the number of inhabitants. 
 
 The Mersey is, without doubt, one of the secondary 
 English rivers, but it waters a country, of which the inhab- 
 itants are distinguished by their industry and their wealth. 
 
 It is formed by several streams in Cheshire ; it passes 
 Stockport, and receives below it the waters of the Irwell. 
 Following a serpentine course westwards, it enters the 
 arm of the sea, on which the commercial port of Liver- 
 pool is built. It is navigable for vessels of considerable 
 burden from Liverpool to the confluence of the Irwell, a 
 distance of thirty-five miles ; the latter river has een 
 made navigable for boats and barges to Manchester. The 
 Mersey communicates by means of canals with the Dee, 
 the Ribble, the Ouse, the Trent, the Derwent, the Sev- 
 ern, the Humber, the Thames and the Avon. 
 
 The basin of the river is contained in two counties. 
 
 Inhabitants to 
 
 Counties. Inhabitants. Square miles. each square mile. 
 
 Lancashire . 1,074,000 1830 587 
 
 Cheshire 275.500 1052 262 
 
 Total 1,349,500 2882 Mean 468 
 
 .... 
 
 OPE. [book cun 
 
 Thus, with the exception of the country in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the metropolis, and one or two other districts, 
 no part of England is more populous than the basin of 
 the Mersey. 
 
 Such are some of the principal rivers in England ; the 
 others of less importance are very numerous. Accord- 
 ing to Camden, there are not fewer than five hundred and 
 fifty rivers and streams in England and Wales, that are 
 distinguished by particular names. The bounty of nature 
 in this respect has not been without advantage to the in- 
 habitants. The rivers supply the numerous canals, and 
 by means of the former, tlie latter are joined to each 
 other ; a in the same way, it has been seen, the eastern 
 and western seas are united, and outlets for the natural 
 productions of the country, and the various products of 
 industry, are facilitated and increased. These indeed 
 may be considered the greatest advantages which the 
 English have derived from their rivers, but before they 
 were obtained, it was necessary to overcome many diffi- 
 culties, and to obviate many prejudices. It is related 
 that the celebrated Brindley, when examined before a 
 committee of the House of Commons on the subject of 
 a projected canal, maintained the utility of the scheme, 
 although the proximity of a river appeared to render if 
 superfluous. “ For what purpose,” asked a member, 
 
 “ do you suppose providence created so many fine rivers 
 in England ?” “ To feed canals replied the engineer. 
 
 A long time elapsed before the bold but most correct 
 opinion of Mr. Brindley was generally believed ; as if 
 in a country where commerce and the useful arts flourish, 
 rapid and impetuous streams could be employed to a more 
 useful purpose. 
 
 The lakes in England, like the rivers, are numerous, 
 but none of them are large. Some are famed for their 
 romantic beauties ; others render the country in the 
 neighbourhood unwholesome, on account of the miasms 
 that rise from them. Of the latter sort are those in 
 Huntingdonshire, formerly more extensive than at pres- 
 ent ; their banks have been contracted since the inhabit- 
 ants betook themselves to drain their lands. Whittle- 
 sea-meer, the largest lake in that county, is about six 
 miles in length, and three in breadth. It is mentioned 
 that there was a water communication in former times 
 from Peterborough to this lake, and from it to Ramsey. 
 
 It is long since the series of meers or marshes, b which 
 formed the communication, has been broken. The lakes 
 in Cheshire are not remarkable for their size, but almost 
 all of them are the sources of rivulets, if not of rivers ; 
 the largest are Bog-meer, Comber-meer, Oakhanger- 
 meer, and Pick-meer. 
 
 It might be difficult to mention a county in Wales with- 
 out a lake, but more perhaps are situated in Cardigan- 
 shire and Caernarvonshire, than in any other part of the 
 country. The Tivy, the principal river in Cardiganshire, 
 issues from one of these lakes.* Lyn-Savadhan, in Breck- 
 nockshire, at no great distance from the town of Brecon, 
 is about two miles long and as many broafl. When the 
 ice dissolves, it emits loud sounds, which have been com- 
 pared to long and repeated peals of thunder. Bosher- 
 ton-meer, near Stackpole in Pembrokeshire, is also well 
 known on account of the sounds which are heard from it, 
 
 * Qu. Is it not the reverse — do not the canals join the rivers, not the 
 rivers the canals ? — P. 
 
 b Meer is a local term for lake or pond. — P. 
 
book cun.] DESCRIPTION Of 
 
 and by which the country people in the neighbourhood 
 can prognosticate the state of the weather. 
 
 But the largest lakes, and the most celebrated on ac- 
 count of their scenery, are situated in the counties of 
 Cumberland, Westmoreland and Lancashire. Ulleswater, 
 partly in Cumberland and partly in Westmoreland, is 
 supposed to be equal to nine miles in length, but it is of 
 an irregular form, and of inconsiderable breadth. Many 
 of the views it presents are very striking ; they contrast 
 well with the crags and mountains that surround it, and 
 give great variety to the scene. Thirlemere or Leathes- 
 water, in the vicinity, is comparatively narrow, but about 
 three miles in length. It lies sequestered at the base of 
 the huge Helvellyn, and the banks, covered with stones 
 or masses of naked rock, which appear to have fallen 
 from the mountain, add to the picture of desolation. 
 The impression thus produced is heightened by the noise 
 of cataracts, which fall on every side from lofty rocks. 
 
 Derwent- Water, called also Keswick lake, from its 
 vicinity to the town of the same name, is of an ellipti- 
 cal form ; the length is not less than three miles, while 
 the breadth may be equal to one and a half. It is of a dif- 
 ferent character from those which have been mentioned ; 
 the scenery and the beauties are of the milder kind ; less 
 grand perhaps, but more pleasing than the others. The 
 prospect on the north terminates in the high mountain of 
 Skiddaw, while the southern extremity is lost among the 
 wild rocks of Borrowdale. “ The soft undulation of its 
 shores, the mingled wood and pasture that front them, 
 the brilliant purity of the water, that gives back every 
 landscape on its bank, and frequently with heightened 
 colouring; the fantastic wildness of the rocks and the 
 magnificence of the amphitheatre they form, are circum- 
 stances, the view of which excites emotions of sweet and 
 tranquil pleasure. When visited by moon-light, the deep 
 shades of the frowning mountain, the reflected light of 
 the moon on the unrippled surface, and the silence of the 
 night, broken only by the murmurs of cascades, excite 
 emotions, which cannot be easily described.” 1 
 
 Bassentlnvaite-Water is situated on the north-west of 
 Keswick lake, with which it is connected by the Der- 
 went. The lofty Skiddaw, which soars above the adja- 
 cent valley , b adds greatly to the grandeur of the scenery. 
 The opposite banks are bounded by a range of heights, 
 and their declivities, covered in many places with thick 
 woods, descend almost to the water’s edge. Barren hills 
 and cultivated plains extend from the northern part of 
 the lake. 
 
 “ None of the lakes in this part of England,” says 
 the author last quoted, “ have juster claims to the char- 
 acter of picturesque than Crummock- Water ; the barren 
 Mollbreak, and other high mountains, confine the west- 
 ern banks of this lake, while the eastern are much in- 
 dented and varied with low bays, curious promontories 
 and little coppices, the whole terminating in a rich scene 
 of woodland that covers the higher grounds. On each 
 side there is a chain of mountains, some naked, others 
 wooded to their bases ; some verdant, some rocky and 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 475 
 
 heathy, and some covered with shiver, which streams 
 down their furrowed sides.” The length of the lake ex 
 ceeds four miles, while the average breadth is little more 
 than half a mile. 
 
 Buttermere is only separated from the last lake by a 
 narrow but fruitful valley ; the distance between them is 
 less than a mile. It is chiefly celebrated on account of 
 its waterfalls, but none of them are so high as the one 
 called Scale-Force,® about a mile and a half to the west 
 of it. Ennerdale-Water is surrounded on three sides by 
 wild and rugged heights; the scenery, it may be easily 
 believed, is of a sombre cast, but the gloom is in some 
 measure relieved by the farms and country houses on the 
 eastern banks. 
 
 Wastwater lies in the middle of Wastdale, which is 
 enclosed by mountains that rise to a great height, and 
 almost meet at their bases. 
 
 It has been remarked that these, as well as other lakes 
 in Cumberland, have each of them a distinct character ; 
 some are distinguished by the contrast of pleasing scenery 
 and savage wildness on their opposite banks, but several 
 are so difficult of access that they are only visited by 
 pedestrians. 
 
 Winandermere serves as a boundary between West- 
 moreland and Lancashire. It is about fourteen miles 
 long, but the breadth is very disproportionate, varying 
 only from one to two miles. The greatest depth near 
 Eccles-crig-cragg d has been ascertained to be equal to 200 
 feet. The Brathay, the Rothay and the Troutbeck are 
 the principal feeders of the lake. The surface is spot- 
 ted by a number of islands, and on some of them build- 
 ings have been erected, which cannot be considered any 
 ornament to the scenery. The banks are not bold ; they 
 rise gently on the Westmoreland side, while those on the 
 Lancashire side are more precipitous and better wooded. 
 The effect is that of a rich landscape, in which the dis- 
 tance is bounded by lofty hills. The char is common to 
 almost all the lakes, but trouts, pikes, perch and eels are 
 taken in the waters of Winandermere, and in the win- 
 ter season numerous water-fowl of different species re- 
 sort to it. 
 
 The loftiest heights in England and Wales form part 
 of the groups which extend along the western side of 
 the kingdom. Two lower ranges traverse the country in 
 different directions; one extending from Dorsetshire into 
 Kent, the other from the Isle of Portland to the Yorkshire 
 Wolds. The groups on the western side are broken by 
 the low grounds in Lancashire and Cheshire, and also by 
 the indentation into which the Bristol Channel finds a 
 passage. They may thus be divided into the Northern, 
 the Cambrian or Welsh and the Devonian ranges. They 
 serve to determine the length of the country ; the lower 
 chains indicate the breadth, but less accurately, on ac- 
 count of the irregular lines which they describe. 
 
 The Northern range passes from Scotland into Eng- 
 land, and covers part of Cumberland, Westmoreland, 
 Northumberland and Durham. The Cheviot, the highest 
 of the Northumbrian branch, and the one from which 
 
 1 Gilpin on Picturesque Scenery. 
 
 b On the east of Bassenthwaite-Water is spread the beautiful and 
 extensive vale of Bassenth waite, beyond which Skiddaw rears its 
 lofty head. (Ed. Enc. art. England.) — P. 
 
 c Force, in the North of England dialects, signifies a waterfall. This 
 is a word of Scandinavian origin (Swed. fors, a waterfall,) like many 
 other words in those and the Lowland Scottish dialects ; all of them 1 
 
 indicating the Scandinavian origin of at least a portion of the population 
 in that part of the island. Such words are, fell, a mountain, (Swed .fjcell, 
 Dan .field;) by, a termination of the names of towns, as in Whitby 
 Appleby, Canobie (Scott.) (Dan. Swed. by, a town ;) toorn (Scott.) 
 empty, (Dan. tom ;) gar (Scott.) to make, (Dan. gioerc .) — P 
 d Ecclesrig-Crag. (Luckombe.) — P. 
 
[7 
 
 476 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIII 
 
 the other hills in the northern part of the same county- 
 take their name, is not more than eighteen miles from 
 the coast. The top of the Cheviot is covered with heath ; 
 in this respect it forms an exception to the others, for in 
 most of them the green sward rises to a great height, 
 and gives place only to the naked rocks or loose stones 
 at their very summits. Thus, the soil, if the elevation 
 De taken into account, must be considered very fruitful, 
 being almost everywhere covered with rich pastures on 
 which numerous herds and flocks are reared. Neither 
 are the Cheviots destitute of romantic beauty ; in some 
 places their sides terminate in precipices, or form narrow 
 and deep glens ; in others they are furrowed by moun- 
 tain streams, and many of them enclose peaceful and 
 sequestered vallies. As to their form, some of them 
 rise like so many cones, but in general their shape is very 
 irregular. They communicate on the west with other 
 green hills of the same character in Scotland, and pass 
 southwards to the moorland districts in Northumber- 
 land. It is not easy to calculate their superficies, but it 
 is probably greater than a hundred and fifty, and less than 
 two hundred square miles. 
 
 The Cumberland branch of the Northern range com- 
 mences at Geltsdale forest, about fourteen miles to the 
 south-east of Carlisle, and passes to the west of Durham 
 and Yorkshire. The surface of these mountains is very 
 rugged, exhibiting no regularity of arrangement, and no 
 lengthened ridge or continuous chain. In appearance, 
 they may he compared to a number of broken and point- 
 ed masses, of which the bases are united, or only sepa- 
 rated by the lakes that lie between them. In their ver- 
 dure they resemble the mountains of Northumberland, 
 but Skiddaw, like the Cheviot, is covered with heath. 
 
 The superficial extent of the mountains in Cumber- 
 land, Westmoreland and Durham, is supposed to be equal 
 to six hundred square miles ; their height varies from 
 3000 to 3400 feet, and within the area which they oc- 
 cupy, are situated the romantic lakes that have been 
 already mentioned. 
 
 The vallies of the Ribble, Craven and Aire separate 
 these hills from another range, a of which the length may 
 be about sixty miles ; their breadth, however, is very 
 irregular, being in some places upwards of twenty, and 
 in others less than four or five. Kinderscout near Hay- 
 field, Axe-Edge near Buxton, and Whinhill and Mam- 
 Tor near Castleton, are the loftiest heights in Derbyshire. 
 But the highest part of Derbyshire is not more than 
 2100 feet above the level of the sea; the hills, there- 
 fore, cannot be compared with those in the northern 
 counties. 
 
 Other hills, still lower than the former, are situated on 
 the east of Wales. The Malvern Hills in Herefordshire 
 and Worcestershire extend to part of Gloucestershire. 
 The Herefordshire and Worcester beacons, as they 
 are called, form the highest of the Malvern Hills ; the 
 one rises to 1260, and the other to 1500 feet above the 
 plain. They terminate on the eastern side in the flat 
 country, which forms the vale of the Severn, but they are 
 connected on the west with a range of hills that passes 
 into Herefordshire. 
 
 It has been maintained that the Coteswold and Stroud- 
 water Hills in Gloucestershire ought to be considered a 
 
 continuation of the central chain, extending from Derby- 
 shire into Wiltshire, there forming the Salisbury Downs, 
 and afterwards stretching in a western direction towards 
 the Land’s End in Cornwall. If this opinion be admit- 
 ted, and it does not appear to be incorrect, it follows 
 that these hills unite the Northern chain with the one in 
 Devonshire. 
 
 But the highest mountains in the kingdom form part 
 of the Cambrian range ; no others are so lofty as the 
 heights in North Wales. They extend through Caernar- 
 vonshire, Merionethshire and Cardiganshire ; in the last 
 county their altitude is perceptibly diminished. The 
 range increases gradually in height from the extremities 
 to the centre, which is occupied by the famed Snowdon, 
 a mountain not less than 3600 feet above the high water 
 mark on Caernarvon quay. It consists of numerous 
 cliffs towering above each other, and the one that bears 
 the name of Snowdon is little higher than the others 
 which surround it. 
 
 The summit of Cader Idris is the highest part of a 
 mountainous line which passes from Snowdon to Plinlim- 
 mon, a boundary of North Wales. In point of height, 
 it is the second in the country, being only inferior to 
 Snowdon. Rising above the small town of Dolgelly, 
 it is steep and craggy on every side, particularly on the 
 south near Tallylin lake. According to different calcula- 
 tions, it is 3540 feet above the level of the sea, so that 
 it is considerably higher than any mountain in the north 
 of England. The hills in the eastern part of North 
 Wales are not nearly so lofty as those which have been 
 mentioned. A comparatively low chain in South Wales 
 extends from the north to the neighbourhood of Cardiff, 
 but a small branch diverges from it in a westerly di- 
 rection. 
 
 The Devonian range covers part of Somersetshire, 
 passes through Devonshire and Cornwall, and terminates 
 at the Land’s End. The hills in Dartmoor are the lofti- 
 est eminences in this range ; their height varies from fif- 
 teen to eighteen hundred feet. They are situated in the 
 tract which extends from the vale of Exeter to the bor- 
 ders of Cornwall, a tract containing between two and 
 three hundred thousand acres of open and uncultivated 
 land, in which Dartmoor occupies more than eighty thou- 
 sand. The large waste of Dartmoor exhibits gigantic 
 tors, and surfaces covered with scattered masses of granite 
 that appear to have fallen from the declivities into the 
 vallies. The higher parts are covered with marshes or 
 wet and swampy ground, dangerous to cattle, but valua- 
 ble on account of the fuel which they furnish to the in- 
 habitants. These morasses are generally very deep : in 
 dry summers, they afford a strong succulent grass. The 
 Mendip Hills in Somersetshire, the only other portion of 
 the same range, extend southwards from Bedminster to 
 Glastonbury. 
 
 The two lines of hills which extend in a different di- 
 rection, the one from Dorsetshire to Kent, and the 
 other front Portland Isle to the Wolds, are much lower 
 than those that may be supposed to determine the length 
 of England. It is not improbable that the three highest 
 ridges in the south-eastern districts commence on Salisbury 
 plain, an immense tract of high and chalky land, fifty- 
 three miles in length from east to west, and thirty-five or 
 
 of the Aire. (Ed. Enc.) — Craven is a mcorland district in Yorkshire 
 between the sources of the Ribble and the Aire. — P. 
 
 1 The southern division of the northern range is divided from the 
 northern division, by the valley of the Ribble, Craven, and the valley 
 
BOOK CLIII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 forty in breadth. Hampshire and Sussex are intersected 
 by the first ridge, which terminates at Beachy Head ; 
 the second extends to the eastern shore of Kent ; the 
 third crosses Oxfordshire, passes to Norfolk, and forms the 
 Gogmagog Hills in Cambridgeshire. 
 
 It appears then that England is by no means a moun- 
 tainous country ; the loftiest heights are lower than those 
 in Scotland, neither are they accompanied, like many in 
 the sister kingdom, with all the features of sterility. In 
 the one country, the nature of the ground has retarded 
 the progress of civilization ; the same obstacles were not 
 found in the other. 
 
 England, however, is sufficiently varied with hill and 
 dale, while the plains are extensive, and some of them 
 very fruitful. The largest stretches from the banks of 
 the Thames through Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk and the 
 adjacent counties on the west. The road from London 
 to Norwich by Newmarket, along the western sides of 
 Essex and Suffolk, is equal to a hundred and eight miles 
 in length, and the country is more even and unvaried in 
 its surface than any other tract of the same extent in 
 England. Lincolnshire may be said to form a part of 
 the same plain, which terminates beyond the Humber in 
 the low grounds of Holderness in Yorkshire. 
 
 The Wealds of Kent, Surrey and Sussex form a large 
 plain, broken in some places by gentle heights or decliv- 
 ities ; they are covered with a pale clayey soil, and 
 many parts of them yield rich harvests. The length of 
 the plain, or the distance from Ashworth a in Kent to Pet- 
 worth in Sussex, is about sixty or seventy miles, the breadth 
 varies from ten to fifteen, and the surface is nearly equal 
 to a thousand square miles. The area of the vale of 
 York is still greater ; it extends from the small lakes be- 
 tween the Tees, the Swale and the Wiske to the marshes 
 of Lincolnshire on the south, and from the Wolds in the 
 East Riding to the limestone districts of West Yorkshire, 
 a length of more than sixty miles, and an average breadth 
 exceeding sixteen. None of the other plains or vales in 
 England, although numerous, are so extensive. 
 
 Many places, now almost destitute of trees, still retain 
 the name of forests ; such are Dartmoor Forest in Dev- 
 onshire, Enfield Chase in Middlesex, Witham and Ep- 
 ping Forests in Essex, Peak Forest in Derbyshire, Mal- 
 vern Chase, Wyre Forest, and several others. The most 
 important of those that still exist, are Dean Forest in 
 Gloucestershire, Sherwood Forest in Nottinghamshire, 
 Windsor Forest in Berkshire, and the New Forest in 
 Hampshire. Some formed part of the royal demesnes 
 during the early period of the Anglo-Saxon princes, but 
 the passion for the chase was carried to its height by the 
 kings of the Norman race, and at one time nearly a hun- 
 dred extensive forests belonged to the crown. Cotem- 
 porary writers describe the evils which were thus occa- 
 sioned. “ He also,” William the Conqueror, “ set many 
 deer friths, and he made laws therewith, that whoever 
 should slay hart or hind, him man should blind. As he 
 forbade the slaying of harts, so also did he of boars. So 
 much he loved the high deer as if he had been their fa- 
 ther. He also decreed about hares that they should go 
 free. His rich men moaned and his poor men murmured, 
 but he was so hard that he wrecked not the hatred of 
 them all. For it was meet they should follow the 
 
 * Ashford. — P. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 477 
 
 king’s will withal, if they wished to live or to have lands 
 or goods or his favour. Alas that any man should be so 
 moody, and should so puff up himself, and think himself 
 above all other men ! May Almighty God,” adds the 
 pious chronicler, “ have mercy on his soul, and grant him 
 forgiveness of his sins.” The same monarch was lord 
 of sixty-eight forests, besides parks and chases in differ- 
 ent parts of England ; these, however, were not consid- 
 ered sufficient, and it was deemed right to afforest a 
 fruitful and cultivated district between the city of Win- 
 chester and the sea coast. The inhabitants were ex- 
 pelled ; houses, cottages and even churches were destroy- 
 ed ; and a fertile country, more than thirty square miles 
 in extent, was converted into a desert. The name of the 
 New Forest serves still to record this act of despotism. 
 The royal forests, then so large a portion of the kingdom, 
 distinct in their nature, and subject to different regulations 
 from the rest of the country, were the source of much 
 grievance to the neighbouring proprietors, nor was re- 
 dress obtained until the barons forced Henry the Third 
 to grant the forest charter, by which greater equity 
 was extended, and the more oppressive enactments 
 abolished. 
 
 From the details into which we have entered concern- 
 ing the climate of England, some notion may be formed 
 of its vegetable productions. It may be inferred that the 
 plants indigenous to the country are wholly inadequate 
 to the sustenance of man. In more favoured regions 
 nature pours out her treasures, and affords more than a 
 supply to the wants of indolent inhabitants. The ever 
 verdant hills and plains in Britain show how well they 
 are adapted for the support of graminivorous animals, and 
 this circumstance may have had some influence on the char- 
 acter of the early Britons. While different fruits, many of 
 exquisite flavour, afforded food to the natives of warmer 
 climates, without any exertion on their part, the rude Brit- 
 ons depended on the produce of the chase for a scanty sub- 
 sistence, sought the deer in the recesses of their forests, 
 and disputed their prey with the wolf and other carnivo- 
 rous animals. b Although the vegetable riches of every cli- 
 mate have been long at the disposal of the English, it is 
 not improbable that the first germs of their activity and 
 exertion were called forth by a scanty supply of animal 
 food, not to be obtained without labour, the necessity of 
 relieving their most urgent wants stimulating them to 
 exertion. In later times, the benefits arising from com- 
 merce and industry have rendered the advantages of 
 climate of comparatively little consequence. It is now 
 ascertained that the British Flora, although it cannot 
 boast of any very valuable or useful plants, contains as 
 many as are generally found in other countries, similar to 
 Great Britain in climate and extent. To enumerate, 
 therefore, the different plants, might be to repeat such as 
 have been already mentioned in different parts of this 
 work. It may be remarked that some very ordinary and 
 useful potherbs were first transported to England from 
 Holland, in the time of Henry the Seventh. The decid- 
 uous trees are the oak, the chestnut and the beech, all of 
 which are mast-bearing trees ; the birch, the alder, the 
 horn-beam, the abele, the black poplar and the aspen, 
 bearing catkins ; the sycamore, the maple and the ash ; 
 and lastly, the lime, the elm and the wich-hazle. The 
 
 b Pinkerton’s Geography, vol. i. chap. 7. [vol. i. p. 78 (England 
 chap. 4.) — P.] 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIII 
 
 478 
 
 numerous species of willows and the hazle may be sup- 
 posed to occupy a middle station between the trees and 
 shrubs.® 
 
 The oak is the most valuable, although by no means 
 the most common of the British trees. It arrives at 
 great perfection in Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Cheshire and 
 Monmouthshire, but the principal supply is obtained from 
 the royal forests, of which the timber belongs to the 
 crown. It may be shown, however, that the oak is now 
 less common than at a former period. The wood, in a 
 great part, but not in the whole of the crown lands, was 
 surveyed in the year 1608, and it appeared from the 
 survey that there were then not fewer than 649,880 loads 
 of timber fit for the navy, and 1,148,660 of a less per- 
 fect sort. A second survey was made in 1783, by order 
 of the house of commons, and it was then ascertained 
 that the New Forest, Alice-Holt and Wolmer, Bere, 
 Whittlewood, Salcey and Sherwood, which might have 
 yielded 234,229 loads of naval timber in 1608, contain- 
 ed only 50,445 in 1783; so that, in the latter period, 
 little more than a fifth part of the trees which existed in 
 1608, remained. The difference in the quantity of de- 
 cayed or imperfect timber was not less remarkable ; in 
 1608 it amounted to 265,145 loads, and in 1783 to 
 35,554. Other facts, which lead to the same conclusion, 
 have been since brought to light ; the answers returned 
 to the House of Commons by the principal wood-mer- 
 chants in England, and by the chairmen of the quarter 
 sessions in the different counties, prove the decrease of 
 oak timber in the country. The deficiency, however, 
 may in time be supplied, as many trees have of late years 
 been planted by the landed proprietors in different parts 
 of England. The comparative scarcity has compelled 
 government to make use of inferior timber for the navy ; 
 some of the trees, which have been employed, are con- 
 sidered too young, and others not sufficiently perfect ; 
 to this circumstance has been attributed the frequency 
 of the dry rot in ships, a disease which was certainly 
 little known, when old and good oaks were more 
 abundant. 
 
 Some observations ought perhaps to be made on the 
 different soils, in which the vegetable productions are 
 found ; in England, however, they are so various and nu- 
 merous that it might be difficult to enumerate them, still 
 more so to mark their position, the transitions being so irreg- 
 ular and abrupt. They may be classed under six gen- 
 eral divisions, those of clay, loam, sand, chalk, gravel and 
 peat. These again may be subdivided into many varieties. 
 Of the clay, two sorts are perhaps more common than 
 the rest ; the one is rich and of a dark colour ; the other is 
 not so tenacious, and of a less fruitful quality ; the for- 
 mer descends to a considerable depth ; the latter is only 
 found near the surface. The different kinds of loam 
 are equally numerous ; what is commonly called strong 
 loam, consists of clay that has been long under a course 
 of tillage, impregnated with manure, and exposed to the 
 action of the atmosphere ; it, as well as sandy loam, is an 
 artificial soil. The sandy tracts in France are much 
 more extensive than any in England ; indeed, in the 
 latter country, it is impossible to mention any large tract 
 
 * Pinkerton’s Geography, vol. i. p. 82. 
 
 b The Upper Freshwater Formation lies above the Upper Marine' 
 Formation (the one to which the Bagshot sand belongs) in the Isle of 
 Wight ; but in the London Basin, the Upper Marine is the highest for- 
 mation. — P. 
 
 in which a covering of pure sand renders the soil wholly 
 useless for the purposes of agriculture. The sand is 
 either mixed with vegetable mould, or enriched by ma- 
 nure and the continued action of the sun and air. The 
 same may be said of chalk as a soil, it having, in most 
 parts of the kingdom, received the nature and qualities 
 of calcareous loam by cultivation. Of the gravel soils, 
 one sort of a light colour, and not uncommon in dif- 
 ferent parts of the country, is unfruitful ; other kinds 
 are more or less productive, but their fertility depends 
 on the quantity of earth or alluvial deposits that is mixed 
 with them. The peat soil, as it is called, occurs in 
 many parts of England, but is most common in the north 
 it is observed, but not in so great an extent, in the south 
 and the south-west. It may be remarked that the same 
 sort of soil extends in few places to a great distance 
 without exhibiting different appearances, if not a change 
 of kind. It is well known that the largest tracts of a 
 uniform soil are those in the county of Norfolk and in 
 the Wealds of Kent, Surrey and Sussex. If some vari- 
 eties be excepted, red loam may be said to form a uni- 
 form soil ; it gives its name to Rutlandshire, the county 
 in which it is most abundant; in a north-eastern direc- 
 tion it passes to Nottingham, and terminates towards the 
 south-west in Devonshire, but the continuity, it may be 
 easily imagined, is often broken in so vast an extent. 
 
 The knowledge of the goological structure of a coun- 
 try has been considered indispensable to that of its physi- 
 cal geography. It is thus that new limits have been 
 assigned to different regions, limits much less subject to 
 variation than those of a political character. Although 
 the limits of such a country as Great Britain may be 
 sufficiently defined without having recourse to the con- 
 sideration of geology, still the same science serves to 
 unfold the riches of the mineral kingdom, marks their 
 position, and determines such as have contributed to in- 
 crease the wealth or power of the inhabitants. 
 
 If the gravels and alluvia be not taken into account, 
 the sand that covers Bagshot heath, and a great portion 
 of Surrey, as well as several districts in the southern and 
 eastern counties, may be considered the highest stratum 
 in England, the one from beneath which the others rise in 
 succession. b The same deposit is met with in the Isle of 
 Wight, and the sand at Alum Bay c is supposed to be 
 better adapted for making flint glass than any other in 
 the kingdom. 
 
 Of an earlier origin is an argillaceous formation which 
 may be mentioned on account of its organic remains, and 
 which has been called the London clay, from its occur- 
 ring in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, immediately 
 beneath the vegetable soil. It occupies a large part of 
 Essex, all Middlesex, and part of Berkshire, Surrey 
 and Kent. It appears in the last county on the northern 
 side of the Medway, and forms the Isle of Sheppey. d 
 
 Some of the organic remains are those of crocodiles and 
 turtles, vertebral fish of different species, and nautilites 
 resembling others that still frequent the Indian Seas. 
 The bones of the elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippo- 
 potamus, the tapir and the elk were discovered in the 
 neighbourhood of London, when the excavation was 
 
 c The sand at Alum Bay belongs to the sands of the plastic clay 
 formation. — P. 
 
 d Smith’s Geological Map of England and Wales. 
 
book cliii.] DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 making for the Highgate archway. The remains of 
 the vegetable kingdom are not less extraordinary, but 
 they are perhaps more abundant in the Isle of Sheppey 
 than in any other part of the stratum. It is there, at 
 least, that the greatest number of fruit or ligneous seed 
 vessels have been observed ; one gentleman, Mr. Crowe 
 of Faversham, having carefully examined the external 
 and internal appearance of the plants, selected seven 
 hundred specimens, of which none were duplicates, and 
 of which very few corresponded with any that are now 
 known to exist. The most of them, however, appeared 
 to belong to tropical climates ; some differed little from 
 the cocoa-nut ; others were probably varieties of spices. 
 
 The alluvium covering the surface of the clay is full 
 of water, and a great advantage is thus obtained by the 
 inhabitants of London and the neighbouring country ; 
 indeed, the quantity drawn daily in the metropolis 
 alone might almost exceed belief. The wells or the 
 public pumps to which the people have access, afford a 
 plentiful supply of clear but somewhat hard water, which 
 is used in many of the large distilleries, sugar-houses, and 
 also in some of the breweries. Abundance of soft water 
 may be had by increasing the depth of the wells, or by 
 piercing through the London clay to the plastic clay 
 stratum, the next in succession. a Some of these wells 
 have been dug in London, and very many on the north 
 and north-east of it. The effect has been to supply dif- 
 ferent places, which were destitute of good water for 
 domestic purposes, until within the last thirty years. If 
 a new well be sunk, the water in the neighbouring wells 
 is for a time depressed ; nay more, the sinking of one 
 on the south of the Thames above London Bridge, low- 
 ered the water in another on the northern bank, show- 
 ing evidently that the communication extended below 
 the bed of the river. b 
 
 The chalk deposit is one of the most remarkable in Eng- 
 land ; stretching with little interruption from Flamborough 
 Head on the coast of Yorkshire to the neighbourhood of 
 Sidmouth on the coast of Devonshire, it is connected with 
 the chalk districts in the south, and forms a range of 
 hills, which are generally most precipitous on the north- 
 west. The Yorkshire Wolds, which are broken by the 
 Humber, are part of these heights ; they appear anew on 
 the opposite banks of the same river, and form the Lin- 
 colnshire Wolds. The Wash separates the same tract 
 from Norfolk, but in that county, a ridge of chalk extends 
 nearly in a southern direction to the distance of sixteen 
 miles.' It passes from Cambridge to Goring in Oxford- 
 shire, where it is broken by the valley of the Thames ; 
 the distance between the two last places is not less than 
 seventy miles. 
 
 It is almost unnecessary to add that the Chiltern Hills 
 in Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire, and the Royston 
 and Luton Downs in Bedfordshire, are composed of chalk; 
 their average breadth varies from fifteen to twenty miles. 
 The chain is continued on the west of the Thames, 
 where it is known by the names of Ilsey Downs, 
 the Whitehorse Hills and Marlborough Downs ; hut the 
 last are broken by the valley of the Kennet, which, like 
 
 * These wells arise from the sands of the plastic clay formation. — P. 
 
 b Geology of England and Wales, by Conybeare and Phillips, Part I. 
 p. 35. 
 
 c Commencing in Hunstanton Cliff, and terminating at Castle Acre, 
 where it sinks beneath the diluvial sands of Norfolk. It recommences 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 479 
 
 many of the rivers that water this formation, rises in the 
 older and subjacent stratum, and has broken a passage 
 for itself through the chalky downs. The same valley 
 separates the northern Marlborough Downs from the long 
 ridge on the south of Marlborough, which stretches west- 
 wards to Bagdon hill in the neighbourhood of Devizes 
 in Wiltshire. This last ridge skirts round the vale of 
 Pewsey, and connects itself with the cretaceous district, 
 which occupies the northern part of Hampshire, and the 
 southern of Wiltshire, a surface about fifty miles in length 
 from east to west, and about twenty from north to south. 
 It is this vast area which Mr. Pennant has designated the 
 central P atria of the chalk, of which the different ranges 
 that traverse the island, may be considered so many ram- 
 ifications. It may be remarked that the loftiest summit 
 in this formation reaches to the height of 101 1 feet above 
 the level of the sea. A great part of the central mass 
 is known by the name of Salisbury plain, an elevated 
 platform broken by gentle hills, and covered with scanty 
 herbage. The chalk chain which bounds the London 
 basin on the south, extends from the north-eastern ex- 
 tremity of the same area, forms the North Downs in 
 Surrey and Kent, and terminates at the Straits of Dover. d 
 
 The same chain exhibits one of the characteristic 
 phenomena of the chalk formation ; it is broken by all the 
 rivers which run northwards from the Wealds, namely, by 
 the Wey, the Mole, the Darent, the Medway, and the 
 Stowe,® which have made for themselves so many trans- 
 verse vallies at right angles to the great valley which 
 passes along the base of the heights. 
 
 It may be worth while to mention an error that has 
 been committed by Camden. “ The Mole,” says that 
 writer, “ coming to White-hill/ hides itself, or is rather 
 swallowed up, at the foot of the hill there ; but, about 
 two miles below, it bubbles up and rises again ; so that 
 the inhabitants of this tract, no less than the Spaniards, 
 may boast of having a bridge that feeds several flocks of 
 sheep.” If it be inferred that the river disappears, forms 
 a channel for itself under ground, and rises again at a cer- 
 tain distance, the account is incorrect. The appearance 
 depends on the cavernous nature of the chalk, and the 
 porous texture of the soil ; the water being admitted by 
 passages in the banks and channel of the river. In or- 
 dinary seasons, the caverns are full, and their contents 
 are not discharged faster than they are supplied by the 
 river, whence it suffers no diminution ; but in dry sea- 
 sons the water in these reservoirs being gradually absorb- 
 ed, the streams are diverted from their ordinary course, 
 and the river is diminished. The decrease depends on 
 the state of the weather, and in times of great drought, 
 part of the channel is left dry.? 
 
 Another chain, which branches from the south-east 
 angle of the central mass, forms the South Downs, or 
 southern limit of the Weald district, which is bounded 
 by the North Downs in the opposite direction. 
 
 Lastly, a third chain, which extends from the southern 
 extremity of the great chalk formation near Salisbury, 
 passes west-south-west to Shaftesbury and then south to 
 Blaridford, where it is broken by the valley of the Stour. 
 
 on the north of Thetford, and passing by Newmarket and a little to the 
 east of Cambridge, stretches S. W. to Goring on the Thames. — P. 
 
 d Geology of England and Wales, book ii. chap. i. 
 
 « The Stour.— P. 
 
 f The same probably that is now called Boi-hill. 
 
 s Geology of England and Wales, book ii. chap. i. 
 
480 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIII 
 
 It bends towards the west at the last place, and continues 
 in that direction to the distance of twenty miles. But at 
 Horn-hill,* the westernmost point of the chain, b it turns 
 abruptly to the east,' and proceeds through the middle 
 of the isle, or rather peninsula, of Purbeck. The cliffs 
 that rise above the sea, form Handfast-Point on the east, 
 and Whitenose on the west, the eastern and western ex- 
 tremities of Purbeck. d 
 
 The frequent occurrence of chalk in other countries 
 has been indicated in a former part of this work. The 
 belt which sweeps across the eastern and southern coun- 
 ties of England is part of the extensive tract that occu- 
 pies the great central basin of Europe. The chalk for- 
 mation stretches from the Thames to the Don ; extend- 
 ing on the east to the Ural and its branches, on the 
 north to the primitive districts of Russian Finland, Swe- 
 den, Norway and Scotland, on the west to the primitive 
 and transition chains in the north, the west and the south 
 of England , 0 and on the south to the ramifications of the 
 Cevennes in the centre of France, the Alps with the an- 
 cient groups of Germany/ and the Bohemian, Silesian 
 and Carpathian mountains. s 
 
 The chalk formation throughout its vast extent affords 
 a striking confirmation of Mr. Smith’s method of identi- 
 fying strata by their organic remains, for more than 
 eight-tenths of the organic remains which are found in 
 chalk are common to all the localities in which it has been 
 observed. It is asserted, indeed, that a fossil has never 
 been dug from a continental chalk pit to which a similar 
 one cannot be produced from the pits in Britain . 11 
 
 It may be observed, that the lower strata of chalk in- 
 crease generally in hardness, and afford sometimes a 
 tolerably compact limestone. The cliff on the east of 
 Dover is blasted, squared and used in repairing the har- 
 bour ; it was employed in constructing the docks, and it 
 is found to be well adapted for buildings under water. 
 
 The different kinds of chalky marles are obtained in 
 many parts of England. Pliny, in his account of the 
 British marles, observes that they last eighty years, there 
 not being an example of the same man being obliged to 
 marie his land twice in the course of his life. An intel- 
 ligent farmer in Hertfordshire informed Mr. Pennant, that 
 he had used the same marie on a field thirty years before, 
 and if he were to live the time mentioned by Pliny, he 
 need not have any occasion to repeat the operation . 1 
 The method now used to obtain chalk in Hertfordshire 
 and different counties, has been described by Pennant. 
 “ The farmer sinks a pit, drives out on all sides, leaving 
 a sufficient roof, and draws up the chalk in buckets 
 through a narrow mouth.” It is remarkable that the 
 same method was employed in the time of the Roman 
 naturalist. “ Creta argentaria petitur ex alto, in centenos 
 pedes actis plerumque puteis, ore angustatis, intus, ut in 
 metallis, spatiante vena. Hac maxime Britannia utitur.” 
 
 a To the north of Beaminster. — P. 
 
 b West of Horn-hill, there are several outlying masses of chalk, rest- 
 ing upon and surrounded by the greensand. They proceed in a west- 
 south-west direction, by Crewkerne and Chard, to Sidmouth, east of 
 which there are three large outliers, very near to the coast. — P. 
 
 c From Horn-hill, the escarpment of the chalk runs south to within a 
 mile of the coast near Abbotsbury. It then suddenly turns to the 
 east. — P. 
 
 d Besides these continuous ranges of chalk, and the outlying masses 
 on the west, it forms a range of downs, stretching through the middle of 
 the Isle of Wight from west to east, from the Needles on the west to 
 Culver Cliffs on the east ; also, an outlying mass above the southern 
 
 The Romans in this instance followed the same practice 
 as the Britons, and it is doubtful that any other of a more 
 ancient origin is still in use in England. Chalk is also 
 employed for another economical purpose ; and it may 
 be observed on the authority of Mr. Smeaton, that, if well 
 burnt, it makes as good lime as the hardest. marble. 
 
 It has been observed in different parts of this work 
 that the presence of chalk is generally accompanied with 
 sterility ; it has been seen in the account of Champagne, 
 that some districts are almost uninhabited, and statistical 
 data are not wanting to show that the chalk lands in Eng- 
 land are less populous in proportion to their extent, than 
 any other secondary formation. No portion, however, 
 is wholly unproductive ; on the contrary, some of the 
 vallies are very fruitful, and hops are cultivated in those of 
 Kent and Surrey. The downs afford excellent pasturage 
 for sheep, and the different sorts of clover and sainfoin 
 thrive on a chalky soil. The same may be said of differ- 
 ent trees, particularly the beech. It is well known that 
 the Chiltern Hills in Oxfordshire were formerly covered 
 with woods, which were frequented by robbers and freeboot- 
 ers ; hence the office of steward of the Chiltern Hundreds, 
 now become nominal, but which, being held under the 
 crown, enables a member to vacate his seat in parliament . 10 
 
 Although oolites occur extensively on the continent, 
 the different members of the series, and their relation to 
 each other, have only been examined and explained in 
 Britain. The oolites occupy a zone nearly thirty miles 
 in average breadth, extending across the island from York- 
 shire on the north-east to Dorsetshire on the south-west 
 in other words, within the limits of the zone are contain- 
 ed the best materials for architectural purposes in Eng- 
 land. The Purbeck beds, which occupy the highest 
 place in the series, consist of many thin strata of argilla- 
 ceous limestone. The stone, which is commonly called 
 Purbeck marble, is generally found in the uppermost beds. 
 It was formerly much used in adorning Gothic churches, 
 and the finest specimens of it may still be seen in many of 
 the old columns and monuments. The Purbeck stone is 
 not considered so valuable for architecture as the Port- 
 land ; but of the one or other most of the edifices in 
 London and in the neighbourhood have been built. 
 
 The great oolite, on account of its thickness and util- 
 ity, is more important than any other. It consists of a 
 stratified calcareous mass, vary ing in thickness from a hun 
 dred and thirty to two hundred feet. The quality of the 
 strata is different even in neighbouring quarries. The 
 softer kinds are not only marked by those distinct oviform 
 concretions, which give their name to the whole series, 
 but they afford the freestone, which renders this rock so 
 valuable. The Kettering freestone of Northamptonshire, 
 says Mr. Smith, is rendered extremely beautiful by the 
 distinctness of its oolitic structure ; that of Bath, how- 
 ever, has generally a finer grain. The latter stone was 
 
 point of the island. The Isle of Thanet consists too of chalk, separated 
 from the North Downs by a tertiary valley. — P. 
 
 e “ On the west, the transition and primitive chains of Cumberland, 
 Wales, Devonshire and Brittany — ” (Conybeare and Phillips, Part I. 
 p. 64.) — P. 
 
 f Such as the Black Forest, the Rhingau, the Vosges, and the Thur- 
 ingian mountains. — P. 
 
 £ These are given by Conybeare and Phillips as the boundaries of 
 the great central basin of Europe. — P. 
 
 b Conybeare’s and Phillips’ Geology of England and Wales. 
 
 ' Pennant’s Chester, page 1103. 
 
 k Capper's Topographical Dictionary of England and Wales 
 
 1 Smith's Geological Map. 
 
BOOK Clilll.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 481 
 
 used in repairing Henry the Seventh’s chapel at West- 
 minster, but it was from the quarries near Burford in Ox- 
 fordshire, that the materials were supplied for the erection 
 of St. Paul’s, the finest architectural monument in London. 
 
 The oolites are remarkable for the number of their 
 organic remains. Different bones, believed by M. Cuvier 
 to belong to a species of Didelphis, or opossum, have 
 been discovered near Stonesfield in the calcareous slate, 
 which forms part of the series. They are imbedded in the 
 slate, not intruded into the fissures, exhibiting a singular 
 instance of the occurrence of beings of such an order, in 
 strata older than the lowest members of the tertiary 
 class.* * A well characterized crocodile, but of a species 
 distinct from those that now exist, and from those that 
 have been found in a fossil state in Germany, was dug 
 up at Gibraltar near Oxford, b and may now be seen in 
 the museum of the university. The ichthyosaurus has 
 been observed in the strata both above and below the argil- 
 laceous slate ; e in the same slate, d an immense animal, 
 bearing some resemblance to the monitor in its dentition 
 and other external characters, has been discovered, and 
 bones of it are not wanting, which must have belonged 
 to individuals forty feet in length, and at least twelve 
 in height. Lastly, specimens, of which there are two or 
 three different species, and which are believed by natu- 
 ralists to be the elytra of coleopterous insects, occur in 
 the Stonesfield slate. 
 
 Aluminous shale is included under this series. 13 
 The earthy part of the shale is found to contain the most 
 alum, and the following process is carried on at the works 
 near Whitby. A layer of brush-wood serves as a base, 
 and shale is thrown over it until a mound is raised. The 
 brush-wood is then kindled, and a slow combustion en- 
 sues. The fire is at last communicated to the shale, and 
 it continues to burn without any addition of fuel. The 
 residuum is put into vats with water, and boiled twenty- 
 four hours ; it is then thrown into other vats, and by the 
 addition of an alkali, is made to crystallize ; lastly, it is 
 again melted and purified by a second crystallization. 
 Thus prepared, it is shipped off to London, and from 
 thence exported to Sweden, Russia and other countries/ 
 
 The most important, and by far the most valuable of 
 the British mineral products, the one on which the 
 wealth and prosperity of the country mainly depend, 
 remains to be examined. The other substances which 
 have been mentioned are comparatively of so little utility, 
 that they can hardly be taken into account. It is to the 
 coal mines that Great Britain is indebted for its manufac- 
 turing power, which, although colossal, must other- 
 wise have been insignificant. The labour of man has 
 been superseded by this wonderful agent, the productive 
 power of the country has been increased more than a 
 hundred-fold, and among the monuments of English 
 genius, those are not the least worthy of admiration, by 
 which the same substance has been made conducive to 
 the various purposes of civilization. 
 
 it must not be imagined that this source of wealth is 
 
 a Geological Transactions, vol. ii. 
 
 b In one of the uppermost beds of the lower division of the Oolites, 
 perhaps the Cornbrash. — P. 
 
 c The Ichthyosaurus has not yet been noticed,* but as it occurs in 
 the beds both above and below these,! it is probably to be found in this 
 part of the series also.* (Conybeare and Phillips, Part 1. p. 208.) — P. 
 
 * In the upper beds of the lower division of the Oolites, including the Corn- 
 brash, Stonesfield slate, Forest Marble, Bradford clay, and Great Oolite. — P. 
 
 + In the Kimmeridge clay in the upper division, and in the Coral Rag 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 57 til 
 
 inexhaustible; on the contrary, there is a limit to which 
 it is always approaching. The distribution of this sub- 
 stance, it is well known, is by no means proportionate to 
 its utility ; even in Great Britain, one of the countries in 
 which it is most abundant, the superficies of the coal district 
 is very small relatively to the size of the island. The 
 transition, however, from abundance to scarcity, can only 
 be very gradual, and many ages must yet elapse before it 
 can be sensibly felt; when it does begin, the increasing 
 difficulty of working the coal mines must operate by slow 
 and successive checks. If these mines could be sud- 
 denly exhausted, the effect might be as destructive of 
 private comfort as of national wealth. Such a calamity 
 could not happen without taking away the means of sub- 
 sistence from an immense number of productive hands, 
 and without depriving the country of the blessings which 
 they diffuse. As a consequence of such an event, the 
 inferior lands must be withdrawn from cultivation ; they 
 were first cultivated to supply the wants of an increasing 
 and a flourishing population, but if the country were 
 exhausted of its coal, they might again, as in ancient 
 times, be covered with forests. 
 
 The three principal coal districts in England, and 
 three only are of any importance, are, \st, the Great 
 Northern district, including all the coal-fields north of the 
 Trent ; 2d, the Central district, including Leicestershire, 
 Warwickshire, Staffordshire, and Shropshire; and 3d, 
 the Western district, which may be subdivided into the 
 North-western, including North Wales, and the South- 
 western, including South Wales, Gloucestershire, and 
 Somersetshire. The coal deposits rest on limestone 
 and sandstone, and extensive iron ores are situated near 
 the carboniferous strata. Thus, all the great iron-works in 
 England have been established within the limits of the 
 coal country, because it is only within these limits that 
 the fuel and the flux necessary for smelting the ore are 
 easily obtained. Copper and zinc are found in the tran- 
 sition and primitive series, but it may be remarked that 
 they are of secondary importance. 
 
 It may be necessary to describe more minutely the 
 limits which have been mentioned. The first or the 
 Northern district, it has been already stated, includes all 
 the coal-fields on the north of the Trent and Mersey. 
 A central chain traverses the district from north to south. 
 These mountains were known to the Romans by the 
 name of the Penine Alps, at least they are thus denom- 
 inated by a British writer, s in describing the Roman 
 province of Maxima Cccsaricnsis. “ Totam in asquales 
 fere partes provinciam dividunt montes Alpes P enini 
 dicti.” It is not believed that they were thus called 
 from any fancied resemblance between them and the 
 Alpine crest near St. Bernard ; it is more probable that 
 they were so named from the British word Pen, which 
 signifies a head or summit. As there is no modern name 
 which comprehends the whole of this range, it is neces- 
 sary to make use of the one that has been left by the 
 Romans. The Penine chain consists of the rocks which 
 
 and Oxford clay in the middle division of the Oolites, above ; and in the 
 Lias, below— perhaps, also, in the lower beds of the lower division of the 
 Oolitic series, including the Inferior Oolite, Fullers’ earth, sand and marl 
 stone 5 undetermined remains of large Laccrtca having been there dis 
 covered.’ — P. 
 
 d In the calcareous slate of Stonesfield. — P. 
 
 ' The Alum slate of Whitby belongs to the Lias formation. — P. 
 
 1 History of Whitby, by Lionel Charlton. 
 
 e Richard of Cirencester. 
 
482 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CL.III. 
 
 are associated with the coal formation ;* it is remarkable 
 in some places for its wild scenery, the extent of its cav- 
 erns, the depth of its ravines, and the height of its preci- 
 pices ; it is broken by torrents and cataracts. Two facts 
 may throw some light on the nature of the scenery in the 
 Staffordshire part ofit. The sun, when nearest the tropic 
 of Capricorn, never rises to the inhabitants of Narrow- 
 dale, during a period of nearly three months, and when it 
 is visible, it never rises until one o’clock p. m. Secondly, 
 at Leek, during a certain period of the year, the sun is 
 seen to set twice in the same evening, a phenomenon 
 which must be attributed to a mountain at some distance 
 irom the town, for after it sets behind the summit, it 
 breaks out again on the northern or most precipitous 
 side. Thus, in a tract of no great extent, the sun ap- 
 pears to set twice in the same evening, and to rise when 
 it has passed the meridian. b 
 
 This district is more important on account of its min- 
 eral products than any other in England. The great coal- 
 field of Northumberland and Durham, several others of 
 a smaller size in the north of Yorkshire, and the great 
 coal-field in South Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire and Derby- 
 shire, are situated on the eastern side of the Penine chain ; 
 the principal deposits on the west are those of North 
 Staffordshire, Manchester or South Lancashire, North 
 Lancashire and Whitehaven. 
 
 The first of these coal-fields* is the most remarkable ; 
 situated in the north-eastern extremity of England, it 
 occupies the greater part of two counties, Northumber- 
 land and Durham. Commencing near the river Coquet 
 on the north, it extends nearly to the Tees on the south, 
 forming an area, of which the greatest breadth is equal to 
 twenty-four miles, and the length to fifty-eight. d J arrow 
 on the southern bank of the Tyne, and about five miles 
 from its mouth, is considered the centre of the coal- 
 measures, or in other words, the beds of coal are there 
 found at the greatest depths ; the High Main, one of the 
 thickest, is not less than nine hundred and sixty feet be- 
 low the surface. It is well known, however, that the incli- 
 nation of the strata is not uniform, so that the depths are 
 not equal at equal distances from Jarrow. 
 
 This coal is generally admitted to be superior in qual- 
 ity to any in the other formations of the same kind, and 
 the difference in the quantity is not less remarkable. 
 Forty beds have been already seen, but many of these 
 are of no great thickness ; the most important have been 
 distinguished by the names of the High Main and the 
 
 Low Main. Shields and Sunderland are the places from 
 which the coal is exported, and the distribution of the 
 trade depends on the size of the two rivers. e The Tyne 
 vessels being large, are, therefore, chiefly destined for the 
 London market ; the Wear vessels, on the other hand, 
 are so small that they can make their way into the small 
 rivers and harbours in most parts of the kingdom. They 
 supply, therefore, the eastern and southern coasts as far 
 west as Plymouth. 
 
 It is difficult to estimate the quantity of coal contained in 
 the formation, called the coal-measures. It is not easy to 
 determine accurately their length and average breadth ; 
 at all events, a great difference in the necessary data may 
 be found in the different calculations, which have been 
 made on the subject. The quantity exhausted by mining 
 must be very great, as nearly four millions of chal- 
 drons are annually taken from the coal-fields in Northum- 
 berland and Durham ; but however great, it cannot be 
 ascertained. There is a source of error in supposing the 
 beds equally thick throughout, which is by no means the 
 case ; neither are they co-extensive ; the upper, it is 
 well known, occupy a less space than the lower. The 
 calculations which have been made of their contents, 
 ought to be regarded merely as approximations ; but 
 even in this light, it is not easy to estimate their rela- 
 tive value. One of the most recent was lately present- 
 ed to the House of Peers ; it is partly founded on hy- 
 pothesis, and also perhaps on inaccurate data ; even some 
 of the necessary elements are not taken into account/ 
 
 According to Dr. Thomson, the extent of the coal- 
 measures is only equal to 180 square' miles ; and even 
 according to this hypothesis, it appears that they may 
 be worked in the same way that they have hitherto been, 
 during a period of fifteen hundred years. It is not, how- 
 ever, improbable that the beds are assumed to be thicker 
 than they really are. 
 
 The abundance of coal cannot justify the waste that 
 takes place in Northumberland and Durham. The 
 practice of separating the more fragile from the sounder 
 parts, was adopted about forty years ago by some miners ; 
 it has now become general, and immense heaps of 
 coal are piled at the mouths of the pits. The heat 
 evolved by the decomposition of the pyrites sets fire to 
 them, and they continue to burn for years. One of 
 these masses, which is still burning, is said to cover 
 twelve acres. It is certain, however, that this small coal 
 might be used with profit ; it might be converted into coke, 
 
 * The whole of the Penine chain is composed of the four series of 
 rocks associated in our coal districts, viz. Coal Measures, Millstone- 
 grit and Shale, Carboniferous Limestone, and Old Red Sandstone. 
 (Conybeare and Phillips, p. 3GG.) — P. 
 
 b Conybeare and Phillips’ Geology of England and Wales, Part I. 
 p. 3(J5 — 8. 
 
 0 The great coal-field of Northumberland and Durham. 
 
 d Two accounts of this district have been published ; the one by N. 
 T. Winch, Esq. in the Transactions of the Geological Society ; the 
 other by Dr. Thomson, in the Annals of Philosophy. We shall refer 
 to both of them in the text. 
 
 e Winch, Geological Transactions, volume fourth. 
 
 1 An estimate of the extent and produce of the Durham and North- 
 umberland coal-fields, by Mr. Hugh Taylor : 
 
 DURHAM. 
 
 From South Shields southward to Castle Eden, twenty-one miles ; 
 fhence westward to West Auckland, thirty-two miles; north-east from 
 West Auckland to Eltringhain, thirty-three miles; and thence to 
 Shields, twenty-two miles ; being an extent of 504 square miles. 
 
 NORTHUMBERLAND. 
 
 From Shields northwards twenty-seven miles, by an average breadth 
 of nine miles ; 243 square miles. In all, 837 square miles. 
 
 Portion Excavated. 
 
 In Durham. S<luare mi,es ' 
 
 On Tyne, say 39 
 
 On Wear 40 
 
 In Northumberland. 
 
 Say thirteen miles by two 26 
 
 The surface of the coal-fields is thus equal to . . . 732 
 
 Estimating the workable coal strata at an average thickness of 
 twelve feet, the contents of a square mile are nearly 12,300,000 tons, 
 
 and of 732 square miles 9,069,480,000 tons. 
 
 Deduct one-third for loss by small coal, interrup- 
 tions by dikes, and other interruptions . . . . 3,023.160,000 
 
 There remains 6,046.320.000 tons. 
 
 Tile coal worked annually in this tract amounts to 3,500,000 tons • 
 so that the present sale may continue during 1727 years. 
 
hookcliii.] DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 and for tlje purpose of coal gas, it is not inferior to any 
 other sort. Wallis gives an account in his history of 
 Northumberland of a fire, which happened in the High 
 Main coal about a hundred and forty years ago. It 
 began at Ben well, a quarter of a mile north of the Tyne, 
 and at last extended itself to the estate of Fenham, 
 nearly a mile from the place where it first appeared. 
 Eruptions were observed in many places ; sulphur and 
 sal ammoniac were sublimed from the fissures, but no stones 
 of any size were ejected. Red ashes and burnt clay, 
 the relics of this pseudo-volcano, are still seen on the 
 western declivity of Benwell hill ; and it is credibly 
 attested that the soil in some parts of Fenham has been 
 rendered unproductive by the action of the fire. 
 
 It must not be supposed that the most valuable of the 
 British minerals is obtained without danger ; the calam- 
 itous accidents, which still take place in the mines, al- 
 though fortunately their occurrence is now less frequent, 
 prove that the natural obstacles which present them- 
 selves, have not been wholly removed by the art of man. 
 It is by no means a matter of surprise that something 
 more remains to be done, but rather that so much has 
 already been accomplished ; and it is certain that the 
 accidents, which still happen occasionally, cannot be 
 attributed to negligence or want of skill in those to whom 
 the superintendence of the works is committed. The 
 choak-damp, the fire-damp and the stythe or after-damp 
 are the names that the minors give the gases to 
 which the coal mines are exposed. Their rapid produc- 
 tion has been attributed to the following causes : first, the 
 coal parts with a portion of its carburetted hydrogen on 
 exposure to the air ; secondly, the pyritous shale which 
 forms the floors of the coal mines, decomposes the water 
 that lodges in them ; the latter process is constantly oper- 
 ating in old mines. Other causes are in all probability 
 going on in these natural laboratories ; for the gases are 
 generated so rapidly and in such quantities as might ap- 
 pear almost incredible without unquestionable evidence. 
 They often take fire in a shaft, long before the sinkers 
 have reached the coal seam ; and the pickmen open 
 crevices occasionally, which emit seven hundred hogs- 
 heads of fire-damp in a minute. These currents continue 
 sometimes for several months, and are of more frequent 
 occurrence in the deep and valuable collieries, where the 
 most tremendous explosions take place. The after- 
 damp or stythe by which these currents are succeeded, 
 is a mixture of the carbonic acid and azotic gases, result- 
 ing from the combustion of the carburetted hydrogen in 
 atmospheric air, and more lives have been lost by it than 
 by the fire-damp. If these calamities are now less fre- 
 quent than formerly, it is because much ingenuity has 
 been exercised in obviating them, and in this point of 
 view the safety-lamp may be considered an invaluable 
 present which the sciences have made to the arts ; but it 
 is not the only means by which the chance of danger is 
 averted ; large furnaces are kept burning at the upcast 
 shafts ; powerful air-pumps, worked by steam-engines, 
 are employed to quicken the draught, and their effect 
 may be ascertained from the fact that a thousand hogs- 
 heads of air are thus drawn out of one mine in a minute. 
 A sort of trap-door, the invention of Mr. Buddie, is now 
 used in the mines ; it is suspended wherever a door is 
 found necessary to prevent the escape of air. It is 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 483 
 
 propped close to the roof in a horizontal .position, but in 
 case of an explosion, the blast removes the prop, and the 
 door falls and closes the aperture. 1 
 
 The importance of the trade to which these mines 
 have given rise, is so great as to render some remarks on 
 its history not unnecessary. It has been supposed that 
 coal was obtained at a very early period in the vicinity 
 of Newcastle ; some writers affirm that a colliery was 
 wrought not far from Benwell, the Condercum of the 
 Romans, at the time when they were in possession of 
 Britain. The fact, however, is very problematical, and 
 if it be true, it is certain that the use of the same sub- 
 stance was long afterwards unknown to the inhabitants 
 themselves. In the Leges Burgorum, which were en- 
 acted in Scotland about the year 1140, particular privi- 
 leges are conferred on those who bring fuel into burghs ; 
 wood, turf and peats are mentioned, but no notice is 
 taken of coal. It does not appear that any advantage 
 was derived from it in England before the year 1234, 
 when Henry the Third granted by a charter the right of 
 digging coal in the neighbourhood to the inhabitants of 
 Newcastle, and not long afterwards it was designated by 
 the name of sea coal. The trade made some progress 
 in the reign of King John, but although coal was found 
 to be the best kind of fuel, its use was prohibited in Lon- 
 don by a royal proclamation. A license was granted by 
 Edward III. to the burgesses of Newcastle to dig coals and 
 stones in Castle Field without the walls, and the colliery 
 at Elswick was demised at the same time to Adam Cole- 
 well for five pounds of yearly rent. In the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, the coal trade had risen to such importance, that 
 acts of parliament were framed for its regulation, and it 
 was directed by one that was passed in the year 1421, 
 that all vessels carrying coal, must be measured by com- 
 missioners nominated by the king, and must have their 
 burden marked upon them, that his majesty may not be 
 deprived of his duty of twopence per chaldron by false 
 measure. It was in the middle of the same century that 
 Scotland was visited by Pope Pius the Second ; he relates 
 that he saw poor people begging in rags at the churches, 
 and receiving, not money nor alms, but pieces of black 
 stone with which they went away satisfied. This species 
 of stone, adds the pope, whether with sulphur or what- 
 ever inflammable substance it may be impregnated, they 
 burn instead of wood, of which their country is destitute. b 
 
 It appears that a lease of two coal pits at Elswick was 
 granted in 1538 for the term of eight years by the prior 
 of Tynemouth to Christopher Midford, at the annual 
 rent of £50. The price of coals at that time in New- 
 castle was 2s. 6d. a chaldron, and about 4s. in London. 
 Queen Elizabeth obtained, in 1582, from the Bishop of 
 Durham, a lease of the manor of Gateshead and Whick- 
 ham, with the coal mines, common wastes and parks, for 
 ninety-nine years, at the annual rent of £90. This lease, 
 which occasioned an increase of two shillings in the price 
 of coals per chaldron, was first assigned to the Earl 
 of Leicester, the queen’s favourite, and afterwards to the 
 celebrated Sutton, the founder of the Charter-house. 
 An assignment of the same lease for the sum of £12,000 
 was made by Mr. Sutton to Sir William Liddle and 
 others for the use of the mayor and burgesses of Newcastle. 
 Coals then rose to seven, afterwards to eight, and lastly 
 to nine shillings per chaldron. Various regulations and 
 
 * Geological Transactions, vol. iv. 
 
 jl 
 
 b iEneoe Silvii Opera. 
 
r 
 
 484 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIII. 
 
 acts relative to the coal trade were made during the 
 same and the four succeeding reigns ; it is said indeed that 
 in the year 1648, the price of coal was so high in London 
 that many poor persons perished for wantof fuel. In 
 the year 1655, the price of coals in London was upwards 
 of twenty shillings per chaldron, and during the same 
 period three hundred and twenty vessels were employed in 
 the coal trade upon the Tyne, each of them carrying annu- 
 ally eight hundred chaldrons. An act of parliament was 
 passed in 1655, a by which a duty of one shilling per chal- 
 dron was granted to the lord mayor, to enable him to rebuild 
 the churches and other public buildings, which were de- 
 stroyed by the great fire in the preceding year. The sum, 
 however, was found to be insufficient, and it was raised to 
 three shillings. Charles the Second granted to the Duke 
 of Richmond a duty of one shilling per chaldron, on coal 
 exported by the Tyne, and the right to it continued in 
 the same family until the year 1800, when it was pur- 
 chased by government. 
 
 The state of the coal trade accorded ill with the liberal 
 spirit which pervaded other branches of British commerce, 
 and it called at last for the interference of the legislature. 
 The high price of fuel in the metropolis was attributed to 
 an impost of six shillings a chaldron levied by govern- 
 ment on sea-borne coal, and to other local dues equally 
 oppressive. It may be remarked that the same impost 
 was not exacted at the pits or in the counties from which 
 fuel is obtained, and where it is comparatively cheap. 
 Tlius a chaldron of coal which costs twelve or thirteen 
 shillings at the coal works, was not sold in London under 
 fifty-five. But the evils of such a system were not con- 
 fined to the capital, they extended to the country, and it 
 required no great sagacity to discover that this was one 
 and certainly not the least cause of the superior condition 
 of the labouring classes in the north over those in the south. 
 
 It may not perhaps be readily believed that the north- 
 ern coal trade, or extracting coal from the pits, and con- 
 veying it to different places, affords the means of sub- 
 sistence to more than forty-five thousand individuals. 
 Such, however, is certainly the case, and as no other 
 proof illustrates better the importance of this trade, 
 it may be right to subjoin a quotation from the evidence 
 of Mr. Buddie, taken by a committee of the House of 
 Commons. “ I hold a paper in my hand stating the 
 number of people employed in the coal trade in each 
 department. I beg to observe the returns from the 
 Tyne are official documents; from the Wear I have no 
 returns, but it is by an approximate calculation. b The 
 number of persons employed under ground on the Tyne 
 are — men 4937, boys 3554, together 8491 ; aboveground, 
 men 2745, boys 718 ; making the total employed in the 
 mines above and below ground 11,954, which in round 
 numbers I shall call 12,000, because I am pretty sure 
 there were some omissions in the returns. On the Wear 
 I conceive there are at least 9000 employed, making 
 
 21.000 employed in digging the coal, and in delivering 
 it on the two rivers. From the best calculations it would 
 appear that averaging the coasting vessels that carry coal, 
 at the size of 220 London chaldrons each vessel, there 
 would be 1400 vessels employed, which would require 
 
 15.000 seamen and boys. I have made a summary; 
 
 1 l(iG7. — The great fire in London happened in Sept. lCfifi. — P. 
 
 b The approximate calculation has since been ascertained to be under 
 the truth. 
 
 there are seamen, 15,000 ; pitmen and above ground 
 people employed at the collieries, 21,000; keelmen, 
 coal boatmen, casters and trimmers, 2000 ; making the 
 total number employed in what I call the northern coal 
 trade, 38,000 ; in London, whippers, lightermen and so 
 forth, 5000 ; factors, agents, &sc. on the coal exchange, 
 2500 ; 7500 in all in London. Making the grand total 
 in the north country and London departments of the 
 trade, 45,500. This does not of course include the per- 
 sons employed in the outports in discharging the ships.” 
 
 The trade, however important in itself, is much more 
 so in its relation to others ; on it the others in a great 
 degree depend. It enables us to explain the rapid and 
 extraordinary rise of many populous towns, such as 
 Manchester, Glasgow, Birmingham and Leeds ; it accounts 
 for the commercial greatness of Britain, to which nothing 
 analogous can be found in ancient or in modern times. 
 If the immense power which the genius of man has 
 derived from this substance be considered, it need not 
 excite surprise that the products of British industry have 
 been multiplied almost to infinity. What has actually 
 happened, may therefore be easily inferred ; the different 
 eras that mark the progress of this trade, indicate also cor- 
 responding advances in the arts and civilization. 
 
 The other places from which coal is obtained, may 
 now be briefly mentioned. Other coal districts are situ- 
 ated in the Great Northern division, or in the country 
 north of the Trent : of these some are little inferior to 
 the one that has been described. The detached basins 
 or seams in the north of Yorkshire are too insignificant 
 both in extent and thickness to require any particular 
 notice ; but it is otherwise with the field in the southern 
 part of the same county. The great Yorkshire and 
 Derbyshire coal-field agrees so closely with that of 
 Northumberland in the direction, inclination and charac- 
 ter of its strata, that it has been considered a re-emer- 
 gence of the same beds from the magnesian limestone, 
 which conceals them through the long intermediate 
 space.® The area which it occupies may be compared 
 to a triangle with a truncated apex. The northern 
 extremity forms the base or broadest part, while the 
 apex or narrowest is situated in the opposite direction. 
 The greatest length from north to south, between Leeds 
 in Yorkshire and Nottingham, is more than sixty miles ; 
 the greatest breadth, which is equal to twenty-two, is situ- 
 ated in Yorkshire. Like the strata of the Northumberland 
 coal-field, they range from north to south, dip to the east, 
 where they sink beneath the magnesian limestone, and 
 rise towards the west and north-west, where the lowest 
 measures at length crop out against the millstone-grit 
 rocks, that form the higher ridges of the Penine chain. 
 
 Indications of coal have been discovered on the south 
 of the Penine chain, between Ashborne and Derby, con- 
 sequently on the north of the Trent. Turning from the 
 southern to the western side of the same chain, two coal- 
 fields may be observed, those of Cheadle and Newcastle 
 under Lyne. The latter, or, as it is generally called, the 
 Pottery coal-field, forms a triangular area, of which the 
 sides are each nearly equal to ten miles, and the base to 
 seven. The number of beds, it has been ascertained, 
 amounts to thirty-two, while their thickness varies from 
 
 c Geology of England and Wales, Part 1. page 378. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 BOOK CLIII.] 
 
 three to ten feet. Mole-Copt hill may be considered 
 the vertex of the triangle, the sides of which diverge 
 toward the south-south-east and south-south-west. Much 
 more important than the last is the coal-field of Manches- 
 ter or South Lancashire, which commences in the north- 
 western part of Derbyshire, and extends to the south- 
 western part of Lancashire, forming a crescent, of which 
 the opposite horns are at least forty miles from each 
 other, and almost at an equal distance between them is 
 situated the town of Manchester. The Derbyshire part 
 of the field has been described by Mr. Farey in his nat- 
 ural history of that county ; it may be regretted that his 
 example has not been imitated, or that no accurate 
 account has hitherto been published of the Lancashire 
 portion, a fact not a little surprising, considering the zeal 
 of English geologists. But the same may be said of 
 another and a smaller field, occupying probably a detach- 
 ed basin in the northern extremity of the same county, 
 between Lancaster and Ingleton. 
 
 The transition group of the Cumbrian mountains, says 
 Mr. Conybeare, protrudes like an immense excrescence 
 from the side of the Penine chain, and the formations of 
 which it consists are thus forced to make a long detour, as 
 the layers of wood are seen to do in surrounding a knot. 
 The coal measures might be found on the soutli of this 
 circle, were it not for the indentation formed by More- 
 cambeBay ; they extend, however, on the western coast 
 from Egremont, on the south of Whitehaven, to Hesket, 
 and onwards at irregular distances to the vicinity of Or- 
 ton ; in other words, they may be traced through the 
 northern semi-circle or boundary of the transition group. 
 
 The Rev. Mr. Townsend makes the following remarks 
 concerning the coal of Cumberland : “ Collieries pro- 
 ceed along the coast by Cockermouth to Maryport, form- 
 ing a district of about one hundred square miles, in which 
 three coal-fields are particularly noticed. First, Howgill, 
 west of Whitehaven, two miles and a half wide from the 
 rivulet called Pow on the eastern side, to more than one 
 thousand yards under the sea. In this field, seven beds 
 have been worked. Second, Whingill, north-east of 
 Whitehaven ; it extends 3000 yards in length by 2800 
 in width. In the depth of 165 fathoms, they work seven 
 large beds, and eighteen thin ones have been observed. 
 Third, Besides these, a more extensive coal-field has 
 been discovered on the south and south-west of White- 
 haven, which is yet unexplored. ” a 
 
 All the coal-fields of any importance in the Great 
 Northern district, have now been enumerated ; they may 
 be considered, not only in their relation to the physical 
 geography of the country, but also as having an influence 
 on the destinies of the inhabitants, accounting for the 
 nature of their occupations, the diffusion of wealth, and 
 the greatness of the population in comparison of the 
 surface. 
 
 Three coal-fields are situated in the Central district, 
 namely, one on the confines of Leicestershire and Staf- 
 fordshire, another in Warwickshire, and a third in South 
 Staffordshire. The first of these has obtained its name 
 from the town of Ashby de la Zouch, around which it 
 forms an irregular oval, equal in length to ten miles, and 
 
 3 Vindication of the character of Moses as an historian. 
 b Geology of England and Wales. [The Bedworth works are upon 
 the same beds, but here the first and second coal-seams of Griff run 
 
 485 
 
 to nearly eight at its greatest breadth. But the coal 
 formations within this boundary are much broken, and it 
 is uncertain whether they occupy two detached basins, 
 or belong to one common field. The second or the War- 
 wickshire field extends to the distance of sixteen miles 
 from south-east to north-west, from Wicken, about three 
 miles east from Coventry, to Wareston, about five miles 
 to the east of Tamworth. The average breadth of the 
 tract exceeds three miles. The principal works are at 
 Griff and Bedworth, in the southern part of the field. 
 In the former place four beds of coal are worked ; the 
 depth of the first is about 117 yards, and the principal 
 seam is three yards in thickness. The Bedworth works 
 are on the same strata, but the first and second run to- 
 gether, and form a seam of five yards. b 
 
 The Dudley or South Staffordshire field is more ex- 
 tensive than either of the former, being about twenty 
 miles in length, and about four at its greatest breadth. 
 The area has been ascertained by measurement to be 
 equal to sixty square miles. It may be divided into two 
 portions, of which the northern stretches from Cannock 
 Chase to Bilston, and the southern from the last place 
 to the neigbourhood of Stourbridge. It may be mention- 
 ed that a bed of remarkable thickness, not less than thirty 
 feet, is worked in this field. As this part of the country 
 is inconveniently situated for conveying coals to a great 
 distance, the produce is sold at a cheap rate, and much 
 of it is never carried from the works. It is well known 
 that coals are cheaper in Birmingham than in any other 
 part of England, and that circumstance accounts suffi- 
 ciently for the rise of the town. There is reason to 
 believe that little more than a third part of the coal ob- 
 tained from the mines is actually sold, while the rest or 
 the smaller fragments become useless by exposure to the 
 air. All the neighbouring counties are now supplied 
 with coal by means of the canals that communicate with 
 Birmingham, and an immense quantity is necessary for 
 the numerous iron works in the vicinity. 
 
 It may be observed that the North Welsh coal-fields 0 
 have been less accurately examined than most others in 
 England. A valley nearly parallel to the Menai Straits, 
 and about six miles distant from it, traverses the Isle of 
 Anglesea. It is bounded on both sides by carboniferous 
 limestone, and coal, which has been found in the depres- 
 sions, is worked near the Maltraeth estuary, while the 
 same substance extends probably along the whole line. 
 The coal measures in Flintshire are supposed to extend 
 nearly thirty miles from Llanassa, d near the western cape 
 of the Dee, to the neighbourhood of Oswestry in Shrop- 
 shire. The plain of Shrewsbury is in most places cov- 
 ered with strata of the newer red sandstone, but several 
 broken patches of coal are scattered over it ; they are 
 besides found in the intervals between the transition 
 chains by which the same plain is indented. The Coal- 
 brook-dale field extends from Wombridge to Coal-port 
 on the Severn. The length of the tract is equal to six 
 miles, while the greatest breadth does not exceed two. 
 Some of the beds are very sulphureous, and on account 
 of the fetid odour which they emit, they are only used 
 for burning lime. Brown Clee Hill and Titterstone Clee 
 
 together, and constitute one five-yard seam. Conybeare and Phillips 
 Geology, Part I. p. 407. — P.] 
 c North-western district. 
 i Llan Asaph (St. Asaph’s Church.) — P. 
 
486 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CL.III. 
 
 Hill, two of the loftiest heights in Shropshire, are situ- 
 ated a few miles to the south of Coalbrook-dale. The 
 summits are covered with overlying masses of basalt, 
 but the coal is worked about midway from the base ; in 
 the first, the coal is observed in thin strata, but in the other, 
 the principal stratum is upwards of six feet in thickness. 
 The most valuable field, or that of Cornbrook,® is about 
 a mile long by a quarter broad. The Billingsley tract on 
 the east of the Clee hills, stretches from Deuse hill on 
 the north, to the borders of Shropshire and Worcester- 
 shire on the south, a length of eight miles ; but it is 
 doubtful whether it consists of one continuous field or 
 several small ones. Two small fields are situated near 
 the base of the Aberley hills, the one at Pensex, the 
 other at the distance of three miles to the west of it ; 
 their geological relations have not been examined. 15 
 
 Another coal country may now be mentioned ; it has 
 been called the South-western district, and it compre- 
 hends the South Welsh basin, that of the Forest of Dean, 
 and that of South Gloucestershire and Somersetshire. 
 These basins are connected with each other by contigu- 
 ity of position, and geologically by a common base and 
 the general analogies of their structure. The strata near 
 the edges of the basins are often very highly inclined, 
 but nearer the centre a great portion of them is concealed 
 by horizontal deposits of more recent formation, such 
 as calcareo-magnesian conglomerate, new red sandstone, 
 red marie and lias. Thus, in many instances in Somer- 
 setshire, the shafts are begun in lias, and sunk completely 
 through the newer sandstone to the coal measures ; 
 some of them, indeed, have been sunk to the great depth 
 of two hundred fathoms. 0 
 
 The great coal-field of South Wales extends from 
 Polity pool on the east, to St. Bride’s Bay on the west. 
 The lowest beds of coal are about seven hundred fathoms 
 beneath the highest elevations in the district, but from 
 this circumstance, the miner is rot put to much incon- 
 venience, for the country is intersected by deep vallies, 
 which extend generally from north to south. It appears, 
 from a survey of the district, that there are twelve beds 
 of coal from three to nine feet thick, together seventy feet 
 and a half, and eleven others from eighteen inches to 
 three feet, together twenty-four feet and a quarter; in all 
 nearly ninety-five feet. The extent of surface is not 
 less than one hundred square miles, and according to the 
 common method of working, every square acre may yield 
 100,000 tons, or every square mile, 64,000,000 tons of 
 coal. Different sorts of coal are obtained in different parts 
 of the district ; on the north-east, it resembles coke ; what 
 is termed stone coal is more common on the north-west ; 
 the larger sort is used for drying malt and hops, and 
 the smaller or culm, as it is termed, for burning lime- 
 stone ; on the south side, it is mostly of a bituminous 
 quality. 
 
 The Forest of Dean coal is contained in an elliptical 
 basin, of which the superficial extent is nearly equal to 
 forty square miles. There are not fewer than seventeen 
 strata, but the total thickness of coal does not exceed 
 thirty-seven feet. 
 
 The last coal basin that shall be mentioned, is that of 
 South Gloucestershire and Somersetshire ; it stretches 
 
 * On the Titterstone Clee Hill there are six different coal-fields, of 
 which the Cornbrook coal-field is the most extensive and valuable. It 
 is about a mile long, and half a mile broad. (Conybeare and Phillips, 
 p. 423.)— P. 
 
 from Iron Acton on the north, to the foot of theMendip 
 Hills on the south, a distance of twenty-five miles ; its 
 breadth from the neighbourhood of Bath on the east, to 
 that of Bristol on the west, is about eleven miles, and 
 this last line is marked by the course of the river Avon, 
 which divides the basin into two nearly equal parts. In this 
 tract there are several extensive faults, some of which 
 elevate the strata more than one hundred feet ; in the 
 greater portion of it, also, the coal measures are conceal- 
 ed by more recent deposits ; the labour of working them 
 is thus greatly increased, but the difficulty has been sur- 
 mounted by British industry. 
 
 All the coal districts of any importance in England, 
 have now been enumerated ; it was thought necessary 
 to describe them minutely, not because this substance 
 forms a distinguishing feature in the physical geography 
 of the country, but an important element of its wealth, 
 the ingenuity of man rendering it subservient to his pur- 
 poses, and thus increasing his power. It places the mar- 
 iner beyond the control of the winds, while it renders the 
 land traveller no longer dependent on animal force, and 
 enables him to proceed with a velocity which, in the last 
 age, might have been deemed impossible, so little are in- 
 ventions or improvements contemplated by the genera- 
 tion that immediately precedes them. 
 
 Iron and lead, the most useful of the metals, are found 
 in the coal districts ; we shall afterwards have occasion to 
 allude to them more fully ; at present it may be remarked 
 that other metals of great utility, such as copper and tin, 
 are the products of transition or primitive districts. On 
 account of these metals, Cormvall has been long famous ; 
 at an early period the Phoenicians repaired to this part 
 of England, and traded with the inhabitants ; in a later 
 age the Cornish mines were deemed of so much impor- 
 tance that the stannary courts for essaying and stamping 
 the metals, the produce of these mines, were established 
 in different towns. In several parts of Cornwall, allur 
 vial deposits of tin are found in vallies and low grounds ; 
 they are worked or separated from the earthly matter by 
 passing a stream of water over them ; with this exception, 
 copper and tin are not found in strata or beds in Corn- 
 wall. The veins in which they occur, extend generally 
 from east to west; their deviation from that direction, or 
 their inclination to the north or south in some parts of their 
 course, is termed by the miners the underlie of the load. 
 What might be naturally expected when two veins un- 
 derlie each other in opposite directions, and meet under 
 ground, does not often happen, for in many instances 
 they are rich, when separate, and poor, beyond their 
 junction. If, on the other hand, two veins underlie each 
 other in the same or nearly the same direction, and the 
 one overtakes the other, they seem mutually to enrich 
 each other. d 
 
 No precise information has been obtained concerning 
 the length or depth of the veins. The most productive, 
 it is known, extend to a greater distance than three or 
 four miles ; it has been supposed indeed that they ex- 
 tend the whole length of the county, but such an opin- 
 ion is merely conjectural, as there is every reason to 
 believe that no miner ever observed the termination of 
 a vein either on the east or the west. The same may 
 
 b Tracts on Natural History by Dr. Townson. 
 
 c Dr. Townson's Tracts, &c. 
 
 d Transactions of the Geological Society, volume 4th. Mr. Phillips 
 on the veins of Cornwall. 
 
BOOK CL.III.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 487 
 
 be said of their depth, for no instance has occurred in 
 which the miners have reached the lowest part of the 
 vein ; before that happens, the works are abandoned 
 either on account of their poverty, or because the ex- 
 pense of continuing them is not likely to be indemnified 
 by the produce. The mine of Dolcoath is said to be 
 the deepest in Cornwall, and the works are carried on 
 at the depth of 228 fathoms. 
 
 As to the breadth of the veins, they vary from one to 
 thirty feet, but the widest are not considered the most 
 productive ; on the contrary, one of two or three feet is 
 preferred, as the ore is found to be mixed in less propor- 
 tion with foreign ingredients. A hundred and twenty 
 mines were worked a few years ago in Cornwall, and the 
 net annual produce of the copper mines alone amounts in 
 value to nearly £400,000. a A century ago the English 
 imported the same metal from Germany and Sweden ; 
 it is now exported from England to every quarter of the 
 globe. 
 
 The manner in which the works are managed, and the 
 prospect of gain held out to individuals, are probably the 
 chief causes of so great a change. In other parts of Eu- 
 rope, works of the same sort are under the control of the 
 different governments, and a portion of the public revenue 
 is set apart for such purposes, or grants and immunities 
 are established in their favour; lastly, officers educated 
 to the profession of mining are appointed by the state to 
 superintend the mines. But in England the method is 
 different ; all that government does is to respect and 
 secure private property ; the rest is left to individual inge- 
 nuity and enterprise. 
 
 It might be shown, were it at all necessary, that indi- 
 viduals are better qualified than governments to estimate 
 the profits likely to arise from such undertakings. But 
 while it is not doubtful that the English method is the best, 
 the defects that arise from the habits and ignorance of 
 the miners, may be mentioned with regret. No class of 
 men are more expert than the Cornish miners in discov- 
 ering veins, a branch of their profession, in which skill 
 is the result of long experience and repeated trials. It 
 may not perhaps be readily believed that all of them, 
 even the directors of the works, or the captains as they 
 are provincially styled, are ignorant of chemistry and 
 geology, two sciences, of which some knowledge at least 
 is of the highest use in their art. Much loss and waste 
 which might have been otherwise prevented, must be 
 attributed to the above cause. It is not more than a 
 century since the copper ore was discovered beneath the 
 tin, and within that period, whatever was not tin was con- 
 sidered of no value. It is well known that many roads 
 in the county have been mended with copper ore. Co- 
 balt has been thrown away by the miners on the heaps 
 at Dolcoath mine, and bismuth has been mistaken for 
 cobalt in the works at Huel-Sparnon. The native silver 
 in Herland might have remained concealed, had not the 
 vibrations of some filaments attracted the attention of a 
 workman ; before that time the ore containing the pre- 
 cious metal was thrown away as useless. 1 * * 
 
 a Taylor on the Economy of the Mines of Cornwall and Devon. 
 Geological Transactions, volume 4th. 
 
 b Phillips on the veins of Cornwall. Geological Transactions, vol- 
 ume 4th. 
 
 c “ Whether tin doth grow again, and fill up places which ha ve been 
 formerly wrought away, or whether it only separateth itself from the 
 consumed offal, hath been much controverted, and is not to this day 
 
 Some improvement, however, has taken place of late 
 years, and some good has been effected by mechanics’ 
 institutions ; still it might be of advantage to establish 
 schools in the most convenient places, that the miners 
 may attain a competent knowledge of their art. The 
 laudable desire of diffusing knowledge among the lower 
 orders might thus be gratified, and the mines might be 
 worked with much greater profit. It is certain that the 
 workmen still make use of the divining rod, and still 
 believe in the reproduction of metals.® But the Cornish 
 miners are patient and laborious ; they brave great dan- 
 gers for a very trifling profit. It is customary for a work- 
 man to walk two or three miles in the middle of the 
 night, and in the worst weather ; having reached the 
 mine, he throws off his dress, and puts on his underground 
 clothes, slings his tools over his shoulder, and descends 
 by ladders with the light of a small candle, a depth of a 
 thousand or twelve hundred feet. The same person 
 works six or eight hours amidst the noise of pumps and 
 steam-engines, with as much alacrity and as little con- 
 sciousness of danger, as if he were engaged in his ordi- 
 nary occupations above ground. d “ The mine of Huel- 
 Cock,” says Mr. Pryce, “ is wrought eighty fathoms in 
 length under the sea, below low-water mark ; and the 
 sea in some places, is only three fathoms over the 
 back of the works, so that the men underneath hear the 
 break, flux, ebb and reflux of the waves, which having 
 had the run of the Atlantic Ocean for many hundred 
 leagues, are consequently impetuous and boisterous. They 
 also hear the rumbling noise of every nodule and fragment 
 of rock, continually rolling on the submarine stratum, and 
 producing a kind of thundering noise, which is not heard 
 without dread by a stranger. Add to this, that several 
 parts of the vein, which are richer than others, have 
 been very indiscreetly hulked and worked within four 
 feet of the sea ; whereby m violent stormy weather, the 
 noise has been so tremendous that the workmen have 
 often fled from their labour, fearing that the sea was 
 about to break in on them.” 6 
 
 Such is their occupation, and although they are not 
 better paid than men engaged in other sorts of labour, 
 attended with less danger and less toil, comparatively 
 few of them change their calling, or seek elsewhere the 
 means of subsistence. 
 
 To describe minutely the mineral kingdom in Eng 
 land is not the design of the present work ; the most 
 valuable substances have now been mentioned, and in 
 the remarks on the different counties, occasion shall be 
 taken to notice the most remarkable of their mineral 
 products. 
 
 If a line be drawn from the coast of Berwickshire to 
 Liverpool, and through Montgomery in North Wales, to 
 Ludlow, then east of Hereford, and onwards to Teign- 
 mouth on the coast of Devon, on the west of it are the 
 mountainous tracts of Cormvall and Devonshire, Wales, 
 Cumberland and Westmoreland; it may serve also as a 
 boundary between the primitive and transition rocks that 
 extend towards the west, and the more regularly stratified 
 
 decided. And whether dead lodes that have not one grain of tin in them, 
 may not hereafter be impregnated, matured and prove a future supply 
 to the country when the present lodes are exhausted, I think well de- 
 serves our highest consideration.” Notes to Carew’s Survey of Corn 
 wall by Tomkin, edited by Lord de Dunstanville, 1811. 
 
 d Phillips on the veins of Cornwall. 
 
 • Mineralogia Cornubiensis. 
 
488 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIH. 
 
 and newer deposits on the east. If another line be ex- 
 tended northwards, fiom Exmouth, through Taunton, to 
 Tewkesbury, and thence with a moderate curvature to 
 the east, through Stratford upon Avon, Leicester, east of 
 Nottingham, Newark, Gainsborough and York, to the mouth 
 of the Tees, it will also divide the island into two portions, 
 of which the western includes, besides the mountainous re- 
 gions already mentioned, the remaining metaliferous tract, 
 and all the coal districts, that on the east consisting entire- 
 ly of the more recent stratified rocks ; a division which, 
 it has been remarked, is attended with a corresponding 
 difference in the occupations of the inhabitants of the two 
 portions, and forms a sort of natural boundary between 
 the agricultural and manufacturing population.® 
 
 The science of geology has been cultivated with much 
 success in England, and many persons, whose only ob- 
 iect is to gratify a desire of knowledge, have bestowed 
 on it their time and their labour. If Mr. Smith had con- 
 cealed his discoveries, he might have reaped a golden 
 harvest, but he took every opportunity of proclaiming 
 them, thinking it best for the interests of science, and the 
 welfare of his country. The practical advantages result- 
 ing from the labours of such men might be appreciated, 
 were it possible to ascertain the sums that have been lost, 
 or may still be lost, in speculations, of which the failure 
 may be predicted with certainty. It is not long since 
 £80,000 were expended in seeking for coal at Bexhill 
 in Sussex, although the sand of that place b is separated 
 by so great a depth from the coal series, as to render 
 abortive every attempt to pass through the intermediate 
 strata. 6 Mr. Townsend informs us, that a pit was sunk 
 for coal to the depth of six hundred fathoms, at Bruham 
 near the chalk hills of Bradley-Nole, and that the miners 
 reached only to the uppermost beds of the great oolite. d 
 The history of mining operations in England abounds 
 with such examples. It may be mentioned, on the au- 
 thority of the last writer, that the commissioners of the 
 Bath roads sent ten miles for flints, while their waggons 
 actually passed, without their knowing it, over a bed of 
 flints for the greater part of the way, which was concealed 
 by the sand that covers the surface. The stone of which 
 the Bath cathedral is built, was conveyed from the dis- 
 tance of four miles ; it was not then known that the same 
 stone might be obtained in the immediate vicinity ; 
 quarries have since been opened. If errors of a like 
 nature are now less frequently committed, if pits are not 
 so often sunk in vain, it is because practical men have 
 availed themselves of the discoveries of geologists, or in 
 other words, have become better acquainted with the 
 geological position of the different strata. 
 
 The animal kingdom in England differs little from 
 that of other countries between nearly corresponding 
 parallels ; it is unnecessary, therefore, to enumerate the 
 species that compose it. It may be remarked that the 
 wolf and the wild boar, formerly not unknown in Eng- 
 land, have long since been extirpated. It is not easy, 
 however, to obtain any accurate information concerning 
 (lie precise period in which these animals were destroyed. 
 
 a Introduction to the Geology of England and Wales Smith’s 
 Geological Map. 
 
 b Iron sand. — This formation often contains, (especially in Bedford- 
 shire, Dorsetshire, and near Hastings,) a considerable quantity of fos- 
 sil wood, and even regular beds of wood coal. The sands alternating 
 with these beds also much resemble, in some places, those occurring in 
 the great coal formation. These circumstances have led to expen- 
 
 It is known that Edgar, who reigned in the early 
 part of the tenth century, employed many persons in 
 hunting wolves, and so great was their diligence, that 
 these ravenous animals were driven or fled for refuge to 
 the mountains and forests of Wales. Athelstan, the 
 predecessor of the same prince, imposed a tribute on the 
 Welsh, from which they were exonerated by Edgar, on 
 condition of rendering him every year three hundred 
 wolves’ heads. The latter tax, it is added, was punctu- 
 ally paid. It appears, from the laws of Hoel-Dha, e the 
 Welsh legislator, that his grand huntsman was permitted 
 to chase the wild boar from the middle of November to 
 the beginning of December. The same animal, it is 
 likely, existed in England after the reign of William the 
 Conqueror ; but in his time it was by no means common, 
 and those who killed a wild boar within the royal forests, 
 were punished with the loss of their eyes. 
 
 The stag in its natural state is very rare in England, 
 still a few of them are found on the borders of Cornwall. 
 In most countries, the colour of the stag is yellow, but 
 in England, it is of a dusky red. Of the fallow deer that 
 are seen in the parks of the landed proprietors, there are 
 two sorts ; the one of a fine dappled colour was originally 
 brought from India ; the other of a dark brown was im- 
 ported from Norway by James the First. 
 
 The hills, the woods, and the valleys, abound with dif- 
 ferent kinds of game, of which the most common perhaps 
 are the hare, the partridge, and the pheasant. The red 
 variety of the partridge is by no means scarce in Suffolk 
 and other counties, but the pheasant can hardly be said 
 to exist in a wild state ; some, it is true, are bred in 
 the woods of Norfolk, and in other parts of the coun- 
 try, but the greater number are brought up in confine- 
 ment ; the eggs are hatched under domestic fowls, and 
 the young at a certain age are set at liberty. The red 
 grouse is observed on the hilly and barren tracts in the 
 north of England, but they are not so common as in 
 many parts of Scotland. The black cock is found in 
 Wales, and also in different parts of the New Forest, in 
 Hampshire, where it is preserved as royal game. The 
 ptarmigan has been occasionally seen on the lofty hills of 
 Wales and Cumberland. The bustard, although very 
 scarce, exists still in different parts of England, as in the 
 open country near Dorchester, on Salisbury plain, in the 
 neighbourhood of Newmarket, and in the Wolds of 
 Yorkshire. The wild duck is nowhere more common 
 than in the fens of Lincolnshire. 
 
 The turtle dove arrives late in the spring, and departs 
 about the end of August ; they appear in greater num- 
 bers in Kent than in any other county. The nightingale, 
 the finest of the British songsters, visits England in 
 April, and leaves it in August; it is rare in Yorkshire, 
 and is not heard in the more northern counties. The 
 woodcocks begin to appear in October, but the greater 
 number do not arrive before November or December ; 
 they return about the middle of March ; coming down 
 to the sea coast when the wind is favourable, they then 
 repair to their breeding places. It has been observed 
 
 sive but abortive attempts to procure this combustible from these 
 beds near Bexhill in Sussex. (Conybeare and Phillips’ Geol. 
 England and Wales, p. 137.) — Bexhill is near the coast, to the west of 
 Hastings.— P. 
 
 c Herschel’s Discourse on Natural Philosophy, page 34, Am. Ed. 
 
 d Townsend’s Vindication of Moses, &c page 128. 
 
 e Hoel Dda (Howel the Good.) — P 
 
BOOK CLIII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 489 
 
 that the woodcock is gradually becoming rare in Eng- 
 land, and the cause is attributed to the progress of culti- 
 vation. The starlings appear perhaps in denser flocks 
 than any of the other birds ; they actually darken the air 
 in the fens of Lincolnshire, and break down the reeds 
 with their weight. 
 
 Of the different kinds of fish that frequent the English 
 rivers, the salmon is the most valuable ; although it is 
 found in most of the principal streams, it is more plenti- 
 ful in the Tweed, the border river, than in any other. 
 Other kinds are obtained in great abundance on the coasts, 
 and the different fisheries to which they have given rise, 
 form an important branch of commerce. 
 
 The herring fisheries on the coasts of England, are less 
 valuable and extensive than in Scotland ; they are taken, 
 however, on many parts of the eastern coast, and 
 principally in the neighbourhood of Yarmouth ; they 
 are also found on the western coast, but not in so great 
 numbers. 
 
 Many of the herrings are exported, but the produce of 
 the mackerel fisheries is confined to the supply of the 
 home market ; they are taken between the coasts of Nor- 
 folk on the east and north, and those of Hampshire on the 
 south and west. Mackerel are not so plentiful to the 
 north of Yarmouth, and they are neglected westward of 
 Hampshire, on account of the greater importance of the 
 pilchard fishery. London is the great market for mack- 
 erel, and it is calculated that some millions of them are 
 sold there every year. 
 
 It is on the coasts of Dorsetshire, Devonshire and 
 Cornwall, particularly the last, that the greater number 
 of pilchards are taken. These fish were once in so much 
 request in the Italian states, that the orders to Cornwall 
 for tin and copper were frequently conditional, or it was 
 stipulated that if so many pilchards could not be sent, the 
 other articles would not be received.® Dartmouth and 
 Falmouth are the two ports in which the trade is chiefly 
 carried on, and although it has much declined of late 
 years, there are not fewer than three hundred pilchard 
 vessels of every kind in the former place, and a still 
 greater number in the latter. 
 
 Colchester, Wells, Faversham, Milton, the Swales 
 of the Medway, Queenborough, Rochester, Sea Salter, 
 Poole, Tenby and Port Inon are the principal seats of 
 the oyster fisheries. The Colchester oysters are held 
 in the greatest repute, but they are only fattened there ; 
 most of them are taken between Chichester and South- 
 ampton. Poole employs about forty sloops and boats 
 in fishing oysters, and supplies the London market two 
 months every season, in which time the receipts are sup- 
 posed to average £8000 or £10,000. Two hundred 
 fishermen and five or six sloops are employed at Port 
 Inon in this trade ; it supplies the Bristol, Bath and 
 Gloucester markets. The other fisheries are of less con- 
 sequence ; they consist chiefly of turbot, cod and lob- 
 sters: the most important turbot fisheries are situated on 
 the coasts of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex and different parts 
 of the English Channel ; on the other hand, the greatest 
 quantity of cod and lobsters are taken on the north-east- 
 ern coasts. 
 
 It might be shown that England derives considerable 
 advantage from her fisheries, some affording a cheap 
 
 1 Edinburgh Encyclopedia, art. England — Fisheries. 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 57 62 
 
 and wholesome article of food to every class of the com- 
 munity, others ministering to the luxuries of the rich, 
 and all of them furnishing a hardy race of men to the 
 navy. Few countries indeed are so favourably situated 
 in this respect, the extent of the coasts being very great 
 in proportion to the extent of surface, and the numerous 
 indentations, creeks and inlets affording shelter from 
 every wind. 
 
 In every civilized country, the fern b are of infinitely 
 less value than the domestic animals : the food which 
 the latter afford, depends not on the contingencies of the 
 chase ; their strength is employed for the advantage of 
 man ; their multiplication is subject to his control, and 
 is regulated by his wants ; nay more, the very qualities 
 for which they are most valuable, are improved by his 
 care. It is long since the superiority of the English 
 horse has been admitted ; certainly neither the soil nor 
 the climate is favourable to that animal in its wild state, 
 but every obstacle has been overcome by the inhabitants, 
 and their coursers are equal to any for strength and 
 swiftness. The English racer has been improved with 
 the best blood of Arabia ; the remarkable resemblance 
 between them was observed by Buffon, w ho thought the 
 principal difference consisted in the greater size of the 
 English horse. The latter are probably fleeter, but it 
 need not be forgotten, that the best of them were sprung 
 from Arabs. The English themselves believe that the 
 breed of their racers is apt to degenerate, if it be not 
 crossed at certain intervals with the Asiatic. The pas- 
 sion of the English for horse racing has been at least at- 
 tended with one advantage, that of improving the breed ; 
 in the qualities of the racer, the hunter and the car- 
 riage-horse participate ; the excellence of the one 
 is well known, and the rate of travelling is the best 
 proof that can be adduced of the superiority of the 
 other. 
 
 The English draught horses are held in great and 
 merited repute ; the three best sorts are the Cleveland 
 hay, the Suffolk punch, and the Old English black or 
 Lincolnshire cart horse. The first are bred in many 
 parts of Northumberland and Durham, and also in Cleve- 
 land, a district in Yorkshire, from which, as w r ell as from 
 their ordinary colour, they derive their name. If not 
 urged beyond their ordinary pace, they can bear a long 
 continuance of fatigue ; it is said on good authority, that 
 many of them have travelled with heavy loads the ex- 
 traordinary distance of sixty or seventy miles within 
 tw T enty-four hours, not once, but three or four times in 
 a week. No animal, it is added, is better adapted for 
 farm labour, and the mares are the best species of stock 
 for the double purpose of work and breeding. 0 The 
 second variety is admirably adapted for the light and 
 sandy lands in Norfolk and Suffolk, where they are 
 generally used, and where, it is said, they can plough 
 more in a given time than other horses ; this, if correct, 
 is as much owing to the nature of the soil as to any ex- 
 cellence in the breed. The black cart horse is common 
 in Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire, and 
 some of the neighbouring counties. It is remarkable for 
 its size and strength, but not for its activity ; on the 
 contrary, it is supposed to be heavy and sluggish. These 
 horses have been at different times improved, particularly 
 
 b Wild animals. c Agricultural Survey of Durham, p. 257. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CL III. 
 
 490 
 
 by the late Earl of Chesterfield, who sent six Zealand 
 mares to England during his embassy at the Hague, and 
 at a latter period by the celebrated Mr. Bakewell. The 
 properties of this breed are exhibited in the London dray 
 horse, and his extreme docility is not the least valuable 
 of his qualities. The other sorts are inferior to the three 
 that have been now mentioned ; they are, however, suf- 
 ficiently numerous; indeed, it is hardly possible to travel 
 through England without observing a difference in the 
 draught horses of different counties. 
 
 The type of the English ox is said to be preserved at 
 Chartley Park in Derbyshire,® and at Chillingham Castle 
 in Northumberland, the seat of the Earl of Tankerville. 
 These animals exist still in a wild state, and their colour, 
 shape and habits are very different from those of the 
 domestic ox. The following description of them is given 
 by Mr. Bailey. “ Their colour is invariably white, muzzle 
 black ; the whole of the inside of the ear, and about one- 
 third of the outside from the tip downwards, red ; horns 
 white with black tips, very fine, and bent upwards. 
 Some of the bulls have a thin and upright mane about 
 an inch and a half or two inches long. The weight of 
 the oxen is from thirty-five to forty-five stone of fourteen 
 pounds, and that of the cows from twenty-five to thirty- 
 five the four quarters. ” b 
 
 The county of Devonshire has been long famous for 
 its oxen, and it has been asserted by some writers on 
 agriculture, that they are directly descended from the 
 wild race. It is certain that they are well calculated for 
 draught, and fatten readily, and from them are derived 
 the old red cattle of Gloucestershire, and the Hereford- 
 shire and Sussex breeds. But the old Gloucester reds 
 are now very scarce ; they appear to have been a mixed 
 breed, from the Devonshire and Welsh cattle. The 
 Herefordshire cattle, although larger than the Devon- 
 shire, resemble them in other respects. The Sussex 
 cattle are supposed to be the best in the kingdom for 
 draught, and oxen are used more for labour in Sussex 
 than in other parts of England. 
 
 The neck of land, containing Cumberland and Lanca- 
 shire on the western, and Northumberland, Durham and 
 Yorkshire, on the eastern coast, is considered the native 
 country of the long and short horned oxen. It was on 
 the former that Mr. Bakewell made his experiments for 
 the improvement of cattle, from which there resulted the 
 new Leicester variety, believed to he better adapted for 
 the grazier than any other in the kingdom. The short 
 horns, or theTeesdale, Lincoln, Holderness and Tweed- 
 side oxen, are the largest of any in Britain. The data 
 are wanting to form a correct estimate of the number of 
 cattle in England, but from an approximation sufficiently 
 near the truth, it cannot be less than 4,000,000. 
 
 The rearing of sheep forms another branch of rural 
 economy, more important than the last in its relation to 
 commerce and manufacturing industry. To enumerate 
 the different varieties of this useful animal might lead 
 us into minute details, which it is necessary to avoid. 
 Sheep are most common on the mountainous districts of 
 England and Wales, on the rich pastures in the midland 
 counties, and on the marshy lands; they are also fattened 
 on many arable farms in different parts of the country. 
 
 * In Stulfordshire, 3 miles N. E. of the town of Stafford. — P. 
 b Agricultural Survey of Northumberland, p. 111. 
 
 All the varieties in the kingdom may be divided into two 
 classes, the long and the short woolled sheep ; the dif- 
 ference between them is founded on the nature of their 
 fleece, the wool of the one being better adapted for 
 woollen goods, that of the other for the fabrication of 
 worsted. 
 
 The former, although common in many districts, are 
 more numerous on the eastern than the western side of 
 the kingdom ; they are found too in greater numbers 
 near the coasts than the middle of the country. The 
 most northern are reared near the mouth of the Tees ; 
 others in the tract which comprehends the south-eastern 
 extremity of Yorkshire, the greater part of Lincolnshire, 
 and the fen-lands of Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire 
 and Norfolk. They may be seen in the small marshes 
 which surround the inlets of the sea in Essex and Kent, 
 but nowhere in so great numbers as in those of Romney 
 and Guilford in the latter county. They are common 
 throughout Leicestershire, Rutlandshire and Northamp- 
 tonshire, in most parts of Dorsetshire, Devonshire and 
 Cornwall, on the Coteswold Hills, and along the banks 
 of the principal rivers. 
 
 The short woolled sheep are more scattered, and are 
 divided into six different kinds, namely, the Norfolk, 
 South Down, Wiltshire, Herefordshire, the heath sheep, 
 and the Cheviot or mountain breed. 
 
 According to an approximation, which is not believed 
 to be very wide of the truth, the long woolled sheep are 
 equal in number to 4,153,308, and the number of acres 
 on which they are maintained, to 3,939,563. The 
 highest stock of long woolled sheep per acre, is twenty- 
 one on four, and the lowest, one on three acres. The 
 weight of the fleece varying from five to nine pounds, 
 may give the average of seven pounds ten ounces. The 
 total quantity of long wool is not less than 137,288 
 packs. The number of short woolled sheep may be equal 
 to 14,854,299 ; the highest stock per acre is about four 
 sheep on three acres, and the lowest, one on four. The 
 fleece varies from one pound and a half to five pounds, 
 and the number of packs is calculated to be equal to 
 255,948. In this estimate the shorn, the carrion, and 
 the wool from slaughtered animals, are included. If to 
 these results the quantity of lamb’s wool be added, the 
 total produce may amount to 403,954 packs. It is 
 hardly necessary to add that a considerable portion is 
 not fitted for manufacturing purposes.® 
 
 As the breeding of pigs is an object of some impor- 
 
 c Some notion of the different sorts of sheep may be inferred from 
 the following table. 
 
 Different breeds and distinguishing properties. 
 
 Weight 
 
 of 
 
 fleece. 
 
 Weight 
 
 per 
 
 quarter. 
 
 1 Dishlev 
 
 no horns 
 
 white faces and legs 
 
 combing wool 
 
 7 lbs. 
 
 25 lbs. 
 
 2 Lincoln 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 8 
 
 25 
 
 3 Teeswater 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 4 Dartmoor 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 5 Exmoor 
 
 horns 
 
 Ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 f> Dorset 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 carding wool 
 
 
 18 
 
 7 Hereford 
 
 no horns 
 
 ditto 
 
 tine ditto 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 3 South Down 
 
 ditto 
 
 £rev faces and legs 
 
 ditto 
 
 ~i 
 
 18 
 
 9 Norfolk 
 
 horns 
 
 black faces and legs 
 
 ditto 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 10 Heath 
 
 ditto 
 
 ditto 
 
 coarse combing 
 
 34 
 
 15 
 
 11 Herdwick 
 
 no horns. 
 
 speckled ditto 
 
 carding 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 12 Cheviot 
 
 ditto 
 
 white faces and lejrs 
 
 ditto 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 13 Dun-faced 
 
 ditto 
 
 dun faces and legs 
 
 ditto 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 14 RomneyMarsh 
 
 ditto 
 
 \v hite faces and legs combing 
 
 7 
 
 25 
 
 15 Spanish 
 
 horns 
 
 ditto 
 
 carding 
 
 3J 
 
 
DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 BOOK CLII1.] 
 
 tance in England, it may be right to mention the most 
 ordinary sorts or, at all events, the most valuable. The 
 Berkshire is small boned, and disposed to fatten quickly ; 
 it has extended from the county, from which it takes its 
 name, to most parts of the island. The Chinese crosses 
 are very common. The Gloucestershire, supposed to 
 have once been the prevailing breed in the island, are 
 of a white colour, large and ill-shaped. The Rudgwick, 
 
 491 
 
 so called from a town of the same name in Sussex, are 
 the largest sort in England : they feed to an extraordi- 
 nary size ; at two years old, being generally twice as 
 heavy as other kinds of the same age. A new variety, 
 the large spotted Woburn, was introduced by the late 
 Duke of Bedford ; they are prolific, hardy and easily 
 fattened. The Dishley breed is distinguished by the 
 common properties of Mr. Bakewell’s stock. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 492 
 
 IBOOK CLIV 
 
 BOOK CLIV. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe continued. — England. — Section Third . — Topo- 
 graphical Divisions . — Towns, fyc. 
 
 Having endeavoured in the preceding chapters to 
 give a succinct account of the physical geography of 
 England, and having also entered into some details con- 
 cerning its early inhabitants, their manners, institutions 
 and government, it is only necessary to examine the 
 country more minutely, to describe the different towns, 
 and to make known the sources of wealth, or the products 
 of industry, for which they are remarkable. 
 
 The principal civil divisions are counties or shires ; 
 of these there are forty in England and twelve in Wales. 
 It may be as well, however, before attempting to describe 
 them, to take some notice of the Anglo-Norman islands 
 near the coasts of France, all that the English sovereigns 
 now possess of the ancient dutchy of Normandy. The 
 inhabitants are governed by their own laws, which are 
 derived for the most part from Norman customs. Although 
 nominally under the government of a higher power, they 
 may be considered free : they are exempt from naval and 
 military service ; they are not subject to the English 
 church ; and lastly, they enjoy the benefit of a free port, 
 and may carry on a trade with the enemies of England 
 in time of war. 
 
 The island of Jersey is situated about eighteen miles 
 west of Normandy, and about eighty-four south of Port- 
 land in Dorsetshire. It contains two towns, St. Helier 
 and St. Aubin, and twelve parishes. The number of 
 inhabitants amounts nearly to 30,000 ; they are scattered 
 over a surface not more than twelve miles in length and 
 six in breadth. The southern side is almost level with 
 the sea ; the three others are defended by dangerous 
 quick-sands and rocks, which rise on the north to the 
 height of forty or fifty fathoms. A series of hills extends 
 through the middle of the island ; they are so thickly 
 planted with orchards that they resemble a forest ; indeed 
 these plantations are too numerous, enough of arable land 
 is not reserved for the growth of corn, and the deficiency 
 is supplied by importations from the Baltic, England and 
 France. The produce of the apple trees yields twenty- 
 five thousand hogsheads of cider in a season. The island 
 abounds also in cattle and sheep ; the wool which the 
 latter afford is manufactured by the inhabitants, and sold 
 in the market of St. Helier. 
 
 Guernsey, neither so large nor so populous as Jersey, 
 is situated about twenty-one miles to the north of it. 
 St. Pierre or St. Peter, a the only town in the island, 
 
 * Fr. Port St. Pierre. Eng. St. Peter le Port, St. Peter's Port, or 
 Port St. Peter's. — P. 
 
 b Sea weed. Vraic (Ed. Enc.) Fr. rarec. Eng. wrack. — P. 
 
 e Sark (Fr. Cerq.) a small island, east of Guernsey, with less than 
 600 inhabitants, should be added to the list of Anglo-Norman isles. — P. 
 
 consists of a long narrow street, adorned with several 
 fine buildings. The harbour is safe and commodious, 
 and on each side of it are strong piers. The town and 
 the harbour are defended by the strong fortress of Castle 
 Cornet, built on a steep rock, surrounded by the sea, 
 and only accessible at low water by a very narrow pas- 
 sage. The island is noted for its fruits and for tvrac, b a 
 marine plant, which grows in profusion, and is used both 
 for fuel and manure. The inhabitants are distinguished 
 by their loyalty, but they resemble the French more than 
 the English in their manners and customs. A town, 
 which contains only a thousand inhabitants, and which 
 from the appearance of its houses, resembles a village, 
 is situated near the centre of the small island of Alderney. 
 In the year 1119, Henry, Duke of Normandy, son of 
 King Henry the First, and many of the nobility, were 
 shipwrecked and lost in the neighbourhood of the island.® 
 
 Not more than five or six of the Scilly Islands are 
 inhabited, d and the total number of inhabitants does not 
 amount to three thousand. In St. Mary, the largest of 
 these islands, is situated the small town of Heughton or 
 Newtown, in which the most remarkable buildings are a 
 custom-house, a council-house, and a prison. Dolphin, 
 the only town in Tresco, consists of a church and about 
 forty houses built of stone. The people earn a subsist- 
 ence by acting as pilots, by fishing, and by burning kelp. 
 
 The county of Cornwall, of which these islands form 
 a part, is surrounded by the sea on all sides except the 
 east, where it is bounded by the Tamar, which separates 
 it from Devonshire. It was the ancient country of the 
 Dumnonii ; it derives its present name from its shape, 
 which bears some resemblance to a horn. It has been 
 found by actual measurement to contain 849,280 acres, 
 but of these more than 200,000 are w r aste ; the rest are 
 divided into pasturage and tillage. The greatest length 
 of the county is upwards of ninety miles, the greatest 
 breadth about forty-two, and the narrowest part towards 
 the Land’s-End, or from Mount’s Bay to the Bristol 
 Channel, not more than four. Situated at the extremity 
 of the island, and long deprived by their secluded position 
 from the advantages of frequent intercourse with the other 
 inhabitants, the Cornish men were less civilized or more 
 ignorant than the rest of their countrymen ; the Armori- 
 can, a dialect of the Welsh, was spoken by them at no 
 remote period, but it has since been superseded by the 
 English.® 
 
 It may be inferred from the extent of the waste lands 
 
 d The inhabited islands are six in number, viz. St. Mary’s, Tresco, 
 St. Martin’s, St. Agnes, Sampson, and Brehar or Breyer. (Ed. Enc.) — P 
 
 e Till about three centuries ago, a peculiar language was spoken in 
 Cornwall, which was evidently Celtic, and allied to the Welsh and the 
 language of Brittany. (Ed. Enc.) — The Cornish was a dialect of the 
 
book ciiiv.] DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 493 
 
 that Cornwall cannot be considered an agricultural 
 county. A ridge of bare and rugged hills, intermixed 
 with bleak moors, runs along its whole length, and 
 reaches in the narrowest parts from side to side. The 
 low grounds from the hills to the coasts are rendered 
 fertile by the manure which the sea weeds afford, but a 
 brackish atmosphere and violent winds prevent the growth 
 of trees and hedges near the shore. Barley is the grain 
 that succeeds best, and large crops of it are produced 
 near the banks of the Camel ; the potato arrives also at 
 great perfection, and seems to be admirably adapted to 
 the climate. But the wealth of Cornwall consists in its 
 mines and fisheries. Various sorts of fish are taken on 
 the Cornish coast, but none in such abundance as the 
 pilchard ; immense shoals of them appear in the summer 
 and autumn ; it affords a cheap and wholesome food to 
 the poor, and forms besides an important article of trade ; 
 large quantities of them are cured and exported to the 
 Mediterranean. The capital employed in the fisheries 
 exceeds £400,000 ; they furnish occupation to 12,000 
 individuals, and the annual revenue derived from them 
 is not less than £50,000. 
 
 Cornwall surpasses most other counties in its mineral 
 products ; by an accurate survey of the mines, made in 
 the beginning of the present century, and by subsequent 
 observations, it has been ascertained that there are forty- 
 five mines of copper, thirty of tin, eighteen of copper 
 and tin, two of copper and silver, one of silver, and 
 others of cobalt, antimony and manganese. The present 
 stannary towns, viz. Launceston, Lostwithiel, Truro, 
 Helston and Penzance, may indicate the importance 
 which has been attached to the tin mines. The tinners 
 are obliged to convey their blocks to these places that 
 they may be stamped by the proper officers. The ordi- 
 nary weight of these blocks is about 336 lbs., the value 
 of each is upwards of £10, and the number obtained 
 every year varies from twenty-five to thirty thousand. 
 The annual value of the produce of the copper mines 
 has lately been estimated at £400,000. The other 
 minerals are lapis calaminaris, soap rock, and China 
 stone, a decomposed granite, of which the feldspar hav- 
 ing lost its fusibility, renders it a valuable substance in 
 the Staffordshire potteries. Steatite 3 abounds between 
 Mullien and the Lizard Point, and the quarries are let 
 to the Worcester porcelain company. Granite, not the 
 least valuable of the Cornish minerals, forms the chain 
 that passes from Dartmoor to the Land’s End ; the rock, 
 when first broken, is so soft as to be easily worked, but 
 it becomes very hard by exposure to the atmosphere. 
 The industry of the inhabitants is not confined to the 
 occupations which the metals and the minerals of the 
 county afford ; there are many paper mills on the streams 
 near Hayle, a village remarkable for its extensive smelt- 
 ing works ; carpets are manufactured at Truro, and coarse 
 woollen stuffs in Callington, Launceston, St. Austle, b 
 Bodmin and other towns. 
 
 As a port and a place of trade, Falmouth may be 
 considered the most important town in the county. It 
 consisted only of a few fishing huts about two centuries 
 
 Kymric, one of the two great divisions of the Celtic family of 
 languages, including also the Welsh and the Armoric or Breton 
 (in France.) The Gaelic, the other division of the Celtic, includes 
 the Irish, the Highland Scotch, and the Manks. — P. 
 
 * Soap stone b St. Austell. 
 
 ago, but its position without the channel, enabling vessels 
 to sail to the south of Europe, and avoid the gulf of 
 Gascony, have rendered it an important town. Packets 
 sail regularly for the Peninsula, the West Indies and 
 other parts of the world. The port is supposed to 
 occupy the site which Ptolemy assigns to the Cenionis 
 Ostium , and according to a tradition, the Black Rock 
 near the middle of the entrance was once an island in 
 which the Phoenicians carried on a trade in tin with the 
 natives. The bay from its numerous creeks or windings 
 is capable of affording shelter to the whole navy of 
 England. The river Cenio, mentioned by Ptolemy, is 
 the modern Fal, which gives its name to the town ; the 
 latter is principally composed of a single and well built 
 street nearly a mile in length. The harbour is defended 
 by the two forts of St. Mawe’s and Pendennis, on two 
 small capes about a mile and a half distant from each 
 other. They were both built by Henry the Eighth, but 
 Pendennis was considerably enlarged by Elizabeth ; 
 during the civil wars it made an obstinate resistance 
 against Cromwell, whose lines of defence may still be 
 traced at a short distance from the town. 
 
 The parliamentary representation of Cornwall is too 
 remarkable to be passed over in silence ; the county 
 and the boroughs send forty-four members to parlia- 
 ment.® Elective rights were conferred on different places 
 at different periods, evidently for the purpose of increas- 
 ing the influence of the crown over the commons. The 
 boroughs from which members are returned, are very 
 insignificant ; still all the bribery and corruption that 
 prevail, are insufficient to save the degraded inhabitants 
 from poverty and wretchedness. 
 
 Devonshire, or the county of Devon, in size the second 
 in England, lies between two seas, having the Bristol 
 Channel on the north and north-west, and the English 
 Channel on the south and south-east. It extends to the 
 distance of sixty-seven miles from the most northern to 
 the most southern point, while its breadth from east to 
 west is not less than sixty-four. The Tamar and the 
 Exe are the principal rivers ; the first forms the western 
 limit of the county ; the second takes its rise in the 
 sterile and marshy district of Exmoor, and having been 
 enlarged by several streams, throws itself into the 
 English Channel at Exmouth. The soil and the face 
 of the country are very various ; the district from the 
 borders of Dorsetshire to Exeter, d comprehending the 
 greater part of the southern coast, is pleasant and fruitful. 
 Such is the mildness of the climate that the myrtle 
 grows without shelter on the shore, and the winters are 
 sometimes not less favourable to invalids than those in 
 the South of Europe. The South-Hams, part of the 
 same tract, has been frequently called the garden of 
 Devonshire ; it abounds in picturesque scenery, varied 
 by bold swells and rich vallies. Numerous springs, 
 flowing from the sides of the hills, unite into brooks, and 
 spread luxuriance along their banks. 
 
 The country extending from the vale of Exeter to the 
 borders of Cornwall, or the greater portion of the western 
 district, consists of about three hundred thousand acres 
 
 * This, and the following statements on parliamentary representa- 
 tion, apply to the old system, previous to the recent reform. — P. 
 
 <* * This should doubtless read : from the borders of Cornwall to 
 Exeter. The district of South Hams extends along the southern coast 
 from Plymouth Sound to Torbay. — P. 
 
 L 
 
— 
 494 EUR 
 
 of uncultivated land, in which the bleak and naked 
 morass of Dartmoor occupies more than eighty thousand. 
 The forest of Dartmoor, as its name implies, was once 
 covered with trees, but a few stunted oaks, together with 
 some mountain ashes and willows, are all that grow on 
 it at present. The marshes in the higher parts of Dart- 
 moor, although dangerous to cattle, are valuable on 
 account of the fuel with which they supply the inhabit- 
 ants. Sheep and black cattle are the riches of the 
 people ; the latter thrive well on the coarse and sour 
 herbage, but the former are of a small size and subject 
 to different diseases. 
 
 North Devon extends from Dartmoor to the Bristol 
 Channel ; in this district the land yields plenty of corn, 
 and the soil is everywhere productive except on the 
 tops of the highest hills ; lofty trees are seen in the 
 vallies, and the heights are in many places covered with 
 coppice woods. 
 
 The value of the mineral products of Devonshire may 
 be inferred from its geological position ; tin was formerly 
 obtained in great quantities, but the mines are no longer 
 worked ; copper, lead, manganese and gypsum are found 
 in the north-eastern part, or in the neighbourhood of 
 Exmoor ; in other places are quarries of marble, and of 
 stone well adapted for building. The products of indus- 
 try are serges, shalloons, broad-cloths and blond lace. 
 
 Plymouth in the southern part of the county, was 
 formerly better known by the name of Devonportp it 
 is now a very flourishing town, a well frequented port, and 
 an important maritime arsenal. The Sound by means 
 of the break-water, lately erected across its entrance, 
 may afford a safe protection to a large fleet ; but a reef 
 of rocks’* about fourteen miles south-west by south from 
 Plymouth, rendered the access dangerous to ships. It 
 was found very difficult to erect a sufficiently strong 
 light-house on these rocks, both because they are ex- 
 posed to frequent storms, and because at high water they 
 are covered by the sea ; besides, as a foundation for 
 such a building, they offered many disadvantages, which 
 it was necessary to surmount. Three Eddystone light- 
 houses were at different times erected, and all of them 
 were overthrown. The present one, it has been already 
 observed, was built in 1774, under the direction and 
 according to the plan of the celebrated Mr. Smeaton. 
 
 The principal imports of Plymouth are coal, culm, 
 corn, wine and timber. The various works, that are 
 carried on, and the trade it possesses, render it a place 
 of considerable wealth ; but it is not less distinguished 
 by its charitable institutions : there are many schools for 
 the poor, several hospitals and alms-houses, a public 
 dispensary and a large asylum for females. 
 
 The ancient inhabitants of Devonshire were the same 
 as those of Cornwall ; Tsex, their principal city, is the 
 Isca Dumnoniorum of the Itinerary of Antonine ; it after- 
 wards took the name of Excester, and at a still later 
 period that of Exeter ; its different names indicate its 
 position on the Exe. It was erected into the capital of 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CLI1. 
 
 a diocese by Edward the Confessor in the year 1094, 
 but before that time it contained so many convents that 
 it was known by the name of Monkstown. It consists 
 of four principal streets, which terminate in Carfax place, 
 so called from two old Norman words, signifying four 
 ways. 6 The upper part of the city d is defended by an 
 ancient castle, which, it is generally supposed, was built 
 by the West Saxons, although it seems more probable 
 from the name of Rougemont that it was the work of the 
 Normans. The cathedral, dedicated to St. Peter, is a 
 magnificent building, but the Lady-Chapel is the only 
 part of the original fabric that remains. Although com- 
 menced in the year 932, in the reign of Athelstan, and 
 carried on under different bishops during four hundred 
 years, it appears from its uniformity and the proportions 
 between the different parts, as if the whole had been the 
 work of a single architect. The modern bridge over the 
 Exe might be considered a fine structure, if it were not 
 disfigured by houses on both sides, and by a church 
 which covers a great part of it. An arm of the sea 
 flowed formerly near the walls of Exeter, but the navi- 
 gation was almost destroyed by one of the earls of Devon. e 
 The present haven was constructed in 1697, and by 
 means of flood gates, which were then raised, vessels of 
 a hundred and fifty tons can arrive at the quay near the 
 walls of the city. The manufactures of Exeter consist 
 of cloths and woollen stuffs ; the serge market is held 
 weekly, and with the exception of that at Leeds, it is 
 the greatest cloth market in England. 
 
 Dorsetshire, or the county of Dorset, situated on the 
 east of Devonshire, has sometimes been called the garden 
 of England, a name by no means applicable to the whole 
 of it. It is bounded on the north by Wiltshire and 
 Somersetshire, on the south by the English Channel, on 
 the west by Devonshire and Somersetshire, and on the 
 east by Hampshire. The superficial area is supposed to 
 be equal to 1130 square miles. The northern plains 
 were formerly covered with wood ; they are now in a 
 high state of cultivation. A ridge of lofty chalk hills, 
 which extends through the south-eastern counties, ter- 
 minates in Dorsetshire ; at least no considerable beds 
 are found on the west of it. Numerous flocks are fed 
 on these hills, and on the downs, which extend to the 
 sea ; the number of sheep kept in the county is estimated 
 at 800,000, and the annual export at 150,000. A heathy 
 common extends from the borders of Hampshire to the 
 centre of Dorsetshire, but its want of fertility is amply 
 compensated by the rich vales on the south-western side. 
 A sort of peninsula, formed by the Frome and the sea, 
 has been incorrectly denominated the Isle of Purbeck. 
 It has been long famous for its limestone quarries ; the 
 coarser sorts are used in paving, while the finer take a 
 polish little inferior to that of marble. Pipe clay is dug 
 in several parts of Purbeck, and much of it is exported 
 from Corfe-Castle to the Staffordshire potteries. 
 
 The island of Portland, another peninsula, is connected 
 with the land by a long and narrow stripe of sand and 
 
 a Its ancient name was Sutton (i. e. Southtown ;) but as early as 1383, 
 it appears to have been occasionally called Plymouth. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 b The Eddystone Rocks. 
 
 c There are four principal streets, all centering in the middle of the 
 city, which is therefore called Car fox,* from the old Norman word, 
 Quatre-voix, i. e. the four ways. (Luckombe.) — P. 
 
 * “ — which meet at a point where a magnificent conduit, called Carfoix, 
 formerly stood.” (Ed. Enc.) 
 d On the north-east. — P 
 
 e The magistrates of the town having in their official capacity de- 
 cided that no citizen of Exeter should be allowed to wear the livery 
 of a nobleman within their township, without having first obtained 
 the consent of the mayor and burgesses, one of the earls of Devon- 
 shire,* offended at this noble spirit of independence in the inhabitants 
 of Exeter, caused large stones and trunks of trees to be thrown into 
 the bed of the Exe, in order to obstruct the navigation between Exeter 
 and Topsham. 
 
 * Hugh Courtenay, A. D. 1316.— P. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 BOOK CJLIY.] 
 
 gravel. 3 Some notice has already been taken of the 
 calcareous stones, of which the whole of Portland Isle 
 is composed ; it may be added that the stone is white 
 and durable, easily worked, splits freely in every direc- 
 tion, and is well adapted for buildings under water ; these 
 qualities render it a very valuable freestone, and great 
 quantities are exported to different parts of England, 
 Ireland and France. A safe road for ships is situated 
 on the north of the isle, but the southern point or Port- 
 land Race is one of the most dangerous places in the 
 Channel. 
 
 The town of Dorchester, a place of great antiquity, is 
 pleasantly situated on a rising ground above the river 
 Frome. It was in ancient times inhabited by the Duro- 
 briga, b who called it Durnovaria or the passage of the 
 river. The Romans, who gave it the name of Durnium, 
 encompassed it with walls and a deep ditch. Several 
 antiquities have been at different times discovered ; a 
 mosaic pavement about four feet below the ground may 
 be considered the most remarkable, but there are also 
 some traces of Roman ways, that terminated in Dor- 
 chester. It was formerly a place of some importance 
 on account of its manufactures, which are not so flour- 
 ishing as they once were. The town is built in the 
 direction of the four cardinal points, the houses are of 
 stone, and the streets are all paved and well lighted. 
 The prison, perhaps the finest of the publie buildings, 
 can contain only eighty-eight prisoners, but under the 
 same roof are a penitentiary and a house of correction. 
 
 The seaport of Poole, the only other place that re- 
 quires to be mentioned in this county, rose into impor- 
 tance some centuries ago, when the ancient town of 
 Wareham fell into decay. It now contains more than 
 seven thousand inhabitants ; it sends many vessels every 
 year to Newfoundland, which carry out provisions and 
 different commodities, and return laden with fish for 
 Spain, Portugal and Italy. 
 
 The maritime county of Somei’set is bounded on the 
 north by the Bristol Channel ; it is about sixty-eight 
 miles in length from east to west, and forty-eight from 
 north to south. It contains more than a million of acres, 
 of which upwards of 400,000 are arable. Few counties 
 exhibit so great a variety of soil and situation. The 
 north-eastern part abounds with rocks, and is intersected 
 by the Mendip Hills, a lofty mineral tract ; the rivers 
 unite near the centre, and form marshes and fens. The 
 Quantock Hills, together with many downs and heaths, 
 occupy the western side, and the bleak and sterile region 
 of Exmoor extends from the north-western extremity. 
 The southern part towards Dorsetshire is high but well 
 cultivated ; lastly, vallies of great fertility are scattered 
 in different parts of the county. 
 
 Cheese, not inferior to any in the kingdom, is made 
 in the village of Chedder, and many cattle nearly equal 
 in size to those of Lincolnshire, are bred in the luxuriant 
 meadows near the sources of the Parret. The mineral 
 riches of the county are more important ; the Mendip 
 
 * The Chesil Bank. 
 
 b Durotriges (D’ Anv. Enc. Meth. Ed. Enc.) — This name is said to 
 be derived from the two British words, dioyr [dwr,] water, and trig , an 
 inhabilant. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 c This should be stated thus : the Somersetshire coal canal (with 
 two branches) joins the Kennet and Avon canal. — The Avon is ren- 
 dered navigable by locks from Bristol to Bath, where the Kennet and 
 Avon canal commences. This canal passes from Bath through North 
 
 495 
 
 Hills afford abundance of coal, lead and calamine. The 
 coal is consumed in Bath, Wells, Frome, and other 
 places in the neighbourhood. The lead is mostly exported, 
 and converted on account of its hardness into shot and 
 bullets. The calamine is conveyed to Bristol and other 
 towns, where it is used in making brass. 
 
 Tbe conveyance of goods has been facilitated by water 
 communications ; the Exe and the Thone are connected 
 by a canal which passes from Tiverton to Taunton ; 
 another extends from Bristol to Bath, and the Somerset- 
 shire coal canal joins by means of its two branches those 
 of the Kennet and Avon. 0 
 
 The small city of Wells, which is now a joint bishop’s 
 see with Bath, derives its name from a neighbouring 
 spring, called St. Andrew’s Well. d It took its origin 
 from a collegiate church built by king Ina in the year 
 704 ; it was afterwards raised to its present dignity, and 
 the cathedral, one of the most ornamented structures of 
 Gothic architecture in the kingdom, was founded in the 
 thirteenth century. The town is pleasantly situated 
 under the Mendip Hills, but it does not contain more 
 than six thousand inhabitants. 
 
 Bath, a more ancient and a more important city, lies 
 on the north-east of Wells, at the distance of about 
 nineteen miles. It is surrounded by an amphitheatre of 
 hills that are intersected by the Avon, which encircles a 
 great part of Bath, and continues navigable onwards to 
 Bristol. The Kennet and Avon canal, which falls into tbe 
 same river at Bath, completes the inland water communi- 
 cation with the metropolis, extending through Middle- 
 sex, Buckinghamshire, Berkshire, Hampshire, Wiltshire, 
 Somersetshire and Gloucestershire, to Bath and Bristol. 
 Bath claims a higher antiquity than any other town in 
 England, and it is remarkable that all the ancient names 
 which have been banded down by tradition, bear some 
 allusion to the quality of its waters. Antiquaries have 
 traced their discovery, with greater ingenuity than truth, 
 to Bladud, son of Lud, eighth king of the Britons, in a 
 direct line from Brute or Brutus, the grandson of Adneas. 
 The springs continued unknown, however, before tbe 
 arrival of the Romans. The fine situation of Bath, the 
 mildness of the air, the hills which tower above it, and 
 the streams that water the valley, attracted the notice 
 of the Romans, and induced them to found a city, which 
 was often the residence of their governors, and sometimes 
 of their emperors. Tbe city was built in tbe form of a 
 quadrangle, extending about four hundred yards from 
 east to west, and nearly as many from north to south. 
 It was fortified by a wall twenty feet in height, sixteen 
 in breadth at the base, and not more than eight at the 
 top. The angles were supported by strong towers, and 
 a gate was erected at each extremity of the two principal 
 streets, by which the town was intersected and divided 
 into four parts. The name of Aqua, Solis indicated tbe 
 heat and efficacy of tbe thermal springs, and tbe mag- 
 nificence of the Roman works may be traced in the ruins 
 of the baths, which were discovered near tbe centre of 
 
 Wilts to Newbury, where it joins the Kennet navigation, thus opening 
 a communication with the Thames. The Somersetshire coal canal 
 branches from this canal between Bath and Bradford, and extends to 
 the coal-field near the Mendip Hills. It divides into two branches, 
 the northern and southern. — P. 
 
 d The town is so called from the wells or springs that rise in all parts 
 of it. St. Andrew’s Well is near the Bishop’s palace. (Luckombe.) — P 
 
496 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CUT 
 
 the city in the year 1775. The virtue of the springs 
 has been acknowledged both for external applications, 
 and internally as a medicine ; the highest range of the 
 thermometer reaches to 170° of Fahrenheit. The town 
 has long been a place of great concourse, and such is 
 the reputation of its waters, that it has become of late 
 years, next to the metropolis, the principal resort for the 
 nobility, the wealthy and the indolent. It surpasses 
 every other town in England, in the elegance and splen- 
 dour of its buildings, but their greatest ornaments consist 
 perhaps in the materials with which they are con- 
 structed, — the white stone that abounds in the neigh- 
 bourhood. In former times Bath was situated in a valley, 
 and the reflection of the sun’s rays from the white soil 
 rendered it very hot in summer, but as it became enlarged, 
 houses were built on the steep northern side of the val- 
 ley, tier rose above tier, and the whole affords at present 
 a singular and striking aspect." 
 
 The city is divided into four parishes, and in one of 
 them is situated the Abbey Church, the finest edifice in 
 Bath ; its architecture is of the florid Gothic, but the 
 great number of its windows has been considered a 
 defect ; there are not fewer than fifty-six, and on this 
 account it has been sometimes called the lantern of 
 England. Of its various charitable institutions, the most 
 deserving of notice is the general hospital for patients 
 from every part of the kingdom, who are likely to be 
 benefited by the use of the waters. Other institutions 
 of the same sort, societies of which the end is to provide 
 for the wants of the poor, or to meliorate their condition, 
 prove that charity is not incompatible with gaiety, or 
 even with dissipation. 
 
 Although the next town, we have to mention, is not 
 so important as it once was, still it derives its importance 
 from its commerce. The trade of Bristol, long second 
 only to that of London, is now surpassed by other towns, 
 more distinguished for the enterprise and activity of their 
 inhabitants. Bristol stands at the confluence of the Avon 
 and the Frome, at the distance of about ten miles b from 
 the place where the Avon discharges itself into the 
 Severn. Although only a small portion of it is situated 
 in the northern confines of the county, and although the 
 greater part of it belongs to Gloucestershire, it may be 
 here described, because it was included in Somersetshire 
 before it formed a separate jurisdiction.® The effects of 
 the tide, or the height to which it raises the waters, 
 enable vessels of considerable burden to arrive at the 
 quay of Bristol ; but its trade is mainly supported by its 
 extensive inland communications with the Severn and 
 all its branches, the Avon, the Wye, and many other 
 rivers. It thus possesses the export and import trade 
 of a considerable part of the kingdom, and has thus an 
 outlet for its varied manufactures. As to its foreign 
 trade, it is principally carried on with the West Indies; 
 it furnishes employment to a great many ships, that carry 
 clothing and different articles to the inhabitants, and 
 bring back colonial produce, which gives rise in its turn 
 to different branches of industry. Of these the most 
 important are the sugar-refineries, that serve for the 
 
 1 Aikin’s England Delineated. 
 
 b Eight miles. (Mathews’ Bristol Guide.) — P. 
 
 e Bristol forms a county of itself. — P. 
 
 d Gardner's Cyclopedia, vol. i. 
 
 e The waters of the Hot Well, as analyzed by Dr. Carrick, contain, 
 per gallon muriate of magnesia 7} grains, muriate of soda 4 grains, 
 
 supply of Wales and all the western counties in England. 
 The other manufactures are different sorts of glass, cop- 
 per and brass, white-lead, gun-powder and earthen-ware. 
 There are besides works for smelting lead and making 
 shot, iron founderies, tin-works, and also rolling and 
 slitting mills, all of them affording valuable articles for 
 exportation. 
 
 Bristol, it may be added, is a place of great antiquity ; 
 it appears to have been founded by the Britons ; it was 
 the Brightstowe or pleasant city of the Saxons. The 
 unfortunate Stephen was imprisoned in the castle of the 
 same city after his defeat by the empress Maud. It owed 
 its prosperity to Edward III., who made it a staple for 
 wool ; since his time it has been one of the great com- 
 mercial cities in England ; d lastly, it was raised to the 
 seat of a diocese in the reign of Henry the Eighth. The 
 Bristol and Matlock mineral waters are of the same 
 quality, their principal ingredients being chalk, lapis 
 calcareus and calaminaris. e It is affirmed, on very 
 respectable authority, that a singular phenomenon took 
 place at these wells, in November 1775, during the great 
 earthquake at Lisbon ; the water became suddenly as 
 red as blood, and so turbid that it could not be drunk ; 
 at the same time the water of a common well near Kings- 
 wood, turned as black as ink, and continued unfit for use 
 nearly a fortnight/ 
 
 Before leaving the county of Somerset, it may be 
 remarked that it has given birth to several eminent men. 
 The famous friar Bacon, one of the earliest philosophers, 
 who appears to have been acquainted with the secret of 
 making gun-powder, and who veiled the interpretation 
 of it in an enigma, was born at Ilchester in the year 
 1214. Cudworth, the well known author of the Intel- 
 lectual System, and the great Locke, were natives of 
 the same county, the one of Aller, and the other of 
 Wrington. Fielding, one of the best of the English 
 novelists, was born at Sharpham, and Bristol was the 
 birth-place of the unfortunate Chatterton. To these 
 names may be added those of Cabot, e Dampier and 
 Rodney. 
 
 The county of Gloucester, partly contiguous on the 
 south to that of Somerset, is naturally divided into three 
 very different districts, the eastern, the middle and the 
 western. The first or the Coteswold district, the largest 
 of the three, is about 200,000 acres in superficial extent. 
 Although a high and bleak tract, it is well adapted for 
 rearing sheep ; a fine short grass is produced in many 
 places, and sainfoin, which has been much cultivated, is 
 used both for hay and pasture. The native sheep were 
 of a small light sort with a very fine but scanty fleece ; 
 the breed has been greatly altered by mixtures from other 
 counties ; the carcass is heavier, and a greater quantity 
 of wool, but of a coarser quality, is now obtained. The 
 Stroudwater Hills, adjacent to the Coteswold, sink grad- 
 ually into the Vale or middle district, which borders on 
 the Severn. The soil is mostly of a fertile loam, and 
 the pastures furnish the cheese for which the county is 
 celebrated, and of which 12,000 tons are annually ex- 
 ported. The same district is crossed by the Stroud 
 
 sulphate of soda 11} grains, sulphate of lime 11} grains, and carbonate 
 of lime 12^ grains. (Ed. Enc.) — The ingredients in the text are rather 
 antiquated. — P. 
 
 f Capper’s Topographical Dictionary, article Bristol. 
 
 s Sebastian Cabot, born at Bristol about 1477. — P. 
 
BOOK CUV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 497 
 
 canal, which connects the Thames with the Severn, and J 
 opens a direct communication with every part of the 
 kingdom. The forest of Dean, which once afforded tim- 
 ber for the English navy, occupies the greater part of 
 the western or smallest district. The same forest and 
 that of Kingswood are now mostly cleared of trees ; the 
 land is restored to cultivation, and both of them contain 
 iron, coal and limestone ; in the latter, different iron- 
 works have been erected; in both, a hundred and fifty 
 coal mines have been opened, 1 and their produce is con- 
 sumed in the neighbouring country and manufactories. 
 The same part of Gloucestershire abounds with orchards ; 
 the styre-apple is converted into cider, and the perry 
 made in the district, is said to form the basis of most of 
 the champagne that is sold in the metropolis. 
 
 Gloucestershire was inhabited in ancient times by the 
 Dobuni, who distinguished themselves by their resist- 
 ance against the Romans ; even at the present day it 
 affords ample materials for antiquarian research. The 
 antiquities of Woodchester have already been ably illus- 
 trated by Mr. Lysons. Camps, stations and other re- 
 mains of Roman times may be traced in different parts 
 of the county. 
 
 Gloucester, the capital of the county, and a very ancient 
 town, was the Caer-Clovi of the Britons ; b at a later 
 period the Saxons gave it the name of Gleaucestre , from 
 two British words, glaw, fair, and caer, a city. It was 
 made a borough by King John, and a corporation® by 
 Henry III. Edward I. held a parliament in the same 
 place, and several useful laws were enacted, that have 
 been since called the Statutes of Gloucester. Richard 
 the Third, the famous duke of Gloucester, gave the city 
 his sword and cap of maintenance, and erected it into a 
 county with jurisdiction over the adjacent hundreds of 
 Dudston and King’s Barton. These privileges continued 
 in force until the restoration, when the walls were razed 
 to the ground, because the inhabitants had shut their 
 gates against Charles the First. d Before the memorable 
 siege it sustained in 1643, it contained eleven churches, 
 but at that period six of them were demolished ; they 
 have not since been rebuilt. The remains of abbeys and 
 monasteries are scattered over the neighbourhood ; they 
 were at one time so numerous as to give rise to the 
 monkish proverb, As sure as God’s in Gloucester . e 
 
 The abbey church was erected into a cathedral by 
 Henry the Eighth ; it has been often repaired, and partly 
 rebuilt, so that it combines the architecture of different 
 ages. It is more than 420 feet in length, and 144 in 
 width. A majestic tower, 198 feet in height, rises from 
 the centre of the building: The interior has a solemn 
 
 and imposing aspect, and the cloisters are not inferior to 
 any in the English cathedrals. Among the various 
 monuments contained in it, the most remarkable are 
 those of Robert, Duke of Normandy, and the unfortu- 
 nate Edward the Second ; the former is of wood, and 
 the latter of alabaster ; from its perfect execution, it is 
 supposed to have been the work of an Italian artist. 
 
 Although ill-peopled in proportion to its size, Glou- 
 cester possesses many natural and artificial advantages 
 
 a There are 150 coal pits in the forest of Dean. (M. B. Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 b The Clevum or Glebon of the Romans. — P. c City. 
 
 d After the restoration the hundreds were taken away by act of 
 parliament, and the walls pulled down ; because the city shut its gates 
 against Charles I when he besieged it in 1643. (Luckombe’s Gazetteer 
 of England and Wales.) Gloucester is still a county of itself.— P. 
 
 VOI.. HI.— NO. 57 63 
 
 for commerce ; it is situated about thirty miles from the 
 junction of the Severn with the Bristol Channel ; it is 
 connected with the great system of canal navigation in 
 the north, and it is united by means of the Stroudwater 
 canal f with the eastern counties. The principal manu- 
 factures are those of hemp and cordage, wool-stapling 
 and pin-making ; the last of these is not the least impor- 
 tant ; it has been estimated that pins to the amount of 
 £20,000 are sometimes sent in the course of a week to 
 London ; thus the value of this single branch of industry 
 may be easily computed. 
 
 Cheltenham and Clifton in the same county have 
 become flourishing places from the great number of 
 strangers that repair to their mineral springs, which 
 belong to the saline and chalybeate class, of the same 
 sort and by no means superior to those of Gloucester. 
 
 The small market town of Stroud, about ten miles 
 to the south-east of Gloucester, may be mentioned on 
 account of the industry of its inhabitants. It is situated 
 on the ridge of a declivity near the confluence of the 
 Frome and the Sladewater, and it has long been consid- 
 ered the centre of the cloth manufactory in the county. 
 Of the 8000 individuals that form its population, the 
 greater number are engaged in trade, particularly in 
 making cloth. The water is celebrated for imparting a 
 scarlet dye and other grain colours ; for this reason per- 
 haps, cloth manufactories have been extended upwards 
 of twenty miles along the river, and many fulling mills 
 have been erected on its banks. Cirencester, the Corin- 
 ium of Ptolemy, and the Durocornovium of Antoninus, 
 once a place of great importance, and still famous for its 
 antiquities, is now little better than a village ; its inhab- 
 itants find employment in making edge-tools, in stapling 
 wool, and in manufacturing carpets. 
 
 The small town of Berkeley was the birth-place of the 
 celebrated Jenner, but no monument has been erected 
 to announce the honour which it claims, or to record his 
 invaluable discovery. The castle in the neighbourhood 
 of the town, the residence of the Berkeley family, has 
 been the scene of various events in early history, the 
 most memorable of which was the murder of Edward II. 
 in 1327. 
 
 The inland county of Wilts is contiguous on the north 
 and north-west to Gloucestershire, on the west to Som- 
 ersetshire, on the south to Dorsetshire, on the south-east 
 to Hampshire, and on the north-east to Berkshire. It 
 may be readily inferred from what has been already 
 mentioned, that its boundaries are almost wholly artificial ; 
 in figure it bears some resemblance to an ellipsis of 
 which the longer axis is from north to south. 
 
 The face of the country, and the quality of the soil, 
 are very different in the two great divisions of Wiltshire. 
 The soil of South Wilts exhibits a certain degree of 
 uniformity ; the hills are composed of chalk ; silex,* the 
 usual accompaniment of that substance, appears in most 
 places. The sides of the hills from which it has been 
 washed, consist of a chalky loam ; flints abound in the 
 lower parts, and the centre of the tallies through which 
 the rivulets run, is covered with a stratum of broken 
 
 e Capper, Idem. 
 
 The Stroudwater or Stroud canal extends from the Severn at 
 Framilode to Wellbridge near Stroud, where it communicates with the 
 Thames and Severn canal. The latter extends to Lechlade on the 
 Isis, where it joins the Thames and Isis navigation. — P. 
 
 s Flint.— P. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [HOOK C1.IV 
 
 498 
 
 flints, and black earth deposited from the neighbouring 
 hills. The declivities which have been most washed, 
 are barren and unfruitful ; the more level places, and the 
 vallies which have been least exposed to the rapid 
 streams, are the most productive in the district. The 
 Wiltshire downs are situated in the same part of the 
 county ; they may be divided into the Marlborough 
 downs and Salisbury plain, the last of which is equal in 
 superficial extent to more than 500,000 acres. Vast 
 flocks of sheep, accompanied by solitary shepherds, wan- 
 der over this immense plain, in some respects the most 
 remarkable in England. The soil in North Wilts is less 
 uniform ; the under stratum in a large portion of it is 
 formed by a loose and irregular mass of flat broken 
 stones, which the country people call corn-grate, a and 
 which extends without interruption through the north- 
 western part of Wiltshire. It is covered with an upper 
 stratum of red calcareous loam, known by the name of 
 stone-brash, from the loose stones with which it is mixed. 
 A vein of excellent gravel, covered with rich loam, runs 
 in a broken line from Tytherton through Christian- 
 Malford to Somerton ; the richest part of it is situated 
 in the neighbourhood of Dantsey. A hard rock of 
 bastard-limestone, on which the soil is by no means 
 fruitful, extends with little interruption through the 
 remainder of the county. Bradon forest, however, forms 
 an exception ; a cold iron clay rises to the surface, and 
 of so poor a quality, that the term Bradon land has 
 become proverbial in the county for a barren and ungrate- 
 ful soil. 6 Wiltshire is watered by the Thames, the Upper 
 and Lower Avon, and several other rivers. The Deverill, 
 like the Mole in Surrey, loses itself more than a mile, 
 and appears again in the neighbourhood of Warminster. 
 
 Salisbury, the see of a bishop, and the capital of the 
 county, is situated on the Upper Avon, by which and its 
 tributary streams it is nearly surrounded. The cathedral, 
 a fine specimen of the ecclesiastical architecture of the 
 thirteenth century, is a very uniform and regular edifice ; 
 its spire, reckoned at more than four hundred feet, is 
 higher than that of any other English cathedral. The 
 small town of Amesbury® may be mentioned as the birth- 
 place of the great Addison, and also on account of its 
 vicinity to Stonehenge, from which it is not more than 
 two miles distant. It is perhaps impossible to determine 
 the origin of this stupendous structure, but it is most 
 probably the remains of a druidical temple. Seventeen 
 huge stones, still erect, and seven others lying on the 
 ground, form the outer circle of the fabric. The inner 
 circle, about eight feet from the outer, consists of nine- 
 teen stones, eight of which have fallen. The circumfer- 
 ence between the two circles is about three hundred feet ; 
 the stones are from eighteen to twenty feet high, from 
 six to seven broad, and about three in thickness. The 
 whole appears to have been encompassed with a trench, 
 in which the remains of three entrances may still be 
 traced. Around it are many tumuli, and in some of 
 
 1 The Cornbrash (one of the upper members of the lower division of 
 the Oolites,) a loose rubbly limestone, of a grey or bluish colour. In 
 Wiltshire it is known by the name of the cornbrash or corn-grit. 
 (Conybeare and Phillips, p. 202.) — P. 
 
 b Davis’ Agricultural Report of Wiltshire. 
 
 c Amesbury, or Ambresbury. — P. 
 
 d The Thames and Severn canal (already mentioned) crosses the 
 northern extremity of the county by Cricklade. The Kennet and 
 Avon canal (already mentioned) crosses the middle of the county by 
 Devizes. The Wiltshire and Berkshire canal leaves the Kennet and 
 
 them human skeletons, urns, armour and weapons have 
 been discovered. Independently of the purposes for 
 which they were erected, it is difficult to imagine the 
 means by which the early inhabitants, ignorant of ma- 
 chinery and the mechanical powers, could have trans- 
 ported such masses to a solitary plain. A Roman camp 
 at no great distance from it, is defended on both sides 
 by the Avon. 
 
 Wiltshire possesses an undue proportion of parliamen- 
 tary boroughs ; from these and from the county not fewer 
 than thirty-four members are returned. The towns are 
 more important for their industry than the number of 
 their inhabitants. Wilton is famous for its carpets; 
 Salisbury for its cutlery and woollen stuffs. The inhab- 
 itants of Devizes, Bradford, Trowbridge, Warminster, 
 Westbury, and all the adjacent towns from Chippenham 
 to Heytesbury, are occupied in woollen manufactories, 
 principally of fine cloths. There are indeed few villages 
 in which some branch of industry is not carried on. The 
 same county participates in the advantages of inland 
 navigation ; the canals, by which it is intersected, are 
 those of the Thames and Severn, the Kennet and Avon, 
 the Wiltshire and Berkshire, the Salisbury and South- 
 ampton. 1 * * 4 
 
 Hampshire or Hants, called also the county of South- 
 ampton, was in ancient times inhabited by the Regni 
 and the Belgce, by the last of whom, it is supposed, the 
 city of Winchester was founded. The county is bounded 
 on the north by Berkshire, on the east by Surrey and 
 Sussex, on the south by the English Channel, and on 
 the west by Dorsetshire and Wiltshire. It might be 
 compared to a square, were it not for a triangular pro- 
 jection at the south-western extremity. Exclusively of 
 this portion, it is about forty-two miles in length, and 
 thirty-eight in breadth. Hampshire is distinguished as 
 an agricultural, although its sea-coast renders it also an 
 important maritime and commercial county. There are 
 several different kinds of soil, but chalk forms the prin- 
 cipal ingredient of the greater part ; extensive and fertile 
 marshy lands reach to the neighbourhood of the sea. 
 The borders of Dorsetshire are covered with sterile 
 heaths, but abundant crops are raised on those of Berk- 
 shire. The products of the county are excellent wheat, 
 barley and the ordinary leguminous plants ; hops, which 
 have been much cultivated of late years, may also be 
 reckoned among its staple commodities. 
 
 The forests in Hampshire, although formerly more 
 extensive than at present, are too remarkable to be 
 passed over in silence ; the principal are the forest of 
 Alice-IIolt and Wolmer, that of East-Bere,' and the 
 New Forest. The first, situated in the eastern part of 
 the county, is bounded by the river Wye ; f the second 
 lies in the neighbourhood of Portsdown, and is not less 
 in superficial extent than 16.000 acres; the last or the 
 largest received the name of the New Forest, because it 
 was added to the others by William the Conqueror, 
 
 Avon canal at Semington, and passes north-east, at the foot of the 
 chalk hills, to the Thames at Abingdon. It is connected with the 
 Thames and Severn canal, by a branch to Cricklade. The Salisbury 
 and Southampton canal connects those two towns. — P. 
 
 e The forest of Alice-IIolt and Wolmer is separated into two por- 
 tions by intervening private property. It is situated on the borders 
 of Surrey and Sussex. That of Bere extends northward from the 
 Portsdown hills, near Portsmouth.. — P. 
 
 f The Wey, a branch of the Thames flowing by Guildford in 
 Surrey. — P. 
 
book cl,iy.] DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 whose injustice in dispossessing the inhabitants of their 
 lands and houses, was supposed to have been avenged by 
 the casual deaths of his sons Richard and William Rufus, 
 and his grandson Henry, within its precincts. It stretches 
 from Godshill to the sea, and the space which it occupies 
 is equal to more than 92,000 acres. The forest was 
 principally valuable on account of the timber with which 
 it supplied the navy, but of late years, the trees fit for 
 that purpose, have decreased in number. 
 
 The Isle of Wight, situated at the eastern entrance of 
 Stadland Bay, 3 has long been considered one of the most 
 delightful residences in Britain ; it is twenty-two miles in 
 length, by twelve and a half in breadth ; it contained in 
 1820, 31,166 inhabitants. The climate is very mild, the 
 land rich and fruitful, and some of the sites, remarkable 
 for their beauty ; on that account it has been much fre- 
 quented during the fine season. The mineral products 
 of the island are numerous ; chalk is used as a manure, 
 while limestone, fullers-earth and two kinds of ochre 
 are exported. It has four sides which are nearly recti- 
 linear ; the two northern front England, and the two others 
 the open sea. It forms a natural shelter to the flourish- 
 ing ports and excellent roads from which Hampshire de- 
 rives so much importance. 
 
 Southampton Water, a large and deep haven in which 
 the largest vessels may sail, lies opposite the projecting 
 angle formed by the two northern sides of the Isle 
 of Wight. It receives the waters of several rivers, 
 among others, the Anton, the Itchin and the Test. 
 Southampton is built on its shore at the confluence of the 
 Test and Itchin ; it was formerly considered the chief town 
 in Hampshire, which is still called the county of South- 
 ampton ; it contains at present 13,353 inhabitants, and 
 reckons about 187 ships, measuring more than 10,000 
 tons. It was on the shore near Southampton, that king 
 Canute gave his flatterers a memorable reproof, by show- 
 ing that all his power yielded to the immutable laws of 
 nature ; it was at the same place that Henry the Fifth 
 collected his forces for the conquest of France. The 
 present inhabitants carry on a considerable trade in tim- 
 ber, hemp and tallow with the north of Russia ; in wine 
 and fruit with Portugal ; and in iron, lead, coal and glass 
 with Wales, Newcastle, and different parts of England. 
 The ship owners send a number of vessels every year to 
 the Newfoundland fisheries, and a regular communication' 
 is established between Cherbourg and Southampton, by 
 means of packets. 
 
 But Portsmouth is by far the most important maritime 
 town in the county, nay in some respects, in the kingdom. 
 Situated on the western side of the island of Portsea, at 
 the mouth of the bay termed Portsmouth harbour, it con- 
 sists of the old town of Portsmouth, surrounded with 
 walls and fortifications, and the new town of Portsea, 
 which was only begun about a century ago. As it was 
 found impracticable to enlarge Portsmouth on account of 
 the walls by which it is enclosed, it has become in con- 
 sequence less populous than Portsea ; they may be said, 
 however, to form a single town. The harbour is supe- 
 rior in size, depth and security to any other in the king- 
 dom ; it is not much broader at its entrance than the 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 499 
 
 Thames at London, but it gradually expands into a great 
 width, and into several channels, which may afford a safe 
 shelter and anchorage to almost the whole British navy. 
 The spacious roadstead of Spithead, between Portsmouth 
 and the Isle of Wight, where a thousand ships of the 
 line may ride in security, forms a great addition to its 
 harbour. The natural advantages of its position have 
 rendered Portsmouth, the great naval arsenal of England, 
 and the principal station of the British fleet. The same 
 place has been rendered impregnable by works of art, 
 which were begun at a very early period, continued at 
 distant intervals, and not completed before the reign of 
 George the Third. It is the seat of a naval college and 
 a school of naval architecture, of which the governor is 
 the first lord of the admiralty. The dock-yards are the 
 most complete in the world ; within them are contained 
 all kinds of naval and military stores, and all the neces- 
 sary manufactories for the supply of naval equipments. 
 Some of these works or manufactories may be mention- 
 ed. The ropery is a spacious building, three stories 
 high, fifty-four feet broad, and a hundred and ninety-four 
 long ; the strongest cables are made there, and the labour 
 has been much simplified by the use of machinery. The 
 rigging-house and sail-loft are fine structures ; the former 
 occupying nearly six hundred feet in length, and sixty in 
 width ; the two latter 400 feet. b The two hemp-houses 
 and the two sea-store houses form a line of building 800 
 feet long. The tarring house and the other appendages of 
 the ropery are on the same scale. The anchor-forge, a 
 vast building in which anchors weighing a hundred cwts. 
 are wrought, may remind a stranger of the fables concern- 
 ing the work-shop of Vulcan ; on approaching it, the ear is 
 stunned with a tremendous noise ; it is impossible to 
 examine it minutely without admiring the various substi- 
 tutes, which ingenuity has devised for the abridgment of 
 labour. Contiguous to the forge are an iron-mill, a cop- 
 per-mill, and a refinery, in which the old copper is remelt- 
 ed and rolled, and where cast-bolts, gudgeons and other 
 articles of the same metal are made. The wood-mills 
 front the northern dock ; the machinery is moved by 
 steam, and that for making blocks,® is perhaps as curious 
 and worthy of attention as any in Portsmouth. The 
 gun-wharf is an immense depot for guns, carronades and 
 mortars, with shot and shells of every weight and size. 
 The victualling-office, situated in the Portsmouth division 
 of the town, comprehends several extensive ranges of 
 building, among others a large store-house that occupies 
 the whole length of a street, and serves as a repository 
 of the provisions and liquors that are used in the navy. 
 The grain for the consumption of the mariners and the 
 troops is ground at the king’s mill on the Portsea side ; 
 it is turned by a stream of salt water, admitted from the 
 harbour at full tide, and let off at low water. Such are 
 some of the public works at Portsmouth, and from them 
 a stranger may derive some notion of the resources of a 
 great nation. It may be added that during the last war 
 more than four thousand workmen were constantly em- 
 ployed in the dock-yards. 
 
 Fareham, at the head of Portsmouth harbour, has be- 
 come a place of consequence from its connexion with 
 
 a 1 do not find any notice of Stadland Bay, on this part of the Eng- 
 lish coast. Studland Bay is on the east coast of the Isle of Purbeck, 
 between Handfast Point on the south, and the entrance of Poole Har- 
 bour on the north. A large bay is, however, formed by the projection 
 of the Isle of Wight on the east, and the Isle of Purbeck on the west. 
 In the north-west part of it, Studland Bay is situated. — P. 
 
 b The range of storehouses on the north-east is about 600 feet long, 
 and the sail-loft and rigging-loft are also huge buildings, both 400 feet 
 long. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 c Invented by M. Brunei, engineer of the Thames tunnel. — P 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIY 
 
 500 
 
 the town. Sloops and smaller vessels are built in it, and 
 the inhabitants carry on a considerable trade in corn and 
 coals. Gosport at the mouth of the same harbour,* is a 
 populous town, inhabited chiefly by sailors and artificers. 
 It contains a large naval hospital, 1 * extensive barracks, 
 docks and wharfs for merchant vessels. The produce 
 of the neighbouring country supplies in part the demand 
 created by the government establishments in these places 
 and in Portsmouth. 
 
 The ancient city of Winchester is the only other place 
 in Hampshire, that requires to be mentioned. It was the 
 capital of the whole country during the reign of the Saxon 
 king Egbert ; it became at a later period the great empo- 
 rium of the wool trade, but it is long since its commerce 
 has fallen into decay. It declined after the dissolution 
 of its monastery by Henry the Eighth, and it suffered 
 greatly in the course of the civil wars. It stands on the 
 eastern declivity of a hill above the river Itchin ; it seems 
 to have derived its original name of Caer Gwent or the 
 White City , from the chalky cliffs which surround it. 
 Although the streets are spacious and well aired, Win- 
 chester has the appearance of an ancient city. The 
 cathedral is as remarkable for the antiquity of its foun- 
 dation, as for the splendor of its architecture. It occupies 
 probably the site of a building raised by the zeal and piety 
 of the Saxons. It was much altered and improved in 
 succeeding ages, and Bishop Fox rebuilt it according to 
 its present form in the sixteenth century. The length 
 of the building is 545 feet ; and among the distinguished 
 prelates of Winchester, may be mentioned William of 
 Wykeham, William of Wainfleet, Fox and cardinal 
 Beaufort, whose shrines are works of great magnificence 
 and beauty. 
 
 The college of Winchester, founded by William of 
 Wykeham, has now become one of the great public 
 schools in England. The building is divided by two 
 courts ; the entrance to one of them is under a large 
 gate-way, adorned with busts of the founder and Edward 
 the Third ; the other is admired for its niches and pin- 
 nacled canopies : the chapel and hall, which form the 
 south wing, are supported by massive buttresses. The 
 college is founded for a warden, ten fellows, seventy 
 scholars, three chaplains, and six choristers, with masters 
 and subordinate officers. A building has been erected 
 on the west of it for students not on the foundation. 
 Although our limits prevent us from mentioning the other 
 public buildings in Winchester, it may be remarked that 
 the chapel of the ancient castle contains what is denom- 
 inated Arthur’s Round Table, one of the few memorials, 
 whether counterfeit or real, that still remain in England 
 of chivalrous times. 
 
 The Isle of Wight, it has already been observed, is 
 under the civil jurisdiction of Hampshire ; it is divided 
 into two nearly equal parts by the river Medina, which 
 rises in the southern angle, and discharges itself at the 
 northern extremity of the island ; hence the divisions of 
 East and West Medina. The southern coast is edged 
 with steep cliffs of chalk and limestone, hollowed out in 
 many places into caverns. In the neighbourhood of St. 
 Lawrence, a large tract has fallen from the summit, and 
 formed the romantic ledge, known by the name of the 
 Undercliff. The western side is fenced with ridges of rocks, 
 
 * On the west side, opposite Portsmouth. — P. 
 
 of which the most remarkable are those that from tlieii 
 sharp extremities, have been called the Needles. The 
 safe roadstead of St. Helens is situated off the eastern 
 side of the island. 
 
 Newport, the principal town, is a place of considera 
 ble population. The work-people are employed in the 
 manufacture of starch and hair-powder, and also in 
 making biscuit for the navy. Carisbrook castle, at a short 
 distance from Newport, was in former times an important 
 fortress ; it has now become the residence of the gov- 
 ernor of the island. It was rendered memorable as the 
 place where Charles the First was confined more than a 
 year, while a prisoner of the parliament. The former im- 
 portance of theboroughof Yarmouth, now little better than 
 a fishing village, is attested by its privilege of returning 
 two members to parliament. 
 
 The county of Sussex forms a long stripe of land on 
 the southern coast ; it is bounded on the north by Surrey 
 and Kent, on the south by the English Channel, which 
 together with Kent, forms also its narrow eastern boun- 
 dary, and on the west by Hampshire. It measures more 
 than seventy miles from east to west, while its mean 
 breadth is less than twenty ; it is equal in superficial ex- 
 tent to 1461 square miles. It is divided into six rapes, 
 a division peculiar to Sussex ; the western are Chichester, 
 Arundel and Bramber ; the eastern are Lewes, Pevensey 
 and Hastings ; these are again subdivided into sixty-five 
 hundreds. 
 
 The soil varies between chalk, clay, loam, sand and 
 gravel, according as each of these substances predomi- 
 nates. The northern and middle portions are of the 
 same nature, and may be said to form a continuation of 
 the Wealds in Kent ; they were formerly wholly covered 
 with forests, and although many of them have been de- 
 stroyed, the country still abounds with lofty trees ; indeed 
 the oaks of Sussex are said to be better and more nu- 
 merous than those of most counties ; they succeed best 
 in the stiff clay on the Wealds ; the chalk-hills are 
 equally noted for their beech trees. 
 
 A ridge of hills, extending in a north-westerly direc- 
 tion, is composed of gritstone, limestone and iron-ore. 
 A rich tract of arable and meadow land forms a narrow 
 belt below the middle of the county ; beyond it are the 
 downs, a range of green open hills, affording excellent 
 pasture to sheep. It is in this tract, between Lewes and 
 the sea, that the South Down sheep are reared. Differ- 
 ent parts of Sussex are equally famous for their cattle, 
 and in no other county are so many oxen used in agricul- 
 ture. There were at one time many iron works in the 
 same county, and much charcoal was used in smelting 
 the ore ; in this way the woods were gradually diminish- 
 ed. The same branch of industry is now abandoned ; 
 the works, from the comparatively late improvements in 
 smelting tbe metal with pit coal, are now confined to the 
 counties, which abound both in the cheaper fuel and in 
 iron-ore. The products of Sussex are hops, corn, wool, 
 cattle, timber, marl and limestone. 
 
 The principal rivers are the Adur, the Arun and the 
 Ouse, the latter a name common to other streams in Eng- 
 land. They rise in the northern part of the countv. and 
 after dividing the chalk hills into four or five different 
 portions, discharge themselves into the Channel ; the first 
 
 b The Royal Hospital at Hasler, for sick and wounded seamen. — P 
 
book ciiiv.] DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 at Newhaven, the second near Shoreham, and tlie third 
 at Little Hampton. 3 Although by no means large, they 
 have been of the greatest utility in affording connecting 
 points to the different canals which have been undertaken 
 or are already completed. 
 
 There are few populous towns in Sussex, and the most 
 important are situated at a short distance from the sea. 
 Chichester, the capital, is the seat of a diocese, which 
 was transferred to it from Selsey in the reign of William 
 the Conqueror. The cathedral having been destroyed 
 by fire, a second was built in the twelfth century, which 
 has been at different times enlarged and repaired. It is 
 an elegant Gothic edifice, in the form of a cross, with a 
 spire nearly three hundred feet in height. The town con- 
 sists principally of four broad and well paved streets, that 
 intersect each other at right angles ; it claims some de- 
 gree of antiquity, for it is said to have been founded by 
 Cissa, the second king of the South Saxons. Traces of 
 an earlier period may be observed in the neighbourhood. 
 A Roman pavement was discovered in Chichester in 1727, 
 and the Brell, b near the city, is the site of a Roman 
 camp, supposed to have been raised by Vespasian, and 
 which from the nature of the soil must have been a work 
 of considerable difficulty. The finely situated town of 
 Arundel, on the Arun, was formerly ranked with the 
 strong places in England ; it possesses a harbour, 
 where many small vessels are loaded with timber for the 
 dock-yards. Horsham, on a branch of the same river, 
 near the Surrey border, derives its name from Horsa, the 
 brother of Hengist, by whom it is said to have been 
 founded. It is now a populous borough, in which the 
 spring assizes are held ; it is also the seat of the county 
 jail, a modern and commodious building. Extensive 
 barracks, and a large magazine of arms, are situated in 
 the neighbourhood. Lewes, on the river Ouse, one 
 of the few populous places in the county, has become 
 important from the industry of its inhabitants, from its 
 cannon founderies, and from its corn and paper mills. It 
 was the scene of a destructive battle between Henry the 
 Third and the barons, in which the former was defeated 
 and taken prisoner. 
 
 Although Hastings is still the first in rank of the Cinque 
 Ports, it has fallen into decay ; it now possesses a wretch- 
 ed harbour, and the only method by which ships can be 
 secured from the waves, is by drawing them on the beach. 
 It may also be mentioned on account of its connexion 
 with a remarkable event in English history. William the 
 Conqueror is supposed to have landed with his fleet near 
 Pevensey, and, after burning his ships, to have as- 
 sembled his army at Hastings, whence he marched to 
 battle in an adjacent plain. Harold lost his crown and 
 his life, while fifteen thousand of the victors, and many 
 more of the vanquished, were slain. 
 
 It is not many years since Brighthelmstone or Brighton 
 was inhabited by fishermen ; it has now become a pop- 
 ulous town, and a place of fashionable resort in the sum- 
 mer season. The preference given to it for sea-bathing 
 was derived from its vicinity to the metropolis, and from 
 its healthful situation ; but the principal cause of the 
 great extension of Brighton, must be attributed to the 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 501 
 
 choice made of it as a summer residence by George the 
 Fourth, when prince regent, in consequence of which a 
 marine pavilion was built at a vast expense. In con- 
 formity to an act passed in 1821, a long and convenient 
 chain suspension-pier for the improvement of the harbour 
 was erected. Brighton is much benefited by the nu- 
 merous travellers to France, embarking there on board 
 the steam-packets to Dieppe, and proceeding onwards 
 through Rouen to Paris, the distance by land being much 
 shorter than by the route through Calais. It was at 
 Brighton that Charles the Second embarked for France, 
 after the battle of Worcester in 1651. 
 
 Two individuals, who have shed a lustre on English 
 literature, were natives of Sussex. Collins was born in 
 Chichester about the year 1720. The great and unfor- 
 tunate Otway, without a rival in the pathetic, was born 
 at Tooting' in 1651 ; he died of want in 1685. 
 
 Kent, the next county we shall mention, is about sixty- 
 three miles long, and nearly forty broad. The whole 
 area is about 1537 square miles, or 983,680 acres ; of 
 these, about 500,000 are arable, and 300,000 pasture 
 lands ; the remainder consists of hop grounds, woods and 
 marshes. The soil is different in different parts of the 
 county. The land in the immediate vicinity of the 
 Thames is low and marshy ; but chalky heights rise at no 
 great distance from its banks. A hard and unfruitful soil 
 extends to the north-eastern extremity, and thence round 
 to Dover, forming the lofty white cliffs which bound the 
 island, and exhibiting from the sea that striking appear- 
 ance, from which the ancient name of Albion was de- 
 rived. The southern part of Kent, or the Weald, is a flat 
 woody tract, of a clayey soil, fruitful, but unwholesome on 
 account of its great moisture. The midland and western 
 districts are intersected by hills and dales, arable and pas- 
 ture lands, equal in fertility to any part of England. 
 
 Kent is almost entirely an agricultural county ; it 
 abounds in corn ; its other products are large oxen, pigs, 
 hops, fruit, particularly cherries, apples and filberts, with 
 which the London market is supplied, woad and mad- 
 der for dyeing, samphire, hemp, and oak timber. The 
 manufactures are of secondary importance. Dartford 
 and Feversham, however, are famed for their powder- 
 mills ; Maidstone and Dover, for their paper-mills. One 
 of the largest flour-mills in the kingdom is to be seen in 
 Canterbury, and there are also in the same place, silk, 
 cotton and worsted manufactories. The art of bleach- 
 ing and printing calicoes furnishes employment to many 
 in the neighbourhood of Crayford. Iron furnaces, cop- 
 peras and salt works, have been erected in different parts 
 of the Wealds ; d lastly, a great quantity of coarse cloth 
 for packing hops, is made in several parts of the county. 
 
 The sea-coast, the Downs, the dangerous Goodwin 
 Sands, and other places, illustrative of the physical ge- 
 ography of Kent, have been already mentioned, but no 
 notice has been taken of some of the remarkable towns in 
 the county, and of these the number is sufficiently great. 
 Dover, at no great distance from the South Foreland, is 
 nearer the continent than any other of the British ports, 
 the breadth of the Channel between it and Calais being 
 only seven leagues ; it is on that account much frequented 
 
 * The Adur enters the Channel a little below New Shoreham ; the 
 Arun, at Little Hampton ; and the Ouse, at Newhaven. — P. 
 b Brile (Camden.) Brill (Luckombe.) — P. 
 
 c Trotting (Trotton,) a village near Petworth. Tooting is in Surrey, 
 near London. — P. 
 
 d There are salt-works near Sandwich and in the Isle of Grain [con- 
 sequently on the coast ;] large copperas works at Whitstable [on the 
 coast, north of Canterbury] and Deptford [on the Thames, near Lon- 
 don ;] and in that part of the Weald which borders on Sussex, there 
 are furnaces for casting iron. (Ed. Enc. art. Kent.) — P. 
 
502 EUR 
 
 by the travellers who visit France ; for their accommo- 
 dation not fewer than thirty regular packets have been 
 established, and many of them are steam vessels. The 
 town appears to have been a place of some consequence 
 in the earliest times ; it was the Dour of the Britons,* 
 the Dubris of the Romans, b and the Dovre of the Sax- 
 ons.' It is mentioned in history as a place of the great- 
 est importance at so early a period as the Norman con- 
 quest ; in a later age it was often called the Claris et 
 Repagulum totius Jlegni. 11 The ancient castle is by 
 some supposed to have been built by Julius Caesar, 
 while others believe that it was founded by Claudius. It 
 was long deemed impregnable, but in the reign of Charles 
 the First, Drake, a zealous republican, formed a plan to 
 seize the garrison. Accompanied at midnight by ten or 
 twelve men, they reached by means of ropes and scaling 
 ladders, the top of the high cliff without being discovered. 
 Having despatched the sentinel, they threw open the 
 gates, and the garrison, who were in the utmost confusion, 
 supposing themselves to be attacked by superior num- 
 bers, surrendered this important castle to a handful of 
 desperate men. The recent improvements connected 
 with the fortress are the subterranean works and case- 
 ments, capable of containing 2000 men. The town con- 
 sists of two parts, the upper of which is called the Town, 
 and the other the Pier ; they are connected by Snares- 
 gate, a long and narrow street, so named from the lofty 
 rocks that overhang it, and menace the inhabitants with 
 destruction. 
 
 A remarkable pile of dry bones, twenty-eight feet in 
 length, six in breadth, and eight in height, is to be seen 
 at some leagues westward of Dover, in a vault under the 
 church of Hythe. According to an inscription, they ap- 
 pear to be the remains of Danes and Britons, who were 
 slain in battle near the place, before the invasion of Wil- 
 liam the Conqueror. The principal canal in the county 
 is a military work constructed along Romney marsh, in 
 the neighbourhood of Hythe.' It is thirty-two yards 
 in width and six in depth, with a raised bank or breast- 
 work to defend the soldiers. Although Hythe has 
 fallen into decay by the filling up of its harbour, it retains 
 the privilege of sending two representatives to parliament. 
 The same may be said of Romney ; its harbour is de- 
 stroyed, but in its corporation, consisting of twenty-one 
 persons, is vested the right of returning two members. 
 
 The ancient town of Sandwich was once a flourishing 
 port, but from the influx of sand, the harbour is only 
 accessible to small coasting vessels. After its prosperity 
 was destroyed, many refugees from the Low-Countries 
 repaired to it ; they established manufactories of baize 
 and other cloths in the town. Among these emigrants 
 were some gardeners, who finding the neighbouring land 
 well adapted for the cultivation of vegetables, applied 
 their skill to that purpose, and succeeded so well that 
 the vicinity is still distinguished for the production of 
 garden seeds, which with several other products are ex- 
 ported from Sandwich. 
 
 The seaport of Deal, between the North and South 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CLIV 
 
 Forelands, contains about 7000 inhabitants. It is sup- 
 posed to have been the Dola of the ancients, where 
 Julius Cresar landed on his first invasion of Britain. Ii 
 has no harbour, but the Downs, or that part of the sea 
 between the shore and the Godwin Sands, about eight 
 miles in length, and varying in depth from eight to twelve 
 fathoms, afford generally a secure station for vessels. 
 Homeward and outward bound ships of war anchor there 
 to put in letters, set passengers on shore, take in pro- 
 visions, or wait for orders. The coast is defended by bat- 
 teries and martello towers, constructed during the late war, 
 on eminences which command every access to the shore. 
 The town is not included among the Cinque Ports ; it is 
 supposed, however, to depend on Sandwich; the streets 
 in the upper part are spacious and well built, while the 
 lower are narrow, irregular and dirty. The most impor- 
 tant institutions are a naval hospital and a house of in- 
 dustry. It was at Deal that Perkin Warbeck, the fa- 
 mous impostor, landed when he personated the Duke of 
 York. The vicinity of the Godwin Sands renders the 
 frequent service of pilots indispensable, and those of 
 Deal are distinguished for their boldness and activity, 
 qualities which they have acquired by often assisting ves- 
 sels in distress. 
 
 Of the inland towns in Kent, the first in importance is 
 the ancient city of Canterbury, the capital of the county, 
 and the metropolitan see of all England ; it was the 
 Caer-Kent of the Britons, and the Durovernum of the 
 Romans. It is situated in a pleasant valley, between hills 
 of moderate height, watered by numerous springs, and 
 by the Stour, which divides itself into several small 
 streams, and forms different islands, on one of which the 
 western part of the town has been built. Pope Gregory 
 sent a number of Benedictine Monks with Augustine at 
 their head to Ethelbert, king of Kent, for the purpose 
 of converting the king and his people to Christianity. 
 The conversion of Ethelbert took place in the year 597 ; 
 it was followed by the installation of Augustine as 
 bishop of the see of Canterbury ; since that time it has 
 been in possession of the primacy. The strong military 
 causeways leading from Canterbury to Dover and 
 Lymne/ as well as many Roman relics and coins which 
 have been discovered in the neighbourhood, attest its 
 importance at an earlier period. The whole city was 
 made over to the bishops by William Rufus, but its rep- 
 utation for sanctity was greatly increased by the murder 
 of Thomas-a-Becket in 1 170. The offerings of kings, 
 nobles and other pilgrims at the shrine of the martyr 
 were so numerous, that the whole church and the 
 chapel in which his remains were interred, glit- 
 tered with jewels. Henry the Eighth seized all these 
 treasures, and by his orders the bones of the saint were 
 burnt to ashes. The present cathedral was commenced 
 about the year 1174, but was not completed until the 
 reign of Henry the Fifth. Kings and princes, among 
 whom are Henry r the Fourth and the Black Prince, and 
 also cardinals and bishops, are interred in it. It was much 
 injured during the civil wars, and Cromwell converted 
 
 a Derived by William Lambard from Dwfyrrha, a British word sig- 
 nifying a steep place. (Camden’s Britannia, p. 247.) — P. 
 
 11 I'ortus Dubris, in the Itinerary of Antonine. — P. 
 c Called by the Saxons, Dorfa and Dofris \_Dofra. Camden,] and in 
 Domesday Book, Dovcre. (Rees’ Cyc.) — P. 
 
 1 The key and bar of the whole kingdom. 
 
 c It extends from Sandgate, nearly in a straight direction, along the 
 coast, till it passes Hythe, when it follows the course of the hills which 
 skirt the marshes [Romney Marsh,] and terminates at Cliffend in 
 Sussex, a distance of about 23 miles. (Ed. Enc.) — P . 
 
 f Lymme, Limme (Luckombe) — the Portus Lemanis of Antoninus ; 
 on the coast between Hythe and Romney. The Roman road, called 
 Stane Street, leads from it to Canterbury. — P. 
 
book cT<iv.i DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 it into a stable for his dragoons; it was imperfectly re- 
 paired after the Restoration. Built in the form of a 
 double cross, it is about 514 feet in length within the 
 walls, and 178 in breadth ; the height of the vaulted roof 
 is equal to 80, and that of the great tower to 235 feet. 
 
 The diocese of Canterbury contains 257 parishes, 
 besides chapels in Kent, and about a hundred more in 
 other dioceses ; the last are called peculiars from an 
 ancient privilege of the see, by which wheresoever the 
 archbishop had manors or advowsons, the parishes were 
 exempted from the jurisdiction of the ordinary of the 
 diocese, and transferred to that of Canterbury. The 
 archbishop is primate and metropolitan of all England ; 
 he is the first peer of the realm, taking precedence of all 
 the great officers of state, and of all dukes not of the 
 blood-royal. At coronations, he places the crown on 
 the king’s head, and wherever the court may be, the 
 king and queen are his parishioners. The bishop of 
 London is his provincial dean, the bishop of Winchester 
 his subdean, the bishop of Lincoln his chancellor, and 
 the bishop of Rochester his chaplain. 11 
 
 The city of Canterbury is of an oval shape, and the 
 four principal streets are built in the form of a cross. It 
 is divided into six wards, which are subdivided into 21 
 streets, 56 lanes and 62 alleys. 
 
 The Thames bounds the county on the north ; the 
 next river in point of size is the Medway ; it throws 
 itself into the former near its mouth, between the isles 
 of Grain and Sheppey, at some leagues below Roches- 
 ter, a town in which the most remarkable structures are 
 a cathedral and a stone bridge 560 feet in length. A 
 long row of buildings on a gentle eminence, called the 
 Bank, unites the town of Rochester with that of Chat- 
 ham. The last place is well known for its naval arsenal, 
 the large buildings connected with it, and its docks de- 
 fended by strong and extensive fortifications. The dock- 
 yard is one of the largest in England, and some of the 
 largest ships in the navy have been built in it. The 
 Ordnance Wharf, in which all kinds of naval stores are 
 deposited, is adjacent to these works, and in order that 
 they might be better secured, the Lines, a series of for- 
 tifications, were erected according to act of parliament in 
 the year 1758. It was to guard against the danger of 
 an invasion that these fortifications were raised, and if 
 they had been built in the time of De Ruyter, he might 
 have found it impracticable either to destroy the arsenal, 
 or to burn the ships. Although the present town may 
 be said to have been founded by Charles the Second, it 
 is not remarkable for regularity. 
 
 On the banks of the Thames, at the distance of eight 
 miles to the east of London, is situated the town of 
 Woolwich. Henry the Eighth rendered it an important 
 place by building a royal dock, that has been gradually 
 enlarged, and is now provided with every convenience 
 for building men-of-war, of which it has sent out many 
 first-rates. But Woolwich is still better known as a 
 royal arsenal, and as the principal depository of naval 
 and military ordnance ; it contains also an excellent 
 foundery for cannon, and a laboratory for cartridges and 
 all sorts of fire-works. It was selected on that account 
 as a fit place for an academy, or place of education for 
 young men destined to the service of the artillery and 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 503 
 
 engineers. From these buildings, and also from exten- 
 sive artillery barracks, the town has somewhat the ap- 
 pearance of a large fortress. 
 
 Greenwich on the banks of the Thames, and at no 
 great distance from the last town, has several claims to 
 celebrity. It was a royal residence at an early period ; 
 a palace was built, and a park enclosed by Humphrey, 
 duke of Gloucester, and it became afterwards a favourite 
 residence of several sovereigns. It was at Greenwich 
 that Henry the Eighth and his daughters, Mary and 
 Elizabeth, were born. As the palace was in a ruinous 
 state at the time of the Restoration, Charles the Second 
 caused it to be taken down, with the intention of erecting 
 another and more magnificent edifice on its site. One 
 wing of the building was finished in his time, and there 
 the king used occasionally to reside. In the reign of 
 William the Third a design was formed of founding an 
 hospital for aged and disabled seamen ; on the recom- 
 mendation of Sir Christopher Wren, the unfinished 
 palace was enlarged and fitted for the purpose. Such 
 is the origin of Greenwich hospital, one of the finest 
 buildings in England, and sufficiently spacious to contain 
 a thousand pensioners, nurses and boys. The park, in- 
 tended as an appendage to the palace, was laid out by 
 Le Notre in the reign of Charles the Second, and Green- 
 wich observatory is built on one of its most command- 
 ing stations, the site of an old tower erected by Duke 
 Humphrey. The eminent men who have filled the office 
 of astronomer royal, have conferred on it a high degree 
 of celebrity, and Greenwich is still the first meridian on 
 the English charts. 
 
 It is necessary to omit several places of secondary 
 importance in the county of Kent. It may be remarked, 
 however, that the naval works at Deptford occupy an 
 extent of 32 acres. The town is watered by the small 
 river Ravensworth, b near its junction with the Thames ; 
 the works consist of two wet docks, the one single, the 
 other double, three slips, a basin, and two ponds for 
 masts, with store-houses and the various works for 
 anchors, cables, masts, blocks and the other implements 
 of naval architecture. The manor-house of Say’s Court, 
 on the site of the present work-house of St. Nicholas 
 was the residence of Peter the Great when he worked 
 as a ship-wright at Deptford. It was in the same place 
 that the celebrated Drake was visited in 1581 by queen 
 Elizabeth, who conferred on him the honour of knight- 
 hood, and gave him the world and a ship for his arms. 
 
 Of Gravesend it is only necessary to remark that it 
 is considered the head of the port of London ; it is the 
 place where the outward bound ships remain until they 
 are visited by the custom-house officers, and at which 
 passengers commonly embark and land. 
 
 Kent retains the name of the people' who inhabited 
 it in the time of Ctesar ; their territory was divided 
 into four small kingdoms, which were united during the 
 Heptarchy. The Saxon kings held their court at Can- 
 terbury ; after the conquest by the Normans, it was the 
 only part of the kingdom that preserved its ancient laws 
 and usages, of which the most remarkable were gavel- 
 kind and a complete exemption from vassalage. 
 
 Although Middlesex may be considered one of the 
 most important counties in England, it is by no means 
 
 1 Capper, Idem. 
 
 i 
 
 b Raven sbourn. (Luckombe. Ed. Enc.) — P. c The Cantii. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIV. 
 
 504 
 
 large ; indeed it does not contain more than 282 square 
 miles. It is contiguous to the county of Hertford on the 
 north, while it is separated on the east from Essex by the 
 Lea, on the south from Surrey and Kent by the Thames, 
 and on the west from Buckinghamshire by the Coin. It 
 contains about 180,480 acres ; of these, 100,000 are 
 pasture, 40,000 are arable, and not fewer than 15,000 
 are laid out iu market gardens for the supply of the 
 metropolis. Much of the clay round London is made 
 into bricks ; an acre is said to yield about a million, and 
 their value to amount to £500. But the greater part 
 of the land has been converted into rich pasturage ; there 
 is reason to believe that 8500 milch cows are kept in 
 Middlesex, and 1500 in Kent and Surrey for the supply 
 of the inhabitants of London. To obtain hay for the 
 London market is the principal object of the farmers in 
 the county, and they raise annually on an average a 
 quantity sufficient for 30,000 horses. 
 
 Middlesex participates in all the advantages of inland 
 navigation. The immense line of canals and rivers, that 
 extend along and across the kingdom, communicate with 
 the Thames and London by means of the Grand Junc- 
 tion, which enters the county from the north at Rick- 
 mansvvorth, and falls into the Thames at Brentford 
 above, and at Limehouse below, the metropolis. Another 
 branch terminates at Paddington on the north-east of the 
 former. 
 
 The verdant fields and the woods extending along the 
 banks of the Thames, almost to the gates of London, 
 form a singular contrast with the movement and activity 
 on the river, with unnumbered masts apparently rising 
 from the water. Other signs announce at a greater dis- 
 tance from the metropolis, the capital of a powerful em- 
 pire, the most populous city in Europe, and the most 
 commercial in the world. The last assertion may be 
 easily confirmed ; indeed the proofs of it may appear to 
 be exaggerated. It has been ascertained that the total 
 value of property annually shipped and unshipped on the 
 Thames, is upwards of £70,000,000; and that in addition 
 to the crews of the vessels, 8000 watermen and 4000 
 barges are employed in lading and unlading ships. The 
 average number of British ships and vessels always lying 
 in the Thames and docks is about 13,000. It is not less 
 certain that about a thousand steam-vessels sail to and 
 from London in the course of the year. As to the inland 
 trade, 40,000 waggons and other heavy carriages enter 
 or leave the metropolis annually, and the value of the 
 goods, which are thus transported, is not less than 
 £50,000,000. If £10,000,000 be added as the value 
 of goods otherwise conveyed to and from London, and 
 of the cattle and sheep driven to it, the annual amount 
 of the trade may be estimated at £130,000,000. This 
 does not include the various private methods of inter- 
 course with the capital, nor the fifteen hundred methods 
 of leaving London by stage coaches and other public 
 conveyances in the course of a day, nor the mail coach 
 establishment for the conveyance of passengers, small 
 parcels and letters, the most expeditious mode of travel- 
 ling ever carried into effect in any country, communi- 
 cating with every part of the kingdom, and travelling 
 continually day and night at the rate of ten miles an 
 hour. 11 
 
 * Capper’s Topographical Dictionary. 
 
 The foundation of London is generally believed to 
 have been anterior to the Christian era. According to 
 Tacitus, it was the great mart of British trade and com- 
 merce in his time. The Romans called it Londinium ; 
 the Trinobantes, the Atrebates and the other British 
 tribes, Lundayn: under the Saxon domination, it re- 
 ceived the names of Londenceaster, Lunden-Byrig, 
 Lunden-Wyc, and lastly London. The history of its 
 successive additions, and of the privileges that were con- 
 ferred on it, is not without interest. In the sixth century 
 it was made the metropolis of Essex, or the kingdom of 
 the East Saxons. It became under Alfred the capital 
 of England, and the rights which it had obtained from 
 former princes were confirmed by the Conqueror. Henry 
 the First extended its jurisdiction over Middlesex, and 
 empowered the inhabitants to choose their sheriff and 
 justiciary among the citizens, but reserved to himself the 
 right of nominating the portreeve or mayor. Not long 
 after the death of the same king, the citizens purchased 
 from his successors, the conservancy of the Thames, and 
 the right of electing their magistrates ; lastly, the muni 
 cipal government of London assumed under Richard the 
 First, the same form which it has since retained, if 
 some modifications and additional privileges be except- 
 ed. Thus, during the reign of John, Henry Fitz-Alwyn 
 took the title of mayor, instead of custos or bailiff, under 
 which titles he had held the same dignity during twenty 
 successive years. In the reign of Edward the First, the 
 city was divided into twenty-four wards, every one of 
 which was governed by a magistrate or alderman, and 
 each ward chose some of the inhabitants as a common 
 council, who were sworn to assist the alderman with 
 their advice in all public affairs. Edward the Third 
 united the town with the southern bank of the Thames, b 
 conferred the title of lord on the mayor, and granted him 
 the privilege of having a gold or silver mace carried 
 before him on public occasions. Richard the Second 
 seized the chartered liberties of the city, which were 
 afterwards restored on payment of a heavy penalty. 
 
 Henry the Fourth conferred additional privileges on 
 the city ; but his reign is distinguished by the burning 
 of “ obstinate heretics,” and by a plague which carried 
 off thirty thousand persons in London. The town was 
 first lighted in the year 1416, by lanterns suspended 
 from cords placed across the streets ; the same method 
 is still used in France. 
 
 The reign of Edward the Fourth is remarkable for 
 the establishment of the first English printing press by 
 William Caxton in 1472; it was erected, however, in 
 Westminster, not in London. Henry the Eighth not 
 only caused the streets to be paved, but removed various 
 nuisances, among others, the crowded monastic institu- 
 tions. The long and prosperous reign of Elizabeth was 
 marked by rapid advances in trade, industry and wealth, 
 more than by improvements or architectural embellish- 
 ments of the capital. The Exchange, the principal edi- 
 fice erected during the reign, was built by a merchant, 
 not by the queen. In 1588, when the country was 
 threatened by the Spanish Armada, the city raised ten 
 thousand troops, fitted out sixteen of the largest ships in 
 the river Thames, and defrayed the charge both of men 
 and ships during the time they continued in the queen’s 
 
 b By a charter of Edward III. Southwark was added to the 
 diction of London. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
book cliv.] DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 service. In 1615, the sides of the principal streets, 
 which had been formerly covered with pebbles or gravel, 
 were laid with flag-stones. Two years before that pe- 
 riod, viz. in 1613, the New River was made to communi- 
 cate with London by Sir Hugh Middleton, an under- 
 taking worthy of a sovereign. a While Charles the First 
 was actually opposing the liberties of his subjects, he 
 granted the citizens of London several charters, by which 
 lie confirmed all their former privileges, and added sev- 
 eral new ones. The town embraced the cause of the 
 republican party, and it displayed in the year 1660 the 
 same zeal in bringing about the Restoration. On account 
 of its conduct on the last occasion, Charles the Second 
 granted a confirmation of all its ancient charters, privi- 
 leges, liberties, rights and customs. 
 
 The short reign of James the Second, remarkable for 
 want of faith, corruption and other public vices, is not 
 less so for the establishment of the most important manu- 
 facture in London, that of silk in Spitalfields, begun by 
 French protestants who were driven from their native 
 land by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. After 
 the Revolution, to which the citizens of London con- 
 tributed, all the privileges they had received from former 
 monarchs were anew confirmed by William and Mary ; 
 not long afterwards, under the reign of the same princes, 
 the bank of England was established. An act was 
 passed in the reign of queen Anne by which fifty addi- 
 tional churches were built. But it was in the long reign 
 of George the Third that the limits were enlarged be- 
 yond example. Two leading causes may account for 
 it ; the first, or the great advances in commerce and 
 manufactures, dates from the end of the American war ; 
 by the second or the increasing public debt, a new race 
 of capitalists in the funds were naturally attracted to the 
 metropolis. b 
 
 If Constantinople be excepted, it is doubtful that any 
 other city in Europe has suffered so much as London 
 from pestilence, famine and conflagrations. The most 
 dreadful instance of pestilence is perhaps the one known 
 by the name of the Great Plague, which was found in 
 the course of five months to have carried off 68,596 in- 
 dividuals. Hardly had it ceased, when a terrible con- 
 flagration commenced on Sunday the 2d of September 
 1666. A violent easterly wind spreading the flames, the 
 fire continued four successive days, and within that time 
 were consumed four hundred streets, 13,200 houses, the 
 cathedral of St. Paul’s, eighty-six parish churches, six 
 chapels, the Royal Exchange, the Custom-house, several 
 hospitals and libraries, fifty-two of the Companies’ halls, 
 three of the city gates, four stone bridges, as many pris- 
 ons, and a great number of other buildings. The value 
 of the property destroyed, is said to have amounted to 
 £10,730,500. It is remarkable that six persons only 
 lost their lives during this great devastation. The mon- 
 ument, a fine column 200 feet in height, serves still to 
 record the calamity. 
 
 London is divided into twenty-six wards, and each of 
 them is subject to the jurisdiction of an alderman, chosen 
 by the householders or freemen at large, in assemblies 
 termed wardmotes. One of these aldermen is elected 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 505 
 
 Lord Mayor on Michaelmas day, but he does not entei 
 on his office until the ninth of November following. The 
 two sheriffs elected annually by the livery are appointed 
 both for the city and the county. The recorder, a ser- 
 geant learned in the law, is chosen by the lord mayor 
 and aldermen for their instruction and assistance in legal 
 proceedings and matters of justice. The same person is 
 the orator of the city on all extraordinary occasions, and 
 when seated on the bench, delivers the sentence of the 
 court on criminals. Besides these officers, there are 
 several others, as the coroner, the town clerk, the com- 
 mon sergeant, and the city remembrancer. The suburbs 
 in Middlesex are under the jurisdiction of the justices of 
 the peace for the county, and there are besides several 
 courts in which magistrates sit every day for the exami- 
 nation of offences, and the summary determination of 
 various complaints. 
 
 The form of London is very irregular ; it extends in 
 a direction parallel to the Thames, and the greater part 
 of it is situated on the northern bank of the river. If 
 Westminster and Southwark be included, the length of 
 the town is equal to seven miles, while the broadest part 
 is little more than four, and the narrowest is upwards of 
 two. The streets are for the most part wide, few of 
 them being so narrow as to prevent two carriages from 
 passing abreast, and many of them broad enough to admit 
 of five or six. The finest are those in the west end of 
 the town, the residence of the nobles and the wealthy ; 
 the narrowest are in the city, the most ancient and the 
 most central quarter of London, and the principal seat 
 of commerce. But the east end is also inhabited by 
 opulent merchants, particularly by those engaged in the 
 foreign and colonial trade. In the same quarter are 
 situated immense basins or docks, constructed for the 
 reception of ships, and the largest storehouses in the 
 world. The latest additions made to the town are situ- 
 ated on the north, where by means of different streets, 
 several villages have been united to the capital. 
 
 The uniformity of the houses, almost all consisting of 
 three stories, and almost all built of brick, and covered 
 with plaster, the cleanness of the streets, the broad 
 pavements for foot passengers, and the brilliant light 
 with which they are every evening illumined, render 
 London unlike most of the continental towns. The 
 finest streets are Oxford Street, Piccadilly, Pall-Mall, 
 Portland Place, Haymarket and Regent Street. The 
 last, both for its length and the magnificence of its build- 
 ings, may rival any in Europe. 
 
 There is nothing in London like the Boulevards which 
 are so much admired in Paris, and there is nothing in 
 Paris like the squares in London. Some of them are 
 very large ; Grosvenor Square, surpassing in many re- 
 spects every other, contains five acres ; the buildings, 
 which enclose it, are perhaps the most magnificent in the 
 capital ; an equestrian statue of George the Second is 
 placed in the centre, and the ground round it is planted 
 with trees, evergreens and shrubs. Portman Square 
 holds the next rank, but it is smaller, and the houses are 
 not so large. Berkley Square is ornamented with an 
 equestrian statue of George the r l bird in the costume 
 
 3 The New River supplies the metropolis with thirteen millions of 
 gallons of water every day. Although the original projector was 
 ruined by the undertaking, in consequence of the difficulty he experi- 
 enced in obtaining support, so great, however, is the benefit, which 
 VOL. TIT.— NO. 58 64 
 
 the inhabitants have derived, that a share in the New River Company) 
 which was at first sold for £100, is now worth £15,000. See Results 
 of Machinery, page 85. 
 
 b Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia, vol. i. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CUV. 
 
 506 
 
 of Marcus Aurelius ; and in Cavendish Square, which is 
 for the most part surrounded with good houses, there is 
 a statue of William, duke of Cumberland. Lincoln’s 
 Inn Square, the largest of any, covers the same extent 
 of surface as the Great Pyramid of Egypt. 
 
 London contains few monuments worthy of its extent 
 or its wealth. A stranger looks in vain for the public 
 fountains, that he is accustomed to see in other capitals, 
 and to admire not only as architectural embellishments, 
 but as giving the towns in which they are situated, an 
 appearance of freshness and cleanliness. The ornament, 
 however, is all that is wanting ; the use and advantages 
 of public fountains are more commodiously supplied by 
 subterranean pipes, by which abundance of fresh water 
 is conveyed to every dwelling. Although the new build- 
 ings in Covent Garden market, render it one of the best 
 in Europe, London, on the whole, is not so well supplied 
 with markets as Paris. 
 
 The Royal Exchange, which was founded by a private 
 citizen, Sir Thomas Gresham, is entered by a detached 
 Corinthian portico at its principal front in Cornhill. It 
 has been improved by a new entabulature, balustrade and 
 bas-reliefs. The Guildhall is remarkable for its spacious 
 hall, in which the civic entertainments are held. The 
 Mansion House, the residence of the Lord Mayor, is a 
 very clumsy building ; according to Ralph, it looks as if 
 it had been built by a ship-carpenter.“ The Bank of 
 England in the heart of the city, is a vast and charac- 
 teristic pile, covering an indented area of about eight 
 acres. The prevailing orders are the Corinthian and the 
 Doric. Somerset House, although incomplete, is one of 
 the largest buildings in the metropolis ; it communicates 
 with the Strand by means of three arcades. A vestibule 
 with Doric columns leads into a large quadrangular court 
 with a bronze group in the centre. It has three fronts, 
 of which the one overlooking the court is rich in archi- 
 tectural ornaments, and the one commanding the river, 
 is adorned with a fine terrace. The buildings which 
 bound the quadrangle, consist partly of public offices, 
 connected with the army and navy, and also of the apart- 
 ments of the Royal Society and Royal Academy. The 
 British Museum, a brick building by the celebrated 
 Puget, in the taste of the age of Lewis the Fourteenth, 
 is a large and imposing rather than a graceful edifice. 
 It is chiefly remarkable for the purposes to which it is 
 devoted, and the interior abounds with objects of an- 
 tiquity, paintings and statues ; among the last are the 
 Elgin marbles, models of sculpture, comparable to any 
 that have been left by the ancients, and exercising at 
 present a beneficial influence on the fine arts in England. 
 Although the library contains a great many volumes, it 
 is unmethodically arranged, and deficient in the selection 
 of editions. The ancient fortress of the Tower contains 
 several streets, and occupies an area of twelve acres and 
 five roods square, within an embattled wall and ditch. 
 It was for many ages the residence of kings, and the 
 White Tower was built by William the Conqueror. The 
 small armoury, a spacious apartment, not less than 345 
 feet in length, contains complete stands of arms for 
 200,000 men. The royal train of artillery, the horse 
 
 1 The celebrated amateur architect, Lord Burlington, to whose taste 
 London is indebted for some fine private mansions, sent the corpora- 
 tion an original plan for the mansion house, by Palladio. Who is this 
 Palladio ? Is lie a freeman ? said a magistrate. Having been answered 
 
 armoury, and the jewel office, where the regalia are pre- 
 served, are situated within the Tower. The same build- 
 ing serves still as the great state prison in cases of high 
 political misdemeanour and treason. 
 
 The palace of St. James is an ancient brick building 
 of irregular architecture, by no means resembling a royal 
 residence. The exterior forms a singular contrast with 
 the magnificence and costly furniture of the interior. 
 Another palace, originally destined for Geoige the 
 Fourth and his successors, is almost finished, at least 
 more than enough is completed to enable one to judge 
 of its architecture, and to be convinced that it may bear 
 a comparison with the finest structures in London. It 
 was in Whitehall, a large square building formerly in- 
 habited by kings, that the unfortunate Charles the First 
 was beheaded. 
 
 Of the three hundred and forty-six churches in Lon- 
 don, three are chiefly worthy of notice. The first of 
 these, or St. Paul’s cathedral, is confined in a narrow 
 area on the north bank of the river, between Cheapside 
 and Ludgate Street. The body of the church is in the 
 form of a cross ; a stately dome which rises from the 
 centre is adorned on the outside with Corinthian columns, 
 and surrounded at its base by a balcony ; it is crowned 
 by a gilded ball and cross, the highest ornaments of the 
 edifice. The length of the church is five hundred feet, 
 the breadth two hundred and fifty, the height to the top 
 of the cross, three hundred and forty, and the entire cir- 
 cumference, two thousand two hundred and ninety-two. 
 St. Paul’s is adorned with three porticos; the one at the 
 principal entrance faces the west, while the other two at 
 the extremities of the cross aisle, front the north and 
 south. The western portico consists of twelve lofty 
 Corinthian columns below, and eight composite above, 
 supporting a grand pediment; the whole rests on an ele- 
 vated base, the ascent to which is by a flight of twenty- 
 two square steps of black marble. The interior of the 
 church is relieved by several statues and monuments 
 that have been erected to the memory of eminent men. 
 It may be added, that St. Paul’s was built at the national 
 expense by Sir Christopher Wren ; the sums laid out on 
 it amounted nearly to £750,000. It was completed in 
 thirty-five years, having been begun in 1675, and finish- 
 ed in 171 0. 
 
 Westminster Abbey was originally founded by Sebert, 
 king of the East Saxons. The present church was begun 
 by Henry the Third, and continued by Edward the First, 
 as far as the extremity of the choir; the nave and west 
 front were erected in succeeding reigns, and the western 
 towers were completed by Sir Christopher Wren. The 
 length is three hundred and sixty feet, the breadth sev- 
 enty-two, and the length of the transept or cross aisle, 
 a hundred and ninety feet. The interior of the church 
 cannot be too highly commended ; it is in the form of a 
 long cross, and the choir is one of the finest in Europe. 
 It is there that the ceremony of crowning the kings and 
 queens of England is performed. The sepulchral monu- 
 ments of illustrious men are situated in twelve small 
 chapels at the eastern extremity of the church, and these 
 memorials strike the beholder with endless variety. It 
 
 in the negative, a discussion arose, lasted for some time, and was 
 abruptly terminated by somebody saying, Palladio is a papist.” The 
 result was the building of the Mansion House by the city architect 
 See Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia, vol i p. 2(>. 
 
book CLiy.] DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 is to be regretted, however, that they have been of late 
 profaned by the indiscriminate admission of obscure and 
 vulgar names. 
 
 The church of St. Stephen’s Walbrook is perhaps the 
 finest monument of the genius of Wren. The area is 
 divided and adorned, and the roof sustained, by sixteen 
 Corinthian columns, eight of which support a hemispheri- 
 cal cupola. 
 
 Six bridges communicate with both banks of the 
 Thames. New London Bridge is not yet finished ; it is 
 to consist of five arches, and the central one is a hundred 
 and fifty feet wide. Southwark Bridge, at a short dis- 
 tance above it, is a noble structure of cast iron, having 
 three arches, the central spanning two hundred and forty 
 feet. The middle arch, seen from the Southwark side, 
 with the dome of St. Paul’s towering in conjunction 
 above it, is perhaps one of the grandest architectural 
 combinations in London/ 1 Blackfriars Bridge was fin- 
 ished in 1769; it is remarkable for the lightness of its 
 construction, and the length of it is equal to 1100 feet. 
 Waterloo Bridge is massive and simple, and one of the 
 grandest fabrics in the metropolis. b Westminster Bridge 
 has been deservedly admired ; it was finished in 1750, 
 and cost £389,000. The expense of the Waterloo 
 Bridge was upwards of a million. 
 
 In addition to these communications, a tunnel,® a stu- 
 pendous work, forming a subterranean passage beneath 
 the bed of the Thames, was attempted at Rotherhithe, 
 and suspended when it had reached half way by an irrup- 
 tion of water ; but enough had been accomplished to 
 show the practicability of the undertaking, and it is not 
 improbable that London may ere long be indebted to the 
 genius of a Frenchman, d for a work to which nothing 
 comparable has been achieved either by the ancients or 
 the moderns. 
 
 The parks or the most frequented public walks have 
 been happily denominated the lungs of the metropolis. 
 Into them and into the neighbouring villages London 
 discharges its multitudes on Sundays and holy-days to 
 the amazement of foreigners. These parks, although 
 not numerous, are sufficiently spacious. St. James’ and 
 the Green Park may be regarded as one. Hyde Park 
 is the resort of the gay and fashionable, promenading in 
 their carriages along the drive, or on foot in Kensington 
 Gardens, which although detached, are supposed to form 
 a part of it. A building, called the Coliseum, but which 
 bears a greater resemblance to the Pantheon, has been 
 erected in Regent’s Park. The purpose for which it was 
 built is worthy of notice ; it was to exhibit a panorama 
 of London and its neighbourhood on a surface of 4000 
 square feet, consequently the largest representation of 
 the sort, that has been painted. Adjoining to the build- 
 ing are a covered walk of great extent, gardens, Swiss 
 cottages, and three cascades, one of which falls from the 
 height of sixty feet. 
 
 Of the thirteen theatres in London, the most impor- 
 tant are Drury-Lane, Covent-Garden and the King’s 
 Theatre or Italian Opera. As a building, the last is 
 little inferior to the finest theatres in France and Italy, 
 but it is deficient in machinery and decoration ; indeed 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 507 
 
 the want of scenic illusion, which strikes a stranger so 
 forcibly, would not be tolerated on the continent. The 
 national drama has of late fallen into disrepute ; it is 
 affirmed that persons of distinguished rank no longer fre- 
 quent Drury Lane and Covent Garden, and it is equally 
 true that there are at present no dramatic writers of dis- 
 tinguished merit. e The stage for which Jonson and 
 Shakspeare wrote, has been degraded by dramas taken 
 from popular novels, or from such French plays as are 
 acted in the minor theatres of Paris. Thus, if the thea- 
 tres are not well attended, it is because dramatic litera- 
 ture has declined, and not, as has been idly alleged, on 
 account of the increasing morality and piety of the Brit- 
 ish people. 
 
 It may be seen from the following list, which is by no 
 means complete, that London surpasses every other 
 capital in the number of its scientific and benevolent in- 
 stitutions. There are two universities/ sixteen schools ol 
 medicine, and as many of law, five of theology, eighteen 
 public libraries, three hundred gratuitous elementary 
 schools, the royal society, the society for the encourage- 
 ment of arts, manufactures and commerce, that of an- 
 tiquaries, those of chemistry, geology and pharmacy, 
 those of horticulture and statistics, that of Palestine for 
 the advancement of geography and natural history in 
 Palestine and Syria, another for the encouragement of 
 discoveries in the interior of Africa, the royal Asiatic 
 society, of which many excellent memoirs have been 
 published, and lastly, the Bible society, which has dif- 
 fused an immense number of Bibles in a hundred and 
 forty different languages and dialects. To avoid too 
 long details, it may be added that there are a hundred 
 and forty-seven hospitals or houses for the reception of 
 the infirm and indigent, & seventeen hundred dispensaries 
 where medicine and medical attendance are provided for 
 the poor, and fourteen spacious prisons, in which many 
 improvements have from time to time been introduced 
 in the physical and moral treatment of the inmates ; it 
 is still to be regretted that similar improvements have 
 not been adopted on the continent. 
 
 If the immorality of a town is always in a direct ratio 
 with its population, it follows that there must be an im- 
 mense number of profligate and abandoned persons in a 
 capital, which contains, on a surface of more than seven 
 geographical leagues, 1,500,000 inhabitants, 170,000 
 houses, 8000 streets, fourteen markets and seventy 
 squares. According to the calculations of a London 
 magistrate/ twenty thousand individuals rise every morn- 
 ing without knowing where to obtain their daily food, or 
 where to find a bed during the night. To the above 
 number it is necessary to add 16,000 beggars, 100,000 
 sharpers or swindlers, and 3000 receivers of stolen goods. 
 The total number of domestics of both sexes, who are 
 out of place, amounts to more than 10,000. The num- 
 ber of public women is not less than 40,000; the haunts 
 of vice and debauchery which they frequent, must be 
 proportionate to so great a number. Such is the afflict- 
 ing spectacle that the greatest capital in Europe pre- 
 sents, a capital in which philanthropy is by no means an 
 empty name ; on the contrary, the benevolence of pri- 
 
 a Idem. Ibid. 
 
 b It was begun in 1811, and opened in 1817, on the anniversary of 
 Ihe battle of Waterloo. It is built of granite. — P. 
 c The Thames Tunnel. 1 M. Brunei. 
 
 — 
 
 c Idem. Ibid. 
 
 1 The London University and King’s College. 
 s Hospitals and almshouses. 
 h Colquhoun on the Police, edition of 1822 
 
[BOOK CLIV. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 vate individuals is fostered both by public opinion, a 
 powerful engine in England, and by the influence of 
 government. London, however, possesses the sad ad- 
 vantage of being in proportion to its population, infinitely 
 more corrupt than Paris. More than eight thousand 
 individuals are annually put into the different prisons ; 
 but a stranger, particularly a Frenchman, may admire 
 the manner in which the business of the police is per- 
 formed ; it is done without ostentation, without military 
 parade, and without any thing that gives the duty of 
 preserving order, the appearance of an abuse of power. 
 The watchmen, to whom the public safety is committed, 
 are very numerous ; they walk the streets during the 
 night, cry the hours, give alarm in case of fire, warn the 
 inhabitants, if their doors have been left open bv negli- 
 gence, and arrest those who commit crimes, or disturb 
 the public peace ; all this is done without arms, unless 
 their baton or staff can be considered one. Their duties 
 are in a great measure pacific ; their number enables 
 them to preserve order, but not to prevent crimes in an 
 immense town, where more than one individual out of 
 every fifteen is a knave, a sharper or a pickpocket. 
 
 London has been examined in different points of view ; 
 the greater part of it, it has been seen, is situated in 
 Middlesex ; some other places in the same county may 
 be mentioned. Hackney, near the Paddington canal, con- 
 tains 23,000 inhabitants ; it was the birthplace of How- 
 ard the philanthropist ; the same place is also memorable 
 from its antiquity, and the remains of a Roman road may 
 still be seen in the vicinity. St. John’s palace, a very 
 ancient building, was inhabited by the prior of St. John 
 of Jerusalem ; the Knights Templars had a residence at no 
 great distance from it, but as it has been long converted into 
 flour and lead mills, it is now better known by the name 
 of Temple mills. 11 Hampton Court, b on the banks of the 
 Thames, is adorned with a royal palace and extensive 
 gardens. 
 
 Chelsea, about a mile and a half from London on the 
 Westminster side, is also situated on the banks of the 
 Thames. It contains more than 27,000 inhabitants, but 
 it is principally worthy of notice on account of its hos- 
 pital for decayed and maimed soldiers, one of the finest 
 buildings and the best institutions in the kingdom. Chelsea 
 Hospital was begun by Charles the Second, continued by 
 James the Second, and completed by William the Third. 
 Sir Stephen Fox, the ancestor of the celebrated states- 
 man, was the first projector of the building, to which he 
 contributed £13,000. The pensioners are veterans, who 
 have been either disabled or twenty years in the army. 
 Their number amounts to 336 ; there are besides 20,000 
 out-pensioners, and their allowance is proportionate to 
 their length of service. The expenses of the institution 
 are defrayed by a poundage from the pay of the army, 
 and the deficiency, if any, is made good by parliament. 
 The Royal Military Asylum, lately erected in the same 
 town, serves as a place of education for one thousand 
 children of non-commissioned officers and soldiers. The 
 whole army contributes one day’s pay per annum in sup- 
 port of this institution. 
 
 The county of Surrey, in which that part of London 
 on the left bank of the Thames is situated, was inhabit- 
 
 ed by the Kegni, and during the period of the heptar- 
 chy, it was included in the kingdom of the South Saxons. 
 Contiguous on the north to Middlesex and part of Buck- 
 inghamshire, on the west to Berkshire and Hampshire, 
 on the south to Sussex, and on the east to Kent, it 
 covers an area of 758 square miles. As an agricultural 
 county, Surrey is much inferior to many others ; of its 
 485,120 acres, only 80,000 are arable ; it is true, how- 
 ever, that t he quantity of garden-ground, cultivated for 
 the supply of the London market, exceeds 4000 acres. 
 The mineral products are important ; they consist of iron- 
 ore, firestone, limestone, fuller’s-earth and chalk. Two 
 sorts of fuller’s-earth are obtained, the one of a blue, 
 the other of a yellow colour ; the latter is chiefly used 
 in fulling the finer cloths of Wiltshire and Gloucestershire, 
 while the former is sent to Yorkshire for the coarser man- 
 ufactures. The firestone, obtained in the neighbourhood 
 of Gadstone, Gatton, Mersham and other parts of the 
 county, is extremely soft when first worked, and incapa- 
 ble of resisting a moist atmosphere, but after being kept 
 some months under cover, it becomes so compact as to 
 resist the heat of a common fire ; it is therefore in great 
 demand in London. Surrey has four canals, which com- 
 municate with London and the sea. The principal man- 
 ufactories and products of industry are distilleries, vine- 
 gar works, potteries, paper, snuff and gunpowder mills, 
 starch, hats and calicos. 
 
 Guildford, the capital of the county, does not contain 
 four thousand inhabitants; it is pleasantly situated on the 
 declivity of a chalk hill on the banks of the Wye. The 
 town has often been the residence of English monarchs, 
 and it retains the traces of its former grandeur. Some 
 parts of its ancient castle are still visible, and the square 
 tower or Keep, as it is called, must have been atone time 
 a place of great strength. It is not known by whom it 
 was built. 
 
 Kew, on the banks of the Thames, and about six miles 
 west from London, may be mentioned on account of its 
 botanic gardens, which are laid out in a very judicious 
 manner, and contain an immense number of flowers and 
 exotic plants. It is admitted, however, that they have 
 been comparatively neglected since the time of George 
 the Third. Richmond, about two miles to the south of 
 the last village, is peopled by six thousand inhabitants, 
 and in its church are deposited the remains of Gilbert 
 Wakefield and Thomson the poet. The small town of 
 Putney in the same county, is distinguished as the birth- 
 place of Gibbon, the historian. 
 
 Berkshire, contiguous on the east to Surrey , is sepa- 
 rated on the north from Oxfordshire and Buckingham- 
 shire by the Thames, and bounded on the south by 
 Hampshire, and on the west by Wiltshire. The shape 
 of the county is very irregular, being about forty-eight 
 miles long, twenty-five broad in some places, and in 
 others only six. 
 
 Windsor, situated near the eastern extremity of the 
 county, has been for more than seven hundred years the 
 favourite residence of British kings. The castle, erected 
 soon after tin; conquest by William the Conqueror, was 
 much enlarged by succeeding princes. It was there that 
 Edward the Third was born, and it was there also that he 
 
 * Hackney is said to have been the first village near London, to 
 which carriages ran at stated times for the convenience of passengers; 
 hence the term hackney-coach, has been derived. 
 
 b Hampton Court is the name of the palace, adjoining the village of 
 Hampton. — P. 
 
book clxv.] DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 instituted the order of the Garter, of which the knights 
 have always been installed in the chapel of St. George, 
 an addition made by the same king to the palace. It is 
 situated on a height above the Thames, and commands 
 an extensive view of a rich and romantic country ; but 
 it might occupy too much space to describe the various 
 parts of the edifice, the additions it has received, the in- 
 ternal decorations, and the valuable paintings. It may 
 be sufficient to remark that a grant of £500,000 was 
 made by parliament in 1824, for the purpose of repairing 
 and embellishing Windsor Castle. St. George’s Chapel, 
 which may be considered a part of the building, is not 
 inferior to any Gothic structure in the kingdom. 
 
 Reading, the capital of the county, has been the scene 
 of several important events in civil and ecclesiastical his- 
 tory. It is situated on two small eminences, and their 
 declivities terminate in a pleasant valley, through which 
 the branches of the Kennet flow, and join the Thames 
 at the extremity of the town. It possessed since the 
 twelfth century, a magnificent abbey, one of the richest 
 in the kingdom at the period of the dissolution. It was 
 afterwards distinguished by its woollen manufactories, 
 which have fallen into decay, and their loss has been in- 
 adequately supplied by the making of sail and sack-cloth. 
 It is still, however, a place of considerable population, 
 and much business is carried on at the wharfs on the Ken- 
 net, in the import and export of commodities, particularly 
 of flour, which is sent to the metropolis. 
 
 Newbury, on the banks of the Kennet, was famed, in 
 the reigns of Henry the Seventh and Henry the Eighth, 
 for its woollen manufactories, a branch of industry in 
 which John Winchcombe, commonly called Jack of 
 Newbury, rose to celebrity. Abingdon, like many other 
 places in England, owes its origin to a monastery, which 
 continued in great splendour until the dissolution. It 
 carries on at present a considerable trade in malt, with 
 which it partly supplies the metropolis. Wantage, a 
 small market town on the border of the vale of White- 
 horse, is remarkable as the birth-place of Alfred the 
 Great, from which it has been inferred, that it was then a 
 royal residence. 
 
 The county was inhabited, in early times, by the 
 Atrebales, a tribe that migrated from Gaul, probably 
 from the neighbourhood of Arras, before the island was 
 invaded by the Romans. It is impossible, indeed, to 
 examine Berkshire without observing many memorials of 
 different epochs. A Roman camp of a quadrangular form, 
 may be seen near Wantage, on the banks of a canal in 
 the northern part of the county. The remains of a 
 Roman fort are still visible at Lawrence-Waltham, and 
 it is supposed that the castle of Cherbury near Dench- 
 worth, was originally founded by king Canute. A range 
 of chalk hills extends towards Oxfordshire, and one part 
 of it, destitute of herbage, bears some resemblance to the 
 gigantic figure of a white horse ; hence the plain which 
 these hills enclose, has been called Whitehorse-vale. A 
 white horse, it is well known, was represented on the 
 standard of king Alfred, and the country people still 
 believe that the figure, which covers an extent of more 
 than an acre, was intended to commemorate a victory 
 over the Danes. The inhabitants of the neighbouring- 
 villages meet every year on St. John’s day, in order as 
 
 a Aikin. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 509 
 
 they say to clean the horse, or in other words, to take 
 away the grass and plants, which might alter its appear- 
 ance. When their work is finished, the rest of the day 
 is devoted to rural mirth. A number of stones standing 
 on end, at no great distance from the valley, are suppos- 
 ed to indicate the burying place of several Danish kings. 
 It is certain that the neighbourhood has been the scene 
 of frequent battles between the Danes and Anglo-Saxons. 
 
 Oxfordshire, contiguous to the northern limit of Berk- 
 shire, is bounded on the west by Gloucestershire, on the 
 north by the counties of Warwick and Northampton, and 
 on the east by Buckinghamshire. Like Berkshire, its 
 figure is very irregular ; the northern portion is much 
 broader than the southern, and a narrow neck, if it may 
 be so called, extends between the two. The three 
 counties of Berks, Oxford and Buckingham, although 
 separately much broken and indented, form together a 
 figure resembling a circle. 3 The soil of the county may 
 be divided into three distinct sorts : viz. 1 st, the red land 
 of the northern district, which in fertility is superior to 
 any other portion of equal extent ; 2d, the stone-brash 
 district ; and 3d, the Chiltern Hills : besides these there 
 are different loams in different parts of the county. The 
 following are supposed to be the proportions of the differ- 
 entsoils — red land, 79,635 acres; stone-brash, 164,072; 
 Chiltern, 64,778 ; different soils, 166, 400. b The same 
 county is watered by not fewer than seventy distinct 
 streams or rivers; few of them, it is true, are iarge, and 
 the most remarkable have been already mentioned. The 
 products of Oxfordshire are chiefly those of the midland 
 farming counties ; corn and malt are exported by the 
 Thames to the metropolis. Good cheese is made in the 
 grazing districts, but it is chiefly used for home consump- 
 tion. The products of the dairy are more abundant in 
 the central or enclosed districts, and many calves are 
 reared of which the veal serves to supply the London 
 markets. The hills yield ochre, pipe-clay and other 
 useful substances. 
 
 Oxford, the capital, has been considered the great glory 
 of the county. Besides the lustre which it derives from 
 its university, the city is venerable from its antiquity. 
 Some have invested it with the honours of fable, and 
 traced its origin to a thousand years before the Christian 
 era. But the authentic history of Oxford dates from the 
 time of Alfred, who resided there. The town was storm- 
 ed by William the Conqueror on its refusal to admit him, 
 and the inhabitants at a later period took part with King 
 Stephen against the empress Matilda. The ruins of 
 Beaumont palace rise near Worcester College ; it was 
 built by Henry the First, and was afterwards the resi- 
 dence of Henry the Second, but it is chiefly famed as 
 the birth-place of Richard Coeur-de-Lion. In later times, 
 Oxford has not only been often inhabited by English 
 kings, but it has been the seat of frequent parliaments. 
 The unfortunate Charles the First held his court there 
 during the whole of the civil wars, and it then became 
 the centre of various military operations in the adjoining 
 country. In the year 1643, in one of these combats, — 
 the skirmish of Chalgrave near Watlington, John Hamp- 
 den, the celebrated patriot, was slain. 
 
 Oxford is pleasantly situated on a gently rising ground 
 in the midst of meadows, at the confluence of the 
 
 b Agricultural Survey. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 510 
 
 Isis and the Cherwell. It surpasses other cities in the 
 beauty and magnificence of its buildings. The Univer- 
 sity consists of twenty colleges and five halls ; the latter 
 are all that remain of the numerous halls, hostels or 
 inns, which were originally the only academical houses 
 of the students.® The total number of members in the 
 University books is upwards of three thousand, and of 
 these a thousand are maintained on the revenues of the 
 different colleges. The university is governed by a 
 chancellor, generally a nobleman, a high steward, a 
 vice-chancellor, a province chancellor, b two proctors, a 
 public orator, three esquire beadles and other inferior 
 officers. To give a view of the system of education 
 would far exceed our limits. Suffice it to say that lec- 
 tures are delivered on every branch of literature and 
 science. To obtain academical honours requires some 
 degree of capacity and diligence, but the ordinary degree, 
 which qualifies for ordination and the learned professions, 
 may be very easily acquired. It cannot be denied that 
 the university affords the most valuable means of obtain- 
 ing knowledge, and that the students have it in their 
 power to make a good or a bad use of the advantages 
 which they enjoy. In Oxford, literature is chiefly 
 cultivated ; in Cambridge, science. The former was 
 distinguished for its tory politics, the latter for its 
 liberal principles ; but the distinction has been less 
 marked in later times than at the period of the Rev- 
 olution.® 
 
 Vain deluding pleasures are supposed to be banished 
 from Oxford, the abode of useful or intellectual occupa- 
 tions. It is true that there is a theatre, and one which 
 displays the architectural talent of Wren, but the only 
 actors are the students, and the only plays, those of Greek 
 or Roman authors. The same interesting city is indebt- 
 ed to several wealthy individuals for different useful in- 
 stitutions. The botanic garden was founded in 1632, by 
 Henry Danvers, earl of Danby, but it was completed and 
 adorned by Dr. Sherard, who added a library to it, en- 
 dowed a professorship, and furnished the garden with 
 many rare and valuable plants. The Ashmolean mu- 
 seum was presented to the university in 1682, by Elias 
 Ashmole, together with the manuscripts of Sir William 
 Dugdale, his father-in-law. The Clarendon press'* * was 
 erected in 1712, from the profits arising from the sale of 
 
 » The following are the different Colleges in Oxford. First, Baliol 
 College, founded in 1909, by John Baliol of Bernard Castle, father of 
 John Baliol, king of Scotland. 9d, Merton College, erected in 1907, 
 by Walter de Merton, Bishop of Rochester and Lord Chancellor of 
 England. 3d, University College, supposed to have been founded by 
 Alfred, but principally restored by William, Archdeacon of Durham, 
 and Walter Shirlaw, Bishop of Durham, and Henry Percy, Earl of 
 Northumberland. 4th, Exeter College, founded in 1314, by Walter 
 Stapledon, Bishop ofExeter. 5th, Oriel College, founded in 1394, by 
 Adam de Brome, Almoner to Edward the Second. A tenement called 
 L'OrieUe or L'Oriele, was annexed to it by Edward the Third, from 
 which the College derives its name. 6th, Queen’s College, founded 
 in 1340, by Robert D’Eglesfield, chaplain to Queen Philippa, consort 
 of Edward the Third. 7th, New College, or Winchester College, 
 founded in 1379, by the celebrated William of Wykeham, bishop of 
 Winchester, and Lord High Chancellor of England. 8th, Trinity 
 College, founded by Sir Thomas Pope in 1594. 9th, Lincoln College, 
 founded in 1497, by Richard Fleming, bishop of Lincoln. 10th, Wor- 
 cester College, founded by Sir Thomas Coke of Bentley in Worcester- 
 shire in 1714. 11th, St. John's College, founded in 1557, by Sir Thomas 
 White, Alderman of London. 19th, All Saints’ College,* founded in 
 1438, by Henry Chichele, archbishop of Canterbury. 13th, Magda- 
 len College, founded in 1458 by William of Wainfleet, bishop of Win- 
 chester. 14th, Brazen Nose College, founded in 1509 by William 
 Smith, bishop of Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton of Prestbury in 
 Cheshire. Its singular name appears to have been derived from an 
 
 [BOOK CL1V 
 
 Lord Clarendon’s history of the Rebellion. The fund 
 for the RadelifFe library was bequeathed by Dr. Radcliffe 
 in 1749, e and to the same person the university is in- 
 debted for an observatory worthy of Oxford. In an 
 apartment of a quadrangular building, called the Schools, 
 are arranged the famous Arundelian marbles, collected in 
 Greece and Asia by the earl of Arundel, and presented 
 to the university by his grandson, the duke of Norfolk. 
 The Bodleian or university library, added by Sir Thomas 
 Bodley to the remains of the library of Humphrey, duke 
 of Gloucester, maybe considered, with the exception of 
 the one in the Vatican, the most valuable in Europe. 
 Oxford contains fourteen parish churches, many chapels 
 for dissenters, some gratuitous schools, and other chari- 
 table institutions. 
 
 The roads in Oxfordshire have been of late much im- 
 proved, and its commerce has been increased by the canal 
 which was cut in the northern part of the county/ The 
 principal manufactures are those of blankets at Witney 
 shag at Banbury, and gloves and polished steel at Wood- 
 stock. Many of the poorer classes are employed in 
 spinning or making lace. But notwithstanding the 
 famous forest of Wichwood, the want of fuel is every- 
 where felt ; it is apparent in the condition of the lower 
 orders, and it accounts for their comparative poverty. 
 The county, inhabited in ancient times by the Dobuni, 
 included by the Romans in the province of Flavia Ccc- 
 sariensis, and forming part of Mercia in the time of the 
 Heptarchy, possesses stdl two Roman roads, one of 
 which, called Ickenild Street, crosses the Thames at 
 Goring, and then passes north-north-east to Bucks, while 
 the other, called Akeman Street, extends across the 
 county to Burford. 
 
 Buckinghamshire is contiguous to Oxfordshire on the 
 west, to Northamptonshire on the north, to Middlesex, 
 Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire on the east, and to Berk- 
 shire and a small portion of Surrey on the south. Its 
 greatest length from north to south is about fifty miles, 
 while its greatest breadth is not more than sixteen. It 
 contains 518,400 acres, of which 240,000 consist of 
 clay and loam, and 7000 of sand ; the rest is of a very 
 mixed nature, composed of chalk, gravel, sand, clay and 
 clayey loam. The Chiltern Hills run across the county 
 from east to west ; the Ickenild way, which has been 
 
 iron ring fixed in a nose of brass, and serving as a knocker to the gate 
 15th, Corpus Christi College, founded in 1516 by Bishop Fox, Lord 
 Privy Seal to Henry the Seventh and Henry the Eighth. 16th, Christ 
 Church College, founded by Cardinal Wolsey in 1595. 17th. Jesus 
 
 College founded in 1571 by Queen Elizabeth. 18th. Wadham College, 
 founded in 1613 by Nicholas Wadham of Merrifield in Somersetshire. 
 It was in this College that the plan of the Royal Society was first pro- 
 posed. 19th, Penfbroke College, founded in 1690, by Thomas Tesdale 
 of Glympton in Oxfordshire, and Richard Wightwick. rector of llsley 
 in Berkshire. 90th, Hereford College, founded in 1319, by Walter 
 Stapledon, bishop of Exeter. f 
 
 * All Souls College.— P. 
 
 t Hertford College, originally Hart Hall (founded by Walter de Stapleton, 
 bishop of Exeter,) and attached to Exeter College, till raised to the rank ol an 
 independent college by Dr. Newton, A. D. 1740. (Rees’ Cyc.) — P. 
 
 b The vice-chancellor nominates four deputies, or pro-vice-chancel 
 lors. (Rees’ Cyc.) — P. 
 
 c Lardner, volume first. d The Clarendon Printing-house. 
 
 e The Radcliffe library was erected in 1749. (M. B.) — The building 
 was erected between 1737 and 1749. Dr. Radcliffe died in 1 /14. P. 
 
 f The Oxford canal. It leaves the Coventry canal at Longford, 
 four miles N. of Coventry ; passes S. E. to Braunston, where the 
 Grand Junction Canal branches off eastwards to London; then passes 
 S. W. to Napton, where a canal branches from it to Warwick ; then 
 S. through a tunnel to the valley of the Cherwell at Claydon ; then 
 following the Cherwell, by Banbury, to the Isis at Oxford. — P. 
 
book cliv.] DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 already mentioned, lies on these hills, and on the right 
 side of the same road, a towards the vale of Aylesbury, 
 the soil is much more valuable, letting to the amount of 
 10s. per acre more than on the left. Lastly, as an agri- 
 cultural county, Buckinghamshire has been divided into 
 three parts, namely, arable farms, dairy farms, and farms 
 partly grazing and partly arable. 
 
 No part of the county is situated at a great distance 
 from a navigable way to London. Thus, the Thames is 
 navigable on the south from Henley by Marlow, Maid- 
 enhead, Windsor and Staines ; while the Grand Junction 
 Canal, and its auxiliary branches from W endover, Ayles- 
 bury and Buckingham, are equally navigable on the east. 
 The mineral products are not numerous ; marble, how- 
 ever, is obtained at Newport-Pagnell, and there are sev- 
 eral pits of excellent fuller’s-earth on the confines near 
 Woburn, but few of them are worked. Lace is the 
 principal manufacture: it is true that there are many 
 paper mills, and that a cotton manufactory has been 
 erected at Amersham, still more lace is made in Buck- 
 inghamshire than in any other county ; in this branch of 
 industry, and in plaiting straw for hats, almost all the 
 poor women and girls are employed. b 
 
 Aylesbury and Buckingham are the capitals; the for- 
 mer, much more populous than the other, contains about 
 18,000 inhabitants. It gives its name to the rich vale 
 of Aylesbury in the middle of the county, one of the 
 most fruitful tracts in the kingdom, extending to the dis- 
 tance of many miles, from Tame on the borders of Oxford- 
 shire to Leighton in Bedfordshire. The town was a 
 strong place in the time of the Saxons, and was included 
 in a royal manor by the Conqueror, who parcelled it out 
 to different tenants, and from the nature of their tenure, 
 some notion may he inferred of the luxury or simplicity 
 of the Norman court ; they were obliged to find litter or 
 straw for the king’s bed-chamber three times a year, if 
 he passed in that direction so often, and to furnish him 
 besides with three eels in winter, and three green geese 
 in summer. It was erected into a corporation by a 
 charter of queen Mary in 1553. The streets lie round 
 the market-place, in the middle of which a spacious hall 
 has been erected for the quarter sessions and the lent 
 assizes ; it is also adorned with a market-house, which 
 is built after the model of the Temple of the Winds at 
 Athens. 
 
 Buckingham, the ancient capital of the county, and 
 venerable from its antiquity, was fortified with a rampart 
 and tower in the year 918 by Edward the Elder, to 
 defend it against the incursions of the Danes. It is situ- 
 ated on the river Ouse, over which there are three stone 
 bridges, but the number of inhabitants does not exceed 
 four thousand. Buckingham, indeed, has long been in a 
 state of decline ; having lost the privilege of holding the 
 assizes, which were removed to Aylesbury, it was recov- 
 ered in 1758 for one half of the year. Lace-making is 
 the only manufacture in the town. 
 
 Eton, the only other place in the county that shall be 
 mentioned, is situated on the Thames opposite to Wind- 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 511 
 
 sor, with which it is connected by means of a bridge. 
 It was rendered a seminary of learning by llenry the 
 Sixth in 1440; having been originally endowed for a 
 provost, ten priests, six clerks, six choristers, twenty-five 
 poor grammar scholars with a master to teach them, and 
 twenty-five poor old men. It now supports a provost, 
 vice-provost, seventy scholars, and many officers and 
 assistants. Besides the king’s scholars, there are seldom 
 fewer than three hundred noblemen’s and gentlemen’s 
 sons who are educated at Eton. 
 
 Among the eminent men that the county has produced, 
 may be mentioned Francis Atterbury, bishop of Roches- 
 ter, a prelate distinguished by his wit and learning, but 
 suspected and not without reason, of having been engaged 
 in a plot to bring in the pretender. Richard Cox, bishop 
 of Ely, the framer of the liturgy, was a native of Whad- 
 don. Sir Kenelm Dighy, born at Gothurst in 1603, was 
 an elegant scholar, a naval commander, a visionary in 
 philosophy and religion, at one time a protestant, at 
 another a catholic convert ; an admirer of Cromwell, and 
 yet imprisoned by the parliament during the civil wars. 
 Believing it practicable to prolong the life of man to the 
 antediluvian period, he laboured to discover the means 
 by which it could be accomplished, and was assisted by 
 Descartes in the vain attempt. 
 
 If we cross the Grand Junction Canal near the boun- 
 dary between Buckinghamshire and Hertfordshire, we 
 may arrive at the capital of the last county, in the vicinity 
 of which the rivers Lea, Maran, Rib and Quin unite, and 
 form the New River, which flows in an artificial channel 
 forty-two miles, supplies the inhabitants of London 
 with water, and communicates with the Thames. Hert- 
 ford or Hartford bore in ancient times the name of Duro- 
 cobriva, which signifies the Red-Ford, so called from the 
 colour of the gravel at the bottom of the Lea, which 
 waters it. As there were formerly many deer in the 
 county, it has been maintained that its modern name 
 is derived from Hart, a deer. It has been alleged in 
 support of this opinion, that the arms of the town are 
 a hart couchant in the water. This, however, cannot be 
 considered any proof of the etymology, as the arms were 
 devised from the name of the town.® The Saxon kings 
 often held their court at Hertford ; a strong castle was 
 erected in the same place by Alfred, to check the incur- 
 sions of the Danes, who frequently laid waste the country 
 from the Thames to the Ware. A spacious building, a 
 dependance of Christ’s church hospital* 1 in London, and 
 serving as a country residence to part of the scholars, 
 has been erected in the town. The commerce of Hart- 
 ford consists principally in the exportation of malt to 
 London, but as a place of trade or industry, it is nowise 
 remarkable. The county was inhabited before the Roman 
 invasion by the Tnuni, the Trinobantes and the Cassii, 
 tribes whose territory extended to the shores of the 
 ocean.® Under the Saxons, it was divided between the 
 kingdoms of Kent and Mercia. f The traces of several 
 Roman camps may be seen in different parts of the 
 county ; the ancient Duroletum is supposed to have 
 
 a On the north. — The Chiltern Hills (of chalk) occupy the soul hern 
 part of Bucks, and the Vale of Aylesbury, the centre ; the northern 
 part is diversified with sand hills, connected with those in the west of 
 Bedfordshire. — P. 
 
 * Aikin. 
 
 c Capper’s Topographical Dictionary. 
 
 d Christ’s Hospital, for the education of poor children. — P. 
 
 e “ The county was inhabited by the Cattievchlani, by the Trino- 
 bantes, a people that extended to the shores of the ocean, and by the 
 Cassii.” (M. B.) — The Cattieuchlani, called also Cassivellauni or Catti- 
 vellauni, and Cassii or Cattii , inhabited Bucks, Bedfordshire and Hert- 
 fordshire. The Trinobantes ( Trinovantes , or Trinoantes) inhabited 
 Middlesex and Essex. (Camden.) — P. 
 
 1 Between the kingdoms of Essex and Mercia. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIV 
 
 512 
 
 occupied the site of Cheshunt, and Ccesaromagus, that 
 of Braughin. 
 
 St. Albans and Hertford are the only boroughs in the 
 county, and the former is as populous as the latter. It is 
 also distinguished by its abbey church, a very large edi- 
 fice, formerly the church of a celebrated abbey, founded 
 ny Offa king of the Mercians, in honour of St. Alban, 
 the protomartyr of England ; and it is certain that the 
 abbots rose to the dignity of taking precedence of all 
 others in the kingdom. When the monasteries were 
 abolished by king Henry the Eighth, the abbey church 
 of St. Albans was offered to the inhabitants by Edward 
 the Sixth for £400. The offer was accepted and the 
 church was preserved. But besides the abbey church, 
 there are two others of great antiquity, those of St. 
 Michael and St. Peter ; in the former has been placed 
 the monument of the great Bacon, who with his mother 
 was interred within its walls. The remains of the ancient 
 town of Verulam, a one of the most important places in 
 England during the Roman period, are situated in the 
 immediate neighbourhood of St. Albans, and many relics 
 of that celebrated people have been found under its ruins. 
 
 St. Albans was the scene of two battles during the 
 bloody wars between the roses. The first combat between 
 the parties was fought near the town in 1455, and termi- 
 nated in favour of the Yorkists. In that engagement king 
 Henry the Sixth was taken prisoner, while the brave 
 Clifford and the great earl of Somerset were slain. In 
 the second battle in 1461, queen Margaret at the head 
 of the Lancastrians obtained a decisive victory. A bloody 
 battle was fought during the same wars on the field of 
 Barnet, between St. Albans and London. Gladmore 
 heath was also the scene of a memorable engagement 
 between the Yorkists under Edward the Fourth, and the 
 Lancastrians under the king-making earl of Warwick, in 
 which the latter lost his life. The action is recorded by 
 a monument raised on the spot, where the roads to St. 
 Albans and Hatfield divide. 
 
 The boundaries of the county are nowhere marked 
 by nature, except where the Lea and the Stort separate 
 it from Essex. It is contiguous on the north to Bedford- 
 shire and Cambridgeshire, on the east to Essex, on the 
 south to Middlesex, and on the west to Bedfordshire 
 and Buckinghamshire, with which it is much intermixed. 
 It contains 337,920 acres, of which three-fourths are in 
 tillage, and the rest in pasturage. The northern part of 
 the county is hilly, forming a portion of the chalky ridge 
 which extends across England. The soil throughout is 
 nowhere very rich, but it is made productive by the 
 chalk and lime that are dug and burnt, and by the soot, 
 ashes, bones and other substances that are transported 
 from the metropolis. It is thus rendered very favourable 
 to wheat and barley, the principal agricultural products 
 of the county. The town of Ware in particular sends 
 more malt to London than any other place in the king- 
 dom, hut it must not be imagined that it is all the produce 
 of Hertfordshire, part of it is undoubtedly obtained from 
 the adjoining counties. The manufactories are too insig- 
 nificant to require notice. 
 
 Of the eminent persons that Hertfordshire has pro- 
 
 * The Verolamium of the Romans. — P. 
 
 b He was born at Abbot’s Langley, three miles S. W. of St. 
 Albans.— P. 
 c Aikin. 
 
 duced, not more than two shall be named. The celebrated 
 traveller, Sir John Mandeville, a native of St. Albans, 
 was as remarkable for his credulity as for his enterprise 
 and research. Nicholas Brekespere is better known by 
 the title of Adrian the Fourth; he too was a native of 
 St. Albans, b and the only Englishman that ever rose to 
 the papal chair. One of his acts is connected with 
 English history, for he issued the celebrated bull, which 
 gave the sanction of the church to the conquest of Ireland 
 by Henry the Second. 
 
 The maritime county of Essex is bounded on the north 
 by Suffolk and Cambridgeshire, from the first of which 
 it is separated by the Stour, on the west by the counties 
 of Hertfordshire and Middlesex, from the last of which 
 it is separated by the Lea, on the south by the Thames, 
 which divides it from Kent, and on the east by the ocean. 
 It has been remarked in the account of the coasts that 
 the maritime side is broken and indented. The area of 
 the county is supposed to be equal to 1525 square miles ; 
 it is divided into twenty parts, of which fourteen are 
 hundreds, five half hundreds and one a royal liberty. 
 The soil and the face of the country are sufficiently 
 varied. The south-western portion is occupied by Epping 
 Forest, which is covered with rich pasturage, not with 
 trees as its name imports. The same part of the county, 
 watered by the Roddon, that runs parallel to the Lea, 
 yields the best butter that is sold in London. Northwards 
 the country becomes less uniform and level ; Saffron- 
 Walden, in this part of Essex, indicates by its name the 
 product for which it is famous. Saffron, which was at 
 one time cultivated in many parts of England, is now 
 almost confined to the country between the last place 
 and Cambridge. 
 
 A threefold crop of coriander, carraway and teasel 
 may be mentioned as a singular product of Essex. The 
 two first are cultivated on account of their aromatic 
 seeds, and the last is used in the manufactories of woollen 
 cloth. They are all sown together, but they come to 
 maturity at different periods, and the succession of the 
 whole lasts three or four years.® 
 
 Potatoes are grown in greater quantities in Essex than 
 in any other southern county ; but they are mostly cul- 
 tivated in the south-western portion between the Lea 
 and the Thames, for the purpose of supplying the London 
 market. 
 
 The centra] portion of Essex is in general a fine corn 
 country, varied with hills and adorned with woods. It 
 becomes gradually marshy towards the sea-coast ; some 
 parts are exposed to frequent inundations, while others 
 are formed into islands by inlets of the sea. The north- 
 ern part of the coast is more elevated and more healthy, 
 but the proverbial insalubrity of the Hundreds of Essex,* 1 
 is not compensated by their fine pastures, and the same 
 may be said of the marshy tracts along the Thames from 
 the junction of the Lea to the mouth of the river, for 
 they are equally unhealthy. 
 
 Essex is but scantily supplied with minerals ; the most 
 important are the lime and chalk quarries in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Purfleet, on the north of the Thames, where 
 they extend across the river from the county of Kent. 
 
 d The hundreds in Essex, situated near the Lea and the Thames, 
 are emphatically styled the Hundreds of Essex. (Ed. Enc.) — The 
 Hundreds of Essex are situated along the southern coast of the county 
 (Rees’ Cyc.) — P. 
 
bookcliy.] DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 The principal manufactures are those of cloths, baize 
 and woollen stuffs. Calico-print-works have been erected 
 in the neighbourhood of the metropolis, and there are 
 several mills for making sheet lead on the banks of the 
 Lea. Not fewer than two hundred vessels from eight to 
 fifty tons are employed in the oyster fisheries in Essex, 
 and it is calculated that 20,000 bushels are annually sent 
 to the metropolis, or exported to the continent. 
 
 Chelmsford claims the rank of capital, but it contains 
 little worthy of notice. Situated at the confluence of the 
 Chelmer and the Cann, the population is little more than 
 five thousand inhabitants. If a great part of the business 
 of the county is transacted at Chelmsford, it may be attrib- 
 uted not so much to the circumstance of its being the 
 chief town, as to its convenient and central position. 
 The most remarkable buildings are a spacious county 
 hall, and a large prison constructed according to the 
 improved plans of the celebrated Howard. 
 
 The ancient town of Colchester, much more important 
 than the last, formerly the Roman colony of Camalodu- 
 num, is situated on the banks of the Colne, in the north- 
 eastern part of the county. It was an important place 
 in the early period of English history, and its venerable 
 castle is supposed to have been built by Edward, the 
 son of Alfred the Great. At the time of the persecutions 
 in the Low Countries under the Duke of Alva, a number 
 of refugees settled in Colchester, and introduced the 
 manufacture of baize, which succeeded so well that the 
 town became not long afterwards the most wealthy and 
 populous in Essex. Although this branch of industry 
 has been abandoned, Colchester may still be considered 
 one of the few important towns in the county. The 
 walls of its old castle are nearly entire, and some notion 
 may be inferred of its ancient strength from their solidity 
 and extent. The same place sustained an obstinate siege 
 during the civil wars, but it was at last forced to surren- 
 der to the parliamentary forces under Fairfax, and it 
 may be added that the two commanders of the besieged, 
 Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George Lisle, were shot under 
 the castle wall, for no other cause apparently, than their 
 courage in defending the town. Colchester may also be 
 remarked for its commodious work-house, its large hos- 
 pital, and for several charity schools and other benevo- 
 lent institutions. It has long been famous for its oysters ; 
 those that are known by the name of Pyefleet, are sold 
 for the highest prices in the London markets. 
 
 The position of Harwich, the principal port on the 
 Essex coast, has been already indicated. The harbour, 
 independently of the bay, is not only safe, but very large 
 and commodious. The post-office packets sail and 
 return regularly twice a-week to and from Holland and 
 Germany. More than 5000 tons of shipping, navigated 
 by 500 men, are employed in the North Sea fishery, and 
 other vessels are engaged in the London and coasting 
 trade. Harwich possesses also a yard for the Royal 
 Navy, at which ships of inferior rates are built and 
 repaired. 
 
 Coggeshall on the Blackwater, Braintree to the west 
 of it, and Booking on the north of the last place, were 
 formerly in great repute for their woollen manufactures, 
 the raw material of which was principally supplied from 
 
 a Suffolk is divided into two grand divisions, viz. the franchise or 
 liberty of Bury St. Edmunds, and the Guildable land, or body of the 
 county, each of which furnishes a distinct grand-jury for the county 
 
 VOL. UI.— NO. 58 65 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 513 
 
 Lincolnshire. The goods were exported to Spain, Por- 
 tugal and Italy through the intervention of London 
 merchants ; of late years, however, the trade has been 
 diverted into a different channel ; it has been transferred 
 to the northern towns. Some other places may be briefly 
 mentioned. It was at Ashburn near Rochford that King 
 Edward Ironside was defeated with great slaughter by 
 Canute, King of Denmark, in 1016. Danbury attests 
 by its name the presence of the Danes ; it is built on 
 the highest eminence in Essex. Borking was once the 
 seat of a Benedictine nunnery, of which the abbess was 
 one of the four who were baronesses in right of their 
 station ; she lived in great splendour, and had several 
 officers in her household. Tilbury Fort, on the Essex 
 shore, opposite to Gravesend, is the principal defence of 
 the passage up the Thames. It is a regular fortification, 
 mounted with a great many cannon, and well manned in 
 time of war; its principal strength, however, on the land 
 side, consists in the practicability of laying the whole 
 level under water. Purfleet, on the same bank of the 
 river, deserves notice as the great depot of gun-powder 
 for government. A very large magazine erected for the 
 purpose, has been secured by every contrivance against 
 fire and lightning.- 
 
 The Stour separates the county of Essex from that of 
 Suffolk ; the other boundaries of the last county are 
 Norfolk on the north, Cambridgeshire on the west, and 
 the German Ocean on the east. The Waveney and the 
 Little Ouse form the northern limit, and the Stour almost 
 the whole of the southern. The Larke and another small 
 stream bound it on the north-west, but the greater part 
 of its western limit is not marked by nature. The county 
 is equal in superficies to 1566 square miles; it has been 
 subdivided into twenty-one hundreds.® 
 
 The soil is generally level, but of different qualities ; 
 it may be included, however, under three varieties. The 
 coast and the inland districts near it, are for the most 
 part sandy ; they consist of arable land, heaths and 
 marshes. The first is fruitful in barley and different 
 sorts of grain ; the second are well adapted for sheep, 
 and numerous herds of oxen are reared in the marshes. 
 The inland part from south to north, or the larger por- 
 tion of Suffolk, is covered with a rich clayey or rather 
 sandy loam, resting on a retentive clay marl bottom. It 
 is very fertile in corn and other plants, and much butter, 
 milk and cheese are obtained from it. The butter is 
 exported in great quantities to London and different parts 
 of England ; the Suffolk cheese is said to be the worst in 
 the kingdom, but it is principally owing to the manner in 
 which it is made. The north-western portion is an open, 
 sandy country, forming part of the extensive heath-tracts 
 in this part of England ; it is mostly laid out in rabbit- 
 warrens and sheep-walks. Besides the ordinary crops 
 which are raised in Suffolk, turnips, mangel-wurzel and 
 cabbages are in many places as common as in Norfolk. 
 
 Some of the domestic animals differ from those in the 
 counties that have been mentioned. The Suffolk draught 
 horse, it has been seen, is middle-sized, short-made and 
 capable of great exertion, but of late years comparatively 
 light active horses, and almost as large as the blacks in 
 the midland counties, have become common. All the 
 
 assizes. These are subdivided into 21 hundreds. (Shoberl’s Suffolk 
 Ed. Enc 1 I*. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CL1T. 
 
 514 
 
 cows are of the polled kind, and they are inferior to none 
 in England for the abundance of their milk, in proportion 
 to their size. The Suffolk sheep differed little from those 
 of Norfolk, but they are now rare ; they have been suc- 
 ceeded by the South Down. 
 
 If shell-marl be excepted, by which the soil has in 
 many places been much improved, the other fossils are 
 not very valuable. 
 
 Suffolk was once as much distinguished for its manu- 
 facturing, as it is now for its agricultural industry. Sud- 
 bury was formerly peopled by a colony of Flemings, who 
 were invited by Edward the Third to instruct the English 
 in the art of manufacturing wool. This circumstance 
 accounts for the former populousness and wealth of the 
 town. It continued to flourish during several centuries, 
 and many of the inhabitants were employed in manufac- 
 turing different sorts of woollen stuffs. Although it is 
 long since its ancient trade has fallen into decay, Sudbury 
 still exports serges, and possesses an extensive silk manu- 
 factory. An additional impulse has been given to the 
 industry of the place since the Stour has been made 
 navigable for barges to Manningtree. 
 
 Ipswich, the county town, has also lost much of its 
 ancient splendour ; it is situated on the Orwell ; it con- 
 tained at one time not fewer than twenty-one parish 
 churches and other religious houses, in particular, a 
 monastery of Dominican friars, of which the cloisters are 
 still entire. Once noted for its broad cloths, and for the 
 best sail-cloth in England, it had several companies of 
 traders, possessing distinct charters, and according to the 
 unwise policy of former times, exclusive privileges. But 
 the woollen trade began to decline during the latter part 
 of the seventeenth century, and was gradually transferred 
 to a different part of England. The commerce of Ipswich 
 consists at present in malting and exporting corn ; it is 
 not without some foreign and coasting trade, but both 
 are inconsiderable. There are two yards for building 
 ships, and vessels of five hundred tons have been con- 
 structed in them. Packets sail every tide from Ipswich 
 to Harwich. The famous cardinal Wolsey, a native of 
 Ipswich, endowed a college and grammar school, as a 
 place of education preparatory for his college at Oxford ; 
 but his disgrace, before the building was completed, put 
 an end to his benevolent intentions. The same town was 
 the seat of a mint during the heptarchy, and it received 
 a charter during the reign of king John. It still possesses 
 many rights and privileges, among others, an admiralty 
 jurisdiction on the Suffolk coast, and on that of Essex to 
 the neighbourhood of Harwich.® 
 
 Bury St. Edmunds, situated on the Larke, need not 
 be mentioned for what it now is, but for what it was at 
 a former period. Edmund, king of the East Angles, in 
 the latter part of the ninth century, was cruelly murdered 
 
 a The admiralty jurisdiction oflpswich extends to the coast of Essex 
 beyond Harwich, and to that of Suffolk beyond Landguard Fort, 
 including the estuaries of the Stour and the Orwell. — P. 
 
 b This conduit, from which Cambridge derives so much advantage, 
 was built and given to the town by a very worthy man, Mr. Tobias 
 Hobson, a carrier between Cambridge and London, and the first person 
 who let out horses to the students of the university. Observing that 
 the scholars rode hard, he kept a large stable of horses, with boots, 
 whips and spurs, that the young gentlemen might be speedily equipped. 
 If a person came for a horse, he was led into the stable, where there 
 was a great choice, but he was obliged to take the horse nearest the 
 stable door, in order that “ every customer might be served according 
 to his chance, and every horse ridden with equal justice.” Hence the 
 proverbial expression, “ Hobson’s choice,” “ This or none. A short 
 
 by the Danes, and received after his death, the honours 
 of martyrdom : his body having lain unnoted during 
 thirty-three years, became suddenly an object of great 
 veneration, and shortly afterwards an abbey was erected 
 on the spot. Other religious edifices were built at differ- 
 ent periods, and at the time of the Reformation, Bury 
 possessed forty churches and chapels, most of them richly 
 endowed. It has at present several charitable institu- 
 tions ; it is still the seat of the county assizes, and if the 
 absence of trade and industry can entitle a town to such 
 a privilege, it is likely to preserve it. 
 
 The greater part of Newmarket is situated in Suffolk, 
 but the whole of the race-course lies in the county of 
 Cambridge ; perhaps on that account, the claims of the 
 latter county have been preferred, and Newmarket is 
 generally included in the towns of Cambridgeshire. It 
 has been long famous for its horse-races, which take 
 place in April, July and October. The passion of James 
 the First for racing appears to have first rendered it 
 fashionable, and it is well known that he sent for some 
 Cambridge divines, to hold a conference with him at 
 Newmarket. Charles the Second, also a patron of the 
 turf, built a house in the same place, which is still a 
 royal residence. The town consists chiefly of a long and 
 well built street, and the fleetest horses in England are 
 kept in the neighbourhood, and trained for the course. 
 
 The ancient Granta or the modern Cam waters the 
 chief town in the county, the Camboritum of the Romans, 
 which derives its modern name of Cambridge, from a 
 bridge over the river. The gate-house of a castle built 
 by William the Conqueror, has been converted into a 
 county gaol. The town was destroyed in the reign of 
 William Rufus, and often laid waste during the baronial 
 wars by outlaws from the Isle of Ely, before Henry the 
 Third secured it by a deep ditch. The followers of Wat 
 Tyler and Jack Straw were not idle in Cambridge; 
 having seized the records of the university, they burnt 
 them in the market-place. It is about twice as long as 
 it is broad, and it is not more than a mile in length ; old 
 and clumsy houses, and narrow and irregular streets, 
 attest its antiquity. The market-place is formed by two 
 squares, and in that part of it opposite the county hall, 
 is situated Hobson’s conduit, which furnishes the inhab- 
 itants with a plentiful supply of excellent water. b 
 
 According to an old observation, Oxford is an univer- 
 sity in a town, and Cambridge, a town in an university ; 
 it is literally true that the buildings of the university 
 encircle the town of Cambridge. The police is jointly 
 governed by the corporation and the university, the vice- 
 chancellor being always a magistrate by virtue of his 
 office. Nay more, the proctors not only attend to the 
 discipline and behaviour of all the under masters of arts, 
 but are also clerks of the market, and have cognizance 
 
 account of this extraordinary person appeared in the Spectator, No. 509. 
 The lines on the death of Mr. Hobson, by Milton,* * are perhaps the 
 most ordinary of the great poet’s productions ; unlike his other juvenile 
 performances, they contain few indications of rising genius. Their 
 mediocrity is reluctantly admitted by Dr. Newton, the learned editor 
 of Milton. 
 
 * There are two short poems by Milton on the death of Hobson (On the 
 University Carrier, Nos. xt. xii. Occasional Poems.) The criticism above is 
 rather unnecessarily severe, since they can only be considered jeux d’ esprit, 
 in the taste of the' age ; not very lively, it is true, but well worthy, for their 
 pun-ge ncy, of a place in Hood’s Comic Annual. — 
 
 e. g. He died for heaviness that his cart went light — 
 
 Yet (strange to think) his i cam was his increase. — P. 
 
BOOK CLIV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 over weights and measures. It is certain, too, that 
 without this source of prosperity, Cambridge might fall 
 into decay ; it is not a manufacturing town, nor is it 
 distinguished in any branch of industry. 
 
 The university, it is said, was first founded in the year 
 630, by Sigibert, king of the East-Angles ; but the col- 
 leges were not built before the reign of Henry the Third, 
 and as a corporate body, it dates its first charter from the 
 time of Elizabeth. The privilege of sending two mem- 
 bers to parliament, conferred on it by James the First, 
 has since been preserved. The senate-house, an impos- 
 ing edifice, is built of Portland stone, and adorned with 
 piasters, supporting an entablature. In the same build- 
 ing, the election of all officers takes place, the appoint- 
 ment of magistrates, the admission to degrees, and every 
 important business connected with the university. St. 
 Peter’s College claims the distinction of being the most 
 ancient; founded in 1284 by Hugh de Balsham, bishop 
 of Ely, it is nowise remarkable for its architecture. 
 Clare Hall 1 * 3 was founded by Richard Badew or Badow 
 in 1326 ; having been destroyed by fire, it was afterwards 
 rebuilt by Lady Clare. Among the illustrious men edu- 
 cated in this college, were archbishop Tillotson and Cud- 
 worth, the author of the Intellectual System of Philoso- 
 phy. Pembroke Hall was founded in 1363 by the “vir- 
 gin-wife” of Andomer de Valentia, the unfortunate earl 
 of Pembroke, who was killed in a tilting match on his 
 wedding-day. The chapel built by bishop Wren from a 
 design of his brother Sir Christopher, is one of the finest 
 in Cambridge. b Corpus Christi College, founded by 
 two societies or guilds, the one called Corpus Christi, 
 and the other the Virgin Mary, was begun in 1344, and 
 completed by Henry duke of Lancaster in 1356. Arch- 
 bishop Parker enriched it by the addition of fellowships 
 and scholarships, and also by a collection of books and 
 manuscripts. The manuscripts, relative to the eccle- 
 siastical history of England, are considered of great 
 value. Caius College was originally founded by Ed- 
 ward Gonville, rector of Terrington in Norfolk, and 
 afterwards endowed by Dr. Caius, physician to Queen 
 Mary. c It consists of three courts and as many gates, 
 those of Humility, Virtue and Honour. In the chapel 
 \s the tomb of Dr. Caius, and from the epitaph, of which 
 the Doctor himself was the author, it is evident that he 
 formed very high notions of his own merit, a delusion to 
 which the secluded life of a college is by no means unfa- 
 vourable. d It is undeniable, however, that several truly 
 great men are ranked in the number of its students ; 
 among the divines are the names of Jeremy Taylor and 
 Samuel Clarke ; among the physicians, none is more emi- 
 nent than William Harvey, the great discoverer of the 
 circulation of the blood. King’s College, founded by 
 Henry the Sixth, has enabled Cambridge to vie in archi- 
 tectural grandeur with Oxford, and it is very doubtful 
 that King’s College chapel has any rival in the sister 
 university. If the intention of the royal founder had 
 been carried into effect, the college might have been one 
 of the most magnificent buildings in the kingdom ; but 
 he was prevented from accomplishing his purpose, by 
 
 515 
 
 the calamities and misfortunes of his reign. A range of 
 buildings, in the Roman style, was erected to form the 
 side of a quadrangle, which should be afterwards con- 
 tinued, and the whole was recently remodelled and com- 
 pleted. The dimensions of the quadrangle, much infe- 
 rior to those of the original plan, are 280 feet in length 
 by 270 in breadth. The chapel was begun by the same 
 king; Henry the Seventh completed the outside, and 
 Henry the Eighth, the stalls, relievos and painted win- 
 dows. It combines extent and solidity with grace, and 
 it is not less admirable for the minuteness of its details. 
 Sir Christopher Wren, it is well known, was in the habit 
 of visiting it every year, and that great man considered 
 it the finest specimen of Gothic architecture in England. 
 Catharine Hall was founded in 1475, by Robert Wood- 
 lark, chancellor of the university, and in the chapel 
 belonging to the college are some memorable sepulchral 
 monuments. Jesus College was originally a convent 
 of nuns, established about the beginning of Henry the 
 First’s reign, or the end of king Stephen’s. Adjoining 
 lands were assigned to it about the year 1160 by Mal- 
 colm the Fourth, king of Scotland, and earl of Hunting- 
 don and Cambridge. The monastery was at last dis- 
 solved by Henry the Seventh and pope Alexander the 
 Fourth, on account of the illicit conduct of the nuns. 
 The possessions were made over to John Alcock, bishop 
 of Ely, and preceptor to Edward the Fifth, for the 
 maintenance of a master, six fellows and six scholars, 
 but the number has since been increased in consequence 
 of succeeding endowments. Jesus College is not remark- 
 able for its architecture, but it was the place where Cran- 
 mer and Bancroft, Hartley, Jortin and Flamstead were 
 educated. Christ’s College was first built on the site 
 of an hostel called God’s-house, by William Bingham, 
 rector of St. John’s, London. It was removed to its 
 present site by Henry the Sixth, who intended to in- 
 crease the number of scholars to sixty, but was pre- 
 vented from doing so by the ensuing civil wars. His 
 maternal sister, Margaret, countess of Richmond, and 
 mother to Henry the Seventh,® completed the building, 
 and endowed the college for a master and twelve fellows. 
 Some superstitious objections having been urged against 
 this number, as containing an allusion to our Saviour and 
 his twelve apostles, a thirteenth fellowship was added by 
 Edward the Sixth, and two others by different individ- 
 uals at a subsequent period. Christ’s College boasts of 
 having educated Milton, but from its treatment of that 
 great man, it seems to have been unworthy of the hon- 
 our. There is still in the gardens a decayed but vener- 
 able mulberry tree, which was planted by the poet when 
 a student. St. John’s College was also founded by the 
 mother of Henry the Seventh, at the request of her con- 
 fessor Fisher, bishop of Rochester. It reckons Cecil, 
 the minister of Queen Elizabeth, Ben Jonson, Otway, 
 Prior, Ambrose Philips and John Horne Tooke among 
 the number of its students. Trinity College, founded by 
 Henry the Eighth, is the largest, and in some respects 
 the finest, in the university. It consists of three quadran- 
 gles, and is entered by two magnificent portals, adorned 
 
 1 Halls and colleges are synonymous at Cambridge. 
 
 b Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia, volume first. 
 
 c Gonville and Caius College, originally founded in 1348 by Ed- 
 mund Gonville— enlarged in 1557 by Dr. John Caius, who procured 
 a charter of incorporation under its present name. — P. 
 d Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia, volume first. 
 
 e The countess of Richmond was interred in Henry the Seventh’s 
 chapel at Westminster, where an altar tomb, with a statue of brass, 
 was erected to her memory. Around the monument is a Latin in 
 scription written by Erasmus, for which he received twenty shillings 
 from the university of Cambridge. 
 
516 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 with statues and lofty towers. In the chapel is Roubil- 
 liac’s marble statue of the great Newton, and underneath 
 it the following inscription from the third book of Lu- 
 cretius — “ Qui genus humanum ingenio superavit.” 
 Emanuel College, an extensive and elegant building, 
 was founded in 1548 by Sir Walter Mildmay, a privy 
 counsellor to queen Elizabeth. Sidney-Sussex College, 
 originally a monastery of Franciscans, was granted at the 
 Reformation by Henry the Eighth, to the master and 
 fellows of Trinity, but it was purchased from them, and 
 endowed as a separate institution by Frances Sidney, 
 countess of Sussex. It reckons Oliver Cromwell among 
 the number of its students, and it may be added that a 
 plaster impression, taken of the protector’s face after 
 death' was sent into Italy, and a bust made from it by the 
 celebrated Bernini ; the same bust has lately been placed 
 in the library. Queen’s College, founded in 1448 by 
 Margaret of Anjou, the intrepid consort of Henry the 
 Sixth, is the one in which Erasmus was professor of 
 divinity. There are besides two other colleges, those 
 of Downing and Trinity Hall ; the foundation-stone of 
 the former was laid with much solemnity in 1807 ; the 
 latter was a hostel for the entertainment of students 
 before any colleges were erected. Thus it appears that 
 there are not fewer than seventeen colleges in Cam- 
 bridge. 1 As an university, it enjoys a higher reputation 
 in the exact sciences than Oxford ; and although a long 
 period has elapsed since the time of its great luminary, 
 the advantage may still he attributed to the impulse 
 communicated to these sciences by the genius of Newton. 
 
 The town of Ely in the isle of the same name, may 
 be remarked on account of its cathedral, a very large 
 edifice, which affords a striking object to an extensive 
 surrounding country. The revenues of the sea are con- 
 siderable, and the bishop possesses the rights of a pala- 
 tine, 1 ’ and exercises temporal jurisdiction in the isle. The 
 town is the only episcopal city in England, that is not 
 represented. 
 
 The county of Cambridge was in ancient times in- 
 habited by the lceni, and afterwards included in the 
 third province, or that of Flavia Cccsariensis. It con- 
 tains about 858 square miles, and the Ouse divides it 
 into two parts. The northern, in which the Isle of Ely 
 is situated, forms an immense plain, broken on the south 
 by some comparatively high hills; on the north, however, 
 the elevations are very inconsiderable, being merely suf- 
 ficient to raise the villages that have been built on them, 
 above the general level. The whole tract, naturally a 
 marsh, is still in rainy seasons subject to inundations by 
 the rivers, which move slowly through it to the sea. It 
 has been rendered habitable by means of great labour ; 
 unnumbered drains are cut through it in various direc- 
 tions, and the water, raised in many places by wind- 
 mills, is thus pumped from the ditches, which every- 
 where intersect the low grounds, and which are confined 
 by banks on a higher level than that of the surrounding 
 country. The most remarkable of these works are the 
 Old and New Bedford rivers, so called from the noble 
 family that has given its name to the whole tract,® which 
 they were so instrumental in improving. These rivers 
 which enclose the Isle of Ely, branch from the Ouse at 
 Earith in Huntingdonshire, and communicate again with 
 
 * Thirteen colleges and four halls. — P. 
 
 [BOOK CLIV 
 
 the same river at Denver-sluice near Downham in Nor- 
 folk. The Nen, which waters the north-western part of 
 the county, is also conveyed through an artificial chan- 
 nel. The county is varied by bleak moors, luxuriant 
 meadows and in some places by cultivated fields. In 
 the lower tracts oats is almost the only sort of grain ; in 
 the higher, wheat and barley are raised. The drier spots 
 are marked by villages and groups of trees. Coleseed, 
 a common crop in this part of Cambridgeshire and in 
 all the low counties, is valuable as winter feeding for 
 sheep, and also on account of its seed, from which oil is 
 extracted. 
 
 The south-western part of Cambridgeshire is a very 
 different country ; it is fruitful in corn, particularly in 
 barley, which is malted and exported in great quantities. 
 The south-eastern portion, extending from the Gogma- 
 gog Hills to Newmarket, is connected with the vast tract 
 which stretches southwards into Essex, and northwards 
 into Norfolk, and forms one of the largest plains in Eng- 
 land. The soil is poor and in many places covered with 
 gravel ; saffron is cultivated in some places, and in others 
 scanty crops of barley are raised, but sheep-walks cover 
 the greater portion of the surface. Cherry-Hinton, at 
 the foot of the Gogmagog Hills, is noted for its large 
 chalk-pits, for the marine productions contained in 
 them, and for many rare plants that grow in the neigh- 
 bourhood. 
 
 Washed on the north and the east by the German 
 Ocean, the county of Norfolk is bounded on the south 
 and south-east by Suffolk, and on the west by part of 
 Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire. Presenting an almost 
 regular curve to the sea, and a convex line somewha* 
 indented to the land, its figure resembles an ellipsis, of 
 which the shorter axis may be about forty-eight miles 
 from north to south, and the other about seventy from 
 east to west. According to the statistical returns, it 
 contains 1,094,480 acres, and of these not fewer than 
 730,000 are arable. It has been divided into thirty- 
 three hundreds, and these are again subdivided into many 
 parishes, in all 756, a greater number than in any other 
 county in England. 
 
 The inland limits are marked by rivers. The Great 
 Ouse forms part of the south-western side, and falls into 
 the sea below Lynn. The Nen, part of the western 
 limit, communicates by several channels with the Ouse, 
 and empties itself into the Lincoln Wash. The Little 
 Ouse rising from a marsh on the southern part of the 
 county, divides Norfolk and Suffolk, flows westwards, 
 and joins the Great Ouse. The source of the Waveney 
 is only separated by a causeway from that of the Little 
 Ouse ; it forms the remaining portion of the Suffolk 
 boundary, and falls into the Yare, a short way above 
 Yarmouth. These and other rivers mostly rising in 
 marshy lands, and proceeding slowly through a level 
 country, diffuse themselves over the lower tracts, form- 
 ing large pools, to which the country people have given 
 the name of hroads. They are stocked with fish and 
 different sorts of wild-fowl, and the rivers have at least 
 one advantage, they may be easily rendered navigable 
 or converted into canals. 
 
 Norfolk has long been distinguished as an agricultural 
 county ; cultivation has been extended and improved, 
 
 b Lord of a county palatine. — P. c The Bedford Level. 
 
BOOK CLIV-1 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 and, on the whole, the various implements of husbandry 
 are superior to those in many parts of England. The 
 lace of the country is more uniform than in other tracts 
 of an equal extent. It cannot be said to be wholly level, 
 for it is broken by gentle inequalities, but there is not a 
 single hill in the county. The low and marshy grounds 
 in "Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire extend from the 
 western extremity ol Norfolk to Lynn. On the east, a 
 narrow, and humid tract runs from Yarmouth to a con- 
 siderable distance up the country. Other marshes, less 
 extensive than the former, are situated in the northern 
 part of Norfolk. A considerable tract on the west, from 
 Thetford northwards, consists of open heaths. The 
 other parts are in a state of cultivation, but the soil 
 varies in different districts. In the north-eastern it is 
 composed of a light sandy loam, easily cultivated, and 
 by no means unfruitful ; on the south-east the land is 
 deep or humid, and the central and southern districts are 
 covered in many places with a rich clay. The agricul- 
 tural products depend on the situation and the nature of 
 the soil. The light and sandy districts are fruitful in 
 barley ; wheat, on the other hand, thrives best on the 
 strong clayey lands. Norfolk is also noted for its turnips ; 
 they are more generally cultivated in the county than 
 in any other part of the kingdom. The field cultivation 
 of turnips dates from the reign of George the First ; 
 before that period they were confined to gardens, and 
 merely used as a culinary plant. Lord Townshend, 
 who accompanied the same king to Hanover, as secre- 
 tary of state, having observed whole fields of turnips in 
 the electorate, brought home some seeds, and recom- 
 mended them to his tenants in Norfolk. The experi- 
 ment succeeded beyond expectation ; turnips became a 
 common crop, and were afterwards gradually extended 
 to every part of the country. It is not the least advan- 
 tage of this culture, that the ground never lies fallow, or 
 in other words, the turnips prepare it for corn. The 
 same root is principally used by the farmers for feeding 
 cattle, and numerous herds of oxen, bred in Scotland, 
 are fattened in Norfolk. Thus, there is a weekly mar- 
 ket for Scotch cattle at Norwich, and one every fort- 
 night at Setch. a 
 
 Buck-wheat, an ordinary crop on the light soils, is 
 used for feeding poultry, or fattening pigs. A great 
 quantity of butter is exported from the fenny districts, 
 and sold in London under the name of Cambridge butter. 
 The sheep are much valued on account of their mutton, 
 and their wool serves to supply the manufactories of 
 coarser cloth in Yorkshire. The poultry is supposed to 
 be the best in England, and the rearing of turkeys is an 
 object of profit to the small farmers, and a considerable 
 trade is thus carried on with the metropolis. The same 
 county abounds in game, in hares, partridges and pheas- 
 ants ; the latter are so numerous that the crops in many 
 places are injured by them. According to a calculation, 
 which is believed to be correct, the value of the different 
 sorts of grain, and of the flour and malt, exported annu- 
 ally from Norfolk, amounts to more than £900,000. 
 The wool and the provisions that are exported, including 
 merely the profit arising from feeding Scotch cattle, 
 are estimated at £250,000. No better proof need be 
 adduced of the industry and good husbandry of the in- 
 habitants. 
 
 1 Sechy,or Seeching — 4 miles S.of King’s Lynn. (Luckombe.) — P. 
 
 517 
 
 Although the ancient city of Norwich w 7 as not founded 
 by the Romans, it is by no means unlikely that it owes 
 its origin to that celebrated people. When the camp at 
 Castor, the famous Ventn Iccnorum, was no longer used, 
 the rude beginning of a town became visible on the road 
 which leads from it to the present city. The one in- 
 creased as the other fell into decay, and Norwich was in 
 all probability a place of some importance, when the first 
 authentic mention was made of it in the Saxon Chronicle, 
 in consequence of its having been laid in ruins by Sweno 
 the Dane, in the year 1004. Some notion of its popu- 
 lousness at a later period, may be inferred from the rav 
 ages which the plague made among the inhabitants. It 
 is said that 58,000 persons were carried off by that dis- 
 ease in the year 1348. Although some allowance ought 
 to be made for exaggeration, still the exaggeration cannot 
 be supposed to have been greater with respect to Nor- 
 wich than to other towns, which suffered from the same 
 calamity. The same city, it is undeniable, bears many 
 traces of antiquity, and although adorned with numerous 
 public buildings, the streets are narrow, ill arranged and 
 ill paved. The cathedral was founded by Herbert de 
 Losinga in 1096, after he had removed with his monks 
 from Thetford to the neighbourhood of Norwich. The 
 general style of the building is Norman, characterised 
 by sRnicircular arches and short columns ; it is likely, 
 however, that it has since been much altered or im- 
 proved. The number of parish churches in Norwich is 
 greater than that in any other town in England, with the 
 exception of the metropolis. At one period there were 
 not fewer than fifty, but they have been since reduced 
 to thirty-six. The finest are those of St. Peter, St. 
 Stephen and St. Andrew, but the small church of St. 
 
 Julian is considered the most ancient. It appears as if 
 the number of dissenting chapels and meeting-houses 
 corresponded with that of the churches; both are out of 
 all proportion to the size of the city, or the number of 
 inhabitants. The other public buildings are the ancient 
 castle, the town and guild halls, the theatre, the new 
 corn-exchange, and the hospital or infirmary. 
 
 It is as a manufacturing town, and as a place of com- 
 merce and industry, that Norwich is chiefly celebrated. 
 
 The wmollen manufacture was first introduced in the 
 reign of Henry the First at a place called Worsted, 
 from which the name of the article was afterwards de- 
 rived. In the latter part of the fourteenth century, 
 other Flemings, driven from their country by oppressive 
 enactments, settled in Norwich, and laid the foundations * 
 of its trade. About two hundred years afterwards, it 
 received an accession of most useful hands, by the arri- 
 val of many Hollanders and Walloons, who fled from 
 the sanguinary Duke of Alva. But even before the 
 settlement of the last colony, Norwich had become an 
 important town. According to Blomefield, in the time 
 of Henry the Eighth, the annual sale of stuff’s made in 
 the city only, amounted in value to £200,000, exclu- 
 sively of stockings, which were estimated at £60,000. 
 
 From an act passed in the fourteenth year of the same 
 reign, it appears that the making of worsteds and stam- 
 mins, which had greatly increased in the city of Norwich, 
 and county of Norfolk, was now more diligently practised 
 in Yarmouth and Lynn. The wardens of these towns 
 were therefore made subject to the jurisdiction of Nor- 
 wich. New manufactures were introduced in the reigns 
 
518 EUROPE. [book cliv 
 
 of Edward the Sixth and Mary, and regulations were 
 passed for the making of satins, satins-reverses, Naples- 
 i’ustians and other articles. The prudent and politic 
 Elizabeth, by the advice of the duke of Norfolk, offer- 
 ed an asylum and protection to the persecuted inhab- 
 itants of the Low Countries. These colonists, it has been 
 already stated, formed a great accession to the industry 
 of Norwich ; they afforded too an example of the folly 
 of interfering with religious scruples, and the wisdom of 
 an enlightened toleration. New fabrications were made 
 from the intermixture of silk, mohair and wool ; new 
 names were also introduced for them, and bayes, sayes, 
 arras and mochades were then first exposed in the 
 English markets. In the year 1575, the Dutch elders 
 
 resented in court a specimen of a new article called 
 
 ombazine ; such is the earliest date of a manufacture, 
 for which Norwich has since been distinguished above 
 other cities in England. It may be right to add that 
 exclusive privileges were unwisely conferred on the 
 Flemings and the other foreign settlers, and that then- 
 descendants enjoy some of them at the present day. 
 The trade of the town was further extended in conse- 
 quence of a liberal enactment of George the Second. 
 It was determined to open the port of Yarmouth for 
 the importation of wool and woollen yarn. The ad- 
 vantage, however, was insufficient to enable it at '« later 
 period to compete with Manchester. The cottons of 
 the latter town, from the cheapness and rapidity with 
 which they are manufactured by the admirable inven- 
 tions of Arkwright and other ingenious men, proved 
 destructive to the home trade of Norwich. Extraordi- 
 nary efforts were made by the industrious inhabitants, and 
 new outlets were created for their products. Foreign 
 connexions were improved and extended, the taste of 
 every climate was consulted, and Norwich goods found 
 many purchasers in the great annual fares of Frankfort 
 and Leipsic. To supply the demand thus occasioned, 
 the distaff and the loom were continually plied in Nor- 
 folk and Suffolk ; it was calculated that in the former 
 county fifty thousand tods of wool were annually spun ; 
 the quantity, however great, proved insufficient, and 
 yarn was imported from Scotland and Ireland. It ap- 
 pears from a computation which has been published, that 
 the yarn then imported every year from Ireland to Nor- 
 wich was greater than the quantity imported about fifty 
 years before that period into the whole kingdom. 3 The 
 trade, however, fell a second time into decay ; its con- 
 nexions were abridged, and its foreign outlets were shut, 
 in consequence of the long and destructive war that fol- 
 lowed the French revolution. Norwich has not recov- 
 ered its ancient prosperity, but it is still a populous and 
 industrious town. It is situated on the Yare, over which 
 six bridges have been erected. The Wensum, which 
 falls into it in the neighbourhood, has lately been en- 
 larged so as to make Norwich a port. b 
 
 Yarmouth, although formerly much more flourishing 
 than at present, is still a place of importance as a har- 
 bour and fishing town. Situated on a peninsula at the 
 eastern extremity of the county, it possesses by means 
 
 s Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia, volume first. 
 
 11 Norwich is situated on the Wensum, a little above its confluence 
 with the Yare. (Some accounts erroneously represent Norwich as sit- 
 uated on the Yare. Ed. Enc.) The Wensum, which is navigable for 
 barges, divides Norwich into two unequal parts, the southern the 
 largest. — P 
 
 of rivers all the export and import trade of Norwich and 
 other places on the same side of Norfolk and Suffolk. 
 It carries on a foreign trade with the Baltic, Holland, 
 Portugal and the Mediterranean ; it sends likewise sev- 
 eral vessels to the Greenland fisheries. The home 
 fishing is carried on at two seasons ; that for mackerel in 
 May and June, and the other for herrings in October 
 and November. The latter is the more important; not 
 fewer than 70,000 barrels of herrings are often taken 
 and cured in the course of the season. The town was 
 formerly enclosed with walls, and the plan, according to 
 which it is laid out, renders it probable that it was the 
 object of the architect to contain as many persons as 
 possible in a given space. Thus, the streets run from 
 north to south, and are joined by nearly two hundred 
 lanes.® Yarmouth consists only of a single parish ; it is 
 encompassed on the east and the south by the sea, 
 on the north by the main land, and on the west by 
 the Yare, over which a handsome drawbridge, that has 
 lately been erected, unites it with Suffolk. 
 
 King’s Lynn or Lynn-Regis, at the other extremity 
 of Norfolk, is also a great commercial outlet ; it carries 
 on by means of its inland communications, a considera- 
 ble trade with the neighbouring counties, and supplies 
 them with wines, coal and other articles. These advan- 
 tages it possesses from its situation at the mouth of the 
 Ouse ; but it is likewise watered by four rivulets, over 
 which eleven small bridges have been erected. A custom 
 well deserving praise has been long established in the 
 town ; it is usual to hold every month a feast of recon- 
 ciliation, or in other words, a meeting of the mayor, 
 magistrates and clergymen, who for the purpose of pre- 
 venting law-suits, hear and determine the disputes that 
 arise between the inhabitants. 
 
 The parsonage house of Burnham-Thorpe, a very 
 simple building, may be mentioned as the birth-place of 
 Nelson, the greatest and the bravest admiral of his age. 
 The unfortunate Ann Boleyn, one of the celebrated vic- 
 tims of Henry the Eighth, and the mother of Queen 
 Elizabeth, was born in the old mansion-house of Blick- 
 ling Hall. 
 
 The large maritime county of Lincoln, the third in 
 point of size in England, is bounded on the east by the 
 German Ocean and the Wash, which separates it from 
 Norfolk, on the north by Yorkshire, from which it is 
 separated by the Humber, on the west by the last county 
 and those of Nottingham and Leicester, on the south by 
 those of Northampton, Rutland and Leicester. 
 
 It was included in the province of Britannia Prima 
 by the Romans, and before the period of their invasion, 
 it was inhabited by the Coritani. It was called Lin- 
 coIlnscyre d by the Saxons, and Nicolshire by the Nor- 
 mans. The Anglo-Saxons united it first to the kingdom 
 of Mercia, and afterwards to Wessex. The whole 
 county was divided after the conquest among the follow- 
 ers of William. 
 
 The area of Lincolnshire is stated to be 1,758,720 
 acres or 2748 square miles, and the number of inhab- 
 itants to each square mile, not more than ninety. The 
 
 c It has four principal streets running from N. to S. and 156 narrow 
 lanes or rows intersecting them in the opposite direclion. (Luck 
 ombe.) — P. 
 
 d Lincollscyre. (Camden.) — P. 
 
BOOK CLIV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 discriminating features of the county are strongly marked 
 by nature, and although many parts are now very fruit- 
 ful, they have only been rendered so by the gradual 
 labour of centuries. Originally covered with fens and 
 marshes, it is now fertile ; it abounds in flocks and cattle, 
 but it is destitute of beauty, humid and unhealthy. The 
 heaths on the north and south of Lincoln, the only 
 heights that can be observed, are calcareous hills, com- 
 manding an extensive view of the low lying plains. 
 
 The whole county has been divided into three districts, 
 those of Holland, Kesteven and Lindsey. The first, by 
 no means unlike the country from which it derives its 
 name, occupies the south-eastern portion of the county, 
 from the neighbourhood of Wainfleet to the shallow inlet 
 of the Wash. It consists of two divisions, Upper and 
 Lower Holland, both abounding in marshes, some still in a 
 state of nature, others intersected by numerous drains or 
 canals, and crossed by raised causeways. The lower or 
 the southern district is the most humid ; indeed it is only 
 protected against constant inundations by vast banks raised 
 along the rivers and the coasts. The air is damp and 
 unwholesome, the water, brackish or unfit for domestic 
 purposes, and the inhabitants are therefore provided with 
 cisterns for rain water. Industry, however, has tri- 
 umphed over every obstacle, and has diffused comfort 
 and wealth ; the richest pastures in the kingdom have 
 been formed out of swamps and marshes ; nay more, 
 they have been converted into arable lands, and crowned 
 with luxuriant harvests. Much still remains to be done, 
 but some notion may be inferred of what has been ac- 
 complished from the fact, that within a period of thirty 
 years, from 1780 to 1810, 100,000 acres in Lincolnshire 
 have been drained, restored to agriculture, and let on an 
 average at a rental exceeding fifty shillings an acre. 3 
 The aquatic fowls that frequent the fens, are wild ducks, 
 teal, widgeon and other birds of a like sort ; the largest 
 decoys in England, are kept in these parts, and more 
 than three thousand wild ducks are often sent to London 
 in the course of a week. The same tracts abound in 
 wild geese, grebes, godwits, whimbrels, ruffs and reeves, 
 that find plenty of food in the fishy pools and streams. 
 The avoset or yelper appears in numerous flocks near 
 the Fossdike-Wash, where the knot and the dottrel, that 
 are considered great delicacies, are taken and sent to 
 London. b 
 
 The district of Kesteven, or the south-western portion 
 of Lincolnshire, extending from the centre to the south- 
 ern extremity of the county, is distinguished by the 
 variety of its soil, and although interspersed with several 
 large heaths, is on the whole a fruitful country. The 
 largest of these heaths are Ancaster and Lincoln, but 
 much of them has of late years been enclosed. The 
 fens in Kesteven are not so numerous or so large as those 
 in Holland. Lindsey, the largest division of the three, 
 comprehends all the country on the north of the Witham 
 and Fossdike. It may be said to he destitute of hills, 
 but it is the highest part of the county. The extensive 
 heaths, called the Lincolnshire Wolds, are situated in 
 the north-eastern part of the district. Many flocks of 
 sheep are fed throughout this tract, and it has been com- 
 puted that in the whole county, 2,500,000 are reared, 
 which are supposed to yield 22,000,000 pounds of wool. 
 The river isle of Axholme, formed by the Trent, the Dun 
 
 a Stone’s View of the Agriculture of Lincolnshire. I 
 
 519 
 
 and the Idle, a rich low tract in which much flax is 
 cultivated, is situated in the north-western part of 
 Lindsey. 
 
 If Lincolnshire is no longer a manufacturing county, it 
 may partly be attributed to the extraordinary decay of its 
 ports, which although once numerous, are now either 
 choked with sand, or wholly deserted by the sea. The 
 higher grounds yield all the ordinary sorts of grain in 
 abundance, and the lower are fruitful in oats, hemp, flax, 
 woad, sainfoin and other plants. But Lincolnshire is 
 chiefly noted as a grazing county, and the domestic ani- 
 mals that are reared in its pastures are the largest of their 
 sort in England. Thus, the ox weighs from eighty to a 
 hundred stone, while the horse and the sheep are dis- 
 tinguished by similar properties. The latter afford a 
 thick coarse wool, well adapted for the worsted and 
 coarser manufactures of Yorkshire. 
 
 The Humber and the Trent water the northern and 
 the western sides of the county. Some of the other riv- 
 ers are the Witham, the Ankholme, the Welland and the 
 Glen. The inland navigation of the county has been 
 much extended and improved by means of canals. One 
 from Boston by Brothertoft on the Witham, proceeds to 
 Lincoln, enters the Fossdike canal, and thus communi- 
 cates with the Trent. The canal from Grantham to 
 Nottingham, which is about thirty-three miles in length, 
 was completed in 1796, and cost £100,000. It passes 
 near extensive plaster beds, and lime is brought in great 
 quantities from Crich in Derbyshire. The Stainforth 
 and Keadby canal commences at the river Don, about a 
 mile west of Fishlake, waters Crowle and Keadby, and 
 passes onwards to the Trent. Thus by means of these 
 works, Lincolnshire communicates with all the manu- 
 facturing towns in Lancashire and Yorkshire. 
 
 Boston and Lincoln are the most important towns in 
 the county ; the first, situated in the district of Holland 
 near the mouth of the Witham, is surrounded by rich 
 pastures and recent enclosures, fruitful in corn. The 
 harbour was almost blocked up about half a century ago, 
 but the channel has of late years been opened and deep- 
 ened. Thus restored to the purposes of commerce, it 
 carries on a considerable trade with the Baltic, and more 
 than a hundred small vessels sail from it every year in 
 the fishing season. The town was chosen as the site of 
 a monastery by Botolph, a Saxon monk, and the church 
 of St. Botolph is considered the largest parish church in 
 England, being about three hundred feet long within the 
 walls, and a hundred wide. The height of the tower is not 
 less than 282 feet ; it is crowned by a very large lantern, 
 which serves as a pharos to the dangerous channels of the 
 Lynn and Boston Deeps. The same place was at an early 
 period more opulent than at present ; even in the time 
 of Henry the First, it afforded a rich booty to a gang of 
 robbers, who came to its fair in the disguise ol monks, 
 and laid it in ashes. It was incorporated by Henry the 
 Eighth, and Elizabeth gave the corporation a court of 
 admiralty with jurisdiction over the neighbouring coasts. 
 It has already acquired something of its ancient pros- 
 perity from the new enclosures and the improvements in 
 its harbour, and it possesses an advantage which was 
 wanting in past times ; it communicates with Lincoln, 
 Nottingham, Derby and many other places by means of 
 canals. 
 
 b Aikin. 
 
520 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIV. 
 
 Lincoln, the capital of the county, is situated on the 
 banks of the same river, about thirty-six miles above Bos- 
 ton. It occupies the site of Lindum, a town built in the 
 form of a large square by the Romans. The ancient 
 Lindum was surrounded by walls, and defended by 
 towers ; one of its gates, still remaining and built in the 
 form of a semicircular arch ten feet in diameter,* and as 
 many in thickness at the base, has been considered one 
 of the most perfect relics of Roman architecture in 
 Britain. Other monuments of the same period are not 
 wanting : several stone coffins were found in 1739 ; be- 
 neath them was a tesselated pavement, and still lower 
 down a Roman hypocaust ; lastly, a sudatory was dis- 
 covered in another part of the town in 1782. During 
 the earliest struggles between the Saxons, the Danes and 
 the Normans, the name of the town is frequently men- 
 tioned ; and at the epoch of the conquest, it was ranked 
 witli the largest and wealthiest cities in England. The 
 castle, erected by the Conqueror to keep the citizens in 
 awe, was long supposed impregnable, and even at so 
 late a period as the civil wars, the possession of it was 
 eagerly contested both by the royal and parliamentary 
 forces. 
 
 The cathedral, a very lofty building, was founded in 
 the year 1086 ; it has been much injured and in many 
 places repaired. It consists of a nave with its aisles, 
 three transepts, one near the centre, the two others near 
 the eastern and western extremities ; there are besides a 
 choir and chancel with aisles ; lastly, three chapels and 
 cloisters are connected with the last divisions. On the 
 whole, it is only inferior in size and grandeur to that of 
 Fork, and the west front is perhaps unequalled on account 
 of the richness and lightness of its Gothic architecture. 
 In former times, it was one of the wealthiest English 
 cathedrals, and according to some authors, Henry the 
 Eighth took from it 2921 ounces of gold, and 4285 ounces 
 of silver. Some of the shrines were of pure gold, others 
 of silver, and the mitre of the bishop was resplendent 
 with diamonds, sapphires and other precious stones. The 
 see of Lincoln, although much reduced from what it once 
 was, is even at present the largest in England. The 
 town, independently of its religious edifices and its ves- 
 tiges of Roman times, possesses other monuments of 
 past days. Some notion may he formed of the strength 
 and grandeur of the ancient castle from what remains of 
 the massive walls and embattled towers. Fort Lucy b is 
 now in ruins, but its old tower was connected with the 
 citadel by a subterranean communication. Antiquaries 
 have not determined whether the priory was originally 
 intended as a religious or military edifice. It is known 
 that the house inhabited by John of Gaunt, the celebrated 
 Duke of Lancaster, added greatly to the strength and 
 magnificence of Lincoln, but the site and a few detached 
 parts of the building are all that remain. In the same 
 city Henry the Second repeated the ceremony of his coro- 
 nation, and it was the seat of a parliament in 1301 under 
 Cd ward the First. It is certain that in former times 
 Lincoln was a wealthy and magnificent town, but neither 
 its past wealth nor magnificence can be attributed to the 
 industry or commercial greatness of the inhabitants. It 
 appears as if its rise in the darkness of the middle ages was 
 owing to the number of its churches and monasteries, 
 
 and also to the choice of it as a place of residence by 
 many noble and royal personages. It is true, however, 
 that particular privileges were conferred on it at different 
 times, and of these the most important, or the one grant- 
 ed by Edward the Third, rendered Lincoln a staple for 
 wool, leather and lead. The present trade consists chiefly 
 in corn and wool, and the latter furnishes employment to 
 many of the lower orders. It has been already remarked 
 that Lincoln is built on the Witham, but that part of 
 the river which passes along the principal street is arched 
 and concealed. The Fossdike canal forms a communi- 
 cation between Lincoln and the Trent, and by means of 
 that river with the principal canals in the kingdom. 
 
 The other places in the county may be briefly men- 
 tioned. Gainsborough on the Trent, a place famous for 
 its beer, carries on a considerable trade in corn and other 
 commodities, and participates also in the commerce of 
 the Baltic. Great Grimsby, a decayed port near the 
 mouth of the Humber, has become again flourishing in 
 consequence of the improvements made in its harbour. 
 Louth on the banks of the Ludd, rose into importance 
 after a canal was cut parallel to that river from the town 
 to the neighbourhood of Tetney creek. By this chan- 
 nel vessels of considerable burden sail to the metropolis 
 and to different parts of Yorkshire. Stamford, a place 
 of great antiquity, was divided at one time into fourteen 
 parishes. Although now fallen into decay, it derives 
 some advantage from its situation on the great northern 
 road. 
 
 In no part of the kingdom are to be found in the same 
 extent, so many early ecclesiastical monuments as in the 
 fenny tracts of Lincolnshire, where stone is wholly want- 
 ing, and where the soil does not apparently afford a 
 secure foundation to a building. Their situation, how- 
 ever, was a sort of natural defence against the attacks of 
 freebooters, and the conveyance of heavy materials might 
 have been facilitated by the drains or canals, which must 
 have been cut before such a situation could be rendered 
 habitable. 
 
 Lincolnshire has produced several eminent men. 
 Lord Burleigh was born at Bourne in 1521 ; c and 
 the two Wesleys, the founders of the Arminian meth- 
 odists, were natives of Epworth. The small manor- 
 house of Woolsthorpe in the neighbourhood of Gran- 
 tham, was the birthplace of Newton, who completed 
 what Copernicus and Kepler had left unfinished. 
 In this great man, qualities which are seldom com- 
 bined, were united ; genius with patient perseverance, 
 a most comprehensive mind with great powers of con- 
 centration, an almost unerring judgment, and a sagacity 
 that enabled him more than once to lay open the veil 
 of nature, and to predict truths, which were confirmed in 
 a later age. 
 
 Yorkshire is out of all proportion in point of size with 
 the other counties. It extends the length of a hundred 
 and thirty miles from Spurn-Head at the mouth of the 
 Humber, to the north-western frontier, while it is ninety 
 miles in breadth from Flamborough-Head to the borders 
 of Lancashire. The circumference is not less than 460 
 miles, and the superficial extent exceeds 6000 square 
 miles. This great extent gave rise in all probability to 
 its division into three ridings. The North Riding is 
 
 a Sixteen feet in diameter. (M. 1$. liees’ Cyc.) — P. 
 
 ^ Lucy-tower. 
 
 * 1520.— P. 
 
bookcliv.] DESCRIPTION OJ 
 
 bounded on the north by the Tees, which separates the 
 county from Durham, on the east and north-east by the 
 German Ocean, on the south-east by the East Riding, 
 on the south by the ainsty of York, a and the West Rid- 
 ing, and on the west by the county of Westmoreland. 
 It is eighty-three miles in length from east to west, and 
 thirty-eight in breadth from north to south. The East 
 Riding, the least of the three, is partly separated from 
 f ile North Riding by the Hertford b and the Derwent ; an 
 irregular line from the Derwent to the Ouse, commencing 
 a short way above Stamford Bridge, forms the rest of 
 the boundary in the same direction ; lastly, the Ouse 
 divides it from the West Riding on the south-west.® The 
 West Riding is the largest of the three; the ainsty of 
 York and the Ouse form its eastern limits, while it is 
 contiguous to the North Riding on the north, to Lancashire 
 on the west, to the counties of Chester, Derby and Notting- 
 ham on the south, and to Lincolnshire on the south-east. 
 
 The North Riding, it has been seen, comprehends the 
 whole northern part of the country from side to side. 
 The country along the shores of the German Ocean is 
 cold, bleak and mountainous. The cliffs on the coast vary 
 m height from fifty to a hundred and fifty feet, and the 
 neighbouring lands rise very rapidly to the elevation 
 of four or five hundred. The soil consists chiefly 
 of a brown loam, and the hills near the sea abound in 
 aluminous shale, which is worked in many places. The 
 district of Cleveland is remarkable for its fertility ; the 
 same may perhaps be said of the vale of York, but both 
 are surpassed by Swale-dale, or the plain on both sides 
 of the Swale. The eastern Moorlands, a wild, barren 
 and mountainous tract, occupy a space not less than 
 thirty miles in length, and fourteen in breadth. They 
 are intersected by ravines and vallies, some of which are 
 very large, and in many of them cultivation reaches to a 
 considerable height. The western Moorlands form part 
 of the mountainous range, which extends from Scotland 
 to Staffordshire. The mineral products of these lofty 
 tracts are not without value ; aluminous shale, the most 
 important of any, has been already mentioned, andiron- 
 ore and coal are common to many parts of the eastern 
 Moorlands. It is supposed that veins of copper are 
 scattered in different parts of the western ; the fact, 
 however, requires additional confirmation, and it is cer- 
 tain that none of them are worked. Lead is wrought to 
 great advantage, and next to alum, it is considered the 
 most valuable mineral product of the district. 
 
 The East Riding admits of almost every variety of 
 soil from the heaviest clay to the lightest sand. The 
 country near the sea from the Humber to the North 
 Riding, is naturally unfruitful, and rendered more so by 
 the climate. But from Spurn-Head to Bridlington, a 
 distance of thirty-eight miles, the shore is low, and 
 tli e blasting effects of cold winds are less severely felt. 
 The sheep district or the Wolds occupies 300,000 acres, 
 and extends almost from the northern to the southern 
 limits of the Riding. The tract bounded by the Wolds, 
 the Ouse and the Humber, is flat in most places, and the 
 soil consists of a stiff clay or sandy loam. The same may 
 be said of the country watered by the Humber from the 
 
 F GREAT BRITAIN. 521 
 
 neighbourhood of Hull to Spurn-Head. The whole ex- 
 tent of the Riding is equal to 819,000 acres, and of 
 these 350,000 are pasture, and more than 150,000, arable 
 lands. Agriculture has been much extended of late years 
 throughout this part of the county. Large tracts, for- 
 merly flooded the greater part of the year, and yielding 
 nothing but rushes and a coarse scanty grass, are now 
 covered with abundant harvests, and the value of the 
 land has been increased in more than a tenfold propor- 
 tion. The Wolds have been rendered more fruitful, and 
 the vallies and the declivities of the hills, where oats and 
 barley were lately the only kinds of grain, wave with 
 plentiful crops of wheat. Rabbit-warrens are rapidly 
 disappearing, and the sheep have been crossed and im- 
 proved with the best breeds of Leicestershire. The 
 manufactures are not so numerous, nor the population so 
 dense as in the other districts ; but in point of trade, Hull 
 has become, from its situation, the emporium of York- 
 shire, and of several other counties. 
 
 The West Riding, the largest of the three, is equal to 
 ninety-five miles in length, and forty-eight in breadth. 
 There is a great variety of soil, but it consists in most 
 places of a strong and deep loam. The number of acres 
 amounts to 1,671,000, and of these more than a fourth 
 are arable. The greatest part of the country is enclosed 
 with hedges or fences, and not the least valuable of its 
 products are corn and cattle. But it is principally as a 
 manufacturing district that the West Riding is distinguish- 
 ed ; in this respect it possesses many advantages ; it con 
 tains within itself the necessary materials, as it abounds in 
 coal and iron-ore, limestone, lead, and other metals and 
 minerals of inferior value. The rivers facilitate its inland 
 navigation, by which the products are not only conveyed 
 to the different ports in the county, but to every part of 
 the kingdom. 
 
 In respect of soil, products and the appearance of the 
 country, Yorkshire exhibits in miniature the whole of 
 England. It has been seen that the northern and north- 
 western portions have all the grandeur and variety of 
 mountainous scenery, while a central belt from north to 
 south is little inferior in fertility to the richest plains in 
 the country. Marshes and abundant pastures are scat- 
 tered in the south and south-eastern districts, and in the 
 numerous list of minerals are found the most valuable 
 and useful that are wrought in England. 
 
 It possesses besides all the advantages that water com- 
 munications afford, and the different rivers are admirably 
 arranged by nature. The Tees separates it from Dur- 
 ham, and cannot be exclusively considered a Yorkshire 
 river, but the greater number rise, continue their course, 
 and discharge themselves in the county. They issue, for 
 the most part, from the lofty tracts in the north and south- 
 west, join each other as they water the central districts, 
 and form a main channel, that terminates in the Humber. 
 Thus, in as much as they can be rendered navigable, all 
 the parts of this large county communicate with each 
 other and with the sea. But independently of these 
 natural advantages, others of the same sort have been 
 obtained by art. The Grand Trunk canal, one of the 
 noblest works of the kind in the kingdom, unites Hull 
 
 a The city of York, which is a liberty independent of either of the 
 Ridings, has jurisdiction over 36 villages and hamlets west of the Ouse, 
 called the Liberty of Ainsty. (Luckombe’s Gazetteer.) P. 
 
 11 Harford (Luckombe) — rises near Filey Point on the eastern coast, 
 and runs westward to the Derwent. — P 
 VOL. UT.— NO. 58 65 
 
 c The Ouse first separates it from the Liberty of Ainsty, and then 
 from the West Riding. It is bounded on the south by the Humber 
 and on the east by the German Oeean. — If 
 
522 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIP. 
 
 with Liverpool and Bristol, and thus facilitates the inter- 
 change of their products. Leeds is united to Liverpool 
 by the canal which bears the name of these two towns, 
 and Huddersfield, by means of its canal, communicates 
 with Manchester. 
 
 York, the ancient Eboracum, the residence of several 
 Roman emperors, has lost much of the splendour and 
 populousness, that enabled it at an early period to rival 
 London. Although no longer distinguished either by in- 
 dustry or trade, it was long considered the capital of the 
 north of England, and in point of rank the second city in 
 the kingdom. Situated in that part of Yorkshire where 
 the three ridings meet, it forms a county of itself; it is 
 watered by the Ouse and the Fosse ; a stone bridge of 
 three arches was erected over the former in 1820, while 
 the other is crossed by three bridges, one of which, the 
 finest in point of architecture, was lately finished. Al- 
 though by no means a manufacturing place, it is not with- 
 out importance as the capital of an archiepiscopal see, 
 and the residence of a numerous priesthood. The num- 
 ber of churches is equal to twenty-four, while the popu- 
 lation does not amount to twenty-one thousand. York 
 has been stationary or perhaps retrograde, while other 
 towns have made rapid advances ; still, as it possesses 
 the courts for the civil and ecclesiastical business of a 
 large province, it is amply provided with proctors and 
 attorneys. The ancient fortifications are in many places 
 entire; the city is entered by four gates and five posterns, 
 and although the walls are falling into decay, they still 
 form an agreeable walk. 
 
 The cathedral of York,* the largest in England, may 
 bear a comparison with any other building of the same 
 sort in Europe. The see had its origin in Roman times, 
 and one of its bishops was present at the council of Arles 
 in the year 347. In the same period the diocesan church 
 of York is mentioned on account of its magnificence ; 
 but when the city was taken in the ninth century by the 
 Danes, it was levelled with the ground. A new edifice 
 was raised not long afterwards on its site, but it was de- 
 stroyed by fire in 1069. A third building, surpassing the two 
 former both in its dimensions and in the magnificence of 
 its architecture, was almost consumed in the year 1137. 
 The calamity, it is said, was soon repaired by the piety 
 and the zeal of the archbishop ; but it is equally certain that 
 no part of the church as it then stood, remains at present. 
 The south transept, or the oldest part of t the present 
 structure, was built by Walter de Grey in the thirteenth 
 century ; succeeding prelates vied with each other in con- 
 tinuing the work which their predecessor had begun, and 
 which was not completed before the lapse of two cen- 
 turies. The entire length of the cathedral is equal to 
 524 feet, the breadth of the eastern end to 105, and t hat 
 of the western to 109; the height of the lantern tower 
 to 213, and of each of the two western towers to 196. 
 The western front is remarkable for its magnificence ; the 
 lantern, and the two western towers, exhibit different 
 styles of architecture, and the south transept is distinguish- 
 ed by pointed arches and slender columns. As the build- 
 ing was carried on at different periods, it is marked by 
 the styles of different ages, so that the students of archi- 
 tecture may contemplate the successive progress of their 
 art. But even an uninitiated person cannot contemplate 
 
 it without admiring the vastness of its dimensions, the 
 beauty of the several parts, and the majesty of the whole. 
 The late calamity by which part of this venerable struc- 
 ture was destroyed, has shown in what estimation it is 
 held by the English ; the expense of restoring it to 
 its original form is defrayed neither by government nor 
 by the church, but by the subscriptions of individuals. 
 
 In a county so extensive and so populous as that of 
 York, it is chiefly such places as are distinguished for the 
 wealth, industry or enterprise of their inhabitants, that can 
 be mentioned. But in this point of view no place is more 
 remarkable than Leeds, the most populous town in the 
 county, and the commercial capital of Yorkshire. It is 
 situated about twenty-four miles to the south-west of 
 York, and some notion of its rapid rise may be inferred 
 from the circumstance, that it contained only a single 
 church in the reign of Charles the First. In 1811, the 
 population amounted to 62,534 ; in 1821, it was equal 
 to 83,796 individuals. Leeds has thus become the prin- 
 cipal market of the woollen cloths that are manufactured in 
 the West Riding. The building, which is used as a place 
 of sale for the coloured or mixed cloths, is 380 feet long by 
 180; it has six double rows of stalls or shops, and the 
 total number of stalls is equal to two thousand. The skill 
 of the architect is displayed in the admirable way in 
 which the building is lighted, an advantage almost essen- 
 tial to the purposes for which it is intended, and one that 
 gives it a great superiority over every other structure of 
 the same sort in France. The white woollen cloths or all 
 those that are not dyed, are sold in a different building, 
 which although less spacious than the former, contains 
 not fewer than 1210 stalls. The market for mixed cloth 
 is held on Tuesday and Saturday ; it commences at eight 
 o’clock in summer, and at nine in winter. The dif- 
 ferent stalls are filled in a few minutes ; each vender 
 stands behind his goods, the benches are covered with cloth, 
 and the different pieces are placed as closely together as 
 they can be laid lengthwise, and all this is done without noise 
 or confusion. When the bell ceases to ring, the buyers 
 and agents from different parts of the country enter the 
 hall. According to the regulations of the market, the 
 business is transacted in a whisper ; the purchaser fixes 
 on the cloth, leans over the benches, and addresses the 
 clothier in too low a voice to be audible by his neighbour ; 
 both, however, agree or differ about the price in a few 
 seconds. In this way, cloth to the amount of £20,000, and 
 sometimes much more, is sold in less than an hour. The 
 market for the sale' of white cloths opens as soon as the 
 other is closed, and in both the same regulations are ob- 
 served. 11 The manufactories from which the halls are 
 supplied, extend to a considerable distance from the 
 town ; to about ten miles on the south, to nearly fifteen 
 on the south-west, and to more than eight on the north 
 and west. The other branches of industry are of sec- 
 ondary importance ; there are, however, several manu- 
 factories of linen and cotton stuffs, and of Scotch and 
 Wilton carpets, and also extensive potteries, from which 
 both the home and foreign markets are partly supplied. 
 A considerable trade is also carried on in tobacco, for the 
 preparation of which numerous mills have been erected. 
 Leeds enjoys many advantages for commerce ; the long line 
 of canals and rivers extends to Hull on the eastern, and to 
 
 1 Called York Minster. — P. 
 
 6 Capper, Idem. 
 
BOOK CliIV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 Liverpool on the western sea. It is situated in the 
 vicinity of abundant coal mines ; it possesses, besides, 
 easy means of communication with the metropolis and 
 every trading district in the kingdom. Such advantages, 
 aided by the spirit and industry of its inhabitants, account 
 sufficiently for its present importance, and it resembles 
 other flourishing towns, in as much as it is not yet repre- 
 sented in parliament. 
 
 However great the trade of Leeds may be, it is not 
 sufficient for the numerous woollen manufactories in the 
 west of Yorkshire ; these commencing below Craven, 
 occupy a tract of which Leeds, Bradford, Halifax, Hud- 
 dersfield and Wakefield may be considered the centres. 
 But the principal trade of Bradford consists in its nume- 
 rous worsted manufactures, which are supposed to be 
 more extensive and varied than those of any other town 
 in Yorkshire. Coal and iron are obtained in the neigh- 
 bourhood, and the most ponderous articles in malleable 
 and cast iron are wrought. Bradford is pleasantly situ- 
 ated at the junction of three valleys on the south of the 
 Aire, about twelve miles west from Leeds ; a navigable 
 canal, drawn from that of Leeds and Liverpool, passes 
 through the middle of the town, and enables the inhab- 
 itants to export iron, coal, flagstones and slates. 
 
 Wakefield, the handsomest of the trading towns in the 
 West Riding, is finely situated on an eminence above 
 the waters of the Calder, at the distance of eight or nine 
 miles to the south of Leeds. Although long noted for 
 ts woollen trade, it has made more rapid advances within 
 the last thirty or forty years than at any former period, 
 and the numerous manufactories that have been erected 
 in the town and in the neighbouring villages, partly sup- 
 ply the markets of Leeds and Huddersfield. It carries 
 on, besides, a great trade in corn and coal, and it is also 
 a mart for the wool that is imported for the Yorkshire 
 manufacturers from different parts of the kingdom. It 
 communicates with Huddersfield by means of a canal, 
 and with Leeds by the Calder, which, having been ren- 
 dered navigable from Ealand to its junction with the 
 Aire, has greatly contributed to the prosperity of the 
 adjacent country. 
 
 Huddersfield, sprung up in the last century, surrounded 
 by bleak moorland built near the site of the ancient 
 Cambodunum, has become the mart of narrow cloths. 
 This manufacture extends ten miles to the south, where 
 the coarser cloths that are exported to the Mediterra- 
 nean, are made. The Huddersfield canal, which opens 
 a communication with Ashton-under-Line, Manchester 
 and some of the most important manufacturing districts, 
 has been already mentioned ; but another extends from 
 the same town to the Calder, whence the river naviga- 
 tion is continued to Wakefield. 
 
 Halifax, near the borders of Lancashire, is an ancient 
 and flourishing town. It appears to have possessed no 
 inconsiderable share of the cloth trade during the six- 
 teenth century, while its barbarous gibbet law was in 
 force, by which theft could be punished by decapitation 
 within the limits of its extensive parish. It has been 
 affirmed that the Halifax machine differed little from the 
 guillotine, and that Lord Morton, when regent of Scot- 
 
 * It might be added, to America. — P. 
 
 b Chaucer, who wrote in the reign of Edward III., mentions the 
 “ Sheffield Whittle” in one of his poems. (Rees’ Cyc.) — 
 
 A Shefild thwitid bare he in his hose. 
 
 (The Reve’s Tale, line 13.) 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 523 
 
 land, carried a model of it into his native country, where 
 it was used and known under the name of the maiden. 
 The many rivulets that water Halifax have facilitated 
 the erection of numerous mills and extensive machinery. 
 Although it participates largely in the cloth trade, other 
 articles are manufactured. Many shalloons are woven 
 for the Turkey market ; they are sent to Hull, and 
 thence shipped to the Levant. Of late years great cjuan- 
 tities of woollen stuffs have been exported to the South 
 American states. 
 
 Such are the most important of the clothing towns in 
 the West Riding of Yorkshire. The merchants attend 
 the several markets, and deal in the manufactures of 
 other districts as well as of those they inhabit. The 
 woollens not only supply the home market, but are ex- 
 ported to the places that have been mentioned, and also 
 to Holland, Germany, Russia, Italy and Spain. 1 The 
 raw materials are obtained from different quarters : Spain, 
 Saxony, and the south of England, Shropshire and Nor- 
 folk, supply the wool for the finer cloths ; the counties 
 of Lincoln and Leicester furnish an inferior sort for the 
 worsted and the coarser stuffs. 
 
 ‘ Iron and coal are found in the country in which 
 the manufactures are carried on ; in other respects it 
 possesses few advantages. As to climate, it is even 
 more variable than many parts of England. It is natu- 
 rally difficult of access, and for the most part sterile 
 or unfruitful. The means of communication were for- 
 merly few, but at present they are numerous and varied. 
 Hills, on which heath was only found, are now adorned 
 with country houses, surrounded by plantations and ver- 
 dant pastures. Plains that yielded a scanty herbage, 
 and in which the divisions were marked by loose stones, 
 are enclosed by lofty hedges, and covered with luxuriant 
 harvests. It is not wonderful, then, that the same dis- 
 trict was long thinly peopled, and one of the poorest in 
 England ; nor is it likely to excite surprise, if the ob- 
 stacles which industry can surmount be considered, that 
 it is now little inferior to the most populous and wealthy 
 in the kingdom. 
 
 But, although all the natural products have been 
 mentioned, it is necessary to enumerate other products 
 of industry. Thus, in Sheffield and the circumjacent 
 villages, more than fifty thousand persons find employ- 
 ment on a soil rich in iron and in coal. The town is 
 pleasantly situated on an eminence near the southern 
 extremity of the county, at the confluence of the Sheaf 
 and the Don, the one bounding it on the east and the 
 other on the north-east. It is regularly built, and adorned 
 with several public buildings, and two modern bridges ; 
 but the stranger who enters it for the first time, is less 
 likely to admire its edifices than the extensive works 
 and unnumbered forges, that are never suffered to re- 
 main at rest. The town was famed for its hardwares at 
 so early a period as the thirteenth century, and it is 
 more than once mentioned in the writings of Chaucer ; l 
 its rise, however, dates from modern times. An enter- 
 prising townsman began to trade with the continent in 
 1750, and much about the same period the navigation ot 
 the Don was extended and improved. Not long after- 
 
 Tliwitid. In the Cholmondely MS. and the former editions, -it is 
 Thweetell, Thwytell, or Thwittell, a whittle. Ang. Sax. hwitel, a little 
 knife. (Urry’s Chaucer. Poems, p. 31. Glossary, p. 66.') — P. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIV 
 
 524 
 
 wards, the silver-plating of brass and copper buttons was 
 introduced, and the profitable manufacture of plated 
 goods lias been gradually carried to an unparalleled ex- 
 tent. The situation of the town, the two rivers that 
 water it, and the abundance of coal, have facilitated the 
 use of machinery, by means of which, and the improve- 
 ments that the workmen have made in their art, the 
 manufacturers of Sheffield are now able to undersell 
 every market in Europe. According to the census of 
 1821, the town contains 42,000 individuals, but the 
 whole parish, of which it forms a part, is peopled by 
 62,015 persons. It may be added, that it possesses 
 ample means for the instruction of its inhabitants, such 
 as mechanics’ institutions, numerous schools, and a Lan- 
 casterian one for the education of eight hundred children. 
 It requires, indeed, but a superficial knowledge of the 
 present state of England to be convinced that the edu- 
 cation of the people in the different towns is everywhere 
 in the ratio of their commerce and industry. 
 
 Although the East Riding is neither so wealthy nor 
 so populous as the one that has been described, Hull a 
 may be ranked with the most important towns in York- 
 shire. It owes its foundation to Edward the First, who, 
 on his return from the conquest of Scotland, visited the 
 confluence of the Hull and the Humber, and thought 
 the position well adapted for a place of defence. It has 
 also been supposed that the king entertained other and 
 nobler views, and discovered in the future port the cen- 
 tre of commerce between the north and south of Britain, 
 and between the interior of England and the coasts of 
 Flanders, Holland, Denmark and Sweden. 1 * 
 
 Notions so enlightened accord ill both with the times 
 in which Edward flourished, and with the bent of his 
 genius, which excited him to war and conquest rather 
 than the useful arts of peace. It is certain that he built 
 a strong town, to which he gave the name of Kingstown, 
 and that it became the place of a garrison, and was con- 
 sidered impregnable ; as a proof of the last assertion it 
 may be remarked that even at so late a period as the 
 civil wars, the royal troops made many attempts to take 
 it without success. It is equally certain that its com- 
 merce first rose into notice, when it became of secondary 
 importance as a garrisoned town. 
 
 Little more than fifty years ago Hull had no other 
 harbour than the bed of the river," and as it has hut little 
 depth of water, vessels were left aground at low tide. 
 In 1774, a company was authorized by act of parliament 
 to build within the period of three years a dock and 
 warehouses on the northern front of the old fortifica- 
 tions. 11 The new works on the dock, quays and ware- 
 houses occupy a surface of thirty-three acres. Another 
 
 a Called in all documents, Kingston upon Hull. — P. 
 b C. Dupin, Force Commerciale, volume 1st. c The Hull — P. 
 
 ■i It opens into the Hull, and divides the town into two parts, the 
 old town on the south, and the new town on the north. — P. 
 
 e Called the Humber Dock. It opens into the Humber, and by 
 extending it a little farther north, it would meet the old dock, and 
 thus completely insulate the old town. (Ed. Enc.) — P 
 f Idem, Ibid. 
 
 e The inhabitants of Hull began to frequent the coasts of Greenland 
 about the end of the sixteenth century ; but afterwards about the mid- 
 dle of the eighteenth century, that lucrative trade declined not only in 
 Hull but in all the ports of England. — Mr. Standidge, a persevering 
 and speculative merchant, and a native of Hull, was anxious to pro- 
 mote this important branch of commerce. He fitted out a vessel on 
 his own account, which he sent to Greenland, an enterprise that had 
 never before been undertaken by any but companies The success of 
 
 dock was commenced in 1807 on the western front of the 
 old fortifications ; e it is a hundred and twenty yards long, 
 and three hundred and twenty wide, and the quays and 
 warehouses belonging to the New Dock Company cover 
 a space of three acres. A third dock, which was begun 
 in 1814, and left unfinished, was commenced anew in 
 1817 ; it is provided with an admirable ballast machine, 
 that is set in motion by a steam-engine/ Thus, in place 
 of fortifications the old town is surrounded by the three 
 docks and the waters of the Humber and the Hull. The 
 prosperity of the place may be attributed to its situation, 
 which affords it the means of a very extensive intercourse 
 with the interior, communicating by the Humber with all 
 the navigable rivers and canals in Yorkshire, and con- 
 nected by means of the same river with the Trent and 
 its numerous artificial ramifications. Possessing such 
 advantages, it retains the export and the import trade 
 of many of the midland and northern counties. It carries 
 on an extensive traffic with the Baltic, for which it is 
 very conveniently situated, and it has also commercial 
 relations with the southern countries of Europe, and with 
 America. The act of parliament by which individuals 
 are permitted to undertake on their own account certain 
 branches of commerce with the Indies, has laid open a 
 new and an important trade to the inhabitants. But its 
 earliest trade and the first sources of its wealth were 
 derived from the Greenland fisheries, and more ships are 
 still fitted out for that country than from any other port.s 
 The streets in the old town are narrow, dirty and irregu- 
 lar, but in the new town, or the part beyond the ancient 
 ramparts, the streets are clean, spacious and well-built. 
 
 Other towns might be added to the above list ; thus, 
 a number of vessels are fitted out from the port of Scar- 
 borough, and Doncaster has become wealthy from its 
 manufactures ; still, however, they must be considered 
 of secondary importance in comparison of those that 
 have been mentioned. If the populous county of York 
 has risen to a state of prosperity, to which it is vain to 
 look for a parallel in its past history, it may serve to 
 illustrate the importance of a liberal government and free 
 institutions, promoting the arts of peace, encouraging 
 private industry, giving full scope to. individual enter- 
 prise, and rendering property inviolable. The present 
 state of the country forms a remarkable contrast with its 
 history during the darkness of the middle ages, and even 
 at a later period. The venerable city of York was 
 destroyed by the Conqueror, and a great part of the 
 country converted into a desert. Afterwards exposed to 
 the incursions of the Scots, the habitations were burned 
 and the country laid waste by David king of Scotland, 
 who was at last defeated with great slaughter in the battle 
 
 liis undertaking was long doubtful. From her first voyage, the vessel 
 returned with one whale and four hundred seals. At this period the 
 skin of the seal was considered useless, and the sailors threw them 
 into the sea. It appeared to Mr. Standidge, that they might be tanned 
 with profit; but the tanners of Hull refused to soil their pits with the 
 skins of fish. Having applied to the tanners of a neighbouring town, 
 whose notions about the purity of their pits were less scrupulous, the 
 plan succeeded beyond the projector's expectations, and shortly after- 
 wards he and his family wore seal-skin shoes. Mr. Standidge had 
 thus the merit of having enriched his country with a new product and 
 a new article of trade, which has become an important branch of 
 revenue to the government. Seal-skins, that were formerly sold at 
 most for 2d. or 3d. each, now rose in value to five and six shillings 
 The Greenland fisheries, which had fallen into decay, began to be 
 carried on again with fresh vigour. (C. Dupin, Force Commerciale, 
 volume 1st.) 
 
book CBiv.] DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 of the Standard. It was destined to become the scene 
 of the wasteful conflicts between the Yorkists and Lan- 
 castrians, and Edward the Fourth gained a victory near 
 Sherburn, which was purchased by the slaughter of 
 35,000 men. It was alternately pillaged by the king’s 
 troops and the parliamentary forces during the civil wars ; 
 and the rise of Cromwell, and the continued adverse 
 fortune of Charles, date from the battle of Marston-Moor, 
 which was fought in the neighbourhood of York. 
 
 The Brigantcs formed one of the most powerful na- 
 tions in ancient Albion ; originally settled in Thrace, they 
 diffused themselves over Germany and Gaul, and passed 
 from those countries into Britain. They occupied almost 
 the whole of Durham and Yorkshire, and a part of North- 
 umberland and Cumberland, in which last county, one of 
 their tribes assumed the name of Cumbri. The migrations 
 of the same people are attested by ancient authors ; a but 
 history takes no notice of the causes which induced them 
 to leave their native land. It is apparent from a very 
 slight examination, that neither the excellence of the 
 climate, nor the productiveness of the soil, were likely to 
 attract them to these northern regions. Much less can 
 it be supposed that the mineral treasures in which the 
 country abounds, possessed any value in the estimation 
 of barbarians. In the Roman period, Durham was 
 included in the province of Maxima Ccesariensis, and in 
 the time of the heptarchy it formed part of the kingdom 
 of Northumberland. But when the sovereigns of that 
 petty kingdom embraced Christianity, the superstition of 
 the period induced King Egfrid to make over the whole 
 county in the year 685, to St. Cuthbert, bishop of Lin- 
 disfarne, b and his successors. The donation was confirm- 
 ed by the Conqueror, who conferred the title of counts 
 palatine on the bishops, and invested them with so 
 great authority that they were said to be as powerful in 
 their diocese as the king in his dominions. Hence it hap- 
 pens that the county is frequently styled the Bishopric 
 of Durham. 
 
 Durham, situated between the rivers Tees and Der- 
 went, is contiguous on the east to the German Ocean. It 
 is bounded on the north by Northumberland, from which 
 it is separated by the Derwent and the Tyne, c on the 
 south by the river Tees, which divides it from Yorkshire, 
 and on the west by Cumberland and Westmoreland. 
 The superficial area has been computed at 1040 square 
 miles, and it is divided into the four wards of Chester, 
 Durham, d Easington and Stockton. e The air, which is 
 cold and piercing, might be still more so, if the ice and 
 snow were not dissolved by the vapours from the Ger- 
 man Ocean. The northern part of the county is bar- 
 ren, and in many places thinly peopled ; the western is 
 bleak and hilly, being crossed by the central ridge, which, 
 however, is no where very lofty in Durham. But these 
 heights give rise to numerous streams that flow eastwards, 
 and lower eminences, connected with the higher, extend 
 in different directions. The southern as well as the 
 eastern districts are fruitful and, although the farms are in 
 
 * Herodotus, Book vii. Strabo, Book xii. 
 
 b The see of the bishopric was originally at Lindisfarne, but was 
 removed to Durham, A. D. 995. — P. 
 
 c The Derwent crosses a corner of Durham, before it enters the 
 Tyne. — P. 
 
 d Darlington. (Rees’ Cyc. Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 e Besides the main body of the county, there are two detached por- 
 tions, viz. a larger portion on the north of Northumberland, bounded S. 
 by that county, N. VV. by the Tweed, which separates it from Scotland, 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 525 
 
 general small, well cultivated. The abundance of coal 
 has been already mentioned ; the other mineral. products 
 are iron and lead, which are obtained in Teesdale from 
 upwards of forty mines/ excellent mill-stones, fire-stones 
 for ovens and furnaces, freestone for building, and slates 
 for roofing. 
 
 The city of Durham was founded by the monks of Lin- 
 disfarne, who removed to it in the year 995, and carried 
 along with them the hones of St. Cuthbert. It is situated 
 on an eminence, and almost surrounded by the wind- 
 ings of the Wear, of which the banks are covered with 
 woods, or broken by precipices. The loftiest part of the 
 city is enclosed with walls, and in the same quarter the 
 cathedral and the castle are the most conspicuous build- 
 ings. The first is worthy of notice for its size and 
 costly ornaments, but the architecture is of a mixed sort, 
 and the Norman style is contrasted with the additions of 
 later ages. It may have a solemn and imposing effect, 
 but as it is inferior to other English cathedrals, it does not 
 correspond with the character of the see, its great wealth 
 and extraordinary privileges. The castle is converted 
 into an episcopal palace, and although very different from 
 the last building, it must at least be considered a more 
 perfect specimen of Norman architecture. Besides the 
 cathedral, there are six other churches, two catholic 
 chapels, and several meeting-houses for quakers, presby te- 
 rians, methodists and other dissenters. Some of the im- 
 provements in the town date from a very recent period ; 
 the principal streets are now covered with broad pave- 
 ments for foot passengers, all of them are lighted with gas, 
 old and ill built houses have been pulled down, and oth- 
 ers more commodious and elegant are erected on their 
 site. Few of the episcopal cities in England are distin- 
 guished by the trade or industry of their inhabitants, and 
 Durham forms no exception to the general rule. It 
 possesses manufactories of shalloons, flannels and car 
 pets, but they are not supposed to be in a flourishing 
 condition. 
 
 An old cross? at no great distance from the town was 
 erected by Ralph, Lord Neville, to commemorate a 
 victory gained by the English over the Scotch ; the for- 
 mer were commanded by Philippa, the wife of Edward 
 the Third ; the latter were routed with great slaughter, 
 and David Bruce their king, together with many of the 
 nobles, was taken prisoner. 
 
 Sunderland, at the distance of thirteen miles to the 
 north-east of Durham, may be considered a more impor- 
 tant town than the capital of the county. It is situated 
 at the mouth of the Wear, and although now populous 
 and prosperous, it was at one time merely a part of 
 Wearmouth parish. The High Street, the principal one 
 in Sunderland, is about a mile in length, and not less 
 than thirty yards in breadth ; it is adorned in many 
 places with well built houses. The Low Street which 
 extends parallel to it, and along the banks of the river, 
 may be termed the Wapping of the town ; it communi- 
 cates with the other by a great many narrow and dirty 
 
 and N. D. by the German Sea, and divided into Islandshire on the 
 east, along the coast, and Norhamshire on the west, along the Tweed , 
 and a much smaller portion, on the coast of Northumberland, between 
 the rivers Coquet and Blyth. — P. 
 
 f This clause should refer only to the lead mines. — There are about 8b 
 lead mines wrought in this county, of which 48 are in Teesdale. The 
 iron mines are in the western part of the coal district, which occupies 
 the north-eastern part of the county, and does not extend to Teesdale. 
 (Ed. Enc.) — P. e Neville’s cross. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLTV 
 
 526 
 
 lanes, where it is in vain to look for the cleanliness which 
 characterises English towns. The trade arises princi- 
 pally from the exportation of coal, and in that branch of 
 industry, it is only inferior to Newcastle; the other exports 
 are lime, glass, grindstones and copperas; the imports con- 
 sist of Baltic produce and various articles for domestic 
 consumption. The Wear, it has been already remarked, 
 does not admit merchant ships of a great tonnage, but 
 vessels get much more readily out to sea than from the 
 Tyne. The manner in which the harbour is constructed 
 adds to its security ; it consists of two piers, one on each 
 side of the Wear. In common with the great commer- 
 cial towns in England, it possesses charitable institutions, 
 and others of which the object is to diffuse knowledge 
 among the lower orders. 
 
 Bishop Wearmouth, a place of antiquity, and situated 
 in the immediate vicinity of Sunderland, may now be 
 said to form a part of the modern town ; the inhabitants 
 participate in the same trade, and are engaged in the 
 same branches of industry. It is there that an iron 
 bridge, one of the wonders of modern art, crosses the 
 Wear, and connects Sunderland with Newcastle and 
 Shields.* The dimensions of the bridge have been 
 already mentioned ; it may be added that it was erected 
 in consequence of the patriotic exertions of Rowland 
 Burdon, the member for Durham. Monk-Wearmouth, 
 which is not more than a mile from Sunderland, b derives 
 its name from a monastic institution of the seventh cen- 
 tury, some remains of which may still be traced. The 
 town is not very populous, but the inhabitants are indus- 
 trious ; they are employed in building ships, and in 
 other branches of industry connected with the Sunderland 
 trade. 
 
 On the north of Sunderland, and on the southern bank 
 of the Tyne, is situated the town of South Shields, which 
 is separated from North Shields by the river, the boundary 
 between the counties of Durham and Northumberland. 
 Some of the largest coal vessels in England take in their 
 lading at the same place ; indeed its principal business 
 consists in providing vessels for the coal trade, and on 
 that account several naval yards and docks for the con- 
 struction of ships have been at different times erected. 
 The making of salt from sea water furnished employment 
 to a great number of hands, hut that branch of industry 
 has declined, since an abundant and strongly impreg- 
 nated brine spring was discovered near Newcastle. More 
 glass, however, is now made than at any former period, 
 and there are at present upwards of twelve large glass- 
 houses. The town consists chiefly of a long, narrow and 
 crooked street almost two miles in length ; a square near 
 the centre of it, which serves as a market place, is adorn- 
 ed with the town hall and other public buildings. From 
 what lias been already said, it may be inferred that South 
 Shields is a dirty town, but independently of its smoke- 
 covered houses, and the narrow and crooked street, which 
 is never very clean, it has an unseemly appearance from 
 many artificial hillocks, formed by ballast and the refuse 
 of the glass, salt and soap works. 
 
 The many lives that had been lost at sea near Shields, 
 induced a number of the inhabitants to form themselves 
 into a society for the purpose of saving mariners from 
 
 * It connects Sunderland immediately with Monk-Wearmouth. — P. 
 b On the opposite (north) bank of the Wear. — P. 
 c Partly of English, and partly of foreign flax ? — P 
 
 shipwreck. A reward was proposed by the society to the 
 person who should furnish the model of a boat better 
 adapted for resisting the impetuosity of the waves than 
 any that had been hitherto used. The result of the pro- 
 posal was the invention of the Life-Boat by Mr. Great- 
 bead. 
 
 No port has been built at the mouth of the Tees on 
 account of the breadth and shallowness of the river; but 
 Stockton, at no great distance above it, may be consid- 
 ered its harbour. A fine bridge of five arches, of which 
 the central one is about seventy-five feet wide, was 
 erected over the Tees at Stockton in the year 1777. 
 The town, on account of its well built houses and nume- 
 rous public buildings, has been considered one of the 
 finest in the north of England. The manufactures are 
 sail-cloth, ropes, damask, diaper and linen, and it carries 
 on a great trade in proportion to its population ; thus it 
 has extensive commercial relations with the Baltic, 
 Hamburg, Norway and Holland, and many small ves- 
 sels are every year built in its docks. The ancient 
 castle was taken and destroyed during the civil wars, and 
 the only stone houses in the town are built of its ruins. 
 Stockton, it may be added, serves as a port to the manu- 
 facturing and industrious town of Darlington, which has 
 been long noted for its table and napkin linen, made 
 partly of English and foreign flax.® It possesses besides 
 two iron founderies, several mills for spinning wool, and 
 others for grinding optical instruments. The most re- 
 markable building is a large church of ancient and curi- 
 ous architecture, erected in the twelfth century by Hugh 
 Pudsey, bishop of Durham. 
 
 It may be remarked that the small island of Lindis- 
 farne, which has been already mentioned, and which is 
 better known by the name of Holy-Island, from having 
 been the ancient residence of monks, is under the civil 
 jurisdiction of Islandshire, a detached portion of Durham, 
 on the north-eastern side of Northumberland. d No 
 towns of any importance are situated in that part of the 
 county, where Lindisfarne forms part of the mainland at 
 low water, and is surrounded at full tide by the sea. 
 The extent of the island is equal to 1000 acres, and of 
 these more than five hundred consist of sand. The vil- 
 lage at the south-western extremity, and all the other 
 houses, do not contain more than 700 inhabitants. 
 
 Such are the most important towns in the county of 
 Durham, and the products of industry for which they 
 are distinguished. In many places various articles of 
 wrought iron are made, while in others there are founderies 
 for casting iron and brass ; the glass-houses and potteries, 
 and the salt, copperas and sal-ammoniac works, furnish the 
 materials of an extensive trade ; linen, cotton and wool- 
 len stuffs are made in the county, coal-tar is exported, 
 and paper-mills and other manufactories have lately been 
 established. 
 
 Northumberland, the most northern county in England, 
 is washed on the east by the German Ocean ; it borders on 
 Scotland and Cumberland on the west, and is bounded by 
 the last county and by Durham on the south.® Included by 
 the Romans in the province of Maxima Ccesariensis, the 
 Saxons raised it to the rank of a kingdom, and called it 
 Northan-Humber-Larul, a name, which with little varia 
 
 d See note ' p. 1205. 
 
 e It should be added : and by the detached portion of Durham, in- 
 cluding Islandshire and Norhamshire, on the north. — V 
 
BOOK CLIV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 527 
 
 tion it has since retained. But its ancient limits have 
 been much contracted, for in the time of the heptarchy 
 it included Yorkshire, Durham, Lancashire, Westmore- 
 land and Cumberland, and extended northwards to the 
 Clyde and Forth in Scotland. The modern boundaries, 
 exclusively of the coast, are marked in most places by 
 mountains or rivers, and even in its present reduced form, 
 it must be considered a large county. Thus, the greatest 
 length from north to south is nearly equal to seventy 
 miles, and the utmost breadth is not less than forty. It 
 appears from a return made to the House of Lords, that 
 it contains 1850 square miles, or 1,157,760 acres. 
 
 The face of the country is sufficiently varied, and a 
 considerable portion of it is unfit for cultivation. The 
 sea-coast is nearly level, while the central districts are 
 more diversified ; they are intersected or broken by rocky 
 hills, running into ridges, of which the bases are watered 
 by the principal rivers. Open hills, moors, waste land 
 and marshes form by far the greater portion of the western 
 districts. The Cheviot Hills near the Scottish border 
 have a more agreeable aspect ; they rise in unnumbered 
 forms, and are covered with verdant pastures, and their 
 sloping sides enclose fruitful vales or ravines. They 
 extend from the head of the Coquet to Allentown, and 
 onwards to Prendwick, Brunton, Elderton, Wooller and 
 Mindrim. a These hills have some influence on the cli- 
 mate, for the snow remains on them several months after 
 it has disappeared in the plains. The most fruitful tracts 
 are the vallies on the eastern side, through which the 
 rivers take their course. The eastern or level part of 
 the country is covered with a strong and fruitful clay, 
 which reaches in general beyond the great northern road. 
 A sandy and dry loam forms the vales of Breamish, Till 
 and Beaumont, and the same sort of soil may be observed 
 in the neighbourhood of Newburn, on the Coquet both 
 above and below Rothbury, and on the Ain from Alnwick 
 to its mouth. A dry loam, mixed with gravel, is the 
 most common soil in the Cheviot tract ; but moist loams 
 on a wet cold bottom occupy a great portion, particularly 
 the central and south-eastern districts. Black peat earth, 
 the prevailing soil on most of the hills, extends in many 
 places through the lower parts of Northumberland^ 
 
 Enough has been said to render it apparent that neither 
 the climate nor the soil is favourable to the production 
 of food, but these natural obstacles have been surmounted 
 by perseverance and industry; many hills and lofty tracts, 
 formerly barren or covered with useless plants, are now 
 cultivated, agriculture has been brought to a high degree 
 of perfection, and more than 140,000 acres have been 
 enclosed within the last fifty years. The farms were 
 formerly small, but they are now large, and the advan- 
 tages that have been gained by uniting many into one, 
 are infinitely greater than the temporary evils which were 
 occasioned by the change. The growth of grain from 
 the investment of capital on the soil has been increased, 
 and large corn tracts in which wheat takes its rotation, 
 
 a Their eastern outline extends from the Coquet by Alnham, Prend- 
 wick, Brandon, Ilderton and Wooler, to Mindrum. (Atlas Soc. Useful 
 Knowledge.) — P. 
 
 b Agricultural Survey of Northumberland, by Messrs. Bailey and 
 Culley. 
 
 c Both stone and shell marl are likewise extensively diffused. 
 (Ed. Enc.) — Stone and shell marl are distinct varieties. Shell marl is 
 an aggregate of decomposed shells; stone marl, an indurated variety 
 of earth marl, and of an uniform texture. — P. 
 
 have thus been added to the arable lands of the county 
 The progress of improvement has been accelerated by 
 the great quantity of lime in almost every part of North- 
 umberland, and by the stone or shell marl, which in 
 some districts is equally abundant.® The farmers in the 
 pastoral tracts on the Cheviot Hills devote themselves 
 to the breeding of cattle, and oxen not inferior to the 
 finest in the kingdom, have been reared by the graziers 
 on the Scottish border. But however much the agricul- 
 tural riches of Northumberland may have been increased, 
 they are secondary in importance to its mineral treasures. 
 If the value of an article be estimated by its utility, the 
 coal, for which the county is distinguished, and of which 
 the mines have been already described, forms its real 
 wealth. It accounts in a great degree for that facility 
 and rapidity of production, which has rendered England 
 the emporium of the world, and for the great accumula- 
 tion of capital, which has enabled the inhabitants to 
 increase the fertility of their soil, and to improve and 
 extend communications of every sort. The most valua- 
 ble of the metals holds the next rank, and an almost 
 inexhaustible supply of iron-stone is embedded in the 
 strata of the coal districts. The same substance is 
 shipped from Holy-Island to different parts of England 
 and to Scotland.* 1 Lead ore is found in abundance in 
 the mountainous districts on the south-west, and most 
 of the veins from which it is obtained are rich in zinc, 
 and from some of them silver is extracted. Although 
 the country offers such advantages to industry, and 
 although it is watered by numerous rivers, still many of 
 them are ill adapted for inland navigation, and the 
 deficiency is very imperfectly supplied by means of 
 canals. The Tyne and the Tweed have been long 
 famed for their salmon fisheries, and the metropolis is 
 principally supplied with their produce.' The fish are 
 packed in pounded ice, and conveyed by this means 
 almost as fresh to the London market as when they were 
 taken from the water. The sea coasts, which afford the 
 means of subsistence to many of the poorer inhabitants, 
 abound with a great variety of fish, such as cod, ling, 
 turbot and soles. f 
 
 Newcastle, the most important place in the county, is 
 situated on the banks of the Tyne, at the distance of about 
 ten miles from its mouth ; it is connected by means of a 
 bridge with Gateshead, which although on the other side 
 of the river, and consequently in Durham, forms part of 
 the town. Situated in a country abounding in coal, 
 Newcastle has become the centre of an extensive trade, 
 and a place of great manufacturing industry. The advan- 
 tages of such a situation are the causes of its wealth and 
 increasing population ; but at an early period, while 
 the island was in the possession of the Romans, the 
 ancient Gabro-Gentum s was distinguished for the impor 
 tance of its military position ; it was one of the principal 
 stations connected with the vallum of Adrian, or the old 
 Piets’ Wall, which was built to defend the inhabitants 
 
 d “ The iron mines furnish considerable quantities of that metal, 
 which are exported from the island, called Holy-Island, to the neigh- 
 bouring countries.” (M. B.) — P. 
 
 e “ The Tyne and the Tweed have been long famous for their salmon 
 fisheries. This fish is exported from the small port of Berwick to 
 London — ” (M. B.) — Salmon are no longer caught in the Tyne, but 
 are still taken in great quantities in the Tweed. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 f Capper, Idem. 
 
 6 Gabrosentum. (Camden.) — P. 
 
528 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CL.IV. 
 
 of the south against the incursions of the barbarous hordes 
 in the north. When the province was abandoned by the 
 Romans, and the English had to trust to their own 
 resources, Newcastle was fortified with great care, and 
 the old walls were flanked with towers, of which several 
 are even at present in a state of preservation. It bore 
 the name of Monkcester a not long before the Norman 
 invasion, and it derives its present name from a castle 
 erected by Robert, son of William the Conqueror, b after 
 his return from an expedition into Scotland in the year 
 1080. 
 
 Many works and manufactories are situated in the 
 town and neighbourhood ; hardwares and wrought iron 
 are exported, and several potteries might be enumerated, 
 in each of which more than a hundred persons are con- 
 stantly employed. It carries on a considerable trade in 
 the finer sorts of glass : its chemical works are not without 
 importance ; they consist chiefly of white-lead, minium 
 and vitriol. The total number of vessels belonging to it 
 is about 850 ; their burden is not less than 200,000 tons, 
 and they are manned by 9000 men. It has a share in 
 the Greenland fisheries ; it imports wines and fruits from 
 the south, and timber, hemp and other articles from the 
 north of Europe. In the coal trade it is the first port in 
 Britain, and waggons for the conveyance of coal were 
 first set in motion by steam in the neighbourhood of 
 Newcastle. Such were the germs of an invention, which 
 has led in its improved and developed state to the 
 rapid communication between Manchester and Liverpool. 
 More than twenty packets sail regularly between the 
 same port and London, and others sail to the principal 
 harbours in England and Scotland. 
 
 The town possesses several charitable institutions, one 
 of which, the keelmen’s hospital, is wholly supported by 
 contributions from the coal-workers. The children of 
 the poorest inhabitants may reap the advantages of 
 instruction ; for their benefit different schools have been 
 erected, and a Lancasterian one was built by subscription 
 to commemorate the fiftieth year of the reign of George 
 the Third.® 
 
 Many yards for building ships are situated on the banks 
 of the Tyne, and the workmen are chiefly employed in 
 constructing vessels for the coal trade. The river is navi- 
 gable for ships of three or four hundred tons from its 
 mouth to the bridge at Newcastle, but the largest coal 
 vessels anchor off Shields. The bed of the Tyne from 
 the same town to tne bar at Tynemouth, may be con- 
 sidered a vast basin in which ships sheltered from the 
 sea and from every wind, receive the valuable products 
 of the mines and manufactories. 
 
 Two places below Newcastle, and on the same river, 
 may be briefly mentioned. It has been already seen 
 that North and South Shields are connected with each 
 other by means of an iron bridge. d The inhabitants of 
 both towns are engaged in the same trade, and employed 
 in the same branches of industry. At no very remote 
 period the former place consisted of only one or two dark 
 alleys, with a few dirty and wretched fishing huts ; these 
 
 a Munk-ceastre. (Cyc.) — P. 
 
 b Robert Curthose, a younger son of William the Conqueror. 
 (Cyc.) — P. 
 
 c “ The loyalty of the inhabitants was disinterested and noble ; 
 George the Third was then insane, insensible to flattery, and unable 
 to reward it.” C. Dupin, Force Commercials, volume 2d. 
 
 1 No mention has been previously made in this Geography of an 
 
 have been succeeded by spacious and airy streets, and 
 by commodious and well-built houses. The trade, which 
 keeps pace with a rapidly increasing population, may 
 soon vie with that of the great towns in England ; even 
 at present more than four hundred vessels are annually 
 laden at the harbour. Tynemouth, the other town, is 
 situated about a mile and a half from North Shields, and, 
 as its name imports, at the mouth of the Tyne. It is 
 built on a promontory, which rises almost perpendicularly 
 on the side of the sea, and it is defended by a castle 
 which is chiefly worthy of notice on account of its fine 
 military position, an advantage that did not prevent it 
 from falling into the hands of the Scotch during the civil 
 wars. The bar, a dangerous sand bank, extends across 
 the mouth of the river, and it is broken in several places 
 by rocks. To obviate the danger which might be other- 
 wise occasioned, a light-house has been erected ; it is 
 about sixty feet in height, and stands on a promontory 
 nearly two hundred feet above the sea. It is supposed 
 that nearly 800,000 chaldrons of coals are annually 
 shipped from Tynemouth to London. 
 
 The other towns in Northumberland are of secondary 
 importance. Hexham, finely situated in the vale of the 
 Tyne above Newcastle, was once an episcopal city, and 
 its ancient cathedral is still its most magnificent ornament. 
 The inhabitants are industrious, and many of them are 
 employed in tanning leather. Morpeth, on the north 
 road, about fourteen miles beyond Newcastle, may be 
 mentioned on account of its cattle fairs. The town of 
 Alnwick, the titular capital of the county, e is situated mid- 
 way between Newcastle and Berwick. It is a borough 
 by prescription, but it contains little worthy of notice 
 except its ancient military castle, which has long since 
 been converted into the residence of the Northumberland 
 family. The same place was more than once disastrous 
 to the kings of Scotland. Having been strongly fortified 
 in the reign of William Rufus, it resisted a long time the 
 forces of Malcolm the Third, by whom it was besieged. 
 It was at last delivered from this danger by the cowardly 
 treachery of a soldier, who pretending to give up the 
 keys to the Scottish king, drew his dagger, and pierced 
 him to the heart. f Edward, the son of Malcolm, wishing 
 to avenge the death of his father, was defeated and slain 
 in the neighbourhood. In the year 1167, Henry the 
 Second of England gained a decisive victory at Alnwick 
 over William the Lion, king of Scotland, took him pris 
 oner, and compelled him to pay a large ransom. The 
 town exhibits a singular spectacle on the day of St. 
 Mark, and one not very creditable to the state of society, 
 or at all events proving the observance of the ridiculous 
 customs that prevailed in the dark ages. Those who 
 are to acquire the freedom of the town, or according to 
 the phrase, to hap the well, appear on horseback at an 
 early hour in the market-place. Each man is dressed 
 in white, with a sword by his side, and wears in place 
 of a hat, a white nightcap on his head. The cavalcade, 
 accompanied by four chamberlains in the same costume, 
 proceed to a neighbouring moor, where the future free- 
 
 iron bridge, over the Tyne, between North and South Shields. Is not 
 the iron bridge over the Wear at Sunderland, which is said (p. 1206) to 
 connect Sunderland with Newcastle and Shields, here referred to? — P. 
 e The place where the county courts are held. — P. 
 f It was on the point of surrendering, when a soldier stabbed him 
 (Malcolm) with a spear, pretending to deliver him the keys on the 
 point of it. (Luckombe. M. B.) — P. 
 
book ciiiv.i DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 529 
 
 men dismount, ran through a muddy pool, and perform 
 other foolish ceremonies. 
 
 Benvick-upon-Tvveed was an important and strong 
 fortress when England and Scotland were hostile nations, 
 to each of which it belonged according to the chances of 
 war. Although the greater part of it is situated in North- 
 umberland,® it has never been annexed to any local 
 jurisdiction ; b it is not supposed to be either in England 
 or Scotland, but is separately named when included in 
 public acts. It is defended on the north and east with 
 flanks, bastions and a ditch, and on the south and west 
 by high walls, to which the river serves as a moat. The 
 harbour is by no means commodious ; vessels drawing 
 more than twelve feet of water cannot cross the bar, and 
 there is no safe riding in the offing. But in spite of this 
 disadvantage, Berwick carries on a considerable trade 
 with the metropolis, and of late years different branches 
 of industry have been extended and improved. 
 
 Cumberland, like the last county, borders upon Scot- 
 land on the north, from which the maritime part is sepa- 
 rated by the Solway Firth, and the inland by a small 
 brook and the river Liddel ; c on the east it is contiguous 
 to Northumberland and Durham, and the limits in that 
 direction are for the most part artificial ; it is washed by 
 the Irish Sea on the west, and it is bounded on the south 
 by part of Lancashire and the whole breadth of West- 
 moreland. The greatest length of the county is about 
 eighty miles, and the greatest breadth nearly forty. In 
 superficial extent it is equal to 1178 square miles, or 
 945,920 acres ; but of these little more than a half are 
 arable, and the greater part of the remainder is wholly 
 unfit for cultivation, consisting either of lofty mountains, 
 barren moors, or the romantic lakes, of which some 
 mention has been made in a former chapter. The civil 
 divisions form five wards, so called from the inhabitants 
 having at one time been obliged to keep watch and ward 
 against the Scottish borderers. 
 
 The various sorts of soil have teen classed under four 
 different heads : viz. 1st, a strong rich loam, of which 
 there appears to be but a small portion ; 2d, a variety 
 of loams from the rich brown to the light sandy ; under 
 this division a great part of the county is included; 3d, 
 wet loam, generally on a clay bottom; and 4th, black 
 peat earth, the most common in the mountainous dis- 
 tricts, particularly those in the neighbourhood of North- 
 umberland and Durham. d 
 
 A mountainous ridge in Cumberland forms part of the 
 chain, which runs north and south between the eastern 
 and western sides of England, and another tract in the 
 south-western part of the county is little inferior to the 
 former in height. In the first, and not far from the bor- 
 ders of Durham, is situated Cross-Fell, which rises to 
 the elevation of 3400 feet, and is consequently the 
 highest mountain in England ; in the second, Helvellyn 
 attains the height 3324, Skiddaw, or Skyday, is equal 
 to 3270, and Saddleback is not supposed to be lower 
 
 a This is not true. It is situated on the north side of the Tweed, at 
 its mouth, and originally belonged to Scotland, of which it was one of 
 the four principal boroughs. It is separated from Northumberland by 
 the detached portion of Durham, called Islandshire. — P. 
 
 b It forms a town and county of itself, with its own separate as- 
 sizes. — P. 
 
 c See note a p. 1146. d Agricultural Survey. 
 
 e Alston-Moor. f Black lead, 
 
 s The mines are only opened at intervals for a short period. (Ed. 
 Enc.)— P. 
 
 VOL. Ill— NO. 58 67 
 
 than 3048 feet. In the former are obtained various 
 minerals useful for different purposes, and also coal, 
 limestone and lead. The last substance is chiefly worked 
 near Aldston-Moor e on the borders of Durham. The 
 second tract, composed for the most part of the schistua 
 that affords the blue slate for covering houses, is also 
 rich in plumbago or wadd/ the name which the miners 
 have given to this valuable substance, of which the finest 
 kinds are so abundant in the neighbourhood of Borrow- 
 dale, that the mines are opened and closed after certain 
 intervals^ lest the price of the commodity should be 
 diminished by too great a supply. The quality of the 
 metal * 1 * accounts sufficiently for the superiority of the 
 English pencils, which are so much prized in France 
 and other countries on the continent. It is not many 
 years since copper mines were wrought at Caldbeck and 
 in the neighbourhood of Keswick. Iron ore is obtained at 
 Egremont and in the country between it and Whitehaven. 
 
 It appears that Cumberland is in proportion to its size, 
 one of the least populous counties in the kingdom, and 
 the cause of it may be discovered in the nature of the 
 country, and in the difficulty of multiplying communica- 
 tions through a lofty and rugged district. Agriculture in 
 consequence of these natural disadvantages, is in a less 
 advanced state than in other parts of England ; the land 
 is for the most part divided into small farms, and much 
 capital has not been laid cut in the improvement of the 
 soil. Mountain-torrents or impetuous streams are abun- 
 dant, but the county is ill supplied with navigable rivers. 
 
 Carlisle, the capital of Cumberland, is situated at the 
 confluence of the Eden and Calder, 1 of which the united 
 streams fall into the Solway Firth, about five miles below 
 the town. Although the navigation of the Eden is inter- 
 rupted by shallows, it was not before the year 1823 
 that an artificial channel was cut between Carlisle and 
 the sea. The name of the town seems to have been 
 derived from the Saxon word Caerlyall, signifying the 
 town near the wall, k and thus indicating its vicinity to 
 the vallum, from which it was only distant a quarter of 
 a mile. As a frontier town, it was exposed to frequent 
 attacks, and for its defence it was fortified with a castle, 
 a citadel and massive walls. The walls were first built 
 in the seventh century by Egfrid, king of Northumber- 
 land ; the castle and citadel were erected by William 
 Rufus. The former, situated at the north-western ex- 
 tremity of the town, is still kept in repair, and contains, 
 among other buildings, a magazine for gunpowder, and 
 an armoury, in which more than 10.000 stands of arms 
 are generally deposited. It was in the castle that the 
 unfortunate Mary Stuart was confined in the year 1568, 
 and a neighbouring garden which she used to frequent, 
 is still known by the name of the Lady’s Walk. 1 The 
 principal streets communicate with the market-place 
 which is much disfigured by a guard-house that was 
 built during the civil wars, when Cromwell occupied the 
 town. The ancient fortifications, like other works of the 
 
 h Plumbago is not a metal. It is composed of carbon with a small 
 quantity of iron. — P. 
 
 ' Caidew. 
 
 k The name is most probably derived from the Celtic, Caer, a city, 
 and Luel ; signifying the town or city of Luel. Gibson's Camden. 
 (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 1 During her imprisonment, the royal captive used to walk in front 
 of the castle, which yet retains the name of the Lady’s Walk. (Ed. 
 Enc.)— P. 
 
530 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 BOOK CLIV. 
 
 same period, are certainly imperfect, and inadequate to 
 the purposes of modern warfare ; the same remark is 
 equally applicable to the comparatively late additions 
 which have been erected for their defence ; still, how- 
 ever insignificant both may appear, Carlisle was twice 
 besieged in the rebellion of 1745; it was first taken by 
 the Scotch, and afterwards by the English under the 
 Duke of Cumberland, in both times not without a siege. 
 It may be remarked that it was once a Scotch town, and 
 that Henry the Second received at Carlisle the honour of 
 knighthood from David the First. One or two instances 
 may be mentioned to show how much it has suffered 
 from its frontier position ; having been taken by the 
 Scotch in the time of Henry the Third, the greater part 
 of it was destroyed by fire, and it was twice exposed to 
 a similar calamity in the succeeding reign ; at a later 
 period Henry the Eighth laid siege to it with an army 
 of 8000 men, inflicted unjust punishments on many 
 of the inhabitants, and reduced the rest to obe- 
 dience. 
 
 The cathedral, for Carlisle is an episcopal city, having 
 been built at different periods, displays different styles 
 of architecture, and although some detached portions of 
 it may be admired, it can neither vie in size nor in mag- 
 nificence with other buildings of tbe same sort. Part of 
 the western wing was demolished during the civil wars ; 
 the breach or opening thus made was afterwards closed, 
 and the space between the transept and the new wall has 
 been transformed into the church of St. Mary.® 
 
 The population and trade of Carlisle were long incon- 
 siderable, but the latter has been greatly extended within 
 the last forty years, and different manufactures have been 
 introduced by the enterprise of different individuals. 
 Various branches of the cotton trade are carried on with 
 success, printed linens are exported to different parts 
 of the country, and iron works and founderies are 
 established. If the impulse which was first given, has 
 been maintained, it may in part be attributed to the com- 
 parative cheapness of labour. 
 
 The other inland towns are too insignificant to require 
 notice ; they are so in point of population, still some 
 branch of industry is carried on in every one of them. 
 Penrith possesses some trade in fancy woollen stuffs ; 
 the inhabitants of Wigton are employed in manufacturing 
 cotton, and extensive waste lands in the neighbourhood 
 have of late years been enclosed. Hats, shalloons, coarse 
 woollens and linens are made at Cockermouth, and sev- 
 eral cotton-works have been erected in the romantic town 
 of Keswick. 
 
 The maritime town of Whitehaven, situated at no 
 great distance from the promontory of St. Bees Head, 
 and now much more important than the places which 
 have been last mentioned, consisted only of six fishermen’s 
 huts in the year 1566. The cause of its prosperity 
 dates from the reign of Queen Anne, when several moles 
 and bulwarks were erected, by which vessels are secured 
 against the Corfe rocks. But these works have been 
 
 a The opening was afterwards closed with a wall, and the space 
 within the wall, and the transept fitted up as the parochial church of 
 St. Mary. (Rees’ Cyc.) — P. 
 b Capper, Idem. 
 c The Isle of Man. 
 
 d The Isle of Man is not legally dependent on the county of Cum- 
 berland, nor is it even considered a part of England. It has a govern- 
 or appointed bv the king, a council of five persons cx officio , two deem- 
 
 since much improved, and Whitehaven possesses at pres- 
 ent not fewer than six yards for building ships. The 
 same port carries on a considerable trade with the West 
 Indies, and nearly two hundred vessels belong to it. The 
 coal, which is chiefly exported to Ireland, is obtained 
 from neighbouring pits that have been dug to the extraor 
 dinary depth of 130 fathoms, b and extended to so great 
 a distance below the sea, that ships of large burden sail 
 above the miners. 
 
 The small town of Workington near the mouth of the 
 Derwent, was the landing-place of the unfortunate Mary, 
 when in an evil hour she fled for refuge to the dominions 
 of her rival. 
 
 An island in the Irish Sea,* about thirty miles from the 
 English coast, is considered a dependence of Cumberland. d 
 In superficial extent it is not equal to more than 220 
 square miles, but it is in some places thirty miles in 
 length, and in others more than twelve in breadth. e The 
 climate, although humid, is mild and salubrious ; frost 
 and snow are never of long continuance, but the harvests 
 are retarded by cold and variable summers. The two ex- 
 tremities of the island consist of good arable and pasture 
 lands ; the southern side is composed of loam ; the soil 
 varies in other parts, but clay and sand form perhaps the 
 most common sorts. The fisheries afford the most impor- 
 tant occupation, and so many men are engaged in them, 
 that the cultivation of the ground is generally committed 
 to women. The sea-weed is used for manure, and furze, 
 heath and peats for fuel. Excellent mutton, good poul- 
 try, eggs and fish, it is said, are much cheaper than in 
 England. 
 
 Ramsay, one of the principal ports, is situated on the 
 north-eastern coast of Man, in the neighbourhood of a 
 bay, which may afford a safe anchorage to a large fleet ; 
 but the present harbour is inconvenient, and only fit for 
 small vessels. Douglas, on the south-eastern coast, and 
 about sixteen miles distant from Ramsay, is the most 
 populous town, and contains nearly six thousand inhab- 
 itants. The harbour can admit the largest vessels, and 
 it is defended by a strong fort, which renders the place 
 impregnable on the side of the sea. Castletown is the 
 capital of the island, but its port is difficult of access, and 
 its population does not exceed two thousand inhabitants. 
 It is chiefly remarkable for a castle, built on a rock in 
 the middle of the town, and encompassed with so thick 
 walls, that three persons can walk abreast on them. The 
 black marble steps of St. Paul’s cathedral were obtained 
 from a quarry in the neighbourhood. 
 
 Westmoreland, the next county that shall be mention- 
 ed, is bounded on the north and north-west by Cumber- 
 land, on the east by Yorkshire and Durham, and on the 
 south and south-west by Lancashire/ The limits are for 
 the most part formed by lakes, rivers or streams, and 
 mountains. Thus, Winandermere, the largest lake in 
 England, and one remarkable for its romantic beauty, 
 separates it from Lancashire, and the Lune, which rises 
 near the sources of the Eden, is the boundary between it 
 
 sters or judges, and a house of commons, called the House of Keys. 
 These, united, form what is called the Tinwald Court. — P. 
 
 e It is about 30 miles in length, and about 10 miles at its greatest 
 width. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 f It is bounded in that direction, for a short distance, by the head of 
 Morecambe Bay, and thus separates the district of Furness from the 
 main body of Lancashire.- — P. 
 
BOOK CLIV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 531 
 
 and Yorkshire* The area is equal to 763 square 
 miles or 488,320 statute acres, but of these more than 
 two thirds are uncultivated. The county may be briefly 
 described; indeed its name indicates its nature. West- 
 moreland or the west-moor-land consists of bleak moun- 
 tains, naked hills and sterile moors or heaths, which are 
 better known in the north of England by the name of 
 fells. b The vallies, which are watered by the rivers, 
 are not unfruitful, and a plain of considerable extent in 
 the northern part of the county yields abundant harvests. 
 The rest of the cultivated land is made up of glens or 
 ravines, surrounded by lofty heights. No great quantity 
 of corn is raised, and no sort of grain is so common as 
 oats. Herds of Scotch cattle are fattened by the farmers, 
 and many milch cows are kept, by which the inhabitants 
 of London are supplied with excellent butter. Sheep are 
 reared on the mountains, and numerous flocks of geese 
 wander on the moors. Great attention is paid to the 
 rearing of pigs, and the hams of Westmoreland are not 
 the least valuable of its exports. 
 
 The mineral riches of the county are not great; it is 
 almost destitute of coal, and the metallic ores lie so deep 
 as to render the working of them unprofitable. Lime- 
 stone and freestone are by no means uncommon, but 
 slate is perhaps the most abundant and most important 
 of the mineral products. Few of the towns require to be 
 mentioned. Appleby, the county-town, a place of no 
 great consequence, occupies the site of Aballaba, a Ro- 
 man station which communicated with a military way. 
 The market-house, a handsome Gothic edifice, was fin- 
 ished in 1811 ; each of the two extremities of the town 
 is now adorned with a stone obelisk, and on one of them 
 the following inscription has been placed : — “ Retain 
 your loyalty, preserve your rights.” It is only in free 
 countries where such inscriptions are observed, and it is 
 only in free countries, that they appear to be unnecessary ; 
 thus the English are not unmindful of their duty to their 
 king, still less are they forgetful of their rights and 
 liberties. 
 
 In the country between Appleby and Orton, there is 
 a calcareous cavern, which winds to a great distance 
 through numerous galleries ; many of these are filled 
 with pools, and others are watered by streams that 
 escape at last by chasms, of which the extent has never 
 been measured, and which the country people have de- 
 nominated the Badger’s den. 
 
 Kendal, or more correctly Kirkby in Kendal,® the 
 church in the dale of the Ken, d is situated in a pleasant 
 valley about twenty miles to the north of Lancaster. It 
 is the only populous and commercial town in the county ; 
 it was one of the places to which Flemish weavers were in- 
 vited in the fourteenth century, and the cloths made by 
 
 a Winandermere, for about half its length on the north, separates it 
 from the district of Furness, and the Lune, for only a short distance, 
 from Yorkshire. — P. 
 
 b Fell properly signifies mountain (Dan. field,, Swed. Jjtell,) and is ap- 
 plied to different ridges and summits of the great chain dividing the 
 eastern from the western counties in the north of England. — P. 
 c Kirkby- or Kirby-Kendal. 
 
 d Properly, the church (kirk) town (Dan. by) in the dale of the 
 Ken. — P. 
 e Lune, Lone. 
 
 f This should be stated thus : From Liverpool, a communication is 
 opened by the Mersey, the Duke of Bridgewater’s canal, as far as Pres- 
 ton Brook, the Grand Trunk (Staffordshire) canal, the Coventry canal, 
 and the Oxford canal, or the Oxford canal and the Grand Junction 
 canal, with the Thames. — The Duke of Bridgewater’s canal extends 
 
 them were held in such repute that they were long 
 known by the name of the town. It retained its manu- 
 facturing industry, although it was long deprived of the 
 advantages of water carriage, and it possesses at present 
 not fewer than seven trading companies, each having its 
 ball. The present manufactures consist of cottons, 
 coarse woollens, linseys, druggets, worsted stockings, 
 serges and hardwares. 
 
 It is not many years since the Lancaster canal was 
 completed, a work which has greatly contributed to the 
 prosperity of Kendal by affording a convenient outlet to 
 its products. It commences at West Houghton in Lan- 
 cashire, and intersects the Leeds and Liverpool canal 
 between Wigan and Preston, then waters Preston, Spi- 
 tal Moss, Barton and Garstang, crosses the Wier at the 
 last place, and proceeds to Lancaster. It is carried over 
 the Loyne e above Skerton by means of a stone aqueduct, 
 supported by five arches, 664 feet in length ; from Sker- 
 ton it passes to Burton, and onwards through a tunnel to 
 Kendal, a course of seventy-six miles. It communicates 
 with Liverpool by the Leeds and Liverpool canal, and 
 from the last place by the Mersey and the Duke of 
 Bridgewater’s canal, with Preston brook, where the Staf- 
 fordshire canal joins the Trent and Severn, and extends 
 from thence to the Thames by the continuation of the 
 Oxford and Coventry canal/ an inland navigation of more 
 than 500 miles. 
 
 Lancashire, a maritime county, and a county palatine, 
 is bounded on the north by Westmoreland and a part of 
 Cumberland , s on the east by Yorkshire, on the west by 
 the Irish Sea, and on the south by Cheshire. It is of a 
 very irregular shape, and it has already been remark- 
 ed, that one portion is separated from the rest by an arm 
 of the sea. The greatest length inclusive of the detach- 
 ed part, is nearly seventy-four miles, and the greatest 
 breadth about forty-five. According to a return made 
 to the House of Lords in 1818, the area is said to be 
 equal to 1831 square miles. The former scantiness of 
 the population may be inferred from the small number of 
 parishes into which Lancashire was divided, and other 
 facts are not wanting to prove that few counties are less 
 favoured by nature, while none are more important by 
 the industry of their inhabitants. Thus, in confirmation 
 of what has been asserted, it may be remarked that the 
 climate is almost proverbial for its moisture, and what is 
 worthy of notice, the eastern part of the county is more 
 humid than the western or the coast. The reason may 
 be easily assigned ; the eastern boundary that separates 
 it from Yorkshire, forms part of the ridge which has been 
 often called the Hack-bone of England, and the clouds 
 that are wafted by the Irish Sea from the Atlantic Ocean, 
 are first checked in their course by the same heights, of 
 
 from the Mersey at Runcorn to Manchester. The Grand Trunk canal 
 branches off from it at Preston Brook, and extends to tire Trent, at the 
 mouth of the Derwent in Derbyshire. The Staffordshire and Worces- 
 tershire canal leaves the Grand Trunk at Hey wood, east of the town of 
 Stafford, and passes by Wolverhampton, to the Severn at Stour- 
 port. The Coventry canal leaves the Grand Trunk near Lichfield, 
 and extends to Coventry. Four miles north of Coventry, the Oxford 
 canal branches off to the east, and extends to the Thames at Oxford. 
 The Grand Junction branches off from the Oxford canal at Braunston, 
 and extends to London. — P. 
 
 s The main body of the county is bounded on the north by West- 
 moreland. The detached district of Furness, on the south by the sea 
 on the west by Cumberland, and on the north and east by Westmore 
 land. — P. 
 
[BOOK ClilV 
 
 n 
 
 532 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 which the western side is exposed to frequent and heavy 
 showers. The soil offers few attractions to the husband- 
 man ; it is in many places unfruitful, and even in the 
 fruitful parts, the crops are frequently destroyed by 
 incessant rain. The detached portion, or the Hundred 
 of Furness, as it is called,® abounds in iron, but it is a 
 wild and bleak district, covered with underwood, of 
 which the cuttings are only useful in supplying the 
 numerous furnaces that have been erected. Connistone 
 Meer, b a lake in the same part of the county, occupies 
 no inconsiderable space, for it is more than seven miles 
 in length. The most fertile part is situated in the 
 neighbourhood of the sea, and near the ancient abbey 
 of Furness ; but even there, the land, which is only 
 moderately fruitful, is protected against the boisterous 
 waves of the Irish Sea, by the long and narrow isle of 
 Walney, in all probability, once a part of the coast. The 
 main part of the county is naturally divided into two 
 unequal portions ; the smaller extends from the West- 
 moreland border to the Ribble, while the larger includes 
 the country between the last river and the Mersey. The 
 former has been long known to agriculturists on account 
 of its oxen, which are not inferior in symmetry to any 
 in England. The Fild or Field,® a low tract between 
 Garstang and Preston, is not unfruitful, but the remain- 
 ing or eastern portion, in which the ancient forests of 
 Wiersdale and Rowland are situated, is mountainous and 
 barren. The southern part of the country between the 
 Ribble and the Mersey, although neither sterile nor 
 broken by hills, is disfigured in many places by large 
 morasses. They seem to have originated from the 
 stagnation of springs in low grounds, where a perpetual 
 accumulation of vegetables, successively growing and 
 decaying, produces a spongy soil, of which the upper part 
 forms a shaking bog, while the lower consists of a black 
 moss, affording turf or peat for fuel. These moving 
 marshes are liable to disruptions after heavy rains, and 
 on these occasions the neighbouring country is inundated 
 or laid waste by their debris. Some of the bogs are 
 very large ; others, not without much labour and great 
 expense, have been drained and rendered productive. 
 The fruitful tracts are well adapted for the growth of 
 potatoes, many of which, it is well known, have been 
 exported to Ireland. But the nature of the soil, and 
 the wetness of the climate, must prevent Lancashire 
 from ever being a corn country ; oats is the most com- 
 mon grain ; the rest are insufficient for two months con- 
 sumption of the inhabitants. What then are the causes 
 of the prosperity of Lancashire, of its commercial great- 
 ness, and of a population in which, according to the last 
 returns, the ratio to the surface is more than six hundred 
 and twenty persons to the square mile ? d It is certain 
 that if it had been destitute of coal, and if numerous 
 rivers had not afforded many facilities to inland naviga- 
 tion, it might still have been what it was in past times, 
 poor and thinly peopled. Inexhaustible beds of coal, it 
 has been already seen, are wrought in the southern 
 and central districts, particularly in the two southern 
 
 a Furness is not a hundred of itself, but part of the hundred of 
 Lonsdale. — P. 
 
 b Coniston-mere or Coniston Water.- — P. 
 
 c Fylde or Field. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 J Rickman’s Population Returns of 1831. 
 
 0 AVest Derby. 
 
 1 In Furness, west of Winander Mere. — P. 
 
 hundreds of Derby® and Salford, which traverse the whole 
 breadth of the county. Products of industry, almost as 
 varied as they are numerous, and every mechanical 
 contrivance by which labour can be abridged, owe their 
 origin to the abundance of so valuable an article over so 
 extensive a tract. The other minerals are of secondary 
 importance in comparison of coal, but limestone is ob- 
 tained in great quantities in the northern and north- 
 eastern districts, and one sort of it, dug near Manchester 
 and also near Leigh, has been found to resist the effects 
 of water, and is therefore much used in subaqueous 
 works. A quarry of excellent freestone near Lancaster 
 has afforded the materials of which the town is built, and 
 a more extensive quarry near Liverpool has furnished 
 the stone for its public edifices. Flag-stones and whet- 
 stones are the products of different districts, and slate 
 abounds in the mountainous tract near Hawkshead/ 
 
 The principal rivers are the Mersey, which rises in 
 Derbyshire, receives several small streams, separates 
 the last county from Cheshire, s and falls into the sea at 
 Liverpool. The Ribble rises in Yorkshire, crosses the 
 county, and discharges itself into the Irish Sea near 
 Preston. The Wier h has its source in the moors on the 
 north-eastern border, is enlarged by several small streams, 
 and enters the same sea about twelve miles to the north 
 of the Ribble. Lastly, the Lune or the Loune, * 1 II rising 
 near Kirkby-Lonsdale in Westmoreland, k waters Lancas- 
 ter and falls into the sea at no great distance below it. 
 Thus all these rivers rise from the mountainous ridge 
 which has been called the Back-bone of England, and 
 all of them form estuaries at their entrance into the sea. 
 But by means of the system of inland or canal naviga- 
 tion, Lancashire communicates with all the neighbouring 
 counties, with numerous rivers, with the western and 
 eastern seas, with Liverpool and Hull, with the Severn 
 and the Thames. 
 
 Lancaster, the capital of the county of w’hich it bears 
 the name, is situated on the banks of the Lune ; it con- 
 tains a population of more than 12,000 individuals; it 
 reckons 85 vessels measuring 9111 tons, but the shal- 
 lows in the river below Lancaster prevent the larger 
 vessels from reaching the town ; they anchor at the 
 mouth, and are unloaded by means of lighters. The 
 same place has been long celebrated for its manufacture 
 of sail-cloth, merchant vessels are budt in its docks, and 
 other branches of industry are cultivated, but the prin- 
 cipal trade is carried on with the British colonies of 
 North America. A long quay has been built on the left 
 bank of the river for the accommodation of ships ; the 
 suburbs rise on the opposite bank, and communicate with 
 the town by a bridge of four arches. 
 
 Numerous antiquities dug up in the neighbourhood at 
 different periods, prove that Lancaster had been a station 
 of some consequence in the time of the Romans. It was 
 not, however, before it was made over by Edward the 
 Third, with ducal privileges, to John of Gaunt, that it be- 
 gan to assume the importance which it has since retained. 
 The castle, which is generally believed to have been 
 
 s It first separates Derbyshire from the north-eastern horn of 
 Cheshire, then crossing the latter, divides Cheshire from Lancashire, 
 for nearly (iO miles. — P. 
 
 h AVyre. 
 
 I Lune, Loyne, or Lone. 
 
 II It rises in the fells in the middle of AA'estmoreland. near Orton, and 
 passes S. to Kirkby-Lonsdale, near the southern line of that county — P 
 
book cbiy.] DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 erected about the same period, added to its military 
 strength during the wars between the Roses ; but these 
 disastrous convulsions had the effect of desolating the 
 town, which is said to have been inhabited many years 
 afterwards by a few poor husbandmen. The castle, too, 
 was laid in ruins, and it is merely from the walls, which 
 are still mostly entire, that any notion can be formed of 
 its strength and extent. The principal entrance by the 
 eastern gate, under a fortified tower, conducts into a 
 spacious court-yard, surrounded by other strong towers. 
 The keep, a square building, containing several large 
 apartments, and formerly defended by strong military 
 works, is now converted into the county gaol and court- 
 house of the assizes. a 
 
 Preston, nearly twenty miles to the south of Lancas- 
 ter, has long been considered one of the best built towns 
 in the county ; situated in a fruitful district, on the banks 
 of the Ribble and the Lancaster canal, at a short dis- 
 tance from the sea, and at the junction of six important 
 roads, it derives many commercial advantages from its 
 position. The inhabitants are employed in different 
 branches of industry, principally in weaving and spin- 
 ning cotton ; no small number, however, are occupied 
 in the silk manufactories, and the town has long been 
 distinguished for the excellence of its weaving machinery. 
 An imperfect notion may be formed of the varied com- 
 mercial relations of Lancashire, from the immense num- 
 oer of public coaches, carriages and stage waggons that 
 are continually travelling to and from Preston. Although 
 the trade of the same place dates from a comparatively 
 recent period, it is by no means a modern town ; on the 
 contrary, it appears to have risen while Ribchester, the 
 ruins of which are at no great distance, fell into decay, 
 and it was inhabited during the dark ages by so many 
 monks and ecclesiastics, that it received the name of 
 Priests’-town, which has been gradually changed into 
 Preston. 
 
 The Ribble, which waters Preston, and the Mersey, 
 at the mouth of which Liverpool is built, are separated 
 by a considerable tract of coast, and no port of any con- 
 sequence is situated between them. It is a remarkable 
 fact that there is no important town in England, of which 
 the early history is more involved than that of Liver- 
 pool. The numerous conjectures that have been made 
 concerning the etymology of its name, indicate bow little 
 is known on the subject. In the reign of Henry the 
 Eighth, Liverpool was “ a chapelry or hamlet to the 
 parish of Walton. The king,” continues the same au- 
 thor, “ hath a castlet there, and the erle of Derbe hath 
 a stone house there. Irish merchants come much thither 
 as to a good haven. Good merchandise at Lyrpool, and 
 much Irish yarn that Manchester men do bye there. 
 Little custom is paid, that causeth merchants to resort. ” b 
 The inhabitants petitioned Queen Elizabeth to exempt 
 them from certain impositions, and used the humble title 
 of “ her majesty’s decayed town of Liverpool.” It is 
 known from the rates of ship money that was levied by 
 Charles the First, that it then held a secondary rank 
 among the commercial towns of England. Thus, Ches- 
 ter is rated at £26; Bristol at £1000; and Liver- 
 pool at £25. It is equally certain that the first 
 parochial church was built in the reign of William tne 
 
 — „ ) 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 533 
 
 Third. Some notion of its progressive population mav 
 be inferred from the following table : — 
 
 Years 1700. 1750. 1780. 1800. 1820. 
 
 Baptisms. Burials. Bap. Bur. Bap. Bur. Bap. Bur. Bap. Bui. 
 
 162 117 824 1031 3579 1486 2905 2782 4540 2944 
 
 The next table indicates the progress of its commerce: — 
 
 Years 17G0. 1770. 1780. 1790. 1800. 1810. 
 
 Ships (number) 1245 2073 2271 4223 4746 6729 
 
 Customs (duty) £2330 4143 3528 10,037 23,379 65,782 
 
 The disadvantages of its position are a dangerous bay 
 
 at the mouth of the river, where it was necessary to 
 overcome many natural obstacles. But it is also situ- 
 ated in the centre of the western coast, thus forming the 
 most convenient point of communication with the east of 
 Ireland, and becoming, with the extension of its trade, 
 the mart of the western coasts of Scotland. It received 
 from Ireland an accession of useful hands, when the 
 laborious and peaceable inhabitants left their native land, 
 from which industry was banished, and where the effects 
 of a policy as unwise as it was unjust, are but too ap- 
 parent at the present day. It was after these men had 
 settled in Liverpool, that the circle of its commerce was 
 enlarged ; it competed with Lancaster and Chester, 
 which from their vicinity were the first to yield, and the 
 wealthy merchants of these places removed to the rising 
 town. c The contest between Liverpool and Bristol was 
 of longer duration. These great ports on the western 
 coast are the depositaries of imports, which are diffused 
 over different parts of England, and the exports by 
 which these imports are obtained, are the products of 
 neighbouring towns and districts. The extent of coun- 
 try through which their home trade circulates, corre- 
 sponds with their means of communication ; in other 
 words, the exports that are more easily conveyed to 
 Bristol, are not sent to Liverpool, neither does the 
 former place receive such as are transported at a less 
 expense to the latter. Having obtained a share of the 
 home trade, proportionate to their local advantages, and 
 to the roads and canals, which have been since multi- 
 plied in every direction, the inhabitants of Liverpool 
 sought wealth from the same channels by which it 
 flowed to Bristol, and so extended their commerce with 
 foreign countries. Bristol imported the manufactures 
 of Germany, and sent them out to the American colo- 
 nists. The merchants of Liverpool found as good, if 
 not better manufactures, in their own country. Ireland 
 supplied them with linen, and Scotland with different 
 articles, which were exported to the same settlers 
 Much about the same time, the neighbouring town of 
 Manchester made gigantic strides in various branches of 
 industry, and its manufactures, of which Liverpool be- 
 came the natural outlet, were found to be cheaper, and 
 of a better quality, than any others. This victory, of 
 which Liverpool still reaps the fruits, prepared the way 
 for new contests. The privilege of importing goods into 
 the Spanish colonies having been conferred on a limited 
 number of individuals, they exacted a duty equivalent 
 to four times the amount that the consumers had been 
 
 a Lardner, Id. Ibid. b Leland’s Itinerary, vol. ii. 
 
 c C. Dupin, Force Commerciale, volume 1st. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 534 
 
 accustomed to pay. So great a hardship gave rise to a 
 smuggling trade between the English possessions in the 
 West Indies and Spanish America, and this fraudulent 
 traffic was continued by means of Liverpool vessels with 
 perseverance and success. 
 
 The slave trade was not the least lucrative one in 
 which the merchants of Bristol were engaged, and their 
 rivals sought wealth from the same source. The differ- 
 ent articles exported to the South American colonies 
 were rendered so many monopolies by the Spanish cab- 
 inet, and although the trade in slaves was committed to 
 a company, the profits arising from it served to enrich 
 Liverpool smugglers, who engaged in the traffic of hu- 
 man beings with as much indifference as in any ordinary 
 branch of commerce, and it is undeniable that the re- 
 sources of the town were increased by immense capitals, 
 which were in this way accumulated. 
 
 It may be easily inferred that the war of independence 
 with the British colonies in North America, retarded the 
 prosperity of Liverpool, but no sooner was that war ter- 
 minated, than the same port became the European em- 
 porium of the United States, and the trade thus begun, 
 has since corresponded with the increasing importance, 
 population and wealth of the American republic. Eng- 
 land obtained the monopoly of the Brazil trade, in terms 
 of the Portugal treaty, and that vast territory became a 
 new outlet to the exports of Liverpool. 
 
 If these facts be considered, the following statement 
 cannot excite surprise : — Liverpool possessed about a 
 century ago only a two and fortieth part of the trade of 
 England ; it now possesses a sixth. Thus, it has 
 increased in a ratio seven times greater than that of a 
 nation, whose advances in commerce and industry are 
 unparalleled in Europe. a It is obvious that the flour- 
 ishing state of the port is intimately connected with the 
 prosperity of other towns, to which its admirable com- 
 munications extend ; it accounts for the rise of Man- 
 chester, Birmingham and other places, in as much as 
 they are in some respects the workshops of Liverpool. 
 
 Some of the public buildings in the same place may 
 he briefly mentioned. The exchange may bear a com- 
 parison with the finest structures which the mercantile 
 inhabitants of any city have erected from their own re- 
 sources. The area which it occupies, is twice as great 
 as that of the Royal Exchange in London. The portico 
 of the principal entrance is formed by eight double 
 Corinthian columns, each equal to twenty-five feet in 
 height, and each cut from a solid mass of stone. The 
 inner fronts on the east and west, are composed of a 
 rustic basement, supporting pilasters and Corinthian 
 columns that are surmounted by a balustrade. The 
 northern front corresponds with the opposite one of the 
 town-hall, which completes the quadrangle formed by 
 the two structures. Within the space thus enclosed, 
 three piazzas fifteen feet wide, communicate with apart- 
 ments for the underwriters, with counting-houses, and 
 with extensive ware-rooms. 
 
 The town-hall exhibits an extensive line of pilasters 
 and columns alternating with windows, and the capitals 
 of the columns are divided by basso-relievos emblemat- 
 ical of commerce. A dome, lighted by large lateral 
 windows, and like the Pantheon at Paris, surrounded bv 
 
 * C. Dupin, Force Coinmerciale de la Grande Bretagne, vol. i. 
 
 6 C. Dupin, Force Commercials, vol. ii 
 
 [BOOK C'LIY 
 
 a colonnade of the Corinthian order, rises from the cen- 
 tre of the building, and is crowned by a female statue, 
 holding a spear on which the cap of liberty is attached ; 
 this statue represents Britannia. b 
 
 Institutions of merited celebrity prove that the varied 
 occupations of commerce are by no means incompatible 
 with higher pursuits. The Royal Institution of Liver- 
 pool resembles the Royal Institution of London, and 
 both are founded on the model of the ancient Lyceum 
 in Paris. The one in Liverpool was formed by a num- 
 ber of subscribers, and professors were appointed to de- 
 liver lectures on different subjects. It is, besides, the 
 object of the institution to encourage similar societies 
 and to render assistance to undertakings for the advance- 
 ment of the sciences and arts. It was opened in 1817, 
 and an excellent discourse, giving a view of the objects 
 of its founders, was delivered by Mr. Roscoe, the en- 
 lightened historian of the Medici and Leo the Tenth. 
 It might be difficult to estimate such institutions too 
 highly by judging of the future from the past, by reflect- 
 ing that since the sciences have been made to minister 
 to the arts, the sphere of commerce has been enlarged, 
 while the products of industry have been so much mul- 
 tiplied and improved that articles which princes could 
 not formerly command, are now deemed essential to the 
 comforts of the lower orders. 
 
 The Liverpool Atheneum is the oldest institution of 
 the kind in England ; the library consists of more than 
 20,000 volumes ; wise regulations are enforced, and 
 every convenience is afforded to the studious. 
 
 The Lyceum is formed by two classes of subscribers, 
 the one to the room for newspapers, and the other to 
 the library. A remarkable fact relative to this institu- 
 tion is mentioned by M. Dupin. In 1807 the news- 
 room had 800 subscribers, and the library 893. This 
 is worthy of notice in a country where the passion for 
 news is, if possible, greater than in France. 
 
 The benevolent institutions are not unworthy of the 
 town. More than fifteen hundred persons are received 
 into the public infirmary in the course of a year. The 
 wants of the indigent mariners that frequent the port are 
 relieved by the Seamen’s Hospital, of which the princi- 
 pal resources are derived from the monthly tax of six- 
 pence, that every seaman who sails from Liverpool is 
 obliged to contribute out of his pay. A hundred and 
 seventy boys and sixty-six girls are boarded, clothed and 
 educated at the Blue Coat School.® It was at the 
 school of industry* 1 in Liverpool, the earliest institution 
 of the sort in England, that an asylum was first opened 
 to the blind. Lastly, the simple mode of tuition adopted 
 in the schools of Bell and Lancaster has been introduced 
 with great success, and in one large building more than 
 a thousand children are instructed. 
 
 But the most striking features of the town, and its 
 most important works, are yet to be described. The 
 provisions that have been made for the different ships 
 that frequent the port, may bear a comparison with the 
 first in Europe. Some notion may be formed of them 
 from their dimensions, which shall be briefly stated. 
 The old dock at the east end of the custom-house was 
 constructed in 1710; it is 195 yards long, and 92 wide 
 at the broadest part. The quay of the dry docks is 360 
 
 c Blue-Coat Hospital. 
 
 d The School of Industry for the Indigent Blind- 
 
BOOK CLIV.l 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 535 
 
 yards in length, and they communicate with the graving 
 docks, in which vessels are repaired. The quay of 
 Salthouse dock, the second that was constructed, is 640 
 yards long. George’s dock is 246 yards in length, and 
 100 in breadth, and its quays, which extend to the dis- 
 tance of 700 yards, are lined with storehouses. A com- 
 munication leads from it to the graving docks, so that 
 vessels can pass from the one to the other without enter- 
 ing the river. The King’s dock, which is set apart for 
 all vessels from America, the East Indies and the Baltic, 
 is 270 yards long and 95 broad. The Prince’s dock is 
 also one of the largest, and its locks are so constructed 
 as to let vessels in and out at half tide. The gates of 
 the docks are 42 feet wide and 26 deep, and they are 
 each of them provided with a cast-iron bridge. Besides 
 these, the Duke of Bridgewater has a small dock for the 
 vessels that frequent his canals ; and the length of the 
 quays which bound all these docks is greater than in 
 any other town in Europe, and consequently on the 
 globe. The management of the revenues derived from 
 these works is vested in the corporation, but their ac- 
 counts are annually examined by seven commissioners. 
 
 The manufactures of Liverpool are of secondary im- 
 portance, still it possesses extensive works for making 
 ropes and sail-cloth, numerous iron founderies, large 
 buildings in which sugar is refined, and potteries that 
 furnish employment to many of the poorer inhabitants. 
 
 Manchester, situated in the south-eastern angle of 
 Lancashire, has become the great centre of the cotton 
 trade, the greatest manufacturing town in the kingdom, 
 and, with the exception of the capital, equal to any 
 other in the number, industry and wealth of its inhabit- 
 ants. It is besides a very ancient town, and its early 
 history has afforded a subject of research to a learned 
 and laborious, although not very impartial antiquary.® 
 It has been maintained that it was founded by an ancient 
 British tribe, who gave it the name of Mancenion. It 
 became a Roman station in the time of Agricola, and 
 many remains of the ancient Mancunium have been dis- 
 covered since the seventeenth century. It is mentioned 
 as a manufacturing town in the reign of Edward the 
 Sixth, and in the year 1560 its trade is said to have 
 afforded employment to men, women and children. 
 Salford bears to Manchester the same relation that 
 Southwark does to London ; and in 1757, nearly a cen- 
 tury after the period that has been last mentioned, b 
 Manchester and Salford contained 19,800 inhabitants ; 
 in 1773,42,900; in 1782,50,000; in 1791,70,000; 
 and in 1811, 104,000. But with the extension of the 
 town different villages have been united to it, and the 
 population of Manchester and its suburbs amounted in 
 1821 to nearly 200,000 persons. Thus within a period 
 of sixty-four years the number of inhabitants has in- 
 creased in a greater ratio than one to nine. 
 
 To account for its rapid and extraordinary rise, much 
 must be attributed to the advantages of its position, 
 which have only been developed by art and ingenuity 
 within a comparatively recent period, and in proportion 
 to their development the population has increased. 
 Manchester is watered by a navigable river;' it is sur- 
 
 a John Whitaker, in his History of Manchester ? — P. 
 b More than two centuries. — P. 
 c The Irwell, a branch of the Mersey. — P. 
 
 a Spun ? — The machine at first, contained 8 spindles, but by niodify- 
 
 rounded by immense fields of coat ; and lastly, it is situ- 
 ated near the centre of the kingdom, and numerous 
 communications have been facilitated by the nature of 
 the country. Thus it lies in the line of inland naviga- 
 tion, which extends from the western to the eastern sea, 
 and it is equally open on the north and south by the nu- 
 merous branches of the Great Trunk. The Irwell and 
 the Mersey afford an easy access to Liverpool ; it has 
 three distinct lines of navigation through Yorkshire, and 
 it communicates in the same manner with Nottingham, 
 Birmingham and Bristol. 
 
 No article appears to have been made of cotton in 
 Great Britain before the middle of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury ; even about the middle of the eighteenth, cotton, 
 as an article of commerce, was little used in the country, 
 and the value of the manufacture was estimated at less 
 than £200,000. It now affords employment to more 
 hands than any other manufacture, and it has become 
 the most important of British exports. Europe is thus 
 made tributary to England ; the western world is sup- 
 plied with the same articles from the same country, and 
 the cottons of Manchester find a ready market in Africa 
 and in Asia. But before the trade was so much ex- 
 tended, before the manufactures were so greatly multi- 
 plied and so much improved, ingenuity was exerted, and 
 difficulties were overcome. Cotton yarn was first spun 
 on the one-thread wheel, and the quantity obtained by 
 this method was not only very small, but of a coarse and 
 irregular texture. The spinning jenny by which thirty 
 or forty threads can be woven d at once, was at last in- 
 vented by Ilargreave,® and it was next discovered that 
 two or three threads thus woven, might be substituted 
 for the warp, which until then had been made of linen. 
 The admirable invention of Hargreave was brought to 
 perfection by the celebrated Arkwright, who in the year 
 1775, took out a patent for machinery by which any 
 number of spindles could be worked, and a single thread 
 made sufficiently strong and fine for the warp. The 
 two distinguished individuals, who have been mentioned, 
 are deservedly considered the benefactors of their coun- 
 try ; they have laid open new sources of wealth, cre- 
 ated new elements of productive power, and diffused 
 increased comfort over every class of the community. 
 It has been seen that about the middle of the eighteenth 
 century, the cotton manufactures were estimated at less 
 than £200,000, but not many years after the date of these 
 inventions, their annual value exceeded £7,000,000 
 The various branches of these manufactures, so diver 
 sified in their forms and uses, and which have given 
 rise to so extensive a system of machinery, centre in 
 Manchester, and extend around it in all directions to 
 Carlisle and Derby on the north and south, and to Leeds 
 and Liverpool on the east and west. Manchester is 
 besides the depot from which the raw material is dis- 
 tributed over the district, and in which all the scattered 
 manufactures are again collected to be again diffused 
 over a wider circle, reaching to Liverpool, Hull and 
 London, whence they are exported to every quarter of 
 the globe. 
 
 The various means of instruction, which Manchester 
 
 ing its construction, a single person was enabled to work 40 spin 
 dies. — P. 
 
 e Richard Hargreaves, of Blackburn. He invented the Spinning 
 Jenny in ]7(S7. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
536 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIV 
 
 possesses, have greatly contributed to its manufacturing 
 spirit ; the children of the poorest inhabitants receive 
 an elementary education, and mechanics’ institutions are 
 open to the workmen. The modern history of Man- 
 chester affords abundant proofs that the culture of the 
 sciences, and the theory of the useful arts, are essential 
 to the practice and perfection of the latter. The Lite- 
 rary and Philosophical Society of the same place, insti- 
 tuted in 1781, has been raised to its present eminence 
 by the labours of Henry, Dalton and others, who rank 
 with the philosophers of their age. 
 
 The town is watered by the Ashton, Bolton, Man- 
 chester and Bridgewater canals,® and by the Irwell and 
 two of its feeders, the Irk and the Medlock. The sub- 
 urb of Salford communicates with Manchester by three 
 bridges, b while six have been erected over the Irk, and 
 nine over the Medlock, so that there is an easy access 
 to every part of the town. Fine buildings and spacious 
 squares mark the additions that have been made of late 
 years, but in too many places it is distinguished by 
 densely peopled streets and lanes, built apparently 
 without regularity. It has been remarked in the account 
 of Leeds, that it is not yet represented ; in that respect 
 it resembles Manchester, but it is not imagined that a 
 long period can elapse before the elective franchise is 
 extended to these important towns. 
 
 It is not many years since the numerous communi- 
 cations between Liverpool and Manchester were found 
 inadequate to the conveyance of goods from the one 
 place to the other. It was then known that the average 
 quantity of goods thus transported, exceeded daily a 
 thousand tons, and that in dry summers, the supply of 
 water being diminished, the barges were not loaded with 
 their usual freights, while in winter the navigation of the 
 canals was sometimes retarded or interrupted by frost. 
 The delay thus occasioned led to a very important re- 
 sult, or rather, to one of the greatest inventions of the 
 age, the successful application of steam to carriages. 
 But the projectors of this great work had to encounter 
 many difficulties even at the outset ; the bill for the 
 Liverpool and Manchester rail-road was lost in one ses- 
 sion, nor was it carried afterwards without much oppo- 
 sition, nor without incurring an expense of £70,000 in 
 parliamentary proceedings. The most persevering op- 
 ponents were those, whose influence and exalted station 
 might have led them to support every great work, and 
 to encourage every useful undertaking. 
 
 The Liverpool extremity of the railway terminates in 
 a tunnel near the northern end of the Queen’s Dock. 
 The excavation, about twenty-two feet deep and forty- 
 five wide,* affords space to four lines of rails, and be- 
 tween them are lofty cast-iron pillars that support an 
 extensive range of warehouses. The warehouse keepers 
 receive or deliver the finer goods through hatchways in 
 
 1 The canals centering in Manchester, are: l.the Duke of Bridgewater’s 
 canal — two branches; one towards Liverpool, entering the Mersey at 
 Runcorn ; the other (Worsley canal,) to the Worsley coal mines, con- 
 tinued by Leigh to the Leeds and Liverpool canal at Wigan, forming 
 the Leigh and Manchester canal: 2. the Rochdale canal, extending 
 by Rochdale to the Calder at. Halifax : 3. the Ashton and Oldham 
 canal, passing by Ashton under Line, and terminating at Ducken- 
 ficld, in the Huddersfield canal; it sends out a branch to Stockport, 
 and another (j mile in length) to the Peak Forest canal : 4. the Bolton 
 and Bury canal— two branches, one to each of those towns.— P. 
 
 b Over the Irwell, on the north-west of which Salford is situated.— P. 
 
 the floors, and the waggons are propelled to the very 
 spots beneath the hatchways, by means of turning rails 
 communicating with the main lines, and attached to 
 moveable wooden circles. Beyond this area or court, 
 the breadth of the tunnel is twenty-two feet, while the 
 height of the arch that supports it, is equal to sixteen, 
 and the radius to eleven. d The height from the roof of 
 the tunnel upwards to the surface of the ground, varies from 
 fifteen to seventy feet, and the total length of the sub- 
 terranean work is not less than 2240 yards. Another 
 tunnel, at no great distance from the former, is of smaller 
 dimensions, about fifteen feet in width, twelve in height, 
 and 290 yards in length. On the open road to Manchester 
 and in the neighbourhood of Wavertree, the railway ex- 
 tends along deep marl, e and beyond it, a ravine seventy 
 feet in depth, has been cut through the solid rock of 
 Olive Mount. This portion of the work is not the least 
 wonderful ; the perforation, if it may be so called, is 
 little short of two miles; the traveller advances on a 
 level twenty feet in width, and enclosed on both sides 
 by stone walls that rise almost perpendicularly to the 
 great height that has been already mentioned. The 
 materials dug out of Olive Mount, have served to con- 
 struct an embankment about fifty feet above the valley 
 of Roby. A bridge that rises above the Rainhill level, 
 and crosses it at an angle of thirty-four degrees, forms 
 part of the turnpike road from Liverpool to Manchester. 
 The line is carried across the Sankey valley and canal/ 
 and over the top masts of the barges, by a viaduct of 
 nine arches, each fifty feet in diameter. Another via- 
 duct of four arches conducts the railway above the val- 
 ley of Newton, and a few miles beyond it, the Kenyon 
 excavation commences, from which more than 700,000 
 cubic yards of sand and clay have been removed to form 
 the neighbouring embankments. It is in this part of the 
 work that the Kenyon and Leigh junction rail-way meets 
 the main line, and by this means Bolton is united to 
 Liverpool and Manchester.? 
 
 The Chat Moss part of the work is not inferior to any 
 other, and cultivation is now extending over this hitherto 
 dreary waste, of which the surface is not less than twelve 
 square miles. These green spots and cultivated fields 
 have appeared within the last two years, forming a sort 
 of oasis in a surrounding desert, destined ere long to be- 
 come productive, and to afford a striking example of the 
 combined power of agricultural and mechanical resources. 
 The railway is raised above the Worsley canal by a 
 viaduct of two arches ; it then proceeds through Eccles 
 and a portion of Salford under six bridges, crosses the 
 Irwell by means of a handsome stone bridge, and is car- 
 ried over twenty-two brick arches to Water Street, 
 Manchester, a distance of thirty-one miles from the 
 Liverpool station. 
 
 It is a remarkable fact in the history of rail-way com- 
 
 c This is an open cutting (at the entrance of the great tunnel.) 
 above which the company’s warehouses are erected. — P. 
 
 d The tunnel is 22 feet wide and 1C feet high, the sides being per- 
 pendicular to the height of five feet, and surmounted by a semicircular 
 arch, of 11 feet radius. — P. 
 
 e Through a deep marl cutting. — P. 
 
 1 The Sankey canal extends from the Mersey below Warrington, to 
 the collieries near St. Helens, 12.1 miles. — P. 
 
 s The Kenyon and Leigh junction joins the main line by two 
 branches, leading to the two towns respectively. The Kenyon branch 
 joins the Bolton and Leigh railway, and thus serves to connect 
 Bolton with Liverpool and Manchester.— P. 
 
BOOR CLIV.l 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 037 
 
 munications, that the first experiment on a great scale 
 succeeded beyond the most sanguine expectations. It 
 was not imagined that l'esistance could be diminished to 
 so great a degree, nor consequently that the engines 
 could proceed at so great a velocity, and for the same 
 reasons their powers of traction could not have been 
 anticipated. It is unnecessary to add that they afford 
 advantages until then unknown for the conveyance of 
 goods, and that they have changed our notions of dis- 
 tances, for if distances be estimated by the times of per- 
 forming them, Manchester is brought as near to Liver- 
 pool, as the two extremities of the metropolis are to each 
 other. Such encouragement has been thus afforded to 
 similar works, that surveys, plans and sections have been 
 already made for rail-roads from Liverpool to Birming- 
 ham and onwards to London. a 
 
 It would occupy much space to mention all the other 
 flourishing towns in Lancashire, but some of them are 
 too important to be passed over in silence. Bolton, 
 about twelve miles to the north-west of Manchester, has 
 been distinguished by the addition of Le Moor, b from its 
 situation in a bleak and dreary country. It contains 
 more than twenty-five thousand inhabitants, and it is 
 believed to have been the first place in which the im- 
 proved machinery of the cotton manufactories was intro- 
 duced. The town has rapidly increased in wealth and 
 population, and its muslins and various products of 
 industry supply the markets of Manchester. Black- 
 burn, not more than eight miles to the east of Preston, 
 has become one of the great marts for calicoes. The 
 first calico printers in the county reside in the town or 
 the neighbourhood, and every department of this useful 
 and curious art has been brought to a high degree of 
 perfection. 
 
 Cheshire, or the county of Chester, is bounded on the 
 north by Lancashire and part of Yorkshire, on the east 
 by Staffordshire and Derbyshire, on the south by Shrop- 
 shire and a detached portion of Flintshire, and on tbe 
 west by Denbighshire, Flintshire and the river Dee. 
 One of the hundreds, however, situated between the 
 estuaries of the Dee and the Mersey, is bounded at its 
 north-western extremity by the Irish Sea. Although 
 the form of the county may be compared to an oval, 
 two horns extend to the west and east on the northern 
 side : the one or the hundred of Wirral has been already 
 mentioned ; the other, a portion of the Macclesfield 
 hundred, stretches between Derbyshire and Yorkshire. 
 
 The former inhabitants of Cheshire appear to have 
 lived under a separate government from the rest of 
 England. Thus, after the conquest of the Danes by 
 Mfred the Great, that monarch appointed Etheldred, 
 duke or governor of the county, and it is well known 
 that there were earls of Chester in the time of king 
 Canute. William continued the government of the 
 earls after the conquest, made it a county palatine, and 
 vested Hugh Lupus with sovereign authority. The 
 earls held an independent council or parliament and 
 courts of law in which treason and other offences against 
 the Sivordof Chester were cognizable, and it is believed 
 that the sword of Lupus is still preserved in the British 
 museum. Barons were created by Lupus ; they had 
 their separate courts, in which they exercised the power 
 
 11 Booth’s Description of the Manchester and Liverpool Railway, 
 von m.— no. 59. cs 
 
 of life and death in offences not connected with the 
 earl’s sword or the royal authority. Some alterations 
 were introduced by Henry the Third, and the earldom 
 wag then vested in the king’s eldest son, who is to this 
 day earl of Chester. But Henry the Eighth first made 
 Cheshire subordinate to tbe crown ; as it is still, how- 
 ever, a county palatine, the privileges which it formerly 
 possessed are not wholly destroyed. 
 
 The area is equal to 1052 square miles, or 673,280 
 acres, of which less than a third part are arable. The 
 county is in general flat, but towards the eastern borders 
 some considerable elevations form a chain with the Der 
 byshire and Staffordshire hills. Another ridge, crossing 
 the county from north to south on the western side, 
 commences near Frodsham, extends along Delamere 
 Forest, and terminates in the neighbourhood of Malpas. 
 The extent of the waste lands appears the more extraor- 
 dinary, as there are few or no heights in other parts 
 of the county. It is watered by many streams, all of 
 which find a passage to the Irish Sea by the Dee, the 
 Weaver or the Mersey. 
 
 The brine springs form a remarkable feature in the 
 physical geography of Cheshire. They are mostly ob- 
 served in the valleys, which the Weaver and Wheelock 
 water, and generally at no great distance from their 
 banks. The springs near the former river are not 
 strongly impregnated above Nantwich, but at that place 
 they yield a great quantity of salt. They occur at irreg- 
 ular intervals between Nantwich and Weverham, a dis- 
 tance which, if the course of the river be taken into 
 consideration, is nearly equal to six miles. The brine 
 springs on the Wheelock extend to a greater distance, and 
 are scattered over the tract from Lawton on the confines 
 of the county, to Middlewich, where the river falls into 
 the Dane. The proportion of muriate of soda in some 
 of the springs has been found equal to 26.566. It is 
 not wonderful that the brine springs were known to the 
 inhabitants at a very early period, but it may excite 
 surprise that the first bed of fossil or rock-salt was dis- 
 covered so lately as the year 1670. The miners of 
 Marbury, while they were searching for coal in the 
 neighbourhood of Northwich, observed a bed of rock- 
 salt thirty yards in thickness, and resting on indurated 
 clay. The same substance, it was ascertained by re- 
 peated trials, extended to the distance of nearly half a 
 mile in all directions from the place where it was first 
 discovered. In 1781, the proprietors of one of these 
 mines sunk through the indurated clay, and new beds 
 of rock-salt were found below it. But the strata are 
 not confined to the vicinity of Northwich ; others are 
 worked near Lawton, and in different parts of the 
 county. Thus, in the township of Wilton, a circular 
 excavation, 108 yards in diameter, is supported by 
 twenty-five immense pillars of rock-salt, and yields 
 annually about 156,000 tons. It has been already 
 seen that the south-eastern portion of Cheshire abounds 
 in coal; the other mineral substances are of secondary 
 importance, but it may be remarked that lead, cobalt 
 and copper are obtained at Alderley Edge, and that the 
 last metal has been worked on the Peckforton hills. 
 
 The soil is very various, but clay and sand are perhaps 
 the most common, and according as one or other of them 
 
 b Bolton le Moors, or Bolton in the Moor. — P . 
 
538 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CliIV 
 
 predominates, they form sandy or clayey loams. The 
 heaths or marsh lands are extensive, and the largest tracts 
 are those of Macclesfield or Delamere Forest, Frodsham 
 marsh and others on the north-eastern border.* Great 
 quantities of potatoes are raised in the county, and a ready 
 market is obtained for them in the towns of Liverpool and 
 Manchester. Every branch of husbandry connected with 
 the dairy is well understood, and not fewer than 11,500 
 tons of cheese are annually made in Cheshire, and of these 
 more than four thousand are exported. 
 
 Chester, the capital of the county, contains more than 
 twenty thousand inhabitants, and it reckons sixty-two 
 vessels, measuring more than 4071 tons; these are all 
 that belong to Chester, at a former period, one of the 
 most flourishing ports in the west of England, the mart 
 of the Irish linens and other products that were exchanged 
 for English produce ; it is almost unnecessary to add that 
 the trade has been transferred to Liverpool. The town 
 is situated on an eminence, which commands an extensive 
 view of a romantic country, and the Dee waters its 
 ancient ramparts on the south. Castrum, the ancient 
 name of Chester, shows that it was once a Roman mili- 
 tary station. The two principal streets which cross each 
 other at right angles on the summit of the hill on which 
 the city stands, were formerly the roads that commu- 
 nicated with the ancient camp. These streets lead to 
 the four gates of the city ; they were cut out of the hill, 
 which is composed of a soft stone, that is easily worked. 
 The ground floors form a range of shops, and an open 
 portico or piazza above them is surmounted by one or 
 two stories. The story on the level of the portico, forms 
 the ground floor on the back part of the houses. The 
 manner in which the streets are built, maybe uncommon, 
 but it is by no means convenient ; the shops are small 
 and narrow ; the porticos low, irregular and supported by 
 massive columns. The preceding remark is inapplica- 
 ble to the suburbs, which are not only larger than the 
 town, but much better built. 
 
 Chester is watered by two canals ; the one communi- 
 cates with Nantwich, where a branch leads to Shropshire 
 and Montgomeryshire ; the other passes to Liverpool, 
 and connects the Dee with the Mersey. b The making 
 of gloves forms the principal branch of industry, but 
 shot, lead and white lead are manufactured on a great 
 scale. In the shot works there is a tower more than a 
 hundred feet high, and the melted lead is let fall from its 
 summit into a receiver filled with water at the bottom. 
 
 The cathedral, an irregular and heavy pile, appears as 
 if it were fallen into decay from the mouldering quality 
 of the stone with which it is built, and a considerable 
 portion of the original structure, now in the state of a 
 
 * Macclesfield Forest is on the borders of Derbyshire, near the town of 
 Macclesfield. Delamere Forest is in the western part of the county, 
 on the ridge of hills separating the valley of the Dee from that of the 
 Weaver. Frodsham is situated near the junction of the Weaver and 
 Mersey. A range of heathy hills runs along the eastern border of the 
 county, connected with those of Staffordshire and Derbyshire. — P. 
 
 b These canals form parts of a system called the Ellesmere and 
 Chester Canal. It commences in the Mersey at Ellesmere Port, and 
 crosses the Hundred of Wirral to Chester (this part called the Wirral 
 line of the Ellesmere canal ;) thence extends to Nantwich (forming 
 the Chester canal,) whence the Birmingham and Liverpool canal ex- 
 tends by Wolverhampton to Birmingham : the Ellesmere canal leaves 
 the Chester canal at Harleston, two miles west of Nantwich, and pro- 
 ceeds by Ellesmere to Frankton, where it divides into three branches 
 — one south-east to Shrewsbury (incomplete on the Shrewsbury side,) 
 rme north-west to Llandisilio on the Dee, in Denbighshire, and one 
 south-west to Llanymynech, where the Montgomeryshire canal com- 
 
 picturesque ruin, forms part of the abbey of St. Wer- 
 burgh, out of which the see of Chester was founded at the 
 dissolution. The castle of Chester was long one of the 
 petty fortresses in the kingdom, but the greater portion * 
 of it has been taken down, and a county-ball, courts of 
 justice, and a prison, are erected on its site. The last 
 building is worthy of notice on account of its interior, 
 which is constructed according to a panoptic plan, so that 
 the keeper can survey the whole of it from the windows 
 of his apartment. The cells are situated in a semicir- 
 cular building, divided into six equal parts, and each of 
 them communicates with a garden ; by this means the 
 prisoners are kept apart from each other, and divided 
 into classes according to the nature of their offences. 
 
 In the north-eastern part of the county, and near the 
 wild and bleak tract, that is still called Macclesfield For- 
 est, is situated the market town of Macclesfield, which 
 although important from the industry of its inhabitants, 
 was formerly little better than a village. Not fewer than 
 sixteen silk mills are erected in the town or neighbour- 
 hood, and different branches of the cotton manufacture 
 have been introduced with success. 
 
 The small town of Nantwich 0 may be mentioned on 
 account of its salt mines, which have been worked since 
 the beginning of the last century, and which are little 
 inferior in extent to those at Wieliczka. d 
 
 The Grand Trunk canal, which has been more than 
 once mentioned,® pursues a course of thirty miles in the 
 county of Chester. A tunnel, which it enters at Preston 
 on the Hill, is equal to 1241 yards in length, eighteen 
 feet in height, and fourteen in width. The shme canal 
 passes through two other tunnels in the neighbourhood 
 of Saltersfield ; the one is three hundred and fifty yards 
 in length, and the other more than five hundred and 
 seventy/ 
 
 The inland county of Derby is bounded on the north 
 by Yorkshire and part of Cheshire, on the east by Not- 
 tinghamshire, on the south by Leicestershire, and on the 
 west by Staffordshire and Cheshire. The limits of the 
 county, it may be easily supposed, are very irregular, and 
 it is doubtful that its superficial extent has been correctly 
 determined ; according to one of the latest measurements 
 it is not less than 720,640 acres, and of these a great num- 
 ber are cultivated. The most prominent part of the 
 central chain, which extends southwards from Scotland, 
 and forms a natural boundary between the eastern and 
 western sides of England, covers a considerable portion 
 of Derbyshire, particularly the northern and western 
 districts, and terminates in the same county. Of the 
 numerous rivers that water it, the most remarkable are 
 the Derwent, the Dove and the Trent. The first, which 
 
 mences, and thence extends up the valley of the Severn by Welshpool 
 to Newtown. — P. 
 
 c Namptwich. 
 
 d “ The Chester canal extends to Nantwich, a town of 5000 inhab- 
 itants, which carries on a great trade in eheese and salt. Near the 
 town is a large salt mine, which has been wrought for more than a 
 century, and which, although of less extent, presents a spectacle analo- 
 gous to that of Wieliczka.” (M. B.) This is a mistake. The salt 
 
 works at Nantwich are brine springs. The mines of rock salt are near 
 Northwich ; the largest in the township of Wilton. The pits of rock 
 
 salt in Cheshire were first discovered in 1G70. Northwich is the 
 
 only salt town in Cheshire, that possesses mines of rock salt. (Ed. 
 
 Enc.) — P. 
 
 e See note f p. 121 1 . 
 
 1 There is a tunnel at Barton in Great Budworth, 572 yards long, 
 and another at Saltersford or Saltersfield, in the same parish, 350 yards 
 long. — (Rees’ Cyc. art Canals.) — P. 
 
BOOK CUV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 539 
 
 must not be confounded with the three rivers of the same 
 name in Yorkshire, Durham and Cumberland, rises in the 
 High Peak, almost divides the county, and joins the 
 Trent on the borders of Leicestershire. The second 
 runs nearly parallel to the former, between Derbyshire 
 and' Staffordshire, and falls into the same river. The 
 Trent crosses the southern angle of the county, and 
 separates it from Staffordshire and Nottinghamshire.® 
 
 The loftiest hills are the Axe-edge and the Kinder- 
 scout, but they are much inferior in elevation to the 
 mountains in Cumberland, Westmoreland or Wales. Al- 
 though Derbyshire does not possess romantic lakes and 
 waterfalls, it abounds in natural curiosities which are not 
 to be found in the northern counties. A laborious 
 writer b has collected an alphabetical list of 700 hills in 
 the county and its confines, fifty narrow valleys or 
 ravines, ninety mineral springs, and five hundred col- 
 lieries, of which, however, not more than a half, and 
 many of these no longer worked, are situated within the 
 limits of Derbyshire. The caverns, the natural excava- 
 tions, and the wonders of the Peak, as they are called, 
 have been described by numerous writers. The most 
 remarkable of the caverns may be briefly mentioned. 
 Poole’s Hole near Buxton, is a fissure in a calcareous 
 mass, where a narrow and winding entrance forms a 
 passage into a spacious cavern, of which the roof, floor 
 and sides are adorned with stalactites. A cavern near 
 Castleton,® a village in the Peak, forms a subterranean 
 passage of 750 yards, which is broken in several places 
 by narrow pools. The sides are composed of different 
 coloured spars, and a petrifying water continually exudes 
 from them. Mam-Tor in the neighbourhood of Castle- 
 ton has been called the Shivering Mountain, on account 
 of the decomposed shale, that falls from a precipice into 
 the valley below it. Elden Hole, a perpendicular 
 chasm, not more than three miles from the last place, 
 was long considered unfathomable, but by more correct 
 examinations, its depth has been reduced to seventy 
 yards. 
 
 The mineral products of the same hills are numerous 
 and valuable. Lead, the most important of any, has 
 been obtained in great quantities, and one sort of it, d 
 which appears to be confined to Derbyshire, is found 
 in a vertical position, and explodes in mining. Many 
 of these mines are exhausted, but calamine is still ob- 
 tained in their vicinity. Lime of the best quality is 
 burnt in the Lower Peak,* and conveyed to considera- 
 ble distances. Iron ore is chiefly dug on the north-east- 
 ern side, and it has already been observed that coal is 
 most plentiful on the same side, and that the strata ex- 
 tend from north to south. The Derbyshire spar f is 
 wrought into a variety of ornamental articles, and the 
 neighbouring hills are rich in marble, of which the finest 
 kinds are worked at Ashton. The numerous quarries 
 yield different kinds of stone, and gypsum, not the least 
 valuable of their products, abounds in the neighbourhood 
 of Chellaston. Of the numerous mineral springs, the 
 
 » The Trent first separates Staffordshire from Derbyshire, then 
 crosses the southern extremity of the latter, and finally separates it 
 from Leicestershire, and for a shorter distance, from Nottingham- 
 shire. — P. 
 
 b Farey. 
 
 c Called Peak Cavern, or Peak’s Hole. — P. 
 
 4 Called Slickenside. — P. 
 
 e Particularly in the neighbourhood of Crich. — P. 
 
 most celebrated or those of Buxton and Matlock belong 
 to the sulphureous class . e The first were known to the 
 Romans ; they are used both externally and internally, 
 and are chiefly resorted to on account of scorbutic, ner- 
 vous and rheumatic affections. Their temperature is 
 about 82° of Fahrenheit, and the principal difference 
 between them and those of Matlock, consists in the 
 lower temperature of the latter. 
 
 Derby, the capital, and almost the only populous 
 town in the county, is situated in the southern part of 
 Derbyshire, and watered by the Derwent, of which the 
 streams set in motion the machinery of the silk and cot- 
 ton manufactures in the town and neighbourhood. The 
 raw materials and the manufactures are conveyed by 
 means of the Derby canal, which consists of three 
 branches that meet in the same city. The first crosses 
 the Grand Trunk, and falls into the Trent at Swarkstone, 
 the second extends northwards, and the third communi- 
 cates with the Ere wash canal. It was on the banks of 
 the river that the first mill for winding and twisting silk 
 was erected in 1718, by John Lombe, who having dis- 
 covered the secret from the Italians, is supposed to have 
 been poisoned by them. It may be doubted that there is 
 at present any mill in Italy, of which the machinery is so 
 perfect ; a single wheel puts in motion more than 25,000 
 reel bobbins, and nearly 2000 star-wheels. It may be 
 added that any one of the reels can be stopped at pleas- 
 ure, and that every time the wheel goes round, which is 
 thrice in a minute, it makes 73,728 yards of thread. 
 The silk and cotton manufactories do not, however, 
 afford occupation to all the industrious inhabitants ; the 
 same place is also famous for its porcelain, which in 
 brilliancy of colour, and fineness of texture, may bear a 
 comparison with that of China. Many persons find em- 
 ployment in the marble works, or in turning vases, urns 
 and other ornaments of the spar, which abounds in the 
 vicinity. Other individuals are employed in the iron 
 and lead works, and it is calculated that four-fifths of the 
 inhabitants are engaged in these different branches of 
 industry. 1 * 
 
 Derby is divided into five parishes, and the Church 
 of All Saints is considered the finest in the town, 
 although a rich Gothic tower appears out of place in a 
 Grecian building. Of the other edifices, the most re- 
 markable are the county hall, the town hall and the 
 county gaol, and it may be observed that the infirmary, 
 which was finished in 1810, is one of the most perfect 
 institutions of the kind in England.* 
 
 Chesterfield, the only other important place in the 
 county, rises on the western side of the Rother. Like 
 Derby, it is noted for its cotton and silk manufactories, 
 but several potteries and iron works have been estab- 
 lished in the neighbourhood, from which the fuel and 
 the ore are obtained. The products of the lead and the 
 coal mines are conveyed by a canal, that extends from 
 the same place to the Trent. 
 
 It has been supposed that the celebrated Sir Richard 
 
 f Fluor spar. — P. 
 
 e Buxton and Matlock waters are simply thermal, with scarcely 
 more mineral impregnation than common water. There are, however 
 several sulphureous springs in the county, of which the most noted is 
 that of Keddlestone. — P. 
 h Capper. 
 
 5 The town of Derby is mentioned in history, as the furthest point 
 to which the rebels of 1745 advanced. 
 
n 
 
 540 EUROPE. [booxcliv, 
 
 Arkwright was a native of the county ; this, however, is 
 a mistake ; he was born at Preston in Lancashire. But 
 the small town of Tunstead in Derbyshire, was the birth- 
 place of Mr. James Brindley, the greatest engineer of 
 his age, and who in some respects may be compared 
 with Arkwright ; both were self-educated, both rose to 
 eminence from the humblest rank, and the genius of 
 both is displayed in the increased resources of their 
 country. 
 
 The inland county of Nottingham is bounded on the 
 west by Derbyshire, on the north by Yorkshire, on the 
 east by Lincolnshire, and on the south by Leicester- 
 shire. The area does not amount to more than 800 
 square miles, but the greatest length of the county is 
 equal to fifty, and the greatest breadth to nearly twenty- 
 six. Situated between the Lincolnshire flats on the one 
 hand, and the Derbyshire hills on the other, the climate 
 is comparatively dry, wholesome and not unfavourable 
 to the growth of useful plants. The soil and the face 
 of the country are sufficiently varied, but the former 
 may be included under four divisions. The limestone- 
 and coal district is formed by a narrow stripe, which 
 commences at the Derbyshire border, and stretches in a 
 south-east direction to Bilborough and VVollaton. A 
 much broader bfelt, which extends to the northern ex- 
 tremity of the county, consists chiefly of sand and 
 gravel. The length of this district is about thirty miles, 
 and the breadth varies from seven to ten. In this part 
 of Nottinghamshire is situated the ancient royal forest 
 of Sherwood, the scene of many fabulous adventures. 
 It remained long destitute of trees, and without cultiva- 
 tion, but the greater part of it has been enclosed, and 
 many large parks have been granted to different propri- 
 etors by the crown ; these have been brought into till- 
 age, and adorned with thriving trees. The turnip hus- 
 bandry has been introduced with great success in the 
 same district, which is equally fruitful in barley and 
 other sorts of grain. If the level land along the banks 
 of the Trent and the Soar be excepted, the clay district 
 occupies the rest of the county. The former, which 
 appears on both banks of the river throughout an extent 
 of thirty miles, with an average breadth of nearly six, 
 is in general a fruitful vegetable mould, resting on a 
 bottom of sand or gravel, that appears in some places at 
 the surface. The clay thus divided into two parts, 
 which are generally called the North and South Clay 
 Divisions, is not of so tenacious a quality as in other 
 counties, a circumstance which must be attributed to 
 ‘ts mixture with sand. The northern division includes 
 the picturesque vale of Belvoir,* which is little inferior 
 in fertility to any other in England. The Nottinghamshire 
 
 * The Vale of Belvoir is situated in the South Clay Division to the 
 south of Newark. — The natural divisions of the county may be better 
 defined thus : the Coal and Limestone District forms a belt of about 
 two miles wide, along the borders of Derbyshire, from the Trent 
 northwards; the Sand and Gravel District forms a parallel belt, about 
 seven miles wide, from the Trent to the northern boundary ; the Clay 
 District occupies all the eastern part of the county, with the exception 
 of the valley of the Trent, called Trent Bank, which divides it into two 
 parts — the North Clay, and the South Clay Divisions, each about five 
 miles wide ; the former on the north of the Trent, from Nottingham to 
 Gainsborough ; the latter on the south, from Newark to Leicestershire, 
 including the Vale of Belvoir and the Wolds. — P. 
 
 11 Lowe’s Agricultural Survey of Nottinghamshire. 
 c The Nottingham canal extends from the Trent, near Nottingham, 
 north-west fifteen miles, to the junction of the Croinford and Erewash 
 canals, at Langley bridge. From this point, the Croinford canal pro- 
 
 Wolds extend on the south ; they were formerly un- 
 productive, but are now enclosed and in a state of 
 improvement. b 
 
 The farmers devote their attention to the raising of 
 grain for home consumption or exportation ; the rearing 
 of cattle, and the management of the dairy, are objects 
 of secondary importance. Hops are much cultivated in 
 many parts of the North Clay, and in the central dis- 
 tricts, particularly in the neighbourhood of Ollerton and 
 Betford. They are inferior in value to the Kentish 
 hops, and are supposed to be of a coarser and stronger 
 flavour. 
 
 Coal, lime and gypsum are the most valuable of the 
 mineral products. The first commences near Teversall, 
 and runs southwards to Trow ell and Wollaton, including 
 in its range almost every parish within two or three 
 miles of the Erewash. The second lies on the east of 
 the former, between it and the sand district ; it forms an 
 equally long but somewhat narrower stripe, and covers 
 the coal, which sinks beneath it. Much gypsum is 
 raised near Newark, and converted into plaster of Paris. 
 
 The same county abounds in rivers, but none is so 
 celebrated as the Trent, which after crossing Staffordshire 
 and Derbyshire, enters the south-western extremity of 
 Nottinghamshire, winds alongthe eastern side, and diffuses 
 fertility over the meadows, which it waters. The same 
 river, to which the others are -tributary, partly separates 
 the county from Lincolnshire. The Mann, the Meden 
 and the Poulter, flowing from the middle and north- 
 western part of Nottinghamshire, unite and form the 
 Idle, which falls into the Trent near its confluence with 
 the Ouse. 
 
 The artificial channels, which have been cut at differ- 
 ent periods, have greatly contributed to improve the 
 trade, agriculture and industry of the inhabitants. The 
 most of them run in different directions from the Trent 
 near Nottingham. The Nottingham canal extends from 
 the town, fifteen miles in a north-west direction, through 
 the county, and onwards to Cromford in Derbyshire.® 
 The Trent canal proceeds from Nottingham in a south- 
 west direction, unites the Trent with the Mersey, and 
 communicates with the former by different branches. 3 
 Lastly, by means of the Leicester and Grand Junction 
 canals, the first of which enters the Trent a short way 
 above Nottingham, the inland navigation extends to 
 the metropolis. 0 
 
 Although the inhabitants of Nottingham are engaged 
 in different branches of industry, the staple manufacture 
 is that of silk and cotton stockings. They are all 
 wrought on the stocking frame, a simple and ingenious 
 machine, which, it has already been remarked, was 
 
 ceeds eighteen miles north-west, chiefly in Derbyshire, by Crich to 
 Cromford, and the Erewash canal, south 11| miles, to the Trent, op- 
 posite the mouth of the Soar. — P. 
 
 d The Trent canal is a side cut of 10 miles, along the Trent, from 
 Trent bridge, near Nottingham, to the commencement of the Grand 
 Trunk (Trent and Mersey) canal at Sawley. (See note f p. 1211.) It 
 is connected with the Nottingham canal by the Erewash canal. — P. 
 
 e This line is formed by the Loughborough and Leicestershire nav- 
 igations, (the former commencing in the Trent at the mouth of the 
 Soar, and proceeding up the course of the last river to near Loughbor- 
 ough, and the latter continuing it up the same river to Leicester;) 
 then the Union canal, from Leicester to Market Harborough ; the 
 Grand Union canal, (leaving the Union canal near Foxton, two miles 
 W. of Market Harborough, and entering the Grand Junction canal 
 near Buckley wharf, north-east of Daventry;) and lastly, the Grand 
 Junction canal, to London. — P. 
 
book cur.] DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 invented in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, by Mr. Wil- 
 liam Lee, a native of the county. It appears that the 
 number of frames amounted about the middle of the last 
 century to tvvelv® hundred, and that exclusively of 
 weavers, they furnished employment to four hundred 
 workmen, to many winders, sizers and seamers. The 
 present number exceeds twelve thousand, and in conse- 
 quence of the demand for silk and cotton in the manu- 
 factories, the spinning of these stuffs has been introduced 
 into the town, into different parts of the county, and 
 also into Derbyshire. Many hands are employed in 
 manufacturing shawls and lace for veils, but the other 
 branches of industry, the tanning and malting trades, for 
 which Nottingham was formerly distinguished, have 
 fallen into decay. It contained 34,253 inhabitants in 
 1811 ; ten years afterwards, in 1821, the number had 
 increased to 40,415; but about thirty years ago, when 
 the population was comparatively small, the mechanics 
 attributed low wages and want of employment to the use 
 of machinery ; conspiring to abolish it, they became 
 incendiaries and frame-breakers. The vanity of the 
 attempt was only equalled by its injustice, and experi- 
 ence shows what have since been the results of machine- 
 ry in the same town, for the manufactories are now 
 more than doubled, a half is added to the population, 
 and the condition of the working classes is improved. 
 It is not improbable that most of the English workmen 
 are now aware that the abridgment of labour, or addi- 
 tional facility of production, tends both to diffuse wealth 
 and to increase their comforts. 
 
 The town rises on a rock above the meadows watered 
 by the Trent. The same rock is of so soft and porous 
 a texture, that all the cellars are cut out of it, and in the 
 largest are deposited the malt liquors, for which Not- 
 tingham was formerly distinguished. It is long since the 
 ancient walls, the fortress and the gates were destroyed ; 
 a castle, however, was erected near the site of the 
 fortress by the Duke of Newcastle in the short reign of 
 James the Second. It was on a neighbouring hill that 
 Charles the First hoisted his standard in 1642, the sig- 
 nal for the commencement of the civil wars ; but the 
 same height is now intersected by four streets, those of 
 King, Charles, Standard and Hill. 
 
 The infirmary is a large building to which additions 
 have been made, in consequence of a donation of £20,000 
 from an unknown individual. Other institutions, such 
 as hospitals for the relief of the aged and the poor, 
 have been founded by benevolent persons. 
 
 Newark, the town next in importance to the capital, 
 is watered by a branch of the Trent, and situated on the 
 great northern road near the eastern confines of the 
 county. It is considered the greatest market for corn 
 in this part of the kingdom, and it carries on an exten- 
 sive trade in malt, wool, cattle and coal. Limestone 
 and gypsum abound in the neighbourhood ; the latter is 
 converted into plaster of Paris, and exported by sea to 
 London. 
 
 The august ruins of a castle form the finest ornaments 
 of the place. It is said to have been built by a bishop 
 of Lincoln in the reign of king Stephen, and it is added 
 
 a It is contiguous for a short distance on the west to Staffordshire. — P. 
 
 b Ledecestrescire. (Rees’ Cyc.) — This signifies the shire (Sa x. scire, 
 from scyran, to divide) of Ledecestre. Leicester was formerly writ- 
 
 ten Lege-cestria, Legeo-cester, and in the Saxon annals, Leger-ceaster. 
 (Rees’ Cyc.) — Leicester (Saxon, Lcagceaster, from Icag, fallow ground 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 541 
 
 that it was long called the New- Work, a name which 
 was given to the town. It is certain that king John died 
 within its walls in the year 1216, and at the same place 
 the unfortunate Charles surrendered himself after the 
 defeat at Naseby to the Scotch army, that were then be- 
 sieging Newark. At no very remote period, the great 
 road in the vicinity was often impassable in consequence 
 of inundations. To obviate this inconvenience, an act 
 was obtained for a new one in 1770. Thirteen bridges 
 of various sizes, and consisting of ninety-four arches, 
 now carry it above the reach of the floods to Muskham 
 bridge, a distance of a mile and a half. This excellent 
 road, which forms a fine approach to the town, is the 
 work of the celebrated Smeaton. 
 
 The ancient town of Mansfield, the only other place 
 of any consequence, is situated on the western side of 
 Sherwood Forest, about fourteen miles from Nottingham. 
 It carries on a trade in corn and malt, and the inhabit- 
 ants are occupied in different branches of industry, but 
 principally in cotton spinning, hosiery, lace and stocking 
 manufactories. The largest cotton mill has 2400 spin- 
 dles, and furnishes employment to nearly 200 persons. 
 An easy outlet to these manufactures and to the mineral 
 products that are worked in the neighbourhood, is ob- 
 tained by means of a cast-iron rail-way, which extends 
 from Mansfield to the Pinxton canal, a distance of more 
 than seven miles. 
 
 The county of Leicester is contiguous to Nottingham- 
 shire and Derbyshire on the north, to the latter county 
 and Warwickshire on the west,® to Northamptonshire on 
 the south, and to Rutlandshire and Lincolnshire on the 
 east. The limits are for the most part artificial ; but 
 the Soar and the Trent form part of the northern 
 boundary, while the small river Anker, and Watling 
 Street, a celebrated Roman road, are the limits on the 
 Warwickshire side, and the Avon and the Welland sep- 
 arate it from Northamptonshire. According to a return 
 to the House of Lords, the superficial extent is equal to 
 804 square miles, the greatest length to forty-five, the 
 utmost breadth to thirty, and the circumference to a 
 hundred and fifty. It was inhabited by the Coritam 
 before the invasion of the Romans, who included it in the 
 province of Flavia Ccesariensis. It formed part of 
 Mercia in the time of the Heptarchy, and its present 
 name is supposed to be derived from the Saxon word 
 Ledccsterscyre, which signifies a fortress on the Scyr, 
 the ancient name of the Soar. b 
 
 The country is varied by hills and plains ; the decliv- 
 ities of the former serve to carry off the water, but their 
 altitude is in few places a barrier to cultivation. The 
 capital is situated on a plain in the centre of the county ; 
 the land rises towards the east and the south, but the 
 loftiest heights are those in the west towards Charnwood 
 Forest. Their elevation, however, is not great, for it 
 appears from the Trigonometrical Survey, that no part 
 of Leicestershire is higher than nine hundred or lower 
 than one hundred feet above the level of the sea. The 
 central plain is watered by the Soar, the principal 
 river in the county, and the outlet of the streams from 
 the surrounding hills. All the waters of Leicestershire 
 
 (lea,) and ccaster (Lat. castrum,) a city — the Roman stations or 
 camps ( castra ) having become the sites of the old Saxon towns.) 
 
 (Bailey’s Diet.) The Soar, anciently the Leire, (whence the name 
 
 of the county.) (Luckombe.) — P. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 542 
 
 serve to enlarge the Trent,® and thus to form that admira- 
 ble system of inland navigation, which has so much 
 contributed to the prosperity of England. b But Leices- 
 tershire is more distinguished as a pastoral than a manu- 
 facturing county, and the soil has been described as a 
 fine mixture of clay and sand, without the sterility of the 
 one, or the too great tenacity of the other. It is remarka- 
 ble that the highest districts are in general the most 
 productive, and the lowest, the least fruitful ; in other 
 words, the clay of the valleys does not appear to be 
 tempered with a sufficient proportion of sand. According 
 to the agricultural survey, many farms in the south-eastern 
 and central districts are wholly pastoral, but in the north 
 and west a portion of each farm is generally reserved 
 for grain and other crops. The number of acres under 
 occasional tillage is supposed to be equal to 240,000.® 
 At no distant period, before the fields in this fruitful 
 county were enclosed, it produced plenty of corn, but 
 grass has been found to be more profitable, and every 
 Branch of husbandry is now subservient to the rearing 
 of stock. Of the sheep there are three varieties, the 
 Forest, the Old Leicester and the New Leicester; the 
 two first, however, are almost superseded by the last, 
 which are now scattered over most parts of England. 
 Th is valuable variety was the result of experiments 
 undertaken by Mr. Bakewell of Dishley, who appears 
 to have made the most valuable properties not only of 
 that useful domestic animal, but also of the horse and the 
 ox, subject to his control. 
 
 Stilton-cheese is made near Melton-Mowbray, and 
 about two hundred tons of it are sold at the Leicester 
 October fair. Five thousand tons of cheese are annually 
 exported by the Trent from this and the adjoining coun- 
 ties, and it is not supposed that Leicester contributes less 
 than 1,500, the produce of 7,500 milch-cows. d Coal 
 and lime, the most valuable minerals, are obtained on 
 the borders of Derbyshire. Iron ore is common on the 
 Ashby wolds, but as it is only found below the depth of 
 six hundred feet, the metal does not pay the expense of 
 extracting it. Granite is exported from Mount Sorrel, 
 and slate from the eastern side of Charnwood Forest. 
 
 The manufacture of wool is the staple one of the 
 county, and Leicester, the capital, is only inferior to 
 Nottingham in this department of industry ; the coarser 
 goods are more common in the former place, and the 
 finer sorts in the latter. It is calculated that the different 
 branches of the hosiery manufactures furnish employment 
 to seven or eight thousand inhabitants of Leicester, and 
 it is certain that in prosperous seasons more than five 
 thousand dozens of stockings have been made in a week. 
 The same place boasts of a high antiquity ; anterior to 
 the Roman invasion, it was the chief town in the country 
 of the Contain, and it was known at a later period as the 
 Rata of Antoninus. Situated on the Fosse-way, many 
 valuable antiquities have been found near it, and coins, 
 which might afford a complete series from the reign of 
 Nero to that of Valerius. It was afterwards the seat of 
 
 1 The streams on the south-eastern border flow into the Welland, 
 and on the south-western, into the Avon. — P. 
 
 b “ The most elevated district, called Charnwood Forest, gives rise 
 to six rivers, all of which unite witli the Trent, and may thus be con- 
 sidered the centre of that great system of inland navigation, which 
 has contributed so greatly to the progress of agriculture and manu- 
 factures." (M. B.) — P. 
 
 c Pitt’s Survey of Leicestershire. d Pitt, Idem. 
 
 [BOOK CLIV 
 
 a mint, and Saxon money struck at Leicester, is still 
 preserved in more than one collection. The town be 
 came memorable at a later period as the seat of a par- 
 liament, that enforced by law the burning of heretics. 
 Lastly, in an abbey, of which the ruins still adorn the 
 neighbourhood, the ambitious Wolsey ended his days in 
 poverty and disgrace. 
 
 It appears from Domesday book, that Leicestershire 
 then contained 36,000 inhabitants. The extent of sur- 
 face is equal to 816 square miles, so that the ratio of the 
 population to the surface, must have been about forty- 
 four to every square mile ; but according to the returns 
 of 1831, the present number is greater than two hundred 
 and forty. This fact is the more remarkable as Leices- 
 tershire has been surpassed by many counties in the 
 career of commerce and wealth. 
 
 The small county of Rutland, the least in England, is 
 encompassed on the north by Lincolnshire, on the west 
 by Leicestershire, and on the south-east by Northamp- 
 tonshire. It contains an area of 200 square miles, but it 
 is nowhere more than eighteen miles in length, and fifteen 
 in breadth. The vale of Catmose, in the central district, 
 is the largest and most fruitful in Rutland, but numerous 
 small vallies are intersected by gently sloping hills, 
 extending from east to west, and bounding many varied 
 and romantic views. Different parts of the county are 
 fruitful in corn, while others are well stocked with sheep. 
 The most prevalent soil consists of a strong red loam, 
 mixed with keal,° and resting on clay. But in the vale 
 of Catmose, the same loam is mixed with clay, and to that 
 circumstance its fertility has been ascribed/ Although 
 there are many sorts of soil in the southern and south- 
 eastern districts, they are on the whole the least fruitful 
 in the county. The mineral products are of secondary 
 importance ; limestone is worked in different places ; 
 numerous chalybeate springs denote the existence of iron 
 ore, but it has not yet been discovered in any part of 
 Rutlandshire. Many brooks and streams enlarge the 
 two principal rivers, the Welland and the Guash.e The 
 first separates Rutlandshire from Northamptonshire, while 
 the second flows through the middle of tbe county. No 
 branch of manufacturing industry is established on a great 
 scale ; but the trade of different places has been improved, 
 and the conveyance of agricultural products facilitated, 
 since the Oakham canal was completed. It commences 
 at the Melton Navigation, 1 11 waters Wymondham and 
 Market-Overton, and extends to Oakham on the north 
 of the vale of Catmose. Of Oakham, the chief town, it 
 may be sufficient to remark that it contains only 1700 
 inhabitants. 
 
 The inland county of Northampton is bounded on the 
 north by Leicestershire, Rutlandshire, and Lincolnshire, 
 on the east and south by Cambridgeshire, Huntingdon- 
 shire, Bedfordshire, Buckinghamshire and part of Oxford- 
 shire, and on the west by Oxfordshire and Warwickshire. 
 As it touches on not fewer than nine counties, it may be 
 inferred that it is of a very elongated and irregular form. 
 
 e Small angular fragments of stone, such as limestone, sandstone, or 
 slate. — P. 
 
 f Parkinson's Agricultural Survey of Rutland, 
 s The Guash or Wash, a branch of the Welland. — P. 
 h At the termination of the Melton-Mowbray navigation. — This last 
 leaves the Leicester navigation 8 miles above Loughborough, and fol 
 lows the course of the Wreake and the Eye rivers, twelve miles, to 
 Melton-Mowbray. — P . 
 
BOOK CLIV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 543 
 
 It appears indeed that it is sixty-five miles long, twenty- 
 five in breadth in some places, and only eight in others. 
 According to the same measurement, it contains 965 
 square miles, and according to the last population returns, 
 the number of inhabitants to each square mile is greater 
 than a hundred and eighty-five. It has been long noted 
 for its healthful climate, its varied sites, and the number 
 of country-houses with which it is adorned. The ancient 
 forests, still of considerable extent, and still well wooded, 
 occupy nearly 80,000 acres ; of these the largest are 
 that of Rockingham on the north, and those ol Salcey 
 and Whittlebury* on the south. They afford shelter 
 to different sorts of game, and the wild cat, the fiercest 
 of the English quadrupeds, still frequents them. They 
 must be considered, however, a very inadequate com- 
 pensation for the advantages of coal, of which the 
 county is destitute, and of which the high price presses 
 severely on the lower orders. Northampton is princi- 
 pally distinguished as a grazing county, but the grain 
 that is raised for exportation forms no small portion of its 
 products. Wheat, flour, oats, beans and woad for dyeing 
 are exported. Fruitful meadows are scattered in differ- 
 ent directions, and the largest tract extends on both sides 
 of the Nen from Northampton to Peterborough. The 
 north-eastern districts, contiguous to Lincolnshire and 
 Cambridgeshire, abound in marshes, and the Peterbor- 
 ough Fen, which reaches to the neighbourhood of Crow- 
 land, is not inferior to the richest meadows in England. 
 Many large horses of the Leicestershire breed, are reared 
 in these pastures ; the oxen too, are remarkable for their 
 size and weight; they are, however, of no particular kind, 
 but are bought at different fairs, and fattened in the 
 county. 
 
 The ground rises on the north and north-west, and 
 becomes gradually lower towards the south-eastern boun- 
 dary. The loftiest eminences extend along the north- 
 western borders, and in the neighbourhood of Daventry, 
 they reach the height of more than eight hundred feet 
 above the level of the sea. The Nen, the principal 
 ri^er, has its source in this part of Northamptonshire, 
 traverses it nearly its whole length, and is enlarged by 
 many streams. The Cherwell, which like the Nen, flows 
 into the eastern sea, and the Leam, which discharges 
 itself into the western, rise in the same part of the county. 
 Communications have been improved or extended by 
 numerous canals. A branch of the Oxford canal, the 
 first which was cut in Northamptonshire, extends west- 
 wards, and communicates with others in the populous 
 districts round Birmingham. b The Grand Junction com- 
 mences in Northamptonshire, 0 and advances southwards 
 in an unbroken line to the Thames. d The Leicester 
 canal proceeding in an opposite direction, opens a com- 
 munication with the Trent and Mersey. These opposite 
 lines are joirited by the Grand Union, which enters the 
 Junction near Daventry, and the Leicester at Market- 
 Scarborough. e 
 
 Northampton, the capital of the county, is pleasantly 
 situated on an eminence above the waters of the Nen. 
 
 1 Whittlewood or Whittlebury. — P. 
 
 v The Oxford canal runs a short distance in Northamptonshire, on 
 its western confines, near the origin of the Grand Junction canal. The 
 branch, here referred to, is the Warwick and Napton canal, leaving 
 the Oxford canal at Napton in Warwickshire, and extending to the 
 town of Warwick, where it joins the Warwick and Birmingham 
 canal. — P. 
 
 It consists of four principal streets, with which several 
 others communicate, and the houses are uniformly built 
 ol a kind of freestone that hardens by exposure to the 
 air. The inhabitants carry on a trade in shoes, stock- 
 ings and lace, but more individuals are employed in 
 making boots and shoes than in any other branch of 
 industry. The mart for these articles is not confined to 
 London ; many of them are exported to the colonies. 
 The market-place is built in the form of a square about 
 six hundred feet in length ; it is there that the horse 
 fairs are held, to which the dealers from London and 
 York repair, and which for carriage and saddle horses, 
 are considered equal to any in England. The same town 
 is mentioned in history on account of the number of 
 councils which were held in it, and also on account of its 
 monastic institutions, its formidable castle, and its military 
 importance. King John, offended with the citizens of 
 London, commanded the exchequer to be removed to 
 Northampton in the tenth year of his reign. Edward the 
 First made it frequently a place of residence, and one of 
 the numerous crosses, which that monarch erected to the 
 memory of Queen Eleanor, is still to be seen in the 
 neighbourhood. In the year 1460, a memorable battle 
 was fought in the adjoining meadows on the banks of the 
 Nen, between the forces of Henry the Sixth, and the 
 Yorkists, in which the former were defeated, and the. 
 king taken prisoner by the earl of Warwick. 
 
 The small town of Peterborough on the borders of 
 Huntingdonshire, was formerly distinguished for its mon- 
 astery, which Henry the Eighth changed by letters 
 patent into an episcopal see, and in the same manner, 
 the conventual church was converted into a cathedral. 
 It is a building of irregular architecture, in which the 
 Norman style predominates ; the interior may be men- 
 tioned for its sepulchral monuments, particularly for those 
 of Catharine of Arragon, and the unfortunate Mary, queen 
 of Scotland, who was buried there in 1587. f Peterbor- 
 ough is the least episcopal city in England, but it is a 
 place of considerable industry and trade ; many of the 
 inhabitants are engaged in manufacturing stockings, and 
 the commerce consists in coal, corn, malt and timber, 
 that are transported by means of the Nen, which is navi- 
 gable for barges. The same town was the birth-place 
 of Dr. William Paley, and it may be added that the 
 celebrated Dryden was a native of the county. The 
 ruins of Fotheringay Castle may be traced near the vil- 
 lage of the same name. It was there that Richard the 
 Third was born, and it was there also that the queen of 
 the Scots terminated her wretched fate, and suffered with 
 the utmost fortitude the death to which she was unjustly 
 condemned. The same castle was demolished by James 
 the First, and little more than the moats remain to mark 
 its site. 
 
 The county of Huntingdon is enclosed by those of 
 Bedford, Cambridge, and Northampton. The first is con- 
 tiguous to it on the south-west, the second on the south- 
 east and north-east, and the last on the north and west. 
 The boundaries are very irregular and mostly artificial ; 
 
 c In the Oxford canal, at Braunston, near the western confines. — P. 
 
 d Through Northamptonshire, Bucks, Hertfordshire, and Middlesex, 
 to London. — P. 
 
 e See notes d and c p. 1220. 
 
 f The remains of the queen were afterwards removed by her son to 
 Westminster Abbey. 
 
 
544 
 
 EUKUPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIV. 
 
 the area is supposed to be equal to 310 square miles, so 
 that if Rutland and Middlesex, be excepted, Hunting- 
 donshire is less than any other county in England. It is 
 only distinguished as a farming county ; its manufactures 
 are too insignificant to require notice. The Ouse, which 
 enters Huntingdonshire from Bedfordshire, passes by 
 St. Neots, Huntingdon and St. Ives, is navigable through- 
 out its course, and waters meadows that have been long 
 noted for their fertility ; of these, Portholm-mead® in the 
 vicinity of Huntingdon, is not the least celebrated ; such 
 too, are the south-eastern districts ; b the central and the 
 western are more varied, fruitful in corn, and by no 
 means destitute of trees. The uplands were formerly 
 covered with w r oods, and well adapted for the chase; 
 hence they were denominated the Hunting-Downs , from 
 which the county derives its name. The Nen, which 
 separates Huntingdonshire from Northamptonshire, forms 
 several lakes or meres, I * * * * 6 and the marshy districts on the 
 north-east are composed of fens which are connected 
 with those of the last county, and with the extensive 
 tract that has been denominated the Bedford Level, that 
 passes through Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire. Wliit- 
 tlesea-Mere, although much smaller than it once was, is 
 equal in length to six miles, and in breadth to three, and 
 covers an area of 1570 acres ; like the others in the same 
 county, it abounds with wild fowl The fen-lands have 
 been estimated at 44,000 acres, or rather more than a 
 fifth part of the surface but of these more than 10,000, 
 which have been drained, afford good pasturage. Although 
 the village of Stilton is famous for its cheese, the cattle 
 are admitted to be of an inferior kind. d 
 
 The county contains no towns of much importance, 
 nut it may be remarked that Huntingdon, the capital, is 
 finely situated on an eminence above the rich and ver- 
 dant meadows on the northern bank of the Ouse, which 
 being navigable for barges and small vessels, enables the 
 inhabitants to carry on a trade in coals, timber and other 
 articles that are imported at Lynn. The town consists 
 principally of a single street, extending more than a mile 
 in a north-western direction from the bank of the river. 
 It is connected by means of a causeway and three bridges 
 with the ancient village of Godmanchester, of which it is 
 said to have been originally a dependence. It is proba- 
 ble, however, that it was once more important than at 
 present, as it formerly contained fifteen parishes, a num- 
 ber which has since been reduced to two. Huntingdon 
 is well known as the birth-place of Oliver Cromwell, and 
 the parish register of the year 1599, in which his baptism 
 is recorded, is still preserved with great care. 
 
 The inland county of Bedford is bounded on the north 
 by Huntingdonshire and Northamptonshire, on the west 
 by Buckinghamshire, on the south by the same county 
 
 I Portsholme Mead (Ed. Enc.) Portsholm, or Portmead (Luck- 
 ombe.) — P. 
 
 b The borders of the Ouse, flowing across the S. E. part, consist of 
 a tract of most beautiful and fertile meadows, of which Portsholme 
 Mead, near Huntingdon, is particularly celebrated. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 c The Nen forms the northern boundary of the shire. On the north- 
 eastern confines are several large meres or pools. The Nen sinks into 
 the fens below Peterborough, but it is not directly connected with the 
 meres, nor can it be considered as forming them. — P. 
 
 II Parkinson’s Agricultural Survey of Huntingdonshire. 
 
 e Aikin, Idem. 
 
 r Lignite, or Brown Coal — in the Iron sand formation, between the 
 Chalk and Oolitic formations. — P. 
 
 s “ A Roman way, called Ickenild Street, traverses the county and 
 nasses by the small town uf Dunstable ; a second crosses the former, 
 
 and Hertfordshire, and on the east by the last county and 
 Cambridgeshire. The Ouse and a small river are the 
 only natural limits ; the first bounds it a short way on the 
 east and west, while the second waters the south-western 
 confines. The figure of the county, although very irregu- 
 lar, bears some resemblance to an ellipsis, of which the 
 longer axis is about thirty-six miles, and the shorter about 
 twenty. It contains about 296,000 acres, and of these, 
 according to a recent return, more than 80,000 are in a 
 course of tillage, and 168,000 in pasturage. There are 
 few extensive plains, but the country is varied by hill 
 and dale. The ridge of chalk hills rises to a considera- 
 ble height on the south, and in many places projects 
 abruptly into’ the vallies. A tract of comparatively sterile 
 land extends beneath the chalk to a considerable distance, 
 but the soil has been improved by the chalky earth, which 
 is used as a manure. A stripe of good land passes from 
 the south-eastern corner to the middle of the county, and 
 terminates northwards in sandy hills. The western part 
 is in general flat and sandy, and well cultivated according 
 to the Norfolk method. Large tracts of deep and barren 
 sand in the vicinity of Woburn appear to be only fit for 
 plantations. Lastly, the cultivation of garden vegetable? 
 furnishes employment to many of the inhabitants between 
 the town of Biggleswade and the village of Sandy. e The 
 minerals are not numerous, and with one exception, not 
 very important. Limestone, coarse marble and imper- 
 fect coal f are obtained in many places, and also a variety 
 of petrifactions, particularly different shells and Cornua 
 Ammonis. Mineral waters are common, but none of 
 them are held in great repute ; some are saline, and others 
 chalybeate, but the greater number have not been ana- 
 lyzed. Fuller’s earth, which has been long worked, and 
 is still obtained in great abundance, must be considered 
 the most valuable of the mineral products. 
 
 Bedfordshire, like Huntingdonshire, was inhabited in 
 early times by the Catieuchlani, better known perhaps 
 by the name of the Cassii, who sent ambassadors to 
 Ctesar, and declared their willingness to submit to the 
 Romans. Traces are left not onlv of the Roman, bftt 
 
 j - ' 
 
 of the Saxon and Norman domination. The village of 
 Sandy near Potton stands on the site of the Magiovinium 
 of Antoninus. The remains of a Roman amphitheatre 
 may still be observed in the neighbourhood of Bradford- 
 Magna ; one Roman way passes by the small town of 
 Dunstable, another extends on the north of the same 
 place, and a third crosses the Ouse and leads to Newport- 
 Pagnel.s The name of Bedicanford in the Saxon annals, h 
 attests the antiquity of Bedford, the capital of the county, 
 which is watered by the Ouse, and finely situated in a 
 fruitful tract, that is called the vale of Bedford. It is 
 said to have been the burying-place of Offa, king of the 
 
 to the north of that town ;* and lastly, a third passes the Ouse and 
 leads to Newport-Pagnell.” (M. B.) — Only two Roman roads are 
 generally represented as crossing Bedfordshire, viz. the Ickenild and 
 Watling Streets. But there is a difference in tracing the course of 
 the latter through the county. The Ed. Enc. represents it as entering 
 at Dunstable, and leaving it between Heath [near Leighton-Buzzaid] 
 and Potsgrove [near Woburn.] Luckombe (Gazetteer, Append. Roman 
 Roads) says it enters at Luton ; then turns westward, till it intersects 
 the Ickenild Street, near Dunstable; then northward, by Barton, Sliel- 
 ford and Sandy, to Bedford, where it crosses the Ouse, and leads to 
 Newport-Pagnell in Bucks. The Ickenild crosses the southern border 
 of the county by Dunstable. — P. 
 
 * The Walling Street. — The old Roman Watling Street is crossed by the 
 Ickenild Street at Dunstable. (Luckombe.) — P. 
 
 >' Bedanford. (Camden.) — P 
 
BOOK CLIV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 Mercians ; at a later period, it was made over by Wil- 
 liam Rufus to Pain de Beauchamp, who fortified it with 
 a strong castle. The possession of it enabled Faukes 
 de Brent to sustain a siege against the army of Henry 
 the Third. The castle was destroyed, but the favourite 
 escaped ; and the details of the event, at the same time 
 that they illustrate the state of society, are of as singular 
 a nature as any in English history. The town is an 
 ancient corporation, and its first charter bears the date 
 of 1166. It is now divided into five parishes. The 
 charitable institutions are not without importance ; a free 
 grammar school, founded in 1556, by Sir William 
 Harpur, a London alderman, was endowed with thirteen 
 acres of land,* which, having been since let for building, 
 yield a yearly rent of £6000. The surplus funds are 
 applied to different purposes, and among others, £800 
 are annually distributed as marriage portions among 
 forty poor maidens ; each receives £20, but if any do 
 not marry within a month afterwards, the money is for- 
 feited. The town is greatly indebted to the late Mr. 
 Whitbread for its gaol and infirmary. Although the 
 manufactures are of little value, Bedford carries on a 
 considerable trade in corn, coal, iron and timber, which 
 are conveyed by the Ouse from Lynn and Yarmouth. 
 It may be added that the northern and southern parts 
 of the same town are connected by a handsome stone 
 bridge, which was erected over the river in 1814. 
 
 The popular author of the pilgrim’s progress, a person 
 almost as much distinguished for the profligacy of his 
 youth, as for the religious fervour of his maturer years, 
 officiated long as the anabaptist minister of Bedford. 
 The courage of the man is worthy of admiration ; per- 
 severing in defiance of the unjust laws that were enacted 
 against dissenters, he incurred the sentence of transporta- 
 tion. It is true that the sentence was not put in exe- 
 cution, but Bunyan passed more than twelve years of 
 his life in prison. 
 
 The small town of Woburn near the Buckinghamshire 
 border, was well known in past times on account of an 
 abbey, founded in the twelfth century by Cistertian 
 monks. The same abbey, on the suppression of the 
 monasteries, was granted by Henry the Eighth to John 
 Russel, the founder of a family that has since become 
 illustrious in the annals of English freedom. 
 
 Warwickshire, a county of an irregular form, termi- 
 nating in a point on the north and south, is surrounded by 
 six other counties, namely, by Leicestershire on the 
 north-east, Northamptonshire on the east, Oxfordshire 
 on the south-east, Gloucestershire on the south-west, 
 Worcestershire on the west, and Staffordshire on the 
 north-west. Equal in some parts to fifty miles in length, 
 and to thirty-five in breadth, the area is not more than 
 902 square miles. Almost a half of the county consists of 
 pasture lands, nearly a third partis arable, and 154,530 
 acres are in a constant course of tillage. The same 
 county is adorned with many picturesque sites, hills alter- 
 nating with vallies, woods, limpid streams and rivers. 
 The highest lands are situated in the hundred of Hem- 
 lingford, and in the neighbourhood of Packington. The 
 
 » In St. Andrew’s parish, Holborn — now forming Bedford Row and 
 the .adjoining streets. — P. 
 
 b The Cld Birmingham canal.— It is now continued, beyond the 
 Staffordshire and Worcestershire canal, in the Birmingham and Liv- 
 erpool canal, to the Chester canal at Nantwich. — P. 
 
 VOh. III.— NO. 59. 59 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 545 
 
 streams from this ridge descend on one side to the Avon, 
 and onwards to the Bristol Channel, and on the other, 
 to the Blythe, the Tame and the Trent. The Brailes 
 and Edge Hills form part of another ridge on the south- 
 east, less elevated than the former. 
 
 The soil, in common with that of other midland coun- 
 ties, is very variable, and it cannot be denied that the 
 varieties occur frequently within a very limited space, 
 or that many of them may be observed in a single field. 
 Agriculture, it may easily be imagined, is modified by 
 these natural causes, and different methods or different 
 rotations are followed according to the nature of the 
 land. The common crops are wheat, barley, oats, legu- 
 minous plants and turnips ; rye, potatoes and flax are 
 of rarer occurrence. It is also distinguished as a feeding 
 and dairy county ; much cheese is made in the northern 
 districts, and the different breeds of cattle have been 
 crossed and improved. The plantations are extensive ; 
 the woodlands in the ancient forest of Arden are now 
 under excellent management, and oaks as lofty as any 
 in England may be seen in the parks of different 
 proprietors. 
 
 The minerals are coal, limestone, freestone, ironstone, 
 flagstone and marl. The best coal, it has been observed, 
 is wrought near Bedworth. Limestone is common in 
 many parts, and freestone abounds in the light sandy 
 districts. Extensive quarries of blue flagstone, which is 
 much used in paving streets, are worked near Bidford and 
 Wilnecote. The western districts abound in marl of a 
 good quality, and ironstone was formerly wrought in the 
 neighbourhood of Oldbury. 
 
 The rivers are the Avon, the Tame, the Learn, the 
 Stour, the Alne, the Blythe, the Cole and the Dove. 
 But if the Avon be excepted, these and other rivers, 
 although they enrich the pastoral districts, and add 
 greatly to the beauty of the country, are too insignificant 
 to facilitate the purposes of commerce. And as War 
 wickshire is conspicuous for the enterprise of its mer- 
 chants, and the skill of its artisans, it may readily bo 
 supposed that the industrious inhabitants have availed 
 themselves of the advantages which artificial channels 
 afford. The county may bear a comparison with any 
 other in the number and importance of its canals, and 
 the history of its commerce proves that almost simulta- 
 neously with the completion of these modern works, 
 great accessions have been made to its products of in- 
 dustry. Although it might occupy too much space to 
 mention all the canals, some of them need not be omit- 
 ted. The town of Birmingham may be considered the 
 point from which the numerous ramifications diverge. 
 The Birmingham canal, b extending from the Stafford 
 shire and Worcestershire canal near Wolverhampton, 
 terminates in the Birmingham and Fazeley canal ; coals 
 are thus conveyed from Staffordshire, and Manchester 
 and Liverpool receive the manufactures of Birmingham, 
 The Birmingham and Fazeley canal serves for the trans 
 portation of the same manufactures to Hull and London, 
 and the boats return laden with grain and other corn 
 modifies to Birmingham.® The Warwick and Binning 
 
 c The Birmingham and Fazeley canal terminates in the Coventry 
 canal, near Fazeley ; it communicates with Hull, by the Coventry, 
 Grand Trunk and Trent canals, and the river Trent, and with London, 
 by the Coventry, Oxford and Grand Junction canals. — P. 
 
546 EUR 
 
 ham canal extends from Warwick to the Digbeth cut ; a 
 the distance between London and Birmingham is thus 
 shortened, and the capital of the county is supplied with 
 coal. b Lastly, by the circuitous course of the Coventry 
 canal to Birmingham,® the products of the neighbouring 
 country are placed in the line of communication with 
 London in one direction, and with Manchester and Liv- 
 erpool in the other. Such are some of the works which 
 the inhabitants have constructed from their own resources 
 to facilitate their commerce. d 
 
 Warwick, the capital, is finely situated on the banks 
 of the Avon in the central part of the county. The 
 streets are regular and well built, and most of them meet 
 on an eminence in the middle of the town. It contained 
 formerly six parish churches, but of these two are all that 
 remain. St. Mary’s church, a magnificent Gothic build- 
 ing, was granted as a place of worship to the inhabitants 
 by Henry the Eighth at the dissolution of the monas- 
 teries. It was almost destroyed by fire in 1694, and 
 afterwards rebuilt ; but of the original structure, the 
 Beauchamp chapel still remains, and it is little inferior 
 to any English building both in its exterior and interior 
 ornaments. Among the latter are several monuments 
 of the earls of Warwick, and one of the Earl of Essex, 
 the unfortunate favourite of Elizabeth. The other 
 church, or that of St. Nicholas, is by no means remark- 
 able for its architecture. 
 
 Although the town has been the scene of important 
 events in English history, its origin seems to be un- 
 known ; it is probable, however, that it was not founded 
 before the time of the Saxons. It is mentioned after the 
 conquest as a borough containing 261 houses, and not 
 long afterwards it was erected into an earldom, and to 
 this distinction it owed in a great measure its future con- 
 sequence and prosperity. The fame of Warwick is 
 intimately connected with its castle, which is supposed 
 .o have been built in the tenth century® by Ethelfleda, 
 jueen of Mercia. f It was enlarged, fortified and re- 
 paired by the Conqueror, who granted it to Henry de 
 Newbury, the first earl of Warwick. At a later period, 
 during the baronial wars, it was nearly destroyed by 
 Gifford, the governor of Kenilworth Castle ; a few years 
 elapsed before it was rebuilt, and it was a second time 
 enlarged by Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick. It is un- 
 necessary to mention its succeeding vicissitudes, but it 
 may be remarked that it was degraded into a common 
 prison, until it was granted by James the First to Sir 
 Fulke Greville, afterwards Lord Brooke, who restored 
 it to its original purpose. It stands on a rock on the 
 northern bank of the Avon; the broad deep moat, which 
 once formed an almost insurmountable obstacle to an 
 invading foe, is now covered with grass, and adorned 
 with trees ; the stone bridge is now unguarded, and the 
 battlements are clothed with ivy, but the edifice is still 
 the greatest ornament to the town, and perhaps the finest 
 castle that remains in England. 
 
 The city of Coventry is situated between Warwick 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CUV 
 
 and Birmingham, s and although its antiquity may not 
 remount to Roman times, it is mentioned at a very early 
 period of English history. It owed its origin to a neigh- 
 bouring convent that was pillaged by the Danes, and it 
 is probable that it was a place of some consequence in 
 the time of Edward the Confessor, or at the date of the 
 legendary story of Leofric and the pious Godiva. h The 
 obduracy of the count is not forgotten ; the strange 
 manner in which the countess displayed her benevolence 
 or piety, and the misfortunes of “ Peeping Tom,” are 
 still represented in a procession that takes place in 
 Trinity week. Not long after the conquest, the lordship 
 of Coventry was attached to the earls of Chester, and it 
 received many advantages during the middle ages from 
 the protection of these powerful barons. It has been 
 the seat of two parliaments, one in 1404, the other in 
 1459. The first has been since called Parliamentum 
 Indoclorum (the Unlearned Parliament), from the cir- 
 cumstance of lawyers being excluded from it ; the sec- 
 ond was known by the name of Parliamentum Diaboli- 
 cum (the Devil’s Parliament), on account of the attain- 
 ders that were passed against Richard, duke of York, 
 the earl of March, and the most eminent of the Yorkists. 
 In the time of Henry the Third, and in consequence of 
 disputes between the chapters of Coventry and Lichfield, 
 it was determined that both were entitled to elect, but 
 that the precedence in the episcopal title should be 
 given to Coventry. Matters continued in this state until 
 the Reformation, when it was ordained that the dean and 
 chapter of Lichfield should be for ever the sole property 
 of the bishopric of Coventry. Not long afterwards, the 
 cathedral of the same place, which is said to have been 
 little inferior to any in England, was destroyed by order 
 of Henry the Eighth. Of the three churches that 
 remain, that of St. Michael is a very perfect specimen 
 of its kind, and its lofty steeple, which reaches to the 
 height of 303 feet, is perhaps its greatest ornament. 
 
 The same town was early distinguished for the indus- 
 try of its inhabitants, and it carried on during the fifteenth 
 century a considerable traffic in cloths and other articles, 
 which remained its staple manufactures until the destruc- 
 tion of the Turkey trade at the close of the seventeenth. 
 The present branches of industry are of comparatively 
 recent origin. The making of watches was first intro- 
 duced about forty years ago, and it is probable that more 
 watches are now made in Coventry than in London. 
 The silk manufactures, which date from the eighteenth 
 century, are more important, and it may be mentioned 
 that in the year 1808, there were 2819 silk and ribbon 
 looms in the city. But the inhabitants have made great 
 improvements in the art since that period, or more defi- 
 nitely, since it became legal to import foreign manufac- 
 tures. An able and impartial judge, having been exam- 
 ined by a committee of the House of Commons, declared 
 that he should now blush for the work which his best 
 hands had formerly furnished, and that in his opinion the 
 manufactures of Coventry were now equal to those of 
 
 1 A branch of the Birmingham and Fazeley canal, passing through 
 that part of Birmingham called Digbeth. — P. 
 
 b See note b p. 1223. 
 
 c Coventry and Birmingham communicate by the Coventry and 
 the Birmingham and Fazeley canals — together forming nearly a semi- 
 circle. — P. 
 
 4 Phe canals centering in Birmingham, are the Old Birmingham, 
 the Birmingham and Fazeley, and the Warwick and Birmingham 
 
 canals, already mentioned ; and lastly, the Worcester and Birming- 
 ham canal, connecting those two towns, and with side branches to 
 Dudley and Stratford on Avon. — P. 
 e A. D. 915. 
 
 f Countess of Mercia, daughter of Alfred. — P. 
 s It is situated north-east of Warwick, and east of Birmingham. — P 
 b Leofric, earl of Mercia, and Godiva, his countess. — P. 
 
book cbiv.] DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 foreign rivals, and might successfully compete with the 
 finest fabrics of Lyons. 
 
 Birmingham, situated on the north-western side of the 
 county, is by far the most important town in Warwick- 
 shire. It has been asserted that some branches of 
 industry were cultivated at a very early period, and that 
 it afterwards carried on an extensive trade in leather ; 
 but these facts are at best doubtful, and it is certain that 
 the sources of its present prosperity existed only in 
 modern times. Carpenters’ tools, nails and coarse agri- 
 cultural implements were the only products of its forges 
 until after the Revolution. William the Third having 
 expressed his regret that his people were dependent on 
 the continent for arms, the member of parliament for 
 Warwickshire engaged that arms should be obtained in 
 sufficient numbers from Birmingham. Such is the origin 
 of a manufacture by which the wealth of the town has 
 been greatly increased, for since the comparatively recent 
 period of its introduction, Birmingham has become, if it 
 may be so termed, the armoury not only of Britain, but 
 of Europe. The rapid rise of this branch of industry 
 may be attributed to the judicious management of a few 
 enterprising individuals, and the extent to which it has 
 been carried, may be estimated from the following facts. 
 About the beginning of the last war, 5,000 stand of 
 arms were seldom made within a month ; but before the 
 close of the same war, 14,500 muskets were delivered 
 weekly into the ordnance offices for the supply of gov- 
 ernment and the different powers that were subsidized 
 by England. The industry of the inhabitants is directed 
 to the working of metals, from the smelting of the largest 
 masses to the execution of the most delicate trinkets in 
 steel, copper, silver and gold. The immense quantity 
 of goods, which are sent from the same place, and ex- 
 posed in the markets of every quarter of the world, are 
 wrought by 25,000 families, but many hundred times 
 that number might be insufficient for the task, without 
 the aid of inorganic matter in the abridgment of labour. 
 To give even a superficial notion of the different pro- 
 cesses that are adopted, or of the various substitutes for 
 human labour, might occupy several pages. They 
 comprehend every contrivance from the most ponderous 
 machines, from steam-engines, wheels, cylinders and 
 levers, of which the vast power cannot be witnessed 
 without admiration, down to those delicate instruments 
 that are formed for operations of the minutest accuracy. 
 One fact is certain ; Birmingham without its means of 
 communication could never have been the third manu- 
 facturing city in Britain, inferior only to Manchester and 
 Glasgow. Numerous rail-ways and lateral canals ex- 
 tend from different iron and coal mines to the old Bir- 
 mingham canal, a and their products are thus conveyed 
 to tbe town. To keep these works in an efficient state 
 is by no means so easy as might be imagined ; thus, the 
 proprietors of the mines are obliged to turn into their 
 respective canals, the water drawn from these mines by 
 steam-engines. The Horsley mine is drained at a depth 
 of 660 feet, by an engine of a hundred-horse power, but 
 the water obtained from it is not sufficient for the supply 
 of the principal channel ; ten other steam-engines are 
 necessary to feed it. 
 
 It is only of late years that the mechanical products 
 a See note b p. 1225 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN. 547 
 
 of Birmingham have attained their high degree of per- 
 fection, and it is only of late years too that the wealthy 
 inhabitants have contributed to the happiness and welfare 
 of the poor, by providing for them the means of educa- 
 tion. It now possesses a great many elementary schools, 
 and there are besides three on the Lancasterian plan, in 
 which two thousand children may be instructed. In 
 addition to its numerous benevolent institutions, one has 
 been established for the relief of persons labouring under 
 bodily deformities, and it is not improbable that its ex- 
 ample may ere long be imitated in other towns, where 
 the nature of the occupations is injurious to the human 
 frame. It might be wrong, however, to consider Bir- 
 mingham unhealthy ; although perpetual smoke rises 
 from its forges, and although so many persons are em- 
 ployed in working metals, the average mortality is only 
 one in fifty, while in London, it is one in thirty-one, and 
 in Manchester, one in thirty-seven. It is not unpleas- 
 ing to contemplate the rapid progress of the town in 
 industry, riches and population ; it is little more than 
 two centuries and a half since Edward the Sixth en- 
 dowed a free school with a revenue of £30 from land ; 
 th^ present revenue exceeds £3000, an increase of a 
 hundred-fold. It had a population of ten thousand 
 inhabitants about the beginning of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury ; a hundred and ten years afterwards it contained 
 85,733 persons, ten years later the number amounted 
 to 106,722, and according to the returns of 1831, it is 
 now equal to 146,986. It is unnecessary to add that 
 the products of industry have advanced in a much greater 
 ratio than that of the population. 
 
 The small town of Stratford on Avon, about eight 
 miles to the south-west of Warwick, might be passed 
 over in silence, had it not been the birth place of Shak- 
 speare, “ the pride of Englishmen, and the glory of their 
 theatre.” The house in which the poet was born, and 
 a hall in which his jubilee is celebrated, are the only 
 objects that excite the curiosity of strangers. 
 
 The midland county of Stafford forms a long and nar- 
 row tract on the east of Cheshire and Salop, on the 
 west of Derbyshire and Warwickshire, and on the north 
 of Worcestershire. A range of hills runs along the 
 north-western border, and spreads out towards the north 
 over the whole breadth of the county. These hills, 
 which are termed the Moorlands, form part of the chain, 
 that extends northwards through Yorkshire to the bor- 
 ders of Scotland. According to the Trigonometrical 
 Survey, some of the hills in the Moorlands are upwards 
 of 1200 feet in height. The southern, central and east- 
 ern parts of the county, being in general fruitful and 
 level or only varied by gentle undulations, form a strik- 
 ing contrast with the cold and bleak hills in the northern 
 and north-western districts, where Cannock-Chase, which 
 was formerly covered with woods, presents the appear- 
 ance of a naked and desolate waste, almost without a 
 single tree to enliven the scene. The rivers rise from 
 these heights, but within the limits of the county, none 
 of them are large. They have, however, contributed 
 materially to that extensive system of inland navigation, 
 by which the cultivation of the land has been improved, 
 the products of industry multiplied, and the commerce 
 of the inhabitants extended. The Trent, the principal 
 river, and the one to which most of the others are trib- 
 utary, rises from the Moorlands near the northern 
 
rr~~— 
 
 548 EUR 
 
 extremity of the county, and in its winding course first 
 southwards to the vicinity of the Potteries, then east- 
 wards to its junction with the Tame, and lastly north- 
 eastwards to the borders of Derbyshire, waters sites as 
 picturesque as any in Leicestershire. Although much 
 of the soil is fertile, and although waste lands have been 
 restored to cultivation, Staffordshire is of secondary im- 
 portance as an agricultural county; its treasures consist 
 in its minerals; they form the sources of its trade, and 
 the raw materials of its various manufactures. Coal, 
 iron and limestone are the most valuable, and the most 
 extensively distributed. The coal, it has been seen, is 
 obtained in a district not less than 50,000 acres in ex- 
 tent, and in some parts of it, the seams are found to be 
 thirty-six feet in thickness. The strata of iron ore lie 
 under, and alternate with the coal ; the most abundant 
 mines and those of the best quality are situated in the 
 neighbourhood of Wednesbury, Tipton, Bilston and 
 Sedgeley. Copper is worked at Ecton-hill near Warslow, 
 and at Mixon near Leek ; veins of lead have been open- 
 ed at no great distance from the same hill, and in differ- 
 ent parts of Stanton moor. a But these metals are of 
 little value in comparison of the first, from the abundance 
 of which the county has been denominated the Chalyhia 
 of England. Limestone is perhaps the most common 
 of the mineral products ; the Sedgeley and Dudley hills 
 on the south afford an inexhaustible supply ; the same 
 remark is applicable to the upper banks of the Dove, to 
 the north-eastern Moorlands, and to the neighbourhood 
 of the Weever hills, whence the greatest consumption 
 does not lessen the supply in any perceptible degree. 
 The same substance is used extensively in Stafford- 
 shire for manure, and a great quantity is exported to other 
 counties, in which it is chiefly used for mortar. The 
 limestone passes in different places into marble ; the ronce 
 sort is the most common, but grey and black varieties are 
 by no means scarce, the former at Stanshope and Pokehill, 
 the latter in the neighbourhood of Bentley. Lastly, the 
 sulphate of lime, known by the name of alabaster, is ob- 
 tained from many quarries near the banks of the Dove. 
 Potter’s earth is found in different places, and also in the 
 district of the Potteries. b But the principal supply of 
 Staffordshire is derived from Dorsetshire and Devonshire ; 
 four sorts of clay are imported from these counties, and 
 that from the Isle of Purbeck in Dorsetshire is sold for 
 the highest price. Mineral substances, similar in their 
 properties to the porcelain earths in China, were discov- 
 ered in England by Mr. Cookworthy in 1768, the first 
 person by whom real porcelain was made in Britain. It 
 is unnecessary to add that the mineral substances were 
 decomposed feldspar or the kaolin of the Chinese, which 
 is now sent from Cornwall to Staffordshire. 
 
 The district in which almost all the English earthen 
 ware is made, commences near the borders of Cheshire, 
 and extends from the village of Golden-Hill to Lane- 
 End, a distance of seven miles. Between these two 
 places are situated Newfield, Smithfield, Tunstall, Long- 
 port, Burslem, Cobridge, Etruria, Hanley, Shelton, 
 Stoke, Lower Lane and Lower Delf. All these places 
 were formerly distinct from each other, but with the in- 
 crease of the staple manufacture, so many new potteries 
 
 -| 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CLtV 
 
 and dwelling-houses have been built, that tne different vil- 
 lages are now united; the whole exhibits the appearance of 
 a large town, and in every part of the kingdom, except the 
 district itself, they are all included under the general 
 name of the Potteries. It might be shown that about the 
 beginning of the eighteenth century, the earthen wares of 
 Staffordshire, and the trade to which they gave rise, were 
 in a national point of view, wholly insignificant. The 
 traffic was either carried on by the workmen themselves, 
 or by pedlars, who carried the wares in baskets through the 
 adjoining counties. Not long afterwards the art was im- 
 proved by the use of salt in glazing, a practice that was 
 first introduced into Staffordshire by the two Elers ; at 
 a still later period the ingenious and self-educated Mr. 
 Astbury added calcined flint to the composition of the ware, 
 and it cannot be denied that these improvements were 
 accompanied with a corresponding extension of the trade. 
 Such was the state of an art, which was afterwards so 
 much advanced by the celebrated Wedgwood, who found 
 the products of the Potteries inferior and flimsy in their 
 materials, inelegant in their forms, and grotesque in their 
 ornaments. Before his time, foreign wares wer» largely 
 imported ; since his successful labours, the Potteries 
 not only supply all England, but export their products to 
 every quarter of the globe. Some notion of the change 
 produced in the trade and in this branch of industry by a 
 single individual, may be formed from the following state- 
 ment of M. Faujas de St. Fond. “ The excellent work- 
 manship, the solidity, the advantages which it possesses 
 of sustaining the action of fire, the fine glaze, impenetra- 
 ble to acids, the beauty of the form, and the cheapness of 
 the price, have given rise to a commerce so active and so 
 universal, that in travelling from Paris to St. Petersburg, 
 from Amsterdam to the furthest extremity of Sweden, 
 and from Dunkirk to the south of France, the traveller is 
 served at every inn on English ware. Spain, Portugal 
 and Italy are supplied with it, and vessels are loaded with 
 it for the East Indies, the West Indies and the continent 
 of America.”* But the extent to which the same 
 branch of industry had arrived even some years before 
 the period that this intelligent traveller visited England, 
 may be better appreciated from the statement of Mr. 
 Wedgwood himself. Having been examined in 1785 by 
 a committee of the privy council, and at the bars of both 
 bouses of parliament, Mr. Wedgwood declared “ that the 
 manufacturing part alone furnished in the Potteries and 
 their immediate vicinity the means of subsistence to 
 twenty thousand persons ; but that this was a small object, 
 when compared with the many others dependent on it : 
 
 1st, The immense quantity of inland carriage to which it 
 gave -rise throughout the kingdom both for the raw ma- 
 terials and the finished goods ; 2d, the great number of 
 
 people employed in the extensive collieries for its use ; 
 
 3d, The still greater number employed in raising and 
 preparing its raw materials in several distant parts of 
 England, from the Land’s End in Cornwall, one way 
 along different parts of the coast, to Falmouth, Teign- 
 mouth, Exeter, Poole, Gravesend and the Norfolk coast, 
 and the other way to Biddeford, Wales and the Irish 
 coast; 4th, The coasting vessels, which after having 
 been employed at the proper season in the Newfoundland 
 
 * Ecton-hill has likewise a considerable vein of lead, and another of 
 the same mineral has been found near Stanton-moor. (Rees’ Cyc.) — P 
 
 * Potter's clay of various sorts is found here, particularly in the vi- 
 
 cinity of Newcastle, where the potteries are chiefly carried on. (Rees 
 Cyc ')— P. 
 
 • c M. Faujas de St. Fond, Voyages en Angleterre el en Ecosse. 
 
GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 549 
 
 book cliv.] DESCRIPTION OF 
 
 fisheries, carry these materials coastwise to Liverpool 
 and Hull, to the amount of more than 20,000 tons yearly, 
 and at times when without this employment, they would 
 be laid up idle in the harbour ; 5th, the further convey- 
 ance of these materials from those ports by river and 
 canal navigation to the Potteries, situated in one of the 
 most inland parts of the kingdom; and 6th, The recon- 
 veyance of the finished goods to the different ports of the 
 island, where they are shipped for every foreign market, 
 that is open to the earthern-wares of England.” Impor- 
 tant as the advances made by Mr. Wedgwood were, he 
 repeatedly declared that the progress of improvement 
 was still in its infancy ; and although it would be idle to 
 deny that successive improvements have been made since 
 his time, or that the trade has been greatly extended, still 
 it cannot be affirmed that any individual has since distin- 
 guished himself by so many and so valuable inventions in 
 this useful art. 
 
 Although it is evident, from what has been already 
 said, that Staffordshire holds a high rank among the in- 
 dustrious and commercial counties of England, it is equal- 
 ly true that few of its towns are important. Stafford, 
 the capital, is situated on the bank of the Sow, about 
 three miles from its junction with the Trent. The prin- 
 cipal branches of industry consist in making shoes, and 
 in tanning leather, both for home consumption and expor- 
 tation. It contains at present only two churches, St. 
 Mary’s and St. Chad’s; it had formerly a priory of 
 Black Friars, a convent of Franciscan, and another of 
 Augustine monks. It appears from the Saxon Chronicle 
 that a castle was built at Stafford in 913 by Ethelfieda, 
 countess of Mercia, and sister to Edward the Elder ; but 
 of this castle no vestiges remain. It seems to have 
 been a place of some consequence in past times, for in 
 Domesday-book it is mentioned as a city ; and it is certain 
 that the ancient custom of borough-english is not un- 
 known to the inhabitants. 
 
 Lichfield,® which participates with Coventry in the 
 dignity of an episcopal town, is situated on a feeder of 
 the Trent, near the ancient Etocetum, a Roman station. 
 The cathedral, the greatest ornament of the place, is sur- 
 rounded with walls like a castle, and stands on an emi- 
 nence that commands a distant view. It is about 412 
 feet in length, and 154 in breadth. A spire, 256 feet 
 high, rises from the centre, and two towers terminating 
 in spires, form the western front. Although the interior 
 is richly adorned, the monuments that attract most 
 attention, are those of Samuel Johnson and David Gar- 
 rick, both natives of Lichfield. Other monuments have 
 been erected in the same church in honour of Lady 
 Wortley Montague and Anna Seward. A free school 
 founded by Edward the Sixth, may be mentioned as the 
 place where Addison, Ashmole, Johnson, Garrick and 
 Wollaston were educated. 
 
 Newcastle under Line, situated in the centre of the 
 Potteries, and watered by a branch of the Trent, b is im- 
 portant from its commerce ; it carries on a considerable 
 trade in cloth and felt,® and has become the mart of many 
 articles that are consumed in the Potteries. Wolver- 
 
 * Litchfield. 
 
 b The Line or Lyne. c flats. 
 
 d It communicates with Birmingham by the Old Birmingham canal, 
 and with the Grand Trunk canal by the same canal to its junction wth 
 the Staffordshire and Worcestershire canai, and tnen by the latter till 
 
 hampton, a place of great antiquity, in the southern part 
 of the county, is the most populous town in Staffordshire. 
 It has risen in consequence of its trade in locks, keys and 
 other articles of the same sort, for which it is more cele- 
 brated than any town in the kingdom. But however in- 
 genious the artisans may be, they do not confine them- 
 selves to one branch of industry. Many farmers in the 
 neighbourhood have their forges, where they labour 
 when not employed in the field, and where women assist 
 them, and work with the file. The goods thus made 
 are exposed in the market, bought for different ports, and 
 sold in every country in Europe. To these products 
 of industry, japanned goods and the heavier sorts of iron 
 work are added, and in the manufacture of them, Wol- 
 verhampton possesses the advantage of cheap fuel and 
 a canal navigation to the Grand Trunk and to Birming- 
 ham.' 1 To account for the comparatively slow increase 
 of the same place, it should be remembered that 
 almost all the land in the neighbourhood is church-land, 
 of which the tenure affords but little encouragement to 
 building. 
 
 The inland county of Salop or Shropshire is contigu- 
 ous to Staffordshire on the east, to Denbighshire, a de- 
 tached portion of Flintshire, and Cheshire, on the north, 
 to Radnorshire, Montgomeryshire and Denbighshire on 
 the west, and to Worcestershire and Herefordshire on the 
 south. It is about forty miles in length from north to 
 south, and thirty-five in breadth from east to west ; 
 in superficies, it is not less than 1340 square miles, and it 
 bears some resemblance in figure to a parallelogram. It 
 is memorable from its historical associations and nu- 
 merous remains of antiquity, interesting from the variety 
 and beauty of its scenery, and important from the value 
 of its mineral products, and from the extent of an arti- 
 ficial navigation, which has rendered it in some degree the 
 emporium of the inland trade between England and Wales. 
 The face of the country is very diversified, and the capital 
 is situated in the large plain of Salop, which, although flat 
 in comparison of the surrounding districts, is by no means 
 level or monotonous. Hills, of which some attain a great- 
 er elevation than 1800 feet above the level of the sea, 
 bound the plain on the south-west, and are connected 
 with the great western range. It has been remarked 
 in a former chapter, that the Severn flows through the 
 middle of the county ; it may be added, that the length 
 of its winding course within Shropshire is estimated at 
 more than seventy miles, and that it is navigable for barges 
 in every part of it. The different soils are so much in 
 tersected, that it might be difficult to define their limits ; 
 suffice it to say, that except chalk and flint, few sorts 
 are wanting. Although other counties may be better culti- 
 vated, it produces a large quantity of grain, and the sur- 
 plus is exported by the Severn. Many cattle are fed in 
 the plains or low districts, and much of the cheese, sold 
 under the name of Cheshire, is made in Shropshire. 
 Numerous flocks of sheep are reared in the hilly districts, 
 and the wool from the neighbourhood of the Wrekin, 
 Bridgenorth and Clun, is little inferior to that of Leices- 
 tershire. Although much timber is cut every year, 
 
 its union with the Grand Trunk near Stafford. It also communicates 
 with the Grand Trunk by the Wyerley and F.ssington canal, which 
 extends from the Old Birmingham canal at Wolverhampton, by Lich- 
 field, to the Coventry canal, about five miles from its union with 
 the Grand Trunk. — F. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIV 
 
 550 
 
 there are still many lofty oaks and extensive tracts cov- 
 ered with coppice-wood for the use of the iron-works. 
 On the whole, Shropshire is comparatively free from 
 waste lands, most of the cultivated districts are enclosed, 
 and the commons are every year decreasing. 
 
 But it is the mineral products, and the trade and man- 
 ufactures to which they have given rise, that constitute 
 the chief wealth of the county. It has been already 
 seen that coal is found in abundance in different districts. 
 It may be repeated that the Coalbrook-dale field is about 
 eight miles long, and two broad ; in every part of it coal 
 is found at different depths, and the strata alternate with 
 ironstone, sandstone and other substances. The north- 
 ern extremity of a long range of limestone is almost con- 
 tiguous on the south to the coal districts. Thus although 
 the ironstone is not rich, it is accompanied with a great 
 quantity of coal and limestone, and on account of this 
 conjunction of the fuel and the flux with the ore, the 
 most extensive iron-works in the kingdom have been 
 established in Coalbrook-dale and the neighbourhood. 
 The rocks that bound or separate the coal fields, consist 
 of sandstone, limestone, trap and schistus, and the metals 
 that they contain, are lead and calamine. The Wrekin, 
 the Acton Burnel and Hope Bowdler hills, the Frodesly, 
 the Lawley, and the Caer-Caradoe, cross the Severn, 
 extend southwards, and are composed of trap rocks.® 
 The vale of Stretton separates these hills from the schis- 
 tose hills of Longmynd. The Skipperstones b form the 
 most elevated peak of a high tract between Bishop’s 
 Castle and the vale of Montgomery, and it is there that 
 the lead mines of Shropshire are situated. The matrix 
 is crystallized quartz, sulphate and carbonate of barytes, 
 and carbonate of lime. The ore is sulphuret of lead, 
 carbonate of lead, red-lead ore and blende, which con- 
 tains besides calamine or zinc. 0 Quartz and clay are 
 worked at Cardington, and the former is said to be supe- 
 rior to that exported from Caermarthenshire to the Staf- 
 fordshire Potteries. Lastly, the sandstone that occurs so 
 extensively in -the county, is in general well adapted for 
 building. 
 
 The most important products of industry are returned 
 from the iron-works in the great coal and iron districts, 
 east of Shrewsbury, at Ketley, Oakengates, and in Coal- 
 brook-dale, a winding valley, enclosed by hills, breaking 
 into various forms, and covered with hanging woods and 
 thick foliage. In this sequestered vale, the noise of 
 forges, mills and vast machinery is heard, flames issue 
 from the furnaces, and clouds of smoke rise from the 
 lime-kilns. A bridge made entirely of cast-iron, and 
 stretching across the Severn, heightens the romantic 
 effect of the scene. Several potteries have been estab- 
 lished in the same dale ; Broseley is noted for coarse 
 earthenware, and Caughley and Coalport for porcelain 
 and queen’s-ware. Numerous mills for dyeing woollen 
 cloths, are situated in different parts of the county, and 
 cotton and linen manufactures have of late years been 
 established. 
 
 The ancient town of Shrewsbury, the capital of the 
 County, rises on a peninsula formed by the Severn. The 
 
 1 The Wrekin, an insulated mountain of a sugar-loaf form, [north 
 of the Severn, above Coalbrook-dale,] rises from a plain to the height 
 of 1324 feet. From it there proceeds southward, across the Severn,* * 
 a range of trap mountains consisting of the hills of Acton-Burnel, 
 
 origin of it is attributed to the Britons of the fifth cen- 
 tury, who founded it on the ruins of the still more an- 
 cient Uriconium. It continued in the possession of the 
 Britons, until some centuries afterwards, when they were 
 conquered by the Saxons, and these invaders changed 
 its old name of Pengwerne into Scrobbcs-Byrig. If, at 
 a later period, it became one of the principal cities in 
 England, and as such, often visited by English kings, it 
 was owing to the military importance of its situation on 
 the Welsh marches. Thus it is well known that Edward 
 the First made it the residence of his court, while he 
 was employed in the subjugation of Wales, and that he 
 removed thither his courts of exchequer and king’s 
 bench. Like other old towns, many of the streets are 
 narrow, ill planned, and of a singular appearance from 
 the ancient and modern buildings, which compose them. 
 Others, however, of a more recent date, are wide and clean, 
 well paved, well lighted and adorned with good houses. 
 Two stone bridges have been erected over the Severn ; 
 the eastern or the New Bridge, an elegant structure, 
 consists of seven semicircular arches, in all more than 
 410 feet in length. The other or the Welsh Bridge, so 
 called from its leading into Wales, was lately rebuilt ; it 
 is ornamented with a handsome portal ; the number of 
 arches is five, their length 270 feet, their height twenty, 
 and their breadth forty. The parish churches are six in 
 number, and one of them belonged to an ancient abbey, 
 of which some ruins still remain, among others a curious 
 relic known by the name of the stone pulpit, and supposed 
 to have answered the purposes of an oratory. The in- 
 firmary, which is managed with great credit, is one of the 
 earliest institutions of the kind in England. The other 
 buildings are a county hall, completed in 1785, and a 
 new county-gaol, after the plan of Mr. Howard. The 
 public walks are the greatest ornaments of the town ; they 
 are shaded by lofty lime-trees, they cover a surface of 
 more than twenty acres, and they extend between the 
 old walls and the banks of the Severn. 
 
 The staple trade consists in fine flannels and in Welsh 
 webs, which are manufactured at Welshpool and finished 
 in Shrewsbury, from which last place they are distributed 
 over England, and exported to foreign markets. Spin- 
 ning and fulling mills are erected in the neighbourhood, 
 and there are besides several linen manufactories and 
 extensive iron-works. 
 
 It was on the field of Shrewsbury that the valiant 
 Hotspur was slain, and that Henry the Fifth, then 
 Prince of Wales, gave the first indications of that mili- 
 tary talent which proved afterwards so calamitous to 
 France. During the later period of the civil wars, 
 Shrewsbury was distinguished by the loyalty of its in- 
 habitants ; Charles the First came to it, and was wel- 
 comed ; but the parliamentary army having succeeded 
 in taking the town by surprise in 1645, the communica 
 tion with North Wales was cut off, and an end was put 
 to a loyal association then forming in the western counties. 
 
 The county of Worcester, contiguous to Shropshire 
 and Staffordshire on the north, to Herefordshire on the 
 west, to Gloucestershire on the south, and to Vi arwick 
 
 Frodesley, the Lawley, Caer-Caradoc, and Hope Bowdler hill. (Ed. 
 Enc.) — P. 
 
 * On the south side of the Severn. 
 
 * Stipperstones. (Luckombe. Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 c Blende ts sulphuret of zinc. — P 
 
BOOK CliIV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 551 
 
 shire on the east, is perhaps more irregular in its form 
 than any other in England, and as it is nowhere marked 
 by natural limits, several detached portions of it are en- 
 closed by neighbouring counties. It might be difficult on 
 this account to determine its area correctly, but according 
 to an official return, it is equal to six hundred and seven- 
 ty-four square miles. 
 
 The face of the country is varied by hill and dale. 
 Of the hills, the most remarkable are the Lickey near 
 Bromsgrove, the Aberley on the west, the Malvern on 
 the south-west, and the Bredon on the south-east. The 
 vale of Evesham on the banks of the Avon, and the vale 
 of the Severn, are the most fruitful tracts ; in the former, 
 in addition to the ordinary harvests, great quantities of 
 vegetables are grown and exported to the neighbouring 
 towns. In the same part of Worcestershire, the mild- 
 ness of the climate depends in some degree on the lowness 
 of the situation, and the crops are reaped a fortnight and 
 sometimes a month earlier than in more elevated coun- 
 ties. The products of the county are corn and cattle, fine 
 wool, hops, cider and perry; the last, in particular, is 
 held in high repute, and exported to most parts of the 
 kingdom. The brine-springs yield a large quantity of 
 the whitest salt, and the mineral springs of Malvern, 
 Kidderminster and other places are frequented on account 
 of their medicinal properties. Limestone abounds in 
 the high grounds, but from the scarcity of coal, little of 
 it is burnt or used for manure. The soil is watered and 
 fertilized by many streams, by the Severn, which enters 
 the county from Shropshire, and flows through its whole 
 length, and by its tributary rivers, such as the Avon, the 
 Stour and the Teme. The same rivers have facilitated 
 the construction of several canals, which have contrib- 
 uted to the prosperity of Worcestershire. It has thus been 
 placed in the line of communication with the adjacent 
 mining and manufacturing counties, and has become in 
 consequence a sort of depot for their products. Leav- 
 ing the verdant hills, the woods and the fruitful meadows, 
 which have been described by tourists, we shall make 
 some remarks on the industrious towns in the same county. 
 
 The Staffordshire and Worcestershire canal, a which 
 passes through Kidderminster, has added greatly to its 
 trade and industry by opening a communication with Hull, 
 Liverpool, Manchester and Bristol. The town was 
 noted in the reign of Henry the Eighth for its broad cloths, 
 at a later period for its wolseys, and afterwards for its 
 crapes and poplins. The manufacture of Scotch and flat 
 carpets was introduced about the middle of the eigh- 
 teenth century ; in the year 1772, the number of looms 
 in the town and neighbourhood amounted to 250 ; at 
 present there are 1000 carpet, and nearly 700 silk looms, 
 and these afford the means of subsistence to a third part 
 of the population. The small town of Droitwich, which 
 may be seen from a canal that communicates with the 
 Severn , b has been long famed for its brine springs, 
 which are said to contain a greater quantity of culinary 
 salt than any others in England, and which yield annually 
 a revenue of £150,000. The barges that descend the 
 Severn, pass beneath a stone bridge that communicates 
 with Worcester, 0 the capital of the county, which is little 
 
 a Extending from the Grand Trunk, near Stafford, to the Severn at 
 Stourport. — P. 
 
 b “ Droitwich is situated on a canal that communicates with the 
 Severn.” (M. B.) — The Droitwich Canal extends fi tom the Severn at 
 Hawford to the town of Droitwich, about six miles.— P. 
 
 more than three miles distant from the last place. d It is 
 watered by the Severn, situated in one of the finest parts 
 of the county, and remarkable for the salubrity of its cli- 
 mate. The cathedral, a spacious and lofty edifice in the 
 simple Gothic style, is built in the form of a double cross. 
 It is 514 feet in length, 78 in breadth, and 68 in height. 
 The tower rises from the centre of the cross aisle, and 
 is adorned with many curious and highly finished orna- 
 ments. The most remarkable of the sepulchral monu- 
 ments are those of King John, and Prince Arthur, the 
 son of Henry the Seventh. The trade of Worcester 
 does not consist merely in its manufactures nor in the 
 surplus products of the county ; it has been increased by 
 the numerous conveniences, which its water communi- 
 cations afford. Extensive works, in which porcelain is 
 manufactured, have been established in the town, and 
 gloves are sent from it to most parts of England, and ex- 
 ported to the colonies. The city suffered greatly during 
 the sanguinary contests between the houses of York and 
 Lancaster ; and it is memorable as the scene of a battle, 
 in which Cromwell and the English defeated the Scotch 
 army that invaded England, for the purpose of placing 
 Charles the Second on the throne. This battle was 
 what Cromwell called his crowning victory ; two thou- 
 sand of the Scotch fell on the field, and 8000 were taken 
 prisoners, most of whom were sold and transported as 
 slaves to the American colonies. 
 
 Part of Wales forms the western boundary of Hereford- 
 shire, which is contiguous to Gloucestershire and Mon- 
 mouthshire on the south, to Worcestershire on the east, 
 and to Salop on the north. It is almost unnecessary to 
 remark that the limits are mostly artificial and very ir- 
 regular, and that some detached parts are enclosed by 
 the adjacent counties. It is principally distinguished as 
 an agricultural county ; it produces plenty of wheat, bar- 
 ley, oats and leguminous plants. The meadows are cov- 
 ered with the richest pasture ; the Ryeland sheep are 
 famed for their mutton, and more so for their wool, and 
 the oxen have been considered the finest in the kingdom. 
 If Dorsetshire is the garden, Herefordshire is the orchard 
 of England. The apples producing cider grow in greater 
 abundance than in any other county, and they are plen- 
 tiful even in the hedge-rows. The various kinds yield 
 liquors of different qualities ; some of them are sent to 
 every part of Britain, and the styre or the strongest 
 is exported to the East and West Indies. It may be 
 added that it was not before the reign of Charles the 
 First that the county was distinguished for this product, 
 and if it has now the appearance of an orchard, it was 
 owing to the exertions of Lord Scudamore and other 
 patriotic individuals. The same county is in some places 
 covered with woods, and hop plantations are scattered in 
 different directions. 
 
 The appearance of the country indicates its fruitfulness , 
 there are no lofty heights, but gentle eminences swelling 
 in every direction, and enclosing vallies covered with plan- 
 tations and orchards, or fruitful fields bounded by hedges or 
 rows of trees. The lowest lands are those in the south, 
 while the highest are situated on the east and west. 
 The general character of the soil is that of clay mixed 
 
 c Worcester is situated on the east bank of the Severn ; from the 
 bridge, a new street has been opened, leading to the middle of the 
 town. (Rees’ Cyc.) — F. 
 
 d Droitwich is 5J miles from Worcester. (Rees’ Cyc.) — P. 
 
552 EUR 
 
 with marie, and its great fertility is partly attributable to the 
 calcareous subsoil on which it rests. The total number 
 of acres are estimated at 580,000, and of these 500,000 
 are cultivated ; of the remaining 80,000, 30,000 are occu- 
 pied by towns, buildings, roads, canals and rivers, and 
 50,000 are waste lands or covered with woods. The 
 Wye, a feeder of the Severn, enters from the west, flows 
 eastwards, and is enlarged by the principal streams that 
 water Herefordshire. 
 
 Hereford, the capital, is situated on the northern bank 
 of the same river near the centre of the county. It is a 
 place of great antiquity ; some writers affirm that it re- 
 ceived the name of Ercinna from the Silures, who inhab- 
 ited Herefordshire before the Roman invasion. 4 It is also 
 affirmed, that it occupies the site of Ariconium, an an- 
 cient town, mentioned by Antoninus, and which, it is 
 added, was destroyed by an earthquake. The present 
 name is derived from two Saxon words, which signify the 
 ford of an army ; b in allusion, perhaps, to the Saxons 
 crossing the Wye in pursuit of the Britons, who fled for 
 refuge to Wales. It began to flourish about the year 825, 
 afterachurch was built by Milfred, kingof Mercia, in mem- 
 ory of Ethelbert, king of the East Angles, who was murder- 
 ed by the wife of Offa while he was courting her daughter 
 in the neighbouring village of Marden.® The sarfie church 
 was soon afterwards raised to the dignity of a cathedral, 
 hut the present building was begun by Robert de Losin, the 
 second Norman bishop, after the model of the church of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle in Germany, and completed by his suc- 
 cessor. Although the city is confessedly ancient, it 
 bears few marks of antiquity ; the streets are in general 
 spacious, clean and well built. The manufactures are of 
 secondary importance ; they consist of gloves, hats and 
 flannels. 
 
 None of the other towns are so large as the capital. 
 Leominster, situated to the north of it, and in the fertile 
 vale of the Lugg, although insignificant in point of popu- 
 lation, still sends two members to parliament. Ledbury, 
 Ross and Bromyard formerly sent representatives, hut the 
 privilege was voluntarily declined on account of the pe- 
 cuniary burdens then attached to elective rights. Ross, 
 the second of these places, is chiefly remarkable for its 
 situation on an elevated rock, above the valley of the 
 Wye, and for the fine prospect which it commands. It 
 is also known as the native town of Mr. John Kyrle, the 
 Man of Ross, whose benevolence and public spirit are 
 celebrated by Pope. 
 
 The Wye, it has been seen, waters Hereford, and 
 Monmouth is also situated on its banks. The last place 
 is the capital of a county, which was added to the others 
 by Henry the Eighth, but it was supposed to form part of 
 Wales until it was visited by the judges of the Oxford cir- 
 cuit in the reign of Charles the Second. The Welsh is 
 still spoken by the common people, and the same language 
 is still preserved in the names of the towns and villages, 
 mountains and rivers. It is contiguous to Herefordshire 
 and Brecknockshire on the north, to the last county and 
 Glamorganshire on the west, d to Gloucestershire on the east, 
 and to the Bristol Channel on the south and south-east. 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CLIV. 
 
 A considerable portion is thus bounded by the sea, while 
 the other limits are mostly formed by rivers, namely, by 
 the Wye and Mynnow on the east and north-east, and by 
 the Rumney on the west. If the boundary rivers be ex 
 cepted, the Usk is the only other of any importance, and it 
 traverses the county in its whole length from north to 
 south. The construction of the canals, which have con- 
 tributed so much to the extension of the trade, and also to 
 the working of the mines in Monmouthshire, has been 
 facilitated by the rivers and their tributary streams. The 
 land rises towards the north and the north-west, where it 
 joins the mountains in Wales, and the loftiest elevations 
 are more than 1500 feet above the level of the sea. In 
 an agricultural point of view, it may be divided into three 
 portions. The first or the southern consists partly of 
 marsh lands, of a rich loamy soil in some places, and of 
 a black peaty earth in others ; a large proportion of it is 
 fit for cultivation. But towards the coast, the fields are 
 subject to inundations, and to protect them large dikes 
 have been erected along the extensive levels of Caldecot 
 and Wentloog. The second or the eastern portion, con- 
 sisting of the finest land, and in appearance resembling a 
 garden, extends along the banks of the Usk, and to a 
 considerable distance on each side of them. The third 
 or the western portion is hilly and unfruitful. The com- 
 merce and different branches of industry are dependent 
 on, or connected with, the mineral products of the coun- 
 ty. Situated on the eastern border, and including a con- 
 siderable portion of the great mineral basin of South 
 Wales, it abounds in iron ore and in coal. The latter is 
 more than sufficient for the use of the inhabitants, and a con 
 siderable quantity is exported. The iron works were first 
 established in the prosperous reign of Elizabeth, but they 
 began to decline from the deficiency of fuel, that of wood 
 being thought indispensable to the extraction of the metal. 
 It was not before a comparatively recent discovery had 
 been made, by which it was ascertained that coal might 
 be used as a substitute for wood, that the same branch 
 of industry was pursued with increased vigour, and it 
 might be shown that the greatest number as well as the 
 most extensive works in the county have been erected 
 within the last fifty years. Such are the principal works 
 at Blenavon, Nant-y-Glo, Abercorn, Pontypoo! and Caer- 
 leon. The other metals are tin e and lead, and the tin 
 works are perhaps next in importance to those of iron. 
 Limestone is so common that it is generally used as a 
 manure ; quarries of breccia afford excellent millstones, 
 and different kinds of freestone are used in building. I* 
 may not be out of place to remark that the art of japan- 
 ning goods was first practised and made known to the 
 English at Pontypool and Usk, and although it was long 
 confined to these two places, they have been unable in 
 later times to compete with Birmingham. 
 
 The towns are neither large nor well peopled, and the 
 capital, of which the situation has been already indicated, 
 forms no exception to this remark ; for although it is the 
 most populous place in the county, the number of inhab- 
 itants does not amount to more than six thousand. It 
 derives its name from its position at the confluence of the 
 
 * Herefordshire was called by the Britons, Ereinuc. (Camden’s 
 Britannia, p. 085.) — P. 
 b Sax. here, an army, and ford. — P. 
 
 c This church was erected, about 825, by Milfrid, a viceroy or pro- 
 vincial governor under Egbert. Offa (kingof Mercia, A. D.755 — 704) ! 
 has been considered its founder, from the large gifts left by him for that ! 
 
 purpose, in expiation of the murder of Ethelbert, king of the East An 
 gles. (Rees’ Cyc.) — P. 
 
 d More properly, to Herefordshire on the north-east, to Brecknock 
 shire on the north-west, and to Glamorganshire on the west. — P. 
 
 e Tin is not found in Monmouthshire; but there are extensive man 
 ufactories of tin plate. — P. 
 
BOOK CLIV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 553 
 
 Mynnovv and the Wye, which join each other at the ex- 
 tremity of a valley, that is enclosed by thickly wooded 
 hills. These rivers are crossed by three bridges, and a 
 fourth has been erected over the Trothy, which is also 
 tributary to the Wye. The town consists of one princi- 
 pal street and several small ones. Many of the inhabit- 
 ants are occupied in manufacturing iron and tin, while 
 others are employed in preparing the bark, which is con- 
 veyed from the forests on the upper banks of the Wye, 
 and after having been prepared at Monmouth, is sent to 
 Chepstow, whence it is exported to different parts of 
 England and Ireland. The town has given birth to two 
 distinguished men, namely, to Geoffrey of Monmouth, 
 the old chronicler of the Britons, and to Henry the Fifth, 
 who is frequently called Henry of Monmouth, and whose 
 statue still adorns or disfigures the modern town-hall. 
 Troy-house, the seat of the Beaufort family, is not more 
 than half a mile from Monmouth, and there, it has been af- 
 firmed, the cradle of Henry the Fifth is preserved, and 
 the armour which he wore at the battle of Agincourt. 
 
 Following the course of the Wye to the distance of 
 two miles from its junction with the Severn, we enter the 
 romantic town and port of Chepstow. Advantageously 
 situated for commerce, it has become the port of all the 
 towns on tlife Wye and the Lugg. Timber, bark, iron 
 and other articles are sent from it to Portsmouth, Plym- 
 outh and Deptford ; a the imports are wine from Opor- 
 to, and planks, hemp, flax and pitch from the Baltic. 
 Tlie harbour admits vessels of 700 tons, but the adjoin- 
 ing buildings have been more than once inundated, and 
 a cast-iron bridge over the river has been damaged by 
 the tides. Thirty or forty feet are not uncommon, and 
 on one occasion the tide rose to the extraordinary height 
 of seventy. A well in Chepstow is mentioned by old 
 writers as a phenomenon, for which they are at a loss to 
 account ; it may contain about fourteen feet of fresh 
 water, but it empties itself as the tide flows, and fills as 
 it ebbs. A tower of an old castle is also shown as a cu- 
 riosity to strangers ; it was there that Henry Martin, one 
 of the judges of Charles the First, was confined from the 
 time of the Restoration until that of his death in 1680. 
 
 The principality of Wales resembles a peninsula ; it is 
 contiguous on the east to the counties of Monmouth, 
 Hereford, Salop and Cheshire, while it is washed on 
 the north and west by the Irish Sea, and on the south 
 and south-east by the Bristol Channel. The length 
 from north to south extends from one hundred and thir- 
 ty to one hundred and eighty miles, and the breadth from 
 fifty to eighty, including an area of nearly 8125 square 
 miles. Thus the superficial extent is not equal to a sixth 
 part of England, and although the inhabitants have in- 
 creased greatly within the last twenty years, they do not 
 amount to a sixteenth part of the English population. 
 It might be easy from these data to show that the mean 
 size of each Welsh county is little more than one-half the 
 mean size of each English county, and that the mean popu- 
 lation of each county in the former country is considerably 
 
 1 Great, quantities of timber are sent from Chepstow to Portsmouth, 
 Plymouth, Deptford and Woolwich ; grain is exported for the Bristol 
 market ; and oak-bark, cider, coals, grindstones, millstones and iron, to 
 several parts of Ireland, Liverpool, and other places. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 b 823,100, in the Statistical Tables. — P. 
 
 c Gloucestershire, Herefordshire and Shropshire. By an act (34 
 Henry VIII.) the Welsh marches (borders) were partly divided into 
 new counties, and partly annexed to old counties, both in England and ' 
 VOL. III.— NO. 50.. 70 
 
 less than a fourth, or nearly a fifth part of the mean 
 population of each county in England. If it were 
 necessary to be more definite, it might be stated that 
 Wales, according to the census of 1831, contains 805,236 
 inhabitants, b consequently that the population of the 
 whole principality is much less than that of Lancashire, 
 Middlesex or Yorkshire. It is well known that the whole 
 of Monmouth and a considerable portion of several ad- 
 jacent English counties, 0 were at one time ir eluded in 
 Wales, which now consists of twelve shires, and all of 
 them except three touch the coast in some part of their 
 boundaries. Thus it appears that the counties are com- 
 paratively thinly peopled, and much smaller than those 
 of England ; on that account it may be as well to adhere 
 more to geographical than artificial divisions, and to ex- 
 amine the principality as it is naturally divided into North 
 and South Wales. 
 
 Although the height of the Welsh mountains cannot 
 be compared with that of the Alps, the country has 
 sometimes been styled the British Switzerland. The 
 resemblance between them consists in steep descents, 
 broken and perpendicular sides, deep and narrow vallies, 
 limpid lakes and numerous streams, which in some places 
 form cascades, and in others roll slowly in the midst of 
 meadows. The humid mists that rise from the surface of 
 these waters, and rest sometimes on the highest summits, 
 and the snow that remains frequently until the end of 
 spring, render them, (although the highest does not ex- 
 ceed 3600 feet), not unlike the stupendous masses that 
 obstruct the clouds in the high chains of the globe, and 
 serve as the abode of perpetual snow. 
 
 The general arrangement of the mountains may be 
 described in a few words. Two primitive chains, those 
 of Snowdon and Cader-Idris, extend from north to south. 
 As the primitive and secondary mountains approach each 
 other, the calcareous ridge follows an irregular course. 
 It may be said, however, to commence near the port of 
 Crickhaeth, whence proceeding northwards in an unin- 
 terrupted line along the coast, it arrives at Caernarvon, 
 from which it extends along the Menai, and bounds the 
 eastern shore as far as Bangor Ferry. Between the last 
 place and Ormes-Head, it is broken by the northern ex- 
 tremity of the Snowdon range, which terminates in the 
 Bay of Conway, at the heights of Penmaen-mawr and 
 Penmaen-bach. d Appearing anew in the lofty promonto- 
 ry of Ormes-Head, it bounds the coast to the mouth of 
 the Dee, takes a westerly direction, passes by Holywell 
 and the upper end of the vale of Clwyd, and is again 
 broken near Oswestry by the Ferwyn heights. e It ap- 
 pears a third time in the neighbourhood of Llanymynech, 
 and is at last terminated by a line of primitive mountains 
 stretching northwards from Radnorshire. Schistus occu- 
 pies the intermediate space between the calcareous and 
 primitive ridges. 
 
 It is not too much to assert, that the shape of these 
 mountains indicates the formations to which they belong. 
 The primitive rocks are craggy, steep and tending in 
 
 Wales. The new counties were Monmouthshire (English,) and Breck- 
 nockshire, Radnorshire, Montgomeryshire and Denbighshire (Welsh). 
 The annexations were to the three English counties just mentioned, 
 and to all the remaining Welsh counties. (Ed. Enc. England.) — P. 
 
 d Great and Little Rocky Promontories. — Welsh, pen, head or head- 
 land ; maen, stone ; mawr, great; hack, little. — P. 
 e Berwyn mountains. — P. 
 
554 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIV, 
 
 many places to a peak or pointed summit. The loftiest 
 heights are generally about the middle of the chains, 
 which commence and terminate in abrupt precipices. 
 These and the insulated peaks that are continually 
 breaking the outline, form a very distinctive character. 
 The slate or schist is distinguishable from the primitive 
 heights by its inferior elevation, and by the uniformity of 
 the hills and the regularity of the outline. The calcareous 
 hills are much lower than the last, more varied in their 
 forms, rising gradually from one extremity, or terminat- 
 ing abruptly in the other.* 
 
 The nature of the country presented many obstacles 
 to communications, and it is only of late years that they 
 have been extended and improved. One of the most 
 remarkable has been cut along the high range of Snow- 
 donia ; the interior districts of North Wales have thus 
 been made to communicate with the coast, and in the 
 same manner the great thoroughfare from London to 
 Dublin by Holyhead, has been diminished twenty-five 
 miles in length. b Other roads that were formerly almost 
 impassible in many places, have been widened, shorten- 
 ed and rendered of easy access by means of drains, 
 arches and bridges, which have contributed much to the 
 convenience of travellers, and more to the prosperity of 
 the country. The same remarks are not inapplicable to 
 the canals, which shall be afterwards mentioned, for the 
 advantages of artificial navigation were reaped in Eng- 
 land long before they were known in Wales. It may be 
 inferred from what has been said of the different chains, 
 that the northern region is much less fruitful and popu- 
 lous than the southern. In the former, the produce of 
 the land is little more than sufficient for the wants of the 
 frugal inhabitants. The climate is modified in the cen- 
 tral districts by the height of the mountains ; near the 
 shores on the south, the west, and the north, the weath- 
 er is mild but humid ; no part, however, is considered 
 unwholesome. 
 
 Manufacturing industry and maritime commerce have 
 
 a Aikin’s Tour through Wales. 
 
 b This has doubtless reference to the new Irish road, cut transverse- 
 ly across the Snowdon range, from the Menai bridge to Capel-Cerrig. 
 1'he old Irish road to Holyhead led from Bangor Ferry around the 
 promontory of Penmaenmawr to Conway. — P. 
 
 e The copper is brought from Anglesea, Cornwall and Devon. (Ed. 
 Enc.) — Copper is, however, wrought to a considerable extent in the 
 counties of Wicklow, Waterford and Cork, in Ireland. — P. 
 
 <* The following is a general view of the principal canals in Wales. 
 
 1. The Brecknock and Abergavenny canal leaves the Monmouth ca- 
 nal at Pontypool, and passing through a tunnel, proceeds up the val- 
 ley of the Uske to Brecknock. Several side rail-ways extend from this 
 canal. Together with the Monmouth canal, it forms a line extending 
 45 miles from Brecknock to Newport near the mouth of the Uske. 
 The Brinore rail-way, connected with the Sirhowy rail-way in Mon- 
 mouthshire, crosses the Black Mountains from the Romney iron-works, 
 in that county, and extends to Brecknock, and thence to Hay on the 
 Wye. 2. The Glamorganshire (Cardiff) canal commences by a sea 
 lock for vessels of 300 tons, at Pennarth-IIead, at the mouth of the 
 Taff, and proceeds up the valley of that river, by Cardiff, twenty-five 
 miles, to Merthyr-Tydvil. A rail-way runs parallel to it up the same 
 valley. 3. The Aberdare canal branches off from the former at the 
 mouth of the Cynon, nine miles below Merthyr-Tydvil, and proceeds 
 seven and a half miles north-west, up the vale of the Cynon, to Aber- 
 dare, whence there is a communication by a rail-way and inclined 
 plane with the Neath canal. 4. The Neath canal commences at the 
 shipping port of Britton-Ferry, four miles below the town of Neath, 
 and proceeds up the valley of the river Neath by the town, fourteen 
 miles to Aberfergwn, where a rail-way connects it with the Aberdare 
 canal. 5. The Crumlin canal, on the westside of Neath river, proceeds 
 from the portat Britton-Ferry. three and a half miles on a level, through 
 the Crumlin Bog, to New Chapel collieries. It was the first canal 
 opened in Wales. 6. The Swansea canal proceeds from the town of 
 Swansea, about eighteen miles up the western side of the Taafe, to 
 the Henoyndd lime- works in Brecknockshire. Several rail-vtivs com- I 
 
 been so much increased in the principality within the 
 last twenty years, that the population has increased more 
 than a fourth during that period. Glamorganshire, par- 
 ticularly the portion of it near the sea, is so fruitful that 
 it is styled the garden of Wales ; but if it has become 
 more populous, commercial and wealthy than any other 
 Welsh county, it must be attributed less to its fertility, 
 than to its inexhaustible fields of coal, ironstone and lime. 
 A considerable quantity of the coal is exported, but 
 enough is left for the supply of the many iron-works in 
 the county, and of other large works established by en- 
 terprising men for the smelting of copper, which is con- 
 veyed from Cornwall, North Wales and Ireland . 0 Mer- 
 thyr-Tydvil has become the seat of the principal iron- 
 works ; next to them are those of Aberdare, Neath and 
 Swansea; and the metal is transported along canals that 
 communicate with these places. The first passes from 
 Merthyr-Tydvil to Pennarth Bay below Cardiff, and a 
 branch from Aberdare joins it near the river Cynon. 
 The Neath canal communicates with Briton-Ferry, and 
 the Swansea canal passes from the port of the same 
 name into Brecknockshire. The nature of the country 
 does not afford many facilities for such works, and they 
 could not have been constructed without frequent re- 
 course to the expensive and tedious method of locks ; 
 but it would be incorrect to suppose that these are the 
 only canals ; the line of coast is joined by others and by 
 excellent roads to the immense founderies in the interi- 
 or . 11 And it is only since they have been completed 
 that tin was exported from Cornwall, and that extensive 
 manufactories of tin-plates were erected near the iron- 
 works . 6 Lastly, as to the geological position of the min- 
 erals, it may be remarked that they are contained in a 
 calcareous basin, of which Glamorganshire occupies the 
 central portion, and that the same basin is not less than 
 a hundred miles in length, and about twenty in average 
 breadth/ 
 
 Besides the metalse that have been already mention- 
 
 municate with the collieries along its course. The Oystermouth rail- 
 way proceeds south-west from Swansea, seven miles along the coast, 
 to the Oystermouth lime-works. From Llanelly, on the Burr}- River, 
 the Caermarthenshire rail-way extends fifteen miles through a coal 
 country to Llandebie. Besides the above, several short lines of canal 
 and rail-way extend to particular collieries, iron and lime-works, &c. 
 
 In North Wales, the only important canals are the two branches of 
 the Ellesmere canal (see note b , p. 1218,) one of which proceeds up the 
 valley of the Dee to Llandisilio, and the other to Llanymynech on the 
 Severn, where the Montgomery canal commences, and proceeds up 
 that river twenty-five miles to Newtown. These canals, particularly 
 the Dee branch, have several side cuts and rail-ways to collieries, iron 
 and lime-works, &c. The Dee branch is carried over the river Dee, 
 at Pontcysylte, on an aqueduct 1007 feet long, and 126 feet high, said 
 to be the largest in the kingdom. — P. 
 
 e Particularly in the vicinity of Neath and Cardiff. — The tin-works 
 of Melyn-Gryffydd, four miles from Cardiff, are perhaps the largest in 
 the kingdom ; producing not less than 30,000 boxes of tin-plates in one 
 year. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 f The great coal formation of South Wales is included in a limestone 
 basin, the form of which is an irregular oval. It extends 100 miles in 
 length, from Pontypool on the east, to St. Bride’s Bay on the west, and 
 where broadest, from 18 to 20 miles in width ; but in Pembrokeshire, 
 it is not more than five miles broad. Its greatest breadth is at Neath, 
 in Glamorganshire. The superficial extent of the basin is about 100 
 square miles, containing 1)5 feet of coal, yielding, by calculation. <14 
 million tons per square mile. This basin includes parts of Monmouth- 
 shire, Glamorganshire, Brecknockshire, Caermarthenshire and Pern 
 brokeshire. (Ed. Enc. Conybeare and Phillips, Geol. Eng. and 
 Wales.) — P. 
 
 S Minerals ? The southern border of Brecknockshire is included 
 
 within the great coal basin of South Wales, and abounds in coal and 
 iron-ore. The basin is there bounded on the north by a belt of lime 
 stone. — P. 
 
BOOK CJLIV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 555 
 
 ed, copper and lead are found in Brecknockshire, a coun- 
 ty different from the last, inasmuch as it is the most 
 mountainous of any in South Wales, and also because it 
 is intersected by two lofty ranges, the one on the north 
 and the other on the south. a The products of the mines 
 are of secondary importance ; still they are much naore 
 valuable than formerly. Thus it appears that the rent 
 of the iron mines in 1711 amounted to L.20, and in 
 1807 to L.2000 ; within the same period, and in the 
 same county, the price of provisions has been doubled, 
 and the price of labour more than quadrupled. 11 As a 
 pastoral county it is more productive than Glamorgan- 
 shire ; numerous flocks are reared on its hills, and the 
 principal branch of industry consists in the manufacture 
 of stockings and woollen stuffs. 
 
 Caermarthenshire is famed for its barley and oats ; 
 the climate is less favourable for wheat, but good crops 
 even of that grain are raised on the low grounds. The 
 oats are much more than sufficient for the consumption, 
 and the surplus produce is sent to Bristol. Many oxen 
 are bred in the county, and much butter is made for 
 exportation. Limestone is wrought near the coast ; it 
 extends also towards the Black Mountains,' and the prod- 
 uce of the works has contributed to the improvement of the 
 soil. Large blocks of marble of a dark blue colour, and 
 susceptible of a high polish, are obtained from the quar- 
 ries in the parish of Llangyndeirn. The other products 
 are iron, lead and coal, and the exportation of the last 
 substance is now rendered easy by means of a canal that 
 extends from the collieries to Kidwelly, a small town on 
 a creek near the mouth of the Towy. d 
 
 Fruitful corn-fields, extensive meadows, and a sea that 
 abounds with fish, are perhaps so many obstacles to the 
 development of manufacturing industry in Pembroke- 
 shire. It might be difficult otherwise to reconcile the 
 low state of industry, with the advantages it possesses 
 for commerce, with its numerous harbours and extensive 
 coast. It may be added that the calcareous basin which 
 contains the iron and coal of South Wales, terminates in 
 Pembrokeshire ; the depth of the strata diminishes as 
 they approach the boundary, and their quality is impair- 
 ed, consequently the mineral riches of the county are 
 by no means great. 
 
 As a metalliferous county, Cardiganshire is more dis- 
 tinguished, and silver, lead and copper are contained in 
 its mines. The lead mines yield a considerable propor- 
 tion of silver • some of them not less than thirty-five or 
 forty ounces per ton, and it appears that during the 
 reign of Elizabeth, seventy and even a hundred ounces 
 were occasionally obtained. The ore is also rich in lead, 
 
 a The northern range is primitive or transition ; the southern, which 
 includes the Vanns or Beacons of Brecon, consists of old red sand- 
 stone. — P. 
 
 b Agricultural Survey. 
 
 c The range of the Black Mountains extends from the eastern part 
 of Caermarthenshire, along the southern border of Brecknock- 
 shire . — P. 
 
 d Kidwelly stands on both sides of the Lesser Gwendraeth, near its 
 mouth. The Great and Lesser Gwendraeth* * are two small creeks 
 which enter the bay of Caermarthen by the same estuary. — P. 
 
 * Welsh, Gwendraeth-vawr, and Gwendraeth-vag or vach. Gwen, fair; 
 
 traeth, frith or estuary, a tract of sand left bare at low tide ; mawr, great ; bach 
 or bag, little. This example illustrates a striking peculiarity of the Celtic lan- 
 guages, especially the Welsh ; namely, the change of initial consonants, ac- 
 cording to the word preceding in construction — here, t to d, and m and b to v. — P. 
 
 B During the reign of Elizabeth, the mines were wrought by a com- 
 pany of Germans. Sir H. Middleton wrought his mine in the reign 
 
 and about 1250 pounds of metal are extracted from the 
 ton. The mines were in a flourishing condition during 
 the seventeenth century, and from the profits then de- 
 rived from them, Sir Hugh Middleton was enabled to ac- 
 complish his great undertaking, namely, to bring the New 
 River to London, and to confer a lasting benefit on his 
 country. Not long after the death of that great man, the 
 produce of the mines began to decline, and they have 
 since been gradually neglected, but it is probable that 
 they might still be worked with advantage, were it not 
 for the scarcity of fuel.® The agriculture of the county, 
 in common with that of most others in the principality, 
 is still susceptible of much improvement ; the land near 
 the coast is fertilized by sea-weed, and it is affirmed that 
 sixty successive crops of barley have been raised on the 
 same field. 
 
 The small county of Radnor forms an exception, for 
 although it may be more sterile and less populous than 
 any that has been mentioned, it is certainly better culti- 
 vated. The sinuous course of the Wye determines its 
 figure/ and it waters pastoral and arable vallies, in which 
 the land is good and the climate tolerable. But in 
 most places the inhabitants have had to resist the 
 effects of a barren soil and a chilling atmosphere. 
 The north-western angle forms still an almost impas- 
 sable desert, which at an early period afforded shelter 
 to Vortigern after the direful effects of his invitation to 
 the Saxons. 
 
 The county of Montgomery in the northern part of 
 the principality is diversified and mountainous. The na- 
 ture of the climate and the soil has hitherto proved an 
 insurmountable obstacle to the improvement of the mid- 
 land, western and south-western districts. But the nar- 
 row vallies that are enclosed by the heights yield rich 
 pasturage and plentiful crops of corn. The vale of the 
 Severn, extending along the course of the river in the 
 south-eastern part of the county, has long been noted for 
 its fertility ; and it is not now less distinguished by its 
 improved husbandry. The ground rises from the same 
 vale towards the north-west, and the heights are connect- 
 ed with the ridge that meets the lofty Plinlimmon. It is 
 not improbable that the county is still better wooded 
 than any other in North Wales; but the finest oaks in 
 Montgomeryshire were cut during the last war, and 
 transported to the dock-yards of Deptford and Plymouth. 
 The metals are lead or galena and silver/ but the most 
 valuable of the mineral treasures, those at least that yield 
 the greatest revenue, consist in the slate quarries, of 
 which the largest are situated near Llangynnog and near 
 the confluence of the Virnwy and Severn. 11 
 
 of James I. A Mr. Bushel, a distinguished royalist, in the time of 
 Charles I., is said to have made immense sums by his mines. These 
 mines were, however, soon after exhausted ; but in 1G90, other mines 
 were discovered on the estate of Gogerthan, so rich as to have obtain- 
 ed the appellation of the Welsh Potosi. They have been, however, 
 long neglected. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 f The Wye rises on the south side of Plinlimmon in Montgomery- 
 shire, and entering Radnorshire at Savan-y'-Coed, flows across its 
 north-western corner ; after which it separates the county on the 
 south-west and south from Brecknockshire, till it enters Hereford- 
 shire. — P. 
 
 s There are several lead mines in the county, the ore of which is 
 galena containing a portion of silver (argentiferous galena.) — P. 
 
 h From the lofty rocks of Llangynnog, a considerable quantity of 
 coarse slates is obtained. Slate is also procured near the junction of 
 the Firnwy and Severn, and sent down to Bristol. (Ed. Enc.) 1 — P. 
 
556 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK C1IV, 
 
 The adjacent county of Merioneth, still more roman- 
 tic than the last, possesses all the features of a wild and 
 mountainous region. The Berwyn heights* rise above 
 the fruitful valley watered by the Dee, which may be 
 traced to its source in tbe lake of Bala, b almost surround- 
 ed by hills, and forming an expanse of clear and limpid 
 water. The lofty tract commences on the south of 
 Bala ; c deep and narrow vallies extend between the 
 heights, and the moors afford plenty of peat, the only 
 fuel in the county. Cader-Idris held long the first rank 
 among the heights in Merionethshire, but it appears from 
 the trigonometrical survey that it is only 2914 feet above 
 the level of the sea, while Arran Fowdey d is 2965. The 
 mountains are rugged and precipitous, and although their 
 peaked summits seem to approach each other, their bases 
 are separated by intervening spaces of considerable ex- 
 tent. Many of them are enlivened with woods, and 
 watered by torrents or cataracts. Although the herbage 
 is coarse, still it reaches to the summits, and affords pas- 
 ture to numerous flocks. The high region is composed 
 of granite, porphyry and other primitive rocks ; differ- 
 ent schists form the hills, and schistose clay is found 
 in the vallies. e 
 
 The rugged and mountainous scenery of Merioneth is 
 softened in Denbighshire by a greater extent of fruitful 
 and well cultivated land. The hundred of Yale in the 
 northern part/ although hilly and destitute of trees, 
 is rich in pasture and abounds with oxen. The vale 
 of Clwyd, commencing in the centre of the county, 
 stretches towards the sea, a distance of about twenty 
 miles ; enclosed by mountains on every side except the 
 north, its breadth varies from three to eight miles. It is 
 remarkable for its fertility, cultivation reaches to a con- 
 siderable height/ and it is studded with towns, villages 
 and country houses. The Dee passes along fruitful 
 meadows on the south-eastern confines, and the cheese 
 exported from them is not inferior to any from the neigh- 
 bouring county of Cheshire. The other products are 
 corn and cattle, while wool forms the material of the 
 staple manufacture. Lead is found on the eastern bor- 
 ders ; iron ore is dug on the Rualion h hills, and on both 
 sides of the Berwyn ridge ; and coal, another product 
 of the same county, is rendered available for the smelt- 
 ing of the ore. 
 
 Flintshire, a small stripe, more level than the rest of 
 
 a The Berwyn or Ferwyn mountains [Berwyn ; by initial mutation, 
 Ferwyn, as Mynydd Ferwyn, mountain of Berwyn,] extending from east 
 to west along the borders of Denbighshire. Montgomeryshire and Me- 
 rionethshire. They consist of argillite. — P. 
 
 b The Dee rises from two sources in the eastern part of the county, 
 near the sides of the Arran mountains. These, after uniting and 
 passing through the lake of Pemblemeer (Bala pool,) run north-east- 
 erly into Denbighshire. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 c The Berwyn mountains extend along the southern side of the val- 
 ley of the Dee. A higher chain, including the summits of Cader-Idris 
 and the Arrans, extends in a north and north-easterly direction, from 
 the coast in the. southern part of the county, nearly to its northern ex- 
 tremity. — P. 
 
 d Properly, Aran Vowddwy . — Aran is a Welsh word signifying 
 height or alpine summit. There are other mountains in the same 
 range, bearing the name, viz. Aran Benllyn, Aran-nig, &c. — P. 
 
 e The mountains consist principally of granite, porphyry, and other 
 unstratified rocks. The secondary hills are composed of mixed schis- 
 tus ; the valleys contain schistose clay, and the level parts of the 
 county abound with peat earth. (Ed. Enc.) — The range including 
 Cader-Idris, and a mountainous tract, connected with the Snowdon 
 range, and occupying the central portion of the northern half of the 
 county, is marked in Conybeare and Phillips’ map, as sienite and trap 
 (primitive or transition.) The remainder of the county is marked in 
 the same map, as greywacke and clay-slate (argillite.)— P. 
 
 Wales, is watered by many streams, and varied by hills 
 passing into vallies. Tbe low tract near tbe Dee con- 
 sists of a clayey soil, fruitful in corn and well stocked 
 with wood. But tbe heights near the estuary of the river 
 extend in a direction parallel to its course, and decline 
 on tbe opposite side into the rich vale of Mold, from 
 which wheat and other sorts of grain are sent to Liver- 
 pool. Tbe commerce of the county is derived from its 
 metals it supplies Chester with coal, which was former- 
 ly exported to Ireland. Rich mines of lead and calamine 
 are wrought beneath the barren surface of the hills. 
 Some of the lead ore contains a small proportion of silver, 
 and several thousand ounces of silver have been annually 
 exported from Flintshire to the manufacturing towns of 
 Sheffield and Birmingham. 11 
 
 Tbe Snowdonian range runs in an unbroken line across 
 Caernarvonshire, the most mountainous of tbe Welsh 
 counties, and the ridge, which it forms from Traeth- 
 mawr to Penmaen-mawr, is varied by conical peaks, that 
 have been compared to tbe needles of the Alps. * 1 Of 
 these, the highest or the famed Snowdon reaches to the 
 height of 3570 feet above the level of the sea, and the 
 others descend gradually on either side of it. This lofty 
 region abounds in precipices, deep ravines, lakes and 
 moors; but it is now destitute of trees, the climate is 
 bleak and piercing, and the character of desolation is im- 
 pressed on its romantic scenery. The extremity of the 
 chain, or Penmaen-mawr, which it has been observed, 
 was formerly impassable, is now traversed by a secure 
 road, about two hundred feet above the sea, that lashes 
 the base of the mountain. A narrow pass between the 
 same height and Penmaen-bach, leads to the long and 
 narrow vale of Conway, equally romantic and beautiful ; 
 clothed with woods, corn fields and rich pastures, and 
 forming a fine contrast to the bleak heights that tower 
 above it. The minerals of the county are not without 
 importance ; a considerable revenue is derived from the 
 slate quarries, and copper is the most valuable of the 
 metals in the Snowdon chain. The country is better 
 adapted for the rearing of cattle than the culture of grain, 
 and its wealth consists in its oxen, sheep and goats. The 
 life of the inhabitants in the rural districts resembles that 
 of the mountaineers in Switzerland. In the month of 
 May they leave the vallies, and drive their herds and 
 flocks to the mountains, where they reside during the 
 
 f Ifll is a small hilly district between the upper part of the vale of 
 Clwyd on the west, and Wrexham on the east ; including Vale Crucis 
 and the sources of the river Alen. (Camden’s Britannia.) — P. 
 
 « It is in a high state of cultivation, and is, moreover, naturally very 
 fertile. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 h Ruabon. (Cyc. Ed. Enc.) — The iron works and collieries near 
 Ruabon Brook, are connected by a rail-road with the Ellesmere canal, 
 at Pontcysylte. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 ‘ The importance of Flintshire is derived almost entirely from its 
 mineral productions; of these, the lead mines in the vicinity of Holy- 
 well are the most valuable. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 k The geological position of the metals in Flintshire has been accu- 
 rately determined by the celebrated Pennant, a native of the county. 
 
 1 The Snowdon range extends from north-east to south-west through 
 the whole length of the county, from Penmaenmawr on the bay of 
 
 Conway, to Aberdaron Bay. The range makes a curve to the south- 
 east near the centre of the county, where the highest peaks are situ- 
 ated, and thence communicates with the mountains of Merioneth- 
 shire. This range consists of sienite and trap, like that of Cader-Idris. 
 Traeth-mawr and Traeth-bach (Great and Little Friths) are two inlets 
 at the head of Cardigan Bay. which are bare at low tide, leaving dry a 
 large tract of sands. In 1807, the former, consisting of 3500 acres, was 
 granted by the crown for embankment, and in 1820, 2000 acres had 
 been recovered. — P. 
 
BOOK CLIV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 557 
 
 summer,® and subsist chiefly on the produce of the dairy. 
 In autumn they return to the vallies, and in winter they 
 manufacture from the wool of their sheep, the coarse 
 cloth which they wear. The Menai Straits separate 
 Caernarvonshire from the Isle of Anglesea, which is also 
 included in the Welsh counties ; but both are now united 
 by one of the wonders of modern art. b The properties 
 of the catenary, 0 which afforded a subject of intellectual 
 research or speculation to mathematicians, were discov- 
 ered long before it was imagined that it could be applied 
 to practical purposes, or before a chain describing the 
 same curve was extended over the arm of the sea that 
 separates Anglesea from the rest of Wales. The dis- 
 tance between the piers, or points of suspension, is equal 
 to 580 feet, and the height from the surface of the 
 water, to 100. The chains, 11 all made of wrought iron, 
 are fastened to vertical rods, of which the ends are bolt- 
 ed in iron sleepers or transverse bars. There are 1 1 1 of 
 these sleepers, in each of which four vertical rods are 
 fixed, making the total number of rods amount to four 
 hundred and forty-four. The road-ways consist of two 
 carriage lines, each twelve feet broad, and a foot-path 
 between them, four feet wide, and enclosed by iron rail- 
 ings, to secure passengers from accidents.® This stu- 
 pendous work, almost as remarkable for its solidity as 
 for its novelty, and which is likely to perpetuate the 
 name of Telford/ was opened on the 30th January, 
 1826, by the London and Holyhead mail-coach crossing 
 it with the bags for Dublin. On the first of February, 
 the first three-masted vessel sailed under the bridge with 
 all her spars up, and her top-masts cleared twelve feet 
 and a half below the centre of the road-way.s While 
 this great work was in progress, its accomplishment was 
 considered doubtful or hopeless by many ; but the end 
 for which it was erected has now been attained, and the 
 communications from London to Dublin by Holyhead 
 are no longer retarded by the inconvenient ferry of Ban- 
 gor. The part of Anglesea bordering on the Menai is 
 covered with thick woods ; at no great distance in the 
 interior, the scene changes into a naked tract, destitute 
 of trees, but fruitful in corn, varied by hills and watered 
 by many streams. Grain and cattle are the principal 
 agricultural produce, and it appears that about a hun- 
 dred and fifty years ago, nearly 3000 oxen were annually 
 sent to England ; the number has since been increased to 
 fifteen or twenty thousand. 11 The coasts are well provided 
 
 a They reside during the summer in hafod-tai, or summer dairy 
 houses, as the farmers of the Swiss Alps do in their senncs. (Ed. 
 
 Enc.) Hafod or havod (Welsh,) a summer dwelling, a dairy ; Lai, 
 
 houses, (plur. of ty, a house.) — P. 
 
 b The Menai bridge — a chain or suspension bridge. — P. 
 c The Catenarian Curve ( Catcnaria ) is the figure which a heavy 
 chain or rope assumes, when suspended at its two extremities. This, 
 when inverted, is the proper form for an arch. — P. 
 
 d There are four chains, from each of which a vertical rod descends 
 to each sleeper. — P. 
 
 e Historical Description of the Menai Bridge, by Dr. Pringle. 
 f The bridge was constructed by Mr. Telford. He was first com- 
 missioned by the government in 1810, and in 1811, he reported his 
 plans and estimate. — P. 
 
 s Historical Description of the Menai Bridge, by Dr. Pringle. 
 h It sends annually several thousand head of cattle to the English 
 market. They are driven to the port of Aethwy, the principal ferry 
 to Caernarvonshire, and are there compelled to swim across the Me- 
 nai. (Ed. Enc.) — This was before the construction of the Menai 
 bridge. — P. 
 
 1 Found in the stratum of earth that covers the copper ore. (Ed. 
 Enc.) — P. 
 
 k Fifty-seven ounces. (Rees’ Cyc. Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 The coal formation of Anglesea, which is of very small extent, lies 
 
 with harbours, and the neighbouring seas are abundant- 
 ly stocked with fish. The metals are not the least val- 
 uable products. Copper ore was found within a few 
 feet of the surface, not in veins, but in a continuous 
 mass sixty feet deep, over a large portion of the Parys 
 mountain. The quantity formerly obtained varied from 
 40,000 to 80,000 tons ; but of late years it has been 
 greatly reduced. Lead ore, another of the products/ 
 
 yields from six to ten hundredweights per ton, and from 
 a ton of ore thirty-seven ounces' 1 of silver may be ex- 
 tracted. The other minerals are coal in the neighbour- 
 hood of Maltreat!), 1 excellent millstones, which are ob- 
 tained from different quarries, and green marble not un- 
 like the verd-antique of the Romans. The greatest length 
 of the island from north-west to south-east is more than 
 twenty miles, and the greatest breadth about eighteen ; 
 the circumference is not less than eighty, and the area 
 is said to be equal to 320 square miles. 
 
 To regulate the administration of justice, Wales has 
 been divided into four circuits, in each of which the as- 
 sizes are held twice a year. The first, or the circuit of 
 Chester, comprehends, besides the English county of the 
 same name on the borders of Wales, the Welsh coun- 
 ties of Flint, Denbigh and Montgomery. The second, 
 or the northern circuit, includes the counties of Anglesea, 
 Caernarvon and Merioneth. The third, or the south- 
 eastern, extends over those of Radnor, Brecon and 
 Glamorgan. The last, or the south-western, compre- 
 hends those of Pembroke, Cardigan and Caermarthen." 1 
 As to the ecclesiastical polity, the principality is under 
 the province of York/ and is divided into the dioceses 
 of St. David’s, Bangor, LandafF and St. Asaph. 
 
 We shall principally confine our remarks in the ac- 
 count of the Welsh towns to the capitals, and the few 
 places that are distinguished by the industry of the in- 
 habitants ; and it may here be observed that all the 
 counties except those of Glamorgan, Merioneth and 
 Anglesea, derive their name from their capitals. 
 
 Cardiff, the chief town of Glamorganshire, is situated 
 on the Taff, the banks of which are united by a hand- 
 some bridge. The harbour of Pennarth, on the banks 
 of the same river, and about three miles lower down/ is 
 considered a dependence of the town. It receives ves- 
 sels of the largest burden, and those of three hundred 
 tons sail up to Cardiff/ It may be affirmed without ex- 
 aggeration that additional buildings have altered the ap- 
 
 in a valley that crosses the island, from north-east to south-west, par- 
 allel to the Menai, and at no great distance from it. This valley is 
 bordered by parallel belts of limestone, and in the hollow, coal has 
 been wrought near the Maltraeth estuary (on the south-west coast,) 
 and probably extends throughout the valley. Besides this coal format ion 
 and its surrounding belt of mountain limestone, there are two tracts of 
 sienite and trap on the Menai, (one opposite Bangor, and the other at its 
 southern entrance,) and a small tract of old red sandstone on the shore 
 of Conway Bay. The mountain limestone is bounded on the north-west 
 by a belt of old red sandstone. All the rest of the island, to the north-west, 
 is transition, consisting of graywacke and argillite, with a small tract 
 of granite, near its southern border, and a belt of serpentine crossino- it 
 near the north-western extremity. (Conybeare and Phillips.) — P. 
 
 m In Myers’ Geog. (1822,) Wales is divided into four circuits, in 
 which the counties are arranged as in the text. The two first circuits 
 are called the north-eastern and north-western. Cheshire, as a coun- 
 ty palatine, is not included in any circuit. — P. 
 
 n The province of Canterbury. (Pinkerton. Myers.) — P. 
 
 ° At the mouth of the river. Pennarth (Eng. Bear’s Head.) from 
 
 pen, head, and artli, bear. — P. 
 
 p Vessels of 300 tons ascend to the quay of Cardiff, bv the Glamor 
 ganshire canal, which has been so far deepened for that purpose. This 
 canal terminates in a floating sea dock in the Severn, at Pennarth 
 Point. (Rees’ Cyc.) — P. 
 
558 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIV. 
 
 pearance of the town, and that the pursuits of the inhab- 
 itants have been changed, since the Cardiff canal was 
 completed. It extends from Merthyr-Tydvil, a distance 
 of twenty-five miles, and the head of it is 608 feet 
 higher than the tide-lock at Cardiff. 11 An immense 
 quantity of cast and wrought iron is thus conveyed from 
 the works to the town, and onwards to Pennarth, whence 
 it is shipped for different parts of England. From other 
 extensive works not more than four miles from the town, b 
 30,000 boxes of tin plates are annually exported to 
 Bristol. c It appears then that the capital of Glamor- 
 ganshire is now a place of commerce, but it was chiefly 
 known during the middle ages on account *)f a fortified 
 castle, where Henry the First confined his own brother, d 
 the rightful heir to the throne, and where he died after 
 an imprisonment of twenty-six years. 
 
 It is further evident that the recent prosperity of the 
 same place must be attributed in a great degree to the 
 products of the iron-works. But the same remark is ap- 
 plicable to the whole of South Wales. The rela- 
 tive importance of that part of the principality and 
 of the county of Monmouth, has within a recent period 
 been much increased by the great number of new, and 
 by the enlargement of old works. These works extend 
 in a line of about twenty-five miles long, in the direction 
 of north-west and south-east, and they yield annually 
 between two and three hundred thousand tons of iron. 
 The works at Hirwain in Brecknockshire and at Aber- 
 dare in Glamorganshire form the western points ; on the 
 east of them are situated the important works and the 
 populous neighbourhood of Merthyr-Tydvil ; from the 
 last place a chain of furnaces is formed by the works of 
 Dowlais, Romney, Tredegar, Sirhowey, Beaufort, Nant- 
 y-Glo, Blaenafon, the Vorteg, Abersychan and Pont-y- 
 Pool, where the mineral range terminates. It may be 
 necessary to indicate more fully the site of Merthyr-Tyd- 
 vil, at no very remote period an obscure village, now by 
 the industry and enterprise of its inhabitants, the first 
 town in Wales. e It is situated in the same county as 
 Cardiff, on the northern borders, on the bank of the same 
 river, and at the distance of nine miles from its source. 
 But the houses are still mean, dirty and irregularly built; 
 in most places they are not connected by streets, and 
 the market-place is ill adapted for the business that is 
 transacted in it. Landaff/ at no great distance from 
 Cardiff, resembles a village more than the seat of a dio- 
 cese. The ancient part of its cathedral may be consid- 
 ered a fine specimen of Gothic architecture, but it ac- 
 cords ill with the modern part, which resembles a Gre- 
 cian building. An excellent road, about thirty-nine 
 miles in length, leads from Cardiff to Neath, a port that 
 
 a The expense of the work amounted to L.500,000. (C. Dupin, 
 
 Force Commerciale.) 
 
 The tin-works of Melyn-Gryffydd. — P. 
 c Capper’s Topog. Diet. 
 
 J Robert, Duke of Normandy. — P. 
 c Population, 22,083, in 1831. — P. 
 
 f Properly, Llandaff — the church on the Taff. The word linn, pre- 
 fixed to so many Welsh names, signifies church or church-town. — P. 
 
 e On the Lower Taafe (Taff. Taw, Tawey, or Towy) — a river 
 which rises in the south part of Brecknockshire, and flows southerly, 
 across Glamorganshire, into the bay of Swansea. The town is called, 
 from its position near the mouth of the river, Abertaw, by the Welsh. 
 The name of the river, variously modified, is common to many rivers 
 in South Wales. It is said to signify a stream or river. — P. 
 t 13,004, in 1831.— P. 
 
 1 This is a mistake. — Caermarthen stands on another river Towy, 
 which rises in the south-eastern corner of Cardiganshire, and flows 
 
 admits vessels of two hundred tons, and built on the 
 river of the same name, which throws itself in the neigh- 
 bourhood into the bay of Swansea. But the town of 
 Swansea on the last mentioned bay, and at the mouth 
 of the Towy.e is the most considerable port in the coun- 
 ty ; and the commerce, industry and number of its inhab- 
 itants * 1 * render it better entitled than Cardiff to the rank 
 of capital. The products of the county are conveyed to 
 it by several canals, which account in some degree for 
 its rapid extension and for its present trade in coal, iron, 
 limestone and other articles. To facilitate that trade, 
 the harbour has been enlarged, stone piers have been 
 erected, the river has been deepened, and obstructions 
 have been removed from its entrance into the sea. The 
 establishments of industry are potteries, iron-founderies 
 and several large copper-houses, in which more than fifty 
 thousand tons of ore are annually smelted. 
 
 If we ascend the last river, 1 we may arrive at the 
 county town of Caermarthen, which is adorned with a 
 handsome stone bridge of sixteen arches. k It boasts of 
 a high antiquity, and there is good reason to suppose 
 that it occupies the site of Maridunum T a town of the 
 Dematecep.. 1 It was once fortified with walls and a strong 
 castle, of which the gate only remains ; it is long since 
 the rest of the building was levelled with the ground, 
 and a county gaol, a modern edifice of hewn stone, now 
 rises on the place where the old fortress stood. It is al- 
 so a place of considerable industry and trade ; the first 
 is directed to the products of the mines, that are situated 
 in the neighbourhood," 1 and the second is carried on by 
 means of the river, which is navigable to vessels of three 
 hundred tons. The same town is the supposed birth- 
 place of the famous Merlin. A hill in the neighbour- 
 hood is still known by the name of Merlin’s hill, and a 
 rock on the brow of it forms Merlin’s chair, on which he 
 is said to have proclaimed his prophecies. Not more 
 than fifteen miles to the south-east, and at the southern 
 extremity of the county, is situated the flourishing town 
 of Llanelly, where a neighbourhood abounding with coal 
 and iron, has given rise to extensive manufactures. The 
 harbour on the estuary of the Loughor” has in conse- 
 quence been much improved, and numerous rail-roads 
 passing in different directions into the interior facilitate 
 the conveyance of the mineral products. 
 
 Continuing our journey along the coast, we arrive at 
 the county town of Pembroke, which is built on a neck 
 of land that bounds the small estuary of Down-Pool," a 
 branch of Milford-Haven. Although in antiquity it may 
 rival Caermarthen, it is much inferior to it in commerce 
 and industry. An ancient castle on a high rock at the 
 western extremity of the town, forms a grand object, 
 
 south-westerly, through the centre of Caermarthenshire, into the bay 
 of Caermarthen. — P. 
 
 k There is a long narrow bridge over the Towy, of six arches, with 
 other four in the parapet at the south end, to allow the water to pass 
 when the river is swollen. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 1 Caermarthen — the Maridunum of Ptolemy, and the Caer-ryrddin 
 of the Britons. (Ed. Enc.) — Maridunum was the chief town of the 
 Dcmctte, who occupied the three south-western counties of Wales. 
 (Martiniere, Diet. Geog.) — Cacr-ryrddin (Caer-mardhin) is a Welsh 
 word, signifying the fortress of Merlin (Welsh. Mtjrddin.) — P. 
 
 m The principal manufactures are those of tin-plate and cast- 
 iron. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 n The Louorhor is the boundary between Caermarthen and Glamor- 
 ganshires. its estuary, called also Burry River, forms the eastern ex- 
 tremity of Caermarthen Bay. — P. 
 
 ° On a neck of land, that divides the estuary of Down-Pool. It ter 
 minates on the west, in the rock on which the castle is situated. — P. 
 
BOOK C1.IV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 559 
 
 even in its present dilapidated state. It is now useless 
 as a place of strength, but at so late a period as the civil 
 wars, it was taken by Cromwell after a siege of consid- 
 erable duration. It was built by Arnulph de Montgom- 
 ery, in the time of William Rufus, and the cavern of 
 Wogan beneath its ancient chapel, is remarkable for an 
 echo that repeats several syllables. Milford-Haven, a 
 bay surrounded by mountains, cutting deeply into the 
 land, and resembling a lake from its placid waters, has 
 been already described ; but it may be remarked that in 
 consequence of an act of parliament, passed in 1790, a 
 town of the same name was founded on the northern side 
 of the bay, about six miles to the north of Pembroke.® 
 As its foundation dates from so recent a period, it may 
 be easily inferred that it is well and uniformly built, and 
 although its commerce is not yet considerable, it is likely 
 ere long to be extended, because it possesses many ad- 
 vantages in its situation at the south-west point of Wales, 
 and in a harbour as commodious as any in Britain, and 
 which, with its numerous creeks, inlets and roadsteads, 
 may contain in security a thousand ships. The distin- 
 guished author of the commercial resources of Great 
 Britain® observes that Milford-Haven may become a very 
 important place, whenever England engages in a war 
 with America, or whenever the state of Ireland calls for 
 active vigilance by sea. Such events, however much 
 they might be deplored, are not unlikely to increase the 
 naval or military importance, and add to the number of 
 government establishments in the town ; but it is not 
 likely by such means to become a commercial port. It 
 is now one of the royal docks ; it has its dry docks, and 
 thirteen building slips, from whicli the vessels are sent 
 with ballast to Plymouth to be rigged and fitted out. b 
 
 The metropolitan see of Wales was translated from 
 Caerleon to St. David’s on the promontory of the same 
 name, the Caput Octoyitarum . of the Romans. St. 
 David’s, although a city, does not contain 3000 inhabit- 
 ants, and nothing can be more mean and squalid than its 
 appearance. The cathedral, once visited by noble and 
 royal pilgrims, is an edifice of mixed architecture, in 
 which the Gothic predominates. A leek, the plant of 
 the saint to whom it is dedicated, is worn by the inhab- 
 itants on the anniversary of his birth; and although it 
 might be difficult to account correctly for so singular an 
 emblem, Welsh theologians have assigned to it different 
 and contradictory meanings. 
 
 The port and county town of Cardigan gives its name 
 to a large gulf, d which is broken by several small bays or 
 harbours, and by the Aeron, e the Ystwith, the RheidoF 
 and other streams formed by brooks that are shallow in 
 dry weather, but swollen by rains into impetuous tor- 
 rents, that lay waste the vallies in their course. The 
 
 a Baron C. Dupin. 
 
 b It has an establishment of mail packets to Waterford in Ireland. 
 A colony of Quakers from Nantucket, have erected a quay, and form- 
 ed an establishment for the southern whale fishery. — P. 
 
 c Octopitarum Promontorium. (Martiniere.) — P. 
 
 d The Bay of Cardigan — opening between the south-western point 
 of Caernarvonshire, and the north-western point of Pembroke- 
 shire . — P. 
 
 e The Avon — a small river in Merionethshire, passing by Dolgally, 
 and entering the sea near Barmouth. — P. 
 
 1 The Rydol or Rhyddol. This river and the Ystwith enterthe sea 
 by the same estuary in Cardiganshire. — P. 
 
 5 Called also Tivey, Tivy, Taw, Taff and Tave — in Welsh, Teivi. 
 (See note s, p. 1238.) The town is called by the Welsh, from its situa- 
 tion, Mertdvi — the word after signifying a river’s mouth or haven. 
 r he Tivy rises in the eastern part of Cardiganshire, and below Llan- 
 
 town is built on a steep bank about two miles from the 
 mouth of the Teivey,? which is crossed by a bridge of 
 seven arches. Once a place of considerable extent, it 
 was surrounded with walls, and defended by a strong 
 castle now in ruins. It carries on an active commerce 
 with different parts of England and Ireland ; and al- 
 though the burden of the largest vessels that pass its 
 bar at spring tide, does not exceed 300 tons, it finds 
 trade for more than 10,000 tons of shipping. 
 
 Brecon or Brecknock, the capital of Brecknockshire, 
 is situated at the confluence of the Hondey and the Uslce, 
 the last of which is crossed by one bridge, and the Fir- 
 mer by three. It contained 4190 inhabitants in 1821. 
 and ten years afterwards the number amounted to 5026 
 It had a castle and a monastery in the time of Henry 
 the First, 11 but of the former, a single tower * 1 and part of 
 the walls are all that remain. The same tower has been 
 converted into an armoury, in which fifteen thousand 
 stand of arms, and fifteen hundred swords, are arranged 
 in the same manner as the arms in the tower of London. 
 It is supposed that nearly half of the inhabitants are en- 
 gaged in trade or manufactures, and the latter consists 
 principally of cloth, bats and stockings. Old and New 
 Radnor, situated in a narrow pass between two high con- 
 ical hills, about two miles distant from each other, are 
 too insignificant to require any particular notice. It may 
 be remarked, however, that although the assizes are no 
 longer held in New Radnor, it still returns a representa- 
 tive. It is mentioned as a strong place in early times, 
 and the destruction of its walls and castle is attributed 
 to Owen Glendower. The assizes are held at Pres- 
 teigne, the Welsh Llanandrew, k on the borders of Here- 
 fordshire, and if it be not the nominal, it may be con- 
 sidered the real capital of the county, for it is better 
 built and more flourishing than Radnor. 
 
 A castle rising on a lofty rock near the right bank of 
 the Severn, 1 is seen from a great distance ; it was built 
 by the conqueror, and it became the scene of various ac- 
 tions in subsequent reigns. At so late a period as the 
 time of Charles the First, it was garrisoned for the 
 king by Lord Herbert of Cherbury, who abandoned it 
 on the approach of the parliamentary army, and it was 
 soon afterwards dismantled. Such is the state of Mont- 
 gomery Castle, still imposing in its ruins. The town oi 
 Montgomery is neatly built, but small, and nowise re- 
 markable for any branch of industry or trade. m Welsh 
 pool, near the eastern boundary of the county, and in 
 the picturesque vale of the Severn,® is the principal place 
 of trade in Montgomeryshire, and the great mart for the 
 flannels which are manufactured in the town, and in the 
 mountainous country near the sources of the river. 0 The 
 small and picturesque town of Machynlleth in the same 
 
 beder (Eng. St. Peter's,) forms the boundary between that county, 
 and those of Caermarthen and Pembroke. — P. 
 
 h Its castle was built in the reign of Henry I. On the banks of the 
 Uske are the ruins of a Benedictine priory, and on the east of the town 
 is a collegiate church, once a Dominican priory. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 ‘ Called Ely tower, from Morton, bishop of Fly, who was confined 
 there by Richard III. — P. 
 
 k Andrew’s church — Eng. St. Andrew's. — P. 
 
 I It stands on a high projecting rock, at the extremity of a hill on 
 the north side of the town of Montgomery. — P. 
 
 m By means of its canal, it now carries on an extensive import and 
 export trade with Chester. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 II It is situated about a mile west of the Severn, and is connected by 
 a side cut with the Montgomery canal. — P. 
 
 ° The principal manufactories for flannels are within twenty miles 
 round Welshpool. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
560 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLIV. 
 
 county, and on the banks of the Dovey, is famed in his- 
 tory as the place where Owen Glendower was crowned 
 king of Wales in 1402. 
 
 It has been seen that almost all the towns in the prin- 
 cipality are crowned by the ruins of ancient castles. 
 Those of Denbigh Castle, with its vast enclosure on the 
 top of a hill, form a striking object above the romantic 
 town of the same name in the vale of Clwyd. It resem- 
 bles Flint, the chief town of an adjoining county, in 
 ■he style of its houses, recalling the period of the middle 
 ages, and in the circumstance that both of them are over- 
 topped by ancient fortresses. But Flint Castle rises on 
 a solitary rock in a marsh on the Dee, which washes its 
 walls at high tides. It is known as the place where the 
 unfortunate Richard the Second was seized by the Duke 
 of Lancaster, afterwards Henry the Fourth, to whom he 
 surrendered his crown. Both Denbigh and Flint are 
 insignificant in point of population, and if the former 
 contains a greater number of inhabitants, the latter is 
 more frequented in the summer season. The small town 
 of Caerwys, not more than five miles from Flint, and 
 once the capital of the county, does not contain more 
 than 1200 souls. Four streets meet in the middle of the 
 town/ where it was customary for the bards to assemble, 
 and to contend for a silver harp, which was annually 
 given by the princes of North Wales ; and it may be 
 added that the custom was not wholly abolished before 
 the reign of Elizabeth. b Holywell, a market town near 
 the mouth of the Dee, c and containing about nine thou- 
 sand inhabitants/ is enriched by its mines and manufac- 
 tures. It is likewise celebrated for the well of St. Wini- 
 fred, a copious stream bursting with great impetuosity 
 from the foot of a hill, and emitting 40,320 pints in a 
 minute. e It was known on account of its wonderful cures, 
 but the waters, it is certain, are not different from those 
 of any other spring in a similar situation. The faith in 
 its miraculous virtue has passed away, and it has of late 
 years been applied to useful purposes. The power of the 
 stream now serves to turn a series of mills for working 
 copper into sheets and bolts, for drawing brass into wires, 
 manufacturing paper, grinding tobacco, and spinning cot- 
 ton. The mines that are wrought in the neighbourhood, 
 consist of lead, calamine and copper/ St. Asaph, at 
 the confluence of the Elwy and the Clwyd, is entitled a 
 
 1 The town consists of four spacious streets crossing each other at 
 right angles, and corresponding to the points of the compass. (Ed. 
 Enc.) — P. 
 
 b Caerwys, as appears from its etymology ( cacr , town, and gicys, 
 summons,) was in early times a seat of judicature. It is more noted, 
 however, for its Eisteddfod * * or session of bards and minstrels, which 
 was held there for many centuries. The judges, who awarded the 
 prizes, were at first commissioned by the princes of North Wales, but 
 after the conquest by Edward I., by the kings of England. In 1568, an 
 Eisteddfod was held by commission from Queen Elizabeth, and 55 
 degrees conferred, in vocal and instrumental music. From that time, 
 these meetings were neglected till 1798, when one was held by public 
 notice from the Gwyneddigiont or Venedotian Society of London for 
 the encouragement of Welsh Literature.! On that occasion, 20 bards, 
 18 singers and 12 harpers exhibited their performances in the presence 
 of a large assembly in the town-hall. (Ed. Enc. Rees’ Cyc.) — The 
 Eisteddfod (annual bardic session and musical festival) is still held at 
 Denbigh. (Bell’s Geog.)— P. 
 
 * Eistcddvod, a session or assembly, from eistedd, to sit, and bod, to be. 
 — Eisteddvod y beirdd, meeting or congress of the bards. (Owen’s Welsh 
 Diet.)— P. 
 
 t Gioiineddirion, plural of Chryneddig, a Venedotian or North Welshman, 
 from Crwijnedd, one of the three native divisions of Wales, including *11 North 
 Wales, except Montgomeryshire — in Latin, Venedotia. Montgomeryshire 
 formed a part of I’oicys, which with South Wales, In Welsh Dekeuharth ( dehcu , 
 the right, the south, and parth, a part, a region — i. e. the south country,) 
 '.ncluded the rest of Wales and the Welsh marches. (Owen.) — P. 
 
 city, because it is the seat of a diocese ; it consists merely, 
 however, of a single street, and contains only 2000 in- 
 habitants. The cathedral, which is falling into decay, is 
 no longer used as a place of worship. The Merioneth 
 assizes are alternately held in Bala and Dolgelly. The 
 first place is ill peopled and meanly built ; it claims, 
 however, a high antiquity, which is verified by the re- 
 mains of three Roman camps in its vicinity. It gives its 
 name to the lake on which it is situated, e and which al- 
 though larger than any other in the principality, is not 
 more than four miles in length, and about one and a half 
 in breadth. h Caernarvon or Carnarvon was founded in 
 the year 1285 1 by Edward the First near the site of the 
 Roman Segontium, of which some vestiges still remain. 
 Situated on the southern coast of the Menai Strait, its 
 port can admit ships of 700 tons, its quays afford great 
 facility to the lading and unlading of merchandise, and 
 many trading vessels resort to it from different parts of 
 the kingdom. But it is not perhaps so well known on 
 account of its commerce as on account of a castle, that 
 was built by the insidious conqueror of Wales, who, 
 having promised a native prince or ruler to the Welsh, 
 and having afterwards appointed his own son, Edward 
 the Second, the first prince of Wales, assured the people 
 that he had fulfilled his promise, as the young Edward 
 was born in Caernarvon Castle. The same ancient castle 
 is not only the most magnificent, but the most entire of 
 any in the principality. Equally remarkable for the ex- 
 tent and solidity of its walls, contrasting well with its 
 light and graceful turrets, that rise above an embattled 
 parapet, it may be considered a very creditable monu- 
 ment of the architecture of the period. Bangor, like 
 the other episcopal towns in Wales, consists of mean and 
 dirty houses ; the old cathedral, which towers above the 
 other buildings, was partly destroyed by Owen Glen- 
 dower. 
 
 Beaumaris, which may be seen on the eastern coast 
 from the neighbourhood of Bangor/ is the only town 
 that is represented in the Isle of Anglesey. But Amlwch 
 on the northern coast is the most important maritime 
 place in the island ; its population amounts to nearly 
 6000 inhabitants, and its port, cut out of the solid rock, 
 and capable of containing 30 vessels of 200 tons, was 
 constructed by the Anglesea Mining Company. 1 Lastly, 
 
 t Besides this and other efforts for the encouragement of their native litera- 
 ture, the Gwyneddigion Society has published in a work called the Mvvyrian 
 (Poetical) Archaeology, a large and very complete collection of its oldest monu- 
 ments. — Myvyr, study (particularly of poetry,) the muse. (Owen.) — P. 
 
 c On the slope of a hill, rather more than a mile from the estuary 
 of the Dee. The well of St. Winifred is at the foot of the hill, below 
 the town. — P. 
 
 d Population 10,255, in 1821. (Bell’s Geog.) — P. 
 e Twenty-one tons, in a minute. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 fThe principal products of the Holywell mines are lead (galena) 
 and zinc (calamine.) Copper is found only in a small quantity. The 
 copper used in the copper and brass works at Holywell, is imported 
 in a refined state, in blocks, chiefly from Swansea in S. Wales, and 
 Hanley in Staffordshire. — P. 
 
 s Called by the English, Bala Pool or Pemblemeer — by the Welsh, 
 Llyn-Tegid (lake of beauty.) — P. 
 
 [' The greatest breadth is 1200 yards. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 In 1283. (Camden.) — The town was finished in one year, and the 
 fortifications and castle were completed before 1284, in which year 
 Edward II. was born there. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 k Beaumaris stands on the western coast of Conway Bay, at the north 
 entrance of the Menai Straits.- — P. 
 
 1 By the Anglesea Copper Companies. — The mines in the Parys 
 mountain are the property of Lord Uxbridge (Marquis of Anglesea) 
 and Rev. E. Hughes. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
BOOK C1.IV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 the small island of Holyhead, near the eastern point of 
 Anglesea, is united to it by means of a bridge. It is the 
 station of the government packets to Dublin, and it is 
 frequented by travellers as the most convenient place of 
 embarkment. A headland that protects its port, forms 
 a sort of precipice, hollowed by caverns, and frequented 
 by sea-fowl. a 
 
 Having mentioned all the towns of any consequence 
 in Wales, some notice may be taken of the manners and 
 customs, peculiar to the inhabitants on the western side 
 of the Severn. It has been often observed that civiliza- 
 tion and knowledge have not made the same advances 
 in the Highlands and the Lowlands of Scotland, and the 
 observation is perhaps as applicable to Wales and Eng- 
 land ; in other words, the Highlanders are to the Lowland 
 Scots what the Welsh are to the English. The limits in 
 which the dialects of either country are spoken, are rap- 
 idly contracting, and the English language might have been 
 still more widely diffused, had it not been for the too 
 great zeal of public associations, and amiable but not 
 very judicious individuals. b But although knowledge is 
 gradually dispelling the darkness in which the inhabitants 
 of both countries were so long benighted, it is worthy of 
 remark that there are few absurd superstitions or ridicu- 
 lous customs, believed or observed by the Welsh, to 
 which analogies may not be found in the mountains of 
 Caledonia. The Welsh raptures, and the second sight 
 of the Highlanders, derive their origin from the same 
 source, and both may be traced to the period of the 
 druids. In Wales indeed, the A.wenyddion c appears to 
 have undergone fewer changes by the lapse of ages. 
 The prophet is carried out of himself, or is possessed 
 by a spirit, and the only difficulty consists in attaching a 
 meaning to his wild and incoherent rhapsody, for so soon 
 as he returns to his usual state, he is supposed to forget 
 all that passed, all his prophetic or insane effusions. It is 
 but right to add that such oracles are now seldom con- 
 sulted, and only in the most sequestered and thinly peo- 
 pled parts of the principality. Witches are believed to 
 exist in many parts of Wales, and numerous are the 
 
 a The town of Holyhead stands on a harbour on the north side of 
 the island of the same name. The promontory, here alluded to, is 
 called the Head ; it rises, however, at the west end of the island, the 
 port being protected by another peninsular rock, on which the church- 
 yard is situated. To the west of the Head is an insulated rock, called the 
 South Stack, on which a light-house, with a revolving light, has been 
 lately erected. The island of Holyhead is called by the Welsh, Inys- 
 Cybi (island of Cybi,) and the town, Caer-Cybi (fortress of Cybi.)— P. 
 
 b The Welsh language is still spoken by the middle and lower 
 classes in all the, Welsh counties, and in the western part of Monmouth- 
 shire. It is a Cimbric-Celtic dialect, immediately connected with 
 the Cornish and Armoric or Breton, and more remotely with the 
 (xaelic-Celtic (Irish, Highland Scotch and Manks.) The Welsh call 
 themselves Cumru (Cymry ;) their country, Cumry (Cymru;) and their 
 language, Curnnig (Cymracg.) — P. 
 
 0 Awenyddion, plural of awenydd, a man of genius, a poet, a rhap- 
 
 VOL. lit.— NO. 59. 71 
 
 charms, which are more or less efficacious in averting the 
 wrath of these wicked beings. A horse-shoe, a cross or a 
 circular stone may be seen in different parts of the house, 
 and the hypericum, which has now almost as many mys- 
 tical virtues as were formerly attributed to the veronica 
 of the druids, is scattered at the entrance of many a cot- 
 tage on the vigil of St. John, from which custom, its 
 popular name of St. John’s wort has been derived. 
 Witches are believed to be malevolent, and it is of much 
 consequence to conciliate them, for they have it in their 
 power to commit great mischief; they prevent the cows 
 from giving milk, and the butter from forming in the 
 chum, and it is equally certain that they have often 
 spread diseases among men and cattle. The spirits of 
 the mountains, celebrated by the Welsh bards and in the 
 poems of Ossian or rather Macpherson, d are on the con- 
 trary benevolent beings ; they protect the good and 
 punish the wicked ; and the same may be said of the 
 elves, fays or fairies, that still dance by the light of the 
 moon, and describe their circles, on the green hills of 
 Wales. Mountainous scenery, it has often been asserted, 
 accounts for the belief in these ideal existences; it is 
 certainly not unfavourable to similar delusions ; but be- 
 fore they can be wholly attributed to such a cause, 
 mountainous scenery must be made to signify want of 
 communications, want of intercourse, and want of the 
 means by which knowledge is diffused, and education 
 extended to every order of the community. 
 
 Pride of ancestry is common to the Welsh and High- 
 landers. It was customary for the Briton to commit to 
 memory the names of his progenitors, and to trace them 
 to some individual distinguished by his skill in war, his 
 success in plunder, or any other quality that is considered 
 a virtue by the savage. The same barbarous custom is 
 partly preserved ; it is not confined to the lower ranks, 
 it extends to the gentry, and persons of whom the Eng- 
 lish and the Lowland Scots would not certainly be dis- 
 posed to boast, are often included by the Welshman 
 and the Highlander in the long list of their progeni- 
 tors. 
 
 sodist, from awen, genius, particularly poetical genius, inspiration, the 
 muse. The Awenyddion were a class of persons in Wales, who 
 indulged in poetical raptures, and like the ancient sibyls, prophesied 
 in incoherent rhapsodies. (Owen. Rees’ Cyc.) — They were doubtless 
 the origin of the Welsh Ranters and Jumpers.— P. 
 
 d The question about the authenticity of Ossian’s Poems was set for 
 ever at rest by the late Mr. Malcolm Laing, but not before Dr. Henry 
 used them as historical monuments. It is not to be denied that tradi- 
 tions, however much they may have been obscured or perverted to 
 suit the purposes of the poet, were handed down from generation to 
 generation both in Ireland and Caledonia. 
 
 A portrait or a print of Ossian, it may be remarked, was lately sent 
 from Scotland to the Royal Institute of France. It is at least within 
 the limits of probability that the portrait resembles the original, partic- 
 ularly as there is much left to the imagination both in his ci"> r acter 
 and existence. 
 
562 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLY 
 
 BOOK CLY. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued. — Description of the British Islands. 
 
 — Second Section. Scotland. 
 
 The coasts of Wales are separated from those of Scot- 
 land by a distance of about thirty leagues. The naviga- 
 tion of the Irish Sea is not without danger, but both the 
 Welsh and Scotch mariners are accustomed to it, and a 
 stranger may safely confide in their experience. Besides, 
 the numerous inlets by which the western coast of Great 
 Britain is so deeply indented, form so many places of shel- 
 ter against the impetuosity of the waves. The voyage from 
 Wales to the Solway Frith a may be made in a short 
 time, but before describing the district in the neighbour- 
 hood of the same frith, some remarks may be made on 
 the nature of the country which is to form the subject of 
 the present chapter. 
 
 Scotland extends from 54° 37' to 58° 41/ north lati- 
 tude, or from the Mull of Galloway to Cape Dunnet. b 
 If the Orkney and Shetland Islands be included, it 
 stretches to 60° 52' north, 0 and from 1° to 7° 50' 
 west from Greenwich.* * 1 The mainland is almost isolated 
 from England by a mountainous chain, and by the rivers 
 Tweed, Liddel, and Esk ; in every other direction it is 
 bounded by the sea. The greatest length from north to 
 south, measuring along the meridian of Kirkcudbright, is 
 equal to 244 miles. A straight line drawn along the 
 coast from the Mull of Canty re to Cape Wrath is little 
 more than 220 miles, and in other directions the distance 
 is not so great. e The breadth is very various ; from Bu- 
 chan-ness in Aberdeenshire to the western point of Ross- 
 shire, it is 137 miles, while it is only 36 from Dornoch 
 Frith to Lochbroom. The former is the broadest, and 
 the latter the narrowest part of the kingdom. The same 
 country is naturally divided by three mountainous ranges. 
 The first or the northern is separated from the second 
 or the central by the friths of Moray, Linnhe and the in- 
 termediate lakes ; f the low country that extends from 
 the Frith of Forth to the mouth of the Clyde, lies be- 
 tween the southern heights and the central ridge. 
 
 a This word is properly and more usually written Firth, and is the 
 same as the Scandinavian fiord, a bay, inlet, or estuary. Frith is de- 
 rived from the Latin /return, which properly signifies a strait or narrow 
 passage . — P. 
 
 b Dunnet Head, in Caithness. — P. 
 
 « 01° 11' (dell’s Geog.)— 61° 13' (Ed. F.nc.)— P. 
 
 d The mainland of Scotland extends from Peterhead, in 1° 40' W., 
 to Ardnamurchan Point, in 6° 10' W. of Greenwich. (Bell’s Geog.) 
 — Longitudes 1° 47' and 0° 7' west. (Ed. Enc.) — Including the islands, 
 the extreme longitude east is 52' W. (that of the Shetlands,) and 
 the extreme longitude west 8° 18' W. (that of St. Kilda.) (Ed. Enc.) 
 — The extreme longitude west, of the Hebrides (not including St. Kil- 
 da,) is 7° 40' W. (Bell’s Geog.)— P. 
 
 0 Its greatest length on any one meridian is 275 miles, viz. from the 
 Mull of Galloway to Farout Head ; but the distance between the two 
 extreme parallels of the mainland is 284 miles. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 1 The valley separating the two ranges is called, in Gaelic, Glcn- 
 m ore na Alhin (the great glen of Caledonia,) and it forms the line of 
 the Caledoninn canal. Beginning at the north-east, its bottom is oc- 
 cupied successively bv the head of Moray Firth, the river Ness. Loch 
 Ness, Loch Oich, Loch Lochy, the river Lochy, and the inlet of Loch 
 
 A chain stretching from south-west to north-east, and 
 crossing the southern portion of Scotland, commences at 
 Port-Patrick and terminates at St. Abb’s Head. The 
 highest summits are situated near the northern limits of 
 Dumfries-shire ; Hartfell reaches to an elevation of 3302 
 feet above the level of the sea, and several others are 
 higher than 2000. But the heights on both sides, as 
 they recede from these lofty hills, become gradually 
 lower ; thus the Moorfoot, Soutra and the Lammermuirs 
 on the east, and the hills of Kirkcudbright or Galloway 
 on the west, vary from 1800 to 800 feet.® 
 
 The wall of separation between the two kingdoms of 
 Great Britain, extending first to the east, and afterwards 
 to the north-east, is connected with the same central 
 group, and terminates in the Cheviots, which have been 
 mentioned in a former chapter. Another series stretches 
 in a north-west direction, to the low hills near the mouth 
 of the Clyde. 
 
 Criffel, which is nearly 2000 feet above the level of 
 the sea, forms part of a different branch that separates 
 the counties of Kirkcudbright and Dumfries. The small 
 chain of the Pentlands is connected with the common 
 centre ; the group of Tintoc h is in some places more than 
 2300 feet in height, but the eastern extremities of the 
 Pentlands are nowhere higher in the neighbourhood of 
 Edinburgh than 1700,* and in some places so low as six 
 or seven hundred feet. k 
 
 The populous and fruitful valleys of Scotland are sit- 
 uated between the mountainous chains or branches that 
 meet in Hartfell and the Leadhills ; but even the val 
 leys are in some places crowned by considerable heights. 
 This remark is applicable to the western coast, to the 
 southern part of Ayrshire, to the county of Dumfries, 
 where the low districts are subdivided by the Eildon and 
 Girleton hills. 1 Numerous small valleys are enclosed by 
 these heights, and all of them are watered by streams, 
 the tributaries of the principal rivers that rise from the 
 vicinity of the central chain. 
 
 Linnhe (on the south-west.) The waters of the opposite seas are 
 separated by a small space of level ground between the heads of Loch 
 Oich and Loch Lochy. — P. 
 
 s The Muirfoot Hills, on the southern border of Mid Lothian, rise to 
 1850 feet. Soutra Hill, in the south-west corner of E. Lothian, is 
 171G feet high, and Cockburn-law, near the eastern extremity of the 
 Lammermuir ridge, in Berwickshire, 000 feet high. Clint Hill, at the 
 north-western extremity of the same ridge, is 1544 feet high. Spartle- 
 ton Hill, in the parish of Spott, south of Dunbar, rises to the height of 
 1615 feet. The granite ridges ofCairnsmuir, between the Ken. the Dee 
 and the Fleet, in Kirkcudbrightshire, rise in their highest points to 
 2597 and 2329 feet.— P. 
 
 11 Tinto Hill, a detached summit or group in Upper Clydesdale, 
 round the base of which the Clyde winds on the east and north. — P. 
 
 • Eastside Blackhill, the highest of the Pentlands. near the middle 
 of the range, is 1878 feet above the level of the sea. — P. 
 
 k Boue. Introduction a l’Essai Geologique sur l'Ecosse. 
 
 1 The Eildon Hills, remarkable for their three-forked summit, rise 
 south of Melrose, in the north-western part of Roxburghshire. The 
 Garleton Hills form a ridge in the low country of East Lothian, near 
 Haddington — P. 
 
BOOK CLiY.l 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 563 
 
 The country on the north of the Forth is crossed by 
 two lofty chains, the Grampians and the mountains of In- 
 verness-shire, connected with each other by the pass of 
 Drumochter, and imperfectly separated by the valleys 
 of the Orchy* and the Spey, and the sterile plain or 
 moor of Rannoch. The first of these chains derives its 
 name from the Mons Grampius of Agricola, and the de- 
 termination of its site is still an object of research to an- 
 tiquaries. 11 The ridge forms a belt about forty miles in 
 breadth, stretching in a north-east direction across the 
 island from Cantyre to the coast between Stonehaven 
 and the mouth of the Spey. In the group of Cairngorm 
 are situated the highest summits ; c Ben-na-Muich-Duidh d 
 is about 4300 feet in height, and some others in the 
 neighbourhood are nearly equal to 4000.® The moun- 
 tains descend on the east of the same group, and Mo- 
 rayshire and Banffshire are in many places comparative- 
 ly low or level ; but a line of bold heights, (some of 
 3000, and on an average not less than 2500 feet,) f ex- 
 tends on the west of Cairngorm, and terminates in hills 
 near the shores of the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 The Grampians are separated from the more civilized 
 part of Scotland by a parallel and lower chain, of which 
 the crest forms a line from Aberdeenshire to the south- 
 ern extremity of Loch-Lomond.s It is naturally divided 
 into three sections. The Sidla hills, which pass from 
 Redhead * 1 * in Angus-shire to the neighbourhood of Perth, 
 and which are in few places higher than 1000 feet,’ 
 enclose with the Grampians the fruitful valley of 
 Strathmore. The Ochils, or the second group, extend 
 from Parton Craigs k to Stirling, and are connected with 
 the Grampians by their highest summits on the west, 
 which are equal to 2200 feet in height on the east, 
 however, their altitude is not in general greater than that 
 of the Sidla hills. The third section consists of the 
 Campsie hills, between Stirling and Dumbarton ; in some 
 places they are 1500 feet high, but on an average little 
 more than 800. The northern heights" 1 that run parallel 
 to the Caledonian canal cover a space about thirty miles 
 
 a The Orchy (Orchay or Urchay) is a small river, flowing through 
 Glenorchy into the head of Loch Awe. — P. 
 
 b That is, the site of Mons Grnmpius. Some have placed it in Stor- 
 mont (Perthshire,) between the Tay and the Isla ; others, near Stone- 
 haven, on the sea-coast, in Kincardineshire. — P. 
 
 c This group is situated at the western extremity of Aberdeenshire, 
 near the source of the Dee. — P. 
 
 d Ben-muc-dhu (Ed. Enc.) — Ben na Muc Dubh,or BeinnnaMuich 
 Duibh (Peak of the black boar.) — P. 
 
 c The summit of Cairngorm is 40G0 feet high ; that of Cairntoul 
 4220.— P. 
 
 f In this line are Cairn-Gower (3G90 feet,) Schihallion (3564 feet,) 
 Ben-Lawers (4015 feet,) Ben-More (3980 feet,) and Ben-Lomond, 
 (3176 feet.) — P. 
 
 s The south front of the Grampians extends from the north-eastern 
 corner of Kincardineshire to Ben-Lomond ; the lower chain here men- 
 tioned, from Redhead in Forfarshire, or rather from Stonehaven in 
 Kincardineshire, to near Dumbarton. — P. 
 
 h The Redhead is a promontory on the coast between Montrose and 
 Aberbrothock. The Sidla range properly extends along the coast of 
 Kincardineshire to Dunottar, south of Stonehaven. — P. 
 
 1 The highest of the Sidla Hills is 1406 feet high. — P. 
 
 k Ferry-Port-on-Craig, on the south side of the Tay, at its mouth. 
 The Ochils skirt the south shore of the Tay to near the mouth of the 
 Earn. — P. 
 
 1 The Ochils, after skirting the south shore of the Tay to near Ab- 
 
 ernethy, extend south-westerly, between Perthshire on the north, 
 and Fifeshire, Kinross-shire and Clackmannanshire on the south, 
 nearly to the banks of the Forth, opposite Stirling. They swell into 
 a very lofty group, north of Clackmannanshire, where the highest sum- 
 mit is Bencleugh or Bencloch (2420 feet above the sea.) On the south 
 side of the Forth the same range is continued by the rock of Stirling, 
 the hills of Gargunnock, and the Campsie Fells, towards Dumbarton. 
 The Ochils, at their western extremity, are not immediately, if at all. 
 
 in breadth, and the principal summits are situated in the 
 western part of the chain ; there Ben-Nevis, the loftiest 
 of the British mountains, reaches to an elevation of 4380 
 feet. If the intermediate valleys be not taken into ac- 
 count, the mountains that extend from Ben-Nevis to the 
 Murray Frith, descend very gradually, while a line in an 
 opposite direction, from the same point to the inlet of 
 Etive," or even to the islands of Jura and Isla, which 
 rise, however, to the height of 2400 feet,® forms a suffi- 
 ciently rapid declivity. 
 
 The Dee and the Don rise in the Cairngorm heights, 
 from which many streams descend and join other large 
 rivers. The Garry, the Spey and the RoyP have their 
 sources near the pass of Drumochter, one of the highest 
 valleys in Scotland, and one which forms, as has been al- 
 ready indicated, the connecting line between two chains 
 that were probably at a former period united. In anoth- 
 er direction, the inequalities in the surface are concealed by 
 numerous lakes, whence several rivers take their source ; 
 among others, the Forth, of which the basin separates 
 the Grampians from the southern chain. In the same 
 part of Scotland, and besides the valleys of the Dee and 
 the Don, are those of the Earn, the Tay, and other 
 large streams, of which the course is not less than sixty 
 miles. The same valleys are connected with others of 
 smaller dimensions, that are watered by the feeders of 
 the principal rivers. 
 
 If the plain which covers the greater part of Caithness 
 be excepted, the rest of the country on the north of the 
 Caledonian canal is very mountainous. The heights form 
 a broad belt almost parallel to the other chains, and ex- 
 tend from the Hebrides along the confines of Ross-shire 
 and Caithness to the Ord of Caithness on the shores of 
 the German Ocean. Stretching northwards, they run into 
 the North Sea, and appear anew in the islands of Shet- 
 land/ Their arrangement in another respect resembles 
 that of the Scottish chains ; for the highest summits are 
 situated on the west, and they descend gradually on the 
 opposite side of the island/ 
 
 connected with the Grampians. They are there bounded on the west and 
 north-west by the vale of the Allan, a part-of the great vale of Strath- 
 more, which skirts the whole southern foot of the Grampians. — P. 
 
 ra The mountains of Inverness, mentioned in the preceding para- 
 graph. They form the eastern boundary of Glenmore na Al- 
 bin. — P. 
 
 n Loch Etive, in Argyleshire. — P. 
 
 ° The mountains of Jura terminate on the south-west, in four coni- 
 cal summits, called the Paps of Jura ; of which the two highest, viz. 
 Beinn an Oir (golden mountain) and Beinn Shianta (consecrated or 
 holy mountain) are respectively 2359 and 2476 feet high. Some of 
 the mountains in the east and north of Isla rise to the height of 1800 
 feet. — P. 
 
 p The Garry, a branch of the Tay, descends to the eastern coast 
 the Spey to the northern ; and the Roy, a branch of the. Lochy, to the 
 western. — P. 
 
 a The language here used is certainly very inaccurate. The heights, 
 here mentioned, are of primitive formation, and occupy the western 
 part of Inverness-shire, and nearly the whole of Ross and Sutherland 
 They terminate, on the north-east, nearly on the line between Suth- 
 erland and Caithness; the greater part of the latter county being a 
 comparatively level tract, and composed of old red sandstone. The 
 north-eastern extremity of these heights thus forms a range of high 
 lands, overlooking the low country of Caithness, and extending from 
 the Ord of Caithness on the south-eastern coast, to Reay on the north- 
 ern coast. The northern coast of Caithness consists thus of red sand- 
 stone, which forms nearly the whole of the Orkneys, and reappears"*in 
 the Shetland Islands, particularly on the eastern coast of the Main- 
 land. The northern coast of Sutherland consists of primitive rocks, 
 which reappear in the Shetlands, forming the greater part of those 
 islands. — P. 
 
 1 For a more complete and full account of the Scotch mountains, the 
 reader may consult the excellent essav on the geology of Scotland, bv 
 M. A. Boue. 
 
564 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOfC CLV 
 
 The principal rivers in Scotland communicate with the 
 German Ocean ; the Clyde forms the only exception ; 
 the others on the west, are mostly torrents or mountain 
 streams that fall into the Atlantic at no great distance 
 from their source. And this fact is confirmatory of what 
 has been already said concerning the height of the moun- 
 tains on the west, and their descent or total absence on 
 the east. It follows also, from the same fact, that the 
 fruitful plains, or rather the large and populous vallies in 
 Scotland, are situated near the eastern coast. In a sta- 
 tistical point of view, the Forth, the Clyde and the Tay 
 are the most important of the Scottish rivers, but it must 
 not be inferred that they are the largest ; others in the 
 northern part of the country, may bear a comparison 
 with the two former. 4 
 
 The following tables indicate the actual population 
 and the dimensions of the basins of the three rivers : — 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 Square 
 
 miles. 
 
 Inhabitants 
 per square 
 mile. 
 
 Haddington 
 
 . . 36,145 
 
 272 
 
 136 
 
 Edinburgh . . 
 
 . . 219,592 
 
 354 
 
 624 
 
 Linlithgow . . 
 
 . . 23,291 
 
 121 
 
 192 
 
 Stirling 11 . . . 
 
 . . 72,621 
 
 502 
 
 144 
 
 Clackmannan . 
 
 . . 14,729 
 
 48 
 
 306 
 
 Kinross . . . 
 
 . . 9,072 
 
 . . 42,450 
 
 78 
 
 116 
 
 Fife (J)° • • . 
 
 158 
 
 268 
 
 Total 
 
 417,900 
 
 1533 
 
 mean 273 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Basin of the Clyde. 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 Square 
 
 miles. 
 
 Inhabitants 
 per squaro 
 mile. 
 
 Dumbarton . . 
 
 . . 33,211 
 
 259 
 
 124 
 
 Renfrew 
 
 . . 133,443 
 
 227 
 
 587 
 
 Lanark 
 
 . . 316,819 
 
 945 
 
 335 
 
 Ayr .... 
 
 . . 145,055 
 
 1122 
 
 129 
 
 Total 
 
 628,528 
 
 2553 
 
 mean 246 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Basin of the Tay. 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 Square 
 
 miles. 
 
 Inhabitants 
 per square 
 mile. 
 
 Fife (J) . . . 
 
 
 316 
 
 270 
 
 Perth .... 
 
 
 2638 
 
 54 
 
 Angus or Forfar 
 
 . . 139,600 
 
 892 
 
 156 
 
 Kincardine 11 . . 
 
 . . 31,430 
 
 382 
 
 82 
 
 Total 
 
 399,530 
 
 4228 
 
 mean 94 
 
 a The Spey is said to he the longest river in Scotland. Its length is 
 0° miles in a direct course, and 120 including its windings. The Dee 
 and the Don are the next longest rivers in the north of Scotland. — P. 
 
 b The south-western part of Stirlingshire lies in the basin of the 
 Clyde.— P. 
 
 c If Fife-ness be taken as the boundary between the basins of the 
 Forth and Tay, at least one half of Fife will lie in the basin of the for- 
 mer. No part of the county, south of that line, can be reckoned in 
 the basin of the Tay, and nearly the whole of the county, north of that 
 line, lies in the basin of the Eden. — P. 
 
 d The basin of the Tay must be extended to the mouth of the Dee, 
 to include the counties of Forfar and Kincardine. Only the western 
 border of Forfarshire lies within the proper basin of the Tay ; the 
 greater part of the remainder lies within the basins of the North and 
 South Esks. No part of Kincardineshire lies within the proper basin 
 of the Tay ; its northern border is included within the basin of the 
 Dee. — P. 
 
 ° Inch Garvey, Inch Colme, Inch Keith, Cramond Island, Fidrie 
 Island, Bass Rock, and the Isle of May, in the Forth; the latter, six or 
 seven miles from the coast of Fife, with a light-house. Bell Rock, off 
 
 It appears from the above tables that the basin of the 
 Forth is the least in extent, and the greatest in relative 
 population ; the basin of the Clyde is more extensive, 
 and holds the next rank in point of population ; while 
 that of the Tay, although greater than the two others 
 together, is both relatively and absolutely less populous 
 than either. 
 
 The Tay, however, is the largest of the Scottish rivers, 
 and it is related that the Romans, under the command 
 of Agricola, having crossed the first mountains on the 
 north of the Lowlands, entered the fruitful valley of the 
 Tay in the neighbourhood of Perth. A majestic river, 
 and a country rich in comparison of the one they had 
 passed, awakened emotions natural to men, who are re- 
 minded of their native land by sensible objects in a dis- 
 tant and unknown region. Imagination created or dis- 
 covered some resemblance between the cold Caledonia 
 and the sunny Italy, and no sooner was the Tay descried 
 by the soldiers, than they shouted with one accord, Ecce 
 Tiberim ! 
 
 The number of islands enclosed by the seas that 
 bound Scotland, is too remarkable to escape observation ; 
 they appear always in groups, are confined to the west- 
 ern and northern coasts, and are not seen on the eastern, 
 unless indeed a few detached and barren rocks that rise 
 above the surface of the water in the friths of Forth and 
 Tay,® can be dignified with the name. The larger islands 
 are separated from each other in some places by very 
 deep water, in others by so shallow a sea as to render it 
 probable that they were formerly united. This remark 
 is applicable to the sea between Tiree f and Coll, and be- 
 tween several islands in the group, that has been denomi- 
 nated Long Island. s The connexion between others is 
 indicated by shelving rocks, or by a strait that is left dry 
 at low water. Violent currents occasioned by the flux 
 and reflux of the tides, such as the impetuous Corry- 
 V rechan, h rush between some of them, and the effect of 
 the great Atlantic current is made manifest by plants, 
 pieces of wood, or other products, which are occasionally 
 carried from the New World to the shores of the Hebri- 
 des. But the sea between the islands and the coasts of 
 Scotland is subject to the most rapid currents ; the 
 waters in the arm of the sea that separates the island of 
 Mull, one of the Hebrides, from the district of Lorn, 
 are thus impelled with great velocity. The Pentland 
 Frith, the “ Scylla and Charybdis” of Scotland, is ex- 
 posed in certain seasons to opposite currents. “ The 
 current,” says Mr. Playfair, “ is exceedingly strong dur- 
 
 the mouth of the Tay, about 1 1 miles distant from the nearest coast, 
 has also a light-house. — P. 
 
 f Tiry, Tirey, Tiree, Tyrie. — Gaelic, Tir , land; /, Iona', i. e. land 
 belonging to 1 or Iona. (Statist. Acc. x. 393.) Rather, Ti'r, land, and 
 /, island ; Iona (Gaelic Ithonn) being itself a compound of I, island, 
 and ton, wave : i. e. island of waves. Tiree is very low and level ; so 
 low, indeed, that the breakers on one coast can, in some places, be 
 seen from the opposite ; hence it is also called, in Gaelic, Rioghachd 
 barfo ( fuidh ) thuin, kingdom of summits below the waves. — P. 
 
 e The Long Island, so called, forms a chain of islands, extending 
 north by east, parallel to the west coast of Scotland, from the rock, 
 called Barra Head, on the south, to the north point of Lewis, called 
 the Butt of Lewis, on the north. It includes, besides numerous small 
 islands and rocks, the larger islands of Barra. South Uist. Benbecula, 
 North Uist, and Lewis (including the peninsula of Harris, on the 
 south.) The passages, from east to west, between these islands, are gen- 
 erally shallow, and encumbered with rocks and shoals ; hence the whole 
 chain has been supposed to have originally formed a single island. — P 
 h Corryvreckan — whirlpool of Brechan,a son of a king of Denmark, 
 I who perished in it. — P. 
 
BOOK CBV.l 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 565 
 
 ing spring tides. The flood tide runs from west to east, 
 at the rate of ten miles an hour, at full and new moon. 
 It is then high water at Skarfskerry, (whence the ferry- 
 boat crosses from Dunnet to Orkney), at 9-8 o’clock A. 
 M. ; but in the middle of the frith, the tide continues to 
 run eastward till mid-day, while the current along the 
 shore flows in an opposite direction. The same phe- 
 nomena are reversed about three o’clock, and they thus 
 continue in succession.”* b These causes account for the 
 danger to which mariners are exposed in the Pentland 
 Frith, but the necessity of its navigation has been fortu- 
 nately superseded in a great measure by the Caledo- 
 nian canal. 
 
 The eastern coast of Scotland is naturally divided into 
 two large gulfs, the one stretching from the shores of 
 Northumberland to Kinnaird’s Head, and the other from 
 the latter promontory to Duncansby Head. In figure 
 both resemble each other ; they form two triangles, of 
 which the southern is larger than the northern, although 
 the base of the latter is upwards of sixty-five miles in 
 length. 0 In other respects they are not unlike, and the 
 neck of land that separates the friths of Dornoch and 
 Murray may be compared to the extremity of Fife, the 
 boundary between the friths of the Forth and Tay ; but 
 there is no inlet in the one, like the frith of Cromarty in 
 the other. There is, however, a considerable resem- 
 blance in the sinuations that are observed in the two di- 
 visions, in the course of the rivers, and the direction of 
 the streams. 
 
 The outline of the western coast is very different ; the 
 large frith of the Clyde, and the extent of sea between 
 the island of Mull and the shores of Lorn may per- 
 haps resemble the two great divisions on the eastern 
 coast. But all the numerous bays in the west, are small 
 in comparison of those in the east. The inlets penetrate 
 far into the land, and might be mistaken for lakes or 
 rivers, if it were not for the loud noise occasioned by the 
 flux and reflux of the tide, and for the alga, that decay 
 on their surface. d The extraordinary depth of these 
 narrow inlets at great distances from the open sea, may 
 perhaps be considered characteristic of the western coast. 
 Thus, Loch Fine in the neighbourhood of Inverary is 
 sixty fathoms deep, and Loch Goyle/ although not much 
 broader than a mile at its upper extremity, is at least 
 fifty-seven fathoms/ The shores are in. general bold 
 and lofty, a fact that might have been inferred from the 
 height of the mountains towards the south-west, and the 
 dip of the strata in an opposite direction, a conformity 
 which is observed both in continents and islands, although 
 the cause cannot be explained in the present state of 
 geological science. But the same shores appear as if 
 they had been broken or shattered in many places, and 
 to account for the phenomenon, something must be allow- 
 ed for the violence of the western waves. The opposite 
 coasts are only lofty at the places where the extremities 
 
 a This sentence in the original stands thus : “ This phenomenon is 
 reversed at three o’clock.” — P. 
 
 b Playfair's Description of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 205. 
 
 0 The south side of the latter is 80 miles in length. (Bell’s 
 Geog.) — P. 
 d Boue, p. 10. 
 
 c Loch Fyne — Loch Goyl or Goil. The latter is a long and narrow 
 inlet, penetrating north-west into Argyleshire, from Loch Long. — P. 
 f Jameson’s Travels, vol. i. p. 139. 
 
 & Playfair’s Description of Scotland, vol. i. p. 7. 
 k Besides the great coal-field, here mentioned, there is a small coal 
 
 of the chains extend to the eastern limits of the king- 
 dom. Thus, precipices of several hundred feet in height 
 may be observed along the shore from Redhead to Aber- 
 deen, and at Peterhead, Portsoy, the Old of Caithness, 
 St. Abb’s Head and Tantallon Castle. 
 
 However numerous and different the depths that are 
 indicated by the sounding line near the opposite sides of 
 Scotland may be, they depend more or less on the phe- 
 nomena that have been mentioned. Near the low shores 
 on the east, the depth increases by an almost impercepti- 
 ble descent, while the line sinks several fathoms near 
 the bold rocks on the west. There are, however, excep- 
 tions to the rule, and at no great distance from the flat 
 and level shore of Irvine, the water is thirty or thirty- 
 five fathoms deep. The eastern coasts are more exten- 
 sive than the western, and they are relatively more popu- 
 lous, consequently industry has made more rapid ad- 
 vances, and the land is more productive. But the same 
 fact which is ascertained by statistical results, might also 
 have been determined by the nature of the coasts and 
 the country in their vicinity. 
 
 The northern coast, the least in point of extent, is 
 bounded by bold rocks, or indented by numerous bays 
 and headlands, and difficult of navigation on account of 
 a tempestuous sea and opposite currents. The cor- 
 respondence of the rocks and soils on the southern 
 and northern limits of the Pentland Frith, and onwards 
 between the Orkneys and the Shetland Islands, renders it 
 highly probable that the two groups formed once part of 
 the mainland of Scotland ; but the period when the con- 
 vulsion that separated them took place, and the agent by 
 which it was effected, are alike unknown. Lastly, if the 
 area of Scotland were bounded by straight lines, the length 
 of the lines might be less, at all events not greater, than 
 600 miles, whereas the coasts are so much broken and 
 indented, or so extensive in proportion to the surface, 
 that the actual distance is equal to two thousand. s 
 
 The mineral kingdom in Scotland has been the sub- 
 ject of much research to geologists, and it has conse- 
 quently been examined with greater accuracy than that 
 of most countries. The riches which are obtained from 
 it, have increased the resources, commerce and industry 
 of the inhabitants, and part of Scotland must have been 
 less distinguished for wealth and civilization, had it not 
 been for the products that are contained beneath its 
 surface. 
 
 The coal district is situated in the populous and fruit- 
 ful country between the transition chain in the south, 
 and the loftier primitive chains in the north. It may be 
 almost said to be confined to this part of the kingdom, for 
 although it occurs elsewhere, it is only observed in in- 
 considerable quantities and of an inferior quality/ The 
 quantity of coal consumed annually in the country, is 
 more than two millions and a half, and considerably less 
 than three millions of tons. Of these, two millions are 
 
 formation, forming a very narrow belt along the shore, at Brora, on the 
 eastern const of Sutherland, and resting almost immediately on 
 granite ; also, another small formation, on the western coast of Can- 
 tyre, near Campbelltown, appearing to lie immediately on mica-slate ; 
 and lastly, a series of coal strata, of little or no value, covered and in- 
 tersected by trap rocks, extending in a narrow line through the 
 Shiant Isles, Raasay, the eastern part of Sky, F,gg, Muck, Mull apd 
 Morven. These formations are independent of the gr< at coal-field. 
 Coal is also wrought in a basin on the lower part of the bisk, in Cano 
 bie (Dumfries-shire.) — P. 
 
566 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLV. 
 
 necessary for domestic purposes, and the remainder is 
 consumed in the iron and lime works, and in differ- 
 ent manufactories. Besides, a considerable quantity is 
 exported to Ireland, and a good market is obtained for 
 the better sorts in some parts of England. The super- 
 ficial extent of the great coal-field that stretches in a 
 diagonal direction from the Frith of Clyde at Dumbarton 
 to St. Andrews in Fife, and to East-Lothian/ has been 
 estimated at 620,000 acres or nearly 1000 square miles ; 
 and it has also been calculated that according to the 
 present consumption, it may be worked with advantage 
 during 3000 years. 
 
 Although iron is not uncommon in many counties, and 
 although it abounds in the coal districts, all the produce 
 of the mines is insufficient for the supply of the different 
 iron-works, and metal is still imported in considerable 
 quantities from the south, and in particular from Wales. 
 It appears from a comparatively recent account of the 
 country, that there are at present twenty-one blast fur- 
 naces in Scotland, yielding annually about 33,000 tons, 
 and furnishing employment to nearly 8000 inhabitants. 
 
 The principal lead mines are those at Leadhills and 
 the village of Wanlockhead, on the confines of Lanark 
 and Dumfries. Evidence is not wanting to show that 
 lead was wrought by the Romans in some parts of the 
 sister kingdom, and it is very probable that other works 
 of the same sort were carried on in Scotland by the 
 Danes. It is worthy of notice, therefore, that the most 
 productive lead veins in Scotland were not known before 
 the year 1540. Long after that period, however, the 
 discovery of mines depended on chance, fortunate acci- 
 dents and fortuitous circumstances. Galena is the prin- 
 cipal ore which is obtained by the miners of Leadhills 
 and Wanlockhead. The matrix is generally calcareous 
 spar, quartz, manganese and clay, and the accompany- 
 ing metallic ores are blende, calamine, iron and copper. 
 Other mines are worked at Strontian on the west coast, 
 and in the island of lsla, one of the Hebrides. The 
 mines of Strontian traverse gneiss rock, and are remark- 
 able for the mineral substance which derives its name 
 from that of the place. b The veins of lsla run in prim- 
 itive limestone, and it is supposed, not without reason, 
 that they were wrought by the Danes. 0 The annual 
 produce of the mines in Leadhills and Wanlockhead 
 varies from three to four thousand tons; and it has been 
 estimated that the price obtained for the lead, which is 
 yearly obtained from all the Scotch mines, is not less 
 than L. 136,000. 
 
 The silver extracted from the lead is not equal on an 
 average to ten ounces in each ton. Little more than 
 thirty years ago, the inhabitants were ignorant of the 
 method of extracting the silver, and for that purpose it 
 
 a The great coal-field extends across the island in a south-west di- 
 rection, from the coast of Fife and East Lothian, to that of Ayrshire. 
 It, is bounded on the north by a chain of trap mountains, including the 
 Ocliils, the Lennox Hills, and the ridge of hills extending from the 
 Clyde opposite Dumbarton, along the east shore of the Frith, to Ard- 
 rossan. The soutii boundary extends along the northern base of the 
 transition chain in the south of Scotland, through Ayrshire, Lanark- 
 shire, l’eebles-shire. Mid Lothian and East Lothian, nearly to St. Abb’s 
 Head in Berwickshire. — P. 
 
 b Strontianite, Carbonate of Strontian — found in veins in gneiss, 
 with galena, carbonate and sulphate of barytes and calcareous spar. 
 In this mineral, Dr. Hope first discovered the new earth Strontites, in 
 1791 — P. 
 
 c Williams' Mineral Kingdom. 
 
 * Granite is extensively quarried near Aberdeen, both for home 
 
 was sent to Holland. The work, however, is now done 
 in the country, and nearly L. 10,000 worth of silver are 
 extracted by the Scotch from their lead mines. Al- 
 though other metals are observed in the same country, 
 and although some of them have been worked at dif- 
 ferent periods, they are not in a national point of view 
 of much importance. 
 
 Granite, basalt, sandstone and other stones used for 
 building are so common in most districts, that they are on- 
 ly valuable in the vicinity of ports or large towns. d Slate 
 is wrought on a great scale in the Hebrides, in Argyle- 
 shire and different counties. e Lime is abundant, and it 
 appears from the compendium of the statistical account 
 that 12,000,000 bushels of slaked lime, worth more than 
 L. 350, 000, are wrought in different places, particularly 
 in the neighbourhood of the coal-works. Much marble 
 might be obtained from the Hebrides/ the western coast 
 of Argyleshire, Sutherland and other parts of the coun- 
 try. But its value is diminished by the foreign sub- 
 stances with which it is mixed, and by the same cause 
 the labour of working it is increased. 
 
 It is affirmed that the greater number of precious 
 stones have been discovered in the mountainous districts 
 of Scotland. The ruby, it has been said, is found in the 
 counties of Fife, Banff, Inverness and Aberdeen, the 
 emerald in the mountains of Cairngorm, the aqua-marine or 
 precious beryl in Inverness-shire and the Orkney Islands, 
 the sapphire in different parts of the Highlands, and the 
 amethyst in Strathspey. Lastly, the topaz occurs in 
 the same strath, in Cairngorm, and in the Isle of Arran, 
 and the garnet is common in Aberdeenshire. Stones, to 
 which the above names have been applied, are certainly 
 found, and it is equally true that most of them are incor- 
 rectly designated. Thus, the ruby of Fifeshire and the 
 other counties is a species of garnet ; the emerald of 
 Cairngorm and Strathspey, and the aqua-marine of the 
 Orkneys, are varieties of precious beryl ; the sapphire 
 of the Highlands is a pale green coloured topaz ; while 
 the topaz of Cairngorm, the Isle of Arran, and other 
 places, is rock crystal of different colours, such as brown, 
 wine-yellow and orange-yellow.s 
 
 Having entered into details concerning the climate of 
 England, or rather Britain, it need only be observed that 
 the difference in this respect between the two countries, 
 may be explained by the more northern situation of the 
 latter/ by mountainous groups and other local causes. 
 The difference, however, is by no means inconsiderable, 
 and it is plainly exhibited in the phenomena of vegeta- 
 tion. The crops in Scotland are not reaped with the 
 same certainty, and the expectations of the farmer are 
 more frequently disappointed. Neither do the ordinary 
 kinds of grain arrive at the same perfection ; thus, al- 
 
 consumption and exportation. Great quantities are shipped to Lon- 
 don. There are very extensive quarries of excellent sandstone, near 
 Edinburgh, with which all the new houses in that city are con- 
 structed. — P. 
 
 e Slates of an excellent quality are wrought to a very great extent, 
 in the islands of Seil, Luing and Easdale, between the north point of 
 Jura and Lorn ; also in Glenco, and in the islands of Bute and Inch 
 Marnoch. Slate is also wrought in various places along the southern 
 border of the Grampians, from Loch Lomond to Blair-gowrie. — P. 
 
 1 The island of Tiree furnishes a beautiful green marble, in high 
 estimation. — P. 
 
 e See the Paper on the topaz of Scotland by Professor Jameson — 
 Wernerian Transactions, volume 4th. 
 
 h Scotland. 
 
BOOK CLY.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 567 
 
 though Scotch and English barley may be of the same 
 weight, the former is not sold at so high a price ; it con- 
 tains less saccharine matter, and yields a less quantity 
 of malt. Fruits, which ripen in the one country, seldom 
 arrive at maturity in the other, and never in the same 
 perfection ; while different berries acquire somewhat of 
 that delicious flavour which distinguishes them in still 
 higher parallels. Independently, however, of the 
 climate, communications are rendered difficult by the 
 nature of the surface, and the labour of cultivating the 
 land is necessarily increased. It is stated in the supple- 
 ment of the Statistical Account, that “ the total number 
 of English acres in the kingdom, amounts to 18.944,000 ; 
 of these 5,044,450 have been cultivated, leaving 
 13,900,550, (including 913,695 in woods and planta- 
 tions), in an uncultivated state.” Of that immense tract 
 the elevation is in general so high, and the soil and sub- 
 soil so barren, that there are not probably above three 
 millions of acres, which can ever be rendered arable. 
 In round numbers, therefore, there are nineteen mil- 
 lions of acres in Scotland, of which five are in culti- 
 vation, three capable of being brought into it, about one 
 in woods and plantations, and the remaining ten millions, 
 or more than one-half of the entire surface, are doomed 
 to remain in sterility. 
 
 Remains of antiquity may be discovered in almost 
 every parish of the kingdom ; mention has already been 
 made of the Roman wall between the friths of Forth 
 and Clyde ; it is called in the country Graham’s dyke 
 from the first Scottish warrior, who is supposed to have 
 crossed it. The remains of Roman camps are situated 
 in the neighbourhood, and one of them is believed to 
 have been the camp of Agricola. a The conical towers 
 that crown the lofty summits, and the subterranean 
 dwellings attributed to the Picti, b belong probably to 
 the same epoch. It is uncertain whether the old towers, 
 some of them round, others square, and all remarkable 
 for the solidity of the cement by which they are united, 
 were raised by the Romans, or by natives, whom the 
 Romans instructed in the art of building ; it has never, 
 however, been doubted that they were erected at a very 
 early period. 0 Several monuments of Saxon architec- 
 ture date from the ninth and tenth centuries, but the 
 religious edifices and the old castles, which became asy- 
 lums to the nobles during the civil wars, were mostly 
 erected in the thirteenth and fourteenth. 
 
 Such are the relics of the three most obscure periods 
 of Scottish history. It appears from the earliest his- 
 torical researches that the original inhabitants of Scotland 
 were Cimbri, who left the Cimbric Chersonesus or the 
 present Denmark about two centuries before the Chris- 
 tian era. These tribes continued in possession of the 
 country until the Calcdones J or Picti, whom Tacitus 
 
 11 The camp at Ardoch, the largest and most complete in Scotland, 
 has been considered the camp which Agricola occupied, before his 
 engagement with Galgacus. It is situated in the parish of Muthil, in 
 Perthshire, between the Teith and the Erne, near the south foot of 
 the Grampians. — P. b The Piets. 
 
 0 The lofty circular towers of Abernethy and Brechin, the only 
 monuments of the kind in Scotland, have been attributed to the Piets. 
 Abernethy was the capital of the Pictish kingdom. These monu- 
 ments, however, stand in the churchyards, and may be compared with 
 the detached belfries in Italy. — P. 
 
 d Caledoties or Culedonii. Tacitus does not use either of these terms, 
 or that o Picti, but employs the expression “ Caledoniam habitantes” 
 (inhabitants of Caledonia,) including them under the general term 
 Britanni. — P 
 
 includes among the Germans,' sailed from Norway, and 
 landed on the northern coasts ; by these new settlers 
 the Cimbri were driven into the southern districts of 
 Scotland/ The Picti became the ancestors of the in- 
 habitants of the Lowlands, who have ever been distin- 
 guished from the people in the Highlands. It was about 
 the year 258 that the Dalriads of the venerable Bede, 
 or the Attacotti of Ammianus Marcellinus and the Roman 
 writers, passed from Ireland to Argyleshire, and became 
 the germ of the Highlanders, who speak the Irish or 
 Celtic language, while the Lowlanders have always used 
 the Scandinavian or Gothic. s The country having been 
 subdued by Agricola, the conquest was not preserved, but 
 Caledonia continued a nominal province of Rome during 
 300 years. It was governed by the chiefs of different 
 tribes, their peculiar customs were preserved, and that 
 of painting the body was retained by the Picti. 
 
 The Cimbri and the Attacotti leagued against the 
 Picti after the fall of the Roman empire, and in many a 
 battle contended for sovereignty. An alliance was at 
 last concluded by the chiefs of the opposite parties, but 
 it was not before the year 843 that all the inhabitants 
 submitted to Kenneth II. king of Scotland. The coun- 
 try during several reigns after this period, became the 
 prey of Danes and Norwegians, but its independence 
 was secured by the courage of the inhabitants. The 
 northern part of the kingdom retained the name of Pict- 
 land until the beginning of the eleventh century ; the 
 southern was styled Valencia and Cumbria, names 
 which recalled the period of the Roman domination. 
 The vallies at the base of the Grampians were inhabited 
 by the descendants of the Attacotti. These distinctions 
 continued until the eleventh century, when the name of 
 Scotia was applied by the Irish to modern Scotland. 
 This new confusion of names must be attributed to the 
 vanity or nationality of Hibernian clergy, then settled in 
 Scotland, and then the sole instructors of the Scots. It 
 has, however, been maintained that the Attacotti, who 
 were an Irish tribe, gave the name of Scotia to Pictland 
 or the country which they subdued. The fact appears 
 very doubtful, and it is certain that the name was un- 
 known and never used by the Irish and Saxon writers 
 during three centuries after the event is said to have 
 taken place.' 1 But the reign of Malcolm 111. is not only 
 remarkable in this respect, it forms the commencement 
 of a period distinguished by greater cultivation or less 
 barbarism and more authentic history. The extinction 
 of the ancient line of kings in the person of Margaret of 
 Norway, occasioned the arbitrary interposition of Ed- 
 ward I. of England, the origin of the enmity that after- 
 wards prevailed between the two kingdoms. The English 
 monarch, availing himself of the opportunity afforded by 
 the death of Alexander the Third, destroyed the prin- 
 
 e Tacitus simply observes that their German origin is proved by 
 their red hair and large frames, contrasting them with the Sihtres of 
 Wales, whose Iberian origin, he says, is rendered probable by their 
 dark complexion, curled hair, and position opposite Spain. (Vit. Agr 
 
 § 11)— P- 
 
 f “ So far as historical researches can discover, the original popula- 
 tion of Scotland consisted of Cimbri, from the Cimbric Chersonese 
 About two centuries before the Christian era, the Cimbri seem to have 
 been driven to the south of Scotland by the Caledonians or l’icti, a 
 Gothic colony from Norway.” (Pinkerton’s Geog. vol. I. p. 94. 4to. 
 London, 1811.) — P. 
 
 e Pinkerton’s Geography, vol. 1st, page 150. 
 
 h Pinkerton. Idem. Ibid. 
 
568 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLVt 
 
 cipal archives of Scotland, that he might lay claim to a 
 sovereignty, which his predecessors had never possessed. 
 John Baliol was decorated with the vain title of king, 
 but he was forced to acknowledge his dependence, to 
 submit to many indignities, and to appear six times be- 
 fore the English parliament. Such a policy, it was 
 thought, might excite the king of the Scots to war, and 
 lead to the forfeiture of his crown, and the event was not 
 different from what had been anticipated. Baliol resist- 
 ed humiliating concessions, and proclaimed the inde- 
 pendence of his country. Edward, master of all the 
 strong places, subdued a nation without the means of 
 defence, led the king in captivity to London, and carried 
 off the insignia of royalty, along with the famous stone 
 of Inisfail,® the palladium of Scottish freedom. The 
 Scots were in vain roused against their oppressor by the 
 brave Wallace; in so unequal a contest, the slight 
 chance which the weaker party had of success, depended 
 on their union, but they were divided into parties, and 
 the patriot, betrayed and delivered to the sanguinary 
 conqueror, suffered the last punishment. When too 
 late, the Scots deplored that they had not conferred an 
 authority on Wallace of which he was worthy; but the 
 honour of avenging him was reserved for the celebrated 
 Bruce, who having been proclaimed king in 1306, 
 gained eight years afterwards the decisive battle of Ban- 
 nockburn, by which the independence of Scotland was 
 secured. 
 
 Anarchy and revolt became afterwards of frequent 
 occurrence in Scotland. It was the object of James the 
 First, an able prince, and of a refinement above that of 
 his subjects, to extend the influence of the crown, and 
 to improve the government of his kingdom by intro- 
 ducing institutions, which he had observed in England. 
 To weaken the power of the nobles, the estates of some 
 were seized on account of defects in their titles, while 
 the lands of others were confiscated on account of al- 
 leged crimes. But this policy proved fatal to the mon- 
 arch ; the nobles united against him, an insurrection 
 took place, and the king was slain. To humble the 
 ! nobles was likewise the policy of his son James the Sec- 
 ond, but his conduct was marked with greater ferocity, 
 cruelty and perfidy. If he escaped the danger of a for- 
 midable rebellion, it was owing to the treachery of some, 
 and the irresolution of others. Having improved the ad- 
 vantages, which follow from a subdued revolt, he was 
 suddenly cut off' by the bursting of a cannon at the siege 
 of Roxburgh. The incapacity of his successor, James 
 •lie Third, was evinced in the choice of low and worth- 
 less favourites ; despised by his subjects, hated by the 
 nobles, whom he oppressed, they entered into a conspir- 
 acy, and freed their country from a weak and wicked 
 prince. Very different was the character of his suc- 
 cessor, James the Fourth ; if the father was satisfied 
 with vulgar amusements or pleasure, to attain military 
 glory was the great ambition of his chivalrous son. Gen- 
 erous and free from deceit, he confided in his nobles, 
 
 | | gained their attachment, secured their fidelity, and lived 
 
 1 The fatal stone of Scone, inserted in the seat of a marble chair 
 
 on which the Scottish kings sat at their coronation — still preserved in 
 
 Westminster Abbey. This stone is said to have been originally 
 
 placed in the seat of the kings of Munster at Cashel. Inis-fail is 
 
 one of the old Gaelic names of Ireland. — P. 
 
 “James had sent a body of 10,000 men into Cumberland, against 
 
 the English. lie had given a commission to Oliver Sinclair, one of 
 
 with them in that sort of intimacy, which was common 
 in feudal times between a warlike leader and his vassals. 
 The effects of his policy are remarkable, for it is admit- 
 ted that the nobles suffered more during this reign from 
 their devotedness and attachment than they had done 
 on any former occasion from the jealousy or enmity of 
 the crown. Lewis the Twelfth meditated an invasion 
 of England ; to facilitate his project, James made an 
 incursion into the same country, and fell with the flower 
 of his nobility on the field of Flodden. 
 
 James the Fifth alienated the affections of his people 
 and nobles by favouring the pretensions of the clergy. 
 But neither the king nor the clergy could compete 
 against the haughty barons. Having incurred their re- 
 sentment, he u T as unable to bear repeated disappoint- 
 ments, a degraded authority, and the more degrading 
 spectacle of ten thousand Scotchmen laying down their 
 arms to five hundred Englishmen. b A fever brought on 
 by grief terminated his days a w T eek after his queen had 
 given birth to the unfortunate Mary Stuart. 
 
 The religious reformation was the most important 
 event in the succeeding reign, c and one which formed the 
 commencement of a new series of calamities that befell 
 the house of Stuart. If the new system was of a more 
 democratical tendency than could have been anticipated 
 from the government, institutions and state of knowledge 
 in Scotland, it arose from many causes, of which the 
 following are perhaps the most obvious. The reforma- 
 tion took place at a comparatively late period ; other 
 countries were liberated from the Roman hierarchy be- 
 fore the new opinions and the excitement that pre- 
 vailed, penetrated into Scotland. This effect, probably 
 of a remote and isolated situation, was attended with 
 important results ; it gave rise to more exalted notions 
 of purity, and to greater horror of abuses, and was the 
 means of establishing the tenets of the Genevese theolo- 
 gian, 1 * * 4 * * * the last and most exclusive of the reformers. In 
 England the king was the leading reformer, and the new 
 system was adapted to strengthen monarchy ; for that 
 purpose the ancient hierarchy was preserved. But in 
 Scotland the change was more complete, and the actors 
 were very different. The mother of Mary, and her 
 uncles of the house of Guise, all rigid catholics, directing 
 public affairs, and exerting their influence over the young 
 queen, became the authors of the powerful and uniform 
 opposition against the progress of the reformation. The 
 enthusiasm of the people, inflamed by the obstacles 
 against which they had to struggle, made them recede 
 further from the ancient faith. However wild their zeal, 
 however exalted their notions, their firmness is worthy 
 of admiration, and their sufferings of compassion. It 
 cannot be denied that the people were assisted in their 
 great work by the nobles, although it need not be im- 
 agined that the latter were actuated by the same sincere 
 motives. It appears that immediately before the refor- 
 mation commenced, the secular and regular clergy pos- 
 sessed in tithes and land more than half the landed rent 
 in the kingdom. e It is well known that the clergy had 
 
 his favourites, to assume the chief command on entering England. 
 Soon after crossing the Solway, he read his commission, which so dis- 
 satisfied the army, that they abandoned all discipline. In this state 
 of disorder, they were suddenly attacked by five hundred English 
 horse, when the Scotch took to flight, and although few were killed 
 in the rout, great numbers were taken prisoners. — r. 
 
 c That of Mary. 11 Calvin. e Forbes on Tithes 
 
r 
 
 BOOK CliY.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 569 
 
 been the favoured order during the reign of James the 
 Fifth, and that they co-operated with the king in hum- 
 bling the nobles. Animated by resentment as well as 
 by avarice, the latter appropriated the wealth of their 
 enemies ; and, perhaps to gratify bad passions, became 
 apparently as zealous in the new cause as the people, 
 who embraced it from principle. Thus the new religion 
 was more firmly settled in Scotland than in the sister 
 kingdom ; even the nobles became members of the Gen- 
 eral Assembly, the supreme ecclesiastical court ; and 
 when James the Sixth introduced afterwards a sort of 
 episcopal government, they took care to prevent the 
 restitution of the church lands ; lastly, when, at a still 
 later period, the measures of the unfortunate Charles 
 menaced the subversion of the presbyterian system, the 
 nobles took a principal part in forming that solemn league 
 and covenant, in which the whole nation was enlisted 
 against the monarch. In the long contest for religious 
 liberty, begun in the reign of Mary, and not finally set- 
 tled before the revolution, men submitted to all sorts of 
 privation, even to tortures and death, rather than profess 
 a faith which they abhorred. But, however great their 
 energy in the cause of religion, the civil institutions of 
 the Scots were not so favourable as those of England to 
 freedom, knowledge or civilization. 
 
 The Scottish parliament, as far as it can be traced in 
 the records of history, appears to have been composed 
 of the greater barons or independent land-owners. Bor- 
 oughs were probably represented before the time of 
 Robert Bruce ; at all events they were so during his 
 reign. The character of the assembly, however, was 
 not altered by this innovation ; the towns were long 
 insignificant, the number of their representatives was in- 
 considerable, they appeared only on extraordinary occa- 
 sions, and the low state of commerce and the arts pre- 
 vented them from weakening the influence of the rude 
 and warlike barons. 
 
 A more important change was introduced by James 
 the First, an accomplished and able prince, whose long 
 captivity in England enabled him to observe the institu- 
 tions of that country, and to confer a benefit on his 
 kingdom. It was provided in his reign that the smaller 
 vassals of the crown should be excused from personal 
 attendance in parliament, on condition of their sending 
 representatives, and maintaining them at the common ex- 
 pense. The poverty of the barons led them to consider 
 this enactment an important immunity to themselves, 
 and from the same cause, they seldom fulfilled the con- 
 ditions which it imposed, in other words, they either 
 neglected to send representatives, or having sent them, 
 refused to defray their expenses. The statute does not 
 appear to have been made imperative before the reign 
 of James the Sixth. But although an imitation of the 
 English plan was thus introduced into Scotland, they 
 differed from each other in some important particulars. 
 Thus, in the one country, all who held lands of a certain 
 value, under the crown or under a subject, even all who 
 enjoyed liferents to the same amount, were entitled to 
 elect representatives for counties. But in Scotland, the 
 elective franchise was confined to the immediate vassals 
 of the crown, or the tenants in capite, while the other 
 proprietors, or those who held their lands by a different 
 tenure, whatever might have been the extent or value of 
 
 their estates, were necessarily excluded. Other differ- 
 vnx. nr.— no. 6 i 72 
 
 ences in the parliaments of the two kingdoms were not 
 less remarkable. The members of the lower house in 
 England, the knights of shires and burgesses, formed a 
 numerous body, invested with no ordinary powers, en- 
 joying valuable privileges, and representing distinct but 
 important interests ; by such means a barrier was raised 
 against the encroachments of a feudal nobility. But in 
 Scotland there were no knights of shires, and the bur- 
 gesses, forming only a small proportion of the whole, sat 
 and voted in the same house. This confusion of differ- 
 ent orders, whose powers ought to have been as distinct 
 as their interests, this assembly of nobles, ecclesiastics 
 and burgesses under the same roof, modified in no slight 
 degree the character of the government. The burgesses 
 never asserted their rights, or never acted in opposition 
 to the aristocracy; on the contrary, enactments were 
 passed at different periods, by which their dependence 
 was established. Thus, it was ordained in the reign of 
 James the Third that the old council shall elect the new, 
 and that the old and new council jointly shall elect the 
 officers of the borough. The effect of this law was to 
 render the town-councils, or municipal authorities, the 
 creatures of a noble, whose lands lay in the vicinity. It 
 is true that after the union of the two crowns, the power 
 which had been thus acquired was gradually transferred 
 from the aristocracy to the sovereigns of the house of 
 Stuart, and accordingly it is said in the Claim of Rights, 
 that “the abdicated family had subverted the rights of 
 the royal boroughs, by imposing upon them the magis- 
 trates, the town-council and the clerks and the other 
 officers, contrary to their liberties and express statutes.” 
 Thus at one period, the town-councils were subservient 
 to the aristocracy, and at another to the crown, and 
 so long as the laws which were enacted to mould them 
 to such purposes, continued in force, the representation 
 of Scotland, so far as the inhabitants of towns or burghs 
 were concerned, was rendered illusory. 
 
 The custom of committing the whole business of par- 
 liament to a few members, a custom unknown in every 
 period of English history, proved equally detrimental to 
 free institutions. In the year 1367, a parliament having 
 assembled at Scone, a committee was appointed by the 
 three estates ; full powers were conferred on it, and the 
 other members returned home on account of the late pe- 
 riod of the season. The same precedent was followed 
 in the succeeding year, and if any cause or pretext was 
 alleged in favour of such an innovation, it does not ap- 
 pear to have been mentioned. The powers of the com- 
 mittee were first modified in the year 1369 ; but even 
 then it was appointed to determine all matters that should 
 be treated in parliament, and to put them into “ a fit 
 shape” for the decision of the three estates on the last 
 day but one of the session. It happened frequently in 
 the subsequent period of Scottish history that the three 
 estates never met, and consequently the whole business 
 of parliament was transferred to a committee, of which 
 the members were distinguished by the name of Lords 
 of the Articles. 
 
 It is not difficult to discover the causes that gave rise 
 to so important a change. The rude barons were as 
 impatient of the restraints of a parliamentary attendance 
 as they were ill-qualified for the duties which it imposes. 
 And it was undoubtedly to dispense with personal at- 
 tendance, which they considered a hardship, that the 
 
570 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CliV. 
 
 whole business of parliament was arranged in such a 
 manner as to require nothing more than their assent or 
 dissent. The effect of the change, it may be naturally 
 supposed, was to weaken the aristocracy. The Lords 
 of the Articles were generally chosen from the nobles 
 of the court, or the ministers of the crown ; and by such 
 means the kings of Scotland eluded many subjects of 
 discussion, that it was their interest to keep in the shade, 
 and carried measures that could only have been passed 
 by a Parliament, in which the members were ignorant 
 or neglectful of their duties. 
 
 The Scottish Parliament was composed, after the union 
 of the crowns, of the nobility, the bishops, the knights 
 of shires and the burgesses. But in Scotland the great 
 officers of state sat in Parliament in virtue of their office, 
 not by right of representation — a practice never resorted 
 to in England. In the same period, successive changes 
 were introduced in the mode of appointing the Lords of 
 the Articles, and the end of all of them was to render 
 that committee more effectual in controlling Parliament. 
 The accuracy of the last remark is obvious from the 
 following facts : James the Sixth obtained an act of the 
 legislature, ordaining that before the meeting of Parlia- 
 ment, four persons should be named out of each estate 
 as a committee to consider previously, and to determine 
 the business to be laid before the house ; and as this 
 committee was nominated by the king, he might indi- 
 rectly exclude from the consideration of Parliament the 
 measures he opposed. But as this indirect method was 
 irksome to his successor, the appointment of the Lords 
 of the Articles was brought directly under the guidance 
 of the crown. According to an act passed in the reign 
 of Charles the First, the peers were empowered to 
 choose eight bishops, the bishops eight peers, and those 
 sixteen persons to elect eight knights of shires, and eight 
 burgesses, to whom were added the officers of state. 
 The bishops were, during this period, uniformly in the 
 interest of the crown. From the ordinary state of the 
 peerage, they might always elect one or two peers in the 
 same interest ; a majority of the sixteen, and conse- 
 quently of the whole committee, became thus necessarily 
 the adherents of the prerogative. * 1 
 
 It is unnecessary to enter into details, or to describe 
 the calamitous period between the union of the crowns, 
 and that of the kingdoms in 1707, b an event fortunate for 
 both nations, and one by which the subsequent history 
 of Scotland was merged into that of Britain. But while 
 an end was put to the committee of the Lords of the 
 Articles at the Revolution, another, perhaps a greater 
 evil was allowed to continue long after the union. The 
 heritable jurisdictions were not abolished in Scotland 
 before the year 1755. c They were exercised according 
 to the genius of the feudal system by territorial proprie- 
 tors under royal charter or prescription, and their au- 
 thority was so vague or so great, that they could fre- 
 
 > Millar on the English Constitution. Essays on British Antiqui- 
 ties by Lord Karnes. 
 
 b The articles of union were agreed upon by the commissioners of 
 the two kingdoms, July 22,1706. The act of union was passed by the 
 Scottish parliament, March 23, 1707. The union commenced on the 
 lirst of May of the same year. — P. 
 
 c The heritable jurisdictions were abolished immediately after the 
 suppression of the rebellion, in 1747. (Continuation of Buchanan’s 
 Hist. Scotland, by J. Watkins. Vol. II. p. 664.) — P. 
 
 u The Court of Session was established in the place of two other 
 
 quently set at defiance the highest tribunals of the land. 
 Their abolition cannot be attributed to the necessity of 
 any improvement in the administration of justice, to a 
 more advanced state of knowledge, or more liberal opin- 
 ions among the people, or to increased wealth and com- 
 mercial importance. Scotland might have retained still 
 longer its hereditary judges, had not the danger of their 
 influence been acknowledged in the rebellion of 1745. 
 To prevent the recurrence of such scenes, heritable 
 jurisdictions were annulled, and the consequence was to 
 establish the peace of the country, and to lay the founda- 
 tions of its subsequent prosperity. 
 
 The lords, who possessed these jurisdictions or regali- 
 ties, as they were called, could recall any of their vassals 
 who were summoned before another court, and judge 
 them for capital offences. The regular tribunals were 
 thus necessarily limited both in the degree of their au- 
 thority, and in the extent of country over which they 
 reached. The kings had their aula, and in some cases 
 supreme authority was committed to it ; their bailiffs 
 administered justice within the royal domains, and 
 sheriffs in the counties, if their authority was not ex- 
 cluded by grants of regality. An appeal might be 
 brought from the baron’s court to that of the sheriff, and 
 from the last to the parliament. This appellate jurisdic- 
 tion was transferred in 1532 to the Court of Session, d 
 which was then established, and consisted at first of fifteen 
 judges,® of whom seven besides the president were 
 churchmen. Two innovations happened much about the 
 same time ; the use of juries in civil cases was discon- 
 tinued, and many principles of the Roman law were 
 adopted. Hence the laws of Scotland and England are 
 in many respects different ; but the use of juries has 
 lately been introduced in civil cases, and other improve- 
 ments have been at different times effected. The Court 
 of Session still styles itself a supreme court, although its 
 decisions may be reversed by the upper house of the 
 British parliament. 
 
 The Justiciary Court consists of five judges, who are 
 likewise Lords of Session/ It is the highest tribunal in 
 criminal cases, which are determined by the majority of 
 a jury, and not by unanimity as in England. The sheriff- 
 courts are unknown in the sister kingdom, but all the 
 advantages which such institutions might afford, have not 
 been experienced in Scotland, because the judges do 
 not reside within the limits of their jurisdiction, and the 
 business of their courts may be committed to substitutes. 
 The expense of administering justice to the middling and 
 the poorer classes is thus necessarily increased. 
 
 The Presbyterian religion was finally established in 
 Scotland at the revolution of 1688. The ecclesiastical 
 divisions are parishes, presbyteries and synods ; several 
 parishes form a presbytery, and the synods are made up 
 of contiguous presbyteries. There are 941 parishes, 69 
 presbyteries, and 15 synods.® The presbyteries and 
 
 courts, viz. the Daily Council and the Session, by a statute in 1537. 
 (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 e The judges are now. as at first, fifteen in number. (Ed. Enc.) 
 This includes the Lord President and the Lord Justice Clerk. — The 
 court is familiarly called by the Scotch, the Fifteen. — P. 
 
 1 The High Court of Justiciary consists of six judges, who are also 
 Lords of Session, the Lord Justice Clerk presiding. It has a nomi- 
 nal head, the Lord Justice General, who however never presides 
 (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 s 893 parishes; 78 presbyteries; 15 synods; 938 clergymen. (Sir 
 
BOOK CLV.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 571 
 
 synods are ecclesiastical tribunals subordinate to the 
 General Assembly, which meets every year in the month 
 of May, the king appointing a commissioner as his rep- 
 resentative, and the members nominating their moderator 
 as president. Laymen are admitted into this venerable 
 council under the name of ruling elders, and their num- 
 ber is nearly equal to a third part of the members. The 
 Scottish clergy are men of moderate incomes, without the 
 great revenues of the English priesthood, and on that ac- 
 count better qualified for the duties of their sacred office. 
 Eminent names both in literature and philosophy might 
 be found in their ranks, and of their information as a 
 body, they have left a creditable monument in the sta- 
 tistical account of their country. 1 The Scottish church 
 is superior in other respects to the English ; pluralities 
 are unlawful, and the minister must reside within the 
 limits of his parish. It is of little consequence whether 
 episcopacy be or be not of apostolic origin ; the name is 
 certainly preserved in England, but the Scottish plan is 
 more accordant with the spirit of Christian institutions. 
 Accordingly the number of sectarians is comparatively 
 small ; the Methodists, the most important sect that has 
 appeared in modern times in England, have not made a 
 great impression in Scotland. The prejudices of the 
 people, it is true, are not in favour of Arminianism ; still 
 the repeated and unsuccessful attempts of the followers 
 of Wesley cannot be solely attributed to that cause, but 
 partly to the greater vigilance and usefulness of the clergy. 
 
 The mode of education is still more admirable, and 
 the diffusion of knowledge among the lower orders affords 
 the best proof of its excellence ; in no other country is 
 the plan of tuition attended with so many practical ad- 
 vantages. The nature of the system is not to be dis- 
 covered in the towns ; in these places the youth are 
 educated as in England, in private or public schools and 
 in colleges ; the fitness of the plan for the wants of the 
 people can only be observed in the country. A school- 
 master is as necessary as a clergyman to a parish ; a 
 salary is attached to the office, and indigent persons are 
 thus enabled to give their sons an education at a small 
 expense, and there are few poor parents in Scotland 
 who do not send their children to school. If the Scotch 
 have long been ranked among the best informed people 
 of Europe, it is owing to their parochial schools, and as, 
 in the present day, much is done for the diffusion of 
 knowledge, a similar or modified plan ought perhaps to 
 be introduced into the remote districts of England. The 
 expenses attending it are not great ; at all events, the 
 public money has seldom been laid out with the reason- 
 able expectation of so much advantage. 
 
 The occupations of commerce and industry were long 
 incompatible with the unsettled government of the Scots, 
 and accordingly the useful arts were cultivated in Eng- 
 land while they were unknown in Scotland. The present 
 
 J. Sinclair’s General Report of Scotland, 1814, vol. 1. p. 19 — 20.) — 910 
 parishes; 940 clergymen; 78 presbyteries; 15 synods. (Ed. Enc. 
 art. Scotland, 1829.) — 903 parishes ; 972 ministers ; 55 chapels of ease ; 
 38 chapels in the Highlands depending on the royal bounty ; 7 chapels 
 depending on the Society for propagating Christian Knowledge ; 40 
 chapels recently granted by parliament. These chapels are all con- 
 nected with the established church. (Bell’s Geog. vol. I. p. 200. 
 1832.)— P. 
 
 state of the arts in the latter country affords the best 
 proof of the rapid advances that hove been made since 
 the latter part of the eighteenth century. The same 
 people that languished under a feudal aristocracy, too 
 haughty to be restrained by law, or under kings who 
 weakened the nobles for the purpose of appropriating 
 their ill-gotten power, have overcome difficulties arising 
 from an unfavourable climate, an insulated situation, and 
 an unproductive and mountainous surface. However 
 much may be attributed to the impulse given by Eng- 
 land, the Scotch could never have made such advances 
 in the same course without free institutions; and the 
 past indolence and present industry of the inhabitants, 
 their past poverty and present wealth, are not more 
 widely different than the past and present government 
 of the country. One or two statistical results may place 
 the foregoing conclusion in a remarkable point of view. 
 A considerable time after the calamitous period of Scot- 
 tish history, even so lately as the commencement of the 
 eighteenth century, the population of Scotland did not 
 exceed 1,048,000 ; by the present census it amounts to 
 2,365,807. Within the same period many parts of 
 Scotland have been rendered more than doubly pro- 
 ductive, while other departments of industry have in- 
 creased in a much greater proportion. Thus, the rev- 
 enue after the union of the two kingdoms in 1707 was 
 not more than L. 160,000 ; at present it is greater than 
 L.4,000,000. It might be shown from these and similar 
 results, that the means of subsistence are now supplied 
 in greater plenty to the numerous inhabitants than for- 
 merly to the scanty population of Scotland. And this 
 fact enables us to detect much exaggeration and many 
 errors in the popular opinion concerning the present 
 poverty and wretchedness of the lower orders. 
 
 The commercial prosperity of the country, and the 
 consequent diffusion of wealth among the people, are the 
 more remarkable, considering the long degraded state of 
 parliamentary representation. It has been shown how 
 much the population and the public revenue have in- 
 creased since the union, the one being now more than 
 double, and the other nearly a hundred times greater ; b 
 but from the same period to the present time, the num- 
 ber of members has been limited to forty-five, one more 
 than the number formerly returned by the single county 
 of Cornwall. The electors did not exceed 3000, and 
 of these more than a half enjoyed the privilege from 
 rights of superiority, 0 not from any property in the soil. 
 The Scotch members representing their electors, devot- 
 ing themselves to their interest, and not to that of the 
 people, were almost proverbially distinguished by want 
 of independence. It is unnecessary to allude further to 
 the subject; the old system is now abolished, civil 
 liberty is extended to Scotland, and the people return 
 their representatives. 
 
 «■ Published by Sir John Sinclair (1791 — 9) in twenty-one vol- 
 umes. — P. 
 
 b Only twenty-five times, by the preceding statement. — P. 
 
 c A superiority was a nominal title to land, which, without any 
 property in the soil, conferred the right of suffrage. Superiorities 
 were abolished by the reform bill. — P. 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CI,TI. 
 
 572 
 
 BOOK CLVI. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued. — Scotland. — Section Second . — Civ- 
 il Divisions. — Topographical Details. 
 
 Scotland, like England and Wales, is civilly divided 
 into counties, and the number is equal to thirty-three. 
 They may perhaps be most aptly classed under the north- 
 ern, central and southern divisions, at least these corre- 
 spond in some degree with the distinctive features of the 
 country. The northern are those of Orkney, Caithness, 
 Sutherland, Ross, Cromarty, and Inverness ; the central 
 or midland are those of Argyle, Bute, Nairn, Murray or 
 Elgin, Banff, Aberdeen, Mearns or Kincardine, Angus or 
 Forfar, Perth, Fife, Kinross, Clackmannan, Stirling and 
 Dumbarton ; lastly, the southern division is made up of 
 those of Linlithgow or West Lothian, Edinburgh or Mid 
 Lothian, Haddington or East Lothian, Berwick, Rox- 
 burgh, Selkirk, Peebles, Dumfries, Lanark, Renfrew, 
 Ayr, Wigton and Kirkcudbright. It appears from the 
 last census* that the mean population of each county is 
 71,691 inhabitants, and the relative population to the 
 surface is 78 to the square mile. The superficial extent 
 is considerably greater than the half of England, and the 
 number of inhabitants is little more than a sixth part, b but 
 the result, if the barren and rugged surface be taken into 
 consideration, indicates sufficiently the improved state of 
 the country. 
 
 In the chorographical account of Scotland, it may be 
 as well to begin at that part of it nearest the Welsh coast, 
 the one that has been last described. The small town of 
 Wigton, which may be seen on entering the Solway 
 Frith, stands on the declivity of a hill at the bottom of 
 the bay of Wigton. Although a chief town, it is not a 
 place of any importance. It gives its name to a maritime 
 county at the south-west extremity of Scotland, washed 
 by the Irish Sea on the south and west,® and contiguous 
 to Kirkcudbright on the east, and to Ayrshire on the 
 north. The extent of Wigtonshire is probably equal to 
 485 square miles, and not more than a third part of the 
 
 * Of 1331. 
 
 b The superficial extent of England and Wales is 57,900 sq. miles 
 (that of Wales alone, 7,425) ; that of Scotland, 29,871 sq. miles. (Bell's 
 Geog.) — The population of England and Wales in 1831, was 13,894,574 
 (that of Wales, 805,236) ; that of Scotland, 2,365,807. (Stat. Tab.) — P. 
 
 c On the west by the narrow entrance into the Irish Sea on the 
 north, called the North Channel.— P. 
 
 ll Laig Fell, in the north-eastern corner, whence it extends north- 
 east between Kirkcudbright and Ayrshires, rises 1758 feet. — P. 
 
 e It ic divided into three districts, viz. the Rhyns (peninsula.) west 
 of a line drawn between Luce Bay and Loch Ryan ; the Machers 
 (flat country,) between Wigton and Luce Bays; and the Moors, 
 which include the remainder, being more than the half of the coun- 
 ty. (Ed. Enc.) — These districts correspond, in a reverse order, to 
 those in the text. — P. 
 
 1 Called also Burgh Head and Borough Head. — P. 
 e The town of Stranraer, the largest in the county, stands in a plain 
 at the head of Loch Ryan. — P. 
 
 surface is cultivated. The heights on the north rise 1100 
 feet above the level of the sea ; d the rest of the land 
 consists mostly of low, broken and undulating hills, 
 detached rocks and extensive moors. The manufactures 
 are few or of little value, and the trade is confined to the 
 export of raw produce, and the import of coal, lime and 
 other articles required for consumption. It appears, 
 however, that the relative population is more than 75 to 
 the square mile, consequently that it is very little below 
 the mean term. It may be further observed that the 
 county is of an irregular form, deeply indented by bays 
 and inlets. It has been divided into the three districts 
 of Wigton, Whithorn and Stranraer,® according to the 
 situation of its towns. The first or the eastern division 
 is watered by the Cree and several streams that descend 
 from the heights of Carrick. The second or the south- 
 eastern is of a triangular form, watered by the bays of 
 Wigton and Glenluce, and terminating towards the south 
 in the promontory of Burrowhead/ The district of 
 Stranraer® or the Rhinns of Galloway extends nine miles 
 from north to south, 1 * and is almost separated from the 
 rest of the county by the bay of Loch Ryan. The Mull 
 of Galloway and Fairland Point are the southern and 
 northern extremities of this detached portion. Lastly, 
 Port-Patrick, which is concealed from the rest of tbe 
 shire by the Mull of Galloway,* is the nearest point 
 between Britain and Ireland. The harbor was for- 
 merly small and inconvenient ; it now possesses a 
 reflecting light-house, and one of the finest quays in 
 Britain. 
 
 Wigtonshire forms the western district of the ancient 
 province of Galloway : k the eastern is comprehended in 
 the stewartry of Kirkcudbright. The western district 
 or the county is not remarkable for the altitude of 
 its mountains, or the size of its rivers ; but the heights 
 which divide the stewartry from Ayrshire, are little 
 inferior in elevation to any in the south of Scot- 
 
 h The Rhinns extend at least 30 miles from north to south, from 
 Kirkcolm Point, at the entrance of Loch Ryan, to the Mull of Gallo- 
 way. The isthmus between Loch Ryan and Luce Bay is about nine 
 miles in width. — P. 
 
 ‘ This is certainly a very strange expression. Port-Patrick is situ- 
 ated on the western coast of the Rhinns, south-west of Stranraer, on the 
 shore of the North Channel, nearly opposite Donaghadee, in Ireland, to 
 which place is a line of mail packets. It has a south-western exposure, 
 being surrounded in other directions by a chain of low hills. In order 
 to arrive at it by sea. from the eastern part of the county, it is neces- 
 sary to sail round the Mull of Galloway. — P. 
 
 k It is sometimes called West Galloway, or the shire of Galloway ; 
 the stewartry of Kirkcudbright being called East Galloway. Gallo- 
 way, including these two counties, was an independent princi- 
 pality previous to the 13th century, governed by its own lords or 
 princes. — P. 
 
BOOK CLVI.J 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 573 
 
 land.* They extend along the northern boundary, and 
 form a sort of amphitheatre, which occupies more than 
 the half of it. Viewed from these lofty mountains, the 
 rest of Kirkcudbrightshire appears like a plain ; it must 
 not, however, be imagined that it is destitute of hills ; 
 those on the south near the sea, although not comparable 
 to the northern, are by no means inconsiderable. Rising 
 in some places above the margin of the waters, they 
 exhibit a variety of forms, and contribute to the beauty 
 or grandeur of the scenery. It may be inferred from 
 the nature of the country that the quantity of arable or 
 productive land is small, and this conjecture is con- 
 firmed by the relation of the population to the surface, 
 for the county consists of 882 square miles, and the 
 number of inhabitants is not more than forty-six to the 
 square mile. 
 
 Much of the mountainous tract consists of granite, and 
 according to the agricultural survey, there are three sep- 
 arate districts of granite, which cover nearly a fourth part 
 of the surface. b Different strata of schistus are common 
 in the lower parts, and with these are mixed layers of a 
 soft, argillaceous stone, which yields readily to the 
 weather, and is popularly known by the name of slate- 
 land. Limestone is found at Kirkbean on the Nith, the 
 only place in the county, where it is worked. Iron ore, 
 although very common, is rendered of little value from 
 the want of coal or fuel. Lead mines were formerly 
 wrought in Minnigaff, and copper, which was lately 
 discovered near Gatehouse, is now worked by an 
 English company. 
 
 The Dee, the principal river, enters Loch Ken, c alake 
 almost in the centre of the county, about eight miles in 
 length, and in some places more than'one in breadth. 
 The river falls into the Solway Frith about six miles 
 below the town of Kirkcudbright, and it is navigable two 
 miles above it for vessels of 200 tons. Kirkcudbright, 
 the county town, although by no means populous, may 
 be mentioned on account of its pleasant situation on the 
 Dee, and also on account of its commodious port. In 
 ordinary spring-tides the depth of the water is 30 feet, 
 and it is never less than 18 during the lowest tides; 1 * the 
 harbour besides is safe and well sheltered, and there 
 is good anchorage at its mouth. Societies have been 
 formed for the purpose of supplying the members with 
 houses.® Each individual makes a small monthly pay- 
 ment into a general fund, which is employed in erecting 
 houses, and these, as they are finished, are assigned to the 
 contributors by lot ; those who obtain them, pay, in addi- 
 tion to their monthly contributions, five per cent, on the 
 
 1 Larg Fell has been already mentioned (note d , p. 1252.) The 
 highest summits in the county are found in the granite ridges which 
 pervade it. Criffel forms a detached group in the south-east, on the 
 west of the Nith. near its mouth, the highest summit of which is 2044 
 feet in height. The granite ridge of Cairnsmuir commences between 
 the Fleet and the Dee, and extends north, parallel to the Ken, to the 
 northern border of the county. It forms two groups, divided by the 
 Dee. The southern, on the Fleet, rises to the height of 2329 feet ; the 
 northern, on the Deugh, a branch of the Ken, to that of 2597 feet. — P. 
 
 b The mountain of Critfel forms the centre of the first of these 
 tracts of granite ; the two others occur in the ridge of Cairnsmuir, the 
 one on the south and the other on the north of the Dee. — P. 
 
 0 The river Ken flows south into the head of the lake, and the Dee 
 enters the lake on the western side. The river that flows from the 
 lake is also called the Dee. That part of the lake below the entrance 
 of the Dee, is sometimes called Loch Dee. — P. 
 
 d Opposite the town, the depth is 8 feet at low water, and 28 at high 
 water; the rise being 20 feet. In the road, at the mouth of the river, 
 there is 1C feet at low water, and 40 at high water ; rise 24 feet. (Stat. 
 Acc. vol. xi. p 11 — 12) — P. 
 
 money laid out in building their houses ; and this arrange- 
 ment continues until habitations have been provided for 
 all the members. 
 
 The county of Dumfries, contiguous to Kirkcudbright- 
 shire on the west, and to the Solway Frith on the south, 
 covers an area of more than 1006 square miles. It was 
 anciently divided into the three divisions of Annandale, 
 Eskdale and Nithsdale/ so called from the rivers that wa- 
 ter it, and each of them was under a separate jurisdiction. 
 Surrounded on the north, the east and the west by the 
 mountainous ranges/ that have been already indicated, 
 the county has for the most part a southern exposure, 
 and the climate, although moist, is mild and salubrious. 
 
 The Nith, after entering the county from Ayrshire, 
 traverses it in a south-east direction more than forty 
 miles, and passing the town of Dumfries, falls into the 
 Solway Frith. The Annan or central river rises from 
 the mountains on the north, near the confines of Lanark- 
 shire,* 1 and near the sources of the Clyde and the Tweed, 
 flows southwards through Moffat, and discharges itself 
 into the Solway Frith below Annan. The Esk* issues 
 from the borders of Selkirkshire, and enters the same 
 frith below Langtown, k after a course of forty miles. 
 Of the numerous lakes, Loch Skeen is not the least 
 remarkable ; it is situated more than 1300 feet above 
 the level of the sea, and it supplies the waters of the 
 Gray Mare’s Tail, a romantic and well known cas- 
 cade. 
 
 The same county is important on account of its min- 
 erals ; the lead mines have been already mentioned,' and 
 it may be added that the miners are distinguished by their 
 knowledge and good conduct. The workmen of Wan- 
 lockhead set apart a portion of their earnings for the 
 purchase of books, and they are already in possession of 
 an useful library. May the same practice now so com- 
 mon in Britain, be introduced into France; may the 
 higher orders promote the diffusion of knowledge, and by 
 so doing, guard the working classes against idleness and 
 grovelling pleasures, elevate their character, render them 
 more useful citizens, and contribute to their happiness 
 and enjoyments. The other minerals are antimony, 
 manganese, coal in small quantities, sandstone, iron, 
 limestone, marble and slate. * The only coal fit to be 
 wrought is situated at the two extremities of the county, 
 namely, at Sanquhar on the north-west, and Canobie on 
 the south-east ; the principal supply, therefore, is obtain- 
 ed from Lanarkshire, Ayrshire and England. Mineral 
 springs are not uncommon in the county, but none are 
 more frequented than the two at Moffat, of which the one 
 
 e House Societies. 
 
 f The sheriffdom of Nithsdale, the stewartry of Annandale, and 
 the regality of Eskdale — all now under the jurisdiction of the sheritf- 
 depute of Dumfries-shire. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 S Properly, on the north-west, north and north-east, separating it 
 from the counties of Ayr, Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk and Roxburgh. 
 On the western border, which is partly formed by the Nith, near its 
 mouth, there is no prominent range of mountains. — P. 
 
 h It rises in the Hartfell mountains, near the point, where the shires 
 of Dumfries, Lanark and Peebles meet. — P. 
 
 ‘ Esk, a name common to several rivers in Scotland, as well as Exe 
 (Lat. Isca ) in England, and Usk inWales,is doubtless the Gaelic, uisgc 
 water — the smaller rivers in Scotland being still called waters. — P. 
 
 k Longtown, in Cumberland. — The Esk enters the head of the Sol 
 way. — P. 
 
 1 p. 1246. — Leadhillsis in Lanarkshire, and Wanlockhead in Dum 
 fries-shire ; both in the ridge dividing the two counties, and sepa 
 rating the waters of the Clyde and Nith. — P. 
 
574 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CJLVI. 
 
 is sulphureous and the other a chalybeate. The surface 
 is very irregular, a great part of it is mountainous, and 
 much of the land is barren or covered with heath. Of 
 the forty-two parishes into which the whole is divided, 
 seven are considered maritime, eighteen midland, and 
 seventeen mountainous ; the last occupy more than a 
 half of the county. The number of churches or parishes 
 appears more than sufficient, but the population is not so 
 scanty as might be inferred from the nature of the coun- 
 try. In relation to the surface, it is equal to more than 
 seventy-three persons to the square mile, or nearly to 
 the mean number throughout Scotland. No branch of 
 the arts or manufactures is conducted on a great scale, 
 except the smelting of lead ore. The principal exports 
 are lead, cattle, wool, grain and potatoes, and the im- 
 ports are coal, iron, timber and wine. 
 
 Dumfries, the county town, is pleasantly situated on a 
 rising ground on the east of the Nith, about nine miles 
 from its influx into the Solway Frith. It was formerly a 
 place of considerable importance, and it still bears une- 
 quivocal marks of antiquity. Thus, although one of its 
 bridges is comparatively of modern construction,* another 
 at no great distance from it, is supposed to have been 
 built by the mother of John Baliol. king of Scotland. b 
 Although the town was more than once burned by the 
 English, and often exposed to depredations, while Eng- 
 land and Scotland were under distinct governments, the 
 inhabitants were so indignant against the articles of the 
 union, that they burned them with great solemnity in the 
 market place in 1706. The port of Dumfries extends 
 from Southwick in the parish of Colvend in the stewart- 
 ry of Kirkcudbright, along the Solway Frith to the bor- 
 der stream of Sark, and by this means nearly all the ex- 
 ports and imports of the county by sea are conveyed to 
 the town. 0 The public buildings are a town-house built 
 in 1706, and a county jail and court house, which were 
 lately finished. The wall of Adrian terminated near 
 the small burgh of Annan, d which is supposed to have 
 been a Roman station ; at all events, the remains of Ro- 
 man camps, and other antiquities, have been discovered 
 in the neighbourhood. 
 
 The county of Roxburgh, situated at the south-east- 
 ern extremity of the kingdom,® is remarkable for the riv- 
 ers and numerous streams with which it is watered, for 
 its pastoral beauty and romantic sites. The boundaries 
 are very irregular ; it is partly separated from Berwick- 
 shire by the Tweed ; f it is’ contiguous to Selkirkshire 
 and Dumfries-shire on the west and south-west, and to 
 
 1 Begun 1792 ; completed 1795 — crossing the river a little way above 
 the old bridge. — P. 
 
 b Dervnrgilla, daughter of Allan, the last lord of Galloway. — It 
 was built in the 13th century, for the accommodation of the Franciscan 
 convent founded by her in Dumfries. It is too narrow for the conve- 
 nient use of wheel carriages. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 c This is the extent of the revenue port, under the jurisdiction 
 of the collector of Dumfries, but it is not necessary that all imports 
 should be made at Dumfries. — Within the above limits, vessels receive 
 and discharge their cargoes only in the Nith below Dumfries and at 
 Annan. At the latter place only a small share of business is done. 
 (Slat. Acc. v. 125.) — P. 
 
 d The wall of Adrian terminated on the opposite side of the Solway, 
 at Boulness in Cumberland. — P. 
 
 r The south-eastern extremity of the kingdom, on the coast, is in 
 Berwickshire. — P. 
 
 f It is bounded on the north by Berwickshire, but the boundary line 
 is very irregularly indented. The Tweed crosses the county near its 
 northern border, nearly from west to east, and in two places, viz. near 
 the middle and at the eastern extremity, forms the northern boun- 
 dary.— P. 
 
 Cumberland and Northumberland on the south-east and 
 east. A small portion between Berwickshire and Sel- 
 kirkshire is adjacent to Mid Lothian ; it terminates al- 
 most in a point between Dumfries-shire and Cumber- 
 land ; it surrounds different parts of Selkirkshire in some 
 places, and cuts deeply into it in others. In superficial 
 extent it is equal to 715 square miles, and the relation 
 between the surface and population is less than sixty- 
 five persons to the square mile, consequently the number 
 is considerably smaller than in Dumfries-shire. 
 
 Few counties are better supplied with rivers and nu- 
 merous streams. The Tweed passes from Selkirkshire 
 into the north-western part of Roxburghshire, and leaves 
 it below Redden on the north-east. The Teviot rises 
 and joins the Tweed within the limits of the county ; it 
 has its source in the south-west, near the confines of 
 Dumfries-shire, and flowing in a north-east direction, 
 falls into the Tweed a short way above the town of Kel 
 so. The feeders of the Teviot are the Allen , s the Stau- 
 nch, 11 the Rule, the Jed, the Oxnam and the Kale' 
 from the south, and the Bortlnvick and the Ale from the 
 north and west. The other tributaries of the Tweed are 
 the Etterick, k which joins it on the south-west as it en- 
 ters the county, a second Allen and the Leader, 1 which 
 flow from the north, and the Eden, which after an east- 
 erly course, enters the same river 1 " near its egress from 
 Roxburghshire. Thus the Tweed receives almost all 
 the waters of the county ; the principal exceptions are 
 the Liddel," which gives its name to the tract of Liddes- 
 dale, 0 and the Beaumont? which rises from the Cheviots 
 and enters Northumberland. These streams and rivers, 
 it may be repeated, contribute greatly to the beauty 
 of the country, heightening the charms of the romantic 
 and pastoral districts, and adorning the luxuriant and fer- 
 tile lands. 
 
 The most remarkable heights form part of the Chevi- 
 ot range, and they are chiefly composed of whinstone. 
 A sandy loam is the prevailing soil in the arable land 
 and on many of the hills. A barren or a clayey soil oc- 
 cupies a considerable tract on the north-west. Moss, 
 marsh and heath occur in the south-west and in other 
 directions. The light soil, it may be readily inferred, is 
 well adapted for turnips, and the field culture of that use- 
 ful plant was first introduced into Scotland in 1753, by 
 Mr. Dawson, an intelligent farmer of Roxburghshire, 
 who had previously observed the advantages which at- 
 tended it in different parts of England. i The want of 
 minerals has hitherto retarded the cultivation of the soil ; 
 
 e Allan. h Slittrick, Slitridge, Slittrige. 
 
 ‘ The Kail Water. k Ettrick. 1 The Lauder Water 
 
 m On the north, near the village of Edenham or Ednam, the birth 
 place of Thomson. — P. “ Liddal. 
 
 0 Liddisdale. — This tract lies on the south side of the ridge extend- 
 ing eastwardly from the Hartfell to the Cheviot, and separating the wa- 
 ters of the Teviot from those that flow south into the Solway. The 
 Liddel rises near the Tyne, on the borders of Northumberland, flows 
 south-west, and after receiving the Hermitage, the Kershope and ma- 
 ny other small streams, leaves the county at its southern point, and 
 then forms the boundary for a few miles between Dumfries-shire and 
 Cumberland, till it meets the Esk. — P. 
 
 p Bowmont. It first flows north, and then bending east into Eng- 
 land, joins the Till, a branch of the Tweed. — P. 
 
 a Mr. Craik of Arbigland, in Dumfries-shire, is said to have first 
 cultivated drilled turnips in Scotland, about 1745. About 1755, Mr. 
 Pringle, near Coldstream, in Berwickshire, commenced the culture of 
 drilled turnips. Wm. Dawson Esq. of Graden, in Roxburghshire, 
 adopted Mr. Pringle’s method, in preference to that which he had ob- 
 served in Norfolk, and in 1764, began the drilled turnip husbandry on 
 a large scale. (Sir J. Sinclair’s Gen. Rep. i. 553-4.)— P 
 
BOOK CLVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 575 
 
 coal and lime are still imported from Northumberland,* 
 and the principal agricultural wealth consists not in corn 
 or grain, but in oxen and sheep. 
 
 The county is divided, for the purposes of justice and 
 police, into the districts of Kelso and Jedburgh on the 
 east, and Melrose and Hawick on the west. Kelso, the 
 chief town in the first of these districts, is pleasantly situ- 
 ated on the north side of the Tweed, opposite the junc- 
 tion of the Teviot. b The river is crossed by a modern 
 bridge of five arches, equal in elegance and solidity to 
 any other work of the same sort in Scotland. In former 
 times, Kelso was the seat of an abbey, a great part of 
 which still remains. It was founded by David the First 
 in 1128; much land was afterwards annexed to it, which 
 on the forfeiture of the Earl of Both well, the admiral of 
 Scotland, was made over by James the Sixth to Sir Rob- 
 ert Ker of Cessford, the founder of the Roxburgh fami- 
 ly. Jedburgh, the capital of the county, is about eleven 
 miles to the west of Kelso. It is more populous and 
 more worthy of notice from its industry. The manufac- 
 tures consist of stockings, flannels and narrow cloths, and 
 many of the inhabitants are employed in tanning leather. 
 Like Kelso, it possessed a large abbey, which has been 
 partly transformed into a parish church. The celebrity 
 of Melrose depends not on the number or industry of its 
 inhabitants, but on one of the finest Gothic ruins in Scot- 
 land. Melrose abbey was founded in 1136 by King Da- 
 vid, who consecrated it to the virgin, and endowed it 
 with extensive privileges and a great revenue. It became 
 the principal residence of the Cistertians, and the capital, 
 if it may be so termed, of that order in Scotland. It is 
 built in the form of a St. John’s cross, and the present 
 dimensions of the ruins are 258 feet in length, 137 in 
 breadth, and 943 in circumference. Hawick, situated at 
 the confluence of the Slitridge and the Teviot, is a place 
 of greater importance; leather, worsted, carpets, stock- 
 ings and inkle are the principal manufactures. Lastly, 
 the small town of Galashiels is not more than four miles 
 north-east from Melrose ; being divided into two parts by 
 the Tweed, it is situated partly in Selkirkshire and part- 
 ly in Roxburghshire. 0 It was formerly an obscure vil- 
 lage, but has now become flourishing from the industry of 
 its inhabitants. The only manufacture at no very dis- 
 tant period consisted of coarse cloth, worn by the peas- 
 antry, and known by the name of Galashiels greys ; but 
 within these few years, fine broad cloths have been 
 made, and a hall, similar to those in the manufacturing 
 towns of England, has been opened for the sale of them. 
 It carries on besides a considerable trade in flannels and 
 
 1 Coal has been opened on Carter Fell, a hill on the border of North- 
 umberland, and also near the south point of Liddisdale ; but nearly all 
 the coal used in the county is imported — in the west, from Dumfries- 
 shire and the Lothians, and in the east, from Northumberland. Lime- 
 stone is found in Liddisdale and on the southern border, but from the 
 want of coal little is burnt. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 0 Kelso extends about half a mile along the Tweed, which is joined 
 by the Teviot opposite the west end of the town. The bridge is over 
 the Tweed. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 c Galashiels is situated to the west of Melrose, higher up the Tweed. 
 The parish is divided by the Tweed into two parts; the northern in 
 Selkirkshire ; the southern in Roxburghshire. The town of Galashiels 
 stands on the north bank of the Tweed, on both sides of the Gala Wa- 
 ter, at its mouth, and as the Gala here forms the boundary between 
 •he counties of Roxburgh and Selkirk, the eastern part of the town is 
 in the former (Melrose parish,) and the western or principal part in the 
 latter county. — P. 
 
 d Only two parishes lie entirely within its limits, while five or six 
 lie partly in it, and partly in the neighbouring shires. (Gazetteer of 
 
 different stuffs, and it is now the principal seat of the 
 woollen manufactures in the south-east of Scotland. 
 Such are the principal towns in Roxburghshire, and 
 in the account of them, notice has been taken of dif- 
 ferent religious edifices ; but it may also be remarked 
 that many parts of the same county are adorned 
 with the ruins of castles, towers and baronial resi- 
 dences, erected for the purposes of security or defence 
 in an age when the inhabitants were exposed to frequent 
 depredations from their vicinity to England. 
 
 The county of Selkirk is contiguous to Mid Lothian 
 on the north, Roxburghshire on the east and south-east, 
 Dumfries-shire on the south, and Peebles-shire or Tweed- 
 dale on the west. But all the boundaries, except the 
 one on the south, are so irregular that it is difficult to de- 
 termine the area. It is not, however, more than 269 
 square miles ; it is divided into two entire parishes, and 
 seven others are partly situated in Selkirkshire, and part- 
 ly in the adjoining counties/ According to the last re- 
 turns, the absolute population amounts to 6833 individ- 
 uals, and consequently the relative is not more than 
 twenty-five to the square mile. The nature of the coun- 
 try may be inferred from the last statement ; it is almost 
 wholly a pastoral district ; it resembles the more lofty 
 and barren part of Roxburghshire, but the Leigh ts reach 
 to a greater elevation, and the vallies are more contract- 
 ed. The general declivity is, as in the last county, to- 
 wards the north and north-east, where all the streams 
 discharge themselves into the Tweed. Of these the 
 principal are the Ettrick and the Yarrow, e both of which 
 water a romantic country, and both are celebrated in 
 song. The Yarrow passes through two lakes, the Loch 
 of the Lows and St. Mary’s Loch ; the latter, perhaps 
 the finest in the south-east of Scotland, is separated from 
 the other by a narrow neck of land. The county is des 
 titute of coal, sandstone and limestone ; shell-marle is 
 common in the mosses and in the beds of the lakes, and 
 it is used as a manure. It may be further observed that 
 the cultivated land, which is by no means rich, does not 
 exceed a twentieth part of the uncultivated. 
 
 Selkirk, the county town, is the only place that re- 
 quires to be mentioned. It is situated on a rising ground 
 below the confluence of the Yarrow and the Ettrick, near 
 the borders of Roxburghshire, and it is more remarka- 
 ble for its antiquity than its manufactures. A hundred 
 townsmen, it is related, followed James the Fourth from 
 Selkirk to the field of Flodden, and none of them re- 
 turned/ At a later period, in the year 1645, the 
 Marquis of Montrose, until then victorious, was first 
 
 Scotland, Dundee, 1803.) — It includes the entire parishes of Etterick 
 and Yarrow, the greater part of Selkirk and Galashiels, and minor 
 portions of Ashkirk, Roberton and Inverleithen. The remainder of all 
 these parishes lies in Roxburghshire, except the last (in Peebles- 
 shire.) — P. 
 
 e The Ettrick and the Yarrow both rise among the mountains on 
 the south-western border of the county, and flowing north-east through 
 two parallel valleys, meet each other a little above the town of Sel- 
 kirk. The united stream retains the name of Ettrick, and about tw" 
 miles below enters the Tweed. The Loch of the Lows and St. Mary 's 
 Loch are properly the source of the Yarrow, which issues from the 
 latter, much the largest of the two. They lie in the same basin, on 
 the confines of Peebles-shire, and are embosomed in a group of lofty 
 rounded hills, from which several small streams flow into them : the 
 largest of these, the Megget, runs wholly within Peebles-shire. — P. 
 
 f Only a few survived. (Ed. Enc.) — A few returned, loaded with 
 the spoils of the enemy. (Stat. Acc. ii. 436.) — William Rrydone, the 
 town clerk, was knighted fi ar his v alour on that occasion. — P. 
 
576 EUR 
 
 defeated by General Leslie in the vicinity of the 
 town. a 
 
 The Tweed, the boundary between Roxburghshire 
 and Berwickshire, b separates the last county from Eng- 
 land. 0 The same county is contiguous to East Lothian 
 on the north, and to Mid Lothian on the north-west, and 
 it is washed by the German Ocean on the east. It is 
 popularly divided into three districts, the Lammermoors, 
 Lauderdale and the Merse ; d but the second may be in- 
 cluded under the other two, and a greater part of it be- 
 longs to the first than to the last. It is connected with 
 East Lothian by the Lammermoors, e a range that com- 
 mences at St. Abb’s Head on the south-east of the coun- 
 ty/ and passes into Mid Lothian ; their height varies 
 from fifteen hundred to a thousand feet above the level 
 of the sea/ and the surface, covered with heath and the 
 coarsest herbage, is more sterile and unproductive than 
 might be inferred from its altitude. The Merse or the 
 other great division comprehends all the lowlands of the 
 county, and these are cultivated according to the most 
 approved methods of modern husbandry ; indeed it is 
 doubtful if there is any other district in which the manage- 
 ment of arable land is so skilfully combined with that of 
 live stock and pasturage. The perseverance of the inhabit- 
 ants in the improvement of their soil is the more remark- 
 able on account of the obstacles which they have sur- 
 mounted. If their land in many places resemble a gar- 
 den, it might be imagined that they possessed many natu- 
 ral advantages, but they are situated far from any crowd- 
 ed or dense population, they are without coal and lime/ 1 
 and a rocky or precipitous coast limits the exports and 
 imports by sea to one or two places at a considerable 
 distance from the centre of the county. 1 The Merse is 
 watered by the Whittadder, the Blackadder, the Lead- 
 er 11 and other small streams that enlarge the Tweed. 
 The principal towns are Dunse, Greenlaw, Lauder, Eye- 
 mouth and Coldstream. The first has been rendered 
 the county-town, but none of them are of much impor- 
 tance. 
 
 Remains of past times may still be observed, and differ- 
 ent castles exhibit the ruins of border fortresses. A deep 
 ravine in the north-east part of the county was formerly 
 a sort of natural barrier agains the incursions of English 
 freebooters. It is now crosseu by a bridge 1 300 feet 
 long and fifteen wide, and rising from the stream below 
 to the great height of 124 feet. The low grounds were 
 suffered to lie waste during the border wars ; the inhab- 
 itants were then accustomed to plunder ; they lived in 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CliVI. 
 
 poverty and wretchedness. The same grounds, now 
 enclosed with hedges, and sheltered by plantations, yield 
 abundant crops. The industry of the present inhabit- 
 ants forms a remarkable contrast with the indolence of 
 their ancestors, and their rural prosperity with the deso- 
 lation consequent on predatory habits. The relative 
 population is upwards of eighty-three to the square mile, 
 and the total number of square miles is probably greater 
 than 486. 
 
 Continuing our course towards the north-west along 
 the shore, we enter East Lothian or Haddingtonshire, a 
 county still more distinguished for its agricultural riches. 
 The greatest length of the county from east to west is 
 twenty-five miles, and the utmost breadth from north to 
 south, about seventeen ; but such is the irregularity of 
 its boundaries that the area does not exceed 272 square 
 miles. According to the last census, the number of per 
 sons to the square mile is equal to more than 133, a re- 
 sult the more remarkable, if it be considered that no 
 branch of manufacturing industry is conducted on a great 
 scale, and that the labor of the inhabitants is almost ex- 
 clusively confined to the culture or improvement of the 
 soil. Of the whole land about four fifths are in tillage, 
 or fit for cultivation, and the remaining fifth, consisting 
 of hills or moorish ground, is covered with heath and the 
 coarser grasses. 
 
 The Lammermuirs,” 1 which tfaverse the county," occu- 
 py the greater portion of the uncultivated land, and the 
 rest of Haddingtonshire, when viewed from these heights 
 on the south, appears like a plain sloping gradually to 
 the Frith of Forth and the German Ocean. In reality, 
 however, the apparent declivity consists of a number of 
 smaller and parallel ridges, commencing near the western 
 extremity, extending a considerable distance eastwards, 
 and diminishing in height as they approach the sea.° 
 Some hills in the lower part of the county, although by 
 no means lofty, have an imposing appearance ; they rise 
 abruptly from a flat surface, and are conspicuous in ev- 
 ery direction. Such are North Berwick Law and Trap- 
 rane Law/ of which the former is not more than 940, and 
 the latter ly 700 feet above the level of the sea. 
 
 According to the agricultural survey, the soil is very 
 various ; the greater, part of it, however, is said to con- 
 sist of clay and loam, mixed in nearly equal proportions 
 and of very different qualities. Much of it is not fruit- 
 ful, the clay is shallow, and it rests on a wet bottom. 
 The superiority of the grain may be partly attributed to 
 the climate ; little rain falls during the summer months 
 
 a At Philiphaugh, opposite the town, Sept. 15, 1645. — P. 
 
 b See note f , p. 1254. 
 
 c Berwick upon Tweed, with a small surrounding territory, depen- 
 dent on it. is situated on the north of the Tweed, at its mouth. It be- 
 longs neither to Scotland nor England. (See p. 1209.) — P. 
 
 <* Formerly the county was divided into two jurisdictions : viz. that 
 of the Merse or March (whence the Earl of March) — the Merches 
 (Guthrie,) i. e. the borders, which also included the low country of 
 Roxburghshire ; and the bailliary of Lauderdale. Of the present di- 
 visions, that of the Merse includes the low country along the Tweed, 
 on the south ; that of Lauderdale, the valley of the Leader and the 
 surrounding hills, in the north-west corner ; and that of Lammermoor, 
 the ridge of hills extending east along the northern border, from Lau- 
 derdale to the German Sea. — P. 
 
 e Properly, the county is separated from East Lothian by the ridge of 
 Lammermoor (or Lammermuir.) — P. 
 
 f St. Abb’s Head is rather in the north-east of the county, where the 
 coast turns to the west. The ridge of Lammermoor stretches from it 
 Dearly west to Mid Lothian. — P. 
 
 e The average height of the chain is about 1000 feet ; rising towards 
 
 1 
 
 the west, and descending towards the east. Clint Hill, at the western 
 extremity, is 1544 feet high. — P. 
 
 h Coal and lime have been found at Lamerton, on the sea-coast near 
 Berwick.— P. 
 
 • The only port in the county is at Eyemouth, on the small river 
 Eye, to the north of Berwick. The Tweed forms the great natural 
 outlet of the county, by Berwick. — P. 
 
 k These streams all rise in the Lammermoor, and flow south. The 
 two former (the Whitewater and Blackwater) unite, and soon after 
 enter the Tweed near Berwick. The latter enters it a little below 
 Melrose. — P. 
 
 1 Pease Bridge. 
 
 m Generally in the singular, Lammermuir. — P. 
 
 n Rather, which stretch along the southern border of the county. — P. 
 
 ° The principal ridge in the lower part of the county is that of the 
 Garleton Hills, which run east and west between the Tyne and the 
 Forth, in the neighbourhood of Haddington. — P. 
 
 p Traprene or Traprane Law — an isolated trap hill between Had- 
 dington and Dunbar. — P. 
 
BOOK CLVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 577 
 
 in the eastern part, and the harvests are generally about 
 ten days earlier than in the neighbourhood of the coast, 
 although even in that quarter, the crops are reaped three 
 weeks or a month sooner than in the hilly district. 3 
 
 The same county abounds with the most valuable min- 
 erals, and these in common with its soil and climate, 
 have contributed to its agricultural wealth. Coal has 
 been worked since a very early period, b and it is still 
 found in great quantities, particularly in the western dis- 
 tricts, from the borders of the Lammermuirs to the sea. 
 No part of the same tract is more than six miles distant 
 from limestone,' and several extensive parishes rest on 
 that rock. Lastly, ironstone is wrought in different parts 
 of the county, and some of the mineral springs, although 
 now deserted, were once held in great repute. 
 
 It was in Haddingtonshire that the spirit of agricultural 
 improvement commenced, and it was diffused from it 
 over the rest of Scotland. It was there that the practice 
 of summer fallow was first introduced and extensively 
 adopted, and the plan of encouraging tenants to make im- 
 provements by granting them long leases was begun and 
 carried into effect by the proprietors. Many other im- 
 provements might be mentioned, but it may be sufficient 
 to add that the threshing machine was invented and per- 
 fected by Mr. Meikle, an ingenious mechanic of the coun- 
 ty.' 1 The effect of these improvements, or the continued 
 exercise of skill and ingenuity, has increased the value 
 and fertility of the soil ; the produce in the worst seasons 
 is much more than sufficient for the consumption, and 
 with the exception of the districts in the vicinity of great 
 towns, land lets for a higher rent in East Lothian, than 
 in any other part of Scotland. Independently, however, 
 of all these advantages, several defects are still apparent ; 
 the farm-houses are indeed excellent, but the cottages 
 are much inferior to those in England; the corn lands 
 in some places are open, in others they are ill-enclosed, 
 and too much land is suffered to lie waste ; thus, in the 
 neighbourhood of Dunbar,® a common of more than 
 4000 acres is still uncultivated ; it is true that it belongs 
 to the burgh. 
 
 None of the towns are important. Haddington, the 
 capital, is situated on the Tyne, some miles from the 
 sea, near the centre of the lower district. The products 
 of industry, except those of distilleries, are confined to 
 the consumption of the county ; different manufactories 
 have been at different times established, but none of 
 them have flourished. It carries on, however, a con- 
 
 a In the east part of the county [i. e. on the coast of the German 
 Sea], where little rain falls, the harvest in mild seasons is generally 
 ten days earlier than upon the coast lands in the north [i. e. on the 
 Firth of Forth] ; and these again are about three or four weeks earlier 
 than the hilly districts. — P. 
 
 b It was dug at Prestongrange, by the monks of Newbottle, as early 
 as A. D. 1200 (Ed. Enc.)— P 
 
 c Scarcely any part of the county is above six miles distant from 
 lime rock. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 d The threshing machine, now in general use in Great Britain, was 
 invented by Mr. Andrew Meikle, near Haddington, in 1785 — 6. Sev- 
 eral ineffectual attempts had been previously made ; the first by Mr. 
 Michael Menzies of East Lothian ; the second, by Mr. Michael Stir- 
 ling of Dunblane, about.. 1758 — the last of these still used, particularly 
 for threshing oats James Meikle, the father of the above, first intro- 
 duced the fanners (fanning mill) into Scotland from Holland, in 1710, 
 under the patronage of the celebrated Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun. 
 Phis is now one of the appendages of the threshing machine, and 
 moved by the same power. (Ed. Enc. art. Agric. Sir J. Sinclair’s 
 Gen. Rep. i. 22 <> — 53.) — P. 
 
 f On the ridge of Lammermuir, intersecting the muirland farms 
 
 v OL. III.— NO. di). 
 
 siderable trade, and more grain in bulk is sold weekly at 
 its market, than in any other town in the kingdom. Al- 
 though the same market is the principal support of the 
 town, and one cause of the agricultural prosperity of the 
 county, little convenience is afforded to those who attend 
 it ; carts loaded with grain, are crowded together, and 
 many of them are not accessible to purchasers without 
 inconvenience. 
 
 The ancient town of Dunbar, formerly an important 
 place, and frequently mentioned in Scottish history, is 
 situated on the east coast, at the distance of twenty- 
 seven miles from Edinburgh. Ship-building, the making 
 of sail-cloth and cordage, soap-works, founderies, and 
 other branches of industry are carried on in a small scale, 
 and its inhabitants engage occasionally in the northern 
 whale-fisheries. North Berwick, to the north-west of 
 the last place, is little better than a village, but it may 
 be mentioned on account of its hill or Law, a noted land- 
 mark to mariners, and also on account of the ruins of 
 Tantallon castle/ a stronghold of the Douglases, that 
 was destroyed in 1639 by the covenanters. 
 
 The same county is associated with the memory of sev- 
 eral eminent men, with that of the Fletchers, the Mait- 
 lands and the Dalrymples. The poet Dunbar was born 
 in Saltoun , s and Bishop Burnet, t lie historian, officiated 
 as rector in the same parish. George Heriot, the founder 
 of the noble institution that bears his name, was a native 
 of Gladsmuir, where Robertson wrote his history of 
 Scotland. Lastly, an old house in the suburbs of 
 Haddington 1 ’ is still shown to strangers as the birth-place 
 of Knox the reformer. 1 
 
 Contiguous to Haddingtonshire on the east/ the countv 
 of Mid Lothian occupies an area of 360 square miles, and 
 the population, relatively to the surface, is equal accord- 
 ing to the last returns, to more than 600 to the square 
 mile. So great a number indicates that we have arrived 
 at the county in which the capital of Scotland is situated. 
 
 The lower and richer part of Mid Lothian is of a semi- 
 circular form resembling an amphitheatre with an incli- 
 nation towards the Frith of Forth. But the Pentland 
 chain approaches to the distance of five miles from the 
 frith, covers about forty square miles, and thus divides 
 the same tract into two plains. 1 The Moorfoot Hills, 
 another lofty tract, are situated on the south-east, where 
 the county terminates almost in a point between the 
 shires of Roxburgh and Selkirk ; they are more than 
 fifteen miles distant from the sea ; the highest rises to 
 
 in the parish of Spott, south of Dunbar — used for sheep pastur- 
 age. — P. 
 
 f Tamtallan Castle — about two miles east of North Berwick, on a 
 rock overhanging the sea, which surrounds it on three sides. (Stat. 
 Acc. v. 443.)— P. 
 
 s Salton — a parish on the Tyne, west of Haddington. It was the 
 seat of the Fletchers of Saltoun. — P. 
 
 h In the suburb of Gifford-gate. — P. 
 
 ' Blair, the author of the Grave, and Home, the author of Douglas, 
 were successively ministers of Athelstaneford. Dr. Witherspoon, 
 President of Princeton College, and Dr. Nisbet, President of Carlisle 
 College, were both natives of Yester. — P. 
 
 k Mid Lothian or Edinburghshire is bounded on the east by Had- 
 dingtonshire and a part of Berwickshire ; on the south and south-west 
 by the counties of Selkirk, Peebles and Lanark ; on the west by Lin- 
 lithgowshire ; and on the north by the Firth of Forth, which separates 
 it from Fifeshire. — P. 
 
 1 The Pentland Hills rise in the parish of Liberton, about four miles 
 south-west of Edinburgh, and extend south-west about twelve miles, 
 to the borders of Lanarkshire. This range, together with most of the 
 heights in the lower part of the county, is of the trap formation. — P. 
 
578 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLVI. 
 
 upwards of 1800 feet, and they extend over fifty square 
 miles. The rest of Edinburghshire may be considered 
 a low, but not a flat or level county ; it is varied by an 
 undulating surface, and by detached hills of moderate 
 height, among which may be mentioned Arthur’s Seat 
 on the east, and Corstorphine Hill on the west of the 
 capital. 
 
 The county is destitute of rivers, and the streams are 
 too insignificant to require notice ; they have, however, 
 been rendered subservient to the abridgment of labour; 
 thus, the course of the Water of Leith is not more than 
 sixteen miles, but, in a distance of ten miles, it turns 
 seventy mills. a 
 
 The minerals are very valuable ; a continuous bed of 
 coal extends across the county from the confines of 
 Peebles-shire in a direction from south-west to north-east. b 
 Limestone is not only found in the same tract, but still 
 further to the east and south-east, in places where coal has 
 not been discovered ; sandstone, or freestone, as it is 
 popularly called, is another important mineral, and several 
 quarries of it are worked at no great distance from the 
 city. Ironstone abounds in the coal district, and along 
 the shore to the west of Leith. c A substance similar in 
 its properties to the petunse of the Chinese, and used in 
 the manufacture of porcelain, is obtained on the Pent- 
 land Hills, d and clay, which is converted into crucibles, 
 is wrought in the parish of Duddingstone. 
 
 The ports of Dunbar and North Berwick have been 
 already mentioned ; no other place of any consequence 
 is situated between them and Leith,® which forms one 
 of the suburbs of the capital. Edinburgh is no longer 
 the residence of kings, nor is it longer the centre of gov- 
 ernment, but it is still the seat of the highest tribunals, 
 and still the metropolis of the country. The courts of 
 justice are even at present the principal source of its 
 opulence, and many lawyers, attorneys and clerks attend 
 them. In past times the town was distinguished by the 
 turbulence of its inhabitants, and by constant feuds ; it 
 is now still more distinguished by the peacefulness of its 
 citizens, by the progress of industry and the useful arts, 
 by the cultivation of knowledge, and by its ennobling 
 results. All have it in their power to obtain an elemen- 
 tary education, and to all on whom nature has conferred 
 more than ordinary talent, the road to distinction is 
 open. From the effects of this system in Edinburgh 
 and other parts of Scotland, many advantages have 
 ensued ; the limits of knowledge have been extended ; 
 the true principles of political economy were first de- 
 veloped and demonstrated by a Scotchman ; additional 
 wealth and additional comforts have been diffused from 
 the same country to every region where British com- 
 merce extends, for by the genius of Watt, the steam- 
 engine has been rendered the most powerful agent of 
 productive industry. Within the last hundred years, 
 
 “ The Almond, which forms the north-western bonndary, and the 
 North and South Esks, which unite below Dalkeith, and enter the 
 Forth at Musselburgh, are the largest streams in the county. — P. 
 
 b The coal-field of Mid Lothian is 15 miles in length and 8 in 
 breadth. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 e Ironstone and coal are both found on the shore in Cramond parish, 
 west of Leith, where there are very extensive iron works at the mouth 
 of the Almond. — P. 
 
 d On the north side of Logan-house Hill, at the height of 1460 feet. 
 (Gaz. of Scotland.) — P. 
 
 Prestonpans, on the Forth, at the north-western corner of Had- 
 dingtonshire ; Musselburgh, including Inveresk and Fisherrow, at the 
 
 the sciences have been illustrated by Maclaurin, Simscm, 
 Ferguson and Black. Hume, Robertson, Smith and 
 Stewart are equally eminent in philosophy and literature. 
 The greater number of these celebrated men devoted 
 their time and their talents to public instruction in the 
 university of Edinburgh/ and contributed to the pros- 
 perity of the town, inasmuch as they attracted students 
 from every part of the united kingdom, and from foreign 
 countries. The patrons have not shewn themselves of 
 late years so careful of the interests of the city, eminent 
 men have not been appointed to the vacant chairs, and 
 if the same system be continued, or if other recommen- 
 dations are more cogent than that of merit, the pros- 
 perity of the university cannot be long maintained. s 
 The town derives a considerable income from the seat- 
 rents of the churches, and the magistrates have increased 
 it by appointing popular preachers, as vacancies occur 
 in the capital. It might be well if they were to take 
 more extensive views, and by increasing the reputation 
 of the city as a seat of learning, render it a place of 
 greater resort to young men for the purposes of edu- 
 cation. 
 
 The city is built on three hills that run parallel to 
 each other. The old town occupies the central hill, 
 which is the highest; the new town stands on the north- 
 ern or lowest hill, and the third eminence is covered 
 with additions made to the old town. Of the two vallies 
 which separate the three hills, the one on the north is 
 deeper and wider than the other on the south, and it 
 formed at no very remote period the basin of a lake/ of 
 which the stagnant waters were injurious to the health 
 of the inhabitants. The lake or marsh, however, has been 
 drained, and its bed is now converted into gardens and 
 public walks. It is not much more than half a century 
 since the old town made up the whole of Edinburgh/ 
 and it then consisted of dark and dirty houses, built 
 without regularity, without taste, and so much confined 
 as to render them unhealthy. The principal street in the 
 same quarter/ extends along the ridge o) the central hill, 
 and is intersected by an immense number of narrow and 
 crooked lanes ; the houses consist of six or seven stories 
 in front, and nine, ten or eleven on the side of the valley. 
 The Castle, an irregular and Gothic edifice, separated 
 from the town by an esplanade, rises on a rugged rock 
 at the western extremity of the same hill. The build- 
 ing and the fortifications occupy an area of seven English 
 acres ; in past times it was considered a place of great 
 strength, but as there are points within the range of ar- 
 tillery, which command it, it might now be easily reduced. 
 It is now used as a station for soldiers, and it may con- 
 tain about 3000 ; the apartments in which James the 
 Sixth was born, * 1 are converted into barracks for officers, 
 and a new range of barracks for soldiers has been erected 
 on a very injudicious plan, and by no means according 
 
 month of the Esk ; and Dalkeith, between the North and South Esks, 
 near their junction, are places of some importance for their trade and 
 manufactures. — P. 
 
 f Maclaurin, Black. Robertson and Stewart were connected with 
 the university of Edinburgh. — P. 
 
 s C. Dupin, Force Commerciale, vol. 2d. 
 
 » The North Loch.— P. 
 
 ■ The New Town was begun to be built in 1767. (Gaz. Scot.) — P. 
 
 k The High Street — extending from the Castle to Holyrood-ljouse. — P. 
 
 1 On the east of the castle buildings were formerly royal apart- 
 ments. James VI. was born in a small square apartment in the south- 
 east part of the castle. (Gaz. Scot. Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
BOOK CL VI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 579 
 
 with the rest of the fortress. The Parliament Square,® 
 at no great distance from the Castle, possesses little to 
 attract attention, except the spacious hall, in which the 
 Scottish Parliament held its sessions. b The church of 
 St. Giles forms one side of the square ; four different 
 places of worship were formerly contained in it, but the 
 number has since been reduced. A square tower rises 
 from the centre of the structure ; it is surmounted by 
 slender arches of good workmanship, supporting a 
 steeple, the whole representing in the air the figure of 
 an imperial crown. Beneath the vault of this venerable 
 building rest the ashes of Lord Napier, the immortal in- 
 ventor of logarithms. The mint in the neighbourhood of 
 the last place, may be mentioned on account of its an- 
 tiquity and preservation. Although no money is coined, 
 all the officers are still appointed, agreeably to the act 
 of union, and the bell is regularly rung at the hours in 
 which the workmen left off their work in the sixteenth 
 century. The palace is situated at the eastern or oppo- 
 site extremity of the old town, in a valley with Arthur’s 
 Seat and Salisbury Crags on the one side, and the Cal- 
 ton Hill on the other. It was originally a monastery , c 
 and it is still called Holyrood-house or the house of the 
 holy cross. It is of mixed architecture, and the Gre- 
 cian style is blended with castellated turrets, which 
 destroy the regularity without adding to the imposing 
 effect of the building. Such are the most remarkable of 
 the ancient monuments, but many modern works have 
 been erected even in the old town. The courts of jus- 
 tice, the County Hall, the Bank of Scotland, the Advo- 
 cates’ Library, and the library of the writers to the signet, 
 are grouped round the cathedral, d and all of them have 
 been built within a comparatively recent period. Other 
 improvements are at present in progress ; a new bridge 
 and a new line of communication are forming between 
 the old and new town, and another bridge now almost 
 completed, and a road cut along the south side of the 
 Castle-hill are to connect the two towns on the west. 
 
 The ground on which the new town stands was added 
 to the royalty in 1767, and it was afterwards laid out in 
 conformity to a plan designed by Mr. Craig. Some 
 notion may be formed of the immense additions made 
 within the period already specified, from the fact that 
 the new town comprehends by far the greater portion of 
 Edinburgh. The houses are large and well built ; the 
 streets are no less regular than spacious ; and the squares 
 present admirable sites for the monuments with which 
 they are adorned. The whole affords a grand and im- 
 posing spectacle, one to which it might be difficult to find 
 a parallel in the finest capitals of Europe. Every part is 
 not entitled to unqualified praise, and a critic might con- 
 demn some of the edifices ; still the combination of the 
 whole is in a style of great simplicity, and the effects of 
 architecture are conspicuous in the judicious arrangement 
 and well-chosen site of most of the public buildings. 
 Thus, the line from east to west is not marked by super- 
 stition or prejudice for the nave of the church ; and 
 
 a The Parliament Square or Close is an open space in front of the 
 Parliament-house, in the middle of which is an equestrian statue of 
 Charles II. (Gaz. Scot.) — P. 
 
 b It is 122 feet in length by 49 in width, and 40 feet high, with an 
 elegant carved roof. It is called the Outer House, and is now occu- 
 pied by the courts of the Lords Ordinary. The inner courts, or In- 
 ner House, meet in two adjoining chambers. — P. 
 
 ‘ The ruins of the Abbey church still remain. — P. 
 
 wherever a church can be placed at the extremity of a 
 spacious street, the front rises in the direction of the 
 street, to which it forms a majestic termination. The 
 register office in which the records of the kingdom are 
 deposited, was built by the late Mr. Adam, after the 
 style of Palladio, and it is perhaps the best work of that 
 celebrated architect. It commands a view of the finest 
 street in the old town, e a street continued across two 
 vallies from north to south, by two bridges correspond- 
 ing with it in width. The north bridge consists of five 
 arches, three of which are seventy-six feet and a half 
 wide, and the two others nearly twenty. The road-way 
 is elevated fifty-four feet above the bottom of the valley, 
 which is also crossed by a mound about 698 feel in 
 length, and 210 wide at the summit. The materials of 
 which this vast work is formed, were supplied from the 
 foundations of the buildings in the new town. A third 
 bridge/ situated near the register office, serves as a com- 
 munication between the new town and the Calton-hill, 
 on which many buildings have of late been erected. 
 The most remarkable are the High-school, the admired 
 work of Mr. Hamilton, the Observatory, and the monu- 
 ments of Playfair and of Stewart, both of whom dis- 
 tinguished themselves in the Edinburgh University. 
 The first illustrated the theory of Hutton, and the second 
 is known as one of the ablest and most eloquent mental 
 philosophers of his age.s The spectator may observe 
 from these monuments a circular tower in the Grecian 
 style ; it is the tomb of Hume, the most philosophical of 
 the British historians. The view from the public walk 
 along the same hill commands the Frith of Forth, with 
 the adjacent country on both its banks, and requires only 
 the sky of Italy or Greece to vie with the shores of the 
 bay of Naples, or the coast of the Bosphorus in the 
 neighbourhood of Constantinople. 
 
 The university was begun about forty years ago h after 
 the plan of Mr. Robert Adam, but it was conceived on 
 too great a scale for the wealth of the town. It was 
 found necessary to deviate from the original plan ; and 
 to complete it according to its reduced form, a grant of 
 money was obtained from parliament. The site is in- 
 convenient, and as a work of art, it is not unexceptiona- 
 ble ; it is probable indeed that the sums expended in 
 finishing what was begun by Mr. Adam, might have suf- 
 ficed for the erection of a finer building in a more eligi- 
 ble or less confined situation. 
 
 Edinburgh is celebrated for the number and grandeur 
 of its monuments, and the elegance and regularity of its 
 streets ; but its celebrity in this respect dates only from 
 a recent period, and houses which were formerly inhab- 
 ited by nobles, are now too mean for the middling 
 classes. If towns, of which the importance or existence 
 depends solely on commerce and industry, be excepted, 
 it would be difficult to find a place, of which the exten- 
 sion has been so great, or the improvements so manifold 
 and various. The increase in the population must bear 
 some relation to the enlargement of the town, and ac- 
 
 d Church of St. Giles. 
 
 « It stands at the north end of the North Bridge, fronting it, and 
 receding 40 feet from the north line of Prince’s Street in the New 
 Town. — P. 1 Regent Bridge. 
 
 e The life of Reid has been written by Mr. Stewart, who was his 
 pupil, and the ablest defender of the system which is called in France 
 the Scotch system of philosophy. 
 
 h The foundation was laid, Nov. 16th, 1789. — P. 
 
.580 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLVI 
 
 cordingly it has been very great. In 1687 the number of 
 inhabitants amounted to 20,000, in 1830 it was equal to 
 162,156, so that it is now more than eight times greater 
 than it was a hundred and fifty years ago. Various 
 branches of industry have sprung up and become flour- 
 ishing within a later period ; we may mention the nu- 
 merous paper-mills in the vicinity, the casting of iron, the 
 distillation of spirituous liquors on a great scale, the 
 printing of calico and cloth, and the weaving of kersey- 
 meres and shawls ; but the most remarkable example of 
 any is to be found in an art that is as much connected with 
 the diffusion of knowledge as the enterprise of com- 
 merce : about fifty or sixty years since few books were 
 printed in Edinburgh ; it has now become second to Lon- 
 don in the number of its printing presses, and consequent- 
 ly of the products that issue from them. Admirable 
 communications extend in every direction from the same 
 town, and most of them are of recent formation. Rail- 
 ways pass from Musselburgh and Dalkeith or the 
 neighbourhood of the coal mines, and their produce is 
 thus sent to the capital. The Union Canal joins that of 
 the Forth and Clyde, and facilitates the conveyance of 
 the manufactures of Glasgow. A new work is now in 
 contemplation ; the example set by the inhabitants of 
 Liverpool and Manchester is likely to be imitated in 
 Scotland, and steam carriages may ere long run between 
 Glasgow and Edinburgh. 
 
 It has already been remarked that Leith is almost a 
 suburb of Edinburgh ; streets extend between them, and 
 unite two towns that were formerly separated. It is situ- 
 ated on both sides of the Water of Leith, at its confluence 
 with the Frith of Forth, and is thus divided into two 
 districts, the southern and northern. * 1 The northern part 
 is modern ; the southern is ancient. The one is laid 
 out according to a plan ; the other is built without regu- 
 larity, and consists mostly of dirty houses, and narrow or 
 crooked lanes. b The two districts communicate with 
 each other by two draw-bridges across the harbour. In 
 the year 1777, the harbour was considerably improved, 
 and it has since been enlarged. The pier, which forms 
 the eastern boundary of the confluence of the stream, has 
 been carried farther into the sea ; quays, basins and docks 
 have been constructed on the opposite side, and these 
 successive additions were rendered necessary by an in- 
 crease in the trade. 
 
 In a military point of view, Leith is of great impor- 
 tance to the defence of Edinburgh, and, accordingly, in 
 past times, the French and the English landed there fre- 
 
 a Called South Leith and North Leith, and forming two distinct 
 parishes. — P. 
 
 b By far the greater part of the town is situated on the south side of 
 the river ; hut both in North and South Leith, the streets of the old 
 part are narrow and irregular. The parts of the town which have 
 been erected during the last twenty or thirty years are. not surpassed 
 by the finest parts of Edinburgh. (Ed. Enc. 1819.) — P. 
 
 c In North Leith — called the Citadel. — P. 
 
 d A village, with a harbour, about one mile north-west of Leith. — P. 
 
 c See note e , p. 1258. 
 
 1 A range of hills extends across the middle of the county, oblique- 
 ly from north-west to south-east. The highest of these are Cairnpa- 
 ple, in the centre, about 1498 feet above the level of the sea, and Cock- 
 ierue in the west, about 500 feet. (Ed. Enc.) — The first of these is 
 properly Cairn-naple, and lies south-west of Linlithgow. — P. 
 
 * Silver and lead mines were formerly wrought in the neighbourhood 
 of Linlithgow [in the hills at the southern extremity of the parish,] 
 and a vein of silver was discovered in a limestone rock in Bathgate 
 parish, but too inconsiderable to pay the expense of working it. (Ed. 
 Enc.) — The Bathgate hills, in the north-eastern part of Bathgate parish, 
 are u continuation of the range, already mentioned, including Cockle- ' 
 
 quently to succour or oppress Scotland. A fort was built 
 in tbe same place by Cromwell, 0 and probably for that 
 very reason was destroyed by Charles the Second. The 
 harbour is protected by a battery on the eminence that 
 rises on the west of the docks, and extends beyond New- 
 haven. d The works are surrounded by an entrenchment 
 and defended by bastions at the gorge. 
 
 If Edinburgh and Leith be excepted, no other town of 
 consequence can be mentioned in Mid Lothian. e The 
 Almond, a small river, or rather stream, separates it from 
 Linlithgowshire or West Lothian, a county contiguous 
 to the last on the east and south-east, to the Frith of 
 Forth on the north, to Lanarkshire on the south-west, 
 and to Stirlingshire on the west. In figure it resembles 
 a triangle, and the area is not greater than 112 square 
 miles, and each square mile contains on an average, 209 
 inhabitants. A large portion of the surface is either lev- 
 el or gently undulating, and only a fifth part of it is sup- 
 posed to be unfit for cultivation. It must not, however, 
 be inferred that it is destitute of hills ; a ridge extends 
 across it, of which Cairnpapple or the highest point is 
 more than fifteen hundred feet above the level of the sea. f 
 The richest carse lands and some of the best loams, as well 
 as a great portion of gravel and sandy land, are situated in 
 different parts of the county, but the prevalent soil consists 
 of clay, and it varies from the best to the worst sorts. 
 
 The same county is distinguished by the number and 
 value of its mineral products. Silver and lead were once 
 obtained on the hills of Bathgate in the parish of Lin- 
 lithgow, and it is not many years since a small vein of 
 silver ore was found in a limestone quarry in the neigh- 
 bourhood. £ It may be also remarked that there is an in- 
 exhaustible supply of limestone, while iron ore is wrought 
 in Borrowstonness and Carriden on the Forth ; but coal 
 is perhaps the most abundant of the mineral products; it 
 is wrought in different parts of the coast,' 1 in Uphall and 
 Whitburn on the east and south, in the central parish of 
 Bathgate, and at Cultmuir on the south-western border ; 
 and as the Union Canal passes through the country, the 
 produce of the mines is easily conveyed to the capital 
 
 Queensferry 1 is situated about nine miles from Edin 
 burgh, on the principal road to Perth, where the frith is 
 rather less than two miles in breadth. The superinten- 
 dance of the ferry is committed to a lieutenant in the na- 
 vy, and the use of steam vessels is likely to supersede 
 that of the numerous passage boats. The small port, of 
 Borrowstonness k on the same coast, reckons 140 vessels, 
 measuring nearly 1000 tons. 1 
 
 rue and Cairn-naple, and extending along the southern border of Lin- 
 lithgow parish. — P. 
 
 h Particularly at Borrowstounness and Carriden, at the former of 
 which it has been wrought for more than 500 years. — P. 
 
 > Called also South Queensferry. North Queensferry is a small vil- 
 lage, where the passage boats land, on the opposite shore of the Frith, 
 in Fife. — P. 
 
 k Properly Borrowstounness (borough, town, and ness) — from its sit- 
 uation on a promontory on the Forth, near the borough of Linlithgow. 
 Also called Boroughstownness, Borrowstoness and popularly Boness. 
 It is situated in the north-western corner of the county, on the coast 
 north of Linlithgow. Its trade was more considerable before the open- 
 ing of the Forth and Clyde canal, which has transferred much of it 
 to Grangemouth. Its extensive coal works, with the manufactures of 
 iron, salt and pottery, depending on them, render it still a place of im- 
 portance. — P. 
 
 1 There must be some error in this statement. According to it, the 
 average tonnage of its vessels would be but about 7 tons. In 1796, the 
 shipping belonging to the town was about 25 sail, and the tonnage of 
 the revenue port, nearly 10,000 tons, about one fourth of which belong 
 ed in Boness. (Stat. Acc. xviii. 433.) — P. 
 
BOOK. CL, VI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 581 
 
 Linlithgow, the county town, is more remarkable for 
 its antiquity than its trade or industry. It consists of a 
 single street, nearly three quarters of a mile in length. 
 The royal palace occupies the site of an ancient castle ; a 
 in the north-west corner is the room in which Queen 
 Mary was born in 1542, and the spacious hall on the 
 east side of the building was set apart for the Parliament. 
 These memorials of a past age are falling fast into decay, 
 and the palace is now roofless. The church almost con- 
 tiguous to it, a noble specimen of Gothic architecture, 
 has lately been repaired in a style suitable to the gran- 
 deur of the fabric. The length is equal to 180 feet, the 
 breadth to 100, the height to 90, and a lofty spire adorn- 
 ed with an imperial crown rises from the western extrem- 
 ity. The same town was often the residence of the 
 court, and it has been the scene of events that are re- 
 corded in history. It was there that the Regent Murray 
 was shot by Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh in 1569 ; b and 
 at a later period, in 1662, the solemn league and cove- 
 nant was burnt with great solemnity in the market place. 
 
 The traveller passes from Edinburgh through Linlith- 
 gowshire, or West Lothian, on his road to Lanarkshire 
 or Clydesdale, the most important as well as the most 
 populous of the Scottish counties. 0 Situated in the cen- 
 tre of the country between the German and Atlantic 
 oceans, it is divided into three wards, the upper, the mid- 
 dle, and the lower ; J Lanark is the chief town in the first, 
 Hamilton in the second, and Glasgow in the third. The 
 last town is the largest of any, and the others are com- 
 paratively insignificant. The upper ward, which occu- 
 pies nearly two thirds of the county, is for the most part 
 mountainous or sterile, and from the unevenness of the 
 surface, and the quality of the soil, it is not likely to be 
 rendered fruitful by industry or labour. The others are 
 more productive, and they abound in many places with 
 valuable minerals, sucb as freestone, limestone, coal and 
 granite.® From the lower extremity of the county to a 
 considerable distance upwards, freestone is the most 
 common rock, and it is interspersed with different ridges 
 of whin/ Limestone is found in the same tract, but on- 
 ly in elevated positions, and generally near the surface. 
 More than 300 labourers are employed in the lime quar- 
 ries within the county, and the value of the produce va- 
 ries from L. 12,000 to L. 15,000. The coal lies beneath 
 the freestone ; it is supposed to stretch in a solid mass 
 over an extent of 110 square miles, and the average 
 thickness, it is certain, is not less than five yards. The 
 quantity of coal annually obtained from this vast area is 
 
 a It was built on the site of a Roman station. (Gaz. Scot.) — It 
 stands on a rising ground running into a small lake on the north side 
 of the burgh, on the site of a fort or castle, erected by Edward I. 
 (Leighton’s Scenes in Scotland.) — P. 
 
 11 Jan. 23, 1570. (Chambers’ Picture of Scotland, ii. 40. Hume. 
 Smollet.) — Jan. 23, 1571. (Watkins’ Edit, of Buchanan’s Hist. Scot, 
 p. 485.) — P. 
 
 c It contains the greatest absolute population, but is inferior to Mid 
 Lothian and Renfrewshire in relative population. — P. 
 
 d Each of these wards is governed by a sheriff-substitute, ap- 
 pointed by the sheriff-depute of the county. (Chambers.) — Lanark- 
 shire was anciently divided into three wards or jurisdictions, viz. 
 Clydesdale, Douglasdale and Avendale ; but it is now divided into 
 two. viz. the Shire of Lanark, of which Lanark is the chief town, and 
 the Barony of Glasgow, of which that city is the seat of the courts. 
 (Gaz. Scot. 1803.) — P. 
 
 e Is not this last statement, a mistake ? The two lower wards of 
 Lanarkshire are almost entirely within the coal formation ; the upper 
 ward is chiefly within the transition formation of the south of Scot- 
 land. — P 
 
 f Trap or greenstone. — P. 
 
 nearly equal to 800,000 tons, and no part of it has been 
 so much worked as the field in the neighbourhood of 
 Glasgow, which yields seven different sorts, and which, 
 by facilitating the means of production, has mainly con- 
 tributed to the rise and prosperity of the town. Ironstone 
 occurs in regular strata above the limestone and coal : it 
 is also found in contact with the sandstone ; in some 
 places, in the form of balls, which are arranged in beds, 
 and are of so rich a quality as to yield fifty per cent, of 
 ore. The lead mines, which have been already men- 
 tioned, and which have been now worked about two hun- 
 dred years, are situated in the southern extremity of the 
 county . s The Clyde and the numerous Streams that 
 water Lanarkshire, are more or less subservient to the 
 purposes of commerce ; they facilitate the transportation 
 of goods, or machinery is erected on their banks/ 
 
 A line of defence was erected in the third century’ by 
 tbe Romans against the incursions of the Caledonians, and 
 the same line was fixed upon in the eighteenth, as the site 
 of the Forth and Clyde canal/ The purpose for which 
 the two works were intended, was very different ; if the 
 fate of the falling empire cannot be said to have been 
 retarded by the one, intercourse, industry and civili- 
 zation have been extended by the other. The canal 
 was begun in 1768, and not completed before 1790. It 
 cost L. 500, 000, and some notion of the navigation per- 
 formed on it may be inferred from its progressive returns. 
 In 1800, it yielded a dividend of ten per cent., of twenty 
 in 1815, and nearly 30 in 1820. The produce of the 
 extensive coal-fields in Old and New Monkland is con- 
 veyed to Glasgow by the Monkland canal, * 1 and although 
 the Ardrossan canal is not yet completed, it serves as a 
 communication from the same town to Paisley. 1 " 
 
 Lanarkshire, according to the last returns, contains 
 316,820 inhabitants ; it is therefore the most populous 
 of the’ Scottish counties. The superficial sxtent is not 
 less than 870 square miles ; consequently the mean 
 number of persons to the square mile amounts to 365. 
 
 If the rank of a city be estimated by its commerce, 
 wealth and population, Glasgow must be considered the 
 capital of Scotland. Like other great towns, its origin 
 is involved in fable, and the foundation ofit is attributed 
 to St. Mungo, or St. Kentigern," a person whose celebrity 
 depends on his miracles. William the Lion erected it 
 into a barony, 0 and in 1450, it was raised into a regality 
 by James the Second, but in its new character, it con- 
 tinued subject to its bishop. The dignity was at last 
 vested in the dukes of Lennox by James the Sixth, who 
 
 s The village of Leadhills is situated in Lanarkshire — P. 
 
 h All the streams of any size, in Lanarkshire, are. tributaries of the 
 Clyde. The principal of these are the Douglas, the Nethan and the 
 Avon, on the west, and the North and South Calder and the Kelvin, 
 on the east. — P. 
 
 ' In the second century — A. D. 140. (See p. 1110.) — P. 
 
 k The lines of Graham's Dyke and the Forth and Clyde canal do 
 not coincide, but intersect each other ; the former terminating on the 
 east, at Carriden in West Lothian ; the latter at Grangemouth in Stir- 
 lingshire. The canal on the west crosses the dyke and approaches 
 nearer Glasgow, before it terminates in the Clyde. Both the lines, 
 however, are conducted along a remarkable valley, which here crosses 
 the island from the Forth to the Clyde, between the trap range of the 
 Campsie Fells on the north, and the hills of the coal formation on the 
 south, and including the northern outcrop of the coal. — P. 
 
 1 This canal is connected at its western extremity with the Forth 
 and Clyde canal. — P. 
 
 m The Ardrossan canal is completed to the village of Johnstone 
 three miles beyond Paisley. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 ° A. D. 570.— P. 
 
 » A. D. 1172. (Stat. Acc.)— P. 
 
582 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CL VI. 
 
 granted the town an advantageous charter, and’ made it a 
 royal burgh. a The inhabitants engaged at an early 
 period in the salmon and herring fishery, but their 
 foreign trade previously to the union, was almost con- 
 fined to Holland, and carried on by doubling the north 
 of Scotland, a circuitous and dangerous navigation. 
 In 1707, when the two kingdoms were united, Glas- 
 gow took the lead in opposing the act ; the citizens 
 revolted, and to restore obedience, it was found neces- 
 sary to have recourse to the rigours of martial law. b 
 It might not be easy to account for the notions that 
 prevailed, but the inhabitants, it is certain, believed 
 the prosperity of their city at an end, and their own ruin 
 inevitable, in consequence of an act, from which many 
 advantages have resulted to Scotland, and to no place 
 more than to Glasgow. In 1707, the population 
 amounted to 14,000, in 1807, to 114,000, and in 1821, 
 to 147, 000. c The accession gained within the last ten 
 years is still more extraordinary ; it is nearly equal to 
 56,000, for Glasgow contains at present 202,426 inhabit- 
 ants. This progression, so great and so rapid, can only 
 be attributed to the power of industry, and to the 
 advantages of a favourable position. Abundant mines 
 of coal are wrought in the vicinity, and their produce is 
 conveyed at a low rate along the Monkland canal. The 
 Forth, the Clyde, and the canal which unites them, 
 afford the most direct access to the old and the new 
 world, and Glasgow receives in exchange for her manu- 
 factures the products of both hemispheres. 
 
 But it may be necessary to show how much the pros- 
 perity of the town was increased in consequence of a 
 measure, which the inhabitants opposed with equal 
 violence and folly. The act of union was no sooner 
 passed than Glasgow obtained a free navigation for its 
 ships to all the British colonial ports, and possessing that 
 advantage, it became the principal station from which the 
 tobacco of Maryland and Vinrmia was transported to 
 France. d Not long afterwards^ manufactories of cloth, 
 lawn and cambric were erected in the town, and before 
 the introduction of its muslins, these articles formed its 
 most valuable exports. e The long contest, which termi- 
 nated in the independence of America, proved very 
 detrimental to the commerce and industry of the town, 
 and the intercourse, which the war had destroyed or 
 interrupted, was established on a new basis, in other 
 words, products different from those which were formerly 
 admitted, were exported to America after the peace/ 
 Not long afterwards the new process, of spinning cotton 
 by machinery, the invention of the celebrated Arkwright, 
 was generally adopted in Glasgow, and new branches of 
 industry were successively introduced. Iron founderies 
 were erected, (lax, hemp and woollen manufactories were 
 
 “ A. D. 1011. (Stat. Acc.) — P. 
 
 This doubtless refers to the riots in Glasgow, on account of the 
 malt tax, in 1725 — suppressed by General Wade, with a military 
 force . — P. 
 
 c In 1708 (by census,) 12,766; in 1811, 110,460; in 1819, 150,000. 
 (Chambers.) — P. 
 
 d The farmers-general of France received the greater part of their 
 tobacco through the medium of Glasgow. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 c The linen trade began in 1725, and was for a long time, till sup- 
 planted by the cotton, the staple manufacture of Glasgow. The 
 principal articles were linens, lawns, cambrics, checks and diapers. 
 (Gaz. Scot. Stat. Acc.) — P. 
 
 1 The most important import trade with the United States, since the 
 peace of 1783, has been that of cotton from the Southern States. — P. 
 
 e In the improvement of the steam-engine. — P 
 
 established , and the inhabitants, in place of confining 
 their manufactures to the supply of the colonies, sent 
 their goods to London and the principal markets in 
 England. But the mills in which the different articles 
 were manufactured, and in which cotton was spun 
 according to the process of Arkwright, might have been 
 still confined to the banks of the streams that set them 
 in motion, had it not been for the genius of Watt . s The 
 history of modern art might be examined in vain for the 
 purpose of showing any other invention from which so 
 much advantage has resulted, one from which so great 
 and so uniform a power has been obtained in so small a 
 compass and at so small an expense. The application 
 of steam to navigation, the consequence of the same 
 invention, is now common, but it was not before 1812 
 that the first steam vessel sailed on the Clyde. In like 
 manner, the process of spinning and of weaving by steam, 
 although of modern date, is now carried on to a great 
 extent, and the city of Glasgow possesses more than 210 
 steam engines, which communicate their power to as many 
 mills or manufactories/ There are at present in the 
 same town fifty-four large spinning factories, in which 
 nearly 600,000 spindles are turned, and the capital 
 invested in these works is upwards of L. 1,000, 000. 1 
 Eighteen mills for weaving cotton move by mechanical 
 power 2,800 looms and 32,000 hand looms/ In the 
 calenders that are moved by steam, 110,000 yards of 
 calico may be calendered in a day, the same number can 
 be dressed, and 30,000 glazed. 1 m The other products of 
 industry are of less importance ; they consist of glass, 
 delft ware and different substances that are used in the arts. 
 
 Some of the useful institutions may be briefly enumer- 
 ated. The college occupies an area of more than two 
 acres, and in an elegant building designed by Mr. Stark, 
 is contained the Hunterian museum, a very valuable 
 collection of natural history, anatomical preparations and 
 medals. The number of students that attend the univer- 
 sity is upwards of 1400. In 1795, Mr. Anderson, a 
 professor in the university of Glasgow, founded and 
 endowed the Andersonian Institution. If oung men, 
 who do not receive an university education, are instructed 
 in this seminary in mathematics, natural philosophy, 
 pharmacy, chemistry, and the application of chemistry 
 to the arts. The numerous schools for the instruction 
 of the poor are creditable to the benevolence of the 
 upper classes; by their means 6516 children of both 
 sexes are gratuitously educated, while in the other 
 schools, the total number of pupils does not exceed 
 10,283. The advantages of education are put within 
 the reach of every individual. 
 
 The same town is adorned with many public build- 
 ings, and its ancient cathedral 0 is considered the most 
 
 h There are 73 steam engines in Glasgow and the immediate 
 suburbs, employed in manufactures. (Ed. Enc. 1817.) — P. 
 
 * There are 52 cotton mills (in town and country,) belonging to 
 Glasgow, with 511.200 spindles, and a capital invested of about 
 L. 1 , (TOO, 000. (Ed. Enc. 1817.)— P. 
 
 k There are 18 works belonging to Glasgow, for weaving by power, 
 which contain 2800 looms. The number of hand looms, employed by 
 the manufacturers of Glasgow, is about 32,000. (Ed. Enc. 1817.) — P. 
 
 1 There are 17 calendering houses in Glasgow, containing 39 calen- 
 ders moved by steam, in which 118,000 yards may be calendered in a 
 day, besides dressino* * 116,000 not calendered, and glazing 30,000. 
 (Ed. Enc. 1817.)— P. 
 m C. Dupin, Force Commerciale, vpl. 2. 
 n The High Kirk (church) — dedicated to St. Mungo. — P 
 
BOOK. CJLVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 perfect specimen of Gothic architecture in Scotland, 
 almost all the other churches of equal antiquity having 
 been injured or demolished by the blind zeal of the 
 reformers. The length of the interior from east to west 
 is equal to 319 feet, but as it is now divided into several 
 distinct churches, the symmetry of the whole is lost. a 
 The building was preserved from the fury of Knox and 
 his Vandals, by the firmness of the municipal authorities. b 
 The college, a neat and commodious building, extends 
 more than a hundred yards along the high street ; the 
 interior is divided into two courts, of which the larger is 
 103 feet in length, and 80 in width. The town-house is 
 a modern edifice, 0 and it has been admired on account 
 of the magnificence of its front, which is supported on 
 rusticated pillars, and adorned with Ionic pilasters ; the 
 space between the columns and the building affording a 
 convenient piazza to the merchants and men of business 
 that frequent it. The Tontine is the name of a spacious 
 hall in which the English, Scotch and French newspa- 
 pers are read ; the expenses are defrayed by fifteen 
 hundred subscribers, but free access is allowed to stran- 
 gers and the inhabitants. Independently of the purposes 
 for which the institution is intended, it may easily be 
 imagined that it is favourable to commerce, and the lib- 
 erality by which it is supported, is worthy of a commer- 
 cial city. 
 
 The town of Hamilton rises on the banks of the Clyde 
 about ten miles and a half above Glasgow, d and fourteen 
 miles further is the village of New Lanark, celebrated on 
 account of the cotton factories, that have been establish- 
 ed by their philanthropic proprietor. 6 f The lead hills 
 are situated at some distance above the last place, and 
 not far from the Clyde ; their name denotes the sub- 
 stance for which they are famous, and which is found 
 there in greater abundance than in any other part of 
 Scotland, s 
 
 A large meadow adorned with trees and situated on 
 the right bank of the Clyde, serves as a public walk to 
 the inhabitants of Glasgow, 11 and is intersected by the 
 road that leads to Peebles, the capital of a county, 
 although it does not contain 3000 inhabitants ; still differ- 
 ent branches of industry are carried on in a small scale, 
 such as the manufacture of stockings, carpets and 
 flannels, and there are besides one or two large brew- 
 eries. The county itself is inferior to many others both 
 in size and in the number of inhabitants; for it is not 
 
 a It is now divided into two places of worship, the Outer and Inner ; 
 the former occupying the western part of the choir ; the latter, the 
 nave — with a common vestibule between them. The cemetery 
 underneath the eastern part of the church, formerly served as a 
 place of worship for the Barony or Landward (country) parish, and 
 was called the Laigh Kirk (Low Church,) but is now restored to its 
 original use. — P. 
 
 b In 1579, at the instigation of the protestant clergy, the magistrates 
 engaged to demolish the edifice, and assembled a body of workmen 
 for the purpose ; but the craftsmen or members of trade corporations 
 flew to arms, took possession of the building, and threatened to kill 
 the first man who should lay hands on it. The magistrates were thus 
 forced to desist from their purpose, and the building was preserved. 
 It was then converted into three protestant places of worship (see 
 note ■’), after having been cleared of the statues of saints and other 
 Catholic appendages. (Chambers. Ed. Enc.)— P. 
 
 L The town-house (town-hall) was built in 1G36. (Ed. Enc. Piet, 
 of Glasgow.) — P. 
 
 ll On the west bank of the Clyde near the mouth of the Avon. — P. 
 
 <' Mr. Owen. 
 
 f The village of New Lanark and the cotton factories were founded 
 Dy David Dale, father-in-law of Robert Owen. It stands in a valley 
 on the banks of the Clyde, between the falls of Corra Linn and Stone- 
 
 5b 3 
 
 more than 365 square miles in superficial extent, and the 
 mean population is less than twenty-nine individuals to 
 the square mile. The boundaries of Peebles-shire are 
 the counties of Lanark on the west, Dumfries on the 
 south, Selkirk on the east, and Mid Lothian on the north. 
 The surface, which is in many parts hilly, becomes 
 mountainous towards tbe south, and the heights that 
 separate it from Annandale in Dumfries-shire, vary from 
 2500 to 3000 feet above the level of the sea. The 
 general elevation of the pasture lands is about 1200 feet, 
 and the hills with few exceptions are covered with 
 herbage, heath being almost exclusively confined to the 
 highest summits. The dale or valley of the Tweed, 
 which forms a great part of the county, and from which 
 it derives its popular name of Tweeddale, communicates 
 with many narrow vallies, that branch from it indifferent 
 directions. Thus, the scenery consists of hills, dales, 
 and numerous streams, but the spectator looks in vain 
 for lofty trees or indeed for trees of any kind, and the 
 effect of the natural beauties is apt to be associated with 
 the idea of bleakness or sterility. 
 
 The soil of the cultivated land, lying chiefly on the 
 sides of the lower hills, and the banks of the rivers, is 
 for the most part a light loam ; clay, moss and moor are 
 more common on the high grounds. As to the minerals, 
 coal and limestone are wrought in the northern part of 
 the county, or in the parishes of Linton and Newlands ; 
 ironstone too is obtained in the last of these parishes, 
 and slate is exported to the adjacent counties from the 
 parish of Stobo on the Tweed. 1 Peebles-shire, however, 
 is not distinguished by its mineral riches, and as it is by 
 no means a manufacturing county, it has little to offer 
 except sheep and wool in exchange for the articles that 
 are consumed. 
 
 The next county, although smaller than the last, is 
 more important from the number and industry of its 
 inhabitants. In the yq^^.754, Renfrewshire contained 
 only 26,654 inhabitants ; in 1831, the population 
 amounted to 133,433. The extent of surface is not 
 more than 241 square miles, and it is bounded by the 
 Frith of Clyde on the north and west, by Lanarkshire 
 on the east, and by Ayrshire on the south. Nearly two 
 thirds of the surface are hilly, but the highest hill or 
 Misty-law is not more than 1240 feet in height. The 
 greater portion of this district is ill adapted for tillage, 
 and it is generally kept in pasture. The cultivated land 
 
 byres, and west of the town of Lanark. The Clyde is precipitated over 
 three large falls in this vicinity, viz. Bonnington Linn, Corra Linn 
 and the Fall of Stonebyres. The town of Lanark, a royal burgh, 
 and the county town, stands on elevated ground, to the east of the 
 Clyde, but is not a place of much importance. — P. 
 
 e The range of the Lead Hills is that part of the great transition 
 chain in the south of Scotland, which divides the waters of the 
 Clyde from those of the Nith. The village of Leadhills is situated at 
 a great height on this range, and near the sources of the Clyde. It 
 is entirely inhabited by miners, who, like those in the neighbouring 
 mining village of Wanlockhead in Dumfries-shire, have long devot- 
 ed a part of their earnings to the establishment of a library. — P. 
 
 11 The public park, or green, on the banks of the river, adjoining ihe 
 south-east side of the town, contains upwards of 108 acres of grass, 
 and more than 3 miles, ti furlongs, of gravel walks. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 ' At least two thirds of the county on the south and east consists of 
 greywacke and argillite, forming part of the great transition range of 
 the south of Scotland. The remainder of the county on the north- 
 west consists of sandstone, with coal and limestone. The dividing 
 line enters the county at Kingside, and passes through the parish of 
 Newlands and along the northern border of Stobo into Lanark- 
 shire. — P. 
 
584 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLYL 
 
 is almost exclusively confined to the north and north-east 
 districts, and to the centre of the county. The rivers and 
 streams are the Clyde, theWhite Cart, the Black Cart, and 
 the Gryfe, from which last the county is often styled 
 Strathgryfe.® The Clyde, the only large river, flows along 
 the confines ; the White Cart has been rendered navigable 
 from Paisley to the Clyde. The Black Cart flows from 
 the south-west, and the Gryfe from the west, and both 
 meet at Walkinshaw about two miles above their conflu- 
 ence with the White Cart. These streams are chiefly 
 worthy of notice on account of the many cotton and other 
 mills which they set in motion. Smaller streams are ap- 
 plied to the same purpose, and a constant supply of water 
 is secured by means of reservoirs, several of which from 
 their size and appearance might be mistaken for lakes. 
 
 The minerals are of primary importance, and they con- 
 stitute the main source of the commerce and manufac- 
 tures. Coal is worked in part of the hilly district, and 
 both coal and lime in the flat district near Renfrew. 
 But it is in the central district that coal is obtained in the 
 greatest quantities. More than twelve different works are 
 established, and of these the most extensive is the one at 
 Quarelton on the Black Cart. b The coal at that place 
 consists of five contiguous strata, and the thickness of 
 the whole, measured at right angles to their surface, is 
 upwards of fifty feet, but as in some places the seam 
 forms a considerable angle with the horizon, the thickness 
 of the strata, measured vertically, is there upwards of 
 ninety feet. The coal in consequence of so great a depth 
 is wrought in floors or stories. Limestone abounds in 
 different directions, and twelve or fourteen quarries are 
 at present worked. 0 Ironstone, which is scattered 
 throughout the middle district, is found in strata and in 
 the form of balls. Considerable quantities of pyrites, 
 obtained from the coal stratum at Hurlet and Househill, 
 are manufactured into sulphate of iron, or green vitriol. 4 
 Lastly, excellent freestone, lying near the surface, is 
 wrought in the neighbourhood of Paisley, and in other 
 parts of the county. 
 
 Renfrew, the nominal capital of Renfrewshire, is an 
 ancient and small burgh too insignificant to require notice. e 
 But Paisley, from its size and importance, may be con- 
 sidered the third city in Scotland. It is situated on the 
 White Cart, between two and three miles south of the 
 
 * From the river Gryfe the county derived its most ancient name 
 of Strathgryfe. (Stat. Acc.) — P. 
 
 b Coal, limestone and freestone abound in various parts of the county. 
 There are no fewer than twelve coal works in actual operation. The 
 most extensive are those at Quarreltown, near the centre of the county, 
 at Polmadie, on its north-east boundary, and at Hurlet and Househill, 
 to the south-east of Paisley. (Ed. Enc.) — All the works, above speci- 
 fied, except Polmadie, are in the Abbey parish of Paisley. That of 
 Quarreltown is near the manufacturing village of Johnstone (on the 
 Black Cart,) begun in 1782, and now one of the most flourishing places 
 in the county. The whole eastern part of the county is included 
 within the coal formation. The limestone is properly an appendage 
 of that formation, very little being found beyond its limits. — P. 
 
 c Limestone is wrought at about eight different quarries. One of the 
 most singular masses of it occurs at the entrance of the romantic glen 
 of Glenniffer, three miles south of Paisley. It appears in the face of 
 a high rock, under a superincumbent mass of greenstone, and forms a 
 bed about ten feet thick, dipping towards a centre, where several mines 
 meet, forming a subterranean labyrinth. (Ed. Enc. 1825. Stat. 
 Acc. vii.) — P. 
 
 (l The coal mines of Hurlet afford materials for a manufactory of 
 sulphate of iron, and the most extensive alum manufactory in Great 
 Britain is carried on at the same place. (Ed. Enc.) — The materials 
 are obtained from a stratum of shale, placed above the coal, and abound- 
 ng in iron pyrites, which having been exposed to the atmosphere for 
 nove than 200 years, and at the same time kept dry, the natural forma- 
 
 Clyde, and nearly seven west from Glasgow. Tbe old 
 town stands on a rising ground on tbe western, and the 
 new in a valley on the eastern bank of tbe river, and 
 they communicate with each other by three bridges. 
 The most remarkable of its public buildings is an ancient 
 abbey, part of which has been converted into a parish 
 church, while tbe rest is in ruins/ A monument, how- 
 ever, is still preserved ;s it was raised in honour of 
 Margery Bruce, the daughter of king Robert Bruce, and 
 wife of Walter, the great steward of Scotland, from 
 whom the Stuarts descended. 
 
 It was after the union that Paisley began to flourish as 
 a manufacturing town. The various branches of the 
 linen manufacture were established after the same period ; 
 in 1760, the manufacture of silk gauze was introduced, 
 and became in a few years so successful as to afford 
 employment to nearly 5000 workmen. But the cotton 
 manufacture or the one by which the others have been in 
 some degree superseded, was commenced about tbe year 
 1780. In 1810, the cotton yarn which was sold, amount- 
 ed in value to L.63,000, and the capital laid out in the 
 buildings and machinery of the mills, was estimated at 
 L.630,000. Seven thousand looms were then employed 
 in tbe weaving of muslins, five hundred were wrought by 
 steam, and they produced coarse cottons to the value of 
 L. 125,000 yearly. These, however, are not the only 
 branches of industry, that are carried on ; soap-making, 
 tanneries, distilleries, breweries and founderies, together 
 with numerous bleach-fields and print-fields, furnish 
 employment to many of the inhabitants. Of the rapid 
 rise of Paisley some notion may be inferred from the 
 fact that the population of the town and abbey-parish 
 amounted to less than 7000 in 1755, and to more than 
 50,000 in 1831. 
 
 Port-Glasgow and Greenock are situated in the same 
 county and on the banks of the Clyde, the former about 
 twenty, and the latter about twenty-three miles below 
 Glasgow. The former contains between ten and eleven 
 thousand inhabitants ; it is built around a basin, excavat- 
 ed so as to serve as a dock for the vessels which are 
 prevented by the weight of their cargoes from proceeding 
 to Glasgow, ^t reckons about one hundred and twenty 
 vessels measuring nearly 20,000 tons. Greenock was 
 only ai obscure village at the period of the union,' 1 and 
 
 tion of alum and sulphate of iron has been continued by the decompo- 
 sition cf the pyrites, so that the rock has become impregnated with 
 these substances, which are extracted from it by lixiviation. (Nichol- 
 son’s Journal, xvi.) — P. 
 
 e Renfrew is the county town — situated near the junction of the 
 Clyde and Cart, north of Paisley. — P. 
 
 < The nave of the Abbey Church is now occupied as a place of wor- 
 ship for the Abbey Parish, an extensive country parish in the 
 heart of which the town (burgh) of Paisley is situated, and of which 
 the New Town is considered a part. The west end of the church is 
 open, and forms a fine Gothic ruin. (Ed. Enc.) — Originally Paisley 
 formed but one parish, dependent on the Abbey. In 1488, the town 
 (now Old Town) of Paisley was erected into a burgh of barony by 
 James IV. and formed into a separate parish inclosed by the Abbey or 
 country parish. The suburbs, including the New Town, are of course 
 within the limits of the Abbey Parish — the Abbey itself being situated 
 in the new town on the east of the Cart. In the burgh, in 1821. there 
 were three parishes, viz. the High, the Middle, and the Low Church, 
 besides numerous places of worship for dissenters. Paisley was not 
 represented before the passage of the Reform Bill. — P. 
 
 s In a building called the Abercorn Chapel, still entire, on the east 
 side of the cloisters, and south of the church. — P. 
 
 h Greenock consisted of only a few fishermen's huts about 1G!)7 
 The directors of the Sc. tch India and African Company having then 
 determined to establish salt works on the shores of the Firth, Sir John 
 Shaw, the superior, was led to improve its maritime advantages 
 
BOOK CLYI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 585 
 
 afterwards in 1740, the gross receipt of the customs 
 amounted to L. 15,000 ; in 1828, they were equal to 
 L. 455, 596. a It now possesses three hundred and fifty 
 vessels, measuring more than 50,000 tons. It is at 
 Greenock and Port-Glasgow that the foreign and coast- 
 ing trade of the county, and the principal foreign trade 
 of Scotland, are carried on. They have an extensive 
 trade with America and the West Indies, Ireland and 
 (lie west of England, and by the means of the Forth and 
 Clyde canal, with every part of Scotland. The herring 
 and whale fisheries' * 1 11 were once more important than at 
 present, but the former is still flourishing, and the mer- 
 chants of Greenock are extensively engaged in the New- 
 foundland and Nova Scotia fisheries. 0 
 
 The maritime county of Ayr is contiguous to Renfrew- 
 shire on the north, to Lanark and Dumfries-shires on the 
 east, and to Galloway d on the south, and it is washed in 
 an extent of nearly seventy miles on the west by the 
 Irish Sea and the Frith of Clyde. It is important as an 
 agricultural county, and as a manufacturing one, it is 
 only inferior to Lanarkshire and Renfrewshire. The 
 area is not less than 1039 square miles, and the relative 
 population is nearly equal to one hundred and forty in- 
 dividuals to the square mile. It is divided into the three 
 bailiwicks of Cunningham, Kyle e and Carrick. The 
 first or the most northern is separated from the second 
 or central division by the river Irvine ; and the Doon, 
 which is familiar to the readers of Burns, forms the 
 boundary between the second and Carrick or the south- 
 ern district. Cunningham is level and fruitful, Kyle is 
 varied by heights, and the greater portion of Carrick is 
 hilly or mountainous. Most of the rivers rise in the 
 county, and fall into the frith or the sea, which washes 
 it on the west ; the principal are the Stinchar, the Gir- 
 van, the Doon, the Irvine, the Garnock and the Ayr, 
 from which last, valuable whetstones are exported to 
 England and different parts of Scotland. But Ayrshire 
 possesses other advantages besides numerous rivers, an 
 extensive coast and several commodious harbours — it 
 abounds in coal and lime ; to the one may be traced the 
 origin and rise of its manufactures, and to the other its 
 general improvements and increased fertility. The old 
 
 rotation of three consecutive crops of corn, followed by 
 six years hay and pasture, has been generally abandon- 
 ed, and, '■after the example of the eastern counties, has 
 given place to an alternation of white and green crops. 
 The dairy, however, is the great object of attention, 
 the cows are not surpassed by any in Scotland, and 
 the cheese is exported to most parts of Britain. An 
 immense number of horses are bred in the same county ; 
 indeed it has been called the patria r of the Lanarkshire 
 or Clydesdale horse, which, for purposes of draught, 
 may bear a comparison with any in the island. It must 
 not be inferred that the agricultural improvements are 
 yet complete ; on the contrary, most of the lands are 
 not sufficiently manured, and imperfectly drained, defects 
 which must be partly attributed to the small size of the 
 farms, affording little or no opportunity for the employ- 
 ment of capital, or the division of labour. 
 
 The products of industry are the various articles of 
 the woollen manufacture, and in addition to the extensive 
 works in which the different branches are carried on, 
 private families in almost every parish are employed in 
 making blankets and coarse cloth, which are sold in the 
 markets and fairs of the county. Beith has long been 
 noted for its thread manufacture, e and the cotton works 
 at Catrine are probably the most extensive of any in 
 Scotland, at all events, it is not many years since they 
 furnished occupation to more than nine hundred persons, 
 who consumed 10,000 lbs. of cotton wool, and made 
 35,000 yards of cloth every week. 1 ' Pig and bar iron 
 are wrought on a great scale, and founderies are erected 
 at Muirkirk, Glenbuck, and other places. The other 
 manufactures are leather, saddlery, earthen ware, kelp 
 and salt. 
 
 The seaport town of Ayr, the capital of the county, 
 is situated on the banks of the river whose name it bears, 
 and at no great distance from the Doon, of which the 
 bar is impassable to ships. 1 The public monuments are 
 not remarkable, and some of them date from the time of 
 Cromwell, who built a citadel in the vicinity, and con- 
 verted the principal church into an armoury. k The har- 
 bour begins below a bridge of four arches, 1 built between 
 the town and the northern suburbs. m Two piers of stone 
 
 e The manufacture of linen thread was introduced into the town of 
 Beith (on the east of Kilbirnie Loch), and the surrounding country, in 
 1730, and in 1760, it is said to have amounted in value to L. 16, 000 an- 
 nually. Since then it has greatly declined. (Stat. Acc. viii. 319.) — P. 
 
 h The cotton works at Catrine (on the north side of the river Ayr, 
 fourteen miles N. E. of the town of Ayr) were established in 1787, by 
 Mr. Alexander of Ballochmyle, in partnership with the celebrated 
 David Dale, founder of the New Lanark cotton works. — P. 
 
 * The construction would seem to imply that the entrance of the 
 Doon is impeded by a bar ; but the entrance of the river Ayr is im- 
 peded by a bar occasionally thrown across it, especially by north-west 
 winds. The bed of the river is narrow, and the depth of water, at 
 spring tides, not above twelve feet; so that vessels exceeding 140 tons 
 cannot pass the bar. (Ed. Enc. Stat. Acc. ii.) — P. 
 
 k Cromwell built his citadel around the old church of St. John the 
 Baptist, which stood near the sea, and also near the site of the old 
 castle built by William the Lion. The citadel enclosed twelve acres 
 of ground, including the church and the site of the castle. He con- 
 verted the church into an armoury, and as an indemnity, gave 1000 
 English merks to the citizens for building a new one. The tower of 
 the old church still remains. — There are now two established churches 
 in Ayr. (Ed. Enc. 1813.)— P. 
 
 1 The river is crossed by two bridges, the Auld and New Brigs of 
 Burns— the former, which is very narrow, with several low arches, is 
 said to have been built in the reign of Alexander III.; the latter is a 
 recent structure, situated about a hundred yards below the old bridge 
 (Chambers’ Piet. Scot. i. 295.) — P. 
 m The principal suburb on the north side of the river forms a sepa 
 
 (Myers’ Geog. i. 178.) — Before the Union (1707), the merchants of 
 Greenock had some trade to the Baltic for timber, in exchange for 
 herrings, and to France, Spain and other parts of Europe. In 1714, 
 
 I a custom-house was established in Greenock, as a member of Port- 
 Gla gow. About 1745, the town was formed into a separate parish, 
 called the New Parish of Greenock, and in 1757, it was erected into a 
 j burgh of barony, by Sir John Shaw. (Stat. Acc. v.) — Greenock, 
 like Paisley, was not represented previous to the Reform. In the 
 town of Greenock, in 1817, there were two parishes (the new one 
 erected in 1809.) The suburbs were included in the Old or country 
 Parish. Besides these (hree established churches, there was a Gaelic 
 | chapel, and six other places of worship.— P. 
 
 a In 1728, the gross receipt of the customs amounted to L. 15, 231 ; 
 in 1828, they amounted to L. 455, 596. (Bell’s Geog.) — P. 
 
 a The Whale Fishery from the Clyde has been by no means suc- 
 cessful. It was first attempted in 1752, but soon given up. It was 
 again revived in 1786, but the Greenock merchants soon tired of it, and 
 it was confined to Port-Glasgow. (Stat. Acc. x.580. A. D. 1793.) — P. 
 
 c This last statement is made, in the same terms, in the Statistical 
 Account (vol. v. 580,) from which it is copied into the Gazetteer of 
 Scotland, 1803.— P. 
 
 11 Wigtonshire %-nd the stewartry of Kirkcudbright. — P. 
 e Kyle is divided by the river Ayr into King's Kyle on the south, 
 and Kyle Stewart on the north. Kyle or Coil has derived its name 
 either from the Gaelic coill, a wood, or from Coilus, a British king 
 (“auld King Coil, ) who is said to have been killed in battle on the 
 river Coil(Coyl) asouth branch of the Ayr.— P. 
 
 1 Native country. 
 
 VOL. lit NO. 6 i. 71 7 X 
 
586 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLVI 
 
 and wood, prolonged to the distance of 550 yards on 
 the right and left of the river, serve as moorings to ves- 
 sels which take in cargoes of coal from wharfs similar to 
 those at Sunderland and Tynemouth. The port reckons 
 about sixty vessels, which measure 5000 tons, and they 
 are mostly employed in exporting the coal that abounds 
 in the surrounding country. The town and neighbour- 
 hood have been rendered classical by the muse of Burns, 
 and the ruins of Alloway Kirk excite a deeper interest 
 than that resulting merely from a romantic situation. A 
 costly monument, erected in honour of the poet, rises 
 near the humble dwelling in which he was born ; a the 
 one contrasts well with the other, and both are emblem- 
 atic of the conduct of his countrymen — they suffered 
 him to live in poverty, they raise monuments to his 
 memory. 
 
 Kilmarnock, the most flourishing town in the county, 
 was at no very remote period an obscure village. b It is 
 situated on the Fenwick near its junction with the Ir- 
 vine, about fourteen miles to the north-east of Ayr. It 
 w r as formerly one of the worst built places in Scotland ; 
 it is now distinguished by modern houses and regular 
 streets. Independently of the carpets, blankets, tartans, 
 bonnets and woollen manufactures, of which it is the 
 principal seat in Ayrshire, many workmen are employed 
 in weaving cotton, muslin and silk for the manufacturers 
 of Glasgow and Paisley. Greater extension has of late 
 been afforded to its trade by improved communications, 
 for which the inhabitants are indebted to the Duke of 
 Portland. The works of that public spirited nobleman 
 are the harbour at Troon, a promontory which stretches 
 about a mile into the Frith of Clyde, 0 and the rail road, 
 which extends from the same harbour to the town of 
 Kilmarnock, a distance of more than ten miles. The 
 harbour extends more than two hundred yards into the 
 sea, and it is proposed to prolong it to three hundred. 
 The depth at the present extremity is about 18 feet 
 at low water. A graving dock was finished about five 
 years ago, and it is now much frequented for the repair- 
 ing of coasting vessels. Another, which was still more 
 lately completed, is thirty-seven feet wide at the gate, 
 and vessels of almost any burden may enter it. Exten- 
 sive warehouses are erected, and a yard is open for the 
 building of ships. There are upwards of 3000 acres 
 of coal fields in the country along which the railway 
 passes from the harbour to Kilmarnock. Coal, accord- 
 ingly, has hitherto been the principal article of convey- 
 ance to Troon, and the average quantity exceeds a hun- 
 dred tons daily. Iron, grain, timber, and other articles, 
 are transported to Kilmarnock. 
 
 Another instance of public spirit is exhibited in the 
 works, which have been begun and carried on at Ardross- 
 
 rate burgh (of barony), called Newton upon Ayr. Ayr itself is a royal 
 burgh. — P. 
 
 * This house is situated about a mile and a half south-east of Ayr, 
 on the right hand side of the road to Maybole, within a few hundred 
 yards of Alloway Kirk, and but little farther from the Brig of Doon. 
 The monument, a costly edifice of white stone, in the form of a 
 Grecian temple, rises on a height between the kirk and the bridge. 
 
 b Kilmarnock was erected into a burgh of barony in 1591. It was 
 not represented before the Reform Bill. — P. 
 
 c It is about midway between' the mouths of the Ayr and Irvine. Off 
 it. at about two miles distance, is a small island, called Lady's Isle, 
 Within which is a road for ships. — P. 
 
 d Irvine stands on the north side of the river Irvine at its mouth. 
 Saltcoats is on the coast, about five miles north-west of Irvine, and 
 
 an by the Earl of Eglinton. The Frith of Clyde is in 
 many respects ill adapted for the purposes of navigation; 
 the channel is narrow — it is exposed to squalls, and 
 rendered dangerous by shallows. Besides, it can only 
 be navigated when the wind blows from certain direc- 
 tions, and that appears almost a sufficient reason for 
 having the harbour of Glasgow in the open bay of Ard- 
 rossan, where, whatever be the direction of the wind, 
 mariners can put to sea, which they cannot do either at 
 Greenock or Port-Glasgow. As Ardrossan thus offered 
 the site of a safe, commodious and accessible harbour, 
 the works were commenced with much spirit, and a 
 circular pier of 900 yards was completed in 1811. A 
 wet dock was afterwards begun, which according to the 
 plan of Mr. Telford, should contain a hundred vessels, 
 and have a depth of water equal to sixteen feet. But 
 the works have been given up, and they are not likely 
 to be finished without public aid. The harbour was 
 only part of the original plan ; it was proposed, instead 
 of the present circuitous passage by the Frith of Clyde, 
 to open a direct communication with Glasgow, Paisley 
 and the other flourishing towns in the vicinity. The 
 line of a canal was therefore marked from Glasgow to 
 Ardrossan, a distance of thirty-one and a half miles, 
 and the expense of cutting it was estimated at L. 125,000. 
 About a third part of this work, namely, that which 
 extends from Glasgow to Johnstone, is finished, and 
 it cost nearly L. 90,000. The other ports in the 
 
 county are those of Saltcoats and Irvine, d and their 
 principal trade consists in the export of coal to Ire- 
 land. 
 
 Returning to the Forth and Clyde canal, we enter 
 Stirlingshire, which is situated on the isthmus between 
 these two friths. e It is contiguous to the counties of 
 
 Perth and Clackmannan on the north, to Linlithgow- 
 shire on the east, to Lanarkshire on the south, and to 
 Dumbartonshire on the south-west and west. The pop- 
 ulation amounts by the last returns to 72,621 individuals, 
 and the surface has been estimated at 625 square miles. 
 Nearly two-thirds of the surface consist of hills, and are 
 unfit for cultivation ; they afford, however, good pastur- 
 age to sheep, for although heath appears occasionally, 
 they are mostly covered with green herbage. The 
 Lennox hills, the principal tract of this description, ex- 
 tend across the county from Dumbartonshire on the west 
 to the town of Stirling on the north, and their elevation 
 is not higher than 1,500 feet/ Loftier summits are 
 situated in other directions ; Ben-Lomond on the north- 
 west, on the banks of Loch Lomond, is 3262, e and 
 Bencloch in the parish of Alva on the north side of the 
 Forth is 2400 feet. 1 * * The country is low on the north 
 and on the east of the Lennox hills, and much of the 
 
 one and a half south of Ardrossan Point. It has a good artificial har- 
 bour. — P. 
 
 * The Firths of Forth and Clyde. 
 
 f Seldom exceed an elevation of 1500 feet above the sea. The 
 height of the Campsie hills is about 1500, and that of the Kilsyth hills 
 1306. (Ed. Enc.) — The trap range extending from the Clyde at Dum- 
 barton, in a north-east direction to the Forth at Stirling, where it meets 
 the Ochils, is called by the general name of the Lennox Hills. Dif- 
 ferent portions of the range receive different local names, viz. from 
 east to west, the rock of Stirling, the Gargunnock and Kilsyth hills, 
 the Campsie Fells (hills), the Kilpatrick hills, and the rock of Dum- 
 barton. — P. 
 
 * 3170 feet. (Bell.)— P. 
 
 h 2420 feet. (Bell.) — Bencloch or Bencleugh (Gaelic, Bcinn-CInich, 
 
BOOK CLVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 587 
 
 land near the Forth is only a few feet higher than the 
 surface of the water. 
 
 Almost every variety of soil, common to Scotland, 
 may be found in Stirlingshire, but that by which it is 
 most distinguished, is the alluvial or carse land on the 
 Forth. It covers an extent of about 40,000 acres with- 
 in the county, and twice as many in the adjoining coun- 
 ties of Perth, Clackmannan and Linlithgow, in all about 
 200 square miles. It is without doubt the most fruitful 
 land in the kingdom ; it is unmixed with stones, it con- 
 sists of the finest particles of earth, and in point of fria- 
 bility it approaches to loam. It. is in some places thirty 
 feet deep, and nowhere so much above the level of the 
 sea at high water. Lastly, the debris of plants and ani- 
 mals have been found at the depth of nineteen feet, 
 while the upper surface consists entirely of fine earth. 
 
 The same county is well supplied with valuable min- 
 erals, and the abundance of coal in particular, has given 
 rise to different manufactures. The northern boundary 
 of the great coal belt, which extends in an oblique direc- 
 tion from Cantyre on the west, to Fifeshire on the east, 
 runs in Stirlingshire along the southern base of the Len- 
 nox hills ; the mineral abounds, as has been already 
 seen, on the south, although it has not yet been discov- 
 ered in any quantity on the north of this line. Lime- 
 stone, ironstone and sandstone are common in different 
 places, and other substances, such as copper, lead and 
 silver, have occasionally been wrought. 
 
 Stirlingshire was at an early period exposed to fre- 
 quent contests, and to defend it against the incursions 
 of the Caledonians, who descended like torrents from its 
 mountains, a chain of forts was built by Agricola. a At 
 a later period it was the boundary of four kingdoms, 
 namely, the Cumbrian and Northumbrian on the south, 
 and the Scottish and Pictish on the north, b and became in 
 consequence the battle-field of these warlike barbarians. 
 
 Stirling, the capital, was formerly called Striveling, 
 the place of contention or fight, and from its ancient 
 castle, it is said, may be seen twelve spots in which as 
 many battles were fought. It is certain that the castle 
 itself was long one of the most important fortresses in 
 the kingdom, and as such, its possession was contested 
 from the time of the Danish invasion in the year 1009 c 
 until it was taken by General Monk in 1651. Situated 
 
 peak of the stone or rock) is the highest of the Ochils, and near their 
 western extremity ; it is situated at the point where the three counties 
 of Clackmannan, Perth and Stirling meet, partly in each. Alva hill, 
 or Wood hill, farther west in the same range, is 1620 feet high. — P. 
 
 1 The chain of forts (pratentara,) built by Agricola, occupied nearly 
 the same line as the wall of Antoninus, and of course extended along 
 the southern border of the county. It could not therefore have been 
 a direct defence to it against the Caledonians. — P. 
 
 b The Cumbrian ( Cumraig , or Cymraig) kingdom of Strath-Clyde 
 continued till the 10th century. It extended over all the west of 
 Scotland, south of the Frith of Clyde. Its inhabitants are said to have 
 been of kindred origin with the Welsh, i. e. Cimbri, or Cymry. (Pink- 
 erton.) The Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Bernicia or Northumberland 
 extended over the eastern part of Scotland, south of the Forth, in- 
 cluding the Lothians. The Pictish kingdom occupied the east of 
 Scotland, north of the Forth. Abernethy, on the Tay, in Perthshire, 
 was its capital. The Piets are considered by G. Chalmers as descend- 
 ants of the original Celtic population of Scotland (the Caledonii of the 
 Romans) ; by Pinkerton, as descendants indeed of the Caledonians, 
 but originally a Gothic colony from Norway. The Scottish kingdom 
 was founded in the 6th century by the Dalriads (Gaelic, Dalruaidhini,) 
 an Irish colony, who settled in Argyle, and became the ancestors of 
 the Highlanders. They occupied the north-west of Scotland. — P. 
 c Stirling Castle was rebuilt by the Northumbrians, who had taken 
 
 at the western extremity of the rock on which the town 
 is built, it commands an extensive view of the beautiful 
 country in the neighbourhood. The Scottish kings used 
 frequently to hold their court in Stirling castle ; there 
 James the Second was born, and there he murder- 
 ed with his own hand his kinsman, the earl of Doug- 
 las. The palace d is now converted into a house for 
 the governor, and barracks for the soldiers, but the 
 apartments occupied by the celebrated Buchanan, while 
 tutor to James the Sixth, are still shown to strangers. 
 The Forth, which waters the valley below it, pursues a 
 very meandering course, so much so that following it to 
 Alloa, the distance is more than twenty miles, while in a 
 direct line it is less than seven.® These windings are 
 called by the common people the links of the Forth. f 
 The town itself is ancient and irregularly built ; all the 
 old streets, except the one on the summit of the hill, 
 which is broad and spacious, are crooked and narrow. 
 Considerable additions have been made, however, within 
 the last thirty years, and modern houses and regular 
 streets have been erected on the north and on the east 
 of the town. Although not remarkable for its manufac- 
 tures or any branch of industry ,e it is not without some 
 inland and foreign trade, the latter chiefly to the Baltic. 
 Vessels of seventy tons ascend to the quay, after a cir- 
 cuitous and tedious navigation from Alloa. 
 
 The village of Bannockburn is situated about two 
 miles to the east of Stirling, and is still memorable on 
 account of the battle in which the Scots, under the con- 
 duct of Bruce, defeated the English, and regained inde- 
 pendence. 11 The marsh into which the English soldiers 
 incautiously rushed, still remains, and the stream that 
 was stained with their blood, has since been made sub- 
 servient to the purposes of industry. It is long since the 
 inhabitants have been disturbed by the march of hostile 
 armies, and the village is now flourishing; although still 
 a place of very moderate population, it possesses exten- 
 sive manufactories of carpets, tartans and leather. 
 
 Continuing our journey eastwards, we arrive at the town 
 of Falkirk, which may be mentioned on account of its 
 three annual trysts or fairs, the most important of any in 
 Scotland for the sale of oxen and sheep. The neigh- 
 bouring port of Grangemouth has become flourishing from 
 its position on the Forth and Clyde canal but the vil- 
 
 possession of that part of Scotland, in the 9th century. In the 10th 
 century, it was retaken by the Scots, and, during the banish invasion 
 in 1009, it was the place of rendezvous of the Scottish army. (Gaz. 
 Scot.) — The Danes made three successive invasions of Scotland in the 
 reign of Malcolm II. (A. D. 1003 — 33) viz. in Moray, Angus and 
 Buchan. — P. 
 
 d The palace is a large building, in the form of a quadrangle, in the 
 south-eastern part of the castle. — P. 
 
 e The distance, by the windings of the Forth, from the quay of 
 Alloa to the bridge of Stirling, is 19J miles, whereas the distance by 
 land does not exceed seven miles, ‘though the turnings in the road are 
 numerous. (Stat. Acc. viii. 593.) — P. 
 
 f The Scottish word links signifies, 1. the windings of a river, form- 
 ing peninsulas : “ the bonny links o’ Forth 2. the rich carse land in 
 those peninsulas : Forth’s links o’ waving corn” (Macneill ;) 3. sandy 
 
 flat ground on the sea shore, covered with bents, furze, &c., and used 
 in playing golf: the links of Leith, of Montrose, &c. ; 4. any tract of 
 sandy ground, not on the sea-coast, of a similar character, as Brunts- 
 field Links, part of the old Borough-muir of Edinburgh. — P. 
 
 e Cotton and woollen goods, but particularly sarpets, are among its 
 chief manufactures. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 b July 24, 1314. 
 
 ‘ It is situated at the junction of the canal with the Forth, and is 
 thus an important port. It was built in 1777. — P. 
 
588 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 IBOOK CL. VI. 
 
 lage of Carron must be considered the most remarkable 
 place in the vicinity, for its iron works are among the 
 most extensive of any in Britain. They were erected 
 about the year 1760 ; twenty furnaces are now employed, 
 more than two hundred tons of coal are consumed week- 
 ly, and employment is provided for upwards of 2000 
 persons.* Various articles used in the arts and in war 
 are manufactured at Carron ; among the former are 
 cylinders, steam engines, pumps, boilers, flies, wheels 
 and pinions ; among the latter are different articles of 
 ordnance, and the carronade, a short ship gun with a 
 chamber, which derives its name from that of the place. 
 The transportation of these ponderous articles to different 
 parts of Britain, and to foreign countries, is facilitated by 
 means of the Forth and a navigable canal. b 
 
 The Forth separates Stirlingshire from Clackmannan- 
 shire ; the latter is bounded on the south-east by Fife- 
 shire, and in every other direction by Perthshire. 0 Al- 
 though the smallest county in Scotland, it is more im- 
 portant than might be inferred from the extent of its 
 surface ; thus, the area does not exceed fifty-two square 
 miles, but the population is not much less than three 
 hundred persons to every square mile. d Nearly three- 
 fourths of the surface are under cultivation, a greater 
 proportion, with the exception of East Lothian, than 
 that of any other Scottish county. It is besides rich in 
 minerals; silver, copper, lead, iron-ore, cobalt and anti- 
 mony have all been discovered on the Ochil hills, be- 
 tween Airthrie and Dollar. e They have never been 
 worked on an extensive scale, and the miners have 
 never penetrated below the level of the plain or the base 
 of these mountains; but it is still believed that valuable 
 metallic veins are contained in them, and that they may re- 
 ward the enterprise of future capitalists. A mass of 
 greenstone, in the neighbourhood of Stirling, is known by 
 the name of the Abbey-Craigs ; f its external appearance 
 is columnar, and the internal structure is crystallized. 
 It affords, in the grinding of wheat into flour, a useful 
 substitute for the French buhr-stones, which could not 
 be obtained in Britain during the last war. It is not 
 many years since the stone of the Abbey Craig was first 
 applied to that purpose, and the discovery was made by 
 Mr. James Brownhill, a miller at Alloa. The Clack- 
 mannanshire millstones are now considered superior, in 
 some respects, to the French ; many hundreds of them 
 are used in different parts of England and Scotland, and 
 the ingenious individual already mentioned, was rewarded 
 
 a There are five blast furnaces, which produce nearly 200 tons of 
 pig iron weekly, and above 20 air furnaces and cupolas for castings. 
 No less than 200 tons of coal are consumed daily. Upwards of 2000 
 people are employed at the works. (Ed. Enc. 1813.) — P. 
 
 b A canal leads directly from the works to the Carron Wharf, on 
 the Forth and Clyde canal. — P. 
 
 c The county is properly bounded on the south-west by the Firth of 
 Forth, separating it from Stirlingshire ; on the north by Perthshire ; 
 on the east, for a short distance, by Fifeshire ; and on the south-east 
 by a detached portion of Perthshire, including Culross. On the north- 
 west, it is interlocked with detached portions of Stirlingshire. — P. 
 
 ll About 283. — P. 
 
 e The trap range of the Ochils is a continuation of that of the Len- 
 nox Hills, which terminate at Stirling. It commences in the Abbey 
 Craig, in the parish of Logie, on the north of tile Forth, opposite Stir- 
 ling, and thence extends easterly along the northern border of the 
 parishes of Alva, Tillicoultry and Dollar. It thus skirts the county of 
 Clackmannan on the north, and along its southern foot ranges the val- 
 ley of the l)ovan (Devon.) The rest of the county on the south-east, of 
 which the surface is uneven, belongs to the coal formation.— P. 
 
 1 The Abbey Craig (in Logie parish, separated by the Forth from 
 
 for his discovery by the Society for the Encouragement 
 of the Arts. Coal has been worked during two hundred 
 years, and the quantity obtained annually from this 
 small county, amounts to more than 130,000 tons.s 
 The excess above what is required for the home con- 
 sumption, is exported to Leith, Dunbar and other parts 
 of the country. Machinery for drawing water from the 
 mines, was constructed before the invention of the steam- 
 engine, and the Alloa colliery is drained by an overshot 
 water wheel, which is thirty feet in diameter, and which 
 raises the water from the depth of three hundred. And 
 it may be remarked, that a powerful steam-engine, be- 
 longing to the Devon coal company, 11 is capable of raising 
 1,000,000 gallons of water in twenty-four hours, from 
 the depth of two hundred and eighty feet. 
 
 The small town of Clackmannan, the capital of the 
 county, is finely situated on an eminence above the 
 banks of the Forth, and is crowned by an ancient tower 
 or keep, all that remains of the palace of King Robert 
 Bruce. 1 The port of Alloa is well situated for commerce ; 
 the quay is well built, and the dry dock can admit vessels 
 of large burden. The custom-house comprehends within 
 its precincts, the creeks of Stirling, Kincardine, and 
 Clackmannan. A hundred and thirty vessels are regis- 
 tered, carrying nearly 10,000 tons. There are cleared 
 outwards, on an average, from 900 to 1000 vessels, car- 
 rying 50,000 tons, and employing 2500 seamen. The 
 distillation of spirits, it may be added, is the most im- 
 portant branch of industry ; there are not fewer than six 
 large distilleries in this small district, and two of them 
 paid some time ago to government, in the form of excise 
 duty, a greater sum than the whole land-tax of Scotland. 11 
 
 If Clackmannanshire be excepted, no other county is 
 so small as Kinross-shire, which is bounded on the north- 
 east, east and south by the county of Fife, and on the north 
 and west by Perthshire. The greatest length from east 
 to west is about twelve miles, the utmost breadth from 
 north to south is not more than ten, and the area is 
 probably equal to eighty-three square miles. The num- 
 ber of persons amounts to a hundred and ten to the 
 square mile ; it is therefore much inferior to the last 
 county in point of population. 
 
 It is the highest level land in the peninsula formed by 
 the Forth and the Tay ; it was formerly called Ross or 
 the promontory, and it comprehended in addition to the 
 present county those of Fife and Clackmannan. 1 The 
 productive lands cover an extent of 30,000 acres, or 
 
 the rock of Stirling, with which it corresponds) — so called from its 
 vicinity to the ruined abbey of Cambuskenneth. — P. 
 
 e The present annual output of coals may be taken at 130,000 tons. 
 (Ed. Enc. 1815.) — P. 
 
 h At the Sauchy mine, in Clackmannan parish. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 ‘ The old tower is said to have been built by King Robert Bruce, 
 and was long the seat of the chief of the Bruces, the hereditary sheriff 
 of the county. (Stat. Acc. Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 k There are no less than six large distilleries in this small district 
 [the county of Clackmannan] ; Kilbagie, in the parish of Clackman- 
 nan, is the most extensive. (Ed. Enc.) — The two great distilleries of 
 Kilbagie and Kennetpans, in Clackmannan parish, paid to govern- 
 ment an excise duty considerably greater than the whole land tax of 
 Scotland, previous to 1788, when the license duty was doubled, and 
 an increased duty levied on all Scotch spirits imported into Eng- 
 land. From that time, the business declined, but in 1795 the duty 
 paid by those two distilleries was L.8000 yearly. (Stat. Acc. xiv. C23— 
 6.) — P. 
 
 1 This is erroneous. The subject is stated more correctly in the 
 Edin. Encyc. “ The county of Fife at a former period included the 
 county of Kinross, and part of Clackmannan. The whole district was 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
BOOK CL, VI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 589 
 
 about three-fifths of the whole ; the remaining portion 
 consists either of a light and scanty soil, or of moorish 
 and barren land. Coal is worked in the southern dis- 
 tricts, and the prevailing rocks are whinstone, a sandstone 
 and limestone. Several lakes are scattered in different 
 directions, and Loch Leven, the largest, may bear a 
 comparison with any other in the lowlands of Scotland. 
 It is situated in the middle and near the capital of the 
 county ; it covers an extent of about six square miles, 
 is adorned with several islands, and abounds with differ- 
 ent kinds of fish. The largest of the islands is upwards 
 of two acres, b and it is crowned by the ruins of the castle 
 in which the unfortunate queen Mary was confined. 
 The lake is fed by several rivulets, but only one stream of 
 any size issues from it at the eastern extremity, passes 
 through a considerable part of Fife, and enters the sea 
 at the town of Leven. c 
 
 Kinross rises in a plain at the west end of the lake, on 
 the great road from Edinburgh to Perth ; it is styled the 
 capital, and the only town in the county ; d in reality, 
 however, it is little better than a village. A few weavers 
 are employed by the manufacturers of Glasgow, but no 
 branch of industry is conducted on a great scale. e 
 
 The county of Fife is contiguous to the last, and to 
 Perthshire and Clackmannanshire, on the west ; the river 
 Tay forms the boundary on the north ; it is bathed by 
 the German Ocean on the east, and by the Frith of 
 Forth on the south/ The mean length of the county 
 from east to west is about thirty -six, and the mean 
 breadth from north to south about fourteen miles, s so 
 that the surface is equal to five hundred and four square 
 miles. The relative population is upwards of two hun- 
 dred and fifty-five persons to the square mile. 
 
 It is varied in every direction by hill and dale, but 
 the surface in general is by no means lofty, and it has 
 been calculated that about four-fifths of it are fit for cul- 
 tivation ; the remaining portion consists of hills and 
 moors. It is divided into two portions by a high tract, 
 of which the western part is formed by the Lomond hills, 
 and which stretching almost in a direct line eastwards 
 approaches within a few miles of the shore. West Lo- 
 
 known by the name of Ross, or the peninsula, and hence Culross [in 
 the detached portion of Perthshire on the Forth] signified the lower 
 [hack] part of the peninsula [Gaelic, cal, backside,] Kinross the head 
 of the peninsula [Gaelic, ccann, head,] and Muckross, now Fifeness, 
 the snout of the peninsula, or the latter may have been so called from 
 the number of wild boars [Gaelic, muc, a boar] that infested it.” 
 (Art. Fifeshire.) — Kinross-shire was not separated from Fifeshire until 
 
 1426. (Ed. Enc.) The whole peninsula between the Forth and the 
 
 Tay formerly went under the general name of Ross. (Stat. Acc.) — 
 This Gaelic name, Ross, is frequently applied to peninsulas in Scot- 
 land. Thus, the county of Ross, so called from the two peninsulas on 
 its eastern coast, on the north and south of the Firth of Cromarty; 
 Montrose, the fenny peninsula (Gaelic, Moinross, from moin, a fen or 
 morass, and toss') \ Roseneath, a peninsula on the Clyde in Dumbar- 
 tonshire — Gaelic, Rossnachoich ( Ross-na-h-oighe ,) peninsula of the vir- 
 gin ( oigh .) — P. 
 
 Greenstone or trap. — This forms the summit rock on the hills, 
 both of the Ochils on the north, and of those of the coal formation on 
 the south. Sandstone is the underlying rock of the whole county. 
 The limestone accompanies the coal. — P. 
 
 11 The largest island (St. Serf 's Isle, or the Inch) is generally said to 
 contain 48 acres (28.44 acres. Ed. Enc.) Castle Island contains about 
 two acres. — P. 
 
 c It would be singular if more than one stream of any size issued 
 from it. Its outlet is the river Leven. — P. 
 
 d Kinross is the county town, and the seat of the sheritf courts and 
 other public meetings. — P. 
 
 e Population in 1811, 2214. It was formerly celebrated for its man- 
 ufacture of cutlery, and in the latter part of the last century was ex- 
 
 mond, the highest of these hills, is seventeen hundred 
 and twenty-one feet above the level of the sea ; Largo 
 Law on the east is nine hundred and fifty-two, anti Kelly 
 Law is eight hundred and ten. The same county is 
 naturally divided into three parts by the Eden and the 
 Leven ; the northern extends between the former of 
 these rivers and the Tay, the central lies between the 
 Eden and the Leven, and the southern between the 
 Leven and the Frith of Forth. In the southern part 
 the soil is very fruitful, and consists of a deep rich loam 
 which covers a tract about three miles in breadth. In 
 the central division a cold and sterile clay, resting mostly 
 on sandstone, stretches to the heights on the south of 
 the Eden. But along both the banks of the same river 
 is situated the How of Fife, or the rich valley of 
 Stratheden. A continuation of the Ochils separates this 
 valley from the Tay, but the soil is in many places fertile, 
 and often deeper on the acclivities than at their base. 
 It thus appears that the most fruitful lands are situated 
 on the confines, while the bleak or barren parts, the 
 moors and mosses, are chiefly confined to the central 
 districts. It was formerly said by James the Sixth, that 
 Fife resembled a gray cloth mantle with a golden fringe, 
 and the simile is not inapplicable to it at the present day. h 
 
 The southern division of Fifeshire from the Forth 
 almost to the Eden, abounds in coal, and every kind 
 common to Scotland is found in that part of the country. 
 The strata incline to the east and south-east, and do not 
 extend more than two or three miles from the shore. * 1 
 Thus, coal occurs in this district and along the coast line 
 from west to east in the parishes of Torryburn, Abbots- 
 hall, Kirkaldy, Dysart, Wemyss, Scoonie, Largo and 
 Pittenweem. The works in Dysart are very extensive, 
 and one of the beds, eighteen feet thick, is said to have 
 been worked more than three hundred years ago. k On 
 the north of this tract, the coal and the slrata that ac- 
 company it, incline commonly to the north or north- 
 east, and the largest collieries are situated in the parishes 
 of Dunfermline, Dalgety, Auchterderran and Leslie. 
 Lastly, from the vale of Eden northwards to the Tay, 
 there is no appearance of coal or the concomitant 
 
 tensively engaged in the manufacture of coarse linens, called Silesias ; 
 the quantity stamped averaging annually, from 1780 to 1790 inclusive, 
 118,434 yards, at the value of L.4441. (Stat. Acc. vi. 1G9.) — P. 
 
 f Following the western boundary from the Tay on the north, Fife- 
 shire is first bounded in that direction by Perthshire (W.) ; then by 
 Kinross-shire (S. W., W., N. W. and N.) ; then by Fos-away parish, 
 in Perthshire (N.); then for a short distance by Clackmannanshire 
 (W. and S. W.) ; and lastly, by Culross, in the detached portion of 
 Perthshire (W.) The Firth of Forth is generally considered as ex- 
 tending along its south and south-eastern coast to Fifeness, whence 
 the coast extends north-west by St. Andrews to the mouth of the Eden, 
 and then north to the mouth of the Tay. — P. 
 
 s Its greatest breadth is about 19 miles from north to south, and its 
 greatest length about 48 miles, from Fifeness on the east, to the bor- 
 ders of Clackmannanshire on the west. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 h This remark was made in allusion to the close line of boroughs 
 along the southern coast, compared with the moors in the interior of 
 the county. — P. 
 
 1 This must refer to the strata on the coast, particularly in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Dysart. — P. 
 
 k There are 14 beds of coal on the Sinclair estate, in Dysart parish. 
 Three of the thickest, which are contiguous, are now working. The 
 upper is 5 feet thick, separated from the second, by a stratum of 18 
 inches thick (thin coal and till or slate) ; the second, 8 feet thick, and 
 underneath it, a stratum of stone 2 feet 3 inches thick ; the lower, 5 feet 
 thick; so that the whole thickness of workable coal is 18 feet. The 
 coal is now worked at the depth of 60 fathoms. Dysart coal was 
 among the first wrought in Scotland, having been begun 300 years 
 ago. (Stat. Acc. xii. A. D. 1794.) — P. 
 
590 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLYI. 
 
 minerals. Limestone abounds in the same part of Fife- 
 shire that is so rich in coaI, a and it may be sufficient to 
 remark that the lime works at Charlestown on the Forth b 
 are the most extensive of any in Scotland. More than 
 a hundred thousand tons are annually raised from them ; 
 they are partly sold as they are taken from the quarry, 
 and 12,000 tons of coal are consumed every year in 
 calcining the remainder. 0 Such are the most important 
 mineral substances ; some of the others are ironstone, 
 lead, and clay well adapted for fire bricks. 
 
 The civil divisions of Fifeshire are the districts of St. 
 Andrews, Cupar, Kirkaldy and Dunfermline. Cupar is 
 entitled the capital, but it is by no means the most popu- 
 lous or the most industrious town in the county. It is 
 situated at the junction of the St. Mary, a small stream, 
 with the Eden ; it consists of three or four streets, sev- 
 eral detached houses and many lanes. The manufacture 
 of linen is the most important branch of industry, and 
 more than 500,000 yards have been stamped in a year. d 
 The other articles made in the same place are soap, 
 candles, leather, cordage, bricks and tiles. Although 
 remarkable for its antiquity, few ancient monuments 
 remain, and no part of the castle in which the thanes of 
 Fife held their courts can be discovered.® The hill on 
 which it stood, is still styled the Play-field of Cupar, and 
 the satyre of the Three Estates, one of the oldest Scot- 
 tish dramas, was acted on it in 1535/ 
 
 At no great distance from the mouth of the Tay, and 
 about twelve miles to the east of Cupar, is situated the 
 ancient city of St. Andrews. It was erected into the 
 capital of a diocese at the intercession of James the 
 Third by Pope Sixtus the Fourth in the year 1441/ and 
 it possessed, during a long period, the distinction of being 
 the metropolitan see of the kingdom. The cathedral, 
 once its great ornament, is now in ruins ; to build it was 
 the labour of a century and a half ; it was destroyed in 
 a single day by the zeal of the reformers. h The remains 
 
 a In the range of the Ochils, limestone is found only at one place, 
 near Newburgh. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 b In Dunfermline parish. — P. 
 
 c The following statements are contained in Sir J. Sinclair’s Stat. 
 Acc. vol. xiii. p. 468. “ From 80,000 to 90,000 tons of limestone are 
 quarried annually. It is partly manufactured into lime at the works, 
 and partly sold in the unburnt stone. About 12,000 tons of coal are 
 annually consumed in burning the lime.” This was in 1793 — 4. Has 
 there been no increase since then ? — P. 
 
 <i About 500,000 yards of linen are annually stamped at Cupar. 
 (Stat. Acc. 1790.)— P. 
 
 e It was long the residence of the Earls of Fife, and afterwards 
 became a national fortress. (Stat. Acc.) — The Thanes of Fife, from 
 the earliest times of which any account has been transmitted to us, 
 held their courts of justice at Cupar. (Gaz. Scot.) — P. 
 
 f The place, where, during the middle ages, the theatrical represen- 
 tations, called mysteries and moralities, were presented, was styled the 
 Plat (field. Arnot. in his Ilist. of Edinburgh, says, “that of Cupar in 
 Fife was on tire Castle-hill.” (Stat. Acc. xvii.) — In 1555, the esplanade 
 in front of the castle was appropriated for the performance sub dio of 
 Sir David Lindsay's Satire of tire Three Estates, a witty drama, 
 principally levelled at the clergy, and supposed to have had great 
 influence in bringing about the religious revolution, which soon after 
 ensued. (Chambers' Piet, of Scot. ii. 178.) — The same date (1555) is 
 give!, in the Stat. Acc., in which the Proclamation is inserted. The 
 first outbreak of the Reformation at Perth was in 1559. Sir D. Lind- 
 say is said to have written the Three Estates before 153G. (Gorton.) 
 His estate, called the Mount, was in the neighbourhood of Cupar. — P. 
 
 8 St. Andrews was the see of a bishop in the time of the Piets, at 
 least in the 9th century. It was erected into an archbishopric by 
 Sixtus IV. at the request of James III. during the incumbency of 
 Patrick Graham. This could not have been in 1441. James III was 
 born in 1452. Patrick Graham finished the. monastery of the Obser- 
 vantines in 1478. Sixtus IV. became pope in 1471. — P. 
 h It was begun in 1159, and finished in 1318, and was thus 159 years 
 
 are part.of the south side, of the east and west ends, and 
 the chapel of St. Regulus, of which the body and great 
 tower are still standing. * 1 The ancient castle, like the 
 cathedral, has now fallen into decay, but it is remember- 
 ed as the scene of many a struggle and many an act 
 of injustice. It may be sufficient to add that Cardinal 
 Beaton beheld from one of its windows the execution of 
 the reformer Wishart, whom he had unjustly condemned 
 to death, and before the same window the body of the 
 cardinal himself was exposed immediately after his 
 assassination. The principal church, which is sufficiently 
 large to hold between two and three thousand people, 
 contains the monument of Archbishop Sharpe, who was 
 murdered near the town by the covenanters, k an event 
 which is still recorded by rude sculptures on the walls. 1 
 The university of St. Andrews, the oldest in Scotland, 
 consisted originally of three colleges, St. Salvator’s, St. 
 Leonard’s, and St. Mary’s ; but the second has been 
 dissolved, and the first is set apart for the students of 
 divinity.” The number of students seldom exceeds three 
 hundred, and the university has been long known abroad 
 on account of the facility with which it confers degrees. 
 The same town carried on formerly a considerable trade, 
 and it possessed in the time of Charles the First from 
 thirty to forty vessels. It is now nowise remarkable for 
 commerce or industry. 
 
 Kirkaldy,® like St. Andrews, is the chief town of a dis- 
 trict; it is situated on the Frith of Forth about thirteen 
 miles to the north-east of Edinburgh. It consisted former- 
 ly of several lanes, communicating with a very long, narrow 
 and irregular street, but of late years improvements have 
 been made, and new streets and modern houses have been 
 erected.® The town, once a place of much more conse- 
 quence than at present, was a port of some importance so 
 early as the fourteenth century, when it was made over as a 
 burgh of regality to the abbot of Dunfermline by David the 
 Second.? It was afterwards raised to the rank of a royal 
 
 in building. It was destroyed in a single afternoon (June 1559) by a 
 mob, after having been excited by a sermon of John Knox against 
 idolatry. — P. 
 
 ‘ The only remains of the cathedral are part of the east and west 
 ends, and of the south side. (Ed. Enc.) — Both towers at the east end 
 are still standing. One only of the western towers now remains, and 
 a part of the west end of the outermost south wall. (Stat. Acc.) — The 
 chapel of St. Regulus (St. Rule’s chapel,) though near the cathe- 
 dral, was not a part of that edifice. It is said to have been erected by 
 Hergust, king of the Piets, for St. Regulus, a Greek monk, who land- 
 ed at St. Andrews, A. D. 370. The walls of the chapel, and its square 
 tower, still remain. The latter is in fine preservation. Its low 
 semicircular arches, and general style of architecture, indicate a great 
 antiquity. — P. 
 
 k On Magus moor, three miles west of St. Andrews, 1679. — P. 
 
 1 The monument is 30 feet high, and contains besides a Latin epi- 
 taph, a statue of the archbishop kneeling, and a bass-relief, on an 
 oblong marble slab, representing his murder. (Chambers’ Piet. 
 Scot.) — P. 
 
 m St Mary’s was appropriated to the study of theology in 1579, by 
 James VI. ; the university having been then remodelled by the cele- 
 brated Buchanan. It is therefore called the Divinity or New College. 
 In 1747, on a petition from the masters of St. Salvator’s and St. Leon- 
 ard’s, these two colleges were united by parliament into one society, 
 called tlie United College of St. Salvator’s and St. Leonard's. (Stat 
 Acc.)— P. 
 
 n Kirkcaldy, i. e. Kirk-Keldei, church of the Culdees. — P. 
 
 ° Kirkaldy, including Pathhead on the east, in Dysart parish, anu 
 Linktown on the west, in Abbotshall parish, all of which form one 
 continuous street, is about three miles in length.* The extremities of 
 this street are narrow, tortuous and ill-built, but in the middle it 
 expands to a noble breadth, and is almost perfectly straight, with tall 
 and elegant houses. (Chambers.) — P. 
 
 * From this circumstance, it is familiarly called “ the Lang Toun o’ Kirkaldy.’ 
 p A. D. 1334.— P. 
 
BOOK CLiVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 591 
 
 burgh, 3 * * and important privileges and immunities were con- 
 ferred on it. About a hundred vessels belonged to Kirkal- 
 dy during the reign of Charles the First, and evidence is 
 not wanting to shew that it was then more populous than 
 at present. The period of the civil war was the com- 
 mencement of its decline, and the inhabitants suffered so 
 much in consequence of their exertions in behalf of the 
 Parliament, that it was deemed necessary in 1682 to 
 present a petition for relief to the convention of royal 
 burghs. Its commerce, however, has revived since the 
 middle of the last century, and it now possesses about 
 eighty vessels, the burden of which amounts to 7000 
 tons. Its spinning-mills, linen manufactories and tan- 
 neries, a foundery, and a large distillery, afford em- 
 ployment to the poorer inhabitants. It may be add- 
 ed that the town was the birth-place of Adam Smith, 
 the author of the Wealth of Nations, and the first 
 person who raised political economy to the rank of a 
 science. 
 
 Dunfermline, the only other place that requires to be 
 mentioned, and the most important manufacturing town in 
 the county, is situated about fourteen miles to the west 
 of Kirkaldy, and more than four to the north of the 
 Frith of Forth. b The principal manufacture, and the 
 one in which nearly 1800 looms are employed, consists of 
 diaper and damask table linen ; the cotton manufacture, 
 which is now increasing, was introduced at a later period, 
 in consequence of the demand for such articles by the 
 manufacturers of Glasgow and Paisley. The same place 
 is memorable on account of its remains of royal and 
 ecclesiastical magnificence ; the sites of two palaces 
 have been discovered by antiquaries, 0 and the ancient 
 monastery is now in ruins. The last building founded by 
 Malcolm the Third, was much injured by Edward the 
 First, who quartered his troops in it during winter, d and 
 was finally desecrated at the Reformation. 6 The part 
 occupied by the chancel and transepts was lately trans- 
 formed into a Gothic church/ which accords ill with the 
 Saxon character still visible in the ruins . b While the 
 workmen were occupied in building the church, the 
 tomb and the remains of King Robert Bruce were 
 discovered. 
 
 “ Oppidulis pr(£cingitur” h are the terms used by 
 Buchanan in reference to the numerous small towns On 
 the northern shore of the Frith of Forth. These places 
 are now fallen into decay, but they derived their former 
 importance from the advantages of commerce, to which 
 the inhabitants had devoted themselves at a time when 
 it was almost unknown in most parts of . Scotland. 
 
 a In 1450, the commendator of the abbey, and the convent, disposed 
 of the burgh and harbour, with all their rights and privileges, to the 
 baillies and community of Kirkaldy, soon after which it was erected 
 into a royal burgh. (Stat. Acc.) — P. 
 
 b About 3 miles north of the Frith of Forth at Queensferry. (Ed. 
 Enc.) — This is the general statement. — P. 
 
 c The tower or castle of Malcolm III. (Canmore,) and a little S. E. 
 of it, a palace of later construction, in which James VI. resided. 
 Only a few fragments of these buildings remain. — P. 
 
 J A. D. 1303.— P. 
 
 c The Abbey of Dunfermline was founded for the Benedictines in 
 the 11th century, by Malcolm Canmore (Gaelic, crann-mor, great 
 head.) Edward I. destroyed all but the church and a few cells for the 
 monks. At the reformation, these cells, and the choir and transepts 
 of the church, were demolished, leaving only the nave, which was 
 used as the parish church till 1818, when the. choir and transepts were 
 restored, and the edifice thus completed. The nave, however, is of 
 heavy Saxon architecture, while the new structure appended to it, is 
 of light Gothic. (Chambers.) — P 
 
 f In 1818— P 
 
 The county of Forfar or Angus' is separated from 
 Fife by the Frith of Tay ; its boundaries are Aberdeen- 
 shire and Kincardineshire on ffie north, the German 
 Ocean on the east, the Frith of Tay on the south, and 
 Perthshire on the west. The superficial extent, accord- 
 ing to the lowest computation, is upwards of 840 miles, 
 and the population by the last census amounts to 139,606 
 individuals. 
 
 It may here be remarked that what is popularly 
 termed the east coast of Scotland comprehends that 
 part of the country between the friths of Tay and Mo- 
 ray ; it forms a sort of large plain, which descends 
 from the Grampians to the sea, and includes the coun- 
 ties of Forfar, Kincardine and Aberdeen. The north- 
 ern division, or more than a third part of Forfarshire, 
 is covered by the Grampians ; but the heights are 
 not bold or precipitous, their summits are generally 
 rounded, and Catlaw, the loftiest in the county, is 
 not more than 2264 feet above the level of the sea. k 
 The same hills are covered with a thin stratum of 
 moorish soil bearing heath and coarse herbage. They 
 are intersected by small vallies, watered by rivulets that 
 are enlarged in their course towards the south-east by 
 streams or torrents from the heights. * 1 * The Sidlaw hills, 
 a parallel and a lower range, situated on the south of the 
 Grampians, attain in some places an elevation of fourteen 
 hundred feet. 
 
 Strathmore, or the Great Valley, as its name signifies 
 in Gaelic, m is situated between these two divisions, reach- 
 ing in length a distance of thirty-three miles, n with a 
 breadth varying from four to six. This part of it is 
 commonly called the How of Angus, but the whole of 
 Strathmore stretches from Stonehaven to Perth, and is 
 prolonged by the vale or strath of the Earn, a distance 
 of about 112 miles. 0 If lime for manure, and coal for 
 fuel were more abundant in this tract, it might become 
 equally important as an agricultural and manufacturing 
 district. The How of Angus, the most fruitful division 
 of the. county, is diversified by corn fields, plantations 
 and villages, and no part of it is much higher than 200 
 feet above the level of the sea. It has been at different 
 times proposed to carry a canal through the district, and 
 to prolong it to Dumbarton, and thus to unite the three 
 great rivers of Scotland, the Forth, the Tay and the 
 Clyde. This enterprise, too vast for the means of the 
 proprietors, is not likely to be realized without the 
 assistance of government. The fourth and the last 
 division extends from the Sidlaw hills to the German 
 Ocean on the east, and the Frith of Tay on the south 
 
 e In the nave. — P. 
 
 h It is girt by a belt of little towns. 
 
 > Forfarshire or Angus-shire. 
 
 k The Braes of Angus [Grampians] in some places possess an eleva 
 tion of nearly 3000 feet. (Ed. Enc.) — Catlaw is on the northern 
 border of the parish of Kingoldrum, and near the southern skirt 
 of the Grampians. — P. 
 
 1 The principal rivers of the county rise in the Grampians, viz. the 
 North and South Esk, which flow south-east into the German Sea, 
 and the Isla, which flows west into the Tay. In their descent from 
 the mountains, they receive numerous branches. — P. 
 
 m The Gaelic term Strath is applied to a wide, open valley, and that 
 of Glen to a deep and narrow one. — P. 
 
 n This only includes that part of the valley within the county. — P. 
 
 0 The distance from Stonehaven to Perth, by the post-road through 
 the strath, is 67 miles; from Perth to Stirling, 38 miles. (Gaz. Scot. 
 
 Roads.) — The distance from Stonehaven to Stirling is thus 105 miles. 
 
 The writer probably intends to include in this distance of 112 miles 
 the whole length of the valley from Dumbarton to Stonehaven. — P. 
 
592 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CL, VI. 
 
 The principal towns are situated in this part of Forfar- 
 shire, which occupies nearly a fourth part of the county, 
 and is on the whole fruitful and well cultivated. 
 
 Granite, micaceous Sfchistus and porphyry are the most 
 common minerals in the Grampian district. The Sidlaw 
 hills are chiefly composed of sandstone of different 
 colours, and in some places, susceptible of a high polish. 
 Shell marl, which is much used, abounds in different 
 parts, particularly in the lochs near the base of the 
 Grampians, on the Sidlaw hills, in the parish of Kirrie- 
 muir, and in the neighbourhood of Forfar. a The most 
 important lime-works are in the maritime division, at 
 Heddenvick near Montrose, b and in the parish of Craig 
 on the sea-shore. c 
 
 None of the streams can be dignified with the name 
 of rivers. The North Esk issues from Lochlee, flows 
 eastwards, and then bends towards the south-east, when 
 it forms the boundary between the county and Kincar- 
 dineshire, and falls into the sea about three miles to the 
 north-east of Montrose. The South Esk rises from the 
 Grampians in the north-western part of the county, 
 waters Brechin, and discharges itself into the basin of 
 Montrose, about five miles from the mouth of the 
 North Esk. d 
 
 The five royal burghs of Forfar, Dundee, Arbroath, 
 Montrose and Brechin are situated in the county of For- 
 far. Dundee, the most important of any, occupies the 
 site of the ancient Alectum , and according to tradition, 
 it was called Donum-Dei in 1 189, by the Earl of 
 Huntingdon, in gratitude for his miraculous escape from 
 shipwreck on his return from the third crusade. The 
 town is situated on the northern bank of the Tay, about 
 twelve miles from its mouth. It contained a population 
 of 30,575 souls in 1820, e and the number amounts at 
 present to nearly 40,000. Public buildings, warehouses, 
 and whole streets, consisting of new houses, are the 
 proofs of its modern prosperity. It possessed upwards 
 of 170 vessels in 1820, measuring nearly 18,000 tons; 
 they are employed in the foreign and coasting trade, and 
 in the Greenland fisheries. The docks are left dry at 
 low water, and the port is not free from inconvenience. 
 The mouth of the frith is comparatively narrow, and 
 the tide at its entrance rushes with considerable force, 
 and carries along with it a great quantity of sand. 
 But as the channel becomes broader, the velocity of the 
 
 a Shell marl is found in great abundance in the bottoms of lochs and 
 mosses, in that part of Strathmore, extending west from Aberlemno. 
 It is found in Balrie moss in Airley parish, and in the Loch of Kinnordy 
 and the moss of Logie in Kirriemuir parish, all of which are near the 
 base of the Grampians ; also in the moss of Meigle along the south of 
 the Dean, but most abundantly in a chain of small lakes near Forfar, 
 viz. the Loch of Forfar, which flows into the Dean, and the Lochs of 
 Restenet, Reseobie and Balgavies, which flow into the Lunan. The 
 Dean flows west into the Isla, a branch of the Tay, and the Lunan into 
 the sea south of Montrose, thus showing the great uniformity of level 
 in Strathmore. The two first of these lochs had been drained (1791.) 
 and the marl was obtained from the others by dragging. (Stat. 
 Acc.) — P. 
 
 b In the parish of Montrose. This lime-work is not mentioned in 
 the Stat. Acc. — In 1793, there were extensive lime-works in the parish 
 of Pert, on the North Esk, near its mouth. (Stat. Acc.) — P. 
 
 c At Bodden, on a small point on the north side of the bay of 
 Lunan. — P. 
 
 <> The South Esk, about two miles from its mouth, expands into the 
 basin of Montrose, and contracting opposite the town of Montrose, 
 enters the sea about three miles from the mouth of the North 
 Esk.— P. 
 
 ' In 1801, 26,084 ; in 1811, 29.610.— P. 
 
 f C. Dupin, Force Commerciale, vol. ii. 
 
 g The principal channel of the Tay is on the south side, near the 
 
 current is diminished, and sand, which was held in sus- 
 pension, is deposited, and forms large banks or shallows 
 in the neighbourhood of the town. When the tide ebbs, 
 the waters take necessarily a contrary direction, and 
 carry along with them much mud from the upper part of 
 the river. A ballast machine, worked by a steam- 
 engine, is used for clearing the harbour, which otherwise 
 might be obstructed with alternate deposits of sand and 
 mud at every flux and reflux of the tide/s Two light- 
 houses, built at the expense of the town, have been 
 erected on the sands of Barry ; the one consists of 
 stone, and the other of wood ; the one is about sixty, 
 and the other about forty feet in height. The light in the 
 latter is shifted so as to correspond with the changes 
 that often occur in the sands, and the mariners, who 
 enter the frith, make it a rule to keep both lights in a line. h 
 The principal manufactures are osnaburghs or coarse 
 linen, thread, gloves, canvas and cordage.’ As the 
 demand for sail-cloth has been less since the peace, 
 many manufacturers have adopted the expedient of 
 spinning finer thread, which is made into cloth for 
 domestic purposes. 
 
 Arbroath or Aberbrothwick k is, after Dundee, the most 
 commercial town in Angus. It is situated about eigh- 
 teen miles to the north-east of Dundee, and the inhabit- 
 ants are engaged in the same sort of industry ; they are 
 employed in making sail-cloth and coarse linen ; indeed 
 there are upwards of one hundred factories in Forfarshire 
 for spinning and weaving the thread for that purpose. 
 The harbour is built in the form of a rectangle, and 
 is defended from the sea by a wall of hewn stone on 
 the north, and a pier on the south. In this part of the 
 town are the house inhaoited by the keepers of the cel- 
 ebrated light-house on the Bell Rock, and the signal 
 tower by which the keepers on shore correspond with 
 those on duty. The Inch Cape or Bell Rock is situated 
 about twelve miles to the south-east of Arbroath, and 
 about thirty to the north-east of St. Abb’s Head in 
 Berwickshire. It may be seen from the charts of the 
 coast that it lies in the direct track of the shipping on 
 the Frith of Tay, and of the greater proportion on the 
 Frith of Forth, embracing not only the extensive local 
 trade of many populous counties, but forming the princi- 
 pal inlet on the eastern coast of Britain, in which -the 
 shipping on the German Ocean and the North Sea take 
 
 shore of Fife. The sand banks, which are numerous between Dundee 
 and Errol on the west, in which distance the river is from two to three 
 miles wide, are on the north side. The shore on that side, along the 
 Carse of Gowrie, consists of light earth, subject to continual encroach- 
 ment from the river, which thus adds to the obstructions. The harbour 
 was formerly cleared by a basin, left open at low water, and afterwards by 
 opening arched passages in the piers, by which rapid currents were 
 produced, which carried off the sand and mud deposited. (Stat. 
 Acc. viii.) — P. 
 
 h The channel at the entrance of the Tay is about a mile broad, 
 between two sand banks running out from the shores on the north and 
 south. These sands are frequently shifting, from nearly the same 
 causes that vary the bed of the river. The two light houses are erected 
 on the flood mark on the sandy downs or links, at the mouth of the 
 river, in the parish of Barrie. The larger, or stationary light, is a cir- 
 cular stone building erected on piles ; the smaller is a moveable wood- 
 en building, raised on rollers. This is shifted, when necessary, so that 
 the two lights may be always in the same line with the entrance of the 
 river, and so that when they appear as one, the mariner may be sure of 
 his safety. The expense oi the lights is defrayed by a small tonnage 
 duty on all vessels entering the Tay. (Stat. Acc. viii. Malham’s Nav 
 Gaz. ii.) — P. 
 
 ' Cotton bagging is extensively manufacture.d. — P. 
 
 k Aberbrotliock, mouth of the Brothock, so called from its situation 
 at the mouth of a small river of that name. — P. 
 
f 
 
 BOOK CL, Vi ] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 593 
 
 refuge from easterly storms. During the quadratures 
 when the sea does not fall so low at the reflux, the rocks 
 can hardly be distinguished, but in spring tides when the 
 ebbs are greatest, the part visible at low water is 142 
 yards in length, 70 in breadth, and aboutl. 1 feet in height. 
 A chain of rocks still lower and almost contiguous to the 
 last extends to the distance of nearly two miles. a Accord- 
 ing to a tradition, which does not appear very probable, 
 a large bell was erected in the fourteenth century by the 
 monks of Arbroath, on the principal rock in this vast reef. 
 Mariners were thus warned of their danger, and the name 
 of the Bell Rock serves still to commemorate the benev- 
 olent labour of the monks. The light-house that has 
 lately been erected on the Bell Rock, is an extraordinary 
 monument of its kind, more so in some respects than the 
 celebrated Pharos of Alexandria, the tower of Cordouan b 
 at the entrance of the Garonne, or the far-famed Eddy- 
 stone light-house for independently of its distance from 
 the land, the obstacle arising from the depth of water at 
 which the operations were commenced, was greater than 
 in any other work of the same sort. It was begun in 
 1807, and finished in 1811.° The light from it, when 
 the sky is serene, may be distinctly seen at the distance 
 of eight leagues. As the only mode of warning mari- 
 ners of their danger in dark and cloudy weather, when 
 neither the building nor the lamps can be distinguished, 
 two large bells, each weighing 1324 pounds, are tolled 
 day and night by means of the machinery that sets the 
 reflectors in motion. 
 
 Montrose, about twelve miles from Arbroath, is the 
 first port on the north of it. It is situated on a flat and 
 sandy peninsula, formed by the German Ocean, the 
 South Esk, and a large expanse of water, called the 
 Basin. A handsome wooden bridge has lately been 
 erected across the river to the island of Inchbrayrayock, 
 which, together with the stone bridge from the island to the 
 shore, opens a communication on the south. The quay 
 commences beyond the wooden bridge on the side front- 
 ing the sea, d and vessels of three or four hundred tons 
 can reach it at high water. The harbour of Montrose 
 reckons 150 vessels, measuring nearly 13,000 tons ; they 
 are chiefly employed in the coasting and Baltic trade, and 
 in the whale fishery. Their number, it may be added, is 
 rapidly increasing, and Montrose is rising in importance. 
 The population amounts to 10,000 inhabitants, and the 
 products of industry are the same as those of Dundee. e 
 
 Brechin and Forfar, the only other towns in the 
 county, are of minor importance; the first claims the 
 
 a The rock extends from north-east to south-west, in the direction of 
 the sandstone strata, and consists of an upper and lower level. The 
 former measures, at low water of spring tides, 427 feet in length, and 
 230 in breadth. The lower, on the south-west, which appeals only at 
 the ebb of spring tides, and then is not entirely bare, extends 1700 
 feet in length, making the whole length of the rock, visible at that time, 
 2127 feet. During spring tides, the higher level is about four feet 
 above water at ebb, and the lower level just visible ; while at flood, 
 the higher level is about twelve feet under water. During neap 
 tides, which are six or seven feet less than the springtides, the higher 
 level is two or three feet under water at ebb. On the south-west, a 
 reef extends under water, so that at the distance of a mile, there is 
 only 4 or 5 fathoms. In other directions, particularly on the south- 
 east, in the direction of the dip of the strata, the depth increases more 
 rapidly, so as to be 3 fathoms at 100 yards, and 18 to 22 fathoms at a 
 mi'e’s distance. (Ed. Enc. Malham’s Nav. Gaz.) — P. 
 
 1 Tour de Cordouan. — P. 
 
 c The work was begun by Mr. Stevenson, the architect, Aug. 17, 
 1807, and the light was first exhibited, Feb. 1, 1811. — P. 
 
 d On the side towards the sea. The South Esk enters the sea about 
 two miles below the bridge. — P. 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 60. 75 
 
 rank of capital, but the sheriff courts are held in the 
 second/ Brechin is situated about eight miles to the 
 west of Montrose, on the side of a hill, the base of which 
 is washed by the South Esk.s It is remarkable for its 
 antiquity ; it was formerly walled, and some relics of its 
 fortifications may be still discovered.' * 1 It was twice de- 
 stroyed by fire, once by the Danes in 1012, and a second 
 time by the Marquis of Montrose in 1645. It was 
 erected into an episcopal see by David the First in 1150, 
 and the present parish church occupies the west end of 
 the ancient cathedral. 1 
 
 Kincardineshire, or, as it is frequently called, the 
 Mearns, is contiguous to the German Ocean on the east, to 
 the river Dee and Aberdeenshire on the north, and to 
 the county of Forfar on the west and south. It is of a 
 triangular form, and contains 380 square miles, exclu- 
 sively of three square miles of lakes. According to the 
 last returns, the population amounted to 31,431 individ- 
 uals ; so that the average number to every square mile 
 is upwards of 82, a greater proportion than might have 
 been anticipated from the scarcity of minerals, and the 
 nature of the soil. 
 
 More than half the surface is made up of hills and 
 heaths of little value ; little more than a fourth part of 
 it is cultivated. A third of the area is covered with the 
 Grampians, which, crossing the whole breadth of the 
 county from east to west, are sterile, rugged, and very 
 thinly inhabited. Hills of five or six hundred feet may 
 be observed within three miles of the coast in this 
 mountainous tract ; and at the western extremity of the 
 county, about twenty miles from the sea, Mount Battock, 
 the loftiest in Kincardineshire, rises to the height of 
 3500 feet. 
 
 Lime is by no means abundant, and there is no coal in 
 the county. Native iron has been found in detached 
 pieces in the parish of Fettercairn, where no indications 
 of iron have been discovered. Granite, basalt, pudding- 
 stone, and sandstone are the prevailing rocks. The 
 Grampians are mostly composed of the first, which is 
 scattered over the surface, and much of the soil in that 
 part of the county is formed from the decomposition of 
 granite. A very fruitful soil, consisting of decomposed 
 basalt or rotten rock, as it is popularly called, extends 
 along the coast on the south of Stonehaven. Pudding- 
 stone abounds in the same quarter, and is formed into mill- 
 stones. Sandstone prevails in the tract along the coast, 
 and also in the How of the Mearns, which is covered with 
 loam of various qualities, none of which are unfruitful. 
 
 e The principal manufactures are sail-cloth, sheeting and linen. (Ed. 
 Enc.) — P. 
 
 f Brechin was formerly the county town, and the see of a bishopric. 
 Forfar is at present the county town, where the courts and other public 
 meetings of the county are held. The sheriff courts have been held 
 in Forfar for more than 200 years. (Stat. Acc.) — P. 
 
 s On the north bank of the South Esk, over which there is a stone 
 bridge. — P. 
 
 11 It was formerly walled about, and some relics of the ancient gates 
 still remain. (Gaz. Scot.) — Brechin informer times had ports or gates 
 at the different entries of the city. Some vestiges of them are extant, 
 and the names of North, South and West Port still remain. (Stat. 
 Acc. xxi. App.) — P. 
 
 “ The chancel (east end) of the cathedral was destroyed at the 
 Reformation, as being defiled by the idolatries of the mass; the nave 
 (west end) was converted into the parish church, and has lately been 
 repaired. At one of its corners rises the steeple, an elegant square 
 tower, 120 feet high. The round tower of Brechin, called the little 
 steeple, stands near the church, and is a remarkable specimen of an- 
 tiquity ; there being only one other structure of the kind in Scotland, 
 a smaller one at Abernethy in Perthshire The tower of Brechin is 80 
 feet high, with an octagonal spire of 23 feet — in all 103 feet. — P. 
 
594 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK Cl. VI. 
 
 Although the county is watered by numerous streams, 
 the only rivers of any consequence are the North Esk 
 and the Dee ; a the first, it has been remarked, forms the 
 boundary between the county and Angus-shire, and the 
 second, which flows about eight miles through the northern 
 part of Kincardineshire, separates it from Aberdeenshire. b 
 The Loch of Drum, and the Loch of Leys, are situated 
 on Dee side or in the northern district ; c the latter is 
 remarkable on account of an artificial island, founded on 
 piles of oak, and crowned with the ruins of an edifice 
 concerning which tradition is silent. 
 
 The towns and villages are small, and their manufac- 
 tures are inconsiderable. Stonehaven, Stonehive or 
 Rockharbour is situated on the coast about fourteen 
 miles from Aberdeen. It contains about two thousand 
 inhabitants, who are partly employed in rope-making, 
 and in the manufacture of canvass and osnaburghs. The 
 harbour is well sheltered, and formed by a natural gap 
 between the rocks ; but it has not sufficient depth of 
 water. The commerce of the county, besides its trade 
 in sheep and cattle, consists in the import of timber, 
 coal and lime, and the export of grain and fish. The 
 ports by which the trade is carried on are Stonehaven, 
 Johnshaven, and Gourdon. Lastly, the village of Lau- 
 rencekirk, in the centre of the county, is noted for its 
 wooden snuff-boxes. 
 
 The German Ocean washes Aberdeenshire on the north 
 and east ; it is contiguous to the counties of Kincardine, 
 Forfar and Perth on the south, and to those of Inverness, 
 Moray and Banff on the west. The greatest length is 
 about eighty-five miles, and the greatest breadth nearly 
 forty ; the boundary line is upwards of 280 miles, and of 
 these sixty extend along the coast. The area of the 
 county is not less than 1960 square miles, or nearly a 
 sixteenth part of Scotland. The total population, by 
 f he last returns, amounts to 177,651 individuals. 
 
 It is made up of five divisions. 11 Marr comprehends 
 the district between the Dee and the Don, and a consid- 
 erable tract on the south of the Dee. It is the loftiest 
 part of Aberdeenshire ; few of the bounding lines are 
 lower than 3000, and some of them are higher than 
 4000 feet above the level of the sea. Formartin, or 
 the second division, includes in a distance of ten miles 
 all the lands between the Don and the Ythan, and ex- 
 tends beyond the last river to the banks of the Deveron.® 
 The land on the coast is low and fruitful ; but beyond it, 
 and at no great distance from the sea, hills and mosses 
 are spread over the country. Buchan, after Marr, the 
 largest division in Aberdeenshire, extends along the 
 eastern coast, and a considerable portion of it has been 
 
 a The only other river of importance is the Bervie Water. It rises 
 in the Grampians in the northern part of Glenbervie, then flows south 
 across the How, and passing through the trap range along the coast, by 
 a pleasant valley, enters the sea at the town of Inverbervie. — P. 
 
 b The Dee rises at the head of Braemar, and after flowing east in 
 Aberdeenshire, about 53 miles, crosses a projection of Kincardineshire 
 on the north for eight miles, and then forms the boundary between 
 the two counties for fourteen miles, till it enters the sea below Aber- 
 deen. Its course is nearly due east for 75 miles. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 c These two lochs are each about three miles in circumference, and 
 are situated on the north side of the Dee, with which they communi- 
 cate, in a tract of low grounds and mosses, running parallel to the 
 river, at one or two miles distance, and in the parish of Ban- 
 chory Taman, which includes that part of the county, north of the 
 Dec. — P. 
 
 d The divisions, here mentioned, are ancient. — Aberdeenshire is at 
 present divided into eight civil divisions viz. the districts of Kincar- 
 
 improved and rendered productive by labour. Several 
 fruitful vallies are scattered over Garioch, or the district 
 surrounded by Marr, Formartin and Strathbogie. Strath- 
 bogie, or the last division, about 150 square miles in 
 extent, derives its name from that of the river which 
 waters it, and consists mostly of hills, mosses and moors. 
 Although the eastern coast is flat, Aberdeenshire, it has 
 been seen, is a high country, and in the south-western 
 or largest division, some of the heights are little inferior 
 to any in Scotland. 
 
 Of the numerous straths or vallies in different parts of 
 the county, several are comparatively large and fruitful ; 
 but although Aberdeenshire has participated in the im- 
 provements of modern husbandry, and although the best 
 rotations are now followed, the wealth of the farmer con- 
 sists in his cattle, not in his corn. The number of oxen 
 is supposed to be about 120,000, and the sales in 
 England and the south of Scotland, amounting to more 
 than 12,000, are estimated to bring L. 150,000 an- 
 nually. 
 
 The fishings on the coasts and rivers, together with the 
 Greenland whale fishery, which has been lately much ex- 
 tended, form an important branch of trade, of which the 
 revenue is not less than L.80,000 or L. 100,000. 
 
 The minerals are not the most valuable ; no coal has 
 been discovered, and limestone is not obtained in suffi- 
 cient quantities. The mountains of Braemar are famed 
 for their precious stones or cairngorums / which are sought 
 by the country-people in the summer season, and sold to 
 the London jewellers. Manganese is found near Aber- 
 deen, and black-lead in the neighbourhood of Huntly. 
 Granite, however, is the most valuable as well as the 
 most abundant mineral ; and in preparing the land for 
 tillage, granite stones, amounting in value to L.40 or 
 L.50, are sometimes collected from an acre, and shipped 
 to London, where they are used in paving the streets. 
 The total quantity exported from the county yields a 
 yearly revenue of more than L.40, 000, and seventy 
 vessels of 7000 tons, and manned by 4000 sailors, are 
 employed in transporting it to England. 
 
 The Dee and the Don, the principal rivers, receive the 
 waters of a great many tributary streams, and empty 
 themselves into the sea at no great distance from each 
 other. Old Aberdeen is situated on the Don ; the 
 modern town, or New Aberdeen, on the Dee ; they are 
 little more than a mile distant from each other, and their 
 united population is upwards of 50,000 souls. The 
 churches, some of which were almost destroyed by the 
 reformers, and King’s college, which was formerly under 
 the direction of the celebrated Boelius,® are situated in 
 
 dine O’Neil (in the south-west,) Garioch, Alford (on the upper part of 
 the Don,) Strathbogie, Turrefl'(in the north-west,) Deer (in the north- 
 east,) Ellon (in the east.) and Aberdeen (in the south-east.) (Gaz. 
 Scot.) — That part of the county, in the neighbourhood of the town of 
 Aberdeen, is sometimes called Aberdeen Proper; but Aberdeen was 
 properly in Mar. — P. 
 
 e Formartin lies on the east coast, between the rivers Don and 
 Ythan, and stretches across the whole county, from S. E. to N. W., 
 at an average breadth of about ten miles, till it reaches the Deveron. 
 (Sinclair’s Gen. Rep.) — P. 
 
 f Cairngorm stones, so called from the mountain of Cairngorm (blue 
 mountain.) They are properly rock crystals, (brown and yellow,) 
 topazes (blue, white and brown) and beryls ; the latter rare, the others 
 abundant. The yellow rock crystals have been called topazes ; other 
 specimens, emeralds and amethysts. — P. 
 
 s Hector Boece or Boies (Boethius,) a native of Dundee — first prin- 
 cipal of King’s College. — P. 
 
BOOK CIiVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 595 
 
 Old Aberdeen. 1 II The town was erected into a bishopric 
 or city in the year 1153 by the translation of the epis- 
 copal see of Mortlach in Banffshire, and the college was 
 endowed more than three hundred years afterwards by 
 Bishop Elphinstone. b The library, which contains about 
 15,000 volumes, is entitled to a copy of every work 
 entered in stationers’ hall. Marischal college, which is 
 situated in the new town, was founded in 1593 by 
 George, Earl Marischal of Scotland. The buildings, 
 which occupy a considerable area, are very irregular, in 
 consequence of having been erected at different periods. 
 The observatory, which was lately built, commands an 
 extensive view of the horizon; and the cabinet of 
 natural philosophy belonging to the college, is considered 
 one of the finest in Scotland. It must be observed, 
 however, that the number of young men attending the 
 two colleges, is much less than might have been expected 
 from the eminence or zeal of the professors, the system 
 of tuition and the advantages afforded to the students. 
 
 New Aberdeen is in a far more flourishing condition 
 than the old town. It is spacious and well built, and the 
 stranger observes everywhere the signs of extension and 
 improvement. 0 The principal streets are adorned with 
 fountains; and the bridges, edifices and houses are mostly 
 built of granite. d The cause of so much prosperity 
 must be attributed to the commerce and industry of the 
 inhabitants.® The entrance into the Don, below Old 
 Aberdeen, is almost closed by a bank, which affords only 
 a passage for small boats. This obstruction has occa- 
 sioned the gradual migration of the citizens from the old 
 to the new town on the banks of the Dee ; and even 
 there the harbour was long rendered difficult of access 
 by the sand and alluvial deposits of the river/ an incon- 
 venience which is now removed. A mole on the left 
 bank of the river, extending in the direction of N. N. 
 E., and originally built by Mr. Smeaton, has been 
 lengthened nearly 300 yards ; its breadth, at the summit, 
 is six yards, and its total length 492. A light-house on 
 the mole, shows the entrance into the harbour ; and a 
 break-water has been constructed on the opposite bank 
 of the river. But notwithstanding these works, vessels, 
 when the winds are contrary, are often liable to run 
 
 I The construction requires it to be understood, that the churches, or 
 at least those, some of which were almost destroyed by the reformers, 
 are situated in Old Aberdeen. In Old Aberdeen, before the Reforma- 
 tion, was a large cathedral, dedicated to St. Machar, of which there re- 
 mains only the aisle (converted into the parish church of Old Machar, 
 the parish including the burgh of Old Aberdeen.) In New Aberdeen, 
 there were at the same period, besides the ancient parish church of St. 
 Nicholas (rebuilt about 1750,) four chapels, two of which were occu- 
 pied in 1797, as places of worsliip, and five monasteries. (Stat. Acc.) 
 In 1830, there were twenty-six places of worship, of all denominations, 
 in Aberdeen (nearly all in New Aberdeen.) (Chambers.) — P. 
 
 II The college was founded by Bishop Elphinstone in 1505. The 
 bull of institution was issued by Pope Alexander VI. in 1494. The 
 charter was granted by James IV. in 1497. — P. 
 
 c The expenses attending the various public improvements have been 
 such as to create a deficiency in the burgh funds, of not less than 
 L.4000 per annum, and eventually to place its whole property in the 
 hands of trustees. (Bell’s Geog. iii. 213.) — P. 
 
 d Immense quantities of granite and sienite are quarried in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Aberdeen. — In 1821, there were exported 41,000 tons of 
 stone, the value of which was upwards of L.40,000. (Bell. Idem.) — P. 
 
 e New Aberdeen is extensively engaged in manufactures. These 
 consist chiefly of linen, woollen and cotton — also hosiery and carpeting ; 
 coarse yarn spun by machinery, partly exported, and partly worked into 
 canvass and sheeting — also iron founderies, and several large brew- 
 eries. (Bell. Idem.) — The manufacture of knit woollen stockings was 
 formerly the most important in Aberdeen. The wool was chiefly im- 
 ported by the Aberdeen merchants from England, and after having 
 
 ashore, so much is the neighbouring coast exposed to 
 the waves of the North Sea, and to the current of the 
 Dee, which runs to the south. An extensive quay has 
 been erected above the mole, and it is partly lined with 
 large buildings for the preparation of train oil ; beyond 
 the same quay are situated the downs, which com- 
 mand the beach between the two Aberdeens. 
 
 Aberdeen holds a high rank among the industrious 
 towns in Scotland ; its principal manufactures consist of 
 cotton, linen and woollen goods ; one of the largest flax 
 manufactories in the country has been established on the 
 Don, and the manufacture of cotton affords employment 
 to more than a thousand inhabitants. Three hundred 
 and fifty vessels, of 400,000 tons, belong to the port, 
 and they are employed in the different fisheries, and in 
 the foreign and coasting trade. Lastly, a navigable 
 canal, eighteen miles in length, passes from Aberdeen to 
 Inverury/ and the products of the country in the neigh- 
 bourhood are thus conveyed to the town. 
 
 No towns of any importance are situated in the inte- 
 rior of the county. 1 * If we continue our journey north- 
 wards from Aberdeen, along the coast, we pass the vil- 
 lage of Newburgh, at the mouth of the Ythan, a river 
 formerly celebrated on account of its pearl fisheries. 1 
 Peterhead, the most easterly point of Scotland, is situ- 
 ated to the north-north-east of the last place. The 
 town contains nearly 7000 inhabitants, and is built on 
 the edge of an extensive bay, which affords good anchor- 
 age to ships of all sizes. Besides the old harbour on 
 the south, a new one has been erected on the north, so 
 that, whatever be the direction of the wind, vessels can 
 now enter Peterhead. The governors of the Merchant 
 Maiden Hospital in Edinburgh, are the trustees of the 
 harbour, and they have expended L. 15,000 on these 
 works. The commissioners of public roads in the 
 Highlands, have applied a like sum for the same pur- 
 pose, from the funds placed at their disposal by parlia- 
 ment. Cape Kinnaird k is situated to the north-west of 
 Peterhead, and the harbour of Fraserburgh has been 
 built at its base. The townsmen subscribed L.5620 for 
 the repairs of the harbour, and an equal sum was grant- 
 ed by the road commissioners. The jetty has in con- 
 
 been prepared, was distributed by agents, throughout the north-eastern 
 counties, particularly Aberdeenshire and the adjoining part of the 
 Mearns. The stockings were knit by hand, by the women, children 
 and aged persons, and were returned hy the same agents to Aberdeen, 
 where the trade centred. In 1797, not less than 30,000 persons were 
 occasionally employed in spinning and knitting, and the amount an- 
 nually exported was estimated at L. 103, 000. (Stat. Acc.) L. 183, 000. 
 (Gaz. Scot. 1803.) — P. 
 
 f By a bar of sand, which was perpetually shifting its situation. 
 (Ed. Enc.)— P. 
 
 s The canal commences in the harbour of Aberdeen, and crossing 
 to the valley of the Don, proceeds up that river to Inverury, an ancient 
 royal burgh, at the confluence of the Don and the Ury. The rise is 
 169 feet by 17 locks, 15 of which are near Aberdeen. It might be 
 extended 12 miles farther on a level. (Ed. Enc.) — It was originally 
 proposed to continue it up the Don to Monyinusk, with a branch up 
 the Ury, through Garioch, to Insch. (Stat. Acc.) — P. 
 
 h The only other royal burghs in the county, besides Aberdeen, are 
 situated near each other, on the Don, viz. Kintore, on the south bank 
 of the river, and Inverury, a little above, on a point of land at the 
 confluence of the Don and Ury. They are decayed places, of little 
 importance. — P. 
 
 ' The Ythan is chiefly noted for the large pearls, which its muscles 
 produce, some of which have been sold as high as L.3 sterling. 
 (Gaz. Scot.) — P. 
 
 k Kinnaird’s Head — an elevated promontory, at the north-eastern 
 point of Aberdeenshire. A light-house is erected on it. Fraserburgh is 
 situated on the south side. — P 
 
r 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 596 
 
 sequence been prolonged to the distance of 146 yards 
 from low water mark ; and so much advantage has re- 
 sulted from this improvement, that additional subscrip- 
 tions have been levied among the inhabitants, to com- 
 plete the harbour, which is now one of the safest and 
 the best on the eastern coast. 
 
 Almost all the country through which we have travel- 
 led, and which extends from the Solway Frith to the 
 Grampians, has been denominated the Lowlands of Scot- 
 land. The remaining portion, or the Highlands, is 
 widely different. The inhabitants wear a different dress; 
 they speak a different language ; they are of a different 
 origin. The government of petty chiefs, and the evils 
 of the feudal system, a system long established and 
 abolished at a comparatively recent period, have had 
 their influence on the character of the people, and the 
 Highlander is not perhaps less distinguished by cunning 
 and servility, than he confessedly is by courage. The 
 latter is the virtue of a military vassal, and the former 
 arose necessarily in a small community, of which the 
 different members held small portions of land at the will 
 of a barbarous chief, who exercised almost despotic 
 authority over their property and their lives. Com- 
 merce, and every sort of industry, except that of raising 
 a scanty subsistence from the ground, or from rearing 
 cattle, were almost unknown in the period of which 
 we speak, and if bleakness and sterility are not less 
 characteristic of the Highlands than “ the mountain 
 and the flood,” it is not wonderful that the infe- 
 rior condition of the people is evinced in their miser- 
 able cottages, or rather hovels, in their wretched cloth- 
 ing, and still more wretched food, and in the absence of 
 comforts, in which the lower classes throughout other 
 parts of Scotland participate. All the causes by which 
 civilization has been retarded, no longer exist, but the 
 effects of those causes are still apparent, and there is 
 reason to believe that the best means have not hitherto 
 been employed for so desirable an end as the moral and 
 intellectual improvement of the inhabitants. The sub- 
 ject may be afterwards more fully examined, but it may 
 be remarked that a hundred years have not yet elapsed 
 since the tyranny of petty chiefs was at its height, or 
 since the great bulwarks of English liberty afforded no 
 protection in the Highlands against “ the speedy course 
 of feudal justice.” Many traces of the state of society 
 under such a system 1 are still conspicuous, and a long 
 period may pass away ere they are wholly effaced. It 
 was the object of every proprietor to divide his lands 
 into as many small farms as possible, a custom by which 
 the number of his retainers was increased, and which 
 was rendered necessary by the manner of life, the habits 
 and inclinations of the people. The farms were thus 
 
 a Previous to 1745, or before the abolition of heritable jurisdic- 
 tions. — P. 
 
 h A tenure formerly prevailed very generally in Scotland, called in 
 the Lowlands, run-rig , or rig aiul rennet , by which a large farm or 
 town was held in common by a number of tenants, who divided the 
 arable land into narrow ridges or small portions, which were so allot- 
 ted that their individual possessions were intermingled, and these, 
 too, were alternated from year to year. This tenure was particularly 
 prevalent in those parts of the country exposed to military or preda- 
 tory incursions, as on the English and Highland borders. This prac- 
 tice even continued in some parts, till the close of the last century. 
 (Stat. Acc.) — P. 
 
 c Gaelic (Scotch and Irish) bailc (plu. bailte), a town or city — also a 
 manor or township. (Manks, bailey, plu. baljyn.) This word is the 
 
 (BOOK CLVI. 
 
 possessed by joint tenants. 11 of which the number was 
 regulated by the quantity of food that could be raised 
 from the land. The larger farms occupied a portion of 
 a valley to which many miles of mountain pasture were 
 annexed ; they formed so many hamlets or petty town- 
 ships, which the inhabitants called bailef and which are 
 known in the low country dialect by the name of touns. 
 The rate at which the lands w r ere let was very moderate, 
 and the wealth of a chief was not estimated by the ren- 
 tal, but by the number of his tenants; they were his 
 soldiers in war ; be associated with them, or lived in in- 
 dolence, during peace. 
 
 There were besides other tenants, who were denom 
 inated tacksmen, and they formed an intermediate class 
 between the chief and the ordinary tenantry. They 
 were little different from the ordinary landowners; they 
 were the officers, who, under the chief, commanded the 
 soldiers in war, and they traced their origin to some an- 
 cient or celebrated warrior, who had made over a portion 
 of his land as a provision to the younger branch of his 
 family. Part of their farm was sufficient to supply their 
 wants, and the rest was divided among a number of sub- 
 tenants or cotters, who were bound to perform a certain 
 quantity of labour, as rent for their land. Cotters were 
 likewise settled as labourers on the farms of the small 
 tenants, and they had generally a share in the stock of 
 cattle, which formed a joint property. A few individ- 
 uals exercised the most common trades ; there were 
 some blacksmiths, weavers, tailors and shoemakers, and 
 a portion of land was assigned to them by one or other 
 of the tenants. Thus, every man in the Highlands 
 had a certain quantity of ground ; there was no such 
 person as an independent labourer or artisan,* 1 for what- 
 ever his calling might be, that of a husbandman was 
 united, and bis subsistence with that of his family was 
 derived from the soil. The produce of the land was 
 consumed on the spot ; there was no separation of em- 
 ployment, much less any thing like a division of labour. 
 While the vast and complicated system of commerce 
 and production was pervading other parts of the island, 
 it was cut off from the Highlands by the same moun- 
 tains that served as barriers against law and justice. 
 
 Many advantages, however, resulted from the unsuccess- 
 ful rebellion in 1745; and the measures which were after- 
 wards adopted, while they were necessary for the subjuga- 
 tion, were not less so for the civilization, of the Highlands. 
 The country was disarmed, a force sufficient to command 
 it was stationed at the principal passes, it was intersected 
 for the first time by roads, it became subject to the same 
 laws as the rest of Scodand, and all the benefits of regular 
 government were gradually obtained. But it seldom hap- 
 pens that a sudden change takes place from imperfect civil 
 
 prefix to the many names of places in Scotland and Ireland, beginning 
 with bid (Scotland) and balli or bally (Ireland.) Dublin was called by 
 the native Irish, Balhy-l can- death, the town of the harbour of hurdles. — 
 Bailc is not written with an accent in Gaelic, but is pronounced as 
 two syllables. — The bade of the Gaels corresponds with the tre or trev 
 of the Welsh (Cymry) — hence Cantrev ( cant and trev,) a hundred, i. e. 
 a hundred hamlets or townships. Although bailc ( bailey ) is common 
 to all the present Gaelic languages, and is used by them all equally in 
 the sense of town, yet in the sense of city, it is used only by the Scotch 
 Gaels; the Irish using in that sense, cathair (the Welsh carr or cadre, 
 properly, a fortress.) and the Manks, ard-vallcy, high town (Gaelic, 
 aird-bhatle.) The Welsh now use for city, ilinas . — P. 
 
 d Qu. one who was simply a labourer or artisan. — P. 
 
BOOK CLVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 institutions of long standing to others of a better descrip- 
 tion without producing much inconvenience and many tem- 
 porary evils. The business of plunder was at an end, and 
 the glory of the chieftains was gone. Regardless of the 
 tenantry that had been their pride in feudal times, they fol- 
 lowed the example of the proprietors in the south, and let 
 their lands to the highest bidder. Persons of capital were 
 thus induced to settle in the Highlands, and many small 
 farms were united into one. Of the numerous Highlanders, 
 thus thrown out of employment, some removed to the Low- 
 lands, and engaged in different branches of industry, others 
 migrated to America, and many entered the British army, 
 of which they have been the flower since the latter part 
 of the eighteenth century. The country, too, has been 
 improved ; many roads have been made, canals have been 
 cut, a and inland navigation has been extended by means 
 of these canals and numerous lakes. The fisheries have 
 become an object of national importance, and although it 
 might have been at first necessary to excite the indolent 
 Highlander by the lure of a government bounty, it may be 
 doubted if its continuance be accordant with sound policy. 
 The rearing of sheep, the department of rural economy best 
 adapted for the soil and climate of the Highlands, is every 
 year becoming more general ; extensive woollen manufac- 
 tures may in time be established, other branches of industry 
 may be introduced, and the country, instead of containing 
 a scanty and indolent population, may be peopled by active 
 and industrious men. Much good has already been effected 
 by the Highland Society, the improvement of the High- 
 lands and Islands being one of the objects of that institu- 
 tion. Another object is to contribute to the preservation 
 of the language, poetry and music of the Highlands. It 
 may be remarked that the limits within which the Gaelic 
 is used, are gradually contracting ; in other words, it is 
 unknown in places where it was spoken fifty years ago. b 
 Such indeed is the natural consequence of the measures 
 adopted after the rebellion, and of every successive attempt 
 to improve the country, or to enable the inhabitants to 
 participate in the industry and civilization of the Lowlands. 
 It is not necessary to inquire whether the two objects of the 
 Society are incompatible with each other ; it is certain that 
 the first, or the improvement of the Highlands, is retarded 
 by the second, or the preservation of the Gaelic language. 0 
 The introduction and diffusion of useful knowledge are 
 thus in some degree prevented, or at all events rendered 
 more difficult, and prejudices which ought to be eradicated 
 are thus perpetuated. The improvement so much desired 
 cannot be complete, so long as these prejudices exist, and so 
 long as the language and habits of the Highlanders are dif- 
 ferent from those of the other inhabitants of Scotland. 
 
 The superior condition of the lower orders forms a 
 characteristic difference between the past and present state 
 
 a The Highland canals are the Caledonian Canal, through the 
 Ci'cn-morc-na-Mbin, in Inverness-shire, and the Crinan Canal, across 
 the isthmus of Cantyre, in Argyleshire. (Ed. Enc. Bell.) — P. 
 
 b The Gaelic, Erse or Highland Scotch (called by the Highlanders, 
 Gaelic. /Hbannuich, Albanian or Caledonian Gaelic) is a dialect of the 
 Gaelic-Celtic family, so closely allied to the Irish language (Irish 
 Gaelic,) that the two are to a large extent mutually intelligilde. The 
 term Gaelic properly characterizes the whole family ; the Irish calling 
 their language Gaelic, as well as the Highlanders theirs. The 
 Manks (native language of the Isle of Man) is radically a Gaelic dia- 
 lect. but more widely separated from the original stock (particularly 
 by foreign admixture — Norse, English) than either the Scotch or Irish 
 Gaelic. — P. 
 
 c The design of the society is not so much to preserve the Gaelic 
 as a living language, as to collect and preserve its literary monu- 
 ments. For this purpose, they have critically investigated the autlien- 
 
 597 
 
 of the Lowlands; the houses of the peasantry are better 
 built, the inmates pay greater attention to cleanliness, and 
 from the facility with which the various products of in- 
 dustry are multiplied, the people are in possession of many 
 articles of household furniture and dress, which, among 
 the peasantry at least, might have been sought in vain 
 fifty years ago. But a corresponding improvement has not 
 yet taken place among the lower orders in the High, nds ; 
 their costume is still the same, and their houses are only 
 remarkable for their rudeness. They are built of round 
 stones, cemented with clay or mud, and the roof is formed 
 by a covering of turf or heath. The interior consists gene- 
 rally of a single chamber, but in those of the best descrip- 
 tion it is divided by a wicker partition. The smaller division 
 is reserved for the poultry, pigs or cattle, if there are any, 
 and the other serves as the kitchen, dining-room and bed- 
 room of the whole family. The fire is placed in the mid- 
 dle of the chamber, and a hook suspended from a chain, 
 supports a single pot, all that is used for dressing the 
 victuals. An aperture is made in the roof for the passage 
 of smoke ; the opening is not placed in a direct line above 
 the fire, lest it might be extinguished by the rain, and the 
 greater part of the smoke is thus diffused through the apart- 
 ment, or escapes only by the door. The beds of the fami- 
 ly are so many blankets laid over ferns or heath, and their 
 food, as simple as their habits, consists of oat-meal, milk, 
 and vegetables. The grain that is raised in the country, 
 suffices for their subsistence, and for the distillation of 
 whisky, d their favourite liquor. 
 
 It will be afterwards seen that the industry of the in- 
 habitants is now directed to objects that are likely to re- 
 ward them, to the rearing of cattle and sheep, to the mines, 
 forests and fisheries, which form the wealth of the High- 
 lands. The country may now be examined. Buteshire, a 
 county on the west coast of Scotland, in the Frith of Clyde, 
 consists entirely of islands, and comprehends those of Bute 
 and Arran, the two Cumbraes, Inchmarnoch, and a few 
 islets. The first of these islands, one of the most important 
 of the Hebrides, and the one that gives its name to the 
 county, is separated by a narrow channel from the district 
 of Cowal in Argyleshire. It is about fifteen miles in 
 length, and nowhere so much as five in breadth, but in 
 some places it is so much indented by the sea, that the 
 heads of opposite bays are not more than a mile from 
 each other. The superficial extent is nearly equal to 
 30,000 acres. 
 
 It is as remarkable for the mildness as for the moisture 
 of its climate; in the former respect it has been compared 
 to the southern counties of England, and it has been ascer- 
 tained that the annual fall of rain is at least equal to twice 
 the average quantity on the eastern coast.® The surface is 
 varied by low hills, of which the highest is not more than 
 
 ticity of the Ossianic poems, and have published a highly valuable 
 Report on the subject. They have made large collections of Gaelic 
 literature, especially poetry, and have promoted the philological study 
 of the language. Similar efforts have been made by the Highland 
 Society of London. — P. 
 
 d Whisky is a corruption of the Gaelic uisge, water, and usque- 
 baugh, of uisge beatha (pron. bcalui.) water of life. The river of the 
 water of life (Rev. xxii. 1) is rendered, amhainn do uisge na beatha (prcn. 
 avain do uisge no beaha,) river of water of the life. There is the same 
 distinction in French, cuu tic vie and caude la vie. — P. 
 
 e At Mount-Stuart, in Bute, the annual quantity of rain, on an av- 
 erage of seven years, was 4G.6 inches ; at Duddingstone, on the 
 Forth, near Edinburgh, on an average of eight years, 25.7 inches. — 
 There is said to be less rain in Bute, than in the adjoining districts, 
 owing to the attraction of the clouds by the mountains of Arran and 
 Cowal. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
MS 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK OB VI 
 
 720 feet above the level of the sea. Slate and lime are 
 found in different places, and extensive beds of sea-shells 
 are scattered on the western side of the island. Agricul- 
 ture has of late years been extended, all the crops in the 
 lowlands of Scotland are raised, and nearly three-fourths 
 of the surface are fit for cultivation. Fifty thousand bar- 
 rels of herrings were often exported from the island in the 
 course of a year. The manufacture of cotton is one of 
 the branches of industry, which has been introduced within 
 a comparatively recent period, and the extensive spinning 
 mills in the neighbourhood of Rothesay afford employment 
 to many of the inhabitants. 1 
 
 Rothesay , b the only town, is situated on the north-west- 
 ern side of the island, opposite a spacious bay, in which 
 there is a safe anchorage. 0 The pier is commodious, and 
 the number of vessels belonging to the port measure up- 
 wards of 5000 tons. 4 Packets sail regularly from the town 
 to Greenock, 0 and there is a daily mail boat to Largs in 
 Ayrshire/ The ruins of the ancient castle of Rothesay are 
 the principal ornament of the place ; it was long a residence 
 of the Stuarts, and the bed-rooms and banqueting room of 
 Robert the Second and Third, the last monarchs by whom 
 it was inhabited, are still shown to strangers. 
 
 Arran, about twelve miles to the south of Bute, is more 
 than twenty miles in length, and from seven to eleven miles 
 in breadth. The surface is equal to 165 square miles, but 
 it is rugged and mountainous, and not more than a seventh 
 part is fit for cultivation. The loftiest summits, the deepest 
 and most romantic vallies, are situated in the northern part 
 of the island. GoatfelF towers above the rest, and accord- 
 ing to the trigonometrical survey, it is 2865 feet above the 
 level of the sea. Limestone, marl and slate are by no 
 means uncommon, and indications of coal have been at differ- 
 ent times discovered. The herring fishery is the most produc- 
 tive branch of industry, and convenient harbours are situated at 
 the two towns, or rather villages of Lamlash and Loch-Ran- 
 za, the one on the eastern, and the other on the northern side 
 of the island. It is divided into the two parishes of Kilbride 
 and Kilmory,and in both of them the Gaelic was formerly the 
 only language of the inhabitants, but it is now little known, 
 and there are at present twelve English schools in Arran. 
 
 The Cumbraes are two small islands on the coast of Ayr- 
 shire ; the largest is about four square miles in extent, and 
 nearly a half of it is cultivated. A light-house is erected on 
 the small one, which is inhabited by five or six families. 
 
 n A large cotton mill was established in 1778, by an English Compa- 
 ny — the first in Scotland. This establishment has been recently en- 
 larged, and greatly improved by Mr. Thom, who has superseded the 
 use of steam-engines by water power. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 b Rothesay, or Rothsay — (he first the more usual form. Some have 
 supposed the name of Danish origin ; others have derived it from the 
 Gaelic, Riorrh ( [Righ ) Suidhe, the King's Seat, from the Castle of 
 Rothesay, once a royal residence. Rothesay is a royal burgh, and the 
 county town. — P. 
 
 c It is situated at the bottom of an extensive bay, on the N. W. 
 side of the island, in which there is safe anchorage. (Gaz. Scot.) — 
 This is a mistake ; Rothesay is on the N. E. coast of the island. — 
 Rothesay is situated on a bay of the same name, on the north-east side 
 of Bute. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 ll In 1790, the shipping amounted to 424G tons, of which 3104 were 
 employed in the herring-fishery. (Gaz. Scot.) — P. 
 
 e By means of steam-boats on the Clyde, it communicates with 
 Glasgow commonly many times in a day. (Bell.) — P. 
 
 f It lies on the west side of the Firth of Clyde, nearly opposite 
 Largs. — P. 
 
 e Goatfield. Fell and field are here the Dan. field, Swed. fjcdl, 
 mountain. — P. 
 
 11 Inchmarnoch (island of Marnoch) is about a mile long. On the 
 west side are vast strata of shells. The ruins of a chapel, dedicated to 
 St. Marnoch, are still visible. (Gaz. Scot.) — P. 
 
 The islet of Inchmarnocb, on the south-west of Bute, 
 derives its name from a chapel dedicated to St. Marnoch. 
 The area is less than a square mile, and the greater part of 
 it is fruitful. 1 * A light-house has been built on the islet of 
 Pladda on the south of Arran,* for the guidance of vessels 
 into the Frith of Clyde. 1 * 
 
 If we ascend the same frith, and turn to the right, we 
 may arrive at the town of Dumbarton, which is situated near 
 the confluence of the Clyde and the Leven, 1 and almost 
 insulated by the last river at high water. More than two 
 thousand tons of shipping belong to the harbour, and the rise 
 of water is equal to eleven feet at spring tides. The 
 principal manufacture, or that of crown glass, affords em- 
 ployment to many of the inhabitants, and of the extent to 
 which it is carried, some notion may be formed from the 
 government duties, of which the annual amount has not been 
 less, on an average of several years, than L. 100,000.*** The 
 fairs that are held in the town attract many persons from 
 different parts of the country, and the one that takes place 
 in the month of June, is considered the principal mart for 
 Highland cattle in the west of Scotland. 
 
 The ancient castle of Dumbarton crowns a lofty rock 
 that rises abruptly from a plain at the confluence of the two 
 rivers, which wash both sides of its base,** and surround it 
 during high tides. Although the fort was considered im- 
 pregnable in the days of the venerable Bede, it was reduc- 
 ed by famine in 706 ;° and at a later period, w hile held by 
 the adherents of Queen Mary, it was taken by escalade.? 
 It has since stood several sieges, and before the rebellion of 
 1745, it was not inaccurately designated the key of the 
 West Highlands. 
 
 When the merchants of Glasgow found it necessary, in 
 consequence of the increase of their trade, and the distance 
 of their town from the sea, to have a port and a depot for 
 their exports and imports towards the mouth of the Clyde, 
 they made choice of Dumbarton. The proposition was 
 communicated to and rejected by the municipal authorities 
 and burgesses. Numerous shipping, it was urged, always 
 raised the price of provisions, seaports were necessarily 
 dirty, the townsmen hated the bustle of trade, and other ab- 
 surdities had their weight in influencing their opinion. The 
 proposal was rejected, and it is perhaps impossible to men- 
 tion another instance in which Scotchmen acted so contrary 
 to their interest.* 1 
 
 The county of which Dumbarton is the capital/ is divid- 
 
 1 Pladda is about a mile distant from the south-east point of Ar- 
 ran. — P. 
 
 k This light-house is furnished with two lights, to distinguish it from 
 the others in the Frith. — P. 
 
 1 On the eastern bank of the Leven, a little to the north-west of the 
 castle. — P. 
 
 m A manufactory of glass is carried on to such an extent, as to pay 
 nearly L.4000 of duty annually. (Ed. Enc. 1817.) — Average duties 
 L.3800 per ann. (Stat. Acc. 1792.) — P. 
 
 n The Clyde on the south, and the Leven on the west. — P. 
 
 ° The venerable Bede informs us, that it was the strongest fortification 
 in the kingdom in his time, and deemed almost impregnable ; it was 
 reduced by famine in the year 756, by Egbert, king of Northumberland. 
 (Gaz. Scot.) — In 726, this city was attacked by Egbert, kingof Northum- 
 berland, and Oangus (Ungus,) king of the Piets, and the Britons were 
 compelled to submit. (Leighton’s Scenes in Scotland, 100.) — Ungus 
 reigned from 730 to 761. (Ed. Enc.) — Dumbarton (the Alduith of 
 Bede, the Balclutha (town of the Clyde) of Ossian, and the Dunlrritton 
 (fort of the Britons) of the Gael) was the capital of the Strathclyde 
 Britons ( Cyinry .) — P. 
 
 p A. D. 1571. It was the last place in Scotland, that held out for 
 Mary. — P. 
 
 <t C. Dupin, Force Commerciale, tom. vi. p. 300. 
 
 r Dumbartonshire. 
 
BOOK CLTI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 599 
 
 ed into two parts that are some miles distant from each oth- 
 er ; a the larger or the western is bounded by Perthshire on 
 the north, by Argyleshire on the west, from which it is sep- 
 arated by Loch Long, an arm of the sea, by Lanarkshire 
 and the Clyde on the south, and by Stirlingshire on the 
 east. The eastern portion is enclosed by the last county 
 and by Lanarkshire. The area is equal to 230 square 
 miles, and the relative population is not less than 144 per- 
 sons to every square mile. 
 
 The soil on the low grounds, consists of schistose clay, 
 and in some places, particularly on the banks of the Clyde, 
 of a rich black loam. But about two thirds of the county 
 are occupied by lofty hills, some of which are 3000 feet in 
 height, b and all of them form part of the ridge which trav- 
 erses the island from Forfarshire to the Frith of Clyde. c 
 Coal, iron-ore and limestone are the most valuable minerals. 
 But the first is only worked on the south-east border, where 
 little more than 1 1,000 tons are annually raised. As to the 
 second, it is computed that 3000 tons of ironstone are sent 
 every year to the Canon foundery from the parishes of 
 Kirkintulloch d and Cumbernauld. Although limestone 
 abounds, it is only worked in two or three places on account 
 of the scarcity of fuel. 
 
 The Leven, the outlet of Loch Lomond, is the princi- 
 pal river ; it flows five or six miles through a fruitful plain, 
 and joins the Clyde at Dumbarton Castle. The extent of 
 coast formed by Loch Long and Gareloch 6 affords the ad- 
 vantage of water carriage to a large part of the county, and 
 in the remaining portion the conveyance of goods is equally 
 facilitated by the Forth and Clyde canal/ Loch Lomond 
 is about twenty -five miles in length, and more than six at its 
 greatest breadth. A small part of it is situated in Stir- 
 lingshire, the rest in Dumbartonshire. It is not inferior to 
 any of the British lakes in the beauty and variety of its 
 scenery, which depend on its numerous and well wooded 
 islands, and the striking contrast of its verdant and shaded 
 banks with the rugged mountains that rise above them. The 
 northern part is comparatively narrow, the southern or 
 broadest is hounded by a fruitful plain, and between the 
 two extremities extend the heights, which are crowned by 
 Benlomond.s 
 
 As a manufacturing county, Dumbartonshire is not with- 
 out importance, and the printing and bleaching of cottons 
 
 a The eastern portion is a long narrow tract, composed of the par- 
 ishes of Cumbernauld and Kirkintilloch, separated from the rest of the 
 county by a part of the parish of Calder (Cadder) in Lanarkshire. It 
 is bounded by Stirlingshire on the north and east, and by Lanarkshire 
 on the south and west. The Great Canal passes through it longitudi- 
 nally. The main body of the county is of a very irregular figure. It 
 consists of two arms, one extending north, and the other east from 
 Dumbarton. The Clyde forms the southern and south-western boun- 
 dary, separating it from Renfrewshire; Lanarkshire bounds it on the 
 south-east for a short distance; Stirlingshire on the north-east to the 
 mouth of the Endrick in Loch Lomond, and then on the east to the 
 northern boundary, Loch Lomond separating the two counties for the 
 greater part of the distance ; Perthshire on the north ; Argyleshire on 
 the west, Loch Long forming the boundary for the greater part of 
 the distance, toward the south. — P. 
 
 b In the parish of Arroquhar at the northern extremity. (Ed. 
 Enc.)— P. 
 
 c That part of the west division of the county, which lies east of the 
 river Leven, is intersected by a continuation of the lofty ridge, which 
 crosses the island from Forfarshire to the Frith of Clyde. (Ed. Enc.) — 
 This portion of the ridge forms part of the chain of the Lennox Hills. 
 The highest hills in the county, viz. those on the west of Loch Lo- 
 mond, have no connexion with this ridge, but form part of the Gram- 
 pians. — P. 
 
 d Kirkintilloch. (See note * *.) — P. 
 
 e Gairloch, or Loch Gair — an arm of the Firth of Clyde to the west 
 of the Leven, extending about twelve miles north into Dumbarton- 
 
 form a great branch of industry. There are besides three 
 extensive cotton mills, several paper mills, and an iron- 
 work for edge tools and other articles. 1 ’ The glass works 
 of Dumbarton have been already mentioned ; there are sev- 
 eral tanneries in the same place, a manufactory of alkali at 
 Burnfoot, and another of pyrolignous acid at Millburn. 
 Many printfields are situated on the banks of the Leven,* 
 and the small stream of Dunlocher turns in its short course 
 sixteen water-wheels. 
 
 The maritime county of Argyle, made up partly of the 
 mainland, and partly of islands, which shall be afterwards 
 described, is bounded by Perthshire and Dumbartonshire 
 on the east, by Inverness-shire on the north, by the Irish 
 Sea and the Frith of Clyde on the south, and by the Atlan- 
 tic Ocean on the west. The greatest length of the conti- 
 nental portion from the Mull of Kintyre on the south to 
 Ardnamurchan Point on the north, is about 115 miles, and 
 its breadth is more than sixty-eight. The surface has been 
 computed at 3800 square miles, of which 1065 are insular, 
 and the remainder, or more than a thirteenth of the whole 
 of Scotland, is situated on the mainland. The coast in the 
 last portion consists of many long promontories, and deep 
 bays or inlets, and the length of line thus formed is up- 
 wards of 600 miles. Several fresh water lakes are situated 
 in the interior, and their superficial extent, it has been sup- 
 posed, is equal to sixty square miles. Like the rest of the 
 Highlands, Argyleshire presents the dreary prospect of 
 hills, rocks and barren mountains. The lofty Ben-Cruachan 
 is 3390 feet above the level of the sea, and some of the 
 heights are not much inferior in the neighbourhood of Ben- 
 lomond. k The inlets cut deep into the land, and the dis- 
 trict of Cowal is peninsulated by Loch Long on one side, 
 and Loch Fine on the other. Some barley is raised for 
 the supply of the distilleries, the other crops are oats, po- 
 tatoes and turnips, hut the arable land bears a very small 
 proportion to the uncultivated ; indeed there are not more 
 than 125,000 acres of the former out of 1,408,000.* The 
 rearing of cattle was long the principal branch of rural econ- 
 omy, and the breed of oxen is still considered superior in 
 many respects to most in Britain. But about the middle 
 of the last century the coarse woolled heath sheep were 
 introduced, and it was soon discovered that they were much 
 better adapted than oxen for the lofty and barren districts, 
 
 shire, and with Loch Long on the west, forming the peninsula of 
 Roseneath. — P. 
 
 f The Forth and Clyde canal traverses the eastern division of the 
 county, and just crosses the south-eastern corner of the western divis- 
 ion . — P. 
 
 s Loch Lomond is nearly surrounded by ranges of mountains or hills 
 On the south-east are the Kilpatrick Hills (trap range,) leaving be- 
 tween them and the lake, a tract of low land, extending along the 
 Leven. On the west are the mountains of Luss and Arroquhar, sepa- 
 rating it from Loch Long. On the east is Ben Lomond, the highest 
 summit, with the chain that extends north and connects it with the 
 Grampians. At the upper extremity, a narrow valley extends in the 
 direction of the lake, called Glenfalloch. — P. 
 
 h At Dalnotter iron-work (in Old Kilpatrick.) nails, edge-tools and 
 all sorts of wrought iron goods are manufactured on an extensive 
 scale. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 • The banks of the Leven are covered with numerous bleachfields, 
 printfields and cotton-works. (Gaz. Scot.) — Bleaching flourishes to 
 a greater extent on the Leven. than in any other part of Scotland, on 
 account of the limpid purity of its water. (Chambers.) — P. 
 
 k Ben Lomond is in Stirlingshire, separated from Argyleshire by 
 Loch Lomond and Dumbartonshire. Does the writer refer to the sum- 
 mits on the borders of Dumbartonshire ? Beinn Ima, or the Cobler ol 
 Arroquhar, in that direction, is 2389 feet above the sea. — P. 
 
 1 Number of acres on the mainland, 1,415,898; in the whole coun- 
 ty, 1,918,714. (Bell.) — Number of acres cultivated on the mainland, 
 126,130. (Sinclair’s Gen. Rep.) — P. 
 
COO EUR 
 
 yielding both a much greater quantity of food for man, and 
 the raw material of an important manufacture. There are 
 not probably fewer than 350,000 of these valuable animals 
 throughout the continental part of Argyleshire, and although 
 they have increased so rapidly since the time of their intro- 
 duction, it must not be inferred that the number of oxen is 
 diminished ; on the contrary, there is reason to suppose it 
 greater at present than at any former period, a circumstance 
 that must be attributed to the improved state of the arable 
 and pasture lands. 
 
 The products of the fisheries are not less important than 
 those of agriculture ; they afford perhaps a greater quantity 
 ♦ of food ; they furnish employment to a greater number of 
 hands. The form of the county is admirably adapted for 
 this branch of industry ; it is penetrated almost in every di- 
 rection by arms of the sea, it is traversed by extensive lakes, 
 and some idea of its importance may be derived from the 
 fact that the herrings caught during two seasons in Loch 
 Fine, were computed to be worth more than L.80,000. a 
 
 If the spirit of improvement, which was introduced sev- 
 eral years ago, be continued, Argyleshire is likely to be- 
 come important as a manufacturing and commercial coun- 
 ty. The old roads have been extended, and new ones 
 have been made almost in every direction. The Crinan 
 canal, which has been cut across the peninsula of Kintyre, at 
 an expense of L. 1 40,000, shortened the voyage from the 
 ports in the West Highlands and the Hebrides by a distance 
 of nearly two hundred miles. Lastly, the county has been 
 made to communicate with the German Ocean by means of 
 the Caledonian canal, of which Loch Linnhe forms the en- 
 trance into the Atlantic ; and from the completion of this 
 vast work, Argyleshire has derived the advantages of in- 
 creased navigation and frequent intercourse. 
 
 A portion of Argyleshire, it has already been observed, 
 is insular, and the islands form part of the Hebrides. The 
 Western Isles or Hebrides lie between 55 30' and 58° 28' 
 north latitude, and 4° 52' and 7° 40' west longitude from 
 Greenwich. They are about 200 in number, but not more 
 than eighty-seven are inhabited. Their superficial contents 
 are probably greater than 2800 square miles, and their total 
 population is nearly equal to eighty thousand inhabitants. 
 The Norwegians and the Danes contended for the posses- 
 sion of them in ancient times, but in the present day the in- 
 habitants appear to differ little from the Highlanders; they 
 speak the same language, wear the same dress, and observe 
 the same customs. Bute, Arran and two or three small 
 islands, it has been already seen, make up a distinct county. 
 The other Hebrides form part of the counties of Argyle, 
 Inverness and Ross. The superficies of those belonging to 
 the first county is equal to 992 square miles ; 1150 are 
 attached to the second or Inverness-shire, and 560 to 
 Ross-shire. 
 
 They are sometimes divided into the Outer and Inner 
 Hebrides, and as the latter lie nearer the shore, they are 
 much better known. The former, separated from them by 
 a channel varying in breadth from fifteen to forty miles, 
 exhibit a great variety of forms ; some of them are conical, 
 others are flat ; some are several miles in diameter, others 
 | ! are only a few yards. The eastern sides of the islands are 
 
 low or marshy, and they afford excellent anchorages ; the 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CL, VI. 
 
 western sides, on the other hand, are rugged or precip- 
 itous, and almost destitute of safe harbours. b The same 
 islands are remarkable for the number of their dark and 
 sombre lakes. Peat is the most prevalent soil on the low 
 grounds, but on the heights it appears only in patches. 
 The vegetation on the peat land consists chiefly of heath, 
 mosses and lichens, and these plants are most abundant on 
 the eastern sides of the islands ; the western are more fruit 
 ful, and the vegetation is comparatively rich and verdant 
 In winter, the islands are exposed to violent storms ; the 
 Atlantic, after a continued gale of westerly" wind, rolls its 
 impetuous billows, and dashes them against the headlands 
 on the western coasts, presenting sometimes the terrific 
 spectacle of breakers, extending in ranges for miles. c The 
 most important islands and the principal ports shall be after- 
 wards enumerated, although few of the latter are remarka- 
 ble for their buildings or public works. 
 
 Inverary, the capital of the county, is the only town of any 
 consequence in Argyleshire. It is situated at the mouth of 
 the Aray, on a small bay about eight miles from the head 
 of the Loch Fyme. d The houses are well built, and they 
 form a handsome street in front of the lake. Repeated at- 
 tempts have been at different times made to introduce man- 
 ufactures, but none of them appear to have succeeded. 
 The principal support of the place is derived from the her- 
 ring fisheries, which have flourished during a long period, 
 and there is reason to believe that French merchants 
 were formerly in the habit of repairing to Inverary for the 
 purpose of bartering their wine for herrings. It is long, 
 however, since the inhabitants have been engaged in any 
 commerce with foreigners ; their trade consists in the ex- 
 port of wool, timber, bark and fish to Glasgow and Liver- 
 pool, and in the import of different articles that are consum- 
 ed in the town and neighbourhood. The counties of Bute, 
 Dumbarton and Argyle make up what is commonly called 
 the West Highlands. 
 
 Perthshire is contiguous to the last county and Dumbar- 
 ton on the west, to Stirling and Clackmannan on the south, 
 to Fife, Kinross and Forfar on the east, and to Aberdeen 
 and Inverness on the north. The superficial extent is not 
 less than 2638 square miles, but of these more than fifty 
 are occupied by lakes. The greatest length from east to 
 west is about 77 miles, and the utmost breadth from north 
 to south is equal to 68. The extent of Perthshire indicates 
 its importance ; in that respect it is only inferior to Inver- 
 ness-shire, but the relation between the surface and the pop- 
 ulation, amounting to little more than fifty r -four persons to 
 the square mile, is considerably below the mean term 
 throughout Scotland. It is partly lowland and partly 
 highland ; the last portion, however, occupies a much larger 
 space than the first, and more than two-thirds of the whole 
 are unfit for cultivation. The arable land is mostly con- 
 fined to the southern and eastern extremities, and to the 
 plain of Strathmore, bounded in Perthshire by the Gram- 
 pians on the north-west, and on the east by the Ochils and 
 Sidlaw hills. 
 
 Benlawers, the highest mountain, on the side of Loch 
 Tay, is upwards of 4000 feet above the level of the sea; the 
 next in point of elevation are Benmore on the south-west, 
 and Schihallion on the north-east ; and it is supposed that 
 
 a Smith’s Survey of Argyleshire. 
 
 b Tlie contrary is the fact, particularly in the islands of North and 
 i South Uist — the eastern coast being steep and rocky, with many inlets 
 
 forming harbours; the western coast sloping down to the sea. and bor- 
 dered by a sandy beach, but without harbours. The Cultivated lands 
 are generally along the west coast. — P. 
 
 c Bell's Geography, vol. iii. 
 
 d Loch Fine — Gaelic, Loch-fhin or fhionn, fair lake or estuary 
 Loch Long is also Gaelic ( Loch-luing , lake of ships — from loch, lake 
 and long (pin. luing,) ship.) — P. 
 
 I 
 
BOOK CliVI.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 601 
 
 there are at least seven in the county, which are more than 
 3000 feet in height. But the different mountains through 
 almost the whole breadth of the county, are intersected by 
 straths or vallies, some of them comparatively large, and all 
 of them watered by streams, or varied by lakes, of which 
 the banks are adorned with natural woods. The lakes have 
 been described by many tourists ; it is therefore only ne- 
 cessary to mention the situation and extent of the most re- 
 markable. Loch Tay almost in the centre of the Highland 
 district, is about twelve miles in length, one in breadth, and 
 in some places a hundred fathoms in depth. Loch Ericht 
 on the north-west, although not so broad, is longer than the 
 former, and extends into Inverness-shire. Loch Earn is 
 situated on the south of Loch Tay, and Loch Rannoch on 
 the south-east of Loch Ericht. Lastly, Lochs Vennachar, 
 Achray and Katrine on the south-west, are famed for their 
 romantic scenery. 
 
 The principal rivers, the Tay and the Forth, have been 
 already mentioned. The Earn rises from the lake of the 
 same name, flows in an easterly direction, and bending to- 
 wards the south, a waters Strathearn, a fruitful district, and 
 joins the Tay after a course of twenty-five miles. At no 
 great distance from their confluence, it passes by the village 
 of Pitcaithly, a celebrated place on account of its mineral 
 waters. 
 
 If all the soils common to Scotland have not been ob- 
 served, the number may be readily supposed to be consid- 
 erable in so extensive a county, and it is certain that some 
 of the best and worst sorts are contained in it. The allu- 
 vial soils or carse lands are the most productive ; and the 
 Carse of Gowrieon the west and north-west of the Frith of 
 Tay, b a tract of about 18,000 acres, is one of the most fer- 
 tile in Scotland. The lands at the base of the Ochils c are 
 only inferior to the last district in point of productiveness, 
 and some of the straths in the Highlands are by no means 
 unfruitful. A great part of the county was in former times 
 covered with forests, which were successively destroyed as 
 agriculture extended, or population increased. The defect, 
 however, has been supplied within the last fifty or sixty 
 years ; the larch, which has been transported from the Ty- 
 rol, flourishes on the heaths and barren districts, and planta- 
 tions of different forest trees, which are profitable to the 
 proprietors, and ornamental to their estates, may be seen in 
 most parts of the county. 
 
 Perthshire, it is said, was the boundary between two di- 
 visions of Scotland, which were distinguished in former 
 times by their woods or forests ; firs abounded in the one, 
 and deciduous trees were common in the other. It may be 
 said too to divide the granite and the freestone districts in 
 the same country, the latter being comparatively rare on the 
 north, and the former on the south of Perthshire. There 
 is, however, a scarcity of valuable minerals ; coal has only 
 been found in the neighbourhood of Culross, a detached por- 
 tion of the county on the south-east of the rest, and on 
 the shores of the Forth. Although limestone is not uncom- 
 mon, it is rendered of' comparatively little value from the 
 want of fuel to calcine it. Slates abound in the Highland 
 district, and indications of Qppper, lead and iron have been 
 
 a The Earn bends south-east, not far from its outlet, and then flows 
 nearly east through Strathearn. — P. 
 
 b It is situated on the north of the Tay, between that river and the 
 foot of the Sidla Hills, and between Perth and Dundee. — P. 
 c Strathearn extends along the foot of the Ochils on the north. — P. 
 d At Scone, on the opposite side of the Tay. — P. 
 
 • The town divides a spacious plain into what are called the North and 
 VOL. Ill— NO. Cl 76 
 
 observed in different places ; a copper mine was at one 
 time wrought in the parish of Logie, and tw r o lead mines, 
 the one near Tyndrum, and the other in Glenlycn, al- 
 though formerly considered productive, have been both 
 abandoned. 
 
 Perth, the capital, is a place of great antiquity ; it was 
 formerly the seat of parliaments, and the frequent residence 
 of Scottish kings, who were crowned in the vicinity .* * 1 To 
 enumerate the many memorable events in the history of 
 Scotland, of which the same place was the scene, might oc- 
 cupy several pages. It may be doubted, however, if it 
 ever was more flourishing than at present ; at all events, 
 different branches of industry are now cultivated, which 
 were formerly unknown. It is the commercial capital of 
 the South Highlands, and their improvement has been ac- 
 companied with a corresponding extension of its trade ; 
 and until industry is diffused over that part of Scotland, 
 until the work of improvement is complete, Perth is like- 
 ly to rise in importance. A steam-boat descends daily 
 from it to Dundee, and another arrives from the same 
 place. Seven different roads diverge to the defiles or 
 straths in the Highlands, and the excellence of these roads, 
 and the difficulties that have been overcome in making 
 them, are equally worthy of admiration. The Tay runs 
 south, and takes a bend towards the east about a mile be- 
 low the town, which is situated on an extensive plain, part- 
 ly surrounded by hills on the south and west of the river. 
 The part on which the town stands, is divided into two 
 meadows, the North and South Inches, each about a mile 
 and a half in circumference, and each forming an agreeable 
 walk. e The town is regularly built, and consists of several 
 streets extending from east to west, which are intersected by 
 others at right angles from north to south. It contained for- 
 merly many churches and religious houses, most of which 
 were destroyed by the blind zeal of the reformers. It is not 
 without importance as a place of instruction ; the grammar 
 school has long enjoyed a high and merited reputation, and 
 there is an academy in which drawing, mathematics and 
 the different branches of natural philosophy are taught. 
 
 The principal manufactures of the county are carried on 
 in the same place ; they consist of linen, cotton, leather, 
 paper and other articles. The vessels belonging to the 
 port, measure about 3000 tons, and the exports are corn, 
 salmon and different manufactures. The imports are the 
 raw materials of the manufactures, and various articles of 
 consumption. Although other towns and villages are situ- 
 ated in the county, none of them are of sufficient importance 
 to require notice. 
 
 Inverness-shire is contiguous to Perthshire on the south, 
 and is the largest county of any in Scotland. The outline, 
 however, is very irregular ; a narrow tract extends be- 
 tween Nairnshire and the Moray Frith, and another por- 
 tion detached from the rest is enclosed by the counties of 
 Banff and Moray ; Argyleshire penetrates into it from the 
 south-west ; it is indented on the west by several lochs 
 or arms of the sea, and it has already been remarked, that 
 several of the Hebrides are politically attached to it/ 
 
 It is obvious from these remarks that the surface cannot 
 
 South Inches. (Gaz. Scot.) — The Inches are level fields or meadows 
 on the north and south of the town, used for public walks and pas- 
 tures. The South Inch is planted with rows of trees. — P. 
 
 f Its general boundaries are Nairn, Moray and Aberdeen on the east, 
 Perth and Argyle on the south, the Atlantic on the west, and Ross 
 and a part of Moray Frith on the north. — P. 
 
602 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLVT 
 
 be easily calculated ; it has not, however, been computed at 
 less than 3036 square miles, and of these 132 are occupied 
 by lakes. a If the calculation be correct, the extent of land 
 is equal to 2904 square miles, and, in each of them, the av- 
 erage number of inhabitants is little more than twenty-eight 
 individuals. 
 
 The appearance of the country is varied by lofty moun- 
 tains, deep and narrow vallies, and numerous rivers and 
 lakes. Glenmore, or the Great Glen, which is bounded on 
 either side by precipitous heights, is for the most part about 
 a mile in breadth ; it extends from north-east to south-west, 
 and divides the county into two nearly equal parts. The 
 Ness discharges itself into the Murray Frith at the northern 
 extremity of Glenmore, and the southern is formed by an 
 inlet of the sea, that communicates with the Atlantic. The 
 intermediate country is watered by several lakes that shall 
 be afterwards mentioned. 
 
 Eight subordinate vallies join the great glen of Cale- 
 donia, which, it has been already seen, extends from sea to 
 sea. The mountains, too, stretch across the island, confin- 
 ing and running parallel to the vallies, and forming lofty 
 boundaries on both sides of them. The deep glens be- 
 tween these masses are the natural recipients of the waters 
 that fall from the high grounds, and which for want of an 
 outlet are formed into lakes ; and as the vallies are long and 
 narrow, so are the lakes ; their average breadth is less than 
 a mile ; their average length is probably more than nine. 
 Loch-Ness, the largest, is twenty-two miles long and from 
 one to two broad. 
 
 The length of the rivers is modified by the direction of 
 their course, and those that flow westwards into the Atlan- 
 tic are in general shorter than those that fall into the 
 German Ocean. The Spey, the largest of any, rises from 
 a loch on the east of Glenmore, b flows a distance of about 
 ninety-six miles in a north-east direction, and receives the 
 waters of 1300 square miles. The Ness issues from the 
 lake of the same name, waters the town of Inverness, and 
 discharges itself into the Murray Frith. The Lochy flows 
 westwards, 0 and enters Loch Eil after a course of ten miles. 
 The Beauly has its source in the north-west, and carries 
 the waters of several feeders into the frith that bears 
 its name. 11 
 
 Mention has been made in a former chapter of the chain 
 of mountains that traverses the county ; it has been seen that 
 Ben-Nevis, in the district of Lochaber, rises to a greater 
 height than any in Britain, and that some of the others in 
 the neighbourhood are not much lower. 
 
 The western side of the county, between Glenmore and 
 the Atlantic, from Argyleshire on the south, to Ross-shire 
 on the north, is the most desolate tract in Inverness-shire. 
 The extensive district of Badenoch, which lies on the east 
 tide of the valley, terminates in Lochaber on the south, and in 
 the Aird, the most fruitful part of the county, on the north.® 
 
 The nature of the country may be inferred from the fact 
 that two thirds of it are covered with heath, that the 
 arable land does not exceed a fortieth part, and that the 
 woodlands, green pastures, and cultivated fields, do not 
 
 “ This is the extent of the mainland, as given by Sinclair (Gen. 
 Rep.) — That of the islands (Sky, Harris, Uist, Barra), by the same, 
 120!) square miles. — P. 
 
 b The Spey rises in Badenoch, and a few miles from its source, forms 
 an expansion called Loch Spey. (Bell.) — P. 
 
 c The Lochy issues from Loch Lochy, and flows south-west through 
 Glenmore. — P. 
 
 '* The Frith of Beauly, or Loch Beauly. forms the western extremi- 
 ty of Moray Frith, between the counties of Inverness and Ross. — P. 
 
 make up more than eight acres out of a hundred. The 
 productive land lies chiefly on the sea-coast, and along the 
 banks of the lakes or rivers where the soil is alluvial 
 and fruitful. 
 
 The most common minerals are granite, limestone, 
 slate and marble. A great part of Ben-Nevis is com- 
 posed of beautiful porphyry ; lead has been discovered in 
 the same mountain, and plumbago in Glengarry/ The 
 want of coal is severely felt by the inhabitants, and lime- 
 stone, the most useful of their minerals, is thus rendered of 
 little value. 
 
 The public works by which the same county is distin- 
 guished, have been completed within a comparatively 
 recent period. The memorable rebellions in 1715 and 
 1745 contributed to the security of the inhabitants of the 
 south, and to the subjugation of the Highlands. To accom- 
 plish so desirable an end, the three military stations of Fort 
 George, Fort Augustus and Fort William were erected in the 
 valley of Glenmore. The first was raised to guard the en- 
 trance of the Moray Frith on the east, the second to repel 
 attacks from the centre, and the third to prevent any rising 
 in the west. 
 
 The military roads which were made for a similar pur- 
 pose by the soldiers under General Wade, attract, even at 
 the present day, the attention of strangers, both on account 
 of the patient labor requisite for the completion of such 
 works, and also on account of the skill with which they are 
 executed. It may be sufficient to add that mountains and 
 marshes, formerly impassable, are now intersected by 
 roads, which were made at a time when the country was 
 barbarous, and which have mainly contributed to its civili- 
 zation. In later times, other roads have been extended 
 in many directions ; and an easy communication is now 
 afforded to most parts of the county. The public spirit oi 
 the proprietors has been encouraged by government, for of 
 the sums expended on the roads, only one half is defrayed 
 by the county ; the other is granted by parliament. 
 
 It has already been remarked that a series of lakes ex- 
 tends in a direct line from north-east to south-west along 
 the great valley of Caledonia. These lakes are Lochs 
 Ness, Oich, Lochy, Eil and Linnhe.s It is highly proba- 
 ble from the geological appearance of the country, that 
 in a period now unknown, the lakes were continuous or 
 the whole valley was submerged. If this supposition be 
 correct, the waters must have broken the barriers, which 
 confined them on the east and west, and made a passage 
 for themselves to the German and Atlantic Oceans. The 
 natural effect of such a change must have been to uncover 
 the higher parts of Glenmore, or to form the necks of land 
 that separate the salt and fresh water lakes. This opinion 
 is further strengthened by the excavations which have been 
 made in the valley, and which, with few exceptions, consist 
 of sand, gravel and water-worn stones. The work of an, 
 or the communication between the two seas, was thus ren- 
 dered comparatively easy, and the advantages of a canal in 
 such a situation, were pointed out by the celebrated Watt 
 at so early a period as 1773. h A considerable time, how- 
 
 « The Aird extends along the south side of the Frith of Beauly, be- 
 tween Beauly and Inverness. (Sinclair’s Gen. Rep.) — P. 
 f Glengary. 
 
 s Lochs Eil and Linnhe are sea lochs, or rather different parts of 
 the same inlet. Loch Linnhe commences at the strait of Ardgower, 
 about nine miles below Fort William, and extends to the sea. — P. 
 
 h Mr. Watt was employed in making a survey of the valley, for that 
 purpose, in 1773. — P. 
 
book ciiYi.] DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 603 
 
 ever, elapsed before its commencement, and one of the 
 motives, which induced government to undertake the work, 
 was to afford relief to the Highlanders. The system of 
 sheep farming, a very great improvement, was perhaps too 
 rapidly extended, and it cannot be denied that it had for a 
 time the effect of throwing many out of employment. The 
 formation of roads and canals, and the multiplication of 
 fishing stations, were considered by government the best 
 means of alleviating the distress resulting from a too sud- 
 den change. The Caledonian Canal was therefore begun 
 in 1804,® and completed in 1822, at an expense of more 
 than L.800,000. It is not too much to say that the be- 
 nevolent purposes, which it was intended to promote, were 
 in a great degree realized during the long period that elapsed 
 from its commencement to its completion. The summit 
 level of the navigation, in a distance of about sixty miles 
 from sea to sea, is only ninety-four feet above the ocean, 
 and that circumstance renders Glenmore one of the most 
 remarkable vallies in the kingdom. The length of the ex- 
 cavations of the canal is twenty-one miles and a half, and 
 that of the intermediate lakes thirty-seven and a quarter, 
 which gives a total length of fifty-eight miles and three 
 quarters. It is 20 feet deep, 50 wide at the bottom, and 
 110 at the top. It is thus rendered navigable for frigates 
 of 32 guns, and merchant ships of a like size. The differ- 
 ences of the level are compensated by 25 locks, of which the 
 depth is 20 feet, the length 170, and the breadth 40. The 
 canal rises 94 feet from the east sea to Loch Oich by 13 
 locks, and it descends 90 from the same loch to the opposite 
 sea by 12 locks. Eight of these twelve, to which mariners 
 have given the appropriate name of Neptune’s Stairs, are 
 situated near the western extremity of the canal, towards 
 the bay that terminates in the Atlantic 1 *. The greatness of 
 the dimensions renders the canal accessible to the largest 
 class of merchant vessels in the trade of the North Sea ; 
 and although a short period has elapsed since its completion, 
 many advantages have resulted from it. Others may be 
 reasonably expected ; commerce is likely to be further 
 extended, and industry more widely diffused. The forts, 
 which have been already mentioned, and which were raised 
 to keep the Highlanders in awe, are now wholly useless for 
 that purpose, and the time may come when the strong built 
 barracks and spacious magazines shall be converted into 
 store-houses and manufactories, affording employment to 
 an increasing population, and spreading wealth over the 
 surrounding country. 
 
 No part of the county has been more benefited by the 
 canal than the capital, which, after the rebellion of 1745, 
 was little better than a mass of ruinous houses. It is situ- 
 ated on both sides of the Ness, at its entrance into the 
 Murray Frith. Part of the town and the old fort were 
 built by a military colony sent by Cromwell to keep the 
 Highlanders in subjection. It now possesses an academy, 
 a library and a collection of philosophical instruments. It 
 is besides the seat of different manufactures, and the centre 
 of a mercantile intercourse, which extends to every part of 
 the county. 
 
 No other towns of any consequence are situated in 
 
 J Mr. Telford was employed by government, in 1802, in making a 
 new survey. — P. 
 
 b At Banavie, one mile from the western termination in Loch 
 Eil. — P. 
 
 c Banff or Bamff. 
 
 d Cairngorm, 40G0 feet high, is at the southern extremity of the 
 county. — P. 
 
 Inverness-shire ; but it has been remarked that several 
 of the Hebrides are politically attached to it. Of these, 
 the largest or the Isle of Sky contains nearly 10,000 in- 
 habitants. It is very long and much indented by deep 
 bays, and many smaller isles are situated in the vicinity. 
 Roads made by government pass from one extremity to the 
 other, and they are connected with others that lead to 
 the small ports of Trotternish, Snizort, Dun vegan and 
 Sconser. 
 
 The northern ramifications of the Grampians bound the 
 valley of the Deveron, which flows into the North Sea, and 
 waters the small town of Banff, 0 the capital of a county, 
 and one of the best built towns in the north of Scotland. 
 The river is crossed by a handsome bridge of seven arches, 
 but the harbour is rendered inconvenient by the shifting of 
 sand banks. The boundaries of Banffshire are the counties 
 of Inverness and Moray on the west, the Murray Frith on 
 the north, and Aberdeenshire on the east and south. The 
 surface is not less than 627 square miles. The soil along 
 the coast consists chiefly of sand and loam, and is in 
 many places well cultivated. But although there are 
 several fertile vallies, and valuable pastures, sheltered with 
 natural wood on the banks of rivers, Banffshire is in gene- 
 ral a hilly, and, on the south, a mountainous district. 
 Numerous streams are tributary to the Spey and the 
 Deveron, the former of which forms its western, and the 
 latter its eastern boundary, and both of them yield a 
 considerable revenue from their salmon fishings. 
 
 Marble, limestone and marl abound, but from the want 
 of coal, most of the lime is imported from Sunderland. 
 The other minerals are freestone, granite, slate, brick-clay, 
 and the rock crystals that are found on the elevated range 
 that forms the southern and western limits of the county . d 
 
 A vegetable substance, the cupbear or cupmoss,® grows 
 only on rocky and high situations, and its use as a purple 
 dye, is said to have been discovered in 1755, by a native 
 of the county. The quantity that is annually exported 
 from Banffshire to Glasgow, amounts in value to more 
 than L.700. 
 
 No manufactures are established on a great scale. The 
 wealth of the farmer consists in bis cattle ; the climate and 
 the soil are on the whole unfavourable to the raising of 
 corn, and not more than a fifth part of the county is 
 considered fit for tillage. The relation, however, between 
 the surface and the population, is greater than in most 
 parts of the Highlands ; it is nearly as seventy-five to the 
 square mile. 
 
 Elginshire or the county of Moray is washed by the 
 frith of the same name on the north, and bounded by the 
 last county or Banffshire on the east, by Inverness-shire on 
 the south, and by Nairnshire on the west. The area is 
 not more than 480 square miles, but in former times it was 
 much larger, and the province of Moray,' as it was then 
 called, comprehended a considerable portion of the adjoin- 
 ing counties/ Not more than a third part of the land is 
 productive, and the relative number of inhabitants is up- 
 wards of seventy-one to the square mile. The county is 
 naturally divided into two parts, the northern and the 
 
 0 Cudbear (so called from Dr. Cuthbert Gordon, who first manufac- 
 tured it on a large scale) is a red or brownish red dye-stuff, prepared 
 from lichens, particularly the Lccanora tartarea. The cup-moss is the 
 Cerwmyce pyxidata. The first manufactory of cudbear in Glasgow, 
 was established in 1777. — P. 
 
 f It formerly comprehended the shires of Nairn and Elgin, and a 
 great part of the shire of Banff. (Gaz. Scot.)— P. 
 
604 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [ROOK CLVI. 
 
 r 
 
 southern, and these are widely different from each other. 
 The first comprehends the low grounds which stretch from 
 the coast to the distance in some places of twelve, and in 
 others of only five miles. The second division includes 
 the heights or mountains in the interior. In the former, 
 the climate may bear a comparison with that of most parts 
 in Scotland, and the prevailing soil is a sandy loam, which 
 yields plentiful harvests ; in the latter, the winters are long 
 and severe, the quantity of rain is greater than on the coast, 
 and it sometimes happens that the ground is covered with 
 snow, before the crops are collected. Limestone, sand- 
 stone, marl and slate abound in different parishes, and 
 about a century ago iron ore was wrought in the county. 
 
 The numerous mountain streams serve to enlarge the 
 principal rivers, the Spey, the Lossie, and the Findhorn. 
 Of these, the first or largest forms the eastern boundary of 
 Morayshire, which it enters at Aviemore, a place more than 
 thirty miles from its source. It then flows in a deep bed 
 with a considerable declivity, and reaches the sea at Spey- 
 mouth. a It affords the means of transporting the products 
 of the woods on its banks, but it is ill adapted for the pur- 
 poses of navigation ; indeed it is only navigable near its 
 mouth, and that merely for small vessels. 
 
 Many of the inhabitants are employed in agricultural, few 
 in manufacturing industry ; in the former of these occupa- 
 tions, particularly in the branch that relates to the rearing 
 of cattle, considerable advances have been made. The 
 native cattle have been crossed and improved by the Ar- 
 gyleshire race, and the Shetland sheep, once the only sort 
 in the county, is now superseded by a better breed. 
 
 Elgin, the county town, is situated on the banks of the 
 Lossie, about three miles from its mouth. It was formerly 
 a place of more importance than at present, having been 
 once the seat of a diocese, b possessing the largest revenue 
 of any in Scotland. Little of the ancient cathedral now 
 remains, but the ruins are still imposing. The modern 
 town consists principally of a single street more than a mile 
 in length, and near the middle of it are the court-house, the 
 parish church, the town-house, and the county gaol. The 
 harbour in the neighbourhood, 0 admits vessels of eighty tons 
 at spring tides, and a considerable quantity of grain is ex- 
 ported to Grangemouth and Leith. Lastly, the burgh of 
 Forres near the bay of Findhorn, d and about twelve miles 
 west of Elgin, contains nearly 4000 inhabitants. 
 
 The small county of Nairn was formerly contained in 
 the ancient province of Moray. It is contiguous to the 
 modern shire on the east and south, to Inverness-shire on 
 the west, and to the Moray Frith on the north. The ex- 
 tent of surface is equal to 198 square miles, and the total 
 population according to the last returns, to 9354 individuals. 
 The northern or maritime part of Nairnshire, like the 
 northern part of Morayshire, is fruitful ; the prevailing soils 
 consist of loam and clay, and both of them are considered 
 equally productive. But the portion of arable land in the 
 south, or at the distance of a few miles from the shore, is 
 
 a The Spey enters the sea at the port of Garmouth, in the parish of 
 Speymouth. — P. 
 
 b The bishopric of Moray, comprehending the counties of Moray 
 and Nairn, and a great part of Banff and Inverness. — P. 
 
 c Lossiemouth — at the mouth of the Lossie, six or seven miles from 
 Elgin. (Gaz. Scot. Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 11 The village of Findhorn, at the mouth of the bay, three miles 
 distant, is its port. — P. 
 
 e The shire of Cromarty originally consisted of a narrow tract, ten 
 miles in length, extending along the coast of Murray Frith, south from 
 tlie entrance of Cromarty Frith, in which was included the town of 
 
 very inconsiderable, and mostly confined to a sandy loam 
 or gravel. Sandstone and marl are the only minerals of 
 any importance, and the latter is not only abundant, but 
 of an excellent quality. 
 
 The Findhorn and the Nairn, the only streams of any 
 consequence, pass into the county from Inverness-shire, 
 and it has been seen that the former also waters Moray- 
 shire, where it discharges itself into the sea, but the town 
 of Nairn, the capital of the county, is situated at the con- 
 fluence of the latter with the Moray Frith. It is a place of 
 great antiquity, and it was formerly defended by a castle, of 
 which the ruins cannot easily be discovered. It is now, 
 however, without commerce or industry, and the population 
 amounts to little more than two thousand individuals. 
 
 The small shire of Cromarty consists for the most part 
 of different districts that are surrounded by Ross-shire.® 
 The boundaries of both counties are the sea on the east and 
 west, Sutherland on the north, and Inverness on the south. 
 The friths of Dornoch, Cromarty and Moray cut into the 
 land on the eastern side, and the western is more deeply 
 indented by numerous smaller inlets or lochs, which run 
 into the interior, and of which the most remarkable are 
 lochs Gareloch and Carron/ The superficial extent of 
 the two counties, exclusively of the islands that depend 
 on Ross-shire, is not supposed to be less than 2474 
 square miles. But the population is so thinly scattered, 
 that even according to the last returns, the ratio between 
 the inhabitants and the surface is little more than 30 to the 
 square mile. 
 
 If a narrow tract on the eastern coast be excepted, where 
 the soil and climate are not unfavourable to vegetation, the 
 general aspect of the country is rugged, mountainous and 
 barren. A few patches of natural wood, and some planta- 
 tions near the seats of the principal proprietors, relieve the 
 prospect of this bleak and desolate region, subject to fre- 
 quent rains in summer, and to much snow in winter. The 
 western districts exhibit many broken summits, rocky moun- 
 tains, and snowy glaciers in their deep and shaded recesses. 
 But the numerous lakess in the same quarter are well 
 adapted for fishing stations, and they are regularly visited 
 by shoals of herrings. The principal rivers are the Conon 
 and the Orrin, the Beauly which separates the county 
 from Inverness-shire, and the Oickel' 1 which divides it from 
 Sutherland. 
 
 Many of the farmers hold only a few acres of land with 
 grazing ground, which is commonly contiguous, but in 
 some instances, at a distance from their farm. They raise 
 oats, barley for the distillation of spirits, and potatoes. It 
 is customary for them to keep a great many cattle and 
 horses, hut for want of food, all of them are stunted in their 
 growth, and from the same cause together with the severity 
 of the climate, many of them perish in winter. It cannot, 
 however, be denied that the state of the country has been 
 improved of late years. Thus the repeal of the tax on 
 salt has led to a more successful prosecution of the fisheries, 
 
 Cromarty. But in 1685 and 1698, George Earl of Cromarty procured 
 by acts of parliament, the annexation of all his estates in Ross-shire 
 to this county, giving it an extent far greater than before. The largest 
 division, thus annexed, lies near the western coast, between Ross and 
 Sutherland. Thirteen smaller districts are scattered through Ross- 
 shire, even including islands on the western coast. In matters of 
 police, this county is united with Ross, and it is placed under the juris- 
 diction of the sheriff of Ross. — P. 
 
 r Gairloch and Loch Carron. — Also, Loch Broom, Lcch Torridon 
 and Loch Alsli. — P. 
 
 s Sea lochs, or inlets. — P. 
 
 h Ockel or Oikel. — P 
 
BOOK CL.VI.I 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 605 
 
 and within the same recent period, many small farms have 
 been united and let to persons of capital from different 
 parts of Scotland ; and although much opposition has been 
 experienced, it may now be said that the system of sheep- 
 farming, the one best adapted for the Highlands, is estab- 
 lished in Ross-shire. 
 
 The minerals are freestone and limestone, and the latter 
 approaches in many places to the qualities of marble. Iron- 
 stone is abundant, and according to a highland tradition, it 
 was smelted many hundred jeears ago on the banks of Loch 
 Eu. Repeated but hitherto unsuccessful attempts have 
 been made for the discovery of coal. a 
 
 The towns are Dingwall, Fortrose and Tain, all of them 
 royal burghs, and all of them inconsiderable in point ol 
 population or industry. The first is situated on a plain at 
 the west end of the Cromarty Frith, and small vessels can as- 
 cend to the town. Although the streets are paved, and 
 many of the houses are well built, it is an ancient place, and 
 there is reason to believe that it was formerly larger than at 
 present. No branch of industry worthy of notice is carried 
 on by the inhabitants, and their number does not amount to 
 2200. Fortrose, on the northern side of the Moray Frith, 
 is still less populous, but it is the station from which ferry 
 boats ply to Fort George on the opposite coast. The two 
 forts were built after the rebellion of 1745 by George the 
 Second, and their cross fire defends the entrance of the bay. b 
 Tain, on the southern coast of the Dornoch Frith, is con- 
 sidered the capital of Ross-shire ; c it possesses nearly 3000 
 inhabitants, and the only branches of industry in which they 
 are engaged, are the spinning of flax, and the dressing of 
 leather. The village of Ullapool, on the banks of Loch 
 Broom, is the most important place on the western side of 
 the county, and it was built at an expense of more than 
 L.20,000 by the British Society for the improvement of 
 the fisheries. 
 
 The port of Cromarty, a place of greater consequence 
 than any in Ross-shire, is situated on the bay that bears the 
 name of the small county and the town. d The bay or 
 frith, as it is commonly called, receives the waters of sever- 
 al lakes and mountain streams ; it is deep, spacious, and 
 sheltered on all sides. Cromarty is thus rendered one of 
 the safest and most capacious harbours of any in the king- 
 dom ; and it is likely from its situation to become a depot 
 of trade in the northern part of Scotland, and a place of 
 resort to the royal navy in the northern and eastern 
 seas. The principal manufacture, that of hempen bag- 
 ging, has been estimated at L.27,000, and there are be- 
 sides extensive breweries and different branches of the 
 woollen manufacture. 
 
 The island of Lewis, e the largest of the Hebrides that 
 are attached to Ross-shire, may be mentioned on account 
 of Stornoway, the principal port, which contains nearly 
 
 a A seam of coal, four inches thick, has been discovered on the 
 eastern coast, near Cromarty. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 b Fort George stands on a long narrow neck of land, called Arder- 
 sier Point, on the south side of Moray Frith, east of the Ness. It was 
 begun in 1747 (after the suppression of the rebellion of 1745,) and fin- 
 ished in twenty years. Chanonry Ness projects into the Frith on Ihe 
 north side, nearly opposite Fort George, leaving comparatively a nar- 
 row passage into the upper partof the Frith. This last point extends 
 from the town of Fortrose, and forms what are called the Links ofFort- 
 rose. The ferry is at the extremity of the point. I can find no men- 
 tion of a fort on Chanonry Ness. Fort Augustus and Fort William 
 were built at the same time with Fort George. — P. 
 c It is the seat of the courts and the county jail. — P. 
 d Cromnrtv, in Crorrnr' vsllire. is situated on the south side of the 
 entrance of Cromarty F.ith. — I'. 
 
 5000 inhabitants, most of whom find employment in the 
 white and herring fisheries. The harbour is well frequent- 
 ed, and the seat of a custom-house ; a packet sails regularly 
 from k every week with the mail and passengers to the 
 mainland. 
 
 The county of Sutherland is washed by the sea on the 
 west, the north and the south-east ; Caithness and Ross- 
 shire are the boundaries on the north-east and south. It 
 extends from 35 to 50 miles from north to south, and from 
 45 to 50 from east to west. The area, although not accu- 
 rately determined, is not less than 1840 square miles, and 
 the population relatively to the surface is not so great as 
 fourteen persons to the square mile. 
 
 The coast, like that of the other Highland counties, is 
 formed by a number of inlets, bold promontories, rocks and 
 islets. The principal arms of the sea are Lochs Assynt, f 
 Laxford and Inchard on the west ; Durness Bay, Loch 
 Eriboll, the Kyle of Tongue, s and the bays of Torrisdale 
 and Strathy, on the north ; and Loch Fleet in the Dor- 
 noch Frith on the south-east. The most remarkable prom- 
 ontories are Ru-Stoir h on the south side of Loch Assynt, 
 Cape Wrath at the north-west extremity of the county, 
 Farout Head on the north, and Strathy Head on the 
 north-east. 
 
 The interior consists of mountains, mosses or heaths, 
 lakes and streams, and although it exhibits considerable 
 variety of surface, the different parts resemble each other 
 in sterility, ruggedness and the appearance of desolation. 
 But the western side is perhaps more remarkable in this 
 respect than any other portion of the county ; no valley of 
 any extent can be observed, and seldom a tree or shrub to 
 vary the gloomy scene. It appears from the agricultural 
 report, that the cultivated land, green pastures and woods 
 do not exceed 60,000 acres, or a thirtieth part of the 
 whole, and that the cultivated land alone is little more than 
 one acre in a hundred. 
 
 The principal streams are the Fleet, the Brora and 
 Helmsdale, which rise from the central part of the county, 
 and fall into the Dornoch Frith on the south-east.* The 
 extent of surface occupied by lakes is about 47 square miles, 
 or 30,000 acres. 
 
 The sea has formed several large cavities in the limestone 
 rock on the northern coast ; one of them at Snow k on the 
 east of Durness, is about 32 yards in width and 20 in 
 height, and another in Fraisgill is 50 feet high and 20 
 broad at its mouth, but it contracts gradually to its termina- 
 tion, a distance of more than half a mile. It has already 
 been remarked, that with one or two exceptions the High- 
 lands are destitute of coal ; but that useful and valuable 
 substance is included among the minerals of Sutherland, and 
 it is worked not without profit near the banks of the Brora, 
 where a railway has been constructed from the mines to the 
 
 e Lewis and Harris form two parts of one island, connected by a 
 narrow isthmus. Lewis is in Ross-shire, and Harris, in Inverness- 
 shire. — P. 
 
 f By Loch Assynt is doubtless meant the arm of the sea between 
 Assint and Edrachilis, called Kilis ( Caolis ) or Kiliscuig (the Kyle or 
 the Narrow Kyle.) Loch Assint is a fresh water lake in the interior 
 of Assint. — P. 
 
 e The Bay of Tongue. Kyle (Gaelic, Kilis) signifies a separation by 
 water, an inlet or estuary. — P. 
 
 h Great, Point — also written, Row-Store. It forms the western point 
 of Assint. — P. 
 
 1 The Dornoch Frith is here made to include the whole arm of the 
 sea between Tarbat Ness and the Old of Caithness, and' consequently 
 the whole eastern coast of the county. — P. 
 
 1 Smovv.— Sino tr Smoah. (Gaz. Scot.) — P. 
 
606 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CI.VI. 
 
 harbour at the mouth of the river. The other minerals are 
 limestone, marble and sandstone. The first abounds on the 
 coast,* and is common in some parts of the interior. Two 
 sorts of marble have been observed in the district of Assynt ; 
 the first, white, pure as alabaster, and of an excellent quali- 
 ty, has been wrought during several years at Lead-more 
 and Lead-begg ; the second sort, which is black with yel- 
 low veins, is found in Edderachylis. b 
 
 Many boats are employed in the fisheries on the west and 
 north coast for cod, ling, haddock and herring ; and many 
 of the small tenants, who were removed from their habita- 
 tions in consequence of the introduction of sheep farming, 
 have become fishermen on the eastern coast.® 
 
 Dornoch, a royal burgh, situated on the south-eastern ex- 
 tremity of the Dornoch Frith, d is the only town in the coun- 
 ty, and it does not contain 700 inhabitants. Golspie, Helms- 
 dale and Brora are the principal villages. 
 
 Caithness is the most northern county on the mainland 
 of Great Britain. If the island of Stroma in the Pentland 
 Frith, which is politically attached to it, be included, the 
 surface is not less than 620 square miles, e and the popula- 
 tion relatively to the surface is at present more than fifty- 
 five persons to the square mile. A fourth part of the sur- 
 face is mountainous, more than a half consists of moss or 
 heath, and not more than the eighth part is cultivated/ It 
 may be added that it formed part of Sutherland until the 
 year 1807, when it was made a separate county under the 
 jurisdiction of a sheriffs The boundaries are the Pentland 
 Frith on the north, the Moray Frith and the German Ocean 
 on the east, and the Ord of Caithness on the south/ The 
 last promontory or its southern limit separates it from Su- 
 therland, 1 to which Caithness is contiguous on the south- 
 west and west. On account of the northern situation of the 
 county, the phenomenon of constant twilight may be ob- 
 served about the summer solstice ; but the climate is by no 
 means insalubrious. Westerly winds prevail nearly three 
 quarters of the year, and the annual quantity of rain is very 
 considerable. According to the celebrated Pennant, the 
 whole county was formerly a morass, k but it is certain that 
 even in the present day many trunks of trees are dug from 
 the mosses. The surface, it has been already seen, is une- 
 ven, and the highest summits or the Paps of Caithness are 
 more than 1900 feet above the level of the sea. The coasts 
 are broken by numerous bays and promontories, and pene- 
 trated in several places by extensive caverns, which are fre- 
 quented by seals. It is supposed that about 10,000 acres 
 are covered by lakes or water, but none of the lakes occupy 
 so great a surface as two miles in length by one in breadth. 
 The principal river, or the Thurso, which rises from the 
 confines of Sutherland, has a course of about thirty miles, 
 and is navigable a short distance for small vessels. The 
 
 a The west coast is in a great measure formed of limestone. (Ed. 
 Enc.)— P. 
 
 b Assynt (Assint) and Edderachylis are two districts on the west 
 coast of Sutherland ; the former on the south, the latter on the north 
 of Kiliscuig. Leadmore (Great Plain) and Leadbeg (Little Plain) are 
 in Assynt. — P. 
 
 c At Helmsdale, under the patronage of the Marquis of Staf- 
 ford. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 d On the north side of Dornoch Frith, nearly opposite Tain. — P. 
 
 c 697 square miles. (Sinclair’s Gen. Rep.) — P. 
 
 f About one fifth cultivated and in green pasture. (Sinclair.) — P. 
 
 e Is there not a mistake in the date ? Let the reader compare the 
 following statements. “ Caithness was formerly part of Sutherland, 
 but is now a separate shire.” (Britannia Fortior, 1709.) “The Earl 
 of Breadalbane is hereditary sheriff of Caithness. Wick is the resi- 
 dence of the sheriff, or his officer (substitute.) The Earls of Suther- 
 land are hereditary sheriff’s of Sutherland. By the act of Union (1707,) 
 
 others, or the waters of Wick, Forss and Wester, are not 
 navigable. 
 
 Although copper and lead have been discovered, the 
 minerals on the whole are of little value. The same may 
 be said of the manufactures, for although repeated at- 
 tempts have been made to introduce them, none appear 
 to have succeeded. Fishing and agriculture are the chief 
 occupations of the inhabitants. The annual revenue deriv- 
 ed from the herring, cod, lobster and salmon fisheries 
 amounts to L.45,000, and of that sum, more than L.40,000 
 are obtained from the herring fishery alone. Many boats 
 are likewise employed in the creeks and bays in fishing for 
 haddock, ling and other fish that are consumed in the coun- 
 ty, and several smacks sail every year from Gravesend to 
 the cod fisheries on the northern coast. 
 
 Different agricultural improvements have been introduc- 
 ed within a comparatively recent period, and perhaps the 
 most important is the successful introduction of the Cheviot 
 sheep by Sir John Sinclair. But other improvements may 
 yet be effected ; the implements of husbandry are still ex- 
 tremely rude ; the harrows consist entirely of wood, and 
 there is only a thin plate of iron on the plough to prevent 
 it from wearing by the friction of the soil. There are no 
 granaries or barns, and the thrashing mill is almost un- 
 known. The crops are barley and oats alternately on the 
 old tillage lands, and four or five successive crops of grey 
 oats on the outfield or inferior land. Wheat has been tried 
 in a few places, but it appears to be ill adapted to the cli- 
 mate. An act of parliament was passed about thirty years 
 ago for commuting the statute labour, under which L.550 
 have been annually expended on the repair of roads, and 
 within a still later period, the proprietors have availed 
 themselves of the aid granted to the northern counties, by 
 which one half of the estimated expense of the great lines 
 of road is defrayed by government. Thus, a communica- 
 tion has been formed from the Ord of Caithness to Wick, 
 and from Wick to Thurso. 
 
 Wick and Thurso are the only towns. The former is situ- 
 ated at the mouth of the river of the same name, on the 
 German Ocean. It contains about 1200 inhabitants. The 
 harbour, which was formerly very inconvenient, has been 
 much improved ; piers, quays and dry docks have been 
 constructed at an expense of L. 12,000, and in consequence of 
 these works, Wick has become an important fishing station. 
 Thurso, a place of nearly 2000 inhabitants, is situated on 
 the north-west coast of Caithness, at the head of a spacious 
 bay, the estuary of the Thurso. The town consists of 
 two parts ; the houses and streets on the east of the river 
 are old and irregularly built, but several moderfi buildings 
 have been erected on the western bank. 1 The same 
 place is a port of the custom house, and it reckons about 
 
 Bute and Caithness were joined in sending representatives to Parlia- 
 ment.” (Chamberlayne’s Mag. Brit. Notit. 1737.) “ James IV. (1489 — 
 1514) appointed the sheriffs of Caithness to reside at Dornoch, or else 
 at Wick, as occasion should require.” (Camden’s Britannia, Gibson’s 
 Edit.) — P. 
 
 h The North Sea and the Pentland Frith on the north ; the German 
 Ocean on the east and south-east ; Sutherland on the west and south- 
 west ; and on the south, terminating in a point at the Ord of Caith- 
 ness. — P. 
 
 ‘ The Ord is merely a point of land, on which the line between 
 Sutherland and Caithness meets the German Ocean. — P. 
 
 k “ Caithness may be termed an immense morass, interspersed 
 with some fruitful spots, but poorly cultivated.” (Pennant's First 
 Tour.)— P. 
 
 1 The town of Thurso is irregularly built, but very elegant houses 
 have been erected to the south of the old town. (Ed. Enc.) — The 
 town of Thurso stood on the west bank of the river in 1798, and was 
 
BOOK CLVI.J 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 607 
 
 thirty-six decked vessels, of which more than twelve belong 
 to the town. 3 
 
 Two groups, the Orkney and Shetland or Zetland 
 Islands, form the most northern county of Great Britain. 
 The former are separated from Caithness by the Pentland 
 Frith, a strait which varies in breadth from six to twelve 
 miles. 
 
 Fair Isle and Foula are situated between Orkney and 
 Shetland ; the former is about twenty-four miles to the 
 south, and the latter, which has been supposed to be the 
 Thule of Tacitus, about twenty miles to the west of the 
 Shetland group. Both of them are included in the same 
 group, from which they may be distinctly seen in clear 
 weather, and from which Fair Isle is more than thirty 
 miles distant. b 
 
 The Orkneys, it has been computed, contain 384,000 
 acres, a calculation which is probably above the truth, and 
 it is also said that 300,000 acres are waste lands or covered 
 with water. The Shetland Islands are perhaps twice as 
 large, but in the whole of them not more than 22,000 acres 
 are cultivated. As no correct survey has been taken of 
 these islands, as their forms are very irregular, and as they 
 are indented almost in every direction by arms of the sea, it is 
 impossible to estimate their superficies with any thing like 
 accuracy. 
 
 The Orcades or Orkneys, exclusively of insulated rocks, 
 which bear little or no herbage, make up a group of sixty- 
 seven islands, but of these not more than thirty are inhabit- 
 ed ; the others, or holms 6 as they are called, afford only 
 scanty pastures for cattle. South Ronaldshay, the most 
 southern of the inhabited islands, is about twenty-four 
 square miles in extent, and contains nearly 1700 inhabitants, 
 most of whom are employed in agriculture or in the manu- 
 facture of kelp. Hoy, on the north-west of it, is probably 
 twice as large, but it does not contain a third part of the 
 inhabitants ; the ground indeed is not nearly so fruitful, the 
 greater part of it being lofty/ or covered with heath. Bur- 
 ray, on the north of South Ronaldshay, from which it is 
 separated by a channel about a mile in breadth, produces 
 grain, green crops and good pastures, but it is only three 
 square miles in extent. 6 Mainland or Pomona, the largest 
 of the Orkneys, is situated on the north of the last ; it con- 
 tains more than two hundred square miles ; it extends 30 
 miles from east to west, and in the same island are situated 
 the towns of Kirkwall and Stromness. Shapinshay and 
 Rousay, each about ten or twelve square miles, consist 
 partly of arable, and partly of pasture lands. Still further 
 north are Stronsay and Eday, the former about sixteen 
 square miles in extent, the latter about twelve, and both of 
 them containing a considerable proportion of productive 
 
 very irregularly built, but Sir J. Sinclair then proposed to feu a tract 
 for building, on the south side of the town. Thurso Castle stood 
 on the east bank of the river, nearly opposite the town. (Sir J. Sin- 
 clair. Stat. Acc.) — P. 
 
 a Twenty decked vessels belong to the town. (Ed. Enc. 1831.) — P. 
 
 » If, as the construction seems to require, the writer means to say 
 that both these islands are included in the Shetland group, he has con- 
 tradicted himself ; for in the first sentence, he says, Fair Isle is 24 
 miles south of that group, and in the second, 30 miles distant from it. 
 The following statements will explain the matter. “ Fair-Isle is situ- 
 ated about 24 miles to the south of the Mainland in Shetland, and 
 Foula about 20 miles to the west.” (Ed. Enc.) — “ The Fair Isle ( Fara ) 
 is 30 miles distant from the most northerly of the Orkney Islands.” 
 (Stat. Acc. xiv.) — Fara or the Fair Isle, and Foula (Fowla,) Fula (Fule) 
 or the Foul Isle, are isolated islands, not included in the Shetland 
 group, but politically dependent on it ; Fara being included in Dun- 
 rossness parish, and Foula, in Walls and Sandness parish, both on the 
 Mainland of Shetland. The terminations a, e, ay, ey, in the Scottish 
 
 land. The former possesses two good harbours, and the 
 manufacture of kelp in the latter affords employment to 
 many of the inhabitants. Sanday lies on the north-east, 
 and Westray on the north-west of the two last/ The first, 
 although only nineteen square miles in extent, has a popu- 
 lation of nearly 1900 persons, being naturally productive, 
 and yielding about a fifth part of all the kelp made in Ork- 
 ney. North Ronaldshay, the most northern of the Ork- 
 neys, lies about three miles to the north of Sanday, and on 
 a surface of nearly six square miles, contains about 550 in- 
 habitants. As the superficial extent of the Orkneys must 
 still be considered unknown, the relation between the popu- 
 lation and the surface cannot be determined, but it is not 
 probably less than fifty persons to the square mile. 
 
 The ancients were not wholly ignorant of these islands, 
 which appear to have been the subject of many errors and 
 fables. Pliny makes their number amount to forty, and 
 Solinus affirms them to be uninhabitable, and covered with 
 reeds. According to Ossian, they formed a powerful king 
 dom, and those who believe not only in his poems, but can 
 determine the period in which the bard flourished, may 
 from that fact form some notion of the other powerful king- 
 doms then established in Scotland. It is probable that 
 the Piets possessed them until the subversion of their 
 kingdom in the year 838.S From that period until the 
 end of the eleventh century, when they were made over to 
 Norway, they were under the dominion of the kings of 
 Scotland. They were exposed to frequent aggressions 
 from the Scots, the Norwegians and the Danes, until the 
 marriage of James the Third with Margaret of Norway, 
 who obtained them as her dowry. The Orcadians speak 
 English with a Scottish accent ; the upper classes are pol- 
 ished and hospitable ; the lower orders, although much 
 addicted to superstition, are bold and adventurous, patient 
 of fatigue and inured to hardships. The exports are 
 oxen, sheep and kelp ; the imports are different articles of 
 consumption, and of these, the most important are coal 
 and iron. 
 
 Kirkwall in the island of Pomona, the capital of the 
 county, is small, dirty and ill built. It is said to have been 
 founded in 1138 by Ronwald, count of Norway, 11 and 
 among its antiquities are the ruins of an ancient fortress 
 and palace/ The cathedral, which is still entire, and used 
 as a parish church, is a fine Gothic edifice. The harbour 
 lies opposite a spacious and safe roadstead, and is defended 
 by a fort that was built by Cromwell. An excellent port 
 is all that is worthy of notice in the small town of Strom - 
 ness on the southern side of the same island. 
 
 The inhabitants of the Shetland Islands are robust, well 
 made, and of a sun-burnt or swarthy complexion. Not less 
 
 Islands, are the Danish, aee, island. Fara (Dan. Faaroee) is Sheep 
 Island, and Fula (Dan. Fuglaze), Bird Island. — P. 
 c Holm is a Danish word, signifying islet. — P. 
 
 d Hoy (Dan. hoi-Oe, high-island) contains a mountain group of three 
 summits ; the highest, 1600 feet high. These mountains consist of 
 sandstone, a formation which includes the whole of the Orkneys, ex- 
 cept a small tract of granite, of little elevation, at Stromness, in the 
 south-west corner of the Mainland. — P. 
 
 e It is four miles long, and from one to two broad. (Gen. Rep.) — P. 
 f Rather of Eday. — P. 
 
 s The Pictish kingdom was subverted by Kenneth II. in 843. — P. 
 h The cathedral was founded by Rognvald (Ronald,) Count (Earl — 
 Dan. Jarl) of Orkney, in 1138. (Stat. Acc. vii. Ed. Enc.) — Rognvald 
 was a Norwegian, the father of Rolf (Rollo), conqueror of Normandy, 
 and the first Earl (jarl) of Orkney. — P. 
 
 > The Castle of Kirkwall (founded by Henry St. Clair, the first Earl 
 of the Sinclair family, near the close of the 14th century,) the Earl’s 
 Palace, and the Bishop’s Palace. — P. 
 
G08 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLVI. 
 
 hospitable than their neighbours the Orcadians, they are 
 equally bold and regardless of danger. It is customary 
 for them to marry early, and nothing is more rare than 
 celibacy. A small hut, one or two blankets, a single cow, 
 a pot to boil provisions, and a spade to labour the ground, 
 make up the most valuable property of many who enter 
 into the married state. The language,® laws, dress, man- 
 ners and customs of the inhabitants, are the same as in the 
 north of Scotland. The number of islands is 86, but more 
 than a half of them are not inhabited. The most impor- 
 tant are the Mainland, Yell, Unst, Whalsay, Bressay, Bur- 
 
 • The language of the Shetland and Orkney Islands and of Caith- 
 ness was originally Norse. It is now English, with provincial pe- 
 culiarities, which in Shetland particularly, are said to have little re- 
 semblance to the Scotch dialect. The names of places are mostly of 
 Norse origin. — P. 
 
 ray, House, b Fetlar, Mickle and Little Roe, Skerries' and 
 Noss. • 
 
 Lerwick and Scalloway, the only towns, are both of them 
 situated in Mainland. The first is a place of rendezvous 
 for the vessels engaged in the whale-fishery, and the second 
 is provided with a commodious harbour. The origin 
 of these islanders has given rise to different conjec- 
 tures ; it appears, however, that they are sprung from a 
 Norwegian colony. Their small archipelago and the 
 Orkneys were annexed at the same period to the Scot- 
 tish crown. 
 
 b Burray and House are parallel to each other, and are connected 
 by a bridge. — P. 
 
 c The Out Skerries — a cluster of islets and rocks, at some distance 
 to the east of the Mainland. They are the easternmost of the group, 
 as Unst is the most northern (and the most northern part of the British 
 Home Dominions — 60° 52 ' N.) — P 
 
book ci/vn.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF IRELAND. 
 
 609 
 
 BOOR CLVII. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Europe Continued. — Description of Ireland. — Bounda- 
 ries. — Nature of the Country. — Harbours. — Rivers. 
 
 — Islands, fyc. 
 
 The undeviating progress of civilization towards the 
 west has gradually brought Ireland into historical noto- 
 riety. Scarcely known but by name to the writers of 
 classic antiquity, seldom noticed in the earliest ages of 
 Christianity except as a place of refuge from persecu- 
 tion, and, even at a later period, cited chiefly in the 
 annals of ecclesiastical literature, its central position in 
 one of the main circuits of commercial activity, and its 
 connexion with the greatest maritime power in the 
 world, have latterly invested it with a character of im- 
 portance sufficient to entitle it to an enlarged share of 
 attention. The many peculiarities of its physical and 
 political constitution will amply repay the inquirer for 
 the time and labour of investigation. 
 
 The island of Ireland, the second in magnitude of 
 those considered as belonging to Europe, is situated to 
 the north-west of that continent, and due west of the 
 larger island of Great Britain, between the latitudes of 
 5U 26' and 55° 20' north, and the longitudes of 5° 28' 
 and 10° 21' west. The Atlantic Ocean surrounds it on 
 all sides but the eastern, on which it is separated from 
 the island just mentioned by a confined arm of the sea, 
 of which the southern extremity is known by the name 
 of St. George’s Channel, the centre expands into the 
 Irish Sea, and the northern part is again contracted into 
 the narrow strait of the Northern passage.* Its geo- 
 graphical position gives it great commercial advantages. 
 An uninterrupted expanse of sea admits an easy com- 
 munication with the northern regions of Europe, 15 the 
 north-west of Africa, and the entire line of the eastern 
 shore of the transatlantic continent as far south as the 
 empire of Brazil, including the whole of the West Indian 
 archipelago; the numerous and spacious gulfs and har- 
 bours by which its western and southern coasts are in- 
 dented, afford a safe refuge from all those quarters to 
 the vessels which the prevalence of westerly winds, and 
 the influence of the great gulf stream, necessarily impel 
 upon its coasts in their progress to any of the northern 
 parts of Europe, while its proximity to all the great 
 continental emporiums of commerce, presents an equally 
 commodious vent for its natural productions, or its im- 
 ported commodities. These great advantages will be 
 
 1 North Channel. — P. 
 
 b Rather the western, particularly France, Spain and Portugal, on the 
 south . — P. 
 
 c It extends 7938 feet (more than l.t mile,) 40 feet wide, to the 
 VOl. HI.— NO. fil 77 
 
 still more clearly perceptible from an enlarged descrip- 
 tion of the principal features of the country; and, as 
 from its insulated situation, those connected with its 
 maritime position must be considered as the most im- 
 portant, the investigation will best be commenced by an 
 examination of the local peculiarities of its several bays, 
 harbours, and other naval stations, as they would present 
 themselves to an inquirer in a circumnavigation of the 
 island made for this special object. 
 
 Commencing with Dublin, as well because this city is 
 the metropolis of the island, as because, in consequence 
 of the progress of steam navigation, it has become a 
 great focus of communication with the manufacturing 
 districts of Great Britain — Dublin Bay is formed by the 
 mouth of the Liffey, a river of little importance beyond 
 what it derives from the city seated upon its banks: the 
 bay, open to the east, is confined on its northern side by 
 the hilly peninsula of Howth, while to the south it is 
 bounded by a low and undulating shore extending to the 
 Killiney hills that form its southern extremity. Its ex- 
 tent across the mouth is eight miles, and its inland depth 
 about nine. The passage of large vessels to the quays 
 of Dublin is prevented by a bar at the river’s mouth, 
 over which the depth of water at high spring tides is 
 but sixteen feet. To remedy this defect of nature, re- 
 course has been unavailingly had to art. A wall has been 
 built on each side of the river so as to confine its waters, 
 by preventing them from spreading over the adjacent 
 low lands, in the hope of thus diminishing the bar by the 
 increased impulse of an accumulated body of water. 
 The wall on the northern side is of small extent ; that 
 to the south projects in the form of a broad carriage 
 road upwards of a mile into the sea, where its termina- 
 tion is marked by a fort used as a depot for heavy guns 
 and other military stores. A massive pier ol solid ma- 
 sonry is carried out from this spot nearly two miles fur- 
 ther, where it is terminated by a light-house. c 
 
 Experience having at length led to a conviction of the 
 impossibility of removing the natural impediments in the 
 mouth of the river that preclude the hope of rendering 
 it a place of resort for vessels of heavy burden, the 
 formation of a safety harbour in the vicinity suggested 
 itself. A position on the north of the promontory of 
 Howth was selected ; d but, after the expenditure of near- 
 ly a million sterling, the harbour has been found to be ill 
 
 Block-house ; thence 9810 feet (nearly two miles), 28 feet wide at the 
 top, to the Light-house. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 '* Howth harbour. 
 
610 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLYII. 
 
 adapted for its intended object, and is now used solely 
 as a station for the packets which ply between Dublin 
 and Holyhead, and as an occasional shelter for the 
 neighbouring fishing craft. Another situation was then 
 chosen. A safety harbour has been nearly completed on 
 the southern shore, to the west of the Killiney hills, at 
 Dunleary, now called Kingstown, as being the place 
 whence the late king embarked on leaving Ireland. The 
 harbour is formed by two piers extending into the sea 
 and gradually approaching at their outer extremities : it 
 has depth of water sufficient for vessels of large size, and 
 is already the place to which ships of this description 
 steer, when either their commercial engagements or stress 
 of weather direct them to Dublin. 
 
 Upon quitting Kingstown harbour and proceeding 
 southwards from Dublin Bay along the eastern coast of 
 Leinster, the small and uninhabited island of Dalkey* 
 presents itself, remarkable for little more than the recol- 
 lections of times long past, when it formed the outer 
 side of a port at which the chief governors of the country 
 frequently landed and embarked, and where merchants 
 deposited their cargoes intended for the Dublin market. 
 The traces of its former importance are still discernible 
 on the adjoining mainland in the ruins of several castles, 
 which served as places of storage for securing the prop- 
 erty deposited in them from the incursions of the neigh- 
 bouring tribes of native Irish who inhabited the Wicklow 
 mountains. The only harbours between those of Dub- 
 lin and Wexford are at Wicklow and Arklow, suited 
 merely for small craft. That of Wexford, though spa- 
 cious and deep, is obstructed by a bar at its entrance, on 
 which there is at times not more than seven feet water : 
 it is also rendered unsafe by several shifting sand-banks. 
 The navigation through the whole of this part of the 
 channel is peculiarly hazardous to strangers on account 
 of the shoals which lie along the coast, although due 
 precaution has been taken to warn them of the danger 
 by floating lights placed at each extremity ; the northern 
 is called the Kish/ the southern the Star light. The 
 port of Wicklow is also marked by two light-houses. 
 
 On turning southward by Carnsore Point, which also 
 is marked by a light-house far out at sea on the Tuscar 
 rock, the Saltees become visible, two uninhabited islands, 
 near which some concealed rocks and shoals are also 
 indicated by a floating light. Beyond these a few small 
 islets present themselves, fit only for fishing stations. 
 Among them the estuary of the river Bannow may 
 be noticed as being the spot where the little band of 
 Cambrian English, 0 by their successful invasion, laid 
 the foundation of a total change of the political destinies 
 of the country. 
 
 The first harbour of importance on the southern coast 
 is that of Waterford, being in fact an estuary formed by 
 the three great rivers, Suir, Nore and Barrow ; it is of 
 
 “ Dalkey Island lies off Dalkey Point, the southern limit of Dublin 
 Bay, and is separated from the mainland by a narrow channel, called 
 Dalkey Sound, in which there is good anchorage. (Malham’s Nav. 
 
 b Kishbank floating light, moored off Dublin Bay — a vessel carry- 
 ing three lanterns. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 c Robert Fitzstephen, with 390 followers, from S. Wales. He was 
 •onstable of Aberteivi (Cardigan,) then occupied by Henry II. — P. 
 
 d Waterford is on the south side of the Suir, which joins the Barrow 
 and the Nore below the town. — P. 
 
 0 Dungarvon Bay. 
 
 f Youghal Bay is at the mouth of the Blackwater. — P. 
 
 sufficient depth to admit large vessels to discharge their 
 cargoes at the quay of Waterford city. d Within this 
 estuary is also the harbour of Dunmore, formed arti- 
 ficially at considerable expense for the purpose of facili- 
 tating the commercial intercourse between this part ot 
 Ireland and Bristol, which is regularly maintained by 
 means of steam-vessels : it is likewise the station for the 
 post-office packets that ply to Milford-Haven. The 
 pier extends 700 yards from the cliff in four fathoms at 
 low water, enclosing an area of six acres. Vessels of 
 fifteen feet draft may lie afloat here at all times. 
 
 Tramore Bay, further west, though sufficiently capa- 
 cious for a large fleet, is cautiously avoided by sailors. 
 The similarity of its entrance to that of Waterford often 
 deludes the inexperienced mariner, who, when too late, 
 finds himself locked up in a situation whence egress is 
 nearly impossible, and safety as nearly hopeless from the 
 total want of places of shelter for large ships. 
 
 Dungarvan Bay, e though extensive, is too shallow fo 
 large vessels ; it is therefore little more than a fishin t 
 station. The same may be said of Youghal/ the next 
 in succession, the entrance of which is likewise impeded 
 by a bar, having on it only five feet water at low, and but 
 thirteen at high water neaps. Ballycotton Bay is 
 wholly unsheltered, and is distinguished by two small 
 uninhabited islands at its entrance. 
 
 Next in succession westward, and among the most 
 important in size and value, is Cork harbour, whose 
 narrow entrance, guarded on each side by heavy bat- 
 teries, expands into a magnificent and deep basin in which 
 a numerous fleet may set at defiance the fury of the 
 elements in their most tempestuous mood. The entrance 
 is further marked by a brilliant light on Roche’s tower 
 at the eastern side.s Within the harbour are three 
 islands. On Great Island, the largest of them, consti- 
 tuting a parish in itself, and containing a population of 
 9400 souls, is built the town of Cove/ the great mer- 
 cantile emporium of Cork; for, while ships of every 
 size can discharge here, none drawing more than ten or 
 eleven feet water can proceed as far as the city of Cork, 
 which lies several miles inland on the river Lee.‘ Spike 
 Island and Hawlbowling/ the two others, are used as 
 naval depositories, for which purpose they have been 
 fortified at a very great expense. * 1 
 
 The next harbour of note is that of Kinsale. 1 " Ves- 
 sels of every size may lie in safety within it, although 
 there is a bar at the entrance with but twelve feet water 
 at low spring-tides. This harbour is marked by a large 
 light at the entrance, while a smaller in the interior in- 
 dicates the place of anchorage for large vessels within." 
 Cloghnakilty 0 and Castlehaven harbours are fit for small 
 vessels only ; the former contains Inchidony island, hav- 
 ing a population of 2090 souls. The harbour of Balti- 
 more affords protection for ships of every size, and is 
 
 s Cork Harbour, or Roche’s Point light-house — one stationary light, 
 with red coloured shades to seaward. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 h Usually called the Cove of Cork. — P. 
 
 * The bay or harbour is 7 or 8 miles below the city. (Ed. Enc.) — P 
 
 k Haul Bowling Island. (Malham.) — P. 
 
 1 The fortifications on Spike Island are said to have cost a million 
 sterling. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 m Kinsale Harbour is at the mouth of the Bandon. — P. 
 
 " There is a light-house at Charles’ Fort, which defends the en- 
 trance of the harbour, and another on the Old Head of Kinsale, about 
 five miles south. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 0 Clonakilty Harbour. (Bell.) — Clonekilly Bay, (Malham.) — P 
 
- 
 
 book CLiVii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 easy of access to vessels bound either eastward or west- 
 ward, as there are from twelve to nineteen fathoms water 
 at the entrance. The island of Cape Clear or Clare Island 
 contributes much to ensure the safety of vessels which take 
 advantage of this port. The island was once considered to 
 be a cape on the mainland, and as such was marked as 
 being the most southern point of Ireland ; a but incorrectly, 
 for it is separated from the mainland by the sound or chan- 
 nel of Gaskenane, which is about seven miles across. 
 Cape Clear Island measures five miles from north-east to 
 south-west : it is a parish within itself, maintaining a popu- 
 lation of 886 souls. Several singular peculiarities con- 
 nected with it are worthy of notice. It rises high above 
 the surrounding ocean, encompassed with inaccessible cliffs, 
 excepting only where two small inlets serving for harbours, 
 nearly intersect it from north to south. Nature has been 
 peculiarly bountiful to its inhabitants, by providing them 
 with a small but perennial fresh-water lake, endowed with 
 the peculiar quality of purifying in a few days any thing 
 thrown into it : casks which had contained train oil, after 
 lying in it a short time, have been rendered fit to hold milk. 
 The natives were remarkable for size and strength. The 
 thigh-bone of one of theO’Driscol family, which long claim- 
 ed the superiority here, is still preserved, and has been pro- 
 nounced to belong to a man at least seven feet high. Fish- 
 ing is the sole occupation of the people. The men go out to 
 sea in open boats on Tuesdays to the distance of from 
 twenty to thirty leagues, guiding their venturous course by 
 the stars ; returning on Friday or Saturday, they transfer 
 the whole of their cargoes to the women, on whom de- 
 volve not only the subsequent labours of curing and dis- 
 posing of the fish, but all the processes of agricultural 
 industry. Formerly, and even within the last half century, 
 the islanders elected a king from among themselves, to 
 whose decisions, regulated by a code of laws handed down 
 by tradition, unqualified obedience was conceded. But 
 the late era of political revolutions, amongst other changes, 
 has swept away the dynasty of the monarchs of Clear 
 Island. The regal title is no longer known ; the regal au- 
 thority no longer recognised; and of the whole code of 
 laws concocted by the collected wisdom of the islanders, 
 nothing now remains but a few isolated customs. By one 
 of these, strangers are prohibited from settling in the island ; 
 by another, offences of a deep dye are punished by ex- 
 portation from it. Between Clear Island and the mainland 
 is Sherkin Island, b close to the shore. 
 
 The coast between Baltimore and Dunmanus Bay is 
 marked by a number of islands, most of which, though 
 small, are inhabited, but, from their vicinity to the main- 
 land, and the consequent frequency of intercourse with 
 strangers, their residents are not noted for those peculiari- 
 ties of character or manners that mark the hardy islanders 
 of Cape Clear. Within this space is Crookhaven, a fine 
 harbour, though narrow, with water sufficiently deep for 
 large ships, and always tranquil except during eastern gales. 
 
 OF IRELAND. 611 
 
 Passing by Brow Head, the most southern point of Ire- 
 land, and Mizen Head, 0 supposed to be the Notium pro- 
 montorium of Ptolemy, d Dunmanus Bay presents itself, 
 having deep water and good anchorage, yet but little fre- 
 quented, except by small vessels, as being exposed to the 
 western gales, which here are very prevalent. To the 
 north of this is Bantry Bay, large, safe and commodious 
 for every kind of shipping ; the stream of tide is scarcely 
 felt in it ; the water is deep almost close to the shore on 
 both sides, nor are there any rocks from which danger can 
 be apprehended. At its north-eastern extremity is Whiddy 
 Island ; in its western part are Glengariff, a small port, and 
 Berehaven, a fine and safe harbour, well sheltered by 
 Bere Island, which lies contiguous to it.® Both these 
 islands f are inhabited ; the former containing a population 
 of 590, the latter of 2110 souls. This bay is celebrated 
 in the most ancient period of Irish history, as the place 
 where the Milesian colony landed, and in modern times 
 not less so, as the point to which the French fleet directed 
 its course, for the purpose of invasion, in the winter of 
 1796.S 
 
 At Dursey Island the coast assumes a more decidedly 
 northern direction. On passing it, are the bays of Bally- 
 donaghan and Quolagh, both with deep water, yet little fre- 
 quented on account of their numerous rocks. In Kenmare 
 River, a large estuary, with abundance of w r ater and sure 
 anchorage, are the harbours of Ardgrome and Kilmickalog, 
 each suited to the reception of large ships. 
 
 Ballinskelig Bay h has the Skelig Islands at its northern 
 extremity. 1 These are merely barren uninhabited rocks, 
 the largest marked by a light-house ; yet they are of his- 
 toric, or rather of romantic notoriety. The ancient tradi- 
 tions of the country record the death of one of the sons of 
 Milesius, by drowning, near them. They are much fre 
 quented by gannets. It is even said that they are the only 
 places on the Irish coast on which these birds light to lay 
 their eggs. The fact, if true, may serve to explain an old 
 tradition recorded by Keating, the Irish historian, con- 
 cerning them, which slates that a certain attractive quality 
 in the soil draws down the birds that attempt to fly over 
 them. 
 
 The sound between Valentia Island and the mainland of 
 Kerry forms a deep and safe harbour, which has plentv 
 water, and is well sheltered. The island itself is about 
 nine miles long, and has a population of 2130 souls, the 
 greatest proportion of whom exist in a state of extreme 
 poverty. 
 
 In Dingle Bay, which includes the harbours of Castle- 
 main, Ventry and Dingle, a vessel may anchor in any part 
 within a mile of the shore, which is steep on every side. 
 To the north of this bay are the Blasquet or Ferriter 
 Islands, twelve in number ; most of them are merely bar- 
 ren rocks. A vessel of the Spanish armada of 1000 tons 
 burden foundered here, and but two of the crew were 
 saved. k 
 
 1 Cape Clear is on an island of the same name, and forms the most 
 southern point of Ireland. (Ed. Enc.) — Geographers, in calling it 
 the most southern point of Ireland, do not consider it a part of 
 the mainland, but the most southern point of land dependent on Ire- 
 land. Fastnet Rock is, however, about two leagues W. by S. of it. — P. 
 
 b Inisherkin (Malham) — on the north-east, near Baltimore Point. — 
 Inis (Welsh, Ynys) is a Gaelic word signifying island. Prefixed to 
 names in Scotland and Ireland, it is spelt variously, viz. Inis, Innis, 
 Inish, Inch, Enis, Ennis. Ynys is still used in the Welsh ; but in pres- 
 ent use, the Gaelic dialects have adopted the English word island 
 (Ir. oileun, Sc. eilean, M. ellan.) — P. 
 
 e Mizen Head is the south-west point of the mainland of Ireland. — P. 
 
 — 
 
 d Some have supposed Cape Clear to be the Nntiurn oi'Ptolemy. — P. 
 e Beerhaven and Beer Island. (Malham.) Bearhaven and Bear 
 Island. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 f Whiddy Island and Bere Island. — P. 
 
 s The French fleet anchored in Bantry Bay, Dec. 24th, 1796. — P. 
 
 11 Ballynaskellig Bay. (Bell.) — P. 
 
 ' The Skeligs, Skelligs or Shellocks are three large rocks, west of 
 the entrance of Ballynaskellig Bay, and S. W. of Valentia Island, 
 about twelve miles from the mainland. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 k Dunmore Head is the west point of the peninsula of Dingle, as 
 well as of Europe ; off it lie the Blasquet Islands. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
r 
 
 612 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 
 Smerwick Bay, a although open to the north and north- 
 west, affords good shelter for large vessels. The Spaniards 
 built a fort here during the wars in Elizabeth’s reign ; it 
 was ultimately taken by the English, and all the Spaniards 
 in the garrison, except the officers, were slaughtered in 
 cold blood. Tralee Bay also admits vessels of large 
 tonnage. 
 
 The estuary of the Shannon, eight miles wide at its 
 mouth, and extending many miles inland, lies between 
 Kerry Head and Loop Head, on the latter of which there 
 is a light-house. Vessels of large tonnage can proceed up 
 it as far as Limerick. Besides this principal port there are 
 numerous inlets on each side, affording shelter for smaller 
 vessels, and commercial advantages to the adjoining dis- 
 tricts. Among the many islets with which this estuary 
 abounds, that of Inniscattery is peculiarly celebrated in 
 monastic records, on account of being the chosen residence 
 of St. Senanus, and for the exclusion of women from its 
 hallowed precincts. 
 
 The shores between Loop Head and Galway Bay are 
 chiefly comprehended within Malbay, justly so named, for 
 a vessel driven into it by stress of weather, has but little 
 chance of escaping shipwreck. 
 
 The entrance of the magnificent bay of Galway is shel- 
 tered by the islands of Arran, b on both sides of which am- 
 ple scope is afforded for the admission of vessels of every 
 description, but the prevalence of western winds rendered 
 egress at times extremely difficult, until this check to its nau- 
 tical utility was removed by the application of steam power. 
 Like the estuary of the Shannon, it has many havens or in- 
 lets in its interior adequate to the accommodation of smaller 
 vessels. The islands of Arran are three : Arranmore, Inis- 
 main and Inishere. The ruins of ancient structures still 
 existing on them, particularly on the largest, afford reason- 
 able confirmation of the traditional opinion that these islands 
 were the chosen seats of superstitious ceremonies before the 
 introduction of Christianity. During the invasions of the 
 Danes, they suffered much from the piratical assaults of 
 these marauders, and even so lately as the period of the 
 civil wars that desolated Ireland in 1 64 1 , c they were deemed 
 of sufficient importance to be the subject of a special capitu- 
 lation by which they were surrendered to the parliamenta- 
 ry forces. The population of the islands is as follows : Ar- 
 ranmore 2276, Inismain 386, and Inishere 417. The in- 
 habitants are chiefly employed in fishing, but there are in 
 them several landholders in easy circumstances. 
 
 Cashin Bay, Kilkeeran Bay, d Birterbuy Bay, e and 
 Roundstone Bay, which succeed each other closely on the 
 west of Galway Bay, are each capable of sheltering the 
 largest ships, and are the only good harbours for such ves- 
 sels along the north-western coast from the Shannon to 
 Lough Swilly. Roundstone Bay would contain and shelter 
 the whole navy of England. 
 
 The line of coast hence to Clew Bay consists of indenta- 
 tions suited to accommodate ships of moderate burden. 
 The principal are named Ardbean, Clifden, Kingstown, 
 Cleggan, Ballynakill, and Killery. Along the coast are the 
 islands of Inishark, Innisbofin and Innisturk, containing re- 
 spectively 130, 1050, and 456 souls. 
 
 [BOOK CLVTI. 
 
 Clew Bay is from fifteen to seventeen miles long and 
 about seven broad ; its entrance is protected for about one 
 third of its breadth by Clare Island ; its interior is occupied 
 by a collection of small islets more than 100 in number, 
 among which, and in the adjoining creeks and islets of the 
 mainland, is a variety of safe roadsteads and harbours. Ver- 
 bal description, without the aid of a chart, would be wholly 
 inadequate to convey a satisfactory idea of those valuable 
 harbours. The average depth of water throughout the 
 bay is fifteen fathoms. The chief ports in the interior are 
 Newport and Westport, both places of late formation and of 
 rapidly increasing wealth. The islands and channels near 
 the latter are screened from the violence of the sea by a 
 very singular natural breakwater of shingle and bowlder- 
 stones, which, with little interruption, extends nearly to 
 Newport. In this line of beach are six openings, the most 
 important of which, as forming the main channel, is marked 
 by a light-house built and maintained wholly at the expense 
 of the proprietor of the surrounding lands. 
 
 The island of Achil, or Eagle Island, so named from the 
 great resort of eagles to it, divides Clew Bay from Blacksod 
 Bay, and is the largest on the Irish coast. It contains an 
 area of 22,000 acres, and is inhabited by a population of 
 3880 souls, who procure a wretched and precarious subsist- 
 ence from the herring fishery. The land is hilly, with little 
 arable ground, but peculiarly adapted for the fattening of 
 sheep. It is separated from the mainland by a narrow gut 
 so shallow at one part as to be easily crossed on foot at 
 low water. 
 
 Blacksod Bay has water sufficient, and tolerable shelter 
 for any ship. North of it are the small islands ofEnniskea/ 
 and still further, that of Eagle Island, whence the coast, 
 taking a new direction, trends due east by Broadhaven and 
 Killala Bay to Sligo harbour. Broadhaven has depth of 
 water but not scope sufficient for any number of large ves- 
 sels ; Killala Bay is barred by a bank covered by not more 
 than four feet water at low spring tides. A small body of 
 French landed here without opposition in the* *• autumn of 
 1798 .S Sligo Bay is about five miles across at its mouth, 
 and as much inland ; it branches into three inlets, of which 
 the only one of importance is that leading to Sligo, where 
 a vessel will float in ten feet at high water. 
 
 Donegal Bay is of great extent, containing within it sev- 
 eral harbours, the principal of which are Ballyshannon on 
 the south, the entrance to which is dangerous, and Done- 
 gal, Inver and Killibegs on the northern side ; of these the 
 last named only is fit for large vessels. Although the coast 
 of Donegal, hence to Lough Swilly, forms a succession of 
 creeks, none of them are of sufficient importance to invite 
 particular notice. Off the coast are many islands, the most 
 remarkable of which are North Arranmore, h on which is a 
 light-house, Inismadun or Rutland, Croit Island and Tor}' 
 Island. This last named island is ten miles off the coast. 
 It is not more than three miles long by one broad, and main- 
 tains 300 inhabitants, who live in the most simple state. 
 They choose their own chief judge, and yield implicit obe- 
 dience to his mandate, issued from a seat of turf. So little 
 intercourse have the natives with the mainland, that of a 
 boat’s crew of seven or eight men, who were driven on the 
 
 * Corrupted from St. Mary Wick Bay. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 ” South Arran Islands, or South Isles of Arran. — P. 
 
 c The civil war, or rather rebellion, which commenced in Oct. 1641, 
 and was repressed by Cromwell in 1651 -2. — P. 
 
 *• Kilkerran Bay. (Bell.) — P. 
 
 • Batterby Bay. (Malham.) Butterby Bay. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 f North and South Inishkea. (Bell.) — P. 
 
 s A body of 000 men, under the command of General Humbert — 
 Aug. 22, 1798.— P. 
 
 h North Arranmore (Great Arran) is the largest of a group, called 
 the North Isles of Arran. — P. 
 
book ciiVii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 shore by stress of weather, not one had been in Ireland be- 
 fore. The appearance of the trees astonished them, and 
 they collected small branches and leaves to exhibit to their 
 friends on their return. 
 
 After passing Horn Head, which takes its name from two 
 sharp projections on the summit of the cliff, Sheep Bay a 
 presents itself. It is much exposed to the north and north- 
 western blasts, but the largest ships may ride in Dunfanaghy 
 Bay in it. Mulroy Bay, the next in succession, also admits 
 vessels of every description, but the difficulty of entrance 
 deters many from trying the experiment. 
 
 Lough Swilly and Lough Foyle, which succeed one 
 another on the Donegal coast, are the finest harbours on 
 the northern shores of Ireland. It may here be men- 
 tioned, that in Ireland the name of lough, as in Scotland 
 that of Ioch, b is not confined to inland sheets of water whol- 
 ly detached from the main ocean, but is applied, as in the 
 present instance, to such indentations of the sea as have 
 narrow mouths, and trench deeply into the land. Such is 
 peculiarly the case with Lough Swilly. It penetrates twen- 
 ty-five miles into the interior, branching out into several lesser 
 bays. In its centre is the large island of Inch, containing 
 1094 inhabitants. 
 
 The form of Lough Foyle, which lies between the coun- 
 ties of Donegal and Derry , c is somewhat similar to that of 
 Lough Swilly. The city of Londonderry is situated at its 
 southern extremity, at the mouth of the river Foyle. Off 
 Malin Head is the island of Ennistrahul, d distinguished by 
 a light-house. 
 
 Passing by some smaller bays, and a group of islands 
 near the coast, called the Skerries, and also the precipitous 
 shores in the vicinity of the Giant’s Causeway, the next 
 port of consequence is that of Ballycastle, between Bengore 
 Head and Fair Head, at the mouth of the Glensesk river. 
 Its importance is derived, not so much from the magnitude 
 or convenience of the harbour, as from the efforts made to 
 render it a place of export for the coal raised in the neigh- 
 bourhood. A pier quay was erected for this purpose. But 
 the efforts of ingenuity against the gigantic powers of nature 
 were unavailing. The pier has been washed away by the 
 influx of the great Deucaledonian Ocean, e and the colliery 
 is now nearly abandoned. The port, however, is in some 
 degree protected from the fury of the ocean by the island of 
 Rathlin or Raghery, the Ricnea of Pliny, and the Ricina of 
 Ptolemy, extending in the form of a crescent, with its tips 
 towards the mainland, from which it is separated by a strait 
 six miles wide. It is five miles in length, and half as many 
 broad, affording subsistence to a hardy and industrious pop- 
 ulation of 1 100 inhabitants. Such is their attachment to 
 the place of their nativity, that one of their worst wishes to 
 a neighbour who has injured them is, that he may end his 
 days in Ireland. Kelp is made here in considerable quan- 
 
 a Sheep-Haven. (Bell.) — P. 
 
 b The Gaelic orthography is the same in Ireland and Scotland, viz. 
 locli (the Scotch and Irish Gaelic dialects not differing in this word.) 
 The Manks word is logh. All are pronounced alike, Idhh. — P. 
 
 c Londonderry county — Derry bishopric. — P. 
 
 d Ennistrahull is four leagues W. N. W. of Lough Foyle. (Mal- 
 ham.) — Malin Head is the northernmost point of Ireland. — P. 
 
 e The Deucaledonian Sea is that part of the Atlantic, north of Ire- 
 land, and west of Scotland.— P. 
 
 1 — Where Robert Bruce is said to have defended himself for some 
 time, when obliged to fly from his country. (Rees’ Cyc.)— Robert 
 Bruce (king of Scotland) was grandson of Robert Bruce, the competi- 
 tor of John Baliol. — P. 
 
 s The North Channel. — P. 
 
 h The breadth of the channel between the Mull of Kintyre and Tor 
 Head, is about 16 miles. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 OF IRELAND. 613 
 
 tities, and the soil, where cultivated, produces good barley. 
 In it are several curious arrangements of basaltic pillars, like 
 those of the Giant’s Causeway, This island formerly be- 
 longed to the Danes or Norwegians. It afforded shelter for 
 some time to Robert Bruce during the period of his adver 
 sity. The ruins of the castle in which he defended 
 himself so gallantly against his rival Baliol/ are still in ex- 
 istence. 
 
 From Fair Head and Tor Point the coast turns south- 
 wards, and the northern channels commences, the breadth 
 of which, measured from the latter of those promontories to 
 the Mull of Cantyre, is but twelve miles. h 
 
 The subsequent ports or havens along the Antrim shore, 
 conspicuous as they may be in the tablets of the tourist, are 
 but of little note in the consideration of the navigator. 
 Larne presents an excellent harbour, known also by the 
 name of Olderfleet, * 1 but only for smaller vessels ; the next 
 which admits those of the higher classes, is Belfast Lough, 
 called also Carrickfergus Bay. This bay, as valuable for its 
 nautical advantages, as admirable for the scenic beauties of 
 its shores, separates the counties of Antrim and Down, and 
 is terminated by the neat and busy town of Belfast, at the 
 mouth of the Lagan. Large ships can lie no nearer to that 
 town than in mid-channel off Carrickfergus. k At the south- 
 ern entrance of the bay lie the Copeland Islands, 1 three in 
 number, with a light-house on the largest. 
 
 Donaghadee is the station for the post-office packets be- 
 tween Ireland and Scotland : the distance across the chan- 
 nel to Port-Patrick is twenty-two miles. The harbour has 
 been lately considerably improved by the formation of two 
 large piers built on ledges of rock, and enclosing a space 
 of about 200 yards each way outside the former harbour. 
 The piers extend into sixteen feet water at low tide, 
 and a great part of the interior has been excavated to the 
 same depth. 
 
 Strangford Lough or Lough Cone affords a safe harbour 
 of depth sufficient for ships of the greatest draught, and of 
 much more easy access than is generally supposed ; but, 
 owing to the rapidity of the current of tide which will carry 
 vessels against the wind, and to the risk occasioned by 
 several rocks near its entrance, against which the sea beats 
 violently, strangers enter it with great reluctance. Its in- 
 terior expands into a noble basin, lying north and south, 
 studded with numerous islands, some richly wooded, others 
 broused on by sheep. It terminates at Newtown Ardes, 
 nine miles inland.” 
 
 Carlingford Lough n is a spacious inlet about eight miles 
 long, and one and a half broad at Warren Point, with deep 
 water and sure anchorage ; but from its situation among 
 lofty mountains subject to sudden flaws and gusts of wind. 
 It forms the passage to the town of Newry. A light-house 
 at Hawlbowling Island 0 marks the entrance. 
 
 ' Old Fleet or Learn. (Malham.) Oldfield (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 k Large vessels lie at Carmoil Pool, three miles from Belfast. (Ed. 
 Enc.)— P. 
 
 1 Nouthead forms the south point of the entrance, off which lie the 
 Copeland Islands. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 m Strangford Lough is a basin, fifteen miles long and five broad, and 
 is the largest salt water lough in Ireland. It runs directly north to 
 Newton, and sends a small branch to the west, on which stands Down- 
 patrick. Strangford Bay is an inlet, five miles and a half long, and 
 a mile broad, opening into the Lough of Strangford. (Ed. Enc.) — Thus 
 the whole length from the sea to Newtown Ardes, will be 20^ miles. 
 The writer probably means that from Newtown Ardes it is nine miles in 
 a direct line overland to the coast on the east. — P. 
 
 n Lough Carlingford, or Carlingford Bay. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 0 Haul Bowling Island — the passage is on the east side. (Mal- 
 ham.) — P. 
 
614 EUR 
 
 Dundalk Bay is about seven miles across, and the same 
 distance inland. A ledge of rocks across the mouth forms 
 a bar over which there is seven fathom water : the general 
 depth within is from four to six fathoms. Large vessels 
 require spring-tides to float them to Dundalk quay. The 
 tide rises on the bar nearly twenty feet at high springs. 
 
 The mouth of the Boyne forms the port of Drogheda. 
 At the town, vessels of ten feet draught may lie afloat in 
 the channel. A considerable export trade, chiefly in grain, 
 is carried on here, but the harbour is not suited to large 
 vessels. Proceeding thence southwards by Balbriggan, 
 Skerries and Rush, the two latter of which are merely fish- 
 ing stations, passing the small and uninhabited islands of 
 Skerries, Lambay and Ireland’s Eye, and doubling the pro- 
 montory of Howth, the bay of Dublin again presents itself. 
 
 In a few words, Ireland is in possession of upwards of 
 seventy harbours well suited for the purposes of com- 
 merce ; of these fourteen are capable of accommodating 
 fleets of war, besides which the number of fishing sta- 
 tions is too great to be specified in detail. Near the 
 shores are 138 islands inhabited by a hardy, active, and 
 industrious population of 43,000 souls. Several of the 
 larger bays extend far into the country, proportionally 
 enlarging the range of commercial utility ; some of these 
 are formed by the mouths of navigable rivers, thus facili- 
 tating the export of native produce, and the introduction 
 of foreign merchandize. Another illustration of the great 
 capabilities for traffic enjoyed by the island may be 
 deduced from the fact, that the distance across the island 
 from Galway Bay to Dublin, whence there is an imme- 
 diate and expeditious transportation of goods to all the 
 western ports of Great Britain, is but 110 miles, and that 
 no point in the whole island is more than sixty-four miles 
 from the sea. 
 
 The general appearance of the coast is bold, often pre- 
 cipitous, particularly in the northern districts. It pre- 
 sents either a succession of headlands projecting into the 
 sea, comprehending in their intervals sweeping lines of 
 depressed shore often of singular beauty, or a range of 
 beetling cliffs, lowering over the subject ocean, and for- 
 bidding all access to the land, impressing upon it the 
 character styled, in the energetic language of seaman- 
 ship, an iron-bound coast. The peninsula of Island 
 Magee, lying between Larne harbour and the northern 
 channel, is a striking example of this latter characteris- 
 tic feature, where the land terminates at once in a per- 
 pendicular precipice called the Gobbins, upwards of 200 
 feet high, at the foot of which the largest vessel in the 
 British navy may float. 
 
 To proceed to the interior, the island, of which the 
 outline has thus been sketched, is of a rhomboidal form, 
 measuring 306 miles in its longer diameter from Mizen 
 Head to Fair Head, and 216 in its shorter, from Carn- 
 sore Point to Urris Head in Mayo. Its breadth in aline 
 drawn due west from Howth Head to Sline Head in 
 Mayo a is 170 miles. The superficial contents have 
 been variously stated ; but, from the calculations of wri- 
 ters most estimated for accuracy and intelligence, they 
 may be laid down as being 20,400,000 acres, or 31,875 
 
 OPE. [BOOK CLYII. 
 
 square miles. b Of this number it is supposed that 
 1,000,000 acres are lakes, rivers, roads, and land utter- 
 ly irreclaimable ; 3,500,000 waste, but reclaimable ; 
 1,500,000 unproductive, from injudicious or negligent 
 treatment; leaving a remainder of 14,400,000, available 
 towards supplying the wants of the population. 
 
 Ireland is in general a hilly country, though not with- 
 out extensive plains in several parts ; yet even these 
 exhibit occasional undulations of surface which prevent 
 the monotony of a continuous level so wearisome to the 
 traveller in alluvial districts. The land seldom rises to 
 an elevation that precludes culture ; even on the loftiest 
 eminences the snow does not remain for any length of 
 time. The mountains are distributed rather ingroups or 
 masses than in chains. The west and north is generally 
 mountainous. Wicklow county is an immense collection 
 of mountain land, with no intervention of plains. The 
 Mourne mountains occupy a large portion of the south of 
 Down county. Kerry, in the south-west, presents a num- 
 ber of ridges, between which deep and productive valleys 
 are the basins that conduct rivers of various dimensions to 
 the sea. In Cork the mountain ridges lie nearly east and 
 west. The Slieve Bloom c and Devils Bit mountains 
 form a central range between the King’s and Queen’s 
 counties ; Kilkenny also contains a considerable extent 
 of rugged hilly land. The south of Carlow county rises 
 into the lofty ridges of Mount Leinster and the Black- 
 stairs. 
 
 The highest mountains are situated near the coast ; 
 their respective heights above the level of the sea are as 
 follows : — 
 
 Feet 
 
 Gurran Tual, the highest part of Macgillicuddy’s Reeks, 
 
 Kerry county, 3430 
 
 Lugnaquilla, Wicklow county, 3070 
 
 Slieve Donard, Down county, 2809 
 
 Muilrea, Mayo county, 2737 
 
 Mangerton, Kerry county, 2693 
 
 Nephin, Mayo county, 2540 
 
 Croagh Patrick, Mayo county, 2532 
 
 Benbana, the highest of the Twelve Pins, Gal way county, 2406 
 Keeper, in Slieve Bloom, King’s county, 2200 
 
 A catalogue of all the rivers that discharge themselves 
 directly into the sea, exclusively of their numerous 
 branches, contains the names of ninety-four. Many of 
 these, however, are little more than rivulets, serving for 
 the irrigation of very limited districts. The following 
 are among the most important rivers. 
 
 Indisputably, first in rank is the Shannon. Issuing 
 
 from an insignificant source in the mountainous district 
 that separates Fermanagh from Leitrim, it takes a south- 
 ern course between the provinces of Leinster and 
 Connaught ; then changing to a south-western direction, 
 it flows between the counties of Clare and Limerick, 
 until it discharges itself into the Atlantic through the 
 estuary already described among the western bays. Its 
 course is more than 230 miles in length, d during which it 
 expands into several lakes, the chief of which are Lough 
 Allen in Leitrim county, Lough Reagh" between Ros 
 common and Longford, and Lough Dearglff between 
 
 a Sline Head is in the county of Galway. — P. 
 b Mr. Wakefield estimates the superficial contents at 32,201 Eng. 
 eq. miles, and 20,437,074 Eng. acres. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 c Slieve, prefixed to the names of so many mountains in Ireland, as 
 Ben is in Scotland, is a Gaelic word ( slinbh , pron. sleeve) signifying 
 mountain. Ben (Gaelic, bcinn) also signifies mountain, or rather peak. 
 
 These words are both found in Scotland and Ireland ; but slieve is 
 almost peculiar to the latter, as ben is to the former. — P . 
 
 d The whole course of the Shannon is about 170 miles. (Ed. 
 Enc.)— P. 
 e Lough Ree. 
 f Lough Derg. 
 
BOOK CL. VII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF IRELAND. 
 
 615 
 
 Galway and Tipperary. It is navigable for shipping as 
 far as Limerick, above which the river, though obstruct- 
 ed by a ledge of rocks, has been rendered navigable for 
 small craft by a short line of canal. 1 
 
 The three rivers, Barrow, Nore and Suir, proceed from 
 different parts of the Slieve Bloom mountains. The 
 Barrow rises in their northern extremity, and takes a 
 course at first east, but afterwards due south. Meeting 
 the Nore near New Ross, the united stream assumes the 
 name of the Ross river, and after forming an island 
 called Great Island, b it meets the Suir east of Waterford, 
 where the three conjointly form the fine estuary of 
 Waterford. 0 The Suir rises from the southern extremity 
 of the same range ; flows first south and then east, af 
 fording the means ol water conveyance for goods to sev- 
 eral populous towns, and at Waterford expands into a 
 deep and spacious channel. The Nore takes a direction 
 between both. Each is navigable for large boats to a 
 considerable distance up the country. 
 
 The Southern Blackwater d rises on the confines of 
 the counties of Cork and Kerry. Its direction is east- 
 ward during the greatest part of its course, but it ulti- 
 mately turns southwards, forming the line of division 
 between Cork and Waterford counties, and falling into 
 the sea at Youghal. 
 
 The streams that feed Lake Allua in the west of the 
 county of Cork, are the origin of the Lee, whence it takes 
 a direction parallel to the Blackwater, from whose 
 basin it is separated by the long and barren ridge of the 
 Derrynasagart and Bogra mountains. On approaching 
 the sea, it passes through the city of Cork, and falls into 
 the harbour of the same name. The Bandon, still more 
 southerly, and of comparatively inconsiderable length, 
 takes a similar direction to the sea at Kinsale harbour. 
 
 The Slaney rises on the borders of Wicklow and 
 Carlow counties. e Its course is nearly due south to 
 Wexford. The Lifley obtains admission into the cata- 
 logue of principal rivers, chiefly from the metropolis 
 being seated on its bank:' ; perhaps also its scenic beauties 
 add something to its claim. Its source is in the moun- 
 tainous district in the western part of Wicklow county, 
 whence, after forming the fine waterfall of Poulaphuca, 
 it pursues a tranquil course through the level county of 
 Kildare, until on quitting it for that of Dublin, it precip- 
 itates itself over a ledge of rocks at the romantic falls of 
 the Salmon-leap, near Leixlip, when again resuming its 
 tranquil character, it glides silently into Dublin Bay. 
 Its navigation extends no farther than the western ex- 
 tremity of Dublin city, and even thus far is available for 
 boats only. 
 
 The central elevation over which the Bog of Allen is 
 spread gives rise to the Boyne. This river taking a 
 north-eastern direction, and having its stream increased 
 by the Blackwater, proceeds to the Irish Sea at Drogh- 
 
 a The Limerick navigation, from Limerick twelve miles to 
 Killaloe . — P. 
 
 b Does not the writer here confound the Barrow with the Lee, which 
 forms an island called Great Island, below Cork ? — P. 
 
 c Waterford Haven. 
 
 d There are two considerable rivers, called Blackwater, in the north 
 of Ireland ; one of which is a branch of the Boyne, and the other 
 flows into the south-west coiner of Lough Neagh. — P. 
 
 e The Slaney rises in the south-western corner of Wicklow county. 
 (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 f To its junction with the Blackwater. — P. 
 
 e The principal source of the Foyle is the Mourne, which rises in the 
 south of Tyrone ; after receiving the Poe and the Derg from the west, 
 
 eda. With the aid of some artificial channels, it has 
 been made navigable for boats to its junction near Nav \n. f 
 Old Bridge, a village on its banks, about three miles 
 west of Drogheda, is a place of much historical notoriety, 
 as being the spot where the armies of William and 
 James decided the claims of these kings to the sove- 
 reignty of the British dominions. 
 
 The Mourne mountains give rise to the Bann, which 
 flows northward, passes through Lough Neagh, and still 
 preserving the same direction, forms the boundary be- 
 tween the counties of Antrim and Londonderry, till it 
 gives vent to its waters in the Atlantic Ocean, a few miles 
 north of Coleraine. A ledge of rocks across its channel 
 to the north of Lough Neagh, presents a barrier hitherto 
 insuperable to the free navigation of this fine river. 
 
 The junction of the Poe, the Finn, the Derg, and 
 other smaller streams, forms the Foyle ;s it flows north- 
 wards, and discharges itself into the lough of the same 
 name at Londonderry. Ballyshannon, or Belleek river, h 
 though containing a large body of water, is of very short 
 extent, merely passing through the isthmus that separates 
 Lough Erne from Ballyshannon Bay. 
 
 The lakes in Ireland are numerous. Lough Neagh, in 
 Ulster, is by much the largest, being spread, according to 
 the calculations of Beaufort, over a surface of 94,274 
 acres, or 147 square miles.* In shape it is oblong, some- 
 what approximating to a square ; it is further distinguished 
 from the other lakes by the tameness of its surrounding 
 scenery and its want of islands ; Ram Island in its south- 
 ern part is the only one of importance. 1 * A brisk trade 
 between the five counties that form the boundary of the 
 lake, is carried on by means of it. The level of its 
 surface is considerably raised in winter, and plans have 
 been suggested, though never yet attempted to be carried 
 into execution, by clearing the obstructions at the egress 
 of the Bann from it, so far to lower the level of its 
 waters, as to add considerably to the quantity of arable 
 land in the surrounding districts. This lake has long 
 been celebrated for its petrifying qualities. Numerous 
 fragments of trees, in part, or wholly converted into a 
 silicious substance, have been found near its shores, but 
 the process by which this extraordinary change was 
 effected, has never been observed in actual operation. 
 A peculiar species of trout, called by the people Dolo- 
 chan, is found in its waters. 
 
 Two lakes in the south-west of Ulster, connected by a 
 narrow channel, on the banks of which the town of 
 Enniskillen is built, assume the common name of Lough 
 Erne. Both are long and narrow ; the more inland 
 measures about twelve miles in length ; that nearer the 
 sea, twenty-five. Many islands are interspersed through 
 each, several of them well wooded, which, with the 
 varied outline of the surrounding shores, gives the whole 
 much scenic beauty. 
 
 and the Moyle from the east, it unites with the Finn, and assumes the 
 name of the Foyle. — P. 
 
 h Also (tailed the river Erne. It is simply the outlet of Lough 
 Erne. — P. 
 
 > Lough Erne is the most extensive fresh-water lake in Ireland. 
 Lough Neagh was formerly believed to cover 100,000 acres of land, 
 but by a recent accurate survey, its area is reduced to 58,200 acres. 
 (Ed. Enc.)— P. 
 
 11 The tameness of its surface is broken only in two parts, by Black 
 water Island, in the south-western angle of the lough, at the mouth of 
 .he river of the same name, and by Ram Island, on its eastern bor 
 ders, near the coast of Antrim. (Ed- Enc.) — P. 
 
616 EUR 
 
 In the west of Connaught, is Lough Corrib, thirty 
 miles long, a and nine or ten broad in some places. At its 
 southern extremity it approaches the bay of Galway, into 
 which it discharges its waters by a short river. Though the 
 level of this lake is but thirteen and a half feet above that 
 of the sea, no attempt has yet been made to connect them 
 by a navigable canal carried across the insignificant isth- 
 mus by which they are now separated. On the north it 
 is separated from Lough Mask, a lake of somewhat small- 
 er dimensions, by a neck of land not more than three miles 
 across. The still smaller lake of Lough Garra communi- 
 cates with the latter of those by a short strait or river. 
 Still further north, but wholly unconnected with those 
 now mentioned, is Lough Conn, fourteen miles long. 
 
 To recapitulate the names or local peculiarities of all 
 the smaller lakes in Ireland would be tedious and unprof- 
 itable. They are most numerous in the central tract, 
 occupied by the counties of Cavan, Longford and West 
 Meath. Two however, Lough Lane and Lough Derg, 
 are not to be passed over in silence. The former, situ- 
 ated in the west of Munster, and better known by the 
 name of the Lakes of Killarney, as consisting, in strict- 
 ness of fact, of three sheets of water connected by nar- 
 row channels, 1 * is annually visited by strangers from every 
 part, on account of its singularly romantic scenery. The 
 latter, situated in the north-west of Ulster,® is equally, 
 if not still more famous, as a place of resort for pilgrims 
 who collect thither for the performance of certain reli- 
 gious rites ; and, though the observance of these has been 
 frequently forbidden by the heads of the Roman catholic 
 church in Ireland, the practices are still continued, and 
 the island in it, called St. Patrick’s Purgatory , d which is 
 the main object of attraction, is still annually visited by 
 multitudes confiding in the efficacy of the pilgrimage. 
 
 Ireland was once so thickly covered with trees, as to 
 have acquired, among its other numerous appellations, 
 that of the Isle of Woods. It is now lamentably the 
 reverse ; insomuch, that an Anglo-American, when 
 coasting along its north-western shores, on perceiving 
 the total want of standing timber, which presents such a 
 contrast to the general appearance of his native soil, 
 where agricultural improvements are chiefly impeded by 
 the exuberance of the forests, has been heard to exclaim 
 in a tone of admiration, “ what a well-cleared country 1” 
 Many tracts of land, where not a vestige of plantations 
 can now be discovered, still retain the name of woods. 
 The number and density of the forests was one great 
 check to the military progress of the English invaders : 
 the noble hall of Westminster is roofed with oak from 
 the woods of Shillelagh in Wicklow. The disturbed 
 state of the country during many centuries, together with 
 the uncertain tenure of the new proprietors to whom the 
 greater part of the land was transferred on the close of 
 the civil wars of 1641, are amply sufficient to account 
 for the change. Attempts have since been made to 
 supply a want now so severely felt. Spirited landhold- 
 ers have planted, and the Irish legislature, in aid of their 
 exertions, has secured to the occupying tenant, on the 
 
 OPE- [BOOK CI/VTI 
 
 close of his tenure, a right to the benefits of the trees 
 which he had raised. The effects of this salutary law 
 are but partial ; much still remains to be done. The 
 country continues to labour under a defect equally detri- 
 mental to its agricultural prosperity and to its scenic beau- 
 ty. This is the more to be lamented, because all kinds 
 of valuable timber trees grow freely in a soil, whose 
 variety accommodates itself to the healthy sustenance 
 of every species. The oak attains its most majestic ex- 
 pansion on the rich plains ; the more elevated hills, too 
 chilly for tillage, and in many parts affording but a scanty 
 pasturage for sheep, would give the intelligent planter an , 
 
 ample return for the outlay of capital in hardy timber 
 trees congenial to the situation. Besides the oak, already 
 noticed, the larch, which though of comparatively mod- 
 ern introduction thrives rapidly, the various species of fir, 
 the ash, beech, lime and other large trees, together with 
 several of the more elegant and delicate species, grow 
 freely. The arbutus is found in abundance in the vales 
 of Kerry ; e the myrtle thrives in the open air on the 
 sandy soils of Cork, Waterford, and even so far north as 
 Wicklow, seldom checked by the occasional frosts of a 
 short and generally mild winter. 
 
 But among the most singular natural features of the 
 country, and most retarding the progress of agricultural 
 improvement, are the bogs. These are not to be con- 
 sidered as low and marshy tracts incapable of drainage ; 
 on the contrary, they are found universally in elevated 
 situations, and in every case admit of water communica- 
 tion by some river to the sea. The entire extent of 
 bog-land exceeds 2,830,000 acres, or nearly one-seventh 
 of the whole superficies. The bogs are principally situ- 
 ated in the elevated district in the midland counties. 
 
 If two diverging lines be drawn across the island from 
 east to west, the one from Howth Head to Sligo, the 
 other from Wicklow to Galway, the included space, 
 resembling in form a broad belt drawn across the centre 
 of the island, with its narrowest end nearest the capital, 
 and gradually enlarging as it approaches the Atlantic, 
 will comprise by much the greater portion of the bogs in 
 the island/ exclusive of mere mountain bogs and those 
 of less extent than 500 acres each. 
 
 This great division of the island is traversed by the 
 Shannon from north to south, and is thus divided into 
 two parts ; the quantity of bog contained in the more 
 western of these divisions is double of that in the east- 
 ern ; so that if the whole of the bogs of Ireland, exclu- 
 sively of those in mountains and in small detached por- 
 tions, were to be divided into twenty parts, seventeen of 
 these would be comprised within the great central band, 
 twelve parts lying westward and five eastward of the 
 Shannon ; and of the three remaining parts, two are to 
 the south and one to the north of the same band. Al- 
 though the mountainous and detached bogs do not enter 
 into the preceding calculation, their importance as an 
 aggregate may be inferred from the fact that in the 
 county of Cavan alone, there are more than ninety 
 tracts of bog, no one of which exceeds 800 acres, s but 
 
 “ Twenty miles long. (Ed. Enc. Myers. Bell.) — P. 
 b The lower lake (5000 acres) to the north ; the middle or Mucross 
 I<ake ((>40 acres) ; and the upper lake (720 acres) to the south. (Ed. 
 Enc.) — P. 
 
 0 In the south-western part of Donegal. — P. 
 
 ll In the centre of the lake, and about a mile from the shore, is an 
 island containing not more than an Trish acre. There is a cavern there 
 called the Cave of St. Patrick, or St. Patrick's Purgatory. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 e The romantic scenery of Killarney, in the county of Kerry, is the 
 most northern habitat of the Arbutus Uncdo. (Ed. Enc.) In 177(1, there 
 was a very large arbute tree at Mount Kennedy, near Wicklow, one 
 branch of which, parting from the body near the ground, was six feet 
 two inches in circumference. (Young’s Tour in Ireland.) — P 
 f Six sevenths. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 e 500 acres (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
BOOK CLVII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF IRELAND. 
 
 617 
 
 which collectively' contain about 17,600 acres, besides 
 many smaller plots, varying from five to twenty acres. 
 It may be deemed almost superfluous to remark, that as 
 the only use to which bog is applied is for fuel, its value, 
 as a marketable commodity, is generally in the inverse 
 proportion to its extent of surface, particularly in those 
 districts where mineral coal is of difficult attainment. 
 A shrewd landed proprietor remarked that he considered 
 the bog to be the most profitable part of his estate. 
 
 The total amount of the bogs is thus estimated by the 
 parliamentary commissioners appointed to investigate the 
 subject in 1810. a 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Flat red bog, convertible to the general purposes of 
 
 agriculture 1,576,000 
 
 Mountain bog, a large proportion of which might be 
 
 converted into pasture or plantation 1,255,000 
 
 Total 2,831,000 
 
 There are two species of bog, the red or fibrous, and 
 the black or compact. The former predominates ; the 
 chief part of the most extensive bog districts being 
 composed of it. It is formed chiefly of the fibres of the 
 Sphagnum palustre or bog moss, but the following spe- 
 cies of plants also aid in its formation, namely, Hypnum 
 or feather moss, P oly trichum or hair moss, Bryum, 
 Lichen rangiferinus b or rein-deer moss, Scirpus ccespi- 
 tosus or dwarf club rush, Anthericum ossifragum, Jun- 
 cus bufonius or toad rush 0 — the three last named plants 
 are found in large quantities in soft wet bogs ; the first 
 of them, called by the peasants keeve-grass, flourishes 
 most in the wettest parts, where its long and slender 
 roots may be traced to the depth of two feet : — Erica 
 vulgaris or common heath, Equisetum limosum and 
 arvense , d Lemna or duck-weed, Conferva , 0 Schcenus 
 Mariscus or bog-rush, Mentha sylvestris / Hypericum 
 pulchrumf Vaccinium Oxycoccus or cranberry, Empe- 
 trum nigrum or crowberry, Myrica Gale b Arundo 
 Phragmites or common reed grass, Eriophorum angusti- 
 folium or narrow-leaved cotton grass, Holcus lanatus or 
 meadow soft grass, Melica crerulea or purple melic 
 grass, and Agrostis stolonifera or florin grass : the two 
 last named plants are very general, and found growing 
 together. The external appearance of this kind of bog 
 is usually reddish brown ; when dry it is darker, ap- 
 proaching to an olive ; in this state its surface is usually 
 covered with the Erica vulgaris or common heath, 
 which gives it at a distance an olive, or, if in blossom, a 
 pinkish hue. 
 
 Those parts of the red bogs that are so wet and soft 
 as to render their interior nearly inaccessible are distin- 
 guished by the name of fluid peat or quagmire. They 
 frequently occupy the most elevated situations, and di- 
 verge by winding courses to the edges ; the bog is 
 usually shallow where they occur, seldom exceeding 
 fourteen feet in depth. The red peat, from its tough 
 and fibrous texture, is cut with difficulty by the spade ; 
 
 a In Sept. 1809, a warrant was issued, by which commissioners were 
 appointed to inquire into the nature and extent of the bogs in Ire- 
 land, and the practicability of draining and cultivating them. Four 
 reports were presented by them, the last of which, laid before Parlia- 
 ment, in the session of 1813 — 14, contains the numerical statements 
 in the text. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 b Cenomyce rangiferina. — P. 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 61 78 
 
 whence, and from its porous nature, it is not used as 
 fuel except in cases of necessity. 
 
 The compact or black bog varies in colour from deep 
 reddish brown to jet black, in which latter case, the mass 
 is perfectly close-grained, strongly resembling pitch oi 
 pitch-coal, the fracture being concboidal in every direc- 
 tion and the lustre glistening. This kind of bog very 
 rarely contains any vegetable remains ; when any such 
 occur, they consist of some of the varieties of rushes 
 common in stagnant waters. 
 
 Compact or black bog is frequently met with, unac- 
 companied with fibrous bog, but in such cases it seldom 
 forms large tracts; while in all bogs where the upper 
 partis fibrous, the lower consists of the black. Where 
 turf cuttings have been made, black bog is universally 
 found, but as the turf-cutters are frequently prevented, 
 by the want of sufficient drainage, from cutting to a suf- 
 ficient depth, they necessarily leave untouched the 
 larger and by far the more valuable part, as it is invaria- 
 bly found, that the compactness of the bog increases 
 with its depth, and the more dense and solid the turf, the 
 hotter and more durable the fire. 
 
 An accurate perpendicular section of a portion of red 
 bog gave the following results: 1, To the depth of two 
 feet, being the surface of the bog decomposed by the 
 atmosphere, was a dark reddish brown mass, rarely ex- 
 hibiting any vegetable remains. 2, Three feet further 
 down, a light reddish brown mass, in which the moss 
 was still so perfect as to be distinguishable into its vari- 
 ous species. 3, Five feet thickness, deep reddish brown, 
 fibres visible, but the component parts less distinguish- 
 able ; this portion may be used for fuel, but it burns 
 badly from the openness of its texture, and its containing 
 no empyreumatic oil. 4, Eight feet and a half thick, 
 deep reddish brown, the fibres discernible, though com- 
 pact ; it burns tolerably well as fuel. 5, Three feet 
 thick, of a blackish brown, the fibrous texture scarcely 
 discernible, numerous twigs and small branches of birch, 
 alder and fir interspersed through the mass; these are 
 always found to be hollow, the woody part having 
 wholly disappeared, leaving the bark in a tubular form : 
 this is the commencement of the compact or black-bog 
 formation. 6, Three feet thick ; a blackish brown 
 mass, compact, without any trace of fibrous texture ; as 
 fuel it burns swiftly with a bright flame, and is vulgarly 
 named greasy turf from its inflaming quickly like grease. 
 7, Ten feet thick ; a blackish brown mass, very com- 
 pact, without any vegetable remains, containing much 
 empyreumatic oil, and burning slowly with an unpleasant 
 smell. 8, Four feet thick ; a black mass, very compact, 
 bearing a strong resemblance to pitch or coal, fracture 
 conchoidal in every direction, lustre shining, susceptible 
 of a high polish, but, from its offensive smell when ig- 
 nited, it is seldom used as fuel. Here the bog formation 
 terminates at a depth of 38£ feet. 9, Three feet thick, 
 yellowish white marl not adhering to the tongue, and 
 containing 64 per cent, of carbonate of lime. 10, Four 
 
 c The Scirpus is a sedge ( Cyperoidea ;) the Anthericum, a. flag; and 
 the Juncus, a rush. — P. 
 
 d Species of horsetail or scouring rush. — P. 
 
 e The Conferva; are a family of aquatic Alga:, usually appearing as 
 a floating mass of green fibres. — P. 
 
 f Wild mint. s St. John’s wort 
 
 h Dutch myrtle, or Bog myrtle. 
 
618 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLVII 
 
 feet thick, blue clay, adhering strongly to the tongue, 
 and containing 72 per cent, of alumine, 22 of silex col- 
 oured by oxide of iron, and the remainder of carbonate 
 of lime. 11, Depth unknown, clay mixed with lime- 
 stone gravel. However much the internal structure of 
 the different bogs may vary from that now described, it 
 appears certain that all without exception rest on a basis 
 of marl or of limestone gravel either pure or combined 
 with clay. 
 
 Viewing the bogs externally, they present surfaces by 
 no means level, but with planes of inclination amply 
 sufficient for their drainage. The highest level of the 
 Bog of Allen, in the eastern division of the central band, 
 is 298 feet above the level of the sea, while the lowest 
 is but 84 feet less, being 214 feet above the same level. 
 There is no part of them, therefore, from which the 
 water may not be discharged into rivers in their imme- 
 diate vicinity, and with a fall adequate to their complete 
 drainage. It has been clearly ascertained, that, though 
 in their present state they exhibit little more than an 
 unproductive waste, a judicious system of reclamation 
 would render them highly productive, without diminish- 
 ing in any degree their capability of being converted 
 into fuel at any future period, should the wants of the 
 country require it. 
 
 One very remarkable feature in the landscape of Ire- 
 land cannot fail to strike the observer. In traversing 
 most parts of the island, isolated ranges or groups of 
 bold mountainous or hilly tracts are to be seen, the in- 
 tervals between them being occupied by a surface which, 
 when viewed on the great scale, appears level, but on a 
 nearer approach, presents a gently undulating plain. A 
 considerable expansion of this level occupies the central 
 counties between Dublin and Galway Bays. Such a 
 surface, it may be affirmed, almost without exception, 
 covers a sub-soil of floetz limestone, 1 to the abundance 
 of which mineral, next to the mild temperature and 
 general moisture of the atmosphere, the soil is chiefly 
 indebted for its superior fertility. This great sheet of 
 limestone comes in contact with, and sweeps round eve- 
 ry mountain tract, filling up all the intervals and hollows 
 between them. There is, in fact, no county except 
 Wicklow in which limestone rock either of secondary or 
 primary origin is not to be found. The latter of these, b 
 however, is chiefly confined to the counties of Sligo and 
 Galway, in the west, and to Donegal, Derry, Tyrone 
 and Antrim, in the north. 
 
 The north-eastern region of Ireland is peculiarly re- 
 markable by being chiefly composed of three mountain- 
 ous groups marked by singular diversities of geological 
 character. The Mourne mountains, a well defined 
 group in the south of the county of Down, of which the 
 towering Slieve Donard is the summit, may be consid- 
 ered as the first of these. Granite is the constituent 
 not only of the main group, but also of the subordinate 
 ranges that branch from it in several directions under the 
 names of the Fathom Hills, Slieve Gullion or the Newry 
 mountains, and the Ravensdale and Carlingford moun- 
 tains, northward of the Mourne mountains. Slieve 
 Croob, composed of sienite, and Slieve Anisky, of 
 
 » Secondary Limestone. — P. b Primitive Limestone ? — P. 
 
 c The peninsula included between Strangford Lough and the Irish 
 Sea. known bv the name of Ardes. (Ed. Lnc.) — P. 
 
 hornblende rock, form an elevated tract dependant upon, 
 though at some distance from, the main group. Horn- 
 blende rock and primitive greenstone are abundant on 
 the skirts of this granitic district. Mica slate has been 
 noticed only in one instance. Exterior chains of transi- 
 tion rock advance far to the west and north of this prim- 
 itive tract, extending in the former direction into Cavan, 
 and in the latter to the southern cape of Belfast Lough 
 and the peninsula of the Ardes. c The primitive nucleus 
 bears but a very small proportion in superficial extent to 
 these exterior chains, which are principally formed of 
 grauwacke and grauwacke slate. 
 
 The coast of Scotland opposite to the Ardes, where the 
 grauwacke terminates abruptly on the western side of the 
 northern channel, presents a resumption of the same for- 
 mation in the neighbourhood of Portpatrick, proceeding 
 thence through the Mull of Galloway d and the mountain 
 chain which, under the name of Leadhills and other local 
 appellations, traverses Scotland towards the south. The 
 composition of this chain agrees with that of the corre- 
 sponding mountainous tract in Ireland ; the transition rocks 
 forming its predominating constituent, enveloped by which 
 several small districts of granite occur, w'hile mica slate is 
 either totally absent, or of very rare occurrence. 
 
 The second of the north-eastern groups is formed by the 
 mountainous tract, partly in Derry and partly in Tyrone, 
 between the rivers Roe and Mourne. The whole of this 
 tract is primitive. Mica slate predominates, comprehend- 
 ing nine-tenths of the country ; it is accompanied by primi- 
 tive limestone in the lower parts. On the eastern side of 
 the Roe, this system is succeeded by a range of secondary 
 heights, covered by an enormous platform of basalt. Those 
 secondary masses repose upon and conceal the mica slate 
 in the eastern part of Derry, but it again emerges from be- 
 neath this covering in the north-eastern part of Antrim, and 
 swells into mountains which break dow 7 n suddenly between 
 Tor Point and Cushenden Bay. 
 
 The correspondence of structure between Ireland and 
 Scotland here again becomes visible. The Mull of Can- 
 tyre, which faces Tor Point, resumes the chain of mica slate 
 which was broken off on the Irish coast. The Cantyre 
 hills are connected with the Grampians, a chain strikingly 
 similar, in all the circumstances of its composition, to that 
 now described. Further, the mica slate in Ireland is suc- 
 ceeded on the south, where the Antrim coast exhibits it in 
 section, by a conglomerate, perfectly resembling that which 
 skirts the Grampian hills on their southern border. 
 
 The third group is divided into two chains by the valley 
 of the Bann from Lough Neagh to the Atlantic. The 
 eastern of these, lying between that river and the northern 
 channel, presents an abrupt declivity towards the east, with 
 a gentle slope in the contrary direction, in which the beds 
 composing its mass dip. The western chain, between the 
 Roe and the Bann, is the exact counterpart of the preced- 
 ing ; but the strata dip towards the north-east, the fall of 
 the hills being gradual in this direction, while they front the 
 west and south with abrupt and precipitous escarpments. 
 The eastern system is wholly secondary, and uniformly cov- 
 ered with enormous stratified masses of basalt. The aver- 
 age depth of this superstratum, which acquires its greatest 
 
 d The Rhinns of Galloway, of which the Mull of Galloway is the 
 southern extremity. — P. 
 
BOOK CLVII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF IRELAND. 
 
 619 
 
 thickness in the north, where it measures more than 900 
 feet, may be estimated at 545 feet, and its superficial ex- 
 tent at 800 square miles, a solid mass of extraordinary and 
 imposing dimensions. 
 
 In the strata underlying the basalt are to be found many 
 of the most important of those formations which, reposing 
 on the coal measures, occupy such an extensive tract in the 
 southern and eastern counties of England, but which in Ire- 
 land never extend beyond the circumference of the great 
 basaltic mass. They occur in the following order: 1. 
 
 Chalk. No two formations can be more identical in ex- 
 ternal characters and fossil organic remains than those 
 Irish beds, frequently called white limestone, and the Eng- 
 lish chalk in the Isles of Wight and Purbeck. In both, 
 the lower beds are destitute of flints, which the upper con- 
 tain in abundance. 2. Mulattoe, an arenaceous stone, 
 with a calcareous cement of a mottled appearance, whence 
 it derives its name.* The numerous beds of oolites which 
 in England, almost without exception, succeed the green 
 sandstone, are entirely wanting in Ireland, where the mu- 
 lattoe reposes immediately on the lias limestone. 3. Lias 
 limestone, disposed in thin beds alternating with slate clay, 
 and distinguished by ammonites and gryphites, and the re- 
 mains of the pentacrinus b with which it abounds : its thick- 
 ness has not been ascertained. 4. The lias reposes, as in 
 England, on beds of red and variegated marie, containing 
 gypsum, and further distinguished by numerous salt springs. 
 The marie is underlaid by a thick deposit of red and varie- 
 gated sandstone, 0 containing clay-galls. 
 
 The four formations here specified vary considerably in 
 thickness in different places. The mulattoe and lias are 
 often wanting, but the chalk and the sandstone are remark- 
 ably constant. The whole series appears to the greatest 
 advantage in the neighbourhood of Belfast. 
 
 The dykes, or wliyn-dykes, form a feature peculiar to the 
 northern part of Ireland, as none have yet been discovered 
 in the southern or midland counties. Of those noticed, 
 nearly one half are situated on the shore, and the remotest 
 of the others is within fifteen miles of it. The highest ob- 
 served is near the summit of Arragh, the loftiest mountain 
 in Donegal ; being 2220 feet above the sea. 
 
 Dykes seldom occur singly ; they are generally found in 
 groups, several within a short distance of each other. Their 
 parallelism or uniformity of direction is another striking cir- 
 cumstance. Of 31, whose direction has been accurately 
 noted, the greatest variety of range is from 17° to 53° north 
 of west. The bearing of all the dykes is from south-east to 
 north-west, and all *cut the planes of the strata through which 
 they pass at a very considerable angle. 
 
 In their relative width they vary considerably, some be- 
 ing but a few inches, others several hundred feet broad, but 
 those of the latter description are very rare. Their height 
 above the intersected strata is often very considerable ; that 
 on Arragh rises perpendicularly forty feet like a partition 
 wall. At Scrabo hill, near Newtown Ardes,adyke appears 
 like a standing pillar at the entrance of one of the freestone 
 quarries. d Their depth is unknown ; nor does it appear, 
 
 a Qu. Green-sand — a sandstone with a calcareous cement, coloured 
 green by hydrated silicate of iron. The green grains are often so few 
 in number, that the rock has a grey or buft’ colour, in particular por- 
 tions. Sometimes it is deeply coloured by brown oxide (hydrate) of 
 iron. The chalk in Ireland reposes on green sand. (Conybeare and 
 Phillips.) — The only other sandstone deposite between the chalk and 
 lias, is the iron -sand — entirely silicious. — P. 
 
 b Pentacrinites. — P. 
 
 * New red sandstone. — P. 
 
 from observations on those lying along the coast in cliffs from 
 50 to 500 feet in height, that their sides converge, or that 
 they branch off, like the metallic veins, into slender strings, 
 or, except in very rare cases, swell into what the miners call 
 bellies. 
 
 Their position is in all cases nearly vertical, the mean 
 angle of deviation from the perpendicular, deduced from ten 
 cases, being 13°, and from seven others, 7° ; but no genera, 
 conclusion has yet been formed as to the direction of this 
 deviation. Neither is there that variety in their substance 
 which might be inferred from their number, their relative 
 distance, or the variety of their substrata. They are form- 
 ed either of a number of diminutive pillars aggregated to- 
 gether, or of rhomboidal pieces, piled one on another like 
 blocks of masonry, and formed of the following rocks, nam- 
 ed in the order of their most frequent occurrence, namely 
 trap and greenstone, with their associates, Lydian stone, 
 flinty slate, graustone e and wacke. One dyke of clay por- 
 phyry f has been discovered at Farland Point in Donegal. 
 
 No general connexion has been discovered between the 
 substance of the dyke and the rock through which it passes. 
 Neither, in general, does any foreign matter intervene, ex- 
 cept a slight rusty appearance on the surface of the divided 
 stratum. The contact between the dyke and rock is close, 
 but they may be always disjoined by the blow of a hammer. 
 The mean specific gravity of the substances of the dykes is 
 2.86. The minerals found imbedded in them are augite in 
 angular fragments, olivine in disseminated grains, crystal- 
 lized glassy felspar, compact felspar, radiated zeolite, green 
 soft steatite, iron pyrites, calcareous spar, carbonate of lime 
 mixed with the trap, -glassy quartz, sulphate of barytes, and 
 plates of mica. 
 
 To the south of Dublin a great granite region extends 
 in a continuous mass, without interruption, to the Black- 
 stairs mountain, occupying generally the highest portion 
 of the range throughout, though it is found also in the 
 lowest position, as in the northern part of the Dublin moun- 
 tains.s It also forms an extensive flat on the western side 
 of the range, to Castledermot and the Shillelagh hills. This 
 constitutes the broadest part of the granite soil, being about 
 fifteen miles across from east to west, whence it gradually 
 narrows to a point ; its breadth, in its northern extremity, is 
 about seven miles. 
 
 Such is the extent of the continuous tract of fundamental 
 granite on which all the succeeding rocks repose. Granite, 
 however, reappears in other quarters, not only protruding 
 and breaking forth in isolated denuded portions of the 
 great base, but occurring as a later production, interstra- 
 tified with rocks which unequivocally rest on the fundamen- 
 tal granite. 
 
 The mica slate, wherever it occurs in this district, is in 
 direct contact with the granite on both sides of the great 
 granitic range ; but, in its widest part, it nowhere exceeds 
 three or four miles, as it soon graduates into clay slate, by 
 which it is bounded for the greatest part of its course. In it 
 have been incidentally found hornblende, andalusite, hollow 
 spar, h garnet and sphene. 1 
 
 d There are quarries of excellent freestone at Scraba, near New- 
 town. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 e Greystone ( graustein ,) a variety of trap, in which felspar predomi 
 nates. — P. 
 
 f Claystone Porphyry. — P. 
 
 s Granite occurs along; the south shore of Dublin Bay. (Ed 
 Enc.)— P. 
 
 h Made. — P. 
 
 ' Silico-calcareous oxide of Titanium. — P. 
 
C20 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CIiVII 
 
 r 
 
 The clay-slate formation is spread over considerable 
 tracts of the granitic chain, extending on the western side 
 in a narrow border, to Castledermot, and on the eastern, 
 from Bray southwards along the coast, where, gradually 
 expanding, it spreads itself over nearly the whole of the 
 county of Wexford. The total absence of metallic veins 
 on the western side of the granitic region, while they exist 
 in abundance on the eastern, presents a singular feature of 
 this district. 
 
 The flcetz sandstone* is found resting upon granite, clay- 
 slate, grauwacke, grauwacke slate, and transition rocks ; b 
 it occurs sometimes in isolated portions, sometimes in ex- 
 tensive mountain ranges. The Slieve Bloom mountains 
 consist of a nucleus of clay-slate surrounded by sandstone. 
 The Bilboa and Keeper mountains are surrounded by a 
 mantle of sandstone, except in a small portion on the north 
 side, where the clay-slate nucleus comes immediately in con- 
 tact with and supports the floetz limestone. This nucleus 
 has yielded lead, silver and copper. The Slievenamana 
 group consists of a nucleus of clay-slate surrounded and 
 surmounted by sandstone, which is connected with the sand- 
 hills that extend towards Thomastown on the north, and 
 have the clay-slate for their foundation. 
 
 The tract adjacent to the lower part of Lough Dearg on 
 the Shannon consists partly of mica slate, c and partly of 
 sandstone : the slate raised from the quarries of Killaloe is 
 equal in quality to that of Wales. 
 
 The noble range of the Galtees and its subordinate ridge 
 of Slievenamuck, consists of sandstone. The north-western 
 face of the Galtees is in many parts extremely precipitous, 
 and even inaccessible ; while that on the south-east is of a 
 more subdued character. The mountainous tract between 
 the Suir and Blackwater may be considered as table land 
 of clay-slate, partly bordered by sandstone, and sustaining 
 isolated caps, or more widely extended ridges of the same 
 rock. This tract is surrounded by flcetz limestone on all 
 sides, except the eastern, which consists almost entirely of 
 clay -slate. 
 
 The component rock of the mountains lying still more 
 westerly in Kerry is a clay-slate, the argillite of Werner, 
 penetrated, especially towards the north, and in the central 
 mountains, by veins of quartz. The clay-slate is frequently 
 raised for roofing, but the inconvenience of export has ad- 
 mitted quarries to be opened only at Cahir Begnish and 
 Valentia. The northern part of this district is chiefly form- 
 ed of secondary limestone, with marine remains and calca- 
 reous spar, usually of a light blue, or smoke-grey colour. 
 From the mouth of the Cashin river to the Kerry Head, 
 stretches a bank of upland, composed of beds of argillaceous 
 sandstone, in the partings of which the well-known quartz 
 crystals, called Kerry-stones, are found ; steel-grained lead d 
 is also found traversing this formation. 
 
 In the interior of the great limestone plain, already no- 
 ticed, as spreading itself over the whole of the level region 
 of Ireland, three isolated protuberant masses of sandstone 
 arise from beneath the limestone at Moatgrenogue, Bally- 
 mahon and Slievegoldry. To the west of the clay-slate 
 country in Longford, this rock occupies a considerable 
 space, crossing the Shannon, and extending into the coun- 
 ties of Roscommon and Leitrim. 
 
 The extensive region still further westward, as far as 
 
 1 Secondary sandstone. — P. 
 
 b Grauwacke and grauwacke slate are transition rocks. — P. 
 
 Galway, is chiefly calcareous. A line drawn from that 
 town to Oughterard, marks the limit of the formation 
 All to the north, over Lough Corrib into Mayo and Ros- 
 common, except the neighbourhood of Dunmore, is lime- 
 stone ; that to the south and west, as far as Sline Head, 
 with the exception of two masses of primitive limestone, 
 which occur between Oughterard and Clifden, is granite, or 
 rather sienite. 
 
 The mountains in the northern part of this region are 
 composed of quartz ; round the bases they are gneiss and 
 mica slate, with bands of hornblende and primitive lime- 
 stone. Along the northern side of Lough Corrib, and to Bal- 
 lynakill, the mica slate and hornblende rise into mountains, 
 and the limestone disappears. From Lough Mask to Kil- 
 lery Bay, is a transition country of greenstone and grau- 
 wacke slate, covered with red sandstone, which also forms 
 the hill of Muilrea, the highest point of Mayo. The upper 
 beds of this and of the greenstone are frequently porphyrit- 
 ic. Greenstone and clay-slate prevail to the north of Mayo, 
 and to the mountain of Croagh Patrick, the summit and 
 western side of which are quartz, the eastern side slate and 
 serpentine, but without any limestone, none of which is 
 found in this direction beyond the great secondary limestone 
 field. The component part of the mountain of Benebola 
 or Twelve Pins, the highest in Connamara, is quartz, in 
 general distinctly stratified, or at least schistose. 
 
 The great limestone field, though affording indications 
 of several metals, more particularly lead and copper, is 
 singularly ill adapted for mining operations, as it occupies 
 the lowest and richest parts of the country, and frequently 
 supports a considerable depth of alluvial matter and soil. 
 Hence mines cannot be freed from water without machinery ; 
 the value of fuel and the drainage of lands become likewise 
 important elements in the estimate of expenses. The marly 
 tracts covering the limestone are distinguished in several 
 places by the relics occasionally preserved in them oi that 
 extraordinary animal, the Irish elk or moose deer. A 
 head and branches of one measuring ten feet ten inches 
 between the tips of the horns, is described by Molyneux. 
 But the valuable remains of this stately animal preserved 
 in the museum of Trinity College, Dublin, contain a greater 
 variety and number of bones than are to be seen in any 
 other collection. A complete skeleton has not yet been 
 discovered. 
 
 Though indications of metallic ores are to be met with 
 in most parts of Ireland, few mines have as yet been found 
 capable of being worked to advantage. The principal of 
 those now wrought are in the granitic region of the county 
 of Wicklow. A vein of gold, which has been discovered 
 at Croghan-Kinselagh, by the particles of that metal ob- 
 served in the bed of a neighbouring rivulet, was worked 
 for some time for the benefit of the crown as a special 
 royalty ; but the profits were not found sufficient to justify 
 the continuance of the expenditure, and the workings have 
 been relinquished. 
 
 Rich veins of copper have been wrought at Cronebane 
 and Ballymurtagh in the same county. Copper of excel- 
 lent quality, and in large quantities, is also raised at Knock- 
 mahon and Bonmahon, in the county of Waterford. A 
 mine at Allihies, in the county of Cork, is accounted one of 
 the richest in Ireland ; another at Cappagh, though yield- 
 
 c Qu. clay slate. The slate from these quarries must be clay slate 
 Killaloe is at the foot of Lough Derg. — P. 
 
 d Granular sulphuret of lead. — P. 
 
BOOK CLYII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF IRELAND. 
 
 621 
 
 ing metal of fine quality, has been lately relinquished as not 
 being sufficiently productive, as have also others at Ken- 
 mare and Ross Island, in the county of Kerry, and at Bou- 
 lard in Galway. 
 
 Lead is raised at the Ballycorus, Luganure, Hero and 
 Carrigeenduff mines in Wicklow, and at Came in the neigh- 
 bouring county of Wexford ; mines of the same metal are 
 also wrought at Clea in Armagh, and at Kildrum in Done- 
 gal. Those of Castlemaine and Kenmare in Kerry, and 
 that of Sheffry in Mayo, have been relinquished after the 
 loss of a considerable outlay in ascertaining their probable 
 produce. 
 
 At Arigna, near the western shore of Lough Allen, is a 
 rich and copious vein of iron, which, after having been for- 
 merly wrought to much advantage as long as the surround- 
 ing country supplied timber for fuel, remained for many 
 years neglected. The workings have been resumed by one 
 of the lately formed companies, with every prospect of a 
 favourable result, as coal is now raised in the neighbour- 
 hood in sufficient quantity to justify the expectation of an 
 adequate supply for many years. Antimony is found at 
 Castleshane. 
 
 Coal has been discovered in greater or smaller quanti- 
 ties in seventeen counties, which may be classed in four 
 districts, one in each of the provinces. Those of Leinster 
 and Munster contain carbonaceous or stone coal, the slaty 
 glantz coal of Werner ; a the two other provinces, bitumi- 
 nous or blazing coal. 
 
 The Leinster coal district is situated in the counties of 
 Kilkenny, Queen’s county and Carlow, extending also a 
 short distance into Tipperary. It is divided into three de- 
 tached parts, separated from each other by a secondary lime- 
 stone country which not only envelopes, but in continuation 
 passes under the whole of the coal district : b the neighbour- 
 ing country is abundantly supplied from this source. 
 
 The Munster coal district occupies a considerable por- 
 tion of the counties of Limerick, Kerry, and Cork. Though 
 by much the most extensive of the four, it is only now 
 attracting to it that degree of scientific and manufacturing 
 attention which, from its importance as an object of peculiar 
 national interest, has long been called for. Coal and culm 
 have been raised, for nearly a century, in the neighbourhood 
 of Kanturk in Cork. At Dromagh, particularly, the works 
 have been carried on with much effect, and the annual sup- 
 ply from them would have materially contributed to the 
 agricultural improvement of a great extent of the maritime 
 and commercial counties of Cork and Limerick, had the 
 improvements on the surface for facilitating the land car- 
 riage, by means of judiciously planned and well formed 
 roads, kept pace with the exertions of the individuals en- 
 gaged in the production of the coal. 
 
 Next in order of value and importance is the Connaught 
 coal district in the county of Leitrim, where workings are 
 now carrying on with much energy at Aughabehy and 
 other collieries in the vicinity of the Arigna iron-works. 
 That the great natural facilities for distributing the produce 
 of these collieries, arising from the neighbouring lake c and 
 
 a The slaty glance coal of Jameson — schicfrige glanzkohle of Wer- 
 ner — foliated or slaty anthracite. — P. 
 
 b This must bo the carboniferous or mountain limestone, on which 
 the coal formation rests in a basin the borders of which are of course 
 surrounded by the limestone. — P. 
 
 1 Lough Allen. 
 
 d The Upper Shannon navigation, commencing above Lough Ree, 
 at Lanesborough, and extending 33 miles along the river, to near Lei- 
 trim. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 its communication through the Shannon, or by means of 
 roads, have not been adequately seconded by the hand of 
 art, will appear from the following quotation, which forms 
 the first sentence of a late report of the directors of the 
 Arigna mining company. “ The roads in the Connaught 
 coal district remain nearly in as bad a state as they were 
 in prior to the interference of government in 1823, conse- 
 quently the company is deprived of land sale at the colliery, 
 while the sale in the lower Shannon district, upon which 
 the board relied, has been interrupted for some months by 
 the progress of certain repairs at the lock of the Lanes- 
 borough canal. ” d 
 
 The coal district of Ulster is of trifling importance, when 
 compared with any of the foregoing. The principal col- 
 lieries are at Coal Island and Dungannon in Tyrone. In- 
 dications of coal have been observed at Drumquin in the 
 same county, and at Pettigoe to the north of Lough Erne. 
 Possibly the formation may extend westward from the first 
 mentioned coal field to that part of the lake. Coal has 
 also been found at Belturbet in Cavan, and at Ballycastle 
 in Antrim. This latter vein, though long wrought, is by 
 no means extensive. It had been worked at a very early 
 period, for, in the year 1770, the miners, when pushing 
 forward an adit level at a newly explored part of the cliff, 
 unexpectedly discovered a passage cut through the rock. 
 This passage was very narrow owing to incrustations on its 
 sides. On examination it w r as found to be a regular gallery 
 leading to thirty-six chambers ; in short, the explorers 
 found themselves at once in the heart of an extensive mine 
 which had been wrought by workmen at least as expert as 
 those of the present generation. Some remains of the 
 tools, baskets, &c., were found, but in such a decayed state 
 as to crumble into dust when touched ; several of the tools 
 appeared to have been made of wood thinly shod with iron. 
 
 Numerous mineral springs have been discovered in vari- 
 ous counties in Ireland ; few, however, have rendered their 
 vicinity a place of general resort for invalids. The most 
 remarkable are that at Mallow in Cork, wdfich strongly 
 resembles the hot wells of Bristol ; those of Lucan and 
 Golden-bridge near Dublin, the former sulphureous, the latter 
 sulphureous and chalybeate; and that of Ballynahinch,® 
 also sulphureous and chalybeate, which attracts many visitors 
 from the neighbouring counties. Swanlingbar in Cavan is 
 sulphureous, and Castleconnel near Limerick, chalybeate. 
 The first mentioned of these is the most noted. 
 
 To proceed from the physical to the political circum- 
 stances of the country. It is now generally admitted that 
 Ireland owes its first colonization to a tribe of the Celtse. 
 The language is a Celtic dialect, and the names of many of 
 its mountains, districts, lakes, rivers and towns are deducible 
 from the same source. Still, however, the derivation of 
 its best known appellation, Erin, has been much disputed. 
 “ Iri,” says Ledwich, an antiquarian more distinguished for 
 learning than sagacity, “or as now written Eri, is, in Irish, 
 the great isle/ In Teutonic, Er-aii, contracted into Eri, is 
 the farther isle.”s Camden derives it from Hiere, an Irish 
 word signifying west, or the westward/ 
 
 e In Down county. — P. 
 
 f Er, great ; /, island. A more frequent Gaelic word for island is 
 Inis; whence Innis, Ennis and Inch, in names of islands in Scotland 
 and Ireland. The modern Gaelic word is Oileun (Uilean, Eilean.) — P. 
 
 s Qu. fer ( verre ,) far, or eer, ante, and etc or ey, insula — or ur-ey, 
 primitive or parent island. — P. 
 
 h Siar is the Gaelic for west ; Leath-shiar (pron. Leah-hlar,) west- 
 ward, literally, half of west. So also, soir, east; taobh-slioir (pron 
 tav-bor,) eastward, literally, side of east. — P. 
 
622 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CL VII. 
 
 The name of Scotia first occurs in writers of the fourth 
 century ; yet, however prevalent among various authors of 
 different countries, it never entirely superseded its former 
 designation. Usher says that the promiscuous application 
 of this name, both to Ireland and Scotland, arose from the 
 coalition between the Scots and Piets in the eleventh cen- 
 tury;* * and even then all accurate writers distinguished the 
 former by the name of vetus, major or ulterior Scotia, the 
 latter being styled in contradistinction nova, minor or cite- 
 rior. The word “Scotland” is by some authors derived 
 from Scythia, supposed to have been the mother country. 
 Whitaker and Chalmers, with more probability, attribute the 
 name to their love of roving ; the term Sceite, in Irish, sig- 
 nifying dispersed or scattered. 
 
 The Celtic descent of the aborigines may also be traced 
 by the existing remains, though few, of their antiquities. 
 Several of the rocking stones, similar to those found in 
 various parts of England, are still to be seen. One in the 
 neighbourhood of Dublin was but lately displaced from its 
 equilibrium by the vvantonness of a party of soldiery. An- 
 other in full perfection, is in Island Magee. The swords, 
 axes and arrow-heads of a mixed copper metal are also 
 adduced as proofs of their origin. But among the most 
 singular traces of antiquity, should be reckoned the round 
 towers of Ireland, of which upwards of fifty are still to be 
 seen, dispersed in various parts of the country. Their ori- 
 gin and use, though made the subjects of many elaborate 
 treatises, are still involved in obscurity. Their juxtaposition 
 to monastic ruins has led to the conjecture that they were 
 erected in the earlier ages of Christianity ; but arguments 
 equally probable have been adduced to prove their ex- 
 istence prior to the erection of these structures. Attempts 
 have been made to trace the descent of the Irish colony to 
 other countries by the existence of similar buildings in the 
 latter, but as yet the evidence of such existence has not 
 been conclusive. Erected generally in situations not pecu- 
 liarly elevated, their uses as signal-towers would be very 
 limited ; the confined extent of their tubular cavity would 
 not afford scope for the ringing of a bell ; they therefore 
 still remain, and to all appearance will long continue, an 
 enigma for the exercise of antiquarian ingenuity. 
 
 Few traces of the history of the tribe thus settled are 
 to be found in ancient authors. The island is, indeed, 
 supposed to be noticed by the writer of the Argonautic 
 Expedition, b under the name of Iernis : Aristotle notices it 
 by that of lernef by Caesar and other Roman writers, it is 
 called Hibernia ; Marcianus Heracleotes names it Jouer- 
 nia, A as also does Ptolemy, a writer particularly exact in 
 the appellation of places according to their native names. 
 The last named writer proceeds further, laying down the 
 position of several remarkable points, and the names and 
 situation of the principal tribes and towns. 
 
 For an account of the acts of the inhabitants from their 
 first settlement to the period of the English invasion, re- 
 course must be had to the native chronicles. In the Psal- 
 ter of Cashel and other Irish annals, it is recorded, that 
 
 a The union of the Scots and Piets, under Kenneth, took place 
 A. D. 843.— P. 
 
 b The Argonautics, attributed to Orpheus. — P. 
 
 c ItQvij — Ierna (Vers. Lat.) — P. 
 
 *' IovtQna. — P. 
 
 • Gaelic heath Chuinn (pron. Leah Hhuin,) Half of Conn, and 
 Lenth Mliodha (pron. Leah Voha,) Half of Modha. The Conn here 
 mentioned was Conn of the hundred fights (Gaelic Conn Cett- 
 cathaigh — Lat. Constantinus Centimachus,) king of Connaught. Modha 
 
 soon after the flood, a number of Fowmarries, or pirates 
 from Africa, attempted a settlement, from which they were 
 soon dispossessed by an Asiatic colony headed by a chief 
 named Partholan, a descendant in the eighth generation from 
 Noah. These were in turn dispossessed, after a lapse of 
 more than two centuries, by another colony from the same 
 region named Firbolgs, whom some antiquarians suppose to 
 have been a tribe of the Belgae. Their dominion was ter- 
 minated by the invasion of a fourth colony which came 
 from Spain, under the command of the eight sons of Mile- 
 sius ; five of these perished through the casualties incident 
 on landing, leaving the honour of the conquest, and the 
 establishment of the family to the three survivors, Heber, 
 Heremon, and Ir. The last named died shortly after the 
 subjugation of the country, Heber was killed by his brother, 
 and Heremon thus became sole monarch. The history 
 of his successors for many generations presents little to 
 arrest attention. One of them, surnamed Ollamh-Fodlah, 
 or the learned doctor, is celebrated as the founder of 
 several sage institutions ; he is said to have ordained a tri- 
 ennial meeting of the elders 1 or legislators at Tarah, and to 
 have founded a college for the investigation and preserva- 
 tion of the national records. Two other princes of the 
 same line are said to have fixed the first territorial division 
 of the island, by a line from Dublin through Clonmacnois 
 to Galway, marked by a deep trench strengthened by a 
 rampart and a series of forts. The portion of the island to 
 the north of this line was named Leah Quin or Conn’s 
 share, that to the south, Leah Mowa or Mowa’s share, from 
 the names of the princes by whom it was partitioned.® But 
 a still more remarkable division, yet partially existing, was 
 subsequently made into the five provinces of Ullah or Ulster, 
 Layean or Leinster, Mumha or Munster, Connaught, and 
 Ciuge-na-Mee, f or Meath, s which last, comprehending the 
 central counties of Meath, West Meath, and some sur- 
 rounding districts, was afterwards absorbed into the neigh- 
 bouring provinces of Leinster and Ulster, especially the 
 former. 
 
 The reigns of the Milesian monarchs were almost inces- 
 santly disturbed by intestine commotions, suspended only 
 by the temporary combinations of the rival chieftains for 
 the purpose of repelling the predatory incursions made from 
 the neighbouring shores of Great Britain, or by expedi- 
 tions fitted out by themselves in retaliation. In one of 
 these, it is said that St. Patrick was brought captive to the 
 north of Ireland, where, during a servitude of several 
 years, he acquired a knowledge of the native language and 
 manners which considerably forwarded his subsequent apos- 
 tolical labours. 
 
 Much as the country may have been indebted to this cel- 
 ebrated missionary, it is generally thought that Christianity 
 had been introduced into it some time before by Declan, 
 St. Kieran and others, who had succeeded in converting 
 many of the lower classes, while St. Patrick, who returned 
 to Ireland in 432, armed with credentials from Pope Ce- 
 lestine, gave it stability and influence by persuading the 
 
 ( Eugenios Maximus, Eugene the Great) was founder of the dynasty of 
 Munster. — P. 
 
 f Qu. Coigc-na-Meadh (Coige-na-Meah,) province of the middle ; 
 Meath occupying the centre of the island. — P. 
 
 e The Irish (Gaelic) names of these five provinces are Uladh 
 (Ulah.) iMighiem (Layeen,) Mumha (Muha.) Connachda (Connahda,) and 
 Midhc (Meeva.) — Connachda is Conn’s field ( Conn , and aehadh, field ;) 
 Connaught being included in Conn’s half, and Cruachan, in the same 
 province, his capital. — P. 
 
BOOK CLVII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF IRELAND. 
 
 623 
 
 princes and nobility to embrace its doctrines, by building 
 churches and religious houses, and by appointing regular 
 orders of priests and instructors. In noticing this celebrat- 
 ed character, it should not perhaps be wholly omitted that 
 Ledvvich denies his existence, and that a later writer, whose 
 opinion is entitled to still less weight, endeavours to prove 
 him a Roman of patrician origin. 
 
 The introduction of the new faith does not appear to have 
 bad much influence on the conduct of the native princes. 
 The succeeding part of the history contains accounts of 
 war, turbulence and assassination, similar to those with 
 which the era of paganism had been stained. The calami- 
 ties of the country were further augmented by the invasions 
 of the northern freebooters, known in the Irish annals by 
 the name of the Black and White Scandinavian pirates, a 
 and in English history by that of Ostmen or Danes. 
 Seizing first on the principal seaports, and afterwards avail- 
 ing themselves of the still continued broils of the native 
 chieftains, they at length obtained the sovereignty of the 
 whole island about the year 860. But they did not main- 
 tain tranquil possession of this rich prize. Turgesius, 
 their sovereign, was killed by treachery, and the Danes 
 were driven from the interior ; but they still retained pos- 
 session of the ports through which they were enabled again 
 to strengthen themselves by fresh supplies from their na- 
 tive regions. 
 
 In the year 1014, Brian Boru, b who stands recorded in 
 the annals of Ireland as a model of royal virtues, a valiant 
 hero, and a consummate statesman, after raising himself to 
 the sovereignty of the whole island — for at this period each 
 province had its petty king, one of whom, on acquiring a 
 superiority over his fellows, was recognised as supreme 
 ruler — defeated the Danes at Clontarf, near Dublin, so 
 completely, as to afford his countrymen a breathing time to 
 recover from the exhausting desolation of civil war and 
 foreign invasion. 
 
 This period of tranquillity was marked by an important 
 ecclesiastical event. A national synod was held at Kells in 
 Meath, in the year 1152, at which Cardinal Paparon, the 
 pope’s legate, presided. At this meeting tithes were intro- 
 duced, the Irish clergy having previously maintained them- 
 selves wholly from the produce of their mensal lands. Four 
 palls were also given as badges of archiepiscopal jurisdic- 
 tion under the papal see ; one to the archbishop of Armagh 
 as primate, the other three to those of Dublin, Cashel, and 
 Tuatn. 
 
 The ecclesiastical revolution thus tranquilly and speedily 
 effected, was followed by another of a political nature, which 
 wholly changed the destinies of the nation, and laid the 
 foundation of the arrangements that continue to the present 
 time. Henry II. of England had early in his reign con- 
 ceived the idea of adding Ireland to his dominions. To 
 effect this, he prevailed on Pope Adrian to issue a bull, 
 which was published in the year 1 154, granting him the 
 sovereignty of the island, on the condition of reducing it 
 completely under the spiritual authority of the Roman see, 
 and of paying him a tribute of a penny for each hearth, 
 better known by the name of Peter’s pence. The title, 
 such as it was, lay dormant for several years. Too much 
 
 1 Called by the Irish, Duff-galls and Fin-galls, black and white for- 
 eigners. (Ed. Enc.) — Gaelic, Dubli-Gkaill and Fionn- Ghaill. (pron. 
 Duv-hiodtl and Fin-lncdll.) — The Danes were called by the Irish, 
 Dubh-Lochlonnaich (Black Lochlinians — the Duff-galls :) the Norwe- 
 gians, Fionn-Lochlonnaich (White Lochlinians — the Fin-galls.) — 
 
 engaged by domestic troubles, Henry had little time to de- 
 vote to a foreign expedition of such magnitude. An un- 
 expected circumstance at length induced him to turn his 
 attention westwards. 
 
 Dermod M’Morrough, king of Leinster, having been 
 driven from his dominions by Roderick, king of Ireland, in 
 consequence of an atrocious breach of hospitality committed 
 by him against O’Ruark, chieftain of Brefney, whose wife 
 he had seduced and carried off, applied to Henry to replace 
 him on his throne, offering to bold bis kingdom under the 
 English monarch as the price of his restoration. Too much 
 occupied to pay personal attention to this tempting offer, 
 yet unwilling to reject it altogether, Henry dismissed the 
 Irish prince with a general assurance of protection, and a 
 vague permission to any of his subjects to volunteer their 
 services in the cause of his new tributary. Strengthened 
 with this permission, Dermod, while on bis journey home- 
 wards through Wales, prevailed upon Richard de Clare, 
 Earl of Chepstow, better known by the soubriquet of 
 Strongbow, to assist him, under an engagement of giving 
 him his daughter Eva in marriage, and of securing to him 
 the succession to the crown of Leinster. Dermod then 
 returned to Ferns, his capital city, to prepare for the recep- 
 tion of his expected ally, who shortly after sent over, as a 
 kind of advanced guard, a small detachment, consisting of 
 150 knights, 70 men-at-arms, and 600 archers, under the 
 command of Robert Fitz-Stephen. This little band, after 
 having made good a landing at the creek of Bag and Bun 
 in Bannow Bay, and being joined by Dermod and bis Irish 
 forces, took the town of Wexford, and made a permanent 
 settlement in the neighbouring districts of Bargie and Forth, 
 where their descendants continue to the present day ; 
 Strongbow shortly followed with a larger force, and after 
 taking Waterford by storm, followed up bis success by the 
 capture of Dublin. Roderick, king of Ireland, now seri- 
 ously alarmed at the progress of the invaders, endeavoured 
 to expel them from their new conquest, but after laying 
 siege to the last named city, he was defeated, and his army 
 totally dispersed. 
 
 The rapid progress of Strongbow drew upon him the 
 jealousy of the king of England, by whom he was com- 
 pelled to surrender the whole of his conquests, on condition 
 of receiving the greater part back as a fief from the crown, 
 resigning Dublin and the other large towns wholly to the 
 king. Henry himself soon after crossed over into Ireland 
 with a numerous and splendid train of noblemen and 
 troops. No opposition was attempted. Roderick remained 
 inactive in Connaught. The petty chieftains of Leinster 
 did homage to Henry in Dublin, where they were received 
 by him with all the pomp of a sovereign. A council at 
 Cashel, held under a papal bull, acknowledged his author- 
 ity ; large tracts of land were portioned out among the 
 principal English adventurers ; the system of English laws 
 and English tenures was introduced, and a commencement 
 thus formed for establishing British dominion throughout 
 the country. 
 
 Having terminated his pacific expedition by the ap- 
 pointment of Hugh de Lacy as governor of Dublin, and 
 justiciary of Ireland, Henry returned to England. Soon 
 
 Lochlin was the Gaelic name for Scandinavia in general. (Mac- 
 pherson.) — Lochlonnach, plu. Lochlonnaich, signifies a sea-faring nan; 
 literally, one strong at sea, from loch, a lake, the sea, and lonn, strong 
 (Lhuyd.) — P. 
 
 b Brian Boroimhe or Boromha (pron. Boroha.) — P, 
 
624 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLVII. 
 
 after his arrival there, a formal treaty was concluded be- 
 tween him and Roderick, whereby the latter acknowledged 
 Henry as his liege lord, paying him an annual tribute of 
 every tenth hide, and a specific number of hawks and 
 hounds. 
 
 The new settlers, in the mean time, were actively em- 
 ployed in securing and extending their possessions, partly 
 by the sword, and partly by treaties and family alliances 
 with the more powerful chieftains. Placed at a distance 
 from the centre of English rule, the bands of union hung 
 very loosely upon them. I\ot content with mixing as 
 partizan auxiliaries in the domestic feuds of the native 
 princes, they quarrelled among themselves as to the par- 
 tition of their newly acquired booty, and the country, 
 instead of finding relief from the uniform control of a 
 more powerful superintendance, felt its former evils of 
 intestine division aggravated by the interference of those 
 greedy and arrogant intruders. John Earl of Morton, 
 Henry’s favourite son, was at length sent over as lord 
 lieutenant. But he was young and ill advised. He 
 offended the natives by his undisguised contempt of 
 their manners ; he insulted them in the persons of their 
 leaders. Some of the native princes, on presenting 
 themselves, were made objects of mockery ; their beards 
 were plucked in derision by the young English cour- 
 tiers. They consequently quitted the court in disgust, 
 and spread the flame of discontent through every part of 
 the country. John was recalled, but some years after 
 returned as king of England, and endeavoured to re- 
 store order and tranquillity upon the basis of a fixed and 
 uniform government. The forms of the English laws 
 were observed in the courts of judicature ; all the parts 
 of the country in any manner recognising the control of 
 British authority were divided into the twelve counties 
 of Dublin, Meath, Kildare, Uriel (now Louth,) Cather- 
 lough, a Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Lim- 
 erick, and Tipperary. The remainder of Ireland, consist- 
 ing of Ulster, Connaught, and some of the central districts 
 in Leinster, still remained, with a few slight exceptions, 
 under the dominion of the native chieftains. 
 
 John remained but six months in Ireland. After his 
 departure, the country soon lapsed into its former state 
 of confusion. During the subsequent reigns of the first 
 three Edwards, the Irish earnestly and frequently ap- 
 plied for the extension of the benefits of the English laws 
 throughout all parts of the island. Their petitions were 
 favourably received, and royal mandates were issued to 
 ascertain the v propriety of granting them ; but the influ- 
 ence of the great English settlers, who profited by the 
 public disorders, always prevented the practical applica- 
 tion of the remedy. 
 
 During this period the part of the island subject to 
 English law was called the Pale ; it extended in reality 
 over little more than the province of Leinster, the re- 
 mainder of the country being still subject to the native 
 princes, who ruled according to the principles of the 
 Brehon or old Irish law. The English themselves were 
 split into two factions, English by blood, and English by 
 birth ; the former comprising the descendants of the 
 original adventurers and other old settlers, who, by con- 
 stant residence among the natives, and frequent inter- 
 
 " Carlow — Gaelic, Catliair-loch (pron. Gacr-loh,) city or fortress of 
 the lake. — P. 
 
 b The five tribes or families were, the O'Neils of Ulster, the O'Me- 
 
 marriages with them, had acquired many of their customs, 
 habits, and prejudices ; the latter consisting of the fresh 
 supplies of settlers whom the hope of large grants of 
 lands, or of lucrative situations under the government, 
 had allured thither. The former of those classes gave 
 greater annoyance to the ruling powers than even the 
 natives, insomuch that, in the writs issued for repressing 
 the tumults arising from this state of disorganization, 
 while the Irish in arms against the king are called ene- 
 mies, the refractory English are designated by the harsher 
 name of rebels. Not that the epithet thus imposed upon 
 the Irish indicated any intention of visiting their trespasses 
 with a mitigated portion of legal vengeance. On the 
 contrary, the mere Irish, as they were called, were so 
 utterly excluded from the protection of the newly intro- 
 duced laws, that while the murder of an Englishman 
 was punished, as now, by death, that of an Irishman 
 was passed over with impunity, unless the sufferer had the 
 good fortune to belong to one of the five tribes which were 
 admitted, by special favour, to a participation of the 
 rights of British subjects. b Records of pleas of murder 
 still exist in which the defendant acknowledges the fact, 
 but alleges that the person killed was not English, but 
 a mere Irish, and not of the five bloods, and is accord- 
 ingly dismissed with impunity. 
 
 The horrors of this state of internal anarchy were in- 
 creased by a foreign invasion. Edward I. had directed 
 all the energies of his kingdom to the subjugation of 
 Scotland. Not content with the supplies of men, arms 
 and provisions to be procured at home, the scanty re- 
 sources of Ireland were drained to swell their magnitude. 
 On the commencement of the feeble reign of his son, 
 Edward II., Robert Bruce, as well for the purpose of 
 creating a diversion, as to rid himself from the encum- 
 brance of a turbulent auxiliary, sent his brother Edward 
 into Ireland to assert his claim to the sovereignty of the 
 country, and to enforce it by the sword. For some time 
 he was singularly successful. Having been joined, after 
 his landing at Carrickfergus, by most of the discontented 
 chieftains of tester, he proceeded to Dundalk, where he 
 was crowned. Thence moving southwards, he devas- 
 tated the country with fire and sword as far as Munster. 
 But at length the whole force of the English was col- 
 lected against him, and Bruce, whose army was ex- 
 hausted by the rapidity of its progress and the magnitude 
 of its exertions, too impatient also to wait the arrival of an 
 expected supply from home, joined battle with it near 
 Dundalk. The contest was decisive ; the Scotch were 
 totally routed, and the body of their commander found 
 among the heaps of slain. 
 
 The fascinating though delusive prospect of the crown 
 of France distracted the thoughts of Edward 111. from 
 the settlement of Ireland, an achievement of less splen- 
 dour, though of more solid utility. Still, however, it 
 was not wholly overlooked. His son Lionel was sent 
 thither as chief governor. He succeeded in some de- 
 gree in repressing the spirit of insubordination among the 
 feudal barons, and in checking the predatory incursions 
 of the Irish. But, on the other hand, the bond of sepa- 
 ration between the two nations was sealed during his 
 government, by the celebrated statutes of the parliament 
 
 laghlins of Meath, the OConoghers of Connaught, the O'Briens of 
 Thomond, and the M'Murroughs of Leinster. 
 
book clvii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 at Kilkenny, which enacted, that none but Englishmen 
 should be admitted to holy orders, or allowed to become 
 members of a religious house, without a licence from the 
 king, and that a native was not to enjoy the benefits of 
 English law, without paying a fine for a special writ for 
 the indulgence. 
 
 The affairs of Ireland were considered by his imme- 
 diate successor, Richard II., of sufficient importance to 
 call for his personal interference. Having landed at 
 Waterford with a force, consisting, according to the 
 chronicles of the time, of 30,000 infantry and 4000 men- 
 at-arms, he proceeded without interruption or molesta- 
 tion to Dublin. Here he received the submission of up- 
 wards of seventy chieftains, and conferred the order of 
 knighthood on O’Neal, O’Connor, O’Brian, M’Murchad 
 and some others, yet not without reluctance on their part, 
 the ceremony being considered rather as a badge of in- 
 feriority than a token of elevation. On the monarch’s 
 departure, after a pompous yet inefficient residence of 
 nine months, the feuds of the settlers and the marauding 
 warfare of the natives revived with aggravated violence. 
 
 In 1399, Richard again visited the country, but his ex- 
 pedition was now neither so tranquil nor so fortunate as 
 before. During his march from Waterford to Dublin he 
 found his progress impeded at Kilkenny by the assaults 
 of Art. M’Murcha, who with a band of 3000 resolute 
 followers, rushed suddenly from the impenetrable fast- 
 nesses of his woods and morasses, and so harassed the 
 i royal army by his rapid and reiterated assaults, that the 
 
 king experienced no small difficulty in arriving at the end 
 of his journey. The insurrection in England which ter- 
 minated in setting his rival Henry of Lancaster 1 on the 
 throne, hurried him from Ireland, and the country was 
 again left a prey to the devastating animosities of the 
 contending factions. 
 
 So powerful were the Irish princes during this and 
 the subsequent period of the wars of York and Lancas- 
 ter, that their cumrick or protection was anxiously sought 
 for by the English borderers of the pale, and secured by 
 the payment of an annual tribute called Black-rent. 
 The pale itself was contracted within the narrow limits 
 of the counties of Dublin, Meath, Kildare, and part of 
 Louth, and the boundary line to the south of Dublin 
 city, beyond which the king’s writ was a dead letter, 
 was fixed as far as Tallaght by the stream of the Dod- 
 der, a rivulet within three miles of Dublin, and thence 
 by a trench with redoubts to Newcastle on the borders 
 of Kildare ; all the district to the south of this line, ex- 
 cept a narrow band along the sea coast to Bray, being 
 in the undisputed possession of the Irish, two families of 
 whom, the O’Birnes and the O’Tooles, asserted and 
 maintained the rank of independent princes throughout 
 the southern part of Dublin county, and the mountainous 
 district since designated as the county of Wicklow. 
 
 Ireland was not tranquillized by the termination of the 
 civil wars in England. Even after Edward IV. obtained 
 the undisputed possession of the throne, his government 
 in Ireland was reduced to such a state of imbecility, that 
 the only means devised for protecting the pale against 
 ; its. surrounding enemies was the formation, by act of 
 
 OF IRELAND. 025 
 
 parliament, of a military fraternity under the name cf iVe 
 Armed Brotherhood of St. George, consisting of a captain 
 and 160 horse-archers, with an equal number of attend- 
 ants on foot. The private feuds of the great leaders of 
 the degenerate English and the Irish, of the Butlers 
 and Fitzgeralds in the south, and of O’Neil and Tyrcon- 
 nel in Ulster, alone prevented the total overthrow of the 
 king’s government. b The authority of his lieutenant 
 was set at defiance in the very capital. Keating, prior 
 of Kilmainham, then a preceptory of the order of the 
 knights of St. John of Jerusalem, though deposed for his 
 turbulence and misconduct by his superior, not only re- 
 fused to submit, but seized upon Lumley, an English- 
 man, who had been sent over to succeed him, and kept 
 him prisoner till his death. 
 
 The general alienation of the public sentiment in Ire- 
 land from the English dominion was so great at the com- 
 mencement of the reign of Henry VII., as to induce his 
 enemies to select this country as the theatre for their 
 first public exhibition of the mimic kings, through whose 
 agency they hoped to drive him from his throne. Lam- 
 bert Simnel was therefore sent thither ; and so numerous 
 and zealous were his adherents, that he was enabled to 
 carry over a large body of Irish to support his claims by 
 the sword in England, who were cut to pieces in the 
 bloody battle of Stoke in Nottinghamshire. Perkin 
 Warbeck also met with a similar reception, though on a 
 more limited scale. To such a pitch were the minds of 
 the native chieftains excited by the imbecile government 
 of the English about this time, that on an agreement 
 made by Richard Duke of York with M’Geoghegan to 
 prevent the repetition of his incursions from the north- 
 western counties into Meath, the latter boasted among 
 his friends, that he had granted peace to the king’s lieu- 
 tenant. M’Gillypatrick also, a chieftain in Ossory, de- 
 spatched an ambassador with a formal complaint to the 
 king in England, who, stopping him on coming out of 
 his private chapel, delivered his commission in a set 
 Latin speech, of which the following is a literal transla- 
 tion ; — “ Stand on thy feet, my lord king : my master 
 M’Gillypatrick has sent me to you, and ordered me to 
 declare, that if you do not punish Red Peter, he will 
 make war against you.” 
 
 But Henry was not of a temper to be insulted or re- 
 sisted with impunity. When firmly fixed on his throne, 
 he sent over Sir Edward Poynings, an English knight, 
 much in his confidence, as chief governor. The most 
 remarkable act of his administration was the passing of 
 statutes, afterwards the subject of much discussion, under 
 the name of Poynings’ laws, by one of which the lord 
 lieutenant was prohibited from holding parliaments at 
 his pleasure, and by another, a parliament was forbidden 
 to be held there until all the bills proposed to be intro- 
 duced into it should have been previously laid before 
 the English privy council for the king’s approval. This 
 continued to be the law of the land till the year 1782. 
 
 The intestine wars between the great English nobles 
 and the native Irish still raged with almost unremitting 
 violence. During their continuance, the then Earl of 
 Kildare was called over to England to answer in person 
 
 a Henry IV. 
 
 b The interchange of messages between these rival potentates is 
 worthy of being recorded for its singularity. O’Neil claimed a tribute 
 from Tyrconnel as his feudatory ; to obtain it he sent him a message 
 VOL. Iir.— NO. 61 • 79 
 
 couched in the following laconic terms ; “ Send me my tribute, or 
 
 else .” Tyrconnel answered him in terms equally laconic and 
 
 significant — “ I owe you no tribute, and if 
 
 i 
 
626 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 IBOOK CliYII. 
 
 some charges of a treasonable nature ; but, contrary to the 
 expectation of his enemies, the king was so much pleased 
 by his manly and candid explanations, that he sent him 
 back as chief governor. On his return, he, with the aid 
 of the O’Neils, O’Reillys, O’Connors, M’Geoghegans, 
 and others of the Irish, defeated the united forces of 
 Ulick M’William Burke, chieftain of Connaught, Tirlogh 
 O’Brien, Maelrony O’Carrol, and others, four thousand 
 of whom, according to some accounts, or nine thousand, 
 according to others, were left dead upon the field. 
 
 The virulence of civil discord was augmented during the 
 succeeding reign by religious controversy. Henry VIII. 
 having succeeded in extinguishing the papal power in 
 England, attempted to accomplish the same object in Ire- 
 land, but with different success. Though supported by the 
 bishops of English birth, his scheme was obstinately resist- 
 ed by the Irish. The native chieftains, also, from a con- 
 viction that in opposing these innovations they were main- 
 taining the cause not only of their independence but of 
 their religion, were stimulated to the greatest efforts. The 
 Irish of Ulster confederated under O’Neil as the champion 
 of the cause ; but a victory gained over them at Ballyhae 
 by Lord Grey, the lord deputy, dissolved their union. 
 O’Neil, De Burgo and others submitted and exchanged their 
 ancient dignities for those of English nobility. About this 
 time, also, Henry, from a wish to confirm his authority by 
 the assumption of a more imposing title, had himself styled 
 king instead of lord of Ireland, under which name the sov- 
 ereign authority had been hitherto exercised. 
 
 The short reign of Philip and Mary was marked by an 
 attempt to restore the Roman Catholic form of worship, 
 and by the formation of the districts of Leix and Offaley 
 into shire-ground, under the names of the King’s and 
 Queen’s counties, the assize towns of which were named 
 Philipstown and Maryborough, in honour of the sovereigns 
 who had effected the measure. 
 
 The contest between the conflicting interests was carried 
 to its greatest height in the reign of Elizabeth. The Irish 
 were headed by John or Shane O’Neil, son of the first earl 
 of Tyrone. Early in this reign he had not only tendered 
 his submission to the lord deputy, but even proceeded to 
 London, attended by a numerous train, to offer it in person 
 to the queen. The appearance of his retinue there struck 
 the beholders with astonishment. His guard of gallow- 
 glasses, or heavy armed soldiers, were arrayed in the full 
 costume of their native country. Each carried a large bat- 
 tle-axe, his head was bare, his hair flowed loosely over his 
 shoulders ; he was clad in a linen shirt of extravagant di- 
 mensions, died yellow, over which he wore his armour and 
 a loose cloak. The queen received him with great favour, 
 and dismissed him with several valuable presents, a large 
 loan of money, and an assurance of her protection. 
 
 But these proofs of a pacific disposition were not of long 
 continuance. Shortly after his return he broke out into 
 open rebellion, from what cause is not clearly ascertained. 
 After a protracted struggle against the lord deputy Sir 
 Henry Sidney, in the course of which he took the city of 
 Derry, he was reduced to such extremity as to have re- 
 course to his bitter enemies the Scotch, rather than throw 
 himself on the mercy of those he still more abhorred. His 
 choice proved fatal to him. On his arrival at the Scotch 
 quarters he was hospitably received by their commander, 
 but on the same evening was assassinated in his tent at 
 an entertainment, during a quarrel, supposed to have 
 
 been intentionally excited as a pretence for this viola- 
 tion of the rights of hospitality. His head was afterwards 
 transmitted to Dublin, where it was exposed on the cas- 
 tle gate. 
 
 During this and other similar insurrections in various 
 parts, the English government made some progress in ex- 
 tending and consolidating its authority. The Annaly, a 
 district subject to the M’Mahons, was formed into a county 
 under the name of Longford. Connaught was partitioned 
 into the five counties of which it consists at present, in addi- 
 tion to which, Clare, now part of Munster, was considered 
 to be a sixth ; in all these districts Irish chieftainries were 
 abolished, and the supremacy of English law acknowledged. 
 But the south of Ireland still continued to exhibit scenes of 
 turbulence, insurrection and desolation. The Earl of Des- 
 mond, a scion of the Geraldine or Fitzgerald family, had 
 long exerted an almost regal authority throughout the coun- 
 ties of Kerry, Cork and Waterford, and now, relying on 
 the assurances of support from foreign powers and chiefly 
 from Spain, he at length openly set up the standard of re- 
 volt. The fate of a small body of Spaniards, who landed 
 at Smerwick to cause a division in his favour, has been al- 
 ready mentioned. Desmond himself, after maintaining a des- 
 perate struggle against the queen’s forces, was compelled to 
 shelter himself among the woods and morasses, where, after 
 undergoing extreme hardships, he was at length put to death 
 in his place of concealment. His immense property es- 
 cheated to the crown, and was parcelled out principally 
 among the heads of the great families that had preserved 
 their allegiance. 
 
 The spirit of insurrection was scarcely quelled in Mun- 
 ster, when it broke out again in the north. Hugh O’Neil, 
 grandson of the first earl of Tyrone, taking advantage of an 
 attempt, made with more vigour than prudence, to force the 
 English law upon the natives in Ulster, raised the standard 
 of revolt, and maintained a position of independence during 
 all the latter part of Elizabeth’s reign. This princess sent 
 her favourite Essex into Ireland, at the head of a numerous 
 and well-appointed army, to subdue him ; but the royal 
 forces wasted away without effecting any thing of conse- 
 quence, and Essex himself, returning precipitately into Eng- 
 land, met with the fate which forms so romantic a feature in 
 the annals of her last years. Ultimately, however, Tyrone, 
 notwithstanding a diversion caused in his favour by the ar- 
 rival of an armament from Spain, which kept possession of 
 Kinsale for some time, was reduced to such extremities as 
 compelled him to compound for his personal safety by a 
 most humble submission. 
 
 Sir John Davies, who, in the commencement of the 
 reign of James the First, published his elaborate treatise on 
 the causes why Ireland had never been completely subdued, 
 lays it down as a principle, that a barbarous country must 
 first be broken by a war, before it can be made capable of 
 benefiting by good government. Without entering into the 
 discussion of a principle the soundness of which is upon a 
 par with its humanity, it may be safely asserted that its 
 practical efficacy was put fully to the test in Ireland. The 
 country at Elizabeth’s death was nearly a desert. Mory- 
 son, in his account of the war against Tyrone in Ulster, es- 
 timates the surviving population at not more than seven 
 hundred thousand souls, and both he and Spenser describe 
 the sufferings of the wretched peasantry in language that 
 makes humanity shudder. 
 
 James I. during the greater part of his reign, applied him 
 
BOOK CliVII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF IRELAND. 
 
 627 
 
 self sedulously to what was called, in the quaint phrase- 
 ology of the time, the plantation of Ulster. The six coun- 
 ties forfeited by Tyrone and other northern chieftains were 
 parcelled out into estates of various dimensions ; flattering 
 inducements were held out to English and Scotch agricul- 
 turists to settle on them. Much of the land was purchased 
 by some of the London trading companies, who still, under 
 the name of the Irish Society, retain the proprietorship of 
 extensive tracts in those counties. Large portions of land 
 were also appropriated to the clergy and to the public 
 schools. 
 
 The country during his reign was peaceable and prosper- 
 ous. But the progress of improvement experienced a fatal 
 check in that of his son and successor Charles the First, 
 whose lieutenant, the Earl of Strafford, by his harsh and un- 
 justifiable measures, utterly destroyed the spirit of confidence 
 between prince and people. By calling in question the ti- 
 tles of the landed proprietors in Connaught, he excited a 
 suspicion of further aggressions, and this, joined with the 
 unsettled state of England, led to the catastrophe which 
 nearly annihilated the British dominion in Ireland. 
 
 The conspiracy by which this object was to have been 
 effected, and which was detected on the very day fixed on 
 for its execution, was to have commenced its operations by 
 the seizure of the castle of Dublin. 1 Lord Maguire, one of 
 its most active agents, was seized and executed in London. 
 Yet its failure in the capital did not prevent its explosion 
 elsewhere. It broke out with dreadful violence in the north, 
 where Sir Phelim O’Neil soon found himself master of all 
 Ulster, with the exception of a few of the larger towns. The 
 accounts of the atrocities committed at the commencement 
 of the insurrection have been much exaggerated by the vir- 
 ulence of party ; some of the details of the murders said to 
 have been committed by the insurgents are of a character 
 to excite incredulity rather than to secure belief. But this 
 much is certain, that the contest, which raged with various 
 success and in many varieties of form throughout the coun- 
 try from 1641 to 1652, was carried on with all the bitter- 
 ness that characterizes civil war aggravated by religious an- 
 imosity. 
 
 Cromwell, who landed in 1649, brought the contest to a 
 speedy termination. His first military act was the invest- 
 ment of Drogheda, which he took by storm and put the 
 whole garrison to the sword, by this terrible example of 
 military execution opening to himself an easy entrance in- 
 to most of the other fortified places in Ireland. The em- 
 bers of resistance which his recal to England obliged him 
 to leave unextinguished, were finally quenched by Ireton 
 and his other generals, and the country remained in a state 
 of passive subjection to the Parliament of England until the 
 Restoration. 
 
 The commencement of the reign of Charles the Second 
 forms one of the great epochs of Irish history. During the 
 republican government, the landed property of the country 
 had been transferred, with a few exceptions, from the an- 
 cient owners to the soldiers of the conquering army, or to 
 speculating adventurers who had advanced money to the 
 Commonwealth, on the assurance of repayment with liber- 
 al interest from the confiscations that had been anticipated 
 as the necessary consequence of unsuccessful resistance to 
 the constituted authorities of the day. The extent of these 
 confiscations was enormous. Of upwards of 20,000,000 
 
 a The day fixed for the seizure ef Dublin Castle was Oct. 22 , IG41. 
 The principal leader in this rebellion was Roger Moore. — P. 
 
 acres which Ireland contains, 12,634,711 were thus trans- 
 ferred. A transfer of persons as well as of property took 
 place. The Roman Catholics, who were so fortunate as to 
 prove by satisfactory evidence that they had taken no part 
 in the war, and who, on the establishment of such proof, were 
 distinguished by the name of innocent papists, were com- 
 pelled to remove into Connaught, where they were allowed 
 to hold lands of inferior quality, but subject to a chief rent 
 to the crown, which, however trifling its amount may ap- 
 pear at the present day, was then a heavy drawback upon 
 the tenant’s industry. They were also restricted from set- 
 tling within a mile of the sea-coast, and still further, were 
 excluded from residing within any walled town. The links 
 of amicable communion being thus effectually rent asunder, 
 between the two great classes of society, the proprietors and 
 the peasantry, and the line of demarcation being still more 
 strongly marked by the invidious distinction between Prot 
 estant and Catholic, every avenue to a mutual amalgama 
 tion of sentiment and interest was closed, and the two par 
 ties were doomed by the acts of Charles the Second, con- 
 firming the confiscations of the republican government, to 
 exist as two distinct nations in the same country, known to 
 each other only by a reciprocity of infliction and ofsufferance. 
 
 The reign of James the Second excited a hope in the 
 depressed party that this system was to have an end. The 
 pusillanimity of this monarch and the vigor of his rival 
 quickly dissipated any such expectation. The former, 
 when driven from Great Britain, made an effort to regain 
 his elevated position through the energies of his Irish sub- 
 jects. But he was wholly unqualified to direct or to sus- 
 tain those energies. After a struggle of four years, in 
 which he was baffled personally at the Boyne, and after- 
 wards, through his generals, at Athlone and Aglnim, the 
 surrender of Limerick, his last hold in the country, extin- 
 guished eVery gleam of hope. The whole population sub- 
 mitted to the English government with the exception of 
 those ardent spirits who preferred the vicissitudes of a life 
 of exile to the monotony of domestic subjugation. These 
 were formed into a corps in the service of France under 
 the name of the Irish brigade, where during the succeed- 
 ing wars on the continent they performed good service 
 against the government by which they had been expat- 
 riated. The number of Irish thus driven into the ranks 
 of the enemy maybe estimated from the fact, that, accord- 
 ing to the official statements of the French army accounts, 
 there died in that service between the taking of Limerick 
 in 1691 and the battle of Fontenoy in 1745, a period of lit- 
 tle more than fifty years, no fewer than 450,000 Irish sol- 
 diers. These regiments were always led on against the 
 English with the emphatic words, before used under similar 
 circumstances at the battle of the Boyne by Schomberg, 
 when encouraging his Huguenot soldiers against King 
 James’s French auxiliaries, “Gentlemen, behold your 
 persecutors.” 
 
 The attention of the victorious party in Ireland was 
 now wholly directed to the securing of its conquest. To 
 effect this, a new confiscation of property took place, to 
 the amount of 1,718,320 acres, which was succeeded 
 by the enactment of a series of laws of extreme rigour, 
 since known by the name of the Penal Code, framed 
 for the express purpose of utterly extirpating the Roman 
 Catholic religion. The effect of this system, so far as 
 it affected the security of the new proprietors, and the 
 prostration of the proscribed mode of faith, was com 
 
628 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CL, VII. 
 
 plete. During the first subsequent rebellion in Great 
 Britain in favour of the son of James II., a Ireland was 
 perfectly tranquil ; nor could the slightest trace of any 
 communication between the native Irish and the ad- 
 herents of the Pretender in France or Scotland be de- 
 tected. But, at the same time, the country was reduced 
 to such an extreme of internal wretchedness, that Swift 
 gave vent to his feelings of exasperated patriotism, in 
 the bitterest strain of sarcastic irony, published under 
 the title of “ a modest proposal for preventing the chil- 
 dren of poor people in Ireland from being a burden to 
 their parents and country,” by making use of their flesh 
 as an article of food. On the rumour of a second at- 
 tempt in favour of the dethroned family, which was 
 carried into effect in Scotland in 1745, the Earl of Ches- 
 terfield was sent over as lord lieutenant, and this noble- 
 man, with equal good feeling and good policy, relaxed 
 the rigour of the penal code so far as to overlook the 
 breach of law committed by Roman Catholics in assem- 
 bling together for the celebration of divine worship. 
 
 In the year 1759, the landing of the French under 
 Thurot in the north of Ireland, afforded another test of 
 the spirit of the country. Though this petty invasion 
 was merely a feint to veil the movements of a larger 
 armament, and proceeded no farther than the momentary 
 possession of the almost dismantled castle of Carrick- 
 fergus, the sensation excited by it pervaded the whole 
 island ; an expression of determined resistance was uni- 
 versally and unequivocally displayed. 
 
 Not long after, an important change took place in the 
 constitution of the Irish parliament. The members of 
 tbe House of Commons had hitherto held their seats 
 during the life of the reigning king. The bond be- 
 tween the constituent and his representatives was, there- 
 fore, little more than nominal ; there was no sympathy 
 on the one side, no control on the other. The lord 
 lieutenants, also, instead of making the country the place 
 of their constant residence, visited it but once in two 
 years for the purpose of holding a parliament, leaving 
 the details of government during the intervals in the 
 hands of two or three of the chief residents, who, under 
 the title of lords justices, actually possessed all the in- 
 fluence, and consequently all the powers of the state. 
 In the year 1768, an act was passed, in consequence of 
 the reiterated remonstrances of the Irish House of Com- 
 mons, limiting the duration of parliament to eight years, 
 and at the same time, the lord lieutenant was required 
 to reside in Ireland. The secondary influence of the 
 lords justices being thus annihilated, the lord lieuten- 
 ant became the actual as well as the nominal governor, 
 and the House of Commons felt the necessity of being, 
 in some degree at least, the real protectors of those 
 popular rights which they were chosen to maintain. 
 
 The breaking out of the American war in 1775, af- 
 forded ample scope for the exertion of the newly ac- 
 quired powers of the popular branch of the legislature. 
 Enlarged views of the reciprocal interests of the two 
 great portions of the empire called for new enactments. 
 The Irish parliament, which had hitherto acquiesced in 
 all the arrangements transmitted from England, began to 
 exert the right of judging and of legislating for itself. 
 The agitation of the American question, and the unex- 
 
 pected incidents consequent on the commencement of 
 hostilities with that country, afforded new cause of ex- 
 citement to the public mind. Most of the troops had 
 been called out of Ireland, for transatlantic service ; so 
 that, when, on the apprehension of an invasion from 
 France, an application was made to the government for 
 an adequate supply of troops to meet the impending 
 emergency, the answer given by the lord lieutenant was, 
 that Great Britain had no troops to spare, and that the 
 nation must look to itself for the means of self-defence. 
 The hint was taken ; the people armed themselves ; at 
 first in detached and unconnected bodies, but gradually 
 convinced of the necessity for combined exertion, they 
 ultimately formed themselves into an organized and 
 disciplined army, amounting to 42,000 men, at the 
 head of which was placed, by unanimous consent, the 
 Earl of Charlemont, a nobleman who, after having spent 
 the bloom of his youth in the elegant enjoyments of the 
 most polished courts in Europe, had the courage to 
 break their fascinating bonds, and to devote himself to 
 a constant residence at home, at that time a country of 
 few intellectual attractions, in order to aid, by his ex- 
 ample and influence, the introduction of the spirit of 
 refinement which his observations, when abroad, had 
 taught him to be necessary to elevate his native land to 
 its proper position in the scale of civilized society. 
 
 The people having, by this determined and simultane- 
 ous act, effectually dissipated all apprehensions of danger 
 from a foreign enemy, began to turn their thoughts to 
 wards the internal improvement of the country. They 
 called upon their representatives for a repeal of those 
 laws, which, framed with the expressed intention of con- 
 solidating the strength of the empire by confining each 
 division of it within the limits of its own resources and 
 capabilities, had, in reality, weakened it by ill-judged 
 restrictions on the dependent portion. The volunteer 
 association changed its character ; it became a delibera- 
 tive as well as a military body. A meeting of delegates 
 from all the corps in Ulster, convened at Dungannon, 
 adopted resolutions declaratory of the right of the Irish 
 legislature to make laws, uncontrolled by any external 
 interference. The spirit thus excited rapidly transferred 
 itself into the parliament. Henry Grattan, whom Lord 
 Charlemont, from a conviction of his great latent powers, 
 had introduced into the House of Commons, took the 
 lead within that house, in asserting the independence of 
 the Irish legislature. Supported by the combined exer- 
 tions of the advocates of the measure, both within and 
 without its walls, he eventually succeeded in obtaining 
 an explicit renunciation of the claim of legislative control 
 on the part of Great Britain. 
 
 Another great question still remained unsettled. The 
 independence of the parliament could avail but little if 
 its members continued liable to tbe influence of ministe- 
 rial corruption. The volunteers, therefore, called for a 
 reform in the House of Commons. A second delegated 
 meeting assembled in Dublin for the express purpose of 
 taking the opinion of the armed population of Ireland on 
 the subject. The parliament and the volunteers were 
 now at issue. The metropolis presented the anomalous 
 exhibition of two rival delegated bodies, each professing 
 to emanate from the people, each claiming to be the ex- 
 clusive organ of its sentiments, and each determined to 
 control the other. The parliament prevailed : it passed 
 
 » In 1715. 
 
BOOK CliVII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF IRELAND. 
 
 629 
 
 a vote declaratory of its own omnipotence ; the volun- 
 teer assembly adjourned sine die, and the question of 
 reform was lost. 
 
 From this moment the spirit of volunteering began 
 to evaporate. The peace with America rendered their 
 services, in a military point of view, unnecessary ; the 
 late triumph of the ministerial party in parliament-, prov- 
 ed their inefficacy towards vindicating the right of the 
 people to an effective control over the conduct of their 
 representatives. They gradually declined in num- 
 bers and in spirit, until they were finally put down, 
 without the slightest semblance of resistance, by a 
 proclamation from the government prohibiting their as- 
 semblage. 
 
 In the .year 1789, a great international question arose, 
 which Served to show the practical effect of the lately 
 acquired independence of the Irish parliament. George 
 III. was attacked by a mental derangement that wholly 
 precluded him from holding the reins of government. 
 A regency became necessary. The parliaments of the 
 two countries were at issue on the point. Both agreed 
 that the sovereign authority should be intrusted to the 
 heir-apparent, then in the full maturity of age. But, 
 while the parliament of Great Britain determined to im- 
 pose restraints on his exercise of the functions of royalty, 
 that of Ireland resolved to present the regency to him 
 unshackled by any limitations beyond those imposed by 
 the constitution on the sovereign himself. Matters had 
 proceeded so far that a delegation from both houses of the 
 Irish parliament was despatched to the Prince of Wales, 
 to offer him the unrestricted regency of Ireland. On 
 its arrival in London, the king was declared to be so far 
 restored to the due use of his mental faculties, as to be 
 enabled to resume the government. The delegates re- 
 turned ; but from that moment the British minister de- 
 termined, by an amalgamation of both parliaments, to 
 prevent the risk of such collisions in future. 
 
 During the progress of those political movements, the 
 Roman Catholics were gradually extricating themselves 
 from the yoke of servitude imposed on them by the 
 penal code. In the year 1745, as has been already no- 
 ticed, the first alleviation of their degraded state was 
 afforded them by the Earl of Chesterfield’s allowing 
 their assemblage for devotional purposes to be held with- 
 out molestation from the constituted authorities, an act 
 of toleration in its most limited sense. In 1774, parlia- 
 ment passed a statute allowing them to testify their alle- 
 giance. Even this was a boon, for hitherto the exist- 
 ence of a Roman Catholic was not recognised in the eye 
 of the law. In 1779, they were permitted to hold lands 
 on leases for 999 years, having previously taken the oath 
 of allegiance. 
 
 In the year 1793, the progress of the French revolu- 
 tion had excited a spirit of restless innovation, which, 
 instead of endeavouring to obtain the redress of real 
 grievances by constitutional means, displayed itself in 
 acts of violence against the constituted authorities. 
 The ministry, partly with a view to conciliate the great 
 body of the people, partly in accordance with fee grow- 
 ing spirit ot liberality that every day more strongly mark- 
 ed the advance of knowledge, granted to the Roman 
 Catholics^ besides several minor privileges, the right of 
 voting for the election of members of the House of 
 Commons, thus extending to them the enjoyment of 
 
 every privilege exercised by Protestants, except that of 
 sitting in parliament. But the concession, made unde 
 unfavourable circumstances, was accepted as *i right 
 rather than as a favour. The spirit of discontent still 
 prevalent was sedulously fostered by a society formed in 
 Belfast under the name of L T nited Irishmen, and after- 
 wards extended to Dublin. Its professed object was the 
 obtaining of parliamentary reform; but soon, enlarging 
 its views with its increase of strength, it determined on 
 obtaining a separation from England by force of arms. 
 Such was the activity of its members, that in a few years 
 they had organized a secret confederacy of 500,000 men. 
 Their measures at home were ably seconded abroad by 
 Theobald Wolfe Tone, originally the secretary of the 
 society, who, having been forced to fly in order to avoid 
 a criminal prosecution for high treason, succeeded in 
 prevailing on the republican government of France to 
 send a large armament, under their favourite general 
 Hoche, to invade Ireland. The fleet, by a most daring 
 manoeuvre, arrived in safety on the south coast of Ire- 
 land ; but the vessel of their commander-in-chief having 
 been separated from the rest by a storm, Grouchy, the 
 next in command, by his indecision, lost the opportunity 
 of effecting a landing, and the fleet, after lying a few 
 days unmolested in Bantry Bay, retraced its course, and 
 arrived again at Brest in safety. 
 
 The possibility of the recurrence of such a visitation 
 urged the government to use the most violent and un- 
 warrantable means for its prevention. The Protestants 
 were all armed under the name of yeomanry ; the milita- 
 ry were encouraged to the committal of such excesses, that 
 General Abercrombie, then first in command in Ireland, in 
 expressing his abhorrence of their licentious behaviour, 
 declared in public that the soldiery were formidable to 
 every one but their enemies. He was forthwith re- 
 moved, and General Lake appointed in his stead. The 
 country was put under military law ; suspected persons 
 were seized, tried by court-martial at the drum-head, 
 and scourged or executed by its summary sentence. 
 Torture was applied to force confession. At length, in 
 the spring of 1798, the rebellion, which had been fo- 
 mented by the United Irishmen, and urged forward by 
 the barbarities of the government, burst forth in the 
 counties of Wexford and Antrim. After a short but 
 sanguinary struggle, it was quelled. A small force oi 
 about 1000 French landed in the autumn of the same 
 year at Killala, and after routing the troops collected to 
 oppose them, penetrated as far as the county of Long- 
 ford, where they surrendered to the overwhelming num- 
 bers brought against them by Lord Cornwallis, then lord 
 lieutenant. 
 
 The next two years were employed in effecting the 
 union, a measure which, as has been already said, was 
 never lost sight of by the government since the pe- 
 riod of the regency question. The system of unre- 
 lenting severity which had characterised the proceed- 
 ings of the ministry before and during the rebellion, 
 was now seconded by one of unlimited, undisguised 
 corruption. Every place, every office, spiritual as well 
 as temporal, was for sale; parliamentary influence was 
 the price. The question of the Union, after having 
 been rejected in the House of Commons by a small ma- 
 jority in 1799, was brought forward again in the suc- 
 ceeding year, and carried. The first day of the year 
 
630 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CXVII 
 
 1801 saw the union standard floating over the gate of 
 Dublin Castle. 
 
 The history of Ireland, after this period, becomes in a 
 great measure identified with that of Great Britain. A 
 partial insurrection which broke out unexpectedly in 
 1803, disturbed for a moment the torpid tranquillity of 
 the country. It was the act but of a single night ; its 
 leaders suffered the penalties of the law, and the aspect 
 of public affairs immediately resumed its former appear- 
 ance. The remainder of the period to the present time 
 presents little but the repetition of efforts on the part of 
 the Roman Catholics who composed the bulk of the 
 population, to obtain the great privilege from which they 
 were still debarred, the right of sitting in parliament. 
 Their perseverance has at length been crowned with 
 success; 1 but the detail of the proceedings that led to 
 this result is too complicated to be compressed, and too 
 recent to require a detailed narration. 
 
 According to the civil division of the country, Ireland 
 contains thirty-two counties, of which twelve are in 
 Leinster, nine in Ulster, six in Munster, and five in Con- 
 naught ; besides which, five cities, Dublin, Cork, Lim- 
 erick, Waterford, and Kilkenny, and three towns, Gal- 
 way, Drogheda, and Carrickfergus, are considered to be 
 detached counties, having a municipal jurisdiction, ex- 
 tending to a certain tract round each, wholly inde- 
 pendent of that of the county in which they are situated, 
 it is represented in the imperial parliament by twenty- 
 eight peers, and one hundred commoners, of which lat- 
 ter, two are returned from each of the thiity-two coun- 
 ties, two from Dublin city, two from Cork city, one from 
 Trinity College, Dublin, and one from each of thirty-one 
 borough towns. b 
 
 Until the year 1829, the right of election in counties 
 was vested in all the freeholders of forty shillings and 
 upwards, consisting of by much the greater part of the 
 landholders ; and in cities and corporate towns, of those 
 and of the freemen admitted according to the peculiar 
 regulations of the corporation. But, on the passing of 
 the relief bill, which restored to the Roman Catholics 
 their right of sitting in parliament, the privilege of voting 
 for members of counties was limited to landholders pos- 
 sessing freeholds of L.10 value or upwards ; the qualifi- 
 cations of electors in cities and boroughs remaining 
 unaltered. The number of electors in counties, has, in 
 consequence, been reduced from 216,891 to 39,772, 
 while that of the electors in cities and towns is estimated 
 at 20,520; the whole of the constituency of Ireland, 
 therefore, consists at present of 60,292 voters for eight 
 millions of souls, c being in the ratio nearly of one to 
 every one hundred and thirty-three individuals, or to ev- 
 ery twenty-two families. 
 
 The administration of the government is vested nomi- 
 nally in the lord lieutenant, removable at pleasure, 
 though usually retaining his situation for five years, but 
 
 * A. D. 1820. 
 
 '' By the articles of union, Ireland was represented by four lords 
 spiritual, by rotation of sessions, by twenty-eight lords temporal, elect- 
 ed for life by the Peers of Ireland, and by one hundred commoners, 
 distributed as in the text. (Ed. Enc.) — The representation of lords 
 spiritual and temporal continues the same. By the Reform Bill (June 
 7, 1832,) Ireland is represented in the House of Commons by 105 
 members, of which 64 are representatives of the 32 counties, and 41 
 of boroughs, cities and the University, viz. for Dublin city, Cork city, 
 Limerick, Waterford, Galway, Belfast, and the University, two each 
 (14,) and one each for 27 boroughs, five new members being added. — P. 
 
 really in this functionary’s chief secretary, who is con- 
 sidered as responsible to parliament for the management 
 of the country. The lord lieutenant is assisted by a 
 privy council invested with large powers, and consisting 
 of the great law officers, and a few others, chiefly public 
 servants of the crown. 
 
 The judicial power is lodged in the hands of the lord 
 chancellor, and the four judges of each of the courts of 
 King’s Bench, Exchequer, and Common Pleas. The 
 chancellor is assisted by the master of the rolls, who 
 presides in a subordinate court of equity. For the gen- 
 eral dispensation of justice, the country is divided into 
 six circuits, each of which is visited by two of the law 
 judges twice every year. Minor causes are tried at the 
 quarter sessions, at which such of the county justices as 
 choose preside. A salaried lawyer, called asslsflnt bar- 
 rister, has a place on the bench, to afford the magistrates 
 the aid of his legal knowledge. 
 
 By a late arrangement, the superintendance of the 
 counties is committed, as in England, to a lord lieuten- 
 ant appointed by the government, who is considered as 
 in some degree responsible for the preservation of the 
 public peace, and, therefore, has the recommendation 
 of nominating and removing the magistrates. 
 
 The local arrangements of the counties are regulated 
 by the grand juries, consisting of twenty-three of the 
 principal landed proprietors, if resident, or of their 
 agents, if absentees. They are nominated by the high 
 sheriff, and are seldom changed ; thus forming a local 
 aristocracy. Their power is very extensive ; they have 
 the levying and expenditure of all the money laid out on 
 roads, bridges, and public buildings of every descrip- 
 tion ; a weighty trust, checked only by an appeal to the 
 judges of assize. This department of the local govern- 
 ment has long been the subject of much complaint, on 
 account of the magnitude of the sums levied, the par- 
 tiality exercised in its expenditure, and the unequal 
 pressure of the mode of taxation by which it is collected. 
 Besides these county taxes, each parish is required to 
 defray from its own resources the repairs and mainte- 
 nance of the parish church, and the cost of rebuilding it 
 when fallen to decay. 
 
 The protection of life and property is intrusted, by a 
 late enactment, to a constabulary force consisting of 215 
 chief constables, 1328 petty constables, and 4394 sub- 
 constables, in all 5937 men, besides stipendiary or sala- 
 ried magistrates in particular districts. These are main- 
 tained at an annual expenditure of somewhat more than 
 L.250,000, being at an average of about L.41 per man. 
 
 The ecclesiastical jurisdiction is vested in four arch- 
 bishops, one for each province, who take their titles 
 from the cities of their residence, viz. Armagh, Dublin, 
 Cashel, and Tuam ; under them are thirty bishopricks 
 consolidated by unions and incorporations under eighteen 
 bishops.* 1 The following table exhibits at one view the 
 
 « 7,734,365. (See Stat. Tab.)— P. 
 
 d Thirty-three dioceses, under four archbishops and eighteen bish- 
 ops. (Ed. Enc.) — According to the writer’s own statement in his 
 table, there are thirty-four bishoprics and twenty-two diocesans ; the 
 four archbishops each presiding over a separate diocese, exclusive of 
 his provincial jurisdiction. The bishopric ofGlendalogh is not men- 
 tioned in Ed. Enc. art. Ireland. (In the accountof Dublin (Ed. Enc.) 
 it is stated that the diocese of Glendeloch was united to that of Dublin, 
 in 1214.) The ecclesiastical provinces do not correspond with the civil. 
 
BOOK CLVII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF IRELAND. 
 
 631 
 
 civil and ecclesiastical divisions of the country, according 
 to provinces, counties, and dioceses. 
 
 LEINSTER. 
 
 County. 
 
 County Town. 
 
 Diocese. 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Dublin, arch-diocese. 
 
 Meath* * 
 
 Trim b and Navan 
 
 Meath. 
 
 Louth 
 
 Dundalk 
 
 included in Armagh diocese. 
 
 West Meath 
 
 Mullingar 
 
 included in Mealli diocese. 
 
 Longford 
 
 Longford 
 
 Ardagh, united to Tuam. 
 
 King’s County 
 
 Philipstown 
 
 included in Kildare diocese. 
 
 Queen’s County Maryborough 
 
 j included in Ossory and Kil- 
 \ dare dioceses. 
 
 Kildare 
 
 Naas 0 and Atliy 
 
 Kildare. 
 
 Wicklow 
 
 Wicklow 
 
 t (ilcnthilogh, incorporated with 
 ^ Dublin. 
 
 Carlow 
 
 Carlow 
 
 Leighlin. 
 
 Kilkenny 
 
 Kilkenny 
 
 Ossory. 
 
 W exford 
 
 Wexford 
 
 Ferns, united to Leighlin. 
 
 
 ULSTER. 
 
 Donegal 
 
 Lifford 
 
 Raphoe. 
 
 Londonderry 
 
 Londonderry 
 
 Derry. 
 
 Antrim 
 
 Carrickfergus' 1 
 
 Connor, united to Doivn. 
 Clogher. 
 
 Tyrone 
 
 Omagh 
 
 Down 
 
 Downpatrick 
 
 Down. 
 
 Dromore. 
 
 Armagh 
 
 Armagh 
 
 Armagh, arch-diocese. 
 
 Monaghan 
 
 Monaghan 
 
 included in Clogher diocese. 
 
 Cavan 
 
 Cavan 
 
 Kilmore. 
 
 Fermanagh 
 
 Enniskillen 
 
 included in Clogher diocese. 
 
 
 MUNSTER. 
 
 Clare 
 
 Ennis 
 
 Killaloe. 
 
 Kilfinora, united to Killaloe. 
 
 Tipperary 
 
 CasheP 
 
 Cashel, arch-diocese. 
 Emly, united to Cashel. 
 
 Limerick 
 
 Limerick 
 
 Limerick. 
 
 Kerry 
 
 Tralee 
 
 Ardfert, united to Limerick. 
 Aghadoe, incorporated ivith 
 
 
 
 Ardfert. 
 
 Cork 
 
 Cork 
 
 Cork. 
 
 Ross, united to Cork. 
 Cloyne. 
 
 W aterford 
 
 Waterford 
 
 Waterford. 
 
 Lismore, united to Waterford. 
 
 CONNAUGHT. 
 
 Mayo 
 
 Sligo 
 
 Leitrim 
 
 Roscommon 
 
 Galway 
 
 Castlebar f and 
 
 Ballinrobe 
 
 Sligo 
 
 Carrick on Shan- 
 non 
 
 Roscommon 
 
 Galway 
 
 Kill ala. 
 
 Achonry, united to Killala. 
 included in Kilmore and 
 Ardagh dioceses. 
 
 Elphin. 
 
 Tuam, arch-diocese. 
 
 Clonfert. 
 
 Kilinaduagh/ united to Clon- 
 fert. 
 
 The number of parishes in tlie country is 2450, which 
 are consolidated into 1396 benefices. The archbishops 
 and bishops derive their incomes chiefly from the rents 
 of land, which are farmed out by them, on leases during 
 their own lives, or for twenty-one years ; the parochial 
 clergy are supported, in a small degree, by their glebe- 
 lands, but chiefly by the tithes. Until lately, tithe was 
 payable only from arable land, pasture grounds being 
 relieved from it by a vote of the House of Commons, 
 which was afterwards legalized by an act of parliament 
 as part of the compact between the British ministry and 
 the landed proprietors for carrying the LTnion. But 
 this system has since undergone a great modification, 
 which, though an unjustifiable infringement on the prop- 
 erty of those who held lands under the provisions of the 
 last mentioned act, has been a considerable relief to the 
 poor occupying tenant. The tithe can now be convert- 
 ed, through a voluntary arrangement, between the incum- 
 bent and the parishioners, into an acreable imposition on 
 the whole of the cultivated land, whether under tillage 
 or pasture ; thus equalizing the pressure on the individ- 
 uals, and diminishing the expense of its collection, 
 though in most instances increasing the amount of the 
 incumbent’s salary, by an augmentation of the total sum 
 levied on the parish. The act has already been carried 
 into effect in more than one-half of the parishes, 1497 
 having compounded, and 963 h remaining still subject to 
 the former usage. The amount of tithe paid by the 
 parishes which have compounded, is L. 427, 594, 2s. 5d. ; 
 if the value of those which have not yet come under 
 the operation of the act be estimated at the same rate, the 
 total of the tithe of Ireland would amount to L. 704, 987, 
 Os. 2d. Taking, in addition to this, the value of the 
 glebe and glebe-house, at a general average of L.50 per 
 annum for each benefice, both together would afford a 
 net income of L.560 per annum for each incumbent, — 
 an income, if equally apportioned, fully adequate to the 
 wants and services of a body of men designed to be the 
 instructors and models of conduct to the great mass of 
 the population, which consists of those in the mid- 
 dling and lower walks of life.' 
 
 The incomes of the clergy officiating in town parishes 
 are not included in the foregoing calculation, being col- 
 lected in a different manner by an assessment on houses, 
 called ministers’ money. The number of parishes so 
 circumstanced is about fifty. 
 
 d The assizes and elections are held at Carrickfergus ; the quarter- 
 sessions, at Antrim. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 0 Clonmell is the county town, in which the assizes are held ; 
 Cashel, an archiepiscopal city, in which the quarter sessions are held. 
 (Ed. Enc.)— P. 
 
 r Castlebar is the county town. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 s Kilmacduagh. (Ed. Enc.) — P. h 953? — P. 
 
 ' The following is the summary of the statement made by Mr. 
 Griffith, the boundary surveyor, in his evidence before the Committee 
 of the House of Lords in 1832. 
 
 those of Dublin, Kildare, Ossory and Ferns ; that of Cashel, those of 
 Cashel, Waterford, Cork, Cloyne, Limerick and Killaloe ; that of 
 Tuam, those of Tuam, Clonfert, Elphin and Killala. — By the Irish 
 Church Reform Bill, passed July 30, 1833, the archbishoprics of 
 Cashel and Tuam are reduced to bishoprics, and ten bishoprics united 
 with other sees, viz. Dromore with Down, Raplioe with Derry, Clogher 
 with Armagh, Elphin with Kilmore, Killala with Tuam, Clonfert 
 with Killaloe, Cork with Cloyne, Waterford with Cashel, Ossory with 
 Ferns, and Kildare with Dublin. — P. 
 
 * East Meath. 
 
 b Trim is the county town. (Bell.) — P. 
 
 '■ Naas is the assize town. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 Ireland is divided into Archbishopricks .... 4 
 
 Bishops 23 
 
 Parishes 2450 
 
 Statute acres . . 20,400,000 
 
 Gross amount of tithe composition now paid . . £427,594 2 5 
 
 Average of each compounded parish 287 15 0 
 
 Average of tithe composition to £1 Sterling of the 
 
 value of the land 0 1 3J 
 
 Gross annual value of the land of Ireland, at a rent 
 
 of 12s. 5£d. per acre 12,715,578 0 0 
 
 Amount of tithe of all the parishes in Ireland . . 704,987 0 2 
 
632 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLVII. 
 
 The Roman Catholic religion is superintended by four 
 archbishops, as in the established church, a and twenty- 
 two bishops, who derive their support partly from the 
 profits of a parish, generally the most lucrative in the 
 diocese, partly from the fees of licenses for marriages, 
 and partly from the cathedraticum, an annual contribu- 
 tion from every incumbent under his control, proportion- 
 ate to the value of his benefice. b In cases of old age, 
 infirmity, or any accidental visitation from heaven, the 
 episcopal functions are discharged by an assistant or co- 
 adjutor, nominated by the bishop. The parish priests 
 are appointed solely by the bishop, and derive their 
 support from the voluntary contributions of their parish- 
 ioners, collected chiefly at Easter and Christmas, at which 
 periods they hold what are called stations, being half- 
 yearly meetings, at some commodious house fixed on by 
 themselves for the convenience of those residing at a 
 distance from the chapel, where they hear their confes- 
 sions, catechise their children, and deliver spiritual ex- 
 hortations. Monasteries and convents are frequent in 
 Ireland, many being in the enjoyment of considerable 
 funds arising from charitable donations. The monks of 
 some of them collect contributions through the country 
 for the maintenance of their respective establishments. 
 The funds of nunneries arise in a great degree from the 
 money paid by ladies on their entrance into the order, 
 the amount of which is seldom less than three or four 
 hundred pounds. In some cases their income is increas- 
 ed by fees paid for the education of the daughters of 
 persons of family and wealth. 
 
 The Presbyterian religion chiefly flourishes in the 
 north of Ireland. 0 The church is governed by a synod, 
 consisting of ministers and lay elders, deputed by the 
 respective congregations. The synod is governed by a 
 moderator, annually chosen by the members. The 
 ministers are supported partly by the voluntary con- 
 tributions of their congregations, and partly by a grant 
 of public money, called the Regiurn Donum. Other dis- 
 senters are similarly governed. The Society of Friends, 
 or Quakers, are chiefly resident in Dublin and in the 
 King’s and Queen’s counties. Jews are very few in 
 number in Ireland. 
 
 The population of Ireland has increased uniformly and 
 rapidly since the commencement of the period at which 
 accurate inquiries began to be made for the solution of 
 this great political question. At the close of Elizabeth’s 
 reign it was estimated, certainly not on very positive 
 data, at no more than 700,000 souls. It was conjec- 
 tured by Sir William Petty to have been 850,000. at 
 
 a The archbishops derive their titles from the same towns as the 
 protestant archbishops. — F. 
 
 b Easter offerings from the inferior clergy. (Myers’ Geog.) — P. 
 
 c They are chiefly descendants of the Scotch Presbyterians and 
 English puritans, who settled in the north of Ireland, under the 
 patronage of James I. — P. 
 
 d This and the three following are derived from the returns of the 
 number of houses, on an average of six to each house. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 8 In 1778, according to the number of houses, 3,900,000. (Ed. 
 Enc.)— P. 
 
 f See note d . 
 
 s The census of 1821 was the only one taken on the principle of 
 actual enumeration, subjected to effective checks. The process adopted 
 was as follows : The persons employed in the several parishes or dis- 
 tricts to take the enumeration were furnished with books, in which 
 they were required to enter on the spot the name, age, occupation and 
 relationship of every individual in every house on every town land in 
 such district, together with a specification of the number of acres held 
 by every householder. Copies of these entries, when verified on oath 
 
 the close of the wars in 1652, and to have increased to 
 1,100,000, in 1672. Subsequent investigators have 
 arrived at the following conclusions: — 
 
 1695, Capt. South, 1,034,102 
 
 1712, Thomas Dobbs, Esq 2,099,094 
 
 1718, The same, 2,169,048 
 
 1726, The same, 2,309,106 
 
 1731, Returns of the established clergy, . . . 2,010,221 
 
 1754, Hearth-money collectors, 11 2,372,634 
 
 1767, The same, • . . . 2,544,276 
 
 1777, The same, 2,690,556 
 
 1785, The same, 2,845,932 
 
 1788, Gerv. Parker Bushe, Esq 4,040,000' 
 
 1791, Hearth-money collectors/ 4,206,612 
 
 1792, Rev. Aug. Beaufort, 4,088,226 
 
 1805, Tho. Newenham, Esq 5,395,456 
 
 1813, Incomplete parliamentary census, . . . 5,937,856 
 
 1821, Parliamentary census , s 6,801,827 h 
 
 1831, The same, 7,734,365 
 
 Of the aggregate number, thus ascertained by the 
 census of 1821, it was found that 1,138,069 persons 
 were principally engaged in agriculture, 1,170,044 in 
 trades, manufactures and handicraft, and 528,702 were 
 occupied in avocations not included in either of those 
 classes, making the total of occupied persons 2,836,815. 
 
 In external appearance the peasants are well made, 
 robust and active ; generally well tempered, yet easily 
 excited to violent emotions ; affectionate to their kindred, 
 and singularly attached to the place of their nativity. 
 Their appearance and character are, however, consid- 
 erably varied by local circumstances, arising from the 
 various sources whence the country was peopled. In 
 the north, particularly in the eastern parts, the dress, 
 manners and language at once point out a Scottish origin. 
 Connaught exhibits features equally strong of the abo- 
 riginal habits and language. In the south-west are to 
 be discovered traces of Spanish customs ; the eastern 
 region of Leinster is more decidedly Saxon. The Irish 
 language is still spoken in many parts, but in the greatest 
 purity in the mountainous districts of the county of 
 Donegal. In the west, and more particularly in the 
 islands and peninsulas on the coast of Galway, Mayo 
 and Donegal, where the intercourse with other parts *s 
 but small, that language is almost exclusively spoken, 
 insomuch that interpreters are frequently made use of 
 in the courts of justice. 1 
 
 The general food is the potato, to which milk, and at 
 times salt fish, is added during seasons of plenty. Flesh 
 meat is a luxury seldom enjoyed but on occasions of 
 peculiar festivity, such as weddings, christenings, &c. 
 The clothing is chiefly of home-manufactured coarse 
 
 and examined by two neighbouring magistrates, were forwarded to 
 the chief secretary’s office in Dublin, where they were abstracted and 
 arranged for publication. The returns made by the enumerators were 
 also subjected to the inspection of the parochial clergy of the district, 
 both Protestant and Catholic. The copies deposited in Dublin castle 
 were afterwards examined by persons of respectability from various 
 parts of the country, who from their local knowledge could vouch for 
 the accuracy of the returns from those parts with which they were 
 personally acquainted. The payments to the enumerators were sub- 
 sequent to those investigations. 
 
 b The official (amended and corrected) return was made to parlia- 
 ment in 1823. (Bell's Geog.) — P. 
 
 ‘ The Irish language, as has been observed in note b p. 1277, is a 
 Gaelic-Celtic dialect, generally considered the purest of the family, 
 and undoubtedly the most cultivated. The Irish call their language 
 Gaelic ( Gaoidheilg ,) or Irish Gaelic ( Gaoidhcilg Eirinach.) In the 
 etymologies given in the notes, the term Gaelic is referable both to 
 the Irish and Scotch Gaelic. — P. 
 
BOOK CLiYII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF IRELAND. 
 
 G33 
 
 cloth or frieze for the men ; but the influx of cheap 
 cottons has latterly caused a great change in the costume 
 of the female peasantry from the characteristic dress of 
 their ancestors. 
 
 The prevalent religion is the Roman Catholic, al- 
 though the precise ratio of its prevalence, compared with 
 the Anglican and Presbyterian modes of doctrine, is 
 difficult, indeed almost impossible, to be ascertained. 
 The inquiries lately set on foot, from sectarian or politi- 
 cal motives, have served rather to obscure them than to 
 develope the truth. a Superstitious practices are much 
 observed, particularly in the remoter districts. Some 
 may be traced to the era of paganism: such are the 
 lighting of fires at Baaltine or Beltine, b and the passing 
 of animals through the fire. Pilgrimages to places of pe- 
 culiar sanctity are frequent among the Roman Catholics. 
 Lough Derg in Donegal, and Struel wells in Down, 
 are peculiarly celebrated. The belief in witchcraft and 
 second-sight has not yet been eradicated from among 
 the descendants of the Scottish settlers in Ulster. The 
 love of learning, which peculiarly marks the Irish peas- 
 antry, is however gradually diminishing the extent of 
 the sway of opinions and practices originating in periods 
 of ignorance. 
 
 The means now in operation for rendering the rapidly 
 increasing population of Ireland fitted to fulfil their du- 
 ties to themselves and their country, through the irre- 
 sistible influence of a well-ordered system of education, 
 has been minutely analysed and detailed by reports of 
 two parliamentary commissions appointed to investigate 
 the subject. The result of the perusal of these docu- 
 ments leads to an inference far from consolatory, unless 
 in prospect. Much as has been spoken and written on 
 the subject, little has been done. 
 
 The university of Trinity College, Dublin, influences 
 and controls the education of the higher classes. The 
 superintendance of study is vested in teachers called 
 junior fellows. The mode of instruction is almost ex- 
 clusively catechetical. The total number of pupils on 
 the books of the university may be estimated at 1600. c 
 The curriculum, or regular course of under-graduate 
 studies, is completed in four years ; the annual average 
 of pupils is therefore 400. Estimating the duration of 
 human fife, after arrival at years of maturity, at thirty- 
 three years, it will appear that the total number who 
 enjoy the advantages of a complete liberal education in 
 Ireland is 13,200, out of a male population of 3,500,000, 
 being at an average of 1 for every 270. d 
 
 Maynooth College, founded in 1795, e exclusively for 
 the education of the Roman Catholic priesthood, admits 
 about 250 students annually, who are under the super- 
 intendance and instruction of 14 professors and lecturers. 
 
 The education of the lower classes has long been con- 
 sidered as peculiarly a national concern, and as such was 
 made the subject of legislative enactments so early as 
 the reign of Henry VIII. By these statutes every in- 
 cumbent is bound by oath, on accepting a benefice, to 
 keep a school in his parish for the instruction of the 
 
 a The Protestants have stated the Catholic population at 4,500,000 ; 
 the Catholics, at 6,500,000. In 1821, the Protestant census gave 
 4,830,000 Catholics, and 1,963,487 Protestants. (Bell’s Geog.) — P. 
 
 b Beltan or Beltane — Gaelic, Bealteine, fire of Bel or Baal, on the 
 the first of May; supposed to be in honor of the Sun. — P. 
 
 c Number of students in 1814, 900 (Ed. Enc.) — in 1818, 1209 
 (Morse.) — P. 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 62 80 
 
 I natives in English, or to cause one to be kept by a com- 
 petent teacher. This salutary regulation has been in 
 too many instances disregarded or evaded. King James, 
 in his distribution of the forfeited lands in Ulster, set 
 apart large estates for the endowment of free grammar 
 schools. These are now distinguished by the title of 
 schools of royal foundation/ Some were added to the 
 number by Charles I., but they were too few and per- 
 haps too richly endowed to accomplish the intentions of 
 their royal founders. A grammar school was also re- 
 quired to be maintained in every diocese by the con- 
 tributions of the beneficed clergy : twenty of these 
 schools^ are in existence. 
 
 The number of free grammar schools was increased 
 by a bequest of Erasmus Smith, one of the English ad- 
 venturers, who obtained a large grant of forfeited lands 
 during the government of the commonwealth. But 
 these* 1 like the former, instead of being employed for the 
 instruction of the poor, were converted into places of 
 liberal education for the sons of the wealthier classes; 
 a character which they still retain in several instances. 
 
 After the revolution in 1688, an attempt was made to 
 promote the conversion of the Roman Catholics through 
 the medium of education. Subscriptions were raised, and 
 lands procured by purchase or donations, which were 
 vested in a society incorporated for the management of 
 the fund thus raised ; hence the establishments under its 
 control acquired the name of charter schools. The san- 
 guine anticipations of the originators of this plan have 
 been far from realised. Notwithstanding the additional 
 aid of large annual grants of public money, these schools 
 have utterly failed as an engine of proselytism on an 
 extensive scale; wealth induced thriftless expenditure ; 
 mismanagement opened the door for abuses ; the grants 
 of public money have been withdrawn, and the trustees 
 are left to their own private resources for the mainte 
 nance of the schools. 
 
 Within the last twenty years the efforts to disseminate 
 elementary instruction among the great mass of the popu- 
 lation have increased rapidly by the exertions of severa 
 new societies formed wholly or principally forthis purpose. 
 The association for discountenancing vice, consisting chief- 
 ly of the clergy of the established church, among other ob- 
 jects, undertook the education of the poor, according to 
 the doctrines of the protestant faith. The society for the 
 education of the poor, now better known by the name of 
 the Kildare Place Society, proposed to disseminate moral 
 instruction without any interference with the religious 
 tenets of the pupils ; but the adoption of a regulation 
 immediately after the formation of the society, which 
 excluded from any share in its benefits those schools in 
 which the Bible without note or comment was not ad- 
 mitted as a class-book, was so strongly objected to by 
 the heads of the Roman Catholic church, as to check 
 considerably the extension of the benefits of the institu- 
 tion. The Roman Catholics shrunk from a participation 
 of literary advantages to be purchased by the dereliction 
 of one of the tenets of their church, in the indiscriminate 
 
 d 1 to 265 nearly. — P. 
 
 e It was opened in 1795. It was established by an act of parliament, 
 by which it was placed entirely under the inspection of the Lord 
 Chancellor and Chief Judges of Ireland. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 f Royal Schools. 
 
 e Diocesan Schools. 
 
 h Erasmus Smith’s Schools. 
 
634 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLiYII. 
 
 use of the Bible unaccompanied by the superintending 
 advice and explanation of their pastors. Both these 
 societies were supported by large parliamentary grants, 
 until very lately, when the legislature was at length con- 
 vinced of the impolicy, not to say the impracticability, 
 of educating the great mass of the people according to 
 principles in direct opposition to their modes of thinking 
 on religious subjects. The annual grants to the two last 
 named societies have been withdrawn, and the general 
 education of the people placed under the superintend- 
 ance of a board formed of individuals selected from 
 among the most influential members of the leading 
 Christian sects in Ireland. 
 
 The Irish and the London Hibernian Societies were 
 formed with the view to disseminate religious instruction 
 throughout those parts of Ireland in which the native 
 .anguage is prevalent ; they are aided by several minor 
 societies under different names : all are supported solely 
 by voluntary contributions, and are wholly under the 
 direction of protestants. 
 
 The schools, exclusively catholic, are supported and 
 superintended by the society of the Christian Brother- 
 hood, and other religious orders, by the nunneries, and 
 by the collections and donations of the Roman Catholic 
 inhabitants of various parishes under their respective 
 parochial clergy. 
 
 In addition to the schools already mentioned, must be 
 named the Sunday schools, which originated chiefly with 
 the Methodist society, and are still mainly supported by 
 the exertions of its members. 
 
 The total number of children receiving instruction 
 amounted in the year 1826, to 568,964. From the 
 return of ages in the census of 1821, it appears that the 
 number of children of both sexes, between five and 
 fifteen, which may be called the age of education, then 
 amounted to 1,748,663, and therefore, making due allow- 
 ance for the probable increase in five years, it may be 
 estimated in 1826, at 2,000,000. In the latter of these 
 periods the number receiving education in the public 
 schools will be found to be somewhat less than one-fourth 
 of this part of the population,* or, in other words, 
 between two-thirds and three-fourths of the rising genera- 
 tion are without the benefits of scholastic instruction, 
 notwithstanding the extended endowments in lands, the 
 large grants of public money, and the liberality of indi- 
 vidual contributions towards the supplying of this na- 
 tional defect. b 
 
 Agriculture, although the chief source of support for 
 the adult population, is still in a very backward state as 
 compared with that of Great Britain or the Netherlands. 
 The implements of husbandry are of an inferior descrip- 
 tion, and the process of cultivation executed in a less care- 
 ful manner. The prevalent mode of letting land is justly 
 considered as one great cause of this inferiority. Farms, 
 when out of lease, are generally let to the highest bid- 
 der, regard being seldom paid to the tenant-right. The 
 occupier, therefore, feels but little inducement to expend 
 his capital on his land ; he hoards or lays out at a mon- 
 ied interest what would, under a better system, be more 
 
 * The proportion of those receiving instruction, in 182G, is more than 
 one fourth. — P. 
 
 b The comparative number of schools and pupils maintained by 
 each of the societies above named, as also of the private schools, whose 
 teachers are wholly remunerated by the fees of their pupils, is given 
 
 a table in the appendix. 
 
 profitably invested in the improvement of his farm. 
 Absenteeism is also considered to be another cause of 
 this evil. The tenant is neither cheered by the presence 
 nor enriched by the expenditure of his landlord ; he 
 toils under the chilling inspection of an agent, anxious 
 chiefly to enhance the value of his own services by the 
 amount of his remittances, and too often a creditor on 
 the estate he has in charge. It must, however, be 
 acknowledged that the estates of some absentees form 
 brilliant exceptions to this remark, and that the pressure 
 of ill-judged avidity is often equally visible on the estates 
 of resident proprietors. The want of internal commu- 
 nications by well-projected and well-executed roads is in 
 many cases an additional cause for the backward state 
 of agriculture. 
 
 A judicious rotation of crops is still but imperfectly 
 practised, and the raising of green food for the winter 
 supply of the cattle by no means sufficiently attended to. 
 In the northern districts, oats and barley are the chief pro- 
 duce ; the cold and dampness of the atmosphere checks 
 the growth of wheat. In the southern counties, and in 
 the districts around Dublin, wheat is largely raised, but 
 it is deemed of inferior quality to that of England. 
 
 Grazing has always been a favourite mode of employ 
 ing land, the humidity of the atmosphere and the genial 
 mildness of the climate affording an almost perennial 
 supply of pasture ; the unsettled state of the country 
 also long proved a bar to tillage. Hence the wealth of 
 the native chieftain consisted chiefly in his numerous 
 herds and flocks ; his tribute was mostly paid in kine. 
 During the latter period of the Irish parliament great 
 attention was paid to the encouragement of tillage, and 
 its progress was proportionately rapid. The chief graz- 
 ing counties for black cattle are those of Limerick, 
 Tipperary, Roscommon and Meath, where the farms are 
 sometimes of extraordinary extent, a single occupier 
 frequently holding more than 1000 acres. The grazing 
 of oxen and sheep is seldom combined ; that of the 
 latter is an important object with the Irish husbandman, 
 and more land, though of a poorer quality, is employed 
 for this purpose than in the feeding of bullocks. The 
 chief breeding counties for sheep are Limerick, Tippe- 
 rary, Clare, Roscommon and Galway ; some of the 
 finest flocks in Ireland are to be seen in the last named 
 county. The flocks are usually managed by the herd 
 who attends the cattle ; no regular shepherd being em- 
 ployed, as in England. The custom of folding is sel- 
 dom adopted, and great backwardness is evinced by the 
 neglect of using turnips for winter food.® The cattle, 
 when fit for market, are sent in immense numbers to the 
 fairs at Ballynasloe, d held twice every year. The prin- 
 cipal fair is in October; it regulates the prices of cattle 
 for the ensuing season, and is the great standard of the 
 prosperity of this branch of the national wealth. Fat 
 cattle are exported in great numbers from Meath to 
 Liverpool, and of late years, the facilities of canal navi- 
 gation, combined with those afforded across the channel 
 by steam, bring large numbers from the western parts to 
 Dublin for exportation. 
 
 c Mr. Wakefield says, that in the whole course of his tour he never 
 saw a sheepfold, and only one sheep feeding on turnips. (Ed 
 Enc.) — P. 
 
 d In Galway county. — P. 
 
BOOK CL, VII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF IRELAND. 
 
 635 
 
 Hogs are kept in great numbers in every part. This 
 animal is the inmate of the peasant’s cabin, and thus ac- 
 quires a degree of docility unusual in other countries ; 
 its food is potatoes. The native breed, long legged, 
 bony, and ill-proportioned, has been of late years con- 
 siderably improved by a cross of that of Leicestershire. 
 Large and rapidly increasing quantities of pork and of 
 live stock are exported, chiefly to Liverpool. 
 
 The dairy farms form a conspicuous feature in the rural 
 economy of the interior, occupying a greater extent of 
 country than those held by the feeding grazier. The 
 farms in the Walsh mountains in Kilkenny exhibit strik- 
 ing peculiarities of manners. The principal of them 
 belong to one family, the members of which constantly 
 intermarry among one another, at such close degrees of 
 consanguinity as frequently to require dispensations from 
 the canonical prohibitions. The land is grazed in com- 
 mon ; the people, though wealthy, live with the greatest 
 economy, subsisting chiefly on potatoes and griddle bread, 
 and indulging in no animal food but the relics of the pigs 
 slaughtered for sale. Ireland has long been celebrated 
 for the excellence of its butter. The best is made in 
 Carlow ; the most inferior comes from the rich soil of 
 Limerick and Meath. It is remarkable that a country 
 so productive of butter should utterly fail in the cognate 
 article of cheese ; yet, with the exception of a small 
 district in Antrim, chiefly in the neighbourhood of Car- 
 rickfergus, no good cheese is made in any part ; the 
 consumption of this commodity is almost wholly supplied 
 from England. 
 
 The culture of apples in Waterford and Cork in the 
 south of Ireland, and in Armagh in the north, is consid- 
 ered as one of those regular branches of rural industry 
 on which the farmer calculates as a sure source of pecu- 
 niary remuneration. In the two first named counties the 
 fruit is generally converted into cider, which is the usual 
 beverage of the middling classes of landholders ; a 
 superior quality of this liquor, when prepared with care 
 and judgment, is highly valued, and amply repays the 
 attention bestowed on its manufacture. 
 
 The culture of tobacco was lately introduced, but to 
 a very limited extent. The results on small detached 
 spots have led to very sanguine anticipations of its profit, 
 when cultivated on a large scale ; but the quantity raised 
 in any single year is insignificant. The total number of 
 acres planted in 1829, was but 461, of which 408 were 
 in the county of Wexford alone. When it is considered 
 that it is a crop of a quality peculiarly exhausting to the 
 soil, requiring constant attention and great nicety of 
 management in every period of its growth, that it is liable 
 to frequent and irreparable injuries from the inconstancy 
 of the climate, and that the plant raised is at best of an 
 inferior quality, adequate certainly to the wants of the 
 grower who is content with an herb of less grateful 
 flavour, from the consideration of the greater economy in 
 its use, but for that very reason, ill suited to cope in the 
 general market with the produce of a foreign soil, the 
 ultimate success of an outlay of capital to a large extent 
 on its cultivation must be extremely problematical. The 
 
 a The herrings caught off the coast near Galway, are particularly 
 large and fine. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 b The Bann. — A small river of the same name forms a branch of 
 the Slaney, in Wexford county. — P 
 
 * Varieties. — P. 
 
 legislature has, however, set the question at rest for the 
 present, by prohibiting its cultivation, on the ground of 
 its interference with the revenue arising from the impor- 
 tation of the foreign plant. 
 
 A recurrence to the sketch of the coasts already given, 
 would lead to the conclusion that the people derived 
 from the surrounding waters an inexhaustible supply of 
 food for their own consumption, and a fund equally inex- 
 haustible of commercial wealth from its export. Expe- 
 rience contradicts such an inference. With an ocean 
 rolling round him stocked with fish of nutritious quality 
 and varied flavour, with rivers abounding also with fish 
 of similar description and conveying the contributions of 
 the ocean almost to his door, the peasant is still compel- 
 led to satisfy the cravings of nature by the scanty and 
 unvaried produce of his agricultural labours. Along the 
 southern coast of Ireland from Cork to Wexford, at a 
 small distance from the shore, lies the Nymph Bank, 
 plentifully stocked with cod, hake and ling, which kinds 
 of fish are common also on many other parts of the coast. 
 Turbot, sole, plaice, and every other species of flat fish 
 that frequents the northern seas, are also taken there. 
 The sun-fish is seen at times in large numbers on the 
 western coasts. One part of the great northern shoal of 
 herrings annually passes through the Irish Sea, while 
 another generally pursues its course along the coasts of 
 Connaught.* * Salmon abounds in all the large rivers ; 
 the greatest fisheries of it are in the Northern Bann b at 
 Coleraine, the Boyne above Drogheda, the Southern 
 Blackwater, the Shannon, and the river of Belleek near 
 Ballyshannon. Great part of the fish is packed in ice, 
 and thus conveyed fresh to the tables of the British 
 gastronomes. Shell fish also abounds. Many species® 
 of the oyster are raised from various parts of the shore ; 
 some of a flavour peculiarly delicate, as those of Carling- 
 ford ; others noted for size ; others again, though seldom, 
 combining both these qualities. The scallop, another 
 maritime luxury, is often used merely as bait for larger 
 fish. Lobsters, particularly in Kerry and Galway, are of 
 large size, and well-flavoured ; the same may be said of 
 crabs and cray fish. The sprat of Waterford, the sand 
 eel of Newcastle, and the smelt of Strangford, will 
 always maintain a high estimation among the minor 
 delicacies of the table. Pilchards were formerly caught 
 in such abundance at Cloghnakilty , that the traffic in 
 them rendered the town a place of considerable popula- 
 tion ; but, since the desertion of that station by the fish, 
 the town has declined. 
 
 Yet it cannot be truly asserted that the apparent disre- 
 gard to these bountiful offerings of nature is attributable 
 to want of industry or enterprise for their attainment. 
 Along the deep shores of the western parts, the hardy 
 fisherman is to be seen in his wicker corach, d coated with 
 green hide, venturing for his precarious subsistence upon 
 seas which even the well-prepared mariner contemplates 
 with apprehension. The young men of the southern bar- 
 onies of Wexford and Waterford, quit their homes in 
 spring for the Newfoundland fisheries ; some return with 
 their little earnings at the close of the fishing season, 
 
 d The corach (Gaelic, curach — Welsh cwrwg (cooroog), or cwrwgyl, 
 whence coracle) is a boat made of wicker-work, and covered with 
 hides or pitched cloth. It is still used in Wales and the Highlands, aa 
 well as in Ireland. — P. 
 
636 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLVir. 
 
 while others remain one, two, or more winters in that 
 inclement region, until they have realized the means of 
 humble independence at home. 
 
 The chief cause of the backwardness of the fisheries 
 is to be traced to the same cause as that of agricultural 
 improvement — the want of capital. The fisherman 
 depends on his daily labours for his daily bread ; he has 
 not wherewithal to fit out properly a substantial boat with 
 all its tackle, much less to save and store a cargo so as to 
 fit it for a foreign market. In order to remedy this cry- 
 ing evil, a board of fisheries was some years ago formed. 
 It has already been productive of one advantage — a 
 knowledge of the actual state of the fisheries, their 
 capabilities, and their defects ; it has excited a spirit of 
 exertion, and produced an increased attention on the 
 part of the ruling powers to this branch of national in- 
 dustry, which, persevered in judiciously, and impartially 
 regulated, must lead to those results that a disinterested 
 observer would say ought long since to have been realized. 
 
 The attention of the board of fisheries, during its ex- 
 istence, which terminated in 1830 by the stoppage of the 
 annual grant of public money for its support, was chiefly 
 directed to two objects, the erection and repairs of fish- 
 ing-piers, and the formation of a loan fund for building 
 and repairing boats. The expenses incurred in the at- 
 tainment of the former of these objects was defrayed 
 partly by grants of public money, and partly by the 
 contributions of the neighbouring proprietors, and of 
 other individuals interested in the improvement of the 
 country. At the commencement of the year 1830, 
 thirty-five piers were completed, and twenty-two in pro- 
 gress ; the results produced by those completed are 
 stated to be, in most instances, even more gratifying than 
 might have been anticipated, exciting a spirit of increased 
 exertion in the fishermen, from an increasing sentiment 
 of the security thus aflbrded to their frail craft, and 
 consequently inducing them to fit out new vessels, and to 
 render those already built more sea-worthy. The ex- 
 pense thus incurred up to 1830 has been L. 10,746. 
 
 The results of the loan fund are not so satisfactory. 
 The total amount of the sums lent out is L. 25, 204, 18s. 
 4d. Of this sum, L. 14, 262, 0s. Id. was to be repaid, 
 according to the conditions of issue, in the year 1830. 
 The repayments actually made at that period, were 
 L. 0,923, 9s. Id. leaving an arrear of L.4,338, 11s. 
 The remainder, amounting to L. 10,942, 18s. 3d. was 
 not due at the date of the return whence this statement 
 has been formed. 
 
 Under the encouragements thus held out, the num- 
 bers of the fishermen have increased considerably, as 
 appears from the follownig return, which shows that 
 the number under the cognizance of the board, was, in 
 the year 
 
 1822 
 
 36,159 
 
 1827 
 
 58,044 
 
 1823 
 
 44,892 
 
 1828 
 
 59,321 
 
 1824 
 
 49,448 
 
 1829 
 
 63,421 
 
 1825 
 
 52,482 
 
 1830 
 
 64,771 
 
 1826 
 
 57,805 
 
 
 
 Thus exhibiting a progressive increase every year, and 
 a total increase of 28,612. These numbers include 
 the fishermen only, and do not comprehend the other 
 persons occupied in the ulterior process of preparing the 
 fish for market, such as curers, coopers, salt-makers, 
 uet-makers, &ic. 
 
 The number of vessels employed in the fishing trade 
 has increased proportionally. The total of the year 
 1830 was : — decked boats, 345 ; half-decked, 769 : open 
 sail-boats, 2,483 ; row boats, 9,522: total, 13,119. 
 
 The structure, rigging and management of the boats, 
 and the mode of fishing, vary in different parts, to a 
 degree, in some cases, singularly surprising. The eastern 
 and western suburbs of Carrickfergus are inhabited al- 
 most solely by fishermen, those in the former beins: 
 Scotch, in the latter Irish. The Scotch fish with the 
 hook for round fish, in open boats, rigged with a single 
 square sail ; the Irish trawl for flat fish, in half-decked 
 smacks. So limited is the communication these two 
 classes maintain with each other, though the interme- 
 diate space between their residences is not more than a 
 few hundred yards, that the technical phrases employed 
 for, the construction and working of their boats is so 
 different, that neither can avail themselves of the assist- 
 ance of the other, and thus they live little more con- 
 nected than if they inhabited the shores of separate 
 islands. 
 
 The manufactures of Ireland were at no time so flour- 
 ishing as to increase much beyond the wants of its own 
 population. The nature of its soil and climate, which 
 tended to encourage pastoral pursuits, the habits of the 
 people, the unsettled state of the government, and the 
 want of coal, have all contributed to this result. The 
 woollen manufacture, however, is to a certain degree an 
 exception. So early as the reign of Edward the Third, 
 a brisk export trade in some descriptions of woollen 
 cloths was carried on with the north of Italy. The Irish 
 caddow, or woollen coverlet, was an article in high re- 
 pute. The influx of a colony of the Palatines, in the 
 time of James the First, tended to improve the manu- 
 facture. Their chief settlement was at Carrick on Suir, 
 on the confines of Tipperary and Waterford, w'hich for 
 a long period was celebrated as a woollen mart, affording 
 employment for a large number of the surrounding in- 
 habitants of both sexes, and finding a ready vent for the 
 wrought article throughout other parts of the country 
 and in foreign markets. 
 
 Notwithstanding the desolating effects of the w r ars of 
 1641 and 1688, the woollen trade was so flourishing 
 after the revolution as to excite the jealousy of the 
 British manufacturers, who had influence sufficient to 
 procure an address from both houses of parliament to 
 William the Third, “ to use his utmost diligence to hin- 
 der the exportation of wool for Ireland,® except to Eng- 
 land, and generally to discourage the woollen manufac- 
 ture in Ireland.” The address w’as followed up by acts 
 prohibiting the exportation of woollens as therein ex- 
 pressed, and by the imposition of duties on the impor- 
 tation of woollens to England, which operated as a total 
 prohibition. 
 
 In the year 1779, the Irish parliament repealed the 
 prohibition against exporting woollen cloths to foreign 
 markets ; the trade in consequence revived, and the 
 manufacture again became a means for the profitable in- 
 vestment of capital to a large amount. 
 
 By the Act of Union, the duties on woollens imported 
 from either country into the other, were confined to those 
 called old and new draperies ; the ratio payable for im- 
 portation into Ireland was fixed at 8Jd. per yard on old, 
 
 a Qu. “ of woollens from Ireland.” — P. 
 
BOOK CL, VII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 and 2|d. per yard on new drapery. By the same act 
 England also relaxed her monopoly of export so far as 
 to permit wool and woollen and worsted yarn to be sent 
 duty free from Ireland. 
 
 In 1822, the woollen cloth imported from England 
 amounted in quantity to one-third of the whole con- 
 sumption of the country, but in value it is calculated to 
 have been considerably more than one-half ; because the 
 import duty of 8£d. per yard, being the same on cloth 
 of every description, was little regarded in the price of 
 the more expensive article, while it operated nearly as a 
 prohibitory duty on those of low price, of which the 
 general consumption mainly consisted. 
 
 These circumstances show why the manufacture of 
 Ireland has been confined to the coarser kinds, and ac- 
 count for the failure of the few attempts made to in- 
 troduce that of the finer qualities. Broad cloth and 
 blanket manufactories of any magnitude are to be found 
 nowhere to the north of Dublin ; flannels are made in 
 Wicklow, and blankets in Kilkenny. 
 
 In 1823, the protecting duties, under which the trade 
 had thriven for many years, and which were to have 
 been gradually diminished, in the view of assimilating 
 the state of the trade in the two parts of the empire, 
 were suddenly and unexpectedly repealed. To this 
 cause in part, but much more to the great influx of cloth 
 of newer fashion sent over from England at very re- 
 duced prices, during the subsequent depression of the 
 woollen trade in that country, is to be attributed the al- 
 most total ruin of the manufacture and the utter desti- 
 tution of those depending on it. In 1822, there existed 
 eighty-three woollen factories in full work ; they are 
 now reduced to about twenty, which are but partially 
 employed. In the years 1826 and 1829, the workmen 
 were dependent on charitable contributions : numbers 
 have crossed over to Great Britain in quest of work, 
 and many families have been afforded the means of con- 
 veying themselves and their implements of industry to 
 the United States of America, where a promising field 
 of exertion is presented to them, in lieu of the gloomy 
 prospect of idleness and destitution at home. 
 
 The few manufactories of broad cloths at present at 
 work, and which are mostly in the vicinity of Dublin, 
 employ 1560 hands, giving support to 10,040 persons, 
 and producing goods to the value of L. 200, 000. 
 
 In Wicklow, flannels, although fallen off to about 
 one-fourth of their former quantity, may amount to 
 L. 10,000 in value ; the manufacture gives occupation 
 to about 100 families. Blankets are still manufactured 
 in Kilkenny, so as to employ 500 or 600 families. 
 
 Fine wool is grown principally in Wicklow; the next 
 in quality is reared in Galway and in other parts of 
 Connaught. The wool shorn in Ireland amounts to 
 about 6000 bags, of 50 stone each. Besides the cloth 
 produced in large factories, the manufacture of friezes 
 and cloths of the coarsest quality for domestic use is 
 prevalent throughout many parts of the country, but 
 chiefly in Galway, Meath, Louth, Wicklow, and Kil- 
 kenny. 
 
 Although it appears from what has been just stated, 
 that the linen manufacture was raised upon the ruins of 
 the woollen, it was not unknown in Ireland previously 
 to the reign of William the Third. In early times, the 
 Irish of the higher ranks were profuse in the quantity 
 
 OF IRELAND. 637 
 
 of linen used in their inner garments : the shirt of a 
 man of rank contained from twenty to thirty yards ; in- 
 somuch that the limitation of this article of dress within 
 reasonable bounds was a prominent feature in the sump- 
 tuary laws of those days. The unfortunate Earl of 
 Strafford, when lord lieutenant, made great exertions to 
 improve the linen manufacture, sending to Holland for 
 flax-seed, inviting competent workmen from the Neth- 
 erlands and France, and embarking funds to the amount 
 of upwards of L. 30,000 from his personal fortune in the 
 speculation. His example was followed by the Duke of 
 Ormond, who exerted himself greatly to extend the man- 
 ufacture ; but the legislative measures of the English 
 parliament after the revolution, which were echoed by 
 enactments of a similar character in Ireland, gave it a 
 stimulus that carried it forward for many years to a high 
 degree of perfection. 
 
 In order further to excite exertion in this branch of in- 
 dustry, a board, appointed to superintend its progress, un- 
 der the name of the Trustees for the Linen Manufacture, 
 was charged with the disposal of a large annual grant of 
 public money to be employed in premiums for its extension 
 and encouragement. This board was also invested with 
 powers to check frauds, so as thus to prevent the injury to 
 be apprehended from sending goods of inferior quality to 
 market under a false character. Still further to promote 
 this favourite object, a linen hall was erected in Dublin for 
 facilitating the transactions of the linen factors ; similar 
 buildings, on a smaller scale, were also erected in Belfast 
 and Newry. Among other expedients for nursing this 
 adopted bantling in its infancy, the use of linen scarfs and 
 hatbands at funerals was introduced, a custom which main- 
 tains its ground to the present day, but with an important 
 alteration as to its primary intention, by the substitution of 
 cotton for linen cloth. 
 
 The importation of flax seed was another object of the 
 trustees’ superintendance ; for the material, forming the 
 basis or rudiment of what the legislature at the Revolution 
 established as the staple to compensate the country for the 
 deprivation of its natural manufacture, cannot be raised in 
 it in sufficient quantity or of superior quality. Notwith- 
 standing all the exertions made from that period to the 
 present time, the seed raised in Ireland, particularly for the 
 finer fabrics, is inadequate to the demand, and the small 
 proportion that is raised is considered to be of inferior qual- 
 ity. The seed is imported from America, Prussia, Hol- 
 land, and England. The proportions supplied by each of 
 these countries may be estimated from the returns made 
 of the quantities imported in 1821: 
 
 Hilda. 
 
 American 36,176 
 
 Prussian 8,424 
 
 Dutch 7,308 
 
 British 5,934 
 
 Total 57,842 
 
 The quantity of flax seed imported, on an average of four 
 years ending 1821, was 47,000 hogsheads, with which 
 83,000 acres of land were sown. 
 
 The silk trade in Ireland may be said to owe its origin 
 to the revocation of the edict of Nantes, by which cruel 
 and impolitic measure Louis XIV. transferred to the rival 
 kingdom of Great Britain a large portion of the industry 
 and ingenuity of his Protestant subjects. Many of the 
 
638 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CliVII. 
 
 refugees settled in Dublin, where they introduced the silk 
 manufacture, which throve for a succession of years to a 
 considerable extent. Besides articles of entire silk, Ire- 
 land has been celebrated for a manufacture of mixed silk 
 and worsted, known in the country by the name of tab- 
 binet, and in Great Britain by that of Irish poplin. For 
 a long period this fabric was much sought after both at 
 home and in the foreign market ; but the fluctuation of 
 female fashion has latterly considerably diminished the de- 
 mand for it. The silk trade, which had been on the 
 decline since the period of the union, is now almost extinct, 
 the number of looms at work being wholly insignificant, 
 and chiefly employed in completing orders from England. 
 The families who depended on it have emigrated in quest 
 of employment, partly to Great Britain, and partly to the 
 United States of America, carrying with them the knowl- 
 edge of a manufacture of much ingenuity and singular 
 elegance, which hitherto had been a source of wealth to 
 their native country, and of competence and comfort to 
 themselves. The total quantity of silk imported into Ire- 
 land in the six years immediately following the Union, was 
 445,713 lbs. ; in the six years ending in January 1822, the 
 amount was 387,290 lbs. 
 
 Dublin has always been the favourite seat of this manu- 
 facture. Factories were established in other places, but 
 without success. In 1825 an attempt was made, under the 
 auspices of the Earl of Liverpool, then prime minister, to 
 secure to Ireland the whole of the profits of this manufac- 
 ture, from the rearing of the worm to the finishing of the 
 cloth. A large number of mulberry trees were imported 
 into the south of Ireland, and planted there ; silk-worms 
 were also introduced. The mulberry tree, though not un- 
 productive, declined. The insects, which even in the warm 
 latitude of Italy require protection from the variations of 
 the atmosphere, sunk beneath the chilly moisture of the 
 Irish climate, and all hope has already been relinquished of 
 producing the desired effect upon a scale commensurate 
 with the establishment of a national manufacture. 
 
 The cotton manufacture has risen on the ruins of the 
 linen. The first cotton factory in Ireland was erected in 
 1784, in the neighbourhood of Belfast. The trade was 
 fostered in its infancy by the Irish legislature, not only by 
 a high protecting duty, but by the distribution of public 
 money in the form of bounties. This state of things con- 
 tinued till the Union. A new arrangement was then 
 made. The duties on muslins and calicoes were to re- 
 main unaltered for eight years, after which they were 
 successively lowered by eight equal annual reductions, 
 so that, after the year 1816, they remained at 10 per 
 cent, ad valorem. 
 
 The statements of historians and the inquiries of wri- 
 ters on the resources of the country show that the manu- 
 facture of iron was once flourishing ; but, in consequence 
 of the diminution of fuel by the destruction o. f the woods, 
 it declined, so as to be at present almost extinct. It ap- 
 pears in evidence before the House of Commons, that 
 this manufacture had scarcely made any progress from 
 1801 to 1821. The few founderies which existed at the 
 latter of these periods were principally employed in ex- 
 ecuting orders for manufactories in the neighbourhood, 
 which necessarily required the article to be made ac- 
 cording to pattern and on the spot. The manufacture 
 continues in the same state to the present time. The 
 manufactures of brass, copper, tin, and hardware, are 
 
 struggling under circumstances nearly similar to that 
 of iron, being confined to the making articles which can- 
 not be readily procured according to pattern from Great 
 Britain. 
 
 The manufacture of ardent spirits from malt has long 
 been carried on to a great extent, forming one of the 
 main sources of revenue ; but the pecuniary benefit de- 
 rived from it has been purchased by a frightful amount 
 of crime and misery, the results of illicit distillation. 
 For the suppression of this practice the legislature enact- 
 ed various regulations, some exceedingly severe ; but the 
 profits accruing from it were too great to be thus coun- 
 teracted, and the distillers carried on their illegal traffic 
 with such indefatigable ingenuity, and in many instances 
 with such a determined spirit of opposition, as to place 
 the greater part of the population of extensive districts 
 in direct collision, not only with the civil authorities, but 
 with the military force of the government. The follow- 
 ing facts prove the utter inefficacy of the system of legis- 
 lative severity. In the ten years ending with 1818, 
 there were, according to official documents, 16,244 un- 
 licenced distilleries destroyed, in which 36,965 gallons 
 of spirits, and 47,843 barrels of mall, besides singlings 
 and pot ale, were seized or destroyed. In the subsequent 
 ten years the number of distilleries destroyed bad in- 
 creased to 41,645, and the quantities of spirits and malt 
 to 47,843 gallons of the one, and 156,636 barrels of the 
 other. A subsequent change of the law, by which a re- 
 duced scale of duties has been, to a certain degree, sub- 
 stituted for the former practice of fine and imprisonment, 
 has tended considerably to diminish the prevalence of 
 this baneful practice. 
 
 For many years Ireland was chiefly supplied with beer 
 and ale from Great Britain ; latterly, however, by di- 
 recting attention to the internal resources of the country 
 for the production of a species of manufacture, the prin- 
 cipal material of which is to be had in such plenty with- 
 in itself, a sufficient quantity of both kinds of liquor is 
 produced for domestic consumption, and for export, on a 
 scale as yet limited, to other countries, and even to Great 
 Britain. The averages of the quantities imported from 
 Great Britain, at different periods, will serve to confirm 
 this statement. 
 
 From 1721 to 1760 ] the annual average of f 9,307 gallons. 
 1760 to 1801 I beer and ale import- J 56,223 
 1801 to 1811 j ed from Great Britain] 37,703 
 1811 to 1821 J amounted to 1 5,123 
 
 The changes in the circulating medium, through which 
 the products of agricultural and manufacturing industry 
 are made available to the increase of the national w’ealth, 
 were frequent and considerable, to an extent seriously 
 affecting the political arrangements of the country. The 
 first mint noticed in history was established by the 
 Danes, but the coins issued from it circulated only 
 among themselves, traffic being carried on among the 
 natives, both during that period and for some centuries 
 later, by barter, in which cattle was the standard of val- 
 ue. Instances of this are on record even in the reign of 
 Elizabeth, when the tribute of several chieftains was paid 
 in beeves. 
 
 After the arrival of the English, a mint was establish- 
 ed by John, who, in 1210, caused pennies, halfpennies 
 and farthings to be coined of the same weight as those in 
 
BOOK OL VII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF IRELAND. 
 
 639 
 
 England. His successors, Heniy III. and Edward I. 
 also issued coinages of small money ; the latter of these 
 was the first sovereign who added to his title of Rex 
 Anglie on the coins that of Dominus Hibernie. In 
 the reign of Edward III. the ounce of silver, which had 
 hitherto been cut into 20 deniers or pennies sterling, was 
 divided into 26. Henry VI. appointed mints in Dublin, 
 Trim and Drogheda, in which brass as well as silver was 
 coined. In his reign the value of this latter metal was 
 raised from 3s. 4d. to 6s. 8d. per ounce. The conse- 
 quence was a sudden rise of price in provisions and all 
 other necessaries of life. The remedy applied to this 
 evil by a subsequent parliament, was the issue of a new 
 coinage of five kinds of silver coins, the gross, the demi- 
 gross, the denier, the demi-denier, and the quadrant or 
 farthing ; eleven groats were to weigh an ounce troy ; 
 the groat, if not clipped, to pass for fourpence. 
 
 By another act, in 1479, the price of silver was again 
 raised ; the weight of the groat being reduced to 32 
 grains, so that the difference in value between the Eng- 
 lish and Irish groat was, at the time, nearly fifty per 
 cent. In the reign of Henry VII. the difference between 
 English and Irish money was one-third, and in the be- 
 ginning of the succeeding reign of Henry VIII. the cur- 
 rent coin was so clipped and defaced, and had become 
 so scarce, that the lord lieutenant petitioned to be re- 
 called in consequence of the want of money to carry on 
 the wars. Elizabeth caused the ounce of silver to be cut 
 into sixty pennies; the value of a shilling, better known 
 by the name of a harp, during her reign and that of her 
 successor, was 9d. English. 
 
 Charles I. caused the name of Irish money to be abol- 
 ished, and directed all payments into the treasury to be 
 made in sterling English money. During the Common- 
 wealth, money was coined for the special service of Ire- 
 land ; yet, after the revolution, small money was so 
 scarce, that several towns, and even private individuals, 
 were obliged to coin copper tokens. On the arrival of 
 James II. in Ireland after his abdication, the values of 
 gold and silver coins were raised, the English guinea be- 
 ing fixed at L.l, 4s., and the English shilling at Is. Id. 
 But he soon after attempted a still greater change in the 
 currency of the country, by the issue of base copper 
 money, which was ordered by proclamation to pass at a 
 rate so extravagant, that copper of the intrinsic value of 
 L.6,495 was made to pass current for L.l, 596, 799. 
 This base money was cried down by King William im- 
 mediately after the battle of the Boyne. 
 
 No money was coined during the reign of Anne. In 
 1725, the new gold coins of Portugal were allowed to pass 
 current in Ireland at a stated value. Nor did any further 
 changes in the circulating medium take place, till the as- 
 similation of the currencies of Great Britain and Ireland 
 in 1826, when the British shilling, which, since the time 
 of James II., had passed for thirteen pence, was directed 
 in future to pass for tw'elve, as in the other portions of 
 the British dominions. 
 
 The deficiency of a metallic circulating medium in 
 Ireland, co-extensive with the demands of an increasing 
 trade and commerce, was for many years supplied only 
 by private banking-houses, which issued notes on their 
 own responsibility. But as the quantity of paper thus 
 thrown into general circulation was at times far beyond 
 the amount of the capital it purported to represent, and 
 
 even exceeded in a great Jlegree the demands of the 
 country, the return of the notes to their respective is- 
 suers caused sudden failures which shook public credit 
 to its basis. 
 
 To remedy this evil, the bank of Ireland was formed 
 in 1783, with privileges resembling that of England. 
 Its capital was at first L. 600,000 ; but on various re- 
 newals of its charter, it was gradually increased to 
 L. 2, 850, 000. At the last renewal, which took place in 
 1821 and extends to 1838, the amount of capital was 
 augmented to L. 3,000,000. To prevent the evil conse- 
 quences of an excessive issue of private bankers’ notes, 
 every partner in such establishments was made responsi- 
 ble for its engagements to the whole amount of his prop- 
 erty, but, by a singular contradiction, the number of part- 
 ners in each was limited to six, thus limiting also the 
 amount of property that could be made available for the 
 liquidation of its engagements, in cases of insolvency, to 
 the aggregate of the property of six individuals. 
 
 This absurd and pernicious limitation has been lately 
 removed. Banks, consisting of an unlimited number of 
 partners, may now be formed, yet still with a restriction 
 in favour of the bank of Ireland, that such joint stock 
 banking houses must be more than fifty miles from Dub- 
 lin ; thus continuing to this city and the surrounding 
 counties the disadvantages under which the whole island 
 had laboured in consequence of the impolitic monopoly 
 caused by the limitation. The provincial bank of Ire- 
 land and the northern bank in Belfast have been formed 
 according to this new regulation : the former has branch 
 banks in twenty of the principal towns in Ireland. The 
 bank of Ireland, following the example of this new rival, 
 has established agencies in several places, thus af- 
 fording increased facilities to trading and commercial 
 transactions. 
 
 Roads and canals are the channels of internal traffic. 
 The roads in Ireland have long been justly celebrated 
 for the excellence of their construction. The principle 
 of the method now styled macadamizing, was practised 
 there for many years before it was introduced into gen- 
 eral use in England, by the spirited exertions of the en- 
 gineer from whom it derives its name. Arthur Young, 
 in his tour in 1777, expresses his surprise at the striking 
 superiority of the Irish roads over those of England. 
 “ For a country,” says he, “ so far behind us as Ireland, 
 to have suddenly got so far the start of us in the article 
 of roads, is a spectacle which cannot fail to strike the 
 English traveller exceedingly. I could trace a route up- 
 on paper as wild as fancy could dictate, and every where 
 find beautiful roads without break or hindrance, to enable 
 me to realize my design.” Since the introduction of 
 mail-coaches in 1784, the roads have been progressively 
 increasing in number, and improving in construction- 
 An inexhaustible supply of limestone, the substratum 
 of the greater part of the country, is easily procured, 
 which, broken into small fragments, affords an even and 
 durable surface, capable of being repaired at a small ex- 
 pense. In some few places, the old-fashioned paved 
 roads are still to be met with. Yet much remains to be 
 done. Notice has already been taken of the want of 
 roads in the mining districts. The western part of Con- 
 naught suffers much from a similar want. In many parts 
 goods are carried several miles on horses ; in some the 
 peasant himself is . the bearer. The mountainous dis- 
 
EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CBVII. 
 
 640 
 
 tricts of Cone and Kerry labour under the same defect ; 
 a circumstance the more to be deplored, because experi- 
 ence has proved that wherever a well planned line of 
 road has been carried through a range of country pre- 
 viously impassable for carriages, the vent of agricultural 
 produce, and the consequent increased consumption of 
 exciseable articles, have repayed the outlay with ample 
 interest. 
 
 With respect to inland navigation, Ireland is far behind 
 the sister island. While the latter boasts of 2400 miles 
 of still-water navigation, and 2000 miles of navigable riv- 
 ers, the former has but 282 miles of canals, and 380 of 
 river navigation : the total of water communication in the 
 one case being 4400 miles, in the latter 660. The prin- 
 cipal lines of inland navigation are the Grand and Royal 
 Canals. Both commence at Dublin, and proceeding 
 westward in lines somewhat diverging, terminate at the 
 Shannon. The former, which is the more southern, was 
 commenced in 1775, and has united the metropolis with 
 the Barrow at Athy, and with the Shannon at Banagher. 
 The canal is now extended beyond the Shannon through 
 Roscommon as far as Ballynasloe, with a view of carry- 
 ing it on to the town of Galway. The ascent to the 
 summit level is 278 feet above the sea at the mouth of 
 the Liffey : the fall thence to the Barrow is 97 feet, and 
 to the Shannon 162. The cargoes conveyed on it con- 
 sist chiefly of turf, in large quantities, for the supply of 
 Dublin, corn, bricks and flag-stones. The traffic is far 
 from producing a return adequate to the expenditure in- 
 curred ; the affairs of the company are therefore in a 
 state by no means prosperous. The total expenditure 
 to the Shannon, including the branch cuts to Athy, Mill- 
 town and elsewhere, amounts to L. 1,86 1,008, being 
 at the rate of L.18,610 per mile on 100 miles of still- 
 water navigation, which, though yielding a net profit of 
 at least L.300 per mile per annum, would amount to no 
 more than 15s. 8d. per cent., per annum, on the capital 
 expended. 
 
 The Royal canal company was incorporated in 1789. 
 The canal, proceeding from the north of Dublin, passes 
 through the counties of West Meatli and Longford until 
 it meets the Shannon at Tarmonbarry. Its line was 
 most unhappily projected : at 35 miles distance from 
 Dublin it is but eight miles distant from the Grand Ca- 
 nal, and at several intermediate places not more than four, 
 so that these two great navigations, for half the length 
 of each westward from the metropolis, are performing 
 little more than the work of one. The expense incurred 
 was L. 1,421, 954, or L.19,749 per mile, exclusive of 
 interest for many years upon stock, loan, and grants of 
 public money. The company having become insolvent 
 in 1812, when not more than 53 miles of its line were 
 executed, the undertaking was put into the hands of a 
 public board, and completed in 1817 by parliamentary 
 grants. One of the principal objects contemplated by 
 its projectors was the trade arising from the collieries 
 and iron works near Lough Allen. These sources 
 have not yet been productive, and the only articles 
 conveyed on it are similar to those carried along the 
 other canal. 
 
 The Newry Canal is the oldest in the country, 
 being commenced so early as the year 1739. It ex- 
 tends from the sea below Newry to Lough Neagh, 
 a distance of twenty-four miles, nine of which are in the 
 
 bed of the river Bann ; a short cut, connecting the col- 
 lieries at Coal Island with the Lough, may be considered 
 as part of the navigation. The trade on this canal is 
 seriously impeded by the obstacles necessarily consequent 
 upon an attempt at making rivers navigable, arising from 
 the delays caused by want of water in dry seasons, and 
 from damages by floods in wet weather. 
 
 The Lagan navigation between Belfast and Lough 
 Neagh, a distance of twenty-two miles, partakes largely 
 of the inconvenience just stated to arise from river navi- 
 gation. The same may also be said of the Boyne and 
 Limerick navigations. The former of these extends 
 from the tide water at Drogheda to Navan, a distance 
 of fifteen and a half miles, and is carried chiefly through 
 the river ; the produce of the tolls is totally inadequate 
 to its effective maintenance. The Limerick navigation 
 from Limerick city to Killaloe, designed to render the 
 Shannon navigable to Lough Dearg, is twelve miles long, 
 partly in the river. If, in the absence of more satisfac- 
 tory means of ascertaining its rate of profit, an estimate 
 be formed from the imperfect state of the navigation itself, 
 the uncertainty of the passage through Lough Dearg, 
 navigable only by sail and oar, and the delays from 
 floods and foul weather, no remunerating rate of profit 
 can reasonably be expected. 
 
 The geographical position of Ireland has been already 
 pointed out as affording great facilities for commercial 
 interchanges with some of the most wealthy and enter- 
 prising nations on the globe. Notwithstanding the checks 
 imposed by England upon this branch of national industry, 
 the commerce of Ireland increased with rapidity after the 
 nation had, in any degree, recovered from the severe 
 shock of the civil war in 1688. But in 1799, its com- 
 merce assumed a new character, in consequence of the 
 right of the country to a free trade being recognized by 
 the British parliament. By the act then passed, the 
 laws prohibiting the exportation of woollens and glass 
 were repealed, and the country was allowed to trade 
 with all parts of America, the West India Islands, and 
 Africa, subject only to regulations framed by its own 
 parliament. The articles of the Union confirmed this 
 equality of commercial privileges, by enacting, that the 
 two islands should be on the same footing as to en- 
 couragements and bounties on the like articles, the 
 produce of each country respectively, and generally also 
 as to trade and navigation in all parts and places in the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 A considerable foreign trade is now carried on with 
 America, chiefly by the merchants of Dublin, Belfast 
 and Londonderry. The articles principally imported 
 thence, are tobacco, cotton, wool, rice, timber, and flax 
 seed ; linen is chiefly exported in exchange. A trade 
 for wine is carried on with Portugal and Spain, and large 
 quantities of butter are sent to the former of these coun- 
 tries, together with linen, beef, pork, salt fish, and some 
 woollens. In addition to wines, Ireland receives in return 
 fruit, principally oranges and lemons, salt, oil, potash, and 
 cork. Provisions are sent to France in exchange for the 
 wines of that country ; as also to the Netherlands, whence 
 Geneva spirit and linseed oil are brought in exchange. 
 To the Baltic are sent linen and butter ; the returns are 
 made in iron, deals, hemp, potash, and herrings. 
 
 But the chief market for the surplus produce of the 
 country is England. Besides grain and flour to a large 
 
BOOK CLVII.l 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF IRELAND. 
 
 641 
 
 amount, black cattle and swine have long been a staple 
 article of export to Great Britain : their numbers have 
 been latterly increased to a considerable degree by steam 
 navigation. Previously to this invention, Portpatrick, 
 in Scotland, bad been the chief landing-place for Irish 
 cattle, on account of the shortness of the cross passage ; 
 but now Liverpool absorbs nearly the whole trade. To 
 Scotland, also, are sent linen and linen-yarn, beef, pork, 
 tallow, untanned hides, butter, barley, oats, and oatmeal. 
 The returns from Great Britain are made in coal, dried 
 fish, manufactured goods of every description, both for 
 necessity and luxury, tea, coffee, rum, and tobacco. 
 
 Though the general population of the country is dis- 
 tributed through the provinces, nearly in proportion to 
 their acreable contents, Connaught excepted, which is 
 by much the most thinly peopled, a considerable diver- 
 sity exists between them as to the mode of its location 
 in each. That of Munster is mostly congregated into 
 large towns, while in Connaught the population is chiefly 
 rural. Of the cities and towns containing 4000 inhab- 
 itants, or upwards, each — nine are in Leinster, ten in 
 Ulster, and but seven in Connaught, while Munster can 
 reckon twenty-four, ten of which are within the single 
 county of Cork. Or, to view the position from another 
 point, — the population of all the towns containing 4000 
 or more inhabitants, amounts, in Leinster, to 309,338 
 souls ; in Ulster, to 91,026 ; in Connaught, to no more 
 than 69,173 ; while in Munster it increases to 332, 921. a 
 If from the population of Leinster be deducted that of 
 Dublin city, which, as being the metropolis of the coun- 
 try, is swelled into a disproportionate extent by supplies 
 from every part of the interior, and even, in some degree, 
 from Great Britain, the excess here pointed out will 
 appear more striking. b 
 
 Dublin, the metropolis of the island, and the chief 
 city in the province of Leinster, is situated on the eastern 
 coast, at the mouth of the Liffey. Its origin is wholly 
 unknown. Ptolemy notices it by the name of Eblana ; 
 it is also mentioned by Irish writers previously to the 
 invasion of the Danes, but not as a place of first rate 
 importance. 0 It appears to have been at first plundered, 
 and afterwards rebuilt and fortified, by these freebooters 
 in the ninth century , d who retained it, with several other 
 maritime positions, till they were expelled by the Eng- 
 lish. 0 So little claim had the city to the title of metropo- 
 lis at this latter period, that Henry II., on his arrival 
 there, found it necessary to erect a temporary palace to 
 receive the homage of the Irish chieftains. But its po- 
 sition, as a point of communication with the rest of that 
 monarch’s dominions, soon secured to it a preference for 
 the seat of the local government. From that period the 
 city increased considerably in population and importance. 
 King John, who resided in it for some time, improved 
 
 and extended it ; he erected a castle on a commanding 
 eminence, established courts of justice, and appointed a 
 municipal magistracy. f Yet the city was still confined 
 within very narrow limits, being built solely on the southern 
 bank of the Liffey. Its walls, a small part of the ruins 
 of which are still visible, included merely the summit 
 of the hill on which the castle was built, and part of its 
 northern and southern declivities. Thenceforward, its 
 increase was uniformly progressive, though not rapid. 
 In Elizabeth’s reign, Trinity College, now nearly in its 
 centre, was designated as being “ near Dublin. ”e During 
 the succeeding civil war, temporary works thrown up to 
 secure the south-eastern suburbs, which lay without the 
 walls, were constructed between the castle and the 
 college. 
 
 At present the city extends over an area of about 
 1300 acres,’ 1 of which 900 lie to the south, and 500 to 
 the north of the Liffey, giving a circumference of nearly 
 seven miles. 1 Its extreme bounds are marked with 
 tolerable precision on all sides, except the west, by the 
 two canals. The interior exhibits a striking contrast of 
 magnificence and wretchedness. The progress of archi- 
 tectural improvement has proceeded in an eastern direc- 
 tion towards the mouth of the river, in which portion of 
 the city most of the public buildings, and the residences 
 of the principal inhabitants, erected within the two last 
 centuries, are to be found, while the western part, the 
 site of the ancient city, is falling into decay and ruin. 
 
 The most remarkable edifices are the Bank of Ireland, 
 formerly the Parliament House ; the royal exchange, a 
 building of peculiar elegance ; the custom-house, the 
 courts of justice, the post-office, and the extensive anu 
 massive structure of Trinity College. The castle is a 
 pile of mean and unornamental buildings. Few' of the 
 places of public worship can be cited as examples of 
 architectural beauty. Some of the streets are spacious 
 and elegant. There are five squares, the largest of 
 which, though by no means the most splendid, is St. 
 Stephen’s Green. The river, which traverses the city 
 from west to east, is crossed by nine bridges, three of 
 them consisting of a single arch each ; tw'o of these are 
 formed of iron. Noble quays on each side, faced with 
 cut stone, and extending through the heart of the city, 
 from end to end, afford great facilities of communication, 
 and present an appearance of airiness and salubrity 
 peculiarly pleasing to the eye of taste. 
 
 The government of the city is vested in the Lord 
 Mayor, chosen annually, who, on public occasions, is 
 distinguished by a collar of gold, and has a mace of 
 office, and a sword of state, borne before him. He is 
 assisted in the performance of his duty by twenty-four 
 aldermen, out of which body he is elected, and by a 
 common council, consisting of members chosen every 
 
 Dubh-leana (Black-haven,) whence the modern name. (Ed. Enc.) — It 
 was called by the Irish, Balaclay [Baile-cliath (town of hurdles,) pron. 
 Balacleahi] (Martiniere, Diet. Geog.) — P. 
 
 d A. D. 851. (Ed. Enc.)— P. 
 
 e By the united forces of Dermot McMurrough, and of the English 
 adventurers under Raymond le Gros. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 f The first charter was granted by Henry II. ; a new charter, by 
 Henry III. (Ed. Enc.)— P. 
 
 s Trinity College was founded by Queen Elizabeth, in 1591. (Ed. 
 Enc.)— P. 
 
 h 1600 acres. (Ed. Enc.) — More than 1260 acres. (Myers' Geog.) — P 
 
 ' Two miles and a half long from east to west ; for a mile from the 
 west, nearly square ; the other mile and a half, one mile and three 
 quarters from north to south. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 a By the Statist. Tab. (Ireland, No. vii.), there are of the cities and 
 towns containing 4000 inhabitants, or upwards, each — nineteen in Lein- 
 ster (nine between 4000 and (>000.) twelve in Ulster (seven between 
 4000 and 6000,) eight in Connaught (four between 4000 and 6000,) and 
 twenty-five in Munster (only seven between 4000 and 6000.) By the 
 same Table, the population of all such towns in Leinster, is 348,296 ; in 
 Ulster, 131,961 ; in Connaught, 80,074 ; and in Munster, 366,614. The 
 statements in the text are perhaps from the census of 1821. — P. 
 
 b The population of such towns in Leinster, exclusive of Dublin 
 (203,752,) is, by Stat,. Tab. No. vii., 144,544. — P. 
 
 c It was called by the native Irish, Jlth Cliath (ford of hurdles,) and 
 Bally (Bn He) Lean Cliath (town of the haven of hurdles,) from the 
 shallowness of the river rendering it fordable at low water, and the 
 depth of the mud rendering a pathway of hurdles necessary ; also 
 VOL. III.— NO. 62 81 
 
642 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CL VII. 
 
 third year by the twenty-five guilds, or corporations of 
 trade. A court of justice for the trial of offences com- 
 mitted within the precincts of the city is held, at which 
 the recorder, aided by some of the aldermen, who are 
 the chartered magistrates, presides. Though this court 
 has power of life and death, it confines its jurisdiction to 
 minor offences, referring cases involving the penalty of 
 death to a superior tribunal. The peace of the city is 
 preserved by two sheriffs, annually chosen from among 
 the common-council, under whom is a body of about 800 
 police, directed by twelve stipendiary magistrates : their 
 powers extend to all places within eight miles distance. 
 By their exertions the city and its vicinity are as secure 
 as any other large and well ordered town in Europe. 
 Crimes of great atrocity seldom call for punishment. 
 
 Dublin can boast of numerous charitable institutions, 
 some largely supported by grants of public money, others 
 entirely dependant on voluntary contributions. Among 
 the former are, the foundling hospital for deserted chil- 
 dren, the Hibernian and marine schools for the children 
 of soldiers and sailors, the royal hospital for disabled 
 soldiers, the house of recovery for fever patients, the 
 general hospital in Brunswick street, the lying-in hospi- 
 tal, and the female orphan-house ; among the latter, the 
 mendicity association for the suppression of street begging, 
 the society for the relief of sick and indigent room-keepers, 
 the strangers’ friend society, Stevens’ hospital for acci- 
 dents, Simpson’s hospital for blind and gouty men, 
 besides many others of minor note. Every parish has 
 both a Protestant and Roman Catholic school for the 
 instruction and, in several instances, for the maintenance 
 of the children of the poor. Other sects also support 
 similar institutions. 
 
 The literary institutions are not such, either in number 
 or qualifications, as might be expected from the appear- 
 ance of the metropolis, or the population of the country. 
 Public libraries, properly so called, there are none. The 
 use of that of Trinity College, the first as to the number 
 and selection of its books, is confined to such graduates 
 of that university as choose to take the oath of admission, 
 an essential preliminary to the opening of a volume in it. 
 The King’s Inns’ library is confined to the members and 
 students of that society. Each of these libraries enjoys 
 the privilege of copies of all books published in the 
 British dominions. Marsh’s, or St. Patrick’s library, is 
 more liberal as to the qualification for admission, but 
 consists of a limited number of books, few of modern 
 date. The Dublin library, and the Dublin institution, 
 are private establishments supported wholly by the sub- 
 scriptions of the members, and therefore open, with some 
 exceptions, solely to them. The library of the Dublin 
 Society, which receives a large annual grant for the dis- 
 semination of useful knowledge, and the improvement of 
 the arts, is confined to the members, who pay a sum of 
 L.30 for admission. This society maintains professors 
 in chemistry, botany, experimental philosophy, and 
 geology, who annually deliver public courses of lectures. 
 It also maintains a school of drawing, architecture, and 
 modelling. 
 
 The Royal Irish Academy was formed for the encour- 
 agement of literature, antiquities, and the higher branches 
 of science. It publishes volumes of its transactions 
 
 from time to time, consisting of essays on some of the 
 various subjects comprehended within the scope of its 
 investigations. 
 
 The school of physic in Dublin is rising rapidly in 
 estimation, partly owing to the talents of several of the 
 professors, partly to the facilities of procuring subjects 
 for dissection. The college of physicians is connected 
 with Trinity College : the college of surgeons is detached 
 from it. There are also several respectable private 
 schools of medicine. 
 
 The King’s Inns, intended as a place of legal instruc- 
 tion, has but two public halls, namely, one for the dining- 
 room, the other for the reception of the library ; atten- 
 dance at the former of these, for a certain period, is 
 essential towards admission as a pleader in the courts of 
 justice ; the presence of the student in the latter is regu- 
 lated solely by his own inclination. Lectures, or other 
 modes of communicating instruction to the young aspi- 
 rant for legal honours, are unknown here. 
 
 The environs of Dublin, particularly on the southern 
 side, present numerous situations of great picturesque beau- 
 ty, which are, therefore, frequently visited by strangers. 
 
 The second city in Leinster, in population and celeb- 
 rity, is Kilkenny, beautifully situated on the banks of 
 the Nore. Like Dublin, its origin is involved in the 
 shades of antiquity. Some writers suppose it to be the 
 Terms’ 1 of Ptolemy, and the Hernia of Richard of 
 Cirencester ; the etymology of its present name leads to 
 the supposition of an ecclesiastical origin, Kill-kenny 
 signifying the church or cell of Kenny, or St. Canice. b 
 The English effected a settlement here shortly after their 
 landing ; a charter of incorporation was granted to it by 
 one of Strongbow’s immediate successors. Thus favour- 
 ed, it soon became one of the most distinguished inland 
 cities in the country. At the close of the fourteenth 
 century its castle fell into the hands of the Butler 
 family, by whom it has ever since been retained. 
 One of the descendants of this house, -the Earl of 
 Ormond, entertained Richard II. in it for fourteen days, 
 with royal splendour, during that monarch’s progress to 
 Dublin. In the civil wars it became the seat of govern- 
 ment of the confederate Catholics, who held their meet- 
 ings there in the form of a parliament. It made a gal- 
 lant defence against Cromwell, who was glad to accept its 
 surrender upon terms highly honourable to the garrison. 
 
 The city consists of two parts, Kilkenny properly so 
 called, and the borough of St. Canice or Irishtown, a 
 separate jurisdiction. On the two most elevated part? 
 of the united town are placed the structures which con- 
 stitute its principal ornaments, the castle and the cathe- 
 dral. The former contains a good collection of paintings, 
 and commands a rich and extensive prospect of the fine 
 and varied country around ; the latter is the largest 
 ecclesiastical structure in Ireland, except those in Dublin. 
 Several ruins of monastic buildings still evince the former 
 grandeur of the religious foundations here. As a cen- 
 tral depot for manufacturing industry, it does not reap all 
 the advantages that might accrue from its situation on a 
 large river, in the midst of a fertile and populous dis- 
 trict ; the woollen manufacture, particularly that of blan- 
 kets, and the tanning of leather being the only processes 
 carried on extensively. Near the city are quarries, 
 
 TovtQrig — Iucmis (Edit. Lat. Mercat.) — P. 
 
 b Cill-canic — Lat. Celia Canici . — P 
 
 : 
 
book cl, vii.] DESCRIPTION 
 
 whence a marble of high polish is raised ; when first 
 wrought it is almost black, but after exposure to the 
 atmosphere it gradually exhibits numerous white marks 
 throughout its surface, which an attentive examination 
 proves to be produced by the sections of various kinds 
 of fossil shells. The annual export of it from the city 
 averages fifty tons. This city is a separate jurisdiction 
 from the cognominal county with which it is surrounded, 
 being governed by magistrates elected under a special 
 charter. 
 
 Thirty miles a northwards of Dublin is Drogheda, for- 
 merly called Tredagh, a town of great antiquity and 
 much historical notoriety, situate on the Boyne, about 
 five miles from its mouth. Though seldom named in the 
 early native annals, its importance in the reign of 
 Edward II. entitled it to the privilege of being the 
 place of a royal mint. In the succeeding reign it was 
 made one of the staple towns, a clear proof of its com- 
 mercial importance at that period. Parliaments were 
 also held in it, particularly that celebrated one in the 
 reign of Henry VII. at which Poynings’ laws were enact- 
 ed. It obtained a right by an act of Edward IV. to 
 have an university with the same privileges as that of 
 Oxford, but the right has never been exercised. During 
 the civil wars of 1641, after having baffled the attempts 
 of the northern Irish under O’Neil, and of the parlia- 
 mentary forces under Jones, it was invested by Cromwell 
 in person, who, having taken it by storm, caused the 
 whole of the inhabitants, without distinction of age or 
 sex, to be put to the sword, notwithstanding a previous 
 assurance of quarter. Thirty persons only escaped from 
 the massacre, and they were transported as slaves to the 
 West Indies. After the battle of the Boyne the town 
 surrendered without a struggle to the victorious army of 
 William. 
 
 The portions of the town on each side of the Boyne 
 were formerly separate jurisdictions, distinguished by the 
 names of Drogheda on the side of Meath, and Drogheda 
 on the side of Uriel. b The dissensions arising from this 
 division frequently terminated in bloodshed, until at 
 length assuaged by the exertions of Peter Bennet, a 
 Dominican friar, who, having invited the leaders of both 
 parties to a sermon which was succeeded by a banquet, 
 discoursed with such effect on the evil consequences of 
 the division, that they joined in a petition to king Henry 
 V. to remove the cause of those sanguinary tumults, by 
 combining both parts under one common government. 
 It is now under the control of a mayor and aldermen. 
 The archbishop of Armagh long made this town his place 
 of residence, the portion of his province in which the 
 city of Armagh is situated being without the pale, and 
 therefore deemed an unsafe residence for a prelate recog- 
 nising the sovereignty of the king of England. The 
 Roman Catholic archbishop of the province still resides 
 in Drogheda. 
 
 The next town in Leinster as to population and impor- 
 tance is Dundalk, the county town of Louth. Before 
 the reign of Elizabeth it was considered to be a frontier 
 town of the pale, and underwent many of the changes 
 
 OF IRELAND. 643 
 
 and sufferings incident to such a position. Edward Bruce 
 was crowned in this town, and fell in battle near it. The 
 first army sent by king William into Ireland under 
 Schomberg was forced to stop here, in its progress south- 
 wards, in consequence of the ravages of disease and 
 famine. It is now noted only as one of the chief places 
 for the export of grain. 
 
 Wexford, the next in rank, was the first town of which 
 the English took possession, after their landing, in the time 
 of Henry II. Their descendants still inhabit the neigh- 
 bouring districts, where they retain, to the present day, 
 in their manners, appearance and dialect, indisputable 
 indications of their original stock. The town is now 
 little more than a fishing station, and a place of residence 
 for families of limited incomes, who enjoy here, from the 
 cheapness of all the necessaries and many of the com- 
 forts of existence, a degree of opulence not to be obtain- 
 ed elsewhere. During the rebellion of 1798 it remained 
 for some time in the possession of the insurgents, and 
 the long wooden bridge by which the Slaney is crossed 
 near its mouth was the place of execution for their pris- 
 oners. After its recovery by the king’s troops, the 
 town became the scene of retaliation by the victorious 
 party equally sanguinary. 
 
 Carlow on the Barrow, once a place of strength, and 
 at times the seat of the king’s exchequer, is now of little 
 note. It is built in the midst of a rich agricultural 
 district ; and its inhabitants depend more on the limited 
 traffic carried on by means of the river Barrow which 
 passes by the town, than on any of the main sources of 
 manufacturing industry. New Ross on the Slaney, 0 
 once a port that vied in commerce with Waterford, is 
 now little more than a village. Portarlington on the 
 Barrow, in consequence of a settlement of French 
 refugees there, was until lately a favourite place of ele- 
 mentary education for children of the higher classes. 
 
 Belfast, the largest, the most opulent, and the most 
 public-spirited town in Ulster, owes its pre-eminence 
 neither to its antiquity or its political constitution, but 
 solely to the energetic well directed exertions of its 
 inhabitants. d It was a place of but little note so lately 
 as the time of William III.; since that period it has 
 risen to a great height in commercial importance, main- 
 taining an extensive traffic with the United States and 
 the West Indies. The following table will serve to 
 exhibit the increase of its shipping. The number and 
 tonnage of the vessels belonging to it were as follows, 
 at the dates here specified. 
 
 No. of No. of 
 
 vessels. Tonnage. vessels. Tonnage. 
 
 1765 55 10,040 1819 104 10,489 
 
 1792 58 9,765 1820 106 10,281 
 
 1814 78 9,866 1829 184 21,557 
 
 The principal building is the Academical Institution, 
 a college erected solely by voluntary contributions for 
 general instruction in the most essential departments of 
 literature and useful knowledge ; its funds have latterly 
 been augmented by grants of public money. Belfast 
 has also two churches, and a dissenting meeting-house of 
 
 a 23 miles. (Myers.) — P. 
 b Louth. 
 
 c New Ross stands on the Barrow, a little below its junction with the 
 Nore. — P. 
 
 <* Belfast is more ancient than is generally supposed ; the parish is a 
 . 
 
 vicarage, called Shankil [Gaelic, sean-cill, old cell,] or the old church. 
 The castle was taken by the Earl of Kildare, in 1503 and 1512. The 
 town was made a borough in 1613. The custom-house was removed 
 from Carrickfergus to Belfast, in 1638. However, in 1726, it was a 
 small place of little consequence, (^d. Enc.) — P. 
 
644 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLVII. 
 
 r 
 
 some architectural elegance.* * The town is connected 
 with the adjoining county of Down, by a long narrow 
 bridge over the Lagan. It was one of the great marts 
 for the sale of linen, before the manufacture was super- 
 seded by that of cotton, which is now carried on here 
 to a greater extent than in any other part of Ireland. 1 * 
 There are eight large cotton factories in the town, or in 
 its immediate vicinity, besides seven others in the 
 adjoining district. 
 
 The manufacture of damask, for table linen, is carried 
 on with much spirit at Lisburn, a neighbouring borough 
 town, which is indebted for the knowledge of the fabric 
 to the settlement of some French and Flemish refugees. 
 Large orders are executed here for crowned heads and 
 foreigners of distinction. 
 
 Midway between Belfast and Drogheda, is the town of 
 Newry, formerly noted as a military pass into Ulster, and 
 now as a place of trade, though in this respect consider- 
 ably inferior to the first-named of these towns. An 
 extensive inland traffic is maintained by means of its 
 canal, navigable for vessels of sixty tons : it also partakes 
 of the advantages of the cross-channel trade with Great 
 Britain. The lordship of Newry, comprehending the 
 town, and a small surrounding district, is an exempt 
 jurisdiction, being free from the spiritual control of any 
 bishop. The proprietor of the lordship grants marriage- 
 licences, probates of wills, and letters of administration, 
 and exercises other episcopal powers. 
 
 The city of Londonderry, at the mouth of the 
 Foyle, is a regular, well-built town, consisting of four 
 main streets, issuing from a central square, named the 
 Diamond, and terminating at the gates. 0 The harbour 
 affords accommodation sufficient for an extensive inter- 
 course with Great Britain, America, and the West Indies. 
 But Londonderry is best known for its successful defence 
 against the forces of James II. The statue of the Rev. 
 George Walker, who acted as governor at that crisis, is 
 one of the ornaments of the town. The fortifications 
 are still kept in good repair, and the ramparts, which are 
 planted, form a fine walk round the city. 
 
 The honour of being the seat of the primatial see of 
 Ireland, d is the chief claim which the city of Armagh 
 has to notice, to which circumstance it also owes most of 
 the public institutions that now adorn it. In the early 
 ages of Christianity, a college flourished here, said to 
 have given instruction to several thousand students. 
 The foundation of its cathedral, which is built on an 
 eminence, called Druimsailich, or the Hill of Willows, is 
 attributed to St. Patrick. The bodies of Brian Boru, 
 and of his son, both of whom fell at the battle of Clon- 
 tarf, were interred in it. During the incursions of the 
 
 a The houses of public worship are ten ; an established church ; six 
 dissenting meeting-houses, four of which are presbyterian ; a quaker 
 meeting-house ; a methodist meeting-house ; and a Roman Catholic 
 chapel. (Ed. Enc. 1813.) — There are two episcopal churches. 
 (Myers.) — 4*. 
 
 b Belfast was the first seat of the cotton manufacture in Ire- 
 land. — P. 
 
 * Londonderry has four main streets, crossing at right angles, within 
 the walls, and a mall, with a public terrace, or diamond, in the centre. 
 (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 d The archbishop of Armagh is styled lord primate and metropolitan 
 of all Ireland ; that of Dublin, lord primate of Ireland. — P. 
 
 ' Richard Robinson, a native of Yorkshire, made archbishop of 
 Armagh in 1705, and a peer of Ireland, by the title of Baron Rokeby, 
 in 1777. — P. 
 
 f This should read Columba (Gaelic, Colum.) Columbkill (Gaelic, 
 
 Danes, the city suffered severely from their ravages, in 
 some of which all their books and records were destroy- 
 ed. Since the revolution, it has been enriched by Lord 
 Rokeby, otherwise called Primate Robinson , e with a 
 library, an observatory, and an extensive grammar school- 
 house. He projected the foundation of an University, 
 but unfortunately for the interests of science, intrusted 
 the execution of his design to his executors. Armagh 
 was one of the great staples of the linen manufacture. 
 
 Coleraine, at the mouth of the Bann, and the place of 
 one of the most extensive salmon-fishings in Ireland — 
 Carrickfergus, once the capital of the north of Ireland, 
 but now a military depot, and a fishing town — Down- 
 patrick, the county town of Down county, celebrated in 
 monastic records as the burial place of the saints Patrick, 
 Bridget and ColumbkilF — and Enniskillen, situated on 
 the strait or river that connects the two basins of Lough 
 Erne, have little to entitle them to a rank among the 
 chief towns of Ireland, beyond the right of returning 
 members to the Imperial Parliament. 
 
 The city of Cork, which stands foremost among the 
 numerous towns of Munster, was for many years after 
 the invasion of the English, a place of inferior note, 
 situated in a salt-water marsh subject to occasional inun- 
 dations, called in the native tongue, “ Corcagh,”e whence 
 the city derives its name, and yielding the precedence in 
 population and trade to Limerick and Waterford. In 
 Elizabeth’s reign it consisted of one street, terminated 
 by a bridge over the Lee ; several smaller streams, which 
 are now arched over, flowed through the city. Its in- 
 crease of inhabitants, and its present celebrity, are at- 
 tributable wholly to its trade, chiefly in provisions. 
 During the late war, the average number of black cattle 
 annually slaughtered in it amounted to 18,000, and not 
 less than 160,000 cwt. of butter had been exported in 
 some one of those years. 1 * Large quantities of spirits, 
 and some malt liquor, manufactured here, are also sent 
 to Great Britain, and to foreign markets. Its public 
 buildings are few and plain, with the exception of the 
 Roman Catholic Chapel, which would do honour to any 
 city, particularly in its internal structure. A literary 
 institution, for the promotion of useful knowledge, was 
 founded here in 1807, and endowed with an annual 
 grant of public money, which was expended in the for- 
 mation of a library, and in maintaining lectureships in 
 several branches of science. 1 The grant has been lately 
 withdrawn. 
 
 A favourable commercial station on the Shannon, gave 
 rise to the city of Limerick. It was the first fordable 
 place to be met with on that river from its mouth ; and, 
 therefore, attracted a concourse of settlers. Soon after 
 
 Choluim-cill ) is Columba’scell or church. The celebrated island off 
 the south-western extremity of Mull, is Icolumbkill (Gaelic, 1-choluim- 
 ckill, island of Columba’s church,) or Iona (Gaelic. I-thonn (pron. 
 Ikon,) island of waves.) — P. 
 
 e Gaelic, corcach, a moor or inarsh. The rich alluvial flats (meadows) 
 on the Shannon are called corcach, corrupted in English into corcass or 
 caucus. They resemble the Scotch carsc lands on the Forth and Tay. 
 Curse itself maybe derived from the Gaelic, though it seems more im- 
 mediately connected with the Welsh cars, a bog or fen ; corsaicg, fenny. 
 The Curragh, an extensive grassy plain in the county of Kildare, derives 
 its name from the Gaelic currach, a bog or fen, a plain. — P. 
 h In 1800. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 ' An “ Institution for applying Science to the Common Purposes of 
 Life,” has been established, and is in a flourishing state. (Ed. 
 Enc.) — P. 
 
BOOK CliVII.] 
 
 DESCRIPTION 
 
 the arrival of the English under Strongbow, it was seized 
 by* them, but was immediately after evacuated, in con- 
 sequence of his death, and burned by the native princes, 
 to prevent it from falling again into the hands of their 
 enemy. Cromwell invested it during his campaign in 
 Ireland, but was forced to raise the siege. 1 It under- 
 went two sieges in the subsequent war of 1688. In the 
 former, the efforts of William, who opened the trenches 
 in person, were baffled by a daring manoeuvre of General 
 Sarsfield/ The latter terminated by the memorable sur- 
 render, which put an end to the bloody contest that had 
 too long desolated the country. 0 
 
 The city is composed of two parts, the English and 
 the Irish town. In some instances, the streets are nar- 
 row and gloomy ; and though, in the ranges of buildings 
 lately erected, great attention has been paid to external 
 appearance, hovels, exhibiting a picture of squalid wretch- 
 edness, are to be seen in the contiguity of splendid 
 mansions. As an emporium of commerce, it once disput- 
 ed the title to precedence with Galway, formerly a first- 
 rate port. Both have latterly been outstripped in the 
 career of mercantile competition by other places. 
 
 Waterford occupies a commanding position, near the 
 mouth of the Suir. d Its streets, as is usual in towns 
 which had been fortified, are narrow ; its public build- 
 ings, in general, well designed and elegant. The quays, 
 which extend nearly a mile along the river, are much 
 admired ; a well constructed bridge affords free commu- 
 nication with the adjoining county of Kilkenny. The 
 city was anciently one of the Danish seaports. Regi- 
 nald’s tower, used by Strongbow, after his capture of the 
 place, as a prison for refractory Danish or Irish chief- 
 tains, is still in existence. Waterford derives much of 
 its wealth from the Newfoundland fishery, to which it 
 annually sends several vessels ; it also exports pork and 
 butter in large quantities. Dungarvan, e a populous town, 
 about twenty-four miles from this city, is considered to be 
 the largest fishing town in Ireland. 
 
 Clonmel, though the county town of Tipperary, and 
 maintaining a considerable population, presents little to 
 arrest attention, while Cashel, a city of inconsiderable 
 magnitude, possesses several claims to particular notice. 
 This city, like Dublin, boasts of being the site of two 
 cathedrals. The more ancient is built on a precipitous 
 rock, whose summit is attained by a winding path. Its 
 ruins exhibit the remains of several splendid edifices, 
 among which was the royal palace/ In the time of 
 Henry VIII. this cathedral was burnt by the Earl of 
 Kildare, in revenge for some insult offered to him by 
 the archbishop. In it was deposited the fatal stone on 
 which the kings of Munster sat at their coronation. e 
 Tradition states, that when Fergus obtained the crown 
 of Scotland, he borrowed this stone for his own cere- 
 monial, and retained possession of it, in consequence of 
 
 a Limerick was taken by General Ireton, after Cromwell’s return to 
 England. — P. 
 
 b Before the place was fully invested, Colonel Sarsfield, one of the 
 inferior officers of the garrison, made a sally by night, and disabled 
 William’s train of artillery; still the latter continued the siege, and 
 was induced to raise it, in consequence of an unsuccessful assault. 
 (Smollet.) — P. 
 
 c Limerick surrendered to General Ginckel,by a capitulation, called 
 the Articles of Limerick. — P. 
 
 d Waterford stands on the south bank of the Suir, above its junction 
 with the Barrow — P. 
 
 OF IRELAND. 645 
 
 a prophecy which declared that, wherever it was kept, 
 the Milesian race of kings should reign. After being 
 preserved for some centuries at Scone, it was removed by 
 Edward I. to Westminster, where it still remains. Ad- 
 joining the cathedral is Cormac M’Cuillenan’s chapel. 
 The modern cathedral is an edifice of Grecian architec- 
 ture adorned with a handsome spire. 
 
 The second town in the county of Cork as to popula- 
 tion is Youghal, 1 * a seaport, at the mouth of the Black- 
 water. Sir Walter Raleigh, who held it by a grant from 
 the crown, disposed of his interest in it to Richard Boyle, 
 the first Earl of Cork, by whom it was much improved. 
 Cromwell sailed hence on the termination of his san- 
 guinary campaign in Ireland. It is a place of little trade, 
 being chiefly frequented for the purpose of sea-bathing. 
 The potato is said to have been first raised in Ireland in 
 a garden here. 
 
 The next town, as to population, is Kinsale. It under- 
 went two sieges, one in the time of Elizabeth, the other 
 in that of William. James II. also landed here on his 
 arrival to recover his throne. The town being built on 
 the side of a hill, presents a fine prospect, but, on 
 entering, the streets are found to be narrow, and the 
 communications difficult from the steepness of the declivi- 
 ties. A considerable fishing trade is carried on here. 
 The town gives the title of baron to the head of the 
 De Courcy family, who enjoys the singular right of 
 appearing covered in the royal presence. 
 
 Bandon Bridge is chiefly remarkable for the singular 
 antipathy formerly entertained by its inhabitants against 
 Roman Catholics, expressed by an inscription over one 
 of the gates, in the following pithy, though not very 
 liberal or poetical distich : 
 
 Turk, Jew or Atheist 
 
 May enter here, but not a papist. 
 
 So lately as 1750, it is said that it did not contain a sin- 
 gle resident Roman Catholic. Nor was a piper allowed 
 to play in the streets, the pipe being proscribed as an 
 Irish instrument. The inscription, however, is erased, 
 and the sectarian distinctions are dying away. Sir 
 Richard Cox, the writer of a prolix history of Ireland,* 
 was a native of this town. His work breathes the undi- 
 luted spirit of the political atmosphere whence he imbibed 
 his opinions. 
 
 Fermoy, on the Blackwater, is one of the most regu- 
 larly built towns in Ireland. It consists of a square with 
 diverging streets, in each of which the houses are built 
 according to an uniform elevation. Its increase in wealth 
 and dimensions was rapid during the late war, chiefly 
 owing to the erection of an extensive barrack in its 
 immediate vicinity. 
 
 Mallow, an inland town in the same county, 1 * is fre- 
 quented chiefly for its mineral waters. Tralee, the 
 
 e Dungarvon. 
 
 f On the rock of Cashel, are the old Gothic cathedral, the ruins of 
 Cormac’s chapel, adjoining the cathedral, and a high round tower, of 
 five stories, near the eastern angle of the north aisle. The rock was 
 formerly inclosed with a wall. (Ed. Enc.) — P. 
 
 s Cashel was the residence of the kings of Munster. — P. 
 h By the Stat. Tab. (Ireland, No. vii.) Bandon is next to Cork in pop- 
 ulation (12,(317) ; Youghal, third (9, 608.) — P. 
 
 * “ Hibernia Anglicana,” in two parts, 1689, 1700. — P. 
 k Cork county, in which Ferinoy is also situated. — P. 
 
646 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 [BOOK CLVII 
 
 county town of Kerry, is situated at the extremity of a 
 broad but shallow bay, between Kerry Head and Bran- 
 don Head. The episcopal church is a noble modem 
 structure. Large shoals of herrings are frequently taken 
 in the bay. Ennis, the county town of Clare, situated 
 at the northern extremity of the estuary of the Fergus, 
 has little to boast of except a Franciscan abbey, founded 
 by O’Brien in 1250, which is considered the most ele- 
 gant Gothic monastery in Ireland. 
 
 The province of Connaught, as appears from the 
 comparative statement of the numbers of inhabitants in 
 the towns of each of the great divisions of Ireland, is 
 peopled mostly by a rural population. Galway, the 
 chief town both of the province, and of the county of 
 the same name, is but the sixth in Ireland as to numbers. a 
 The town is situated on the neck of land that separates 
 Lough Corrib from the sea, b and was formerly of consid- 
 erable note, both as a place of strength and as a com- 
 mercial emporium, in which latter character it long dis- 
 puted the precedence with Limerick. Some manufac- 
 tures are carried on here, but the fisheries afford the 
 chief source of employment to the people. During the 
 war of 1688, the town, after a gallant defence, surren- 
 dered to General Ginkell on honourable terms. 0 
 
 Sligo, the second town in size in the province, was 
 built by the English, shortly after their arrival in the 
 country, and has ever since been a place of some impor- 
 tance. It now exports grain in large quantities. Near 
 the town is a relic of antiquity, called Lugna Clough, d 
 or the Giant’s grave, consisting of a number of stupen- 
 dous stones placed on each other, somewhat similar to 
 those of Stonehenge. Tuam, the seat of the archiepis- 
 copal see, is a town of small note. The cathedral is a 
 neat modern edifice. In trade and manufactures it 
 maintains a respectable rank as an inland town ; the 
 inhabitants are generally in good circumstances, and its 
 market is well supplied. The archbishop resides here in 
 a spacious but antiquated palace. Athlone, situated on 
 the Shannon, is but partly in Connaught,® the eastern 
 portion of it lying in the county of West Meath. It was 
 the main pass over the Shannon, and thence considered 
 
 a The fifth, in Stat. Tab. No. vii. — P. 
 
 b It stands on the river that connects Lough Corrib with the sea. 
 (Myers.) — P. 
 
 c General Ginckel (Ginkle) commanded in Ireland, after William’s 
 return to England. He took Athlone, Galway and Limerick. — P. 
 
 d Gaelic, Cloch, a stone. — P. 
 
 as a place of much importance. During the war of 
 1688 it underwent two sieges, the first by William III. 
 in person/ who failed in his attempt to force a passage 
 through it ; in the second it surrendered to General 
 Ginkell. At present it is one of the chief depots for 
 arms and military stores, and therefore is the quarters of 
 a large garrison, upon the expenditure of which the town 
 chiefly depends. 
 
 This description of Ireland cannot be concluded more 
 appropriately, than by the following quotations, which 
 form the opening and close of Sir John Davies’s cele- 
 brated tracts on the causes why Ireland continued so long 
 unsubdued and useless to the crown of England.® The 
 work commences with the description of the natural 
 capabilities of the country : “ Wherein I have observed 
 the good temperature of the ayre, the fruitfulness of the 
 soyle, the pleasant and commodious seats for habitation, 
 the safe and large ports and havens lying open for 
 trafficke into all the western parts of the world ; the 
 long inlets of many navigable rivers, and so many great 
 lakes and fresh ponds within the land, as the like are not 
 to be seen in any part of Europe ; the rich fishings ; the 
 wild fowle of all kinds; and lastly, the bodies and 
 mindes of the people endued with extraordinary abilities 
 of nature.” The conclusion of the treatise, in which ho 
 shows that the island was then, in the beginning of the 
 reign of James I., completely subdued, is wound up by 
 the following emphatic passage : — “ In which condition 
 of subjects they will gladly continue without defection or 
 adhering to any other lord or king, as long as they may 
 be protected and justly governed without oppression on 
 the one side, or impunity on the other. For there is no 
 nation of people under the sun, that doth love equall 
 and indifferent justice better than the Irish, or will rest 
 better satisfied with the execution thereof, although it be 
 against themselves, so as they may have the benefit and 
 protection of the law, when upon just cause they do 
 desire it.” 
 
 e In the county of Roscommon.— P. 
 
 The first attempt on Athlone was made by General Douglas, while 
 William was on his march from Dublin to Kilkenny. (Smollet.) — P. 
 
 e Published in 1612. — Sir J. Davies was successively solicitor and at- 
 torney-general, and judge, in Ireland, during the reign of James I. — P. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 647 
 
 STATISTICAL TABLES. 
 
 TABLE I . 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Real Property , as assessed. April 1815. Comparative Population. 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 Annual value of 
 thp Real Prop- 
 eity, as assessed 
 April 1815. 
 
 POPULATION. 
 
 1801. 
 
 1811. 
 
 1821. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Bedford 
 
 Berks 
 
 Buckingham . . . 
 
 Cambridge .... 
 
 Chester 
 
 Cornwall 
 
 Cumberland .... 
 
 Derby 
 
 Devon 
 
 Dorset 
 
 Durham 
 
 Essex 
 
 Gloucester .... 
 
 Hereford 
 
 Huntingdon .... 
 
 Kent 
 
 Lancaster 
 
 Leicester 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Middlesex .... 
 Monmouth .... 
 
 Norfolk 
 
 Northampton . . . 
 
 Northumberland . . 
 
 Nottingham .... 
 
 Oxford 
 
 Rutland 
 
 Salop 
 
 Somerset 
 
 Southampton (Hants) 
 
 Stafford 
 
 Suffolk 
 
 Surrey 
 
 Sussex 
 
 Warwick 
 
 Westmoreland . . . 
 
 Wilts 
 
 Worcester .... 
 York East Riding . . 
 
 City of York and Ainsty 
 York Nortli Riding 
 York West Riding 
 
 £343,685 
 
 643,781 
 
 643,492 
 
 645,554 
 
 1,083,083 
 
 916,060 
 
 705,446 
 
 887,659 
 
 1,897,515 
 
 698,395 
 
 791,359 
 
 1,556,836 
 
 1,463,259 
 
 571,107 
 
 320,188 
 
 1,644,179 
 
 3,087,774 
 
 902,217 
 
 2,061,830 
 
 5,595,537 
 
 295,097 
 
 1.540.952 
 942,162 
 
 1,240,594 
 
 737,229 
 
 713,147 
 
 133,487 
 
 1,037,988 
 
 1,900,651 
 
 1.130.952 
 1,150,285 
 1,127,404 
 1,579,173 
 
 915,348 
 
 1,236,727 
 
 298,199 
 
 1,155,459 
 
 7,999,605 
 
 1,120,434 
 
 69,892 
 
 1,166,948 
 
 2,396,222 
 
 63,393 
 109,215 
 107,444 
 89,346 
 191,751 
 188,269 
 117,230 
 161,142 
 343.001 
 115,319 
 160,561 
 226.437 
 250, 80S) 
 97,577 
 37,568 
 307,624 
 672,731 
 130,081 
 208,557 
 818,121 
 45,582 
 273,371 
 131,757 
 157,101 
 140,350 
 109,620 
 16,356 
 167,639 
 273,750 
 219,656 
 239,153 
 210,431 
 269,043 
 159,083 
 208,190 
 41,617 
 185,107 
 139,333 
 111,693 
 23,692 
 158,255 
 565,282 
 
 70,213 
 
 118.277 
 
 117,650 
 
 101,109 
 
 227,031 
 
 216,667 
 
 133,744 
 
 185,487 
 
 383.308 
 124,693 
 177,625 
 252,473 
 200,906 
 111,654 
 
 42,208 
 
 373,095 
 
 828.309 
 15()j419 
 237.891 
 953,276 
 
 62,127 
 
 291,099 
 
 141.353 
 
 172,161 
 
 162,900 
 
 119,191 
 
 16,380 
 
 194,296 
 
 303,180 
 
 245,080 
 
 295,153 
 
 234,211 
 
 323,851 
 
 190,083 
 
 228.735 
 
 45,922 
 
 193,828 
 
 160,546 
 
 135,319 
 
 26,422 
 
 169,391 
 
 656,042 
 
 83,716 
 
 131,977 
 
 134,068 
 
 121,909 
 
 270,098 
 
 257,447 
 
 156,124 
 
 213,333 
 
 439.040 
 144,499 
 207,673 
 
 289.424 
 335,843 
 129,714 
 
 48,771 
 
 426,016 
 
 1,052,859 
 
 174*571 
 
 283,058 
 
 1,144,531 
 
 71,833 
 
 344,368 
 
 162,483 
 
 198,965 
 
 186,873 
 
 136,971 
 
 18,487 
 
 206,153 
 
 355,314 
 
 283,298 
 
 341.040 
 270,542 
 398,658 
 233.019 
 274,392 
 
 51,359 
 
 222,157 
 
 184.424 
 154,934 
 
 29,527 
 
 187,452 
 
 801,274 
 
 95.400 
 
 145.200 
 
 146.400 
 
 143.200 
 334,314 
 
 301.000 
 
 171.700 
 236,900 
 
 494.400 
 
 159.400 
 
 253.700 
 
 317.200 
 
 386.700 
 
 143.300 
 53,100 
 
 478.400 
 1,335,800 
 
 197.000 
 
 317.400 
 1,358,200 
 
 98,200 
 
 390.000 
 
 179.300 
 
 223.000 
 
 225.400 
 152.100 
 
 19.400 
 222,800 
 402,500 
 
 314.700 
 
 410.400 
 
 296.000 
 
 485.700 
 
 272.300 
 337,600 
 
 55,000 
 
 240.200 
 
 211.400 
 
 169.800 
 34,461 
 
 190.800 
 
 976.400 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 Real Property, as assessed April 1815. Comparative Population. 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 Annual value of 
 the Real Proper- 
 ty, as assessed 
 April 1815. 
 
 POPULATION. 
 
 1801. 
 
 1811. 
 
 1821. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Aberdeen . . 
 
 
 
 £325.218 
 
 123,082 
 
 135,075 
 
 155,387 
 
 177,600 
 
 Argyle . . . 
 
 
 
 227,493 
 
 71,859 
 
 85,585 
 
 97,316 
 
 101 ,400 
 
 Ayr. . . . 
 
 
 
 409,983 
 
 84,306 
 
 103,954 
 
 127,299 
 
 145,100 
 
 Banff . . . 
 
 
 
 88,942 
 
 35,807 
 
 36,668 
 
 43,561 
 
 48,604 
 
 Berwick . . 
 
 
 
 245.379 
 
 30,621 
 
 30,779 
 
 33,385 
 
 34,000 
 
 Bute . . . 
 
 
 
 22,541 
 
 11,791 
 
 12,033 
 
 13,797 
 
 14,200 
 
 Caithness . . 
 
 
 
 35,469 
 
 22,609 
 
 23,419 
 
 30,238 
 
 34,500 
 
 Clackmannan 
 
 
 
 37,978 
 
 10,858 
 
 12,010 
 
 13,263 
 
 14,700 
 
 Dumbarton . 
 
 
 
 71,587 
 
 20,710 
 
 24,189 
 
 27,317 
 
 33,200 
 
 Dumfries . . 
 
 
 
 295,621 
 
 54,597 
 
 62,960 
 
 70,678 
 
 73,800 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 
 
 770,875 
 
 122,954 
 
 148,607 
 
 191,514 
 
 219,600 
 
 Elgin . . . 
 
 
 
 73,288 
 
 26,705 
 
 28,108 
 
 31,162 
 
 34,200 
 
 Fife . . . 
 
 
 
 405,770 
 
 93,743 
 
 101,272 
 
 114,550 
 
 128,800 
 
 Forfar . . . 
 
 
 
 361,241 
 
 99,127 
 
 107,264 
 
 113,138 
 
 139,600 
 
 Haddington . 
 
 
 
 251,126 
 
 29,986 
 
 31,164 
 
 35,127 
 
 36,100 
 
 Inverness . . 
 
 
 
 185,565 
 
 74,292 
 
 78,356 
 
 90,157 
 
 94,800 
 
 Kincardine . 
 
 
 
 94,861 
 
 26,349 
 
 27,439 
 
 29,118 
 
 31,400 
 
 Kinross . . 
 
 
 
 25,805 
 
 6,725 
 
 7,245 
 
 7,762 
 
 9,100 
 
 Kirkcudbright 
 
 
 
 213,308 
 
 29,211 
 
 33,684 
 
 38,903 
 
 40,600 
 
 Lanark . . 
 
 
 
 686,381 
 
 146,699 
 
 191,152 
 
 224,387 
 
 316,800 
 
 Linlithgow . 
 
 
 
 97,597 
 
 17,844 
 
 19,541 
 
 22,685 
 
 23,300 
 
 Nairn . . . 
 
 
 
 14,902 
 
 8,527 
 
 8,257 
 
 9,006 
 
 9,400 
 
 Orkney and Shetland 
 
 20,938 
 
 46,824 
 
 46,153 
 
 53,124 
 
 58,200 
 
 Peebles . . 
 
 
 
 64,182 
 
 8,735 
 
 9,935 
 
 10,046 
 
 10,600 
 
 Perth . . . 
 
 
 
 555,532 
 
 126,366 
 
 135,090 
 
 10,046 
 
 142,900 
 
 Renfrew . . 
 
 
 
 265,534 
 
 78,056 
 
 92,596 
 
 112,175 
 
 133,400 
 
 Ross and Crom 
 
 arty 
 
 121,557 
 
 55,343 
 
 60,853 
 
 68,828 
 
 74.800 
 
 Roxburgh 
 
 
 
 254,180 
 
 33,682 
 
 37,230 
 
 40,892 
 
 43,700 
 
 Selkirk . . 
 
 
 
 43,584 
 
 5,070 
 
 5,889 
 
 6,637 
 
 6,800 
 
 Stirling 
 
 
 
 218,766 
 
 50,825 
 
 58,174 
 
 65,376 
 
 72,600 
 
 Sutherland . 
 
 
 
 33,878 
 
 23,117 
 
 23,629 
 
 23,840 
 
 25,500 
 
 Wigton . . 
 
 
 
 143,425 
 
 24,918 
 
 26,918 
 
 33.240 
 
 36,330 
 
 Summary of the annual value of real property, as assessed April 1815, 
 £6,652,655. 
 
 Rate of Increase in the Population of Great Britain, bettoeen the 
 periods o/* 1801 and 1811, 1811 and 1821, 1821 and 1831. 
 
 WALES. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 Annual value of 
 the Real Prop- 
 erty, as assessed 
 April 1815. 
 
 POPULATION. 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 Population 
 in 1801. 
 
 Rate of 
 Increase in 
 1811. 
 
 Rate of 
 Increase in 
 1821. 
 
 Rate of 
 Increase in 
 1831. 
 
 1801. 
 
 1811. 
 
 1821. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Anglesey 
 
 £92,581 
 
 33,806 
 
 37.045 
 
 45.063 
 
 48,300 
 
 Bedford 
 
 63,393 
 
 11 per ct. 
 
 19 per ct. 
 
 14 per ct. 
 
 Brecon 
 
 146,530 
 
 31 ,633 
 
 37,735 
 
 43,613 
 
 47,800 
 
 Berks 
 
 109,215 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 Cardigan 
 
 141,889 
 
 42,965 
 
 50,260 
 
 57,784 
 
 64,700 
 
 Buckingham .... 
 
 107,444 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 Caermarthen . . . 
 
 277,455 
 
 61,317 
 
 77,217 
 
 90,239 
 
 100,800 
 
 Cambridge .... 
 
 89,346 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 Caernarvon .... 
 
 125,198 
 
 40,521 
 
 49,336 
 
 57,958 
 
 86,600 
 
 Chester 
 
 191,751 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 Denbigh 
 
 221 ,783 
 
 60,352 
 
 64,240 
 
 76,511 
 
 82,800 
 
 Cornwall 
 
 188,269 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 Flint 
 
 153,930 
 
 39,622 
 
 46,518 
 
 53,784 
 
 60,100 
 
 Cumberland .... 
 
 117,230 
 
 14 
 
 17 
 
 10 
 
 Glamorgan .... 
 
 334,192 
 
 71,525 
 
 85,067 
 
 101,737 
 
 126,200 
 
 Derby 
 
 161,142 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 Merioneth .... 
 
 111.436 
 
 27,506 
 
 30,924 
 
 34,382 
 
 34,500 
 
 Devon 
 
 343,001 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 Montgomery . . . 
 
 207,286 
 
 47,978 
 
 51,931 
 
 59,899 
 
 65,700 
 
 Dorset 
 
 115,319 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 Pembroke .... 
 
 219,589 
 
 56,280 
 
 60.615 
 
 74.009 
 
 80,900 
 
 Durham 
 
 160,561 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 22 
 
 Radnor 
 
 99,717 
 
 19.050 
 
 20,900 
 
 22,459 
 
 24,700 
 
 Essex 
 
 226,437 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
648 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Rale of Increase in the Population , fyc. (Continued.) 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 Population 
 in 1801. 
 
 Rate of 
 Increase in 
 1811. 
 
 Rate of 
 Increase in 
 1821. 
 
 Rate of 
 Increase in 
 1831. 
 
 Gloucester .... 
 
 250,809 
 
 12 per ct. 
 
 18 per ct. 
 
 15 per ct. 
 
 Hereford 
 
 89,191 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 Hertford 
 
 97,577 
 
 14 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 Huntingdon .... 
 
 37,598 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 Kent 
 
 307,624 
 
 21 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 Lancaster 
 
 672,731 
 
 23 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 Leicester 
 
 130,081 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 Lincoln . . . 
 
 208,557 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 12 
 
 Middlesex . . . 
 
 818,129 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 
 Monmouth .... 
 
 45,582 
 
 36 
 
 15 
 
 36 
 
 Norfolk 
 
 273,371 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 13 
 
 Northampton .... 
 
 131,757 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 Northumberland . . 
 
 157,101 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 Nottingham .... 
 
 140,350 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 Oxford 
 
 109,620 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 Rutland 
 
 16,356 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 Salop 
 
 167,639 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 Somerset 
 
 273,750 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 Southampton (Hants) . 
 
 219,656 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 Stafford 
 
 239,153 
 
 21 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 Suffolk 
 
 210,431 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 Surrey 
 
 269,043 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 Sussex 
 
 159,311 
 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 17 
 
 Warwick 
 
 208,190 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 23 
 
 Westmoreland . . . 
 
 41,617 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 Wilts 
 
 185,107 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 Worcester 
 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 York, (East Riding) 
 
 111,693 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 York, (City & Ainsty of) 
 
 23,692 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 17 
 
 York, (North Riding) . 
 
 158,225 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 York, (West Riding) . 
 
 565,282 
 
 16 
 
 22 
 
 22 
 
 WALES. 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 Population 
 in 1801. 
 
 Rate of 
 Increase in 
 1811. 
 
 Rate of 
 Increase in 
 1821. 
 
 Rate of 
 Increase in 
 1831. 
 
 Anglesey 
 
 33,806 
 
 10 per ct. 
 
 21 per ct. 
 
 7 per ct. 
 
 Brecon ...... 
 
 31,633 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 Cardigan 
 
 42,956 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 Caermarthen .... 
 
 67,317 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 Caernarvon .... 
 
 41,521 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 Denbigh 
 
 60,352 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 8 
 
 Flint 
 
 39,622 
 
 17 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 Glamorgan .... 
 
 71,525 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 24 
 
 Merioneth 
 
 27.506 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 Montgomery .... 
 
 47,978 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 Pembroke 
 
 56.280 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 Radnor 
 
 19,050 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 Population 
 in 1801. 
 
 Rate of 
 Increase in 
 1811. 
 
 Rate of 
 Increase in 
 1821. 
 
 Rate of 
 Increase in 
 1831. 
 
 Aberdeen 
 
 123,082 
 
 10 per ct. 
 
 15 per ct. 
 
 14 per ct. 
 
 Argyle 
 
 61 ,859 
 
 19 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 Ayr 
 
 84,306 
 
 23 
 
 22 
 
 14 
 
 Rate of Increase in the Population, fyc. (Continued.) 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 Population 
 in 1801. 
 
 Rate of 
 Increase in 
 1811. 
 
 Rate of 
 Increase in 
 1821. 
 
 Rate of 
 Increase in 
 1831. 
 
 Banff 
 
 35,307 
 
 2 per ct. 
 
 19 per ct. 
 
 12 per ct. 
 
 Berwick 
 
 30,621 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 Bute 
 
 11,791 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 Caithness 
 
 22,609 
 
 4 
 
 29 
 
 14 
 
 Clackmannan . . . 
 
 10,858 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 Dumbarton .... 
 
 20,710 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 22 
 
 Dumfries 
 
 54,597 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 122,954 
 
 21 
 
 29 
 
 15 
 
 Elgin 
 
 26,705 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 File 
 
 93,743 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 F orfar 
 
 99,127 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 23 
 
 Haddington .... 
 
 29,906 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 3 
 
 Inverness 
 
 74.292 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 Kincardine .... 
 
 26,349 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 Kinross 
 
 6,725 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 Kirkcudbright . . . 
 
 20.211 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 Lanark 
 
 146,699 
 
 31 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 Linlithgow .... 
 
 171.844 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 3 
 
 Nairn 
 
 8,527 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 Orkney and Shetland . 
 
 46,824 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 Peebles 
 
 8,735 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Perth 
 
 126,366 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 Renfrew 
 
 78,056 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 19 
 
 Ross and Cromarty 
 
 55,343 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 Roxburgh 
 
 33,682 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 Selkirk 
 
 5,070 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 Stirling 
 
 50,825 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 Sutherland .... 
 
 23,117 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 Wigton 
 
 22,918 
 
 17 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 Summary of the Annual Value of Real Property, as assesses 
 April 1815. 
 
 England £49,744,622 
 
 Wales 2,153,801 
 
 Scotland 6,652,655 
 
 £58,551,078 
 
 Summary of the Population of Great Britain. 
 
 
 Population 
 in the year 
 1801. 
 
 Increase 
 per cent. 
 
 Population 
 in the year 
 1811. 
 
 Increase 
 per cent. 
 
 Population 
 in the year 
 1821. 
 
 Increase 
 per cent. 
 
 Population 
 in the vear 
 1831. 
 
 England . 
 
 8,331,434 
 
 m 
 
 9,551,888 
 
 175 
 
 11.261,437 
 
 16 
 
 13,089,338 
 
 Wales . . 
 
 541,546 
 
 13 
 
 611 ,788 
 
 J7 
 
 717,438 
 
 12 
 
 805.236 
 
 Scotland . 
 
 1,599,068 
 
 14 
 
 1,805,688 
 
 16 
 
 2,093,456 
 
 13 
 
 2,365,807 
 
 Army, Na- > 
 vy, &c. ) 
 
 470,598 
 
 — 
 
 640,500 
 
 — 
 
 319,300 
 
 — 
 
 277,017 
 
 Total . . 
 
 10,942,646 
 
 
 12,609,864 
 
 14 
 
 14,391,631 
 
 15 
 
 16,537,398 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
 049 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 Number of Persons of both Sexes in the Counties of Great Britain, 
 according to the returns of 1831. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Counties of 
 
 Bedford 
 
 Berks 
 
 Backs 
 
 Cambridge 
 
 Chester 
 
 Cornwall 
 
 Cumberland 
 
 Derby 
 
 Devon 
 
 Dorset 
 
 Durham 
 
 Essex 
 
 Gloucester 
 
 Hereford 
 
 Hertford 
 
 Huntingdon 
 
 Kent 
 
 Lancaster 
 
 Leicester 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 Middlesex 
 
 Monmouth 
 
 Norfolk 
 
 Northampton 
 
 Northumberland . . . 
 
 Nottingham 
 
 Oxford 
 
 Rutland 
 
 Salop 
 
 Somerset 
 
 Southampton (Hants) . . 
 
 Stafford 
 
 Suffolk 
 
 Surrey 
 
 Sussex 
 
 Warwick 
 
 Westmoreland .... 
 
 Wilts 
 
 W orcester 
 
 York, East Riding, and ) 
 York, City and Ainsty of ) 
 York, North Riding . . 
 
 York, West Riding . . . 
 
 England, Total . . 
 
 WALES. 
 
 Counties of Males. 
 
 Anglesey 23,475 
 
 Brecon 23,896 
 
 Cardigan 30,868 
 
 Caermarthen 48,648 
 
 Caernarvon 31,810 
 
 Denbigh 41,388 
 
 Flint 29^924 
 
 Glamorgan . . ... 63,284 
 
 Merioneth 17,334 
 
 Montgomery 33,048 
 
 Pembroke 37,947 
 
 Radnor 12,453 
 
 Wales, Total . . . 394,075 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Total. 
 
 46,350 
 
 49,033 
 
 95,383 
 
 72.453 
 
 72,836 
 
 145,289 
 
 71,734 
 
 74,795 
 
 145,529 
 
 72,031 
 
 71,924 
 
 143,955 
 
 164,152 
 
 170,258 
 
 334,410 
 
 146,949 
 
 155,491 
 
 302,440 
 
 81,971 
 
 87,710 
 
 169.681 
 
 117,740 
 
 119,430 
 
 237,170 
 
 235,630 
 
 258,538 
 
 494,168 
 
 76,536 
 
 82,716 
 
 159,252 
 
 721,701 
 
 132,126 
 
 253,827 
 
 158,885 
 
 158,352 
 
 317,237 
 
 185,063 
 
 201,841 
 
 386,904 
 
 55,715 
 
 55,261 
 
 110,976 
 
 71,895 
 
 71,946 
 
 143,341 
 
 26,365 
 
 26,784 
 
 53,149 
 
 534,572 
 
 244,583 
 
 479,155 
 
 650,389 
 
 680,465 
 
 1,336,854 
 
 97,556 
 
 99,447 
 
 197,003 
 
 158,717 
 
 158,527 
 
 317,224 
 
 631,493 
 
 727,048 
 
 1,358,541 
 
 51,095 
 
 47,035 
 
 98,130 
 
 189,305 
 
 200,749 
 
 390,094 
 
 87,889 
 
 91,387 
 
 179,276 
 
 106,157 
 
 116,755 
 
 222,912 
 
 110,443 
 
 114,877 
 
 225,320 
 
 76,055 
 
 75,671 
 
 151,726 
 
 9,721 
 
 9,664 
 
 19,385 
 
 110,788 
 
 111,715 
 
 222,503 
 
 194,169 
 
 209,739 
 
 403,908 
 
 152,097 
 
 162,216 
 
 314*313 
 
 206,895 
 
 203,588 
 
 410,483 
 
 145.761 
 
 150,543 
 
 296,304 
 
 230,855 
 
 255,471 
 
 486,326 
 
 135,326 
 
 137,002 
 
 272,328 
 
 165,761 
 
 171,227 
 
 336,988 
 
 27,594 
 
 27.477 
 
 55,041 
 
 117,118 
 
 122,063 
 
 239481 
 
 103,367 
 
 107,989 
 
 211,356 
 
 98,524 
 
 105,484 
 
 204,008 
 
 93.232 
 
 97,641 
 
 190,873 
 
 485,845 
 
 490,570 
 
 976415 
 
 375,394 
 
 6,713,944 
 
 13,089,338 
 
 Counties of 
 
 Aberdeen . . . 
 
 Argyle .... 
 
 vnc. Ill— NO. G3 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 Males. 
 
 82.582 
 
 50,059 
 
 Females. 
 
 24,850 
 
 23,867 
 
 33,912 
 
 52,007 
 
 33.943 
 
 41,779 
 
 30,088 
 
 63,328 
 
 18,275 
 
 33,437 
 
 43,477 
 
 12,198 
 
 411,161 
 
 Females. 
 
 95,069 
 
 51,366 
 
 Total. 
 
 48,325 
 
 47,763 
 
 64,780 
 
 100,655 
 
 65,753 
 
 83,167 
 
 60,012 
 
 126,612 
 
 35,609 
 
 66,485 
 
 81,424 
 
 24,651 
 
 805,236 
 
 Total. 
 
 177,651 
 
 101,425 
 
 Counties of 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Total 
 
 Ayr 
 
 69,717 
 
 75,338 
 
 145,055 
 
 Banff 
 
 22,743 
 
 25,861 
 
 48,604 
 
 Berwick 
 
 16,239 
 
 17,809 
 
 34.529 
 
 Bute 
 
 6,495 
 
 7,656 
 
 14,729 
 
 Caithness 
 
 16,359 
 
 18,170 
 
 34,529 
 
 Clackmannan .... 
 
 7,095 
 
 7,634 
 
 14.729 
 
 Dumbarton 
 
 16,321 
 
 16,890 
 
 33,211 
 
 Dumfries 
 
 34.829 
 
 38,941 
 
 73.770 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 99,911 
 
 119,681 
 
 2191592 
 
 Elgin 
 
 15,779 
 
 18,452 
 
 34,231 
 
 Fife 
 
 60,780 
 
 68,059 
 
 128.839 
 
 Forfar 
 
 65,093 
 
 74,513 
 
 139,606 
 
 Haddington .... 
 
 17,397 
 
 18,748 
 
 30.145 
 
 Inverness 
 
 44,510 
 
 50,287 
 
 94,797 
 
 Kincardine 
 
 15,016 
 
 16,415 
 
 31.43? 
 
 Kinross 
 
 4,519 
 
 4,553 
 
 9,072 
 
 Kirkcudbright . . . 
 
 18,969 
 
 21,621 
 
 40,609 
 
 Lanark 
 
 159,259 
 
 166,590 
 
 316,819 
 
 Linlithgow 
 
 10,995 
 
 12,296 
 
 23,291 
 
 Nairn 
 
 4,307 
 
 5,047 
 
 9,354 
 
 Orkney and Shetland . 
 
 26,594 
 
 31,645 
 
 58*239 
 
 Peebles 
 
 5,342 
 
 5,236 
 
 10,578 
 
 Perth 
 
 68,565 
 
 74,329 
 
 142,894 
 
 Renfrew 
 
 61,154 
 
 72,289 
 
 133,443 
 
 Ross and Cromarty . . 
 
 34,927 
 
 39,893 
 
 24,820 
 
 Roxburgh 
 
 20,761 
 
 22,902 
 
 43.063 
 
 Selkirk 
 
 3,394 
 
 3,439 
 
 6,833 
 
 Stirling 
 
 35,283 
 
 37,338 
 
 72,021 
 
 Sutherland .... 
 
 12,090 
 
 13,420 
 
 25,518 
 
 Wigton 
 
 17,078 
 
 19,180 
 
 36,258 
 
 Scotland, Total . . 
 
 . 1,115,132 
 
 1,250,675 
 
 2,365,807 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 No. I. 
 
 Table of the Extent and Value of the several. Counties, Counties of 
 Cities, and Counties of Towns, with the amount of the County 
 Assessments, and the Proportion of the Sums levied for County 
 Cess and Tithe, to £1 sterling in the value of the Land. — The 
 Parish Cesses are not included in this Table. 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 
 
 
 
 Proportion of 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 Contents in 
 Statute 
 Acres. 
 
 Estimated 
 
 Value. 
 
 Value 
 
 per 
 
 Statute 
 
 Average of 
 County Cess in 
 1830—183 1. 
 
 County Cess and 
 Tithe, to One 
 Pound sterling - in 
 the Value of Lhe 
 
 
 
 
 Acre. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Land. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cess. 
 
 Tithe. 
 
 Leinster. 
 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d ■ 
 
 Carlow . . 
 
 219,863 
 
 104,895 
 
 0 15 0 
 
 10,326 
 
 1 10 
 
 1 
 
 3.1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 Dublin . . 
 
 240,104 
 
 216,093 
 
 0 18 0 
 
 21,319 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Dublin City 
 
 8,527 
 
 34,108 
 
 4 0 0 
 
 14.831 
 
 16 
 
 6.1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Kildare . . 
 
 392,435 
 
 255,082 
 
 0 13 0 
 
 18,904 
 
 10 
 
 51 
 
 1 
 
 51 
 
 l 
 
 31 
 
 Kilkenny . 
 
 491,399 
 
 393,119 
 
 0 16 0 
 
 17,036 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 l 
 
 5 
 
 Kilkenny | 
 King’s . 
 
 22,287 
 
 44,574 
 
 2 00 
 
 2,232 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 528,166 
 
 317,019 
 
 0 12 0 
 
 15,095 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 111 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Longford . 
 
 263,645 
 
 151,595 
 
 0 11 6 
 
 10,215 
 
 10 
 
 4.1 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Louth . . 
 
 200,484 
 
 150,363 
 
 0 15 0 
 
 10,516 
 
 7 
 
 «i 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 1 
 
 51 
 
 Drogheda ) 
 Town 5 
 
 5,777 
 
 14,402 
 
 2 10 0 
 
 1,178 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 71 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Meath . . 
 
 567,127 
 
 510,414 
 
 0 18 0 
 
 25,724 
 
 0 
 
 61 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Queen’s 
 
 396,810 
 
 277,767 
 
 0 14 0 
 
 19,556 
 
 12 
 
 3 1 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 51 
 
 West Meath 
 
 386,251 
 
 251,063 
 
 0 1.3 0 
 
 15,735 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Wexford 
 
 564,479 
 
 395,134 
 
 0 14 0 
 
 33,728 
 
 9 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 51 
 
 Wicklow 
 
 494,704 
 
 296,822 
 
 0 12 0 
 
 18,650 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Ulster. 
 Antrim . . 
 
 742,324 
 
 556,743 
 
 0 15 0 
 
 42,909 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 6| 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 Carrickfer- ) 
 gus Town S 
 
 16,542 
 
 12,406 
 
 0 15 0 
 
 811 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 33 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Armagh 
 
 328,183 
 
 178,955 
 
 0 17 0 
 
 23,655 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Cavan . 
 
 473.449 
 
 307,741 
 
 0 13 0 
 
 23,852 
 
 7 
 
 
 1 
 
 6> 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Donegal 
 
 1,165,107 
 
 349,501 
 
 0 60 
 
 24,606 
 
 15 
 
 4-J 
 
 1 
 
 43 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 82 
 
650 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Table of the Extent and Value of the several Counties, fyc. 
 (Continued.) 
 
 Table of the Geographical Positions of the principal Seaports and 
 Headlands. (Continued.) 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 
 Contents in 
 Statute 
 Acres. 
 
 Estimated 
 
 Value. 
 
 Average- 
 
 Value 
 
 per 
 
 Statute 
 
 Acre. 
 
 Average of 
 County Cess in 
 1830—1831. 
 
 Proportion of 
 County Cess and 
 1 ithe, to One 
 Pound sterling in 
 the Value of the 
 Land. 
 
 Ulster. 
 Down . . 
 
 
 011,404 
 
 489,123 
 
 £ s. d. 
 0 10 0 
 
 £ s. 
 37,471 15 
 10,705 18 
 
 d. 
 
 94 
 
 Cess. 
 s. d. 
 
 1 04 
 
 Tithe. 
 S. d. 
 
 1 4 
 
 Fermanagh 
 
 
 471,341 
 
 259,241 
 
 0 11 0 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 34 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Londonderry 
 
 518,270 
 
 310,902 
 
 0 12 0 
 
 24,902 2 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 01 
 
 1 
 
 114 
 
 Monaghan 
 
 
 327,048 
 
 212,581 
 
 0 13 0 
 
 19,043 19 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Tyrone 
 
 
 754,395 
 
 528,005 
 
 0 14 0 
 
 42,893 7 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 74 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 Munster. 
 Clare . . 
 
 
 802,352 
 
 441,393 
 
 0 11 0 
 
 30,439 2 
 
 84 
 
 1 
 
 44 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Cork . . 
 
 
 1,725,100 
 
 1,137,242 
 
 0 13 7 
 
 05,473 15 10 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 Cork City 
 
 
 44,403 
 
 00,094 
 
 344,010 
 
 1 10 0 
 
 18,952 15 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Kerry . . 
 
 
 1,148,720 
 
 0 70 
 
 30,559 0 
 
 6* 
 
 1 
 
 94 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Limerick . 
 
 
 040,021 
 
 544,527 
 
 0 17 0 
 
 30,515 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 I 
 
 0 
 
 Limerick 
 
 City 
 
 Tipperary 
 
 
 34,102 
 
 85,405 
 
 2 10 0 
 
 5,921 4 
 
 84 
 
 1 
 
 44 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 1,013,173 
 
 880,439 
 
 270j958 
 
 0 17 0 
 
 52,532 10 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 Waterford 
 
 
 401,598 
 
 0 12 0 
 
 10,980 8 
 
 74 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 W atei'ord 
 City 
 
 
 9,083 
 
 18,300 
 
 2 00 
 
 4,348 14 104 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Connaught 
 Galway . 
 
 
 1,485,533 
 
 850,000 
 
 0 11 5 
 
 30,441 11 114 
 
 0 
 
 84 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Galway 
 
 Town 
 
 
 25,059 
 
 18,894 
 
 0 15 0 
 
 3,731 15 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Leitrim 
 
 
 420,375 
 
 210,187 
 
 0 10 0 
 
 15,170 17 
 
 04 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Mayo . . 
 
 
 1,355,048 
 
 550,018 
 
 0 80 
 
 21,287 2 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 114 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 Roscommon 
 
 
 007,405 
 
 379,028 
 
 0 12 0 
 
 23,070 11 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 Sligo . . 
 
 
 454,887 
 
 227,443 
 
 0 10 0 
 
 19,224 2 
 
 54 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 l 
 
 0 
 
 Ireland . 
 
 
 20,399,008 
 
 12,715,578 
 
 0 12 5J 
 
 800,111 9 
 
 34 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 34 
 
 *** In Counties of Cities and Counties of Towns, the Clergy are 
 chiefly paid by a tax on the houses, called Minister’s Money, and 
 therefore the Tithe has not been introduced into this Table. 
 
 No. II. 
 
 Table of the Geographical Positions of the principal Seaports and 
 Headlands. 
 
 Malin Head . . . 
 
 Londonderry city . 
 Fair Head . . . 
 
 Tor Point . . . 
 
 Carrickfergus town 
 Belfast town . . 
 
 Donaghadee town 
 
 Ballywalter town . 
 
 Ballyquintin Point 
 Downpatrick town 
 St. John’s Point . 
 Drogheda town 
 Howth, bailey of . 
 Dunsink observatory 
 Wicklow Head 
 Wexford town . . 
 
 Carnsore Point . . 
 
 Hook Head . . . 
 
 Waterford city . . 
 
 Ardmore Head . . 
 
 Youghal town . . 
 
 Cove town . . . 
 
 Kinsale town . . 
 
 Brow Head . . . 
 
 Crow Head . 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 55° 
 
 20' 
 
 40" 
 
 70 
 
 24' 
 
 0" 
 
 54 
 
 59 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 30 
 
 55 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 55 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 54 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 5 
 
 47 
 
 0 
 
 54 
 
 36 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 56 
 
 0 
 
 54 
 
 38 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 31 
 
 50 
 
 54 
 
 32 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 0 
 
 54 
 
 19 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 20 
 
 54 
 
 19 
 
 50 
 
 5 
 
 42 
 
 0 
 
 54 
 
 13 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 39 
 
 0 
 
 53 
 
 43 
 
 45 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 53 
 
 21 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 53 
 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 0 
 
 52 
 
 58 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 56 
 
 30 
 
 52 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 30 
 
 52 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 45 
 
 52 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 58 
 
 0 
 
 52 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 30 
 
 51 
 
 57 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 41 
 
 40 
 
 51 
 
 58 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 52 
 
 30 
 
 51 
 
 51 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 45 
 
 51 
 
 42 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 33 
 
 0 
 
 51 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 48 
 
 0 
 
 51 
 
 34 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 40 
 
 The most northern 
 point of Ireland. 
 
 The nearest point 
 to Scotland. 
 
 The most eastern 
 point of Ireland. 
 
 Near Dublin. 
 
 The most southern 
 point of Ireland. 
 
 Dingle town . . 
 
 Dunmore Head 
 
 Brandon Head . . 
 
 Tralee town . . . 
 
 Kerry Head . . . 
 
 Limerick city . . 
 
 Loop Head . 
 
 Black Head . . . 
 
 Galway town . . 
 
 Sline Head . . . 
 
 Aghris Point . . 
 
 Westport town . . 
 
 Achil Head . . . 
 
 Erris Head . . . 
 
 Sligo town . . . 
 
 Donegal town . . 
 
 Telen Head . . . 
 
 Bloodyfarland Point 
 Horn Head . . . 
 
 Latitude. Longitude. 
 
 52° 
 
 10' 
 
 30" 
 
 10° 
 
 15' 
 
 45" 
 
 52 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 52 
 
 19 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 20 
 
 52 
 
 16 
 
 50 
 
 9 
 
 43 
 
 0 
 
 52 
 
 24 
 
 40 
 
 9 
 
 54 
 
 0 
 
 52 
 
 39 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 52 
 
 33 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 54 
 
 0 
 
 53 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 53 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 53 
 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 40 
 
 53 
 
 32 
 
 45 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 53 
 
 48 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 53 
 
 58 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 20 
 
 54 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 56 
 
 15 
 
 54 
 
 16 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 0 
 
 54 
 
 38 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 54 
 
 40 
 
 45 
 
 8 
 
 46 
 
 30 
 
 55 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 55 
 
 12 
 
 50 
 
 7 
 
 .58 
 
 20 
 
 The most western 
 point of Ireland. 
 
 No. III. 
 
 Names and Situation of the Tribes settled in Ireland, according to 
 Ptolemy ; and of the principal Septs or Families at the Com- 
 mencement of the 17 Ih Century, according to O'Connor. 
 
 LEINSTER. 
 
 County. 
 
 Ptolemy. 
 
 O’Connor. 
 
 Carlow 
 
 Brigantes 
 
 Cooke, Brown, Bagnall, O’Nolan, 
 
 
 Caucoi a 
 
 O’Ryan, Carew, M’Morrough, Ca- 
 venagh. 
 
 Dublin 
 
 Eblani b 
 
 Grace, St. Laurence, Warren, Lut- 
 trel, Talbot, Harold, Wolverston, 
 O’Brin. 
 
 Kildare 
 
 Caucoi 
 
 White, Allen, Sarsfield, Rice, Wogan, 
 Aylmer, Fitzgerald, Brown, Eus- 
 tace. 
 
 
 Eblani 
 
 Kilkenny 
 
 Brigantes 
 
 Grace, O’Brenan, Wandesford, Butler, 
 
 Caucoi 
 
 O'Shea, Rooth, Harpur, Walsh, 
 Shortal. 
 
 King’s Co. 
 
 Brigantes 
 
 Fitz-Simons, O'Connor, Hy Falie, 
 O’Molloys, O’Carrol, O’Delany. 
 
 Longford 
 
 
 O’Ferral. 
 
 Louth 
 
 
 Portlance, Bellew, Taaffe, Verdon, 
 Gernon, Dowdall, Fleming, Net- 
 terville, Darcy, Nangle, Barne- 
 wall, Denny, Preston, Cadell, Cu- 
 sack, Bellew, Cheevers, Mare- 
 ward, Plunket, Hussey, Dease. 
 
 Meath 
 
 Eblani 
 
 Queen’s Co. 
 
 Brigantes 
 
 O’Regan, O’Dempsey, O’Don, 
 
 O'More, O’Mooney, Keating, Fitz- 
 Patrick. 
 
 West Meath 
 
 
 Nugent, O’Melaghlin, Petit, 
 
 M’Geoghegan, Dillon, M’Auley, 
 O’Malone, O'Daly. 
 
 Wexford 
 
 Manapii 
 
 Hy Kenselagh, Brown, Talbot, 
 M’Murrough, Colclough, Sutton, 
 Butler, Masterson, Keating, Co- 
 merford, Redmond, Devereux, 
 
 Hay. 
 
 Wicklou 
 
 
 O’Birne, Wallis or Walsh, O’Toole. 
 
 ULSTER. 
 
 Antrim Robogdii M'Willins, O'Hara, O’Shiel, Mac- 
 
 Voluntii Donall, O’Neil. 
 
 Armagh Vinderii c O’Neil, Caulfield, Brownlow, O'Han- 
 
 Voluntii Ion, Acheson. 
 
 a Ka.vy.oi — Catici (Lat.) — P. 
 
 11 Blani. (Edit. Mercator.) — Blanii or Eblanii. (Martiniere.) — In a 
 MS. quoted by Ortelias, 'Epivroi (Hebdyni.) — P. 
 
 c In Mercator’s Edition, there is no people mentioned called the 
 Vinderii. Among the geographical positions is the following : Vindcrii 
 Jtuvii ostia (mouth of the river Vinderius.) — P. 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
 651 
 
 County. 
 
 Ptolemy. 
 
 O’Connor. 
 
 Cavan 
 
 Erdini 
 
 O’Reilly, O’Curry, Plunket, O’Sher- 
 idan, O’Brady, M’Kiernan, Ha- 
 milton. 
 
 Donegal 
 
 Erdini 
 
 O’Dogherty, M’Swiny Fanet, 
 
 M’Conemy, O’Donnel, M’Swiney 
 na ttia, M’Ward, O’Boyle, O’Gal- 
 lagher, O’Clery. 
 
 Vennicnii 
 
 Down 
 
 Vinderii 
 
 M’Ginnes, Savage, O’Neil, White, 
 
 
 Voluntii 
 
 Robogdii 
 
 M’Cartan. 
 
 Fermanagh 
 
 Darini* 
 
 M’Gwire, Cole, O’Flanegan. 
 
 Londonderry 
 
 Vennicnii 
 
 O’Cahan, O’Conor, O’Murry, O’Do- 
 nell. 
 
 Monaghan 
 
 
 M'Mahon. 
 
 Tyrone 
 
 Erdini 
 
 O’Neil, Hamilton, Caulfield, O’Ha- 
 gan, Chichester. 
 
 MUNSTER. 
 
 Clare 
 
 Gangani 
 
 O’Daly, O’Loghlin, O’Davoran, 
 O’Brien, O’Finn, O’Dea, M’Bru- 
 eddin, O’Honeen, O’Conor, M’Gil- 
 
 Cork 
 
 Kerry 
 
 Limerick 
 
 Tipperary 
 
 lysaght, O’Grady, M’Innerny, 
 O’Molony, O’Halloran, Sexten, 
 M’Clancy, M’Namara Reagh, 
 M'Namara Finn, M’Mahon, O’He- 
 hir, M’Gillereagh, M’Considin, 
 O’Gorman, M’Gorman. 
 
 Juvernii b Fitzgerald, Meagh, Barry, Condon, 
 
 Coriondi M’Carthy, Gibbon, M’Donogh, 
 
 Yodii c Roche, Nagle, O’Donohoe, 
 
 O’Keefe, O’Lyons, Baine, Copin- 
 ger, Gold, O’Calaghan, O’Hely, 
 O’Hennesy, O’Riordan, O'Daly, 
 Boyle, Carevv, Barry, Waters, 
 Skyddy, Stackpole, Archdeacon, 
 Sandfield, Galwey, O’Kearney, 
 O’Leary, O’Crowly, M’Carthy 
 Reagh, O’Hea, O’Mahony, O’Dris- 
 coll, O’Sullivan, O’Donovan, 
 Barry. 
 
 Duellabri d O’Connor Kerry, Blenerhasset, 
 
 Juvernii Crosby, Fitzmaurice, Denny, Fitz- 
 
 gerald, M’Elliott, Trant, Rice, 
 Browne, O’Donoghoe, Conway, 
 O’Falvy, M’Carty More, M’Gilli- 
 cuddy, O’Sullivan More, O’Ma- 
 hown 
 
 Coriondi O’Brien, O'Hurly, O’Grady, De 
 
 Duellabri Lacey, Arthur, Roche, O’Quin, 
 
 Fanning, Corny n, Browne, Creagh, 
 Stritch, Harrold, M’Mahon, Nash, 
 Purcel, O’Casey, Fitzgerald, 
 O’Halinan, O’Scanlan, Aylmer, 
 M'Sheehy, White, Morony, Sars- 
 field, M’Enery, O’Gorman. 
 
 Darini M’Egan, O’Kennedy, O’Hogan, Ma- 
 
 Coriondi grath, O’Brien O’Mulrian, O’Hick- 
 
 ey, O’Meagher, O’Carrol, Purcel, 
 O’Fogarty, Matthews, Butler, Eve- 
 rard, O’Dwyer, Burke, Woulfe, 
 O’Heffernan, Cantwell O’Kearny, 
 Tobin, Mandeville, Fitzgerald, 
 Fitzgibbon. 
 
 a Darni. (Ed. Merc.) — Darni, Darnii, or Darini. (Martiniere.) — P. 
 b Not in Ed. Merc. Qu. Uterni. — Ptolemy places the Uterni on the 
 southern coast of the island. In a MS. quoted by Ortelius, the reading 
 is Juberni. In others, the name is Juernii (Iovcqvioi.) (Martiniere.) — P. 
 
 County. 
 
 Waterford 
 
 Ptolemy. O’Connor. 
 
 Manapii O’Brien, Aylward, Poer, O’Feolan, 
 
 Wyse, Walsh, Wadding, Sherlock, 
 Dalton, M’Thomas, Boyle. 
 
 Galway 
 
 Leitrim 
 
 CONNAUGHT. 
 
 Gangani O’Maly, O’Flaherty, Birmingham, 
 Auteri 6 O’Halloran, O’Kirwan, Martin, 
 
 Blake, Skerret, Lynch, Browne, 
 O’Heney, O’Shaughnesy, O'Mad- 
 den, Burke, Ftench, Darcy, O'Mul- 
 lallay. O’Daly. 
 
 O’Ruark, M’Gauran, M’Ranell, 
 M’Conavan, M’Dermot Roe. 
 
 Mayo Auteri M’William, Burke, Barrett, Jordan, 
 
 Dillon, M’Phillips, M’Costello ot 
 Nangle, Browne, Joyce, Bingham, 
 Fitzmaurice. 
 
 Roscommon Auteri O’Fallon, O’Kelly, O’Naghton, 
 
 O’Birn, O’Flanegan, King, M’Der- 
 mot, O’Conor Don, O’Donellan, 
 Crofton, O’Hanly, O’Flyn, M’Da 
 vid, Burke. 
 
 Sligo Nagnat® O’Conor Sligo, O’Dowd, M’Firbis, 
 
 O'Hara, O’Bean, M’DonogL, 
 O’Gara. 
 
 No. IV. 
 
 Heights of the Principal Mountains. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Macgillicuddy’s Reeks, Kerry, 3695 
 
 Lugnaquilla, .... Wicklow, 3070 
 
 Slieve Donard, . . . Down, 2809 
 
 Muilrea, Mayo, 2733 
 
 Mangerton, Kerry, 2693 
 
 Croagh Patrick, . . . Mayo 2660 
 
 Nephin Mayo, 2630 
 
 Kippure-head, .... Wicklow, 2527 
 
 Comaderry, Wicklow, 2268 
 
 Arragh, Donegal, 2220 
 
 Great Sugar-loaf, . . . Wicklow, 2004 
 
 No. V. 
 
 Islands on the Coast of Ireland. 
 
 Province. 
 
 Tot.il number 
 of Islands. 
 
 Number of in- 
 habited Islands. 
 
 Population 
 
 Leinster, 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 34 
 
 Ulster, 
 
 40 
 
 27 
 
 4,546 
 
 Munster, 
 
 70 
 
 50 
 
 22,827 
 
 Connaught, 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 15,592 
 
 
 196 
 
 138 
 
 42,999 
 
 c Vodise. (Ed. Merc.) — P. 
 
 d Not in Ed. Merc. Qu. Vellabri. — Velabori or Vellabori ; a Greek 
 MS. OveXXa/iQoi ; some Latin copies, Vellagori. (Martiniere.) — P. 
 e Autini (Ed. Merc. Text. Ind. Gen.) Auteri (Id. Ind. Eur.) — P. 
 
652 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 No. VI. 
 
 Tabic of the Population of Ireland in the Years 1812, 1821, and 1831. 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 1812. 
 
 1821. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Total 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Carlow 
 
 69,566 
 
 78,952 
 
 81,576 
 
 12,010 
 
 Dublin 
 
 287,057 
 
 335,892 
 
 386,694 
 
 99,637 
 
 Kildare 
 
 85,133 
 
 99,065 
 
 108,401 
 
 23,268 
 
 Kilkenny .... 
 
 155,664 
 
 181,946 
 
 193,024 
 
 37,360 
 
 King’s 
 
 113,266 
 
 131,088 
 
 144,029 
 
 30,763 
 
 Longford .... 
 
 95,917 
 
 107,570 
 
 112,391 
 
 16,474 
 
 Louth 
 
 105,111 
 
 119,129 
 
 125,533 
 
 20,422 
 
 Meath 
 
 142,479 
 
 159,183 
 
 177,023 
 
 34,544 
 
 Queen’s .... 
 
 113,857 
 
 134.275 
 
 145,843 
 
 21,986 
 
 West Meath . . . 
 
 112,000 
 
 128.819 
 
 148,161 
 
 36,161 
 
 Wexford .... 
 
 160,000 
 
 170,806 
 
 182,991 
 
 22,991 
 
 Wicklow .... 
 
 83,109 
 
 110,767 
 
 122,301 
 
 39,192 
 
 Leinster .... 
 
 1,523,159 
 
 1,757,492 
 
 1,927,967 
 
 404,808 
 
 Antrim 
 
 237,684 
 
 270,883 
 
 323,306 
 
 85,622 
 
 Armagh .... 
 
 121,499 
 
 197,427 
 
 220,651 
 
 99,152 
 
 Cavan 
 
 164,000 
 
 195,076 
 
 228,050 
 
 64,050 
 
 Donegal .... 
 
 212,100 
 
 248,270 
 
 298,104 
 
 86,004 
 
 Down 
 
 287,290 
 
 325,410 
 
 352,571 
 
 65,281 
 
 Fermanagh . . . 
 
 111,250 
 
 130,997 
 
 149,555 
 
 38,305 
 
 Londonderry . . . 
 
 186,181 
 
 193,869 
 
 222,416 
 
 36,235 
 
 Monaghan . . . 
 
 140,433 
 
 174,697 
 
 195,532 
 
 55,099 
 
 Tyrone 
 
 250,746 
 
 261 ,865 
 
 302,943 
 
 52,197 
 
 Ulster 
 
 1,711,183 
 
 1,998,494 
 
 2,293,128 
 
 581,945 
 
 Clare 
 
 160,603 
 
 208,089 
 
 258,262 
 
 97,659 
 
 Cork 
 
 588.330 
 
 730,444 
 
 807,366 
 
 219,036 
 
 Kerry . ... 
 
 178,622 
 
 216,185 
 
 219,989 
 
 41,367 
 
 Limerick . . . 
 
 162,465 
 
 277,477 
 
 300,080 
 
 137,615 
 
 Tipperary .... 
 
 290,531 
 
 346,896 
 
 402,598 
 
 112,067 
 
 Waterford .... 
 
 144,924 
 
 156,521 
 
 176,898 
 
 31,974 
 
 Munster .... 
 
 1,525,475 
 
 1,935,612 
 
 2,165,193 
 
 639,718 
 
 Galway .... 
 
 269,000 
 
 337,374 
 
 427,407 
 
 158,407 
 
 Leitrim .... 
 
 94,095 
 
 124,785 
 
 141,303 
 
 47,208 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 1812 
 
 1821. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Total 
 
 Increase. 
 
 Mayo 
 
 Roscommon . . . 
 
 Sligo 
 
 237,371 
 
 158,110 
 
 119,265 
 
 293,112 
 
 208,729 
 
 146,229 
 
 367,956 
 
 239,903 
 
 171,508 
 
 130,585 
 
 81.793 
 
 5j243 
 
 Connaught . . . 
 
 877,841 
 
 1,110,229 
 
 1,348,077 
 
 470,236 
 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 
 
 Leinster .... 
 
 Ulster 
 
 Munster .... 
 Connaught . . . 
 
 1,523,159 
 
 1,711,183 
 
 1,525,475 
 
 877,841 
 
 1,757,492 
 
 1,998,494 
 
 1,935,612 
 
 1,110,229 
 
 1,927,967 
 
 2,293,128 
 
 2,165,193 
 
 1,348,077 
 
 404,808 
 
 581,945 
 
 639,718 
 
 470,236 
 
 Ireland .... 
 
 5,637,658 
 
 6,801,827 
 
 7,734,365 
 
 2,096,707 
 
 The population of the following cities and towns is included in the 
 preceding table in the total contents of the counties to which they 
 respectively belong, but it is not particularly specified in the enu- 
 meration of 1812. In those of 1821 and 1831, the amounts are as 
 follow : — 
 
 CITY or TOWN. 
 
 COUNTY. 
 
 1821. 
 
 1831. 
 
 Increase or Diminution. 
 
 Dublin City . . 
 
 Dublin 
 
 185,881 
 
 203,652 
 
 Increase, 
 
 17,771 
 
 Kilkenny City 
 
 Kilkenny 
 
 23,230 
 
 23,741 
 
 Do. 
 
 511 
 
 Drogheda Town . 
 
 Louth 
 
 18.118 
 
 17,365 
 
 Decrease, 
 
 750 
 
 Carrickfergus Town 
 
 Antrim 
 
 8,023 
 
 8,698 
 
 Increase, 
 
 675 
 
 Cork City . . . 
 
 Cork 
 
 100,658 
 
 107,007 
 
 Do. 
 
 6349 
 
 Limerick City . . 
 
 Limerick 
 
 59,045 
 
 66,575 
 
 Do. 
 
 7530 
 
 Waterford City . 
 
 Waterford 
 
 28,679 
 
 28.821 
 
 Do. 
 
 142 
 
 Galway Town . . 
 
 Galway 
 
 27,775 
 
 33,120 
 
 Do. 
 
 5345 
 
 No. VII. 
 
 Population of the Cities and Towns in Ireland of 1 000 Souls and upwards. 
 
 *f The County Towns are printed in Capitals. 
 
 LEINSTER. 
 
 ULSTER. MUNSTER. CONNAUGHT. 
 
 Upwards of 100,000 Inhabitants. 
 
 Dublin, Dull. . . 
 
 . £03,752 
 
 
 Cork, Cork, . . . 
 
 107,041 | 
 
 
 
 From 100,000 to 10,000. 
 
 
 Kilkenny, Kilk. . 
 Drogheda, Lou. . . 
 
 Athlone, Rose. West. . 
 Wexford, Wcxf. . . 
 
 Dundalk, Lou. . . 
 
 23,741 
 . 17,365 
 . 11,362 
 . 10,673 
 . 10,078 
 
 Belfast, Antr 53,287 
 
 Londonderry, L.derrij, . 13,251 
 Newry, Down 13,134 
 
 Limerick, Lim. . . 
 Waterford, Water. . 
 Clonmel, Tip. . . . 
 
 Bandon, Cork, . . . 
 
 . 65,092 
 . 2S;821 
 . 17,838 
 
 . 12,617 
 
 Galway, Galw. . . 
 Sligo, Sli 
 
 33,120 
 
 15,152 
 
 From 10,000 to S000. 
 
 Carlow, Carl. . . 
 
 . . 9,114 
 
 Armagh, Arm. . . . 
 
 . 9.189 
 
 Carrick on Suir, Tip. . 
 
 . 9,626 
 
 
 
 Carrickfergus, Ant. . 
 
 . 8,698 
 
 Youghal, Cork, . . 
 
 . 9.608 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tralee, Kct. . . 
 
 . 9,562 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nenagh, Tip. . . . 
 
 . 8,446 
 

 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
 
 
 653 
 
 
 LEINSTER. 
 
 
 ULSTER. 
 
 
 MUNSTER. 
 
 
 CONNAUGHT. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 From 8000 to 6000. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Parsonstown, King's, . 
 
 . 6,504 
 
 
 
 Killarney, Ker 
 
 7,910 
 
 Castlebar, May. . . . 
 
 6,373 
 
 
 Tullamore, King’s, . . 
 
 . 6,342 
 
 
 
 Ennis, Cla 
 
 7,711 
 
 Loughrea, Galw. 
 
 6,28' 
 
 
 Callan, Kilk 
 
 . 6,111 
 
 
 
 Kinsale, Cork, . . . . 
 
 7,312 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thurles, Tip 
 
 7,084 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fermoy, Cork, . . . . 
 
 6,976 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tipperary, Tip 
 
 6,972 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cashel, Tip 
 
 6,971 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cove, Cork, 
 
 6,966 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dungarvan, Wat. . . 
 
 6,519 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 From 6000 to 4000. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Enniscorthy, IVex. . . 
 
 . 5,955 
 
 Strabane, Tyr. . . . 
 
 . 5,457 
 
 Roscrea, Tip 
 
 5,512 
 
 Ballina, Mayo, .... 
 
 5,510 
 
 
 Kingstown, Dubl. . . 
 
 . 5,736 
 
 Ballymacarrett, Down. 
 
 . 5,168 
 
 Mallow, Cork, . . . . 
 
 5,229 
 
 Ballinasloe, Galw. . . . 
 
 4,615 
 
 
 New Ross, Wex. . . . 
 
 . 5,011 
 
 Enniskillen, Ferm. . 
 
 . 5,270 
 
 Rathkeale, Lim 
 
 4,972 
 
 Tuam, Galie 
 
 4,571 
 
 
 Mountmellick, Que. 
 
 . 4,577 
 
 Lisburn, Ant 
 
 . 5,218 
 
 Charleville, Cork, . . 
 
 4,766 
 
 Westport, Mayo, . . . 
 
 4,448 
 
 
 Athy, Kild 
 
 . 4,404 
 
 Downpatrick, Down. 
 
 . 4,784 
 
 Skibbereen, Cork, . . 
 
 4,430 
 
 
 
 
 Navan, Mea 
 
 . 4,416 
 
 Newtown Ardes, Down. 
 
 . 4,442 
 
 Dingle, Kerry, . . . . 
 
 4,357 
 
 
 
 
 Longford, Long. . . 
 
 . 4,354 
 
 Ballymena, Ant. . . . 
 
 . 4,063 
 
 Bantry, Cork, . . . . 
 
 4,276 
 
 
 
 
 Kells, Mca 
 
 . 4.326 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mullingar, West. . . 
 
 . 4,295 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 From 4000 to 3000. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arbee, Lnu 
 
 . 3,975 
 
 Monaghan, Mon. . . 
 
 . 3,848 
 
 Kilrush, Cla 
 
 
 Gort, Galw 
 
 3,627 
 
 
 Naas, Kild 
 
 . 3,808 
 
 Ballyshannon, Don. 
 
 . 3,775 
 
 Cloghnakilty, Cork, . 
 
 3,807 
 
 Boyle, Rose 
 
 3,433 
 
 
 Bray, Wick 
 
 . 3,656 
 
 Coleraine, Land. . . 
 
 . 3,774 
 
 Mitchelstown, Cork, . 
 
 3,545 
 
 Roscommon, Rose. . . 
 
 3,306 
 
 
 Trim, Mea 
 
 . 3,282 
 
 Dungannon, Tyr. . . 
 
 . 3,515 
 
 Cahir, Tip 
 
 3,408 
 
 
 
 
 Maryborough, Que. . 
 
 . 3,220 
 
 
 
 Fethard, Tip 
 
 3,400 
 
 
 
 
 Portarlington, Que. . . 
 
 . 3,091 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gorey, Wex 
 
 . 3,044 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Balbriggen, Dubl. . . 
 
 . 3,016 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 From 3000 to 2000. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Thomastown, Kilk. . . 
 
 . 2,871 
 
 Donaghadee, Down. 
 
 . 2,986 
 
 Tallow, Wat 
 
 2,998 
 
 Ballinrobe, Mayo, . . 
 
 2,575 
 
 
 Banagher, King. . . . 
 
 . 2,611 
 
 Carrickmacross, Mon. . 
 
 . 2,979 
 
 Templemore, Tip. . . . 
 
 2,936 
 
 Ardnaree, Sli. . . . 
 
 2,479 
 
 
 Mountrath, Que. . . . 
 
 . 2,593 
 
 Cavan, Cav 
 
 . 2,931 
 
 Newcastle, Lim 
 
 2,908 
 
 
 
 
 Skerries, Dubl. . . . 
 
 . 2.556 
 
 Cookstown, Tyr. . . 
 
 . 2,883 
 
 Lismore, Wat 
 
 2.894 
 
 
 
 
 Swords, Dubl. . . . 
 
 . 2,537 
 
 Lurgan, Arm. . . . 
 
 . 2.842 
 
 Dunmanway, Cork, . . 
 
 2.738 
 
 
 
 
 Wicklow, Wick. . . 
 
 . 2,472 
 
 Bangor, Down. . . . 
 
 . 2,741 
 
 Carrickbeg, Wat. . . 
 
 2,704 
 
 
 
 
 Castlecomer, Kilk. . . 
 
 . 2,436 
 
 Antrim, Ant 
 
 . 2,655 
 
 Doneraile, Cork, . . . . 
 
 2,652 
 
 
 
 
 Freshford, Kilk. . . . 
 
 . 2,175 
 
 Banbridge, Dozen. . . 
 
 . 2,469 
 
 Cappoquin, Wat. . . . 
 
 2,289 
 
 
 
 
 Rush, Dubl 
 
 . 2,144 
 
 Newtown Limavady, Lond. 2,428 
 
 Listowel, Ker 
 
 2,289 
 
 
 
 
 Graige, Kilk 
 
 . 2,130 
 
 Clones, Mon 
 
 . 2,381 
 
 Cloyne, Cork, . . . . 
 
 2,227 
 
 
 
 
 Granard, Long. . . . 
 
 . 2,058 
 
 Ballymoney, Ant. . . 
 
 . 2,222 
 
 Tramore, Wat 
 
 2,224 
 
 
 
 
 Maynooth, Kild. . . . 
 
 . 2,053 
 
 Omagh, Tyr 
 
 . 2,211 
 
 Passage West, Cork, . 
 
 2,131 
 
 
 
 
 Blackrock, Dubl. . . 
 
 . 2,050 
 
 Portaferry, Down. . . 
 
 . 2,203 
 
 Macroom, Cork, . . . . 
 
 2,058 
 
 
 
 
 Leighlin Bridge, Carl. 
 
 . 2,035 
 
 Cootehill, Can. . . . 
 
 . 2,178 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Arklow, Wick. 
 
 . 2,002 
 
 Letterkenny, Don. . . 
 
 . 2,160 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Belturbet, Cav. . . . 
 
 . 2,026 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rathfriland, Down. , . 
 
 . 2,001 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 From 2000 to 1000. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ranelagh, Dubl. . . . 
 
 . 1,988 
 
 Ballibay, Mon. . . . 
 
 . 1,947 
 
 Kilworth, Cork, . . . . 
 
 1,963 
 
 Eyrecourt, Galw. . . . 
 
 1,789 
 
 
 Kilbeggan, West. . . 
 
 . 1,985 
 
 Dromore, Down. . . . 
 
 . 1,942 
 
 Middleton, Cork, . . 
 
 1,946 
 
 Mohill, Leif. 
 
 1,606 
 
 
 Graige, Que 
 
 . 1,976 
 
 Warrenspoint, Down. . 
 
 . 1,856 
 
 Millstreet, Cork, . . 
 
 1,935 
 
 Strokestown, Rose. . . . 
 
 1.548 
 
 
 Athboy, Mea 
 
 . 1,959 
 
 Castlebaney, Mon. . . 
 
 . 1,828 
 
 Clogheen, Tip 
 
 1,928 
 
 Elphin, Rose 
 
 1,507 
 
 
 Tullow, Carl 
 
 . 1,929 
 
 Ramelton, Don. . . . 
 
 . 1,783 
 
 Abbeyside, Wat 
 
 1,859 
 
 Crosmalina, Mayo, . . . 
 
 1,481 
 
 
 Ballynakill, Que. . . 
 
 . 1.927 
 
 Aughnacloy, Tyr. . . 
 
 . 1,742 
 
 BrufF, Lim 
 
 1,772 
 
 Clare, Mayo, 
 
 1,476 
 
 
 Stradbally, Que. . . . 
 
 . 1.799 
 
 Newton Stewart, Tyr. . 
 
 . 1,737 
 
 Kilfinane, Lim. . . . 
 
 1,752 
 
 Garrick on Shannon, Leit 
 
 1.428 
 
 
 Moate, West 
 
 . 1,785 
 
 Fintona, Tyr 
 
 . 1,714 
 
 Ballingarry, Lim. . . 
 
 1 ,685 
 
 Manorhamilton, Leit. . . 
 
 1,348 
 
 
 Kildare, Kild 
 
 . 1,753 
 
 Ballycastle, Ant. . . . 
 
 . 1,683 
 
 Rathcormuck, Cork, . 
 
 1 ,656 
 
 Athenry, Gahe 
 
 1,319 
 
 
 Kilcock, Kild 
 
 . 1,730 
 
 Kingscourt, Cav. . . 
 
 . 1,616 
 
 Portlaw, Wat 
 
 1.618 
 
 Clifden. Gahe 
 
 1,257 
 
 
 Baltinglass, Wick. . . 
 
 . 1,669 
 
 Portadown, Arm. . . 
 
 . 1,591 
 
 Killenaule, Tip 
 
 1,578 
 
 Newport, Mayo, .... 
 
 1 ,235 
 
 
 Celbridge, Kild. . . . 
 
 . 1,645 
 
 Tanderagee, Arm. . . 
 
 . 1,559 
 
 Castle-island. Ker. . . . 
 
 1,569 
 
 Ballybadereen, Mayo. . 
 
 1,147 
 
 
 Chapelizod, Dubl. . . 
 
 . 1.632 
 
 Larne, Old, Ant. . . 
 
 . 1,551 
 
 Buttevant, Cork, . . . 
 
 1.536 
 
 Killala, Mayo. . . . 
 
 1,125 
 
 
 Ballyragget, Kilk. . . 
 
 . 1.629 
 
 Hillsborough, Down. . 
 
 . 1,453 
 
 Rosscarbery, Cork, . . . 
 
 1,522 
 
 Portumna, Gahe 
 
 1,122 
 
 
 Castlepollard, West. 
 
 . 1,618 
 
 Magherafelt, Lond. . . 
 
 . 1.436 
 
 Askeyton, Lim 
 
 1,515 
 
 Headford, Gahe. 
 
 1,026 
 
 
 Rathmines, Dubl. . . 
 
 . 1,600 
 
 Raphoe, Don 
 
 . 1,408 
 
 Sixmilebridge, Cla. . . 
 
 1,491 
 
 Foxford, Mayo, 
 
 1,024 
 
 
 Rathfarnham, Dubl. 
 
 . 1,572 
 
 Comber, Dozen. . . . 
 
 . 1,377 
 
 Newmarket, Cork, . . . 
 
 1,437 
 
 
 
 
 Oldcastle, Mca. . . . 
 
 . 1,531 
 
 Holywood, Dozen. . . 
 
 . 1,288 
 
 Ennistymon, Cla. . . . 
 
 1,430 
 
 
 
 
 Philipstown, King. . 
 
 . 1,454 
 
 Kilrea, Lond 
 
 . 1,215 
 
 Milltown, Ker 
 
 1,427 
 
 
 
 
 Monastereven, Kild. . 
 
 . 1,441 
 
 Ardglass, Down. . . 
 
 . 1,162 
 
 Killaloe, Cla. ... 
 
 1,411 
 
 
 
 
 Newtownbarry, Wex. . 
 
 . 1,430 
 
 Dungiven, Lond. . . 
 
 . 1,162 
 
 Kanturk, Cor 
 
 1,349 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
654 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 LEINSTER 
 
 ULSTER. 
 
 MUNSTER. 
 
 CONNAUGHT. 
 
 Ballycollinbeg, Que. . . 1,381 
 Castlederinot, Kild. . . 1 ,375 
 Urlingford, Kilk. . . . 1,366 
 Carlingford, Low. . . . 1,319 
 Bagnalstown, Carl. . . . 1,315 
 
 Clontarf, Dull 1,309 
 
 Durrow, Kilk 1,298 
 
 Shinrone, King’s. . . . 1,287 
 
 Edenderry, King’s. . . . 1,283 
 
 Lucan, Dubl 1,229 
 
 Duleek, Mea 1,217 
 
 Clane, Kild 1,216 
 
 Rathdowney, Que. . . . 1,214 
 Rathangan, Kild. . . . 1,165 
 
 Leixlip, Kild 1 ,159 
 
 Collon, Low 1,153 
 
 Clara, King’s 1,149 
 
 Frankfort, King's. . . . 1,112 
 
 Taghmon, Wcx 1,109 
 
 Harold’s Cross, Dubl. . . 1,101 
 
 Ballymahon, Long. . . . 1,081 
 
 Rathdrum, Wick. . . . 1,054 
 
 Prosperous, Kild. . . . 1,038 
 
 Abbeyleix, Que 1,009 
 
 Baldoyle, Dubl 1,009 
 
 Gowran, Kilk 1,009 
 
 fidgeworthstown, Long. 1,001 
 
 Maghera, Lond 1,154 
 
 Killileagh, Down. . . . 1,147 
 
 Killishandra, Cav. . . . 1,137 
 
 Lifford, Don 1,096 
 
 Bailieborough, Cav. . . 1,085 
 
 Caledon, Tyr 1 ,079 
 
 Larne, New, Ant. . . . 1,064 
 
 Buncrana, Don 1,059 
 
 Saintfield, Down. . . . 1,056 
 
 Irvinestown, Form. . . 1 ,047 
 
 Markethill, Arm. . . . 1,043 
 
 Kilkeel, Down 1,039 
 
 Moneymore, Lond. . . . 1,025 
 
 Randalstown, Ant. . . . 1,025 
 
 Newtown Hamilton, Arm. 1,020 
 
 Stewartstown, Tyr. . . 1,010 
 
 Burrisoleigh, Tip. . . . 1,340 
 Castleconnel, Lim. . . . 1,312 
 Ballylongford, Kcr. . . . 1,300 
 
 Croom, Lim 1,268 
 
 Kilmallock, Lim. . . . 1,213 
 Cahersiveen, Ker. . . . 1,192 
 
 Burrisokane, Tip. . . . 1,185 
 
 Mullinahone, Tip. . . . 1,175 
 
 Hospital, Lim 1,131 
 
 Abbey, Tip 1 ,123 
 
 Newmarket on Fergus, Cla. 1,118 
 Glanworth, Cork, . . . 1,098 
 
 Castletownrocke, Cork, . 1,095 
 
 Kenmare, Ker 1,072 
 
 Doogh, Cla 1,051 
 
 Glynn, Lim 1,030 
 
 Clare, Cla 1,021 
 
 Summary of the preceding Table of the Population of Cities and Toivns in Ireland. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Upwards 
 
 of 
 
 100,000. 
 
 100,000 
 
 to 
 
 10,000. 
 
 10,000 
 
 to 
 
 8,000. 
 
 8,000 
 
 to 
 
 6,000. 
 
 6,000 
 
 to 
 
 4,000. 
 
 4,000 
 
 to 
 
 3,000. 
 
 3,000 
 
 to 
 
 2,000. 
 
 2,000 
 
 to 
 
 1,000. 
 
 Total 
 Number 
 of Towns. 
 
 Leinster, 
 
 i 
 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 48 
 
 90 
 
 Ulster, 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 37 
 
 70 
 
 Munster, 
 
 i 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 13 
 
 38 
 
 81 
 
 Connaught, 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 29 
 
 Ireland, 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 27 
 
 20 
 
 47 
 
 139 
 
 270 
 
 No. VIII. 
 
 EDUCATION. 
 
 JV umber of Children receiving Education in Ireland, in the Year 1824. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Established 
 
 Church. 
 
 Presby- 
 
 terians. 
 
 Other 
 
 Dissenters. 
 
 Roman 
 
 Catholics. 
 
 Sect not 
 specified. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Ulster, 
 
 34.972 
 
 43,667 
 
 2,625 
 
 58,164 
 
 2,531 
 
 141,959 
 
 Leinster, 
 
 30,487 
 
 559 
 
 485 
 
 126.591 
 
 2,909 
 
 161,031 
 
 Munster, 
 
 17,297 
 
 136 
 
 456 
 
 171,574 
 
 1,450 
 
 191,093 
 
 Connaught, 
 
 9,293 
 
 204 
 
 112 
 
 64,514 
 
 758 
 
 74,881 
 
 Total, 
 
 92,049 
 
 44,566 
 
 3,678 
 
 421,023 
 
 7,648 
 
 568,964 
 
 No. IX. 
 
 JYumber of Teachers in Schools in 1824. 
 
 Provinces. 
 
 Established 
 
 Church. 
 
 Presbyterians 
 and other 
 Dissenters. 
 
 Roman 
 
 Catholics. 
 
 Sect not 
 stated. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Ulster, 
 
 1,093 
 
 938 
 
 1,482 
 
 27 
 
 3,540 
 
 Leinster, 
 
 1,128 
 
 65 
 
 2,612 
 
 25 
 
 3,830 
 
 Munster, 
 
 597 
 
 45 
 
 2,913 
 
 17 
 
 3,572 
 
 Connaught, 
 
 280 
 
 10 
 
 1,293 
 
 5 
 
 1,588 
 
 Total, 
 
 3,098 
 
 1,058 
 
 8,300 
 
 74 
 
 12,530 
 
 No. X. 
 
 Total Amount of Grants of Public Money for the Purposes of 
 Education. 
 
 Charter Schools, £1,105,869 0 0 
 
 Foundling Hospital, 820,005 3 4 
 
 Association for discountenancing Vice, 101,991 18 6 
 
 Kildare Place Society, 170,508 0 0 
 
 Lord-Lieutenant’s Fund, 40,998 0 0 
 
 Maynooth College, 271,869 18 6 
 
 Belfast Institution, 4,155 0 0 
 
 Cork Institution, 43,710 0 0 
 
 Hibernian School, 240,356 1 6 
 
 Marine Society, 64,262 10 9 
 
 Female Orphan School 50,414 10 9 
 
 £2,914,140 3 4 
 
 No. XI. 
 
 Table of the Income and Expenditure of Ireland from the Year 1792 
 to 1830. 
 
 I . — From the Commencement of the War with France to the Union. 
 
 Year 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 Debt incurred by the 
 excess of expenditure 
 above the revenue. 
 
 1793 
 
 1,162,588 
 
 1,296,061 
 
 133.473 
 
 1794 
 
 955,030 
 
 1,462,415 
 
 507.385 
 
 1795 
 
 1,119,190 
 
 1,378,908 
 
 189,718 
 
 1796 
 
 1,487,412 
 
 2,799,593 
 
 1.312,181 
 
 1797 
 
 1,891,479 
 
 3.420,373 
 
 1,528,894 
 
 1798 
 
 1,613,645 
 
 4,944,944 
 
 3,331.299 
 
 1799 
 
 2,137,543 
 
 6,887,787 
 
 4,750,244 
 
 1800 
 
 2,732,053 
 
 7,110,537 
 
 4,377,484 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND 
 
 655 
 
 Table of the Income and Expenditure of Ireland, S,'c. (Continued.) 
 
 II . — From the Union to the Termination of the War with France. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 Debt incurred by the 
 excess of expenditure 
 above the revenue. 
 
 1801 
 
 2,645,716 
 
 7,799,988 
 
 5,154,272 
 
 1802 
 
 2,490,978 
 
 8,02] ,011 
 
 5,530,033 
 
 1803 
 
 3,128,093 
 
 7,184,522 
 
 4,056,429 
 
 1804 
 
 2,745,762 
 
 7,097,123 
 
 4,351,361 
 
 1805 
 
 3,186,450 
 
 8,889,885 
 
 5,703,435 
 
 1806 
 
 3,218,774 
 
 7,828,503 
 
 4,609,729 
 
 1807 
 
 3,656,910 
 
 7,758,815 
 
 4,101,915 
 
 1808 
 
 4,179,923 
 
 7.700,531 
 
 3,520,608 
 
 1809 
 
 4,301,781 
 
 8,564,200 
 
 4,262,419 
 
 1810 
 
 4,027,583 
 
 9,948,238 
 
 5,920,655 
 
 1811 
 
 3,413,450 
 
 10,823,800 
 
 7,410,350 
 
 1812 
 
 3,929,106 
 
 11,325,093 
 
 7,395,987 
 
 1813 
 
 4,614,037 
 
 11,614,024 
 
 6,999,987 
 
 1814 
 
 4,820,511 
 
 12,239,003 
 
 7,418,492 
 
 1815 
 
 5,287,581 
 
 14,836,409 
 
 8,548,828 
 
 III . — From the termination of the War with France to the present Time. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Revenue. 
 
 Expenditure. 
 
 Debt incurred by the 
 excess of expenditure 
 above the revenue. 
 
 1816 
 
 5,467,942 
 
 18,165,729 
 
 12,697,787 
 
 1817 
 
 4,394,630 
 
 13,402,479 
 
 9,005,849 
 
 1818 
 
 4,384,816 
 
 6,018,551 
 
 1,633,735 
 
 1819 
 
 4,577,286 
 
 4,984,148 
 
 0,406,862 
 
 1820 
 
 4,250,980 
 
 6.447,685 
 
 2,196,705 
 
 1821 
 
 3,605,446 
 
 6,465,714 
 
 2,860,268 
 
 1822 
 
 3,999,923 
 
 5,853,623 
 
 1,853,700 
 
 1823 
 
 3,690,973 
 
 5,759,566 
 
 2,068,593 
 
 1824 
 
 3,199,128 
 
 3,836,486 
 
 0,637,358 
 
 1825 
 
 3,690,090 
 
 3,700,246 
 
 0,010,156 
 
 1826 
 
 3,624,799 
 
 3,622,593 
 
 4,082.719 
 
 0,457,920 
 
 1827 
 
 4,084,871 
 
 1,462,278 
 
 1828 
 
 3,682,341 
 
 3,703,807 
 
 0,021,466 
 
 Excess of revenue 
 above expenditure. 
 
 1829 
 
 3,961.432 
 
 3,645.779 
 
 0.315,653 
 
 1830 
 
 3,866,595 
 
 3,622,370 
 
 0,244,225 
 
 No. XII. 
 
 Trade of Ireland with Great Britain. 
 
 
 In 
 
 wards. 
 
 Out 
 
 wards. 
 
 In the Year 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1801 
 
 6,816 
 
 582,003 
 
 
 
 1805 
 
 6,875 
 
 598,720 
 
 6.306 
 
 566,790 
 
 1809 
 
 7,011 
 
 580,587 
 
 7,041 
 
 600,898 
 
 1813 
 
 9,096 
 
 773,286 
 
 8,569 
 
 718,851 
 
 1817 
 
 10,142 
 
 845,260 
 
 9,186 
 
 770,547 
 
 1821 
 
 9,924 
 
 844,997 
 
 9,440 
 
 819,648 
 
 1825 
 
 11,542 
 
 984,754 
 
 8,1)22 
 
 741,182 
 
 1829 
 
 13,878 
 
 1,292,041 
 
 8,922 
 
 906;i58 
 
 Trade of Ireland ivith Foreign Parts. 
 
 
 Inwards. 
 
 Outwards. 
 
 In the Year 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ships. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 1801 
 
 874 
 
 129,239 
 
 
 
 1805 
 
 1,085 
 
 155,742 
 
 829 
 
 136,927 
 
 1809 
 
 853 
 
 115,356 
 
 696 
 
 103,212 
 
 1813 
 
 826 
 
 125,895 
 
 986 
 
 171,319 
 
 1817 
 
 748 
 
 108,752 
 
 723 
 
 116,973 
 
 1821 
 
 800 
 
 116,538 
 
 621 
 
 98,718 
 
 1825 
 
 1,116 
 
 182,660 
 
 767 
 
 136,991 
 
 1829 
 
 1,093 
 
 178,936 
 
 723 
 
 133,303 
 
 No. XIII. 
 
 State of the Cross- Channel Trade since the Union. 
 
 The amounts are given in official values, which, thougn '.hey afford 
 no criterion as to present prices, inasmuch as for the last eleven years 
 tlie real values, which had previously exceeded the official by several 
 millions per annum, have rapidly decreased and come below it, yet 
 they serve to show the increase and decrease »u quantity. 
 
 Exports to Great Britain. Imports from all parts. 
 
 1801 
 
 £3,270.350 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 J4 ,621 ,344 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 1805 
 
 4, 067 ’717 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 5,294,967 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 1809 
 
 5,316,557 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 6,896.821 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 1813 
 
 6,746.353 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 7,797,286 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 1817 
 
 4,722*766 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 5,646,563 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 1821 
 
 5,338.838 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6,407,427 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 1825 
 
 7,0481936 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 8,596,785 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 No. XIV. 
 
 Quantities of the Articles named underneath imported into Ireland in 
 the Years specified in the Table. 
 
 
 Tea. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Brandy & 
 Geneva. 
 
 Rum. 
 
 Wine. 
 
 Sugar. 
 
 Coffee 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 gals. 
 
 gals. 
 
 gals. 
 
 cwts. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1787 
 
 1,680,325 
 
 1,877,579 
 
 380,696 
 
 905,862 
 
 1,467,579 
 
 259,9 
 
 12.530 
 
 1797 
 
 2,492,254 
 
 8,445,555 
 
 744 
 
 72,120 
 
 312,212 
 
 231,233 
 
 132,755 
 
 1807 
 
 3,555,129 
 
 4,531,049 
 
 16,680 
 
 251.449 
 
 1,603,278 
 
 369,598 
 
 72.274 
 
 1817 
 
 3,141,035 
 
 4,778,469 
 
 7,258 
 
 36,823 
 
 571,596 
 
 338,415 
 
 513.248 
 
 1827 
 
 3,887,955 
 
 4,041,172 
 
 11,015 
 
 27,888 
 
 929,629 
 
 319,736 
 
 585,739 
 
 1828 
 
 
 4,013,915 
 
 11.735 
 
 29,650 
 
 1,017,177 
 
 315,562 
 
 592,386 
 
 1829 
 
 
 4,124,742 
 
 12,449 
 
 25,514 
 
 955,091 
 
 328,266 
 
 559,655 
 
 No. XV. 
 
 Exportation of Cattle to Liverpool. 
 
 One year, to 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 Calves. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 Pigs. 
 
 Horses. Mules. 
 
 June, 1828. 
 
 33,164 
 
 3,875 
 
 133,567 
 
 107,066 
 
 1114 
 
 331 
 
 June, 1829. 
 
 49,674 
 
 6,786 
 
 15,846 
 
 125,197 
 
 155,319 
 
 665 
 
 329 
 
 Dec.' 1829. 
 
 32,816 
 
 91,589 
 
 82,561 
 
 208 
 
 161 
 
 Total 2£ years. 
 
 115,654 
 
 26,507 
 
 350,353 
 
 344,946 
 
 1987 
 
 821 
 
 No. XVI. 
 
 Table of the Number and State of the Parishes and Benefices in 
 Ireland. 
 
 Number of Parishes in Ireland, 2450 
 
 Number of Benefices with cure of souls, 1295 
 
 Churches, 1192 
 
 Benefices without churches, 286 
 
 Unions, 517 
 
 Glebe houses, 771 
 
 Incumbents resident, 76y 
 
 non-resident, or absent, 6C 
 
656 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 No. XVII. 
 
 Table exhibiting the Number of Unions, the Number of Parishes in each, and their Denominations 
 
 Number of Parishes in each Union, 2 3 4 5 
 
 Parliamentary Unions, 2 4 1 0 
 
 Charter Unions, 5 8 4 3 
 
 Privy Council Unions, 46 34 1 9 12 
 
 Episcopal Unions, 119 51 29 16 
 
 Immemorial Unions, 49 34 18 13 
 
 Total, 221 131 71 44 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 13 
 
 Total of 
 Benefices. 
 
 Total of 
 Parishes. 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 38 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 25 
 
 98 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 0‘ 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 126 
 
 440 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 230 
 
 704 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 126 
 
 421 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 517 
 
 1701 
 
 No. XVIII. 
 
 No. XXI. 
 
 Table showing the State of the Patronage of the Irish Church. 
 
 Parishes. 
 
 I n the patronage of Bishops, 1392 
 
 the Crown, 293 
 
 Laymen, 367 
 
 the University, 21 
 
 Impropriate without Churches or Incumbents, 95 
 
 Total, 2168 
 
 No. XIX. 
 
 Estimated Values of the several Dioceses of Ireland, and the Num- 
 ber of Acres in each, as returned to Parliament in 1831 . 
 
 Armagh, 
 
 Dublin, 
 
 Cashel and Emly, 
 
 Tuam, 
 
 Ardagh, united with Tuam, and 1 
 supposed to be included in the > 
 
 return thereof, } 
 
 Clogher, 
 
 Down and Connor, 
 
 Dromore, 
 
 Derry, 
 
 Kilmore, 
 
 Meath, 
 
 Itaphoe, 
 
 Ossory, 
 
 Leighlin and Ferns, 
 
 Kildare, 
 
 Cork and Ross, 
 
 Waterford and Lismore, . . . 
 
 Limerick, Ardfert, and Aghadoe, 
 
 Cloyne, 
 
 Killaloe and Kilfinora, . . . 
 
 Elphin, 
 
 Clonfert and Kilmacduagh, . . 
 
 Killala and Achonry, . . . . 
 
 £ 
 
 Acres. 
 
 15,080 
 
 63,270 
 
 no return 
 
 15,048 
 
 3,500 and upwards. 
 
 13,372 
 
 5,549 
 
 49,281 
 
 no return 
 
 no return 
 
 9,000 
 
 27,070 
 
 no return 
 
 no return 
 
 4,863 
 
 no return 
 
 10,000 and upwards. 
 
 94,836 
 
 no return 
 
 47,361 
 
 5,815 
 
 18,374 
 
 5,379 
 
 no return 
 
 3,000 
 
 13,391 
 
 5,000 
 
 11,697 
 
 no return 
 
 562 
 
 3,000 
 
 22,755 
 
 5,000 
 
 8,600 
 
 2,916 
 
 6,720 
 
 2,000 and upwards. 
 
 15,871 
 
 4,600 
 
 11,081 
 
 no return 
 
 31,017 
 
 no return 
 
 6,555 
 
 no return 
 
 32,282 
 
 489,141 
 
 Statement of the Amount of Monies deposited in the Savings , Banks 
 of Ireland since their Establishment under the Statute, of the Sums 
 annually drawn out, and of the Excess or Deficiency thence aris- 
 ing in each Year. 
 
 Lodged. Drawn out. Difference. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 1821 
 
 46,615 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 25,200 
 
 0 
 
 04 
 
 24,415 
 
 7 
 
 84 
 
 1822 
 
 82,338 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 8,030 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 74,357 
 
 13 
 
 10* 
 
 1823 
 
 123,230 
 
 15 
 
 43 
 
 11,723 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 111,507 
 
 13 103 
 
 1824 
 
 175,292 
 
 6 
 
 04 
 
 17,538 
 
 9 
 
 34 
 
 157,753 
 
 16 
 
 04 
 
 1825 
 
 207,738 
 
 9 
 
 H 
 
 35,047 
 
 5 
 
 04 
 
 172,691 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 1826 
 
 156,249 
 
 4 
 
 4| 
 
 87,085 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 69,163 
 
 10 
 
 21 
 
 1827 
 
 139,080 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 164,939 12 
 
 14 
 
 25,859 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 1828 
 
 254,400 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 134,608 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 119,791 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 1829 
 
 311,600 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 179,002 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 132,597 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 1830 
 
 213,020 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 221,769 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 8,749 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 No. XXII. 
 
 Statement of the Length, Rate of Lockage, and Cost of Execution 
 of the several Canals in Ireland. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Rate of 
 lockage. 
 
 Cost per 
 mile. 
 
 Total cost 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 Grand Canal, 
 
 100 
 
 54 
 
 18,610 
 
 1,861,008 
 
 Royal Canal, 
 
 72 
 
 74 
 
 19,749 
 
 1,421,954 
 
 Limerick Navigation, 
 
 12 
 
 7 
 
 10,296 
 
 123,560 
 
 Barrow Navigation, 
 
 34 
 
 5 
 
 7,220 
 
 255,502 
 
 Boyne Navigation, 
 
 154 
 
 54 
 
 7,463 
 
 115,677 
 
 Newry Navigation, 
 
 27 
 
 34 
 
 2,804 
 
 75,730 
 
 Lagan Navigation, 
 
 22 
 
 84 
 
 4,363 
 
 96,000 
 
 
 2824 
 
 
 
 3,949,431 
 
 No. XXIII. 
 
 No. XX. 
 
 Stale of Crime during eight Years ending 1829 . 
 
 
 Committals. 
 
 Convictions. 
 
 Capitally 
 
 sentenced. 
 
 Executed. 
 
 1822 
 
 14,894 
 
 7,272 
 
 341 
 
 101 
 
 1823 
 
 14,632 
 
 7,285 
 
 241 
 
 61 
 
 1824 
 
 15,258 
 
 7.743 
 
 295 
 
 60 
 
 1825 
 
 15,515 
 
 8,571 
 
 181 
 
 18 
 
 1826 
 
 16,318 
 
 8,716 
 
 281 
 
 34 
 
 1827 
 
 18,031 
 
 10,207 
 
 346 
 
 37 
 
 1828 
 
 14,683 
 
 9,269 
 
 211 
 
 21 
 
 1329 
 
 15,271 
 
 9,449 
 
 224 
 
 38 
 
 Total, 
 
 124,602 
 
 68,512 
 
 2,120 
 
 370 
 
 Public Conveyances. 
 
 1800. 
 
 1820. 
 
 Dublin, 
 Belfast, 1 
 
 Cork, 1 
 
 Limerick, 1 
 
 Derry, 0 
 
 "Erf Etra <- rf we; 
 
 fi o So K B s S 
 
 rfO too O > E, eo 
 a a o i rfl 
 
 0 151 
 0 5 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 5 
 
 0 0 
 
 11 20 0 389 
 
 4 4 2 126 
 
 4 3 
 2 3 
 
 83 
 
 58 
 
 10 0 
 
 7 8 0 166 22 30 3 661 
 
 1829. 
 
 13 22 12 612 
 4 6 4 179 
 
 6 4 0 118 
 
 4 3 1 94 
 
 3 0 0 24 
 
 30 35 17 1027 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 
 
 657 
 
 FINANCE. 
 
 INCOME FOR THE YEARS 
 
 Heads of Income. 
 
 1828 . 
 
 1829 . 
 
 1830 . 
 
 CUSTOM AND EXCISE. 
 C Foreign .... 
 
 Spirits 2 Rum 
 
 ( British .... 
 
 Malt 
 
 Beer 
 
 Hops 
 
 Wine 
 
 Sugar and Molasses . . . 
 
 Tea 
 
 Coffee 
 
 Tobacco and Snuff . . . 
 
 Butter 
 
 Cheese 
 
 Currants and Raisins . . 
 
 Corn 
 
 Cotton Wool and Sheep’s 
 Wool imported . . . 
 
 Silks 
 
 Printed Goods .... 
 Hides and Skins .... 
 
 Paper 
 
 Soap 
 
 Candles and Tallow . . . 
 
 Coals, Sea borne .... 
 
 Glass 
 
 Bricks, Tiles, and Slates . 
 
 Timber 
 
 Auctions 
 
 Excise Licences .... 
 Miscellaneous duties, ) 
 Customs and Excise J 
 
 Total of Customs and Excise 
 STAMPS. 
 
 Deeds and other Instruments 
 Probates and Legacies . . 
 
 T C Marine . . . 
 
 Insurance 1 Firg 
 
 Bills of Exchange, Bankers’ 
 
 Notes, &c 
 
 Newspapers and Advertise- 
 ments 
 
 Stage Coaches .... 
 
 Post-Horses 
 
 Receipts 
 
 Other Stamp Duties . . 
 
 ASSESSED AND LAND 
 TAXES. 
 
 Land Taxes 
 
 Houses 
 
 Windows 
 
 Servants 
 
 Horses 
 
 Carriages 
 
 Dogs 
 
 Other Assessed Taxes . . 
 
 Post Office 
 
 Crown Lands 
 
 Other ordinary Revenues 
 and Resources .... 
 
 Grand Total 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 1,558,406 10 
 
 11 
 
 1,392,553 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 4,969,685 
 
 7 
 
 0.1 
 
 4,623,113 19 
 
 34 
 
 3,256,186 19 
 
 34 
 
 260,578 18 
 
 0 
 
 1,500,051 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3,193,148 
 
 14 
 
 5 
 
 3,448,814 
 
 2 
 
 91 
 
 440,244 13 10 
 
 2,793,874 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 195,793 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 112,049 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 436,581 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 193,250 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 395,773 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 345,278 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 657,741 
 
 5 
 
 44 
 
 474,391 
 
 6 
 
 103 
 
 727,377 
 
 4 
 
 95 
 
 1,212,092 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 665,758 
 
 6 
 
 54 
 
 935,911 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 616,534 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 392,365 
 
 10 
 
 9| 
 
 1,488,498 
 
 0 
 
 01 
 
 275,564 
 
 4 
 
 3| 
 
 845,160 
 
 2 
 
 7'i 
 
 2,321,050 
 
 19 
 
 84 
 
 1,686,315 
 
 9 
 
 81 
 
 2,043,268 
 
 4 
 
 94 
 
 243,359 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 745,710 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 603,237 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 581,526 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 407,529 
 
 10 101 
 
 238,858 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 236,531 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 531,272 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 1,210,227 17 10.J 
 
 1,295,550 12 10 
 
 1,164,010 
 
 13 
 
 74 
 
 277,759 
 
 5 
 
 41 
 
 400,676 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 352,478 16 
 
 9 
 
 182,944 17 11| 
 
 279,224 16 
 
 0 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 £29,436,658 4 1£ 
 
 12,291,121 7 11 
 
 £41,727,779 12 Of, 
 
 £7,317,609 7 11£ 
 
 2,207,998 11 5 
 448,792 17 7 
 
 620,542 3 11 
 
 £57,485,596 2 7 4 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 1,519,572 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 1,434,782 13 
 
 1 
 
 1,783,951 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3,814,305 
 
 1 
 
 51 
 
 3,055,453 13 114 
 
 242,658 
 
 0 10.4 
 
 1,473,607 11 
 
 4 
 
 5,089,315 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 5,321,722 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 498,951 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 2,849,706 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 147,839 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 87,122 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 388,102 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 898,793 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 317,074 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 205,615 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 552,270 
 
 12 
 
 44 
 
 452,768 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 
 684,563 
 
 10 
 
 11| 
 
 1,152,245 
 
 11 
 
 14 
 
 652,971 
 
 16 
 
 114 
 
 983,919 
 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 670,494 
 
 12 
 
 9| 
 
 398,145 
 
 14 
 
 81 
 
 1,394,407 
 
 19 
 
 114 
 
 251,562 
 
 19 
 
 63 
 
 845,390 
 
 18 
 
 31 
 
 1,892,668 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 1,663,145 
 
 14 
 
 64 
 
 2,035,719 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 226,897 
 
 6 
 
 64 
 
 764,939 
 
 0 
 
 HI 
 
 593,485 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 433,385 
 
 5 
 
 104 
 
 426,472 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 252,772 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 225,996 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 663,164 
 
 5 
 
 94 
 
 1,200,159 10 111 
 
 1,324,327 18 
 
 9| 
 
 1,163,760 17 
 
 8 
 
 286,552 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 405,678 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 374,677 14 
 
 0 
 
 183,060 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 268,175 
 
 a 
 
 9 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 £28,084,025 11 10J 
 
 11,975,957 18 6| 
 
 £40,059,983 10 5 
 
 £7,285,976 1 7£ 
 
 5,206,392 1 
 2,184,667 2 
 465,481 4 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 1,480,507 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 1,599,445 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 5,185,574 
 
 4 
 
 34 
 
 3,436,272 14 
 
 2 
 
 2,345,122 10 
 
 84 
 
 118,912 5 
 
 34 
 
 1,524,177 18 
 
 3 
 
 4,927,025 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 3,387,097 18 
 
 94 
 
 579,363 10 
 
 7 
 
 2,924,264 
 
 13 11 
 
 102,752 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 54,870 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 420,217 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 790,109 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 482,274 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 209.047 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 570,330 
 
 15 
 
 
 255.278 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 690,610 
 
 1 
 
 44 
 
 1,251,021 
 
 12 
 
 111 
 
 662,944 
 
 18 
 
 84 
 
 1,021,862 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 567,632 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 383,985 
 
 5 
 
 74 
 
 1,319,233 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 234,854 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 848,469 
 
 14 
 
 114 
 
 1,971,223 
 
 8 
 
 31 
 
 1,6 21,427 
 
 1 
 
 84 
 
 2,084,432 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 219,565 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 760,931 
 
 3 
 
 114 
 
 568,564 
 
 1 
 
 84 
 
 613,848 
 
 2 
 
 2| 
 
 418,598 
 
 5 
 
 94 
 
 220,357 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 223,660 
 
 6 
 
 2| 
 
 516,716 
 
 18 
 
 84 
 
 1,184,790 12 
 
 54 
 
 1,361,625 
 
 0 
 
 54 
 
 1,185,283 
 
 7 103 
 
 295,087 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 425,125 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 397,613 10 
 
 0 
 
 186,102 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 259,242 11 
 
 7 
 
 s. d. 
 
 £27,507,763 14 1 
 
 622,302 0 04 
 
 £55,824,802 0 l. 1 . 
 
 11,836,718 18 7 
 
 £39,344,482 12 8 
 
 7,248,083 14 6 
 
 5,294,870 6 10$ 
 2,212,206 5 6£ 
 363,742 0 4 
 
 376,805 0 6 
 
 £54,840,190 0 4| 
 
 vol. in no. 02 
 
 83 
 
658 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 FINANCE (Continued.) — EXPENDITURE FOR THE YEARS 
 
 Heads of Expenditure. 
 
 REVENUE. 
 
 Charges of Collection. 
 
 Customs. $ ^vil Departments 
 ( Preventive service 
 
 Total 
 
 Excise 
 
 Stamps 
 
 Assessed and Land Taxes 
 Other ordinary Revenues, (ex- 
 cept Post Office) .... 
 
 Total Revenue .... 
 
 PUBLIC DEBT. 
 Interest of Permanent Debt . 
 Actual Payment for Terminable 
 Annuities ... . . 
 
 Actual Payment for Life Annui- 
 ties, and Annuities for terms 
 
 of Years 
 
 Interest of Exchequer Bills . 
 Management 
 
 Total Debt 
 
 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 
 Civil List. — 1st Class, Privy 
 Purse ; 4th Class, Trades- 
 men’s Bills ; 5th Class, Sala- 
 ries of the Royal Household 
 Allowances to the Junior 
 Branches of the Royal Fami- 
 ly, and his Royal Highness 
 Leopold George Frederick 
 Prince of Coburg. . . . 
 
 Lord Lieutenant of Ireland’s 
 
 Establishment 
 
 Salaries and other Expenses of 
 Houses of Parliament (includ- 
 ing Printing) * 
 
 Civil Departments in Great 
 Britain, exclusive of those in 
 the Army, Navy, and Ord- 
 nance Estimates .... 
 Pensions on the Consolidated 
 Fund and Gross Revenue . 
 Ditto on the Civil List of Eng- 
 land, Scotland, and Ireland 
 
 Total Civil Government 
 
 JUSTICE. 
 
 Police and Criminal Prosecu- 
 tions 
 
 Courts of Justice in England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland. . . 
 
 o fConvicts at Home and 
 
 1 Abroad 
 
 S ^Convicts New South Wales 
 5 pother Expenses. . . . 
 
 Total Justice . . . . 
 
 DIPLOMATIC. 
 
 Salaries and retired Allowances 
 of Foreign Ministers . . . 
 
 Ditto Ditto Consuls . 
 Civil Contingencies, No. 1, 2, 3, 
 Diplomatic ...... 
 
 Total Diplomatic . 
 
 1828 . 
 
 1829 . 
 
 1830 . 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 1,027,870 17 
 
 14 
 
 260,940 
 
 1 
 
 44 
 
 1,287,913 18 
 
 6 
 
 1,225,429 10 
 
 94 
 
 190,159 
 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 281,959 12 
 
 1 
 
 28,782 
 
 2 10 
 
 24,091,750 
 
 7 10 
 
 1,843,106 11 
 
 7 
 
 1,453,269 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 813,300 16 
 
 5 
 
 275,179 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 401,628 16 101 
 
 245,923 
 
 1 
 
 61 
 
 32,749 
 
 9 
 
 3f 
 
 144,374 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 320,045 
 
 1 
 
 84 
 
 264,247 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 170,000 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 407,801 
 
 9 
 
 94 
 
 222,450 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 140,305 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 167,500 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 55,620 
 
 6 
 
 111 
 
 220,932 15 
 
 91 
 
 117,595 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 37,097 
 
 7 
 
 l 
 
 1,184,378 4 74 
 202,940 5 01 
 
 1,448,318 9 81 
 1,226,403 6 71 
 225,515 1 3 
 280,812 6 11 
 
 45,589 8 41 
 
 25,332,782 11 41 
 1,981,034 17 0 
 
 650,851 13 9 
 949,429 13 7 
 275,877 16 10 
 
 409,700 0 0 
 
 248,500 0 0 
 67,935 1 8 
 
 123,094 17 5 
 
 345,320 15 61 
 208,218 3 114 
 195,259 8 2 
 
 187,361 19 9 
 446,685 19 10 
 
 155,783 12 9 
 167,500 0 0 
 63,263 6 1 
 
 236,950 0 0 
 127,870 0 0 
 
 63,191 13 7 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1,100,050 8 10| 
 268,478 10 31 
 
 3,225,638 12 04 
 
 1,368,528 19 24 
 1,240,948 12. 0 
 193,279 13 9 
 287,183 2 2 
 
 28,162 10 64 
 
 29,189,976 12 62 
 
 25,318,866 10 74 
 1,854,695 8 4 
 
 826,402 13 10 
 878,494 1 32 
 275,143 7 12 
 
 1,598,028 6 9 
 
 1,000,592 18 6 
 
 409,700 0 0 
 
 247,974 4 64 
 67,935 1 8 
 
 141,599 18 5 
 
 328,706 0 12 
 204,370 7 9 
 196,114 4 11 
 
 s. d. 
 
 3,118,102 17 8 
 
 29,153,602 1 2 
 
 426,828 16 2 
 203,639 11 3 
 
 145,925 18 3 
 167,500 6 0 
 60,704 12 8 
 
 423,011 13 7 
 
 224,950 0 0 
 119,470 0 0 
 
 59,118 5 2 
 
 1,596,899 17 44 
 
 1,004,598 18 4 
 
 s. d. 
 
 3,014,224 11 44 
 
 28,476,606 1 7 
 
 1,578,967 19 04 
 
 993,678 2 2| 
 
 403,538 5 2 
 
 375,625 2 10 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
 059 
 
 FINANCE (Continued.) — E X P E IV D I T U R E FOR THE YEARS 
 
 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ 8. d. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 £ e. d. 
 
 (89,047) 
 
 
 (85,721) 
 
 
 (84,172) 
 
 
 5,140,463 8 34 
 
 
 4,829,282 12 44 
 
 
 4,492,687 5 74 
 
 
 (96,916) 
 
 
 (96,595) 
 
 
 (96,081) 
 
 
 2,903,476 0 0 
 
 
 2,939,896 0 0 
 
 
 2,930,006 9 6 
 
 
 8,049,939 8 3£ 
 
 
 7,769,128 12 44 
 
 
 7,432,294 15 14 
 
 
 (8906) 
 
 
 (8,879) 
 
 
 (8,878) 
 
 
 1,223,770 0 0 
 
 
 1,363,282 0 0 
 
 
 1,332,354 0 0 
 
 
 (12,439) 
 
 
 (12,494) 
 
 
 (12,364) 
 
 
 372,380 0 0 
 
 
 365,626 0 0 
 
 
 357,090 0 0 
 
 
 1,596,150 0 0 
 
 
 1,728,908 0 0 
 
 
 1,689,444 0 0 
 
 
 (31,818) 
 
 
 (32,458) 
 
 
 (31,444) 
 
 
 4,000,135 7 7 
 
 
 4,299,645 11 11 
 
 
 4,067,308 7 81 
 
 
 (31,130) 
 
 
 (30,467) 
 
 
 (29,922) 
 
 
 1,596,830 0 0 
 
 
 1,579,149 0 0 
 
 
 1,531,646 17 111 
 
 
 5,995,965 7 7 
 
 
 5,878,794 11 11 
 
 
 5,594,955 5 8 
 
 
 
 i c; kao (\^a i ^ ini 
 
 
 15,376,881 4 34 
 236,898 3 0| 
 
 
 i a *yi k koa n qi 
 
 
 276,226 8 6 
 
 
 
 207,966 10 11 
 
 
 727,615 0 10 
 
 
 606,396 8 4 
 
 
 474,242 0 1 
 
 
 421,838 17 6 
 
 
 427,015 2 54 
 
 
 252,601 5 71 
 
 
 681,368 7 24 
 
 
 696,801 16 111 
 
 
 718,359 8 64 
 
 
 159,709 4 94 
 
 
 191,852 18 24 
 
 
 214,037 14 63 
 
 
 
 
 200,000 0 0 
 
 
 
 
 1,485,840 12 8| 
 
 
 1,336,287 16 7 
 
 •* 
 
 1,988,530 7 81 
 
 
 54,836,901 10 9$ 
 
 
 54,348,875 9 84 
 
 
 53,011,533 3 51 
 
 Heads of Expenditure. 
 
 FORCES. 
 
 . C t. rc ,• (Number of Men 
 §* ^Effective. ^ Charge . . 
 
 8 ) Non- (Number of Men 
 (Effective. £ Charge . . 
 
 Total Army 
 
 ^Effective. \ ®? mheT of Men 
 ) ( Charge . . 
 
 J Non- (Number of Men 
 [Effective. ) Charge . . 
 
 Total Ordnance . . . 
 
 £ \ Non- (Number of Men 
 (Effective. \ Charge . . 
 
 Total Navy 
 Total Forces 
 
 Bounties for promoting Fishe- 
 ries, Linen Manufactures, &c. 
 paid out of the Gross Revenue 
 
 Public Works 
 
 Payment out of the Revenue of 
 Crown Lands for Improve- 
 ments and various public ser- 
 vices 
 
 Post-Office, Charge of Collection 
 and other Payments . . . 
 
 Quarantine and Warehousing 
 Establishments .... 
 Spanish Claims as granted by 
 
 Parliament 
 
 Miscellaneous Services not 
 classed under the foregoing 
 Heads, consisting of grants of 
 Parliament, Payments of the 
 Consolidated Fund, out of the 
 Civil List of England, Scot- 
 land, and Ireland .... 
 
 Grand Total 
 
Account of the Total Amount of the NATIONAL DEBT in each Year, from the ls< February, 1786, to the 5th January, 1818; stating the Amount of Dcbi 
 contracted, the Amount of Debt redeemed, and also the Total Amount of unredeemed Debt in each of those Years. Ordered to be printed, 27th April, 18i8. 
 
 660 
 
 EUROPE 
 
 z 
 
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GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
 661 
 
 Total Debt of the United Kingdom, Jan. 5, 1828, . £785,530,326 
 
 Annual Charge thereof, 30,230,037 
 
 Amount of the National Debt, March, 1834. 
 
 Funded Debt, £751,658,883 
 
 Unfunded Debt, 27,906,900 
 
 Total, 779,565,783 
 
 Charges on Funded Debt, 27,782,116 
 
 “ Unfunded Debt, 779,769 
 
 Total Charges, 28,561,885 
 
 Decrease in the Debt from 1815 to 1834, £64,653,057 
 
 Table of the Reformed Parliament, as compared with the former 
 Parliament. 
 
 I . — Comparative Numbers. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Former. Reformed. 
 
 Counties, . . 
 
 82 
 
 members. 
 
 Counties, . . . 
 
 144 members. 
 
 Cities, . . . 
 
 50 
 
 tt 
 
 Cities and 1 
 
 ooo 
 
 u 
 
 Boroughs and 
 
 • 353 
 
 it 
 
 Boroughs, J 
 
 o<4o 
 
 
 Cinque Ports, 
 
 
 
 Universities, . . 
 
 4 
 
 a 
 
 Universities, . 
 
 4 
 
 tt 
 
 
 
 
 Total, . . . . 
 
 489 
 
 tt 
 
 Total, . . . . 
 
 471 
 
 tt 
 
 
 
 WALES. 
 
 
 
 Counties, . . 
 
 12 
 
 members. 
 
 Counties, . . . 
 
 15 members. 
 
 Cities and ) 
 
 12 
 
 tt 
 
 Borough Dis- ) 
 
 14 
 
 it 
 
 Boroughs, 5 
 
 
 
 tricts, 5 
 
 
 
 Total, . . . 
 
 24 
 
 tt 
 
 Total, . . . . 
 
 29 
 
 tt 
 
 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 
 
 Shires, . . . 
 
 . 30 
 
 members. 
 
 Shires 
 
 28 members. 
 
 Burghs, . . . 
 
 . 15 
 
 it 
 
 Burghs, . . . 
 
 22 
 
 it 
 
 Total, . . . 
 
 . 45 
 
 tt 
 
 Total, . . . . 
 
 50 
 
 tt 
 
 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 
 
 Counties, . . 
 
 64 
 
 members. 
 
 Counties, . 
 
 64 members- 
 
 Cities and ) 
 
 
 u 
 
 Cities and 1 
 
 qq 
 
 (c 
 
 Boroughs, 5 
 
 • DO 
 
 
 Boroughs, ) ' 
 
 oy 
 
 
 University, 
 
 . 1 
 
 tt 
 
 University, . . 
 
 2 
 
 a 
 
 Total, . . . 
 
 .’loo’ 
 
 it 
 
 Total, . . . . 
 
 105 
 
 tt 
 
 Total Parliament 
 
 658 
 
 tt 
 
 Total Parliament, 
 
 "655 
 
 tt 
 
 II. — Distribution of Members. 
 
 House of Commons, as heretofore constituted. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 39 Counties, 2 each, and Yorkshire, 4, 
 
 23 Cities, 2 each, and London, 4, 
 
 166 Boroughs, 2 each ; 5 Boroughs, 1 each ; 8 Cinque- 
 
 ports, 16, 
 
 2 Universities, Oxford and Cambridge, .... 
 
 WALES. 
 
 12 Counties, 
 
 12 Cities and Boroughs, 
 
 sent 82 
 “ 50 
 
 “ 353 
 
 “ 4 
 
 489 
 
 “ 12 
 “ 12 
 24 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 Shires, “ 30 
 
 Cities and Boroughs, “ 15 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 Counties, “ 64 
 
 Cities and Boroughs, “ 35 
 
 University of Dublin, . . . “ 1 
 
 100 
 
 Total Number of Members . 658 
 
 Reformed House of Commons. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 26 Counties, 4 each , 7, 3 each ; 6, 2 each ; Yorkshire, 6 ; ) 
 
 Isle of Wight, 1, ... ) 
 
 133 Cities and Boroughs, 2 each, 
 
 53 Boroughs, 1 each, 
 
 City of London, 
 
 Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, 2 each, . . . . 
 
 144 
 
 266 
 
 53 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 471 
 
 WALES. 
 
 3 Counties, 2 each ; and 9 Counties, 1 each, ..... 15 
 
 14 Districts of Boroughs, 1 each, 14 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 33 Counties, 28 
 
 Edinburgh and Glasgow, 2 each, 4 
 
 18 Boroughs and Districts of Boroughs, 1 each, .... 18 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 32 Counties, 2 each, 
 
 6 Cities, 2 each ; 27 Boroughs, 1 each, 
 The University of Dublin, 2, . . . 
 
 Total, 
 
 64 
 
 39 
 
 2 
 
 105 
 
 655 
 
 III. — Disfranchisements and Enfranchisements. 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Disfranchised, 55 Boroughs, 2 each, HO members. 
 
 “ 1 Borough, 1, ]_ member. 
 
 56 HI 
 
 Reductions, 30 Boroughs, 2 each, reduced to 1 each, 30 members. 
 
 2 “ 2 each, united, now send- ) g < ( 
 
 ing only 2, . . . . ) 
 
 Total reduction, 
 
 32 “ 
 
 143 “ 
 
 Additions, 22 New Boroughs and Borough Dis- ) ^ ,, 
 
 tricts, 2 each, . } 
 
 19 New Boroughs and Borough Dis- 1 jg „ 
 
 tricts, 1 each, J 
 
 New County Members, 64 “ 
 
 Total additions, 127 “ 
 
 Excess of reductions, 16 “ 
 
 WALES. 
 
 New County Members, 
 
 New Borough “ 
 
 Additions, 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 Reduction of County Members, . . . 
 
 Addition of Borough Members, . . . 
 
 Total addition, 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 New City and Borough Members, . . . 
 
 New University Member, 
 
 Additions 
 
 Cl I i-> ClI-JlO Uiltsw 
 
662 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Comparative Population of Towns and Country. 
 
 About half the population of Great Britain is contained in the 
 >wns, and the other half inhabit the country. On this subiect the 
 
 following results have been given by 
 on the wealth and power of Great P 
 
 • Dr. Colquhoun, in his 
 iritain viz. 
 
 “ Treatise 
 
 
 Counties. Towns. Houses. 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 In England, 
 Wales, 
 Scotland, 
 
 40 861 
 
 12 78 
 
 32 244 
 
 746,308 
 
 29,416 
 
 139,670 
 
 4,221,814 
 
 143,467 
 
 907,431 
 
 
 84 1183 
 
 915,394 
 
 5,272,712 
 
 
 Houses. 
 
 Total 
 
 Inhabitants. Houses. 
 
 Total 
 
 Inhabitants. 
 
 In the Country- 
 
 -England, 979,723 
 Wales, 93,077 
 
 Scotland, 175,752 
 
 5,317,013 1,726,031 
 468,321 122,493 
 
 898,257 315,422 
 
 9,538,827 
 
 611,788 
 
 1,805,688 
 
 
 1,248,552 
 
 6,683,591 2,163,946 
 
 11,956,303 
 
 “ Thus it appears, that in England the inhabitants of the Country 
 only exceed those in the Towns to the extent of 95,199 persons, less 
 than one eleventh part; whereas in Wales, the difference is much 
 greater, being more than double on the whole population ; while in 
 Scotland the population in the Country and in the Towns is nearly 
 equal. During the 10 years between 1801 and 1811, the increase of 
 population of Great Britain, in the Country and in the Towns, stands 
 thus : — 
 
 The Inhabitants of the Country have increased .... 787,612 
 
 The Inhabitants of the Towns have increased 696,643 
 
 Total 1,484,255 
 
 The Houses have increased, in the Country, 127,661 
 
 in the Towns, 98,796 
 
 Total, . 226,457 
 
 Which shows that there is a greater tendency to populate the Towns 
 than the Country. It is probable many of the buildings erected for 
 the accommodation of the rural population, are barns, stables, and other 
 out-houses for agricultural purposes ; whereas those erected in towns, 
 are generally for the dwellings of the inhabitants ; and it should seem 
 urobable that a greater proportion of the population of Great Britain 
 
 live in towns than in any other country, Holland, perhaps, excepted , 
 and yet it appears that the general mortality has been progressively 
 diminishing.” 
 
 Classes of Inhabitants in 1812. 
 
 The same author also distributes the population of Great Britain 
 and Ireland into the following classes, with the number of families, of 
 individuals, and the income of each, in 1812, as follows : — 
 
 Royalty, 
 
 Nobility, 
 
 Gentry, 
 
 State and Revenue, . . . 
 
 Army, 
 
 Navy, 
 
 Half-pay, &c 
 
 Pensioners, 
 
 Clergy 
 
 Law, 
 
 Physic, 
 
 Fine Arts, 
 
 Agriculture, Mines, &c. 
 
 Foreign Com., Shipping, Man- " 
 ufac., and Trade, including ’ 
 
 Fisheries, 
 
 Universities and Schools for the ' 
 education of youth, 
 Miscellaneous, . . 
 
 Paupers, . . .... 
 
 Families. 
 
 12 
 
 564 
 
 46,861 
 
 21,500 
 
 75.000 
 
 53.000 
 2,500 
 
 19.000 
 
 19.000 
 
 18.000 
 5,000 
 
 1,302,151 
 
 Persons, includ- 
 ing domestics. 
 
 300 
 
 13,620 
 
 402,915 
 
 114,500 
 
 490.000 
 
 345.000 
 
 14.500 
 
 92.000 
 
 96.500 
 
 95.000 
 
 90.000 
 
 25.000 
 6,129,142 
 
 Income of 
 each class. 
 
 £501 ,000 
 5,400.480 
 53,022,110 
 
 8.830.000 
 14,000,000 
 
 9,299,680 
 
 856,600 
 
 1.050.000 
 
 4.580.000 
 
 7.600.000 
 5,400/100 
 
 1.400.000 
 107,246,795 
 
 1,506,774 7,071,989 183,908,352 
 
 35,874 
 
 9,445 
 
 387,100 
 
 213,496 7,664,400 
 
 354,441 
 
 1,548,400 
 
 9,890,955 
 
 9,871,000 
 
 Total, . ... 
 
 . . 3,501,781 
 Aggregate. 
 
 17,096,803 
 
 £430,521,372 
 
 
 Families. 
 
 Persons. 
 
 Income 
 
 Agriculture, Mines, &c. 
 
 . . 1,302,151 
 
 6,129,142 
 
 107,246,795 
 
 Inland Trade, .... 
 
 . . 970,224 
 
 4,599,139 
 
 98,029,352 
 
 Manufactures, .... 
 
 . . 464,500 
 
 2,066,500 
 
 57,223,000 
 
 Foreign Commerce and Shipping, 72,050 
 King’s Military and Marine, ) ^qq 
 
 including Pensioners, . . S ’ 
 
 406,350 
 
 28,056,000 
 
 941,500 
 
 25,206,280 
 
 Miscellaneous, .... 
 
 
 2,954,172 
 
 114,159,945 
 
 Total, 
 
 
 17,096,803 
 
 £430,521,372 
 
TABLES 
 
 OF 
 
 MATHEMATICAL. GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 i. 
 
 COMPARISON OF FRENCH AND ENGLISH WEIGHTS 
 AND MEASURES. 
 
 Un'ts which form the Bases of the New French System 
 compared with the Weights and Measures of England. 
 English. 
 
 3,2809167 feet, or 39,371 inches. 
 1076,411 square feet. 
 
 61,028 
 35,317 
 15,4441 
 5,6481 
 
 The Metre = 
 
 Are = 
 
 Litre = 
 
 Stere = 
 
 Gramme = 
 
 Gramme also = 
 
 cubic inches, 
 cubic feet, 
 grains troy, 
 drams avoirdupois. 
 
 New Weights and Measures of France compared with the 
 
 Old 
 
 and also with English 
 
 Weights and Measures. 
 
 Distance from the 
 Equator to the > 
 Pole ) 
 
 Degree (centesimal) 
 Myriametre 
 Kilometre 
 Hectometre 
 Decametre 
 Metre 
 
 Linear Measure. 
 
 French Feet. 
 
 30784440 
 
 English Feet. 
 
 32809167 
 
 Decimetre 
 
 Centimetre 
 
 Millimetre 
 
 Mi Hare 
 
 Kilare 
 
 Hectare 
 
 Decare 
 
 Are 
 
 Deciare 
 
 Centiare 
 
 307844,4 
 30784/14 
 3078,444 
 307,8444 
 30,78444 
 3,078444 
 
 Lines French. 
 
 44,3296 
 4,43296 
 0,443296 
 
 Square or Superficial M( 
 
 French Square Feet. 
 
 9476817,46113 
 947681,7461 13 
 94768,1746113 
 9476,81746113 
 ^7,681746113 
 94,7681746113 
 9,47681746113 
 
 328091,67 
 32809,167 
 3280,9167 
 328,09167 
 32,809167 
 3,2809167 
 
 Lines English. 
 
 47,2452 
 4,72452 
 0,472452 
 
 Square Decimetre 
 
 Square Centimetre 
 Square Millimetre 
 
 sure. 
 
 English Square Feet. 
 
 10764414,3923 
 1076441,43923 
 107644,143923 
 10764,4143923 
 1076,44143923 
 107,644143923 
 10,7644143923 
 
 Square Inches. Square Inches. 
 
 13,646617 15,500756 
 
 Square Lines. Square Lines. 
 
 19,651134 22,321088 
 
 0,19651134 0,2232108 
 
 Myrialitre 
 Kilolitre 
 Cubic metre 
 Hectolitre 
 
 Measures of Capacity. 
 
 French 
 cubic feet. 
 
 291,738519 
 
 29,1738519 
 
 Decalitre 
 
 Litre or Cubic Decimetre 
 Decilitre 
 
 Centilitre 
 
 2,91738519 
 
 Cubic indies. 
 
 504,121160 
 
 50,4124160 
 
 5,04124160 
 
 Cubic lines. 
 
 871,126926 
 
 Bar or cubic 
 
 metre of water 
 
 Myriagramme 
 
 Kilogramme 
 
 Hectogramme 
 
 Decagramme 
 
 Gramme 
 
 Decigramme 
 
 Centigramme 
 
 English 
 cubic feet. 
 
 353,1714693 
 
 35,31714693 
 
 3,531714693 
 
 Cubic inches. 
 
 610,280264 
 61,0280264 
 6,10280264 
 
 Cubic lines. 
 
 1 054. 564296 
 
 The Litre, which is the unit for measures of capacity 
 = 2,113 English pints, wine measure; and therefore 
 the Hectolitre equals 26,4 such gallons — 35 litres = a 
 Winchester bushel. 
 
 Solid or Cubic Measures. 
 
 French cubic feet. English cubic feet. 
 
 Decastere - - 291,738519 353,1700 
 
 Stere (cubic metre) 29,1738519 35,3170 
 
 Decistere - - 2,91738519 3,5317 
 
 This measure is used for fire-wood, stone, &c. The 
 stere is the same as the kilometre in the preceding 
 measure. 
 
 Weights. 
 
 Poids de Marc. English Troy weight, 
 
 livres. on. gros. grains. lb. oz. dr. gr. 
 
 2042 14 0 14 2681 3 6 2, 
 
 20 6 6 63,5 26 9 15 1,46 
 
 2 0 5 35,15 2 8 3 12,146 
 
 3 2 10,715 3 4 8,414 
 
 2 44,2715 6 10,441 
 
 18,82715 15,4441 
 
 1,882715 1,54441 
 
 0,1882715 0,15444 
 
 French New Measure of Time compared with the Old or 
 Usual System. 
 
 Old value. 
 
 New division. h. m. s. 
 
 second - 0 0 0.864 
 
 100 seconds, 1 minute - 0 1 26.4 
 
 100 minutes, 1 hour - - 2 24 0. 
 
 10 hours, 1 day - 24 0 0. 
 
 Reversed. 
 
 New value. 
 
 Old or usual division. h. m. s. 
 
 1 second - 0 0 1.1574 
 
 60 seconds, 1 minute - 0 69 54.4 
 
 60 minutes, 1 hour - - 1 15 74. 
 
 24 hours, 1 day - - 10 0 0. 
 
 French New Measure of the Circle compared with the Old 
 or Common System. 
 
 New division. Old value. 
 
 100 seconds, 1 minute of space, 0° O' 32 // | 
 
 100 minutes, 1 degree, 0 54 0 
 
 100 degrees, 1 quadrant, 90 0 0 
 
 400 degrees, 1 circle, 360 0 0 
 
 Reversed. 
 
 Old division. New value. 
 
 60 tierces, 1 second, 0° 0 7 
 
 60 seconds, 1 minute of space, 0 1 85/U 
 
 60 minutes, 1 degree, 1 11 111 
 
 90 degrees, 1 quadrant, 100 0 0 
 
 4 quadrants, or 360°, 1 circle, 400 -0 0 
 
 Old Weights and Measures of France. 
 
 Long Measure. — The toise or fathom of France is 
 equal to six feet French, the foot to 12 inches French, 
 and the inch, to 1 2 lines, each subdivided into 12 points; 
 
TABLES. 
 
 6G4 
 
 76 French feet are nearly equal to 81 English feet ; or, 
 more accurately, 40,000 Frerjph feet, inches, or lines, 
 equal 42,638 English feet, inches, or lines Thus 1 
 French foot equals 1.06597 English, or 12.78934 
 English inches ; and hence one English foot equals 
 11.26 French inches. The Paris aune was 46\1 
 English inches. 
 
 In the old French road measure, the lieue, or league, 
 is two French miles, each mile 1000 toises ; hence the 
 French league equals two English miles, three furlongs, 
 and 15 poles. 
 
 The French league, however, in different parts of 
 France, has been applied to different distances. The 
 marine league, (20 to a degree,) equals 2853 toises, or 
 6081 English yards ; and the astronomical league, (25 
 to a degree,) equals 2282| French toises, or 1865 
 English yards. 
 
 The arpent, or acre of land, contained in general 
 1 00 square perches ; but the perch varied in different 
 provinces. 
 
 The old French weight for gold and silver (called 
 poids de marc,) makes the pound or livre contain 2 
 marcs, 16 onces, 128 gros, 384 deniers, or 9216 grains. 
 
 The French marc = 3780 grains Troy weight. 
 
 For commercial weight, the poids de marc was like- 
 wise used, and the quintal of 100 livres=108 lb. avoir- 
 dupois, very nearly. 
 
 Weights and measures, however, varied considerably 
 in the different provinces. 
 
 Corn measure was the muid of 12 setiers, 24 mines, 
 48 minots, or 144 bushels. 
 
 Wine measure was the muid of 36 setiers, 144 quartes, 
 or 288 pints. 
 
 II. 
 
 Synoptical Table of the Planetary System . a 
 
 Diameters and bulk ; those of the Earth considered as unity. 
 
 Diameter. Bulk or Volume. 
 
 The Sun 
 
 - 
 
 111.45 
 
 - 
 
 1,3S4,462. 
 
 Mercury 
 
 - 
 
 0.4012 
 
 - 
 
 0.06456 
 
 Venus 
 
 - 
 
 0.9693 
 
 - 
 
 0.8902 
 
 The Earth - 
 
 - 
 
 1 . 
 
 - 
 
 1. 
 
 The Moon 
 
 - 
 
 0.2731 
 
 - 
 
 0.02036 
 
 Mars 
 
 - 
 
 0.5199 
 
 - 
 
 0.1406 
 
 Vesta 
 
 - 
 
 0.4 
 
 - 
 
 ... 
 
 Juno 
 
 - 
 
 0.1 
 
 - 
 
 ... 
 
 Ceres 
 
 - 
 
 0.3076 
 
 - 
 
 0.02913 
 
 Pallas 
 
 - 
 
 0.154 
 
 - 
 
 0.00365 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 - 
 
 10.862 
 
 - 
 
 1.281.00000 
 
 Saturn 
 
 - 
 
 9.983 
 
 - 
 
 995.00000 
 
 Uranus b 
 
 - 
 
 4.332 
 
 . 
 
 80.49 
 
 Rotation, or Sidereal Day. Flattening at the Poles. 
 
 
 
 Hours. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Sec. 
 
 
 
 Mercury 
 
 - 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 Venus 
 
 _ 
 
 23 
 
 21 
 
 0 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 The Earth 
 
 23 
 
 56 
 
 4 
 
 _ 
 
 1 
 
 3 3 4 
 
 Mars 
 
 - 
 
 24 
 
 39 
 
 21 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 1 6 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 - 
 
 9 
 
 56 
 
 0 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 1 4 
 
 Saturn j 
 
 Ilerschel 
 
 Calandillo 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 39 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 - 20.91 
 
 - 13.3 
 
 ; 22.81 
 : 16.1 
 
 * Laplace, System© du Monde. Biot, Astronomic Physique. 
 b Ilerschol. 
 
 c The eccentricity of Pallas proves, that, notwithstanding the 
 identity almost of its mean distance with that of Ceres, the orbits of 
 
 Revolutions Tropical. Sidereal. 
 
 
 Yrs. Days 
 
 Hrs. Min. Sec. 
 
 Days. 
 
 Hrs. Min. Sec. 
 
 Mercury 
 
 0 
 
 87 
 
 23 
 
 14 
 
 32 7 
 
 87 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 43.6 
 
 Venus 
 
 0 
 
 224 
 
 16 
 
 41 
 
 27.5 
 
 224 
 
 16 
 
 49 
 
 10.6 
 
 The Earth 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 48 
 
 48 
 
 365 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 Mars 
 
 1 
 
 321 
 
 22 
 
 18 
 
 27.4 
 
 686 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 35.6 
 
 Vesta 
 
 3 
 
 240 
 
 . 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 Juno 
 
 4 
 
 130 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 
 Ceres 
 
 4 
 
 221 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 Pallas 
 
 4 
 
 241 
 
 17 
 
 . 
 
 _ 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 11 
 
 315 
 
 14 
 
 39 
 
 2 
 
 4,332 
 
 14 
 
 27 
 
 10.8 
 
 Saturn 
 
 29 
 
 161 
 
 19 
 
 16 
 
 15.5 
 
 10,759 
 
 1 
 
 51 
 
 11.2 
 
 Uranus 
 
 83 
 
 294 
 
 8 
 
 39 
 
 - 
 
 30,689 
 
 - 
 
 29 
 
 - 
 
 Half the greater Axis of the Orbits of the Planets ; or 
 their mean distances from the Sun, in JWyriametres, 
 each containing 32809 English feet. 
 
 Mercury, 
 
 _ 
 
 Myriametres. 
 
 5917938 
 
 VeSus, 
 
 - 
 
 11058215 
 
 The Earth, 
 
 - 
 
 15287873 
 
 Mars, 
 
 - 
 
 23294021 
 
 Vesta, 
 
 - 
 
 36278123 
 
 Juno, 
 
 - 
 
 40619979 
 
 Ceres, 
 
 - 
 
 42282000 
 
 Pallas,® 
 
 - 
 
 - 42666000 
 
 Jupiter, 
 
 - 
 
 79511907 
 
 Saturn, 
 
 - 
 
 - 145836700 
 
 Uranus, 
 
 - 
 
 - 291720130 
 
 The relative proportion of the eccentricity to the half oj 
 the greater axis. 
 
 Mercury, 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 0.205523 
 
 Venus, 
 
 _ 
 
 - 
 
 0.006885 
 
 The Earth, 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 0.016814 
 
 Mars, 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 0.093088 
 
 Ceres, 
 
 _ 
 
 _ 
 
 0.0S2501 
 
 Pallas, 
 
 __ 
 
 - 
 
 - d>463 
 
 Jupiter, 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 0.048077 
 
 Saturn, 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 0.056223 
 
 Uranus, 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 0.046683 
 
 Inclination of the Orbit to the Ecliptic. 
 
 Mercury, 
 
 - 
 
 - 6° 
 
 35' 
 
 30" 
 
 Venus, 
 
 - 
 
 - 3 
 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 The Earth, - 
 
 - 
 
 - 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Mars, 
 
 - 
 
 - 1 
 
 50 
 
 47 
 
 Ceres, 
 
 - 
 
 - 10 
 
 36 
 
 57 
 
 Pallas, 
 
 - 
 
 - 34 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 Jupiter, 
 
 - 
 
 - 1 
 
 19 
 
 38 
 
 Saturn, 
 
 - 
 
 - 2 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 Uranus 
 
 - 
 
 - 0 
 
 46 
 
 12 
 
 these two planets are very distant front each other at. their aphelion 
 and perihelion. Between these points, the orbits intersect each other 
 Pallas sometimes approaches Jupiter and sometimes Mars. 
 
TABLES. 
 
 665 
 
 v - 1 
 
 Table of the Decrease of the Degrees of Longitude, according to the New 
 
 or Centesimal Graduation, the Earth being considered ns Spherical. \ 
 
 Lati- 
 
 Degree of Longi- 
 
 Lati- 
 
 Degree of Longi- 
 
 Lati- 
 
 Degree of Longi- 
 
 tude. 
 
 tude. 
 
 tude. 
 
 tude. 
 
 tude. 
 
 tude. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 Kilometres. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 Kilometres. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 Kilometres. 
 
 0 
 
 100,000 
 
 34 
 
 86,074 
 
 68 
 
 48,175 
 
 1 
 
 99,988 
 
 35 
 
 85,264 
 
 69 
 
 46,793 
 
 2 
 
 99,951 
 
 36 
 
 84,433 
 
 70 
 
 45,339 
 
 3 
 
 99,889 
 
 37 
 
 83,581 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 99,803 
 
 38 
 
 82,708 
 
 71 
 
 43,994 
 
 5 
 
 99,692 
 
 39 
 
 81,815 
 
 72 
 
 42,578 
 
 6 
 
 99.556 
 
 40 
 
 80,902 
 
 73 
 
 41,151 
 
 7 
 
 99,396 
 
 
 
 74 
 
 39.115 
 
 8 
 
 99,21 '. 
 
 41 
 
 79,968 
 
 75 
 
 38,268 
 
 9 
 
 99,002 
 
 42 
 
 79,015 
 
 76 
 
 36,812 
 
 10 
 
 98,769 
 
 43 
 
 78,043 
 
 77 
 
 35,347 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 77,051 
 
 78 
 
 33,874 
 
 11 
 
 98,511 
 
 45 
 
 76,040 
 
 79 
 
 32,392 
 
 12 
 
 98,229 
 
 46 
 
 75,011 
 
 80 
 
 30,902 
 
 13 
 
 97,922 
 
 47 
 
 73,963 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 97,592 
 
 48 
 
 72.897 
 
 81 
 
 29,404 
 
 15 
 
 97,237 
 
 49 
 
 71,813 
 
 82 
 
 27,899 
 
 16 
 
 96,858 
 
 50 
 
 70,711 
 
 83 
 
 26,387 
 
 17 
 
 96,456 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 24,869 
 
 48 
 
 96,029 
 
 51 
 
 69,591 
 
 85 
 
 23,344 
 
 19 
 
 95,579 
 
 52 
 
 68,455 
 
 86 
 
 21,814 
 
 20 
 
 95,106 
 
 53 
 
 67,301 
 
 87 
 
 20,279 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 66,131 
 
 88 
 
 18,738 
 
 21 
 
 94.608 
 
 55 
 
 64,945 
 
 89 
 
 17,193 
 
 22 
 
 94,088 
 
 56 
 
 63,742 
 
 90 
 
 15,643 
 
 23 
 
 93,544 
 
 57 
 
 62,524 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 92,978 
 
 58 
 
 61,291 
 
 91 
 
 14,090 
 
 25 
 
 92,388 
 
 59 
 
 60,042 
 
 92 
 
 12,533 
 
 26 
 
 91,775 
 
 60 
 
 58,778 
 
 93 
 
 10,973 
 
 27 
 
 91,140 
 
 
 
 94 
 
 9,411 
 
 28 
 
 90.483 
 
 61 
 
 57,500 
 
 95 
 
 7,846 
 
 29 
 
 89,803 
 
 62 
 
 56,208 
 
 96 
 
 6,279 
 
 30 
 
 89,101 
 
 63 
 
 54.902 
 
 97 
 
 4,711 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 53.583 
 
 98 
 
 3.141 
 
 31 
 
 88,377 
 
 65 
 
 52,250 
 
 99 
 
 1,571 
 
 32 
 
 87,631 
 
 66 
 
 50,904 
 
 100 
 
 0,000 
 
 33 
 
 86,863 
 
 67 
 
 49,546 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 VI. 
 
 
 
 Tablenf the Decreaseofthe Degreesof Longitude, according to the New or 
 
 Centesimal scale, the Earth bein 
 
 or supposed to be a Spheroid., flattened-^ g-y . 
 
 Lati- 
 
 Degree of Longi- 
 
 Lati- 
 
 Degree of Longi- 
 
 Lati- 
 
 Degree of Longi- 
 
 tude. 
 
 tude. 
 
 tude. 
 
 tude. 
 
 tude. 
 
 tude. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 Metres. | 
 
 Deg. 
 
 Metres. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 Metres. 
 
 0 
 
 100149.4 
 
 34 
 
 86269.5 
 
 68 
 
 48358.3 
 
 1 
 
 100137.1 
 
 35 
 
 85461.0 
 
 69 
 
 46972.4 
 
 2 
 
 100100.3 
 
 36 
 
 84631.4 
 
 70 
 
 45574.8 
 
 3 
 
 100038.9 
 
 37 
 
 83780.9 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 99953.0 
 
 38 
 
 82909.7 
 
 71 
 
 44165.9 
 
 5 
 
 99842.5 
 
 39 
 
 82018.1 
 
 72 
 
 42746.0 
 
 6 
 
 99707.6 
 
 40 
 
 81106.2 
 
 73 
 
 41315.3 
 
 7 
 
 99548 2 
 
 
 
 74 
 
 39874.4 
 
 8 
 
 99364 3 
 
 41 
 
 80174.1 
 
 75 
 
 38423.4 
 
 9 
 
 99156 2 
 
 42 
 
 79222.3 
 
 76 
 
 36962.8 
 
 10 
 
 98923.6 
 
 43 
 
 78250.9 
 
 77 
 
 35493.0 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 77260.1 
 
 78 
 
 34014.2 
 
 11 
 
 98666.8 
 
 45 
 
 76250.1 
 
 79 
 
 32527.0 
 
 12 
 
 983S5.8 
 
 46 
 
 75221.3 
 
 80 
 
 31031.6 
 
 13 
 
 98080.6 
 
 47 
 
 74173.8 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 97751.3 
 
 48 
 
 73108.0 
 
 81 
 
 29528.5 
 
 15 
 
 97398.1 
 
 49 
 
 72024.0 
 
 82 
 
 28017.9 
 
 16 
 
 97020.9 
 
 50 
 
 70922.1 
 
 83 
 
 26500.3 
 
 17 
 
 96616.9 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 24976.1 
 
 18 
 
 96195 1 
 
 51 
 
 69802.6 
 
 85 
 
 23445.6 
 
 19 
 
 95746 8 
 
 52 
 
 68665.8 
 
 86 
 
 21909.2 
 
 20 
 
 95274 9 
 
 53 
 
 67512.0 
 
 87 
 
 20367.3 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 66341.3 
 
 88 
 
 18820.3 
 
 21 
 
 94779.6 
 
 55 
 
 65154,2 
 
 89 
 
 17268.6 
 
 22 
 
 94260.9 
 
 56 
 
 63950.9 
 
 90 
 
 15712.6 
 
 23 
 
 93719.1 
 
 57 
 
 62731.7 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 93154.2 
 
 58 
 
 61496.8 
 
 91 
 
 14152.6 
 
 25 
 
 92566.4 
 
 59 
 
 60246.7 
 
 92 
 
 12589.0 
 
 26 
 
 91955.8 
 
 60 
 
 58981.5 
 
 93 
 
 11022.3 
 
 27 
 
 91322.6 
 
 
 
 94 
 
 9452.9 
 
 28 
 
 90666 4 
 
 61 
 
 57701.6 
 
 95 
 
 7881.0 1 
 
 29 
 
 89988 9 
 
 62 
 
 56407.4 
 
 96 
 
 6307.2 ■ 
 
 30 
 
 89288 6 
 
 63 
 
 55099.1 
 
 97 
 
 4731.8 
 
 
 
 64 
 
 53777.1 
 
 98 
 
 3155.7 
 
 31 
 
 88566.4 
 
 65 
 
 52441.7 
 
 99 
 
 1577.8 
 
 32 
 
 87822.4 
 
 66 
 
 51093.1 
 
 100 
 
 0.0 
 
 1 33 
 
 87056.7 
 
 67 1 
 
 49731.8 
 
 
 , 
 
 III. 
 
 Tabic of Climates. 
 
 Climates of 
 Half an Hour. 
 
 Longest Day. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Extent of Climates. 
 
 Their Number. 
 
 Hours . 
 
 Min . 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Min. 
 
 De (Trees. 
 
 Jilin. 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 34 
 
 8 
 
 34 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 43 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 27 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 30 
 
 46 
 
 6 
 
 46 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 42 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 41 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 53 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 
 45 
 
 29 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 48 
 
 59 
 
 3 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 30 
 
 51 
 
 57 
 
 2 
 
 58 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 54 
 
 28 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 30 
 
 56 
 
 36 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 58 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 49 
 
 13 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 59 
 
 57 
 
 1 
 
 32 
 
 14 
 
 19 
 
 0 
 
 61 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 19 
 
 30 
 
 62 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 63 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 56 
 
 17 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 64 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 48 
 
 18 
 
 21 
 
 0 
 
 64 
 
 48 
 
 0 
 
 40 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 30 
 
 65 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 32 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 0 
 
 65 
 
 46 
 
 0 
 
 26 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 30 
 
 66 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 0 
 
 66 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 14 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 66 
 
 28 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 0 
 
 66 
 
 32 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 Climates of 
 Months. 
 
 Longest Day. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Extent of Climates 
 
 Their Number. 
 
 Months. 
 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Min. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 67 
 
 23 
 
 0 
 
 51 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 69 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 73 
 
 39 
 
 3 
 
 49 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 78 
 
 31 
 
 4 
 
 52 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 84 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 34 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 90 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 55 
 
 N B — We do not in these Tables take any notice of the effects of the refraction, 
 which increases the duration of the day, particularly towards the poles. Under the 
 pole itself the refraction alone, independent of the twilight, increases the day, which is 
 six months, 67 hours long. 
 
 IY. 
 
 Table of the Decrease of theDegrees of Longitude, according to the ancient 
 or nonagesimal graduation, ' 
 
 Lati- 
 
 tudes. 
 
 Degree of Lon- 
 gitude. 
 
 Lati- 
 
 tudes. 
 
 Degree of Lon- 
 gitude. 
 
 Lati- 
 
 tudes. 
 
 In toises 
 of 6 ft. 
 Fr. 
 
 In nau- 
 tical 
 miles. 
 
 In toises 
 of 6 ft. 
 Fr. 
 
 In nau- 
 tical 
 miles. 
 
 0 
 
 57050 
 
 60.00 
 
 31 
 
 48901 
 
 51.43 
 
 61 
 
 1 
 
 57041 
 
 59.99 
 
 32 
 
 48381 
 
 50.88 
 
 62 
 
 2 
 
 57015 
 
 59.96 
 
 33 
 
 47846 
 
 51.32 
 
 63 
 
 3 
 
 56972 
 
 59.92 
 
 34 
 
 47298 
 
 49.74 
 
 64 
 
 4 
 
 56911 
 
 59.85 
 
 35 
 
 46732 
 
 49.15 
 
 65 
 
 5 
 
 56833 
 
 59.77 
 
 36 
 
 46154 
 
 48.54 
 
 66 
 
 6 
 
 56738 
 
 59.67 
 
 37 
 
 45562 
 
 47.92 
 
 67 
 
 7 
 
 56625 
 
 59.56 
 
 38 
 
 44956 
 
 47.28 
 
 68 
 
 8 
 
 56495 
 
 59.42 
 
 39 
 
 44337 
 
 46.63 
 
 69 
 
 9 
 
 56347 
 
 59.26 
 
 40 
 
 43703 
 
 45.96 
 
 70 
 
 10 
 
 56183 
 
 59.09 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 43050 
 
 45.28 
 
 71 
 
 11 
 
 56002 
 
 58.89 
 
 42 
 
 42397 
 
 44.59 
 
 72 
 
 12 
 
 55803 
 
 58.69 
 
 43 
 
 41725 
 
 43.83 
 
 73 
 
 13 
 
 55587 
 
 58.46 
 
 44 
 
 41038 
 
 43.16 
 
 74 
 
 14 
 
 55355 
 
 58.22 
 
 45 
 
 40340 
 
 42.43 
 
 75 
 
 15 
 
 55106 
 
 57.95 
 
 46 
 
 39630 
 
 41.68 
 
 76 
 
 16 
 
 54840 
 
 57.67 
 
 47 
 
 38908 
 
 40.92 
 
 77 
 
 17 
 
 54557 
 
 57.38 
 
 48 
 
 38174 
 
 40.15 
 
 78 
 
 18 
 
 54257 
 
 57.06 
 
 49 
 
 37425 
 
 39.36 
 
 79 
 
 19 
 
 53941 
 
 56.73 
 
 50 
 
 36671 
 
 38.57 
 
 80 
 
 20 
 
 5360!! 
 
 56.38 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 35902 
 
 37.76 
 
 81 
 
 21 
 
 53260 
 
 5ft .01 
 
 52 
 
 35123 
 
 36.94 
 
 82 
 
 22 
 
 52895 
 
 55.63 
 
 53 
 
 34333 
 
 36.1 1 
 
 83 
 
 23 
 
 52514 
 
 55.23 
 
 54 
 
 33532 
 
 35.27 
 
 84 
 
 24 
 
 52117 
 
 54.81 
 
 55 
 
 32722 
 
 34.41 
 
 85 
 
 25 
 
 51705 
 
 54.38 
 
 56 
 
 31902 
 
 33.55 
 
 86 
 
 26 
 
 51276 
 
 53.93 
 
 57 
 
 31076 
 
 32.68 
 
 87 
 
 27 
 
 50832 
 
 53.46 
 
 58 
 
 30231 
 
 31.79 
 
 88 
 
 28 
 
 50372 
 
 52.97 
 
 59 
 
 29384 
 
 30.90 
 
 89 
 
 29 
 
 49897 
 
 52.47 
 
 60 
 
 28525 
 
 30.00 
 
 90 
 
 30 
 
 49406 
 
 51.96 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Degree of Lon- 
 gitude. 
 
 in toises 
 of 6 ft. 
 
 Fr. 
 
 27659 
 
 2G784 
 
 25904 
 
 25010 
 
 24110 
 
 23204 
 
 22291 
 
 2)371 
 
 20445 
 
 19512 
 
 18573 
 
 17629 
 
 16G79 
 
 15724 
 
 14764 
 
 13801 
 
 12833 
 
 11862 
 
 10885 
 
 9907 
 
 8924 
 
 7941 
 
 6953 
 
 5963 
 
 4972 
 
 3980 
 
 2986 
 
 1991 
 
 996 
 
 0 
 
 In nau- 
 tical^ 
 miles. 
 
 29.09 
 
 28.17 
 
 27.24 
 
 26.30 
 
 25.36 
 
 24.41 
 
 23.44 
 
 22.48 
 
 21.50 
 
 20.52 
 
 19.53 
 
 18.54 
 
 17.54 
 
 16.54 
 15.53 
 
 14.51 
 13.50 
 
 12.48 
 
 11.45 
 
 10.42 
 
 9.38 
 
 8.35 
 
 7.32 
 
 6.28 
 
 5.23 
 
 4.18 
 
 3.14 
 
 2.09 
 
 1.05 
 
 0.00 
 
 l 
 
 VOL. ITI.-N0. 63 
 
 64 
 
666 
 
 TABLES. 
 
 
 
 
 VII. 
 
 
 
 Of the. Increase of Lite Degrees of Latitude, according to the New or Ctn- 
 
 tesima.l Scale, the Earth being supposed to be a spheroid, fattened 335 . 
 
 Lati- 
 
 tude. 
 
 Decree of Lati- 
 tude. 
 
 Lati- 
 
 tude. 
 
 Degree of Lati- 
 tude. 
 
 Lati- 
 
 tude. 
 
 Degree of Lati- 
 tude. 
 
 Deg. 
 
 0 
 
 Metres. 
 
 99552.5 
 
 
 Metres. 
 
 99789.7 
 
 v et 
 
 Metres. 
 
 100245.9 
 
 1 
 
 99552.9 
 
 35 
 
 99802.2 
 
 69 
 
 100257.5 
 
 2 
 
 99553.8 
 
 36 
 
 99814.9 
 
 70 
 
 100269.0 
 
 3 
 
 99555.1 
 
 37 
 
 99827.8 
 
 
 100280.2 
 
 4 
 
 99556.9 
 
 38 
 
 99840.9 
 
 71 
 
 5 
 
 99559.0 
 
 39 
 
 99854.1 
 
 72 
 
 100291.1 
 
 6 
 
 99561.8 
 
 40 
 
 99867.5 
 
 73 
 
 100301.7 
 
 7 
 
 99564.7 
 
 
 
 74 
 
 100312.0 
 
 8 
 
 99568.2 
 
 41 
 
 99881.0 
 
 75 
 
 100322.0 
 
 9 
 
 99572.1 
 
 42 
 
 99894.6 
 
 76 
 
 100331.7 
 
 10 
 
 99576.4 
 
 43 
 
 99908.3 
 
 77 
 
 100341.1 
 
 44 
 
 99922.1 
 
 78 
 
 100350.1 
 
 11 
 
 99581.2 
 
 45 
 
 99936.0 
 
 79 
 
 100358.8 
 
 12 
 
 99586.3 
 
 46 
 
 99950.0 
 
 80 
 
 100367.2 
 
 13 
 
 99591.8 
 
 47 
 
 99964.0 
 
 
 100375.1 
 
 14 
 
 99597.8 
 
 48 
 
 99978.0 
 
 81 
 
 15 
 
 99604.2 
 
 49 
 
 99992.1 
 
 82 
 
 100382.7 
 
 16 
 
 99610.9 
 
 50 
 
 100006.2 
 
 83 
 
 100369.9 
 
 17 
 
 99618.0 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 100396.8 
 
 18 
 
 99625.4 
 
 51 
 
 100020.3 
 
 85 
 
 100403.2 
 
 19 
 
 99633.4 
 
 52 
 
 100034.4 
 
 » 86 
 
 100409.3 •- 
 
 20 
 
 99641.6 
 
 53 
 
 100048.4 
 
 87 
 
 100414.9 
 
 54 
 
 100062.4 
 
 88 
 
 100420.1 
 
 21 
 
 99650.2 
 
 55 
 
 100076.3 
 
 89 
 
 100424.9 
 
 22 
 
 99659.1 
 
 56 
 
 100090.2 
 
 90 
 
 100429.3 
 
 23 
 
 99668.4 
 
 57 
 
 100103.9 
 
 
 100433.2 
 
 100436.8 
 
 24 
 
 99678.5 
 
 99687.9 
 
 58 
 | 59 
 
 100117.6 
 
 100131.2 
 
 91 
 
 92 
 
 26 
 
 99698.1 
 
 60 
 
 100144.0 
 
 93 
 
 100439.9 
 
 27 
 
 99708.6 
 
 
 
 94 
 
 100442.5 
 
 1 28 
 
 29 
 
 99719.4 
 
 99730.5 
 
 61 
 
 G2 
 
 100157.9 
 
 100171.0 
 
 95 
 
 96 
 
 100444.7 
 
 100446.5 
 
 30 
 
 99741.9 
 
 63 
 
 100184.0 
 
 97 
 
 100447.8 
 
 64 
 | 65 
 
 100196.8 
 
 98 
 
 100448.7 
 
 31 
 
 99753.5 
 
 100209.4 
 
 99 
 
 100449.2 
 
 32 
 
 99765.3 
 
 I 66 
 
 100221.7 
 
 100 
 
 
 33 
 
 99777.4 
 
 1 <57 
 
 100233.9 
 
 
 
 Cnmpt 
 
 VIII. 
 
 rative View of Linear Measures, called (or equivalent to) Feet.* 
 
 VIII. — Continued. 
 
 States and T 
 
 States and Towns. 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 Augsbourg 
 
 Bale 
 
 Batavia 
 
 Berlin 
 
 Brabant 
 
 Cadix 
 
 China 
 
 Copenhagen 
 
 Cracovia 
 
 Dantzick 
 
 Dauphine 
 
 Dijon 
 
 Dresden 
 
 [France 
 
 Frankfort on the Main 
 Tranche Comte 
 i Genoa 
 
 ! Hamburgh 
 
 jLeipzic 
 Lisbon 
 Loudon 
 Lorraine - 
 Lubeck 
 
 Madrid 
 
 Malacca 
 
 Messina 
 
 Measures. 
 
 Voet 
 
 Stadt, or Werk-Schu 
 Stadt, or Feldt-Schu 
 Voet 
 
 „ S of Berlin 
 * uss * of the Rhine 
 Fuss 
 Pie 
 
 Foot of the Merchants 
 
 Mathematical foot 
 
 Che or Carpenter’s foot 
 
 Land-surveyor’s foot 
 
 Fod 
 
 Foot 
 
 Fuss 
 
 Pied 
 
 Pied 
 
 Fuss 
 
 Pied de Roi 
 Decimetre 
 F uss 
 Pied 
 Palmo 
 
 $ of Hamburgh 
 Fuss \ of the Rhine 
 F uss 
 Palmo 
 Foot 
 Pied 
 Fuss 
 Codo 
 Pies 
 
 Palmo \ great 
 ( small 
 Common foot 
 Carpenter’s foot 
 Palmo 
 
 Lines. 
 
 125.5 
 131.3 
 
 132.2 
 139.12 
 
 137.3 
 139.12 
 
 120.6 
 
 125.3 
 150 
 
 147.7 
 
 143.1 
 
 141.7 
 139.12 
 158 
 
 127.2 
 
 151.1 
 
 139.2 
 
 125.5 
 144 
 
 44.33 
 
 127 
 
 158.3 
 
 111.3 
 127 
 139.12 
 
 125.3 
 96.9 
 
 135 
 
 129.2 
 129 
 187.9 
 
 125.3 
 93.97 
 31.32 
 
 139.1 
 
 127.5 
 
 107.3 
 
 2.83 
 
 2.97 
 
 2.98 
 3.14 
 
 3.10 
 3.14 
 2.86 
 2.83 
 3.38 
 3.33 
 
 3.23 
 3.19 
 
 3.14 
 
 3.56 
 2.86 
 
 3.41 
 
 3.15 
 2.83 
 3.25 
 1 
 
 2.86 
 
 3.57 
 2.51 
 2.86 
 3.14 
 2.83 
 2.18 
 3.05 
 2.92 
 2.91 
 
 4.23 
 2.83 
 
 2.11 
 0.70 
 3.14 
 2.87 
 
 2.42 
 
 Munich 
 Naples 
 Normandy 
 Norway 
 
 Nuremberg 
 
 Padua 
 Paris 
 Palermo 
 
 Prague 
 
 Riga 
 Rome 
 Russia 
 Sardinia - 
 Sweden 
 Switzerland 
 Stuttgard 
 Turin 
 Venice 
 Vienna 
 Warsaw, duchy of, 
 
 Mi 
 
 Palmo 
 Fuss 
 Palmo 
 Pied 
 Fod 
 
 Stadt-SchuofCarpenters 
 
 Werk-Schu of Masons 
 
 Palmo 
 
 Pied-de-Roi 
 
 Palmo, ancient 
 
 of Bohemia - 
 of Moravia - 
 
 Fuss 
 
 Palmo 
 
 Foot 
 
 Palmo 
 
 Fot 
 
 Fuss 
 
 Fuss 
 
 Palmo 
 
 Palmo 
 
 Fuss 
 
 Fuss 
 
 Fuss 
 
 176 
 
 128.2 
 
 116.5 
 
 132 
 139.12 
 
 134.7 
 
 123.6 
 189.9 
 144 
 
 107.3 
 
 131.4 
 131.2 
 
 125.5 
 
 130.6 
 135 
 110.1 
 
 131 .6 
 
 133 
 
 126.8 
 
 227.7 
 
 153.7 
 143 
 158 
 
 etres. 
 
 3.97 
 2.89 
 
 2.03 
 
 2.98 
 3.15 
 
 3.03 
 2.78 
 4.28 
 3.25 
 2.42 
 2.97 
 
 2.96 
 2.74 
 2.94 
 3.05 
 2.48 
 
 2.97 
 3.00 
 2.85 
 5.13 
 3.46 
 3.23 
 3.56 
 
 IX. 
 
 A comparative View of the Agrarian Measures used in the principal States of Europe, 
 in ancient French square Feet , (pieds de roi,) compared with the Arpcnt fixed by the 
 Government for measuring the waters and Forests , a and with the Hectare , or new 
 Agrarian Measure of France. 
 
 States and Places. 
 
 I Square Feet, f Arpents. 
 
 a “ Piods commuros.’ 
 
 Alsace, 
 
 Morgen - 
 
 - 
 
 19.045 
 
 Austria, 
 
 Jochart 
 
 - 
 
 54.571 
 
 Bavaria, 
 
 Juchart 
 
 " 
 
 31.700 
 
 104.854 
 
 Denmark, 
 
 Toende Hartkorn 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 210.514 
 
 England, 
 
 Acre 
 
 - 
 
 38.376 
 
 
 Arpent of the waters & forests' 1 
 
 48.400 
 
 
 Arpent of Paris 
 
 - 
 
 32.400 
 
 France, < 
 
 Arpent, common 
 
 - 
 
 40.000 
 
 
 Hectare 
 
 - 
 
 94.768 
 
 
 Are c 
 
 - 
 
 00.9471 
 
 
 Vorling 
 
 - 
 
 12.326 
 
 Hanover 
 
 Drohn 
 
 - 
 
 18.490 
 
 
 M orgen 
 
 - 
 
 24.653 
 
 Holland, 
 
 Morgen' - 
 
 - 
 
 77.016 
 
 
 f ( Rubbio 
 
 Rome < Quarta 
 
 - 
 
 175.138 
 
 
 - 
 
 43.784 
 
 
 ( Pezza 
 
 - 
 
 25.020 
 
 Italy, 
 
 Milanese, Pertia 
 
 . 
 
 7.127 
 
 Naples, Moggia 
 
 - 
 
 31 .679 
 
 
 m S Saccate 
 
 
 46.986 
 
 
 Tuscany } gtloro 
 
 - 
 
 5.546 
 
 
 '-Venice, 1000 Passi 
 
 - 
 
 28.456 
 
 Lorraine, 
 
 Journal 
 
 . 
 
 40.328 
 
 Piedmont 
 
 Giornata 
 
 - 
 
 36.005 
 
 
 f Great Hufe 
 
 - 
 
 1,613.130 
 
 
 Hakenhufe 
 
 - 
 
 107.542 
 
 Prussia, 
 
 Landhufe 
 
 - 
 
 53.771 > 
 
 
 Morgen j f™* 
 
 
 53.771 ] 
 24.197 
 
 Russia, 
 
 Dasaetina 
 
 - 
 
 109.782 
 
 Saxony, Acker 
 
 { Yugada 
 Fanega 
 Cahizada - 
 Aranzada 
 Swabia, Jouchart 
 Sweden, Tunna-land 
 
 f t i ^ S for woods 
 
 , Berne ’ Juchart { for fields 
 
 Switzer- 
 
 la,,d ’ ^ Zurich, Juchart | j-j* woods 
 Tvrol, Jauch, or Jauchart 
 
 52.247 
 
 1,345.032 
 
 32.521 
 
 195.124 
 
 10.781 
 
 13.299 
 
 46.773 
 
 36.6661 
 
 32.592 
 
 30.711 
 
 34.12 
 
 40.999 
 
 0.39283 
 1 .12750 
 0.65495 
 2.16640 
 
 4.34946 
 0.79289 
 1.00000 
 0.66941 
 0.82645 
 1.95801 
 0.01958 
 0.25467 
 0.38202 
 0.50935 
 1.59124 
 3.61857 
 0.90464 
 0.51694 
 0.14725 
 0.65453 
 0.97078 
 0.11459 
 0.38792 
 0.83323 
 0.74390 
 33.32913 
 2.22195 
 
 1.11097 
 
 0.49993 0 
 2.2675C 1 
 1 .07948 
 27.78993 
 0.67191 
 4.03149 
 0.22274 
 0.27477 
 0.96639 
 0.75755 
 0.67338 
 0.63452 
 0.70495 
 0.84707 
 
 Hectares, 
 
 0.2009 
 
 0.5758 
 
 0.3345’ 
 
 1.1064 
 
 2.2213 
 
 0.4049 
 
 0.5107 
 
 0.3418: 
 
 0.4220 
 
 1.0000 
 
 0.0100 
 
 0.1300 
 
 0.1951 
 
 0.2601 
 
 0.8126 
 
 1.8480 
 
 0.4C20| 
 
 0.2639! 
 
 0.0752 
 
 0.3342 
 
 0.4957i 
 
 0.0565 
 
 0.3002 
 
 0.4255 ! 
 
 0.3799 
 
 17.02181 
 
 1.1347 
 
 0.5674 
 
 2553 
 
 1564 
 
 5513 
 
 1928 
 
 3431 
 
 0589 
 
 .1137 
 
 1403 
 
 .4935 
 
 3869' 
 
 .3439, 
 
 3240 
 
 3000 
 
 ,432( 
 
 > ten 
 
 a “ Arpcnt d* ordonnance, dit dcs eaux ct forGts. 71 
 
 1) This Arpcnt contained 100 square perches of 22 feet square, or -1S I square feet, 
 c The Acre, which is the unity of the new French agrarian measures, is equal to 
 metres square, or one square decametre, that is. a space containing one hundred square 
 metres. Tire Hectare is a space containing 100 aies, or a square hectometre. 
 
 Ill comparing the new and old measures of France, we may make use of the following 
 approximations. 
 
 H ' 24 = 47 Arpents of the waters and forests. 
 
 £ ) 27 = 79 Arpents of Paris, of It? feet to the perch. 
 
 S 'j 19 = 45 Common arpents, of 20 feet to the perch, 
 o ( 67 = 82 Acres of Xoimandy, of ICO perches of 22 feet each. 
 

 
 
 TABLES . 
 
 
 
 667 
 
 I|X. — Ji comparative. Table of Itinerary and Topographical Measures, considered, first, as measures of distance in their relation to a deg ree (nona- 
 
 
 
 gesimal ) of the Equator ; to a Geographical French League, of 25 to a degree ; and to the Kilometre ('1000 Metres ; ) and, secondly, us measures 
 
 
 
 of superficial extent in their relation to Geographical square Leagues of Germany (15 to a 
 
 degree,) to square Leagues of France, (25 to a 
 
 
 
 degree ,) and to a square Kilometre. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ITINERARY PROPORTIONS. 
 
 
 TOPOGRAPHICAL PROPORTIONS. 
 
 
 
 To an equatorial 
 
 Leagues of 25 to 
 
 
 MEASURES. 
 
 Square Leagues. 
 
 Square 
 
 
 
 degree. 
 
 a degree. 
 
 
 
 15 to a degree. 
 
 25 to a degree. 
 
 Kilometres. 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 2.08353 
 
 9.27083 
 
 Great Meile of Germany, 
 
 1 .5625 
 
 4.3389 
 
 85.951 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 1.666 
 
 7.41666 
 
 Common, or Geographical Meile, of ditto, 
 
 1 
 
 2.777 
 
 53.004 
 
 
 
 17.75 
 
 1.4084 
 
 6.2076 
 
 Small Meile, of ditto, 
 
 0.714 
 
 1.987 
 
 39.2753 
 
 
 
 69.5 
 
 0.3616 
 
 1.6094 
 
 Mile of England, .... 
 
 0.0471 
 
 0.13075 
 
 2.5889 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 0.4167 
 
 1.8542 
 
 Mile, Geographical, of ditto, 
 
 0.0625 
 
 0.17363 
 
 3.4373 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 1.25 
 
 5.5625 
 
 League, marine, of ditto, . 
 
 0.5625 
 
 1.5625 
 
 30.9357 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 0.7576 
 
 3.371 
 
 Lieue of Anjou, .... 
 
 0.2066 
 
 0.5739 
 
 11.3636 
 
 
 
 57.125 
 
 0.4371 
 
 1.9449 
 
 League of Arabia, . . 
 
 0.0687 
 
 0.191 
 
 3.78 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 0.8929 
 
 3.9732 
 
 Lieue of Artois, .... 
 
 0.2868 
 
 0.7973 
 
 15.785 
 
 
 
 17.333 
 
 1.4423 
 
 6.4183 
 
 Lieu, Astronomical, . . . 
 
 0.7489 
 
 2.079 
 
 41.2 
 
 
 
 105.6 
 
 0.2367 
 
 1 .0535 
 
 Pfase of Batavia and of Java, . . 
 
 0.02018 
 
 0.005602 
 
 1.109 
 
 
 
 26.397 
 
 0.9471 
 
 4.2145 
 
 Horaire of ditto, .... 
 
 0.3229 
 
 0.897 
 
 17.759 
 
 
 
 16.087 
 
 1.55405 
 
 6.9155 
 
 League of ditto, .... 
 
 0.8694 
 
 2.4149 
 
 47.823 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 0.7576 
 
 3.371 
 
 Lieue of Beauce, .... 
 
 0.2066 
 
 0.5739 
 
 11.3636 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 0.9615 
 
 4.2788 
 
 Lieue of Berry, .... 
 
 0.3328 
 
 0.9245 
 
 18.308 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 1.5625 
 
 6.953 
 
 Meile of Bohemia, ... 
 
 0.8789 
 
 2.44 
 
 48.344 
 
 
 
 21.521 
 
 1.1617 
 
 5.1693 
 
 Lieue of Burgundy, 
 
 0.4858 
 
 1.3502 
 
 26.7186 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 1.25 
 
 5.5625 
 
 Meile of Brabant, 
 
 0.5625 
 
 1.5625 
 
 30.9414 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 1.4706 
 
 6.5441 
 
 League of Brazil, .... 
 
 0.7785 
 
 2.1638 
 
 42.8239 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 0.7576 
 
 3.371 
 
 Lieue of Bretagne, . 
 
 0.2066 
 
 0.5739 
 
 11.3636 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 0.8929 
 
 3.9732 
 
 League of Cayenne, . . 
 
 0.2868 
 
 0.7973 
 
 15.7847 
 
 
 
 28.54 
 
 0.8759 
 
 3.898 
 
 League of Canada, 
 
 0.2762 
 
 0.7672 
 
 15.1944 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 0.71429 
 
 3.17857 
 
 League of the Carnatic, (Hindostan,) 
 
 0.1837 
 
 0.5102 
 
 10.1 
 
 
 
 192.4 
 
 0.1299 
 
 0.5782 
 
 Li of China, .... 
 
 0.006078 
 
 0.01687 
 
 0.3343 
 
 
 
 tl 
 
 2.2727 
 
 10.1136 
 
 Gros or Gau of Coromandel, . . 
 
 1.859 
 
 5.1663 
 
 102.2856 
 
 
 
 14.77 
 
 1.6926 
 
 7.5321 
 
 Mile of Denmark, .... 
 
 1.0315 
 
 2.866 
 
 56.731 
 
 i 
 
 
 12.333 
 
 2.027 
 
 9.002 
 
 Meile of Dresden or Saxony, 
 
 1.479 
 
 4.1087 
 
 81.036 
 
 
 
 28.54 
 
 0.8759 
 
 3.898 
 
 Lieue, Post (12,000 feet) of France, 
 
 0.2762 
 
 0.7672 
 
 15.1944 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 4.45 
 
 Lieue, geocr. or common, of ditto, 
 
 0.36 
 
 1 
 
 19.8025 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 1.25 
 
 5.5625 
 
 Lieue, marine of ditto, 
 
 0.5625 
 
 1.6625 
 
 30.9414 
 
 
 
 22.25 
 
 1.1236 
 
 5 
 
 Lieue, mean of ditto, 
 
 0.4544 
 
 1.2633 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 11.125 
 
 2.2472 
 
 10 
 
 Myriainetre, or new great league, of ditto, 
 
 1.818 
 
 5.049 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 11.25 
 
 0.2247 
 
 1 
 
 Kilometre, or new small league, of ditto, 
 
 0.01818 
 
 0.05049 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 19.025 
 
 1.3139 
 
 5.8476 
 
 Lieue of Gascocme, . . . 
 
 0.6216 
 
 1.72 G 6 
 
 34.194 
 
 
 
 26.838 
 
 0.9315 
 
 4.1452 
 
 League of Guiana, . . . 
 
 0.3124 
 
 0.8677 
 
 17.181 
 
 
 
 
 1.3158 
 
 5.855 
 
 Meile of Holland, 
 
 0.6232 
 
 1.7319 
 
 34.281 
 
 
 
 13.333 
 
 1.875 
 
 8.34375 
 
 Meile of Hungary, . . . 
 
 1.266 
 
 3.5159 
 
 69.622 
 
 
 
 42.75 
 
 0.5848 
 
 2.6023 
 
 Cos or Corn of Hindostan, 
 
 0.1231 
 
 0.342 
 
 6.7718 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 0.625 
 
 2.78125 
 
 Mile of Ireland, .... 
 
 0.1416025 
 
 0.3907 
 
 7.735 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 8.333 
 
 37.0833303 
 
 Tingmannaleid of Iceland, . 
 
 2.5 
 
 69.444 
 
 1375.1736 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 2.777 
 
 12.3601 
 
 Mil, marine of ditto, . . . 
 
 2.778 
 
 7.716 
 
 152.797 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 2.0833 
 
 9.2708 
 
 Mil, common of ditto, . . . 
 
 1.5625 
 
 4.3389 
 
 85.96 
 
 
 
 58.48 
 
 0.4275 
 
 1.9024 
 
 Lcga of Bologna, Italy, . . . 
 
 0.0657.9 
 
 0.1828 
 
 5.619 
 
 
 
 67.25 
 
 0.3718 
 
 1.65427 
 
 Lega of Milan, .... 
 
 0.04975 
 
 0.1383 
 
 2.7366 
 
 
 
 57.71 
 
 0.4332 
 
 1.9277 
 
 Lega of Naples, .... 
 
 0.06756 
 
 0.1877 
 
 3.716 
 
 
 
 74.7 
 
 0.3347 
 
 1.4719 
 
 Lega of the Roman States, . . 
 
 0.0403 
 
 0.1121 
 
 2.1667 
 
 
 
 68.25 
 
 0.3663 
 
 1.62967 
 
 Lega of Tuscany, . . 
 
 0.0483 
 
 0.1342 
 
 2.6558 
 
 
 
 60.62 
 
 0.4124 
 
 1.8352 
 
 Lega of Venice, .... 
 
 0.06123 
 
 0.17009 
 
 3.368 
 
 
 
 12.44 
 
 2.001 
 
 8.9429 
 
 Meile of Lithuania, ... 
 
 1.454 
 
 4.004 
 
 79.977 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 0.8929 
 
 3.9732 
 
 Meile of Luxembourg, ... 
 
 0.2868 
 
 0.79727 
 
 15.7847 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 1.087 
 
 4.83696 
 
 Lieue of Lyons, .... 
 
 0.4253 
 
 1.18157 
 
 23.396 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 2.5 
 
 11.125 
 
 Gros or Gau of Malabar, . . . 
 
 1.25 
 
 6.25 
 
 123.7656 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 1.47066 
 
 6.5441 
 
 League of the Mysore, 
 
 0.7786 
 
 2.164 
 
 42.824 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 2.5 
 
 11.125 
 
 Mile of Norway, .... 
 
 2.25 
 
 6.25 
 
 123.7656 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 1.0417 
 
 4.6354 
 
 Lieue of Perche, (in France,) 
 
 0.3906 
 
 1.0857 
 
 21.491 
 
 
 
 12.5 
 
 2 
 
 8.9 
 
 Parasang of Persia, . . . 
 
 1.44 
 
 4 
 
 79.21 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 0.5208 
 
 2.3177 
 
 Lega of Piedmont, » . . . 
 
 0.09766 
 
 0.27123 
 
 5.373 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 1.0417 
 
 4.6354 
 
 Lieue of Poitou, .... 
 
 0.3906 
 
 1.0857 
 
 21.491 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 1.25 
 
 5.5625 
 
 League of Poland, 
 
 0.5625 
 
 1.5625 
 
 30.9414 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 1.3889 
 
 6.18056 
 
 Legua of Portugal, . . . 
 
 0.6944 
 
 1.9293 
 
 38.199 
 
 
 
 14.37 
 
 1.7328 
 
 7.7488 
 
 Meile of Prussia, .... 
 
 1.089 
 
 3.003 
 
 60.045 
 
 
 
 19.025 
 
 1.3139 
 
 5.8476 
 
 Lieue of Provence, 
 
 0.6216 
 
 1.7266 
 
 34.194 
 
 
 
 104.25 
 
 0.2396 
 
 1.06714 
 
 Werste, common of Russia, . . 
 
 0.0207 
 
 0.05741 
 
 1.1385 
 
 
 
 104.716 
 
 0.23874 
 
 1.0624 
 
 Werste, fixed of Russia, 
 
 0.0205 
 
 0.057 
 
 1.1278 
 
 
 
 110.4 
 
 0.22645 
 
 1.0077 
 
 Werste of Russia, according toM.Trescot, 
 
 0.0192 
 
 0.05128 
 
 1.014 
 
 
 
 17.453 
 
 1.43244 
 
 6.3744 
 
 Mile, geographical, of 6 werstes, of ditto, 
 
 0.7387 
 
 2.05 
 
 40.63 
 
 
 
 12.29 
 
 2.034 
 
 9.0521 
 
 Meile of the Police, of Saxony, 
 
 1.49 
 
 4.1371 
 
 81.939 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 0.5 
 
 2.225 
 
 Mile of Scotland, .... 
 
 0.09 
 
 0.25 
 
 4.9506 
 
 
 
 28.942 
 
 0.8638 
 
 3.8438 
 
 Roe-nins of Siam, 
 
 0.2686 
 
 0.74615 
 
 14.77 
 
 
 
 17.18 
 
 1.4552 
 
 6.475 
 
 Meile of Silesia, .... 
 
 0.7623 
 
 2.117 
 
 41.93 
 
 
 
 16.4 
 
 1.5 
 
 6.075 
 
 Legua nueva of Spain, 
 
 0.8117 
 
 2.25 
 
 44.5556 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 1.25 
 
 5.5625 
 
 Legua horaria of Spain, . . 
 
 0.5625 
 
 1.5625 
 
 30.9414 
 
 
 
 26.4 
 
 0.9375 
 
 4.17187 
 
 Legua juridica of Spain, . 
 
 0.3164 
 
 0.8789 
 
 17.4056 
 
 
 
 10.4 
 
 2.4038 
 
 10.6971 
 
 Mile of Sweden, .... 
 
 2.08 
 
 5.7792 
 
 114.45 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 2.5 
 
 11.225 
 
 Gos, or Gau of Surat, . . . 
 
 2.25 
 
 6.25 
 
 123.7656 
 
 
 
 26.838 
 
 0.9315 
 
 4.1452 
 
 League of Surinam, . . 
 
 0.3124 
 
 0.8677 
 
 17.181 
 
 
 
 66.4 
 
 0.375 
 
 1.6687 
 
 Berri of Turkey, .... 
 
 0.05062 
 
 0.1406 
 
 2.786 
 
 
 
 28.537 
 
 0.8761 
 
 3.8985 
 
 Lieue of Touraine, . . . 
 
 0.2763 
 
 0.7676 
 
 15.195 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 2.5 
 
 11.225 
 
 Meile of the Circle of Westphalia, 
 
 2.25 
 
 6.25 
 
 123.76525 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
668 
 
 TABLES. 
 
 XI. 
 
 A Table of the different Measures of Antiquity. 
 
 Itinerary Measures. 
 
 The Schoene of middle Egypt, 
 
 The Schoene of the Thebaide, or the Indian Gau, 
 known under the name of Stathina, . 
 
 The Schoene of the Delta = 9,600 paces, 
 
 The Parasang = 7,200 paces, 
 
 The Indian Coss = 3,600 paces, 
 
 The Egyptian Mile = 2,860 paces, 
 
 The Persian or Asiatic Mile, 
 
 The Hebrew Mile, 
 
 The Pythian or Delphic Stadium, 
 
 The mean Stadium, called also the Nautical or Persia 
 The great Alexandrian or Egyptian Stadium, 
 
 The Phileterian or Royal Stadium, 
 
 The Grecian Olympic Stadium, . 
 
 The Stadium of Eratosthenes, 
 
 The Stadium of Cleoinenes, 
 
 The Stadium of Aristot le, o r small Stadium, 
 
 French Measures. 
 
 Kilo- 
 
 metres. 
 
 20 . 
 
 10 . 
 
 6.66 
 
 5. 
 
 2.66 
 
 2 . 
 
 1.5 
 
 1.166 
 
 Metres. 
 
 XII. — Continued. 
 
 COMPASS OF TWELVE WINDS. 
 
 148.148148 
 
 166.4 
 
 222.22 
 
 210.14 
 
 185.37 
 
 159.2 
 
 133.47 
 
 99.8 
 
 Linear Measures. 
 
 Metres. 
 
 Millimetres. 
 
 The royal Cubit of Babylon, ..... 
 
 . 
 
 468.8 
 
 The mean Cubit, ....... 
 
 . 
 
 416.66 
 
 The Pygon or Palmipes, ..... 
 
 • 
 
 347.22 
 
 The Geometeic foot, ...... 
 
 The Pythian or Delphic foot, .... 
 
 • 
 
 277.77 
 
 • 
 
 246.9 
 
 The Palmus Major, ..... 
 
 The common Palm, or Palfesta, 
 
 The Inch, or Uncia of the geometrical foot, . 
 
 
 086.8 
 
 069.3 
 
 023.1482 
 
 The Dactylus or Digit, ..... 
 
 30.* 
 
 017.361 
 
 The Olympic Hecatonpede, ..... 
 
 864. 
 
 The Exapode, ....... 
 
 I. 
 
 851. 
 
 The cubit, of IS Olympic inches, .... 
 The Olympic foot, ...... 
 
 
 463 
 
 1 .’ 
 
 308.6 
 
 The exapode of six Roman feet, .... 
 
 • 
 
 The great pace ( opyvia ) a of five Roman feet, • 
 
 The common pace, of two Roman feet, 
 
 1. 
 
 * 
 
 The Roman foot. ...... 
 
 
 
 Agrarian Measures. 
 
 
 Square Metres. 
 
 The Plethron = 100 square Olympic feet, 
 
 
 9.526 
 
 The Exapode = 36 square Olympic feet, 
 
 
 3.429 
 
 The Saltus of four Centuries, 
 
 
 20.22716 
 
 The Century of 100 Heredies, 
 
 
 50.5679 
 
 The Heredy of two Jugera, .... 
 The Jugerum of 800 Exapodes, 
 
 
 5056.79 
 
 
 2528.395 
 
 a The opyvia was a measure of six feet, corresponding 
 English.— P. 
 
 to 6 feet 0 inches. 525 dec. 
 
 XII. 
 
 
 
 Comparative Vieio of the Principal Winds. 
 COMPASS OF FOUR WINDS. 
 
 Grecian Names 
 
 Modern Names. 
 
 Situation 
 upon the 
 Compass, b 
 
 
 Boreas, 
 
 Euros, 
 
 Notos, 
 
 Zephyros, 
 
 North, . 
 East, 
 South, . 
 West, . 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 0 
 
 90 
 
 180 
 
 270 
 
 See Homer, 
 Odyss. b. v. 1. 
 
 295. 
 
 COMPASS OF EIGHT WINDS. 
 
 Grecian or Roman Names. 
 
 Modem Names. 
 
 Situation 
 upon the 
 Compass. 
 
 See the ex- 
 planation of 
 the Temple 
 of the Winds 
 at Athens, in 
 Vitruvius, 1. 
 
 I. cap. G.Aris. 
 Meteor. 1. II. 
 cap. 6. Pliny 
 
 II. 22. Aulus 
 Gellius II. 42, 
 <Scc 
 
 Borens ; Aparctias ; Septentrion, 
 Ciesias ; Aquilo ; (sometimesBoreas) 
 Apeliotes; Subsolanus (sometimes 
 Eurus) 
 
 Euronotos;Vnlturnus (often, Eurus) 
 Notos ; Auster, 
 
 Libs; Africus, 
 
 Zephyrus ; Favonius, 
 
 Corus ; Skiron ; Argestes, 
 
 1 Boreas, &c. 
 
 North 
 
 North-East 
 
 East 
 
 South-East 
 
 South 
 
 South-West 
 W est 
 
 North-West 
 
 North 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 0 
 
 45 
 
 90 
 
 135 
 
 ISO 
 
 225 
 
 270 
 
 315 
 
 360 
 
 Ancient Names. 
 
 Modern Names. 
 
 •Situation 
 upon the 
 Compass. 
 
 Aparctias ; Septentrio (Boreas) 
 Meses (often Boreas and Aquilo) 
 
 North 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 0 
 
 N.E. IN.— 3°? 
 
 30 
 
 Cassias 
 
 N.E. { E.+3 0 i 
 
 60 
 
 Apeliotes ; Subsolanus 
 
 East 
 
 90 
 
 Eurus; Vulturnus 
 
 S.E. ]r E. — 3°J 
 
 120 
 
 Phoenix ; Euronotus . 
 
 S.E.1S.+30J 
 
 150 
 
 Notus; Auster 
 
 South 
 
 180 
 
 Libonotus ; Libophcenix 
 
 S.W. 1 S.— 3°3 
 
 210 
 
 Libs; Africus 
 
 S.W4W.+303 
 
 240 
 
 Zephyros; Favonius . 
 
 West 
 
 270 
 
 Iapix ; Corus ; Argestes 
 
 N.W.|W.— 3°| 
 
 300 
 
 Thracias; Cercias 
 
 N.W.! N .+303 
 
 330 
 
 Aparctias 
 
 North 
 
 360 
 
 See Arist 
 De Mundo 
 Pliny, II. 22. 
 Seneca, Nat. 
 Quest. v. lb. 1 
 
 For the 
 compass of 24 
 winds found- 
 ed upon this 
 of 12, see Siu- 
 rnaise, Lxer- 
 cit. Plinian. 
 878—892. 
 
 COMPASS OF THIRTY-TWO WINDS 
 
 English Names. French Names. 
 
 North (N.) 
 
 N. by E. . 
 N.N.E. . 
 N.E. by N. 
 N.E. 
 
 N.E. by E. 
 E.N.E. . 
 E. by N. . 
 East (E.) . 
 E. by S. . 
 E.S.E. 
 
 S.E. by E. 
 S.E. 
 
 S.E. by S. 
 S.S.E. . 
 
 S. by E. . 
 South (S.) 
 
 S. by W. . 
 
 s.s.w. . 
 
 S.W. by S. 
 S.W. 
 
 S.W. byW. 
 
 w.s.w. . 
 
 W. by S. . 
 West (W.) 
 W. by N. . 
 W.N.W. . 
 N.W. by W. 
 N.W. 
 
 N.W. byN. 
 N.N.W. . 
 N. by W. . 
 North 
 
 Nord (N.) 
 N. i N.E. 
 N.N.E. . 
 N.E. i N. 
 N.E. 
 
 N. E. i E. 
 E.N.E. . 
 E. i N.E. 
 Est. 
 
 E. I S.E. 
 E.S.E. . 
 S.E. i E. 
 S.E. 
 
 S.E. i S. 
 S.S.E. . 
 S. i S.E. 
 SuD. 
 
 S. i S.O. 
 
 s.s.o. . 
 S.O. i s. 
 S.O. 
 
 S.O. i o. 
 o.s.o. . 
 
 O. I S.O. 
 
 OlTEST. . 
 
 O. i N.O. 
 O.N.O. . 
 N.O. i O. 
 N.O. 
 
 jN.O. I N. 
 N.N.O. . 
 N. i N.O. 
 Nord. 
 
 Italian Names. 
 
 Tramontana 
 l di T. Verso greco . 
 Greco-Tramontana . 
 
 di Greco Verso T. 
 
 Greco 
 
 \ di Gr. Verso Levante 
 Greco-Levante 
 l di Levante V. Greco 
 Levante 
 
 i di Lev. Verso Scirocco 
 Levante-Scirocco 
 1 di Scirocco V. Levante 
 Scirocco 
 
 1 di Scir. Verso Ostro 
 Ostro-Scirocco • . 
 
 { di Ostro V. Scirocco 
 Ostro 
 
 \ di Ostro V. Libeccio 
 Ostro Libeccio 
 l di Libeccio V. Ostro 
 Libeccio 
 
 i di Lib. V. Ponente 
 Ponente-Libeccio 
 1 di Ponente-Libeccio 
 Ponente 
 
 i di Ponente V. Maestro 
 Maestro-Ponente 
 i di Maestro V. Ponente 
 Maestro 
 1 di Maestro V. Tramontana 
 Maestro Tramontana 
 \ di Tram. V. Maestro 
 Tramontana 
 
 Situation 
 upon the 
 Compass. 
 
 o 
 
 m 
 221 
 331 
 45 
 561 
 67 i 
 78J 
 90 
 1011 
 1121 
 1231 
 135 
 1461 
 1571 
 1681 
 180 
 1911 
 2021 
 2131 
 225 
 2361 
 247J 
 2581 
 270 
 2811 
 2921 
 3031 
 315 
 3261 
 337j 
 3481 
 360 
 
 b In reckoning from the north round the compass. We can thus better understand 
 I the arrangement. Navigators reckon by quarters of circles only, ingoing from the 
 lporth to east, or to west, and also from the south to east, or to west. 
 
 Professor Leslie, to whose liberality the publishers are indebted for 
 the following tables, (XIII. and XIV.) says, “ I have been able, after a 
 delicate and patient research, to fix the law which connects the decrease 
 of temperature with the altitude. If B and b denote the barometric 
 
 pressure at the lower and upper stations ; then will — -gj 25 express, 
 
 on the centigrade scale, the diminution of heat in ascent. Hence, for 
 any given latitude, that precise point of elevation may be found, at 
 
 which eternal frost prevails. Put x~~ and t — the standard tern- 
 — — z I 25 = t, or x- -f- .04 tx = 1, which quadratic 
 
 equation being resolved, gives the relative elasticity of the air at the 
 limit of congellation, whence the corresponding height is determined. 
 From these data the following table has been calculated. 
 
 This table (XIII.) will facilitate the approximation to the altitude of 
 any place, which is inferred either from its mean temperature, or its 
 depth below the boundary of perpetual congelation. The decrements 
 of heat at equal ascents are not altogether uniform, but advance more 
 rapidly in the higher regions of the atmosphere. At moderate eleva- 
 tions, however, it will be sufficiently near the truth, to assume the law 
 of equable progression, allowing in this climate (56° N.) one degree of 
 cold by Fahrenheit’s scale for every' ninety yards of ascent, and for 
 every' hundred yards in the tropical regions. 
 
 Dr. Francis Buchanan Hamilton found the temperature of a spring 
 at Chitlong, in the Lesser Valley of Nepal, to be 14°.7 centigrade. But 
 the mean temperature in the parallel of 27°33' being 22°.8, the density 
 of the atmosphere corresponding to difference 8.1, is 8510, which gives 
 4500 feet for the corrected altitude. 
 
TABLES. 
 
 669 
 
 XIII. 
 
 Tabic of the Decrease of Temperature according to the Altitude. 
 
 Lati- 
 
 tude 
 
 Mean temperature at 
 the level of the Sea. 
 
 Height of 
 Curve of 
 Congelation. 
 Feel. 
 
 Lati- 
 
 tude. 
 
 Mean temperature at 
 the level of the Sea. 
 
 Height ut 
 Curve of 
 Congelation 
 Feet. 
 
 Centigrade 
 
 Fahrenheit 
 
 Centigrade 
 
 Fahrenheit 
 
 T - 
 
 20O.U0 
 
 840.2 
 
 15207 
 
 46° 
 
 130.99 
 
 57.2 
 
 7402 
 
 l 
 
 28.99 
 
 84.2 
 
 15203 
 
 47 
 
 13.49 
 
 56.3 
 
 7133 
 
 2 
 
 28.96 
 
 84.1 
 
 15189 
 
 48 
 
 12.98 
 
 55.4 
 
 6865 
 
 3 
 
 28.92 
 
 84.0 
 
 15167 
 
 49 
 
 12.43 
 
 54.5 
 
 6599 
 
 4 
 
 28.86 
 
 83.9 
 
 15135 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 28.78 
 
 83.8 
 
 15095 
 
 50 
 
 11.98 
 
 53.6 
 
 6334 
 
 6 
 
 28.68 
 
 83.6 
 
 15047 
 
 51 
 
 11.49 
 
 52.7 
 
 6070 
 
 7 
 
 28.57 
 
 83.4 
 
 14989 
 
 52 
 
 10.99 
 
 51.8 
 
 5808 
 
 8 
 
 28.44 
 
 83.2 
 
 14923 
 
 53 
 
 10.50 
 
 50.9 
 
 5548 
 
 9 
 
 28.29 
 
 82.9 
 
 14848 
 
 54 
 
 10.02 
 
 50.0 
 
 5290 
 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 9.54 
 
 49.2 
 
 5034 
 
 10 
 
 28.13 
 
 82.6 
 
 14764 
 
 56 
 
 9.07 
 
 48.3 
 
 4782 
 
 11 
 
 27.94 
 
 82.3 
 
 14672 
 
 57 
 
 8.60 
 
 47.5 
 
 4534 
 
 12 
 
 27.75 
 
 82.0 
 
 14571 
 
 58 
 
 8.14 
 
 46.6 
 
 4291 
 
 13 
 
 27.53 
 
 81.6 
 
 14463 
 
 59 
 
 7.69 . 
 
 45.8 
 
 4052 
 
 14 
 
 27.30 
 
 81.1 
 
 14345 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 27.06 
 
 80.7 
 
 14220 
 
 60 
 
 7.25 
 
 45.0 
 
 3818 
 
 16 
 
 26.80 
 
 80.2 
 
 14087 
 
 61 
 
 6.82 
 
 44.3 
 
 3589 
 
 17 
 
 26.52 
 
 79.7 
 
 13947 
 
 62 
 
 6.39 
 
 43.5 
 
 3365 
 
 18 
 
 26.23 
 
 79.2 
 
 13798 
 
 '63 
 
 5.98 
 
 42.8 
 
 3145 
 
 19 
 
 25.93 
 
 78. 
 
 13642 
 
 64 
 
 5.57 
 
 42.0 
 
 2930 
 
 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 5.18 
 
 41.3 
 
 2722 
 
 20 
 
 25.61 
 
 78.1 
 
 13478 
 
 66 
 
 4.80 
 
 40.6 
 
 2520 
 
 21 
 
 25.23 
 
 77.5 
 
 •13308 
 
 67 
 
 4.43 
 
 40.0 
 
 2325 
 
 22 
 
 24.93 
 
 76.9 
 
 13131 
 
 68 
 
 4.07 
 
 39.3 
 
 2136 
 
 23 
 
 24.57 
 
 76.2 
 
 12946 
 
 69 
 
 3.72 
 
 38.7 
 
 1953 
 
 24 
 
 24.20 
 
 75.6 
 
 12755 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 23.82 
 
 74.9 
 
 12557 
 
 70 
 
 3.39 
 
 38.1 
 
 1778 
 
 26 
 
 23.43 
 
 74.2 
 
 12354 
 
 71 
 
 3.07 
 
 37.5 
 
 1611 
 
 27 
 
 23.02 
 
 73.6 
 
 12145 
 
 72 
 
 2.77 
 
 37.0 
 
 1451 
 
 28 
 
 22.61 
 
 72.7 
 
 11930 
 
 73 
 
 2.48 
 
 36.5 
 
 1298 
 
 29 
 
 22.18 
 
 71.9 
 
 11710 
 
 74 
 
 2.20 
 
 36.0 
 
 1153 
 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 1.94 
 
 35.5 
 
 1016 
 
 30 
 
 21.75 
 
 71.1 
 
 11484 
 
 76 
 
 1.70 
 
 35.1 
 
 887 
 
 31 
 
 21.31 
 
 70.3 
 
 11253 
 
 77 
 
 1.47 
 
 34.6 
 
 767 
 
 32 
 
 20.86 
 
 69.5 
 
 11018 
 
 78 
 
 1.25 
 
 34.2 
 
 656 
 
 33 
 
 20.40 
 
 68.7 
 
 10778 
 
 79 
 
 1.06 
 
 33.9 
 
 552 
 
 34 
 
 19.93 
 
 67.9 
 
 10534 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 19.46 
 
 67.0 
 
 10287 
 
 80 
 
 .87 
 
 33.6 
 
 457 
 
 36 
 
 18.98 
 
 66.2 
 
 10036 
 
 81 
 
 .71 
 
 33.3 
 
 371 
 
 37 
 
 18.50 
 
 65.3 
 
 9781 
 
 82 
 
 .56 
 
 33.1 
 
 294 
 
 38 
 
 18.01 
 
 64.4 
 
 9523 
 
 83 
 
 .43 
 
 32.8 
 
 226 
 
 39 
 
 17.51 
 
 63.5 
 
 9263 
 
 84 
 
 .32 
 
 32.6 
 
 167 
 
 
 
 
 
 85 
 
 .22 
 
 32.4 
 
 117 
 
 40 
 
 17.02 
 
 62.6 
 
 9001 
 
 86 
 
 .14 
 
 32.3 
 
 76 
 
 41 
 
 16.52 
 
 61.7 
 
 8738 
 
 87 
 
 .08 
 
 32.2 
 
 44 
 
 42 
 
 16.02 
 
 60.8 
 
 8473 
 
 88 
 
 .04 
 
 32.1 
 
 20 
 
 43 
 
 15.51 
 
 59.9 
 
 8206 
 
 89 
 
 .01 
 
 32.0 
 
 5 
 
 44 
 
 15.01 
 
 59.0 
 
 7939 
 
 90 
 
 .00 
 
 32.0 
 
 0 
 
 45 
 
 14.50 
 
 58.1 
 
 7671 
 
 
 
 
 
 *** Dr. Brewster, in Part 1. Vol. IX. of the Edinburgh Philosophical Transactions, 
 nives the following formula for ascertaining the mean temperature in a given latitude, in 
 the old world. If T denote the mean temperature in any given latitude, and 81°. 5 the 
 observed temperature on the equator, the formula becomes 
 
 T— 81°.5 cos. lat. 
 
 Places. 
 
 Lat. 
 
 Obs. T 
 
 Cal. T. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 Equator . 
 
 0o O' 
 
 81° 50' 
 
 810 50' 
 
 0° 22' + 
 
 Rome 
 
 41 . 54 
 
 60.44 
 
 60. 66 
 
 Paris 
 
 48.50 
 
 51.89 
 
 53.65 
 
 1. 76 + 
 
 London 
 
 51.30 
 
 50. 36 
 
 50.74 
 
 0. 38 + 
 
 Edinburgh 
 
 55.58 
 
 46.23 
 
 45. (34 
 
 0. 59 + 
 
 Stockholm 
 
 59. 20 
 
 42. 26 
 
 41.57 
 
 0. 69 — 
 
 Abo ... 
 
 61.27 
 
 40. 00 
 
 40.28 
 
 0. 28 + 
 
 Ulea 
 
 65. 3 
 
 33. 26 
 
 34.38 
 
 1. 12 + 
 
 Melville Island 
 
 74.47 
 
 1.33 
 
 21. 40 
 
 20. 07 + 
 
 Table of Mean Temperatures. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 Table of the most Remarkable Heights in different Parts 
 of the World, expressed in English Feet. The Alti- 
 tudes measured by the Barometer are marked B, while 
 those derived from Geometrical Operations, and taken 
 chiefly from the Observations of General Mudge, are 
 distinguished by the letter G. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Snae Fiall Jokull, on the north-west point of Iceland, 4558 G 
 
 Hekla, volcanic mountain in Iceland, - - 3950 G 
 
 Feet. 
 
 5910 B 
 
 2655 B 
 2265 B 
 2457 B 
 8120 Bi 
 4575 B 
 1929 
 
 4358 G 
 4080 B 
 2597 G 
 3944 G 
 3870 B 
 3651 G 
 3513 G 
 3207 G 
 2863 G 
 3028 G 
 3191 G 
 2863 G 
 2359 G 
 
 Sulitelma, in Lapland, - 
 Nuppi Vara, the highest of the table-land in 
 Lapland, ------ 
 
 Lommijauri, elevated lake in Lapland, - 
 Drifstue, the highest pastoral hamlet inNorway, 
 
 Snahatta, centre of the Norwegian mountains, 
 Harebacke, Alpine ridge of Norway, 
 
 Pap of Caithness, - 
 
 Ben Nevis, Inverness-shire, highest mountain in 
 Scotland, ------ 
 
 Cairngorm, Inverness-shire, - 
 Cairnsmuir upon Deugh, Galloway, 
 
 Ben Lawers, west side of Loch Tay, Perthshire, 
 
 Ben More, Perthshire, - - - - 
 
 Ben Lui, or the Calf, near Tyndrum, 
 
 Schihallien, Perthshire, - - - - 
 
 Ben Voirlich, near Loch Earn, - - - 
 
 Ben Ledi, near Callender, Perthshire, - 
 Ben Achonzie, head of Glen Tilt, 
 
 Ben Lomond, near Aberfoil, Stirlingshire, 
 
 Cobbler, near Arrochar, - - - - 
 
 Ben Clach, in the Ochils, above Alloa, 
 
 Lomond Hills, east and west, Fifeshire, 1466 and 1721 G 
 Soutra Hill, on the ridge of Lammermuir, - 1716 G 
 
 Coulter Fell, Lanarkshire, - - - 2440 G 
 
 Carnethy, high point of the Pentland ridge, - 1700 B 
 
 Tintoc Hill, Lanarkshire, - - - - 2306 G 
 
 Leadhills, the house of the Director of the mines, 1280 B 
 Broad Law, near Crook Inn, Peebles-shire, - 2741 G 
 
 Queensberry Hill, Dumfriesshire, - - 2259 G 
 
 Cairnsmuir of Fleet, Galloway, - - - 2329 G 
 
 Hart Fell, near Moffat, - 2635 G 
 
 Dunrich Hill, Roxburghshire, - 2421 G 
 
 Eldon Hills, near Melrose, Roxburghshire, - 1634 G 
 
 Whitcomb Hill, Peebles-shire, - - - 2685 G 
 
 Lother Hill, Dumfriesshire, - 2396 G 
 
 Ailsa Rock, in the Firth, of Clyde, - - 1103 G 
 
 Crif Fell, near New Abbey, Kirkcudbright, - 1831 G 
 
 Kells Range, Galloway, - 2659 G 
 
 Goat Fell, in the Isle of Arran, - - - 2865 G 
 
 Paps of Jura, south and north, in Argyle- 
 
 shire, - 2359 and 2470 
 
 Snea Fell, in the Isle of .Man, - 
 
 South Berule, in Isle of Man, - 
 
 Macgillicuddy’s Reeks, County of Kerry, 
 
 Siiebh Donard, the highest of the Mourne 
 Mountains, - 
 
 Helvellyn, Cumberland, - 
 
 Skidd aw, Cumberland, - - - - 
 
 Saddleback, Cumberland, - - - - 
 
 Whernside, Yorkshire, - - - - 
 
 Ingleborough, Yorkshire, - - - - 
 
 Shunnor Fell, Yorkshire, - - - - 
 
 Snowdon, Caernarvonshire, - 
 
 Cader Idris, Caernarvonshire, - - - 
 
 Beacons of Brecknock, - 
 Plynlimmon, Cardiganshire, - 
 
 Penmaen Mawr, Caernarvonshire, 
 
 Malvern Hills, Worcestershire, - - - 
 
 Cawsand Beacon, Devonshire, - 
 
 Rippin Tor, Devonshire, - 
 Brocken, in the Hartz-Forest, Hanover, 
 
 Priel, in Upper Austria, - 
 
 2004 G 
 1584 G 
 3404 G 
 
 2786 G 
 3055 G 
 3022 G 
 
 2787 G 
 2384 G 
 2361 G 
 2329 G 
 3571 G 
 2914 G 
 2862 G 
 2463 G 
 1540 G 
 1444 G 
 1792 G 
 1549 G 
 3690 
 7000 B 
 
 J 
 
670 
 
 TABLES 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Peak of Lomnitz, in the Carpathian ridge, - 8870 B 
 
 Terglou, in Carniola, - 10390 B 
 
 Mont Blanc, Switzerland, - 15646 G 
 
 Village of Chamouni, below Mont Blanc, - 3367 G 
 
 Jungf’rauhorn, Switzerland, - 13730 
 
 St. Gothard, Switzerland, - 9075 
 
 Hospice of the Great St. Bernard, - - 8040 B 
 
 Village of St. Pierre, on the road to Great St. 
 
 Bernard, ------ 5338 B 
 
 Passage of Mont Cenis, - 6778 B 
 
 Gross Glockner, between the Tyrol and Ca- 
 
 rinthia, ------ 12780 B 
 
 Ortler Spitze, in the Tyrol, - 15430 
 
 Rigiberg, above the Lake of Lucerne, - - 5408 
 
 Dole, the highest point of the chain of Jura, - 5412 B 
 
 Mont Perdu, in the Pyrenees, - 11283 
 
 Loneira, in the department of the high Alps, - 14451 
 Peak of Arbizon, in the department of the high 
 
 Pyrenees, ______ 8344 
 
 Puy de Dome, in Auvergne, - 4858 G 
 
 Mont d’Or, 6202 G 
 
 Summit of Vaucluse, near Avignon, - - 2150 
 
 Village on Mont Genevre, - 5945 B 
 
 St. Pilon, near Marseilles, - - - 3295 G 
 
 Soracte, near Rome, _ _ _ _ 2271 G 
 
 Monte Velino, in the kingdom of Maples, - 8397 G 
 
 Mount Vesuvius, volcanic mountain beside Ma- 
 ples, ------- 3978 
 
 iEtna, volcanic mountain in Sicily, - a 10936 B 
 
 St. Angelo, in the Lipari Islands, - - 5260 
 
 Top of the Rock of Gibraltar, - 1439 B 
 
 Mount Athos, in Rumelia, - 3353 
 
 Diana’s Peak, in the Island of St. Helena, - 2692 
 
 Peak of Teneriffe, one of the Canary Islands, 12358 B 
 Ruivo Peak, the highest point of Madeira, - 5162 
 
 Table Mountain, near the Cape of Good Hope, 3520 
 Chain of Mount Ida, beyond the plain of Troy , 4960 
 
 Chain of Mount Olympus, in Anatolia, - 6500 
 
 Italitzkoi, in the Altaic chain, - 10735 
 
 1 0.899 Herschel, jun. — P. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Awatsha, volcanic mountain in Kamtchatka, - 9600 
 
 The Volcano, in the Isle of Bourbon, - - 7680 
 
 Ophir, in the centre of the Island of Sumatra, - 13842 
 St. Elias, on the Western coast of Mortli America, 12672 
 White Mountain, in the State of Massachusetts, 6230 B 
 Chimborazo, highest summit of the Andes, - 21440 B 
 Antisana, volcanic mountain in the kingdom of 
 
 Quito, 19150 B 
 
 Shepherd station on that mountain. - - 13500 B 
 
 Cotopaxi, volcanic mountain in ine kingdom of 
 
 Quito, ...... 18890 B 
 
 Tunguragua, volcanic mountain, near Riobomba, 16579 B 
 Rucu de Pichincha, in the kingdom of Quito, 15940 B 
 Heights of Assuay, the ancient Peruvian road, 15540 B 
 Peak of Orizaba, volcanic mountain east from 
 
 Mexico, ...... 17390 G 
 
 Lake of Toluca, in the kingdom of Mexico, - 12195 B 
 City of Quito, - 9560 B 
 
 City of Mexico, _____ 7476 B 
 
 Silla de Caraccas, part of the chain of Venezuela, 8640 B 
 Blue Mountains, in the Island of Jamaica, - 7431 
 
 Pelee, in the Island of Martinique, - - 5100 
 
 Morne Garou, in the Island of St. Vincent's, 5050 
 
 In this list of altitudes, I have not ventured to insert 
 the Himalaya or Snowy Mountains, the Imaus of the 
 ancients, or Great Central Chain of Upper Asia, to 
 which some late accounts from India would assign the 
 stupendous elevation from 23,000 to 27,000 feet. I 
 Such at least are the results of observations made with 
 a small sextant and an artificial horizon, at the enor- 
 mous distance of 226 or 232 miles, as computed indeed 
 from very short bases. But even with the best instru- 
 ments, and under the most favourable circumstances, 
 the determination of minute vertical angles is, from the 
 influence of horizontal refraction, liable to much un- 
 certainty. The progress of accurate observation has 
 uniformly reduced the estimated altitudes of mountains. 
 More recent statements accordingly diminish those 
 heights near 2000 feet. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Book VII. 
 
 Pages 58-60. “ We shall, perhaps, forever remain 
 
 ignorant of the secrets which the two polar regions 
 contain.” Since Malte-Brun’s time, both the polar 
 regions have been, to some extent, explored ; and it 
 appears on the one hand, from the explorations of 
 Dr. Kane, especially, that there is perhaps an open sea 
 about the north pole, two of his party having made 
 an expedition from his vessel as far north as 82° 27', 
 when they saw open water at the north, and various 
 signs of a warmer climate, which led to the belief 
 that this water opened into a great open sea, which 
 abounded with life. On the other hand, land has 
 been discovered in the southern polar sea, and has 1 
 been traced to such an extent that it is called a “ vast 
 antarctic continent.” The first discovery was made 
 by the United States exploring expedition under 
 Captain Wilkes, in 1840, and it was confirmed by 
 the explorations of the French and English expedi- 
 tions in 1840 and 1841. The coast of this land was 
 icebound and inaccessible, so that the only exploration 
 was along its coast, and at some distance. The 
 English expedition above named reached latitude 
 78° 10', the highest southern latitude ever attained. 
 
 Page 66. The comparison of the height of moun- 
 tains in the different parts of the world would be 
 greatly modified by the discoveries and measure- 
 ments made since the author wrote. It is now known 
 that Asia contains the highest mountains on the 
 globe, viz., the Himalaya, and of these Mount Everest 
 is supposed to be highest, being 29,000 feet above the 
 level of the sea. Mount Kunchinginga is 28,178 feet 
 high. Others are from 25,000 to 28,000 feet high. 
 In the Andes, the highest mountains are Sorata, which 
 is upwards of 2,500 feet above the sea, and the two 
 summits of Illimani, which rise to the height of more 
 than 24,000 feet. In Chili is Mount Aroncagua, 
 a volcano, which rises about 24,000 feet above the 
 sea, and is the highest known volcano in the world. 
 Chimborazo is 21,300 feet high. 
 
 Books IX., X. 
 
 Pages 75, 80, 81. “ The precious metals, also, more 
 
 peculiarly belong to the equatorial regions.” The 
 gold regions described by Malte-Brun are thrown into 
 the shade by those which have more recently been 
 discovered, and the statement above quoted has 
 proved unfounded. The gold fields which have 
 yielded the greatest abundance of the precious metal 
 within the last ten or twelve years, are those of Cali- 
 fornia and Australia, each in the temperate zone. 
 The first discoveries of gold in each of these regions 
 were in deposits of rivers and streams, and the yield 
 from these “ placers” has been very large. But fur- 
 
 ther explorations discovered veins of gold and gold- 
 bearing quartz, and these being extensively worked, 
 have proved as productive as the “ diggings.” The 
 first discoveries were made in California in 1848, and 
 in Australia in 1851. For some years previous to 
 this, the whole annual production of gold was about 
 $20,000,000, but in six years after its first discovery 
 in California, the yield of gold in that region was 
 estimated at about $70,000,000, and that of Aus- 
 tralia at about the same amount. Gold has also 
 been discovered in considerable quantities in the 
 British possessions north of the Columbia River, and 
 in Oregon and Washington territory. 
 
 The total yield of gold in the principal mining 
 countries of the world, for the year 1854, (as late a 
 data as could be obtained for purposes of comparison,) 
 as shown by Mr. J. D. Whitney, in his work on “ The 
 Metallic Wealth of the United States,” was $119,- 
 523,600. Of this, Russia furnished $14,880,000 ; 
 Southern Asia and the East Indies, $6,200,000 ; the 
 northern states of South America, $3,720,000 ; Mex- 
 ico, $2,480,000 ; Australia and Oceanica, $37,200,000 ; 
 United States, $49,600,000. Other authorities give 
 the amount yielded by California and Australia, for 
 the same year, as much larger, making that of Cali- 
 fornia about $70,000,000, and of Australia about 
 $45,000,000 ; and in 1857, the yield of California is 
 stated at $65,000,000, and that of Australia at 
 $59,000,000. The average annual yield of gold/* of 
 the principal gold-producing countries, is stated to be 
 as follows : Australia, $60,000,000 ; California, $55,- 
 000,000 ; Russia, $20,000,000 ; — total, $135,000,000. 
 
 The total yield of silver for the year 1854, as ap- 
 pears by the authority above named, was $47,443,200, 
 of which Peru, Bolivia, and Chili yielded $10,880,000, 
 and Mexico, the great silver-producing country of the 
 world, yielded $28,000,000. 
 
 Page 82. “ The whole of Siberia presents to us 
 
 only two or three ambiguous specimens [of mercury. \ 
 The new continent is not more abundantly provided 
 with it.” The discoveries in California have proved 
 this statement not well founded, for that state has 
 recently furnished about 2,000,000 pounds avoirdupois, 
 annually, out of about 7,000,000 pounds, the total 
 production of the world. 
 
 Page 82. “We are assured that in the interior of 
 Louisiana it [lead\ forms vast beds upon the surface.” 
 The “interior of Louisiana” comprised, formerly, the 
 vast territory west of the Mississippi River, and the 
 lead regions of Missouri, Iowa, and Wisconsin are 
 referred to, they having, since Malte-Brun’s writing, 
 been more fully explored and mined. The product 
 of these mines is from 20,000 to 25,000 tons annually. 
 
 a United States Commercial Digest. 
 
 ( 671 ) 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 672 
 
 The product of this region is likely to be greatly in- 
 creased, as capital and improved methods of mining, 
 Ac., are introduced, for the ore exists in large quan- 
 tities. 
 
 Page 83. “ Immense beds of it [ copper ] are found 
 
 upon the banks of the Ohio.” Of this statement 
 Mr. Percival remarks, in his note, that it is not known 
 that copper occurs in any quantity on the Ohio, but 
 that a large mass of native copper, and abundant indi- 
 cations of copper ores, are found along the southern 
 shores of Lake Superior. More recent explorations 
 have shown that copper exists in abundance in that 
 region, and numerous mines have been opened, and are 
 being successfully and profitably worked, and several 
 large masses of native copper, of immense weight, 
 have been found and taken out. Copper has also 
 been found in the Blue Ridge in Virginia, but not in 
 quantities or quality to prove profitable. In Ten- 
 nessee and Georgia more profitable mines have been 
 opened, and the mining is prosecuted to a considerable 
 extent. Great Britain and Chili are the two largest 
 copper producing countries, and yield annually from 
 14,000 to 16,000 tons each. 
 
 Pages 84, 85. Although iron, as stated in the text, is 
 profusely distributed throughout nature, more than 
 two thirds of all that is mined is produced by Great 
 
 Britain and the United States. In the United States 
 it is found, in some of its various formations, in al- 
 most all parts of the country ; but it is most abundant 
 in Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ohio, Tennessee, and Ken- 
 tucky. Pennsylvania produces much the largest por- 
 tion, mining being more extensively carried on than 
 in other parts of the country, which may be equally 
 rich in the ore. The best iron is found in Michigan 
 and Wisconsin, south of Lake Superior, and the 
 mines promise to be very productive. The total 
 amount of iron produced from the ore in the United 
 States, in the year 1856, was estimated at about 1,000,- 
 000 tons, and this production is gradually increasing. 
 The amount produced in England the same year was 
 about 4,000,000 tons. 
 
 The quantity of metal produced in any country is 
 not a measure of its mineral wealth, for the produc- 
 tion depends upon the capital and labor engaged in it, 
 and these upon a variety of circumstances. But in 
 this connection it may be proper to give a table, pre 
 pared from those of Mr. Whitney, from returns and 
 estimates for the year 1854, the latest from which 
 such a comparative table could be made, though 
 there are later data from a part of the countries 
 named, showing the value of the various metals pro- 
 duced by some of the principal mining countries. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 Mercury. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 Iron. 
 
 Russia, .... 
 
 $14,880,000 
 
 $928,000 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 $3,900,000 
 
 $440,000 
 
 $92,000 
 
 $5,000,000 
 
 Great Britain, . . 
 
 24,800 
 
 1,120,000 
 
 ... 
 
 $4,200,000 
 
 8,700,000 
 
 110,000 
 
 7,015,000 
 
 75,000,000 
 
 Belgium, .... 
 
 
 1,760,000 
 
 115,000 
 
 7,500,000 
 
 Prussia, .... 
 
 • • • 
 
 480,000 
 
 ... 
 
 • • 
 
 900,000 
 
 3,630,000 
 
 920,000 
 
 3,750.000 
 
 Austria, .... 
 
 1,413,600 
 
 1,440,000 
 
 $250,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 1,980,000 
 
 165,000 
 
 805,000 
 
 5,625,000 
 
 France, . . . . 
 
 80,000 
 
 
 172,500 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 Spain, 
 
 10,416 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 1,250,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 1,800,000 
 
 . . , 
 
 3,450,000 
 
 
 S. Asia and E. I., . 
 
 6,200,000 
 
 • • • 
 
 3,000,000 
 
 
 
 
 Austr. & Oceanica, 
 
 37,200,000 
 
 128,000 
 
 ... 
 
 2,100,000 
 
 8,400,000 
 
 
 
 
 Chili, 
 
 744,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 Peru, 
 
 471,200 
 
 4,800,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 a 900,000 
 
 J b 900,000 
 
 
 
 
 Brazil, 
 
 1,488,000 
 
 11,200 
 
 ... 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 Mexico, .... 
 
 2,480,000 28,000,000 
 
 ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 United States, . . 
 
 49,600,000 
 
 352,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 . 
 
 2,100,000 
 
 550,000 
 
 1,725,000 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 Book XIV. 
 
 Much time, and science, and numerous observa- 
 tions have made the ocean currents better known 
 within the last few years, and the general courses and 
 characteristics of those mentioned in Malte-Brun’s 
 text have become better known by careful explora- 
 tion and examination. New currents, or branches of 
 currents, have been discovered, or more accurately 
 mapped, and the charts of ocean currents, such as 
 those by the United States astronomical establish- 
 ment, are quite exact and full, considering the element 
 which is to be defined. The limited space of this 
 Appendix does not admit of any resumd of such 
 discoveries and explanations, which would require 
 considerable space to add much useful knowledge to 
 that contained in the text. It may, however, be of 
 some interest to add a recent statement about the 
 Maelstrom, page 124. 
 
 Of late years, even the existence of the Maelstrom, 
 on the coast of Norway, has been doubted. The an- 
 cient accounts of its terrible power were doubtless 
 fabulous, but the Maelstrom actually exists, and is 
 sometimes dangerous. M. Hagerup, minister of the 
 Norwegian marine, has recently given a reliable 
 account of it, in reply to some questions from a cor- 
 respondent of the Boston Recorder. The vast whirl 
 is caused by the setting in and out of the tides be- 
 tween Lofoden and Mosken, and is most violent 
 half way between ebb and flood tide. At flood and 
 ebb tide it disappears for about half an hour, but 
 begins again with the moving of the waters. Large 
 vessels may pass over it safely in serene weather, but 
 in a storm it is perilous to the largest craft. Small 
 boats are not safe near it at the time of its strongest 
 
 a With Bolivia. 
 
 b With Ecuador, New Granada, &c. 
 
 J 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 673 
 
 action in any weather. The whirls in the Maelstrom 
 do not, as was once supposed, draw vessels under the 
 water, but by their violence they fill them with water 
 or dash them upon the neighboring shoals. M. 
 Hagerup says, — 
 
 “ In winter, it not unfrequently happens that at 
 sea a bank of clouds shows a west storm, with heavy 
 sea, to be prevailing there, while farther in on the 
 coast, the clear air shows that on the inside of the 
 West-tjord (east side of Lofoden) the wind blows 
 from the land, and sets out through the tjord from the 
 east. In such cases, especially, an approach to the 
 Maelstrom is in the highest degree dangerous, for the 
 stream and under-current, from opposite directions, 
 work there together to make the whole passage one 
 single boiling caldron. At such times appear the 
 mighty whirls, which have given it the name of Mael- 
 strom , (i. e., the whirling or grinding stream,) and in 
 which no craft, whatever, can hold its course. For a 
 steamer it is, then, quite unadvisable to attempt the 
 passage of the Maelstrom during a winter storm, and 
 for a sailing vessel it may also be bad enough in 
 time of summer, should there fall a calm or a light 
 wind, whereby the power of the stream becomes greater 
 than that of the wind, leaving the vessel no longer 
 under command.” 
 
 Book XXIV. 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Asia is the largest continental division of the globe, 
 and includes a surface of about 15,000,000 square 
 miles. Its greatest breadth, from north to south, is 
 5,300 miles, and its greatest length, from east to west, 
 is about 7,600 miles. It has a coast of upwards of 
 30,000 miles, not including the northern coast, on 
 the Arctic Ocean. 
 
 Mountains . — There are three grand mountain sys- 
 tems, the Altai, the Hindoo Koosh,and the Himalaya, 
 the two latter being sometimes considered one sys- 
 tem. The Altai system belongs to Central Asia, and 
 is the northern limit of the great eastern plateau. It 
 runs in the mean parallel of 50° north latitude, from 
 70° east to 110° east, where it joins the great chain 
 of the Aldan, which runs north-east to the arctic 
 circle. The second great system, the Hindoo Koosh, 
 traverses Asia from the Dardanelles to the Yellow 
 Sea, the central chain connecting the Kuen Lun of 
 the east with the Parapomisan, Elbrooz, and the Ar- 
 menian mountains of the west. It separates the 
 great desert of Gobi from China Proper, and divides 
 the steppes of Independent Tartary from the plateau 
 of Iran. The Himalaya chain runs north-west and 
 south-east for a distance of 1,500 miles, finally, at the 
 north-west, meeting the Hindoo Koosh, where rise, a 
 group of some of the loftiest mountains on the globe, 
 more than 20 of them being upwards of 20,000 feet 
 high. The highest summits, so far as ascertained, are 
 Mount Everest, about 29,000 feet high, and Kunchin- 
 giuga, which is 28,178 feet high. There are many 
 others, in different parts of the chain, which rise more 
 than 21,000 feet. 
 
 There are few active volcanoes in Asia. In Western 
 
 VOL. Ill— NO. 63 85 
 
 Asia, the only one is Demavena, 70 miles south of the 
 Caspian Sea, which is 14,695 feet in height, is always 
 covered with snow, and always emits smoke. In 
 Eastern Asia, in the volcanic range of Thian Shan, 
 are two active volcanoes, Peshan and Hocheoo, about 
 670 miles apart. Fire springs and fire hills are nu- 
 merous in China, but there are no volcanoes known 
 to emit lava. In Kamtschatka there are nine active 
 volcanoes, of greater or less magnitude. In Japan 
 there are two or three volcanoes, generally active. 
 
 M. Semenoff, a Russian traveller, has discovered a 
 volcano in that part of Central Asia called Mantchoo 
 Tartary. It exists in the district of Ujun-Holdongt, 
 about nine and a half miles north of the village of 
 Tomolshin, on the Nemez, and some fifteen miles 
 from the town of Mergen. In January, 1721, an 
 eruption occurred there, which lasted nine months; 
 and again in May, 1722, another formidable eruption 
 took place. This is the first account we have of these 
 eruptions, and as the volcanoes in question are situa- 
 ted at a distance of over 600 miles from the sea, the 
 hitherto received theory that the proximity of the sea 
 is an essential condition for the existence of volca- 
 noes, is thus proved to have been fallacious. 
 
 The chief political divisions of Asia, as now given 
 by geographers, are as follows : — 
 
 Books XXXVII., XXXVIII. 
 
 ASIATIC RUSSIA, OR SIBERIA, 
 
 Comprising Siberia and the Caucasian provinces, 
 known principally as Georgia, but comprising several 
 somewhat distinct provinces. 
 
 Siberia occupies the entire northern part of the 
 continent. Its extreme length is about 3,600 miles, 
 and its breadth about 1,800 miles ; area, 4,800,000 
 square miles. Its population is estimated at about 
 
 2.900.000. Irkutsh is the principal town, and the 
 provincial capital of Eastern Siberia ; population, in- 
 cluding garrison, 120,000. Tobolsk is the provincial 
 capital of Western Siberia; population, 20,000. 
 Kiachta is a frontier town towards China, where the 
 principal trade with that empire centres ; population, 
 6,000 ; Tomsk, population 24,000 ; Omsk, population 
 
 11 . 000 . 
 
 Georgia lies south of the Caucasus Mountains, 
 and its extent is about 28,800 square miles; popula- 
 tion about 350,000, including the minor provinces. 
 The capital and principal town is Tefiis ; population 
 about 50,000. 
 
 Books XXXIX., XL., XLII. — XLV. 
 
 CHINESE EMPIRE, 
 
 Including China Proper, Chinese Turkistan, or 
 Little Bucharia, Mongolia, Manchooria, Elee, Corea, 
 Thibet, and the Koko-nor Territory. Area, 5,200,000 
 square miles ; population 42,000,000. 
 
 China Proper . — Area, 1,298,000 square miles ; pop- 
 ulation, 387,633,000. It is divided into eighteen 
 provinces, which are subdivided into numerous de- 
 partments. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 G74 
 
 The annual average export of tea is 41,500,000 
 pounds. Of this, 13,000,000 pounds is exported to the 
 United States, 9,000,000 pounds to Russia, 8,000,000 
 pounds to England, and 7,500,000 to British col- 
 onies. 
 
 Chinese Turkistan, Mongolia, Manchnoria, and the 
 Koko-Nor territory are generally included under the 
 name of Chinese Tartary. They are provinces of 
 China, being under the dominion of that empire. 
 The population is generally sparse, and its number is 
 unknown. 
 
 Corea comprises a peninsula north-east of China, 
 and several groups of islands in the Yellow Sea. It 
 is, in most respects, an independent kingdom, though 
 tributary to China. The area of the peninsula is 
 about80,000 square miles; population, about8, 000, 000. 
 
 Thibet, north of the Himalaya Mountains, com- 
 prises the most elevated plains and plateaus in the 
 world. It is subject to China, and it is but little 
 known. Lassa, its capital, is the residence of the 
 grand lama, and it is the centre of the Boodhist reli- 
 gion. Its population is estimated at about five or 
 six millions. 
 
 The chief towns in the Chinese empire are, — 
 
 Pekin, . 
 
 Population. 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 Canton, 
 
 Population. 
 . 1,000,000 
 
 Chang-chu-fu, 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 Nanchang, 
 
 . 700,000 
 
 Fu-chu-fu,. 
 
 500,000 
 
 Nankin, . 
 
 . 500,000 
 
 Singan, 
 
 300,000 
 
 Amoy, . . 
 
 . 250,000 
 
 Ningpo, 
 
 250,000 
 
 Shanghae, 
 
 . 190,000 
 
 Yarkand, . 
 
 100,000 
 
 Ili, . . . 
 
 75,000 
 
 Macao, . . . 
 
 40,000 
 
 
 Book LII. 
 
 INDO-CHINA. 
 
 This division comprises the following countries: — 
 Anam , an empire, comprising the provinces of Ton- 
 quin, Cochin China, (by which name the whole is 
 sometimes called,) Champa, and a part of Cambodia. 
 The population is estimated to be from twelve to fif- 
 teen millions. The chief town is Hue, the capital of 
 Cochin China. 
 
 Burmah, sometimes called the Kingdom of Ava. 
 Area, about 200,000 square miles; population, estima- 
 ted at 6,000,000. 
 
 Siam, comprising a part of Cambodia and several 
 Malay provinces, contains a population of about 
 
 6.000. 000. The Tenasserim provinces, belonging to 
 Great Britain, on the western coast of the Indo-Chi- 
 nese peninsula, formerly belonged to Siam. The loss 
 of these has been compensated by the acquisition of a 
 part of Cambodia and some small Malay provinces. 
 
 Anam, Burmah, and Siam, with the British Tenas- 
 serim provinces, and some small Malay provinces, are 
 sometimes called Further India, or the Indo-Chinese 
 peninsula. 
 
 Books XLVL — L. 
 
 HIND O STAN OR INDIA. 
 
 Area, 1,200,000 square miles; population, about 
 
 132.000. 000. It embraces the westerly of the two 
 
 great peninsulas of Southern Asia, and comprises 
 the British territories, the Protected states, and the 
 Independent states. 
 
 The British territories comprise three presidencies, 
 Bengal, Madras, and Bombay. The Bengal presi- 
 dency embraces the valley of the Ganges, the country 
 watered by the tributaries of the Indus, and the Tenas- 
 serim provinces in Indo- China. The Madras presi- 
 
 dency embraces a large part of the southern portion 
 of Hindostan. The Bombay presidency embraces 
 the western part of the peninsula, with a part of the 
 interior table lands, and the province of Sinde. Pop- 
 ulation of the three presidencies, about 80,000,000. 
 
 The Protected states are in the central part of Hin- 
 dostan, and are more or less under the control of the 
 British. Population, about 45,000,000. The Inde- 
 pendent states comprise Nepaul and Bootan, which 
 lie along the southern slope of the Himalaya Moun- 
 tains. Population, 7,000,000. 
 
 There are also some small possessions of the French 
 and Portuguese. 
 
 The chief towns in India are, — 
 
 Benares, . . 
 
 Population. 
 
 . 580,000 
 
 Madras, 
 
 Population. 
 
 . 350,000 
 
 Oodipoor, . . 
 
 . 300,000 
 
 Patna, . . 
 
 . 284,000 
 
 Bombay, . 
 
 . 235,000 
 
 Calcutta, . 
 
 . 230,000 
 
 Cashmere, 
 
 . 200,000 
 
 Delhi, . . 
 
 . 200,000 
 
 Dacca, . . . 
 
 . 200,000 
 
 Hyderabad, 
 
 . 200,000 
 
 Saignon, . . 
 
 . 180,000 
 
 Surat, . . 
 
 . 157,000 
 
 Nagpoor, . . 
 
 . 115,000 
 
 Lahore, 
 
 . 100,000 
 
 Poonah, . . 
 
 . 90,000 
 
 Moulton, . 
 
 . 80,000 
 
 Agra, . . . 
 
 . 65,000 
 
 Bangkok, . 
 
 . 55,000 
 
 Cuttack, . . 
 
 . 40,000 
 
 Pondicherry, 
 
 . 40,000 
 
 Book XXXY. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN. 
 
 Area, about 300,000 square miles ; population, esti- 
 mated at 5,000,000. 
 
 The chief towns are Cabul, the capital, popula- 
 tion, 60,000 ; Candahar, population, 50,000 ; Herat, 
 population, 40,000. 
 
 Book XXXY. 
 
 BELOOCHISTAN. 
 
 Area, about 150,000 square miles ; population, esti- 
 mated at 2,000,000. 
 
 Kelat, capital, population, about 12,000; Chonbar, 
 population, about 2,000, and Gundava, population, 
 about 5,000, the chief towns. 
 
 Book XXXYI. 
 
 INDEPENDENT TURKISTAN. 
 
 Area, about 720,000 square miles. Population, 
 estimated at 6,000,000. 
 
 The chief towns are Bokhara, famous as a seat of 
 Mahommedan learning, population 160,000, and Kho- 
 kan, population 80,000. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 675 
 
 Books XXXI. — XXXIII. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 Area, 450,000 square miles ; population, about 
 9,500,000. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. 
 
 Teheran, the capital, 60,000 
 Balfrush, .... 200,000 
 Ispahan, .... 150,000 
 Tabriz, .... 60,000 
 
 Population. 
 
 Kermanshah, 35,000 
 Shiraz, . . 30,000 
 
 Bushire, chief 
 
 seaport, . 15,000 
 
 Books XXVI. — XXIX. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Hakodadi, 
 
 Mijaco, residence of the spiritual emperor, . 220,000 
 
 Nangasaki, 50,000 
 
 Simoda, 6,000 
 
 Matsmai, 50,000 
 
 Osaca, 80,000 
 
 Kotsi, 
 
 Kokura, 
 
 Simoda and Hakodadi are open to American com- 
 merce, by the treaty made by Commdore Perry with 
 the Japanese government. Nangasaki and Hakodadi 
 are open to the British. 
 
 ASIATIC TURKEY. 
 
 Books XLI., XLIII, &c. 
 
 Area, 437,000 square miles ; population, about 
 
 11,000,000. 
 
 Its chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. Population. 
 
 Smyrna, . 
 
 . 150,000 
 
 Erzeroum, 
 
 . 40,000 
 
 Damascus, . 
 
 . 90,000 
 
 Scutari, . . 
 
 . 40,000 
 
 Aleppo, . 
 
 . 75,000 
 
 Bey rout, . 
 
 . 30,000 
 
 Bagdad, . 
 
 . 65,000 
 
 Trebizoud, 
 
 Jerusalem, 
 
 . 25,000 
 
 Brusa, 
 
 . 60,000 
 
 . 20,000 
 
 Bassora, . . 
 
 . 60,000 
 
 
 Book XXX. 
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 Area, about 834,000 square miles ; population, esti- 
 mated at 12,000,000, divided into numerous tribes, of 
 which Huot gives a list of upwards- of 150. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Aden, . 
 Mecca, . 
 Muscat, 
 Medina, 
 
 Population. 
 
 . 50,000 
 . 30,000 
 . 40,000 
 . 18,000 
 
 Sana, . 
 Derai, . 
 Mocha, 
 
 Population. 
 
 . 40,000 
 . 15,000 
 . 7,000 
 
 Book XLI. 
 
 JAPAN, OR JAPANESE ISLES, 
 
 Comprise the islands of Niphon, Sikoke, Kioosioo, 
 and some smaller ones, together with dependencies 
 in the Kurile Islands, Jesso, Saghalien, &c,, embracing 
 in all a territory of about 170,000 square miles, and 
 containing a population estimated at 25,000,000, and 
 by some at 30,000,000. For two hundred years, 
 closed to all foreign nations except the Chinese and 
 Dutch, who had a limited trade there, these islands 
 have at last been opened to increased foreign trade 
 through the efforts of the United States, followed by 
 England, Russia, France, &c. Several ports are now 
 open to the trade of these nations, and the commerce 
 with Japan promises to become important. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Yedo, or Jeddo, in Niphon, the capital, and resi- 
 dence of the military emperor, containing, formerly, a 
 population estimated at 1,500,000, but within a few j 
 years it has been in part destroyed by an earthquake. 
 
 ASIATIC ISLANDS. 
 
 Besides the Japanese Islands, included in the 
 islands of Asia, are the following: — 
 
 Kurile Isles, a range of small islands, extending 
 from Japan to Kamtschatka, containing an area esti- 
 mated at 3,000 square miles. The population is 
 sparse, and they are but little known. 
 
 Loo Choo Islands , consisting of the Great Loo 
 Choo Island and upwards of thirty others, w T hich are 
 smaller, lie east of China and south of Japan. Great 
 Loo Choo is about 65 miles in length. These 
 islands are dependencies of Japan, though in some 
 respects independent. 
 
 Formosa , about 90 miles east of China. Area, 
 about 15,000 square miles ; population, estimated at 
 2,500,000. 
 
 Hong-Iiong, a small island, about ten miles long, at 
 the mouth of the estuary that leads to Canton. It 
 belongs to Great Britain. Population, about 40,000. 
 It is a place of great commercial importance, being 
 the centre of British trade with China. It has at- 
 tained this position since it was ceded to Great 
 Britain, in 1841. The chief town is called Victoria. 
 
 Hainan , a large island south of China, and separa- 
 ting the Gulf of Tonquin from the Chinese Sea. Its 
 area is estimated at 12,000 square miles, and its pop- 
 ulation at 1,200,000, mostly Chinese. It belongs to 
 China. The chief town is Kiang-Choo, which is a 
 populous city. 
 
 Singapore, an island south of the Malay peninsula, 
 belonging to Great Britain. The chief town is Singa- 
 pore ; population, 25,900. It is a place of great com- 
 mercial importance. 
 
 Nicobar Islands lie west of Malaya. Inhabited by 
 savages*, but nominally belonging to Denmark. 
 
 Andaman Islands, in the eastern part of the Bay 
 of Bengal, also inhabited by savages. 
 
 Ceylon, about 60 miles south-east of the southern 
 extremity of Hindostan. Area, 24,664 square miles ; 
 population, 1,500,000. It is a very productive and val- 
 uable island, belonging to Great Britain. The pearl 
 fishery, for which it was once famous, has ceased since 
 1837. Coffee, rice, and cinnamon are its principal 
 commercial productions, that of coffee rapidly increas- 
 ing in importance. Chief town, Colombo. 
 
 Maidive Islands , an extensive chain of islands, of 
 coral formation, south of Hindostan. Estimated pop- 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 GT6 
 
 ulation, 150,000, mostly Mohammedans; tributary to 
 the British. 
 
 Laccadive Islands , also of coral formation, north of 
 the Maldives. Population, estimated at 10,000. 
 
 Books LIIL — LYIII. 
 
 OCEANICA. 
 
 Oceania, or Oceanica, is the name given to the nu- 
 merous islands in the Pacific, including Australia, 
 which is itself sometimes considered as a continent. 
 The estimated area of the land in these islands is 
 4,500,000 square miles, and the population about 
 21,000,000. Geographers now divide Oceanica into 
 three parts, viz., Eastern Oceanica, or Polynesia, 
 Central Oceanica, or Australasia, and Western Ocean- 
 ica, or Malaysia. 
 
 Polynesia includes numerous groups, the principal 
 of which are the following : — 
 
 Bonin Isles, three small groups, about 500 miles 
 south-east of Japan, claimed by Great Britain. 
 
 Sandwich Isles, or Hawaii Group, the most impor- 
 tant group in Polynesia, in the north Pacific, about 1,800 
 miles west of California, consisting of seven inhabited 
 islands, and six islets uninhabited. The first men- 
 tioned are Hawaii, Mani, Atauai, Oahu, Molokai, 
 Ranai, and Nihan. Aggregate area, about G,500 
 square miles. The larger of these islands are high, 
 and contain several volcanic peaks. In Hawaii, three 
 of these are constantly active. One is 12,500 feet 
 high. Manna Loa is the most active of these volcanoes, 
 and a great eruption took place in 1852, when a 
 column of molten lava was projected 500 feet into the 
 air. A river of the lava, nearly a mile wide, flowed 
 down the ravines and valleys. Some of the valleys 
 and plains are fertile, and produce sugar-cane, coffee, 
 Ac. 
 
 The islands have long been a resort for whale ships 
 in the Pacific, for the purpose of transshipping, pro- 
 curing supplies, Ac. ; upwards of 500 of these vessels 
 have touched there in a year. 
 
 The population, since the natives have become 
 partially civilized, has rapidly decreased. By Captain 
 Cook, it was estimated at 400,000. In 1832, it was 
 130,315 ; in 1836, 108,579 ; in 1850, 84,165 ; in 1853, 
 72,964. The government, formerly divided among 
 several rulers, one for each island, is now vested in 
 one king, and is administered on European models. 
 The principal town and seaport is Honolulu, in Oahu ; 
 population, 6,000. Most of the commerce, centres 
 here. 
 
 Marquesas Islands, about 2,000 miles west of Peru. 
 Nukahiva, the largest, is 70 miles in circumference. 
 They belong to France. 
 
 Low Archipelago, comprising numerous groups be- 
 tween the Marquesas and Society Islands, in all 90 or 
 more islands, generally uninhabited. 
 
 Gambler Islands, in the South Pacific, south-east of 
 the Society Isles. They are resorted to by vessels for 
 water. 
 
 Pitcairn Island , 300 miles south-east of the last, 
 midway between Panama and Australia. 
 
 Society Islands, south-west of the Low Archipelago, 
 consisting of Tahiti, which is about 30 miles long, and 
 many smaller islands. Considerable trade is carried 
 on here with the natives, who resemble the Sandwich 
 Islanders. They are under the protection of France. 
 
 Cork's, or Hervey Isles, a small group south-west of 
 the Society Isles. • 
 
 Tonga, or Friendly Isles, west of the last named, 
 (Cork’s.) Tongatabu, the largest, is about 50 miles 
 in circumference. The surface is low, and the islands 
 abound in tropical fruits, Ac. 
 
 Feejee Islands, the most westerly group of Polynesia, 
 comprises about 150 islands, not half of which are in- 
 habited. Viti Levu, the largest, is about 80 miles long. 
 The surface is mountainous, and the origin of the 
 islands is supposed to be volcanic. The inhabitants 
 are the most savage and barbarous of all the Polyne- 
 sians. 
 
 Navigator' s Isles, eight islands north-east of the 
 Feejee Isles. Lavaii, the largest, has an area of about 
 700 square miles. The surface is mountainous, and 
 the soil fertile. 
 
 Central Archipelago includes several groups lying 
 between 10° north and 10° south latitude. Among the 
 largest, are Marshall Islands, Gilbert’s Islands, Kings 
 mill group, Ac. 
 
 Caroline Islands consist of numerous groups, lying 
 between 5° and 10° north, and from 135° to 160° east 
 from Greenwich. Many are of coral formation. One 
 of the Yap group, north of Pelew,is mountainous, and 
 abounds in precious metals. The most westerly is the 
 Pelew group, and the most easterly is Onalan. They 
 belong to Spain. 
 
 Ladrone Islands consist of 20 islands, north of the 
 Carolines. They are mountainous and picturesque. 
 The soil is fertile, yielding many tropical productions. 
 They belong to Spain. 
 
 Australasia includes Australia and the adjacent 
 islands. 
 
 Australia, or New Holland. Area, about 3,000,000 
 square miles ; population, 1,043,000. It lies between 
 the Pacific and Indian Oceans, and extends from about 
 10° south to 39° south latitude, and from 113° to 
 153° of longitude east from Greenwich. Its greatest 
 length, from east to west, is about 2,400 miles, and its 
 greatest breadth is about 1,900 miles. It belougs to 
 Great Britain, and is divided into five colonies, North 
 Australia, West Australia, South Australia, New South 
 Wales, and Victoria. The first of these colonies is 
 now abandoned, on account of the hot and unhealthy 
 climate ; and the last two are the only ones w r hich 
 have flourished. 
 
 The north and west coasts are low, and the interior 
 is generally sterile ; extensive regions consisting of 
 sandy plains, or rugged and verdureless hills. Near the 
 east and south coasts are ranges of mountains, none, 
 however, over 7,000 feet high. The valleys and plains 
 here are more fertile, and capable of sustaining a large 
 population. The central part of Australia is almost 
 wholly unexplored, and offers but little attraction to 
 the explorer. 
 
 In 1851 gold was discovered in the south-western part 
 of the island, or continent, at Bathurst, 140 miles from 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 677 
 
 Sidney, and since that time it has rivalled California, 
 and, in some respects, surpassed it. The most produc- 
 tive mines are at Ballarat. The gold has been found 
 in remarkable lumps, or nuggets, some weighing from 
 10 to 27 pounds of pure gold, and even upwards, and 
 others, less pure, producing 50 to 160 pounds of gold. 
 The first year the yield was about $17,000,000, and it 
 has increased from that to nearly or quite $60,000,- 
 000 in some years. Copper is also found in largo 
 quantities, and the mines (at Burra-Burra, in New 
 South Wales) were producing 20,000 tons or more, 
 annually, when the discoveries of gold diverted the 
 labor and capital almost wholly. Tin, manganese, iron, 
 coal, &c., are found. New South Wales is a good agri- 
 cultural country, and yields large quantities of wool 
 and tallow. 
 
 The native Australians are a distinct race from that 
 inhabiting the Indian Archipelago. They are black, 
 or dark brown, with curly but not crisp hair. They are 
 barbarous, and inclined to cannibalism. The different 
 tribes are constantly engaged in feuds. The highest 
 estimate of their numbers is 80,000, which is probably 
 much more than the actual number. 
 
 The population of Australia, in 1857, was about 
 
 1,013,000. The population of the colony of Victoria, 
 in which the gold region, as at present known, lies, 
 has rapidly increased. In 1850, it was about 50,000 ; 
 
 in 1857, it was 414,000. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Sidney, the capital of New South Wales ; pop- 
 ulation, about 100,000 
 
 Melbourne, the capital of Victoria ; population, 
 
 about 50,000 
 
 Adelaide, the capital of South Australia ; pop- 
 ulation, 20,000 
 
 Perth, the capital of West Australia, . . . 
 
 Gulong, 
 
 Brisbane, 
 
 Van Diemen’s Land , or Tasmania , an island con- 
 taining an area of 24,000 square miles, south of Aus- 
 tralia, from which it is separated by Bass Strait. It 
 belongs to Great Britain, and a penal colony of that 
 country is established here. The interior is moun- 
 tainous, some of the peaks being snow-capped even in 
 summer, and rising to the height of 7,000 or 8,000 
 feet. Coal, lead, and iron are found, of excellent 
 quality. It is well watered, and the valleys are fertile. 
 The population is about 80,000, of whom nearly one 
 third are convicts. 
 
 The chief town is Hobart-Town, the capital, in the 
 south-eastern part of the island. Population, about 
 
 25,000. 
 
 New Zealand comprises three islands, New Ulster, 
 New Munster, and New Leinster, together with some 
 smaller islands, situated south-east of Australia, and 
 belonging to Great Britain. The area of all is about 
 
 105,000 square miles, and the population about 150,- 
 000, of whom about 27,000 are whites. The interior 
 of the islands is rugged and mountainous. In New 
 Ulster are Mount Edgecomb, 10,000 feet high, and Mount 
 Egmont, 8,300 feet high. The island is well watered 
 and fertile. The principal settlements of the English 
 are at Auchland, the capital, New Plymouth, and Wel- 
 
 lington, in New Ulster, and at Nelson and Canterbury, 
 in New Munster, 
 
 Papua, or New Guinea , north of Australia, contains 
 an area of 250,000 square miles. It is inhabited 
 by a mixed Malay and Papuan race, and has no Eu- 
 ropean settlements. But little is known of its in- 
 terior. 
 
 Admiralty Isles , a group of about 30 fertile islands, 
 north of Papua. The largest, Great Admiralty Island, 
 is about 60 miles in length. 
 
 New Ireland, a long, narrow island, south-east of 
 the last, about 200 miles in length and 20 wide, cov- 
 ered with luxuriant forests. 
 
 New Britain, two large islands south-west from the 
 last, and east of Papua, well wooded and fertile. 
 
 Solomon Isles , a group east of Papua and New Brit- 
 ain, of which little is known. 
 
 Louisiade Isles, a group of small islands south-east 
 of Papua, 80 of which are known, and it is believed 
 that others remain to be discovered and explored. 
 Some of these islands are fertile, and inhabited by 
 savages of a dark copper color. 
 
 New Hebrides, a group of about 20 islands, south- 
 east of the Solomon Isles. Espiritu Santo is the 
 largest, and is about 65 miles in length by 20 wide. 
 They are inhabited by the Papuan race, and abound in 
 tropical trees and fruits. 
 
 Norfolk, a solitary island, about 1,000 miles east 
 of Australia, comprising an area of 14 square miles. 
 It belongs to Great Britain, and is used as a penal es- 
 tablishment. 
 
 Malaysia, or the Asiatic Archipelago, is the general 
 name given to the large islands lying south-east of 
 Asia. They are also sometimes called the East Indies. 
 Malaysia comprises the following islands : — 
 
 Philippine Isles, a group consisting of about 1,200 
 islands, the most northern in the Indian Archipelago. 
 The estimated area of the whole is about 120,000 square 
 miles. They mostly belong to Spain, and are a valua- 
 ble colonial possession to that kingdom. The principal 
 islands are Luzon, Mindanao, Palawan, Mindoro, Samar, 
 Leyte, Negros, &c. Population, estimated at about 
 
 5,000,000, of whom 1,000,000 belong to the Papuan 
 race, 3,700,000 are Malay Indians, 55,000 half-castes 
 and Chinese, and 245,000 whites. The chief town is 
 Manilla, which has an extensive foreign trade. Popu- 
 lation of the city and suburbs, 140,000. The town 
 has many times suffered from earthquakes, the last 
 severe one of which was in 1852, when great damage 
 was done. 
 
 Borneo. — This island contains an area of about 
 
 290.000 square miles, and is more than three times as 
 large as the island of Great Britain, and larger than 
 the Eastern and Middle States of the United States. 
 
 Population, estimated at 2,000,000, of whom about 
 
 1.400.000 are Dyaks, the aboriginal tribes, 140,000 
 Chinese, 400,000 Malays, 100,000 Boogis from Celebes. 
 The western and southern coasts, and a part of the 
 eastern, are subject to the Dutch, who have settle- 
 ments at Banjarmassin and Pontianale. The northern 
 coast, including Borneo Proper, is now under the protec- 
 tion of Great Britain, with a native sovereign. Under 
 this protection piracy has become less frequent, and com- 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 678 
 
 merce more prosperous. Borneo is the chief town of 
 this part of the island ; population, 22,000. 
 
 Celebes , an irregular-shaped island, east of Borneo. 
 Area, about 70,000 square miles. Population, estima- 
 ted at 2,000,000, of whom the Boogis are the most 
 numerous, and are one of the finest races in Oceania 
 in appearance. The island is under native rule, 
 though the Dutch have heretofore claimed authority 
 over some portions, and still hold the settlement of 
 Macassar. 
 
 Moluccas, or Spice Islands , a general name of isl- 
 ands between Celebes and Papua, the largest of which 
 are Gilolo, Ceram, Booro, and Amboyna. Area, esti- 
 mated at 38,000 square miles. They are subject to the 
 Dutch, who have a settlement at Amboyna. 
 
 Timor, an island south of the Spice Islands, about 
 300 miles long and 40 wide. It is claimed partly by 
 the Portuguese and partly by the Dutch, each of 
 whom have some small settlements. Population, 
 about 200,000. 
 
 Sunda Isles, consisting of Sumatra, Java, Sumbawa, 
 Flores, and Sandalwood, together with some smaller 
 islands. 
 
 Sumatra , south-west of the Malayan peninsula, a 
 large island directly under the equator. Area, about 
 
 140.000 square miles. Population, according to the 
 most reliable estimates, about 4,500,000, and com- 
 posed of mixed races. The Dutch have long had set- 
 tlements there, and have gradually extended their 
 dominion over a large part of the island. 
 
 Java, south-east of Sumatra, has an area of about 
 
 50.000 square miles. It belongs to the Dutch, and is 
 the centre of their power in the East Indies. It has a 
 governor-general, and is divided into 22 residencies, 
 with local governors. Batavia, Samarang, and Sou- 
 rabaya are places of much commercial importance, 
 especially the first, which is the capital, and the centre 
 of the Dutch East India trade. Population of the 
 island, (1845,) 9,560,380, of whom 16,000 were Euro- 
 peans or their descendants. Population of Batavia, 
 118,300, of whom 2,800 are Europeans. 
 
 Flores, next to Java, the largest of the Sunda Isles, 
 is about 200 miles long and 35 wide. It has several 
 high volcanic peaks. 
 
 Sandalwood, south of Flores, about 120 miles in 
 length and 30 in average breadth. The Dutch have 
 settlements there. 
 
 Sumbawa, west of Flores, about 160 miles in length. 
 It is divided into several native states, which are gen- 
 erally under the protection of the Dutch. 
 
 Book LIX. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 This great division of the globe, though the seat of 
 the most ancient civilization, is the least known, and 
 has been the least explored of any of the grand divis- 
 ions. It has an area of 11,236,000 square statute 
 miles. Its length is estimated at 4,968 statute miles, 
 and its breadth at 4,692 statute miles. It has a coast 
 line of about 16,000 miles, a great part of which has 
 never been accurately surveyed, and much is very im- 
 
 perfectly known. Of the interior, vast regions are un- 
 explored ; and though Dr. Livingstone has within a 
 few years penetrated and explored some distance in 
 Southern Africa, and Dr. Barth in Central Africa, and 
 have added much to the knowledge of those portions of 
 the continent, yet the geographical knowledge of the 
 country is limited. These recent explorations, how- 
 ever, have met with such success as to lead to further 
 expeditions, which will, in the course of a few years, 
 probably afford a better knowledge of this vast extent of 
 territory, and, in the process of time, open it to civili- 
 zation. The population is variously estimated from 
 60,000,000 to 110,000,000, composed of numerous 
 savage and degraded tribes, mostly black, except 
 where a branch of the Caucasian race has extended 
 along the northern part and along the eastern coast. 
 These tribes speak innumerable languages or dialects, 
 and are in other respects very dissimilar, while some 
 of those of the southern portion appear to be almost a 
 distinct race. 
 
 Mountains. — The Mountains of the Moon is a name 
 applied to a range commencing near the western coast, 
 in latitude 9° north, and longitude 9° 20' west, and 
 thence running, it was supposed, across the continent. 
 It has been discovered, however, that this range does 
 not run across the continent, where it was once laid 
 down on the maps. Whether any such range exists, 
 as supposed, future explorations may show. The 
 name given to the western part of the range is Kong 
 Mountains. The name of Mountains of the Moon is 
 also sometimes given to a range north-west of Zangue- 
 bar. North of the Kong Mountains are other lofty 
 ranges running north. The Atlas range, in Morocco 
 and Algiers, is an extensive range, the highest known 
 peak of which, Mount Miltsun, is 11,380 feet high. A 
 lofty mountain has been recently discovered in Eastern 
 Africa, called Killimandjaro, which rises to a height 
 of 20,000 feet or upwards, and though within four de- 
 grees of the equator, its summit is covered with per- 
 petual snow. The Black Mountains, north of the 
 great desert, and a range west of Mozambique, are 
 extensive ranges, as also are the Red Mountains, in 
 Madagascar. 
 
 Rivers. — The principal and most noted rivers are 
 the Niger and the Nile, the sources of which, and the 
 mouth of the former, were long the subjects of geo- 
 graphical speculation. The outlet of the Niger was 
 finally ascertained to be in the Bight of Benin, in the 
 eastern part of Upper Guinea. The sources of the 
 Nile have not yet been reached, though long supposed 
 to be in the Mountains of the Moon. The following 
 are the principal rivers : — 
 
 Miles in Length. 
 
 Nile, (running into the Mediterranean,) about. 3,000 
 Niger, (in West Africa, emptying into the Atlantic, )2, 5 00 
 
 Senegal, 
 
 Gambia, 
 
 Congo, 
 
 Coanza, 
 
 Orange, “ 
 
 Geba, “ 
 
 Rio Grande, 
 
 Sierra Leone, 
 
 In East Africa, Zambeze, J uba, or Fumbo, and Liowma. 
 
 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 500 
 
 1,000 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Lakes. — Tchad, in Central Africa, explored by- 
 Barth, and stated to be about 220 miles in length and 
 140 in breadth. Lake Nyassi, north-west of Mozam- 
 bique, unexplored. Lake Ngami, discovered and ex- 
 plored by Livingstone, in the central part of South 
 Africa, about 70 miles in length. Lake Dembra, in 
 Abyssinia. Lake Lovvdeah, in Tunis. 
 
 The chief political divisions of Africa at present, are 
 as follows : — 
 
 Book LXV. 
 
 BARBARY STATES. 
 
 Morocco , (empire of,) the largest of the Barbary 
 States, in North-Western Africa. Area, 223,000 square 
 miles; population, 8,500,000 Moors, or Arabs, Berbus, 
 
 and Jews. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. 
 
 Morocco, the capital, 80,000 
 
 Mequinez, 60,000 
 
 Tangier, a seaport on the Strait of Gibraltar, . 7,000 
 
 Fez, an interior town, 90,000 
 
 Mogador, on the Atlantic, 17,000 
 
 679 
 
 tained its power only through the interference of the 
 great powers, and the government is a despotism ; 
 though under Mohammed Ali, it has advanced the 
 prosperity of the country. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. 
 
 Cairo, the capital, the largest city in Africa, . 250,000 
 
 Alexandria, 60,000 
 
 Damietta, 28,000 
 
 Suez, on the Red Sea, though numbering but two 
 or three thousand permanent inhabitants, is a place of 
 importance, as being one of the stations of the “ over- 
 land route ” to the East. A railroad is being con- 
 structed to connect it with Cairo and Alexandria, which 
 places are already connected by railroad. 
 
 Book LXIII. 
 
 NUBIA, ABYSSINIA, &c. 
 
 Nubia , south of Egypt, and under the dominion of 
 
 that kingdom. Area, 320,500 square miles. Popula- 
 tion, 500,000. The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. 
 
 Khartown, the residence of the viceroy, . . 15,000 
 
 Sonakin, on the Red Sea, 8,000 
 
 Abyssinia, south-east of Nubia. Area, 280,000 square 
 miles; population, estimated at 3,000,000. 
 
 The country is little known. It is divided into sev- 
 eral states, or provinces, and the inhabitants embrace 
 many tribes, most of whom are in a state of barbarism. 
 The Gallas, a savage tribe on the west of Nubia, have 
 overrun much of the country. 
 
 Gondar and Ankobar are the chief towns. 
 
 Books LXXI., LXXII. 
 
 EASTERN AFRICA 
 
 Includes the following countries : — 
 
 Somauli Territory , consisting of the districts of Adel 
 and Ajan, south-east of Abyssinia, and south of the 
 Straits of Babel Mandeb. 
 
 The inhabitants are divided into numerous tribes, 
 some of whom carry on considerable trade at Berbera, 
 the chief town. 
 
 Zanguebar, between the Somauli Territory and Mo- 
 zambique, belongs in part to the Sultan of Muscat, a 
 sovereign of a district in Arabia, and in part to 
 native princes. Considerable trade is carried on by 
 the Arabs, the centre of which is at Zanzibar, the chief 
 town, on Zanzibar Island. Population of the island, 
 150,000 ; of the town, 80,000. Other towns are 
 Magadoxa, Juba, Melinda, Quiloa. 
 
 Mozambique , a country extending along the coast 
 from Cape Delgado, the southern limit of Zanguebar, to 
 the Zoolu country, and stretching indefinitely into the 
 interior. On the coast are three Portuguese settle- 
 ments — at Mozambique, Quilimane, and Sofala, — 
 and that nation claims the whole country, though it is 
 not occupied by them. The population of the first 
 named town is about 6,000 ; the others are inconsid- 
 erable places, the channels of trade being now turned 
 
 Algeria , or Algiers , one of the Barbary States, be- 
 tween Morocco and Tunis, now belonging to France. 
 Area, about 90,000 square miles; population, 2,500,000. 
 The population is chiefly composed of Moors, Turks, 
 Berbers, Jews, Ac., with some French settlers. Under 
 French rule (since 1831) the resources of the country 
 are being somewhat developed, its agriculture im- 
 proved, good roads constructed, Ac. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Algiers, the capital, on the Mediterranean ; popula- 
 tion 94,600, of whom about one half are Europeans. 
 Constantine, population, 20,000. 
 
 Tunis , another of the Barbary States, east of Algeria. 
 Area, about 70,000 square miles ; population, 2,500,000. 
 The inhabitants are like the last, without the Euro- 
 pean element. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Tunis, the capital, population, 130,000. Kairwan, 
 an interior town, estimated population at 50,000. 
 
 Tripoli , another of the Barbary States, south-east of 
 Tunis. Area, about 140,000 ; population estimated at 
 
 1.500.000. Barca , on the east, and Ferran , on the 
 south of Tripoli, are dependent or tributary provinces 
 of Tripoli. The population of Barca is estimated at 
 about 1,000,000, mostly Bedouin Arabs. The inhab- 
 itants of Ferran are a mixed race, and number about 
 
 100.000. The chief town of Tripoli is Tripoli. Popu- 
 lation, about 15,000. Moorzouk, in Ferran, a seat of 
 caravan trade. Population, 3,500. 
 
 Books LX. — LXII. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 Area, 224,000 square miles ; population, 2,896,000. 
 More than 2,000,000 of the inhabitants are Fellahs, of 
 Arabic descent, and the remainder Copts, Turks, 
 Greeks, Ac. 
 
 Egypt is in many respects an independent kingdom, 
 though a fief of the Ottoman Empire, which has main- 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 680 
 
 towards Zanzibar. The Portuguese tenure of the 
 country, except in the towns, is altogether uncertain. 
 
 Book LXX. 
 
 SOUTHERN AFRICA 
 
 Includes the following countries: — 
 
 Zoolu Country , inhabited by a tribe of the Caffre 
 race, lies between Mozambique and the Natal Colony 
 of Great Britain. 
 
 Natal Colony, a territory of about 18,000 square 
 miles; population, about 120,000, most of whom are 
 Caffres, acknowledging allegiance to the British, 
 who possess the country as a dependency of Cape 
 Colony. The chief towns are Pietermaritzburg, the 
 capital, and Port Natal, the latter containing about 
 
 1.000 inhabitants. 
 
 Cape Colony occupies the entire south of Africa, 
 from the ocean on the south to Orange River, including 
 a portion of the Hottentot Country and Caffraria, 
 though a part of the Caffres have almost constantly 
 resisted the dominion of the British. Area, about 
 
 110.000 square miles; population, 166,000, 70,000 of 
 whom are of the native races. The chief towns are 
 Cape Town, population 23,000 ; King William’s Town. 
 
 Hottentot Country lies north of Cape Colony, on the 
 coast. In the interior, north of Cape Colony, is 
 
 Country of the Bechuanas, an extensive region, 
 inhabited by offshoots of the Caffres and Hottentots. 
 This region has been explored to some extent of late 
 years, especially by Dr. Livingstone, some distance 
 north of Lake Ngami, and from the west coast into 
 the interior of Mozambique. It proves to be a more 
 fertile country than was supposed, tolerably well wa- 
 tered in some parts, and quite productive. Further 
 explorations, which are progressing, and efforts to gain 
 the good will of the various native tribes, it is hoped 
 will result in opening a considerable trade with the 
 interior. Sugar-cane and cotton are both produced, 
 wild and cultivated, as well as wheat, &c. Gold is 
 found, and extensive beds of coal have been discov- 
 ered. 
 
 Books LXVL — LXIX. 
 
 WESTERN AFRICA 
 
 Includes the various countries extending from the 
 Hottentot Country to the Great Desert. 
 
 Country of the Cimhebas and Damaras , north of the 
 Hottentot Country, inhabited by savage tribes, and but 
 little known. North of this country is 
 
 Lovier Guinea, extending from 17° south to 10° north 
 of the equator, near the mouth of the River Niger. It 
 is divided into several states, the chief of which are 
 Benguela, Angola, Congo, Loango, Biafra. They are 
 inhabited by various negro tribes. The Portuguese 
 have some small settlements, the chief of which is 
 Loanda. The interior of the country is productive, 
 and the explorations of Livingstone show that it might 
 produce large quantities of cotton, &c. 
 
 Upper Guinea lies north of the Gulf of Guinea, ex- 
 tending westward along the coast from the north- 
 ern part of Lower Guinea. It is also subdivided into 
 Benin, Abomey, Coomassie, &c. The British have a ; 
 
 few small settlements, of which Cape Coast Castle is 
 capital. 
 
 Liberia, a republic, established as a colony by the 
 American Colonization Society, for free negroes from 
 the United States. It became an independent republic 
 in 1847. It is situated in the western part of Upper 
 Guinea, extending about 320 miles along the coast, and 
 80 into the interior. Some thousands of the natives 
 have placed themselves under the government of Li- 
 beria. The country is productive, yielding cotton, 
 sugar-cane, and coffee abundantly, and tropical fruits, 
 &c. Population, 250,000. The chief town is Monrovia, 
 the capital ; population, 2,500. 
 
 Sierra Leone , a British colony, north-west of Liberia, 
 and in the southern part of Senegambia, comprises an 
 area of 232 square miles. The chief town is Free- 
 town ; population, 18,000. 
 
 Senegambia occupies the most western part of Af- 
 rica, south of the Great Desert. It is divided into 
 several states, all of native government. The inhab- 
 itants are chiefly negroes, of various tribes, the most 
 important of which are the Foulahs, Jaloofs, and Man- 
 dingoes. The French, English, and Portuguese have 
 some small settlements on the rivers Senegal, Gambia, 
 and Nunez. 
 
 Sahara , or The Great Desert, occupies a large part 
 of northern Central Africa. Its length is about 2,500 
 miles, and its breadth from 600 to 900 miles, its area 
 being about 1,300,000 square geographical miles. 
 Oases, of greater or less extent, relieve this barren 
 region in the east, and some are found in the central 
 and western parts, the latter of which is the most des- 
 olate. Although so desolate, Sahara is inhabited by 
 Moors, Tuariks, and Tibboos. Explorations of late 
 years have added but little geographical knowledge of 
 this region more than is given in the text, except in 
 limited portions of it. 
 
 Book LXYII. 
 
 CENTRAL AFRICA 
 
 Is the general name applied to a vast region extend- 
 ing from the Great Desert, indefinitely, south to the 
 country of the Bechuanas. It comprises numerous 
 states, or kingdoms, and is inhabited by many distinct 
 tribes of negroes and mixed l-aces. The great division 
 is Soudan, which comprises the states of Bournou, 
 Houssa, Kanem, Bergoo, Darfur, Begharmi, Adamana, 
 Yarriba, Upper and Lower Bambarra, and Kordofan 
 and the Galla country are sometimes included in it, 
 besides many smaller states. The northern part of this 
 territory is sometimes known as Nigritia, and is so 
 applied indefinitely in the text. 
 
 Lake Tsad, or Tchad, is situated in the northern 
 central part of Soudan, between Bournou and Kanem. 
 It is about 130 miles long and 60 to 80 wide. This 
 region has been explored to some extent recently by 
 Drs. Barth and Overweg, and their explorations will 
 add something to the geographical knowledge of the 
 country, but the expeditions now in progress will 
 probably in a short time accomplish more. 
 
 The country south of Soudan is sometimes called 
 Ethiopia, but it is as properly, perhaps, included under 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 the name Soudan, and is probably made up of numer- 
 ous states and kingdoms, of which little is known, 
 though enterprising explorers are gradually opening 
 the whole of this vast region to our knowledge. 
 
 Books LXXIII., LXXIY. 
 
 ISLANDS OF AFRICA. 
 
 681 
 
 Corvo, . . . 700 St. George, . . 10,000 
 
 St. Michael,. . 80,000 Santa Maria, . 5,000 
 
 Fayal, . . . 22,000 
 
 Total, 203,500 
 
 Book LXXV. 
 
 AMERICA. 
 
 Socotra , in the Indian Ocean, 120 miles east of 
 Cape Guardafin. 
 
 Seychelle Isles, a group of about 30 small islands, in 
 the Indian Ocean, belonging to Great Britain 
 
 Amirante Isles, a smaller group, south west of the 
 preceding. 
 
 Comoro Isles, near the north end of Mozambique 
 channel. 
 
 Madagascar, a large island, 1,000 miles long, and 
 240 in average breadth, containing a territory nearly 
 as large as that of France, east of Africa, and separated 
 from the continent by the Mozambique channel. The 
 people have relapsed from the civilization which was 
 encouraged under one of their princes, who was edu- 
 cated in Europe, in the early part of this century, and 
 who conquered the whole island by organizing a pow- 
 erful army. They have returned to their old practices 
 of paganism and cruelty. Population, estimated at 
 
 4.700.000. The capital and chief town is Tananarive. 
 
 Mauritius, east of Madagascar, belongs to Great 
 
 Britain. Population, 162,000. Chief town, Port 
 Louis ; population, 35,000. 
 
 Bourbon, between Mauritius and Madagascar, be- 
 longs to France. Population, 108,000. Chief town, 
 St. Denis ; population, 20,000. 
 
 St. Helena, about 1,200 miles from the west coast 
 of South Africa, in the Atlantic, belonging to Great 
 Britain. It contains 48 square miles ; population, 
 
 5.000. 
 
 Ascension , about 800 miles north-west of St. Helena, 
 belonging to Great Britain. Its area is 35 square 
 miles. 
 
 Cape Verde Isles, a group of 14 islands in the At- 
 lantic, 320 miles west of Cape Verde. The names of 
 the ten larger ones are Sal, Bonavista, Mayo, Santiago, 
 Fogo, Brava, Grande, Rombo, St. Nicholas, and Santa 
 Luzia. They belong to the Portuguese. They comprise 
 an area of 1,680 square miles; population, 86,700. 
 
 Canary Isles, a group of seven large and several 
 smaller islands, about 60 to 80 miles west of the coast 
 of Sahara and Morocco. They belong to Spain. Area, 
 about 3,000 square miles ; population, 258,000. 
 
 Madeira Isles, consisting of Madeira and Porto 
 Santo, with a few small islands, west of Morocco. They 
 belong to Portugal. Area, about 400 square miles ; 
 population, 110,000. Chief town, Funchal ; popula- 
 tion, 25,000. 
 
 Azores, or Western Isles, consist of 9 islands north- 
 west of Madeira, belonging to Portugal. They are in 
 three groups, the north-western being 114 miles, and 
 the south-eastern being 70 miles from the central 
 group. The islands are, — 
 
 Population. Population. 
 
 Terceira, . . 40,000 Flores, . . . 14,000 
 
 Pico, .... 24,000 Gracioza, . . 7,800 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 63 86 
 
 The area of the American Continent is stated, by 
 good authority, as follows : — 
 
 Square Miles. 
 
 North America, 7,400,000 
 
 South America, 6,500,000 
 
 Islands, 150,000 
 
 Greenland and islands N. of Hudson’s Strait, 900,000 
 
 Total, 14,950,000 
 
 The length of the entire continent is about 10,500 
 miles. Its greatest breadth north of the equator is at 
 about the parallel of 45°, where it is 3,100 miles wide ; 
 its greatest breadth south of the equator is between 
 4° and 7° south, where it is 3,250 miles wide. 
 
 The area of North America is sometimes stated 
 larger than that given above, the United States census 
 of 1850 making it 8,373,648 square miles, including 
 Central America. 
 
 Books LXXVI. — LXXXV. 
 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 The great changes which have taken place in the 
 political geography of North America, the extension 
 of settlements, and the more thorough exploration of 
 the country, render it impossible to follow precisely the 
 order of the text, and a brief description of the chief 
 features of the continent and of the several countries 
 is given, independent, for the most part, of the text. 
 
 Since Malte-Brun’s time, arctic explorations have 
 added something to the knowledge of the northern 
 regions of America. The expeditions of Sir John 
 Franklin, Sir John Ross, Captains Beechey, Clavering, 
 Scoresby, Back, Sir Edward Belcher, McClure, Kellett, 
 Bellot, De Haven, Dr. Kane, and others, have explored 
 the northern seas extensively, but, it must be confessed, 
 without many practical results. The attempts to dis- 
 cover the north-west passage, which was the object of 
 some of these expeditions, at last resulted more favor- 
 ably than Malte-Brun anticipated ; for Captain McClure, 
 of the British ship Investigator, after long struggles 
 with the ice, succeeded, in 1850, in sailing from Behr- 
 ing’s Strait to a point 73° 10' north, and 117° 10' 
 west longitude, about 30 miles from the series of straits, 
 Melville, Barrow, and Lancaster, which communicate 
 with Baffin’s Bay, leaving an extensive region at the 
 north. Obstructed by ice, McClure left his ship, and 
 continued his explorations along the shore, and discov- 
 ered that there was a passage into those straits, and 
 thus connected his explorations on the west with those 
 of Parry on the east. The passage, however, was ob- 
 structed by ice, and impassable on that account. Sub- 
 sequently, McClure was reached by another expedi- 
 tion, which had sailed up through Baffin’s Bay as far 
 as the ice would permit, and then sent on a party by 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 682 
 
 sledges. McClure’s party returned with this expedi- 
 tion, abandoning their ship, but verifying the north- 
 west passage, though frozen and impassable for vessels. 
 
 Dr. Kane’s expedition penetrated through Smith’s 
 Sound, which is north of Lancaster Sound, directly 
 towards the pole from Baffin’s Bay, and his party 
 reached, by sledge and foot journeys beyond his vessel, 
 latitude 81° 22' north. At this point, which was 
 reached by two of the doctor’s companions, an open 
 channel was discovered, extending into what appeared 
 to be an open polar sea. Seals and bears were numer- 
 ous, and a variety of birds were abundant. This 
 exploration showed that Greenland was separated from 
 Grinnell Land and other land on the west of Smith’s 
 Sound, as Parry’s and McClure’s expeditions showed 
 that it was separated from the continent of North 
 America ; and that the regions north of Melville and 
 Barrow’s Straits are one or more large islands, known 
 as Melville Land, Grinnell Land, &c. 
 
 Mountains. — The mountains of North America 
 comprise two principal systems, the Rocky Mountains 
 on the west, and the . Appalachian Mountains on the 
 east. The Rocky Mountains are a continuation of the 
 Andes of South America, and extend, under different 
 names, from the Isthmus of Panama to the Arctic 
 Ocean. In Central America the mountains increase 
 in height as they recede from the Isthmus, and there 
 are, within a limited space, some 30 volcanoes. The 
 Volcan d’Agua, which emits water and stones instead 
 of lire, is 14,450 feet high. In Mexico, the same 
 mountain chain, called Cordilleras, spread into high 
 table land, from Durango to Puebla, from 6,000 to 
 9,000 feet high, and from 100 to 300 miles wide. 
 Near the tropic the chain divides into three, one 
 running to the east, and terminating near the coast, 
 and the other to the west, and sinking in the same 
 manner. The central chain runs north into the ter- 
 ritory of the United States, and so on to the Arctic 
 Ocean. The highest peaks in this chain are as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 In Mexico. — Popocatapetl, 17,720 feet ; Orizaba, 
 17,380 feet, both volcanoes, but the latter extinct; Iztac- 
 cihuatl, 15,705 feet; Nevado de Toluca, 15,250 feet. 
 
 In United States. — Fremont’s Peak, 13,570 feet; 
 Long’s Peak, 13,57*5 feet ; and Pike’s Peak, 11,497 
 feet. 
 
 In British America. — Mount Brown, 15,990 feet ; 
 Mount Hooker, 15,700 feet. 
 
 A range, sometimes considered a part of the same 
 system, extends between the Rocky Mountains and the 
 Pacific from the Russian Possessions to the peninsula 
 of California, and is called the Cascade Range and 
 Sierra Nevada. The range widens into high table 
 land in some places, or branches into other ranges, 
 and is not altogether a well-defined range in the north- 
 ern part. Mount St. Elias, in Russian America, is 
 considered as belonging to this range, and is 17,900 
 feet high. Mount Shaste and Mount Hood, in Oregon, 
 are about 14,000 feet high ; other peaks reach the 
 height of 10,000 feet. Another range, less lofty, ex- 
 tends along the sea-coast, called the Coast Range. 
 
 The. Appalachian chain, beginning in the north- 
 eastern part of the United States, extends to Alabama, at 
 
 a distance of 100 to 300 miles from the coast. There 
 are numerous branches or spurs, and even distinct 
 ranges, which may properly be considered a part of this 
 chain, as the Blue Ridge, Alleghany Mountains, Cum- 
 berland Mountains, &c. The highest peaks in the 
 range are Mount Clingman, in North Carolina, 6,941 
 feet high, and Mount Mitchell, in the same state, 6,732 
 feet high. The mean height is about 2,400 feet. 
 
 There are several smaller ranges, as the Adirondack 
 Mountains, in New York, and the Green, in Vermont 
 and Massachusetts, which more properly belong to the 
 Appalachian range, the White Mountains, in New 
 Hampshire, &c. The highest of these are Mount 
 Marcy, of the Adirondack, 5,460 feet, and Mount Wash- 
 ington, of the White, 6,234 feet. The Ozark Mountains, 
 in Arkansas and Missouri, are a low range. The 
 Humboldt River Mountains, and other short ranges, 
 are found between the Rocky and Cascade ranges. 
 The Black Hills are a range running north-east from 
 the Rocky Mountains, at about the forty-third par- 
 allel. 
 
 Between the two great systems of mountains lies the 
 great plain, extending from the Gulf of Mexico to the 
 Arctic regions, including the great lakes and the mighty 
 rivers of North America. This plain is the largest in 
 the world, except the Desert of Sahara, and it is so 
 plentifully watered that all that lies south of the Arctic 
 regions is fertile and habitable. That portion south 
 of the forty-fifth parallel, comprising an area of about 
 1,500,000 square miles, is a region of almost unex- 
 ampled fertility. 
 
 Between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra 
 Nevada, or Cascade Mountains, is a great plain, or 
 basin, which is sometimes called Fremont’s Basin, 
 which is not abundantly watered, and is not fertile, 
 except in small portions. The greater part is rugged 
 and sterile. 
 
 Lakes. — North America has some of the largest 
 inland seas, or lakes, on the earth, and the chain of 
 great lakes, between British America and the United 
 States, form a remarkable extent of inland navigation. 
 The following are the principal lakes : — 
 
 Area in Sq. Miles 
 
 Lake Superior, between Canada and U. S., . 32,000 
 
 “ Huron, “ “ “ “ . 20,400 
 
 “ Erie, “ “ “ “ . 9,600 
 
 “ Ontario, “ “ “ “ . 6,300 
 
 “ Michigan, in United States, 22,000 
 
 These are connected with each other by straits, or 
 channels, or artificial canals, and by means of tbe St. 
 Lawrence, open the commerce of a vast region to the 
 Atlantic. Other lakes are, — 
 
 Length in Miles. 
 
 Great Slave Lake, in British America, .... 300 
 
 Great Bear, “ “ “ .... 
 
 Winnepeg, “ “ “ .... 240 
 
 Winnepegoos, “ “ “ .... 125 
 
 Athabasca, “ “ “ .... 200 
 
 Champlain, in United States, 126 
 
 Great Salt, “ “ 75 
 
 Seneca, “ “ 40 
 
 Pontchartrain, “ “ 40 
 
 George, “ “ 36 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 683 
 
 Moosehead, in United States, 40 
 
 Winnepiseogee, “ “ 23 
 
 Utah, “ “ 30 
 
 Terminos, in Mexico, 70 
 
 Tezcuco, “ 15 
 
 Nicaragua, in Central America, 90 
 
 There are numerous smaller sheets of water, espe- 
 cially in the northern part of the great plain between 
 the Rocky and Appalachian chains. 
 
 Rivers. — The rivers of North America may be 
 divided, generally, into four classes: 1. Those which 
 flow into Hudson’s Bay, the Arctic Ocean, and the 
 waters connected therewith, being all those in British 
 America, north of the St. Lawrence. 2. Those that 
 flow into the Atlantic, mostly from the eastern side or 
 slope of the Appalachian chain. 3. Those which flow 
 into the Gulf of Mexico, either directly or by the Missis- 
 sippi. 4. Those west of the Rocky Mountains, which 
 flow into the Pacific. Besides these, there are a few 
 rivers, not very large or important, which flow into the 
 great lakes, and a few in the basin between the Rocky 
 and Cascade Mountains, which flow into the lakes of 
 that region, which have no outlet to the ocean. 
 
 The following are the principal rivers in North 
 America : — 
 
 RIVERS IN BRITISH AMERICA. 
 
 Flowing into Hudson’s Bay and Arctic Ocean, — 
 
 
 Length in Miles. 
 
 Length in Miles. 
 
 Albany, . . 
 
 . . 340 
 
 Great Whale, . 
 
 . 
 
 Athabasca, . 
 
 . . 550 
 
 Mackenzie’s, . 
 
 . 900 
 
 Assinniboin, 
 
 Coppermine, 
 
 . . 480 
 
 Nelson, . . . 
 
 . 300 
 
 . . 250 
 
 Peace, . . . 
 
 . 1,100 
 
 East Main, 
 Great Fish, 
 
 . . 400 
 
 Saskatchawan, 
 
 . 1,300 
 
 Flowing into the Atlantic, 
 
 — 
 
 
 Ottawa, . . 
 
 . . 600 
 
 Restigouclie, . 
 
 . 200 
 
 St. Lawrence, 
 
 . . 770 
 
 St. Maurice, . 
 
 . 140 
 
 Saguenay, . 
 
 . . 100 
 
 St. John’s, . 
 
 . 320 
 
 Flowing into the Pacific — 
 
 -Frazer’s. 
 
 
 RIVERS IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Flowing into the Atlantic, directly or indirectly, — 
 
 Length in Miles. 
 
 Length in Miles. 
 
 Androscoggin,. 
 
 . 140 
 
 Altamalia, . . 
 
 . 140 
 
 Connecticut, . 
 
 . 410 
 
 Cape Fear, . . 
 
 . 300 
 
 Delaware, . . 
 
 . 300 
 
 Great Pedee, 
 
 . 450 
 
 Hudson, . . 
 
 . 300 
 
 James, 
 
 . 500 
 
 Kennebec, . . 
 
 . 200 
 
 Merrimac, . . 
 
 . 110 
 
 Penobscot, . . 
 
 . 275 
 
 Potomac, . . 
 
 . 550 
 
 Roanoke, . . 
 
 . 260 
 
 Schuylkill, . . 
 
 . 140 
 
 Susquehanna, . 
 
 . 450 
 
 Shenandoah, . . 
 
 . 170 
 
 Savannah, . . 
 
 . 450 
 
 
 
 Flowing into 
 
 the Gulf of 
 
 Mexico, directly or 
 
 indi- 
 
 rectly, — 
 
 
 
 
 Length in Miles. 
 
 Length in Miles. 
 
 Alabama, . . 
 
 . 380 
 
 Kansas, . . . 
 
 1,200 
 
 Arkansas, . . 
 
 2,000 
 
 Alleghany, . . 
 
 . 400 
 
 Chattahoochee, 
 
 . 550 
 
 Big Horn, . . 
 
 . 400 
 
 Colorado, . . 
 
 . 600 
 
 Cumberland, . 
 
 . 600 
 
 Des Moines, 
 
 . 400 
 
 Canadian, . . 
 
 . 900 
 
 Great Kanawha, 
 
 . 400 
 
 Green, . . . 
 
 . 300 
 
 Iowa, .... 
 
 . 300 
 
 Illinois, . . . 
 
 . 400 
 
 Kentucky, . 
 
 
 . 260 
 
 Minnesota, . . 
 
 . 450 
 
 Mississippi, . 
 
 
 3,160 
 
 Nueces, . . . 
 
 . 350 
 
 Monongahela, 
 
 
 . 300 
 
 Osage, . . . 
 
 . 600 
 
 Missouri,. . 
 
 
 3,096 
 
 Red, .... 
 
 1,200 
 
 Ohio, . . . 
 
 Platte, . . 
 
 
 . 950 
 . 800 
 
 a ( including 
 { So. Fork, 
 
 2,100 
 
 Rio Grande, 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 Sabine, . 
 
 . 300 
 
 Sioux, 
 
 
 . 300 
 
 St. Francis, . . 
 
 . 450 
 
 Tombigbee, . 
 
 
 . 500 
 
 Tennessee, . . 
 
 1,200 
 
 Trinity, . . 
 
 
 . 450 
 
 White, . . . 
 
 . 800 
 
 Wisconsin, . 
 
 
 . 360 
 
 Wabash, . . .■ 
 
 . 550 
 
 Washita,. 
 
 
 . 500 
 
 Yellow Stone, . 
 
 . 700 
 
 Flowing into the Pacific, 
 
 Length in Miles. 
 
 Big Bfack, . . . 400 
 
 Length in Miles. 
 
 Brazos, .... 950 
 
 Columbia, . 
 
 
 . 750 
 
 Clarke’s, . . . 
 
 . 500 
 
 Green, . . 
 
 
 # 
 
 Grand, . . . 
 
 . 300 
 
 Gila, . . . 
 
 
 . 450 
 
 Klamath, 
 
 . 250 
 
 Lewis, or Snake, 
 
 . 520 
 
 Rio Colorado, . 
 
 . 800 
 
 Sacramento, 
 
 . 
 
 . 370 
 
 San Joaquin, . 
 
 . 350 
 
 Humboldt River flows into 
 
 Humboldt Lake, . 
 
 . 350 
 
 The Mississippi and Missouri are navigable for boats 
 for the distance of about 3,900 miles, measuring by the 
 stream, and their numerous tributaries are also nav- 
 igable to a great extent, affording facilities of trans- 
 portation for many thousands of miles. The area of 
 the basin drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries 
 is estimated to be about 1,350,000 square miles. 
 
 Book LXXYI. 
 
 RUSSIAN AMERICA. 
 
 Area, about 450,000 square miles ; population, esti- 
 mated at 61,000. The inhabitants are chiefly Indians 
 and Esquimaux, and the Russian Possession is but 
 little else than a fur-trading establishment. 
 
 The chief town is Sitka, or New Archangel. 
 
 Book LXXYII. 
 
 DANISH AMERICA 
 
 Consists of Greenland and Iceland, neither of which 
 belongs to the American continent, though usually in- 
 cluded under the name. 
 
 Greenland. — The area of this country is unknown. 
 Its climate and rugged soil has prevented any exten- 
 sive settlement. The Danish settlements are mostly 
 on the west coast, and of these Upernavik is the north- 
 ernmost. The population, in 1851, was 9,400, of 
 whom but 250 were Europeans. 
 
 Iceland. — Area, about 40,000 square miles; popu- 
 lation, in 1851, 60,000. 
 
 Chief towns, Reykjavik, the capital, population, 900, 
 and Skalholt. 
 
 Spitzbergen , which, in the text, is considered as 
 belonging to America, is now classed with European 
 islands, and is claimed by Russia. 
 
 Books LXXYII., LXXYIII. 
 
 BRITISH AMERICA. 
 
 Hudson's Bay Territory . — Area, 2,190,000 square 
 miles ; population, 180,000. This territory is usually 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 684 
 
 considered as comprising all the territory of North 
 America north of Canada and the United States, 
 except the Russian territory in the north-west, and 
 extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans, and 
 is bounded by the Arctic Ocean on the north. Labra- 
 dor, which is attached to the colony of Newfoundland, 
 forms its eastern limit. There are no settlements in 
 the northern and eastern parts, except the fur-trading 
 posts. West of the Rocky Mountains, the government 
 has now resumed control of the territory, and the colony 
 of British Columbia is established there. The fisheries 
 on the cast coast of Labrador are profitable, and give 
 employment to hundreds of vessels from the British 
 Provinces and the United States. 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA. 
 
 This colony was established in 1858, the British gov- 
 ernment resuming the jurisdiction, which it had granted 
 for a term to the Hudson’s Bay Company. It extends 
 from the northern boundary of the United States (49th 
 parallel) to Simpson’s River, about the 55th parallel, 
 and from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific. Includ- 
 ing Queen Charlotte’s Island, which is attached to the 
 colony, the area is about 200,000 square miles. The 
 colony was established in consequence of the discovery 
 of gold, and the great influx of population occasioned 
 thereby. 
 
 The gold region, so far as known, is confined to a 
 portion of the course of Fraser River and its tributa- 
 ries. Hostile Indians have prevented extensive ex- 
 plorations or mining, and the quantity of gold yet pro- 
 duced is not large. But it is believed that rich placers 
 will be found on the table land between the Fraser 
 and Columbia Rivers, and that rich auriferous quartz 
 will be found upon further exploration. Gold has 
 been discovered in Queen Charlotte’s Island, but the 
 hostility of the Indians has prevented any prosecution 
 of mining there. It is also said to exist in Vancouver’s 
 Island, which lies west of the southern part of the 
 colony, but, though under the same administration, is 
 not called a part of Columbia. The present organiza- 
 tion and limits of the colony, it is probable, will soon 
 be changed. 
 
 Though far to the north, the climate of Columbia is 
 not so severe as it is east of the Rocky Mountains, and 
 much of the soil is well adapted to agriculture. A con- 
 siderable portion is well adapted for settlements, and 
 wheat, barley, potatoes, &c., can be grown, while 
 apples and some other fruits will ripen. There is an 
 abundance of timber, and coal exists in extensive fields. 
 
 The population is uncertain and fluctuating. The 
 first discovery of gold brought from twenty to thirty 
 thousand immigrants the first year, but many left. 
 The immigration has continued, however, more mod- 
 erately. 
 
 The principal town is Victoria, which has grown up 
 suddenly in consequence of the gold discovery. 
 
 CANADA. 
 
 Area, (estimated,) 357,822 square miles; popula- 
 tion, 2,506,755. 
 
 Canada extends along the north of the United 
 States and the great lakes and New Brunswick, from j 
 
 Labrador and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, to longitude 
 90° 30' west ; its extreme length is about 1,300 miles, 
 and its average width is something less than 300 miles. 
 
 Mountains. — The surface of Canada is not much 
 broken by hills and mountain ranges, and Canada 
 West lias no elevations that attain to the dignity of 
 mountains, that province being, for the most part, of a 
 level or gently undulating surface, scarcely ever rug- 
 ged. In Canada East are the Green Mountains, (so 
 called from the thick forests which cover them,) ex- 
 tending from the vicinity of Quebec to the mouth of 
 the St. Lawrence, on the south side of the river, fol- 
 lowing the course of the river. A similar range rises 
 on the north side of the St. Lawrence. These hills 
 sometimes approach the great river; and form high 
 precipices, overhanging its waters. Farther north are 
 other mountains, as the Mealy Mountains, about 1,500 
 feet high, and generally covered with snow, and the 
 Wotchish Mountains. 
 
 Rivers. — Besides the St. Lawrence, which flows 
 from the great lakes through Canada, the principal 
 rivers are the Ottawa, which divides the two provinces, 
 about 750 miles in length, the Saguenay, which runs 
 through the most grand and beautiful scenery, the St. 
 Maurice, the Batiscan, the Chaudiej’e, and St. Francis. 
 There are numerous smaller rivers, and the country 
 is dotted over with lakes of more or less magnitude. 
 
 Canada was formerly divided into two colonies, 
 Canada West, or Upper Canada, and Canada East, or 
 Lower Canada. They are now united under one 
 colonial government, though each retains some of its 
 peculiar laws and customs, and the inhabitants differ 
 in many respects. 
 
 Canada West. — Area, 147,822, square miles; pop- 
 ulation, (1861,) 1,396,091. 
 
 Canada West is rapidly progressing in population and 
 wealth. It contains some excellent agricultural coun- 
 try, and the facilities for commerce are excellent. The 
 country about the St. Lawrence and the lakes is being 
 rapidly settled. 
 
 Canada East. — Area, 210,000 square miles ; popu- 
 lation, (1861,) 1,110,664. 
 
 This portion of Canada has been longer settled than 
 the upper province, being the territory which was 
 chiefly settled by the French when the country be- 
 longed to France ; but its progress has not been so 
 rapid as that of Canada West, and it does not offer the 
 agricultural advantages which the latter possesses. 
 
 In Canada West the population is principally of 
 English or Irish origin, while in Canada East a ma- 
 jority of the people are of French origin. Protestant- 
 ism predominates in the former, while the Roman 
 Catholic is the prevailing religion of the latter. 
 
 Agriculture is the chief employment of the pop- 
 ulation, and lumbering next. The forests yield vast 
 quantities of timber. Ship-building, also, is an impor- 
 tant branch of industry. Of minerals, gold has been 
 found on the Chaudiere River, and more recently dis- 
 coveries of it in other places have been reported. 
 Copper is found in the western part, and abounds 
 about Lakes Superior and Huron, where considerable 
 quantities have been mined, and iron, of excellent 
 quality, is found in some localities, but the mines yield 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 685 
 
 but a small proportion of the products of the country. 
 In 1857, the agricultural products, including animals, 
 were valued at about $10,000,000 ; products of the 
 forest, at about $11,500,000 ; manufactures, at about 
 $400,000, and products of the mines, at about $280,000. 
 There are indications of coal, but no mines are worked. 
 
 Education is encouraged, and a common school 
 system is established, supported partly by legislative 
 grant, and partly by local taxation and contribution. 
 In 1856, the amount expended for common schools in 
 Canada West was about $1,225,000, and in Canada 
 East, about $1,000,000. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Ottawa, the capital, (selected by the queen, to settle 
 the differences arising from the claims of various cities,) 
 situated on the Ottawa River, formerly called By-town. 
 Population, 14,669. 
 
 Population, (1861.) 
 
 Montreal, in Canada East, 90,823 
 
 Quebec, “ “ 51,109 
 
 Three Rivers, “ “ 6,058 
 
 Sherbrooke, 5,899 
 
 Toronto, in Canada West, 44,821 
 
 Hamilton, “ “ 19,096 
 
 Kingston, “ “ 13,743 
 
 London, “ “ 11,555 
 
 The following is the population of Canada by coun- 
 ties, (in addition to the foregoing cities,) according to 
 the census of 1861 : — 
 
 CANADA EAST, OR LOWER CANADA. 
 
 Assumption, . . 
 
 Population. 
 
 . 17,355 
 
 Maskinonge, . . 
 
 Population. 
 
 . 14,790 
 
 Argenteuil, . . 
 
 . 12,897 
 
 Megantic, . . . 
 
 . 17,889 
 
 Arthabaska, . . 
 
 . 13,473 
 
 Missisquoi, . . 
 
 . 18,608 
 
 Bagot, . . . . 
 
 . 18,841 
 
 Montcalm, . . . 
 
 . 14,724 
 
 Beauce, . . . . 
 
 . 20,416 
 
 Montmagny, . 
 
 . 13,386 
 
 Beauharnois, . . 
 
 . 15,742 
 . 16,062 
 
 Montmorency, 
 
 . 11,136 
 
 Bellechasse, . . 
 
 Napierville, . . 
 
 . 14,513 
 
 Berthier, . . . 
 
 . 19,608 
 
 Nicolet, . . . 
 
 . 21,563 
 
 Bonaventure, . . 
 
 . 13,092 
 
 Outaouais, . . . 
 
 . 27,757 
 
 Brome, . . . . 
 
 Chambly, . . . 
 
 . 12,732 
 
 Pontiac, . . . 
 
 . 13,257 
 
 . 13,132 
 
 Portneuf, . . . 
 
 . 21,291 
 
 Champlain, . . 
 
 . 20,008 
 
 Quebec, .... 
 
 . 27,893 
 
 Charlevoix, . . 
 
 . 15,223 
 
 Richelieu, . 
 
 . 19,070 
 
 Chateauguay, . . 
 
 . 17,837 
 
 Richmond, . . . 
 
 . 8,884 
 
 Chicoutimi, . . 
 
 . 10,478 
 
 Rimouski, . . . 
 
 . 20,854 
 
 Compton, . . . 
 
 . 10,210 
 
 Rouville, . . . 
 
 . 18,227 
 
 Dorchester, . . 
 
 . 16,195 
 
 Saguenay, . . . 
 
 . 6,101 
 
 Drummond, . . 
 
 . 12,356 
 
 Shefford, . . . 
 
 . 17,779 ’ 
 
 Gaspe and Madeleine 
 
 Soulanges, . . . 
 St. Hyacinthe, . 
 
 . 12,221 
 
 Isles, .... 
 
 . 14,077 
 
 . 18,877 
 
 Hochelaga, . . 
 
 . 16,474 
 
 St. Jean, . . . 
 
 . 14,853 
 
 Huntingdon, . . 
 
 . 17,491 
 
 St. Maurice, . 
 
 . 11,100 
 
 Iberville, . . . 
 
 . 16,891 
 
 Stanstead, . . . 
 
 . 12,258 
 
 Islet, . . . 
 
 Jacques Cartier. 
 Joliette, . . 
 Kamouraska, 
 Laprairie, . 
 Laval, . . 
 
 Levis, . . 
 
 Lotbini&re, . 
 
 . 12,300 
 . 11,218 
 . 21,198 
 . 21,058 
 . 14,475 
 
 . 10,507 
 . 22,091 
 . 20,018 
 Total, including cities, . 
 
 Temiscouata, 
 Terrebonne, 
 Deux-Montagnes, 
 Vaudreuil, . 
 Vercheres, . 
 Wolfe, . . 
 
 Yamaska, . 
 
 . 18,561 
 
 . 19,460 
 . 18,408 
 . 12,282 
 . 15,485 
 . 6,548 
 
 . 16,045 
 
 1,110,664 
 
 CANADA WEST, OR UPPER CANADA. 
 
 Brant, . . 
 
 Population. 
 
 . . . 30,338 
 
 Norfolk, . . . 
 
 Population. 
 
 . 28,590 
 
 Bruce, . . 
 
 . . . 27,499 
 
 Northumberland, 
 
 . 40,592 
 
 Carleton, . 
 
 . . . 29,620 
 
 Ontario, . . . 
 
 . 41,604 
 
 Dundas, 
 
 . . . 18,777 
 
 Oxford, .... 
 
 . 46,226 
 
 Durham, . 
 
 . . . 39,115 
 
 Peel, .... 
 
 . 27,240 
 
 Elgin, . . 
 
 . . . 32,050 
 
 Perth, .... 
 
 . 38,083 
 
 Essex, . . 
 
 . . . 25,211 
 
 Peterborough, 
 
 . 24,651 
 
 F rontenac, . 
 
 . . . 27,347 
 
 Prescott, . . . 
 
 . 15,499 
 
 Glengary, . 
 
 . . . 21,187 
 
 Prince Edward, . 
 
 . 20,869. 
 
 Grenville, . 
 
 . . . 24,191 
 
 Renfrew, . . . 
 
 . 20,325 
 
 Grey, . . 
 
 . . . 37,750 
 
 Russell, .... 
 
 . 6,824 
 
 Haldimand, 
 
 . . . 23,708 
 
 Simcoe, .... 
 
 . 44,720 
 
 Ilalton, . . 
 
 . . . 22,794 
 
 Stormont, . . 
 
 . 18,129 
 
 Hastings, . 
 
 . . . 44,970 
 
 Victoria, . . . 
 
 . 23,039 
 
 Huron, . . 
 
 . . . 51,954 
 
 . . . 31,183 
 
 Waterloo, . . . 
 
 . 38.750 
 
 Kent, . . 
 
 Welland, . ' . . 
 
 . 24,988 
 
 Lambton, . 
 
 . . . 24,916 
 
 Wellington, . . 
 
 . 49,200 
 
 Lanark, 
 
 . . . 31,639 
 
 W entworth, . . 
 
 . 31,832 
 
 Leeds, . . 
 
 Lennox and 
 
 . . . 35,700 
 
 York, .... 
 
 . 59,674 
 
 Addington, 28, 002 
 
 Algoma, District, 
 
 . 4,916 
 
 Lincoln, 
 
 . . . 27,625 
 
 Nipissing, District, 
 
 . 2,094 
 
 Middlesex, . 
 
 . . . 48,736 
 
 
 Total, including cities before given, . 1,396,091 
 
 Railroad facilities are rapidly multiplying in Canada, 
 and there are now upwards of 2,000 miles in operation 
 and under construction. These railroads open com- 
 munication, not only with the interior of Canada, but 
 with the North-Western States of the Union, and con- 
 necting with the similar works in the United States, 
 connect Canada with the Atlantic at Portland, Boston, 
 and New York. Similar communication with Halifax, 
 Nova Scotia, is in progress. 
 
 Not less important to the interests of Canada are the 
 numerous canals, which greatly facilitate commerce. 
 The most important of these are the Rideau and Wel- 
 land Canals. The Rideau Canal extends from Lake 
 Ontario, at Kingston, to the Ottawa, at Chaudiere, 135 
 miles, and is capable of receiving vessels of 120 tons 
 burden. The Welland Canal connects Lake Erie 
 with Lake Ontario, around Niagara Falls. It is of 
 sufficient capacity to float vessels of considerable size, 
 and some of the largest lake steamers pass through it. 
 By means of these canals vessels have passed from 
 the lake ports in the Western States to the Atlantic, 
 and one or more have sailed from Europe to Chicago, 
 in Illinois. The amount of tonnage which passes 
 through the Welland Canal is very large. Various 
 other canals facilitate navigation around the rapids of 
 the St. Lawrence and other rivers. 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 Area, 27,700 square miles; population, (1851,) 
 193,800. 
 
 New Brunswick is indented by numerous bays, the 
 principal of which is the Bay of Chaleur, 90 miles in 
 length and 15 to 30 miles in width. There are also 
 numerous rivers and creeks, which afford facilities for 
 transportation. The soil in the valleys of the rivers is 
 very fertile, and the country is capable of great agri- 
 cultural products. The quantity of land under culti- 
 vation, in 1851, was 644,000 acres. 
 
 The chief products of New Brunswick are from the 
 
r 
 
 686 APPENDIX. 
 
 fisheries, agriculture, the forest, and mining. Coal is 
 abundant, the coal fields occupying an extent of 10,000 
 square miles. Iron, copper, plumbago, and manganese 
 also abound. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. 
 
 Frederickton, the capital, 4,500 
 
 St. Johns, 22,800 
 
 St. Andrews, 8,000 
 
 Bathurst, 2,000 
 
 Liverpool, 
 
 New Brunswick is divided into 14 counties. Inter- 
 nal improvements and railroad facilities are increasing, 
 and several important railroads are already in opera- 
 tion. 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 Area, (including Cape Breton,) 18,746 square miles ; 
 population, (1861,) 580,699. 
 
 Nova Scotia is indented with numerous bays, and it 
 abounds in small lakes, while there are also several 
 rivers navigable for some miles. The most remarka- 
 ble bay is Mines Bay, the eastern arm of the Bay of' 
 Fundy, penetrating 60 miles inland. The tides rush 
 into these bays with great impetuosity, and in Mines 
 Bay it sometimes rises from 50 to 70 feet. 
 
 Agriculture flourishes, though a considerable portion 
 of the soil is not fertile. In 1851 there were about 
 540,000 acres under cultivation, 40,000 acres of which 
 was diked land. The chief mineral product is coal, 
 excellent bituminous coal abounding in several parts 
 of the province. In 1850, the quantity of coal pro- 
 duced was about 115,000 chaldrons, and the quantity 
 has gradually increased. Iron ore of excellent quality 
 is also abundant. Native copper and silver are also 
 found in the mountains of the northern part. Large 
 quantities of gypsum are also found. 
 
 Gold has been found recently (1861) in Nova Scotia. 
 The first discoveries were in the neighborhood of Tan- 
 gier. The following is from the report of Mr. Howe, 
 the Provincial Secretary : — 
 
 “ The Tangier River is a stream of no great magni- 
 tude, taking its rise not very far from the sources of the 
 Musquodoboit, flowing through a chain of lakes, which 
 drain, for many miles on either side, a rugged and 
 wilderness country, and falling into the Atlantic about 
 40 miles to the eastward of Halifax. In this region 
 from 600 to 800 persons have been employed the pres- 
 ent summer. 
 
 “ The lowest depth yet reached is 45 feet, and the 
 largest nugget found is valued at $300. The gold is 
 got in quartz veins, running through slate or earth, 
 resting upon granite, in the form of scales, jagged and 
 torn bits, like shot or bullets fired against a wall. It is 
 sometimes globular, but seldom completely round. 
 The veins run east and west. 
 
 “In June, gold was discovered in the county of 
 Lunenburg, about 60 miles to the westward of Halifax. 
 A peninsula, which forms the western side of Lunen- 
 burg harbor, and which stretches from the shire town 
 of that name for five miles into the Atlantic, termi- 
 nates in a bluff promontory about 40 feet high, with ; 
 steep cliffs on the eastern side, but on the western ! 
 
 sloping down to a stretch of level land with another 
 bay beyond. 
 
 “ The quartz veins run in all directions through the 
 promontory, and are visible to the naked eye without 
 labor.” 
 
 Gold has also been discovered in other places, though 
 but little that is tangible in regard to the product is 
 given to us. 
 
 Nova Scotia is divided in 18 counties. The chief 
 towns are, — 
 
 Population, (1851.) Population, (1851.) 
 
 Halifax, capital, 26,000 Annapolis, . . 1,200 
 
 Pictou, . . . 2,000 Aricliat, . . . 1,200 
 
 Antigonisli, . . 1,500 
 
 Pictou, Windsor, Digby, and Sidney, population each 
 about 1,000. 
 
 Cape Breton , an island north-east of Nova Scotia, 
 forms a part of the province. Area, 3,122 square 
 miles ; population, about 55,000. Sidney and Aricliat 
 are on the island. 
 
 ISLAND OF NEWFOUNDLAND. 
 
 Area, 57,000 square miles; population, (1851,) 
 101,600. 
 
 The climate and soil of Newfoundland are not 
 favorable to agriculture, and the chief employment 
 of the inhabitants is in the fisheries. Large quantities 
 of fish and of seal skins are exported. 
 
 Chief town, St. John’s ; population, (1852,) 21,000. 
 
 Trinity Bay, on the eastern shore of the island, is 
 the place of the western terminus of the Atlantic tele- 
 graph cable, by which communication was had for a 
 short time with Europe, by way of Ireland, from which 
 this part of the island is about 1,650 miles distant. 
 
 PRINCE EDWARD’S ISLAND. 
 
 Area, 2,100 square miles ; population, (1854,) 90,- 
 
 000 . 
 
 This island, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, east of New 
 Brunswick and north of Nova Scotia, has a climate 
 milder than that of the main land, and the soil is ex- 
 cellent, rendering it a fine agricultural country. It has 
 no valuable minerals. It is sometimes considered as a 
 dependency of Canada, but has a separate government. 
 The principal town is Charlottetown, the capital ; popu- 
 lation, 4,800. 
 
 OTHER BRITISH NORTH AMERICAN ISLANDS. 
 
 Anticosti , a desert island, at the mouth of the St. 
 Lawrence. Area, 2,600 square miles. 
 
 Magdalen Isles, a chain of small islands in the Gulf 
 of St. Lawrence. Population, 2,000. 
 
 Bermuda Isles. About 300 small islands, containing 
 an area of about 20 square miles, situated in the At- 
 lantic Ocean, 600 miles east of South Carolina. 
 Many of the islands are not habitable. Others produce 
 fruits and vegetables, of both tropical and temperate 
 regions, in abundance. 
 
 Vancouver' s Island, west of British Columbia, in 
 the Pacific, contains an area of 16,000 square miles. 
 It has some small settlements, and from its position 
 and natural advantages will grow with that new 
 I colony. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Books LXXIX. — LXXXII. 
 
 THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 The United States comprise the central portion of 
 North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean to 
 the Pacific, and from the Gulf of Mexico to the great 
 lakes, or from latitude 24° 30' to latitude 49°. The 
 average length of the territory, from east to west, is 
 about 2,400 miles, and the average breadth, from north 
 to south, is 1,300 miles. The greatest length is 2,700 
 miles, and greatest breadth 1,600 miles. The area 
 is 2,936,166 square miles. All this territory lies 
 within the temperate zone, and has a variety of cli- 
 mate, from the almost tropical heat of the southern 
 portion, to the more rigorous but not unpropitious cli- 
 mate of the north. It is greatly diversified in its sur- 
 face, and affords a great variety of soil. 
 
 Topographically, the territory of the United States 
 is divided, by the Appalachian chain and the Rocky 
 Mountains, into three grand sections, viz., the Atlantic 
 slope, the Pacific slope, and the Mississippi valley. 
 The Atlantic slope, lying between the Appalachian 
 chain and the Atlantic Ocean, extends from Maine to 
 Alabama, and varies from 75 to nearly 300 miles in 
 width. The Pacific slope, lying between the Rocky 
 Mountains and the Pacific Ocean, extends through the 
 whole territory from north to south, and is from 600 
 to 1,000 miles in breadth. This slope is, however, 
 broken and divided by several mountain ranges, as the 
 Coast Range, and the chain called Sierra Nevada, in 
 California, and Cascade Mountains, in Oregon and 
 Washington Territory. The Mississippi valley com- 
 prises all the vast territory lying between the Rocky 
 Mountains and the Appalachian chain, which is drained 
 chiefly by the Mississippi and its tributaries, and extends 
 through 18 degrees of latitude, and from 800 to 1,600 
 miles in breadth. On the north, this section rises to a 
 table land, of an average elevation of about 1,500 feet 
 above the sea, varying from 800 to 1,900 feet. From 
 this table land the waters flow, in various directions, 
 towards the Great Lakes and Hudson’s Bay, but chiefly 
 towards the great valley of the Mississippi. In some 
 parts of the great valley are chains of low mountains 
 and ridges, sufficient to diversify the surface, but not 
 dividing it into distinct topographical sections. To- 
 wards the west, the valley rises almost imperceptibly 
 towards the Rocky Mountains, at the base of which 
 it is about 7,500 feet above the sea. The southern 
 portion of the valley is low, and towards the Gulf it is 
 for the most part a vast swamp or marsh. 
 
 Mountains. — The Rocky Mountains form the most 
 extensive range in the United States, extending through 
 the country, from north to south. Near the Pacific 
 coast is a chain of mountains stretching from the 
 Straits of J uan de Fuca to about the 34th degree of 
 north latitude, where it joins the Sierra Nevada, in 
 the south part of California. As a range, they run 
 parallel to the Pacific. East of this is a lofty chain, 
 bearing the name of the Cascade Range, in Washington 
 and Oregon Territories, and Sierra Nevada, in Califor- 
 nia. The greatest ascertained heights in the United 
 States are in this chain. Mount Shaste, Mount St. 
 
 687 
 
 Helen’s, Mount Hood, and Mount Rainier rise to heights 
 varying from 12,000 to 14,000 feet. This chain extends 
 from Russian America to the southern extremity of 
 Old California, at an average distance from the sea 
 of 100 to 150 miles, and has a mean elevation of 5,000 
 or 6,000 feet. Between the Cascade and Rocky Moun- 
 tains are several groups, called Blue, Humboldt, and 
 Wahsatch Mountains. The Rocky Mountains also run 
 parallel to the Pacific, at distances varying from 450 
 to 850 miles, within the territory of the United States, 
 arid attain, in Fremont’s Peak, (the highest known 
 summit,) an elevation of 13,570 feet. The great 
 Appalachian range extends, with some breaks, from 
 Maine to Alabama. This is not a high range, though 
 Mount Katahdin in Maine, Mount Washington in 
 New Hampshire, Mount Mansfield in Vermont, and 
 Mount Marcy in New York, reach severally the 
 heights of 5,000, 6,234, 4,280, and 5,460 feet. South 
 of New York, this range and its., outlying ridges are 
 mostly within an elevation of 2,000 feet, though the 
 peaks of Otter and White Top, in the southern part 
 of Virginia, and Black Mountain, or Mount Mitchel, 
 in North Carolina, (the highest land east of the Missis- 
 sippi) rise from 4,000 to 6,476 feet, but in no case do 
 the summits reach the line of perpetual snow. 
 
 Rivers. — Through the middle of the territory of 
 the United States, from the summit of the great table- 
 land of Minnesota, runs the Mississippi for 3,000 miles, 
 “like the trunk of a vast tree, with its roots in the Gulf 
 of Mexico, and its branches extending east to the Alle- 
 ghanies, and west to the Rocky Mountains, receiving 
 the tributes, of perhaps, 100 important affluents,” some 
 of which, such as the Missouri, Arkansas, and Red 
 Rivers (including South Fork) from the west, and the 
 Ohio from the east, are streams of the first class in 
 point of magnitude and volume of water. 
 
 These rivers are severally, in the order named, about 
 2,900, 2,000, 2,000, and 1,000 miles in length, and 
 many of the secondary tributaries have courses of from 
 300 to 1,000 miles. The country drained by the Mis- 
 sissippi reaches from Western New York and Pennsyl- 
 vania on the east, to the summits of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains on the west, and from the 49th parallel of north 
 latitude to the Gulf of Mexico. The rivers of the 
 Alleghany slope of the most importance, are, beginning 
 in Maine, the Penobscot, Kennebec, Connecticut, Hud- 
 son, Delaware, Susquehanna, Potomac, Chowan, Roan- 
 oke, Pamlico, or Tar River, Neuse, Cape Fear, Great 
 Pedee, Santee, Savannah, and Altamaha. These are 
 rivers of at least 300, and some 600, miles in length, 
 and are more or less navigable, some for vessels of the 
 largest class 100 miles or more, all of them flowing 
 directly into the Atlantic, or into bays opening into 
 that ocean. The southern slope, towards the Gulf 
 of Mexico, has also several large rivers, independent 
 of the Mississippi, as the Appalachicola and Mobile, 
 with their large tributaries on the east of the Missis- 
 sippi, and the Sabine, Trinity, Brazos, Colorado, 
 and Rio Grande del Norte, west of that river. These 
 streams vary in length, including their main affluents, 
 from 300 to 1,800 miles, and are navigable by steam- 
 boats from 100 to nearly 500 miles. The Rio Grande 
 forms the boundary between Texas and Mexico. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 688 
 
 The Pacific slope has but one great river flowing 
 through the Cascade Mountains into the ocean. This 
 is the Columbia, a river of 1,500 miles in length, and 
 with several important affluents from 300 to . 800 
 miles in length. There is but one other great open- 
 ing into the territoi'y of the United States from the 
 Pacific, viz., the channel, or strait, from one to two 
 miles in width, leading into the Bay of San Fran- 
 cisco, which receives the Sacramento and San Joaquin 
 Rivers, each about 300 miles in length. The Colorado 
 of the West, entering the Gulf of California, drains 
 the eastern and south-eastern portions of the great 
 basin between the Rocky and Sierra Nevada Moun- 
 tains. 
 
 Lakes. — The whole of the United States, north of 
 the 42d parallel of latitude, is dotted over with sheets 
 of water, from a few miles circuit, to those inland seas 
 which separate British America from the United 
 States. There are five of these, viz., Lakes On- 
 tario, Erie, Huron, Superior, and Michigan, the latter 
 only being wholly within the limits of the United States. 
 These vast lakes are navigated by steamers of the 
 highest tonnage, and by sailing vessels of large capa- 
 city, affording a continuous navigation of 1,100 miles, 
 and, by aid of the Welland Canal around the Falls of 
 Niagara, and that around the Saut St. Mary, (recently 
 completed,) furnish an inland ship navigation of 1,600 
 miles. These lakes cover areas of from 6,300 to 32,000 
 square miles each, or a total of 90,000 square miles. 
 
 The United States consist of thirty-four States, 
 composing the Federal Union, to which belong the 
 outlying territories, not yet formed into states, but 
 organized as seven territories, and the Distinct of Co- 
 lumbia. The limits of this Appendix will not admit of 
 a detailed account of eacli State, but statistics of the 
 more important subjects will be found succinctly given 
 in the following tables. 
 
 According to geographical situation, the States are 
 usually arranged as follows : — 
 
 NEW ENGLAND, 
 
 , OR EASTERN 
 
 STATES. 
 
 
 
 Area in 
 
 Total 
 
 Pop. to 
 
 No. of 
 
 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Sq. Mile. 
 
 Counties. 
 
 Maine, . . . 
 
 30,000 
 
 628,279 
 
 326,073 
 
 20.94 
 
 16 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 9,280 
 
 35,14 
 
 10 
 
 Vermont, . . 
 Massachusetts, . 
 
 9,056 
 
 315,098 
 
 34.79 
 
 14 
 
 7,800 
 
 1,306 
 
 1,231,066 
 
 157,83 
 
 14 
 
 Rhode Island, . 
 
 174,620 
 
 133.71 
 
 5 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 4,674 
 
 460,147 
 
 98.45 
 
 8 
 
 NORTHERN, 
 
 OR MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 
 New York, . . 
 
 46,000 
 
 3,880,735 
 
 84.36 
 
 60 
 
 New Jersey, . 
 
 8,320 
 
 672,035 
 
 80.77 
 
 21 
 
 Pennsylvania, . 
 
 46,000 
 
 2,906,115 
 
 63.18 
 
 65 
 
 Delaware, . . 
 
 2,120 
 
 112,216 
 
 52.93 
 
 3 
 
 
 SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 
 
 Maryland, . . 
 
 9,356 
 
 687,049 
 
 73.43 
 
 22 
 
 Virginia, . . 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 61,352 
 
 1,596,318 
 
 26.02 
 
 148 
 
 45,000 
 
 992,622 
 
 22.06 
 
 87 
 
 South Carolina, 
 
 24,500 
 
 703,708 
 
 28.72 
 
 30 
 
 Georgia, . . . 
 
 58,000 
 
 1,057,286 
 
 18.23 
 
 137 
 
 Florida, . . . 
 
 59,268 
 
 140,425 
 
 2.37 
 
 37 
 
 Alabama, . . 
 
 50,722 
 
 964,201 
 
 19.01 
 
 52 
 
 
 Area in 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Total 
 
 Population. 
 
 Pop. to 
 Sq. Mile. 
 
 No. of 
 Counties. 
 
 Mississippi, . 
 
 . 47,156 
 
 791,305 
 
 708,002 
 
 16.78 
 
 60 
 
 Louisiana, . 
 
 . 46,431 
 
 15.25 
 
 48 
 
 Texas, . . 
 
 . 237,321 
 
 604,215 
 
 2.55 
 
 151 
 
 
 WESTERN STATES. 
 
 
 
 Ohio, . . . 
 
 . 39,964 
 . 33,809 
 
 2,339,502 
 
 58.54 
 
 88 
 
 Indiana, . . 
 
 1,350,428 
 
 39.93 
 
 72 
 
 Illinois, . 
 
 . 55,405 
 
 1,711,951 
 
 30.90 
 
 103 
 
 Michigan, . 
 
 . 56,243 
 
 749,113 
 
 13.32 
 
 62 
 
 Wisconsin, . 
 
 . 53,924 
 
 775,881 
 
 14.39 
 
 58 
 
 Iowa, . . 
 
 . 55,045 
 
 674,948 
 
 12.26 
 
 99 
 
 Minnesota, . 
 
 . 83,531 
 
 173,855 
 
 2.08 
 
 64 
 
 Kansas, . . 
 
 . uncertain 
 
 107,206 
 
 • • • 
 
 41 
 
 Kentucky, . 
 
 . 37,680 
 
 1,155,684 
 
 30.67 
 
 109 
 
 Tennessee, . 
 
 . 45,600 
 
 1,109,801 
 
 24.34 
 
 84 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 . 67,380 
 
 1,182,012 
 
 17.54 
 
 113 
 
 Arkansas, . 
 
 . 52,198 
 
 435,450 
 
 8.34 
 
 54 
 
 
 PACIFIC 
 
 STATES. 
 
 
 
 California, . 
 
 . 188,982 
 
 379,994 
 
 2.01 
 
 44 
 
 Oregon, . . 
 
 . 95,274 
 
 52,465 
 
 .55 
 
 19 
 
 Principal cities and towns, and population. Capital 
 cities in Italics. 
 
 MAINE. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Avgusta , on the Kennebec River, .... 7,609 
 
 Portland, (chief seaport,) on Casco Bay, . . 26,341 
 
 Bangor, on the Penobscot River, 16,407 
 
 Bath, on the Kennebec, 8,076 
 
 Eastport, on Passamaquoddy Bay, .... 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 Concord , on the Merrimack, 12,000 
 
 Manchester, manufacturing town, on the Mer- 
 rimack, 20,109 
 
 Portsmouth, only seaport, on the Piscataqua, . 9,335 
 
 Dover, manufacturing town, on the Cocheco, . 8,502 
 
 Nashua, “ “ on Merrimack, . 10,065 
 
 VERMONT. 
 
 Montpelier , 2,411 
 
 Burlington, on Lake Champlain, 7,714 
 
 Brattleboro’, on the Connecticut, 3,855 
 
 Windsor, “ “ 1,669 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 Boston , on Massachusetts Bay, .... 177,818 
 
 Cambridge, a near Boston, 26,060 
 
 Charlestown,® “ “ 25,063 
 
 Chelsea,® “ “ 13,395 
 
 Roxbury,® “ “ 25,137 
 
 Lowell, manufacturing, on the Merrimack, . 36,827 
 Lawrence, “ “ “ . 17,639 
 
 Lynn, shoe manufacturing, near Salem, . . 19,083 
 
 Newburyport, commercial and manufacturing, 
 
 near the mouth of the Merrimack, . . . 13,401 
 
 Salem, commercial, on Massachusetts Bay, . . 22,252 
 
 Worcester, in the central part, 24,960 
 
 Springfield, on the Connecticut, 15,199 
 
 a These four cities (Cambridge, Charlestown, Chelsea, and Rox- 
 bury) might properly be considered a part of Boston, with which 
 they are joined (except Chelsea) as closely as if they were but one 
 continuous city. The combined population would be 267,467. 
 
 J 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Population. 
 
 New Bedford, commercial, 22,300 
 
 Fall River, “ and manufacturing, 14,026 
 
 Taunton, manufacturing, 15,376 
 
 Fitchburg, “ 7,805 
 
 Dorchester, near Boston, 9,761 
 
 Gloucester, 10,904 
 
 Providence , 
 Newport , 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 Bristol, 
 
 50,666 
 
 10,508 
 
 5,271 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 Hartford , . . 
 
 29,154 
 
 Norwich, 
 
 . 14,048 
 
 New Haven , . 
 
 39,267 
 
 New London, 
 
 . 10,115 
 
 Bridgeport, . . 
 
 13,299 
 
 Middletown, 
 
 . 5,182 
 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 V 
 
 Albany , . . . 
 
 62,367 
 
 Oswego, . . 
 
 . 16,816 
 
 New York, . 
 
 305,651 
 
 Poughkeepsie, 
 
 . 14,726 
 
 Brooklyn, . 266,661 
 
 Rochester, . 
 
 . 48,204 
 
 Buffalo, . . . 
 
 81,129 
 
 Rome, . . 
 
 . 6,246 
 
 Elmira, . . . 
 
 8,682 
 
 Schenectady, 
 
 . 9,579 
 
 Kingston, . . 
 
 16,640 
 
 Syracuse, . 
 
 . 28,119 
 
 Lockport, . . 
 
 13,523 
 
 Troy, . . . 
 
 . 39,232 
 
 Newburg, . 
 
 15,196 
 
 Utica, . . 
 
 . 22,529 
 
 Ogdensburg, 
 
 7,409 
 
 
 
 
 NEW 
 
 JERSEY. 
 
 
 Trenton , . . . 
 
 17,228 
 
 Newark, . . 
 
 . 71,914 
 
 Camden, . . . 
 
 14,358 
 
 New Brunswick, 11,256 
 
 Jersey City, 
 
 29,226 
 
 Patterson, . 
 
 . 19,588 
 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 
 Harrisburg , 
 
 13,405 
 
 Lancaster, . 
 
 . 17,603 
 
 Alleghany, . . 
 
 28,702 
 
 Philadelphia, 
 
 562,529 
 
 Carbondale, . . 
 
 5,575 
 
 Pittsburg, . 
 
 . 49,217 
 
 Chambersburg, 
 
 5,255 
 
 Pottsville, . 
 
 . 9,444 
 
 Easton, . . . 
 
 8,944 
 
 Reading, . . 
 
 . 23,161 
 
 
 DELAWARE. 
 
 
 Dover, . . . 
 
 1,289 
 
 Wilmington, 
 
 . 13,979 
 
 Milford, . . . 
 
 1,179 
 
 
 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 
 Annapolis, . . 
 
 4,529 
 
 Hagerstown* 
 
 . 3,879 
 
 Baltimore, . 212,418 
 
 Havre de Grace 
 
 !,* 1,335 
 
 Frederick City, 
 
 8,143 
 
 Williamsport,* 
 
 . 1,091 
 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 
 Richmond, . . 
 
 37,910 
 
 Norfolk, . . 
 
 . 15,611 
 
 Alexandria, . . 
 
 12,652 
 
 Petersburg, . 
 
 . 18,266 
 
 Fredericksburg, 
 
 5,022 
 
 Portsmouth, 
 
 . 9,502 
 
 Harper’s Ferry, 
 
 1,339 
 
 Wheeling, . 
 
 . 14,083 
 
 Lynchburg, . . 
 
 6,853 
 
 Winchester, 
 
 . 4,392 
 
 Leesburg,* . . 
 
 1,691 
 
 
 
 
 NORTH 
 
 CAROLINA. 
 
 
 Raleigh, . 
 
 4,780 
 
 Newbern, . 
 
 . 5,432 
 
 Beaufort, . . 
 
 1,610 
 
 Wilmington, 
 
 . 9,552 
 
 Fayetteville, 
 
 4,790 
 
 Washington,* 
 
 . 2,015 
 
 Goldsborough, . 
 
 885 
 
 
 
 
 SOUTH 
 
 CAROLINA. 
 
 
 Columbia, . . 
 
 8,059 
 
 Charleston, . 
 
 . 40,578 
 
 Beaufort,* . . 
 
 
 Camden,. . 
 
 . 1,621 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 63 
 
 87 
 
 * Not returned. The popi 
 
 Milledgeville , 
 Atlanta, . . 
 
 Augusta, 
 Athens, . . 
 
 Tallahassee , 
 Key West, . 
 
 Montgomery , 
 Huntsville, . 
 Mobile, . . 
 
 Jackson , . 
 Aberdeen,* . 
 Bolivar,* . . 
 
 Columbus, . 
 
 Baton Rouge , 
 New Orleans, 
 Carrollton,* 
 
 Austin , . . 
 
 Brownsville, 
 Galveston, . 
 
 Columbus , 
 
 Cincinnati, 
 
 Cleveland, 
 
 Dayton, . 
 
 Hamilton, 
 
 Newark, . 
 
 Piqua, 
 
 Indianapolis, . 
 Cannelton, . . 
 
 Evansville, . . 
 
 La Fayette, . . 
 
 Lawrenceburg, . 
 
 Springfield , . . 
 
 Chicago, . . 
 
 Alton, . . . 
 
 Bloomington, . 
 Galena, . . . 
 
 Lansing , . . 
 
 Adrian, . . . 
 
 Ann Arbor, . . 
 
 Detroit, . . . 
 
 Madison , 
 Beloit, . . 
 
 Fond du Lac, 
 Milwaukie, . 
 
 The population given is that of 1850. 
 
 
 
 689 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 2,480 
 
 Columbus, . 
 
 . 9,621 
 
 9,554 
 
 Macon, . . 
 
 . 8,247 
 
 12,493 
 
 Rome, . . 
 
 . 4,010 
 
 3,848 
 
 Savannah, . 
 
 . 22,292 
 
 FLORIDA. 
 
 
 1,932 
 
 Pensacola, . 
 
 . 2,876 
 
 2,832 
 
 St. Augustine, 
 
 . 1,914 
 
 ALABAMA. 
 
 
 35,902 
 
 Tuscaloosa, . 
 
 . 3,989 
 
 3,634 
 
 Wetumpka,* 
 
 • 
 
 29,258 
 
 
 
 MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 
 3,199 
 
 Holly Springs, 
 
 . 2,987 
 
 
 Natchez, . . 
 
 . 6,612 
 
 
 Vicksburg, . 
 
 . 4,591 
 
 3,308 
 
 
 
 LOUISIANA. 
 
 
 5,428 
 
 Natchitoches,* 
 
 . 1,261 
 
 168,675 
 
 Opelousas,* . 
 
 • 
 
 1,470 
 
 Shreveport, . 
 
 . 1,728 
 
 TEXAS. 
 
 
 3,494 
 
 Houston, 
 
 . 4,845 
 
 2,734 
 
 Matagorda,*. 
 
 • 
 
 7,307 
 
 San Antonio, 
 
 . 8,235 
 
 OHIO. 
 
 
 
 18,554 
 
 Portsmouth, 
 
 . 6,268 
 
 161,044 
 
 Sandusky, . 
 
 . 8,408 
 
 43,417 
 
 Steubenville, 
 
 . 6,154 
 
 20,081 
 
 Springfield, . 
 
 . 7,002 
 
 7,223 
 
 Toledo, . . 
 
 . 13,768 
 
 4,675 
 
 Zanesville, . 
 
 . 9,229 
 
 4,616 
 
 Xenia, . . 
 
 . 4,658 
 
 INDIANA. 
 
 
 18,611 
 
 Madison, 
 
 . 8,130 
 
 2,155 
 
 New Albany, 
 
 . 12,647 
 
 11,484 
 
 Richmond, . 
 
 . 6,603 
 
 9.387 
 
 Terre Haute, 
 
 . 8,594 
 
 3,599 
 
 
 
 ILLINOIS. 
 
 
 9,320 
 
 Joliet, . . 
 
 . 7,104 
 
 109,260 
 
 Peoria, . . 
 
 . 14,045 
 
 7,338 
 
 Quincy, . 
 
 . 13,632 
 
 7,075 
 
 Rockford, . 
 
 . 6,979 
 
 8,193 
 
 Rock Island, 
 
 . 5,130 
 
 MICHIGAN. 
 
 
 3,074 
 
 Grand Rapids, 
 
 . 8,085 
 
 6,213 
 
 Kalamazoo, . 
 
 . 6,070 
 
 4,483 
 
 Pontiac, . . 
 
 . 2,575 
 
 45,619 
 
 Ypsilanti, . 
 
 . 3,955 
 
 WISCONSIN. 
 
 
 6,611 
 
 Mineral Point, 
 
 . 2,389 
 
 4,098 
 
 Racine, . 
 
 . 7,822 
 
 5,450 
 
 Sheboygan, . 
 
 . 4,262 
 
 45,246 
 
 Watertown,. 
 
 . 5,302 
 
690 APPENDIX. 
 
 
 IOWA 
 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 
 Population 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 Memphis, . . 
 
 22,623 
 
 Shelbyville, 
 
 . 1,615 
 
 Iowa City , . 
 
 5,214 
 
 Davenport, . 
 
 . 11,267 
 
 Murfreesboro’, . 
 
 2,861 
 
 Burlington, . . 
 
 6,706 
 
 Fort Madison, 
 
 . 1,886 
 
 
 MISSOURI. 
 
 
 Des Moines, 
 Dubuque, . . 
 
 3,965 
 
 13,000 
 
 Keokuk, . . 
 
 Muscatine, . 
 
 . 29,226 
 . 5,324 
 
 Jefferson City, . 
 Booneville, . . 
 
 3,082 
 
 2,596 
 
 Lexington, . 
 St. Louis, . 
 
 . 4,122 
 160,773 
 
 
 MINNESOTA. 
 
 
 Hannibal, . . 
 
 6,505 
 
 Weston, . . 
 
 . 1,816 
 
 St. Paul,. . . 
 
 10,401 
 
 Stillwater, . 
 
 . .2,380 
 
 Independence, . 
 
 3,164 
 
 
 
 Fort Snelling,* . 
 
 
 
 
 
 ARKANSAS. 
 
 
 
 KANSAS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lawrence, . 
 
 1,645 
 
 Leavenworth, 
 
 . 7,429 
 
 Little Rock, 
 
 3,727 
 
 Fort Smith, . 
 
 . 1,530 
 
 Lecompton, . 
 
 917 
 
 
 Batesville, . . 
 
 Helena,* . . . 
 
 670 
 
 Van Buren,. 
 
 969 
 
 
 KENTUCKY. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Frankfort , . . 
 
 3,702 
 
 Lexington, . 
 
 . 9,321 
 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 
 Bowling Green,* 
 
 
 Louisville, . 
 
 . 68,033 
 
 Sacramento City, 
 
 13,785 
 
 San Francisco, 
 
 . 56,802 
 
 Covington, . . 
 
 16,471 
 
 Maysville, . 
 
 . 4,106 
 
 Benicia, . . . 
 
 1,470 
 
 Sonora,* . . 
 
 
 Danville, . . 
 
 4,962 
 
 Newport, 
 
 . 10,046 
 
 Marysville, . . 
 
 4,740 
 
 Stockton,* . 
 
 
 Hickman, . . 
 
 1,006 
 
 Paducah, 
 
 . 4,590 
 
 Placerville, . . 
 
 1,754 
 
 
 
 
 TENNESSEE. 
 
 
 
 OREGON. 
 
 
 Nashville, . . 
 
 16,988 
 
 Clarksville,* 
 
 
 Oregon City, . 
 
 889 
 
 Salem,* . . 
 
 
 Chattanooga,* . 
 
 Knoxville, . 
 
 . 2,076 
 
 Portland,* . . 
 
 
 
 
 Population of the States and Territories , 8fc. — 1860. 
 
 STATES. 
 
 Census of 1860. 
 
 Census of 
 1850. 
 
 Ratio of In- 
 crease from 
 1850 to 1860. 
 
 Representative 
 
 Population. 
 
 Representation under the Ap- 
 portionment. 
 
 Representation 
 as increased by 
 the Law of 
 March 4, 1862, in 
 38th Congresa. 
 
 White. 
 
 Free Colored. 
 
 Slave. 
 
 Total. 
 
 In the 39th 
 Congress. 
 
 Loss. 
 
 Gain. 
 
 
 526,431 
 
 2,690 
 
 435,080 
 
 964,201 
 
 771,623 
 
 24.96 
 
 790,169 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 324,191 
 
 144 
 
 111,115 
 
 435,450 
 
 209,897 
 
 107.46 
 
 391,004 
 
 3 
 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 14,555f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 California, . . . 
 
 361,353 
 
 4,086 
 
 
 365,439 
 
 92,597 
 
 310.37 
 
 365,439 
 
 3 
 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 Connecticut, . . . 
 
 451,520 
 
 8,627 
 
 
 460,147 
 
 370,792 
 
 24.10 
 
 460,147 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 90,589 
 
 19,829 
 
 1,798 
 
 112,216 
 
 91,532 
 
 22.60 
 
 111,496 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Florida, .... 
 
 77,748 
 
 932 
 
 61,745 
 
 140,425 
 
 87,445 
 
 60.59 
 
 115,727 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 591,588 
 
 3,500 
 
 462,198 
 
 1,057,286 
 
 906,185 
 
 16.67 
 
 872,406 
 
 7 
 
 i 
 
 
 7 
 
 Illinois, .... 
 
 1,704,323 
 
 7,628 
 
 
 1,711,951 
 
 851,470 
 
 191.06 
 
 1,711,951 
 
 13 
 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 
 1,339,000 
 
 11,428 
 
 
 1,350,428 
 
 988,416 
 
 36.63 
 
 1,350,428 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 673,844 
 
 1,069 
 
 
 674,913 
 
 192,214 
 
 251.14 
 
 674,913 
 
 5 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Kansas, .... 
 
 106,579 
 
 625 
 
 2 
 
 107.206 
 
 
 
 107,206 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Kentucky, .... 
 
 919,517 
 
 10,684 
 
 225,483 
 
 1,155,684 
 
 982,405 
 
 17.64 
 
 1,065,490 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 
 9 
 
 Louisiana, . . . 
 
 357,629 
 
 18,647 
 
 331,726 
 
 708,002 
 
 517,762 
 
 36.74 
 
 575,311 
 
 5 
 
 ... 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 626,952 
 
 1,327 
 
 
 628,279 
 
 583,169 
 
 7.74 
 
 628,279 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 Maryland, .... 
 
 515,918 
 
 83,942 
 
 87,189 
 
 687,049 
 
 583,034 
 
 17.84 
 
 652,173 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 
 5 
 
 Massachusetts, . . 
 
 1,221,464 
 
 9,602 
 
 • . • 
 
 1,231,066 
 
 994,514 
 
 23.79 
 
 1,231,066 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 
 10 
 
 Michisan 
 
 742,314 
 
 6,799 
 
 . . . 
 
 749,113 
 
 397,654 
 
 88.38 
 
 749,113 
 
 6 
 
 . . 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 Minnesota, . . . 
 
 171,864 
 
 259 
 
 
 172,123 
 
 6,077 
 
 2,760.87 
 
 172,123 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 Mississippi, . . . 
 
 353,901 
 
 773 
 
 436,631 
 
 791,305 
 
 606,526 
 
 30.47 
 
 616,652 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 Missouri, .... 
 
 1,063,509 
 
 3,572 
 
 114,931 
 
 1,182,012 
 
 682,044 
 
 73.30 
 
 1,136,039 
 
 9 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 New Hampshire, . 
 
 325,579 
 
 494 
 
 
 326,073 
 
 317,976 
 
 2.55 
 
 326,073 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 New Jersey, . . . 
 
 646,699 
 
 25,318 
 
 is 
 
 672,035 
 
 489,555 
 
 37.27 
 
 672,027 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 New York, . . . 
 
 3,831,730 
 
 49,005 
 
 . 
 
 3,880,735 
 
 3,097,394 
 
 25.29 
 
 3,880,735 
 
 31 
 
 2 
 
 
 31 
 
 North Carolina, . . 
 
 631,100 
 
 30,463 
 
 331,059 
 
 992,622 
 
 869,039 
 
 14.20 
 
 860,198 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 2,302,838 
 
 36,673 
 
 . . . 
 
 2,339,511 
 
 1,980,329 
 
 18.14 
 
 2,339,511 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 
 19 
 
 
 52,337 
 
 128 
 
 
 52,465 
 
 13,294 
 
 294.65 
 
 52,465 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Pennsylvania, . . 
 
 2,849,266 
 
 56,849 
 
 
 2,906,115 
 
 2,311,786 
 
 25.71 
 
 2,906,115 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 
 24 
 
 Rhode Island, . . 
 
 170,668 
 
 3,952 
 
 
 174,620 
 
 147,545 
 
 18.35 
 
 174,620 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 South Carolina, . . 
 
 291,388 
 
 9,914 
 
 402,406 
 
 703,708 
 
 668,507 
 
 5.27 
 
 542,745 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 Tennessee, . . . 
 
 826,782 
 
 7,300 
 
 275,719 
 
 1,109,801 
 
 1,002,717 
 
 10.68 
 
 999,513 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 421,294 
 
 355 
 
 182,566 
 
 604,215 
 
 212,592 
 
 184.22 
 
 531,188 
 
 4 
 
 . . 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 Vermont, .... 
 
 314,389 
 
 709 
 
 
 315,098 
 
 314,120 
 
 0.31 
 
 315,098 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 Virginia, .... 
 
 1,047,411 
 
 58,042 
 
 490,865 
 
 1,596,318 
 
 1,421,661 
 
 12.29 
 
 1,399,972 
 
 ii 
 
 2 
 
 
 11 
 
 Wisconsin, . . . 
 
 774,710 
 
 1,171 
 
 
 775,881 
 
 305,391 
 
 154.06 
 
 775,881 
 
 6 
 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 26,706,425 
 
 476,536 
 
 3,950,531 
 
 31,148,047 
 
 23,067,262 
 
 35.04 
 
 29,553,273 
 
 233 
 
 
 
 241 
 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Colorado, .... 
 
 34,231 
 
 46 
 
 . . . 
 
 34,277 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,261f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dacotah 
 
 2,576 
 
 
 
 2,576 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nebraska, .... 
 
 28,759 
 
 67 
 
 15 
 
 28,841 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nevada, .... 
 
 6,812 
 
 45 
 
 
 6,857 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10,507t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 New Mexico, . . 
 
 82,924 
 
 85 
 
 
 83,009 
 
 61,547 
 
 51.94 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Utah 
 
 40,214 
 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 40,273 
 
 11,380 
 
 253.89 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 426f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Washington, . . . 
 
 11,138 
 
 30 
 
 
 11,168 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 District of Columbia, 
 
 60,764 
 
 11,131 
 
 3,185 
 
 75,080 
 
 51,687 
 
 45.26 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 26,973,843 
 
 487,970 
 
 3,953,760 
 
 31,443,322 
 
 23,191,876 
 
 35.59 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Not returned. The population given is that of 1S50. t Indians. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 691 
 
 MINERAL PRODUCTS IN THE UNITED STATES IN I860. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Iron ore mined, . . 2,514,282 tons, a $19,487,790 
 
 Copper, 14,432 “ 3,316,516 
 
 Lead, 977,281 
 
 Zinc, 11,800 tons, 72,600 
 
 Nickel, 28,176 
 
 Coal, Anthracite, . . 9,398,332 tons. 
 
 “ Bituminous, . 5,775,077 “ 
 
 Aggregate, 15,173,409 “ 
 
 Aggregate value, 19,365,765 
 
 Gold, the production of the United 
 States, deposited at the U. S. Mint 
 and its branches, during the year 
 ending June, 1861, .... $34,216,889 52 
 
 Of this, $31,800,000 was from 
 California, and $2,000,000 from 
 Kansas or Nevada. 
 
 Silver, the production of the United 
 States, deposited at the mint and 
 its branches during the same pe- 
 riod, $610,011 20 
 
 These statistics do not show the real product of the 
 precious metals produced in the United States, nor 
 does the foregoing statement relative to other metals 
 appear to be complete, though taken from the prelim- 
 inary report on the eighth census. 
 
 Statistics of Coal produced in the United States dur- 
 ing the year ending June 1, 1860. 
 
 
 Bituminous. 
 
 Anthracite. 
 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Rhode Island, . . . 
 Pennsylvania, . . . 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 Alabama, 
 
 Tennessee, .... 
 Washington Territory, 
 
 95.000 
 66,994,295 
 14,200,000 
 28,339,900 
 
 379,035 
 
 14,258,120 
 
 72,500 
 
 97.000 
 6,732,000 
 9,542,627 
 
 48.000 
 
 10.000 
 3,474,100 
 
 134,350 
 
 $28,500 
 
 2,833,859 
 
 464,338 
 
 1,539,713 
 
 27,000 
 
 964.187 
 6,500 
 8,200 
 
 476,800 
 
 690.188 
 4,800 
 1,200 
 
 413,662 
 
 32,244 
 
 1,000 
 
 9,397,332 
 
 $5,000 
 
 11,869,574 
 
 
 144,376,927 
 
 7,491,191 
 
 9,398,332 
 
 11,874,574 
 
 Anthracite — tons, 9,398,332 $11,874,574 
 
 Bituminous — tons, 5,775,077 7,491,191 
 
 Aggregate tons, 15,173,409 $19,365,765 
 
 Value of coal mined in 1850, 7,173,750 
 
 Increase, (169.9 per cent.,) 12,192,015 
 
 a Of the whole quantity of iron, Pennsylvania produced 62.5 per 
 cent. Pennsylvania also produced the whole of the nickel and zinc 
 given above. That state also produced 75.9 per cent of all the coal, 
 in value. 
 
 LEADING AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS FOR THE 
 YEAR ENDING JUNE, 1860. 
 
 Indian Corn, .... 
 
 . 830,451,707 bushels. 
 
 Wheat, 
 
 . 171,183,381 
 
 66 
 
 Oats, 
 
 . 172,554,688 
 
 66 
 
 Bye, 
 
 . 20,976,286 
 
 66 
 
 Buckwheat, 
 
 . 17,664,914 
 
 a 
 
 Barley, 
 
 . 15,635,119 
 
 a 
 
 Rice, 
 
 . 187,140,173 
 
 u 
 
 Peas and Beans, . . . 
 
 . 15,188,013 
 
 (( 
 
 Potatoes, (Irish,) . . . 
 
 . 110,571,201 
 
 u 
 
 “ (Sweet,). . . 
 
 . 41,606,302 
 
 a 
 
 Tobacco, 
 
 . 429,390,771 
 
 pounds. 
 
 Hops, 
 
 . 11,010,012 
 
 66 
 
 Wool, . 
 
 . 60,511,343 
 
 66 
 
 Flax, 
 
 . 3,783,000 
 
 66 
 
 Hemp, 
 
 Hay, 
 
 Butter, 
 
 Cheese, 
 
 Orchard products, (value,) 
 Market garden “ “ 
 
 Cotton, (ginned,) . . . . 
 
 Sugar, (cane,) 
 
 “ (maple,) . . . . 
 Molasses, (all kinds,) . . . 
 
 17,300 tons. 
 
 19,129,128 “ 
 
 460,509,854 pounds. 
 105,875,135 “ 
 
 19,759,361 dollars. 
 
 15,300,885 « 
 
 5,198,077 bales, of 400 lbs. ea. 
 302,205 hhds., 1,000 lbs. “ 
 38,863,884 pounds. 
 
 25,516,699 gallons 
 
 Lands improved, 163,261,389 acres. 
 
 Cash value of farms, 6,650,872,507 dollars. 
 
 Value of farming implements and) 247 027 496 “ 
 
 machinery, ) ’ ’ 
 
 Value of live stock, 1,107,490,216 “ 
 
 Value of animals slaughtered, . . 212,032,055 “ 
 
 Of the agricultural productions above named, it will be seen 
 by the following table (page 692) that the state of Illinois is 
 by far the greatest producer of Indian corn and wheat, the 
 quantity produced in 1860 being upwards of 115,000,000 
 bushels of Indian corn, and 24,000,000 bushels of wheat. 
 Wisconsin, Indiana, and Ohio are the next largest producers 
 of wheat, and Missouri, Ohio, and Indiana the next largest 
 producers of Indian corn. 
 
 South Carolina and Florida produce the greater part of 
 the rice, the former producing more than 119,000,000 bushels, 
 and the latter upwards of 52,000,000 pounds. Virginia and 
 Kentucky are much the largest producers of tobacco. The 
 largest cotton-growing states are Mississippi, producing 
 nearly 1,200,000 bales, (of 400 lbs. each ;) Alabama, produc- 
 ing nearly 1,000,000 bales ; Louisiana, producing more than 
 722,000 bales, and Georgia producing about 702,000 bales. 
 Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania are the largest wool- 
 growing states, but other states at the west are likely soon 
 to surpass them. California is very rapidly developing as a 
 wool-growing state, as well as a large producer of other agri- 
 cultural T>r©diK x “ 
 
692 APPENDIX. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 693 
 
 SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 Virginia $2,537,130 
 
 North Carolina, . . . 1,073,968 
 
 South Carolina, . .. . 1,077,712 
 
 Georgia, 2,064,026 
 
 Florida 1,475,240 
 
 Alabama, 2,017,641 
 
 Louisiana 1,018,554 
 
 Texas, 1,612,829 
 
 Mississippi, 2,055,396 
 
 Arkansas, 1,033,185 
 
 Tennessee, 1,975,481 
 
 Total, $17,941,162 
 
 LEADING MANUFACTURES, AND THE VALUE OF PROD- 
 UCT OF EACH, FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 1, 1860. 
 
 Value, in Round Numbers. 
 
 Flour and meal, $224,000,000 
 
 Cotton goods, 115,000,000 
 
 Lumber, 96,000,000 
 
 Boots and shoes, 90,000,000 
 
 Leather, including morocco and patent 
 
 leather, 72,000,000 
 
 Clothing, 70,000,000 
 
 Woolen goods, 69,000,000 
 
 Machinery, steam engines, &c. . . . 47,000,000 
 
 Printing — book, job, and newspaper, . 42,000,000 
 
 Sugar refining, 38,500,000 
 
 Iron founding, 28,500,000 
 
 Spirituous liquors, 25,000,000 
 
 Cabinet furniture, 24,000,000 
 
 Bar and other rolled iron, 22,000,000 
 
 Pig iron, 19,500,000 
 
 Malt liquors, 18,000,000 
 
 Agricultural implements, 17,800,000 
 
 Paper, 17,500,000 
 
 Soap and candles, 17,000,000 
 
 Value of Sawed and Planed Lumber produced during' 
 the year ending June 1, 1860. 
 
 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 Maine, .... 
 New Hampshire, . 
 Vermont, . . . 
 
 . . 1,226,784 
 
 Massachusetts, . . . 
 Rhode Island, . . . 
 Connecticut, . . . . 
 
 . 2,288,419 
 . 172,174 
 
 . 531,651 
 
 Total, . . 
 
 MIDDLE 
 
 STATES. 
 
 $12,069,895 
 
 New York, . . . 
 Pennsylvania, . . 
 New Jersey, . . . 
 
 . . 11,311,149 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 Maryland, . . . . 
 District of Columbia, 
 
 70,825 
 
 Total, . . 
 
 
 
 $26,455,005 
 
 
 WESTERN STATES. 
 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Indiana, . . . 
 
 Michigan, . . . 
 Illinois, .... 
 Wisconsin, . . . 
 Minnesota, . . . 
 Total, . . 
 
 . . $5,600,045 
 . . 3,169,843 
 
 . . 816,808 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 Kentucky, . . . . 
 Kansas, .'.... 
 Nebraska, 
 
 945,088 
 
 $33,274,793 
 
 
 PACIFIC 
 
 STATES. 
 
 
 New Mexico, . , 
 
 Utah, 
 
 California, . . . 
 Total, . . 
 
 . . $65,150 
 
 . . 4,214,596 
 
 Oregon, 
 
 Washington, . . . 
 
 . 1,172,520 
 $6,171,431 
 
 Aggregate in theUnited States, 
 
 
 $95,912,286 
 
 Value of Flour and Meal produced during 
 ending June 1, 1860. 
 
 the Year 
 
 
 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 
 Maine, .... 
 New Hampshire, . 
 Vermont, . . . 
 
 . . 1,486,981 
 
 Massachusetts, . . . 
 Rhode Island, . . . 
 Connecticut, .... 
 
 . 4,196,710 
 515,699 
 . 1,719,294 
 
 Total, . . 
 
 MIDDLE 
 
 STATES. 
 
 $11,155,445 
 
 New York, . . . 
 Pennsylvania, . . 
 New Jersey, . . 
 
 . $35,064,906 
 
 . . 26,572,261 
 . . 6,399,610 
 
 Delaware, . . . . 
 
 Maryland, .... 
 District of Columbia, . 
 
 . 8,020,122 
 . 1,184,593 
 
 Total, . . 
 
 
 
 $79,086,411 
 
 
 WESTERN STATES. 
 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 Indiana, .... 
 Michigan, . . . 
 Illinois, .... 
 Wisconsin, . . . 
 
 Minnesota, . . . 
 Total, . . 
 
 . $27,129,405 
 
 . . 8,161,183 
 
 . . 1,310,000 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Kansas, ..... 
 Nebraska, . . . . 
 
 $96,038,794 
 
 
 SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 
 Virginia, .... 
 North Carolina, . 
 South Carolina, . 
 Georgia,. . , . 
 Florida, .... 
 Alabama, . . . 
 
 Total, . . 
 
 . .$15,212,060 
 
 . . 3,185,251 
 
 . . 876,250 
 
 . . 3,323,730 
 
 . . 355,066 
 
 . . 807,502 
 
 Louisiana, .... 
 
 Texas, 
 
 Mississippi, .... 
 Arkansas, .... 
 Tennessee, .... 
 
 11,694 
 . 2,179,610 
 541,994 
 . 453,999 
 
 . 3,820,301 
 
 $30,767,457 
 
 
 PACIFIC 
 
 STATES. 
 
 
 New Mexico, . . 
 
 Utah, 
 
 California, . . . 
 Total, . . 
 
 . . 4,335,809 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Washington, . . . 
 
 73,800 
 
 $6,096,262 
 
 Aggregate in the United States, 
 
 
 $223,144,369 
 
694 APPENDIX. 
 
 Cotton Goods produced during the Year ending June 1, 1860. 
 
 STATES 
 
 No. of Estab- 
 lishments. 
 
 Capital 
 
 Invested, 
 
 Pounds of 
 Cotton. 
 
 Value of Raw 
 Material. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Average Number of Hands 
 Employed. 
 
 Annual Cost 
 of Labor. 
 
 Product in 
 1860. 
 
 Spindles. 
 
 Looms. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female, 
 
 Maine, 
 
 19 
 
 $6,108,325 
 
 23,438,723 
 
 $3,000,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 1,908 
 
 4,342 
 
 $1,244,928 
 
 $6,636,623 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 44 
 
 13,878,000 
 
 39,212,644 
 
 9,758,921 
 
 669,885 
 
 17,015 
 
 6,300 
 
 13,859 
 
 4,574,520 
 
 16,661,531 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 10 
 
 321,000 
 
 1,057,250 
 
 133,000 
 
 19,712 
 
 424 
 
 142 
 
 225 
 
 78,468 
 
 357,400 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 200 
 
 33,300,000 
 
 126,666,089 
 
 14,778,344 
 
 1,739,700 
 
 44,978 
 
 12,635 
 
 22,353 
 
 7,221,156 
 
 36,745,864 
 
 Rhode Island, 
 
 135 
 
 11,500,000 
 
 38,521,608 
 
 5,281,000 
 
 706,000 
 
 26,000 
 
 5,474 
 
 6,615 
 
 2,417,640 
 
 12,258,657 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 64 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 15,799,140 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 464,000 
 
 8,787 
 
 3,314 
 
 4^275 
 
 1,453,128 
 
 7,641,460 
 
 Total in New England States, 
 
 472 
 
 71,107,325 
 
 244,695,454 
 
 36,951,265 
 
 3,959,297 
 
 103,204 
 
 29,773 
 
 51,669 
 
 16,989,840 
 
 80,301,535 
 
 NewYork 
 
 70 
 
 5,427,079 
 
 25,910,876 
 
 2,988,270 
 
 328,816 
 
 7,511 
 
 3,043 
 
 4,288 
 
 1,271,592 
 
 7,471,961 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 151 
 
 8,253,640 
 
 32,855,669 
 
 6,732,275 
 
 358,578 
 
 10,678 
 
 5,350 
 
 7,370 
 
 2,265,912 
 
 11,759,000 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 29 
 
 1,845,000 
 
 2,257,885 
 
 1,693,663 
 
 96,112 
 
 1,181 
 
 853 
 
 1,371 
 
 435,684 
 
 3,250,770 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 11 
 
 572, 0U0 
 
 2,717,000 
 
 521,492 
 
 25,704 
 
 494 
 
 486 
 
 521 
 
 202,884 
 
 919,103 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 19 
 
 2,214,500 
 
 12,020,119 
 
 1,641,913 
 
 49,891 
 
 1,520 
 
 947 
 
 1,568 
 
 464,112 
 
 2,796,877 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 1 
 
 45,000 
 
 294,117 
 
 47,403 
 
 2,560 
 
 82 
 
 70 
 
 25 
 
 19,800 
 
 74,400 
 
 Total in Middle States, .... 
 
 281 
 
 18,357,219 
 
 76,055,666 
 
 13,625,016 
 
 861,661 
 
 21,466 
 
 10,749 
 
 15,143 
 
 4,659,984 
 
 26,272,111 
 
 Virginia, . 
 
 13 
 
 1,325,243 
 
 7,302,797 
 
 770,977 
 
 28,700 
 
 524 
 
 741 
 
 952 
 
 262,440 
 
 1,063,611 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 36 
 
 1,049,750 
 
 5,152,750 
 
 564,612 
 
 30,144 
 
 479 
 
 416 
 
 1,210 
 
 168,840 
 
 930,567 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 17 
 
 827,825 
 
 3,845,811 
 
 419,500 
 
 16,461 
 
 931 
 
 372 
 
 584 
 
 132,180 
 
 588,950 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 32 
 
 1,854,603 
 
 12,977,904 
 
 1,689,075 
 
 44,312 
 
 1,058 
 
 1,376 
 
 1,909 
 
 482,520 
 
 2,215,636 
 
 Florida, 
 
 1 
 
 30,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 22,000 
 
 
 ..... 
 
 40 
 
 25 
 
 7,872 
 
 40,000 
 
 Alabama, 
 
 11 
 
 1,306,500 
 
 4,389,641 
 
 623,963 
 
 28,540 
 
 663 
 
 567 
 
 765 
 
 206,124 
 
 917,105 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 2 
 
 1,075,000 
 
 1,995,700 
 
 283,900 
 
 4,225 
 
 150 
 
 70 
 
 70 
 
 24,000 
 
 509,700 
 
 Texas, 
 
 1 
 
 500,000 
 
 588,000 
 
 78,920 
 
 2,700 
 
 100 
 
 160 
 
 
 36,480 
 
 99.241 
 
 Mississippi, 
 
 4 
 
 350,000 
 
 534,400 
 
 163,419 
 
 1,844 
 
 28 
 
 155 
 
 155 
 
 33,996 
 
 261,135 
 
 Arkansas, 
 
 1 
 
 55,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 6,750 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 7,200 
 
 13,000 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 25 
 
 930,000 
 
 3,172,000 
 
 283,838 
 
 7,914 
 
 80 
 
 244 
 
 437 
 
 109,764 
 
 533,348 
 
 Total in Southern States, . . . 
 
 143 
 
 9,303,921 
 
 40,219,003 
 
 4,906,954 
 
 164,840 
 
 4,013 
 
 4,161 
 
 6,117 
 
 1,471,416 
 
 7,172,293 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 7 
 
 250,000 
 
 1,815,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 15,000 
 
 400 
 
 270 
 
 340 
 
 112,400 
 
 629,500 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 2 
 
 250,000 
 
 800,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 11,000 
 
 375 
 
 176 
 
 190 
 
 72,468 
 
 349,000 
 
 Illinois, 
 
 3 
 
 10,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 8,000 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 1,980 
 
 15,987 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 3 
 
 169,000 
 
 100,000 
 
 14,500 
 
 14,500 
 
 
 85 
 
 85 
 
 31,080 
 
 230,000 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 4 
 
 104,000 
 
 311,000 
 
 139,000 
 
 9,500 
 
 
 93 
 
 53 
 
 21,000 
 
 167,500 
 
 Total in Western States, . , . 
 
 19 
 
 783,000 
 
 3,066,000 
 
 511,500 
 
 50,000 
 
 775 
 
 632 
 
 676 
 
 238,928 
 
 1,391,987 
 
 Aggregate, 
 
 915 
 
 99,551,465 
 
 364,036,123 
 
 55,994,735 
 
 5.035,798 
 
 129,458 
 
 45,315 
 
 73,605 
 
 23,360,168 
 
 115,137,926 
 
 Boots and Shoes manufactured in the following States during the Year ending June 1, 1860. 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 Number of 
 Establishments. 
 
 Capital invested 
 in Real and Per- 
 sonal Estate. 
 
 Value of Raw 
 Material, includ- 
 ing Fuel. 
 
 Average No. of 
 Male. 
 
 lands employed. 
 Female. 
 
 Cost of Labor. 
 
 Value of Prod- 
 ucts in 1860. 
 
 Maine, 
 
 295 
 
 $420,984 
 
 $879,031 
 
 1,820 
 
 702 
 
 $592,032 
 
 $1,661,915 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 337 
 
 583,285 
 
 2,497,471 
 
 3,479 
 
 1,365 
 
 1,077,048 
 
 3,863,866 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 148 
 
 133,962 
 
 210,595 
 
 484 
 
 58 
 
 169,224 
 
 440,366 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 1,497 
 
 11,169,277 
 
 24,497,344 
 
 47,353 
 
 22,045 
 
 17,226,408 
 
 46,440,209 
 
 Rhode Island, 
 
 66 
 
 104,495 
 
 155,937 
 
 382 
 
 31 
 
 86,028 
 
 315,959 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 211 
 
 510,400 
 
 839,435 
 
 2,521 
 
 777 
 
 831,108 
 
 2,044,762 
 
 Total in N. England States, 
 
 2,554 
 
 12,922,403 
 
 29,079,813 
 
 56,039 
 
 24,978 
 
 19,981,848 
 
 54,767,077 
 
 New York, 
 
 2,276 
 
 3,212,423 
 
 4,848,877 
 
 11,838 
 
 2,028 
 
 3,567,636 
 
 10,878,797 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 2,178 
 
 2,823,672 
 
 3,127,628 
 
 10,826 
 
 2,344 
 
 3,102,128 
 
 8,178,935 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 373 
 
 574,055 
 
 814,926 
 
 2,357 
 
 4S2 
 
 761,976 
 
 1,850,137 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 453 
 
 333,955 
 
 515,254 
 
 1,577 
 
 292 
 
 . 
 
 1,244,167 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 53 
 
 85,026 
 
 98,107 
 
 263 
 
 58 
 
 80,664 
 
 226,470 
 
 District of Columbia, .... 
 
 56 
 
 67,505 
 
 96,549 
 
 273 
 
 20 
 
 .... 
 
 209,785 
 
 Total in Middle States, . . 
 
 5,389 
 
 7,096,636 
 
 9,501,341 
 
 27,134 
 
 5,224 
 
 7,512,404 
 
 22,588,291 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 950 
 
 $1,115,476 
 
 1,455,686 
 
 4,259 
 
 342 
 
 1,340,712 
 
 3,623,827 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 273 
 
 339,167 
 
 380,676 
 
 976 
 
 58 
 
 295,392 
 
 863,315 
 
 Indiana, 
 
 461 
 
 347,370 
 
 428,614 
 
 1,148 
 
 51 
 
 381,516 
 
 1,034,341 
 
 Illinois, 
 
 321 
 
 378,110 
 
 400,348 
 
 1,047 
 
 27 
 
 292,292 
 
 963,052 
 
 Wisconsin, 
 
 217 
 
 266,065 
 
 431,175 
 
 917 
 
 50 
 
 204,964 
 
 901,944 
 
 Minnesota, 
 
 60 
 
 45,980 
 
 59,578 
 
 120 
 
 20 
 
 • • • • 
 
 133,395 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 118 
 
 125,377 
 
 141,922 
 
 336 
 
 10 
 
 109,404 
 
 325,296 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 277 
 
 291,680 
 
 326,699 
 
 904 
 
 43 
 
 331,704 
 
 868,768 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 264 
 
 218,215 
 
 290,766 
 
 828 
 
 29 
 
 255,840 
 
 685,783 
 
 Utah, 
 
 13 
 
 4,520 
 
 17,535 
 
 28 
 
 • • • • 
 
 15,480 
 
 36,833 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 9 
 
 9,950 
 
 9,824 
 
 33 
 
 1 
 
 12,072 
 
 28,651 
 
 Total in Western States, 
 
 2,963 
 
 3,141,910 
 
 3,942,823 
 
 10,596 
 
 631 
 
 3,239,376 
 
 9,465,205 
 
APPENDIX. 695 
 
 Boots and Shoes manufactured in the following States during the Year ending June 1, 1860. — Continued. 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 Number of 
 Establishments. 
 
 Capital invested 
 in Real and Per- 
 sonal Estate. 
 
 Value of Raw 
 Material, includ- 
 ing Fuel. 
 
 Average No. of Hands employed. 
 
 Cost of Labor. 
 
 Value of Prod- 
 ucts in 1860. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 250 
 
 $263,547 
 
 $265,113 
 
 879 
 
 116 
 
 $258,768 
 
 $718,591 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 497 
 
 388,440 
 
 547,001 
 
 1,137 
 
 170 
 
 382,572 
 
 1,391,121 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 94 
 
 84,617 
 
 111,681 
 
 153 
 
 11 
 
 72,684 
 
 262,348 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 117 
 
 153,430 
 
 173,666 
 
 349 
 
 10 
 
 92,904 
 
 357,267 
 
 Tot. in four Southern States, 
 
 958 
 
 890,034 
 
 1,097,461 
 
 2,518 
 
 307 
 
 806,928 
 
 2,729,327 
 
 Aggregate, 
 
 11,864 
 
 24,050,983 
 
 43,621,438 
 
 96,287 
 
 31,140 
 
 31,540,556 
 
 89,549,900 
 
 Approximate Statistics of the Products of Industry for the Year ending June 1, 1860. 
 
 STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 Number of Estab- 
 
 Capital invested in 
 Real and Personal 
 
 Value of Raw Ma- 
 terial used, includ- 
 
 Average No. of 
 
 lands employed. 
 
 Value of Annual 
 
 
 Estate. 
 
 ing Fuel. 
 
 Male. 
 
 Female. 
 
 
 Maine, 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 3,582 
 
 $22,000,000 
 
 $20,861,452 
 
 25,000 
 
 14,710 
 
 $36,075,498 
 
 2,582 
 
 25,900,000 
 
 24,400,000 
 
 19,200 
 
 16,900 
 
 45,500,000 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 1,501 
 
 9,500,000 
 
 8,110,000 
 
 8,940 
 
 1,860 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 7,766 
 
 133,000,000 
 
 141,000,000 
 
 148,800 
 
 68,300 
 
 266,000,000 
 
 Rhode Island, 
 
 1,160 
 
 23,300,000 
 
 23,400,000 
 
 21,200 
 
 12,000 
 
 47,500,000 
 
 Connecticut, 
 
 2,923 
 
 45,720,000 
 
 40,140,000 
 
 44,160 
 
 21,620 
 
 83,000,000 
 
 Total in N. England States, 
 
 19,514 
 
 259,420,000 
 
 257,911,452 
 
 267,300 
 
 135,390 
 
 494,075,498 
 
 New York, 
 
 23,236 
 
 175,449,206 
 
 209,899,890 
 
 174,059 
 
 47,422 
 
 379,623,560 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 21,100 
 
 189,000,000 
 
 145,300,000 
 
 185,141 
 
 38,000 
 
 285,500,000 
 
 New Jersey, 
 
 4,060 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 42,600,000 
 
 114,660 
 
 13,060 
 
 81,000,000 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 564 
 
 5,360,000 
 
 5,375,000 
 
 5,332 
 
 860 
 
 9,920,000 
 
 Maryland, 
 
 2,980 
 
 51,800,000 
 
 21,900,000 
 
 20,800 
 
 20,100 
 
 42,576,000 
 
 District of Columbia, .... 
 
 424 
 
 2,650,000 
 
 2,801,000 
 
 2,556 
 
 387 
 
 5,512,000 
 
 Total in Middle States, . . 
 
 52,364 
 
 464,259,206 
 
 427,875,890 
 
 502,548 
 
 119,829 
 
 804,131,560 
 
 Ohio, 
 
 10,710 
 
 58,000,000 
 
 70,000,000 
 
 69,800 
 
 11,400 
 
 125,000,000 
 
 Indiana 
 
 5,120 
 
 18,875,000 
 
 27,360,000 
 
 20,600 
 
 710 
 
 43,250,000 
 
 Michigan, 
 
 2,530 
 
 24,000,000 
 
 19,000,000 
 
 22,860 
 
 1,260 
 
 35,200,000 
 
 Illinois, ......... 
 
 4,100 
 
 27,700,000 
 
 33,800,000 
 
 23,500 
 
 870 
 
 56,750,000 
 
 Wisconsin, 
 
 3,120 
 
 16,580,000 
 
 17,250,000 
 
 16,320 
 
 770 
 
 28,500,000 
 
 Minnesota, 
 
 565 
 
 2,400,000 
 
 2,060,000 
 
 2,215 
 
 15 
 
 3,600,000 
 
 Iowa, 
 
 1,790 
 
 7,500,000 
 
 8,500,000 
 
 6,475 
 
 102 
 
 14,900,000 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 2,800 
 
 20,500,000 
 
 24,000,000 
 
 20,130 
 
 1,200 
 
 43,500,000 
 
 3,160 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 21,380,000 
 
 20,580 
 
 1,460 
 
 36,330,000 
 
 Kansas, 
 
 299 
 
 1,063,000 
 
 669,269 
 
 1,719 
 
 
 2,800,000 
 
 Nebraska, 
 
 107 
 
 271,475 
 
 238,225 
 
 331 
 
 8 
 
 581,942 
 
 Total in Western States, . . 
 
 34,301 
 
 196,889,475 
 
 224,257,494 
 
 204,530 
 
 17,795 
 
 390,411,942 
 
 Virginia, 
 
 4,890 
 
 26,640,000 
 
 30,880,000 
 
 33,050 
 
 3,540 
 
 51,300,000 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 2,790 
 
 9,310,000 
 
 9,860,000 
 
 11,760 
 
 2,130 
 
 14,450,000 
 
 South Carolina, 
 
 1,050 
 
 5,610,000 
 
 3,620,000 
 
 6,000 
 
 800 
 
 6,800,000 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 1,724 
 
 11,160,000 
 
 10,000,000 
 
 9,910 
 
 2,180 
 
 13,700,000 
 
 Florida, 
 
 180 
 
 6,675,000 
 
 965,000 
 
 2,310 
 
 170 
 
 2,700,000 
 
 Alabama, 
 
 1,117 
 
 8,260,000 
 
 4,400,000 
 
 6,620 
 
 1,140 
 
 9,400,000 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 1,710 
 
 7,110,000 
 
 7,380,000 
 
 7,610 
 
 80 
 
 15,500,000 
 
 Texas, 
 
 Mississippi, 
 
 910 
 
 3,850,000 
 
 2,770,000 
 
 3,360 
 
 110 
 
 6,250,000 
 
 860 
 
 3,740,000 
 
 2,460,000 
 
 4,540 
 
 150 
 
 6,000,000 
 
 Arkansas, 
 
 375 
 
 1,040,000 
 
 909,000 
 
 1,520 
 
 35 
 
 2,150,000 
 
 Tennessee, 
 
 2,420 
 
 17,270,000 
 
 9,365,000 
 
 11,960 
 
 1,135 
 
 17,100,000 
 
 Total in Southern States, 
 
 18,026 
 
 100,665,000 
 
 82,609,000 
 
 98,640 
 
 11,470 
 
 145,350,000 
 
 Utah, 
 
 152 
 
 412,126 
 
 398,528 
 
 348 
 
 9 
 
 823,000 
 
 California, 
 
 3,505 
 
 23,682,593 
 
 16,558,636 
 
 23,803 
 
 463 
 
 59,500,000 
 
 Oregon, 
 
 300 
 
 1,293,000 
 
 1,452,000 
 
 996 
 
 10 
 
 3,138,000 
 
 Washington, 
 
 52 
 
 1,296,700 
 
 505,000 
 
 886 
 
 4 
 
 1,405,000 
 
 New Mexico, 
 
 86 
 
 2,081,900 
 
 432,000 
 
 949 
 
 30 
 
 1,165,000 
 
 Total in Pacific States, . . 
 
 4,095 
 
 28,766,319 
 
 19,346,164 
 
 26,982 
 
 516 
 
 66,031,000 
 
 Aggregate in United States, 
 
 128,300 
 
 1,050,000,000 
 
 •1,012,000,000 
 
 .1,100,000 
 
 285,000 
 
 1,900,000,000 
 
696 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Railroads of the United States. 
 
 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 Maine, 
 
 New Hampshire, . 
 Vermont, . . . . 
 Massachusetts, . , 
 Rhode Island, . . 
 Connecticut, . . , 
 
 New England States, . 
 
 New Fork,. . 
 New Jersey, . 
 Pennsylvania, 
 Delaware,! . . 
 Maryland, , . 
 
 Middle Atlantic States, 
 
 Virginia, . . . 
 North Carolina, 
 South Carolina, 
 Georgia, .... 
 Florida, .... 
 
 Southern Atlantic States, . 
 
 Alabama, . 
 Mississippi, 
 Louisiana, . 
 Texas, . . . 
 
 Gulf States, 
 
 Arkansas, . 
 Tennessee, . 
 Kentucky, . 
 
 Interior States, South, 
 
 Ohio, . . . 
 Indiana, . . 
 Michigan, . 
 Illinois, . . 
 Wisconsin, 
 Minnesota, . 
 Iowa, . . . 
 Missouri, . 
 Kansas, . . 
 
 Interior States, North, 
 
 California, . 
 Oregon, . . 
 
 Pacific States, 
 
 New England States, . . 
 Middle Atlantic States, . 
 Southern Atlantic States, 
 
 Gulf States, 
 
 Interior States, South, . 
 Interior States, North, . 
 Pacific States, 
 
 Total United States, 
 City Railroads in 1860, 
 Total, 
 
 Mileage. 
 
 1850. 
 
 245.59 
 
 465.32 
 
 279.57 
 
 1,035.74 
 
 68.00 
 
 413.26 
 
 2,507.48 
 
 1,403.10 
 
 205.93 
 
 822.34 
 
 39.19 
 
 253.40 
 
 2,723.96 
 
 515.15 
 
 248.50 
 
 289.00 
 
 643.72 
 
 21.00 
 
 1,717.37 
 
 132.50 
 
 75.00 
 
 79.50 
 
 287.00 
 
 78.21 
 
 78.21 
 
 575.27 
 
 228.00 
 
 342.00 
 
 110.50 
 
 20.00 
 
 1,275.77 
 
 2,507.48 
 
 2,723.96 
 
 1,717.37 
 
 287.00 
 
 78.21 
 
 1,275.77 
 
 8,589.79 
 
 1860. 
 
 472.17 
 
 656.59 
 
 556.75 
 
 1,272.96 
 
 107.92 
 
 603.00 
 
 3,669.39 
 
 2,701.84 
 
 559.90 
 
 2,542.49 
 
 136,69 
 
 380.30 
 
 6,321.22 
 
 1,771.16 
 
 889.42 
 
 987.97 
 
 1,404.22 
 
 401.50 
 
 5,454.27 
 
 743.16 
 
 872.30 
 
 334.75 
 
 306.00 
 
 2,256.21 
 
 38.50 
 
 1,197.92 
 
 569.93 
 
 1,806.35 
 
 2,999.45 
 
 2.125.90 
 799.30 
 
 2.867.90 
 922.61 
 
 679.77 
 
 817.45 
 
 11,212.38 
 
 70.05 
 
 3.80 
 
 73.85 
 
 3,669.39 
 
 6,321.22 
 
 5,454.27 
 
 2,256.21 
 
 1,806.35 
 
 11,212.38 
 
 73,85 
 
 30,793.67 
 
 402.57 
 
 31,1965 
 
 Coat of Construction, &c. 
 
 1850. 
 
 $6,999,894 
 
 14,774,133 
 
 10,800,901 
 
 47,886,905 
 
 2,802,594 
 
 13,989,774 
 
 97,254,201 
 
 65,456,123 
 
 9,348,495 
 
 41,683,054 
 
 2,281,690 
 
 11,580,808 
 
 130,350,170 
 
 12,585,312 
 
 3,281,623 
 
 7,525,981 
 
 13,272,540 
 
 210,000 
 
 36,875,456 
 
 1,946,209 
 
 2 , 020,000 
 
 1,320,000 
 
 5,286,209 
 
 1,830,541 
 
 1,830,541 
 
 1860. 
 
 $16,576,385 
 
 23,268,659 
 
 23,336,215 
 
 58,882,328 
 
 4,318,827 
 
 21,984,100 
 
 148,366,514 
 
 131,320,542 
 
 28,997,033 
 
 143,471,710 
 
 4,351,789 
 
 21,387,157 
 
 329,528,231 
 
 64,958,807 
 
 16,709,793 
 
 22,385,287 
 
 29,057,742 
 
 8,628,000 
 
 141,739,629 
 
 17,591,188 
 
 24,100,009 
 
 12,020,204 
 
 11,232,345 
 
 64,943,746 
 
 1,155,000 
 
 29,537,722 
 
 19,068,477 
 
 49,761,199 
 
 10,684,400 
 
 3,380,533 
 
 8,945,749 
 
 1,440,507 
 
 612,382 
 
 25,063,571 
 
 97,254,201 
 
 130,350,170 
 
 36,875,456 
 
 5,286,209 
 
 1,830,541 
 
 25,063,571 
 
 296,660,148 
 
 111,896,351 
 
 70,295,148 
 
 31,012,399 
 
 104,944,561 
 
 33,555,606 
 
 19,494,633 
 
 42,342,812 
 
 413,541,510 
 
 3,600,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 3,680,000 
 
 148,366,514 
 
 329,528,231 
 
 141,739,629 
 
 64,943,746 
 
 49,761,199 
 
 413,541,510 
 
 3,680,000 
 
 1,151,560,829 
 
 14,862,840 
 
 1,166,422,729 
 
 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 
 
 The following table shows the value of the imports 
 into the United States, and the value of the exports of 
 domestic produce and foreign merchandise, for the 
 year ending June 30, 1860. 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 Great Britain — England, . 
 
 Scotland, . 
 Ireland, . 
 
 Total Great Britain, . 
 
 France, 
 
 British East Indies, 
 Philippine Islands, . 
 
 Cuba, 
 
 Porto Rico, .... 
 Two Sicilies, . . . 
 
 Hayti, 
 
 New Granada, . . . 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Brazil 
 
 China 
 
 All other countries, 
 
 Total, 
 
 IMPORTS. 
 
 EXPORTS. 
 
 Foreign 
 
 Merchandise. 
 
 Domestic 
 
 Produce. 
 
 Total. 
 
 $133,064,713 
 
 4,607,187 
 
 923,726 
 
 $5,831,248 
 
 137,206 
 
 111,711 
 
 $187,095,952 
 
 4,867,218 
 
 4,297,586 
 
 $192,927,200 
 
 5,004,424 
 
 4,409,297 
 
 138,595,626 
 
 6,080,165 
 
 196,260,756 
 
 202,340,921 
 
 43,218,094 
 
 10,692,342 
 
 2,886,166 
 
 34,032,277 
 
 4,512,188 
 
 2,384,577 
 
 2,062,723 
 
 3,843,568 
 
 2,883,464 
 
 21,214,803 
 
 13,566,587 
 
 82,271,526 
 
 3,158,047 
 
 128,953 
 
 73,265 
 
 634,956 
 
 263,913 
 
 26,458 
 
 231,777 
 
 152,699 
 
 91,650 
 
 335,020 
 
 1,735,334 
 
 14,020,785 
 
 58,048,231 
 
 1,111,697 
 
 368,209 
 
 11,747,913 
 
 1,517,837 
 
 484,190 
 
 2,441,905 
 
 1,642,800 
 
 1,056,250 
 
 5,945,235 
 
 7,170,784 
 
 85,393,467 
 
 61,206,278 
 
 1,240,650 
 
 441,474 
 
 12,382,869 
 
 1,781,750 
 
 510,648 
 
 2,673,682 
 
 1,795,499 
 
 1,147,900 
 
 6,280,255 
 
 8,906,118 
 
 99,414,252 
 
 
 26,933,022 
 
 373,189,274 
 
 400,122,296 
 
 Of the exports in the year named, the following 
 were the principal : — 
 
 Products of agriculture, (value,) . . . 148,451,894 
 
 “ the forest, 13,738,559 
 
 “ manufactures, 39,803,080 
 
 Cotton, 191,806,555 
 
 Tobacco, 15,906,547 
 
 Specie and bullion, 23,799,870 
 
 For the year ending June 30, 1861, the exports of 
 cotton fell to 134,051,483, and the exports of agricul- 
 tural produce rose to 1101,655,833. 
 
 Tonnage of the merchant marine of the United 
 States, for the year ending June, 1861, — 
 
 Registered sail tonnage, 2,540,020 
 
 “ steam tonnage, 102,608 
 
 Enrolled and licensed sail tonnage, . . . 2,122,589 
 
 “ “ steam tonnage, , 
 
 774,596 
 
 Total tonnage, 5,539,813 
 
 Estimated value of aggregate tonnage, $221,592,520 
 
 Books LXXXIII. — LXXXY. 
 
 MEXICO. 
 
 Area, 834,140 square miles; population, (1854,) 
 
 7,853,394. 
 
 The republic of Mexico is now composed of 22 
 states, 5 territories, and the federal district of Mexico, 
 as follows : — 
 
 States or Departments and 
 Territories. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Aguascalientes, 
 
 81,727 
 
 Aguascalientes, 
 
 
 Chihuahua, . . . 
 
 147,600 
 
 Chihuahua, . . . 
 
 14,000 
 
 Chiciptij • • • • 
 
 161,914 
 
 Ciudad-Real, . . 
 
 6,500 
 
 Cinaloa, .... 
 
 160,000 
 
 Villa del Fuerte, . . 
 
 12,000 
 
 Cohahuila, . . . 
 
 66,228 
 
 Saltillo, .... 
 
 19,898 
 
 Durango, . . . 
 
 187,593 
 
 Durango, . . . 
 
 22,000 
 
 Guanajuato,. . . 
 
 718.775 
 
 Guanajuato, . . . 
 
 48,954 
 
 Guerrero, . . . 
 
 270,000 
 
 Tixtla, .... 
 
 4,500 
 
 Jalisco, .... 
 
 774,461 
 
 Guadalajara, . . 
 
 63,000 
 
 Mexico, .... 
 
 1,001,875 
 
 Toluca, .... 
 
 12,000 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 States or Departments and 
 Territories. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Capitals. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Michoacan, . . . 
 
 491,679 
 
 Valladolid, . 
 
 
 18,000 
 
 New Leon, . . . 
 
 133,361 
 
 Monterey, . 
 
 
 13,534 
 
 Oajaca, .... 
 
 489,969 
 
 Oajaca, . . 
 
 
 25,000 
 
 Puebla, .... 
 
 683,725 
 
 Puebla, . . 
 
 
 71,631 
 
 Queretaro, . . . 
 
 132,124 
 
 Queretaro, . 
 
 
 29,702 
 
 San Luis Potosi, . 
 
 394,592 
 
 San Luis, 
 
 
 40,000 
 
 Sonora, .... 
 
 147,133 
 
 Ures, . . 
 
 
 7,000 
 
 Tabasco, .... 
 
 . 63,580 
 
 San Juan Bautista, 
 
 4,000 
 
 Tamaulipas, . . . 
 
 100,064 
 
 Victoria, . . 
 
 
 5,500 
 
 Yera Cruz, . . . 
 
 274,686 
 
 Vera Cruz, . 
 
 
 8,228 
 
 Yucatan,’. . . . 
 
 668,623 
 
 Merida, . . 
 
 
 40,000 
 
 Zacatecas, . . . 
 
 305,551 
 
 Zacatecas, . 
 
 
 25,005 
 
 Fed’l Dist., Mexico, 
 
 200,000 
 
 Mexico, . . 
 
 
 170,000 
 
 Tlaxcala, Terri’y of, 
 
 80,171 
 
 Tlaxcala, 
 
 
 3,463 
 
 Colima, “ “ 
 
 61,243 
 
 Colima, . . 
 
 
 31,774 
 
 Tehuantepec, “ “ 
 
 82,395 
 
 
 
 
 L. California, “ “ 
 
 12,000 
 
 La Paz, . . 
 
 , . 
 
 500 
 
 Isla de Carmen, “ 
 
 12,325 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 Total population. 
 
 7,853,394 
 
 Total population, 
 
 703,189 
 
 Of the population, about four sevenths are Indians, 
 two sevenths of mixed origin, and one seventh native 
 whites or creoles. 
 
 Mexico is sparingly watered, and has no navigable 
 rivers of importance. Along the coast of the Gulf of 
 Mexico there are scarcely any indentations, and the 
 Gulf Stream sweeps near the shore, causing a constant 
 change of the sands, creating bars and filling channels, 
 so that on the whole coast there is no safe and commo- 
 dious harbor. 
 
 The mines, which were once considered the great 
 source of the wealth of Mexico, have become of less 
 importance. Those which were once the richest are 
 now exhausted. Silver is most abundant, though gold 
 is found to some extent. The disturbed political con- 
 dition of the country has seriously interfered with 
 mining enterprise, but within the last ten years the 
 yield of the mines has increased, and but for the 
 greater temptation offered to miners in California, 
 would have increased still more. The amount of gold 
 coined in 1850, was $1,351,400, and of silver, $27,003,- 
 989. In 1850, valuable quicksilver mines were dis- 
 covered in Sonora. 
 
 New Mexico and Upper California, as well as Texas, 
 which are included in Mexico in the text, now belong 
 to the United States. The extent of territory thus 
 lost to Mexico was, New Mexico and California, 530,000 
 square miles, Texas, 325,000 square miles. Yucatan 
 separated from Mexico in 1846, but has since rejoined 
 the confederation. The Central American states, 
 which are also included in Mexico in the text, are 
 independent republics. 
 
 Book LXXXV. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 The Central American states are Guatemala, San 
 Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. 
 
 Guatemala. — Area, 44,500 square miles ; popula- 
 tion, estimated at 1,000,000, only 7,000 or 8,000 of 
 whom are whites, the remainder being Indians and 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 64 88 
 
 697 
 
 Mestizos. One of the most important articles now 
 produced in Guatemala is cochineal, of which the 
 quantity produced is nearly equal to the entire con- 
 sumption of that article. Cocoa, tobacco, indigo, and 
 cotton are also produced. 
 
 The capital and chief town is New Guatemala. Pop- 
 ulation, estimated at 35,000 to 50,000. 
 
 San Salvador. — Area, 7,500 square miles. Popu- 
 lation, 280,000. This state is well watered, and the 
 soil is fertile. The productions are coffee, tobacco, 
 cotton, sugar, and indigo, the last of which is the most 
 important crop. Excellent iron ore was formerly 
 mined and smelted, but the mines are no longer 
 worked. 
 
 The chief town and capital is San Salvador, the 
 population of which, pi’evious to 1854, was about 
 
 18.000, but in that year the town was almost wholly 
 destroyed by an earthquake. 
 
 Honduras. — Area, about 33,000 square miles ; pop- 
 ulation, about 350,000. It has some extensive forests 
 of fine timber, including cedar and mahogany, but it 
 is not an agricultural country. Gold, silver, lead, and 
 copper are found, the two former often combined. Its 
 mineral wealth was formerly better developed than now. 
 
 The chief towns are Comayagua, the capital, popula- 
 tion, estimated, 12,000, and Truxillo, the principal 
 port, population, 4,000. 
 
 Nicaragua. — Area, about 39,000 square miles; pop- 
 ulation, 235,000. Much of the soil of Nicaragua is 
 well adapted for agriculture, but the unsettled condi- 
 tion of the people, by reason of revolutions and civil 
 wars, has rendered its agriculture of little account. 
 Cotton of superior quality has been grown here, but 
 its culture is now almost wholly neglected. Coffee, 
 cocoa, and sugar are also produced. Gold, silver, and 
 copper are said to exist in some quantities, but they 
 are not mined or explored. A route for travel from 
 the Atlantic to the Pacific has been opened via Lake 
 Nicaragua, and a canal has been contemplated, but 
 political troubles have prevented the prosecution of 
 such enterprises. 
 
 The chief towns are Leon, the capital, population, 
 
 30.000, formerly one of the finest towns in Central 
 America, but greatly damaged by civil commotions ; 
 Nicaragua, population, about 8,000. 
 
 Costa Rica. — Area, about 16,500 square miles ; 
 population, 150,000. The climate of Costa Rica, 
 except on the seacoast, is fine and healthy. The 
 country produces some of the fruits and vegetables of 
 both the temperate and the tropical regions, and the 
 soil is excellent. Coffee is now grown to a consider- 
 able extent, from 50,000 to 60,000 quintals being ex- 
 ported annually, but the country is capable of vastly 
 greater agricultural products. 
 
 Costa Rica contains some rich gold mines, but they 
 are worked but little. Silver and copper are also 
 found there, but the product of these is of little 
 account. 
 
 The chief towns are San Jose, the capital, popula- 
 tion, 18,000, and Puntas Arenas, the principal port. 
 
 Balize, or British Honduras. — Area, about 15,000 
 square miles ; population, 10,000. The greater part 
 of the population are blacks and Indians. 
 
698 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 The chief town and capital is Balize, on a small 
 river of the same name. The exports are mahogany, 
 cochineal, sarsaparilla, and cocoa-nuts. 
 
 Book LXXXYI. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 The mean height of the Andes is, in Peru, about 
 12,000 feet ; in Chili, about 8,000 feet ; in Patagonia 
 the height is unknown. Some of the highest peaks 
 are as follows : — 
 
 In New Grenada. Feet high. 
 
 Tolima, 18,270 
 
 Area, 6,500,000 square miles ; population, about 17,- 
 000,000. The greatest length of South America is 
 4,550 miles, and its greatest breadth 3,250 miles. About 
 three fourths of the entire peninsula are within the 
 tropics, and the remainder in the southern temperate 
 zone. It may be divided into five distinct physical 
 regions, as follows : 1. The extensive plains of the 
 basin of the Orinoco, which are generally destitute of 
 wood, but covered with tall herbage for a part of the 
 year, and excessively hot in the dry season. 2. The 
 basin of the Amazon, covering an area of about 
 2,000,000 square miles, covered with dense forests of 
 luxuriant growth, and very fertile, but thinly inhab- 
 ited. 3. That part of Brazil east of the Parana and 
 Araguay Rivers, covered with wood on the Atlantic 
 side, and opening into plains or steppes in the interior, 
 and traversed to some extent by mountain ranges. 
 
 4. The plains watered by the Rio de la Plata, an 
 extensive region abounding in steppes, and affording 
 sustenance for innumerable herds of cattle and horses. 
 
 5. The low country between the Andes and the Pacific, 
 stretching the whole length of the peninsula, and from 
 50 to 100 miles in width, the extremities of which are 
 fertile, and the middle a desert. 
 
 Mountains. — The great physical feature of South 
 America is its succession of mountain ranges, stretching 
 from its southern extremity to its northern limit, and 
 connecting, through the Isthmus of Panama and Central 
 America, with the Cordilleras and Rocky Mountains of 
 North America. These mountains extend over 4,500 
 miles, bearing the general name of the Andes, though 
 composed of successive ranges, with numerous lateral 
 chains. Between 6 and 33 degrees south, the Andes 
 spread to a width of 200 to 300 miles; north of the 
 sixth parallel they are narrower, and form elevated 
 plateaus, one of which is known as the Desert of Asuay, 
 which is 13,000 feet above the sea, and covers an area 
 of 50 square miles. On another plateau, 9,500 feet 
 high, is built the city of Quito. North of this, the 
 mountains divide into three distinct and diverging 
 ranges. One of these, the Cordilleras of the coast, 
 finally turns to the east, and runs about 700 miles to 
 the vicinity of the Gulf of Pavia. Another transverse 
 range starts from the Andes, between three and four 
 degrees north, and extends to French Guiana, near 
 the mouth of the Amazon. The mean height of both 
 of these ranges is about 4,000 feet, though ^ome peaks 
 rise to a much greater height. A third transverse 
 range extends across the continent, between 12 and 
 18 degrees south, and connects with the Brazilian 
 Mountains, dividing the basin of the Amazon from 
 that of La Plata. The Brazilian Mountains extend 
 parallel to the coast, from 5 degrees to 25 degrees 
 south. They are a series of ridges and plateaus, with 
 a few elevated summits, and spread to a width of 
 nearly or quite a thousand miles. 
 
 In Ecuador. 
 
 Feet high. 
 
 Chimborazo, . . . 21,440 
 Antisana (volcano), 19,150 
 Illinica, .... 17,380 
 Cutacache, . . . 16,380 
 
 Feet high. 
 
 Cayamba, . . . 19,535 
 Cotopaxi (volcano), 18,890 
 Tanguragua, . . 16,424 
 Sangay, .... 16,138 
 
 In Peru. 
 
 Chuguibamba, . . 21,000 Omati, or ) , . N 0 _. rt 
 
 Asquipa, j ( volc ')> 20 > 320 
 
 In Bolivia. 
 
 Bahama, .... 22,350 . 
 Gualateiri (vole.), . 22,000 
 Sorata, .... 25,300 
 (By other authority,) 21,286 
 Two summits of II- 1 24,450 
 limani, . . . ( 24,200 
 
 (By other author- f 21,149 
 
 ity,). . . . 121, 
 
 Parinacota, . 
 
 Pomarape, . 
 
 Huayna, . . 
 
 Chachacomani, 
 
 Chipicani, 
 
 060 
 22,030 
 21,700 
 20,260 
 20,235 
 19,740 
 
 In Chili. 
 
 Aconcagua (volcano), 23,200 ft., the highest volcano known. 
 Antuco (volcano), . 16,000 Maypu (volcano), 15,000 ft. 
 
 Other peaks are from 13,000 to 18,000 feet high. 
 
 The highest summits in the Cordilleras of the coast 
 are Sierra de Merida, 15,300 feet high, and Silla de 
 Caracas, 8,400 feet high. The highest summit of the 
 Brazilian Mountains is Itacolumi, 5,710 feet in height. 
 
 It is supposed that there are at least 30 volcanoes 
 in South America, all in the Andes, the highest of 
 which are given above, and are the highest volcanoes 
 in the world. 
 
 Lakes are few in South America. The largest is 
 Lake Titicaca, on the borders of Peru and Bolivia, 
 12,800 feet above the sea, and covering an area of 
 4,000 square miles. 
 
 Rivers. — South America rivals North America in 
 rivers. They all flow into the Atlantic Ocean and 
 Caribbean Sea, there being no river of any conse- 
 quence west of the Andes. The two great river sys- 
 tems are those of the Amazon and the La Plata, which, 
 with their tributaries, water the greater part of the 
 continent, and afford means of transportation through 
 thousands of miles. It is stated that the greater part 
 of the Amazon, from the Andes to the Atlantic, is un- 
 interrupted by any cataract or serious rapid. Some 
 of the principal rivers, with their length, are as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 RIVERS IX SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Amazon, . . . 
 
 Miles. 
 
 . 4,000 
 
 Araguay, . . . 
 
 . 1,000 
 
 Beni, .... 
 
 . 2,000 
 
 Caqueta, . . . 
 
 . 1,200 
 . 500 
 
 Essequibo, . . 
 
 Jutay, .... 
 
 . 700 
 
 Magdalena, . . 
 
 . 800 
 
 Medeira, . . . 
 
 . 1,000 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Negro, . . 
 
 Orinoco, . 
 
 . . . 1,200 
 
 . . . 1,600 
 
 Parnahiba, 
 
 ... 700 
 
 Parana, 
 
 . . . 2,000 
 
 Paraguay, . 
 
 . . . 1,600 
 
 Pilcomayo, 
 
 . . . 1,000 
 
 Putumayo, 
 
 ... 700 
 
 Rio Negro, 
 
 . . . 1,000 
 
 c 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 699 
 
 Miles. Miles. 
 
 Rio de la Plata, (from Ucayle, .... 500 
 
 the mouth of the Uruguay, .... 800 
 
 Paraguay to Monte Yermejo, .... 750 
 
 Video,) .... 700 Xingu, 1,300 
 
 St. Prancisco, . . 1,400 Yapura, .... 1,000 
 
 Tocantius, .... 1,100 
 
 The present political divisions of South America 
 differ somewhat from those given in the text. They 
 are the republics of New Grenada, Ecuador, and Ven- 
 ezuela, French, English, and Dutch Guiana, the em- 
 pire of Brazil, the republics of Peru, Chili, Bolivia, the 
 Argentine Republic, the republics of Paraguay and 
 Uruguay, Patagonia ; and to these may be added 
 Terra del Puego and the Falkland Islands. 
 
 Book LXXXVII. 
 
 NEW GRENADA. 
 
 Area, estimated at 480,000 square miles ; popula- 
 tion, (1853,) 2,363,054. Of the population, about one 
 fourth are whites, more than one half of mixed races, 
 and the remainder Indians and negroes. 
 
 New Grenada joins Costa Rica in Central America, 
 and includes the Isthmus of Panama. It borders on 
 the Caribbean Sea on the north, and the Pacific Ocean 
 on the west. It is diversified in its surface, soil, and 
 climate, and though the lower country is hot and un- 
 healthy, there are higher regions more temperate, but 
 fertile, and producing the vegetables of the temperate 
 zone. The resources of the country are as yet but 
 little developed, and the more healthy regions but 
 little improved or settled. In minerals, the country is 
 said to be rich, platina, gold, and silver existing there, 
 and on the Isthmus of Panama, iron and copper, but 
 the mining is not pursued with any enterprise. The 
 agriculture and manufactures of the country are also 
 limited, the former being confined chiefly to raising 
 cattle and horses, immense herds of which are pas- 
 tured on the llanos, or plains. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. Population. 
 
 Bogota, the capital, 45,000 Santa Martha, . . 8,000 
 
 Popayan, . . . 20,000 Panama, .... 6,000 
 
 Carthagena, . . . 18,000 Aspinwall, . . . 2,500 
 
 The last two are connected by the only railroad in 
 the country, which forms the connecting link between 
 the Atlantic and Pacific. Aspinwall is essentially an 
 Anglo-Saxon town, being founded chiefly by citizens 
 of the United States. 
 
 ECUADOR. 
 
 Area, 240,000 square miles ; population, 500,000. 
 The Indians form a large part of the population. 
 
 This state embraces every variety of climate, which 
 ranges from the insufferably hot, on the low tract, to 
 the temperate on the table lands and valleys between 
 the mountain ranges, and the cold on the still higher 
 mountain regions, where may be found perpetual 
 snow. In Ecuador the Andes branch into two distinct 
 ranges, each of which has many lofty peaks. Chimbo- 
 razo, Cayambe, Antisana, Cotopaxi, and other lofty 
 
 mountains, are within the limits of Ecuador. The 
 cultivated land lies chiefly in the valley which extends 
 between the two mountain ranges, and its average 
 height is about 9,000 feet above the sea, though at its 
 southern extremity it is not more than 2,000 feet 
 above the sea. Gold and silver have been found in 
 some parts of the country, but little attention is given 
 to mining, except iron and copper, which are mined to 
 a moderate extent. 
 
 The agricultural products are wheat, which attains 
 the greatest perfection in the high valleys, maize, 
 cotton, sugar cane, rice, and pepper. The cocoa tree 
 flourishes in some parts of the state, and on the low 
 lands are vast forests, and a variety of tropical 
 fruits. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. Population. 
 
 Quito, the capital, 70,000 Cuenca, .... 20,000 
 
 Guayaquil, the chief Ibarra, .... 12,000 
 
 port, .... 20,000 
 
 Riobamba, near the site of a former town of the same name, 
 
 which was destroyed by a flood caused by a volcanic erup- 
 tion. 
 
 VENEZUELA. 
 
 Area, 420,000 square miles ; population, (1854,) 
 1,419,289. 
 
 The whites compose about one fourth part of the 
 population, the remainder being Indians, negroes, and 
 mixed races. The domesticated Indians form about 
 one sixth part. Included in the above number are 
 about 50,000 independent Indians. 
 
 The mountains do not form so important a feature 
 in this state as in the two preceding. The east range 
 of the Andes, sometimes also considered a part of the 
 coast range of the Cordilleras, stretches transversely 
 to the main direction of the chain, and runs about 300 
 miles into Venezuela, forming a rugged mass of rocks. 
 The highest peak is the Nevado de Merida, 15,300 feet 
 high. There are other mountains, unexplored, in the 
 southern part of the state. 
 
 The llanos or plains of Venezuela cover about 150,- 
 000 square miles. In the wet season large portions 
 of them are flooded by the rivers, and in the dry season 
 they are a parched and barren desert. 
 
 Venezuela is well watered by navigable rivers, the 
 Orinoco and its tributaries affording extraordinary 
 facilities for communication and transportation. Much 
 of the country in the valleys of these rivers is fertile, 
 and abounds in sources of wealth. 
 
 Gold was formerly found in considerable quantities, 
 but the old mines appear exhausted. Silver has been 
 found, but the mines have not been fully explored. Cop- 
 per mines have proved more productive and profitable. 
 There are also extensive beds of excellent bituminous 
 coal in the coast districts, and an abundance of petro- 
 leum. 
 
 The lower regions of Venezuela abound with tropical 
 vegetation and fruits, and in the higher regions the 
 cereals of the temperate zone flourish. One of the chief 
 productions is cocoa, or cacao. Cotton, coffee, sugar 
 cane, and indigo are also extensively cultivated. Large 
 herds of cattle are raised, and hides, with the pro- 
 
700 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 ductions above named, form the chief articles of ex- 
 port. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population, (1853.) Population, (1853.) 
 
 Caracas, the capital, 63,000 Angostura, . . . 8,000 
 
 Maracaybo, . . . 8,500 Barcelona, . . . 15,000 
 
 La Guayra, . . . 8,000 Valencia, . . . 17,000 
 
 Cumana, .... 6,500, (once 30,000.) 
 
 Book LXXXVIII. 
 
 PERU. 
 
 Area, 370,000 square miles; population, (1851,) 
 2,279,085. About one fourth of the population are 
 white, one half Indians, and the remainder of mixed 
 races. 
 
 The present republic of Peru comprises but a part 
 of the territory which formerly went under that name, 
 the republic of Bolivia having been set off, as also 
 parts of the present republics of Chili, Ecuador, and 
 the Argentine Republic. 
 
 The Andes are estimated to occupy nearly 200,000 
 square miles of the area of Peru. Between the moun- 
 tains and the coast only some of the transverse valleys 
 are really habitable, the greater part of the country 
 being rugged and barren. The region which is 
 most inhabited is the higher sierras or table lands of 
 the mountain region. East of the mountains are 
 boundless plains, watered by the tributaries of the 
 Amazon, and but little known. The average height 
 of the western, or coast range, of the Andes, is 15,000 
 feet, and of the eastern range, or Andes proper, 17,000 
 feet. Chuquibamba and Omati are the highest peaks. 
 Between the two ranges are the sierras, or table lands, 
 from 8,000 to 14,000 feet above the sea, where the 
 fruits and cereals of the temperate zone flourish. In 
 the lower valleys and east of the mountains, the trop- 
 ical fruits and plants grow in great perfection. Agri- 
 culture, however, is in a very low condition. 
 
 The gold and silver mines of Peru were formerly 
 considered inexhaustible, and capital and intelligent 
 labor would probably make them very productive. 
 The gold mines or diggings are of little consequence 
 compared with California or Australia, and the silver 
 mines are so situated among the mountains that they 
 cannot well be worked by machinery. The annual 
 produce of silver is live or six million dollars. Coal 
 is found at a great height. 
 
 Political commotions and revolutions, as well as the 
 character of the people, retard the development of the 
 agricultural and mineral resources of the country. 
 
 The Chincha Islands, lying off the coast of Peru, 
 about 150 miles from Lima, have of late years afforded 
 the most valuable article of export from Peru, viz., 
 guano, large quantities of which have*been shipped for 
 manure to Europe and the United States. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population, (1850.) Population, (1850.) 
 
 Lima, the capital, 100,000 Cuzco, .... 41,152 
 
 Arequipa, . . . 35,000 Huanta, . . . 26,300 
 
 Callao, .... 8,435 Pasco, .... 10,000 
 
 BOLIVIA. 
 
 Area, 374,000 square miles; population, 1,030,000. 
 Hardly one third of the population is white, the re- 
 mainder being Indians and Mestizos. 
 
 The republic of Bolivia is almost wholly in the inte- 
 rior of South America, and mostly east of the Andes ; 
 having Brazil on the south and east, La Plata on the 
 south, and Peru on the west, except for a space of 
 about 250 miles, where it bounds on the Pacific Ocean. 
 It was formerly called Upper Peru. 
 
 Bolivia possesses the greatest variety of soil and 
 climate, from tropical heat to the temperature of 
 perpetual snow, and from the most luxuriant vegeta- 
 tion to barren deserts. The western part is a region 
 of immense mountains, the Andes attaining their 
 greatest height in Bolivia. Among the highest peaks 
 here are Sorata, Illimani, Lahama, Gualateira, Parina- 
 cota, Huayna, and Pomarapi. Between the ranges of 
 the Andes is a great plateau, in which is Lake Titicaca, 
 12,000 feet above the sea. In the eastern part are 
 valleys and plains, covered with the richest of vegeta- 
 tion. On the sierras, the fruits and grains of Europe 
 are grown ; on the lower plains, coffee, cacao, cotton, 
 indigo, tobacco, Ac. 
 
 The minerals of Bolivia are gold and silver, in mod- 
 erate quantities, rich mines of tin, and pure copper. 
 The difficulty of transportation to the coast prevents 
 the exportation of the latter ores. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. Population. 
 
 Chuquisaca, or La Cochabamba, . . 30,000 
 
 Plata, the capital, 12,000 La Paz, .... 20,000 
 
 Potosi, .... 16,700 
 
 Book LXXXIX. 
 
 CIIILI. 
 
 Area, 170,000 square miles; population, 1,080,000. 
 
 Chili extends along the Pacific 1,150 miles, with a 
 breadth of 88 to 130 miles, its eastern boundary being 
 marked by the Andes. The greater part of the coun- 
 try is rugged, but there are some fertile valleys. In 
 the southern part, the country is very picturesque and 
 pleasant, but in the northern part it is rugged and 
 barren. The climate is very healthy. The produc- 
 tions are similar to those of the northern temperate 
 zone, but agriculture is in a backward state. 
 
 Chili is rich in minerals, especially in the northern 
 part, where are found gold, silver, Ron, copper, lead, 
 quicksilver, antimony, arsenic, Ac. Bituminous coal 
 is also found. The product of the silver and copper 
 mines is very considerable, but the rugged nature of 
 the country and want of water are great impediments 
 to mining. The business, aided by foreign capital, is 
 pursued with more enterprise than in the other coun- 
 tries of the Andes, and the inhabitants generally exhibit 
 more energy and industry than the other Spanish 
 South Americans. The foreign commerce of Chili is 
 considerable. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. Population. 
 
 Santiago, the cap., 80,000 Coquimbo, . . . 8,000 
 
 Valparaiso, . . . 60,000 Quillota, .... 8,000 
 
 San Felipe, . . . 12,500 Ballenar, . . . 7,000 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 LA PLATA, OR THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 
 
 Area, estimated at 820,000 square miles ; popula- 
 tion, estimated from 600,000 to 2,000,000 ; about 
 800,000 is probably more nearly correct, exclusive of 
 the independent Indians. 
 
 From the Andes, which form the western boundary 
 of La Plata, there are lateral ranges of mountains ex- 
 tending into the great plains from 100 to 200 miles ; 
 in the eastern part, around the River Paraguay, the 
 country is hilly, and in the south-western part, are 
 ranges of hills. But the greater part of the territory 
 opens into vast plains or pampas, which afford pastur- 
 age to immense numbers of cattle and horses. The 
 cultivated land is along the banks of the rivei's, but 
 agriculture is in a backward condition. In some por- 
 tions of the northern country cotton, rice, sugar-cane, 
 and tobacco are grown, and in the south, wheat, maize, 
 and other grains. The principal wealth of the country 
 is its herds, and upwards of 3,000,000 hides of horned 
 cattle, and 250,000 horse hides are exported annually. 
 The river La Plata and its tributaries afford thousands 
 of miles of navigable waters, and supply the only facil- 
 ities for transportation. The main rivers are open to 
 the commerce of the world. 
 
 In the mountainous districts, gold, silver, copper, 
 and iron are found, but are not extensively mined, 
 though some of the ores are said to be very rich. Coal 
 is said to be abundant in the south-western provinces. 
 
 The number of states or provinces is 13. The chief 
 towns are, — 
 
 Population, (1854.) 
 
 Buenos Ayres, the 
 
 capital, . . . 85,000 
 
 of which number 
 one fifth are for- 
 eigners. 
 
 Santiago, . . . 5,000 
 
 Corrientes, 
 Cordova, . 
 Mendoza, 
 Tucuman, 
 Salta, . . 
 
 Population, (1854.) 
 . . . 12,000 
 
 . . . 15,000 
 
 . . . 12,000 
 
 . . . 12,000 
 
 . . . 10,000 
 
 701 
 
 may become a rich and thriving country, and Monte 
 Video the commercial emporium of the River Plata. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. Population. 
 
 Monte Video, the cap- La Colonia, . . . 2,500 
 
 ital, .... 15,000 Maldonado, . . . 
 
 PATAGONIA. 
 
 Area, including islands near the western coast, 
 350,000 square miles. The population, composed of 
 savages, is unknown, and there are no sufficient data 
 on which to estimate it. 
 
 Patagonia comprises all the territory south of the 
 Rio Negro, the southern boundary of La Plata. The 
 Andes extend through Patagonia to the Strait of Ma- 
 gellan, (or Magalhaens,) and among them are several 
 volcanoes. The highest peak known is 8,030 feet high. 
 The eastern part of the country is generally low and 
 level, but there are vast pampas, or table lands, eleva- 
 ted above the lowest plains. There are no settlements 
 of whites. 
 
 Terra del Fuego. — This is a large group of islands 
 at the southern extremity of South America, from 
 which they are separated by the Strait of Magellan. 
 They are barren and inhospitable islands, inhabited by 
 savages. 
 
 Falkland Islands. — A group of nearly two hundred 
 islands, east of the southern extremity of South Amer- 
 ica. Only two are of considerable size. The islands 
 are not attractive in appearance, and are destitute of 
 trees, but have a variety of flowering shrubs and plants, 
 and grass. There are numerous herds of wild cattle 
 and horses, the progeny of animals carried there by 
 early Spanish expeditions. The islands belong to the 
 British, who have a settlement in East Falkland, called 
 Stanley. 
 
 Book XCI. 
 
 Civil wars and dissensions for a long time have 
 prevented the improvement and development of this 
 fine country ; but it is hoped that a new era has com- 
 menced. 
 
 URUGUAY. 
 
 Area, 75,000 square miles; population, 250,000. 
 
 The republic of Uruguay lies north of the River La 
 Plata, and between the River Uruguay and the At- 
 lantic, being bounded north by Brazil. The territory 
 is a vast undulating plain, with the central parts some- 
 what elevated and broken by ridges and hills of mod- 
 erate height. The climate is humid, but temperate 
 and healthy. The extensive plains are covered with 
 rich pasturage, and are roamed over by vast herds of 
 cattle and horses, which form the chief source of the 
 wealth of the country. The soil, where cultivated, is 
 good, and wheat and other cereals, maize and other 
 products of the temperate zone, flourish, but the agri- 
 culture is rude and limited. Wars with Buenos 
 Ayres and the Argentine Republic have prevented the 
 development of the resources of the country, but the 
 prospect is now more encouraging ; and as the laws 
 offer liberal inducements to immigration, Uruguay 
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 Area, 3,004,460 square miles, or, by other authority, 
 3,956,800 square miles ; population, 6,065,000. In this 
 number are included 3,500,000 slaves, 500,000 free per- 
 sons of color, and the savage tribes are not included. 
 
 The surface of Brazil is about equally divided into 
 upland and lowland, the former comprising the hilly 
 districts and table lands of the eastern, southern, and 
 central parts, and the latter comprising the woody dis- 
 tricts of the Amazon and the llanos or plains of the 
 northern and north-eastern parts. There are several 
 mountain ranges of moderate elevation, the principal of 
 which is nearly parallel to the Atlantic coast. The 
 highest mountain peak is the isolated mountain of 
 Itambe, which is estimated to be 8,426 feet high. The 
 river system is hardly equalled in any other country, 
 and affords great facilities for communication and 
 transportation. Steam navigation is now introduced 
 on some of the most important rivers. 
 
 Brazil has been famous for its gold and diamonds, 
 being richer in the latter than any other country. 
 The amount of gold found has greatly diminished of 
 late years, the auriferous sands being mostly ex- 
 hausted. 
 
702 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 The most valuable products are the agricultural, 
 coffee and sugar being produced in large quantities ; 
 and in the different parts of the country various fruits 
 and grains of the tropics and temperate zones yielding 
 abundantly. The quantity of coffee annually produced 
 is now about 500,000,000 pounds, and is constantly 
 increasing. In 1857, nearly 200,000,000 pounds 
 were exported to the United States, and a little more 
 than that to Europe. The total export of sugar is 
 about 300,000,000 pounds. 
 
 The government of Brazil is an empire, but it is a 
 representative and constitutional monarchy, and ex- 
 ceedingly liberal. Education is cared for, internal im- 
 provements fostered, the general interests of commerce 
 promoted, the freedom of the press secured, and the 
 elective franchise enjoyed to some extent. Slavery 
 exists, but manumission is easy, and the emancipated 
 slave finds all positions and offices open to him. The 
 stability of the government and its internal peace 
 have given advantages to Brazil not enjoyed by the 
 other South American states, and it is by far the 
 most prosperous and important. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population, (1850.) 
 
 Rio Janeiro, the 
 
 capital, . . . 170,000 
 
 sometimes esti- 
 mated at . . 400,000 
 Bahia, .... 120,000 
 Pernambuco, . . 38,000 
 
 Maranham, . . 30,000 
 
 San Paulo, 
 Villa Bella, 
 Para, . . 
 
 Parahiba, . 
 Villa Rica, 
 Santarem, . 
 
 Population, (1850.) 
 . . 22,000 
 . . 15,000 
 . . 10,000 
 . . 15,000 
 
 . . 10,000 
 . . 10,000 
 
 Book XCII. 
 
 GUIANA. 
 
 British Guiana , or Demerara. — Area, about 50,000 
 square miles; population, (1851,) 135,994; of whom 
 96,467 are whites, 7,682 coolies, and 14,251 negroes, 
 the Indian tribes not being included. The European 
 settlements extend along the coast, and about 50 miles 
 inland on the rivers Demerara, Berbia, and Corentyn. 
 The productions are sugar, molasses, rum, coffee, 
 timber, dyestuffs, Ac. 
 
 The colony is divided into three counties, Demerara, 
 Essequibo, and Berbia. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. Population. 
 
 Georgetown, the cap., 25,508 New Amsterdam, 5,000 
 
 Dutch Guiana, ov Surinam. — Area, about 30,000 
 square miles ; population, (1856,) 52,533, of whom 
 five sixths are negroes. The productions are similar 
 to those of British Guiana. 
 
 The chief town is, — 
 
 Paramaribo, the capital, population, 20,000 
 
 Slavery was abolished in Dutch Guiana in 1851, but 
 the negroes were required to work as apprentices till 
 1863. 
 
 French Guiana, or Cayenne. — Area, 14,000 square 
 miles; population, (1851,) 17,625; a large decrease 
 since 1836, and a decrease of 2,170 since 1846. The 
 soil and general character of the country is like those 
 of the last two, but the climate is not so healthy as that 
 of British Guiana, and the productions are the same, 
 with the addition of pepper and spices. Since 1848 
 the colony has been a penal settlement. 
 
 The chief town is, — 
 
 Cayenne, the capital, population, (1853,) .... 3,000 
 
 Area, estimated at 94,000 square miles, (sometimes 
 much larger,) but the boundaries are so uncertain 
 that an accurate estimate is impossible. A portion of 
 what was formerly called Guiana is now comprised 
 within the limits of Brazil. The coast is low and flat, 
 and for a distance varying from 40 to 70 miles the 
 country preserves the same low and flat surface, its 
 average elevation being scarcely above high water, and 
 in some places dikes being necessary to keep out the sea. 
 Beyond that there are low hills, and then an elevated 
 plateau, and occasional ridges and hills, succeeded by 
 another low plain, and in the south-west a chain of 
 mountains of moderate height. The soil is very fertile, 
 and the low lands are covered with water during the 
 rainy season, which leaves a rich deposit. The climate 
 is equable, and not excessively hot, and, except in 
 some localities, is healthy and pleasant. Vegetation is 
 luxuriant, and there is a magnificent growth of timber, 
 much of which is very valuable. The cultivated crops 
 are sugar-cane, tobacco, rice, indigo, maize, coffee, 
 Ac. The culture of cotton is now nearly abandoned. 
 Among the native fruits are pine-apples, guavas, cacao, 
 Ac. 
 
 Guiana is divided into the three colonies of British, 
 Dutch, and French Guiana. 
 
 Book XCIII. 
 
 WEST INDIA ISLANDS, OR “COLUMBIAN ARCHI- 
 PELAGO. 
 
 This Archipelago is divided into three groups, the 
 Bahama Isles, the Greater Antilles, and the Lesser 
 Antilles, or Caribbean Isles. Besides these there are 
 several islands along the coast of South America, 
 which are sometimes called the Lesser Antilles. The 
 entire area, including the small islands, is about 
 90,000 square miles ; population, about 3,590,000. 
 
 The islands are mostly in the possession of European 
 powers, the extent of whose colonial possessions here 
 on the inhabited islands is as follows : — 
 
 Area in Square Miles. Population. 
 
 British, 13,000 800,000 
 
 Spanish, 38,500 1,600.000 
 
 French, 1,026 250,500 
 
 Dutch, 450 27,000 
 
 Danish, 195 41,000 
 
 Swedish, 35 18,000 
 
 The following table shows the area, population, and 
 dominion of the principal islands : — 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Bahama Islands. 
 
 Abaco, Great and Little, 
 
 Andros 
 
 Crooked Isles, . . . . 
 
 Eleutherea, 
 
 Exuma, Great and Little, 
 Great Bahama, . . . 
 
 Great Key, 
 
 Inague, Great and Little, 
 Long Island, . . . . 
 
 Mariguana, 
 
 New Providence, . . . 
 Providenciales, . . . . 
 St. Salvador, . . . . 
 Watting Islands, . . . 
 
 Area in 
 Square 
 Miles. 
 
 Popula- 
 
 tion. 
 
 Dominion. 
 
 United 
 
 United 
 
 
 area 
 
 about 
 
 pop. 
 
 about 
 
 
 5,000 
 
 26,500 
 
 British. 
 
 Greater Antilles. 
 
 Caymanbrack, ' 
 Little Cayman, 
 
 
 200 
 
 British. 
 
 Great Cayman, 
 Cuba, .... 
 
 . . . 34,800 
 
 1,096,963 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 Isle of Pines, . 
 
 . . . 27,600 
 
 943,000 
 
 Independent. 
 
 Hayti, . . . 
 Jamaica, . . . 
 
 ... 600 
 
 1,400 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 . . . 4,256 
 
 377,433 
 
 British. 
 
 Porto Rico, . . 
 
 . . . 3,000 
 
 500,000 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 Lesser Antilles. 
 
 Windward, or .South Caribbee Islands. 
 
 Barbadoes, . . . 
 
 
 166 
 
 122,198' 
 
 
 Grenada,. . . . 
 
 Grenadines, . . . 
 
 
 125 
 
 32,671 
 
 
 St. Lucia, . . . 
 St. Vincent, . . 
 
 
 270 
 
 132 
 
 24,318 
 
 30,128 
 
 ” British. 
 
 Tobago, .... 
 
 
 970 
 
 14,794 
 
 
 Trinidad, . . . 
 
 
 . 2,400 
 
 68,645 J 
 
 
 Martinique, . . . 
 
 • 
 
 380 
 
 121,478 
 
 French. 
 
 Leeward 
 
 or North Caribbee Islands. 
 
 Anguilla, . . . 
 
 
 35 
 
 2,934 
 
 
 Antigua, .... 
 
 
 108 
 
 36,405 
 
 
 Barbuda, . . . 
 
 
 75 
 
 1,600 
 
 
 Dominica, . . . 
 
 
 . 275 
 
 22,200 
 
 
 Montserrat, . . . 
 
 
 47 
 
 7,365 
 
 > British. 
 
 Nevis, .... 
 
 
 20 
 
 10,200 
 
 
 Saba, 
 
 
 15 
 
 1,617 
 
 
 St. Christopher, . 
 
 
 68 
 
 23,133 
 
 
 St. Eustatius, . . 
 Deseadu, . . . 
 
 
 190 
 
 1,903 J 
 
 
 Guadeloupe, . . 
 Marie Galante, 
 
 
 534 
 
 129,050 
 
 • French. 
 
 
 60 
 
 12,749 
 
 Les Saintes, . . 
 
 
 5 
 
 1,100 J 
 
 
 St. Martin, . . . 
 
 
 30 
 
 7,773 
 
 French and Dutch. 
 
 Santa Cruz, . . . 
 
 
 110 
 
 25,600 
 
 Danish. 
 
 
 
 Virgin Islands. 
 
 
 Anegada, . . . 
 Bieque, (Vieque,) . 
 Tortola, .... 
 Virgin Gorda, . . 
 
 
 13 
 
 *211 
 
 8,500 
 
 • British. 
 
 # 
 
 20 
 
 
 St. Jan, . . . . 
 
 St. Thomas, . . . 
 
 
 42 
 
 . 45 
 
 2,560 
 
 12,800 
 
 Danish. 
 
 Culebra, .... 
 
 
 18 
 
 300 
 
 Spanish. 
 
 703 
 
 BAHAMA ISLES. 
 
 These number some 500 in all, but many are mere 
 coral rocks. They are the least productive and valua- 
 ble of the great groups. The chief articles of export 
 are salt, (from Turk’s Island, principally,) sponge, 
 dyewoods, mahogany, and a little cotton. Nassau, on 
 the island of New Providence, is the capital ; popula- 
 tion, 7,000. 
 
 GREATER ANTILLES. 
 
 Cuba is the largest and richest of the West India 
 Islands. The latest estimates of its area are from 
 42,383 to 45,277 square miles. A range of moun- 
 tains extends longitudinally through the island, spread- 
 ing at the eastern end so as to occupy the greater 
 part of the surface, and reaching an altitude of about 
 8,000 feet. From the bases of the mountains, or high- 
 lands, the country opens into extensive plains and 
 meadows, every where covered with the most luxuriant 
 vegetation of the tropics. 
 
 Cuba is not deficient in mineral wealth, though its 
 resources in this respect have not been developed or 
 explored. Copper is mined in considerable quantities, 
 and coal has been found near Havana, but not yet 
 mined to any extent. The climate is equable and 
 generally healthy, the thermometer seldom rising 
 above 82° in summer, or sinking below 55° in winter. 
 The forests abound in valuable timber trees, such as 
 mahogany, cedar, and ebony. The principal cereal 
 crop is the indigenous maize, of which two crops are 
 raised annually. Rice is also grown extensively. 
 The principal crops for export are sugar, coffee, to- 
 bacco, with some cotton, indigo, and cocoa. Cattle 
 are also raised in the higher portions of the island. 
 Oranges and other tropical fruits are abundant 
 
 In 1852, there were on the island 7,979 tobacco 
 plantations, 1,560 sugar plantations, 1,218 coffee plan- 
 tations, 5,128 cattle farms, 224 cotton plantations, 34 
 cocoa plantations, &c. 
 
 From 1853 to 1858, the yearly exports of sugars 
 were from 700,000,000 to 750,000,000 pounds. The 
 cultivation of coffee is not so extensive as formerly. 
 
 In 1857, there were 397 miles of railroad in Cuba, 
 and steamboats ply between the different ports. The 
 electric telegraph extends between the principal towns. 
 
 The population of Cuba, in 1857, was 1,096,943, of 
 whom 549,674 were whites, 174,810 free colored, and 
 374,549 slaves. To this may be added 5,240 emanci- 
 pados, and 5,308 coolies. It is supposed that the 
 census is not complete, the number not reported being 
 chiefly slaves. 
 
 The government is vested in a viceroy, who is the 
 head of all departments, civil and military, and is re- 
 sponsible only to the Spanish government. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 South American Coast Islands. 
 
 Buenos Ayres, .... 
 
 80 
 
 1,955] 
 
 
 Cura(joa, 
 
 Omba, 
 
 250 
 
 15,164 | 
 
 > Dutch. 
 
 Tortuga, 
 
 Coche, 
 
 
 • : :J 
 
 
 Cubugua, (Cuagua,) . . . 
 
 Margarita, 
 
 540 
 
 15,000 j 
 
 . Venezuela. 
 
 Population, (1853.) 
 
 Havana, . . . 134,225 
 Puerto Principe,. 26,684 
 Matanzas, . . . 26,000 
 
 Population, (1853.) 
 
 Santiago de Cuba, 24,253 
 Trinidad, . . . 14,119 
 
 Guanabucoa, . . 8,100 
 
 Porto Rico , the other principal island belonging to 
 Spain, is the fourth in size of the Greater Antilles. It 
 lies east of Hayti, from which it is separated by the 
 
 — 
 
704 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Mona passage. A range of wooded mountains runs 
 through the island from east to west, the highest peak 
 of which is 3,678 feet high. In the interior are exten- 
 sive savannas, on which numerous herds are pastured. 
 On the north side are numerous navigable lagoons, but 
 few safe harbors. The soil is every where fertile, 
 though but a small proportion of it is under cultiva- 
 tion, and the climate is more salubrious than in the other 
 islands of the Antilles. Gold is found in some of the 
 streams flowing from the mountains, and copper, iron, 
 lead, and coal have been found, but are not mined in 
 any quantity. The agricultural products are sugar, 
 rum, molasses, coffee, tobacco, rice, hides, dyewoods, 
 timber, &c. 
 
 The island is governed by a captain-general, with 
 powers similar to those of the captain-general of Cuba. 
 
 The population, by recent estimates, is about 500,000, 
 of whom 50,000 are slaves. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. Population. 
 
 San Juan, the capi- Guayamas, . . . 5,000 
 
 tal, (on a small Mayaguez, . . . 
 
 island off the N. 
 
 coast,) . . . 12,000 
 
 Hayti , or St. Domingo. — The second in size of the 
 Greater Antilles, lying south-east of Cuba, from which 
 it is separated by the Windward Passage. The island 
 is very irregular in form, and the numerous indenta- 
 tions of the coast afford many excellent harbors. 
 
 There are three chains of mountains connected by 
 transverse chains, and between them are extensive 
 savannas, the principal of which is the Yega Real, or 
 Royal Valley, 130 miles long, and watered by the rivers 
 Yagui and Yuma. The highest mountain peak is in 
 the central chain, and is 7,200 feet high. There are 
 numerous rivers, mostly flowing west, south, or east. 
 Most of them are obstructed by sand bars, and are not 
 navigable. There are many lakes in the island, two 
 of which are salt. The minerals are gold, silver, plat- 
 inum, mercury, copper, iron, tin, sulphur, manganese, 
 antimony, &c. The gold mines have been abandoned, 
 and but little is done with the other minerals for want 
 of capital and machinery. 
 
 The climate is hot and moist, but generally salubri- 
 ous. The soil is fertile over the entire island. The 
 mountains are covered with the most valuable timber, 
 — mahogany, cedar, lignum-vitse, &c., — and on the 
 lower grounds are great varieties of tropical fruits, veg- 
 etables, and flowering plants. The staple articles of ag- 
 riculture are coffee, cacao, sugar, indigo, cotton, and 
 tobacco, but the production is not so great as formerly, 
 the natural products of the island being now exported 
 to a greater extent. The island is capable of pro- 
 ducing great quantities of all the above articles, but 
 agriculture is in a primitive state, and is pursued with- 
 out vigor or enterprise. 
 
 Hayti has been subject to destructive earthquakes, 
 the last most serious one of which was in 1842, when 
 many towns were destroyed, and thousands of lives 
 were lost. 
 
 The island is politically divided into two republics, 
 the black republic of Hayti in the west, and the 
 Dominican republic in the east, corresponding mainly 
 
 to the territory of the French and Spanish colonies 
 
 respectively. 
 
 The republic of Hayti contains about 10,000 square 
 miles, and a population estimated at 550,000 to 572,- 
 000. The annual value of exports is stated at about 
 $ 6 , 000 , 000 . 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. 
 
 Port au Prince, the 
 
 capital, . . . 25,000 
 Cape Haytien, . . 6,000 
 
 Population. 
 
 Gonaives, . . . 
 
 Jacmel, .... 6,000 
 
 Jeremie, .... 5,000 
 
 The Dominican republic comprises nearly three 
 fifths of the island, or an area of 17,500 square miles. 
 The population is about 136,000, of whom one tenth 
 claim to be whites, the remainder being of African and 
 mixed descent. The agricultural resources of the 
 republic are very great, and the mineral resources are 
 considerable, but neither are developed. Political dis- 
 turbances and revolutions have retarded its progress. 
 The most recent is the renewal of the sovereignty of 
 Spain, which has recently been brought about, (1861.) 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. 
 
 San Domingo, the capital, 10,000 
 
 Santiago de los Caballeros, 12,000 
 
 Jamaica. — The third in size of the Greater Antilles, 
 and the largest of the British West India Islands, lies 
 south of Cuba. There is a range of mountains, called 
 Blue Mountains, extending through the island, the 
 highest of which are Blue Mountain Peak, 7,770 feet 
 high, and Portland Gap Ridge, 6,501. According to 
 other authorities the highest peaks are 8,184 and 7,656 
 feet high. From these mountains more than 200 
 streams flow into the sea, the largest of which, Black 
 River, is navigable for small vessels about 30 miles. 
 
 Lead is found in some quantities, and copper, silver, 
 zinc, antimony, iron, and some gold have been found, 
 but, with the exception of copper, are not mined. 
 But the vegetable productions form the chief source 
 of the wealth of the island. The forests furnish quan- 
 tities of the most valuable timber, as rosewood, satin- 
 wood, mahogany, lignum-vitse, ebony, cedar, logwood, 
 &c. Coffee is cultivated on the high grounds ; the 
 low grounds yield abundantly the sugar-cane, cacao, 
 pimento, ginger, indigo, tobacco, plantain, banana, 
 yam, &c., while the pine-apple, orange, lemon, fig, 
 and a variety of other tropical fruits are plentiful ; and 
 the grape and apple are also grown in some parts of 
 the island. Sugar, rum, ginger, pimento, and coffee 
 are the principal articles of export, but none of these, 
 except pimento, is exported so extensively as before 
 the emancipation of the slaves, in 1833. 
 
 The climate is very hot on the low lands, but among 
 the mountains it is much cooler, and ice is sometimes 
 formed on the highest peaks. On the low lands it is 
 unhealthy, fever and ague prevailing in some parts, 
 and the yellow fever and cholera are sometimes very 
 destructive. 
 
 By the census of 1844, (the last previous to 1861,) 
 the population was 377,433, of whom 15,776 are 
 whites, and the remainder negroes and mulattoes. In 
 1849, Governor Grey estimated the population at 
 
 J 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 705 
 
 400,000. Between 1840 and 1856, about 18,000 
 coolies and other emigrants were brought into the 
 island, while in 1850 and 1851 nearly 40,000 persons 
 died of cholera and small pox. 
 
 There is a railway from Kingston to Spanish Town, 
 and communication by steam with England semi- 
 monthly. The island is divided into three counties. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. 
 
 Spanish Town, the 
 
 capital, . . . 7,000 
 
 Kingston, . . . 32,000 
 
 Montego Bay, 
 Falmouth, . 
 Port Royal, . 
 
 Population. 
 
 . 4,000 
 
 LESSER ANTILLES. 
 
 Of the Lesser Antilles, the principal islands of the 
 Windward group belong to the British, with the excep- 
 tion of Martinique, which belongs to the French. 
 
 Trinidad is the largest, and is the southernmost 
 of the Lesser Antilles, being at the mouth of the Gulf 
 of Paria, in South America. Much of the island is 
 rugged and mountainous, some of the peaks being 
 3,000 feet high, but there are extensive plains and sa- 
 vannas. In the south-western part are several mud 
 volcanoes. The island is covered with a perpetual 
 verdure, is well watered, and seldom subject to droughts. 
 The climate is healthy, and the soil is generally very 
 fertile. The mountains are covered with timber of the 
 most valuable kinds, and in the open lands sugar-cane, 
 cocoa, or cacao, coffee, and cotton are grown. The 
 population, in 1851, was 68,645. 
 
 The chief town is, — 
 
 Port of Spain, the capital, and a beautiful town; pop., 11,700. 
 
 Barbadoes is the oldest British colony in the West 
 Indies, and is the residence of the governor of the 
 British possessions in the Windward Islands. Its 
 chief mineral is bituminous coal. It is healthy, and 
 the soil is very fertile. Of 106,470 acres, which the 
 island contains, 100,000 are cultivated, and 40,000 
 are planted with sugar-cane, of which the yield is 
 abundant, and the export has increased, while in other 
 islands it has decreased. It is very densely populated, 
 and in a flourishing condition. 
 
 The chief town is, — 
 
 Bridgetown, the capital ; population, 25,000 
 
 Of the other British islands of the Windward group, — 
 
 Tobago is for the most part rocky and rugged, with 
 some fertile valleys, and lowlands and plains in the 
 southern part. The climate is unhealthy. The prin- 
 cipal product is sugar. The chief town and capital is 
 Scarborough. 
 
 Saint Lucia is of volcanic origin, and has several 
 mountain peaks, which were evidently volcanoes. The 
 soil is very fertile, but the climate is insalubrious. The 
 principal product is sugar. The chief town is Castine, 
 the capital. 
 
 Saint Vincent is also of volcanic origin, and has a 
 chain of mountains running through it from north to 
 south, with lateral branches. The low land is very 
 fertile, the principal product being sugar. The chief 
 town is Kingstown, the capital. 
 
 Grenada is another volcanic island, with a chain of 
 
 VOL. III.— NO. 64 89 
 
 mountains extending through it. It is a beautiful isl- 
 and, with a rich soil, well watered and wooded. The 
 principal production is sugar, though cotton was for- 
 merly cultivated. 
 
 Martinique belongs to the French. It is a volcanic 
 island, with high mountains, and valleys of great fer- 
 tility. The highest peak is 4,450 feet high, and there 
 are six extinct volcanoes on the island. The principal 
 productions are sugar, coffee, cocoa, and cotton. The 
 chief town is St. Pierre. 
 
 In the Leeward Islands the British possess nine. Of 
 these, the most important are as follows : — 
 
 Antigua , which has rugged coasts and a diversified 
 interior, with a climate of remarkable dryness. It 
 produces sugar and grain. Chief town and capital, St. 
 John’s. 
 
 St. Christopher , or St. Kitts , an island of volcanic 
 origin, with a high peak in the central part, from which 
 the land slopes on all sides to the sea. The climate is 
 dry and healthy, and the soil fertile and highly culti- 
 vated, the principal production being sugar. 
 
 Dominica , the most elevated of the Lesser Antilles, 
 the highest peak being 5,314 feet. It has fertile val- 
 leys, and abounds in valuable timber. The prod- 
 ucts are sugar, coffee, cocoa, &c. The other British 
 islands of this group are of less importance. 
 
 The French possess four, and part of another in this 
 group. The most important of these is, — 
 
 Guadaloupe , which is composed of two distinct 
 islands, separated by Salt River, a narrow stream or 
 strait. The surface is rugged in that part called 
 Guadaloupe Proper, which is of volcanic origin, and 
 there are high mountains, the most prominent of which 
 is La Souffriere, which is 5,108 feet high. The other 
 part is low and flat. The climate is hot and un- 
 healthy ; the soil of the valleys is fertile and well cul- 
 tivated, and in the mountainous parts are fine forests. 
 The chief product is Tahiti and sugar-cane. The 
 island is subject to destructive hurricanes. A severe 
 earthquake took place here in 1843, when Point a 
 Petre, an important seaport, was destroyed, and other 
 places damaged. 
 
 St. Martin belongs, the north part to the French, 
 and south part to the Dutch. It is a hilly island, and 
 the climate is tolerably healthy. The French portion 
 is the most fertile, sugar being a chief product. Many 
 cattle are also reared. The population of the two 
 colonies is about equal. The other French islands are 
 of little importance. 
 
 St. Bartholomew , the only Swedish colony in Amer- 
 ica, is a small island, quite fertile, but destitute of fresh 
 water. Its products are sugar, cotton, tobacco, and 
 cocoa. 
 
 The Danish West India possessions consist of three 
 islands, belonging to the Virgin group, the largest of 
 which is, — 
 
 Santa Cruz , or St. Croix. — This island is gener- 
 ally flat, and is well watered and fertile. A large 
 proportion of the soil is under cultivation, the princi- 
 pal crop being sugar-cane, though some indigo, coffee, 
 and cotton are raised. Christianstadt is the chief 
 town and capital. 
 
 The other Danish islands, St. John and St. Thomas , 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Adrianople, . . 160,000 
 Salonica, . . . 75,000 
 of whom 30,000 
 are Jews. 
 
 Bucharest, . . . 60,700 
 
 Bosna Serai, . . 60,000 
 
 Sophia, .... 50,000 
 
 Rodosto, 
 
 Population. 
 
 . . . 40,000 
 
 Galatz, . 
 
 . . . 36,000 
 
 Scutari, . 
 
 . . . 40,000 
 
 Yaniva, . 
 
 . . . 36,000 
 
 Belgrade, 
 
 . . . 30,000 
 
 Shumla,. 
 
 . . . 21,000 
 
 Widin, . 
 
 . . . 25,000 
 
 706 
 
 are not very productive, but St. Thomas is a place of 
 great commercial importance, having a free harbor, 
 and being the centre of trade for some of the other 
 islands. 
 
 Tortola , the principal British island of the Virgin 
 group, is a hilly island, fertile but unhealthy. The 
 other British islands are of little importance. 
 
 The islands on the South American coast are some- 
 times called the Lesser Antilles, while the Windward 
 and Leeward groups are called the Caribbee Islands. 
 There are seven principal islands, of which the Dutch 
 possess four, and three belong to Venezuela. The 
 only two of importance are Curagoa, (Dutch,) and 
 Margarita , (Venezuelan.) CuraQoa is somewhat 
 rugged and hilly. Iron and copper are found there, 
 but not mined. The soil is not rich, and is destitute 
 of water, though some sugar, indigo, and cotton are 
 raised. The chief article of export is salt, which is of 
 the finest quality. Margarita is arid and barren on 
 the coast, but the interior is fertile, producing maize, 
 sugar, coffee, cotton, &c. There are some minor man- 
 ufactures, and considerable trade is carried on with 
 some of the West India islands. 
 
 Book XCIV. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Area, 3,830,000 square miles ; population, about 
 270,000,000. 
 
 The general description of Europe, which is the 
 most fully known of all the grand divisions of the 
 earth, its physical geography, &c., are fully given in 
 the text. The present condition of its political geog- 
 raphy is as follows, in the order of the text : — 
 
 Books XCVIL — C. 
 
 EUROPEAN TURKEY. 
 
 Area, including Wallachia, Servia, and Moldavia, 
 203,628 square miles ; population, 15,500,000. 
 
 Of the inhabitants, 3,800,000 are Mohammedans. 
 
 11,370,000 Greeks and Armenians. 
 
 260,000 Roman Catholics. 
 
 70,000 Jews. 
 
 The tenure of the Ottoman empire in the Danubian 
 provinces is somewhat uncertain, and is still a matter 
 of dispute among the great powers of Europe. It is 
 most probable that the European part of the Ottoman 
 empire, which is not its most important part, and con- 
 tains but a small proportion of Mohammedans, the nat- 
 ural supporters of the empire, will gradually diminish 
 under its native weakness and the jealousy and influ- 
 ence of the great powers. The present sultan (1862) 
 is, however, introducing reforms which will strengthen 
 his empire. 
 
 The chief towns and population are, — 
 
 Constantinople ; pop., (including suburbs,) about . 800,000 
 
 The suburbs of Constantinople, 15 in number, are 
 like independent cities in some respects. About one 
 half the population are Mussulman. 
 
 Books CL — CIII. 
 
 HUNGARY. — See Austria. 
 
 Books CIV. — CXII. 
 
 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 
 
 Area, 2,142,504 square miles ; population, 60,098,- 
 821. 
 
 Russia is divided as follows, for administrative pur- 
 
 poses : — 
 
 Area in Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population, (1851.) 
 
 Great Russia, . . . 
 
 . . . 893,913 
 
 20,700,497 
 
 Little Russia, . . . 
 
 . . . 81,213 
 
 6,046,467 
 
 South Russia, . . . 
 
 . . . 176,329 
 
 4,234,329 
 
 West Russia, . . . 
 
 . . . 162,757 
 
 8,021,510 
 
 Baltic Provinces, . . 
 
 . . . 57,809 
 
 2,216,936 
 
 Finland, 
 
 . . . 146,489 
 
 1,636,915 
 
 Kezan, 
 
 . . . 250,480 
 
 6,990,580 
 
 Astrakhan, . . . . 
 
 . . . 323,420 
 
 5,939,532 
 
 Poland, 
 
 . . . 49,734 
 
 4,852,055 
 
 Total, . . . 
 
 . . 2,142,504 
 
 60,098,821 
 
 The government of Russia is an absolute monarchy, 
 the supreme power being vested in the czar. Al- 
 though sometimes termed a despotism, under the late 
 emperors the despotic power has been somewhat re- 
 laxed, and tlie present czar, Alexander II., has taken 
 steps for the emancipation of the serfs. The military 
 power of Russia is greater than that of any other coun- 
 try, the army numbering nearly 800,000 men ; and the 
 navy, notwithstanding the limited seacoast and com- 
 merce, numbers 60 ships of the line, 37 frigates, 7 0 cor- 
 vettes and small vessels, and 40 steamers, the whole 
 carrying 9,000 guns, 42,000 seamen, and 200,000 
 marines and artillerists. 
 
 Books CXIIL, CXIV. 
 
 POLAND. 
 
 This kingdom has been divided between Russia, 
 Austria, and Prussia. Successive partitions occurred 
 from 1772 to 1795, which nominal protectorates finally 
 resulted in the absolute partition, and the parts are now 
 incorporated into the dominions of the above-named 
 powers. The attempt of the Poles to establish their 
 independence in 1830, had the effect to bind the chains 
 more tightly, and the country was then made integral 
 parts of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. The republic 
 of Cracow, established by the allied powers in 1815, 
 existed till 1846, when it was seized by Austria, and 
 incorporated with her portion of Poland, the kingdom 
 of Gallicia. A new insurrection has recently occurred, 
 (1863.) 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 707 
 
 Books CXY., CXVIL, CXX. 
 
 PRUSSIA. 
 
 (Partly included under tlie head of Germany in the text.) 
 
 Area, 109,314 square miles ; population, (1852,) 
 16,935,420. 
 
 The principal provinces of Prixssia are Prussia 
 Proper, Posen, Brandenburg, Pomerania, Silicia, Sax- 
 on)'-, Westphalia, Rhine. The principalities of Hohen- 
 zollern have lately been added to Prussia. Of the 
 population, about 10,000,000 are Protestants. 
 
 In education, Prussia has taken the lead of the Eu- 
 ropean nations. In 1849, the number of schools 
 established by government was, — 
 
 Teachers. 
 
 Elementary schools, 24,201 30,865 
 
 Higher schools, 505 2,269 
 
 Upper female schools, 385 1,918 
 
 Gymnasia, 117 1,664 
 
 Pupils attending, 2,605,408 ; Universities, 7 ; Normal semi- 
 naries, 46. 
 
 The army, (regular,) on a peace footing, numbers 
 about 250,000 ; the Landwehr, or provincial army, 
 numbers about 350,000. The navy consists of about 
 60 vessels, with 300 guns. 
 
 Books CXYI. — CXXIX. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 The area of the states, kingdoms, and principalities 
 of the Germanic Confederation is about 235,000 
 square miles, and the population about 42,000,000. 
 
 The confederation comprises a third part of Austria, 
 nearly all of Prussia, a part of Denmark, (the duchies 
 of Holstein and Lauenburg,) the duchy of Luxem- 
 burg, besides twenty-nine independent states and four 
 free cities. The confederation is for defensive pur- 
 poses and the regulation of commerce, to some extent, 
 and its head is the Emperor of Austria, though there 
 has long been a rivalry between Austria and Prussia 
 for a controlling influence in the confederation. Those 
 parts of the confederation belonging to Austria, Prus- 
 sia, &c., are more properly comprised under those coun- 
 tries. The twenty-nine independent states and four 
 free cities compose 
 
 GERMANY PROPER. 
 
 Area, about 90,000 square miles ; population, about 
 16,000,000. 
 
 The states of Germany Proper are as follows : — 
 
 Grand Duchy of Oldenburg, .... 
 
 Kingdom of Hanover, 
 
 Grand Duchies of Mecklenberg Schwerin, 
 “ “ “ Strelitz, 
 
 Duchy of Brunswick, 
 
 Kingdom of Saxony, 
 
 Duchy of Anhalt Dessau, 
 
 “ “ Bernberg, 
 
 Population. 
 
 283,665 
 
 1,819,253 
 
 541,450 
 
 99,628 
 
 271,208 
 
 1,987,832 
 
 90.000 
 
 72.000 
 
 to 
 
 Population. 
 
 60,847 
 60,038 
 35,159 
 79,824 
 4,559,452 
 132,850 
 262,524 
 150,412 
 166,364 
 7,360 
 1,815,686 
 
 65,574 
 1,356,943 
 854,319 
 759,751 
 24,921 
 429,341 
 59,697 
 106,615 
 30,226 
 74,000 
 200,690 
 77,970 
 55,500 
 
 The chief towns of Germany are, — 
 
 Dresden, capital of Saxonia, 94,092 
 
 Hamburg, 161,390 
 
 Munich, capital of Bavaria, 95,531 
 
 Bremen, the city alone, 53,156 
 
 Frankfort, 62,511 
 
 Leipsic, 65,370 
 
 Nuremberg, 45,381 
 
 Hanover, capital of Hanover, 42,484 
 
 Brunswick, capital of Brunswick, 42,000 
 
 Cassel, capital of Hesse Cassel, 34,547 
 
 Stuttgard, capital of Wirtemberg, 30,000 
 
 Mayence, or Mentz, 31,345 
 
 Darmstadt, of Darmstadt, 27,000 
 
 Carlsruhe, capital of Baden, 25,700 
 
 Lubec, the city alone, 27,000 
 
 Wurzburg, 26,814 
 
 Ratisbon, 23,000 
 
 Heidelberg, 12,048 
 
 Books CXXV. — CXXIX. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 Area, about 250,000 square miles; population, 
 about 34,000,000. 
 
 The provinces of Austria are, — 
 
 Principalities Schwarzberg Sondershausen, 
 
 Rudolstadt, 
 
 Reuss Principalities, old line, . 
 
 new line, . 
 
 Kingdom of Bavaria, .... 
 
 Saxon Duchies: Saxe Altenberg, 
 
 Weimar, . . 
 
 Coburg-Gotha, 
 
 Meiningen, . . 
 
 Principality of Leichtenstein, . 
 
 Kingdom of Wirtemberg, . . 
 
 Principalities of Hohenzollern, (annexe* 
 
 Prussia,) 
 
 Grand Duchy of Baden, . . . 
 
 Hessian States : Hesse Darmstadt, 
 
 “ Cassel, . 
 
 “ Homberg, 
 
 Duchy of Nassau, 
 
 Principality of Waldeck, . . 
 
 Lippe Detmold, 
 
 Lippe Schaumberg 
 Free Cities : Bremen, .... 
 
 Hamburg, . . . 
 
 Frankfort, . . . 
 
 Lubec, .... 
 
 Lower Austria, 
 
 Upper Austria, 
 Salzburg, 
 
 Styria, 
 
 Carinthia, 
 
 Carniola, 
 
 Littorale, 
 
 Tyrol and Vorarlburg, 
 Bohemia, 
 
 Moravia, 
 
 Silicia, 
 
 Galicia, 
 
 Bukowina, 
 
 Dalmatia, 
 
 Yenetia, 
 
 Hungary, 
 
 Servia, 
 
 Croatia and Slavonia, 
 Transylvania, 
 Military Frontier. 
 
 Lombardy was included in the Austrian empire till 
 1859, when it was liberated from Austrian rule, and 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 708 
 
 forms a part of the new kingdom of Italy, reducing 
 the area of Austria about 8,000 square miles, and the 
 population about 2,700,000. Of the population, 7,000,- 
 000 are Germans, 15,000,000 Slavonians, 6,000,000 
 Magyars, 5,000,000 Italians, and the remainder Jews, 
 Gypsies, Tartars, and Greeks. 
 
 The army of Austria consists of about 450,000 men 
 in time of peace, which may be increased to 650,000 
 in time of war. The navy consists of 100 vessels, 
 (mostly small,) with 700 guns. 
 
 Books CL — CIII. 
 
 HUNGARY, 
 
 Though named as a separate political division, is 
 a part of the Austrian empire, and after the unsuccess- 
 ful attempt at revolution, in 1848, the Hungarian con- 
 stitution was abrogated, and it has been made less 
 independent than before. Certain reforms have been in- 
 stituted in 1861, apparently for the restoration of some 
 of the independence of the ancient kingdom, together 
 with its constitution, but they have not yet proved 
 satisfactory to the Hungarians, and another revolution 
 is not improbable. Croatia and Slavonia, formerly 
 connected with Hungary, together with the Transyl- 
 vania countries and other provinces, in 1848, were 
 disconnected, and placed under different governments. 
 
 Hungary, thus reduced, contains 83,724 square 
 miles, and a population of 7,864,262. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 . Population. Population. 
 
 Presburg, . . . 38,000 Buda, .... 40,500 
 
 Pesth, (1854,) . 100,000 
 
 Book CXXX. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Area, 15,261 square miles ; population, 2,390,116. 
 Switzerland still retains its territory and government 
 as established by the congress of Vienna in 1815. 
 
 The chief towns and their population, by census of 
 1850, are, — 
 
 Population. 
 
 Basil, in Canton of Basil, 27,313 
 
 Berne, “ Berne, 27,758 
 
 Geneva, “ Geneva, 29,108 
 
 Lausanne, “ Vaud, 20,000 
 
 Zurich, “ Zurich, 17,040 
 
 Lucerne, “ Lucerne, 10,068 
 
 St. Gall, “ St. Gall, 11,234 
 
 Books CXXXI. — CXXXVI. 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 The kingdom of Italy, as established by conquest 
 and revolution in 1859 and 1860, comprises all of the 
 country usually known by that name, except the States 
 of the Church and Venetia, or Venice, and the little 
 republic of San Marino, and the principality of Monaco, 
 both of which latter states are insignificant in extent 
 of territory and population. The several kingdoms and 
 
 duchies, except those above named, have been united 
 under the constitutional monarchy of Sardinia, which 
 has thus expanded into the kingdom of Italy. Lom- 
 bardy was wrested from the Austrians by the Sardini- 
 ans, aided by the French. The duchies of Tuscany, 
 Parma, and Modena were revolutionized with the aid of 
 Sardinia, and annexed to the latter kingdom by popular 
 vote. Naples and Sicily were subsequently annexed 
 in a similar manner. Austria still holds Venetia, 
 and the States of the Church are still under the do- 
 minion of the pope, protected by French troops ; but 
 the indications are, that these important parts of the 
 country may also be annexed to the new kingdom of 
 Italy. Nice, a city in Piedmont, with its surrounding 
 territory, and a part of Savoy, have been annexed to 
 France. 
 
 The kingdom of Italy comprises, — 
 
 Area in Square Miles. Population. 
 
 Piedmont and Sardinia, . . . 28,229 5,090,245 
 
 Lombardy, a about 8,000 about 2,700,000 
 
 Tuscany, (including Lucca,) . . 8,586 1,807,000 
 
 Parma, 2,766 507,881 
 
 Modena, 2,073 605,194 
 
 Naples and Sicily, 41,906 8,704,472 
 
 Total, 91,560 19,204,742 
 
 The capital of the kingdom is Turin ; population, 
 143,157. 
 
 The other chief towns and population (1851-2) 
 
 are, — 
 
 Population. 
 
 
 Population 
 
 Milan, . 
 
 . 161,966 
 
 Pisa, . . 
 
 . . . 25,000 
 
 Naples, . . . 
 
 . 416,475 
 
 Lucca, . 
 
 . . . 22,000 
 
 Florence, . . 
 
 . 114,000 
 
 Palermo, 
 
 in Sicily, 167,222 
 
 Genoa, . . . 
 
 . 120,000 
 
 Messina, 
 
 “ . 97,074 
 
 Leghorn, . . 
 
 . 78,060 
 
 Catania, 
 
 “ . 54,167 
 
 Parma, . . . 
 
 . 40,900 
 
 Cagliari, 
 
 in Sar- 
 
 Modena, . . 
 Piacenza, . . 
 
 . 32,000 
 . 29,000 
 
 dinia, . 
 
 . . . 30,000 
 
 Monaco, a 
 
 small principality, between Nice and 
 
 Genoa, comprising an area of 53 square miles, and 
 containing a population of 6,800, is nominally inde- 
 pendent, but virtually under the protection of the 
 king of Italy. ~ 
 
 The Papal States, Pontifical States, or States of the 
 Church. — These states occupy the same territory, sub- 
 stantially, in the central part of Italy, as described 
 in the text. Area, 17,210 square miles ; population, 
 (1850,) 3,006,771. 
 
 The chief towns and population are, — 
 
 Population, (1852.) Population, (1852.) 
 
 Rome, .... 175.838 Ancona, . . . 36,000 
 
 Bol»gna, . . . 75,000 
 
 San Marino, a small republic, comprising only 22 
 square miles, and containing a population of 7,600, is 
 surrounded by the Papal States. 
 
 Austrian Italy now comprises the territory of Vene- 
 tian Italy, Lombardy having been annexed to Sardinia, 
 and now forming a part of the kingdom of Italy. Area, 
 
 a The boundaries do not exactly correspond with those of the 
 former Austrian province of Lombardy. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 about 17,800 square miles, 
 territory is about 2,800,000. 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. 
 
 Venice, .... 127,900 
 Verona,. . . . 48,000 
 
 Padua, .... 60,000 
 
 The population of the 
 
 Population. 
 
 Vicenza, . . . 33,000 
 Mantua, . . . 30,600 
 
 Islands, — 
 
 Area in Sq. Miles. Population. 
 
 Sardinia, 9,235 552,665 
 
 Sicily, 10,500 2,041,583 
 
 Lipari Islands, 22,000 
 
 belong to the kingdom of Italy, together with some 
 smaller islands. 
 
 Book CXXXVIII. 
 
 PORTUGAL. 
 
 Area, 35,268 square miles ; pop., (1850,) 8,471,203. 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population. Population. 
 
 Lisbon, the cap., . 280,000 Oporto, .... 80,000 
 
 Braga, .... 17,000 Elvas, .... 16,460 
 
 Portugal has valuable and extensive colonies, as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 Area in Sq. Miles. 
 
 Azores and Madeira, . . . 1,448 
 
 In Africa, 530,112 
 
 In Asia and Oceanica, . . 29,064 
 
 Population. 
 
 343,572 
 • 997,130 
 1,356,545 
 
 Book CXXXIX. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 Area, 193,244 square miles ; population, (I860,) 
 15,688,000. 
 
 Spain is now divided into 49 provinces, including 
 the Canary and Balearic Islands, (Majorca, Minorca, 
 Ivica,) for administrative purposes. 
 
 The chief towns are, — 
 
 Population, (1849-50.) 
 
 Population, (1849-50.) 
 
 Madrid, the cap. 
 
 . 260,700 
 
 Granada, . . 
 
 . 61,610 
 
 Barcelona, . . 
 
 . 121,815 
 
 Cadiz, . . . 
 
 . 53,920 
 
 Seville, . . . 
 
 . 100,498 
 
 Cordova, . . 
 
 Saragossa, . . 
 
 . 41,976 
 
 Murcia, . 
 
 . 55,000 
 
 . 30,000 
 
 Valladolid,. . 
 
 . 30,000 
 
 Santiago, . 
 
 . 29,000 
 
 Malaga, . . 
 
 . 68,577 
 
 Carthagena, . 
 
 . 28,000 
 
 The colonial possessions of Spain are, — 
 
 Area in Sq. Miles. Population. 
 
 In West Indies, .... 39,779 1,511,660 
 
 In Asiatic Islands, .... 52,148 2,679,500 
 
 In Africa, 516 17,071 
 
 In Oceanica, 592 
 
 During the last fifteen or twenty years, Spain, hav- 
 ing been comparatively free from internal dissensions, 
 
 JL 
 
 709 
 
 has increased in prosperity and national power, although 
 her policy is by no means a liberal one. 
 
 Books CXL. — CXLVI. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 Area, including Corsica, 200,671 square miles ; pop- 
 ulation, (1852,) 35,779,222. 
 
 The province of Nice, or department of Maritime 
 Alps, was annexed to France, by treaty, in 1860, 
 adding some 40,000 to the population. It had, at dif- 
 ferent periods, previously belonged to France. 
 
 The foreign or colonial possessions of the French 
 
 empire are as follows : — 
 
 Area in Sq. Miles. Population. 
 
 Algeria, 90,000 2,119,264 
 
 In West Africa, (Senegal,) .... 14,876 
 
 Bourbon, (island in Indian Ocean,) 1,000 108,000 
 
 St. Marie, “ “ “ 4,000 
 
 Asiatic Possessions, 170,000 
 
 In West Indies, (Martinique, 
 
 Guadaloupe, St. Martin, 
 
 Saintes Group, &c.,) . . . 1,200 270,718 
 
 In South America, (Guiana,) . 27,560 19,795 
 
 St. Pierre and Miquelon, (islands 
 on coast of N. America, near 
 Newfoundland,) ..... 85 2,000 
 
 In Oceanica, (the Marquesas, Taiti, New Caledonia, 
 
 &c.,) area and population unknown. 
 
 The imports into France, in 1851, were $231,600,000 
 in value, of which $27,400,000 were from the United 
 States, and $24,400,000 from Great Britain. The 
 exports for the same year amounted to $325,800,000, 
 of which $54,600,000 were to the United States, and 
 $59,000,000 to Great Britain. The exports of silks 
 amounted to upwards of $40,000,000 ; of wines, to 
 $16,000,000. In 1853, the number of miles of rail- 
 way in operation was 2,303, and 1,100 miles were in 
 course of construction. 
 
 Under the Emperor Napoleon III. the military 
 power of Fi-ance has been increased, and is one of the 
 most formidable, though not the greatest numerically, 
 in Europe. The army numbers upwards of 400,000 
 men. The navy comprises 300 sail vessels, including 
 upwards of 50 of the very largest class, and nearly 200 
 steam vessels, many of the largest class, and several 
 
 steel or iron plated. 
 
 The chief towns in France are, — 
 
 Population. 
 
 Population. 
 
 Paris, . . . 
 
 . 1,053,262 
 
 Lyons, . . . 
 
 . 156,169 
 
 Marseilles, . 
 
 . 192,527 
 
 Bourdeaux, 
 
 . 130,927 
 
 Calais, . . 
 
 . 100,000 
 
 Rouen, . . . 
 
 . 100,265 
 
 Nantes, . . 
 
 96,360 
 
 Toulouse, . . 
 
 . 93,379 
 
 Toulon, . . 
 
 69,500 
 
 Strasbourg, 
 
 . 64,875 
 
 St. Etienne,. 
 
 56,000 
 
 Nismes, . . 
 
 . 53,619 
 
 Amiens, . . 
 
 52,149 
 
 Nancy, . . . 
 
 . 45,200 
 
 Orleans, . . 
 
 41,000 
 
 Montpellier, . 
 
 . 37,600 
 
 Avignon,. 
 
 35,890 
 
 Versailles, . . 
 
 . 35,500 
 . 32,250 
 
 Brest, . . . 
 
 Grenoble, 
 Cherbourg, . 
 
 61,160 
 
 Dijon, . . . 
 
 Le Havre, . . 
 
 31,500 
 
 28,100 
 
 . 30,000 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Books CXLVII., CXLYIII. 
 
 SCANDINAVIAN PENINSULA. — KINGDOM OF 
 NORWAY AND SWEDEN. 
 
 Norway and Sweden, with separate constitutions, 
 nr c united under one king. 
 
 Norway. — Area, 123,386 square miles ; population, 
 1,330,000. 
 
 Chief towns, ■ 
 
 Population. 
 
 Population. 
 
 1830, the Belgians revolted, and established an inde- 
 pendent constitutional monarchy, of great liberality. 
 
 Eight ninths of the territory of Belgium is profitably 
 occupied for agriculture or other purposes. 
 
 Chief towns, — 
 
 Population. Population. 
 
 Brussels, the capi- Bruges, .• . 50,000 
 
 tal, (1857,). . 166,801 Liege, .... 66,500 
 
 Ghent, “ . . 108,925 Mechlin, . . . 27,500 
 
 Antwerp, (1855,) 79,000 
 
 Christiana, the cap- 
 ital 26,140 
 
 Bergen, .... 25,600 
 
 Sweden. — Area, 170,' 
 £1851,) 3,482,541. 
 
 Chief towns, — 
 
 Population. 
 
 Stockholm, the cap- 
 ital of the United 
 Kingdom, . . 93,070 
 
 Drontheim, . . . 12,800 
 Christiansand, . . 8,800 
 Dranmen, . . . 8,100 
 
 square miles ; population, 
 
 Population. 
 
 Gottenburg, . . 28,758 
 Carlscrona, . . . 12,000 
 Malmo, .... 10,503 
 
 Book CLI. 
 
 HOLLAND, OR KINGDOM OF NETHERLANDS. 
 
 Area, 13,643 square miles ; population, including 
 Luxembourg, (1853,) 3,962,290. 
 
 The grand duchy of Luxembourg is attached to the 
 Netherlands, though in some respects independent. 
 Its possession constitutes the king a member of the 
 German Confederation. 
 
 The Dutch colonial possessions are extensive, as 
 follows : — 
 
 Book CXLIX. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 The kingdom of Denmark, including the peninsula 
 f Jutland, the islands in the Baltic, and the duchies 
 f Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg, comprise an 
 rea of 23,642 square miles ; population, 2,106,500. 
 
 Besides the above, Denmark has possessions as fol- 
 
 iws : — 
 
 Area iu Sq. Miles. Population. 
 
 'eland, 38,400 57,500 
 
 reenland, 8,100 
 
 anta Cruz, St. Thomas, and 
 
 San Juan, in West Indies, 188 41,000 
 
 icobar Islands, in Indian Ocean, 640 6,000 
 
 
 Sq. Miles. 
 
 Population. 
 
 In Asia and Asiatic islands, 
 In South America and West 
 
 556,522 
 
 16,974,097 
 
 Indies, 
 
 In Africa, 
 
 60,372 
 
 90,581 
 
 10,664 
 
 100,000 
 
 Making a total population, including 
 
 the kingdom 
 
 proper, of 21,126,968. 
 
 
 Chief towns, — 
 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 Amsterdam, the 
 
 Utrecht, . 
 
 . . . 49,176 
 
 capital, . . . 228,800 
 
 Groningen, 
 
 . . . 31,000 
 
 Rotterdam, . . 88,850 
 
 The Hague, . . 72,467 
 
 Haarlem, 
 
 . . . 26,000 
 
 Books CLIL — CLVII. 
 
 Chief towns are, — 
 
 Population, (1852.) ' Population, (1852.) 
 
 openhagen, the Flensburg, . . . 16,500 
 
 capital, . . . 133,140 Kiel, 15,000 
 
 ltona, .... 32,500 Sleswick, . . . 12,000 
 
 Book CL. 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 Area, 11,400 square miles ; population, 4,359,090. 
 Belgium was united with Holland, under the king 
 the latter, by the allied powers, in 1815 ; but, in 
 
 THE BRITISH ISLES; 
 
 OR, THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND 
 IRELAND, 
 
 Consists of the large islands of Great Britain and 
 Ireland, and several smaller islands and groups lying 
 between the North Sea and Atlantic Ocein, and the 
 channels. 
 
 The area of Great Britain and Ireland is 120,416 
 square miles. Great Britain contains 87,903 square 
 miles ; Ireland, 32,513. The combined area of the 
 other islands is about 9,000 square miles. 
 
 Population of the United Kingdom , according to the Census of 1861. 
 
 
 Population Enumerated. 
 
 Increase in 1861. 
 
 Decrease in 1861. 
 
 1861. 
 
 1851. 
 
 Persons. 
 
 Rate per cent. 
 
 Persons. 
 
 Rate per cent. 
 
 gland and Wales, 
 
 20,061,725 
 
 17,927,609 
 
 2,134,116 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 Aland, 
 
 3,061,117 
 
 2,888,742 
 
 172,375 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 eland, 
 
 5,764,543 
 
 6,552,385 
 
 
 
 787,842 
 
 12 
 
 Lands in the British Seas, 
 
 143,779 
 
 143,126 
 
 653 
 
 
 
 
 Total of the United Kingdom, . . . 
 
 29,031,164 
 
 27,511,862 
 
 2,307,144 
 
 
 787,842 
 
 
 Net increase, 1,519,302, or 6 per cent. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 The following are some of the principal towns, and 
 the population a : — 
 
 In England. 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 
 Population. 
 
 London, . . . 
 
 2,362,236 
 
 Norwich, . . 
 
 . 68,706 
 
 Liverpool, . . 
 
 376,000 
 
 Leicester, . . 
 
 . 60,584 
 
 Manchester, (in- 
 
 
 Bath, .... 
 
 . 54,240 
 
 eluding Sal- 
 
 
 Nottingham, 
 
 . 57,407 
 
 ford,) . . . 
 
 401,321 
 
 Plymouth, . . 
 
 . 52,221 
 
 Birmingham, . 
 
 232,841 
 
 Wolverhampton, 
 
 . 49,985 
 
 Leeds, . . . 
 
 171,805 
 
 Derby, . . . 
 
 . 40,609 
 
 Sheffield, . . 
 
 135,310 
 
 Macclesfield, 
 
 . 39,048 
 
 Bristol, . . . 
 
 137,328 
 
 York, .... 
 
 . 36,303 
 
 Greenwich, . . 
 
 105,784 
 
 Southampton, . 
 
 . 35,305 
 
 Newcastle upon 
 
 
 Cheltenham, 
 
 . 35,000 
 
 Tyne, . . . 
 
 87,784 
 
 Exeter, . . . 
 
 . 32,500 
 
 Hull, .... 
 
 82,520 
 
 Yarmouth, . . 
 
 . 31,000 
 
 Portsmouth, 
 
 72,096 
 
 Cambridge, . . 
 
 . 27,803 
 
 Brighton, . . 
 
 69,673 
 
 Oxford, . . . 
 
 . 27,843 
 
 Preston, . . . 
 
 69,550 
 
 Worcester, . . 
 
 . 27,500 
 
 
 In Scotland. 
 
 
 Edinburgh, 
 
 . 158,015 
 
 Paisley, . . . 
 
 . 47,952 
 
 Glasgow, . . 
 
 . 347,000 
 
 Leith, .... 
 
 
 Dundee, . . 
 
 . 78,829 
 
 Perth, . . . 
 
 . 23,835 
 
 Aberdeen, . . 
 
 . 73,400 
 
 Montrose, . . 
 
 . 15,000 
 
 Greenock, . . 
 
 . 36,689 
 
 Kilmarnock, 
 
 . 21,447 
 
 
 In Wales. 
 
 
 Merthyr-Tydvil, 
 
 . 63,080 
 
 Caermarthen, . 
 
 . 10,500 
 
 Swansea, . . . 
 
 . 24,902 
 
 Bangor, . . . 
 
 . 9,500 
 
 Cardiff, . . . 
 
 . 18,351 
 
 
 
 
 In Ireland. 
 
 
 Dublin, . . . 
 
 . 254,850 
 
 Belfast, . . . . 
 
 120,000 
 
 Cork, . . . 
 
 . 84,485 
 
 Limerick, . . . 
 
 55,268 
 
 Galway, . . 
 
 . 24,697 
 
 Waterford, . . 
 
 25,297 
 
 Sligo, . . . 
 
 . 11,209 
 
 Kilkenny, . . . 
 
 20,283 
 
 The smaller 
 
 islands 
 
 belonging to Great 
 
 Britain 
 
 are, — 
 
 a By the census of 1851, the details of the last census not haying 
 been received. 
 
 711 
 
 Shetland Isles, comprising about 100 islands, and 
 a large number of rocky islets. About 30 are inhab- 
 ited, and 70 used for grazing-. Area, 5,300 square 
 miles ; population, 31,000. 
 
 Orkney Isles, comprising 29 inhabited islands, 38 
 grazing islets, and numerous rocks. Area, 600 square 
 miles ; population, 30,500. 
 
 Hebrides, comprising 160 islands, 70 of which are 
 inhabited. Estimated area, 3,180 square miles ; pop- 
 ulation, about 100,000. 
 
 Scilly Isles, consisting of about 100 small islands 
 and rocks, only six of which are inhabited. Area, 
 about 40 square miles ; population, 3,000. 
 
 Isle of Wight. Area, 136 square miles : population, 
 50,324. 
 
 Anglesea, (a county of Wales.) Area, about 270 
 square miles ; population, 50,891. It is connected 
 with the main land by a splendid suspension bridge 
 across the Menai Strait, and also by the Britannia 
 Tubular Bridge, on which a railroad track is laid, — 
 opened in 1849. 
 
 Holyhead , a small island near Anglesea, from which 
 it may be reached by a ford at low water. 
 
 Isle of Man. — Area, 280 square miles ; popula- 
 tion, 52,000. 
 
 The colonial possessions of the British Empire are 
 far more extensive than those of any other power, 
 and make it the greatest empire of the world. Its 
 possessions are, — 
 
 In Europe . Area in Sq. Miles. 
 
 Helgoland, in North Sea, 5 
 
 Gibraltar, a military station, 1 
 Malta and Gozo, 130 
 
 Ionian Islands, 1,092 
 
 In Africa, 135,799 
 
 In Asia, 1,472,837 
 
 In America, 3,194,790 
 
 In Australasia, .... 3,431,156 
 
 Population. 
 
 2,300 
 
 13,123 
 
 119,247 
 
 219,797 
 
 940,426 
 
 172,684,616 
 
 3,634,874 
 
 632,213 
 
 Making the total area of the British Empire 8,356,- 
 781 square miles, and the population 205,884,357.