THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 0 3 0 >)ow to take out the Old Pages and put in tiae New ^ Willi .^ (uu■ key you loosen the nut at the top and bottom of the Vokimo and lift tho front cover. ert the prong-s into* the post of the Vo lie; Blide the pag-es from the Volume r the transfer frame; remove theoldpag-f id substitute tlie new. I -After the new pag-e.o have been in- • rted, the old pag-es can.be thrown awa\ and the Volume locked. To lock the Vol ume fit the pins of the upper cover into the posts as shown in first illustration, close the Volume, press it down tig-ht; with your left hand and tigrhten the nut at the top and bottom. THAT'S ALL. NELSON EDITOR WILLIAM M. SCHUYLER THOMAS NELSON AND SONS LONDON EDINBURGH NEW YORK PARIS TORONTO MELBOURNE FIRST PUBLISHED AND COPYRIGHTED I905 BY THOMAS NELSON & SONS, NEW YORK THIS EDITION REVISED AND COPYRIGHTED I932 COPYRIGHTED RENEWAL PAGES ISSUED SEMI-ANNUALLY FOR SUBSEQUENT YEARS PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA LIST OF CONTRACTIONS USED IN THIS WORK. ac, acres. agric, agricultural, Ala., Alabama. alt., altitude. Alta., Alberta. Amer., America or American. anc, ancient. ann., annual. Ar., Arabic. Aram., Aramaic. Ariz., Arizona. Ark., Arkansas. arr., arrondissement. A. S., Anglo-Saxon. A. v., Authorized Version, aver., average. b. p., boiling point, bor., borough. Brit., Britain or British. B. C, British Columbia, bur., burgh. c. (circa), about. C. centigrade. Cal., California, cap., capital, cf., compare. CO., county. Colo., Colorado. Com., Commission, comm., commune. Conn,, Connecticut, cub. ft., cubic feet. Dan., Danish. D. C, District of Columbia. Del., Delaware. d«p., department, dist., district, div., division. Du., Dutch. E. , east. eccles., ecclesiastical. ed., edition; edited. 6. g., for example. Eng., England or English. episc, episcopal. et. seq., and the following. F. , Fahrenheit. Fla., Florida, fort, tn., fortified town. Fr., French, ft., feet. Ga., Georgia. Ger., German. gov., government, r,, Greek. Heb., Hebrew. I., isl., island, la., Iowa, ibid., the same, i. e., that is. 111., Illinoia. in., inches. Ind. T., Indian Territory. Ind., Indiana. Ire., Ireland or Irish. Ital., Italian. Kan., Kansas. Ky., Kentucky. 1., lake. La., Louisiana. Lat., Latin. lat., latitude. 1. bk., left bank. lit., literally. long., longitude. m., miles. Man., Manitoba. Mass., Massachusetts. Md., Maryland. Me., Maine. M. E., Methodist Episcopal. Meth., Methodist. Mich.., Michigan. Minn., Minnesota. Miss., Mississippi. Mo., Missouri. Mont., Montana. m. p., melting point. mrkt. tn., market-town, Mt., mts., mount, mountain, -s. munic, municipal. N., north. Neb., Nebraska. N. B., New Brunswick. N. C, North Carolina. N. Dak., North Dakota. Nev., Nevada. N. H., New Hampshire. N. J., New Jersey. N. Mex., New Mexico, N. S., Nova Scotia. N. T., New Testament. N. W. T., Northwest Territories. N. Y., New York. 0., Ohio. Okla., Oklahoma. Ont., Ontario. Ore., Oregon. 0. T., Old Testament, ■^ar., parish. pari., parliamentary. Pa., Pennsylvania. P. E., Protestant Episcopal. P. E. I., Prince Edward Island. Per., Persian. P. I., Philippine Islands. pop., population. Port., Portuguese. P. R., Puerto Rico. Presb., Presbyterian. prom., promontory. prov., province. pueb., pueblo. Que., Quebec. q. v., which see. R., riv., river. r. bk., right bank. R. C, Roman Catholic. R. R., or ry., railroad or railway R. I., Rhode Island, R. v.. Revised Version, R. R. jn., railroad junction. S., south. Sans., Sanskrit. Sask., Saskatchewan. S. C, South Carolina. Scot., Scotland or Scottish. S. Dak., South Dakota. seapt., seaport. Sp., Spanish. sp. gr., specific gravity. sq. m., square miles. stn., station. S. v., under the word. Syr., Syriac. temp., temperature. Tenn., Tennessee. terr., territory. Tex., Texas. tn., town. trans., translated. trib., tributary, JJ. S., United States of America. Va., Virginia. vil., village, vol., volume, Vt., Vermont, W., west. Wash., Washington, wat.-pl., watering-place, W. Va., West Virginia. Wis., Wisconsin, Wyo., Wyoming, yds., yards. ^92487 I NELSON'S ENCYCLOPEDIA Saxophone, a brass musical instrument invented by Adolphe Sax. It consists of a conical brass tube, curved forward and upwards at the bottom, and hav- ing a short section bent back- ward at the top, upon which a mouthpiece and reed resembling those of the clarinet are fitted. The instrument contains twenty- lateral holes, which are covered by keys and studs, and manipu- lated by the first three fingers of each hand of the player. Saxo- phones, like saxhorns, are made m a variety of keys and sizes, but all are fingered in a similar man- ner. Saxophones are seldom used in the orchestra; but in many Saxophone. brass bands their rich and tell- ing tone is employed with great effect. Saxton, Joseph (1799-1873), American inventor, born in Hunt- ingdon, Pa. In 1817 he estab- lished a watch-making business in Philadelphia, and invented machinery for making the wheels and gearing of watches. In 1828 he went to London, and met several scientists connected with the Royal Institution, before whom, in 1833, he demonstrated the operation of his magneto- electric machine. In 1834 he raceived the Scott medal of the Franklin Institute for his reflect- ing pyrometer. In 1837 he was appointed curator of the standard weighing apparatus of the U. S. Mint in Philadelphia, and super- intendent of construction of bal- ances and apparatus for branch mints. He also invented a deep- sea thermometer used by the U. S. Coast Survey. Say, Jean Baptiste (1767- 1832), French writer on pohtical economy, born at Lyons. He popularized political economy in France, and was a disciple of Adam Smith, whose method he closely adopted. In 1799 he was given a seat in the tribunate, but retired when Napoleon assumed the throne. His works are as fol- lows: Traite d'Economie Poli- tique (1802; Eng. trans. 1821); Catechisme d'Economie Politique (1815; Eng. trans. 1816); Letters a Malthus sur Dijjerents Sujets d'Economie Politique (1820; Eng. trans. 1821) ; Cours Complet d'Economie Politique Pratique (6 vols. 1829). He also wrote De I'Angleterre et des Anglais (1815; Eng. trans. 1816). Say, Leon (1826-96}, French financier, grandson of the above, was born at Paris. He was president of the Senate in 1880- 81, and minister of finance in 1882. Among his works are Tur- aot (Eng. trans. 1888) : Bconomic Sociale (1891) ; Contre le Socia- lismc (1896) ; and Les Finances de la France sous la Troisieme Republique (4 vols. 1898-1901). He also edited Dictionnaire des Finances (2 vols. 1883-94) and Nouvcau Dictionnaire d'Econo- mie Politique (2 vols. 1891-2). Say, Thomas (1787-1834), American naturalist, born in Philadelphia. He was one of the founders of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia (1812). He was author of /^mcr- ican Entomology (3 vols. 1824- 8), and American Conchology (1858). Sayana, or Syana. a Hindu scholar of the 14th century. In conjunction with his brother, Madhava or Madhavacharya, he is noted for a commentary on the Rigveda, which has been much discussed, the result being de- structive of its authoritative and its representative character. By some writers Sayana and Mad- hava are regarded as one person, identical with the latter. Saybrook, town, Connecticut, Middlesex county, on the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad ; about 7 miles from Long Island Sound and 29 miles east of New Haven. It manufactures small metal arti- cles, ivory goods, augers, gimlets, and boxes. Its town hall con- tains in its archives the early rec- ords of the original settlement established in 1635 by the young- er John Winthrop at Saybrook Point and named in honor of the Puritan noblemen, Lord Say and Lord Brooke. The town was united with the colony of Con- necticut in 1644. It was the seat of the collegiate School of Con- necticut, now Yale University, from 1701 to 1716. The Say- brook Platform was adopted here in 1708 by a synod of the Congre- gational Church. Saybrook was originally on both river and sound, and included also Ches- ter, Old Saybrook, Essex, and Westbrook. Pop. (1930) 2,381 ; (1940) 2,332. Old Saybrook, in the same county, is on Long Is- land Sound at the mouth of the Connecticut river and is served by New Haven and Shore Line buses. It took its present name in 1854 when Deep River as- sumed the name of Saybrook. Fenwick is the borough of the town. Pop. (1940) 1,985. Sayce, Archibald Henry (1845-1933), English philologist, born at Shirehampton, near Bris- tol. In 1870 he became tutor of Queen's College, Oxford, and in 1876 deputy professor of com- parative philology in the Univer- sity of Oxford : professor of As- syriology in 1891. He was on the committee for the revision of the Old Testament (1874-84). Among his many works are : The Principles of Comparative Phi- lology (1875) ; Introduction to the Science of Language (4th ed. 1900) ; The Monuments Sayre KFN 2 Scala (1845-1933), English philologist, born at Shirehampton, near Bris- tol. In 1870 he became tutor of Queen's College, Oxford, and in 1876 deputy professor of com- parative philology in the Univer- sity of Oxford ; professor of As- ryriology in 1891. He was on the committee for the revision of the Old Testament (1874-84). Among his many works are : The Principles of Comparative Phi- lology (1875); Introduction to the Science of Language (4th ed. 1900) ; The Monuments of the Hittites (1881); Herodotus ( 1883) ; The Ancient Empires of the East ( 1884); the Hibbert Lectures on 'Babylonian Reli- gion' (1887); The Hittites (1889) ; The Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monu- ments (1894) ; Babylonians and Assyrians (1900) ; Records of the Past (1874-77, 1888-92); Egyptian and Babylonian Reli- gions (1903) ; Archarology of Cuneifornv Inscriptions (1907). Sayre, borough, Pennsylvania, Bradford county, on the _N. branch of the Susquehanna Riv- er, and on the Lehigh Valley, Erie, the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western railroads; 17 miles s.E. of Elmira, N. Y. It is lo- cated in an agricultural region adjacent to the coal fields. It possesses the Robert Packer Hos- pital and two parks. Its indus- tries include the Lehigh Valley railway shops, stamping works, machine shops, metal works, and manufactories of car wheels. There is a trade in lumber and coal, and in the cereals, dairy products, vegetables, and poultry raised in the surrounding district. The place was first settled in 1876 and incorporated in 1891. Pop. (1930) 7,902; (1940) 7,- 569. Sayre, Lewis Albert (1820- 1900), American surgeon, born in Madison, N. J. He graduated at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, in 1842, began to practise in New York, and in 1853—73 was surgeon to Belkvne Hospital. He was one of the founders of the Bellevue Hosp'"ta] Medical School (1861), and wri'-' a mem1)er of the faculty until 1898, when the school be- came a part of New York Uni- versity. He was also founder of the New York Academy of Me(b"cine and the New York Pathok)gical Society, and one of the founders of the American Medical Association. He was a specialist in diseases of the hip and spine, and invented many in- struments to deal with them. He was one of the first surgeons to use plaster of Paris in spinal complaints. Sayre, Stki'ukn (1734-1818), American patriot, born at South- ampton, Long Island, N. Y. He became a banker in London, Eng- land. Owing to his outspoken sympathy for the revolted colo- nies, he was accused of treason and was imprisoned for a time in the Tower. Upon his release, he became active as a self-ap- pointed agent in endeavoring to secure assistance for the colonies, and vainly endeavored to per- suade Frederick the Great to rec- ognize the colonies. For his services in this capacity he ob- tained partial payment from Con- gress. In 1783 he returned to America ; was later engaged for a time in business in Havre, France ; acted as an agent of the Revolutionists in 1792. He pub- lished The English Deceived (1768), and a Menvorial setting forth his claims to Congress (1808). Sayreville, town. New Jer- sey, Middlesex coimty, on the Raritan River ; 6 miles from New Brunswick. It is located in the rich clay fields, and has manu- factures of bricks, soda water, cigars, and powder. Pop. (1930) 8,658 ; (1940) 8,186. Sbarretti, Donatus (1856- 1939), Roman Catholic prelate born in Montefranco, Italy ; took his theological course at the Col- lege of St. Appollinaris, Rome ; was for several years professor of speculative and moral philoso- phy at the College of the Prop- aganda, Rome ; was ordained (1879) while holder of that chair ; had charge at the Propa- ganda of Affairs of the Church in the United States ; became private chamberlain to Pope Leo XIII, first auditor of the apostolic legation in the United States (1893-1900), bishop of Havana (1900), apostolic delegate ex- traordinary to the Philippines and titular archbishop of Ephe- sus (1901), and apostolic dele- gate to Canada (1902-10). He became a cardinal priest in 1916 and a cardinal bishop in 1928. Sc. {scilicet), namely; under- stood. Scabies. See Itch. Scabious, a genus of hardy herbaceous plants belonging to the order Dipsacese. They bear terminal heads of white, rosy, purple, or yellowish flowers, and many are desirable garden plants. S. succisa, the primrose scabious, is a common European plant, which bears purplish-blue flow- ers. The sweet scabious {S. atro- purpurea) is a common garden plant, with quaint flowers of many tints on tall stems. Scaevola, a family of the Mu- cian clan at ancient Rome. (1.) Gatus Mircni.s Scvicvola, who is said to have won the name Scae- vola ('left-handed') by his attempt to murder Porsena, in which he lost his right hand. For the story, see Porsena. (2.) Quintus Mucins Sc^vola, known as the augur, was praetor and governor of Asia in 121 B.C., and consul in 117. He lived to about 88 b.c, Scabious succisa. 1, Flower ; 2, f rait ; 3, section of frait. and Cicero was his pupil in law. (3.) Quintus Mucius Sc^ola, son of No. 2, was consul in 95 B.C., and afterwards governed Asia with great justice. Event- ually he became pontifex max- imus ; but he was murdered in 82 B.C., after being proscribed by the Marians. He was famous for his equity, his eloquence, and his knowledge of law ; he first made a system of the civil law. Sea Fell, mountain, Cumber- land, England, near head of Wast Water. Its summit, Scafell Pike (3,210 ft.), is the highest emi- nence in England. Scagliola, stucco, or imitation stonework, for interior decora- tion, columns, pilasters, invented in Italy (1600-50), is formed by a combination of pure white plas- ter and glue applied to a pre- pared surface. Gypsum, finely powdered and calcined, is mixed with glue and isinglass to imitate the whiteness of marble, the vein- ing being reproduced by coloring of metallic oxides, and the whole polished with pumice-stone ; with tripoli, charcoal, and linen ; with felt, tripoli, and oil ; and finally with pure oil, till a perfect sur- face has been formed. Breccias, granite, porphyries are imitated by cutting into the stucco and filling tlie cavities with appro- priately ccilored paste. Scaia, Della, a distinguished Italian family, the members of which, as 'Vicars of the Holy Ro- man Empire,' erected an illegal authority on the basis of impe- ^cala Sants KFN 3 Scapula rial right in Verona, The fam- ily attained its greatest height under Can Grande della Scala, who was the (imperiahst) Ghibel- hnes' greatest general, and his nephew Mastino, whose epoch embraced the first half of the fourteenth century. The decay of the house began immediately after the death of the latter, and in 1387 its ruin was finally accom- plished by Gian Galeazzo of Milan. The Scali were munifi- cent patrons of literature, Can Grande being the patron of Dante. Consult Sismondi's tory of the Italian Republics and Symonds' Renaissance in Italy. Scala Santa. See Santa Scala. Scalchi, skal'ke, Sofia (1850- ), Italian contralto singer, was born in Turin. She became a pupil of Boccabadati and made her debut at Mantua in 1866, afterwards singing with great success in London, vSt. Peters- burg, Vienna, and other Euro- pean capitals. In 1883 she went to the United States, and for the next ten or twelve years was exceedingly popular. Her voice had a peculiar clarinet-like qual- ity, and exceptional range and power, and her performance of the leading contralto parts in Mignon, Semiramide, Faust, The Huguenots, A'ida, Linda, and Martha won her great fame. She retired from the stage in 1896. Scalds. See Burns and Scalds, Scale, in mUvsic. See Music. Scale Insects. See Coccid^. Scales are outgrowths of the skin especially characteristic of reptiles and fishes. The scales of reptiles are folds of the epi- dermis, corresponding to the feathers of birds and the hairs of mammals. Such scales also occur on the legs of birds, on the tail of the rat, and over the body of the pangolins. The scales of fishes, on the other hand, belong to the dermis, or deeper layer of the skin. In elasmobranchs there is a special type, with a basis of bone, known as dermal denticles or placoid scales. Scales, weighing-machines. See Balance. Scaliger, skal'i-jer, Joseph Justus (1.540-1609), French scholar, son of Julius Caesar Scaliger (q. v.), was born in Agen. By his editions of the classical authors and his De Emendatione Temporum (1583), wherein he once for all fixed the chronology of many of the lead- ing events in the ancient world, he placed himself in the front rank of European scholars. Sum- moned to the University of Leyden in 1593 as the successor of Justus Lipsius, for the next sixteen years he labored there; but during his last years he be- came embroiled with the Jesuits, and by his overbearing insolence brought down on himself the invectives of Scioppius. Besides his recensions of the Roman poets, he edited Eiisebius (1606), Manilius (1579), and other works in a style unsurpassed for critical acumen and practical sagacity. His love of truth was a passion, but he was at times obstinately dogmatic in the defence of positions afterwards discovered to be untenable. Scaliger, Julius C^sar (1484- 1558), Italian humanist, was born in the castle of Riva on Lake Garda, Italj^ He devoted himself to the study of the classics and medicine, and prac- tised the latter at Agen in Gui- enne from 1528 until his death. His first notable works were two orations in reply to the Ciceronianus of Erasmus, full of venomous abuse. Scaliger was a vomminous author, and was perpetually engaged in contro- versy, his chief works being De Causis Linguce Latince, Poetices Libri Septem ad Sylvium, Com- mentarii de Causis Plan tar um Theophrasti, Aristotelis Historia de Animalibus, Commentarii in Hippocratis Librum de Insom- niis. Consult Lives by Laffore and Magen. Scallop. See Pecten. Scalp, the outer covering of the skull, composed of (1) the skin over the vault of the crani- um; (2) the underlying subcu- taneous fatty tissue; and (3) the occipito-frontalis muscle and its aponeurosis. From the peri- cranium, or periosteum of the skull, it is separated by a layer of loose connective tissue, which allows of free mobility. The skin of the human scalp is thicker than that of any other part of the body. Owing to its great recuperative power, large flaps of the scalp may be separated from the periosteum below with- out a tendency to slough. See also Hair and Hair, Diseases OF. Scalping, a practice known to many tribes of North American Indians in which a trophy of vic- tory was secured by removing a part or all of the skin from the head of a fallen foe. This trophy usually served two purposes: it was a guarantee that the bearer killed or was present at the killing of an enemy; and it was the chief object and occasion of the scalp dance, an important cere- mony performed by the female relatives of the warrior bringing in the scalp. Scaly Ant Eater. See Pan- golin. Scaman'der, river of antiquity, flows from Mt. lua through the plain of Troy, and after uniting with the Simois falls into the sea at the entrance of the Hellespont. It is now .called the Menderez. Scam'mony, a gum resin ob- tained from the root of Convol- vulus scamm,onia, a plant of Syria and Asia Minor. The root is either dried, when it occurs in shrivelled, cylindrical, brownish portions, with a pale fibrous fracture and faint odor, or is incised when growing, when a brittle gum resin exudes, of dark-brown color and peculiar odor. vScammony resin, which is extracted by alcohol and pre- cipitated by water, is a powerful purgative, and vermicide. Scan'derbeg — i.e. Iskander (Alexander) Beg — (1407-67), Al- banian chieftain, whose real name was George Castroit, was the son of an hereditary prince of Epirus. He was taken to Constantinople as a hostage at seven years of age, was forced to embrace Mohammedanism, eventually entered the Turkish army, and became a favorite of Murad ii. But the Sultan hav- ing taken possession of his principality on his father's death, Scanderbeg deserted (1443), re- nounced Mohammedanism, and proclaimed the independence of Albania. For a quarter of a century he successfully resisted all the efforts of the Turks to conquer him. See Albania. Scanderoon. See Alexan- dretta. Scandina'via, name applied in a restricted sense to the penin- sula of Norway and Sweden, and more broadly to the lands occupied by the Scandinavian people — Denmark, Iceland, and Norway and Sweden. Scandinavian Mythology. See Mythology: Northern. Scan'dium, Sc, 45.1, is a metal of the 'rare earths.' It has not been isolated in the elementary state, but forms colorless salts, derived from an oxide SC2O3, that do not exhibit an absorp- tion spectrum. Scania, ska'nia, ancient prov- ince of Sweden, now comprised in the counties of Malmohus and Kristianstad. Scapa Flow, an expanse of water, in the southern Orkneys, Scotland, 15 miles in length by about 8 miles broad. It was the chief British naval base during the First World War, and here the German fleet was interned after its surrender. Scapegoat. See Azazel. Scaph'oid Bones, four some- what boat-shaped bones, one in each wrist and one in each ankle. The former lie in the upper row of carpal bones; the latter are situated at the inner side of the ankle joint, between the astra- galus behind and the cuneiform bones in front. Scap'ula, or Shoulder Blade, one of the two bones, the other being the clavicle, which form the pectoral arch or shoulder girdle. It is embedded, apex downwards, in the muscles of the back, and its mobility allows of Scarab KFN 4 Scarlet Fever corresponding freedom in the movements of the arm and the shoulder. In its glenoid cavity C Scapula, or Shoulder Blade 1. Outer surface. 2. Inner surface: a. acromion process; c. coracoid process; cb. coracoid border; s. spine; g. glenoid cavity. the head of the humerus is re- ceived. The clavicle articulates with the acromion process. Scar'ab, or Scarab^us, a beetle held as sacred by the an- cient Egyptians, and reproduced by them in metal, stone or faience, as amulets, which were worn as a protection against the evil eye and were placed also upon the breast of the dead. In the true scarab amulet the insect original is reproduced with faithful and often beautiful de- tail; but a number of these amu- lets ('scarabaeoids') only faintly Egyptian Scarab 1. Stone scarab with wings, sun and asps of silver. 2. The sacred beetle (Scarabwus sacer). 3. Scarab (British Museum). _ 4. Scaralj seal from the tomb of Maket (time of Thothmes iii.). 5, 6. Scarabs from monuments. suggest a beetle, and bear other designs. Scarabs were also used as seals. See Scarabwus. Scarabseus, skar-a-be'us, a genus of dung-eating lamellicorn beetles. The most famous species in S. sacer, the sacred beetle of the Egyptians (see Scarab), which also occurs in southern Europe. According to Fabre, the female detaches a portion of the droppings of cattle or other animals, and rolls it up into a ball. Having excavated a hole, she then bviries herself with the ball, and remains buried until the dung is completely con- sumed; when she again emerges in search of a fresh supply. It was probably this emergence after a period of quiescence underground which led the Egyp- tians to regard the beetle as a type of immortality. It ap- parently remains entirely quies- cent underground through the hot weather, coming forth again in autumn. The egg is laid in the middle of the dung in the autumn and the chamber carefully closed. The American dung beetles are of numerous species and similar habits. Scarborough, skar-bro', sea- port and fashionable watering- place, England, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, on the North Sea, 21 miles northeast of Malton. The town is divided into two parts by a bold promon- tory called the 'Scaur' (300 ft.), on which stand the ruins of an ancient castle. Seaward are precipitous cliffs, and on the land side a narrow causeway across the moat leads to the plat- form. The old town rises in tiers below the castle, and is bounded on the south by a picturesque ravine, the Ramsdale valley, crossed by two bridges, affording communication with the more fashionable district beyond. The steep slopes of the cliff have been converted into ornamental grounds, and at the foot is the Spa, now serving chiefly as a lounge for visitors and a centre of amusements. The present buildings were opened in 1880. A fine promenade overlooks the sea. South of the castle is the harbor, frequented by fishing boats. The part of the town north of the castle is fronted by the North Cliff, on the slopes of which are the Clarence Gardens; and along the base extends the Royal Albert Drive, continued around the foot of the castle promontory by the Marine Ex- tension Drive. The church of St. Mary is ancient; a new town hall, adapted from St. Nicholas Mansion, was opened in 1903. Pop. (1931) 79,372 (with Whit- by), During the First World War the town was raided by a German cruiser squadron (1914) and shelled by a submarine (1917). Scarlatina. See Scarlet Fever. Scarlatti, ska-lat'te, Ales- sandro (1659-1725), Italian mu- sical composer, was born in Tra- pani, Sicily. For some years he was attached to the court of Christina, queen of Sweden, at Rome, and in 1694 was ap- pointed director to the viceroy of Naples. Subsequently he be- came a teacher in three of the four conservatories in Naples. He was the founder of the mod- ern school of Italian opera, and a prolific composer in nearly every branch of music. The compositions of his son Dome- nico (1683-1757), one of the first composers for the harpsi- chord, did much to develop the technique of pianoforte playing. See Music; Opera. Consult Life by E. J. Dent. Scarlet Fever, or Scarlatina, an acute contagious disease char- acterized by sudden onset with fever, sore throat, vomiting, and a generalized eruption followed by desquamation. It may at- tack individuals at any age above infancy, but is commonest in young children, 50 per cent, of the cases occurring between the ages of two and ten years. Until very recently the causative or- ganism was unknown, but due to the work of G. F. and G. H. Dick, A. R. Dochez, and others (1923-4), it has been shown that there occur in the throats of scarlet fever patients hemolytic streptococci which, inoculated into the throats of susceptible persons, produce the disease clinically. An important outgrowth of this discovery is the so-called Dick test for determining im- munity to the disease. This is a skin test involving the intra- dermal inoculation of minute quantities of the toxic filtrate. A characteristic skin reaction, comparable to the Schick diph- theria reaction, occurs in sus- ceptible persons. The greatest number of cases of scarlet fever occur between the second or fifth day following exposure. The eruption appears within twelve to forty-eight hours of the onset of symp- toms, though its appearance is sometimes delayed. It is most marked on the neck, back, chest, groins, abdomen, inner surface of the thighs, and buttocks. It is composed of minute points, at first more or less separated, but later coalescing so as to give the appearance of a uniform coloration. The temperature rises abruptly, reaching from 100 to 105°, remains at its height while the eruption is coming out, and declines in a stair-like fashion, reaching normal in about a week or ten days. The pulse rate increases with the temperature. The throat is reddened and sore; the glands below the ears are more or less tender and swollen. The tongue is heavily furred, with bright red spots (white strawberry tongue) where the papillae pro- ject. Later it becomes fiery red (red strawberry tongue). The eruption generally lasts for four or five days and fades away from the different parts in the order that it appeared on them. Desquamation or peeling begins on the tongue. On the external skin it makes its appearance usually after the first week, al- though it may occur earlier or be longer delayed. It is usually complete by the third v^^eek. Scarlet Fever KFN 5 Scepticism No other common infectious disease is so frequently accom- panied or followed by compli- cations as scarlet fever, and it is these which cause it to be so dreaded. They include adenitis, otitis media and mastoid disease, febrile albuminuria, acute neph- ritis, arthritis, noma or cancrum oris, and heart lesions. The dis- ease is highly fatal in infants (death rate of 20 to 30 per cent or more) but the reath rate falls rapidly after the third year. Toxic or malignant cases are al- most invariably fatal. Treatment, — The first pre- caution is to isolate both patient and suspected persons, the latter for ten days. Quarantine should last for four to six weeks, until all discharges from the throat, ears, and nose have ceased. Desquamating scales are of no importance as carriers of the disease. In outbreaks suspected to be due to milk, the milk sup- ply should be shut off, or all milk boiled before use. All scarlet fever patients should remain in bed for at least three full weeks from the time of onset, or until the probable time of occurrence of late com- plications has passed. The bowels must be kept open by enemas or cathartics. During the period of fever the diet should be restricted to fluids — milk, fruit juices, and liberal amounts of water. The surface of the body should be kept thoroughly clean by sponging once or twice daily with warm water. Carbolated vaseline is useful for allaying itching. Where there are much con- gestion and soreness of the throat, gargles or sprays of mild astringent antiseptics or plain warm salt solution may be used. In severe cases douching the nose and throat with hot saline solution is helpful. Complica- tions call for special treatment. In 1902 Dr. Paul Moser of Vienna reported the use of an antistreptococcic serum in scar- let fever, which he claimed ex- ercised a favorable influence on the course of the disease, and various others workers from time to time have prepared sera of this type. Dochez, by inoculat- ing a horse with living germs and products of their growth, has produced an immune servim which, used therapeutically a short time after the appearance of the disease, causes a rapid fall in temperature, clears up the toxic symptoms, causes the rash to disappear, and rapidly improves the condition of the throat. The Dicks have pre- pared a concentrated antitoxin by immunizing horses with sterile scarlet fever toxin, with which they claim excellent results. They have also used scarlet fever toxin for the immuniza- tion of susceptibles. Some writ- ers have reported very good re- sults from administration of sulfa drugs. Scarlet Tanager. See Tan- AGER. Scarpa, skar'pa, Antonio (1747-1832), Italian anatomist and surgeon, was born in Motta, near Treviso. He became pro- fessor of anatomy at Modena (1772), and at Pavia (1784), and acquired a European reputation by his researches and treatises on the anatomy of the ear, the organs of smell, and the nerves of the heart. He was appointed surgeon to Napoleon (1804). Scarpanto, skar'pan-to (anc. Carpathus) , mountainous island in the ^gean Sea, northeast of Crete. Formerly Turkish, it was occupied by Italy in 1912, and has since been under Italian rule. The chief town is Aperi. Pop. 5,000. Scarpe, river, France, in the departments of Pas de Calais and Nord, a tributary of the Scheldt. Its length is 62 miles. The Scarpe basin was the scene of important action in the First World War. See Europe, Great War of. Scarron, ska-r6ri', Paul (1610-60), French dramatist, poet, and novelist, was born in Paris. At nineteen he became an abbe and received a benefice at Le Mans, but lived in Rome, where he was known as some- thing of a libertine. From 1638 until his death twenty-two years later he was helplessly crippled. Having lost his benefice, he took up his residence in Paris, where his house became a rendezvous for the wits and literati of the age. In 1644 he published Ty- phon, ou la Gigantomachie , and the next year made a still greater hit with his laughable metrical comedy, Jodelct, on le Maitre Valet. In 1648 appeared the popular comedy, L'Heritier ridi- cule. In 1651 he published the first part of his famous work Le Roman comique (2d part, 1657), intended as a reaction against the euphuistic and in- terminable novels of Mile, de Scudery and Honore d'Urfe, then at the height of popular favor. Other works that de- serve mention are the comedies Don Japhet d'Armenie and La precaution inutile ; his Nouvelles tragicomiques ; and the poem Relation des parques et des po- etes sur la mort de voiture. He married Frangoise d'Aubigne, who later became Madame de Maintenon. Scarron's Works were col- lected in 1737, and by Baumet (2 vols. 1877). An English translation appeared in 1892. Consult Life, in French, by Morillot. Scartazzini, skar-tat-tse'ne, Giovanni Andrea (1837-1901), Swiss author and Dante scholar, was born at Bondo in the canton of Grisons, and labored as a pas- tor at various places. Among his books are A Handbook to Dante (Eng. trans. 1887), A Companion to Dante (Eng. trans. 1893), and Enciclopedia Dan- tesca (2 vols. 1895-8). He edit- ed La Divina Commedia (text and commentary, 4 vols. 1874- 90 ; new ed. 1900), Tasso's Gcru- salemme Liber ata (1871), and Petrarch's Canzoniere (1883). Scaup, skop {Marila marila) , a duck known also as the Blue- bill, Widgeon, Troop Fowl, Broadbill, and Blackhead. It is found in the northern part of both hemispheres ; in America it Scaup Duck breeds from the northern United States to Alaska, and summers in southern New England and the Middle States. It measures from 17H to 21 inches in length. In the drake the head, neck, and chest are greenish black, the back marked with black and white, the wings and tail dusky, and the under parts white. Scawfell. See Sca Fell. Scepticism, the philosophical doctrine that the human mind is incapable of attaining true knowl- edge. Agnosticism is generally used to denote that form of partial scepticism which relates to religious knowledge, and phenomenalism that form of partial scepticism which denies our knowledge of anything out- side the circle of phenomena. Scepticism in its broader sense is doubt as to the possibility or validity of human knowledge generally. Of sceptical philosophers, the most notable was Pyrrho of Elis. According to him, man could never penetrate beyond the sub- jective affections which things produced in him to the nature of the things themselves ; his true attitude was one of indif- ference to all that happened. To justify this extreme doctrine, one of the later Pyrrhonists — Sextus Empiricus — made a col- Sceptre KFN 6 Schamir lection of all the arguments which had been employed against the validity of human knowledge. A milder form of scepticism, which recognized various de- grees of probability available for the practical guidance of life, prevailed during that period of the Platonic school which is known as the Middle Academy. This milder scepticism found a famous exponent in the Roman Cicero, though his importance is literary rather than philosophi- cal. Through him it exercised an influence, long afterward, on the revival of classical learning, over humanists like Montaigne. In modern times scepticism has been of the partial rather than of the universal kind. One characteristic modern type has been that which depreciates the claims of scientific knowledge in order to favor those of religious faith and revelation — a type of which Pascal is an early repre- sentative. It has its anti-religious counterpart in the sceptical doc- trine of the twofold truth, which had already been enunciated in the scholastic period, and which, under a sometimes serious, some- times ironical, profession of the ultra-rational character of reli- gious doctrines, really under- mines all belief in them. The other characteristic type of mod- ern scepticism is that which takes its stand on physical science, and advocates a sort of naturalistic positivism to the exclusion of any higher knowledge. The sensa- tionalistic philosophy on which such a position is apt to be based had its greatest representative in Hume. Sceptre, a ruler's symbol of authority. In Greece it was often lance-shaped ; in Egypt, tipped with a plough or stork ; in Rome, of ivory, straight or curved. In France it was mounted with a ball or flcur-de-lis. Famous sceptres are that of Charles v — called the sceptre of Charle- magne — in the Louvre ; that of Stephen of Hungary, at Aix-la- Chapelle ; that of Napoleon i. The English sceptre royal is of gold, surmounted by a cross and richly adorned with gems. It is placed in the sovereign's hand at the coronation. Schadow, sha'do, Johann Gottfried (1754-1850), Ger- man sculptor, was born in Berlin. He was director of the Berlin Academy of Arts from 1816 until his death. He is known for his statues of Frederick the Great in Stettin, Bliicher in Rostock, the monument of Luther at Witten- berg, the chariot over the Brandenburg gate at Berlin, and a great number of royal portraits and busts. He is regarded as the founder of that modern German school of sculpture in which classical influences were strong. Schadow-Godenhaus, go'- d(?n-hous, Friedrich Wilhelm (1789-1862), German historical and portrait painter, was born in Berlin. He studied at Rome under Cornelius and Overbeck, and in 1819 became professor in the Berlin Academy of Fine Arts. In 1826 he succeeded Cornelius as director of the academy at Dtisseldorf. Among his chief works are The Four Evangelists, in the Werder church in Berlin, and an Ascension of Mary, in St. Paul's church at Aix-la- Chapelle. Schafer, sha'fer, Sir Edward Albert Sharpey- (1850-1935), English physiologist, was born in London. In 1874 he was made assistant professor of physiology at University College, London, and was afterward Jodrell pro- fessor (1883-90). In 1899 he be- came professor of physiology in Edinburgh University. He was president of the British Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science in 1912. He was a fel- low of the Royal Society and was awarded the Royal and Copley medals. His works include A Course of Practical Histology (2d ed. 1897), Text-book of Physiology (2 vols. 1898-1900) ; Essentials of Histology (11th ed. 1920) ; Qiiain's Anatomy ; Ex- perimental Physiology (1910) ; The Endocrine Organs (2d ed. 1924). He was also editor of the Quarterly Journal of Experi- mental Physiology. Schaff, shaf, Philip (1819- 93), German- American divine, was born in Chur, Switzerland, and received his education there and at the universities of Tubin- gen, Halle, and Berlin, taking his degree in divinity at Berlin. After lecturing at the University of Berlin on exegesis and church history from 1842 to 1844, he was called to the professorship of theology in the Mercersburg (Pa.), German Reformed Iheo- logical Seminary. He removed to New York City in 1863, was appointed professor of theologi- cal cyclopaedia and Christian symbolism in LTnion Theological Seminary in 1870, was trans- ferred to other professorships in 1874 and 1887, and remained with the institution until his death. He was president of the American Bible Revision Com- mittee of 1871, and edited several important theological works, in- cluding the English translation of Lange's Commentary on the Holy Scriptures (24 vols., 1864- 86). He was a founder and honorary secretary of the Amer- ican branch of the Evangelical Alliance, was first president of the American Society of Church History, and with tongue and pen devoted himself to the har- monizing of Christian belief and feeling the world over. His principal work was his History of the Christian Church (1858- 90), and secondary in importance was his editing of the Schaff- Hersog Encyclopedia of Reli- gious Knowledge (1882; latest ed. 1911). Consult Life, by his son. Schaffhausen, shaf-hou'zcn, Swiss canton, on the right bank of the Rhine, with an area of 115 square miles. The surface is undulating and the soil fertile, and agricultural interests are predominant. Schaffhausen was admitted to the Swiss confeder- ation in 1501. Pop. (1941) 53,- 772, mainly Protestant and Ger- man-speaking. Schaf¥hausen, town, Switzer- land, capital of the canton of the same name, on the right bank of the Rhine, just above the famous falls. Of special interest is the Romanesque cathedral (1101) — now a Protestant church — whose ancient bell (replaced in 1898) suggested to Schiller his Song of the Bell. A sixteenth-century castle commands the town. Pop. (1941) 22,498. Schaffle, shef'le, Albert (1831-1903), German political economist, was born in Nur- tingen, Wurtemberg. He stud- ied at Tubingen, was editor of the Schwdbischer Merknr at Stutt- gart from 1850 to 1860, and was professor of political economy at Tubingen (1860-8), and at Vi- enna (1868). He was Austrian minister of commerce for a few months in 1871, and then re- turned to Stuttgart, to engage in literary work. Among his more important publications are : Die N ationaldkonomie (1861) ; Kapitalismus und Sosialis'nvus (1870); Das Gcscllschaftliche System der mcnschlichen IVirt- schaft (1867); Qiiintessenz des Sozialismus (1874) ; Bau und Leben des socialen Korpers (1896) ; Die Stenern (1895-7) ; Die agrarische Frage (1902), Alls meinem Leben (1904). Schall, schal, Johann Adam VON (1591-1669), German Jesuit missionary, was born in Cologne. He entered the Society of Jesus at Rome (1611), and was sent as a missionary to China (1628), where he studied astronomy, re- vised the Chinese imperial cal- endar, and introduced the divi- sion of the day into hours, min- utes, and seconds. In 1664 he was imprisoned, and died after a long confinement. He wrote a Latin narrative of Chinese Missions (1655). Schamir, sha'mer, a mythical Eastern worm, small as a barley- corn, but of mysterious power, able to shatter rocks, reveal hid- den treasure, and give or para- Schamyl KFN 7 Scheidemaim lyze life. It was reputed to have been used by Solomon to shape the temple stones. Consult Curi- ous Myths of the Middle Ages, second series, by Baring-Gould. Schamyl. See Shamyl. Schandorph, shan'dorf, So- PHus (1837-1900), Danish nov- elist, whose proper name was Skamdrup, was born in Ringsted. Beginning as a writer of the ro- mantic school, he found his true vocation only after listening to the lectures of Georg Brandes, and henceforth distinguished him- self as a delineator of actual life in small provincial towns. His novels and tales include Fra Provinsen (1876), Uden Midt- punkt (1878), Smaafolk (1880), Thomas Fris's Historie (1881), Det Gamle Apothek (1885), Poet og Junker (1891), Tre Appelsiner (1894), Frigjort (1896), Gamle Billeder (1899), and Helga (1900). Scharf, John Thomas (1843- 98), American historian, was born in Baltimore, Md., and served in the Confederate army and navy. He was subsequently editor of the Baltimore Telegram and of the Baltimore Morning Herald, was admitted to the bar in 1874, and served in the Mary- land State legislature. He gave much study to the history of his city and state, and published Chronicles of Baltimore (1874), History of Maryland (3 vols., 1879-80), History of Western Maryland (2 vols., 1882), be- sides a History of the Confed- erate States Navy (1887) and a History of Delaware (1888). Scharnhorst, sharn'horst, Gerhard Johann David von (1755-1813), Prussian soldier, was born in Bordenau, Hanover. He served in the army against France in 1793, and in 1801 became director of the military academy in Berlin. He was en- gaged in the campaign of 1806-7 and following that began the reorganization of the Prussian army, by which he laid the foundations of Prussian military power. In 1812 he accompanied Bliicher to the front as chief of his staff. He was mortally wounded at Grossgorschen in May, 1813. Scharwenka, shar-ven'ka, Xaver (1850-1924), German composer and pianist, was born in Samter, near Posen, Prussia, and was a pupil of Kullak and Wiirst in Berlin. In 1880 he founded the Scharwenka Con- servatory in Berlin, and in 1891 established a similar institution in New York City. In 1898 he returned to Germany, to take charge of the Klindworth-Schar- wenka Conservatory, which he conducted unlil 1914, when he opened a new Meister Schule. His compositions include an op- era, Mataswintha, a symphony, three pianoforte concertos, much chamber music, and many popu- lar pianoforte pieces. He edited works of Schumann and Chopin. Schaumburg-Lippe, shoum - burk-lip'p^, state of (Germany, lying within a loop of the Weser, between Westphalia and Han- over. It has an area of 340 square kilometres, for the most part included in the North Ger- man plain. Agriculture is the principal occupation, but coal is mined and linen is manufac- tured. The capital is Biickeburg. Schaumburg-Lippe was consti- tuted a principality in 1807, en- tered the North German Confed- eration in 1866, and the Empire in 1871. It was proclaimed a re- public in November, 1918. Pop. (1939) 54,162. Schechter, shek'ter, Solomon (1849-1915), Jewish scholar and educator was born in Focsani, Rumania, and was educated in the Universities of Vienna and Berlin. He made a study of divinity and Semitics, became reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic literature at Cambridge Univer- sity in 1892, and from 1899 to 1901 was professor of Hebrew in University College, London. He discovered in the oldest syna- gogue in the world in Cairo, Egypt, a priceless store of books, scrolls, and mss. of great an- tiquity. This collection he se- cured for the Cambridge library, and many of its most precious parts he translated. In 1902 he became president of the newly established Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New York. His published works in- clude Abot de Rabbi Nathan (1887) ; Studies in Judaism (1896-1908); Wisdom of Ben Sir a (1899) ; Saadyana (1902) ; Sotne Aspects of Rabbinic The- ology (1909); Documents of Jewish Sectaries (1911). Scheele, sha'le, Carl Wil- helm (1742-86), Swedish chem- ist, was born in Stralsund. In 1775 he settled as a chemist in Koping, and devoted himself to chemical research, being much influenced by Bergman. His principal work includes discov- eries of chlorine, oxygen, man- ganese, barium, and a host of compounds, among which are ammonia, hydrochloric, hydro- fluoric, arsenic, prussic, oxalic, and other acids. He also in- vented many new methods of preparation and analysis ; a green pigment and a solution of prus- sic acid are still called after him. Scheer, shar, Reinhard (1863-1928), German admiral, was born in Hesse-Nassau. He commanded the German High Fleet in the battle of Jutland (1916), an account of which he has given in his book Deutsch- lands Hochseeflotte im Welt- kriege (1920). In 1918 he suc- ceeded Von Holtzendorff as chief of the Admiralty staff, but re- tired after a few months. Scheffel, shef'el, Joseph Viktor von (1826-86), German poet, was born in Karlsruhe, and studied in Munich and Berlin. His first book, which he never surpassed, was Der Trompeter von Sdckingen (1854), a metrical tale of the time of the Thirty Years' War, which attained great popularity. He devoted himself to early German and folklore studies, the fruits of which were seen in his next tale (in prose), Ekkehard (1857), likewise exceedingly popular. His later volumes were largely poetry — Gaudeamiis (1867) ; Frau Aventiure (1863) ; Berg- psalmen (1870) ; Waldeinsam- keit (1880) ; with two romances, Juniperus (1881) and Hugideo (1884). Scheffer, shef-far', Ary (179571858), French portrait and historical painter, was born in Dordrecht, Holland, studied under Guerin in Paris, and in 1836 became art instructor to the Orleans family. At the outbreak of the Revolution of 1848 he as- sisted the King in his escape from Paris and himself went to Hol- land and England. In 1857 he returned to France, where he died. Between 1835 and 1848 Scheffer produced his greatest works, Christus Consolator, Christus Remmierator, Francesca da Rimini and the Mignons. The Scheffer Museum at Dordrecht contains much of his work. Scheffler, Johann. See An- gelus Silesius. Scheideck, shi'dek, or Schei- degg. Great and Little, Alpine passes in Switzerland limiting on the northeast and southwest, re- spectively, the valley of Grandel- wald, in the Bernese Oberland. The Little Scheideck (6,772 ft.) in the southwest is crossed by a mountain railway from Lauter- brunnen to Grindelwald. The Great Scheideck (6,434 ft.) in the northeast is traversed by a mule path. Scheidemann, Philipp (1865-1939), German politician, was born in Kassel. On Novem- ber 10, 1918, with two other majority socialists, he formed the first Provisional Government of the German Republic. The Constituent Assembly at Weimar elected him president of the first republican ministry of the Reich on February 8, 1919. He re- signed on June 20 when a ma- jority of the government voted to sign the Treaty of Versailles. His reminiscences were pub- lished as Dcr Zusammenbruch (1921). Scheldt KFN 8 Schiavone Scheldt, skelt, or Schelde (French Escaut), river of Bel- gium, 270 miles long, rises in the department of Aisne, France, flows north and then northeast through Belgium and enters the North Sea, near Antwerp, through the East and the West Scheldt. The river passes Cam- brai and Valenciennes in France, and Tournai, Oudenarde, Ghent, Dendermonde, and Antwerp in Belgium. Its chief tributaries are the Lys (on the left) and the Dender and Rupel (on the right). Schelling, Felix Emmanuel 1858- ), American educator, author, and editor, was born in New Albany, Indiana, and was graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in 1881. He was admitted to the Philadelphia bar in 1883 and in 1889 became assistant professor and in 1893 John Welsh Centennial professor of English literature at his alma mater. He lectured at Johns Hopkins University in 1908-10. He published Literary and Verse Criticism of the Reign of Eliza- beth (1891); The English Chronicle Play (1902) ; History of Elizabethan Drama (1907) ; English Literature during the Lifetime of Shakespeare (1928) ; The English Lyric (1913); A History of English Drama (1914) ; Foreign Influences in Elizabethan Plays (1923) ; Eliz- abethan Playzvrights (1925). Schelling, Friedrich Wil- HELM Joseph von (1775-1854), German post-Kantian philoso- pher, was born in Leonberg, Wiirttemberg, and became (1798) a university teacher at Jena. He occupied chairs in a number of the German universities, his longest terms being at Munich (1808-20, 1827-40), and his last at Berlin. His earlier philosophy is on the whole a continuation and development of the ideal- ism of Fichte. But whereas in Fichte's philosophy nature is wholly subordinated to the hu- man or spiritual side of experi- ence, Schelling seeks to do equal justice to nature, and to conceive the absolute principle as one of which nature and spirit are equally necessary though opposed expressions. This common prin- ciple is neither nature to the ex- clusion of spirit, nor spirit to the exclusion of nature — but the identity in which their difference di.sappears. It can be adequate- ly apprehended neither by the theoretical philosophy which is concerned with nature, nor by the practical philosophy which is concerned with human action, but only by some mode of thought which transcends this antithesis, and which is described by Schel- ling as a sort of intellectual intuition. It is in art that Schelling sees the truest illustra- tion of such intellectual intuition. In science and morality, form and matter are in different ways opposed to each other, but in art they are completely fused. His chief works include : Ideas for a Philosophy of Nature (1797); System of Transcendental Ideal- ism (1800) ; Lectures on Phi- losophy of Art (posthumous) ; Lectures on the Method of Aca- demic Study (1803) ; Nature of Hum'body, Wordsworth and Sou- they among men of letters; and became the friend of Byron, although the latter had eclipsed him in poetical popularity. Words- worth and Coleridge he never tired of quoting and prais- ing, wholly without return, in early days, from these higher souls. The enormous vogue of the first poems declined,^ partly through the abundance of imita- tions. But Scott, having bought land on the banks of the Tweed, began to build Abbotsford, and collect pieces of soil with historical or legendary associations. Where legends did, not exist he invented them, and so Abbotsford became 'an unsubstantial fairy place,' the library, armory, and other collections being as costly as the haunted hills and burns, and the laird's hospitality adding to the outlay. Here Washington Irving and George Ticknor, among oth- ers, were his guests. By a chance Scott found, in 1814, the unfinished MS. of Waverley (begun in 1805), and wrote two volumes in three weeks, went on a tour round the Scottish coasts, and returned to find that the 'Great Unknown,' the author of Waver- ley, was famous. Not till after his ruin, in 1826, did Scott acknowl- edge the authorship of the im- mortal series of romances from Waverley to Woodstock. About twenty people knew, all the world guessed; but, in Rob Roy^ Scott had accidentally given proof positive. He put into the mouth of Bailie Nicol Jarvie a long account of the condition of the Highlands in 1715, derived from a Gartmore MS. Presently Jamieson published, in Burt's Letters from the North, the MS. itself, lent to him 'by Mr. Walter Scott.' And nobody put the facts together! Yet no person of sense doubted that the 'Great Unknown' was Scott. The plot of Marmion is practically the plot of Ivanhoe. In 1820 he was created a baronet, but the laureate- ship he had declined, supposing that it was worth fAOO a year, and that Southey's need was greater than his own. Moreover, he did not like the idea of being loyal to order. Scott was hardly a practical politician — a party man — despite his Toryism. His whole nature Vol. XL— 4. was filled and thrilled by the past; the past was his inspira- tion, and a child reading the chapter on feudalism, in the Tales of a Grandfather, naturally remarks that feudalism was a very good thing; and so its ideal really was. Scott believed in that ideal. His novels not only made the novel paramount in English literature; they ^rry^'s prayer Scott for 'one hour of •uhdee.^ Gladstone (haturally a Tory) was one of Scott's devotees, and is reported to have had a peculiarly high admiration for Kenilworth. Cavalier and Jaco- bite as Sir Walter was, no more impartial pen was ever employed on history. Dr. M'Crie detected some errors, in point of detail, in the Covenanters of Old Mortality; Sir Walter Scott. (From the painting by Raebum.) breathed life into the dry bones of history. Froude and Macaulay descend from Scott as certainly as Alexandre Dumas does; and even in the calm pages of Raw- son Gardiner we find a Montrose who, but for Scott, would prob- ably have been designed in other colors. Sir Walter carried cap- tive even Hazlitt, who loathed the Tory, but loved the novelist. It was Scott who made Words- worth and Ruskin join in Glen- but the general fairness, as well as the humor, of the various shades and degrees of the Cove- nanting character, are unim- peachably accurate. In the Tales of a Grandfather (1828), though legend is, very properly, allowed her proper place, Scott's impar- tiality is that of a man of honor writing for a child. He would not undertake a Hfe of Queen Mary Stuart, because his judg- ment and his sentiment w«re at Scott odds. His Napoleon is a hasty Eiece of drudgery, toilsome to a roken and ruined man, and his materials were not copious. But, everything considered, Scott is fair to Napoleon. From 1817 onwards his health was not what it had been. About 1818 he did not expect to sur- vive,, and The Bride of Lammer- moor was dictated in the midst of suffering. When he read the book he did not remember a sin- gle circumstance of his own creation; merely the vague legend which his mother had told. The ruin of Hirst brought down Con- stable, and with Constable fell Scott, in 1825-6. But he wrote rapidly at Woodstock and at Napoleon in these darkest days, arid composed the stirring lyric of Bonnie Dundee, Hencefor- ward h's time — saddened by the long illness and death of Lady Scott, the illness and death of Hugh Littlejohn,' his grandson, Lockhart's boy — was devoted to repaying, his creditors. Over his waning intellect floated dreams that all the debts were paid. At last Count Robert o} Paris proved that the chords of the harp were shattered; yet, even during his voyage to Italy in 1832, the weary hand was busy with a last ro- mance^TheKnights of Malta. After a brief visit at Rome, Scott was again smitten, and struggled home to die within the sound of Tweed (Sep. 21, 1832). The brief words in which Lockhart describes the closing scene are among the most beautiful passages in our litera- ture — Good-night, Sir Walter.' His body rests by the Tweed at Dryburgh Abbey, and Lockhart lies at his feet. The goodness and the greatness of Scott are spontaneous, irreflec- tive, scarcely conscious fruits of a good tree. 'He never blotted a line,' we may almost say, though we may share Ben Jonson's wish as to Shakespeare, that, as a matter of art, he had blotted many. In creation of character he comes nearest to Shakespeare. As the poet of the joy of battle, there are passages in which he surpasses Homer. Some dozen or more of exquisite lyrics, 'native woodnotes wild,' place him high in the most delightful field of goetry. By far the best critic of cott as a novelist is himself, in his original introduction to The Fortunes of Nigel (1822). The blots in his work — the heaviness, the tediousness, the casual style- were patent to the critics of his day, and to friends such as Lady Louisa Stuart. Such defects are inseparable from constant and rapid improvisation. It is mere pedantry to point to the histori- cal inaccuracies and anachro- nisms of his novels. Like Dumas, he consciously treated historical 48 facts as Turner treated landscape. When he erred, he erred with his eyes open. Deterred by his lame- ness from being a man of action, a soldier, Scott had no high opinion of literary fame or of the literary life. Lockhart's Life (1837) is, of course, the main source for Scott's biography. The reminiscences of Gillies (1837), of James Hogg(1834),of Lady Louisa Stuart, Washington Irving (1850), and others, are also interesting. Leslie Stephen, in 'Scott' {Na- tional Dictionary of Biography), especially illustrates the financial troubles; and the Life of Archi- bald Constable (1873), by T. Con- stable, and Mr. Andrew Lang's Life of Lockhart (1897), may be compared. See R. H. Hutton in English Men of Letters (1879); also Lang's Sir Walter Scott (1906), and Norgate's Life (1906). For an estimate see Crockett's The Scott Country (1902). Scott's Collected Works appeared in 48 vols, in 1829-33, and Poetical Works (ed. by Lockhart) in 1833-4. Textually the best re- cent edition is 'he Dryburgh (1892-4); another edition is the Border edition by Andrev/ Lang (1892). Scott, William, Lord Stow- ELL (1745-1836), JEnghsh judge, brother of Lord Eldon, v/as born in Durham, and became (1773) Camden reader in ancient history at Oxford. He began at Oxford his lifelong friendship with Dr. Johnson. Eventually he became a great authority on shipping law. He w^as called to the bar in 1779, and in 1798 was appointed judge of the High Court of Admiralty, ^in which position he was rather a lawgiver than a mere judge. He entered the House of Com- mons in 1790, and was a persistent opponent of all reform. In 1821 he was raised to the peerage. See Surtees's Lives of Lords Stowell and Eldon (1846). Scott, William Bell (1811- 90), Scottish artist and poet, was born at St. Leonard's, Edinburgh, and in 1837 settled in London as etcher, engraver, and painter. From 1843 to 1864 he was master of the government schools of design at Newcastle, and there- after till 1885 he was artist- decorator and examiner at S. Kensington Museum. Scott deco- rated the staircase of Penkill Castle with striking pictures in encaustic, illustrating scenes in the Kingis Quair. He gained poetical distinction with ballads and sonnets. He published Hades, or the Transit, and The Progress of the Mind (1838); The Year of the World, his longest poem (1846); Poems, known as Poems by a Painter (1854); Poems, Ballads, etc. (1875); and A Poet's Har- vest Home (1882; enlarged, 1893). Besides furnishing memoirs for Scott food editions of Keats, L. E. .andon, Byron, Coleridge, Shel- ley, and others, Scott wrote a Memoir of his brother, David Scott (1850); Albert Durer (1869): British Landscape Painters and British School of Sculpture (1872); Murillo and the Spanish School of Painting (1873); The Little Masters (1879). He also issued pubUcations on north of England antiquities, and on the art of France, Belgium, and Germany. His frank and engaging Autobio- graphical Notes, 2 vols., were edited by Minto (1892). While at Newcastle, Scott completed a stately decorative scheme for Sir Walter Trevelyan's seat, WaUing- ton Hall. His notable published designs are: (1) twelve under the title Chorea Sancti Viti (1850), and (2) William Blake (1878). Scott, William Berryman (1858), American geologist, born in Cincinnati. He graduated at Princeton in 1877 and at Heidel- berg in 1880, when he was ap- pointed professor of geology and palaeontology in Princeton Uni- versity. He was editor and joint author of Reports of the Princeton University Expeditions to Pata- gonia (8 vols.). His publications include An Introduction to Geology (1897). Scott, WlNFlELD (1786-1866), American soldier, born in Din- widdle CO., Va., Jan. 13, 1786. His grandfather, James Scott, was a follower of Charles Edward Stuart, the Pretender, was at the battle of CuUoden, and .after- wards escaped to Va. WilHam, James's son, married Ann Mason, and Winfield was their second son. His father, a captain in the American Revolution, died when he was six years old, and at 17 he lost his mother, a woman of recog- nized strength of character, to whose lessons he was wont to attribute his attainments. Before he went to college he was trained by Hargrave, a (Quaker teacher, and by a Scotch instructor, James Ogilvie. He entered William and Mary, but left in 1805 to take up law in Judge David Robinson's office at Petersburg. Here he obtained license to practise, and did circuit work, trying a number of causes. Impending hostilities with Eng- land quickened his desire to be- come a soldier, and President Jefferson gave him the commis- sion of captain of artillery in May, 1808. He recruited a com- pany and embarked for New Orleans on Feb. 4, 1809. Here his brother officers were in two factions, the larger number parti- sans of their commander. Gen. James Wilkinson. In the course of this year Scott remarked that he believed Wilkinson as much a traitor as Burr. For this he was tried by court-martial, found Scott guilty of disrespect, and was sus- pended from rank and pay for nine months. History exonerates Scott; still, his remark was a vio- lation of discipline. During his suspension Scott returned to Petersburg and resumed his studies, not neglecting military works. In 1811 he rejoined the army at Baton Rouge, where as iudge advocate he strengthened his knowledge of military law, and spent his leisure preparing him- self for the New Orleans bar; but as the likelihood of war increased, he, with Gen. Hamp- ton, embarked on May 20, 1812, for Washington. Scott was soon after promoted to lieutenant- colonel, and he reported to Brig.- Gen. Alexander Smyth at Buffalo on Oct. 4, 1812. Lieut. Elliot had undertaken to capture two British war vessels near Fort Erie, and Scott, with two companies — his first expe- rience under fire — materially aided him. One of the British vessels was captured, the other was burned. His first battle of impor- tance was at Queenstown Heights, which was occupied by British troops and Indians. The object of tne Americans was to seize these heights and hold them as an entering wedge to Canada. Lieut. - Col. Scott eagerl}^ marched his command to Lewiston, but was restrained from crossing. After severe American losses Scott crossed, and assumed command on reaching the heights. The British being reinforced, the Americans were finally beaten, and Scott was forced to surrender (Oct. 13, 1812). The next year, after exchange, Scott became an adjutant-general and chief of staff to Gen. Dearborn, with the rank of colonel. Dearborn having determined to take Fort George, Scott, accompanying the advance, crossed the Niagara River and attacked the British on the morn- ing of May 27, 1813. The action was decisive. Fort George being taken (though Scott was wounded by the explosion of a powder magazine). On March 9, 1814, Scott was promoted to be briga- dier-general. He joined Gen. Brown, who put him in command near Buffalo. There he estab- lished a camp of instruction and did most effective work for the army. In June Gen. Brown re- turned and on July 3 advanced on Fort Erie. Scott's brigade took f)art in the engagement and the ort was captured. On July 4 Scott's brigade again advanced towards Chippewa, near Niagara Falls. Gen. Brown gave Scott control, himself holding the re- serves. The opposing forces met on July 5, the British being under Gen. Riall. Scott broke Riall's front, put his comm9,nd to flight. 49 and won the battle of Chippewa. The American loss was 328; the British 507. Twenty days afterwards was fought the fierce and indecisive battle of Lundy's Lane (q.v.). At the outset Scott led the American forces. Brown commanding in the latter part of the engagement. Scott was wounded through his side, and later severely in his left shoulder. The Americans lost 860, the British 878. Though so severely wounded, Scott travelled East, meeting with enthusiastic receptions. He declined the office of secretary of war, and President Madison next sent him abroad on an important diplomatic service. He received a medal of honor, a vote of thanks from Congress and another from the legislature of Vir- ginia, accompanied by a sword, and a sword with a vote of thanks from New York. Scott had a controversy with Gen. Jackson which arose from Jackson's issu- ing an order in Nashville (April 22, 1817) prohibiting his officers from obeying any executive order from the War Department, unless coming through him. Gen. Scott at a New York dinner party, declared this order 'mutinous.' Soon after, an anonymous article in a newspaper gave the substance of his remarks. Jackson was greatly offended that Scott should criticise his order, but after years the matter was amicably adjusted, and Scott was justified. Near the close of the Black Hawk War (1832) Scott was or- dered to the scene of action, near Rock Island, 111. He embarked upon Lake Erie from Buffalo with a thousand troops, but nearly half the troops became ill of Asiatic cholera. Scott held conferences with the Sacs and Foxes and kindred clans-. He uniformly won their confidence and made permanent treaties with them. He urged the whites to 'temper justice with mercy in dealing with their feebler brethren of the forest.' The outbreak of the Seminole War in Florida in 1835, the Dade Massacre and other severe battles soon caused the War Department to send Scott thither. He did not have his usual success, was blamed, and recalled, but a court of inquiry exonerated him. In 1837 troubles occurred on the Niagara frontier, the actors being 'Canada Pa- triots.' Bands rushed across the line and invaded British territory. The excitement extended from Buffalo to Maine. Scott was sent to secure peace along the border. By his judiciousness, his speeches and other expedients, he allayed excitement and restored order. Again, in 1839, during the dispute over the boundary between New Brunswick and Maine, Gen. Scott, through kindness and tact, Scott prevented an outbreak and paved the way for the Ashburton Treaty. He was commended for his skill in removing the Cherokees from Georgia and neighboring states, beyond the Mississippi. Though averse to removal, the Indians trusted this great Chief, and he accomplished their transfer with- out suffering. Scott's name was proposed to the Whig convention of 1839 for the Presidency, but he withdrew in favor of Gen. Wm. Henry Harrison. In 1841 he was made commander of the U. S. army. When the Mexican War began (1846), Scott recommended Tay- lor for the command on the Texan frontier. He gave President Polk a plan of campaign, and asked for new regiments. The President at first disapproved everything Scott suggested, yet, after Taylor's success, he ordered Scott to pro- ceed to Mexico. Scott left New York on Nov. 30, 1846, and reached the Rio Grande early in January. Soon he found that the bill for new regiments was unac- countably delayed, and that he had hardlv left Washington before another bill was introduced to establish the rank of lieutenant- general, and to place at once a poUtical partisan at the head of the army. Scott left Taylor after that general's victory at Buena Vista, taking with him a column of 12,000 men, and entered upon a southern campaign for the capture of the City of Mexico. On March 9 he laid siege to Vera Cruz, which surrendered on March 26. Then followed his victory over Santa Anna at Cerro Gordo (April 18), the reduction of Puebla, the American successes at Contreras and Churubusco, the storming of Molino del Rey (Sept. 8) and Chapultepec (Sept. 13), and the entry into the City of Mexico (Sept. 14). See Mexican War. In 1852 Scott was nominated by the Whigs for the Presidency, but was overwhelmingly defeated by Franklin Pierce. In 1855 Congress made him brevet lieu- tenant-general, and in 1859 he was despatched to the far North- west to adjust serious boundary troubles. When the Civil War came he took his stand for the Union and did all that was in his power to secure the safety of the capital. He resigned from active service Nov. 1, 1861. Gen. Scott had an impressive personal appearance. He was six feet and five inches tall, and in his prime was possessed of great physical strength. He had a re- markably strong face, and was habitually dignified and reserved. He was quick to resent insult but as ready to forgive; and was very properly denominated a Christian gentleman. His publication^ include : General Scottdale Regulations for the Army (1825), and Infantry Tactics (1835). See the Lives by Mansfield (1846): Headley (1852), Victor (1861), and Wright (1894); also his Memoirs (1864); Wilcox's History of the Mexican War (1892), and How- ard's General Taylor (1892), ScottdalC} bor., Westmore- land CO., Pa., 30 m. s.e. of Pitts- 50 social system under which, until the last half of the 18th century, the Gaelic-speaking Highlanders lived. The clan was a community that regarded all its members as being related by blood, which held its land on peculiar Celtic tenures, and whicn obeyed and paid dues to a chief selected from a special family. The succession The Distribution of the Principal Scottish Clans. burgh, on the Pa. and the B. and O. R. Rs. It is located in an agricultural and coal-mining re- gion. Its principal manufactur- ing establisnments are sheet-steel works, rolling mill, cast-iron pipe works, foundry, machine-shops, coke works, and manufactories of caskets and brass furnishings. Pop. (1910) 5,456. Scottish Clans. The word clan is applied specially to the to the chiefship was in early times by no means strictly hereditary, as the chief had to be able-bodied to lead the clan in the numerous tribal battles, and illegitimacy was not much regarded. The clans, when surnames came into being, generally adopted that of their most famous early leader with the prefix Mac (son), or in Ireland, where the system also prevailed, of O {Ua = grandson, Scottish Clans also nephew); and there was the further division of Sil or Siol, or descent from a common ancestor. In olden times the rule of the Scottish Celtic kings was little respected by the clans; and in the Highlands and western islands the government had little author- ity unless by their will. It was generally insisted on that the clan should have a representative, pos- sessed of property, at court, as a hostage or security for their good behavior. A clan with no secu- rity became a 'broken clan,' and its members were treated as thieves and cattle robbers, with every man's hand against them. The best instance of this is that of the MacGregors, originally of Glcnorchy, from which they were dispossessed by the Campbells of Breadalbane. From the 17th cen- tury the clans were generally of royalist proclivities. The High- landers generally declared for the Jacobites in 1715, and again (though not universally) in 1745, and during the secret wanderings of I'riace Charles Edward after Culloden, Cluny and Lochiel, the chiefs of the Macphersons and the Camerons, and members of the clans Donald and Macleod showed extraordinary fidelity to him. After 1746, the power of the clans having been broken at the battle of Culloden, the disarming of the Highlands^ and the abolition of heritable jurisdictions did much to break up the clan system. Of the Celtic Highland clans, besides those already mentioned, the best-known clans were per- haps the Macdonalds, Lords of the Isles; the Macleods, Macken- zies, Camerons, M'Leans, and M'Neills of the islands and the west; the Clan Chattan, which included the Macphersons and Mackintoshes; the Mackays and Sutherlands in Sutherland; the .Erasers of Lovat; Gordons in Aberdeenshire; Robertsons -and Stewarts in Perthshire; the Stewarts of Appin; the Mac- dougals of Lorn; the Chisholms, and many others. In the United States and Canada reunions of the descendants and adherents of Scottish clans are held. These, with the membership and gather- ings of various Scottish societies, which are organized for purely so- cial, literary, and benevolent pur- poses, aim to keep alive the nis- toric memories of the old land, especially the deeds of clan chief- tains; but they represent not only any survival of clan feeling whicn exists on the continent, but the wider interest in Scottish Hfe and character. See Stewart's Sketches of the Highlanders (1822); Greg- ory's History of the Western High- lands and Isles (1836); W. S. Skene's Antiquities (1837); Shaw's Mackintosh and Clan Chattan (1880); Mackenzie's Maakenz^s Scottish Philosophy KFN 51 Screen (1879), Macdonalds (1881), Mathesons (1882), Camerons (1884), Macleods (1889), Chis- holms (1891), Frasers (1896). Scottish Philosophy, the school of thought founded by Thomas Reid (q. v.), and charac- terized by an express opposition to the empiricism and scepti- cism of Hume (q. v.). The two main doctrines by which Reid combated Hume's sceptical anal- ysis of knowledge were his doc- trine of perception and of com- mon sense. The latter was a reply to the empirical aspect of Hume's philosophy, and was di- rected to bring out the necessity of recognizing certain ultimate rational principles as inherent in the human mind, and as essential- ly involved in the constitution of our experience. Reid's doctrines were elaborated and expounded by Dugald Stewart; but in the more original mind of Thomas Brown they underwent much modification, his analysis of per- ception in particular departing largely from that of Reid. In Sir William Hamilton, the last, and after Reid the most conspicuous, representative of the Scottish school proper, a defense of Reid's principles was somewhat incon- sistently combined with an ac- ceptance of Kant's phenomenal- ism and agnosticism. Scotts'bluff, city, Nebraska, Scotts Bluff county, on the Chi- cago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad, and on the North Platte Valley and the Denver Black Hills Highways; 234 miles n.e. of Denver, Colorado. It is the center of a large sugar beet in- dustry ; alfalfa, grain, _ and po- tatoes are grown ; while thou- sands of cattle and sheep are fattened for the market. Pop. (1930) 8,465; (1940) 12,057. Scotus, Duns. See Duns SCOTUS. Scotus, Joannes. See Eri- GENA. Scouring: Rushes. See Equisetum. Scouts, Boy. See Boy Scouts. Scouts, Military. See Re- connaissance; Outposts; Pa- trol. Scran'ton, city, Pennsylvania, county seat of Lackawanna coun- ty, on the Lackawanna River, and the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western, the Central of New Jersey, the Delaware and Hud- son, the Erie, the New York, Ontario and Western, and the Lackawanna and Wyoming Val- ley railroads; 135 miles by rail n.w. of New York City, and 158 miles by rail north of Philadel- phia. The city is attractively sit- uated on an undulating plateau in the Lackawanna Valley, at an elevation of 650 to 1,770 feet. It has wide, tree-lined streets ; 26 parks and playgrounds with a to- tal acreage of 246.72, including beautiful Nay Aug Park cover- ing 145.44 acres ; five municipal swimming pools (four outdoors) ; 15 public tennis courts; 13 com- bination baseball-softball dia- monds and four football fields. A new stadium is the home of the Scranton Red Sox in the Eastern Baseball League. The city is on Pennsylvania's newest scenic trail running east and west — the Roosevelt Highway, U. S. Route 6, one of the great transcontinen- tal routes. It is also on the Lack- awanna Trail, running north and south through the mountains of northeastern Pennsylvania to the Delaware Water Gap and Phila- delphia. The Trail is on the old roadbed of the Lackawanna Rail- road and crosses the largest re- inforced concrete viaduct in the world at Nicholson. Noteworthy buildings include the $2,000,000 Masonic Temple, the $800,000 Chamber of Com- merce, the United States Post Office and Court House, the Lackawanna County Court House, City Hall, the Col. L. A. Watres Armory, Everhart Muse- um, Albright Memorial Library, Administration Building of the International Correspondence Schools, Lackawanna Railroad Station and general ofiices. First National and Scranton National Banks, and Scranton Life Insur- ance. The city has a complete edu- cational system, including three senior and two junior high schools and 41 grade schools in the public school system; 16 pa- rochial schools, including six senior high schools ; the O. S. Johnson Trade School, the W. T. Smith Manual Training School, Scranton-Lackawanna College, Powell School of Business, Penn- sylvania Oral School for the Deaf, Scranton Conservatory of Music, Marywood College and Seminary, the University of Scranton, and Scranton-Keystone Junior (College, located in the suburb of LaPlume. Scranton is the center of education by mail, the International Correspondence Schools enrolling students in all parts of the world. The Albright Public Library has four branches in various sections of the city, housing a total of 130,000 vol- umes. The Scranton Zoological Commission operates the Zoo in Nay Aug Park. The city has more than 130 churches, includ- ing most denominations serving a cosmopolitan population. Twen- ty theaters have a total seating capacity of 30,000. Eleven pub- lic and two private hospitals have more than 1,000 beds. There are more than 150 natural lakes with- in two hours' motoring distance of the city. Scranton is the third most pop- ulous city in the nation's second most populous state. It had its genesis in coal in 1840 and be- came the largest city in the com- pact region containing the world's richest anthracite depos- its, but today it is principally a rnanufacturing city with a wide diversity of industries. The out- put of its plants ranges from lace to locomotives and from plastics to piston rings. It has the coun- try's largest Nottingham lace mill. It is second in rank of silk manufacturing districts. A huge plant turns out airplane wings. Its location in the heart of a rich market area makes it a busy dis- tribution center. It has excellent highway and air facilities. Mod- ern, broad highways radiate to all points of the compass and make Scranton a center for a huge trucking industry. It is served by three interstate bus lines. The Scranton Transit Company operates electric street cars and buses to 18 suburbs. It was founded by George W. Scranton and his brothers, Jo- seph and Selden. Pop. (1930) 143,433; (1940) 140,404. Screamers (Palamedcidcr) , a family of South American birds which are believed to be most nearly related to the Anseres (ducks and geese). In size they are comparable to turkeys. Two notable peculiarities are that the ribs are without uncinate proc- esses, and that each wing bears two sharp spurs. The head is small, and the bill short ; the legs moderately long, and naked throughout much of their length ; the wings long and powerful. The Horned Screamer (PaJamc- dca cornuta) has a slender, horn- like process on the head ; the (Trested Screamer (Palamedca or Chauna cristata) has a tuft of feathers forming a crest. Screen, in architecture, an en- closure or partition of wood, stone, or metal work. In old Gothic halls,' it was a partition with a gallery for minstrels op- posite the dais ; also an open col- onnade enclosing a courtyard. Its most important use is to sep- arate a chapel from the body of the church, or the chancel from the aisle or nave. The earliest form of church screen was the low marble podia fencing the chorus cantantium in Roman ba- silicas, and in England perfo- rated cancelli. There art two main types — the open-work grille, and the solid stonework such as is seen in Canterbury, York, and Gloucester cathedrals, and in the church of the Made- leine at Troyes. Other famous screens are those of Chartres ; of Amiens ; and of the Cathe- dral of Albi, the most perfect Gothic screen in France. The SOME FAMOUS ARCHITECTURAL SCREENS. 1. Lincoln Cathedral. 2. Westminster Abbey. 3. Indian Screen in the Palace, Delhi. 4. Dart- mouth Parish Church. 5. Aisle of Lincoln Cathedral. 6. Chartres Cathedral. 7. Albi. 8. Here- ford (metal screen). Vol. XL— Mar. '18 VoL XL— at Page 52 SereW KFN 53 Screw-propellet iconostasis in Greek churches, be- tween the sanctuary and the nave, is adorned with icons, and has three doorways closed to conceal from the laity the altar and mass. Screw, one of the simple ma- chines or mechanical powers, which has many apphcations. The screw in itself is incomplete, being only one-half of the 'screw- pair' or elementary mechanism to which it belongs. If assumed fric- tionless, let the effort p act at radius R, let r be the radius of the screw, w the load, and p the pitch or distance between two consecu- tive coils of the thread. Then by the equation of work, p X 27rR = wp; also p = 27rr tan a, where a is the angle of the screw. It friction be not neglected, then, assuming that the coefficient of friction m is known, it can be shown that - = - tan (a T e) , according as w w R is about to prevail over p, or p over w; also it can be shown that the efficiency of the screw tan IS E = where 0 is the tan (a + ) angle of friction. In order that the screw may be reversible, a must be greater than . Diagram illustrating the Principle of the Screw. The U. S. standard thread is the Sellers, which is shaped like an equilateral triangle, with angle 60° between the sides, and with flat top and bottom. The British standard is the Whitworth, in which the angle is 55°, and the corners are rounded. The square thread is weaker, but is used where accuracy of motion is needed. The buttress thread is used for strength and accuracy when the important motion is in one direction only. It is shown in dynamics that the most gen- eral motion in space may be represented by a screw motion — i.e. the combination of a transla- tion along a given straight line with a rotation about that line. If the pitch of the screw becomes zero, we have a simple turning pair; if it becomes infinite, a sim- ple sliding pair. These are the limiting cases of screw motion. Screw, or Wood Screw, as they are technically known, are nails which are screwed into the ma- terial instead of hammered. Up to 1760 they were not in popular use, owing to the costliness of their production. In that year a machine for their manufacture was invented, and in 1817 an automatic screw-making machine was patented b3^ a German clock- maker. It was not till 1854, however, that a practically serv- iceable machine, the result of American invention, gave the first impulse to an industry which now gives employment to many thousands of workers. Roughly described, the process of manufacture is as follows: A piece of wire (copper, brass, or iron) is fed into a heading ma- chine through a die, to form the screw blank. The wire is then cut, and the head is formed by the stroke of a plunger striking the short piece which is held in the die. The head is nicked in the same machine. The screw blanks are thrown into a trough, and the thread and point are made in a worming machine by means of a cutter. Screw Bean. See Mesquite. Screw Pine, a name given to certain tropical trees and shrubs belonging to the genus Pandanus. They bear spiry, linear, rigidly coriaceous leaves, arranged in a perfect spiral about the stem, and most species produce aerial roots, which heave the trunks out of the ground, on stilts, as it were, afterwards serving, however, to anchor the trees. Pandanus uiilis is cultivated in the tropics for its leaves, which are split into narrow sections, and woven into coarse, strong sacks. In the South Sea Islands the leaves are also used for matting, basketry, cordage, and the like. The young screw-pines are popular house foliage-plants, requiring a high temperature, plenty of sun in winter and water in summer. Screw-propeller, an instru- ment for the propulsion of a vessel, consisting of two or more oblique blades, set on a shaft or shafts lying nearly parallel with the keel, and revolving be- neath the water at the stern. The Chinese used screw-pro- pellers from a very early date for making vessels move. Vari- ous devices for applying the principle were put forward from time to time by Du Quet in 17.31, Bouguer in 1746, Daniel Bernoulli in 1752, and Emerson in 1754. The Archimedean screw was tried by Pancton in 1768, and, as used by him, consisted of a revolving cylinder of some length, with the thread of a screw round it. In 1784 a more definite advance was made by Joseph Bramah, a London engineer, who invented a wheel furnished with inclined fans or wings. This was attached to a shaft which entered the ship's stern, and was made to revolve from inside. In 1787 Fitch experimented with a screw steamer on the Delaware R. In 1799 Dr. Shorter obtained a patent Common Forms of Screw propeller. 1. Griffith's. 2. Thornycroft's. for a 'perpetual sculling machine,' which consisted of a screw im- mersed in the water at the vessel's stern, and worked by hand. A suc- cessful trial of this was made in 1800. It was not until after Watt's engine had been used at sea for paddle steamers for some years that steam was employed for screw propulsion. In 1836 F. P. Reversible Propeller. A. Reversing rod inside hollow propeller shaft: by twisting the blades round, the EQotion of the boat is reversed without changing the rotation of the screw. Smith, an Englishman, and John Ericsson, the famous Swedish- American mechanician, applied it independently and successfully. In 1842 the U. S. S. Princeton was fitted with a screw-propeller, and Scribe KPN Scripture Was the first sea-going man-of- war in any navy to be so fitted. Modern vessels, and especially men-of-war, are frequently fitted with a pair of screws, the advan- tages being that the necessary propelling area may be got at a lower depth ; while, by reversing one and letting the other go ahead, the vessel may be turned without a rudder and without steerage way. A further advan- tage is that twin screws work in- dependently, with separate en- gines, so that the loss or damage of one does not entirely disable a ship. Three and four screws have also been used, and have given satisfactory results. In tur- bine-engined vessels the screws are made of small diameter on account of their rapid rotation. Screws are made of cast iron, cast steel, or bronze. Though not so strong as steel, bronze is the best material because it does not corrode rapidly. See Barnaby, Marine Propellers (1891), Froude, Elementary Relation be- tzveen Pitch, Slip, and Propul- sive Efficiency (1878), Bourne, Treatise on the Screw Propeller (1856) and Catechisnv of the Steam Engine (ed. 1865), Sea- ton, Manual of Marine Engineer- ing (1893), Tompkins, Textbook of Marine Engineering (1898), Sennitt and Oram, Marine Steam Engine (1898), Bennett, Moni- tor and the Navy imder Steam (1900). Scribe, Augustine Eugene (1791-1861), French dramatist, was born and died in Paris. In spite of the comparative failure of a number of his earliest plays, he persevered until he compelled attention by the success of Une Nuit de la Garde Nationale, in 1815. This play was written, as were most of Scribe's, in collabo- ration ; indeed, at the height of his success he is said to have em- ployed a small army of collabo- rators, he himself being general editor and final polisher. His versatility was astonishing ; com- edy, vaudeville, opera libretto, emotional drama, farce — all seemed to flow equally easily from his pen. He was not a genius, but a craftsman of the highest rank ; his great clever- ness concealed the superficiality of his observation. A few of his more notable plays are Le Sol- liciteur, Mon Oncle Cesar, Le Menage de Gargon, La Dame Blanche, L'Heritiere , Frontin, Bertrand ct Raton, Le Verre d'Eau, La Calomnie, Une Chaine, Adrienne Lecouvreur, Bataille de Dames, Les Doigts de Fee. His complete works appeared in 76 vols. (1874-85). See Life, in h^rench, by Legouve (1874). Scribes, the official copyists and expounders of the Jewish law. The Hebrew name was ap- plied to what might be termed a minister of state (2 Kings 19:2) — e.g. for war (2 Kings 25:19), or for home affairs (Neh. 13 :13) — also quite generally to an amanuensis, like Baruch (Jer. 36:26-32). With Ezra emerges the secondary significance as de- noting an expert in the law (Neh. 8:1), and after his day the scribes were a recognized official order, the members of which were also called lawyers or teach- ers of the law, and belonged chiefly to the Pharisaic party. It was their function to expound both the written and the oral law. See Edersheim, Life and Tinves of Jesus the Messiah, i. 93 #. (1887), Schiirer, Hist, of the Jewish People, vol. ii (1891). Scriblerus Club, a club of authors in London founded by Swift (1714), its object being to satirize literary incompetence. Four of the principal contribu- tions were Pope's Dunciad and Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus (1741), chiefly written by John Arbuthnot, and satirizing Mar- tin's Travels ; P. P. Clerk of this Parish, a satire on Burnet's His- tory of his own Time ; and The Travels of Lemuel Gulliver. Scribner, Charles (1821- 71), American publisher, was born in New York city, and graduated (1840) at Princeton. Failing health interrupted his preparation for the bar, and he passed some time in Europe. In 1846, with Isaac D. Baker, he or- ganized the publishing firm of Baker & Scribner, and on the death of Mr. Baker in 1848, pub- lished over his own name, and as Charles Scribner & Co., until his death. Meanwhile he had devel- oped his important business, and in 1857 he organized, with Charles Welford, a separate firm, Scribner & Welford, for the im- portation of foreign books. Among the authors who placed their works in Mr. Scribner's hands were J. T. Headley, W. G. T. Shedd, Noah Porter, D. G. Mitchell, N. P. Willis, and Dr. J. G. Holland. The firm had es- tablished a monthly periodical, Hours at Home, in 1865, and in 1870 this publication was merged in a new magazine, Scribner's Monthly, with Dr. Holland as editor. On the death of Mr. Scribner in the following year, he was succeeded by his eldest son, John Blair Scribner (1850-79), the firm being reor- ganized as Scribner, Armstrong & Co., with A. C. Armstrong and Edward Seymour as partners, and subsequently, in 1878, as Charles Scribner's Sons. A no- table publication carried out by Mr. Scribner was Lange's Com- mentary on the Holy Scriptures in twenty-six volumes. Scribner, Charles (1854- 1930), American publisher, son of the foregoing, was born in New York City, and graduated (1875) at Princeton. He joined the publishing house of Charles Scribner's Sons, of which his brother, J. Blair Scribner, was the head, immediately on gradu- ation, and on the death of the lat- ter, in 1879, himself became head of the firm. In 1881 Scribner's Monthly was sold to another house organized to purchase it, and its name was changed to The Century Magazine. In 1887 Charles Scribner's Sons estab- lished a new monthly periodical, Scribner's Magazine. Scribner, Frank Lamson (1851-1938), American botanist, born in Cambridgeport, Mass. He graduated at the Maine State College of Agriculture in 1873. After teaching in the pub- lic schools in Maine he became secretary to the state board of ag- riculture. In 1886 he was ap- pointed special agent in charge of the mycological division of the botanical section of the U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, and in 1887 became chief of the section of vegetable pathology. In 1888- 94 he was professor of botany and director of the Agricultural Experimental Station at the Uni- versity of Tennessee. In 1894- 1901 he was chief of the division of agrostology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and in 1901-4 was chief of the Insular Bureau of Agriculture in the Philippine Islands. His publications in- clude : Weeds of Maine (1869) ; Ornamental and Useful Plants of Maine (1874) ; Fungus Diseases of the Grape and other Plants (1886) ; American Grasses; and 'Fruits, Vegetables and Fibre Plants of the Philippines,' in Census of the Philippine Islands, 1903 (vol. jv. 1905). Scribonia, a lady of ancient Rome, who was married in 40 B.C. to Octavian, afterward the Emperor Augustus. It was a purely political marriage, Scribo- nia being the sister of Scribonius Libo, the father-in-law of Sex- tus Pompeius, whom Octavian wished to conciliate. But he divorced her in 39 B.C., on the very day on which she bore him a daughter, Julia, in order to marry Livia. Scripture, Edward Wheeler (1864- ), American psychol- ogist, born in Mason, N. H. He graduated at the College of the City of New York in 1884, and also studied in the universities of Berlin, Zurich and Leipzig. In 1892-1904 he was director of the psychological laboratory at Yale, and discovered the law of 'mediate association of ideas,' and methods of measuring hallucina- tions, and imaginings, and a process of producing anaesthesia Scrivener electrically. He invented an im- proved instrument for testing color-sight, and many appliances for experimenting in psychology, and demonstrating the principal psychological doctrines. His publications include: Thinking, Feeling, Doing (1895) ; The New Psychology (1897) ; and Ele- ments of Experimental Phonetics (1901). Scrivener, Frederick Henry Ambrose (1813-91), English Bib- lical scholar, was born in London; was a schoolmaster at Sherborne and Falmouth, and in 1874 be- came prebendary of Exeter, and in 1876 vicar of Hendon in Mid- dlesex. He wrote A Supplement to the Authorized English Version of the New Testament (1845), Six Lectures on the Text of the New Testament (1874), edited The Cambridge Paragraph Bible (3 vols. 1870-3), and took an impor- tant part in the revision of the New Testament. Scrofula, Struma, or King's Evil, a tubercular affection of the lymphatic glands. It is mani- fested chiefly in the glands of the neck, which become swollen and thick like that of a pig, and the bronchial and mesenteric glands may also be affected. Scrofula is congenital only in this sense, that the children of weakly parents are generally weaklings and have little resistive power. The disease is most common in childhood, but it may arise in adults and even in the aged. When the mesenteric glands are affected, the condition IS known as tabes mesenterica, the 'abdominal scrofula' of older writers. Diarrhoea is a constant symptom of this affection, and while the abdomen becomes prom- inent and tympanitic, the patient is usually puny, wasted, and anaemic. In the treatment of scrofula good food, fresh air, sunlight, cod-liver oil, iron and tonics should be employed to strengthen the tissues. Locally, iodine painted over the glands sometimes appears to be bene- ficial in the early stages, but of late this method of treatment has rather fallen into disrepute. Should the glands suppurate, an early incision should be made; and even in the absence of sup- puration it is often advisable to extirpate the tubercular focus by excising caseous glands. Scroggs, Sir William (i'1623- 83), lord chief-justice of England, born at Deddington in Oxford- shire; has left an even more in- famous reputation than Jeffreys. Though little of a lawver, he was clever as well as brutal of speech. His most outrageous conduct on the bench was during the time of the Popish plot .which Titus Oates invented. For this he was impeached by the Commons in 1681 and removed from the bench. 55 See Foss's Judges of England (1864). Scroll, a spiral ornament in architecture (Ionic, Corinthian) and joinery. It is also a heraldic term for a motto-bearing ribbon or inscription. Scrope, a north of England family. Geoffrey le Scrope (d. 1340) was chief-justice under Edward ii. and Edward iii. — ■ Henry le Scrope (d. 1336), his brother, was chief- justice of the King's Bench and the Exchequer. — Richard le Scrope (1327- 1403), son of Henry, was at the siege of Calais and at Neville's Cross (1346), and was afterwards steward to Richard ii., and be- came chancellor (1378). — Rich- ard le Scrope (c. 1350-1405), archbishop of York, was beheaded for conspiracy against Henry iv. Scrope, George Julius Pou- LETT (1797-1876), English geol- ogist and political economist. He published Considerations on Volcanoes (1824) and Geology of the Extinct Volcanoes in Central France (1826). He entered Par- liament in 1833, and became a supporter of free trade and social reforms, which he advocated in Eamphlets so numerous that he ecame known as 'Pamphlet Scrope.' He sat in Parliament for Stroud till 1868, and was the author of a small book on Political Economy (1833) and of a Life of his brother, Lord Sydenham (1843). Scrophularlaceae, a natural order of plants, mostly herba- ceous, though some are shrubs and a few are small trees. They bear usually irregular flowers with four or five persistent sepals, a gamopetalous corolla, frequently bilabiate, generally four sta- mens, didynamous, and a two- lobed stigma. Many herbs used in medicine are included in this order, the most important being the foxglove and digitalis. Among the genera are Pentstemon, Antir- rhinum, • Calceolaria, Mimulus, Linaria, and Verbascum. Scrub, the generic name ap- plied to the stunted tree or shrub growth which overruns many parts of Australia and elsewhere. The common scrub is known as the 'mallee' or 'mulga.' It lends a dreary aspect to the features of the country. Other more pleasing varieties are the tea tree and the heath. The term is applied generically to any scanty, dwarf- growing, stunted vegetation, and even to underwoods. Scruple. See Weights and Measures. Scud. See Cloud. Scudder, Henry Martyn (1822-1895), American Dutch Reformed missionary. He was born at Pandeteripo, Ceylon, the son of Rev. John Scudder, a mis- sionary. In 1840 he graduated Scudder at the New York University, and in 1843 at the Union Theological Seminary. He returned to India under the auspices of the Amer- ican Board, and remained there as missionary and physician — • he took a degree of m.d. in 1853— until ill-health compelled him in 1864 to return to the U. S. He was pastor in San Francisco in 1865-71; in Brooklyn in 1872-82, and in Chicago in 1882- 87. In the last year he again took up missionary work, this time gomg to Japan, where he remained until 1889. He wrote several books in the Tamil dialect of India. Among them are: Liturgy of the Reformed Protes- tant Dutch Church (1862); Sweet Savors of Divine Truth (1868); Spiritual Teaching (1870). He wrote also Reminiscences of Rev. John Scudder (1870). Scudder, Horace Elisha (1838-1902), American editor and author. He was born in Boston, and graduated at Williams Col- lege in 1858. He engaged in literary work in New York, and his first book. Seven Little People and Their Friends (1862), was so successful that he devoted him- self for several years entirely to juvenile writing. In 1867-70 he edited the Riverside Magazine for Young People, in Boston. In the latter year he became con- nected with the publishing house of Houghton, Mifilin & Co., and remained in the book department until 1890, when he succeeded Thomas Bailey Aldrich as editor of the Atlantic Monthly, a po- sition which he retained until nis death. His Life of James Rus- sell Lowell ( 1901 ) was a notable contribution to American let- ters. His other books include: Dream Children (1863); Stories from my Attic (1869); The Bod- ley Books, 8 vols. (1875-87); The Dwellers in Five Sisters Court (1876); Stories and Ro- mances (1880); The Children's Book (1881); Boston Town (1881); Noah Webster, in 'The American Men of Letters' series (1882); History of the United States (1887); Life of George Washing- ton (1889); Childhood in Litera- ture and Art (1894), He edited, with Justin Winsor, A Memorial History of Boston (1880-81); Life and Letters of Bayard Taylor, with Mrs. Taylor, and The American Commonwealth series. Scudder, Samuel Hubbard (1837), American entomologist, bom in Boston, Mass. He gradu- ated at Williams College in 1857, in 1862-64 was assistant in the Museum of Comparative Zool- ogy; in 1863-64 lecturer; and in 1879-82 assistant librarian in Harvard University. He was custodian (1804-70) and president (1880-87) of the Boston Natural History Society. In 1886-92 he Scuddet was a palaeontologist to the U. S. Geological Survey. He was editor of Science in 1883-85. His publi- cations include: A Century of Orlhoplera (1879); The Winnipeg Country (188()); Butterflies of the Eastern U nitcd States and Canada (1889); The Fossil Insects of North America (1890); Index to the Known Fossil Insects of the World (1891); The Life of a Butterfly (1893); Catalogue of the Described Orthoptera of U. S. and Canada (1900); and Index to the North American Orthoptera (Bos- ton Soc. of Nat. History's 18th and 19th Centuries, 1901). Scudder, Vida Button (1861), American' educator and writer, born at Madura, India, the daugh- ter of Rev. Henry M. Scudder. She graduated at Smith College in 1884, and studied at Oxford and in Paris. In 1887 she be- came instructor in literature in Wellesley College, and subse- quently associate professor in the same chair. She was active in the establishment of college set- tlements in large cities. She wrote : How the Rain Sprites were Freed (1883); Life of the Spirit in the Modern English Poets (1895); Social Ideals in English Letters (1898); An Introduction to the Study of English Literature (1901); A Listener tn Babel (1903); and edited Selected Poems of George MacDonald ( 1887 ) and Selected Letters of St. Catharine of Sienna (1905). Scudery, Madeleine de (1607- 1701), French writer of romances, born at Havre, who wrote among other works Ibrahim ou I'lllustre Bassa (1641); Artamene, ou le Grand Cyrus (1649-53); Clelie, Histoire Romaine (1656-60); and Almahide, ou I'Esclave Reine (1660-3), which were greeted with universal admiration. The first three were published under her brother's name. Although they were long-winded and indifferent novels, they reflected the spirit of the time, reproducing faith- fully, in some respects, the fash- ionable society of France. Mile, de Scudery had a famous salon in Paris. See Rathery's Mile, de Scudery, sa Vie et sa Correspond- ance (1873), and Mason's The Wo- men of the French Salons (1891). Her brother Georges (1601-67), acquired some distinction as a dramatist, winning the favor of Richelieu, and becoming a mem- ber of the Academy (1650). Scudo. (1.) An old Italian silver coin, varying locally in value from 5 to 8 francs, and sub- divided into 10 paoli and 100 hajocchi. i^i.) A gold coin struck at Rome by the French = 17.25 francs. (3 ) At present a silver coin eauivalent to the U. S. dollar, Spanish piastre, English crown = 5 francs. Sculling, the impelling of a 56 boat by means of two sculls or small oars, each rowed with one hand. The term is also applied to the propulsion of a boat by means of a long oar from its stern, where it is worked from side to side with a twist which produces the effect of a screw- propeller. See Rowing. Sculpin, a name first given to the fishes belonging to the genus Callionymus, especially C. lyra, the gowdie of Scotland and gem- meous dragonet of England. In North America the name is ap- plied to similar rough and despised cattaid fishes known more usually as sea-robins. Sculptor, a small constella- tion between Cetus and Phoenix, formed by Lacaille in 1752. The brightest star is of 4.2 magnitude. Sculpture is the art of carving any substance into^ a designed form. The material may be stone, clay, wood, ivory, or metal, hand wrought or cast in moulds. Sculpture may be in the round or detached form — such as statues of gods, men, animals — or may be figures or designs in low or high relief for decorative purposes and archi- tectural ornamentation. Sculp- ture, as an art, in its widest sense, can be traced through all the known civilizations — in Mexico, Babylon, in the rock-hewn tem- ples of India, the bronze gods and demons of China, in the colossal figures and decorations of temples in Egypt, and its admirable wrought statues in carved wood. As a concrete art it reached its culmination at the hands of the Greeks — such as Myron, Phidias, Praxiteles — who developed it from the limitations imposed by Egyptian convention to the fullest expression of beauty of the human form. The Romans were the inheritors and imitators of the Greek tradition, but, add- ing nothing to it, brought about its decadence. The decay of Graeco-Roman art was coincident with the waning of paganism. The Byzantine empire introduced a new element of Oriental design, which, blended with the wide- spread Celtic influence, espe- cially among the Scandinavian branches, produced an elaborate form of sculptural decoration from Sicily and Ravenna to Nor- way and Ireland. This reached its highest expression, after the general spread of Christianity, in sculptural ornamentation of tombs and crosses. Out of it grew in the north the form of architectural sculpture devoted in France and England mainly to the beautifying of stone ca- thedrals. Natural instinct was strong and faith fervent, and with the development of Gothic architecture, facades, capitals, altars, demanded carved detail Sculpture and ornamentation of figure re- liefs and statues. With the rise of Norman power Norman-Gothic art spread in France and Eng- land, to Italy and to Sicily, where it was blended with lingering Byzantine and Saracenic influ- ences. In Sicily, Greek and Saracen workmen wrought out Norman ideas. During the 13th century Italian workmen were imported as skilled carvers into England, and there stone carving excelled till the middle of the 14th century, and wood carving dur- ing the Perpendicular of the 15th centu^; but with the 16th cen- tury Gothic art declined uhder Ital ian influence, such as that of Torrigiano. Gothic sculpture reached its highest expression in France in the 12th and 13th centuries. Facades of great cathedrals were richly ornamented with carved traceries and statues, such as at Poitiers, Chartres, Rheiins, the Sainte-Chapelle in Paris, and the tombs and statues of dead heroes, such as the effigies in St. Denis — a form of sculpture peculiarly- Christian, as compared with Greek feeling, which concerned itself with the representation of life only. In the 14th century the Gothic impulse waned, and the 15th saw the transition to the style of the Italian Renaissance. In Germany, Gothic sculpture culminated in the 14th century in the hands of the Nuremberg schools, and of men such as Balier. In the 15th century flourished the great wood-carvers Syrling, Veit Stoss, and three generations of the Vischer family; while to the 16th century belongs fine bronze and metal work, such as the tomb of the Emperor Maxi- milian at Innsbruck. In Spain, after the expulsion of the Moham- medans, sculpture was the hand- maid of religious architecture, under French and German in- fluence, such as in the churches of Salamanca, Valladolid, Bur- gos, and the tombs of the church of Miraflores. In the 16th cen- tury the influence of the Italian Renaissance was paramount, and produced a few noted native sculp- tors, such as Montanes, whose statues are in Seville, and the realist Cano. The Greek tradition in sculp- tural form is peculiarly distin- guished among the Graeco-Latin races. In mediaeval days the Italians, in modern times the French, have inherited the Greek severity of form with suavity of expression, and no little of the severe but less abstract Roman touch. Byzantine influence was paramount in Italy until the 12th century- thereafter, in the 13th and 14th centuries, came a rebirth of art at the hands of those pioneers of the Renaissance, the SCULPTURE —11. MODERN EUROPEAN EXAMPLES. 1. Frederick the Great, by Ranch, at Berlin. 2. Lion and Serpent, by Barye. Paris. 3. Triumph of the Republic, by Dajo". Paris. 4. Teucer, by Hamo Thornycroft, R. A., Tate Gallery, London. 5. Christ, by Thorwaldsen, at Copenhagen. 6. The Mower (Le Faucheur), by Meunier. 7. Truth plucking out the Tongue of Falsehood, by Alfred Stevens, from the Wellington Monument, St. Paul's Cathedral. 8. Bavaria, by Schwanthaler, Munich. 9. Voltaire, by Houdon. Sculpture Sculpture Pisani, and their followers, Delia, Quercia, Orcagna, and Giotto. It grew out of the Gothic Iwe of realistic treatment of living forms, and the awakening of the sense of Greek beauty of form and balance, owing to the dis- covery of Greek sarcophagi and statues. These sculptors deco- rated the great cathedrals — Pisa, Siena, Orvieto, Giotto's Tower at Florence. Giovanni Pisano in- troduced a dramatic element into his work; in the 15th century Ghiberti forsook the severe limits of plastic art, in his bronze gates at Florence, and introduced pic- torial elements of perspective and architectural backgrounds into his reliefs. To this period also belong the realists and anatomical artists, Verrocchio, PoUaijuolo, the pietist Mina da Fiesole, and the Delia Robbia family, whose ceramics brought art within the sympathetic under- standing of the people. _ With Donatello Christian Renaissance reached its purest development — ■ noble controlled expression of Christian fervor embodied in the fine restrained form of Greek art. In the 16th century Gio- vanni Bologna and Benvenuto Cellini produced fine statues and portrait - busts in marble and bronze ; and, finally, Michael Angelo, the Titan of the Renais- sance, is the last great exponent of mediaeval Christianity and the herald of modern sculpture, inas- much as he introduced the new element of the struggle of man with destiny, of his anguish under the passing of - material con- ditions, the wrestling of spirit freeing itself from ecclesiastical bondage as at the dawn of the Ref- ormation. Thereafter Bernini is the chief figure of the decadence of the 17th century. Cahova and his Danish (Icelandic) follower Thorwaldsen are the chief expo- nents of the pseudo-classicism of the 18th century. In England the introduction of Protestantism was followed by a decline of the plastic arts. Nicholas Stone (d. 1047) carved effigies and tombs under Inigo Jones, and the Dutchman Grin- ling Gibbons worked under Sir Christopher Wren. _ In the 18th century Flaxman initiated the classical revival in sculpture; early in the 19th Chantrey was the chief pseudo - classicist. J. Gibson strove to revive poly- chromatic sculpture. A return to nature was attempted by West- macott, Wyatt, and Bell. The finest sculptor of the first half of the Victorian era was Alfred Stevens (1817-75), who designed the Wellington memorial in St. Paul's. To a later date belong Sir Edwin Landseer's Lions on Nelson's Monument. In Germany the influence oi the Italian Renaissance was para- mount in the 17th and 18th cen- turies, and in the beginning of the 19th century the pseudo- classical revival was in the hands of Tieck, Ranch, Rietschel, and Schwanthaler, who designed the Valhalla above the Danube near Ratisbon, and the Bavaria monu- ment in Munich. French sculpture fell under the influence of the Italian Renais- sance in the 16th century through classicism of the 18th century, and claimed liberty of choice for the artist. After the French Revolu- tion Rude and Carpcaux strove to give expression to direct sponta- neous human emotion, and m this they were followed by Barye, who was the first great sculptor of ani- mals since Greek days. The Italian and French sculptors added each a definite quality to sculpture as understood by the Greeks. The Italians added the • GeorgeWashingtotij' on the Steps oj the Sub-Tr easier y. New York City. (By J. Q. A. Ward.) the work and presence in France of Benvenuto Cellini, and Gou- jon was its chief exponent. The 17th century was dominated by the artificial taste of the court of Louis XIV. Paget, however, strove to break the cramping conven- tions and to create a nobler and more natural form of art. Houdon, a man of exceptional power, was the precursor of the modern school. He forsook the pseudo- intensity of religious emotion, of spiritual yearning. French mod- ern sculptors, since the commune, have touched a new human ex- pression, and are concerned with the worldly needs of man; he is no longer the saint, the hero, but the human being moulding his life out of material conditions bv the sweat of his labor. The chief modern sculptors are Con- stantine Meunier (Belgian), Bar- Sculpture 60 Sculpture tholome, Dalou, Mercie, Fal- guiere, and Rodin, who has opened further vistas as a pro- found psychologist of passion and suffering. The influence of recent French sculpture has caused a widespread reawakening of the art. In Russia, where sculpture has practically come into existence since the emancipation of the serfs, the chief exponents are Antokolsky (d. 1902) and Bek- lemisheff, a young man of talent. In England excellent work has portrait in marble, did some credi- table work before Powers's time. Powers's Greek Slave, now in the Corcoran Gallery at Washing- ton, was, however, the first statue of art importance by an Ameri- can, and notwithstanding its lack of originality it remains re- markable for dig'nity and purity of line. A contemporary of Powers's was Thomas Crawford (1813-57), who in his short life- time produced some remarkable works, notably the figure of Lib- erty on the dome of the Washing- Meade, Launt Thompson, and William Rimmer belong to the same period. Coming soon after them IS Olin Warner (1844-96), whose nude figure of Diana is considered by some critics the best work of its kind yet produced in America, With Augustus Saint-Gaudens (1848) begins an era in which American work is marked with all the technical perfection characterizing the mod- ern French sculpture of such men as Mercie, Falguicre, and Rodin, and also with an originality of its Statue of General W. T. Sherman, in the Central Park Plaza, New York City. (By Augustus St. Gaudens.) been done by Foley, Alfred Gil- bert, Onslow Ford, Thornycroft, Frampton, and Harry Bates, and in Scotland by Pittendrigh Mac- gillivray and John Tweed, to men- tion two only of the younger men. In the United States Hiram Powers (1805-73) was the first sculptor who really deserved the name, although William Rush, a ship -carver whose allegorical statue of the Schuylkill River stands in Fairmount Park, Phila- delphia, and John Frazee, the first native sculptor to make a ton Capitol, and the bronze doors of the Capitol. In connection with work on the Capitol, the eight panels on the door in the rotunda, by Randolph Rogers (1825-92), portraying scenes from the career of Columbus, may also be noted. Thomas Ball (1819) and Henry K. Browne (1814- 86) both succeeded in making equestrian statues that satisfied popular taste, the latter's Wash- mgton statue in Union Square, New York city, rising above the average of such work. Larkin J. own. The list of Saint-Gaudens's notable achievements is a long one. His Farragut in Madison Square, Peter Cooper, near the Cooper Union, the equestrian statue of General Sherman at the Central Park entrance, all in New York city; the Shaw Me- morial in Boston, the Puritan in Springfield, the figure of Grief in the cemetery at Washington, and the Robert Louis Stevenson medalUon, all need mention in any record of American sculptors. Daniel C. French (1850). a THE HEWER, BY GEORGE GREY BARNARD Vol. XI.— Page 61 Vol. XI.— Oct. '25 Sculpture 61 A Sculptured Stones of Scotland pupil of Rimmer and Thomas Ball, produced in his relief, Death Stopping the Sculptor's Hand, for the Milmore Memorial in Boston, a work that attracted serious attention, and he has followed it with much good sculp- ture, such as the Alma Mater on the steps of the Columbia Uni- versity Library in New York, the Minute Man at Concord, Mass., and John Harvard at Cambridge, Mass. Of more recent date is his Lincoln for the Lincoln Me- morial at Washington. The winning grace of Frederick Mac- Monnies' (1863) dancing Bac- chante, which the Boston Public Library would have none of, and which finally found a resting- place in the Metropolitan Mu- seum of New York, placed him at once in the front rank of the younger American sculptors. His fountain at the Chicago World's Fair of 1893, with its twenty- seven colossal figures, proved him a master of the picturesque, while the Nathan Hale statue in New York's City Hall Park and the Stranahan statue in Brooklyn show that he can do excellent work of a less flamboyant char- acter. His much discussed Civic Virtue in City Hall Park, New York City, is a masterly piece of work. John Quincy Adams Ward (1830-1910) made his first impression with The Freedman (a negro free from his fetters), a work that typified most happily the results of the Civil War. His statues of Greeley, in New York, Henry Ward Beecher, in Brooklyn, The Pilgrim, in Central Park, New York City, and Wash- ington, in Wall Street, New York, further enhanced his reputation. Among American sculptors Vol. XL— Oct. '25 who have distinguished them- selves in decorative work are Isidore Konti (1862), an Austrian by birth; Karl Bitter (1867- 1915) — also born in Austria — whose pediment for the Wiscon- sin State Capitol is one of the finest in America; Philip Mar- tiny (1858), a native of France; J. Massy Rhind and Charles Grafly (1862), who has achieved special distinction for his por- trait busts. F. W. RuckstuU (1853) did important work at various expositions, and for the Customs House and the Appellate Court Buildings, New York City. Others who have con- tributed materially to the beauty of many important structures are Herbert Adams (1858); Wil- liam Ordway Partridge (1861), who has also rendered valuable service to art by his lectures and writings; Charles H. Niehaus (1855); Bela Lyon Pratt (1867- 1917); Paul Wayland Bartlett (1865), whose best work is to be seen in the Congressional Library ; George Grey Barnard (1863), notable for his highly original and virile work, as exemplified in the heroic groups at the Pennsylvania State Capitol; Al- bert Jaegers (1868), who in 1920 completed a fine Pioneer Monu- ment for Germantown, Pa. ; Lor- ado Taft (1860); Adolph Wein- man (1870). Cyrus E. Dallin (1861) and Hermon A. MacNeil (1866) are especially distinguished for their Indian groups, and Edward Kemeys (1843-1907), A. Phimis- ter Proctor (1862), Edward C. Potter (1857-1923), Solon Borg- lum (1868-1922), Henry Shrady a871), and Frederick Roth (1872), for their animal studies. Gutzon Borglum (1867) is one of the most remarkable con- temporary American sculptors. His work, which shows the in- fluence of Rodin, is strongly real- istic; he has been particularly successful in such figures as the seated Lincoln at Newark, N. J. Of the younger group of Ameri- can sculptors, probably the most notable is Paul Manship (1886). American women who have achieved fame in this form of art include Harriet Hosmer (1830-1908), Anne Whitney, Edith Woodman Burroughs, Janet Scudder (1873), Evelyn Beatrice Longman, Anne Vaughn Hyatt (1876). Consult Marquand and Froth- ingham's History of Sculpture; W. B. Scott's British School of Sculpture; M. H. Spielmann's British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day; Claretie's Peintures et sculptures contemporaines; Lub- ke's History of Sculpture (Eng. trans.) ; Perkins' Italian Sculptors and Tuscan Sculptors; Symonds' Renaissance in Italy; Ruskin's Stones of Venice and Aratra Pentelici; Guillot's Les artistes en Espagne; Post's A History of European and American Sculp- ture (1921); Lorado Taft's His- tory of American Sculpture (new ed. 1924). Sculptured Stones of Scotland, remains of Celtic art, chiefly crosses and monuments, distributed throughout the main- land of Scotland and the ad- jacent islcmds. Their principal features are incised symbols, carved interlaced work and figures of men and beasts sculptured usually in low relief. The crosses comprise forms of the simplest type, as at Eilean Naoimh (Garvelloch Isles) and various localities in Wigtown- shire, and such masterpieces of design as the tomb slabs of St. Vigeans or the free-standing crosses of Kildalton, Campbel- town, and Ruthwell. Many of the stones, like the last named and one from Kilbar, Barra, bear runic inscriptions; a few also combine symbols with Ogam inscriptions, and others have Ogams alone. The majority, however, display (1) symbols such as the crescent, the sceptre, the mirror; (2) groups of animal forms; (3) hunting scenes; or (4) representations of the cruci- fixion and other scenes from the Scriptures. Occasfonally, as at Dunfallandy in Perthshire, one side of a monument displays a cross with interlaced work and animals while on the other side are sculptured symbols. Near Kirkmadrine in Wigtownshire are two pillars bearing incised crosses of the earliest known form, accompanied by a Christian inscription in Latin. In respect of time, the sculptured stones extend from about the middle Scup 61 B Scutellaria of the fifth to the twelfth cen- tury. Similar monuments occur elsewhere in the British Isles. Consult Allen's Early Christian Symbolism, and The Early Chris- tian Monuments of Scotland, and Stuart's Sculptured Stones of Scotland. Scup, SCUPPAUG, or PORGY, a small sparoid fish {Stenotomus chrysops), allied to and resem- bling thesheepshead, everywhere numerous along the eastern coast of the United States and in the Gulf of Mexico. It is highly valued for food. Scurf, minute epithelial scales formed by portions of the cuticle separated from the body by friction even in health. It is sometimes called furfur, some- times dandruff (see Hair, Dis- eases of). Normally the scalp most markedly exhibits this desquamation of epidermis, to which are added the exuviae of the hair follicles. Scur'vF, or Scorbutus, a nutritional disease, characterized by debihty, anaemia, a spongy condition of the gums, and a tendency to hemorrhage in and from the mucous membranes into the skin and elsewhere. Various theories as to its cause have been set forth from time to time. The theory now gener- ally accepted dates back only as far as 1912, when Hoist and Frohlich, on the basis of obser- vations on guinea pigs, attri- buted it to the absence of a certain chemical substance from the diet — which for lack of a better term has been called the 'antiscorbutic substance.' This substance has been found to occur in fresh vegetables, fruit juices (especially orange and lemon), fresh meat, and milk (slightly). It is easily destroyed by drying and other preservative measures, which accounts for the former prevalence of the disease among soldiers and sailors fed for long periods on preserved foods. (See Diet and Die- tetics.) Infantile Scurvy ('Barlow's disease') is seen principally in children from six to eighteen months old. It is commoner in cities than in country districts, and is seen more frequently among moderately well-to-do people than among the very poor, apparently because of the greater proportion of children fed on proprietary foods, and the custom of boiling and sterilizing the milk used. The scorbutic child is sallow and fretful before any marked physical signs of disease appear. Later it begins to be sensitive to the touch, particularly about the lower limbs, and, in consequence of the pain caused by movement, will refuse to move or to bear the weight on the legs. Later the limbs swell, the tenderness in- creasing. There is hemorrhage under the periosteum, and this not only causes enlargement and pain, but may result in separa- tion of the cartilaginous ends of the growing long bones, such as the thigh bones, from the shafts. If there be many teeth, the gums are spongy and swollen, and there is frequently an ofTensive discharge. The appearances are so characteristic that diagnosis is not usually difficult. Rickets may co-exist. The prognosis in cases properly treated is extremely favorable. Treatment is simple, consisting simply in dietary measures. A diet of fresh cow's milk, suitably modified, is preferable, to which should be added from K to 2 ounces of orange juice daily. Common Scurvy Grass 1. Petal. 2. Flower, section. 3. Fruit. The juice of canned tomatoes is an effective substitute for the orange juice. Properly prepared potato water has also proved effective. Almost immediate im- provement is noted, and except in cases of long standing cure is apparently complete within a few weeks. The most important preventive measure is the use of orange juice (10 c.c. or more daily) for all bottle-fed babies. Scurvy in Adults responds to treatment less rapidly than in- fantile scurvy, but the outlook is favorable except in the severest cases. The diet should include fresh milk, meats, vegetables, and fruits, especially orange and lemon juice. Iron tonics are useful, and mouth washes of potassium permanganate are helpful. The gums may be painted with silver nitrate solu- tions. If possible, the patient should stay in a warm, dry place. The use of fresh foods — milk, meats, vegetables and fruits — is all that is necessary in the way of prevention. Scurvy Grass, a genus (Coch- learia) of herbaceous plants be- longing to the order Cruciferae. They are characterized by their fruit, which is a globose, two- valved pouch, the valves not flattened. The common scurvy grass (C. officinalis) of Great Britain is an abundant sea-shore plant, with heart-shaped root leaves and oblong stem leaves, bearing large corymbs of white flowers in May. Scu'tage, a sum of money pay- able by a knight under the feudal system for his fee by way of com- mutation for personal service. It was first exacted in 1159, and was restricted by Magna Charta. Scutari, skoo'ta-re, town, Al- bania, capital of the vilayet of the same name, on Lake Scutari. Features of interest are the castle and cathedral. Small arms and textiles are manufactured, and grain, wool, tobacco, and hides are exported. Scutari, the ancient Scodra, was taken by the Romans in 168 B.C. In the Middle Ages it fell into the possession of the Servians and was lost by them to the Vene- tians. It was acquired by Turkey in 1479. During the Balkan wars, it was surrendered, after a six-months siege, to the Monte- negrins, but they were forced to hand the city over to the Powers, who incorporated it in the new principality of Albania. In the course of the Great War Scutari was occupied by the Austrians (Jan. 23, 1916) after the Serbian debacle. Pop. 32,000. Scutari, or Uskudar, town, Asia Minor, on the Bosporus, opposite Constantinople, of which it forms a suburb. See Con- stantinople. Scutella'ria, a genus of peren- nial herbs belonging to the order Labiatae. They bear flowers with campanulate, bilabiate calyxes, the upper lip bulging out so as to form a sort of lid or cap over the fruit, and a bilabiate corolla, the lips being unequal. 5. lateriflora. The Mad Dog Skullcap, Madwort, or Hood- wort, common in wet places throughout the Eastern United States, has a much-branched stem with small blue (rarely white) flowers. It was once regarded as an antidote for hydrophobia. 5. serrata, the Showy Skullcap, bearing racemes of blue flowers, is found in woods from the lati- tude of Southern New York southward to North Carolina and Kentucky. Other varieties are the Hyssop Skullcap (S. integrifolia) , Downy Skullcap {S. canescens). Hairy Skullcap {S. Vol. XL— Oct. '25 Scutum Sobieskl 62 Sea pilosa), and Hooded or Marsh Skullcap (5. galericulata) . Scutum Sobieski, sku'tum so- byes'ki, a small constellation formed by Hevelius; it is situated in a bright part of the Milky Way south of Aquila, and in- cludes the 'Omega' nebula (M 17) and the well-known cluster Messier 11. R. Scuti varies from 4.4 to 9.0 magnitude in about :eventy-one days. Scylax, si'laks, a Greek geog- rapher of the city of Caryanda in Caria, who, according to Herodotus, was sent by Darius Hystaspes on a voyage of dis- covery down the Indus into the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. A work is still extant, called the Periplus, ascribed to Scylax; but it is probably the work of a writer of about 350 B.C., edited by Fabricius (1878). Scylla and Charybdis, sil'a, ka-rib'dis, in ancient Greek legend two monsters of the sea. Ac- cording to Homer, Scylla was the daughter of Triton or Po- seidon, and lived on a rock in the strait of Messina. She had twelve feet, six long necks and heads, armed with three rows of teeth, with which she snatched sailors from vessels which passed too near. At a bowshot distance, under a low rock, Charybdis alter- nately sucked in and belched forth the water so that no one could escape. The story is typical of the dangers of navigation there, and gave rise to the proverb, 'You fall into Scylla trying to avoid Charybdis.' A later story portrays Scylla as a beautiful maiden, who was beloved by the sea-god Glaucus. He asked Circe to give him charms to win her love; but in her jealousy Circe threw magic herbs into the pool in which Scylla bathed, so that while above the waist she re- tained a woman's form, below she was changed into a fish-like shape, encircled by dogs. Ovid gives this account in his Metamor- phoses. Scyphomedusse. See Jelly Fish. Scyphozoa, one of the three divisions of the Coelenterata (q. v.), including the jelly fish, sea anemones, and allied forms. See Jelly Fish; Sea Anemone. Scyros, si'ros, or Skyros, island, one of the Northern Sporades (see Grecian Archi- pelago), in the /Egean Sea, Sea, east of Euboea. It has an area of 79 square miles, moun- tainous in the south but with fertile plains in the north. Wheat and the vine are grown, and sheep and goats are raised. On vScyros, according to legend; Achilles was hidden by his mother to save him from the Trojan War, and there Theseus was killed and buried. In 47G B.C. the Athen- ians under Cimon conquered Scy- ros, and brought home the bones of the hero. It was then a pirate stronghold. The present popula- tion is about 3,500 Scytale, sit'a-le, an ancient Greek contrivance for sending written messages decipherable only by possessors of the key. It consisted of a staff of a pe- culiar shape, about which was wound a narrow strip of leather, on which the message was written lengthwise; the strip was then unrolled and sent to the cor- respondent, who, by rolling it round a similar stick, was able to read it. The scytale was em- ployed especially by the Spartans in their communications between their ephors and generals. Scyth'ia, the name given by the ancient Greeks to the south- eastern part of modern Europe, between the Carpathians and the Caucasus. The Scythians are described as nomads who lived in wagons and fought chiefly on horseback. From Her- odotus' description of their ap- pearance they seem to have been of Mongolian race; but the ten- dency of modern authorities is to regard them as Aryans. They inhabited the vast treeless plains that stretch from the Danube to the Volga, keeping herds of horses, cattle, and sheep, lived in tent-covered wagons, fought with bows and arrows on horse- back, made drinking-skulls of the heads of their slain enemies, and worshipped without images various gods like those of the Aryan Greeks. From the Greek colonies established north of the Euxine they learned something of the arts of civilization; one of their kings, Anacharsis, even went to Athens to learn at the feet of Solon. In the seventh century B.C. the Scythians invaded Media, and were only got rid of after ten years' occupation by Cyax- ares making all their chiefs drunk at a banquet, and then slaying them. Shortly after the middle of the fourth century the Scyth- ians (Scolots) in Europe were subdued and in great part ex- terminated by the Sarmatians. The Scythians of Asia, however, after about 128 B.C. overran Parthia (Persia), routed several Parthian armies, and levied trib- ute from the Parthian kings. They founded also in the East of the empire the kingdom of Sa- castane, so that that part of Asia was long known as Indo- Scythia. During the first century before and the first century after Christ hordes of "Scythians, hav- ing overthrown the Bactrian and Indo-Greek dynasties of Afghan- istan and India (125-25 B.c), invaded Northern India; and there they maintained them- selves with varying fortune for five centuries longer. Scythopolis, si-thop'o-lis. the Biblical Beth-shanor Beth-shean, a city belonging to the western half-tribe of Manasseh, a few miles west of the Jordan and 12 miles south of the Sea of Galilee. Excavations undertaken here after the overthrow of Turkish power in Palestine in the Great War have been particularly rich in results, important discoveries being an inscribed stele of Seti i. of Egypt (1313-1292 B.C.), nam- ing some of the Israelitish tribes; the first sarcophagi of the Philis- tines; and the sarcophagus of Antiochus, cousin of Herod the Great. In September 1925 American archaeologists un- earthed here an Egyptian temple which they believe dates back to 1200 B.C. Its foundations measured 12 by 71 K feet. Archaeologists believe that the site was inhabited as early as the Stone Age. As Scythopolis it was one of the great cities of the East during the classical period. It was conquered by the Arabs in 632 a.d. Under Turkish rule, it was part of the Sultan's private domain. Close to the ruins of past civilizations stands the native village of Beisan. Sea, a term commonly used to denote a large area of the ocean, delineated by fairly well- defined land boundaries. Seas occupy about 6K per cent, of the oceanic area, (1.) Where the land is almost continuous, we may speak of midland seas, such as the Mediterranean, Black, and Baltic Seas. (2.) Where the land is continuous only on two or three sides, and the fourth is de- fined by islands, we have mar- ginal seas, such as the North Sea, Caribbean Sea, and the seas off the east coast of Asia. (3.) Where the land exists on two opposite sides with openings to two larger areas of the ocean on the other two opposite sides we talk of a connecting sea, such as Bering Sea, the Norwegian and Irish Seas; while (4) a variety of this is found in the island- bordered seas of Sulu and other basins of the Malay archipelago. From the point of view of depth we may distinguish the shallow seas over the continental shelf (transgression seas) from the deep, down-sunken areas such as the Mediterranean, which have been termed ingression seas. The term sea is used popularly also for a great gulf — e.g. Arabian Sea — and for some salt lakes, such as the Caspian Sea, Sea of Aral, the Dead Sea. See separate articles on the principal oceans and seas; also Ocean, and other articles there cited; Marine Biological Research; Seashore. Vol. XL— Oct. '25 SEA ANEMONES. Types of Sea Anemones. The specimen in the upper left-hand corner is closed for protection. Sea 63 Seabury Sea, Sovereignty of the. See Sovereignty or the Sea. Sea-anemone, a popular name applied to certain of the solitary members of the Zoantharia, on account of their flower-like ap- pearance. One of the commonest sea-anemones round the coasts of the N. Atlantic is the smooth anemone (A ctinia mesemhryan- themum), which is attached to rocks and stones between tide- marks. It consists of the base (by which the animal is attached to its support), the upright column, and the free disc (which is surrounded by tentacles, and has the mouth in tne centre). Round the base of the tentacles may be observed a row of blue beads, which are really bat- teries of stinging cells. The ten- tacles are also furnished with stinging cells, and in some threads called acontia, covered with sting- ing cells, can be shot out from the sides of the body ; some of the very large tropical forms can sting severely. The internal anatomy is complicated. The mouth, for instance, opens into a gullet which hangs down in the general cavity of the body. This general cavity is crossed by a number of parti- tions or mesenteries, which di- vide the cavity into a series of chambers. On these mesenteries are placed the reproductive or- gans, and also tangled threads known as the digestive filaments, which are often protruded when an anemone is damaged in remov- ing it from the rock. The sexes are either separated or united; but, in addition to the sexual method of reproduction, they reproduce asexually by both internal and external budding, or even by a mere rupture of a part of the body, which then grows into a new individual. This is often seen in the plumose anemone {Actinoloba dianthus), a beau- tiful form common just below low-tide mark. The colors of anemones are very variable, and often very beautiful. In some instances they are of the charac- ter described as protective colora- tion. See Gosse's History of the British Sea-anemones ana Corals (1860); and Mayer's Sea-shore Life (1906). Sea-bass, a name sometimes given to food-fishes belonging to the family Percidae, such as the species of Centropristis, two of which are frequent on the eastern coast of N. America. The term is, however, vague, and often wrongfully applied. Sea-bat, a name given to the species of Platax (fish belonging to the horse-mackerel family) on account of the great elonga- tion of the dorsal, anal, and ven- tral fins. All the species occur in the Indian and W. Pacific Oceans. Sea-bear. See Fur-seal. Vol. XL— 5. Sea-blubber, a name for jelly- fish. Sea-bream. See Bream. Sea-buckthorn, or Sallow- THORN {HippophcB Rhamnoides)t a thorny shrub found near the sea in Europe. It beairs nar- row gray leaves, small greenish and at Edinburgh, was ordained Eriest by the bishop of Carlisle at ,ondon. Returning to America he was a missionary at New Brunswick, N. J., was rector at Jamaica, L. I., from 1757 to 1766, and was rector at Westchester, N. Y., from 1767 to 1775, in which Types of Sea-anemones. 1, Actinia mesembryanthemum. 2. Sagartia bellis. 3. S. coccinea. 4. Actino- loba dianthus. 5. Anthea cercus. 6. Bolocera Tuediae. 7. Tealia crassicornis. 8. Peachia hastata. white flowers in late spring, and juicy, acid, orange-colored ber- ries in autumn. Seabury, Samuel (1729-96), American P. E. prelate, born at Groton, Conn. He graduated (1748) at Yale, studied medicine at Edinburgh University during 1752-53, and in 1753, having also studied theology under his father, year his advocacy of the Loyalist cause obliged him to suspend his ministrations. During the Revo- lution he practised medicine in New York, and was chaplain of a royal regiment. In 1783 he was elected bishop of Connecticut, but was not immediately conse- crated owing to difficulties with the English law. He was conse- Seabury crated at Aberdeen on Nov. 14, 1784, by three bishops of the Episcopal Church in Scotland. Returning to the U. S., his 'juris- diction was admitted by the church members of Connecticut, and he was requested to extend it over Rhode Island. At the Gen- eral Convention of 1789 his authority was confirmed and he became presiding bishop. See Beardsley's Life and Correspond- ence of Samuel Seabury (1881). Seabury, Samuel (1801-72), American E. clergyman, grand- son of Bishop Samuel Seabury, was born in New London, Conn., and was privately educated. He was ordered deacon in 1826, and ordained priest in 1828; and after holding various educational posi- tions was editor of . The Church- man from 1831 to 1849. In 1838 he became rector of the Church of the Annunciation in New York city, from which he retired in 1868. He was professor of Bibli- cal learning in tne General Theo- logical Seminary from 1862 until his death. He published several theological works, including The Continuity of the Church of Eng- land in the Sixteenth Century (1853) and The Supremacy and Obligation of Conscience (1860). Sea-eat. ' See Chimjera, and WOLF-nSH. Sea-cow. See Sirenia. Sea-encumber. See HoLO- THURIANS. Sea-devil. See Devil-fish. Sea-eagle. See Erne. Sea-elephant. See Elephant- seal. Sea-fan. See Gorgonid^, Seafarer, one of the master- pieces of Old English song, is in the Exeter Book. It may be divided into two parts — the first heathen, the second Christian and later. Two iantagonistic points of view are represented — ■ longing for the sea, and the hard- ships of a sailor's hfe. Most of the text is accessible in Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Reader (ed. 1887). See Wiilker's Grundriss (1885), and the American Journal of Germanic Philology (1902), iv. 4. Sea-fir. See Hydrozoa. Seaforth, tn., Huron co., Ont., Canada, 37^ m. n.n.w. of Lon- don, on a branch of the Maitland R., and on the Buff, and Goderich br. of the Gr. Trunk R. R. It has 1,100 ft. under its site, a 100-ft. thick stratum of rock salt. It has salt wells, and manufac- tures furniture, engines, woollens, flour, and is an important shipping point for grain, cattle, horses, and eggs. Among noteworthy features of interest are the town hall, a park, and the Seaforth Collegiate Institute. The sur- ::ounding district produces wheat (of which 1,000,000 bushels are shipped annually from Seaforth), catile, and salt. It was first 64 settled about 1860. Pop. (1901) 2,247. Seaforthia, a genus of tropical Australasian and Pacific palms, which are usually handsome plants with tall trunks, and ter- minal, pinnatisect leaves. They are mostly worthy of cultivation as stove plants. The best-known species is S. elegans, the Illawarra palm, which does well in a cool greenhouse. It grows to a height of about sixty feet, and has leaves from three to over ten feet in length. Sea-fox. See Thresher. Sea-grape, or Joint Fir, a genus (Ephedra) of shrubs be- longing to the order Gnetaceas. E. distachya is a Russian species, the sweet mucilaginous berries of which are eaten by the peasants. Sea-grapes, in zoology, a name given to the grapelike egg clus- ters of some of the cuttle-fishes. Sea-gull. See Gull. Seaham Harbor, tn. and seapt., Durham, England, 6 m. s. of Sunderland. It was founded in 1828 by the Marquis of London- derry, as an outlet for the prod- uce of his collieries. The new harbor was completed in 1905. Trade is chiefly in coal, and there are motor wagon, bottle, and electrozone works, and an iron foundry. Pop. (1911) 15,759. Sea-hare (Aplysia). Sea-hare (Aplysia), a genus of nudibranch gasteropods, whose members are widely distributed in shallow water. In classical times the sea-hare of the Mediter- ranean was the object of many superstitions, largely based upon its habit of pouring out a purplish fluid when handled. The animal is perfectly harmless, the fluid having no effect on the human skin. Sea-hedgehog (Diodon). See Globe-fish. Sea-hog. See Porpoise. Sea-holly. See Eryngium. Sea-horse. See Hippocampus. Sea-kale, a European vege- table of the easiest culture. The soil should be deeply dug and heavilv manured. The roots should be planted about the end of March, in rows eighteen inches apart, and eighteen inches from root to root in the row. The young shoots require to be kept from the light by means of sand, litter, or pots, as unless thoroughly Sea LiavendcY blanched they are bitter and un- pleasant. It may be cooked much in the same way as asparagus. Sea Islands, off the coast of S. C, and extending s. of Winyah Bay to the Savannah R.,' a littoral chain of islands, low, flat, and very fertile. Hilton Head, Port Royal, St. Helena, Edisto, John, and James are the largest. They produce the rice and famous long - fibred Sea- Island cotton. They are subject to inundations; those of 1893-4 killed thousands and destroyed the crops. The population is largely negro. Seal. See Seals and Seal Fisheries. Seal. See Gems and Precious Stones. Seal. In law, a distinguishing mark or impression upon paper or parchment, or some substance, as wax, bearing a mark, device, or words, and capable of being attached to a document, to au- thenticate it, or to serve as a sig- nature. The term is also applied to the instrument by which the / mark or impression is made. The practice of authenticating documents by affixing a distin- guishing mark or seal was current in ancient India, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, and was continued in medircval times. The early popes used leaden seals or bullce. Seals were used on private instruments at a time when few people could write, and most documents were written by the clergy. All modern nations have great seals, and states, courts, certain public officials, and municipalities gen- erally have their own seals for authenticating important docu- ments. By the common law a peculiar efficacy is attached to a . sealed instrument. Considera- tion is conclusively presumed in a contract or promise under seal. Deeds, wills, and other convey- ances are generally required to be under seal. In some of the United States seals have been rendered unnecessary by statute, and in many states a seal is onlv presumptive evidence of consid- eration and may be rebutted. The practice of having individual seals has fallen into disuse, and round pieces of adhesive paper of some color other than white, are in common use as seals. In some states a scroll with a pen and the letters 'L S,' or the word 'seal' will suffice. Corporations are generally required to have seals and usually adopt a die which makes an impression of the name of the corporation upon paper. See Contracts; consult Parsons on Contracts. Sea Lavender. Either of the perennial plants, Statice Limo- nium or Limonium Carolinianum, found in salt marshes, and oc- casionally cultivated. The latter Sea-leopard KFI 65 Seal Fisheries has tufts of thick, oblanceolate leaves ; broad, panicle-like flow- er heads, of feathery aspect, crowded with tiny, lavender- tinted, five-parted flowers ; and a thick, woody, strongly astrin- gent root, used medicinally. Sea-leopard, a large spotted seal, Stcnorhynchns Icptonyx , of the family Phocidse, found in Antarctic seas. See Seals. Seal Fisheries, which are world-wide in distribution, are devoted principally to the cap- ture and utilization of fur seals and hair seals ; sea lions, sea ele- phants and other aquatic mam- mals also have contributed to these fisheries in some measvire. Fur seals are valuable for their pelts while hair seals are used chiefly in the manufacture of leather and oil. Fur Seal Fisheries, — Fur seals are widely scattered over the world. These animals are now confined almost exclusively to the colder waters, but they were formerly abundant in warmer regions. By far the largest and most important herd of fur seals is the Alaska herd {Callorhinus alascanus) which has its breeding grounds on the Pribilof Islands in Bering Sea. It is estimated that this herd contains more than 80 per cent of all fur seals of the world. Other herds of commercial im- portance are those of the Com- mander Islands in Bering Sea, belonging to Soviet Russia ; Robben Island and the Kuriles, possessions of Japan ; the Lobos and other islands off the eastern coast of South America ; and coastal areas in the vicinity of Cape of Good Hope, South Africa. Fur seals in relatively small numbers resort to the Falkland Islands and other small islands in the South At- lantic, the Crozet Isles in the south Indian Ocean, and Guade- loupe Islands and the Galapagos Islands in the Pacific Ocean. New Zealand and Australia were formerly the source of many fur seal skins, but the herds at these places have been so_ reduced that the number of skins now obtained is insignifi- cant. The fur seals of the Northern Hemisphere belong to the genus Callorhinus while those of the Southern Hemisphere are classi- fied in the genus Arctoccphalus. Each herd is an independent, self-perpetuating unit, and the animals of the various herds do not intermingle. Permanent, constant differences between the animals of the several herds have resulted in classification of the members of each as separate species. ^ Fur-seal hunting for commer- cial purposes began toward the end of the 18th century in the Southern Hemisphere, and early in the 19th century the industry assumed gigantic proportions. During the early years of seal- ing, the skins were taken to the Canton market where they were exchanged for teas, silks, and other well-known products of the Chinese Empire. The price ob- tained for the skins was com- paratively small, visually rang- ing from 50 cents to $5.00 per skin. The sealing business proved very profitable, how- ever, and led to an indiscrimi- nate and exterminating slaugh- ter. Every seal that could be obtained was killed regardless of age or sex, and one after an- other of the populous seal rook- eries was visited and reduced to commercial extinction. Discovery, ruthless exploita- tion, and partial or complete ex- tinction is the story of the world's fur-seal colonies, with few exceptions. The herds of the Pribilof Islands and of the Commander Islands in Bering vSea suffered less from early ex- ploitation than the others. These islands from the time of their discovery were under the juris- diction of Russia, and as early as 1835 restrictive measures were in force to protect and rehabilitate the herds. There has been more or less stringent regulation of killing also on the seal rookeries at Lobos Island, Aukland Is- land, and on the west coast of South Africa by the Govern- ments concerned. Practically all of the early sealing was on land ; pelagic sealing, or killing at sea, had been carried on since time im- memorial, however, by Indians along the northwest coast of North America who intercepted the seals on their northward mi- gration. The Indians sought the fur seals chiefly for food and the number taken was nominal. It was not until about 1879, when schooners were fitted out to transport hvmters and canoes to their fields of operation and to care for them there, that pelagic sealing attained signifi- cance. These schooners, averag- ing about 70 tons, with sealing canoes and hunters on board, sailed chiefly from Victoria, B. C. ; others were from Pacific Coast ports from San Diego to Seattle. Pelagic sealing com- menced off the California coast late in December, and the mi- grating Pribilof Islands herd was followed northward into Bering Sea where operations continued until September. A less important pelagic sealing industry was dependent upon the Japanese and Russian fur-seal herds, the sealing grounds ex- tending from the latitude of Yokohama to the Commander Islands in Bering Sea, and the season extending from March to September. There was no pelagic sealing anywhere in November and December. The rise of pelagic sealing was rapid, and as the bulk of the catch was composed of females, these operations soon had an injurious effect on the herd, which became apparent in re- duced numbers of seals available for land killing. The wasteful- ness of pelagic sealing was quickly recognized, and the United States, acting upon the precedent established by Rus- sia in the Ukase of 1821, seized and confiscated a number of sealing vessels that entered Ber- ing Sea. Pelagic sealing being largely _ a Canadian industry, this action resulted in a contro- versy with Great Britain which extended over many years. In 1892 the entire matter was re- manded to a tribunal of arbitra- tion for settlement of the ques- tion of jurisdiction over fur seals in offshore waters, and also for recommendation of measures for the protection of fur seals. The tribunal of arbitration met in Paris in 1893 and denied the United States authority to exer- cise jurisdiction over Pribilof Islands fur seals when such ani- mals were more than three miles from shore. Regulations were formulated, the essential fea- tures of which were the estab- lishment of a closed zone of 60 miles in Bering Sea about the islands, and a closed season from May 1 to August 1 within which all pelagic sealing was prohibited. These regulations were inadequate, and the Pribi- lof herd continued to decline at an alarming rate. Finally after extensive scien- tific investigation on the part of the two Governments, the ques- tion of pelagic sealing in waters of the North Pacific Ocean was settled July 7, 1911 by an agree- ment, known as the North Pa-, cific Sealing Convention, be- tween the United States, Great Britain, Russia, and Japan. This treaty became effective De- cember 15, 1911. It refers spe- cifically to the American, Japa- nese, and Russian fur-seal herds, and applies to the waters of the North Pacific Ocean north of the thirtieth parallel of north latitude, including the Seas of Bering, Kamchatka, Okhotsk, and Japan. The nationals of each of the treaty powers are prohibited from engaging in pelagic sealing in the waters described, and provision is made for adequate patrol of the waters frequented by fur seals. Special exception is made for aborigines dwelling on the coasts of the Seal Fisheries KFI 66 Seal Fisheries protected waters, and they may continue to take seals in the sea under certain restrictions which prohibit the use of powered boats and firearms ; primitive methods only may be used. As a consequence the number of fur seals killed by aborigines is very small. Under the convention, the management of fur seals on land is left largely to the country hav- ing jurisdiction over the rookery area. The United States de- livers 15 per cent of the fur- seal skins taken at the Pribilof Islands to Canada and 15 per cent to Japan. Japan delivers to the United States, Canada, and Russia each 10 per cent of the fur-seal skins taken on rook- eries vxnder her jurisdiction ; and Japan and Canada each receive 15 per cent of the fur-seal skins taken on Russian possessions. Great Britain has no shores within the protected area to which fur seals resort, but pro- vision is made for a division of the skins taken, should rookeries become established. The North Pacific Sealing Convention, still in effect, was for a period of 15 years and there- after until terminated by 12 months' written notice given by one or more of the parties. At the time the treaty became effective the Pribilof Islands herd num- bered less than 125,000 animals as compared with about 2,500,000 when the United States pur- chased Alaska in 1867. Man- aged in accordance with a scien- tific program of conservation and utilization, the herd has in- creased steadily until in 1938 it contained almost 2,000,000 animals. United States. — Three years after acquisition of the Pribilof Islands in the Alaska purchase, the United States leased the privilege of taking fur seals on the islands to the Alaska Com- mercial Company. The lease ran for a period of 20 years from May 1, 1870. For the privilege granted by the lease, the company paid the Govern- ment an annual rental and a tax on each skin taken. The Gov- ernment received $6,020,152 un- der this lease, 1,977,377 fur-seal skins having been taken. The North American Commercial Company was the lessee for the 20-year period May 1, 1890 to April 30, 1910. The return to the Government during the term of this lease amounted to $3,453,844, and the total take of skins was 342,651. Upon the expiration of the second lease, the United States Government took full charge and began sealing operations in 1910. This arrangement has continued in effect since, and all sealing operations at the Pribilof Islands are under the immediate supervision of Government offi- cials. Fur seals are polygamous, and one bull seal may have as many as 100 cows in his harem. The most desirable ratio is one bull to 40 cows. Because of their polygamous life and the fact that the sexes are in equal num- bers at birth, there are many surplus male seals. These are killed when they are three years old, the age at which the quality of the pelt is best. An adequate reserve of 3-year-old males is always maintained for breeding purposes. Most of the sealskins are taken in July. They are given a preliminary treatment at the islands, and after being cured in sak, they are shipped to a Government supervised fac- tory where they are dressed and dyed and sold in finished con- dition at public auction. In the earlier years most of the seal- skins were shipped to London where they were sold in the raw state. The dressing and dying industry is now established in the United States and the quali- ty of finished sealskins is un- excelled. Hair Seat Fisheries, — Impor- tant hair seal fisheries in the North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans are located (1) along the west coast of Greenland, (2) coasts of Newfoundland, Labrador, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, (3) Jan Mayen Island and adjacent waters, (4) Novaya Zemlya Island and adjacent waters, and (5) the White Sea. The Caspian Sea also supports a seal fishery. In the South Atlantic, Pacific and Antarctic regions, the hair seal fishery has been chiefly for the sea elephant or elephant seal, the largest of the hair seal family. This fishery, prose- cuted in conjvmction with whal- ing and fur-seal operations, was exclusively for the oil. Sea ele- phants were abundant on many of the islands off the southern portion of the South American continent, on both the Atlantic and Pacific sides, along the Pata- gonian coasts, the Falkland Islands, South Shetland Islands, South Georgian Islands, and Crozet, Kerguelen, and Herd Islands. Indiscriminate and in- judicious killing of these ani- mals in the early years' of ex- tensive sealing has resulted in virtual extermination in many places. The sea elephant also was sought commercially on the coasts of Western Mexico and Lower California. This once important fishery was aban- doned many years ago because of almost complete extinction of the species. Many hair seals are taken annually along the Alaskan, Siberian, and other coasts of the North Pacific, by natives for food and clothing; no commercial fishery of conse- quence is carried on in those waters, however. The most important hair seal fishery of the world is that cen- tered around Newfoundland, which once supported a fleet of 400 vessels manned by over 10,000 men, and yielded annual catches of from 500,000 to 700,000 seals. In recent years the fleet has fallen to less than 10 vessels. Two species of hair seals are taken in the New- foundland fishery — harp seals, the most common, and hood seals. Both species are migra- tory, moving south in the win- ter to breed on the ice to the northeast of Newfoundland. By far the greater part of the catch is made in March and April while the seals are on the ice. The vessels follow the open leads through the ice until seals are sighted. The sealers are landed on the ice where they move about in the herd, killing the seals with clubs. The hides, with the underlying layer of fat, are stripped off the carcasses and taken to the vessel and packed into the hold. When a full cargo is obtained the vessel returns to its home port where the skins are unloaded, the blub- ber removed, and the hides pre- pared for manufacture into leather. Hair seals have not the fine under-fur that character- izes fur seals, and the skins are seldom used in clothing. Oil is extracted from the blubber and is used extensively in the soap and leather industries. Failure of the world hair seal fishery was predicted by con- servationists early in the 19th century. Regulations and inter- national agreements subsequent- ly enacted, however, have failed to maintain or restore it, and to- day this picturesque industry is relatively unimportant in world commerce. Consult Report of Fur Seal Invcstigatioixs, Part 3, 1899 (U. S. Treasury Dept.) ; Alaska Fishery and Fur Seal Indus- tries (U. S. Bureau of Fish- eries) ; The Fur Seals and Other Life of the Pribilof Islands, Alaska in 1914, by Osgood, Preble, and Parker {Bulletin U. S. Bvireau of Fisheries, vol. 34, 1915) ; Fnr-Seal Industry of Pribilof Islands, Alaska, by O'Malley (Economic Circular No. 71 of U. S. Bureau of Fisheries) ; Fur-Seal Industry of Commander Islands, 1897 to 1922 (Bulletin, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, vol. 41, 1925); Re- ports of Newfoundland Fish- Sealing Wax KFI 67 Seals ery Research Commission, vol. 1, No. 1, 1931. Seaton H. Thompson, Asst. Chief, Division of Alaska Fisheries. Sealing Wax, a colored com- position of resins and other sub- stances used for sealing bottles and documents. The latter use has greatly diminished since the introduction of envelopes with adhesive flaps. Sealing wax is supposed to have originated in the East, and was brought from India to Europe by the Vene- tians. It was an important ar- ticle of commerce, and was han- dled also by the Spaniards. There are many recipes for different grades of sealing wax, but for a high-class red wax the following gives good results : fuse a hundred parts of orange shellac in an enamelled pot over a gas flame ; mix with thirty parts of Venice turpentine ; add seventy-five parts of ver- m.ilion ; and again thoroughly mix. The mixture is scented by the addition of two parts of storax or Peruvian balsam, and cast into sticks, the sticks being finally polished by superficial fusion. Other colors can be ob- tained by substituting ivory black, artificial ultramarine, etc., for the vermilion. For a commoner wax for par- cels, three parts of shellac may be melted with five parts of resin and four parts of Venice turpentine ; then one part chalk and two parts of red lead or vermilion, mixed to a paste with oil of turpentine, is added. Bottle waxes are of an even cheaper and simpler character — resin, rendered less brittle by the addition of 10 per cent of its weight of beeswax, and colored by 25 per cent of lamp-black or red ochre, being melted, and the necks of the bottles dipped in the mixture. Sea-lion, a name applied to the larger members of the OtariidjE, resembling in general form, structure, and breeding habits the sea bears, but without the fur. Enmetopias stcllcri, the great yellow sea-lion, attain- ing a length of ten to twelve feet and a weight of 1,200 to 1,500 pounds, is the largest species, widely distributed along the shores of the North Pacific from California to Japan. It is much prized by the natives of Alaska for food and for the skin, which is used as covering for their boats. Zalophus calif ornianns, the smalle-st species, and the common sea-lion of menageries and zoological gardens, is found on the coast of California. A famous locality is Seal Rocks in the Pacific Ocean, opposite the Cliff House of San Francisco. See Seals. Seal Islands. See Lobos Is- lands. Seal Islands, a term applied to the Commander and Pribilof Islands (qq. v.), in Bering Sea, because of the fur seal rookeries upon them. See Seal Fisher- ies. Seal'kote. See Sialkot. Seals. The term seal is applied to two widely dififerent classes of pinniped animals — (1) the Fur Seals or Sea Bears {Otarii- Male Fur Seal. dec), and (2) the Hair Seals or True Seals {Phocidcc) . In structure, appearance, and meth- od of locomotion the two classes are quite distinct, and their evo- lution as pelagic animals (q. v.) has been along separate lines. In internal structure the two animals are equally distinct. 1. Fur Seals. — The fur seals are probably descended from bear-like ancestors. The feet are truly plantigrade, the an- terior limbs being used in swim- ming. The head and neck can be raised, and the animal can run or lope along the ground as do ordinary mammals. The exter- nal ear is moderately developed, giving rise to the name 'Eared Seals.' The fur seals are divided into two groups or genera : ( 1 ) Arctocephalus {A. townsendi, Guadeloupe Islands; A. philippi, Galapagos Islands ; A. australis, southern coasts of South Amer- ica and neighboring islands; A. forstcri, coasts of New Zealand and Southwestern Australia; A. dclalandi, islands off South Africa; A. gazclla, Kerguelen and Prince Edward Islands), once numerous and widely dis- tributed among the islands of the Southern Hemisphere, now practically extinct, except for two small herds — one on Lobos Island in the mouth of the River Plata, the other on certain islands off Cape Horn, both under gov- ernment protection ; and (2) Callorhinus {C. ursinus, Commander Islands ; C. alas- caniis, Pribilof Islands ; C. kuri- lensis, Kurile Islands and Rob- ben Island), confined to Bering Sea and the North Pacific Ocean, still existing in consider- able though greatly diminished numbers. The typical male fur seal, called 'bull' or 'beach master,' weighs from four hundred to five hundred pounds, has a length of six feet and a girth of four and a half feet, and attains ma- turity at about seven years. His color is blackish or dark brown, with yellowish water hairs, par- ticularly coarse and long on the back of the neck, forming a 'wig' or mane. The adult female, or cow, averages about eighty pounds in weight, with length and girth in proportion. Her color is of varying shades of brown. She bears her first young, or pup, at three years. The breeding grounds of the fur seal are boulder-strewn beaches and rocky hill slopes along shore, where the animals congregate in close-set masses or rookeries. The young males, or bachelors, herd by themselves on beaches separate from the breeding grounds, known as hauling grounds. The bulls reach the breeding ground early in May, contend with one an- other for places, and await the arrival of the cows, which begins in early June. The breeding season is at its height by the middle of July, and ends early in August, when the bulls, hav- ing fasted since their arrival, go away to feed and recuperate. The single pup, weighing from ten to twelve pounds, is born within a few hours after the arrival of the cow, grows rap- idly, and learns to swim at the age of six weeks. The cow is served by the bull within a week, and goes to sea to feed, return- ing at intervals to nourish her pup. Pups and cows leave the islands in November for the win- ter migration, followed later by the other seals as winter ad- vances. The migration of the Pribilof seals extends to the latitude of Southern California, which is reached late in December, the return trip along the coast oc- cupying the time until June. Usually the females extend their movements only as far as Cali- fornia, the males remaining gen- erally in northern waters. The migration of the Commander herd follows the coast of Japan. The first knowledge of the northern fur seals is derived from Steller, the naturalist of Bering's voyage of 1741, the ex- pedition being wrecked on one of the Commander Islands now known as Bering Island, where large rookeries still exist. The second and larger herd, that of the Pribilof Islands, was dis- covered in 1786 by the Russian Seals KFI 67 A Seamanship, Practical navigator of that name. This herd came into the possession of the United States with the ter- ritory of Alaska in 1867. _ The Commander herd remains in the control of Russia, and the Kurile herd now belongs to Japan. 2. Hair Seals, — The hair seals are more perfectly adapted for aquatic life than the fur seals, and are readily distinguished from them. They have short feet, not truly plantigrade, with long claws, the posterior limbs alone being used in swimming. The head and neck can scarcely be raised, and the animal cannot run or walk, its movements on land being by a wriggling, belly- wise motion. There is no exter- nal ear. The principal species of hair seals, and those upon which the hair seal industry depends, are Phoca vitulina, the common or harbor seal of bays and shel- tered waters throughout the Northern Atlantic ; P. groenlan- dica, the harp or saddleback seal of Newfoundland and the North Atlantic, northward to the Arctic ; P. foctida, the rough or ringed seal ; Erignathus har- batits, the bearded seal of the North Atlantic, North Pacific, and the Arctic Oceans ; Hali- chccrus gryphus, the gray seal ; Cystophora cristata, the crested seal, confined to the North At- lantic ; P. caspica, the seal of the Caspian Sea, and P. richardii of the Pacific. The remaining spe- cies belong to the South Pacific, Indian, and Antartic seas, and are commercially unimportant. The hair seal produces no fur, the coat being harsh and stiff, but is valued for the leather ob- tained from its hide and for the oil from its fat. The animals vary considerably in size and color, the gray seal, the largest, reaching a length of from eight to nine feet. The ringed seal, the smallest, ranges from four to five feet in length. The ex-tremesof weight are eighty and three hundred pounds. The harp seals are in general whitish or yellowish white, the head and nose black, the throat and chin spotted, a broad lunate series of dark spots on the back, thought to resemble an ancient harp, giv- ing rise to the distinguishing name. The harbor seal is yel- lowish gray, varied with irregu- lar spots of dark brown or black. The female hair seal is slightly smaller than the male, but there is not the wide disparity between the sexes which is seen in the fur seals. The animals are riionog- amous. The breeding grounds for the principal species are the ice fields of Newfoundland, Labrador, and the Greenland coasts. The sin- gle young is brought forth upon the ice, the mother returning from her feeding excursions to nourish it. The pup grows rap- idly, learns to swim at the age of a month, and forms the impor- tant part of the annual catch. The harbor seal is non-migra- tory, the other species obeying a more or less definite semi-annual migration — southward with the approach of winter, and north- ward with the receding ice in the spring. See Seal Fish- eries. Seals. The carving of pre- cious stones for seals goes back to the earliest Babylonian civili- zation, sard, jasper, chalcedony, onxy, and other materials being used. The design was sunk into the stone by means of a small re- volving wheel, moistened with oil and sprinkled with emery or diamond dust ; by a drill, pointed or having a diamond splinter set in the end ; or by a blunt instru- ment, moistened and dipped in emery. The earliest Babylonian seals are of cylindrical form, bearing hunting and ritual scenes, with the inscription of the owner to one side. They were suspended by a string, and used as personal marks on contracts. The most important that have been found are those of Sargon (q. v.), arid of a viceroy of Ur-Gur (2500 B.C.). An alternative form was the conoidal — rounded at the top, with a flat base for the design. The cylindrical form was adopted by the Assyrians, and, after the conquest of Babylon (538 B.C.), by the Persians. It is also found in excavations in Crete and Cyprus. In Egypt, the cylindrical form developed probably simultaneously with that of Babylonia. But later the scarab form was introduced, and became almost tmiversal, being used as an amulet. The flat por- tion underneath received the hieroglyphic signs or carvings of animals and deities. Seals were used by the Israel- ites in Biblical times, and they also came into use among the Phcenicians and Etruscans (800-600 B.C.). They reached the highest degree of excellence in the Roman Empire. But in the early centuries of our era the art declined, and though revived again in the eighteenth century, later seals are mostly imitations of classical designs. See Gems. Sea'man, Sir Owen (1861- 1936), English author and journalist. In 1897 he joined the staff of Punch, became as- sistant editor in 1902, and on the retirement of Sir F. C. Bur- nand (1906) became editor (re- tired in 1932). His pviblications include : Horace at Cambridge (1894); Tillers of the Sand (1895) ; Battle of the Bays (1896) ; In Cap and Bells (1899) ; Borrowed Plumes (1902); A Harvest of Chaff (1904); Salvage (1908); Made in England (1916) ; From the Home Front (1918); Interludes of an Editor (1929). Seaman. See Seamen. Seamanship, Practical, is the art of rigging a vessel and of otherwise making her ready for sea, and of managing and working her when at sea. When facing forward, the right-hand side of a vessel is called the star- board side, and the left-hand the port side. Formerly the term larboard' was used for port ; but it was easily mistaken for star- board, and was changed to 'port' about 1850 for this reason. Sail- ing vessels are named according to their rig — i.e., the number of masts and the kind of sails they carry. The side of the vessel against which the wind is blow- ing is called the weather or wind- ward side, the other the lee side. The ship is kept on her course by means of the helm ; but the manner in which the sails are set and trimmed has great effect on the steering. The after sails tend to throw the ship up in the wind — i.e., bring the wind more ahead. The sails forward tend to make the ship pay off — i.e., bring the wind more aft. The seaman sets and trims the sails so that they have a maximum ef- fect in driving the vessel along, and at the same time arranges as far as possible that the forward and after sails balance each other, so that the vessel may be easily steered. A ship can be sailed in any direction not less than about six points (67^°) from the wind. Thus, with the wind from north a vessel could sail on any course not lying between e.n.e. and w.N.w. When heading e.n.e. she would be close-hauled on the port tack, and w.N.w. close-hauled on the starboard tack. Fore- and-aft vessels sail closer to the wind than square-rigged vessels ; and the flatter the sails set, the nearer the wind a vessel will lie. When the wind comes from the direction in which it is desired to proceed, progress is made di- rectly to windward by sailing al- ternately on each tack, thus making a zigzag track, the re- sultant of which is a motion against the wind. This is called beating to windward. Tacking is performed by bringing the ship head to wind, so that all the sails are aback (i.e., the wind blows against their forward side) ; she is then 'in stays,' and is afterward made to fall off from the wind on the other tack. In bad weather, or in very light winds, it is not always possible Seamanship, Practical KFI 67 B Seamen, Laws Relating to to tack. The vessel is then put on the other tack by zvcaring. This is done by making the ship fall off until the wind is directly astern, and bringing her up to the wind on the other tack. The amount of sail set is regu- lated according to the force of the wind. As it increases, the light upper sails are taken in first, and a definite order of shortening sail is followed, the topsails being kept set until the last. The ability properly to take in heavy sails in very bad weather is an important qualifi- cation of a seaman. In heavy gales, with a high sea running, it is sometimes necessary to heave to. The ship is kept head- ing as close to the wind as possi- ble, so as to meet the seas bow first. Only enough sail is set to keep the ship's head up to wind and sea, and she is allowed to drift, making very little head- way, the seaman endeavoring to keep the ship from falling oft' into the trough of the sea. Steamers are hove to nearly head to sea, with the sea on the quar- ter, or in the trough of the sea, the engines running very slowly. If a sailing ship is not hove to, she may be kept before the wind, or what is termed running. As she is then moving in the same direction as the wind, its force is not felt so much ; but the safety of the ship depends in a great measure vipon good steering, and with some vessels it is not safe to run in a very heavy sea. In case of accidents such as loss of rudder or of masts the seaman must be ready with resources, and be able to rig a jury-rudder or a jury-mast. Tlie anchor (q. v.) is used when it is required to moor the ship at some distance from the shore. Its construction is such that any tendency of the ship to drift away causes the anchor to embed itself in the grovmd. A sea anchor is a. floating contriv- ance formed of spars and can- vas, made to hang vertically from the surface of the sea. It is secured to the bow of the ves- sel by a hawser, and by its re- sistance to the water as the ship drifts it keeps her out of the trough of the sea. The character of the seaman- ship required by the officers of steam vessels diff'ers from that necessary in sailing ships, but it is of ecjually great importance, and a lack of it may cause seri- ous injury to, or loss of, the ship. Steam seamanship consists large- ly in knowing how fast it is safe to run in a heavy sea, in what direction it is best to head, how the vessel may best lie to, how to handle her in narrow waters, or in emergencies, etc. A knowledge of the action of the propeller is necessary in the management of a steamship, as it not only propels the ship ahead, but has a considerable turning effect, which can be uti- lized to great advantage when it is required to turn short round in narrow waters. A thorough knowledge of marine meteorol- ogy, including the laws of storms and the handling of the ship in them, is also essential for seamen (officers) in both sailing ships and steamers. Seamanship should not be con- fused with navigation, which is the art of determining a ship's position and course on the open seas by means of celestial obser- vations, nor with piloting, which is the art of conducting a vessel in channels and harbors and along coasts where light- houses, landmarks, buoys, and other objects are available for fixing position. Seamanship and navigation are companion arts, and without good seamanship the practical application of good navigation is impossible. For the prevention of colli- sions a number of regulations have been agreed upon by the maritime nations. (See Rules OF THE Road at Sea.) See also Navigation ; Sails and Rig- ging. Sea-mat. See Flustra. Seamen are technically those persons, below the rank of offi- cer, who are employed in navi- gating decked vessels on the high seas. The term has been held to include ship's stewards, waiters, cooks, deck hands, ship's carpen- ters, stokers. See Seamen, Laws Relating to. Seamen, Laws Relating to. In the United States, the rela- tions of American shipowners, masters, and seamen are regu- lated by acts of Congress. These acts express the obliga- tions of masters and owners in great detail, and have become more and more favorable to the seaman, in some respects, until they bear with such force upon the owners that it is practically impossible for American vessels to be profitably employed in the foreign trade except under un- usual circumstances. In all the large seaports there are U. S. shipping commission- ers, or persons acting as such, whose duties include supervision of the employment of seamen, and who are required to ascer- tain, investigate, and report vio- lations of the law. Certain features of the laws are directly under the cognizance of the col- lector of customs, and others un- der that of the supervising in- spector of steam vessels. In foreign ports, U. S. consuls have charge of matters affecting American merchant seamen. Contracts between master and seaman must be in writing, and state the rate of wages, length and nature of the voyage, and the term of service. They may be set aside if fraud or force is used, and must be entered into before the voyage begins. Leav- ing the ship before the expira- tion of the contract constitvites the oft'ense of desertion (q. v.). Seamen's Act of 1915. — This measure, also known as the 'La Follette Bill,' prescribes in detail the treatment of sailors and the safety requirements of passen- ger ships. The provisions in re- gard to the welfare of seamen cover, among other subjects, de- sertion, kind of labor, food, sleep, air, water, Sunday and other holiday recreation, wages, time and manner of payment, living conditions, unnecessary work, cleanliness, punishment, language, recognition of what constitutes an able seaman, and beginning and expiration of serv- ice. The chief life-saving fea- ture is the provision affecting ships vmder all flags leaving American ports to the effect that vessels built after July L 1915, must carry life-saving equip- ment for all persons on board, of which 75 per cent must be regular life boats, and not more than 25 per cent life rafts or col- lapsible life boats. Lake steam- ers are required to carry life boats for 20 per cent of passen- gers and life rafts for 30 per cent more. Vessels plying with- in 25 miles of the coast are re- quired to carry life boats and rafts for 35 per cent each — 70 per cent in all. The Act directs the President to give notice to those governments with which we have treaties in conflict with any provision of the Act that the conflicting parts of such treaties shall terminate as soon as pos- sible, according to the terms of the treaties. Much opposition to certain provisions of the Act arose in shipping circles, especially against that provision which states that no vessel 'shall be permitted to depart from any port of the United States unless she has on board a crew not less than 75 per cent of which in each department thereof are able to understand any order given by the officers of such vessel.' Formerly, deserters could be arrested and forced to return to their ship. In foreign ports con- suls were charged with the duty of securing the arrest and return of deserters. The Seamen's Act of 1915 removed all penal- ties for desertion, both at home and abroad, except the forfeiture of unpaid wages. Assignments of a seaman's wages in advance are void, un- Sea-mew KFI 68 Sea Power less made in favor of the man himself, or of his wife or moth- er. A seaman may institute pro- ceedings against the ship, its owner, or the master for his wages. A seaman can only be discharged for cause, and in the presence of a shipping comrnis- sioner, if possible ; in a foreign port, before the American con- sul. It is a criminal offense for a master unwarrantably to aban- don a seaman in a foreign port. Seamen who become ill during the term of contract must re- ceive proper care and medical attendance, when practicable. Every ship must have a suitable medicine chest provided with proper medicines. The mini- mum size of crews' quarters is fixed by law at 120 cubic feet of air space and 16 square feet of floor area per person. Washing and bathing arrangements and a hospital room are required in all except very small vessels. The kind and amount of food are also fixed by statute. Three-fourths of the crew of a vessel must understand Eng- lish, and fifty-five per cent must be able seamen — e.g., must have had three years' experience at sea, and be physically fit. The Act of 1915 was modified by various later acts, but in 1939 shipowners contended that resulting operating costs were so high that competition with for- eign vessels was impossible with- out subsidies. Labor union offi- cials demanded laws which would recognize their actual con- trol of the 'Hiring Halls' for seamen, to enable union officials to choose the seamen who are to receive employment and to deny crews to ships at their pleasure. Individuals interested in the merchant marine as a national asset and as a defense auxiliary advocated other measures : (a) Better living quarters for sea- men ; (b) Stability of employ- ment, instead of the old hiring for a single voyage, with the ob- jective of more experienced crews for modern ships ; (c) Better discipline on board ships ; (d) Relaxation of laws which have compelled the installation of expensive and generally use- less so-called safety devices. Labor policies and higher costs greatly reduced hundreds of seamen's jobs. In 1939 the American deep sea merchant ma- rine was almost entirely in gov- ernment hands, directly or indi- rectly. Sea-mew, se'mu', a gull, es- pecially the European mew gull (Larus canus). See Gull. Sea-mouse {Aphrodite) , a polychsete worm (Chsetopoda) of curious shape, which lives in land beyond tide mark, but is frequently thrown up by storms on the beach. The body is oval, broadest in the middle, and pointed at both ends, and reaches a length of several inches. All signs of segmentation on the dor- sal surface are concealed by a dense felting of hairs, mingled with which are a number of brilliantly iridescent bristles. Beneath the felting lie a series of scales or elytra, and at the sides of the body are the charac- teristic polychaete parapodia. It is found in the North Atlantic Ocean. Sea-otter (Enhydra lutris, or Latax lutris), a carnivore which produces perhaps the most valu- able of all furs. Zoologically it is a fissiped, which in habit and some points of structure recalls Sea-otter. the pinniped forms (see Otter). The sea-otter is confined to the coasts of the North Pacific, and is now very rare. In general ap- pearance it somewhat resembles an eared seal, the hind feet being long flippers, very different from those of the other otters. The incisor teeth are reduced in nvim- ber, and the cheek teeth are fur- nished with blunt and rounded tubercles, admirably adapted for crushing the hard-shelled mol- luscs, sea-urchins, and crusta- ceans upon which the animal feeds. Sea-otters are not polyg- amous or gregariovis, and but one young is produced at a birth, which takes place on rocky islets, or even on a bed of floating kelp. The coat consists of a very fine soft under fur of a dark brown color, with a few long stiff hairs of a grayish color scattered through. These long hairs are removed when the skin is pre- pared. As much as $2,500 has been paid for a single skin. Sea- otter fishing is carried on off Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, and also in Kamchatka. Sea-owl, a name sometimes given to the Lumpsucker (q. v.). Sea-pen. See Pennatula. The name is sometimes also ap- plied to the horny structure found in such cuttles as Loligo, where it is the homologue of the 'bone' of such forms as Sepia, both pen and bone representing the last remnant of the shell. See Cephalopoda. Sea-pheasant. See Pintail. Sea-pie. See Oyster- catcher. Sea-pike ( Ccntropomus un- decimalis), an edible American fish, occurring on the coasts of Florida and Texas. The genus includes several somewhat pike- like fishes, at home in the warm American seas, though often thriving in fresh water. In real- ity they are allied to the perches, not to the pikes. On British coasts the term sea-pike is some- times applied to the Garfish or Belone. Sea-pink, a European plant. See Thrift. Sea-porcupine, the name given to a plectognathous fish, because of its spines or tubercles. See Globe-fish. Seaport, a town or city near the sea having a harbor. The greatest seaports of the world are New York, London, Kobe, Yokohama, Rotterdam, Balti- more, Colombo, Osaka, Antwerp, Hamburg, Philadelphia, Shang- hai, Los Angeles and Liverpool. Sea Power. The term Sea Power has obtained general ac- ceptance in English speaking communities. It designates com- prehensively those elements of national strength which derive from the free use of the sea, or those which themselves procure and assure such free use. In this sense it is to be distinguished from the expression, a Sea Pow- er, or the Sea Powers, employed formerly more frequently than now in the diplomatic corre- spondence of Europe, to indicate a nation, or group of nations — Powers — whose chief military strength lay in their navies. An example of such use is given by the historian Grote, in the words 'the conversion of Athens from a land power into a sea power.' In common application. Sea Power most usually means naval development. This, however, is simply the ultimate result of var- ious factors which facilitate the acquisition of naval strength, or which make the possession of such strength essential to nation- al well-being. In these senses, the idea underlying the expres- sion — the idea of the influence of the Sea upon the welfare of states — is long standing and of great antiquity ; it is, indeed, too obvious to escape the notice of statesmen and thinkers. The foregoing paragraphs were written by the late Rear- Admiral A. T. Mahan, of the United States Navy, by far the most distinguished writer upon this subject. The importance of sea power was not unappreciated by many of the great thinkers, statesmen, and naval command- ers of the past ; but their views were usually narrow, or else in- adequately developed, and their expression produced no lasting influence upon the policy of na- Sea Power KFI 69 Sea Power tions. It remained for Mahan to undertake a systematic inves- tigation of the foundation, sup- porting conditions, and value of sea power, and to present his conclusions in a manner convinc- ing to the world at large. After many years' study of the subject, during which he delivered sev- eral lectures at the U. S. Naval War College and elsewhere, and wrote numerous short articles bearing upon the questions in- volved, he published, in 1890, his first great work. He had in- tended to give it the title Sea Pozvcr ; but owing to the igno- rance of the general public con- cerning maritime and naval af- fairs, and its consequent indif- ference to the discussion of such matters, he was prevailed upon to call it the Influence of Sea Power Upon Historv, 1660- 1783. Its success was instantaneous, particularly in Europe, where interest in such matters is in- tense. Its convincing marshall- ing of historical facts, both of cause and effect, its clear and strong reasoning, 'and the lessons thereby educed caused a revolu- tion in the public mind. The greatest effect was produced in England and Germany, which began at once to develop, as far as practicable, their maritime forces, commerce, and industries upon the lines he laid down. England's sea power was al- ready the greatest in the world, and was the result of centuries of experience, of her invulnera- bility except to over-sea attack, her colonial empire, her vast trade, the fluctuating influences of external conditions, and the unconnected work of individual statesmen and leaders in com- merce and manufactures. It was the greatest exemplification of sea power that the world had ever seen. But it was a growth, not a development ; it lacked analysis and a basis of action resting upon well-considered and interdependent principles of na- tional policy. This Mahan's work supplied, and it was enthu- siastically approved. Since then, a systematic development of the fleet and other elements of sea power has been the unquestioned aim of all political parties and creeds. In Germany, conditions were different. The situation of the country rendered the possession of a great army of paramount importance. The navy was composed of a heterogeneous mixture of types, chiefly in- tended for coast defense, and showed a lack of definite pur- pose as to its war use. The colonies were few and undevel- oped. Commerce and manufac- tures were growing, but had not yet felt the impetus which they were soon to receive. The ap- pearance of Mahan's book changed all this, and unified Ger- man thought concerning mari- time affairs. By order of the Kaiser, the work was placed on every German man-of-war and ordered to be studied. The German Navy League was or- ganized under government aus- pices. The upbuilding of the German fleet was commenced ac- cording to a definite plan, while the government largely aug- mented its fostering care of commerce and manufacturing, and began looking about for col- onies and spheres of influence. The German genius for organiz- ing appeared in the excellence of all the arrangements, but Ger- many misunderstood and misap- plied many of the facts which Mahan had set down, as the years 1914-18 showed. Japan, with a full understand- ing of Mahan's conclusions, laid her plans in accordance with the possibilities they indicated, and, in 1939, was still carrying them out to the fullest degree by de- veloping commerce, manufac- tures, a strong navy, and expan- sion in China. Italy, Austria, Russia, and many of the lesser powers followed Mahan's doc- trines to a limited extent prior to 1914. Though not realizing its full value, for they lacked the knowl- edge which the history of cen- turies has given vis, the impor- tance of sea power was recog- nized by some of the ancient statesmen and thinkers. Mahan says : 'Grote quotes Herodotus, "The ^ginetan War was the salvation of Greece, by con- straining the Athenians to make themselves a maritime power ;" and he himself adds in comment, that the whole efficiency of the resistance subsequently made to Xerxes turned upon this new movement in the organization of Athens.' The Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon existed through their sea power alone, and the great colony of Carthage was part of it and a result of it. The em- pires of Assyria, Babylon, Per- sia and of Alexander stopped at the sea coast through lack of sea power. It is true that each of these organized great naval forces from among their vassals, but the other elements were lacking. Carthage was de- stroyed because she allowed her sea power to decline. The Ro- mans were not a seafaring race, and their early victories were on land. When their ambition sought extension beyond the sea, they boldly embarked in ship- building, and eventually became supreme upon the water. With- out this sea power they could neither have made nor held their conquests in Africa, Asia, or Britain. In the early Middle Ages the dominant nations were strong at sea, in naval forces and in commerce. The Eastern Em- pire at Constantinople preserved its life by the maintenance of a naval force. Whenever this be- came too weak (as frequently happened), commerce suffered, and the national existence was threatened. For a time the Em- pire passed under the sway of Venice ; at others, the Genoese and Pisans had commanding in- fluence in its councils. Three comparatively small Italian cities, by their commerce, wealth, and naval strength, were thus able to dominate a great empire. They were also able to check the speed of the Mohammedan flood by interfering with, and at times destroying, communication by sea between the Eastern caliph- ate and Mohammedan states and dependencies in Africa and Spain. A few hundred years later the Battle of Lepanto destroyed the Turkish navy, almost put an end to Turkish commerce, and for a time ended her sea power. For more than two centuries Spain almost lived upon her commerce and the revenue from her colo- nies and maritime conquests. The disastrous defeat of the great Armada was the culminat- ing point in Spanish history. It was followed by sweeping victo- ries of the Dutch naval forces, the loss of the Spanish Nether- lands, and a steady decline of sea power and national importance. The rise of the Dutch sea power in the midst of their struggle for freedom shows how much great sea power can do for a small state. The Spanish Netherlands were a Venice of the North. The commerce and wealth of their seaport cities af- forded support for a large fleet, naval and commercial, and the merchant vessels built up for themselves a vast additional business in the carrying trade of nearly all Europe. Even British sea-borne commerce fell into their hands, and so remained un- til the operation of the Naviga- tion Laws and other causes com- bined to destroy Britain's rivals. As Mahan points out, a rich, populous, and highly commercial island is the ideal center for great sea power. Moreover, such an island cannot become rich and populous and remain so without the possession of ample sea power. England is the greatest example of this. Much of what great sea power can do and what it can prevent may be seen in her history. Her com- Sea Power KFI 70 Search merce built up her industries, es- tablished and developed her colo- nies, and controlled the markets of the world, while her fleet pro- tected all. Her naval suprema- cy, supported by her wealth and sea-borne trade, was the leading cause of the downfall of Napo- leon. More than once it has in- tervened to change or prevent a change in the map of the world. Without it, Germany would have been victorious in the World War of 1914-18. United States. — No country has had more reason to recognize the importance of sea power than has the United States ; and no government or people seems to have appreciated it so little. In the American Revolution the ill-equipped but numerous priva- teers and cruisers almost de- stroyed British commerce, and created a strong sentiment in England for the cessation of hos- tilities, while the strength of her fleet enabled France to land troops at Yorktown for the de- cisive campaign of the war. In 1812, the few naval vessels in commission — which were all that the previous administration allowed to exist, together with the privateers, drove the British to make peace at a time when they had been uniformly success- ful on land. In the various disputes be- tween the United States and the Barbary states, sea power finally exacted an honorable and per- manent peace, after the United States had paid an annual trib- ute to these pirate states for sev- eral years and suffered interfer- ence with her trade and impris- onment of her seamen. In the Civil War, victory was rendered possible by cutting off the supplies from abroad through the agency of the fleet ; while the navy of the South, weak as it was, afforded impor- tant assistance to Confederate operations, and nearly destroyed Northern over-sea commerce. In the Spanish War, the supe- rior American fleet destroyed the Spanish forces at Manila and Santiago, and blockaded the Spanish army in Cuba, so that its surrender was only a ques- tion of time. While the Span- ish navy was of respectable size on paper, the fleet had neither trained men nor organization ; the nation lacked wealth, foreign commerce, and private and naval establishments adequate to the rapid equipment of her vessels, their support and maintenance in time of war. In other words, Spain possessed but a single requisite of sea power. The position of the United States is favorable to the de- velopment of great sea power, and her necessities demand it. Though not an island, she can be attacked from the land side only along her northern and southern borders. The distance of her coast from the shores of every other great nation compensates for her vulnerability from the north and south. But the great extent of her coast line renders a surprise attack possible. Fortu- nately, such attacks cannot be accompanied by overwhelming military forces in the face of an adequate navy. And this she must have, or else keep in train- ing an army of a size comparable to those maintained by Euro- pean nations. Her chief weak- ness is the lack of a foreign car- rying trade. Not only does this condition of affairs involve a loss to the country of the large sums of money paid for freight to for- eigners, but much export busi- ness as well, for there is no busi- ness getter like a steamship com- pany which must obtain freight both ways in order to exist ; and, if foreign-owned, it would nat- urally seek traffic in its home ports at the expense of Ameri- can interests. Furthermore, without such steamer lines, there can be neither vessels for auxili- ary service in war nor men to man them. Admiral Mahan has nowhere defined in detail all the elements which go to make up sea power, because those elements are con- stantly changing, and only broad principles remain. In these modern days, to maintain a naval force in time of peace is simple, requiring merely money and men. The former will purchase the vessels and supplies ; the lat- ter may be trained or untrained — there is ample time for their instruction. In time of war, in order that the sea power of a na- tion shall be commensurate with the size of its naval force, the fleet must be properly balanced as regards numbers and charac- ter of its vessels ; it must be fully equipped, highly organized, manned by a thoroughly trained personnel, and have a reserve supply of officers, men, guns, ammunition, fuel, and provi- sions. War plans, covering all important possibilities, must be carefully considered, and their details worked out in advance as far as practicable. There must be shipyards, navy yards, gun factories, projectile facto- ries, powder factories, torpedo factories, and an adequate sup- ply of raw material for their use which the enemy cannot cut off. There must be ports which can be used as bases of operations, of repair, and of supply. There must be a commercial marine from which to draw auxiliary vessels and men. And there must be a trained reserve, whether engaged in maritime af- fairs or not. In these days of steam, electric, and internal- combustion engines and other machinery, the training of the enlisted men fits them as well for mechanical industries on shore as for sea service. The foregoing applies to such sea power as a nation may pos- sess, without regard to its extent or adequacy. The power de- manded by a country's needs de- pends upon the extent of sea coast, magnitude of interests to be protected, vulnerability to at- tack, and other similar consider- ations. See Mahan, A. T. ; Navies; Navy of the United States. Consult Gen. C. E. Callwell, British Army, Effect of Mari- time Command an Land Cam- paigns Since Waterloo and Mili- tary Operations and Maritime Preponderance ; W. O. Stevens and A. Westcott, History of Sea Pozvcr (1937). See also the works by Mahan, under Mahan, and Sprout, Rise of American Naval Power, 1776-1918 (1939). Search and Search War- rants^ In law, the term search refers to an inspection of one's person or premises to discover property supposed to be illegally concealed or evidence improper- ly suppressed. The Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution (q. v.) contains the provisions that the people shall be secure in their persons, houses, etc., against unreasona- ble searches and seizures, and that search warrants shall issue only when supported by affi- davits as to facts, etc., and must contain a description of the place to be searched, the purpose thereof, and what is to be seized thereunder. Most of the State constitutions have incorporated these provisions. Search warrants are issued to search for and to seize goods held contrary to customs and revenue laws ; stolen goods ; in- toxicating liquors ; obscene lit- erature and pictures ; counter- feit money ; game taken or held contrary to the game laws ; to discover females supposed to be detained for immoral purposes against their will ; for evidence of crime ; and for goods held in contravention of any statute. A search warrant shall be issued only by a legally avithorized court, and shall be directed to a proper officer, such as a sheriff or police officer ; and the latter must comply strictly with its provisions, or become personally liable for trespass. If refused admittance he may force an en- trance. A search warrant will not be issued merely to obtain evidence for a party to a civil ac- Search KFI 71 Sea Serpent ner surface is painted a dead black. The casing is mounted on trunnions like a gun in order to permit elevation and depres- sion, and the trunnion arms are supported on a rotating base. Searchlights are much used in military operations in the field and on coast fortifications, but University ; visited Germany for a prolonged period ; and on his return became professor of the- ology at Newton Seminary, and then president. From 1855 to 1867 he was president of Brown University, and was afterward general agent for the Peabody Educational Fund. Door used for adjusting the carbons and for cleaning the front door. Vertical peep Dour used when adjusting negative carbons or clean- . ing the mirror. Horizontal peep sight. Door used when carbons are to be adjusted or changed. Hand star wheel for slow vertical movement. Wheel for throwing out split nut used for connecting or disconnecting the drum from the base mechaniflin» Front door. Sliding case to b< " opened when lamp mechanism is to bt inspected. Hand star wheel for clamping turntable to centre pin for electrical control. A Searchlight for Coast Defence. tion, but must be for the benefit of the state. A person who makes a false affidavit or pro- ceeds without reasonable cause to obtain a search warrant is lia- ble for malicious prosecution. Search, Right of, is a privi- lege granted to belligerent pow- ers by International Law (q. v.). It authorizes belligerent war vessels to stop neutral ships, and examine their charters and car- goes in order to make sure that they are not enemy's vessels mas- querading under a neutral flag, and to determine whether or not they are carrying contraband of war (q. v.). If a neutral ship fails to stop when ordered, or re- fuses to do so, she may be fired upon, and even sunk if she can- not otherwise be stopped. If the neutral vessel is captured af- ter attempting to escape or resist- ing search, she may be con- demned as a prize to her captor. If there is reasonable doubt as to the neutral character of a vessel, or if she is carrying contraband goods, she may be captured and turned over to a prize court for adjudication. A neutral vessel carrying con- traband goods may be destroyed, if it cannot be taken into port without involving danger to the captor or to the success of the operations in which he is en- gaged ; but he must provide for the safety of all persons on board, and must remove all pa- pers necessary to be placed be- fore a prize court. A captor who has destroyed a neutral ves- sel must, as a condition preced- ent to any decision as to the va- lidity of the capture, establish the fact that he acted only in the face of an exceptional necessity. Failing to do this, he must com- pensate the parties interested, without examination as to whether the capture was valid or not. See Prize of War; Con- traband OF War. Searchlight, an instrument for directing a powerful beam of electric light for the purpose of search, illumination, or si-gnal- ling. The electric searchlight consists of a carbon arc mounted in the focus of a parabolic mir- ror that is secured in the rear end of a cylindrical casing of thin steel. The candle power of the arcs used is from 2,000 to 50,000 or more. The carb©n pencils are placed with their axes in the common axis of the casing and mirror. The crater in the posi- tive carbon, which furnishes about 85 per cent of the light, is turned toward the mirror ; and this, by virtue of its parabolic .shape, reflects all the divergent rays which fall upon it in a di- rection parallel to its axis. To reduce the interference of the rays as much as possible, the in- they have their widest sphere of usefulness in the navy, where they are employed for purposes of navigation, to detect vessels attempting a torpedo attack, and to light up the enemy so that the gvms may be more accurately sighted. In recent years, mer- chant vessels have employed searchlights to an increasing ex- tent. See Signalling. Search of Title. See Re- cording Acts. Search Warrants. See Search. Searcy, town, Arkansas, county seat of White county, 50 miles northeast of Little Rock. It is a health resort and a ship- ping point for cotton and fruit. Pop. (1930) 3.387. Sea Reed. See Ammophila. Sea Robin. See Gurnard ; Sculpin. Sears, Barnas (1802-80), American clergyman and edu- cator, was born in Sandisfield, Mass. In 1831-3 he was profes- sor at Madison (now Colgate) Sears, Roebuck and Com- pany, a great American mail or- der concern with headquarters in Chicago and numerous branches all over the United States. The corporation was formed in 1893, after the two partners had sold out the Richard W. Sears Watch Company, founded, from small beginnings, by Sears in the later 'eighties. The business grew to gigantic proportions, with sales amounting to considerably more than $300,000,000 annually. A huge catalog of over 1,000 pages is issued periodically. Sea Serpent, a name applied to a marine monster of ser- pentine form, often reported to have been seen, but whose ex- istence has never been scientifi- cally verified. Some of the accounts of sea serpents are undoubtedly myth- ical ; while others are generally believed to be due to inaccurate observations of actual fish or marine animals, as the long, slender ribbon fish (q. v.) or oar Seas, Freedom of the KFI 72 Seashore fish, the basking and frilled shark (see Shark), and the giant cuttlefish of the Loligo or squid type (see Squid ; Cepha- lopoda). Another theory is that there are still a few living speci- mens of marine reptiles, such as the plesiosaurus (q. v.), and that at rare intervals these appear on the surface of the ocean. Seas, Freedom of the. Since the days of Grotius (1583-1645) the freedom of the seas for the passage of neutral vessels has been increasing, and for nearly a hundred years previous to the outbreak of the World War (1914-18) there has been no in- equitable interference of one nation with the commerce of an- other upon the high seas with- out reparation. Over the 'high seas' (q. v.), according to international law, no nation has any jurisdiction. It is an open highway for the vessels of the world engaged in peaceful pursuits or lawful trade. In time of peace no na- tion may abridge its freedom by stopping or otherwise exercising control over the vessels of an- other nation, though in time of war a belligerent public ship may legally stop and search any merchant vessel in order to make sure of her character and of the lawfulness or vmlawfulness of her destination and cargo. This is called the 'right of visit and search' (see Search, Right of). In time of war neutral vessels may trade with the enemy through any ports not ef- fectively blockaded ; an effective blockade (q. v.) being one main- tained by a force sufficient to stop all ordinary trade, and make it nearly impossible for a single vessel to pass through the block- ading line. Enemy merchant vessels may be seized wherever found, but become the property of the cap- tor nation only after condemna- tion by a prize court. In effect- ing the capture the lives of non- combatants (enemy or neutral) must not be put in jeopardy un- less resistance is offered. Neu- tral vessels may be captured for attempted breach of blockade, carrying contraband goods, per- forming unneutral services for a belligerent, carrying false pa- pers, resistance to search, etc. But they must be brought before a duly constituted prize court ; and until that court has passed upon the case, both ship and car- go belong to the original owners and must be cared for ; while her officers, crew, and passengers who are neutrals or non-combat- ants must not be exposed to danger or ill treatment. If a cap- tor finds it necessary to sink a merchant vessel, neutral or bel- ligerent, he must first remove the crew and passengers to a place of absolute safety. Since neutral goods on enemy ships are not subject to seizure, efTects of neutral passengers on enemy ships must be paid for. Neutral vessels may be sunk only when the circumstances are unusual and urgent. Both Great Britain and the United States hold that if they cannot be brought before a prize court they should be re- leased, unless caught in an act of unneutral service. With the outbreak of war in 1914, the phrase 'Freedom of the Seas' was given new meanings for propaganda purposes. In fact the freedom of the seas was curtailed more than ever before, but this curtailment was carried on under the protective cover of propaganda for the 'Freedom of the Seas.' Because the British Navy was carrying on the block- ade for the Entente Allies it fell to the British to strangle free- dom of the seas and to do most in evading neutral rights. Throughout the war both Brit- ain and Germany justified their illegalities by claiming that their acts were reprisals for the wrongful actions of their ene- mies. The Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries made vigorous protests against the British and German actions, but these countries were not power- ful enough to assert their rights in any other manner and also these countries were making huge profits from the war. The course of the United States gov- ernment is described by Bor- chardt and Lage in Neutrality for the United States (1937). The demands which President Wilson made on Germany, prior to the entrance of the United States into the war, were based to a large extent on Wilson's as- sertions that Germany was vio- lating the 'Freedom of the Seas.' Germany admitted the violations of international law and re- peatedly offered to abide by the established precedents if the United States would compel Britain to do likewise. Wilson was justified in refusing to as- sume responsibility for Britain's actions, but in the opinion of many authorities he was unjus- tified in demanding that Germany permit American citizens to travel in safety on belligerent merchant vessels including those carrying warfare ammunition. Germany's illegal vise of sub- marines, violating the 'Freedom of the Seas,' according to Wil- son, furnished the immediate reasons which enabled Wilson to take the United States into war in 1917. Wilson set forth his war ob- jectives in his well known 'Four- teen Points,' enunciated in January, 1918, and the second point read : 'Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, out- side territorial waters, alike in peace and in war, except as the seas may be closed in whole or in part by international action for the enforcement of inter- national covenants.' At Versailles, Great Britain declined to consider the question of the 'Freedom of the Seas,' and Wilson's second point was buried without ceremony. Seashore, the strip of land immediately bordering the sea, which extends from the highest point reached by an ordinary high tide to the edge of the water at low tide. See Coast ; Ocean. Seashore, as a biological term, may be said to include three areas: (1) the region just above high tide mark, (2) the region between tide marks, and (3) the region just beyond low tide mark. Of these, the first is inhabited by terrestrial animals and plants ; the third is the re- gion of marine organisms ; while the second is in a sense the meeting ground of the two faunas and floras. Plants which live near high tide mark are characterized, as a rule, by small fleshy leaves, thick skin, and other peculiari- ties common to vegetation which gives off water very slowly. Along the sandy shore are to be found the yellow Seaside Crowfoot, the Sandworts and much-branched Sand Spurry (see Spurry), the common Beach Pea, the little Sea Milk- wort, Sea Lavender (q. v.). Sea Pink (see Thrift), Sea Rocket, Sea Plantain, Beach Goldenrod, Asters, and a host of others. Associated with these numer- ous plants are many kinds of in- sects, notably certain wingless forms of the genera Machilis and Anurida, and various bees, bee- tles, moths, and ants. Shelled snails are also common on the shore wherever vegetation is abundant. Familiar birds are species of gulls, terns, the guille- mots, razor-bills, cormorant, sandpipers, and other shore birds. The area between tide marks is essentially the area of brown and green seaweeds (see Alg^ ; Seaweed) , though it has also stragglers from the land area, as glasswort (q. v.), and near its seaward margin not a few mem- bers of the red Algae. In the tropics the littoral fringe of green and brown weed is much less obvious than in temperate climates. In some cases, instead of a belt of Algae, there are mangrove swamps. Such mem- bers of the mangrove swamp fauna as the caller-crab (Gelasi- mus) and the curious jump- TYPES OF SEASHORE LIFE. Plant Iilfe.—l. Searplantain. 2. Sea-pink. 3. Sea-reed. 4. Sea-rocket. 5. Sea-campion. 6. Sea-holly. 7. Sea^spurge. 8. Stonecrop. Bird Life.- 9. Cormor ant. 10. Guillemot. 11. Puffin. 12. Sanderlinp. 13. Herring gull. 14. Tern. Animal Life of Upper Zone.— 1.5. Tfehx acutus, showing protective hahit of resting on dried stems. 16. Andrena cineraria. 17. Helix virgata, two varieties. 18. Pod lover inoth. 19. Anurida maritima. 20. Mathilis maritima. 21. Sea-slater. 22. Shore wainscot moth. 23. Ground lackey moth Animal Life of the Lower Zone.— 24. Corals, various. 26. Razor-shell. 26. Cockle. 27. Winkles, various. 28. Shore crab. 20 Father laaher. 30. Peiiophthalmus. 31. Lobworm. 32. GunneL Seaweeds.— 33. Saw-edge wrack. 34. Bladder wrack. 35. Sugar tangle. Seashore ing-fish (Periopthalamus) of Cele- bes help us to understand how a terrestrial fauna may arise from an aquatic one. In other parts of the tropical regions the intertidal zone is occupied, in part at least, by coral reefs. There Algae are rare. In temperate climates the majority of the animals living be- tween tide-marks are found on or near rocks. In many cases — as in the periwinkles, the limpets, the sea-urchins, and some crustaceans — the reason for this association is that the animals feed upon the larger seaweeds, which can only thrive when attached to rock surfaces. In other cases — as in sponges, anemones, sea -firs, zo- ophytes, sea-squirts, and most bi- valves — the animals are incapable of resisting by their own move- ments the action of shore cur- rents, and must have a firm basis of attachment. Again, others of the littoral animals are ac- tively carnivorous, and must haunt the rocks, because these shelter the two preceding sets of animals, which form their natural prey. Such animals are the dif- ferent kinds of fish, most of the larger Crustacea, many molluscs (such as the cuttles and certain of the gasteropods), and the larger worms. Of these three groups of animals — the purely herbivorous, the sedentary forms, the carnivorous forms — the first set are especially characteristic of the area between tide-marks; the periwinkles and certain of the limpets are, indeed, confined to this area. The other two sets occur equally within and beyond low-tide mark, such active forms as the fish and the cutdes being in many cases only casual visitors to the shore pools. Besides these rock-haunting animals, there also occur within and beyond tide- marks many sand-burrowers. Among the sand-burrowers are many worms, many molluscs, such as cockles and razor-shells, echino- derms such as heart-urchins and the wormlike Synapta, while the mud of deeper water con- tains peculiar representatives of the same groups. The majority of these animals are furnished with protective investments of some sort, such as shells or tubes ; while yet others find shelter and safety by burrowing in rocks, sand, or mud. The presence of armor of some sort may thus be said to be a general characteristic of shore animals, and is one of the contrasts which they offer to the delicate floating animals of the open sea. Again, very many are sedentary, some permanently so— e.g. acorn-shells; while others, like the limpet, have strong clinging power, or, like mussels and other bivalves, have anchoring threads. Sym- biosis and masking are also both 74 frequent, the latter especially among crabs. Remarkaole re- semblances between the colors of animals and their surround- ings are common, and in not a few cases the colors of the ani- mals are variable — changing, though often slowly, with changes in the surroundings. Finally, one of the most striking peculiarities of shore animals in general is the frequent occur- rence, in the life-histcry, of a free - swimming pelgaic stage. This permits of the distribution of the species; but its exact significance, from the evolution- ist's point of view, is still keenly debated. See Newbigin's Life by the Sea- shore (1901); Arnold's Sea-Beach at Ebb Tide (1900); Heilprin's^wi- mal Life of Our Seashore (1888); and Mayer's Seashore Life (1906). For the seaweeds, see Cook's In- troduction to the Study o/ (British) Seaweeds (1895), and Farlow's Marine Alga of New England (1883). Sea^slckness, the peculiar re- flex disturbances of tne nervous system produced by a ship or a boat in motion, and resulting in various 'degrees of disturbance to the alimentary system, from slight nausea to severe vomiting, some- times uncontrollable ana, very rarely, ending fatally by ex- haustion. In most cases sea-sick- ness is merely temporary, even during a voyage lasting for the first few days only, and then end- ing either in complete recovery with greatly improved appetite, or in general wellbeing witn occa- sional relapses in severe weather. Precisely similar effects are pro- duced upon some by the motion of a swing or a railroad train. In some cases the disorder is due not so much to the motion as to a lack of fresh air, combined with the smell of bilge-water and engine- oil; and a person may be very sea-sick in a 'tramp' steamer, but quite at ease in an open boat. The brain seems to be affected through the nerve - supply to brain, eyes, stomach, and per- haps other channels. Habit usually brings temporary indif- ference; but in many cases the nervous system needs a fresh training for each voyage. It is said that Nelson, the English admiral, never completely con- quered sea-sickness; and the mo- tion of some modern forms of vessel, such as the torpedo-boat destroyer, will at times affect the strongest stomachs. Children and old people are least likely to be affected by sea-sickness, while women, as a rule, suffer more than men. A pregnant woman may suffer especially, and sea- sickness is a frequent cause of abortion. There b no specific against sea- Sea-snakes sickness. The most favorable position is a recumbent one — at full length in a chair, on deck if possible. Food should be spe- cially light and readily digestible until the stomach is accustomed to its new conditions. It should be taken as soon after vomiting as it can be borne. Champagne or a little brandy may be ad- visable if exhaustion is great. A tight broad bandage about the abdomen often has a good effect, and relieves the strain of vomit- ing. The sufferer should be thor- oughly protected from cold. Many escape trouble by carefully breath- ing regularly and not in rhythm with the dip or roll of the ship. Seaside Grape, the popular name of a small W. Indian tree, Coccoloba uvifera, belonging to the order Polygonaceae. Its wood is very hard and close-fibred, and takes a good polish. The tree bears bunches of fruit, the fleshy part of which is eaten, being re- freshingly tart. The nuts are surrounded by the permanent violet calyxes, which are con- spicuously beautiful. Sea - slug. See Gastropoda. The name is also occasionally applied incorrectly to the holo- thurian. Sea-snakes .constitute a sub- family (Hydrophidae) of venom- ous snakes {Colubridce protero- glypha), characterized by the ma- rine habitat and the strongly compressed tail, which functions as a swimming organ. The food consists of fishes, and the animals range from the Persian Gulf to Central America, although they are most numerous in the In- dian Ocean and in the warmer parts of the W. Pacific. AH the species are viviparous, and it is Sea-snake {Hydrophis obscura). said that the females approach the shore to give birth to their young, and remain with them there for some time. The head in all cases is relatively small, as are the scales over the whole body. The typical forms belong to the genus Hydrophis, of which H. obscura, found in the Bay of Bengal and the Malay Archipel- ago, is an example. It reaches a length of about a yard, and is prettily colored in green and yellow. An exception to the rule that the Hydrophidae are marine is found in Distira Semperi, which is found in a fresh-water lake in the Philippine Is. Some of the species of the genus Pla- turus, again, are stated some- Seasons KFN 75 Seattle times to quit the water volun- tarily, and in several points of structure recall certain Indian species of adder (q. v.), from which the sea snakes have prob- ably arisen. They are highly poisonous. Seasons, the periods into which the year is divided by the sun's changes in declination. They are a joint effect of the earth's orbital revolution and the inclination of its axis. Hence, in temperate zones, the sun's meridian altitude varies to the extent of 47° f. ; and this, to- gether with corresponding chang- es in the length of the day, occa- sions large vicissitudes of tem- perature. (See Earth). Within the tropics the zone of equatorial calms in which rain- fall is practically continuous is shifted northward when the sun moves northward in the north- ern summer, and is similarly shifted southward in the south- ern summer. Those regions ly- ing near the mean position of the wet zone have thus two wet and two dry seasons in the year, the regions near its extreme posi- tions having one wet and one dry season. In the temperate regions of the globe the year is naturally di- vided into four seasons — Spring, Slimmer, Autumn, and Winter. Conventionally, it is assumed that each season commences at the equinox or solstice ; but in common parlance the summer months include June, July, and August, winter being December, January, and February, and spring and autumn accordingly. See Climate; Spring; Sum- mer; Autumn; Winter. Sea Spider. See Pycnogo- nii>^. Sea Squirt, a popular name for certain Ascidians (q. v.) or Holothurians (q. v.). See TuNi- cata. Sea Surgeon, or Surgeon Fish, a species of bony, edible fish of the genus Teuthis, with bright colors and conspicuous stripes, living in tropical seas, es- pecially near the coral reefs of the Bahamas and West Indies. It is characterized by the sharp, lancet-like spines on the sides of the tail, which lie sheathed in grooves, but which can be erected into a formidable weapon, the fish striking out laterally with the tail. Important examples are the West Indian Surgeon Fish (T. hepatus), the Ocean Surgeon Fish {T. bahianus), and the Blue Surgeon Fish {T. cceruleus). Sea Swallow. See Tern. Sea'ton, Sir John Colborne, First Baron (1778-1863), Brit- ish soldier and colonial adminis- trator, was born at Lyndhurst, Hants. He entered the Lanca- shire Fusiliers in 1794 j took part in the Helder expedition (1799), and in expeditions to Egypt (1801) and Sicily (1806); and was military secretary to Sir John Moore (1808-09). He rendered distinguished service in the Peninsular War (1810- 14), and took a brilliant part in the repulse of the Old Guard at Waterloo (1815). In 1825 he was made major-general and lieutenant-governor of Guern- sey. He was lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada (1830-38); and as governor-general and commander-in-chief suppressed the revolt of 1838 in Lower Canada. He was high commis- sioner of the Ionian Islands from 1843 to 1849; and commander- in-chief in Ireland from 1855 to 1860. He was raised to the peerage in 1839; became a full general in 1854, and field mar- shal in 1860. Seattle, largest city of Wash- ington and the Pacific North- west, and county seat of King county, is situated between Pu- get Sound on the west and Lake Washington on the east ; 880 miles north of San Francisco and 197 miles north of Portland, Oregon. The city is the termi- nus of several transcontinental railroads, and is reached by the Great Northern, Northern Pa- cific, Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul, and Union Pacific (Oregon-Washington) railroads over their own rails, while through transcontinental trains are operated by the Canadian Pacific and the Chicago, Bur- lington, and Quincy (over Northern Pacific tracks), and the Southern Pacific (over Ore- gon-Washington tracks). To Seattle, the Columbia and Puget Sound Railroad, the Canadian Pacific, and other lines operate steamship lines from British Co- lumbia. Direct steamship serv- ice is also maintained to Alaskan and other Pacific Coast ports, to Gulf and Atlantic Coast ports via the Panama Canal, and to South America, Europe, China, Japan, Siberia, the Philippines, and Hawaii. Elliott Bay, an eastern arm of Puget Sound, furnishes an ex- tensive salt water harbor ; while the opening of the Lake Wash- ington Ship Canal (July, 1916), which joins Salmon Bay, an in- let of the sound northwest of Elliott Bay, with Lake Union in the heart of the city and Lake Washington, gives Seattle the greatest fresh water harbor on the coast. This canal with a total cost of approximately $5,- 000,000, is 8 miles long, and government locks next in size to those of Panama, afford accom- modation for the largest ocean- going vessels. Across the sound, at Bremerton, is the Puget Sound Navy Yard, base for capi- tal ships of the Pacific fleet. The climate of Seattle is equalile, with moderately warm summers and mild winters, with practically no snow or freezing weather. The average mean temperature over a period of 40 years was 51.4. The precipita- tion during the same period was 32.6 inches. The city covers an area of 104.41 square miles, in- cluding 35.91 square miles of water, and is built on a series of hills and ridges. The business and industrial sections are lo- cated on the levels along the water front. The residential district occupies the heights to the east, south, and north, from which are obtained magnificent views of the snow-crowned Olympic and Cascade ranges. Transportation is provided by a municipally operated trackless trolley and bus system, interur- ban systems radiate over the sur- rounding area, and a fleet of small steamers and ferries serve the 2,000-mile Puget Sound shore- line. The water supply is owned by the city, and is brought by 62 miles of supply mains from Cedar River in the Cascade Mountains. The potential water power trib- utary to Seattle is very great, and in addition to the extensive developments of private compa- nies, notably the Puget Sound Light and Power Company, the municipality has participated in an ambitious light and power de- velopment. The park system includes 35 miles of boulevards, 44 parks, and 24 equipped and supervised playgrounds, with a total of 1900 acres. The most important parks are Woodland, Washington, Lin- coln, Volunteer, Kinnear, Ma- drona, Seward, Ravenna, Schmitz, and Mount Baker. There are also 36 miles of com- pleted boulevard, and 12 public bathing beaches. The beautiful campus of the University of Washington (582 acres) and the grounds of Fort Lawton Military Post (605 acres) are within the city limits. An open-air con- crete and steel stadium of the University of Washington seats 40.000. Notable public buildings are Federal buildings — Post Office, Immigration and Federal Office ; U. S. Courthouse ; the City Au- ditorium, seating 7,500, the Pub- lic Library, the 42-story Smith Building, the County-City Build- ing, Harborview Hospital, the Y.W.C.A. Building, and the sports arena, seating 9,500. Theaters include the Moore and the Metropolitan. The civic cen- ter and business district is on the shore, and behind on the hills, north, south, east and west, lie the residential districts. The Seattle KFN 76 Sea Urchins 250 churches include a fine Ro- man Catholic Cathedral ; numer- ous Protestant houses of wor- ship ; the Jewish Temple de Hirsch ; and Chinese, Finnish, Scandinavian, German, and Rus- sian churches. The most impor- tant educational institution is the University of Washington (see Washington, University of). Others are the Academy of the Immaculate Conception, Adel- phia College, Seattle College, Se- attle Pacific College, and Seattle Seminary. Population. — The population of Seattle was (1920) 315,312; (1930) 365,583; (1940) 366,847. Government, — The executive authority is vested in a mayor elected biennially, and the fol- lowing administrative officers and departments : controller, treasurer, and corporation coun- sel ; board of public works ; po- lice, fire, health, parks, and li- brary departments ; civil service commission. There is a legisla- tive council of nine members, three of whom are elected an- while the other five are imper- forate. The outer surface of the test is densely clothed with spines. The apical area in the middle of the upper part of the shell has in its center the poste- rior opening of the food canal, placed in a patch of leathery skin, and arranged around it are five large and five small plates. The former bear each a genital pore, and one in addition has a number of minute openings, ad- mitting water into the peculiar water-vascular system. This Black Star Photo by ^eotot SEA URCHIN WITH SPINES EXTENDED (left) AND COLLAPSED (right) Industry and Commerce, — The principal industries include shipbuilding, airplane manufac- turing (home of the famed Boe- ing Flying Fortress and the super-bomber B-29) ; lumber and timber products, slaughtering and meat packing, flour and grist mills, foundries and machine shops, printing and publishing, fisheries, salmon packing, the manufacture of leather goods, condensed milk, shoes, clothing, and jewelry. As the largest city in the Pa- cific Northwest, Seattle is the banking and commercial hub for the highly productive valleys in the hinterland, famous as great fruit, wheat and lumber-produc- ing sections. It is also the dis- tributing center for a great share of these products. In 1900 Se- attle had practically no foreign trade. In 1920 approximately five and a half million tons were handled over its docks, and in 1930 this had increased to ap- proximately eight and a half mil- lion tons. The principal items of export are wheat, flour, lumber, fish, coal, hay, fruit, meat, meat canned goods, dairy produce, mill work and manufactures. nually. The public ocean ter- minals, rated as among the best in America, are administered by an elective port commission of three members. History, — Seattle was settled in 1852. It was incorporated as a town in 1865, reincorporated in 1869, and granted a city char- ter in 1880. In 1889 the busi- ness section of the city was al- most wiped out by a fire, which caused $7,000,000 loss. The first shipment of gold was re- ceived from Alaska in 1897, and Seattle became the outfitting post for prospectors bound for the newly discovered gold fields. The Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Exposition was held here in 1909-10. Sea Unicorn. See Narwhal. Sea Urchins (Echinoidea) form a class of the phylum Echi- nodermata. A typical form is Echinus csculentus {Strongylo- ccntrotus drobachicnsis) , the common edible sea urchin, found abundantly off rocky coasts. It has an approximately spherical test or shell, built up of ten double rows of plates. Of these, five are perforated by small openings through which in life the delicate tube feet emerge, modified plate is known as the madrcporite. The five small plates have each an eye spot. From the large or genital plates start the five double rows of non-perforated plates, called the interambulacral plates. The perforated or ambulacral plates, on the other hand, take origin from the small ocular (eye- bearing) plates. On the under surface of the test lies the mouth, surrounded by an area of extensible skin. From the mouth there may fre- quently be observed protruding five white teeth, which are placed in an elaborate masticatory ap- paratus called 'Aristotle's lan- tern.' The water-vascular system is of use in locomotion, and per- haps also in excretion. The madreporite opens into a tube called the stone canal, and this in tvirn opens into a ring canal which passes round the upper part of the lantern. From this ring canal pass five radial canals, which lie beneath the ambulacral areas, and communicate inter- nally with a series of little reservoirs of ampullae, and ex- ternally are bound up with the VIEWS OF SEATTLE, 1. Totem Pole in Pioneer Square. 2. Looking North on Second Avenue. 3. Part of the City's Waterfront. Vol. XL— Oct. '16 Vol. XL— at Page 76 Sea Water 77 Seaweed tube feet. The tube feet end in little suckers, and can be rendered tense with fluid, or allowed to be- come empty and flaccid. By means of their terminal suckers they act as locomotor organs, their action being assisted by the spines with which the test is cov- ered. By means of its tube feet and spines the urchin can crawl up a perpendicular rock surface. The sexes are separate, the ripe products in both cases leaving the body by genital pores. Most sea urchins live off rocky coasts; not a few shelter them- selves in holes in the rocks; many deep-sea forms are known. They feed in part on seaweeds, mostly on organisms and organic matter found in mud and other deposits. Many look as if they were falling victims to their constitutional tendency toward the deposition of lime, for there is hardly any part of the body which may not become limy, and in some of the flattened forms the body cavity is much restricted by cross beams of lime. The Echinoidea are subdivided into four orders, as follows: (1) the Endocyclica or Regularia, in- cluding regular forms like Echin- us; (2) the Clypeastridea, the flat and disc-like Dollar Urchins, Cake Urchins, or Sand Dollars, forms in which the anus lies out- side the apical disc, but which have masticatory organs like the regular urchins; (3) the Spatan- gidae or Heart Urchins, in which the anus is also outside the apical disc, but which have no trace of masticatory organs; (4) the Pa- laeo-Echinoidea, or fossil forms, which include certain species very different from existing forms. See ECHINODERMATA. Sea Water, a solution of various salts, principally sodium chloride, that have been washed out of the land by the action of rain, and conveyed by rivers to the sea and retained there. See Ocean. Seaweed, the popular term ap- plied to a vast collection of lower plant forms growing on the sea coast from a little above the highest tide mark to a depth of from 50 to 100 fathoms, and be- longing to the sub-class of the Thallophytes to which the name Algae has been given (see Alg^). The most important function of seaweeds is the same as that per- formed by ordinary forms of veg- etation on land — to render animal life possible. They take the ele- ments existing in water as impur- ities, and transform them into materials essential to animal life. They also form the sole or main subsistence of fish and other ma- rine creatures. Seaweeds also act as natural breakwaters in pre- venting the rapid wearing away of coast lines. The whole west coast of the Americas is flanked by immense marine forests that Vol. XI.— a. break the force of the tremendous tides of the Pacific. Examination of an average shore belt exposed at ebb tide re- veals the fact that this area may be roughly divided into four re- gions: (a) a zone at and above high-water mark, characterized by the predominance of filamen- tous and encrusting, often incon- spicuous, forms, exhibiting a blu- ish-green color when examined under the microscope; (6) a zone from near high-water mark to half-tide level, occupied chiefly by algae of a bright grass-green tint; (c) from half-tide level to low-tide mark, where the major- Development of Fucus vesicu- losus. 1. Cell filaments carrying antheridia. 2. Antherozoids. 3. Oogonium, intact. 4. Oogonium after rupture of membrane, showing oospheres. 5. Escaped oosphere surrounded by antherozoids. 6. Yoimg fucus arising from fertilized oosphere. ity of the plants are olive brown in color; and^(rf) from near low- water mark to depths never ex- posed by the lowest ebb, where the preponderance of forms are of a distinctly red color. The bright green seaweeds are known as ChlorophycecB, the brown as Phce- ophycece, the red as Rhodophycece, and the blue-green as Cyanophy- cecB. Many authors enumerate only three groups, omitting the Cyanophyceae. The principal natural means of distribution are, of course, ocean currents; but man counts for something, inas- much as species are brought from port to port on the bottoms of ships. Among the chief barriers must be reckoned stretches of deep sea, coast deserts of sand and mud, and the irruption of fresh water lowering the salinity of the neighboring tidal water. Probably the oldest seaweed known is one of Siphoneous struc- ture, described as from the De- vonian rocks. The structure, life history, and classification of the green sea- weeds, or Chlorophyceae, are dealt with in the article Alce, leaving for treatment here the Phaeophy- ceae and Rhodophyceae. The Ph^eophyce^ are sub- divided, according to their meth- ods of reproduction, into three chief series — viz., the Phceospo- recB, represented by such forms as Ectocarpus, Cutleria, Sphacela- ria, and the giants among sea- weeds, Laminaria, Macrocystis, and Lessonia; the FucacecB — e.g., Facus, Ascophyllum, Pelve- tia, etc.; and the Dictyotacece — e.g., Dictyota and Padina. In all there are about one hundred and seventy genera, chiefly from the colder seas. The members of the Phaeospo- reae have a most varied vegeta- tive form. Many are filamentous and branched, such as Ectocar- pus and Sphacelaria; some are tu- bular and unbranched, as Asper- ococcus and Scytosiphon, or tu- bular and branched — Chordaria. Others are ribbon shaped — e.g.^ Cutleria; not a few are membra- nous and encrusting — e.g., Ralf- sia; while Laminaria forms large, expanded, leathery-stalked fronds. The Fucaceae are characterized by having distinctly differentiat- ed sexual organs with non-motile ova and motile fertilizing cells. In Fucus platycarpus both ova and sperms are formed in the same conceptacle; in most Fuca- ceae, however, they are formed on different plants. Asexual mul- tiplication is unknown. The group includes Fucus, Halidrys, and Pelvetia, with branched leathery fronds, the tips of whose branches become transformed into recep- tacles for the reproductive or- gans, and Himanthalia, with a button-shaped thallus, from which arise the long, strap-shaped reproductive branches character- istic of that genus. The Dictyotaceae are an aber- rant group, with distinct affini- ties to the Rhodophyceae. They resemble that group in having non-motile spores produced in fours in sporangia which are clus- tered in sori over the surface of the frond (Dictyota) or along the midrib. In both Fucaceae and Dictyotaceae fertilization is ex- ternal. The Rhodophyceae (Florideae), containing nearly three hundred genera, mostly from temperate and tropical seas, form a very large assemblage of most varied vegetative form, and every possi- ble shade of red from a purple black to brilliant pink. The root may be a branched mass, a plate, or a disc attached to mud, other algae, or rock, while the fronds are filamentous, membranous, crus- VoL. XI.— Oct. '16 Seaweed 78 Secaucus taceous, or calcareous. The asexual organs consist of spo- rangia whose entire contents in some genera escape as a single non-motile spore. In the majori- ty, however, each sporangium contains four non-motile spores. The sexual organs are antheridia and procarpia. The antheridia are generally modified terminal branches or special areas in the thallus (of the more succulent forms), from which are derived short rod-like fertilizing cells. The female organ is a procarp, whose structure varies in complexity in the different orders of Rhodophy- ceae. The Rhodophyceae embrace • a large number of orders, the rep- resentatives of several of which form well-known objects of inter- est on the seashore. These in- clude Carrageen (Chondrus cris- pus), dulse (Rhodymenia palma- ta), and laver {Porphyra lacini- ata). The genera Callithamnion, Delesseria, Nitophyllum, Ploca- mium, and Odonthalia are well known to collectors for the beau- ty of their fronds. Uses of Seaweed. — In Roman times an alkaline dye was pre- pared from seaweed, probably from Fucus vesiculosus, the com- mon bladderwrack. From the coarser brown seaweeds kelp is prepared by burning, and used, though to a much less extent than formerly, in the manufac- ture of iodine (see Kelp). Laver (q. v.), prepared from certain spe- cies, is valued as a food in parts of Europe. Along the coast of New England, the British Isles, and Western Europe, seaweeds are employed as fertilizers; and in certain countries they are fed to swine and cattle. Sometimes they are used for stuffing mat- tresses and furniture; and they have been suggested as a substi- tute for wood pulp in the making of paper. In Japan, systematic seaweed farming is carried on, and the Japanese have utilized the re- sources of seaweed more than any other nation. The variety most generally cultivated there is red laver (Porphyra laciniata), which brings about $1.50 per acre, and which is made into a number of food products, principally amano- ri, for both domestic and foreign consumption. Of even greater importance is the manufacture of kanten, or seaweed isinglass, pre- pared from the genus Gelidium, and exported to all civilized coun- tries. This genus grows on rocky sea bottoms, and is gathered by divers. Kanten is used for jellies, soups, and sauces; in purifying sake, the native wine; for the siz- ing of textiles, stiffening the warp of silks, clarifying wines, beer, and coffee, making moulds for workers in plaster of Paris, and the manufacture of paper. Under the name agar-agar (q. v.) it has extensive application as the cul- ture medium in bacteriological work. In the United States, kan- ten is employed chiefly in food preparations where gelatin is re- quired. The only seaweed of commer- cial importance in the United States is that of Carrageen (q. v.), or Irish Moss. Scituate, Mass., is the centre of the industry; and the annual output is about 800,- 000 pounds. See Seashore; Fucus. Con- sult John Cowan's 'Our Wasted Seaweed Resources' {Scientific American, Oct. 29, 1910). ^ix^Seawell, se'wel, Molly Elliot (1860), American author, grand- niece of President Tyler, was born in Gloucester county, Va. She published her first widely known children's story, LiUle Jarvis, in 1890. Her other works include: Midshipman Paulding (1891); Paul Jones (1892) ; Maid Marian (1894); The Sprightly Romance of Mar sac (1890); A Virginia Cav- alier (1896); Twelve Naval Cap- tains (1897); Gavin Hamilton (1899); The House of Egremont (1901); Francezka (1902); The Chateau of Monplaisir (1905); The Victory (1906); The Secret of Toni (1907) ; The Last Duchess of Belgrade (1908); The Ladies' Bat- tle (1911); The Jugglers (1911). Maid Marian and The Sprightly Romance of Marsac have been dramatized. Sea Wolf. See Wolf Fish. Sebas'tian (1554-78), king of Portugal, succeeded his grand- father John III. in 1557, under the guardianship of Cardinal Henry, his great-uncle. He led an expe- dition against the Moors in 1578, when he was defeated and slain at the Battle of Alcazar in Mo- rocco. Although his body was identified, rumors arose that he was not dead, and impostors ap- peared from time to time who pretended to be the chivalrous young king. The most famous of these was Marco Tullio Catiz- zone, a Calabrian, who first made his pretensions known at Venice in 1598, and was hanged at San Lucar, Spain, in 1603. Sebastian forms the subject of one of Dry- den's plays. Sebastian, St. (25.5-288), mar- tyr of the early church, was born in Narbonne, Gaul. Secretly a Christian, he entered the Roman army in the hope of aiding fellow Christians under persecution, and rose to high favor with the Em- peror Diocletian. Upon the dis- covery of his religion he was con- demned to die; and being left for dead by a troop of archers, he was nursed back to health by a Chris- tian woman named Irene. ' He again appeared before the Em- peror professing his faith, and was ordered beaten to death by clubs in the amphitheatre at Rome. His body was flung into the sewers, but was recovered and interred in the catacombs. The feast of St. Sebastian is celebrated on Jan. 20. His earlier martyr- dom was a favorite subject of the Italian religious painters. Sebastlano del Piombo, sa-bas- tya'no del pyom'bo (1485-1547), Italian painter, born at Venice. His family name was Luciani, that by which he is known being derived from the office he held (1531-47) of keeper of the seal (piombo) under Pope Clement vii. He studied under Bellini and Giorgione. In 1509 he accompan- ied Agostino Chigi to Rome, and assisted in the decoration of his palace of Farnesina. His skill as a colorist won for him the friend- ship of Michelangelo, with whom he co-operated. He was the in- ventor of a method of painting on stone. His most famous works are the Raising of Lazarus, and portraits of Andrea Doria, Car- dinal Pole, and Clement VII. His portrait of Columbus is in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Sebastopol. See Sevastopol. Sebenico, sa-ba'ne-ko (Sla- vonic Sibenik) , town and episcopal see, Dalmatia, Austria, on the Bay of Sebenico, in the Adriatic Sea; 30 miles northwest of Spa- lato. Its Renaissance Cathedral dates from 1430 to 1555. Fishing is carried on, and there is trade in wine, olive oil, coal, coke, lig- nite, and timber. Pop. 30,000. SebiUot, sa-be-yo', Paul (1846) , French writer on folklore, was born in Matignon, C6tes-du- Nord. He abandoned law and art successively for the study of* folklore. He has published : Con- ies de Terre et de Mer (1883); Le Blason Populaire de la France (1884); Contes des Provinces de France (1884); Coutumes Popu- laires de la Haute-Bretagne (1886) ; Contes de la H aute-Br etagne (1894) ; Le Folklore des Picheurs (1901); Le Folklore de France (4 vols., 1904-7); Le Folklore: Lit- ter ature Or ale et Ethnographic Traditionnelle (1913); also bib- liographies of French folklore. Since 1885 he has been editor of the Revue des Traditions Popu- laires. Sebnltz, zeb'nits, town. Sax- ony, Germany; 22 miles south- east of Dresden. Textiles are manufactured. Pop. 11,500. Seborrhoea. See Hair, Dis- eases OF. _ Sebu, sa-boo', river, Morocco, rises in the Atlas Mountains, flows northwest past Fez, then west to the Atlantic, which it en- ters at Mehedia. Length, 17C miles. Secale. See Rye. Secant. See Trigonometry. Secau'cus, borough, Hudson county, New Jersey, on the Lack- awanna Railroad; 2 miles north of Jersey City. It has manufac- tures of pearl buttons and chem- ical appliances, and a large plant Vol. XL— Oct. '16 Secchl 79 Seoesslon supplying power for the Hoboken, Rutnerford, and Paterson street railroads. Pop. (1910) 4,740. Secchi, Angelo (1818-78), Italian astronomer, was born at Reggio in the EmiUa, and entered the Jesuit order in 1833. Driven into exile by the revolution of 1848, he came to the U. S. and found refuge in Washington, D. C, where, as professor of mathematics and physics at Georgetown College, he lived until 1849, when he returned to Italy and was appointed by Pius IX. to succeed De Vico as di- rector of the Roman College Observatory. He made an ex- tensive series of double-star ob- servations, successfully photo- graphed i» Spain the totally eclipsed sun (July 18, 1860), and was one of the first to record prom- inences spectroscopically by day- light. In 1863 he established the present system of classifying stellar spectra, which he com- pleted by the aiscovery of carbon stars in 1867. He published in 1864 an able theory of universal phenomena, entitled Unita delle Forze Fisiche, and embodied his solar researches in Le Soleil (1870). He also wrote Researches on Electrical Rheometry (Smith- sonian Contributions, vol. viii., 1852). See J. Pohle's Lebensbild (2d ed. 1904). Secession, a term of modern origin applied to the process by which a state, a member of a con- federacy or federation, with- draws and resumes all powers formerly delegated to the central government. In the United States the term is used to denomi- nate the right once claimed by various states of withdrawing at will from the Union and resuming independent existence. The the- ory of secession is based on the idea that the individual states are still sovereign. Secession, then, is the act of a sovereign state and must be distinguished from revo- lution. The idea and practice of secession date back to the Greek leagues. In modern European history we meet instances in Switzerland, Germany, and the Scandinavian countries. The right of withdrawal is one claimed usually by a weak state or section as a protection against the en- croachments of a stronger state or section. Seldom is there an assertion of such a right among Latin i)eoples; it seems to be due to the survival of the Teutonic ideas of local and individual liberty, and is found among peo- ple who are historically opposed to a strong centralized govern- ment. The question of secession be- came a practical one in America after the formation (1789) of the Federal Union under the Con- stitution framed in 1787. The States in fact withdrew from the old confederation in order to form the new one, in which the question of the sovereignty of the states was not expressly settled. The question of secession v/as first mentioned by Elbridge Gerry in the convention of 1787. He pre- dicted the 'secession' of certain states unless their interests were cared for. In 1795 the suggestion of secession was heard in Ken- tucky, a western state which felt that its welfare was neglected by the states to the east; and in the same year in Connecticut a fac- tion, fearing control of the Federal government by the South, advo- cated the secession of New Eng- land. The election of John Adams to the Presidency stopped this, however. From 1800 to 1815 secession was used as a threat by the New England section of states, dissatis- fied by the Southern influence in the central government. It was talked of when Jefferson was elected in 1800. The purchase of Louisiana (1803) was denounced as unconstitutional by New Eng- land, which foresaw a transfer of pohtical power to the South and West • and the assertion was made that the dissatisfied states outfit to withdraw. In 1804 the candidacy of Aaron Burr for the governor- ship in New York was supposed to be a movement preliminary to a New York and New England secession. Josiah Quincy of Massachusetts, spokesman for New England, declared in Con- gress in 1811 that if Louisiana were admitted as a state, it would virtually dissolve the Union, and that it would be the duty of the states to separate, either peaceably or by force. He was called to or- der, but th2 House decided that he was in order. The most serious movement toward the secession of New England grew out of the objections of that section to the policy of the central government; especially was there opposition to the operation of the Embargo and Non-Intercourse Acts and to the War of 1812. The right and duty of the New England states to withdraw and establish a new repubUc was constantly dis- cussed in that section, and in Dec, 1814-Jan., 1815, a secret conven- tion of delegates from these states was held at Hartford. It was then charged that secession was con- templated and discussed, but the convention resolved to remon- strate first with the Federal adr ministration, and the early close of the war put an end to the move- ment. The journal of the Hart- ford Convention, which was printed in 1833, has nothing of secession; but, as Babcock, the latest historian of the period, says, 'it was always suspected that the journal reflected neither the tem- per nor the decisions of the con- vention.' Thus ends the first period of dissatisfaction with the Union. Talk of separation was general throughout the Union be- fore 1815; objections to it were merely objections to its expediency, not denials of the abstract right. The idea of nationality was of slow growth. Two legal text-books published early in the century are important in the history of the theory of secession. In 1803 Tucker, a Virginian, published an edition of Blackstone, with an appendix, in which he developed the theory that each state was sovereign and might at will withdraw from the Union, resume the powers dele- gated by the Constitution to the Federal government, and continue as an independent power. This was the first clear statement of the whole theory, and it indicated also a modus operandi. The other book was Rawle,_Ow the Constitu- tion, published in 1825. Rawle was a Pennsylvania judge. He maintained that each state was sovereign and that secession was a matter for the people of each state to decide, the central govern- ment having no authority to pre- vent it. This book was used from about 1825 to 1850 as a text at the United States Military Academy, The counsel of Jefferson Davis were prepared (1867} to offer this book as evidence in case that representative of secession should be brought to trial. General Lee mentioned the fact that he had studied Rawle. After the War of 1812 secession is next heard of in the slavery con- troversy, and, except for a faction of abolitionists who demanded a separation from the slave-holding South, it is hereafter the Southern states that threaten to secede in order to protect their peculiar institution — slavery — from un- friendly Northern interference. The two sections were steadily growing apart, economically and socially as well as politically. Against unfriendly interference and against laws considered un- constitutional, the South devel- oped two remedies: nullification (g.v.) within the Union and seces- sion from the Union. Each one was based upon the idea of state sovereignty. But, as a rule, those who believed in secession repu- diated nullification as a weak, half- way measure. _ In 1832-33, during the nullification troubles, there was a party in South Carolina called 'Unionists.' These 'Union- ists' were believers in secession, not in nullification, as a remedy for the evils complained of. In 1835 Texas seceded from Mexico and soon wanted to join the Union. In 1843 in a debate on the proposed annexation of Texas to the United States, Johc Secession Quincy Adams declared that the annexation of Texas would be the signal for the dissolution of the Union — the Eastern states would then be justified in withdrawing. In 1845, William Lloyd Garrison, representing the abolitionists, ad- vocated a secession of the North from the South and the formation of a free republic. After the Mexican War the q^uestion of slavery in the ter- ritories embittered the sectional controversy. It was seen that the South was gradually losing her power before the free states. So from 1848 to 1852 there was considerable discussion by the states of the lower South of the advisability of seceding. The leading states were South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Texas, the latter just admitted to the Union. Several states were on the verge of secession, but the movement gradually subsided after the adoption of the Com- promise of 1850. The last speech of John C. Calhoun, in 1850, was an unwilling and gloomy prophecy of the separation which came a few years later. In 1860 the United States Senate adopted a series of resolutions introduced by Jefferson Davis, which formed the platform of those who looked to secession as a final refuge. But not until 1860-1861 was the project of secession finally put into practice. It was a direct out- come of the Presidential election of 1860, in which a sectional party, pledged to the prohibition of slav- ery in the territories and un- friendly to the institution in the states, was victorious. It had been generally understood that the election of Lincoln would be the signal for secession. The causes of secession, as given, were the attitude of the North in regard to slavery, the election of a sec- tional President, the nullification of federal statutes by the 'personal liberty ' laws of the various North- ern states, the incitement of slaves to insurrection, as in Texas and at Harper's Ferry, the evident deter- mination of the North to shut the South out from the territories, etc. Thus secession was, it was said, for the purpose of protecting Southern slave property, main- taining the social order, and pre- venting political subordination. As a matter of fact, secession was simply an expression of the fact that the South was practically one nation and the North another and unlike one; state sovereignity was no more a fact than was national unity; further, secession was rather a social than a political movement — the average Southern man knew and cared little about political theories, but was cotv- vinced that only in the continuance of slavery was there safety for the social order. The theory of scces- 80 sion happened to fit the needs of the case. The first state to secede was South Carolina. Here the legisla- ture called a convention which on December 20, 1860, passed unani- mously an ordinance repeahng the South CaroHna ordinance of 1788, which ratified the Federal Consti- tution. Powers delegated to the United States government by the Constitution were resumed, and plans were formed for entering into a Southern Confederacy as soon as other states should secede. Ten other states seceded as fol- lows: Mississippi, January 9, 1861, by a vote of 78 to 7; Florida, Janu- ary 10, by a vote of 62 to 7; Ala- bama, January 11, by a vote of 61 to 39; Georgia, January 19, by a vote of 208 to 89; Louisiana, Janu- ary 26, by a vote of 113 to 17; Texas, February 1, by a vote of 166 to 7; Arkansas, May 6, by a vote of 69 to 1; North Carolina, May 20, unanimously; Virginia, May 23, by a vote of 103 to 46; and Tennessee, June 8, by a vote of the people. In Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri there was strong sympathy with the secession move- ment, but the Northern troops, aid- ing the Union element, held these states in the Union. In Texas Governor Houston refused to con- vene the legislature which should call a convention. So an irregu- lar convention was elected. At last he called the legislature which legaUzed the convention. In Vir- ginia the ordinance was submitted to a vote of the people and was overwhelmingly adopted by the people of eastern Virginia, but the western counties voted against it and refused to go into the Con- federacy. In Tennessee no con- vention was held, but the legisla- ture submitted the proposition to a vote of the people and it was adopted by a large majority, the strongest opposition beiing in East Tennessee. In all the early con- ventions were two parties, the 'secessionists' or 'precipitators,' and the 'co-operationists,' the first urging immediate separate secession and confederation after- ward, the other advocating an un- derstanding between the Southern states before secession in order that all might secede in a body. In none of the conventions except in Virginia were there any 'sub- missionists' or delegates in favor of remaining in the Union under all circumstances. In no state except South Carolina was the so- called 'Black Belt' element in control; the other states of the lower South had what was called the 'white basis' of representation. This gave the power to the 'white* counties. The six states first to secede sent delegates to a provisional Con- gress that met February 4, 1861, m Montgomery, Ala. After the Second Adventlsts framing of a provisional constitu- tion, a * permanent ' constitution was adopted on March 11 for the 'Confederate States of America,' to which the other seceding states were admitted. Upon the question of secession Northern sentiment was divided. Some were indifferent, others glad to be rid of the troublesome South; few at first advocated coercion. Horace Greeley in the New York Tribune said, 'Let them go.' President Buchanan denied the right of secession, but also de- clared that under the laws he had no power to coerce the Southern states. Congress refused to give him the legislation he asked for- so the Federal government dicl nothing except holci two forts, Sumter and Pickens, that had not been surrendered. When Lincoln became President he declared secession a nullity and announced that he would enforce the Federal laws in the Southern states. An attempt made to relieve Fort Sumter caused the bombardment and capture of the fort by the Con- federates. At once, on April 15, 1861, Lincoln called for troops to put down an 'insurrection.' The four years' war that followed, re- sulting in victory for the North, effectively put an end to the theory of secession. References: Jefferson Davis, Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (2 vols., N. Y., 1881); B. J. Sage, Republic of Republics (Boston); Alexander H. Stephens, Constitutional View of the Late War between the States (2 vols., Philadelphia, 1868, 1870)- John W. Burgess, The Civil^ War and the Constitution (vol. i., N. Y., 1901); J. F. Rhodes, History of the U. S. Since the Compromise of 1850 (vol. ii., N. Y., 1895); J. L. M. Curry, The Southern States of the American Union (New York, 1896); J. L. M. Curry, Civil His- tory of the Confederate States (Richmond, 1901); John C. Reed, The Brothers' War (Boston, 1905). Secession Churches. See Presbyterians. Seckendorff, Veit Ludwig VON (1626-92), German states- man, jurist, and historian, born at Herzogenaurach, near Erlan- gen; became chancellor of Halle University (1692). He wrote Der Deutsche Furstenstaat (1655), Compendium Histories Ecclesi- asticcB (1664), Der Christenstaat (1685), and Commentarius His- toricus et Apologeticus de Luther- anismo (1688-92). See Schreber's Historia Viti Ludwig a Secken- dorff (1733). Second. See Mint7TE. Second Adventists, the gen- eral name of various religious bodies in the United States, whose distinctive tenet is the belief that the Second Advent of Christ is imminent. (See Advent, The Sec- Second AdTentists KFP 81 Second Si^t ond) . Their founder was William Miller (q.v.), originally a Baptist, who, about 1831, began to preach that the millennium was to follow, not precede, the end of the world, and that the latter event would occur in 1843. His following ('Millerites') at the time of his death is said to have numbered 50,000. When 1843, and a second date (Oct. 22, 1844), fixed by Miller passed, many of his adherents fell away. Those who remained met in a general conference in Albany, N. Y., April, 1845, and declared their belief that the visible, per- sonal coming of Christ was near; that the dead would rise, both the just and the unjust; and that the millennium would follow the resurrection of the saints. They form the original and oldest branch of the sect and are known as Evangelical Adventists. All of the Adventists ordain their ministers by the laying on of hands, and baptize by immer- sion; their polity is congrega- tional, excepting the Seventh- Day Adventists and the Church of God who are presbyterian; they are organized in local and general conferences and hold annual meetings, often in con- nection with camp-meetings. There are now five distinct Advent bodies, as follows: (1) The Advent Christians dating from 1861, who hold that the soul is mortal and that eternal life will be attained only as the gift of God through faith; that the dead are unconscious; and that the wicked will be annihi- lated. (2) The Seventh-Day Ad- ventists a branch dating from 1845, who observe the seventh da,y of the week as the Sabbath. They believe that when Christ has 'cleansed the heavenly sanc- tuary from the presence of our sins'— a work which he began in 1844 — he will return to earth. They believe that the dead will sleep until the second coming of Christ; that the living righteous are made immortal, and the righteous dead are raised to life. They also hold the wicked will be destroyed by the glory of Christ's presence and that a second resurrection of the wicked will take place after a period of a thousand years. They believe that the second coming of Christ is imminent but do not claim any definite time for it, maintaining that that event is hidden from all mortals. They also believe that the whole Bible is inspired and that the Holy Scriptures are the sole and sufficient standard of faith and doctrine but they claim that the writings of Mrs. E. G. White are particular illuminations of the vSpirit and that she had the gift of prophecy. Their ministers are travelling evangelists, and the heads of local churches are not necessarily ordained. They practice foot- washing, have peculiar rules of diet, and carry on an extensive business in the preparation of so- called health foods. Their head- quarters are in Washington D. C. They carry on an extensive missionary work. (3) The Church of God a branch of the Seventh-Day Adventists which seceded in 1864-6, claiming, in opposition to the majority, that Ellen G. White was not an in- spired prophetess. (4) The Life and Advent Union, a branch estabhshed in 1862, which holds that the wicked will never be raised. (5) The Churches of God in Christ Jesus, or Age-to- Come Adventists, existing since 1851, who believe that the kingdom of God will be estab- lished on earth, that the Jews will be restored to rule in Jerusalem, and that the wicked will be annihilated. In 1945 the Adventists num- bered 231,500 communicants dis- tributed as follows : Seventh-day Adventists, 194,932; Advent Christian Church, 30,547; Church of God (Adventist), 5,295 ; Primitive Advent Chris- tian Church, 538 ; and Life and Advent Union, 288. The Evan- gelical Adventists are not in- cluded in the above figures. Their numbers are steadily de- creasing and as an organization they have almost ceased to exist. Secondary Colors. See Color. Secondary Education. See Education and Educational Systems. See also Education IN the United States and Education in Canada. Second Lieutenant, an offi- cer of the lowest commissioned rank in the United States Army, corresponding to an ensign in the navy. Second Sight, the popular term which covers spontaneous cases of telepathy, premonition, and clairvoyance. The seer, without using any method of inducing hallucinations, as by crystal-gazing or other automa- tisms, is hallucinated, and by one or other of his senses, commonly that of sight, becomes the per- cipient of persons who are not present, but are on their way, or are involved in some crisis at a distance; or the seer beholds events remote in space, though contemporaneous in time; or he even witnesses events which are still in the future. In many cases of second sight the vision is sym- bolical; indeed, this is the chief peculiarity which differentiates second sight from common telep- athy, clairvoyance, or premoni- tion. Real persons actually pres- ent are beheld by the seer with hallucinatory additions. This kind of second sight, though by no means confined to Celtic- speaking peoples, has been most in evidence in the Highlands of Scotland. Apparently in the Highlands it L" not unusual, but most of the reported modern examples are mere cases of tele- pathic or of premonitory halluci- nation. The symbolic variety, however, still exists — that is to say. Highland seers still claim such experiences. 'Corpse can- dles' are the most usual form of symbolical premonition; they can not always be explained as ma-rsh fires, for, out of several persons present, only one or two will see them. The Scottish belief still is that the seer may communicate his vision to a person who will set his foot on the seer's foot and his hand on the seer's shoulder. The seers were, as a rule, anx- ious to be rid of a faculty which was perilous and far from useful. Useful it seldom 'was, because if the seer tells what he has seen before the event, and gives warn- ing, he will lose the faculty. The wreck of a boat in Loch Leven (in Argyllshire) was fore- seen by a second-sighted man, but he did not warn the victims, and they were drowned. The belief that to speak before the event entails loss of the gift is prejudicial to the collection of really evidential testimony. Still, there is abundant evidence of educated persons, ministers of the Gospel and others, for suc- cessful second sight in their own cases. The most usual kind is the appearance, to one or more per- sons, of visitors who, though the fact is not known to the per- cipients, are actually on their way to the place where they are seen, and are carrying the objects which are beheld in their hands. They are taken for the actual persons, till it is dis- covered that they were remote in space. The appearances of per- sons in a place to which they are journeying are called 'arrival cases' by Frederick Myers, and are common in Scandinavian countries. Kirk speaks of the appearances as 'co- walkers,' 'by which the people knew that the person of that likeness was to visit them within a few days.' The belief, except for one or two details, is as strong as it ever was in many parts of the Scot- tish Highlands. Nor are the ex- periences peculiar to the Celtic or any other race. Copious ex- amples among all manner of civilized societies, and in all ranks of life, are recorded in Hwnan Personality, by Frederick Secretary KFP 82 Secretion Myers ; while the statements of savages are given in Andrew Lang's The Making of Religion, and his Cock Lane and Common Sense. The topic was rather casually investigated by Robert Boyle in the reign of Charles ii, and interested Dr. Johnson, Kant, and Hegel, who was a thoroughgoing believer. Modern notices occur in Phantasms of the Living, by Gurney and My- ers, and, under the names of te- lepathy, premonition, and clair- voyance, in the Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Re- search, where the evidence is carefully criticized. Secretary, the name used in the Federal government of the United States for the members of the president's cabinet, who are the heads of the various de- partments such as State, Treas- ury, War, Navy, and the others. See Cabinet and articles on the various departments. Secretary Bird (Serpentari- us secretarius) , an African bird of prey, allied to the vulture. The tuft of plumes at the back of the head bears a supposed re- semblance to the pen of a clerk stuck behind the ear, hence the name. The bird has very long unfeathered legs, standing four feet or more in height ; the bill is short, strong, and much arched ; the neck long ; the tail with two greatly elongated and drooping feathers in the center. The gen- eral coloring is a combination of gray and black. Secretary birds are best known in South Africa, although they extend northward to the Sudan. The diet consists primarily of snakes and insects, but also of small mammals, lizards, birds, and tortoises. In South Africa the birds are protected on account of their services in destroying snakes and noxious insects, and are often kept about farms, The bird fearlessly attacks the most venomous serpents, stunning them with blows of its wings, or seizing and carrying them into the air to such a height that they are killed by the fall. It uses its feet also to overpower its prey, striking violent blows with them. Small serpents are swal- lowed entire ; larger ones are torn to pieces. Secretary of State, in Great Britain, is an office of whose ex- istence in England mention is first made in Henry iii's reign. During the Tudor period the practice was adopted of appoint- ing two secretaries, and after the Restoration (1660) these were known as secretaries of state. By this time the office had be- come one of great importance. The two secretaries conducted between them the home, colonial, and foreign business of the country. The Union between England and Scotland in 1707 resulted in the appointment of a separate secretary of state for the latter country, but after 1746 this practice was discontinued. On the outbreak of the Ameri- can revolution a third secretary of state was appointed for colo- nial affairs, but the recognition of the independence of the United States rendered this un- necessary. In 1782 each of the two sec- retaries had a definite province allotted to him. The one, who had previously been known as secretary of the southern depart- ment, became Home Secretary with the charge of domestic and colonial affairs, while the other, who had previously been known as secretary of the northern de- partment, became Foreign Sec- retary. In 1794 a new secretary of state for war was appointed, who, in 1801 took over the man- agement of colonial affairs also. In 1854 a separate secretary of state for the Colonies was ap- pointed, and in 1858 another for India. There are thus at the present day five secretaries of state, administering the affairs of different departments of gov- ernment, viz. : home affairs, for- eign affairs, the Colonies, India, and war. Holders of the secre- taryships hold cabinet rank. In the United States, the Sec- retary of State is equivalent to Foreign Minister. See State, U. S. Department of. Secretion, a term for the process by which living organ- isms separate from surrounding fluids specific materials, which are elaborated, collected, and discharged for the performance of special functions ; and also used for the material secreted. A distinction is drawn between secretions and excretions, the Secretary Bird Secret Service, U. S. KFP 83 Secret Societies former being functionally active, while the latter consist of waste materials thrown out by the or- ganism as useless or harmful ; but in some cases — in the bile, for example — the gland product is partly functional and partly excretory. In the human body each variety of gland has its pe- culiar product, which it elabo- rates from the blood and lymph. Secretion is due to the metabolic or transforming powers of liv- ing protoplasm, and the selective capacities of the various cells. Like muscular action, secretion is largely under the influence of the nervous system, and is often excited and inhibited in a reflex fashion. The sight and smell of food stimulate the salivary glands, and one's 'mouth wa- ters' ; irritation of the eye in- duces lachrymal flow. During the period of rest the construc- tive processes of the gland out- pace the discharge, and zymogen or mucigen, as the case may be, accumulates in the cell. During the secretory activity, on the other hand, the cell becomes more or less depleted. Secret Service, U. S. This descriptive title legally applies to one branch of the government only — a division in the office of the Secretary of the Treasury at Washington. It came into ex- istence in June, 1860, when an appropriation of $100,000 was made for the purpose of detect- ing and prosecuting counterfeit- ers of gold and silver coins. At the close of the Civil War it ab- sorbed the best of the available material from the ranks of Col. Baker's famous organization in the military bureau of informa- tion, and since that period has been maintained primarily for the protection of the currency of the country. It is practically an independent bureau, having ju- risdiction in all the states and territories. Its operations are directed by a chief with an assistant and a clerical force in the Treasury Department. There are twenty-eight districts throughout the country, each of which is under the immediate supervision of an 'operative-in- charge,' with as many assistants and subheadquarters in each dis- trict as may be necessary. Ap- pointments are made to the field force by the Secretary of the Treasury on the recommendation of the chief under civil service regulations. There are other branches of the government do- ing work of a confidential nature — special agents in the customs service, revenue agents in the Internal Revenue Bureau, in- spectors in the Post Office and other departments, and the Fed- eral Bureau of Investigation (F.B.I.) of the Department of Justice, but none of these belong to the Secret Service proper. All information as to the num- ber of men in the field, their names and official stations (ex- cept at the principal district headquarters) is withheld by ad- ministrative officers in the inter- ests of efficiency, and in this re- spect it is unique. While the primary function of the Secret Service is the suppression of counterfeiting, it is used for oth- er purposes to the distinct ad- vantage of the general govern- ment. During the Spanish- American difficulty it was em- ployed to checkmate the opera- tions of the Spanish agents in the United States, arrested a num- ber of spies, and brought about the expulsion from Canada of a former naval attache of the Spanish legation who had estab- lished a base of operations across the Canadian border. All of the departments at Washington from time to time avail them- selves of the services of experi- enced agents of the Secret Serv- ice, especially in the prosecu- tion of naturalization and land frauds, violations of the anti- trust laws, and various offenses against the Federal statutes. There is a special detail of agents for the protection of the President and high dignitaries of foreign countries who may visit the United States. Secret Societies in the United States. It is rather surprising that in no other coun- try than the United States, where a democratic civilization has been so highly developed, have there been or are there so many secret societies, or so many members thereof. Stu- dents of this sociological phe- nomenon have recorded about 350^ such organizations in the United States, with an approxi- mate total membership in 1906 of about 7,500,000, about one in every eleven of the aggregate population. Many of these or- ganizations are composed of women as well as men (see Fra- ternal Beneficiary Orders), and if _7,000,000 be taken as rep- resenting the male membership it is seen that about 40 per cent of the total adult male popula- tion are members of secret soci- eties. The growth from 1796, when secret society life in the United States was made up of about 2,500 Freemasons, 500 members of St. Tammany Soci- eties and kindred patriotic fra- ternities, and members of the few scattered chapters of the Phi Beta Kappa, the mother col- lege fraternity, is thus seen to have been prodigious, from about one, or less than one per cent of the population of the coimtry 110 years ago to 9 per cent to-day. When these secret societies, fraternities, sister- hoods, and mixed assemblies are classified, something of the enor- mous range taken by this pecul- iar sociological development is shown at a glance. They may be grouped, in the order of their appearance, about as follows: 1, Freemasonry and appendant or- ders ; 2, Patriotic and Political fraternities; 3, College (Greek letter) fraternities; 4, Charita- ble and Benevolent fraternities ; 5, Temperance societies; 6, Fra- ternal beneficiary orders ; 7, In- dustrial (or labor) organiza- tions ; 8, Military fraternities ; and 9, Miscellaneous. Freemasonry made its appear- ance in the United States from England in Boston and Philadel- phia. (See Freemasonry). For 34 years thereafter it was the only secret society here hav- ing an organized existence. Then sprang up the patriotic and political fraternities, the first of which was the Sons of Liberty (1764-1783) ; from them came the Sons of St. Tamina and Sons of St. Tammany (1771-1813); The Tammany Society, or Columbian Order (1789), N. Y. City (q. v.) ; the Society of Red Men (1813- 1832), and the Order of the United American Mechanics (1845), treated elsewhere under that title, as well as the Junior Order of United American Me- chanics (1853) ; Patriotic Order Sons of America (1847) ; Broth- erhood of the Union (1850) ; Sons of '76, or Order of Star- Spangled Banner (Know Noth- ing Party, 1852) (q. v.), and many others which were tem- porarily swallowed by that last named. It was the Civil War which checked the first great Native American movement. Neither the Know Nothing Par- ty, nor its secret society, Crysa- lis, reappeared after that con- flict, as did the two orders of 'Mechanics,' the Sons of Amer- ica, and the Brotherhood of the Union, from which, with the assistance of the Loyal Orange Association, introduced here late in the sixties, were gathered the suggestion and impetus which started another nominal repeti- tion of the Know Nothing move- ment by the American Protec- tive Association (1888-1900). (See Protective Association. American). During that peri- od most of the older patriotic fraternities, those already named and new ones which had only short lives, were virtually ab- sorbed by the 'A. P. A..' only the four emerging from the eclipse in which the 'A. P. A.' was in- volved, at the beginning of the Secret Societies KFP 84 Secret Societies 20th century, the same which re- appeared after the Civil War had blotted out the Know Noth- ing Party. The Sons of Liberty stood for a protest against Brit- ish oppression in the American colonies, and at the close of the War of the Revolution it was Sons of Liberty who organized Sons of St. Tamina, or St. Tam- many, an American Indian, in ridicule of loyalty to the Crown then shown by such organiza- tions as the St. George, St. An- drews, St. David, and St. Nich- olas societies, and as a protest against the so-called aristocratic Society of the Cincinnati, with its federal tendencies and hered- itary memberships. The Society of Red Men (1813-1832). was formed by members of St. Tam- many societies. In all of these organizations Indian ceremoni- als formed a part of those which were visited upon initi- ates. That last named was more political than merely patriotic and finally disappeared through excessive diversions in social lines. Two years later, in 1834, former members of the Society of Red Men, and of late St. Tammany societies, made a radi- cal departure by forming the Improved Order of Red Men (q. v.), the first purely charita- ble and benevolent secret society having an American background and origin, organized along lines suggested by the Independent Order of Odd Fellows, original- ly an English friendly secret so- ciety, which was introduced into the United States in 1819. (See Odd Fellows, Independent Order of.) Owing to this abrupt switching off of a long line of patriotic fraternities into one which eschewed politics and worked alone for the welfare of fellow-members, there was a nominal break of a few years in the more than a century and a third of patriotic and political secret societies, which began with the Sons of Liberty, 1764, and are still extant in the United Orders of American Mechanics and allied societies. Native American political uprisings be- gan in New York city in 1835, in Philadelphia in 1837, and were quite pronounced at New York in 1843, when James Harper, founder of Harper Bros., publishers, was elected mayor on the anti-free immi- gration, America for Americans, and anti-Roman Catholicism cries. Labor disturbances at both New York and Philadel- phia were fre(|uent, and an out- growth of them in 1845, at Phil- adelphia, was the United Amer- ican Mechanics, afterward Or- der of United American Me- chanics, which, later, was made a secret society to which all American men in sympathy with its objects were eligible. (See United American Mechan- ics, Junior Order of.) Na- tive Americanism first showed itself in the St. Tammany soci- eties, then in the Alien and Se- dition Laws of 1798, next in the War of 1812, and was kept alive during the 'era of good feeling' by the Society of Red Men and Surviving Sons of St. Tam- many, until 1832. It was only a few years later that it flared out again, as first described, and has had a continuous existence, generally behind closed doors, ever since. First and last, there have been some seventy or more patriotic or political secret fra- ternities. These in the last third of the 18th century stood for popular patriotism and Ameri- canism ; in the second third of the 19th century this developed into anti-free immigration and anti-Roman Catholicism, and during the final decade of the last century it became an unsuc- cessful attempt virtually to re- vive the issues of the period 1852-1856. For an account of the origin and development of the College, or Greek Letter Fraternities, the first of which made its appear- ance in 1776, see Fraternities, College. Charitable and benevolent se- cret societies in this country, while borrowing in part from Freemasonry, are more nearly the offspring of the Odd Fel- lows. The latter, as told, was introduced here in 1819, and the Ancient Order of Foresters first in 1834, from England, the year the native society, the Improved Order of Red Men, was formed ; the Ancient Order of Hiberni- ans (1836) came from Ireland, and the United Ancient Order of Druids (1839) from England. The German Order of Harugari was formed at New York City in 1847, the Knights of Pythias, at Washington (1864), and the Benevolent and Protective Or- der of Elks at New York City in 1866, which constitute the leading as well as typical frater- nities of this variety, all of which are described in detail elsewhere under their several titles. The parent American secret society formed to disseminate total abstinence principles. Sons of Temperance (1842), was an outcome of the Washington tem- perance movement. Freema- sons were among its founders. It had been preceded by the In- dependent Order of Rechabites, formed by Odd Fellows and Foresters, in England, in 1842, which was brought to the United States in 1845. From the American Sons of Temperance there sprang the Templars of Honor and Temperance (1845), Independent Order of Good Templars (1852), and from the latter came the Royal Templars of Temperance (1870). It was in 1868 that the first of the American fraternal benefi- ciary (assessment insurance or- ders) orders, a modification of the charitable, beneficiary, or English friendly societies, was organized, the Ancient Order of United Workmen. For an ex- tended account of the growth and work of this large section of secret society life in the United States, see Fraternal Soci- eties. Organized labor has not great- ly favored the secret society methods of working out its pur- poses, but what it has done in that direction has been conspic- uous. The various Railway Brotherhoods, the Engineers (1863), Conductors (1868), Firemen (1873), Trainmen (1883), Telegraphers (1866), Switchmen (1887), and Carmen (1889), had a Masonic origin in the parent of them all, the Brotherhood of Locomotive En- gineers, and constitute some of the most efficient organizations in the ranks of labor to this day. (See Railway Brotherhoods.) An outgrowth of the French la- bor unions was the forming of 'the International' at London in 1862, from which the Knights of Labor, formed in the United States in 1869, drew its inspira- tion. The latter has had a var- ied career. Its membership in 1886 was 726,000, but it has declined sharply. From the Knights of Labor sprang the Amalgamated Iron and Steel Workers' Association (1876), the International Association of Machinists (1888), and others. Military secret societies were mostly the outgrowth of the Civil War, when they took the place, in some instances, of gen- eral or open societies for the perpetuation of the memories and sacrifices which the mem- bers had shared in the war for the preservation of the Union. Following came those fraterni- ties (and sisterhoods) formed of descendants of and of women relatives of veterans. Typical of them all are the Grand Army of the Republic (1866), and the Sons of Veterans (1878), which are referred to elsewhere under their respective titles. In addition to these groups of secret societies, there are or have been many which may be classed as miscellaneous, with purposes which may be given in part as revolutionary, co-operative and recreative. Among those in the first groups were the Knights of the Golden Circle, the Ku Klux * •Sector KFP 85 Sedan Klan, the Fenian Brotherhood, and the Clan-na-Gael ; in the second, the Wheel and the Patrons of Husbandry ; and, in the third, various annexes to secret societies already referred to, such as the 'Mystic Shrine' of the Freemasons, and like at- tachments to the Odd Fellows, the Knights of Pythias, and oth- er fraternities, most of which may have been suggested by the now extinct Sons of Malta, which had such a vogue through- out the North and South e. of the Mississippi river prior to the Civil War. In all of these secret frater- nities and sisterhoods, or com- binations of both, in perhaps several thousand lodges, chap- ters, councils, temples, courts, groves, hives, camps, command- eries, or whatever they may be called, the work of benevolence and relief and the search for truth are going on nightly, somewhere throughout the coun- try, behind closed doors, with an enormous wealth of ceremonial by which to introduce many more new members annually. Sector, that portion of a cir- cle contained between two radii. Area = Yz r^d, where 6 is the angle between the radii in circu- lar measure, or = Yz sr, where s is the arc. See Mensuration ; Geometry. Secularism may be regarded in two very different ways — (1) as an aggressive movement of a particular sect; (2) as a vague and general tendency of thought. As a particular aggressive move- ment, secularism belongs to the latter half of the 19th century, and had for its leading repre- sentative G. J. Holyoake. Its aim was twofold — first, to free our views of human life and conduct from their traditional association with religion and theology ; and secondly, to lay a far greater emphasis than the traditional religious ethics does on the importance of the mate- rial conditions of life. The for- mer aim was connected, in the case of some members of the party, such as Charles Brad- laugh, with a frank profession of atheism. But even those who were not prepared, or did not think it politic, to make such a profession, still considered it es- sential to make a vehement pro- test against any dependence of moral rules and ends on theo- logical opinions which they re- garded as incapable of any cer- tain proof. See Holyoake's Principles of Secularism fl859) and Origin of Secularism (1896). Criticism and historical refer- ences are given in Flint's Anti- Theistic Theories (1879). Secularism as an existing tendency or characteristic of thought means the fact that, in consequence of the teachings of modern science, there has taken place an enormous expansion of the mundane horizon, and a cor- responding recession of the tra- ditional religious view of things by which that horizon was for- merly defined. Physical science and biological science have com- pletely destroyed that picture of creation which, in consequence of a too literal acceptance of scriptural teaching, was so long regarded as a representation of actual events which occurred not so very many thousand years ago. And historical criticism is steadily undermining those con- ceptions of supernatural inter- vention in Jewish and Christian history which have formed the basis of Christian dogma in its traditional forms. The tendency of these changes has been to make matters of religious belief more and more vague and shad- owy. Such secularism has no direct or immediate bearing upon conduct, but it is none the less a profoundly important in- tellectual tendency of the pres- ent day. Secundarabad, tn. and can- tonment, India, state of Haidara- bad, 6 m. n.e. of Haidarabad. Pop. 85,267. Security, a term which in- cludes documents and transac- tions that assure or facilitate the payment of money, by giving the holder of them some right for the recovery of his debt, in ad- dition to the rights which he has in common with creditors gen- erally. It includes bonds, de- bentures, promissory notes, checks, bills of exchange, mort- gages legal and equitable, bank- notes, and government stock, bvit not shares in companies, bank stock, and unpaid legacies. The obligation of the debtor, or of another for his benefit, is known as personal security. A person who undertakes to perform the obligation of another is called a surety. Security for the per- formance of an obligation may also be given by creating a lien on property by document or pledge. See Mortgage ; Lien ; Pledge; Suretyship. Security and Information. The service of reconnaissance, advance and rear guards, out- posts, patrols, etc., upon which the safety and success of an army in the field largely depends. See Wagner's Security and In- formation (Kansas City, 1902), and Field Service Regulations , U. S. Army (Washington, 1905). Sedaine, Michel Jean (1719-97), French dramatist, born at Paris ; whilst appren- ticed to an architect he wrote plays, particularly in the depart- ment of opera comiquc, where, often in collaboration with Phili- dor or Monsigny, he produced a mass of works, sometimes of a high order. It was to one of these — Richard Cceur-de-Lion (1784) — that he is said to have owed his election to the French Academy. Two of his comedies — Le Philosophe sans le Savoir (1765) and La Gagcure Im- prevue (1768) — were performed at the Theatre Frangais. His talent was original and his work careful, and the style he initiated was no doubt in great degree re- sponsible for the subsequent suc- cess of Scribe and Augier. Sedalia, city, Missouri, co. seat of Pettis co., 80 m. e.s.e. of Kansas City, on the Mo. Pac. and the Mo., Kan. and Tex. rail- roads. It is located at an eleva- tion of 986 ft. above the sea in an agricultural, coal-mining, and limestone region. It con- tains the George R. Smith Col- lege (colored), a public library, 2 hospitals, the state fair grounds and buildings, court house, post office buildings, col- lege of music, and 2 parks. Its industrial establishments include the general offices and railway shops of the Mo., Kan. and Tex. R. R., the locomotive shops of the Mo. Pac. R. R., iron found- ries, breweries, beef, pork, and poultry packing houses, grain elevators, flour mills, and manu- factories of boots and shoes, overalls, shirts, clothing, car- riages, candy, woolens, ice, agri- cultural implements, and brooms. It has also horse breeding inter- ests and an extensive trade in the grain, hay, potatoes, fruit, poultry and eggs, etc., produced in the surrounding district. There are adjacent deposits of zinc, iron, lead, fire-clay, and emery. It was laid out in 1861, by Gen. G. R. Smith, and re- ceived its present charter in 1864. It was a U. S. military post (1861-1865) and was held in 1864 for a short time by the Confederates. Pop. (1930) 20,- 806; (1940) 20,428. ■Sedan, city, Kansas, co. seat of Chautauqua co., 75 m. s.e. by E. of Wichita, on the Caney R., and on the Mo. Pac. R. R. It is located in a region containing coal and building stone. Pop. (1930) 1,776; (1940) 1,948. Sedan, town, France, fron- tier fortress in French dep. Ar- dennes, on the Meuse, 32 m. N.w. of Verdun. It is a center of cloth manufacture, which employed 10,000 hands, and had existed for more than three cen- turies. From the 16th century it was the seat of a famous Protestant seminary. On Sept. 1, 1870, the army of MacMahon was defeated by the Germans, commanded by Frederick Wil- liam, crown prince of Prussia Sedan Chair KFP 86 Sedgivick (afterward Frederick iii) and the crown prince of Saxony. On the following day, Sept. 2, Napoleon iii and 86,000 French troops surrendered to the Ger- mans. It was the birthplace of Marshal Turenne (1611). Pop. 17,283. Sedan Chair, an enclosed armchair carried by two bearers by means of poles passed through rings fixed to the side of the ve- hicle. Taking its name from the town of Sedan in France, where the chair was said to have been invented, it was introduced into England by Buckingham in the reign of James i. It con- tinued in use until about the third decade of the 19th cen- tury. Sedatives, in medicine, agents used to soothe the body, whether by external or internal application. A sedative may be a drug (some of which may act as a stimulant in one dose and sedative in another), or the ap- plication of heat or cold. A poultice may act as a local seda- tive, as also may ice applied to the head in feverish conditions. Cerebral sedatives are also gen- eral — opium, chloral, chloro- form, and many other drugs be- ing examples. Gastric sedatives are represented by hydrocyanic acid diluted, by bismuth, and by oxalate of cerium. Hydrocyanic acid diluted and derivatives of opium are also pulmonary seda- tives. Spinal sedatives are bro- mide of potassium and Calabar bean. Digitalis and strophan- thus are cardiac sedatives, al- though also cardiac tonics. A warm bath is a valuable exam- ple of the sedative action of heat. Sedden, James Alexander (1815-80), Confederate States official, was born in Stafford co., Va. He graduated in law at the University of Virginia, and be- gan to practice at Richmond. In 1845 he entered Congress. In 1846 he declined a renomina- tion, but served again in 1849- 51, when he retired from politi- cal life on account of ill health. In 1861 he was one of the rep- resentatives of Virginia in the peace convention at Washing- ton, and, as a member of the committee on resolutions, intro- duced the minority report which recognized the right of peaceable secession. He was a member of the first Confederate Congress, and in 1862 received the port- folio of secretary of war of the Confederate States. He held this position until the close of hostilities. Seddon, Richard John (1845-1906), British premier of New Zealand, was born at Ec- cleston in Lancashire. He emi- grated to Victoria in 1863 as a mechanical engineer. He after- wards removed to New Zealand, where in 1879 he was returned to Parliament as member for Hokitika, and afterwards for Kumara (1881) and Westland (1890). In 1891 he became minister of mines, then minister of public works, and in 1895 premier. He attended the con- ferences of Colonial premiers at London in 1897 and 1902. He died at sea June 10, 1906. Sedge. See Carex. Sedgemoor, moor, England, Somerset, between Bridgwater and Weston ; scene of the defeat of Monmouth (1685). Sedgley, urban dist., Eng- land, Staffordshire, 4 m. s.s.w. of Wolverhampton. Nails, gas retorts, iron safes, and hard- ware are manufactured, and coal, limestone, ironstone, and fire-clay are worked. Pop. 16,- 529. Sedgwick, Adam (1785- 1873), English geologist, was born at Dent in Yorkshire, and in 1818 became professor of ge- ology at Cambridge University, and soon became recognized as an authority on palaeozoic rocks and fossils. His principal pub- lication was a long introduction to Description of British Palac- o::oic Fossils (1854). He stren- uously opposed Darwinism when the Origin of Species appeared. See Life and Letters (2 vols. 1890). Sedgwick, Catherine Ma- ria (1789-1867), American au- thor, born at Stockbridge, Mass., the daughter of Judge Theodore Sedgwick. In 1839 she traveled in Europe. She was a volumi- nous writer, and her books were widely read in this country and in Europe. She was sometimes called 'The Female Cooper.' Among her writings were : A New England Tale (1822); Redwood (1824) ; The Traveller (1825) ; Hope Leslie; or Early Times in Massachusetts (1827) ; Sketches and Talcs (1835) ; Live and Let Live (1837) ; Let- ters from Abroad to Kindred at Home (1841) ; Historical Sketches of Old Painters (1845) ; William Harvey and Other Tales (1845). Her Life and Letters, edited by Mary E. Dewey, was published in 1871. Sedgwick, John (1813-64), American soldier, born at Corn- wall, Conn. He graduated at West Point in 1837 as a second lieutenant of cavalry, and served in the second Seminole War and in the Mexican War. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was appointed colonel in the reg- ular army and brigadier general of volunteers, and he became major general in 1862. He commanded a division of the 2d Corps in the Peninsula cam- paign and at Fair Oaks, May 31, 1862, the arrival of his divi- sion on the field saved McClel- lan's threatened right wing from disaster. At Antietam his divi- sion had some of the severest fighting, and he himself was twice wounded. When Hooker re-organized the Army of the Potomac in the spring of 1863, Sedgwick was given the 6th Corps and he commanded it un- til his death. In the Chancel- lorsville campaign he directed the operations against the heights behind Fredericksburg, retiring when the main army was defeated. His corps took part in the last two days at Get- tysburg and led in the pursuit of the defeated Confederates. He played an important part in the opening operations in the campaign of 1864, in the Wil- derness, and was killed at Spott- sylvania on May 9. Sedgwick, Robert (c. 1590- 1656), American colonist, born probably in Woburn, Bedford- shire, England. He settled in Charlestown, Mass., in 1635 ; was many times a deputy to the General Court ; and was one of the founders of the celebrated Ancient and Honorable Artil- lery Company. He was major general over all the militia in 1652; expelled the French from the Penobscot region in 1654; assisted in the capture of Ja- maica in 1655; and was one of the commissioners appointed to govern that island. Sedgwick, Theodore (1747- 1813), American jurist, born at West Hartford, Conn. He was educated at Yale and was ad- mitted to the bar. After a short service in the Revolutionary army he returned to his practice and in 1781 argued the case of Elizabeth Freeman, the decision in which abolished slavery in Mass. He was a member of the Continental Congress in 1785- 86, member of the Mass. con- vention which ratified the Fed- eral Constitution in 1788, mem- ber of Congress in 1789-96, U. S. senator in 1796-99, mem- ber of Congress and speaker of the House in 1799-1801, and justice of the Mass. Supreme Court in 1802-1813. He was a strong Federalist in politics. Sedgwick, William Thomp- son (1855-1921), American bi- ologist, born in West Hartford, Conn. He graduated from Yale, was instructor in physiological chemistry there, and was a fel- low and instructor in biology at Johns Hopkins in 1879-83. In 1883-85 he was assistant profes- sor and in 1885-91 associate professor of biology in the Mas- sachusetts Institute of Technol- ogy ; and became professor in 1891. In 1888-96 he was biol- Sedition KFP 87 Seed ogist to the Massachusetts state board of health, and became known as an authority on epi- demiology. In 1897 he was curator of the Lowell Institute, Boston, and in 1897-99 was chairman of the board of pauper institutions trustees. In 1902- 04 he was a member of the ad- visory board of the Hygienic Laboratory for Public Health and Marine Hospital Service of the U. S. He was joint author, with E. B. Wilson, of General Biology (1886) ; assistant edi- tor, with Mrs. Rogers, of the Life and Letters of William Barton Rogers (2 vols. 1896) ; and author of The Principles of Sanitary Science and the Public Healt\ (1902). Sedition. Words or conduct which tend to incite rebellion against the state or nation, or bring into contempt the constitu- tion and government, but which are not followed by an overt act constituting treason. The Fed- eral statutes define and provide for the punishment of seditious conspiracy as follows : 'If two or more persons in any state or ter- ritory conspire to overthrow, put down, or to destroy by force the Government of the United States, or levy war against them, or oppose by force the authority thereof ; or by force to prevent, hinder or delay the execution of any law of the United States ; or by force to seize, take or pos- sess any property of the United States contrary to the authority thereof ; each of them shall be punished by a fine of not less than five hundred dollars and not more than five thousand dol- lars, or by imprisonment with or without hard labor, for a period of not less than six months, nor more than six years, or by both such fine and imprisonment.' Sedition in the army and navy may be punished by death or im- prisonment in the discretion of a court-martial. See Treason. Sedimentary Rocks, rocks formed by the deposition of ma- terials previously held in sus- pension by water. See Rock and Petrology. Sedley, or Sidley, Sir Charles ( ?1639-1701), Eng- lish wit and dramatic author, born at Aylesford, Kent ; had great repute in his own day both as a rake (see Pepys' Diary, passim) and as a poet. Dryden makes him figure in The Essay on Dramatic Poesy under the name of Lisideius, and calls him the 'Tibullus of the age.' Charles ii delighted in his con- versation. He was the author of three tragedies — Antony and Cleopatra (1677), Beauty the Conqueror, or the Death of Marc Antony (1702), and The Tyrant King of Crete (1719); and three comedies — Mulberry Garden (1668), B ellamira (1687), and The Grumbler (1719) ; but his fame rests chief- ly on such lyrics as 'Love still has something of the sea,' and 'Phillis is my only joy.' See Works, with Memoir (1722). Sedro-Wooley, city, Wash- ington, Skagit CO., 62 m. N. of Seattle, on the Skagit R., and on the Gt. N, and the N. Pac. railroads. It is located at the entrance of the Skagit Valley (75 m. long and 4-10 m. wide). It consists of the two towns of Sedro and Wooley united in 1898. It has a hospital, veneer and excelsior works, iron works, extensive lumber and shingle mills, creamery and dairy fac- tories, and vinegar works. The surrounding district produces oats, hay, fruit, coal, iron, and cement. Sedro-Wooley was first settled in 1887. Pop. (1930) 2,719; (1940) 2,954. ^ Seduction. Inducing a pre- viously chaste female to consent to illicit sexual intercourse by strong persuasion, deception, flattery, or by any enticement which overcomes a natural re- luctance on her part. It is dis- tinguished from rape (q. v.) in that consent of the woman is se- cured, and force is not employed to obtain it. If the woman in- vites the intercourse it is not se- duction. At common law a par- ent, the father if living, and if he is dead, the mother, has a right of action for damages against the seducer of his un- married daughter, and a master for the seduction of his servant. The right has also been extend- ed to all persons standing in loco parentis to an unmarried female. The theory of the action is loss of services as a result of the seduction. In most states the parent is not held to strict proof of actual services by the daughter ; if she was available for service and performed the slightest service it will be suffi- cient, and substantial damages may be awarded. Therefore, in the case of a parent the theory of loss of services is practically a fiction, and the real ground of the action is the humiliation, disgrace, and mental suffering of the parent. At common law the female seduced has no right of action, but in many states by statute, if it was under promise of marriage, or if it re- sults in the birth of a child, she is entitled to damages. In some states seduction under promise of marriage is a crime. See Rape ; consult Wharton, Crim- inal Law. Sedum, a genus of hardy, fleshy, usually tufted, herba- ceous plants, belonging to the order Crassulaceae. They gen- erally bear cymes of white or yellow flowers, and are of easy culture, lending themselves es- pecially to wall or rock garden- ing. The principal species have been classified as herbaceous perennials, evergreen perennials, and annuals or biennials. See, Horace (1835-1909), American engineer and naval architect, born in Philadelphia. He served an apprenticeship to the machinist trade with I. P. Morris & Co. in Philadelphia. He was afterwards employed in numerous shipbuilding works, and was largely instrumental in making the works of Wm. Cramp & Sons the most impor- tant of the kind in the country while holding the position of en- gineer-superintendent. While with Wm. Cramp & Sons he de- signed the machinery of many war ships and fast mail steam- ers, and greatly furthered the adoption of triple and quadru- ple expansion engines. In 1889 he established a practice as con- sulting engineer and naval ar- chitect in New York. See, Thomas Jefferson Jackson (1866), American as- tronomer, born near Montgom- ery City, Mo. He graduated from the University of Mis- souri, 1889, and at the Univer- sity of Berlin, Germany, in 1892. In 1887-89 he had charge of the observatory in the Uni- versity of Missouri. In 1891 he was a volunteer observer in the Royal Observatory, Berlin, and in 1893—96 organized and had charge of the department of as- tronomy in the University of Chicago. In 1896-98 he was astronomer of the Lowell Ob- servatory, in the City of Mex- ico, and in 1899 became profes- sor of mathematics, U. S. N. In 1903 he took charge of the na- val observatory on Mare Island, Calif. He has computed the orbits of many of the double stars, and investigated the diam- eters of many planets and satel- lites. He has published several valuable star catalogues, and is author of : Die Entwickclung dcr Doppelstern-Systeme (1893), and Researches on the Evolu- tion of the Stellar Systems (1896). Seebohm, Frederic (1833- 1912), English writer, born at Bradford, Yorkshire : became partner in a banking firm at Hitchin. His works include The Oxford Reformers (1867), The English Village Community (1883), The Tribal Custom in Anglo-Saxon Law (1902), and The Tribal System in Wales (1904). Seed, the fertilized ovule in flowering plants. In addition to the embryo, the seed usually con- tains a certain amount of albu- Seeley KFP 88 Seguin min for the early nourishment of the embryo. The two chief requisites of germination are moisture and a suitable temper- ature. In sowing seeds, over- watering is as harmful as too great dryness ; on the other Types of Seed. 1, Acorn (dicotyledon) ; 2, lon^tudinal section, showing two cotyledons and em- bryo ; S, cross-section. 4, Oat (monocoty- ledon); 5, longitudinal section, showing embryo ; 6, cross-section ; 7, embryo. hand, a wet surface over a dry substratum is specially harmful ; the whole depth of the seedbed should be equally moist. As a rule, the ground should be made firm after sowing, either by walking over it, foot by foot, or by beating it with the back of a shovel or spade. As a check upon drying influences, it is often advantageous to use screens, such as a square frame made from common laths laid at right angles in a double series, the interstices between the laths being equal in width to the laths themselves. A brush screen, consisting of a low frame cov- ered with boughs, is often used ; the brush is often laid directly upon the ground, especially in large beds. Seeley, Harry Govier (1839- 1909), English geologist, was born in London. He became professor of geology at King's College, London, in 1876, and discovered the skeletons of Pa- reiasaurus, Cynognathus, and other reptiles in the Karroo of S. Africa. Among his works are Index to Fossil Remains of Aves (1860), Ornithosauria (1870), The Fresh-water Fishes of Europe (1886). Physical Ge- ology and Palaeontology (1884), Story of the Earth in Past Ages (1895), Dragons of the Air (1901). Seeley, Sir John Robert (1834-95), English historian and essayist, born in London. In 1863, he was appointed pro- fessor of ■ Latin in University College, London, and in 1869 professor of modern history at Cambridge. In 1865 appeared anonymously his Ecce Homo, a book which deals with Christian- ity and its founder in a non- theological and unconventional way. Seeley 's delineation of Christ's character, his concep- tion of the early Christian church, and his exposition of the ethical code of Christianity, no less than the high literary style, the grave, reverential at- titude, and the fresh, vigorous handling, made a profound im- pression upon believers and un- believers alike. In 1882 Seeley followed up Ecce Homo by an- other book. Natural Religion; but it did not create any special stir. As a historian, Seeley 's ruling aim was to bring history into close contact with national life, as in his Life and Times of Stein (1879), and Life of Na- poleon (1886). His greatest success in this line was his Ex- pansion of England (1883), treating of the development of the English realm from an insu- lar state to a world-wide power. Seeley was a warm advocate of federation, to which his book gave a great impetus. The next important work, on which he was engaged at the time of his death, was his Growth of British Policy (ed. by G. W. Prothero, with Memoir, 1895). Seelye, Julius Hawley (1824-95), American educator, born at Bethel, Conn. He grad- uated (1849) at Amherst, took the divinity course at Amherst Theological Seminary, and con- tinued his studies in German universities. He was ordained in 1853, and was pastor of the First Reformed Dutch Church at Schenectady, N. Y., until 1858. From 1858 to 1875 he was professor of mental and moral philosophy at Amherst College, and from 1875 to 1877 was an independent member of Congress from N. H., distin- guishing himself by disagreeing with the verdict of the Electoral Commission. He was president of Amherst College in 1879-90. He translated Schwegler's His- tory of Philosophy (1856), and published The Way, the Truth, the Life (1873), and Christian Missions (1875). Seelye, Laurens Clark (1837-1924), American educa- tor, brother of Julius H. Seelye, was born at Bethel, Conn., and graduated (1857) at Union Col- lege. He studied divinity at Andover Theological Seminary and at German universities, and was ordained pastor of the North Congregational Church in Springfield, Mass., in 1863. From 1865 till 1873 he was pro- fessor of English literature and oratory at Amherst, and was the first president of Smith College (1874-1910), having had charge of the organization of that insti- tution. Seg^antini, Giovanni (1858- 99), Italian painter, born at Ar- co in Tyrol. A passionate lover of nature, and a mystic, he developed an individual style in technique based on the juxta- position of colors for purity of effect. Amongst his works are At the Watering-place (Basel Museum), The Return Home (Berlin National Gallery), Vacherie in the Engadine (Ham- burg), and The Angel of Life (Budapest). See Lives by Ser- vaes (1902), Martersteig (1904), and Villari (1905). and the Stu- dio (August, 1897). Segesta, or Egesta, city, Italy, near the seacoast, in west- ern Sicily. It claimed to have been founded by Trojan refu- gees, and in time became Hel- lenized. In 454 B.C. it formed an alliance with Athens ; and in 416 an appeal from Segesta for help in its war against Selinus led to the Sicilian expedition, so disastrous for Athens. In 410 Segesta looked to Carthage for help, and in consequence became a dependency of that state. Its chief interest at the present day is its ruined temple, the whole of the peristyle of which is in perfect preservation. Indeed, the cella, or body of the temple, was apparently never built. Segovia, province, Spain, on N. slopes of Guadarrama Mts., in valley of Douro. Area 2,682 sq. m. Pop. (1940) 194,752. Segovia, city, Spain, cap. of prov. of same name, in n.n.w. of Madrid ; very ancient, pic- turesque, walled city, on bold cliff over the Eresma. The striking palace stronghold (Al- cazar) of the kings was burnt, but restored (1862). There are a fine 16th-century cathedral, and a splendid Roman aque- duct of 153 arches. It was for- merly the cloth center of Spain, but is now decayed. Pop. 18,- 027. Segovia or Wanks River, Central America, rises in the dept. of Segovia, Nicaragua. The lower half of its course is the boundary line between Nic- aragua and Honduras. It is navigable for small craft for 150 m. from its entrance at Cape Gracias-a-Dios into the Carib- bean Sea. Seguin, tn., Texas, co. seat of Guadalupe co., 35 m. e.n.e. of San Antonio, on the Guada- lupe R., and on the Galv., Har- risburg and San Ant. R. R. It is located in an agricultural and cotton growing region and has cotton gins and compresses, cot- ton-seed oil mills, planing mills, brick and lumber yards, and flour mills. It was first settled in 1838 and received its present Segnin KFP 89 Seine charter in 1852. Pop. (1930) 5,225 ; (1940) 7,006. Seguin, Edward Constant (1843-98), American neurolo- gist, born in Paris, France. He graduated at Columbia in 1864, and in 1862-64 served as a med- ical cadet in the volunteer army. In 1864—65 he was assistant sur- geon, U. S. A., at Little Rock, Ark., and in 1868-69 in New Mexico. In 1868-73 he was lec- turer on nervous diseases at Co- lumbia, and in 1873-87 adjunct professor of diseases of the mind and nervous system. In 1873 he founded a clinic for nervous diseases, and he was one of the founders of the American neu- rological association. He made important investigations on crit- ical localization and spastic spi- nal paralysis, and improved the practice of medication in dis- eases of the nervous system. He introduced the employment of large doses of iodides in thera- peutics, and fully demonstrated the uses and value of aconitia, hyoscyamus, and other important drugs. He also greatly enlarged the field for the employment of arsenic and antimony in medi- cal practice. He was editor of The American Series of Clinical Lectures, and some of his more important medical articles were published in Opera Minora (1884). Segur, Louis Philippe. COMTE DE (1753-1830), French diplomatist and writer, son of the Marquis de Segur, born in Paris, and served with the forces under Rochambeau in the American Revolutionary War. Appointed ambassador at St. Petersburg (1784), he became a favorite of Catherine ii, and ne- gotiated a commercial treaty be- tween Russia and France. He represented France at Berlin (1790), was elected a member of the Academy (1803), and be- came a peer of France (1818). He wrote Histoirc de Frederic Guillaume ii (1800) ; Histoire Universelle (1817) ; Pensees, Maximes et Reflexions (1822) ; Galerie Morale et Politique (1817-23); and Memoires (1825-6). — His son, Philippe Paul (1780-1873), was also a voluminous author, who wrote History of the Expedition to Russia . . . in 1812 (Eng. trans. 1825), History of Russia and of Peter the Great (Eng. trans. 1829), History of Charles viii (Eng. trans. 1842), and His- toire et Memoires (1873). Segur, Philippe Henri, Marquis de (1724-1801). mar- shal of France, fought through the Seven Years' War, being se- verely wounded and taken pris- oner at Klostercamp. He be- came minister of war in 1780. During the Revolution he was imprisoned by the Convention, but was afterwards released by Napoleon. Seiche, the periodic oscilla- tions of the surface level of the Lake of Geneva, which some- times amount to five or six feet. At the time of the Lisbon earth- quake on Nov. 1, 1755, the waters of Loch Lomond were observed to rise and fall every five minutes for nearly two hours, the range of the motion amounting to two feet six inches. Similar motions were noticed on Lochs Katrine and Ness. Our accurate knowledge of the laws of seiches dates from 1869, when Forel began his ob- servations on those of the Lake of Geneva. Quite recently, in connection with Sir John Mur- ray's survey of the fresh-water lochs of Scotland, the seiche phenomena on several of these lochs have been studied, and Professor Chrystal has devel- oped the hydrodynamical theory in a form which successfully co- ordinates the phenomena. The broad results may be stated as follows : — Periodic variations of pressure or wind bearing on the surface of the water generate, in a manner not yet clearly under- stood, what are known as stand- ing oscillations of the water as a whole. The simplest type is that shown by the pendulum-like swing of water in a tumbler which has been slightly tilted and righted again. When a lake's waters oscillate in this way, rising and falling at the two ends, but hardly changing level near the center, the seiche is said to be uninodal. In the binodal seiche the water will rise in the center as it sinks to- wards the ends, the points at which there is no change in level being between these positions. Similarly, the trinodal seiche will have three points at which there is no change of level, while the periodic rise and fall will be observed at intermediate sta- tions. See F. A. Forel's Le Lemon, Monographic Limnolo gique (ed. 1895), and Chrystal's paper on the 'Hydrodynamical Theory of Seiches' {Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1905). Seidl, Anton (1850-98), musical conductor, born in Pest, Hungary. He was a pupil of the Leipzig Conservatory. When only twenty years old he was en- gaged by Hans Richter as chorus master at the Vienna opera. In 1873 he became Wagner's secre- tary, and in this capacity had much to do with the preparation of the Nihelungen Ring and its production at Bayreuth in 1876. For two years (1883-85) he was conductor at Bremen, and then for several years conductor of the Wagner performances given throughout Europe by the Neumann Nibelungen company. In 1885 he succeeded Leopold Damrosch as conductor at the N. Y, Metropolitan Opera House, where he remained un- til 1891. Under his direction were produced for the first time in America Tristan und Isolde, Siegfried, Die G otter ddmme- rung, and Die Meistersinger. For several seasons he was conductor of the N. Y. Philhar- monic Orchestra and of a series of Sunday night concerts. In 1886 and in 1897 he was one of the conductors at the Bayreuth festival. He ranked with Richter as one of the greatest of Wagnerian leaders. His widow, Frau Seidl-Krauss, published in 1900 a memorial Life. Seidlitz Powders are com- posed of two powders which effervesce when mixed in water. One powder, dispensed in blue paper, contains 120 grains of Rochelle salts (a tartrate of so- dium and potassium) and 40 grains of sodium bicarbonate ; while the other, enclosed in white paper, consists of 35 grains of tartaric acid. The mixture is a mild saline purga- tive, and is intended to repro- duce the sparkling mineral wa- ter of Seidlitz, a village in Bo- hemia. Seidlitz powders form an excellent hydragogue cathar- tic. They stimulate the bowel to evacuation, and have also a cholagogue action on the liver, and relieve hepatic congestion. Seignette's Salt. See Ro- chelle Salt. Seigniorage, the profits made by the government in coining silver and copper coins (there is no profit on gold), and paid into the Treasury. The aggregate profits from the coinage of silver dollars under the Acts of 1878 and 1890 were nearly $90,000,- 000. ^ Seine, n. dep. of France, is an enclave of dep. Seine-et-Oise, and was formed out of a portion of the old province of He de France. It includes all Paris and part of the suburbs. Low hills stud its surface. Though the soil is not naturally fertile, yet the neighborhood of Paris ensures large supplies of manure and sewage, and market-garden- ing (especially on the Seine pen- insula of Gennevilliers) is the chief industry. The district round Montreuil is renowned for its fruit. Quarries of gypsum and freestone are largely worked. Area, 185 sq. m. Pop. (1936) 4,962,967. Seine (anc. Sequana), riv.. France, flows from the s. end of the Langres plateau, with a gen- eral winding n.w. course, past Troyes. Melun. Paris, St. Denis, St. Germain, Elbeuf. and Rouen, Seine-et-Marne KFP 90 Selborne and enters the English Channel by a wide estuary, on which stand the ports of Honfleur, Harfleur, and Havre. Its chief tributaries are (1. bk.) the Yonne and Eure, and (r. bk.) Aube and Marne (both from Langres plateau) and Oise (with Aisne) from the Ardennes. Navigation (for boats) begins at Marcilly, 350 m. from its mouth, and an elaborate system of ca- nals connects it with the Loire, Rhone, Rhine, Somme, and Scheldt. Paris can* be reached by vessels of 1,000 tons, while vessels up to 2,400 tons can reach Rouen. A canal from Havre, avoiding the estuary, gives sea-going vessels direct connection with the Seine at Tancarville. Length, 480 m. ; area of basin, 30,000 sq. m. Seine-et-Marne, dep. of France, traversed in s. by riv- er Seine and in n. by lower Marne. It forms a low plateau, with an average elevation of 327 ft. (culminating point, 705 ft.). The major part consists of the fertile region of La Brie, be- tween the two rivers. The cli- mate is equable. Brie cheese is famous ; rose culture flourishes at Brie-Comte-Robert and Pro- vins, and viticulture at Thomery and Fontainebleau. Flagstones are quarried. The principal in- dustries are flour-milling, and the manufacture of beet-sugar, paper, porcelain, and glass. Cap. Melun. Area, 2,275 sq. m. Pop. (1936) 409,311. Seine-et;Oise, n. dep. of France, encircles dep. Seine and Paris. All the rivers of the de- partment go to swell the Seine ; the chief are Essonne, Oise, Epte, and Eure. The surface is flat or gently rolling, and cov- ered with many forests, such as those of Rambouillet. St. (Ger- main, and Senart. The climate is temperate. About half of the population devote themselves "to agriculture and market-garden- ing. Milling, sugar manufac- ture, and paper and porcelain making (at Sevres) are the chief industries. Versailles is the cap- ital. Area, 2,184 .sq. m. Pop. (1936) 1,413,472. Seine-Inferieure, maritime dep., France, on lower Seine. The chief ports and seaside re- sorts are Dieppe, St. Valery, Fecamp, Etretat (whose chalk clififs are the most celebrated in Normandy), and Havre. The surface is composed of the three low plateaus of Caux, Vexin, and Roumois, and is dry, but well cultivated. Farm products are cheese CGournay' and 'Neuf- chatel'), butter, wool, and cider; and the principal industries are those of cotton (at Rouen), wool (at Elbeuf), and iron (at Havre and Rouen), as well as manu- factures of flax, chemicals, to- bacco, and dyes. The fisheries (herring and sardine) are very productive. Cap. Rouen. Area, 2,448 sq. m. Pop. (1936) 915,- 628. Seipel, Ignaz (1876-1932), Austrian statesman, was born in Vienna and was professor at Salzburg (1909-12) and at the University of Vienna (1917). His book. Nation and State, dealing with the subject of a supernational state such as Aus- tria-Hungary then was, brought him to the attention of the Em- peror Karl who was trying to find a way out of the First World War through unofiicial negotiations abroad. Seipel helped in these steps and at the same time was interested in the reform of the constitution, but the fall of the monarchy (1918) put an end to both projects. In 1919 he was elected to the Na- tional Constituent Assembly, and as leader of the Christian Social- ist party he became Chancellor (May 31, 1922) at the time of the inflation crisis to which he succeeded in putting an end. He resigned in 1924 but was again^ Chancellor (1926-29). Seir, Mount, a synonym for the land of Edom, and especially the name for the Edomite moun- tain land, Mount Seir (Deut. ii, 1). See Edom. Seisin. Originally, under the feudal system, the completion of the investiture by which a person was made a tenant of an over- lord, and which involved the per- formance of homage and taking the oath of fealty. At present the term denotes possession of land under a claim of having at least a freehold interest therein. Seismology. See Earth- quakes. Seiss, Joseph Augustus (1823-1904), American divine, was born at Graceham, Freder- ick CO., Md., of Alsatian descent, studied for a time at Pennsyl- vania College, Gettysburg, and carried on his theological prep- aration in private. He was or- dained a Lutheran minister in 1844, and was pastor of churches in Md. and Va. until 1858, when he became pastor of St. John's English Lutheran Church in Philadelphia. In 1874 he was called to the pastorate of the new Church of the Holy Communion in the same city, whose erection he instituted. He was editor of several Lutheran periodicals at different periods, including the Prophetic Times from 1863 to 1875. Some of his publications are : The Lutheran Church (1859), Luther and the Refor- mation (1883), Lectures on the Epistles of the Church Year (2 vols. 1885), Beacon Lights (1899) , and Dost Thou Believe? (1900) . Seistan Boundary Com- mission was appointed in 1902 in response to an appeal to the Indian government from the Shah, and had reference to the water rights along the Helmund river, to be enjoyed respectively by Persia and Afghanistan. Aft- er two and a half years' arduous labor, a satisfactory settlement was arrived at. Sejanus, Aelius, commander of the praetorian guards at an- cient Rome under Tiberius, and also that emperor's chief minis- ter. He was a native of Volsinii in Etruria, and succeeded his fa- ther as commander of the guards in 14 A.D. As early as 23 a.d. Sejanus began to aim at secur- ing the empire for himself. His first step was to gain the affec- tion of Livilla, the sister of Ger- manicus and the wife of Drusus, Tiberius' son, and through her agency he had Drusus poisoned. He next secured the banishment of Agrippina, the widow of Ger- manicus, and her sons Nero and Drusus, thus clearing away oth- er rivals to the imperial throne. Finally, however, Tiberius' sus- picions were aroused, and in 31 A.D. Sejanus was put to death by the senate. Selachoidei. See Elasmo- BRANCHS. Selaginella, a genus of ever- green, flowerless plants, some- what resembling the mosses in general appearance. J. G. Bak- er, in his monograph of the Se- laginellae in the (British) Jour- nal of Botany (1883-5), points out that the genus is principally confined to the tropical zone, chiefly^ tropical America. Its habit is entirely that of Lyco- podium, and some of the species, small and fungacious, resemble Hepaticae. A large number of species are grown under glass, a light, open soil being required. They should always be kept very moist. S. lepidophylla is one of the 'resurrection plants,* the dried plant expanding in water. Selang-or, British protected native state, w. coast of Malay Peninsula, immediately south of Perak. It has an area of 3,160 sq. m., and a population (1941) of 701,552. There are valuable deposits of tin ; and coffee, co- coa, pepper, rice, gambler, and sago are grown. Cap. Kuala Lumpur. Klang is the principal port. Selanik. See Salonica. Selborne, vil., England, Hampshire, 4 m. s.e. of Alton; famous as the home of Gilbert White, author of Natural His- tory of Selborne (1789). Pop. 1,430. Selborne, Roundell Palm- er, First Earl of (1812-95), Selborne KFP 91 Seleucus British jurist and lord chancel- lor, was born at Mixbury, Ox- fordshire; was called to the bar (1837), became Queen's counsel (1849) ; sat as m.p. for Plym- outh (1847-52 and 1853-7) ; be- came solicitor-general, sitting for Richmond (1861); and was attorney-general (1863-6). He was British counsel at the Ge- neva Court of Arbitration in 1871-72. He was lord chan- cellor (1872-4) (being created Baron Selborne), and again (1880-5), and was created Vis- count Wolmer and Earl of Sel- borne, but refused to be asso- ciated with Home Rule (1886). He was a devout churchman, a subtle and convincing lawyer, and a capable politician, as evinced bv his Judicature Act (1873). He published The Book of Praise (1863), and A De- fense of the Church of Eng- land Against Disestablishment (1886). Selborne, William Walde- GRAVE Palmer, Second Earl OF (1859-1942), British states- man, sat in the House of Com- mons for ten years (1885-95) as Viscount Wolmer. He repre- sented East Hampshire (1885, 1886, and 1886-92) ; but seced- ed from Gladstone on the ques- tion of Home Rule (1886), and served as one of the whips to the Liberal Unionist party in the House of Commons (1886-95). He was member for W. Edin- burgh (1892-95). When the third Salisbury administration came into power (June, 1895), Lord Selborne was made under- secretary for the Colonies ; and on its reconstruction (Nov., 1900) he was promoted to be first lord of the Admiralty, with a seat in the cabinet. Balfour, as prime minister, confirmed him in this appointment in July, 1902. In 1905 he succeeded Lord Milner as high commis- sioner in S. Africa and admin- istrator of the Transvaal and Orange River colonies. Selby, Viscount. See Gully. Selden, John (1584-1654), English lawyer and man of let- ters, was born at Salvington in Sussex. At the age of twenty- two he made a reputation by his treatise the Analccton An- glo-Britannicon, and in 1614 he published a work on Titles of Honor. His History of Tithes (1617) allows the legal, but de- nies the divine right of the clergy to these dues. His inde- pendence of thought procured him a brief imprisonment in 1621. His parliamentary career commenced in 1623 ; he also sat in 1626, in Charles I's second parliament. He was at first in opposition to the court party, and assisted in the preparation of the articles for the impeachment of Buckingham. In 1628 he pro- duced his Marmora Arundeli- ana. In 1629, on the occasion when the Speaker was held in the chair, Selden took a promi- nent part in the moving of the remonstrance against the levy- ing of tonnage and poundage. For this he spent eight months in the Tower, and was, for a while, in the King's Bench pris- on. He was a member of the Long Parliament, representing the University of Oxford, and was a lay member of the Assem- bly of Divines at Westminster. In 1645 he was a commissioner of the Admiralty. He is, how- ever, best known by his Table Talks (1689). As a lawyer he held a high position. His Dis- sertation on Fleta (1647), in Latin, shows an intimate knowl- edge of the origins of English law, and its development under the influence of the civil law. See the Vita by D. Wilkins (1725), also Johnson's Memoirs of John Selden (1884). Selection. See Darwinism and Sex. Selene, the moon-goddess, in ancient Greek mythology, was a daughter of Hyperion and a sis- ter of Helios and Eos. She was also called Phoebe, a sister of Phoebus the sun-god. She loved Endymion, and caused him to sleep in order that she might kiss him. She rode across the heav- ens in a chariot drawn by two white horses. In later times her worship became identified with that of Artemis. Selenga,_ riv., Mongolia and Siberia, chief upper course of Angara. It is fed by lake Kos- sogol or Kosgol (51" n. lat. and 100.5° E. long.), sacred in Bud- dhist cosmogony, and is joined by the Orkhon, famous in Mon- gol history, flowing from neigh- borhood of Karakoram. Length, 900 m., of which 210 are navi- gable. Area of basin, 177,000 sq. m. Selenite, a clear, transparent variety of gypsum, CaS042H20, often found in large twinned crystals shaped like arrow-heads or rhombs. They have a perfect cleavage like mica, but are less flexible, somewhat softer, and not elastic (h. = 2 ; sp. gr. 2.3). Films of selenite are valuable on account of the beautiful colors they show in polarized light. The largest crystals of selenite come from Utah, where they oc- cur in immense geodes. The massive variety known as gyp- sum is extensively used in the manufacture of plaster of paris and certain artificial cements and plasters. Selenium, Se, 79.2, an ele- ment of the sulphur group, its principal source being the flue dust obtained in burning pyrites in the manufacture of sulphuric acid by the leaden-chamber proc- ess. It is prepared by solution as selenic acid, and by subse- quent reduction, when it is pre- cipitated as a red amorphous solid. This melts at 217° c. to a black-red glassy mass that breaks with a conchoidal fracture, has a specific gravity of 4.5, and is a non-conductor of electricity. It boils at 65° c, and if kept at a temperature somewhat below its melting-point, changes into a gray, crystalline, semi-metallic variety that conducts electricity to an extent which, though small, increases according to the brightness _ of the light with which it is illuminated. This peculiar behavior has been em- ployed in transmitting sound by means of light, and of exhibiting at one place pictures of scenes occurring at another ; but, un- fortunately, the property is not retained long. The compounds of selenium are very like those of sulphur : thus it forms a bad smelling hydrogen selenide, HoSe, like hydrogen sulphide, and selenious and selenic acids, H2Se03 and H2Se04, closely re- sembling sulphurous and sul- phuric acids. Seleucia. Ancient city on the Tigris, founded by Seleucus, king of Syria, between 312 and 302 B.C., some 50 m. n. of an- cient Babylon, immediately op- posite the Parthian city of Ctes- iphon. It was the capital of the eastern provinces of the Syrian kingdom. Trajan captured it in 116 A.D., and as it revolted, burned it to the ground. Again in 165, after voluntarily opening its gates to the Romans, it was burned by Avidius Cassius on a charge of treachery. Once more, in 198, Severus captured it, and Carus did the same in 283. After that time it rapidly declined, and eighty years after- wards, when ' Julian invaded Mesopotamia, he found it a heap of ruins. Seleucia in Cilicia, near south coast, famous for its ora- cle of _ Apollo, and its annual games in honor of the Olympian Zeus. Seleucia Pieria, in Syria, was founded by Seleucus in 300 B.C., 12 m. w. of Antioch, to which it served as a port. From 246 to 219 it was held by the Egyptian kings. About 109 B.C. it became independent. Aft- er 66 B.C. it was included in the Roman province of Syria. By the 6th century a.d. it had fallen into decay. Seleucidae. See Seleucus and Antiochus. Seleucus, the name of sever- al kings of Syria. (1.) Selett- cus I, surnamed Nicator (c. 3>^ Seleucns KFP 92 Selfridsre to 280 B.C.), was a Macedonian, and served with Alexander the Great throughout his Asiatic campaigns. After Alexander's death he attached himself to Perdiccas ; but when the latter invaded Egypt, he led the band which broke into Perdiccas' tent and slew him. In 321 B.C., when the provinces were redivided, Seleucus secured Babylonia for his share; but in 316 he was expelled by Antigonus, and had to take refuge in Egypt, Here he persuaded Ptolemy to join Lysimachus and Cassander against Antigonus; and in 312 B.C., after the victory of Gaza over Antigonus' son Demetrius, he easily regained his province. He then proceeded to conquer Susiana, Media, and the eastern provinces of Alexander's empire to the banks of the Oxus and the Indus. He carried on war, too, with an Indian king, Sandra- cottus or Chandragupta In 306 he assumed the title of king, and in 302 he again joined Lysima- chus, Cassander, and Ptolemy against Antigonus ; and the vic- tory at Ipsus in 301 was largely due to his generalship. By this victory he acquired half of Asia Minor and all Syria. After cap- turing Demetrius in 286 B.C., Se- leucus declared war on Lysima- chus, and defeated and slew him at Corupedion. This victory made Seleucus master of all Asia, and left the throne of Macedonia vacant. Seleucus crossed the Hellespont to seize it-; but he was murdered in Thrace by Ptolemy Ceraunus, a son of Ptolemy, king of Egypt. He was a great conqueror, and founded many cities — no less than sixteen Antiochs, called after his father ; seven Seleu- cias, Apamea, Stratonicea, Be- roea, and Edessa. These foun- dations were centers of Greek life and culture ; and two of them, Antioch iij Syria and Se- leucia on the Tigris, ranked among the greatest cities of the world. (2.) Seleucus ii, sur- named Callinicus, son of Antio- chus II, reigned from 246 to 226 B.C. The first act of his reign was to put his stepmother, Bere- nice, to death ; to avenge her, her brother, Ptolemy Euergetes, king of E^ypt, invaded and con- quered Syria, capturing Anti- och ; but after his withdrawal Seleucus easily recovered the provinces. The chief event of his reign was the revolt of the Parthians. Seleucus himself was defeated (c. 230 b.c.) by Arsaces, king of Parthia, in a great battle, which resulted in the establishment of the Parthian kingdom. Seleucus lost his life when warring against Attalus. (3.) Seleucus hi, surnamed Ceraunus, reigned from 226 to 223, succeeding his father, Se- leucus II. (4.) Seleucus iv, surnamed Philopator, reigned from 187 to 175 B.C.; was the son and successor of Antiochus the Great. He maintained friendly relations with Rome and Egypt. (5.) Seleucus v, son of Demetrius ii, assumed the crown in 125 B.C. ; but his mother, Cleopatra, had him as- sassinated. (6.) Seleucus vi, surnamed Epiphanes Nicator, reigned from 95 to 93 B.C. He was the eldest son of Antiochus viii. He defeated his cousin, Antiochus Cyzicenus, who claimed the kingdom ; but he was soon afterwards expelled from Syria by Antiochus Eusebes, son of Cyzicenus, and took refuge at Mopsuestia in Cilicia. His tyr- anny and exactions, however, provoked the people to burn him. See Plutarch's Life of De- metrius, Droysen's Gcschichte Alexanders dcs Grossen (ed. 1892), and Bevan's House of Seleucus (1903). Self-consciousness, in psy- chology, denotes the fact that we have consciousness, not only of an external world, but of our- selves in relation thereto. Psy- chologists trace the stages through which this presentation is supposed to pass. In the first or merely perceptual phase of mind, the self, which is an ob- ject of consciousness, can be nothing else than the body, which is strongly differentiated from external objects by the fact that it is the source of keen pleasurable and painful feeling. As a child passes from the per- ceptual to the higher phases of mental development, this imme- diately present bodily self of per- ception is expanded by memo- ries of past and expectations of future experiences, internalized by distinguishing the self of images and feelings from the visible bodily self, and finally socialized by the intercourse with other persons which speech makes possible ; that is to say, we conceive ourselves as persons of whom certain conduct is ex- pected by others. The self which is thus an object for con- sciousness is called by psycholo- gists the empirical self or ego, to distinguish it as an object known from the knowing subject. Con- cerning the empirical self, psy- chologists are largely agreed ; but concerning the knowing or pure subject, and how we are to think of it, there is considerable divergence of opinion. The term self-consciousness is used in metaphysics by a certain school of writers to designate the prin- ciple to which they would refer, and in terms of which they would explain, the whole world of ex- perience. And such a usage may be regarded as signifying that the world is held to be essential- ly spiritual, and to be explicable only in terms of mind as the ul- timate reality. For the psycho- logical doctrine, see James, Prin- ciples of Psychology (1890). Self-Defence. In its broad- est sense, the use of force in the protection of one's own person or property, or the person of an- other, from unlawful injury. The term is most frequently em- ployed in cases where the person who attempts the injury is killed by the one whose person or prop- erty is attacked. The general rule is that any one may repel an attack with reasonable force, and may even kill his assailant, if he reasonably believes that he is in danger of losing his life or suffering great bodily harm. The person attacked should re- treat before killing his assailant if it is safe to do so, unless he is on his own premises, where, by the weight of authority, he is not obliged to retreat even if he has opportunity to do so. The old rule requiring a person attacked to 'retreat to the wall' has been greatly modified. A person may take life only where necessary to protect his property from be- ing stolen from his presence, and not in attacking a trespasser. Opprobrious_ language directed to a person is not an excuse for inflicting great bodily injury upon the offender, and the latter may defend himself to the ex- tent of taking the life of the per- son insulted, under the above rule. See Assault; Murder. Consult Bishop, Criminal Law. Self-denying Ordinance, a measure passed in the English Parliament of 1645, largely through the instrumentality of Cromwell and the Independents, whereby all officers holding com- missions in the army were called on to resign. In this way those generals who held either Epis- copalian or Presbyterian views — such as Essex, Manchester, Waller, and others — were re- moved from command, their places being filled by Cromwell's nominees. Self-heal, or Prunella, a genus of hardy, perennial, her- baceous plants belonging to the order Labiatae. They bear white or purplish flowers, and are eas- ily grown in ordinary garden soil. P. vulgaris is a common naturalized plant with heads of purplish flowers in late summer. Selfridge, Thomas Oliver, Jr. (1836-1902), American na- val officer, born in Charlestown, Mass. He graduated at the Na- val Academy in 1854, and had reached the rank of lieutenant when the Civil War began. He was second lieutenant on the Cumberland when she was sunk Seligman KFP 93 Selkirk by the Merrimack, commanded the Osage in the Red R. expe- dition, and the Huron in both attacks on Fort Fisher. In 1869-73 he was engaged in sur- veying for a route for an inter- oceanic canal across the Isthmus of Panama. Seligman, Edwin Robert Anderson (1861-1939), Ameri- can economist, born in New York. He graduated at Colum- bia in 1879 and in 1891 became professor of that science in the same institution. In 1886 he es- tablished the Political Science Quarterly, and became one of its editors ; also edited Encyclopedia of Social Sciences (15 vols.). Selim I (1467-1520), sultan of Turkey, dethroned and mur- dered his father, Bajazid ii (1512), and then entered upon a career of conquest against Per- sia, defeating Shah Ismail at the battle of Chaldiran near Tabriz, which enabled him to subdue Kurdistan and Diarbekr (1514). Then he warred against the Mameluke sovereigns of Egypt and against Syria (1517), and finally against Arabia, gaining Mecca and Medina and the green flag of the Prophet. He be- came the spiritual head of Islam. He laid the foundation of the modern military power of Turkey. Selim II (?1524-74), grand- son of the above, ascended the throne in 1566. In his reign oc- curred the defeat of the Turkish fleet by Don John of Austria off Lepanto (q. v.) in Greece (Oct. 7, 1571), and the first collision between the Turks and the Rus- sians at Astrakhan. Selim III (1761-1808), on his accession to the throne of Turkey (1789), was favorable to reforms in the administration of the empire. The war with Austria and Russia had gone very disastrously for the Turks — Belgrade, Bucharest, Bender, Akkerman, and Ismail having all surrendered to Suvorov ; but by the Treaty of Jassy (1792), which confirmed that of Kain- ardji, the Dniester was made the frontier line, and Belgrade was restored to Turkey. Selincourt, Ernest de (1870-1943), English scholar, was born in Streatham. He was educated at Dulwich College and at University College, Oxford. He was lecturer in modern Eng- lish literature at the University of English language and litera- University of Wales (1904-07), and in the University of London (1911-14). He was professor of English language and litera- ture at the University of Bir- mingham (1908-35), and vice- principal of the University (1931-35). He edited Letters of William and Dorothy Words- worth (1935-6), and Journals of Dorothy Wordsivorth (1941). Selinus, se-li'nus, ancient Greek city on southwest coast of Sicily, was founded about 628 B.C. by colonists from Hyblaean Megara, itself a colony from Megara in Greece. It became prosperous, but about 500 b.c. fell to Carthage. It was liberated by Gelon's victory at Himera in 480 B.C. The Athenian expe- dition of 415 B.C. was sent pri- marily to champion Segesta against Selinus. In 410, how- ever, the Segestans appealed to Carthage, and next year a vast army attacked Selinus. It capit- ulated, and nearly all the popu- lation was massacred, and the town destroyed. On the site are the ruins of eight ancient tem- ples. One of them dates from before 600 b.c. ; its metopes (in the museum at Palermo) are the most ancient Greek sculptures known except the lions at My- cenae. Consult Sladen's Selinus, Segasta, and the West of Sicily. Seljuks, sel'jobks, the name of several Turkish dynasties of common origin, whose rule ex- tended over a large part of Asia in the eleventh, twelfth, and thir- teenth centuries. Toghrul Beg, the first of the Seljuk rulers, was the grandson of Seljuk, a chief of the Ghuzz confederacy of Turkish tribes who had set- tled on the Syr Daria in Trans- oxiana, and had become converts to Islam. With his kinsman, Chakir Beg and Ibrahim Niyal, he severely crippled the empire of Ghazni ; then turning west- ward conquered all Persia ; and setting up his capital at Merv, was acknowledged chief of the family. His nephew, Alp Ars- lan (q. v.), who succeeded him in 1063, continued the conquests of his uncle, wrested Syria and Palestine from the Fatimide caliph of Egypt, and in 1071 captured the Byzantine emperor, Romanus Diogenes. He was followed on the throne by his son Malik Shah (1072-92), who es- tablished independent sovereign- ties in Asia Minor and Syria, and whose reign was distin- guished for the enlightened rule of his grand vizier, Nizam ul- Mulk, founder of a university at Bagdad and collaborator with Omar Khayyam (q. v.) in the re- vision of the astronomical tables. After the death of Malik Shah the empire began to break up into smaller kingdoms, while the European powers initiated the Crusades in which the Seljuk sultanates of Syria and of Asia Minor or Rum became involved. The Seljuk dynasty in Syria be- ginning with Tutush, brother of Malik Shah, came to an end aft- er three generations. The capital of Riim was fixed at Iconium (Konieh) in the first half of the twelfth century, and the dynasty reached the acme of its power under Kaikavus (1211-34), who ruled over near- ly the whole of Asia Minor and extensive territories in Mesopo- tamia and northern Persia. During the reign of his son Kaikhosran ii, the poet Jelal-el- Din Rumi flourished and the various orders of dervishes arose ; and at the same time the Mongols began to threaten the eastern borders of the state. From about 1243 the real sov- ereign power of that part of Asia was in the hands of the Mongol chiefs, Hulagu and his successors, until the rise of the Ottoman princes. These last, had retreated westward before the all-conquering Mongols about the middle of the thirteenth cen- tury, and at the end of it they en- tered the service of the Seljuk ruler of Asia Minor. After that the name Osmanli or Ottoman soon superseded that of Seljuk as the appellative of the Turkish rulers and ruling classes in Asia Minor. Out of the Ottoman su- premacy grew the empire of Turkey (q. v.). The Seljuks, however, had centuries before, while still settled in Transoxi- ana, lost a good many of their peculiarly Turkish characteris- tics and had become 'Turkemans,' i.e., 'Like the Turks' ; and with their conversion to Islam they also adopted the Perso- Arabian civilization and customs, though retaining their own language. Consult Mirkhond's History of the Seljuks. SeFkirk, Scotland, capital of Selkirkshire, on the Ettrick ; 39 miles by rail southeast of Edin- burgh. It has tweed and hosiery mills. Pop. 5,667. Selkirk, Alexander (1676- 1721), English mariner, was born in Largo, Fifeshire. He joined Dampier's privateering expedition in 1703; but when his vessel touched at Juan Fer- nandez (q. v.), off the west coast of South America, he asked, in consequence of a quarrel with his captain, to be put ashore (1704). In 1709 Dampier touched at the island, and Selkirk was taken off. It was from the record of his experiences that Defoe probably wrote Robinson Crusoe. Con- sult Howell's Life and Adven- tures of Alexander Selkirk. Selkirk, Thomas Douglas, Fifth Earl of (1771-1820), British colonizer, was born at St. Mary's Isle, Kirkcudbright- shire, Scotland. Succeeding his father in 1799, he devoted him- self to the promotion of emigra- tion from the Scottish High- lands to America, and in 1803 established a successful set- tlement in Prince Edward's Selkirk Mountains KFP 94 Sellers Island. In 1811 he obtained from the Hudson's Bay Company a grant of 116,000 square miles in the Red River Valley and founded the Red River Settle- ment, in the present province of Manitoba. Relentless antago- nism on the part of the Northwest Fur Company, a trading mon- opoly with headquarters at Mon- treal, caused the failure of the colony, and Selkirk, defeated in various legal proceedings and broken in health, returned to Europe in 181S. Consult C. Martin's Lord Selkirk's Work in Exploration in The Selkirks (1914). Selkirkshire, a southeastern county of Scotland, bounded on the north by Midlothian. It is essentially a pastoral county, consisting of great rounded hills. The Tweed skirts the north bor- der, but the truly Selkirk rivers are the Ettrick and the Yarrow, which join a few miles above the county town. St. Mary's Loch is the finest sheet of water within its borders. Sheep farming is an important industry. The only towns are Selkirk (the county he became professor of Greek at St. Andrews, and in 1863 pro- fessor of Latin at Edinburgh. His chief work was his series of appreciations and interpretations of the Latin poets — The Roman Poets of the Republic (1863), The Roman Poets of the Augustan Age (1877), and Horace and the Elegiac Poets (1892). Sel'lers, Coleman (1827-1907), American engineer, was born in Philadelphia. He became super- intendent of the Globe Rolling Mills at Cincinnati, and subse- quently cliicf cnj^ineer and part- I Paul's Photos, Chicago THE TOWERING SELKIRK MOUNTAINS OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Canada (Oxford Historical and literary Studies, Vol. vii, 1916). Selkirk Mountains, a range of mountains in the southeastern part of British Columbia, Can- ada, west of the Rocky Moun- tains and almost parallel to them, being separated by the north- westerly flowing portion of the Columbia River, and bounded on the west by the same river in its southward course. The entire range covers an area of about 16,000 square miles, and is thor- oughly alpine in character, with great snow fields and glaciers. The highest peak is Mount Sir Doriald (10,645 feet). The Ca- nadian Pacific Railway crosses the range, at an altitude of 4,300 feet, by Roger's Pass. Consult H. Palmer's Mountaineering and town) and Galashiels. Area, 267 square miles. Pop. (1940, est.) 21,900. Sel'la, QuiNTINO (1827-84), Italian statesman, born at Mos- so, near Biella. He became pro- fessor of geometry in Turin University (1852), and was elect- ed deputy (1860). As minister of finance (1862, 1864, and 1869) he was successful in placing Italian finance on a sound footing. He acted as leader of the Right (1873-84). He was also a dis- tinguished mineralogist, and was president of the Accademia dei Lincei. Sel'lar, William Young (1825- 90), Scottish scholar, born at Morvich in Sutherlandshire, and elected in 1848 to a fellowship at Oriel College, Oxford. In 1859 ner in the machine tool works of William Sellers & Co., at Phila- delphia; consulting engineer to the Niagara Falls Power Co.;' professor of mechanics at Frank- hn Institute, Philadelphia; and non-resident professor of engi- neering practice at Stevens Insti- tute, Hoboken. He was also an American representative on the International Niagara Commis- sion. He was an earnest student of photography, began making photographs by artificial light in 1873, produced many im- provements in the art, and in- vented a kinematoscope. Sellers, Matthew Bacon (1869-1932), American aero- nautical engineer, was born it Baltimore. He was educated privately, spending two years Selma KFP 95 Semaphore abroad, studied law at Harvard (ll.b., 1902)^ and pursued spe- cial courses at the Lawrence Scientific School (Harvard) and at Drexel Institute. He was en- gaged in research work in the field of aerodynamics (1900) ; invented one of the light aero- planes, and one requiring the least horsepower ; and discov- ered the method of determining the lift and drift of arched sur- faces by means of the wind tun- nel. He was a member of the U. S. Naval Advisory Board in 1915. Sel'ma, city, Alabama, coun- ty seat of Dallas county, on the Alabama River, and the South- ern, the Louisville and Nash- ville, and the Western of Ala- bama railroads ; 50 miles west of Montgomery. Leading institu- tions are Dallas Academy, the Baptist Colored University, the Alabama Methodist Orphanage, and a Carnegie Library. Selma is the center of a large cotton- growing and farming region, and has extensive cotton and cotton-seed oil industries. Oth- er manufacturing interests are foundries and machine shops, and railway repair shops. It has marble works, bottling plants, a brick manufacturing plant, planing mills, and mat- tress factories. Craig landing field is situated here. Selma was settled in 1756 and was incorporated in 1826. It was a Confederate supply depot during the Civil War, and in April, 1865, surrendered to a Federal force under Gen. J. H. Wilson. Pop. (1930) 18,012; (1940) 19,834. Selmeczbanya, or Selmecz- ES Belabanya (German Schem- nitz), town, Hungary, capital of the county of Hont ; 152 miles by rail north of Budapest. It is an old_ mining town and is situ- ated in the Hungarian Ore Mountains in a deep ravine sur- rounded by lofty mountains. It has a picturesque ruined castle of the thirteenth century, a fa- mous academy of mining and forestry founded in 1760, a later castle, and a town hall. Gold, silver, lead, copper, and arsenic are mined, and there are pot- teries famous for their pipes. To the southwest and west are the baths of Vihnye and Szkleno. Pop. 13,292. Selous, s^-loos' or -loo', Frederick Courteney (1851- 1917), English traveler and au- thor, was born in London. In 1871 he left England for South Africa, in 1872 proceeded to Matabeleland, and from 1872 to 1890 traveled in south Central Africa, where he engaged in ele- phant hunting, exploration, and the collection of natural history specimens. In 1890 he entered the service of the British South Africa Company, acting as guide to the pioneer expedition to Mashonaland, and in 1893 he took part in the first Matabele War. During the First World War (1914-1918) he served in East Africa, received the Dis- tinguished Service Order, and was killed in action. His pub- lished works include : A Hunt- er's Wanderings in Africa (1881) ; Travel and Adventure in Southeast Africa (1893) ; Sunshine and Storm in Rhodesia (1896) ; Sport and Travel, East and West (1900) ; Recent Hunt- ing Trips in British North America (1907) ; African Na- ture Notes and Reminiscences (1908). Seltzer Water, or Selters Water, is properly an aerated mineral water obtained from the spring at Oberselters in Hesse- Nassau, Germany, but is gen- erally artificially prepared. The chief ingredients are bicarbon- ates of sodium (58 grains per gallon), of calcium (17 grains), and of magnesium (14 grains), with sulphate of potassium (163 grains), and smaller quantities of other ingredients, the whole being aerated with 91 volumes of carbon dioxide per 100 of the water. It is valuable medicinal- ly where an alkaline water is required, and is an agreeable though saline table water. Selves, Justin Germain Casimir de 0848-1934), French public official, was born in Toulouse. He became prefect of the Tarn and Garonne depart- ment in 1880, and occupied a similar position in the Oise, Meurthe and Moselle, and Gi- ronde departments. He was suc- cessively director of posts and telegraphs (1891-6), prefect of the ^ Seine (1896-1911), and Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Caillaux Cabinet (1911-12). His period in the Foreign Office was marked by the crisis in the negotiations between France and Germany over Morocco begin- ning with the Agadir (q. v.) Af- fair, and settled by the Franco- German agreement of 1911, which led to the resignation of the Caillaux Ministry. Selwyn, sel'win, Alfred Richard Cecil (1824-1902), English geologist, was born in Kilmington, Somerset. He was educated in Switzerland, and in 1845 became associated with the Geological Survey of Great Brit- ain. He was director of the Geological Survey of Victoria, Australia, from 1852 to 1869, during which time he made a special study of the gold-bearing rocks of that region, and was di- rector of the Geological Survey of Canada from 1869 to 1894, when he retired. He was Presi- dent of the Royal Society of Canada in 1896. He edited and contributed to the Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada (1869-94). Selwyn, George Augustus (1719-91), English wit, was ex- pelled from Oxford for alleged blasphemy, and proceeding to London, adopted the role of sinecurist and man about town. He entered Parliament in 1747, but was more prominent at the executions of criminals than in parliamentary debates. Consult Jesse, George Sehvyn and His Contemporaries ; Kerr, George Selwyn and the Wits (1909). Selwyn, George Augustus (1809-78), English primate of New Zealand and bishop of Lichfield, was born at Hamp- stead, near London. He was in 1841 consecrated first bishop of New Zealand. He studied Maori and navigation, so that he could preach to the natives in their own tongue, and could steer his own vessel on his missionary voyages. In 1867, he was ap- pointed bishop of Lichfield. Sel- wyn College, Cambridge, was erected and endowed in his mem- ory (1882). _ Selymbria, se-lim'bri-a, an- cient Greek city, founded (c. 700 B.C.) by colonists from Me- gara, on the north coast of Pro- pontis (Sea of Marmora) in Thrace. During the fifth cen- tury B.C. it belonged to the Athe- nian Confederacy. Silivri now stands on its site. Semang^ an aboriginal peo- ple of the Malay Peninsula be- longing to the Negrito race (see Negrito). They are dark brown or black in color, between 41^ and 5 feet in height, with closely curling brown-black hair. The head is round or intermedi- ate between long and round, the forehead low, and the nose short and pyramid shaped. The peo- ple are nomadic. They are found chiefly in northern Perak and Pahang, and in Kedah, Ke- lantan, and Trengganu. Semaphore, an instrument for signalling with one or two movable arms at the head of a pole, the various positions of the arms denoting numbers, let- ters, or other meanings. Sema- phore signals may also be made by the motions of a man's arms, with or without flags in his hands. The invention is ascribed to a Frenchman named Chappe, in 1794. In the following year the plan was adopted by the British. The earliest sema- phore towers had three pairs of arms, one above another, on a pole, and they were manipu- lated from a room below. This machinery was superseded by a mast with two arms, one Semaphore KFP 95A Sembrich above the other. Semaphores of this type were used until 1847, when the simpler plan of the pres- ent day was adopted. The signs denote numbers as well as letters, so that messages may be trans- in the center, but other colors are used. The staff is about 2 feet long. Army flags are 18 inches square, and are orange with a scarlet center, or scar- let with an orange center. The A I G 7 B 2 H e KFMT C 3 I 9 INTfRROGAriVE D 4 J 0 (ZERO) P AmRMATIVC E 5 K NEiiATIVf F 6 END OF MESSAGE NUMERALS END OF WORD Flag Signalling Table. mitted by code or spelling. In the U. S, Navy all seamen are in- structed in signalling. Semaphore signals are used in the U. S. Army and Navy, and they employ the same code. For day work the machine consists of a vertical bar with two arms piv- oted at the top. The bar is cap- able of rotation, so that the send- er may face the receiver and thus prevent a misunderstanding of the displays. A short fixed arm projects to the right of the bar to indicate the direction in which the signal is being sent. The machine is usually painted black, and the movable arms are oper- ated by levers placed at a con- venient height. For night work, electric lamps are mounted along the arms and bar. The hand semaphore, which is very rapid, is much used by both army and navy for short dis- tances. The naval flags are usu- ally of blue, 12 to 18 inches square, and have a white square small size of the flags makes them easy to carry in the field or in boats. The subsidiary meanings at- tached to certain displays are frequently changed, and in time of war — as at present — the whole code may be recast from time to time. This is usually done by a cipher correction which may be operated under a fixed system of change or by arbitrary varia- tions. The display for each let- ter remains as before, but the signification is different. Thus a may signify n on one day and x on another. The general instructions for signalling are in substance as fol- lows: To call a station or vessel: Make 'attention' call and call let- ter of station or vessel. The sta- tion called answers with its 'call letter' or 'attention' if it has no call letter. The sender then proceeds with the message. At the end of the message ex- tend arms horizontally and wave flags slightly until the receiver answers with the same signal. At the end of a word cross the flags in front of the body as shown in accompanying plate. Should the receiver miss a word he waves the flag over his head. The sender then stops and waves flag in same manner. The receiver then signals 're- peat last word' or whatever he wishes. If the sender should make an error, he signals 'error' until answered by the receiver with the same. He then proceeds, begin- ning with the word in which the error occurred. See Signalling, Military; Signalling, Naval. Consult International Signal Code (pub- lished by U. S. Naval Hydro- graphic Office). Sema'siology, in philology (q. v.), is the study that treats of the significance of words and the de- velopment of their meanings. Sembach, zem'bak, Johannes (1881), German dramatic tenor, was born in Berlin. He was educated in the Berlin Gymnas- ium, and studied vocal music un- der Felix Schmidt and Rothmiihl. He was a member of the Royal Opera in Vienna (1903-07), and of the Royal Opera in Dresden (1907-13); was with Jean de Reszke (q. v.) in Paris (1911); and made his debut in the United States in 1914, when he appeared as Parsifal at the Metropolitan Opera House. Sembach is gen- erally considered the greatest Wagnerian interpreter since De Reszke, with whom he has much in common. He is distinguished for the beauty and artistic qual- ites of his voice, and for his dramatic genius. Sembat, sari^ba', Marcel (1862-1922), French public offi- cial and editor, was born in Bonnieres, Siene-et-Oise. He was educated in Paris, became associated with Jean Jaures (q. v.), and was Socialist mem- ber of the Chamber of Deputies after 1893. During the First World War he was minister of Public Works in the cabinets of Viviani (1914-15) and Briand (1915-16). He was editor-in- chief of Petite R e pub lique, and wrote Faites un Roi Simon Faites la Paix (1913). Sembilan. See Negri Sem- bilan. Sembrich, zem'bric/t, Mar- cella (1858-1935), Polish so- prano singer, was born in Wisniowczyk, Galicia, her real name being Kochanska. She adopted her mother's maiden name, studied under Wilhelm Stengel, to whom she was later married, under Epstein, and un- der Rokitansky in Vienna, and in 1877 made her debut at Ath- ens in / Puritani. She was Semecarpus engaged for the Dresden Opera House in 1878, and subsequently sang in London, Munich, and Berhn, Her first appearance in America was in Lucia di Laminer- moor at the MetropoHtan Opera House in 1883, after which she sang for several seasons in New York and in other cities of the I United States. She retired from the operatic stage in 1909, but continued to appear in concerts. Her voice is a high soprano of beautiful quality, and her ability as an actress is of the highest class. Her famous parts include Rosina in The Barber of Seville, Norina in Do7i Pasquale, Lucia, Martha, and Leonora in // Trov- atore. Madame Sembrich has been active in relief work during the European War, becoming president of the American Polish Relief Committee in 1915.'*-V^\"5" Semecar'pus, a genus of trop- ical evergreen trees belonging to the order Anacardiaceae. They bear panicles of small flowers, followed by nuts or drupes. The black juice of the fruits is used by the natives of Ceylon for marking clothes. The kidney bean of Malacca is 5. Anacar- dium. Semele, semVle, in ancient Greek mythology a daughter of Cadmus, king of Thebes, was be- loved by Zeus, whose wife Hera, in her jealousy, persuaded vSemele to ask Zeus to show himself to her in all his majesty. Zeus thereupon appeared as the god of thunder, and Semele was con- sumed by lightning; but Zeus saved the child Dionysus, with whom she was pregnant. Another story is that Semele gave birth to Dionysus, and after his birth Cadmus put her and the child into a boat and cast it loose on the sea; that the boat came ashore at Brasise in La- conia, with Semele dead but Dionysus still alive. The general account agrees that Dionysus brought Semele out of Hades, and that she became a goddess by the name of Thyone. Semendria, se-men'dri-a (Ser- vian Smederevo), fortified town, Servia, on the River Danube; 26 miles southeast of Belgrade. Grain and wine are exported. Here in 1411 the Turks defeated the Hungarians. The fortress was taken by Prince Eugene in 1717, but remained in Turkish hands till 1867. In October, 191.5, the town was captured by the Central Powers in their great drive through Servia. Pop. 7,500. Semenov, sem-yo'nof, Peter Petrovitch (1827-1906), Rus- sian geographer and public offi- cial, was born in Petrograd. He was educated in his native city and at Berlin, and travelled in Western Europe and in Central Asia, where he visited the Tian- Shan Mountains, explored the Vol. XL— Mar. '18 95 B upper reaches of the Syr Daria, and carried out important ex- plorations in Transcaspia. He was active in the emancipation of the serfs in Russia, was made director of the Bureau of Statis- tics in 1864, and a member of the Council of the Empire in 1897. Mount Semenov and the Seme- nov Glacier in the Tian-Shan Mountains are named in his honor. Semenovka* se-mye-nof'ka, or Semionovka, town, Chernigov government. Southwestern Rus- sia; 70 miles northeast of Cherni- gov city. Oil, hides, skins, and boots are produced. Pop. 18,500. Senienud, town. Lower Egypt, on the Damietta arm of the Nile; 11 miles southwest of El Man- sura. Pop. 10,000. Semcre, town, on borders of Togoland and Dahomey, West Africa, in 9° 30' n. Pop. 10,000. Seminar Semes 'ter, a term derived from the Latin semestris, 'six months,' used commonly to denote a col- lege or university term cov^ering half the academic year, usually from 15 to 18 weeks. This divi- sion is employed generally in universities on the Continent of Europe and in America. British universities divide the year into three terms of about three months each. Semi-anthracite, Semi-bitum- inous. See Coal. Semibreve, a musical note equal in value to half a breve, and known popularly as the whole note. It is the longest note employed in modern music, other notes having their values cal- culated as component parts of the semibreve. See Music. Sem'inar, a group of students assembled for special research work under the direction of a Semaphore (2-arm) Code. The hand semaphore using two flags is the same. 1 A B c 3> E. F a H I J K L M W K V O P Q. ». S T. TCr < ■V- -W X "Y Z Cornet (gen. Code) Attention Signals follow Letters follow 11 Interval Semlnoles 96 Semlpalatlnsk teacher, or the course of study- thus conducted. By extension the name is also bestowed on the room in a university or college where such special research work is carried on. Sem'inoles, a tribe of North American Indians, a branch of the Muskhogeans (q. v.) or Creeks, formerly dominant in Florida. The Seminoles are prominent in the history of the United States because of their former position on the border of Florida while that territory was a possession of Spain. At the be- ginning of the nineteenth century they had about twenty towns. In 1817-18, in retaliation for their raids into American terri- tory. Gen. Andrew Jackson in- vaded the Seminole country, and destroyed many of their towns. This invasion eventually resulted in the transfer of Florida to the United States (see Seminole Wars). The Seminoles were noted for the complexity of their ceremo- nies, among which may be men- tioned the 'busk,' or green corn dance, a festival marking the time when the corn became edi- ble. In this ceremony purifica- tion was sought by the 'black drink,' a decoction of the Ilex cassine, which acts as a powerful emetic, producing violent nerv- ous disturbances. At the close of the Seminole Wars the conquered Indians were removed to Oklahoma, where their descendants form the pres- ent Seminole nation. In 1906 they were admitted to American citizenship. They now number about 1,500. The remnant of those that sought refuge in the Everglades, less than 200 in num- ber, retain many of their prim- itive customs. Consult H. M. Wilson's The Seminoles of Florida (1910). Seminole Wars. At the begin- ning of the nineteenth century, when Florida was still a Spanish possession, a part of the land bordering on Georgia was occu- pied by the Seminole Indians (see Seminoles). The latter were accused of frequent depre- dations on the Georgia border, and of receiving into their tribes fugitive slaves from Georgia and North Carolina. As Spain paid no attention to the claims of the planters, and as its administra- tion was lax and inefficient, there had been frequent outbreaks against the Seminoles, which were indeed slave hunts rather than wars. The Georgians were then continually urging the Fed- eral Government to go to war with the Seminoles, and looked forward to the day when Florida would be an American possession. During the War of 1812 the British had built a fort on the Apalachicola River, and after Vol. XL— Mar. '18 the peace had left this fort with its arms and ammunition to the Indians and negroes. This fort, known afterward as 'Negro Fort,' became a source of anxiety to the United States. At length Gen. E. P. Gaines found a pretext for attacking it with a force of U. S. regulars and Creek Indians, and blew it to pieces (July, 1816), killing or wounding all of its defenders. This led to reprisals, and the Indians massacred an expedition which was ascending the Apalachicola in boats. In 1818 Gen. Andrew Jackson (q. V.) was placed in command of the American forces. He de- clared that he would take Florida for the United States, if it were desired, in sixty days, and con- strued the Rhea Letter as sup- potting this policy (see Rhea Letter). Accordingly, he ad- vanced rapidly and in force, took St. Mark's (March, 1818), and moving down the Apalachicola attacked all Indians, whether in arms or not, whom he met. Then believing that the Indians had been assisted by the British and Spaniards, he put to death two British traders, Arbuthnot and Ambrister, took Pensacola (May, 1818), and deposed the Spanish government. These actions caused much anxiety to his gov- ernment, and their relief was great when the Spanish minister agreed to a treaty ceding Florida for a sum of $5,000,000, which was ratified in 1821. The conflicts with the Semi- noles still continued, however, much wrong being done on both sides. In 1832, by a provisional treaty at Payne's Landing, the Indians agreed to move across the Mississippi, if the lands there allotted were satisfactory. The next year at Fort Gibson their seven delegates signed a supple- mentary treaty agreeing to re- move, which was ratified by the U. S. Senate in 1834. The In- dians declared that they had been tricked, and that the delegates were not authorized to sign a binding treaty, but the American Government determined to re- move them by force if it became necessary. In November, 1835, one of the chiefs, Osceola (q. v.), began the second Seminole War by kilHng a chief who favored removal and by capturing a U. S. baggage train. Indian agent Wiley Thomp- son was killed, and on Dec. 28, 1835, Major F. L. Dade and a force of 110 men marching to the relief of Fort King were am- bushed, and only one man es- caped. During the next year the American army was increased to about 10,000 men, though the entire number of the Indians was less than 4,000. In 1837 Gen. Thomas S. Jesup secured a prom- ise that about 800 would go west, and the war was declared at an end on March 26. Disputes over the possession of the negroes, whom the whites claimed were runaway slaves, led to further hostilities, however, but Osceola was captured by treachery in October and died in prison at Fort Moultrie the next year. In February, 1838, 513 Indians and 165 negroes were captured and removed beyond the Mississippi, and in May Gen. Zachary Taylor sent 400 more to join them. General Macomb concluded a peace in 1839, ac- cording to which the Indians were allowed to remain in Flori- da, but in July the Indians again resumed hostilities, though with less success than formerly. Fight- ing continued until 1842, the last battle being fought near the site of the Dade massacre. The In- dians were finally subdued and all prisoners were sent west. General Worth reported that not more than 300 remained, and that they had retired to the im- penetrable retreats in the Ever- glades (q. v.). The total number of Indians and negroes trans- ported in 1836-42 was 3,930. The total American loss was about 1,500, and the cost of the war was possibly $10,000,000. In 1855 the remnant in Florida rose in arms because of ill-treat- ment by a party of U. S. engineers, but the insurrection soon sub- sided. Consult Sprague's Origin, Progress, and Conclusion of the Florida War; Coe's Red Patriots. Semipalatinsk, province, Rus- sian Central Asia, between Zun- garia (east) and the Russian provinces of Tomsk (northeast), Akmolinsk (west), and Semirye- chensk (south). Together with Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk forms the general government of the Steppes. Area, 178,820 square miles. Pop. 842,000 (some 80 per cent. Mohammedans). The highland region in the east and centre belongs to the Altai sys- tem on the north and to the Tar- bagatai range on the south, and reaches up to over 10,000 feet. The Zaisan plateau, between the Altai and Tarbagatai mountains, is one of the chief gates from east into west Central Asia. Almost all the watercourses belong to the Irtish basin. Gold, silver, copper, salt, coal, and iron are mined, and graphite and various gems are found. Fish abound in Lake Zaisan, which is 80 miles long, with a maximum breadt. of 20 miles. The Kirghiz nomads form three-quarters of the population. Agriculture is the chief occupation. Besides cereals, flax, hemp, melons, and tobacco are grown. Bee keeping flourishes. Semipalatinsk, town, capital of the province of Semipalatinsk, 468 miles southeast of Omsk, on Semi-Pelagians 97 Semlteft an island in the Irtish. It is di- vided into Russian and Tartar quarters: in the former are the old fortress and the governor's house; in the latter, twelve mosques. The town has tanner- ies and distilleries, and manufac- tures flour, soap, and candles. Pop. (1897) 26,353. Semi-Pelagians. See Pela- GIUS. Semiramis, a mythical queen of Assyria, and wife of Ninus, the founder of Nineveh. She was the daughter of the Syrian fish-goddess Derceto, and was married by Onnes, one of Ninus's generals. When Onnes was en- gaged in the siege of Bactra, Semiramis led a forlorn hope against the citadel, and captured it and the town. Thereupon Ninus resolved to marry her, and Onnes slew himself. After Ni- nus's death Semiramis ruled, and founded many cities and built many marvellous buildings, in- cluding her husband's tomb at Nineveh. She is also reputed to have built Babylon, and to have conquered Egypt and Libya, though failing to conquer India. After a reign of forty-two years she resigned the throne to her son Ninyas, and departed to heaven in the shape of a dove. See Lenormant's La Legende de Semiramis (1873). Semiryechensk, prov., Rus- sian Central Asia, forming part of the general government of Turkestan (till 1899 of the gen- eral government of the steppes). Area, 152,280 sq. m.; pop. (1897) 990,107, It is naturally divided into a mountainous region in the s. and S.E., and a steppe region in the n.w. The mountains be- long to the Tarbagatai and Tian- Shan systems, the former divid- ing Semiryechensk from Siberia, the latter from Chinese Turkes- tan. The drainage belongs mainly to the basins of the Syr Daria and of lakes Issik-kul, Ala- kul, and Balkhash. Gold, copper, iron, coal, and salt occur. Cot- ton, vines, and fruit trees are grown in the S. Market-garden- .ng engages the Russian colonists, bat not more than 6 per cent, of the land is treated as arable. The capital is Vyernyi. Of the popu- lation about 70 per cent, are Kir- ghiz (mostly nomads), 24 per cent. Sarts. Semites, the descendants of Shem. Ethnologically the term signifies a particular race of man- kind, of which the Arabs and the Jews may be taken as types. The type is characterized by a dull white skin, black hair and eyes, a prorninent and aquiline nose, thick lips, oval face, abundance of beard, and dolichocephalic skull. Owing to mixture, how- ever, many (if not all) of these characteristics tend to disappear : thus, an (examination of tlie Jews of Central Europe has shown that, while about 17 per cent, are blondes, only 25 per cent, are brunettes, the rest being of inter- mediate type; and that among the brunettes brachycephalism frequently occurs (Fligier's 'Zur Anthropologic der Semiter,' in Mitteilnngen der Wiener an- thropol. Gesellschaft,^ ix. pp. 155 et seq.). The Israelitish tribute- bearers of Jehu, depicted on the obelisk of the Assyrian king Shal- maneser ii. (842 B.C.), have all the features of the typical Jew of to-day— as, indeed, have the As- syrians themselves. The Semitic languages are noteworthy from the form of their roots, which are triliteral and triconsonantal. They are usually divided into two branches. Northern and Southern. The former subdivides into the As- syrian group, including Assyrian and Babylonian; the Hebrew group, including Hebrew, Phoeni- cian, Edomitic, and Moabitic; and the Aramaic, including Syriac, Mandaic, Palmyrene, Nabataean, Samaritan, and the Aramaic of the Talmud. The Southern branch includes Arabic, Sabaean, and Minaean, Ethiopic, and Am- haric. The Semitic language of Babylonia and Assyria can be traced back to about 4000 B.C. Hebrew, the language of the Old Testament, was ' the language of Canaan.' The close relationship of the Hebrew group has been established not only by the Phoe- nician inscriptions (the language of which differs only dialectically from Hebrew), but also by the Tell - el - Amarna tablets, which show that in the 15th century B.C. the language of Canaan was practically Hebrew, and by the Moabite Stone, which shows the practical identity of Hebrew and Moabitic in the ninth century B.C. The Aramaic dialects were used throughout the region which extended from the borders of Babylonia to N. Syria. Aramaic tribes encamped in Babylonia it- self; and inscriptions found at Sinjirli, north of the Gulf of Antioch, prove that in the 8th century B.C. the peculiarities which mark Aramaic off from its sister tongues were as yet only in process of formation. Aramaic eventually became the language of trade and diplomacy in the East, replacing Assyrian in As- syria and Babylonia and Hebrew in Palestine. One of its dialects, known as Syriac, has acquired a specially prominent position in consequence of its use in the Christian Church. Arabic was spoken in Central and N. Arabia, more especially by the nomad Bedawin (Bedouins), who have preserved the purity of their blood and language better than have their kinsfolk elsewhere. Indeed, although the earlier monuments of literary Arabic are hardly older than the age of Mohammed, the sounds and grammatical forms have survived in it which were already lost in the Babylonian of six thousand years ago. This literary Arabic was originally the language of the tribe of Koreish at Mecca, and was spread over the Oriental world by the conquests of Mo- hammedanism, supplanting Ara- maic, just as Aramaic had pre- viously supplanted the native lan- guages of Babylonia and Canaan. Distinct from Arabic are the dia- lects of S. Arabia, represented by the extinct Minaean and Sabaean, and the modern Ehkili with its allied idioms. Emigrants from S. Arabia carried their language with them to the opposite shores of Africa, where it became the Ethiopic of the Abyssinian Church and its modern descen- dant Amharic. As a general rule the Semitic race and the Semitic family of speech go together. There are indeed Semites — such as the Jews — who have adopted non-Semitic languages ; and some of those who speak Semitic languages — • such as the Maltese and some Nubians — are not of Semitic de- scent. The Semitic family occu- pies a compact square in S.W. Asia and a large part of N. Africa. The centre of the square is roughly formed by N. Arabia, and it is probable that either N. or Central Arabia was the origi- nal cradle of the race. From there came the great movement and expansion of the race in his- torical times under Mohammed and his successors. The sugges- tion has been made that the be- ginnings of the race should be sought in Africa, Arabia being rather the land in which its char- acteristics became fixed, and its language acquired the features which distinguish it from other families of speech. However this may be, the Semitic family, so far as it is known to us, had its first home in Arabia. Recent researches have gone to show that the dominant race in an- cient Egypt was of Asiatic ex- traction, and that the language they brought with them was a sister of the parent Semitic speech. Like the latter, it was characterized by triliteralism, its roots consisting of three conso- nantal sounds. It shared also some peculiarities of Semitic grammar, and part of its vocabu- lary has been traced to a Semitic origin. Tradition brought the Phoenicians also from the Persian Gulf. Assyria, moreover, had a Semitic population, and the mountains of Elam were occu- Semler pied by Semitic settlers as fat- eastward as Susa. In Babylonia the older non-Semitic inhabitants were conquered by Semitic immi- grants, who assimilated the cul- ture of their predecessors, and formed with them a mixed pop- ulation, which in turn created the Babylonian civilization of the historical age. As an individual the Semite was intense, persevering, and re- lentless. Politically, the Semite showed dislike to absorption into a large empire and inability to create a well-knit and abiding system of control. Separatism and small communities express the preferences of the race. Hence the great empires existed only by repeated reconquest of large parts of the realm. The same traits showed them- selves in the religion. The primary object of worship in any locality was a ' Baal ' or * lord,' who often manifested himself in the sun, and, like the sun, was Ht once a healer and a destroyer. But the Baals were as numerous as the tribes who adored them or Ihe high places which were dedi- cated to their worship. For his worshippers, however, each sepa- rate Baal was supreme in his own district or among those who in- voked his name. He was con- ceived as the head of the family or tribe, and the patriarchal con- stitution of the family was ac- cordingly extended to him. By the side of the Baal stood his wife, the Baalath, a colorless re- flection of the god. The divine family was occasionally completed by a son, who, acted as the minis- ter of his father and the inter- preter of his will. Semitic re- Jigion was thus essentially tribal in its origin, and a tribal char- acter clung to it to the last. See Robertson Smith's Religion of the Semites (1889); T. Noldeke, in Sketches from Eastern His- tory (1892); McCurdy, History, Prophecy, and the Monuments, vols, i., ii. (1894-6); Barton's Sketch of Semitic Origins (1902); Wright's Ccnnparative Grammar of the Semitic Lan- guages (1890), and works cited under Arabia, Assyria, Baby- lonia, etc. Semler, Johann Salomo, (1725 - 91), German theologian, born at Saalfeld in Thuringia; was professor at Halle (1752- 91). Though a rationalist, he was not a ' naturalist '; and his philosophical insight was not keen. He foreshadowed, how- ever, the true method of Biblical criticism, and may be said to have anticipated the central idea of the Tubingen school. The most important of his many works are Apparatus ad liber- alem Veteris Testamenti Inter- pretationem (1773), Abhandlung ] 98 VdH frd^y Untersucdung des Kanons (1771-2), Selecta Capita Hist. Eccl. (1767-9). See his au- tobiography (1781-2). Semliki, riv., E. Africa, issues from Albert Edward Nyanza, curves round w. rim of Ruwen- zori, and flows n.e. to s. end of Albert Nyanza. The river swarms with crocodiles. It first became known in 1888, when Stanley came upon it some thirty miles above its mouth. Length, 150 m. Semlin, tn., Croatia- Slavonia, Hungary, on 1. bk. of Danube, 6 m. w.N.w. of Belgrade; has im- portant transit trade, and con- tains the ruins of the castle of John Hunyadi, who died here in 1456. Pop. 14,416. Semmering, Austrian Alpine pass (3,219 ft.) connecting Vien- na with Graz, the capital of Styria. It is the lowest of the Alpine passes, and is traversed by a railway, the first (1854) to be carried across the Alps. The summit tunnel is 285 ft. below the highest point of the pass. The viaducts of the Semmering rail- way, some of them with several tiers of arches, are among the grandest works of engineering. Semmes, Raphael (1809- 1877),_ American naval officer, born in Charles county, Md. He was appointed a midshipman in the navy in 1826, but did not actively take up his duties until 1832,_ spending the intervening time in study. He became a lieu- tenant in 1837 and commander in 1855. He served with the Gulf Squadron in the Mexican War. Upon the secession of Ala., of wnich state he had become a citizen, he resigned from the navy and soon afterwards accepted a commission as commander in the Confederate navy. Immediately after his resignation, President Davis sent him North in search of skilled mechanics and supplies, and he succeeded in shipping many cases of percussion caps to Montgomery without interference from the Federal authorities. In 1861-62 he commanded the Sumter and in 1862-64 the Ala- bama, cruising in the paths of commerce and doing vast damage to American shipping. The Sumter was finally blockaded in Tangier and sold, and the Ala- bama was sunk by the Kearsage, off Cherbourg, June 19, 1864. Semmes escaped to England and returning to the Confederacy was given command of the James River Squadron, with the rank of rear admiral. Upon the evacua- tion of Richmond his squadron was destroyed and he served the few remaining weeks of _ the war in the army, surrendering with Johnston. The remainder of his life was spent at Mobile, prac- tising law. Semnones, a tribe of ancient Germany, the most powerful of the Suevic race, which inhabited the country between the Viadus (Oder) and Albis (Elbe). Semnopithecus. See Langur. Semolina, sometimes known as Grits, consists of small particles of grain, chiefly wheat, roughly ground. The name is given to the residuum of larger granules left unground in the process of flour-making where hard wheat is used. It is also applied to the coarser forms of potato-flour. Consult Bulletin 20, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry (1902). Sempach, tn., Swiss canton of Lucerne, 10 m. n.w. of town of Lucerne, near small lake of Sem- pach. Here was gained (1386) the victory which secured Swiss independence, and in which Ar- nold von Winkelried (a real per- son) is said to have performed his (legendary) feat of arms. Pop. (1900) 1,028. Semper, Karl (1832-93), Ger- man naturalist, born at Altona; after a tour in the Philippines and the Pacific islands, he became professor of zoology at Wiirz- burg (1868). He visited the U. S. in 1877, and gave a course of lectures at the Lowell Institute, Boston, which were published later with the title Animal Life as Aifected by the Natural Con- ditions of Existence (1881). and by this work he is chiefly known. Sempervivum, a genus of suc- culent plants belonging to the order Cra^sulaceae. Mr. J. G. Baker has classified all the hardy species as follows: (1.) Sub-genus Sempervivum Proper. — Parts of the flowers usually in twelves. Open flower, bell-shaped. Rhodantha: flowers reddish. Group 1. Ciliata. — Leaves of the barren rosette glabrous on the face when mature, shortly ciliated on the edges only. Group 2. Pubescentia. — Leaves of the barren rosette pubescent on the face, as well as ciliated on the edges, not tipped with a tuft of spreading hairs. Group 3. Barbatula. — Leaves of the barren rosette strongly ciliated on the edges, and fur- nished with a tuft of short, straight hairs at the tip. Group 4. Arachnoidea. — Dwarf species, with the tips of the inner leaves of the rosette connected by fine, fleecy threads, like a spider's web. (2.) Sub-genus Diopogon. — Parts of the flower usually in sixes. Flowers always yellow- ish. Expanded flower spreading widely. See also House-leek. Sempronia, daughter of Tibe- rius Sempronius Gracchus, Ro- man censor in 169 B.C., and sis- ter of the Gracchi, the famous tribunes. She married Scipio Senaat (Senate Africanus the Younger. After his mysterious death, in 129 B.C., she and her mother Cornelia were suspected, without sufficient grounds, of having murdered im. Also the name of a charac- ter in Ben Jonson's tragedy, Cati- line. Senaar. See Sennaar. Senancour, Etienne Pivert DE (1770-1846), French writer, born at Paris. His first book was a sort of metaphj'sico-sentimental romance called Ohermann (1804; Eng. trans, by A. E. Waite, 1903), or letters written about himself by a ' solitary ' living on the slopes of the Jura. The in- fluence of Rousseau and of Goethe's Werther is very_ per- ceptible. He followed this up by De 1' Amour (1805), in which his really fine French style is seen magistrate, who could convoke it when he chose. Finally, the exe- cution of any resolution passed by the senate rested with the magistrates, who could disregard it without any constitutional pen- alty. In spite of all these dis- abilities, the senate was for centuries the ruhng body at Rome, particularly during the 3d and the 2d century B.C., dur- ing which Rome secured the em- pire of the world. In the first century or so of the republic it claimed, however, the right to approve the list of candidates proposed for magisterial office; down to 339 B.C. measures passed by the assembly needed to receive the patrum auctoritas before be- coming law, but after that date the auctoritas had to be given beforehand, and it alone could chose and conferred power on a new emperor. But the last-men- tioned privilege was usually snatched from it by the soldiers; and its exercise of the others depended entirely on the em- peror's caprice. In consequence its attitude was usually that of abject subservience to the ruler. Originally all senators were patricians; plebeians were, how- ever, included soon after the foundation of the repubhc. In process of time a property quali- fication came to be considered necessary for membership : under the republic it was 400,000 ses- terces (about $15,500), and was fixed by Augustus at 1,000,000 sesterces (about $39,000). As has been already said, admission to the senate originally depended purely on nomination by the mag- The Roman Senate — Cicero accusing Catiline. (From a fresco by Prof. C. Maccari in the Italian Senate House at Rome.) at its best, but the work is still more persistently ' Wertherish.' Sainte-Beuve praised his work highly. Senate, deliberative council of ancient Rome. Its individual members were known as patres (' fathers ') — i.e. the heads of the families or clans which formed the primitive community. But in historical times the senator ob- tained his seat through nomina- tion, first by the king, and after- wards by the consuls or censors; only after Sulla's legislation in 81 B.C. did election to the quaes- torship legally and necessarily confer the subsequent right to a seat in the senate. Constitution- ally and in theory the senate was nothing but an advising body. The senators did not give votes, but merely expressed their opin- ions. Moreover, the senate could only meet when convoked by a declare a dictator to he neces- sary ; the actual appointment, however, was made by a consul. But, as a rule, the consul or other magistrate was in the posi- tion of a young man^ of brief experience, confronted with a body of men of greater age and wider knowledge, many of whom had earlier in life held the same high office as himself. Hence, as a matter of fact, the senate was generally consulted with regard to public worship, finance, the administration of the provinces, and the management of foreign affairs ; in the last of these departments the necessity of a continuous policy could hardly be supplied by officials who changed every year. Under the empire the position of the senate was altered; it made laws, elected to the magistracies, was the su- preme judicial authority, and istrate. By the 4th century B.C., however, the practice had grown up that ex-quaestors and ex-magis- trates of higher rank were called to the senate; and after 351 b.c. this became the regular practice. The office was lifelong; the term could only be cut short by ex- clusion by the censors, usually on the ground of immorality. Augustus made the senatorship hereditary. In early days the number of the senate was about 300; Sulla's reform raised it to 500 or 600; Julius Caesar in- creased it to 1,000, but Augustus reduced it to its old figure. Senators wore a distinctive tunic with a broad purple stripe, and a particular kind of shoe ornamented with a crescent in front. They shared with knights the privilege of wearing gold rings. See E. Herzog's Geschichte und System der romischen Stoats- Sendai 100 Senecti verfassung (2 vols. 1884-91), and Willems's Le Senat de la Repu- hlique Romaine (3 vols. 1878-85). In modern times the senate is the upper house of the legislature in various countries — e.g. the United States (also the individual states of the Union), France, Italy, and Canada. The term senate is also applied to the governing bodies of some universities. See United States, section on Gov- ernment. Sendai, tn., on E. coast of Honshiu, Japan, 220 m. by rail N.N.E. of Tokyo; has trade in fish and salt. Pop. 100,231. Seneca. (1.) Marcus Ann^us Seneca (c. 61 b.c. to after 30 A.D.), Roman rhetorician, was a hative of Corduba in Spain.' He spent some time at Rome early in the reign of Augustus, and after- wards returned to Spain. His literary efforts were confined to the popular rhetoric of the day, and his extant works are the (in- Lucius AnncBus Seneca. complete) Controversiarum Liber, contentious rhetorical exercises, and the Suasoriarum Liber, speeches of counsel. Their only excellence, that of form, does not atone for their weakness in thought. There are editions by H. J. Miiller (1888), and Kiess- ling (in the Teubner Series, 1872). (2.) Lucius Ann^us Seneca (c. 5 b.c.-65 a.d.), Ro- man philosopher and statesman, was the son of the above, and was born at Corduba. By the reign of Caligula (37-41 a.d.) he had won reputation as a pleader of cases; in the first year of the reign of Claudius he was banished to Corsica, but was re- called after 49, raised to the prae- torship, and made the tutor of Nero. On Nero's accession to the imperial throne Seneca was with Burrus, the chief minister to the emperor; and they must be credited with the excellent ad- ministration of Nero's first five years. After the death of Bur- rus, in 62, Seneca, believing that Nero coveted his great wealth, offered it to the emperor, and asked leave to retire. But bemg suspected of complicity in Piso's plot in 65, he was ordered to die, and he accordingly opened his veins and bled to death. The one blot on Seneca's name is his share (if he was an accomplice in it) in the murder of Agrippina, Nero's mother. In philosophy and literature Seneca formerly enjoyed a great reputation, but at the present time his works are little read. Montaigne speaks of him and Plutarch as his two teachers. In philosophy he was a Stoic, but his Stoicism is of an eclectic nature ; his writings show practical wisdom rather than profound speculation. His style is that of a rlietorician, but is clear and forcible. His trage- dies, ten in number, are, with one exception, imitations of the Greek, and consist of declama- tory speeches, interspersed with lyrical passages. The Octavia, the subject of which is Nero's ill- treatment of Octavia, his wife, is the most dramatic. In prose he wrote De Ira, a treatise on anger; De Beneficiis Libri vii, on benefits; De Animi Tranquilli- tate, on peace of mind — and simi- lar themes; Liber de Consolatione ad Marciam ; Epistolce ad Lii- cilium, a collection of maxims; QucBstiones Naturales. discussing meteors, winds, earthquakes, thunder and lightning, and the like; and a satire on the deifica- tion of the Emperor Claudius Apocolocyntosis Divi Claudi, published in Biicheler's Petronius (1882, ed. by Ball, 1903). Edi- tions: Philosophical works, by Koch and Vahlen (1879), and Gertz (1886); tragedies, by Leo (1879) and Peiper-Richter (in the Teubner Series, 1902); com- plete works, by Haase (in the Teubner Series, 1898). There are English translations by Stew- < art of The Minor Dialogues (1889) and On Benefits (1887). See Hochart's Etudes sur la Vie de Seneque (1885), and H. Westbury's novel, Acte (1890). Seneca Falls, vil., Seneca co., N. Y., 35 m. w. by s. of Syracuse, on the Seneca R., and on the N. Y. C. and H. R. and the Leh. Val. R. Ps., and the Seneca- Cayuga Canal. It is an industrial centre, utilizing power afforded by the river in the manufacture of pumps, fire engines, automo- biles, machine tools, buttons, etc. It is a shipping point for fruit, which is extensively grown in the district. The village contains Mynderse Academy, Rumsey Hall, a preparatory school, Myn- derse Library, and Johnson Home for Old Ladies. Cayuga Lake Park is a summer resort of the neighborhood. The first settle- ment here was made in 1787, and the village was incorporated in 1831 and 1905. Pop. (1910) 6,588. Seneca Lake, a long and nar- row body of water in New York state, of glacial origin. Its s. ex- tremity IS 21 m. N. by w. of Elmira. It is drained by Seneca R. to Lake Ontario, and is 35 m. long by from 1 to 3 m. broad. Senecio, the most extensive genus in the vegetable kingdom, including upwards of nine hun- dred species. It is a subdivision of the order Compositae, and is marked off by its" five-cleft, tubu- lar, central florets, the outer florets being strap-shaped, form- ing a ray, and furnished with pis- Senecio vulgaris. 1, Flower ; 2, flowei* head ; 3, fruit. tils only. The involucre is im- bricated, with a few smaller scales at the base, and the receptacle is naked. Among the species are the German Ivy (S. mikanioides) ; and the spring flowering 5. au- reus or swamp squaw-weed. Senecti, vil., Chihuahua, Mex., 6 m. below El Paso on the Rio Grande. The inhabitants, 9f whom there were about 60 in 1905, are a remnant of the Piro tribe of New Mexico. They pre- serve the old tribal organization under a cacique, but their orig^ inal language is almost entireh forgotten. Senef elder, Aloys (1771-1834), the inventor of the art of lithog- raphy, born at Prague, Austria; took to playwriting, and after- wards to engraving, etching, and stereotyping. He published an account of his discovery of lithog- raphy (1818). Senega {Polygala senega), a North American plant about nine inches in height, bearing terminal spikes of small, dull-white flow- ers. The woody root of this plant was used by Indians as an antidote against the bite of the rattlesnake, and is used in medi- cine chiefly in chronic bronchitis. Senegal P r otectorates, French possessions in W. Africa, formed (since 1904) of various towns, trading and military posts, and patches and strips of terri- tory between the rivers Gambia and Casamance, on those rivers, and on the Senegal R. up as far as Kayes, more or less enclaves in the administrative territories of Senegambia-Niger. The total area is 438 sq. m., and the popu- lation (1904) 107.826. In 1904 the exports amounted to $6,678,- 847, and the imports to $11,175,- 961. Much of this trade, how- ever, belongs to the colony of Upper Senegal-Niger (formerly Senegambia and Niger), which is exclusively an inland colony, and has no intercolonial customs. Other products are millet, maize, rice, castor oil, cocoanuts, and gum. The chief towns are St. Louis, the capital (pop. 24,070), Dakar (18,447), Rufiscjue (12,- 446), and Goree (1,560). The inhabitants are of negro origin, but greatly mixed with Moorish and Fulah elements. They are mostly Mohammedans. The chief industries are weaving, brick- making, and camel and cattle breeding. Senegambia and Niger, a vast territory in French W. Af- rica, including the former protec- torates of Senegal and the wide stretch of country that lies be- tween the s. limits of the Al- gerian * sphere of influence,' the Atlantic, French Guinea, Ivory Coast, Gold Coast, Togo. Da- homey, and N. Nigeria, and thus includes the basins of the upper Niger and the upper Senegal. The capital is Bammako, on the Niger. Apart from the great rivers, the principal geographical features are those of the Sahara and Sudan in the e. of the region, and a vast lo\y plateau (1,500 ix.), seamed with river-courses, in the w. The principal products are gum, groundnuts, gold, india- rubber, rice, millet, wheat, earth- nuts, and kola-nuts. Timbuktu has a trade valued at less than $500,000. The railway, which ascends beside the Senegal, runs across from Bafoulabe on that river to Bammako on the Niger. 101 The French gradually made theiii- selves masters of this region be- tween 1880 and 1898. The na- tive population, who are in part Mohammedans, consist princi- pally of Fulahs, Mandingoes, Wolofs, and Sarakoles. The reorganization of French West Africa, begun in 1895, was completed by the decree of Octo- ber 18, 1904, which converted the territories of Senegambia and Niger into a separate colony, un- der the name of Upper Senegal- Niger. Seneschal, an officer in the house of medijeval princes and other high dignitaries, who took the charge of feasts or domestic ceremonies; a steward who in certain cases had the dispensing of justice; a military commander of high rank. In the reign of Phihp I. (1059) the office was considered the highest place of trust in the French kingdom. Sengora (Siamese, Songkla), Siamese prov. on e. coast of Malay Peninsula, in 7° 30' n. lat. Area, 17,000 sq. m. Pop. about 500,000, many being Chinese. Senigallia, or Sinigaglia, tn., prov. Ancona, Italy, on Adriatic, 15 m. N.w. of Ancona. The bishopric was founded in the 4th century. The town is the birth- place of Pope Pius IX. Until 1869 a famous fair used to be held here in July and August. Pop. (1901) 23,195. Senility, a condition depend- ent less upon the number of years a man has lived than upon the strength of his constitution at starting and his use or abuse of his strength. The condition has been described as one of general progressive atrophy of all tissues. The chief causes of premature senility are syphilis, alcohol, and overwork, or, perhaps more cor- rectly, overworry. The condi- tion is marked, outwardly, by a wasting of tissues and a loss of elasticity. The skin wrinkles, for subcutaneous fat goes. The bones waste from within out- wards. The arteries lose their elasticity, and so the blood vol- urne lessens. The blood is badly driven by a weakened heart through deteriorated channels, and thus the blood itself dete- riorates, and the organs deterio- rate which it should nourish. Hence fatty and fibrous degene- rations of organs are common, with other grave changes, such as softening of brain substance; or apoplexy occurs — a very common ending in senility, due to rupture of a cerebral vessel or to blocking of it by embolus. In senility the man tends to become thin. All his appetites lessen, unless indeed abnormally excited, as they may be in senile dementia. His nerv- ous system shows the most marked changes. His memory goes, and goes in particular for recent events, while he may still have vivid recollections of long-past affairs. He is slow to respond to the emo- tions, and, mercifully, not so deeply impressed by either joy or sorrow. The diseases of the senile tend to be chronic, rarely acute. Light, nutritious food, no alcohol except under physi- cian's orders, and a quiet life de- fer the progress of senility. Senior, Nassau William (1790 - 1864), English political economist, was born at Compton Beauchamp in Berkshire. In 1825 he was appointed professor of political economy in Oxford, and again (1847-52). He was ap- pointed master of Chancery in 1836, a post which he held till 1853. As an economist he was chiefly interested at first in the reform of the poor-laws, and sat as a member of the Poor-law Commission in 1832. As an economist he stands midway be- tween Ricardo and J. S. Mill. Many of his writings are records of conversations afnd interviews he had with eminent public men at home and abroad. See his Journals (1868 and 1871) and Conversations (1878-80 and 1882). Senlac. See Hastings, Bat- tle OF. Senlis, tn., France, dep. Oise, 27 m. N.N.E. of Paris. Old walls, partly of Gallo - Roman masonry, still surround the place; just outside is a Roman amphi- theatre; the castle (parts dating from the 11th century) was a residence of the kings of France from Clovis to Henry iv.; and the church of Notre Dame (be- gun in 1155) is a gem of French Gothic. It was a bishop's seat until 1801. Pop. (1901) 7,115. Senn, Nicholas (1844), Ameri- t\ . i «. 2> can surgeon, born in Buchs, Swit- zerland. He graduated at the Chicago Medical College in 1868, practised medicine in Fond du Lac county, Wis., for several years and then settled in Mil- waukee. In 1874 he became at- tending surgeon to the Mil- waukee Hospital, and in 1884-87 was professor of surgery in the College of Physicians and Sur- geons, Chicago. In 1887 he be- came professor of surgery and surgical pathology in the Rush Medical College, Chicago, and in 1890 professor of practical and clinical surgery in the same in- stitution. He also became pro- fessor of surgery in the Chicago Polyclinic, lecturer on military surgery in the university, chief surgeon to the 6th Army Corps (1898), and attending surgeon to the Presbyterian, St. Joseph's, and other hospitals in Chicago. His publications include : Experi- mental Surgery (1889), Intes- tinal Surgery (1889), Surgical Senna 102 Sentry Bacteriology (1889), Principles of Surgery (3d ed. 1901), Pathology and Surgical Treat- ment of Tumors (1895), Syllabus of Practice of Surgery (1892), Practical Surgery (1901), Sur- gical Notes on the Spanish- American War; Nurse's Guide for the Operating Room (1902). Senna, the leaflets of certain trees and shrubs belonging to the genus Cassia. The so-called Alexandria senna is the product of C. acutifolia; the long-leaved senna is derived from C. elon- gata. Senna has a peculiar odor and a curious, sweetish, muci- laginous taste. It is much used as a cathartic drug, and is one of the safest and most efifective drugs of this class. It is the ac- tive ingredient of the well-known compound liquorice powder. Sennaar, cap. of old kingdom of same name, now a prov. of Sudan, on the Blue Nile, 158 m. S.s.E. of Khartum. Pop. 8,000. Sennacherib. See Assyria, and Babylonia. Senones, ancient Gallic tribe who dwelt about the upper Seine, their chief town being Agedin- cum, now called Sens. About 400 B.C. a portion of the Senones settled on the Adriatic coast be- tween Ravenna and Ancona ; they also attacked and took Rorne in 390 B.C., and were engaged in hostilities with the Romans, until Dolabella completely subdued them in 283 B.C. Sens, tn. and archiepisc. see, French dep. Yonne, on riv. Yonne, 63 m. s.e. of Paris. Its original Gallo-Roman ramparts still surround it, and the cathe- dral (begun in 1140) is a beauti- .ful example of transition from Circular to Gothic, while its choir was the prototype of Can- terbury choir (1175). Becket fled to Sens in 1164, and his vestments are still preserved in the cathedral treasury. It manu- factures phosphate manures. Pop. (1901) 13,581. Sensation, in psychology, sig- nifies that element in conscious- ness which is immediately and directly correlated with some stimulation of the sense organs transmitted to the corresponding brain centres. Of such sensa- tions the traditional psychology recognizes five classes, corre- sponding to ' the five senses ' of smell, taste, touch, hearing, and sight. But the more exact analy- sis of modern experimental psy- chology has had to make further discriminations — for example, within touch, between sensations of temperature and sensations of pressure, which appear to depend on different localities of the skin. The term sensation is also ex- tended to include the diffused sensibility which depends on the state of the internal organs and the body generally. This dilYused sensibility does not specially attract our attention unless it is accentuated in some particular direction by particular condi- tions. The * organic sensations,' in which it then takes on distinc- tive characters, have their dis- tinctive names, such as hunger and thirst. By the organic sensations we are enabled to perceive states of our own body ; by the special sensations we are enabled to per- ceive the qualities of external objects. And in ordinary experi- ence sensations as such are at once referred to some external object, or, in the case of organic sensations, to our own body. It is only in very special cases, such as those of the experimental psychologist or of the artist, that the sensation itself is specially attended toj and in these cases the sensation ceases, of course, to be a mere sensation. See Stout's Manual of Psychology (2d ed. 1901). Sensationalism signifies that type of philosophy which en- deavors to account for all knowl- edge or experience in terms of mere sensations — ^directly experi- enced as impressions or revived as images — as the ultimate men- tal units. Of this philosophy, and of the scepticism which logic- ally results from it, the typical representative is David Hume. When, as with him, the single sensation is regarded as the only ultimate real unit in experience, the reality of an external world, the causal connection of events, the personal identity of the know- ing subject himself, become illu- sions, which custom generates, but for which we can produce no rational grounds of conviction. The whole structure of this philosophy, however, depends on an erroneous assumption — viz., that the mere sensation has actual existence. In reality the mere sensation is only an ab- straction of analysis. Concrete mental process always implies perception of objects, and the perception of objects implies relationship within a context of experience. That is to say, re- lations are inseparable from all perception as such. It was the task of Reid and Kant to set forth, in opposition to Hume^ this deeper analysis of experience. See Pringle - Pattison's Scottish Philosophy (1885). Sensitive Plant, so called from the habit of its leaves, which close at the smallest touch. See Mimosa. Sentis. See Santis. Sensorium, a term once ap- plied by philosophers to a hypo- thetical point in the human brain in which the soul was supposed to reside. It is now used to de- note that part of the nervous mechanism which is concerned with the reception and conscious- ness of impressions. Stimuli from the special sense organs, such as the eye and the ear, and from all parts of the body, are conveyed to certain sensory cells in the brain, where the messages are translated into ideas. The cerebral areas for the reception of stimuli are fairly well mapped out. Thus, the sensory centres ior sight are located in the oc- cipital lobes' and angular gyri; those for hearing lie in the supe- rior temporo-sphenoidal convolu- tions; those for smell in the un- cinate gyrus; and those for taste in the same region. It is less easy to locate the cerebral centres, which receive from the muscles messages which they embody into muscular sense impressions. From _ the skin three sorts of stimuli reach the sensorium, and produce (1) ordinary tactile or touch sensation, (2) the sensation following the stimulus of pain, and (3) the sensation due to the stimuli of heat and cold. Much uncertainty still exists as to the portions of the brain which are concerned with these senses; but many authorities consider that the different motor areas on the cortex should be regarded as having not only motor but also sensory functions. According to this view, the cerebral area which controls the movements of a limb receives also the messages com- ing from the muscles and skin of that limb. If this be so, the sensorium includes the greater part of the brain surface; but in all cases the sensation is referred to the site of the primary stimu- lation, so that one seems to see with the eyes, hear with the ears, or touch with the finger. The sensorium is not infallible, how- ever, and occasionally makes a misreference. Thus, pain due to the irritation of a laryngeal nerve is often referred to the ear, and a patient who has lost a limb may complain of pain in his buried foot. Sentry, a soldier posted at some particular point to watch over the safety of the neighbor- hood, to carry out any order as to the passage of individuals, to preserve order, or to give notice of any occurrence he may observe from his post. Ordinary sentries are furnished by guards which usually remain on duty for twenty-four hours. Each guard contains three times as many private soldiers as it has sen- tries to furnish, and is divided into three reliefs. Each relief is in turn employed on sentry duty, usually for a period of two hours, so that each soldier^ through9ut the twenty-four hours he remains on guard, is alternately two hours S«onl 103 Septimer PadS on sentry duty and four hours in the guard-room. The outposts which secure rest to an army in the field also post sentries to watch the enemy's movements and give notice of his approach. Seoni, chief tn., Seoni dist., Central Provinces, India, 73 m. N.N.E. of Nagpur. Pop. (1901) 11,864. Seoul. See Soul. Sepal, the individual floral leaf, which helps to make up the calyx or outer whorl of the peri- anth of a flower. Separate Estate. In law, the property of a wife which is not subject to the control of her hus- band. At common law a woman practically lost her property rights upon marriage unless prop- erty was vested in her by virtue of a 'marriage settlement ' which expressly exempted it from the control of her husband. By statute in most of the United States many "of the common-law disabihties of married women are abrogated, and they may freely take, hold, and dispose of their property as if unmarried. Money saved by a wife out of her allow- ance for household expenses, etc., belongs to the husband. In some states a wife is entitled to her personal earnings, if not con- nected with her husband in business. A married woman may freely dispose of her separate estate. See Husband and Wife; Settlement. Separation. In law this term is employed in a technical sense to denote the living apart of a man and wife without an absolute divorce. It may be voluntary, as under an agreement of separation or under the decree of a court. In most states a voluntary agreement to separate will not be enforced by the courts, but if the parties have actually separated, and the agreement is to provide for the support of the wife and custody of tne children, it will generally be recognized by the courts. Judicial separation, or 'limited divorce,' will be decreed by the courts for some causes not con- stituting grounds for an absolute divorce. For example, in New York an absolute divorce will be decreed only for infidelity, whereas judicial separation will be ordered for sucn causes as cruelty or other conduct making it improper or unsafe for one spouse to live with the other. Provisions for the support of the wife and for custody of the chil- dren are usually made in such decrees. It does not dissolve the marital relation and neither party may marry again until an absolute divorce is obtained. The latter will be granted for statutory causes, although the parties have legally separated, as each is bound by the marital obligations. See Divorce. Consult Bishop, Mar- riage, Divorce and Separation. Separatists. See Communis- tic Societies in the United States. Separator, an instrument for removing any suspended water present in the steam supplied to an engine. The separation of the water is usually effected by causing the steam to pass through an arrangement of baffle plates, to which the water adheres, and from which it is drained away, usually by means of a steam trap. Separator, Cream. See Dairying. Sephardim. See Ashkenaz. Sepharvaim, ancient city of Babylonia, on 1. bk. of the Eu- phrates, 16 m. s.E. of Bagdad, now occupied by Abu-Habba; vyas called Sippara in the Assyrian inscriptions. It originally com- prised two cities, ' Sippar of the Sun-god ' and 'Sippar of Anunit.' In the temple of the sun-god many monumental and tabular inscrip- tions were discovered 'n 1881 by Hormuzd Rassam. The connec- tion of Sepharvaim with Samaria is shown in 2 Kings 17 : 31. Sepia, a dark-brown coloring matter secreted by the cuttle- fish, and employed by it to ob- scure its movements in the water when alarmed. A valuable pig- ment is prepared by dissolving the dried contents of the glands in dilute alkali, and reprecipitat- ing with an acid. Sepoy, a native Indian soldier, as distinct from the European sol- dier. Native soldiers, recruited from the higher castes only, were first used by the E. India Com- pany in the 18th century. Sepoy Mutiny. See Mutiny, Indian. Septaria, or Septarian Nod- ules, are rounded concretionary masses which occur most fre- quently in beds of clay or shale, and when broken across show a network of cracks filled, as a rule, with white calcite. They are usually composed of ferrous car- bonate (clay ironstone), in which case they have a dark-red crust when weathered; but others con- sist mainly of calcium carbonate mixed with clay. Many are found in the dark Carboniferous shales, but they are frequent also in the Cretaceous formations; and similar nodules are a com- mon feature of clays in general. Their usual size is from six inches to a foot, but examples several feet across are sometimes obtained. September. See Year. Septembrists, the instigators of the massacres in the prisons of Paris, September 2 to 7, 1792. In all, 1,368 victims perished. Septennial Act, The, which extended the possible duration of the British Parliament from three to seven years, was passed in 1716^ shortly after the accession of Cjeorge i., at a time when the Whig government desired to avoid the risk of a general elec- tion. The act, which still re- mains law, is attacked by some critics as fixing to the life of Parliament a limit too long for popular freedom. Septicaemia, a term applied to any disease caused by the introduction of septic or putrid matter into the blood. It is pre- ceded as a rule by a local lesion. Of the common symptoms the most marked are general malaise, fever, rapid pulse, restlessness, and headache. The gravest mani- festations are those exhibited by the heart and by the nervous system. Some organisms, how- ever, produce toxins whose viru- lence is directed chiefly against certain organs or tissues. Thus, the diphtheria toxin has a special tendency to attack the nervous system; the tetanus toxin has a specific action upon the motor neurones. The organisms mcst usually concerned in the produc- tion of septicaemia are either staphylococci or streptococci ; but in many cases there is a mixed infection, and not one but many organisms are found in the tis- sues. Treatment should be di- rected towards the purification of the source of the mischief. By the destruction of the local poi- son manufactory the further ab- sorption of ptomrines may be prevented. Collections of pus should be evacuated, ulcers should be dressed antiseptically, and local manifestations, like those of diphtheria, should be treated energetically. In the gen- eral treatment of septicaemia two indications should be followed. In the first place, the tissues must be strengthened in every possible way, to enable them to withstand the bacterial attack. Fresh air, sunhght, as generous diet as the patient can assimilate, and stimu- lation of the excretory organs are all essential. In the second place, a direct attack may be made upon the organism by inoculation with appropriate serum. A compara- tively small dose injected at an early stage yields far more favor- able results than do larger doses at a later period. For septicaemia anti-streptococcic serum is used. It is prepared by treating horses with six different races of strep- tococci, but has no curative effect if the disease is due to staphy- lococci. An anti-staphylococcic serum has been introduced, \ml its value cannot yet be estimated. Septimer Pass (7,582 ft.), in the Alps and Swiss canton of Orisons, is traversed by a mule path from the Julier Pass (Lake Constance) road to Val Brega- glia, and on Maloja Pass (Lake Septuageslma 104 Sepulveda Como) route. The original paved track across it was constructed in 1387. Septuagesima. See Quin- QUAGESIMA. Septuagint, The, is the earliest Greek translation of the Old Tes- tament Scriptures, made directly from the Hebrew original during the third to the first centuries b.c. for the use of the Hellenistic Jews. In Egypt, but especially ing him to send qualified inter- preters. Seventy-two were se- lected, six from each of the twelve tribes, and they finished their work in seventy-two days. The translation is not of uni- form value or of the same style throughout. The Pentateuch and later historical books, as well as the Psalms^ exhibit a fair rendering of the original. The prophetical books show /, ' .J Portion of Psalter, from Septuagint. In the British Museum. at Alexandria, Greek-speaking Jews were then numerous. Hence the traditional association of the Septuagint with Alexandria is both antecedently probable and credible. In a literary forgery produced about the Christian era, known as the Letter of Aristeas, and accepted as genuine by Jo- sephus and others, it is alleged that the translation was executed at the command of Ptolemy ii. (Philadelphus) of Egypt, who dispatched an embassy to the high priest in Jerusalem request- greater divergence from the Hebrew, while Proverbs fre- quently displays loose para- phrase. Daniel suffered so much at the translator's hands that his version of this book was event- ually set aside in favor of the later rendering by Theodotion. Even single books, such as Isaiah, show considerable differences of execution in different chapters. The style of the Greek is far from elegant; and even ^Ynen the rendering is faithtul, it is often rather literal. There is also in parts a close imitation of Hebrew expressions and constructions. In the times of Christ and His apostles the Septuagint was com- monly used even by Palestinian Jews. The writers of the New Testament frequently quote it rather than translate directly from the Hebrew. A new version was made under the auspices of the Jews by Aquila, a native of Asia Minor and a proselyte to Judaism ; but this was often crudely literal, and found little acceptance in the Christian church. It has been practically lost. Theodotion, another Jewish proselyte, made a revised edition of the Septuagint rather than a fresh translation; while Symma- chus specially aimed at reproduc- ing the Hebrew idioms in more elegant Greek. Then Origen prepared his Hexapla by placing these three versions, together with the Septuagint, in parallel columns after the (unpointed) Hebrew original and a Greek transliteration of the latter. Of the Septuagint column the greater part has been preserved in a Syriac translation (the Syro- Hexaplar); and by retranslating this into Greek we obtain an ap- proximation to the Septuagint as edited by Origen, who took care to insert certain signs at points where this version differed from the Hebrew. In Egypt another corrected edition of the Septua- gint was prepared about the same time by Hesychius; but Lucian of Antioch executed a much superior recension, which modern scholars have traced and partly reproduced. The value of the old Greek version, even in an incor- rect form, is that it frequently enables us to restore the true reading of the Hebrew. EarHer literature on the subject has been largely superseded by Swete's Introduction to the Old T esta- ment in Greek (1900); his edi- tion of The Old Testament in Greek (3 vols. 1887-94) is an advance on the work of Tischen- dorf, but the fullest is still that of Holmes and Parsons (5 vols. 1798-1827). The first part pi the large C)ambridge 4tQ ed., with variant readings, which will be the best yet issued, appeared 1906. The Concordance of Trommius has given place to that of Hatch and Redpath (1897- 1906); the best dictionary is still that of Schleusner {Lexicon in LXX., 3 vols. 1822); a grammar of Septuagint Greek is being pre- pared by H. St. John Thackeray. Sepulchral Mound. See Bar- row and Cairn. Sepulveda, Juan Ginez de {c. 1490-1574). Spanish theologian and historian, was born at Pozo- Blanco, near Cordova. He held the post of royal historiographer Sequani KFI 105 Serao from 1536, and was also precep- tor of Philip II. He bitterly at- tacked Las Casas, holding in his treatise, Dcmocratcs Seciindtis, that war on the Indians and In- dian slavery were justifiable. His works, written in Latin, in- clude histories of the reigns of Charles v and Philip ii, and trea- tises on theology. Erasmus styled Sepulveda 'the Spanish Livy.' Sequani, sek'wa-ni, tribe of ancient Gaul, who took their name from the river Sequana (the Seine), which rose in the northwestern part of their terri- tory. Their chief town was Vesontio (BesanQon). They were subdued by Caesar between 58 and 51 b.c. Sequard. See Brown-Se- QUARD. Sequestration, se-kwes-tra'- shun, a process employed by courts of equity to enforce their decrees by the seizure of prop- erty belonging to persons against whom the decrees are made. The proper officer takes the property, collects rents and profits, and ap- plies the net income to the sat- isfaction of any award in the decree, or retains it until it is de- termined to whom it belongs. The process is sometimes used to enforce obedience by a person in contempt of a court of equity. The statutory process of execu- tion has superseded it in some States, but courts of equity gen- erally retain the power to issue it. See Execution ; Equity ; Process. Sequin, se'kwin or sek'in, an Italian gold coin, the value of which was about $2.31, first minted at Venice about the close of the thirteenth century. In appearance it was not unlike the ducat. Similar coins, of varying values, were used in Turkey and in Egypt. Sequins were coined in Austria down to 1822, and at Rome and Bologna until 1834. Sequoia, se-kwoi'o, a genus of large resinous trees belonging to the order Coniferae. The trees are symmetrical in form, the trunk, a purplish brown in color, often rising a hundred feet or more without a branch. The bark is thick and consists of two layers, the outer composed of fibrous scales, the inner, thin, close, and durable. The foliage is feathery and delicate and the cones are a bright green. The Sequoia is found only in the mountains of California, where two species exist, gigantca and S. scmpcrvircns. S. gigantea, or -S'. washingtoniana, the Big Tree, has an average height of 275 feet and a diameter of 20 to 25 feet. It occurs only in small groves — ten in number — scattered along the west slope of the Sierra Ne- vada mountains, the most impor- tant of these being the Mariposa and the Calaveras groves. The Calaveras grove, discovered by John Bidwell in 1865, has be- tween 90 and 100 large trees, the tallest being the Keystone State, 323 feet, and the largest and fin- est the Empire State. There are fine specimens also in the groves in Yosemite Park (q. v.), in Sequoia National Park (q. v.), and on privately owned estates. These Big Trees are among the largest of all forest trees, and are of great age, some specimens be- ing probably from 2,000 to 3,000 years old. .S". scmpcrvircns, the Redwood, is found in a narrow strip of coast ranges from the southern part of Oregon to the Bay of Monterey. It has light, soft, red wood, close-grained, durable, and easily worked and is employed for shingles, fence- posts, railway ties, and building purposes. It is often cultivated as an ornamental tree in temper- ate European countries. Sequoia National Park, a national park of 161,597 acres, on the upper slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains of Central California, created in 1890 to preserve the groves of sequoias, which constitute its principal fea- ture. These include some 1,666,- 000 trees, of which 12,000 are more than 10 feet in diameter. The largest trees are gathered in twelve groups of many acres, and include the General Sherman tree, over 279 feet high, with a diameter of 36.5 feet ; the Abra- ham Lincoln, 270 feet high, with a diameter of 31 feet; the Wil- liam McKinley, 291 feet, with a diameter of 28 feet ; and the Dal- ton, 292 feet, with a diameter of 27 feet. Other points of interest are Twin Lakes, an admirable fishing ground on the northern border ; Hospital Rock ; Para- dise Cave ; and Elk Park. Sequoya, se-kwoi'a (c. 1760- 1843), American Cherokee In- dian, born of mixed parentage in the town of Tuskegee, near Fort Loudon, Tenn. About 1809 he began to devise an alphabet for the Cherokee tongue, and finally completed one of eighty-five characters. The invention was adopted by his tribe, and after- ward was of use to missionaries. In 1823 he took up his residence among the Cherokees west of the Mississippi, and in 1839 helped to unite the 'Old Settlers' and that portion of the tribe which had recently settled in that re- gion. Serafin, Tullio (1880- ), Italian musical conduc- tor, was born in Cavarzere. He graduated from the Conscrva- torio in Milan and made his first appearance as conductor in Verdi's A'ida in Ferrara. His debut at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City oc- curred in 1924, after which he also conducted in European capi- tals and in South America. Seraglio, se-ral'yo, the palace of the former sultans of Turkey at Constantinople, which occupies the site of ancient Byzantium. Its erection was begun in 1468; it was much enlarged by Soly- man (Suleiman) i ; and for more than three centuries was the chief residence of the Ottoman sul- tans. In 1853 Abdul-Mejid moved his residence to Dolma Bagtche Palace and the Seraglio ceased to be the imperial dwell- ing place. The Seraglio consists of a series of kiosks surrounded by a battlemented wall over three miles in circumference. The grounds rise in three ter- races, the upper containing the palace proper and the covirt of the Janissaries, and the two low- er, numerous buildings and gar- dens, among which are the Im- perial School of Fine Arts, the Museum of Antiquities, the Ki- osk of Roses, and the Church of St. Irene, now used as an armory and museum. The palace proper consists of a number of small buildings, of which the most in- teresting are the Hall of the Di- van or throne-room, the library of Mustafa in, containing many treasures, the Bagdad Kiosk, the former imperial harem, and the building of the Prophet, contain- ing some of his relics. An earth- quake in 1865 destroyed some of the buildings, and many of the kiosks have been turned to gov- ernmental uses. Seraievo. See Sarajevo. Seraing, sc-rafi', town, Bel- gium, province of Liege, on the River Meuse ; 3 miles s.w. of Liege. The Cockerill engineer- ing and machinery works, found- ed here in 1817 by John Cocker- ill, an Englishman, occupy some 270 acres. The old palace of the prince-bishops of Liege forms the fagade of the establishment. Pop. (1937) 43,332. Serampore, ser-um-poor', town, Hugli district, Bengal, British India, on the right bank of the Hugli; 13 miles north of Calcutta. It was originally a Danish settlement but was ceded to the East India Company in 1845. It has a Baptist college and a library, and is a center of Christian missions. Industries include cotton and silk weaving (by hand) and the making of bricks, pottery and mats. Pop. 33,197. Serang. See Cream. Serao, sa-ra'6, Matilde (1856-1927), Italian novelist, was born in Greece. She settled at Rome, married E. Scarfoglio, and with him founded // Corricre di Roma, II Corricre di Napoli, and the Neopolitan // Mattino. Serapeum KFI 106 Serbia She also founded and was direc- tor of // Giorno, Naples. Her novels, though marred by a cer- tain lack of proportion, style and finish, have achieved wide popu- larity, which they deserve by reason of the knowledge of and truth to life displayed in them. The following English transla- tions of her works have ap- peared : Fantasy (1891); Fare- well Love (1894) ; The Ballet Dancer (1901) ; On Guard (1901); The Land of Cockayne (1901) ; The Conquest of Rome (1902) ; a striking book of im- pressions of Palestine, Nel Pacse di Gesi) (Eng. trans. /;; the Country of Jesus, 1905); After the Pardon (1909). Serape'um. See Sf.rapis. Seraph, ser'af {pi. seraphim), a heavenly being mentioned only by Isaiah (vi. 2-6). As minis- ters in the ideal sanctuary, sera- phim hover over God's throne. They appear to have human fig- ures, since they have faces, feet, and hands, but each has also six wings. Their office is to pro- claim God's holiness, and to purge the sin from the prophet with the coal from the altar. The tradition which took its rise in Dionysius, the Areopa- gite, represents them at the head of the nine choirs of angels, the first rank being seraphim, cheru- bim, and throni. Seraphim. See Seraph. Seraphine, ser'a-fen, a key- board musical instrument, one of the prototypes of the harmonium ; now obsolete. Serapion, se-ra'pi-on, or Sar- APioN, Sacramentary OF, Egyp- tian pontifical, dated probably A.D. 350-356 ; published in Texte nnd Untersuehungen (1899), by Dr. G. Wobbermin, and trans- lated bv John Wordsworth (1899). It contained (1) 'Con- fession concerning the Orthodox Faith,' by Euthalius, bishop of Sulke; (2) a letter of St. Atha- nasius to the philosopher Maxi- mus ; (3) thirty prayers; (4) a dogmatic letter 'Concerning Fa- ther and Son'; (5) parts of the Septuagint, Job, the prologue of Polychronius, Wisdom of Jesus, son of Sirach, Proverbs of Solo- mon, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Songs. Appended to prayers 1 and 1 5 is the name of 'Sarapion, bishop of Thmuis,' a town in the delta of the Nile, near Lake Menzaleh (Herodotus, 2, 166). Sarapion, styled Scholasticus. wrote, besides his Confession, a treatise on the Manich.-Eans and Epistles. ^ Serapis, se-ra'pis, or Sara- pis, the name given to the sacred bull of the Egyptians, Apis (q. v.), after his death and as- similation with Osiris (q. v.), Serapis was worshipped under the Ptolemies and the Romans in Egypt and many temples were erected in his honor, among them a magnificent one in Alexandria, the Serapeum , and one at Mem- phis, which was excavated in 1850. He was represented with an animal by his side and a ser- pent coiled around his body. The worship of Serapis spread over Asia Minor, Greece, and even to Rome itself and contin- ued in Egypt until the image at and Slovenes. On October 3, 1929, the official name of the State was changed to Jugoslavia (q. v.)._ Serbia or Servia (Slavonic Srbiya), formerly a kingdom of Southeastern Europe, now the predominant state of Jugoslavia (q. v.). Its area, until the signing of the Treaty of Bucharest (1913) after the close of the Balkan Temple of Serapis al Sakkara, Memphis. Alexandria was destroved, a.d. 398. Serbati. See Rosmini-Ser- BATI. Serb-Croat-Slovene State, former name of what is now Jugoslavia (Jugo means 'South- ern'). When the old Austro- Hungarian Empire collapsed to- wards the end of the World War in 1918, Slavonia, Croatia, Dal- matia and Bosnia declared their independence and union with Serbia. Montenegro also joined, and together they formed the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats Wars (q. v.), was 18,782 square miles. That treaty added por- tions of Salonica (q. v.) (1,795 square miles), Monastir (3,473 square miles), and Kossovo (9,- 973 S(iuare miles) ; and subse- quent boundary adjustments brought the area of Old Serbia (1921) to 42,098 square miles. A free zone in the harbor of Salonica was obtained by Serbia from Greece in 1923. Topography . — In contour, Serbia is a table land intersected by valleys and traversed by mountain ranges. The high- CoppTigia bo PnbHshers^ Pboto Service. GENERAL SHERMAN, THE GIANT SEQUOIA, SEQUOIA NATIONAL This tree is over 279 feet high, with a diameter of 36 5 feet Vol. Xl.-Oct. '21 XL- i I Serbia KFI 107 Serbia lands of Eastern Serbia form the transition between the Transyl- vanian Alps and the Balkans. The mountains of the western part belong to the Dinaric Alps and are covered with dense for- ests. The loftiest peaks are Pobyezdin Potok (6,950 feet) and Midzor (7,170 feet), on the Bulgarian frontier. The princi- pal rivers are the Danube, the Save, the Drina and the Timok, which form parts of the northern and eastern boundaries ; the Morava, with its tributaries, flowing into the Danube ; and the Vardar, which empties into the Gulf of Salonica. The val- leys of the Morava and Vardar form together a route of com- munication from the Danube to the port of Salonica. Mineral and hot springs are abundant. The climate is temperate, but subject to extreme variations, and the winters are sometimes severe. The anntial rainfall is about 25 inches. Natural Resources. — There are great forests which, until recent years, covered three-quar- ters of the country, but with the extension of arable land these are being greatly reduced. They consist chiefly of beech, oak, fir, walnut and chestnut. Minerals are found chiefly in the north. Lakes Okhrida, Presba and Doi- ran in the south are noted for fish. The potential mineral wealth is enormous. Rich supplies of copper, coal, lignite, iron, lead, antimony, gold, silver, zinc, mer- cury and petroleum are avail- able. Industries. — The soil is fer- tile, and agriculture is the chief occupation, employing more than 80 per cent of the population. Most of the farms are small pri- vate holdings. Maize is the sta- ple article of food, and is widely cultivated, as are also other cere- als, beetroot, plums, tobacco and hemp. Vineyards produce much wine and employ, with silk cul- ture, many people. Stock-raising is profitable ; pigs are largely bred, and there are State-owned stud farms. Serbian horses are small, but of great endurance. Flour mill- ing is one of the principal in- dustries ; others include sugar, textiles, leather, vegetable oils, brewing, and distilling. Of the large quantities of plums grown the bulk is exported as fresh fruit, as prunes and in marma- lade. From plums the Serbs make a brandy which they call slivovits. Serbian wines are inferior in (|uality, but are ex- ported to France, where they are improved and re-exported as 'Bordeaux.' Carpet weaving, one of the oldest industries, still flourishes, chiefly at Pirot, and Serbian rugs are highly esteemed for their fine coloring and solid workman- ship. Cloth weaving, tanning, boot making, pottery, iron work- ing, sugar refining, and meat packing are carried on. Commerce. — Since the forma- tion of the Jvigoslav State, sepa- rate statistics for Serbia are un- obtainable. The exports were shipped principally to Austria- Hungary, Germany and Turkey. Imports were received principally from Austria-Hungary, Ger- many, and the United Kingdom. Since the World War, trade which was formerly chiefly car- ried on with Austria, has gone to other countries. Transportation. — There were two principal railway lines : one running from Belgrade through Nish to Vranya, and forming part of the important route from Western Europe to Constantinople ; the other run- ning south from Nish through the Morava-Vardar valley to- ward Salonica. Additional lines connected Mitrovitza with the main line at Skoplje, and Monas- tir with Salonica. The total mileage in December, 1913, was about 1,000. River navigation is confined to the Danube, Drina, and Save Rivers, a total of 400 miles. The country is equipped with telegraph, telephone, and postal facilities. The roads, neglected during the Turkish occupation, have been much improved. People. — The Serbians are a Slavic people, forming the chief population not only of Serbia, but of Montenegro, Bosnia, and Croatia. Other peoples found in Serbia are Turks, Bulgarians, Greeks, Jews, Albanians, and Gypsies. In December, 1920, the population numbered 4,- 393,315. The principal towns of Old Serbia are Belgrade (capi- tal, and now capital of Jugo- slavia), Monastir, or Bitolj, Nish, Kraguyevatz, Novi Pazar, Prizren, Leskovatz, Poshare- vatz, Vranya and Pirot. The religions of Serbia are, first, Serbian-Orthodox ; then follow Roman Catholic, Greek Catholic, Protestant, Moslem, and Jewish, while there was complete freedom for all creeds recognized by law. Under the Jugoslav State there have been changes in religious organization and government. Education had never reached a high stage in old Serbia, for about 85 per cent of the popula- tion was illiterate. Elementary education is now free and com- pulsory, and schools exist in every commune. In 1920 a uni- versity of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes was established at Ljubliana. There are numerous private schools and a government military academy. Government. — Until the for- mation of the Jugoslav State, Serbia was governed under the constitution of 1903. According to the terms of this constitution, the country was a constitutional and hereditary monarchy, the executive power being vested in the king and a cabinet of eight members, and the legislative power in the king and the Na- tional Assembly, consisting of 166 deputies. Besides this body there was a Senate of 16 mem- bers — 8 chosen by the king and 8 by the National Assembly — which acted as a permanent council. The army was reorganized in 1916, but the war had caused such great losses in killed and missing that when it ended the army was demobilized and a new organization, on a small scale, commenced. In 1919 a new army of Jugoslavia was begin- ning to take shape and in 1920 this amounted to 200,000 men. Military service is still universal and compulsory. History. — The original home of the Croats and Serbs, or Ser- bians, seems to have been the country adjoining the Carpathi- ans. Their history begins in A.D. 638, when they migrated into Illyricum and part of Moesia. The Croatian branch of the family was ruled by bans till annexed to Hungary. The Serbs were governed by a series of petty rulers till the time of Stephen Nemanya (1159-96), who became a monk, and aban- doned the government to his son Stephen. The reign of Stephen Dushan, who succeeded in 1331, is memorable for his successful campaigns against the Greeks, and the code of laws which he issued in 1349. Under his rule Serbia reached the summit of power. He died in 1355, and was succeeded by his son Urosh. The Nemanya dynasty closed with the death of Urosh (c. 1371). On June 15, 1389, the Serbs were defeated at the Battle of Kossovo (the Field of Black- birds), in which Lazar, their prince, was killed, and the Ser- bian monarchy came to an end. The Turkish Sultan, Murad, the conqueror, was stabbed on the field of battle by the Serb Milosh Obilich. After this, Serbia be- came a Turkish province. In 1691 large bodies of Serbs set- tled in Hungary, where their de- scendants still exist ; others fol- lowed in 1738 and 1788. Aus- tria gained a considerable part of Serbia by the Treaty of Posh- arevatz (Passarwitz) in 1718, but lost it again by the Treaty of Belgrade in 1739. Serbia KFI 108 Serbia The Serbs groaned under the Turkish yoke till the beginning of the nineteenth century. At length the exasperated people, goaded to desperation, rose in 1804 under the leadership of Kara George, a rich swine owner and a man of influence, who by 1807 stormed and took posses- sion of Belgrade and the other fortresses. In 1813 the Turks assailed Serbia on both sides with such vigor that Kara George fled to Austria, and the enemy recovered the country. Turkish oppression again pro- voked an uprising of the people in 1815 ; they chose as their lead- Michael (1839-42), was driven out of the country by a rival fac- tion, who elected Alexander, son of Kara George, as their prince. In 1859 he was compelled to ab- dicate, his successor being the aged exile, Milosh Obrenovich. On his death, less than two years later, the chief power passed to his son Michael, who had been expelled in 1842. Under his rule a new era began for harassed Serbia, and the country moved forward along the path of prog- ress and prosperity. The Turks withdrew from the country in 1867. On June 20, 1868, Prince Michael was assassinated. He georgevitch, then in exile, was proclaimed king. In 1908 the (luestion of the union into one empire of Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Monte- negro, and other countries in which the inhabitants were large- ly Serbs, became acute on the annexation of Bosnia and Herze- govina by Austria-Hungary. Serbia demanded compensation ; demonstrations raised the na- tional feeling to fever heat, and war appeared imminent. Ulti- mately, through the efforts of the Powers, Serbia abandoned its demands against Austria-Hun- gary, while the dual monarchy er Milosh Obrenovich, a herds- man, who in a single campaign expelled the enemy except the garrisons in the fortresses. This man was henceforth the leading spirit in the struggle of the Serbs for independence. In 1817 he caused his rival Kara George, who had returned, to be assassi- nated, and was himself pro- claimed chief ruler of Serbia. In 1829 the Ottoman government at last formally agreed to the provisions of the Treaty of Bu- charest, and in the following year recognized Milosh as he- reditary prince of Serbia. In 1839 he was compelled to abdi- cate in favor of his son Milan, who died the same year. Milan's brother and successor, was succeeded by Milan iv, a grandson of Yephrem, brother of the heroic Milosh. In 1885 war broke out with Bulgaria, in which the Serbs were defeated by Prince Alexan- der (of Battenberg), ruler of Bulgaria, at Slivnitza, and at Pirot, and were saved by foreign intervention, this time that of Austria-Hungary. In 1889 King Milan abdicated in favor of his son Alexander. On the morning of July 11, 1903, a party of ofiicers, repre- senting a widespread conspiracy, broke into the palace and assas- sinated King Alexander and his queen, the queen's brother, and several others. A few weeks afterward Prince Peter Kara- declared that it harbored no un- friendly designs against Serbia. When in October, 1912, the four Balkan States of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro united against Turkey, Serbia played a most important part in the successful war that ensued (see Balkan War). According to the terms of the Treaty of London (May 30, 1913), ending the first war, each of the Balkan States was given a part of the Turkish possessions in Europe. Dissatisfaction over the division of the spoils at once developed, however. In June, 1913, Serbia and Greece formed an alliance against Bulgaria, and aided by Roumania, quickly defeated the Bulgars. By the Treaty of Bu- Serbia KFI 109 Serbian Languag^e charest (Aug. 10, 1913) Serbia received a large part of Mace- donia, which she then occupied, and territory east of Kossovo — over 15,000 square miles in all. In 1914 the deep-rooted ani- mosity between Serb and Mag- yar was brought to a head by the assassination of Crown Prince Franz Ferdinand of Austria- Hungary at Sarajevo (June 28) by a native of Herzegovina. Austria charged that the assas- sination had been arranged at Belgrade, and that the conspira- tors had been aided by Serbian officials ; and on July 6 severed diplomatic relations with Serbia. On July 28, 1914, Austria de- clared war on Serbia and on Au- gust 9 Serbia dismissed the Ger- man ambassador at her court. Austria at once began a bom- bardment of Belgrade across the Danube and the government was removed to Nish. After about two weeks of fighting, the Aus- trians were defeated and Serbian territory was cleared of them. In September, 1914, fighting was renewed, and aided by Mon- tenegro, Serbia was again able to repulse the Austrian attacks. Belgrade was evacuated by the Serbs Dec. 2, 1914, but was re- entered Dec. 14. The following year, in September, a fresh at- tack by the Austro-German army upon Serbia was started and by Oct. 9 Belgrade had fallen. Bul- garia joined in the attack against Serbia and by the middle of December the conquest of Ser- bia was complete. The Serbs had resisted valiantly for two months against odds of between two and three to one, and if they had not been forbidden by the Allies to attack the Bulgars until the latter attacked them, they might have fought with more prospect of success. Serbia was conquered, but not the Ser- bian armies. More than 100,000 men and most of the artillery and equipment had been lost. The remnant of the army and people were forced to retreat through Albania to the Adriatic coast, where they were embarked on Italian ships and conveyed to the Greek island of Corfu. Here they were recuperated and re-e(|uipped. (For the re-con- (luest of Serbia and ultimate triumph of that country with the aid of French, British, Italian and Greek allies, see Europe, Great War of). Following the War the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes united in the organization of a new State to be known as the Serb, Croat and Slovene State, or Jugoslavia (q. v.). The first ministry was formed in 1918, and the Serbian Crown Prince Alexander was ap- pointed Prince Regent to act for his father, King Peter, then 74 and broken by the hardships en- dured in the war. Peter died in 1921 and Alexander succeeded to the throne. The latter was assassinated at Marseilles, France, on Oct. 9, 1934, to- gether with Louis Barthou, French Foreign Minister. Consult H. W. V. Temperley, History of Serbia (1917) ; Z. Zi- vanovich. Political History of Serbia (4 vols., 1923-5) ; R. W. Seton- Watson, The Rise of Na- tionality in the Balkans (1917) ; idem, Sarajevo (1926) ; H. Vivi- an, Servia (1897); W. E. Cur- tis, The Turk and his Lost Provinces (1903); M. E. Dur- ham, Through the Lands of the Serb (1904) ; idem, Twenty Years of Balkan Tangle (1920) ; A. Stead (ed.), Servia by the Servians (1909) ; Lazarovich- Hrebelianovich, The Servian People: Their Past Glory and their Destiny (2 vols.. 1910) ; Chedomil Mijatovich, Servia of the Servians (1913); L. F. Church, The Story of Serbia (1914); K. S. Patton, King- dom of Serbs, Croats and Slo- venes (1928). Serbian Langauge and Lit- erature. The Serbian language belongs to the southern division of Slav tongues, having for its nearest congeners Bulgarian, Slovenian, and Russian ; and it is the language of the Croats, Montenegrins, and Bosniaks. (See Slavs), The earliest productions in the Serbian language date from the twelfth century, and consist of monkish chronicles and letters ; in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries various lives of the saints and kings, and annals, were written by Stephen Ne- manya, St. Sava, Archbishop Danilo, Lazarevich Vissoki, and others. To this period, also, belongs the collection of laws (Zakonik) made in 1349, when Stephen Dushan was king. Except for biographical and historical works there were scarcely any original literary cre- ations in the first period of Serbian literary history, but in the second period the fine col- lection of ballads which has be- come celebrated throughout Eu- rope seems to have been in proc- ess of formation. The first col- lection was published in 1824 by Vuk Stephanovich Karajich, who was mainly instrumental in raising Serbian to the dignity of a literary language. During this second period Ragusa (Dubrovnik) was a great center of Slavonic culture. Its development was chiefly due to the proximity of the richly en- dowed Italian cities. The main products were lyrical poetry and the lyrical drama. Among the poets may be mentioned Marko Marulich (1450-1524); Lucie (1480-1540); Hektorovich (1486-1572) ; Cubranovich (d. c. 1550), the author of Vegyupka, or the Gypsy ; and Zlatarich (1556-1610). The chief poet was Gundulich (1550-1638), whose epic Osman celebrates the victory of the Poles over the Turks at Khotin. In spite of the galling Turkish yoke, which checked all national feeling, the Serbs had not entire- ly forgotten their past. Dositei Obradovich (1739-1811) and Yovan Raich (1720-1801) were two considerable scholars who la- bored for the welfare of their countrymen. The former was the first author among the Serbs who emphasized the necessity of writing in the language of the people, and so prepared the way for Vuk Stephanovich Karajich (1787-1864), who published a grammar and a dictionary of his native language. Some remark- able writers followed, such as Mushitski (1777-1837) and Mil- utinovich (1791-1847). The most celebrated of the poets of modern times have been Stanko Vraz (1810-51), by birth a Slo- vene ; Radichevich, who died (1853) at the age of twenty- nine ; Petar Petrovich Nyegosh (1813-1851), the author of Gor- ski Viycnats, a drama in verse describing the life of the Mon- tenegrins ; Yovan Yovanovich (1833-1904), and Gyoora Yak- shich (1832-1878), a painter as well as a poet. Other modern names, well and favorably known, are those of Laza Kostich, Prince Nikola Petrovich Nyegosh of Monte- negro, poets ; Dragootin Ilich, Milosh Glishich, Branislav Noo- shich, and Kosta Trifkovich, dramatists ; Vidakovich, Yakov Ignyatovich, Lazarevich, Lyoo- bisha, Milichevich, Vookiche- vich, Vesselmovich, Srematz and Matavooly, novelists and short story writers ; Dr. Josif Pan- chich, botanist ; and Stoyan Novakovich, Lyooba Kovache- vich, Yovan Tomich, Illaryon Roovarats, and Chedo Mija- tovich, historians. Since the establishment of Jugoslavia there has grown up a movement towards unity and co-operation among the literati writing in Serbo-Croat and Slo- vene langviages. The Universi- ties of Belgrade and Zagreb have energetically fostered the move- ment which may, in time, de- velop a truly national or Jugo- slav literature. Women, too, have entered the fields of poetry and fiction. Most of the refer- ence and historical works on this subject are published in Slavonic languages and German ; a few in French. One of the rare Eng- lish works is by M. S. Stano- Serbs KFI 110 Sergeant jevitz, Early Jugoslav Litera- ture, A.D. 1100-1800 (vol. I, 1922) ; M. Murko, Geschichte dcr dltern siidslavischcn Litcra- turcn (1908); for grammars and dictionaries of the Serbo- Croat language see the works of W. R. Morfill and Chedomil Mi- jatovich, the latter formerly Ser- bian Minister to Great Britain ; F. R. Bogadek, Standard Eng- lish Croatian Dictionary (1915). Serbs. See Serbia. Sercq. See Sark. Serdobsk, ser-dopsk', town, province of Saratov, East Rus- sia ; 97 miles northwest of Sara- tov city. It has breweries, brick works, and potash manufacture. Serein, sf-ran', the name name given to rain or snow fall- ing from a cloudless sky. The precipitation is almost invaria- bly small in amount and gen- erally of brief duration. The phenomenon is unusual, and is not well understood. It has been observed at Geneva and Con- stantinople, and a number of times in America, and, according to M. Gentil, it is not vmcom- mon in Mauritius. Some re- puted cases are doubtless due to snow or rain brought by the wind from a cloud too small and remote to be observed. Serena. See La Serena. Serena, Clara (1901- _ ), British operatic contralto singer, was born in Adelaide, South Australia, and received her train- ing at the Royal College of Music in London, in Germany and Italy. She made her dcbtit in London in 1923, and in 1924 created the title role in Alkcstis, at Covent Garden ; appeared in Vienna, Paris and Berlin in 1926, and in 1928 sang before King George v and Queen Mary at Queen's Hall, London, and later on concert platforms in the British Isles and in India. Serenade, ser-e-nad', an eve- ning song, from the Italian sera. Hence music intended to be sung or played at night, especially a song by a lover to his mistress .beneath her window. The music should be simple and melodious and accompanied by some kind of instrument. 'Deh vieni alia finestra' in Don Giovanni is a perfect example of a serenade. Serenus, reputedly 'of Antis- sa,' an ancient Greek geometer, of whose work very little has survived, one entitled On the Section of the Cylinder and an- other, On the Section of the Cone. They were supposedly written during the fourth cen- tury ; and were edited by Ed- mund Halley in 1710. A criti- cal edition was published by J. L. Heiberg at Leipzig in 1896. Serenus also wrote commenta- ries on Apollonius of Perga, another Greek geometer, who lived about 600 years before him. Serenus, Sammonicus, a Ro- man scholar, who wrote a long didactic medical poem Dc mcdi- cina Pracccpta, containing a number of old popular remedies and magical formulae, including the still famous word Abracada- bra, suposed to cure fever and ague. Consult W. S. Teuffel, History of Roman Literature (1900). Serer, a hardy people of Sene- gal, French West Africa. They are marked by coarse, heavy features and speak a language of mixed Fulani and Wolof. They have neither slaves nor an arti- san class. They practice an animistic religion, believe in sorcery and trial by ordeal. They marry exclusively within their own tribes. Seres, ser'es, or Siris, town, Macedonia, Greece, 45 miles northeast of Salonica. It is the center of the Macedonian cotton industry and exports cotton, to- bacco, hides, and cocoons. It is the see of an archbishop of the Greek Church. During the World War Seres was surren- dered to the Bulgarians (August, 1916), but was finally recap- tured by the Greeks during the Allied advance (October, 1918). Pop. about 40,000, preponderant- ly Greek, made up largely by refugees from Smyrna after the Turks drove out the Greeks in 1922. Seres, sa'ras, or Seri, sa're, a people of Mexico, in the State of Sonora and the adjacent island of Tiburon in the Gulf of Cali- fornia. They were scarcely known, except by name, before 1895, when they were visited by M'Gee, who describes them as perhaps the most debased of all the North American Aborigines. Most of their food is eaten raw ; they have no domestic animals save the dog, are totally without agriculture, and have scarcely any industrial arts. Consult Seventeenth Annual Report, U. S. Bureau of Ethnology. Sereth, ser-et', river, tribu- tary of the Danube, rises as the Great and Little Sereth in Buk- owina in the Carpathians and flows southeast through Molda- via, to join the Danube on the left bank, 5 miles above Galatz, after a course of 291 miles. Its chief tributaries are the Suczava, Moldava, Trotus, Berlat, and Bistritz. Serf, a cultivator of the soil, who was attached to the estate on which he lived, was trans- ferred with it, and might not quit it. Serfdom was a characteris- tic feature of the social and eco- nomic organization of the middle ages. It was the intermediate stage between slavery and per- sonal freedom. With the bar- barian invasions of the third and fourth centuries the suoply of slaves in Rome was reduced, and a rehabilitation of free labor took place. Rural slaves became merged in the coloni, who paid a fixed proportion of the produce to the owner of the estate and gave a definite amount of labor on the portion of the domain which they kept in their own hands. In the constitution of Constantine, a.d. 332, the colonus was recognized as definitely at- tached to the land. If he aban- doned it he was brought back and punished, he might not marry out of his domain, and, though he might possess property of his own, he might not alienate it without the consent of his mas- ter. With the rise of the feudal system (q. v.), the institution of serfdom reached its highest de- velopment. It died out gradu- ally in England without any special legislation against it, the latest deed of enfranchisement being one by Elizabeth in 1574. In Scotland the workers in coal and salt mines were in a state of serfdom until the reign of George III. In France serfdom contin- ued till the Revolution ; and it was not until the beginning of the 19th century that Baron von Stein secured its complete aboli- tion in Germany. In March, 1863, twenty-three million serfs were emancipated in Russia by the ukase of Alexander ii pub- lished in 1861. The characteris- tic feature of the Russian Emancipation Act was that the peasants, as distinguished from household servants, were given not only personal freedom but allotments in land in certain proportions to their former holdings. The former landown- ers were indemnified by the State, and the peasants were to redeem the loan by annual payments ex- tending over a period of years. The Crimean War was instru- mental in bringing about this emancipation. See further un- der Slavery and Serjeanty. Consult Ingram's History of Slavery. Serge, a cloth of twilled worsted, much used as material for both men's and ' women's clothing. Sergeant, sar'j(?nt, Adeline (1851-1904), English _ novelist whose full name was Emily Fran- ces Adeline Sergeant, was born at Ashbourne in Derbyshire. She was educated as a teacher, but in 1884 abandoned the profession for that of literature. She wrote a large number of novels, includ- ing No Saint (1886). Jacobi's Wife (1887), The Idolmakcr (1897) , Miss Betty's Mistake ( 1 898) , Barbara's MonVy ( 1 902) , The Mystery of the Moat (1905), Sergeant 111 Consult and Reparation (1905) Life, by W. Stephens. Sergeant, John (1710-49). American missionary, was boni in Newark, N. J. He was grad- uated from Yale in 1729 and after acting as tutor there (1731 35) began in 1735 to preach to the Indians in what is now Berkshire county, Mass. in 1736, when the Indians sold their lands to the province, they re- tained an area six miles square m the present town of Stockbridge. Sergeant was given a vested in- terest in the town and ordained 'settled missionary to the In- dians.' He estabUshed a manual training school shortly before his death. Among his works are translations of parts of the Old and most of the New Testament into the Indian language, a Letter on the Indians, and a Sermon. ^ Sergeant-at-Arms, in a delib- erative body, as the U. S. Sen- ate or House of Representatives, an official who is responsible for the maintenance of order. Each house appoints its own sergeant- at-arms; and this Is the practice in the State legislatures as well. In the British ParUament, the sergeants-at-arms of both houses are appointed by the crown. _ Sergeant-at-T.aw, a barrister of high standing in the common- law courts of England. Until the middle of the nineteenth cen- tury sergeants-at-law had the ex- clusive right to practice in the court of common pleas and until 1873 every judge of a common- law court had first to be created a sergeant-at-law. After that tune the office was virtually at an end. Sergeant-fish (Rachycenlron canadus), so called from its broad lateral stripes, is a large, edible fish, from 4 to 5 feet in length, in- habiting warm waters. In sum- mer it is found as far north as Cape Cod and is common south of Chesapeake Bay. It is also known as the crab-eater and the cobia. ^ , Sergei Alexandre vitch, sar gye-e (1859-1905), grand duke of Russia, fourth son of Alexander II entered the army, went through the Russo-Turkish War (1877-8), and was appointed gov- ernor-general and commander of the troops in Moscow. A strong autocrat and reactionist, his zeal was directed chiefly against the Jews. He was believed to have urged his nephew Nicholas li. to maintain his autocracy intact; and when it seemed likely that the emperor would make concessions, Sergei resigned the governor-gen- eralship, but retained his military command. This deepened the impression that he was the leader of the reactionary party, and he was singled out by the terrorists and assassinated at Moscow on Feb. 17. 1005. Sergei, s^r'gel, Johann lo- VOL. XI.— Oct. '21 BIAS (1740-1814), Swedish sculp- tor, was born in Stockholm. At Rome he carved, in marble, a Faun, Diomedes stealing the Pal- ladium, Cupid and Psyche, Mars and Venus, and the colossal his- torical group. Chancellor Oxen- stierna relating to History the Ex- ploits of Gustavus Adolphus. He also modelled the statue of Gus- tavus III. which the city of Stock- holm cast in bronze in 1796. Sergievsky Posad, town, Moscow, Russia, 45 miles north- east of Moscow, famous for its monastery, which is a great re- sort of pilgrims. Pop. 30,000. Serginsk,ser-gensk', Upper and Lower, two towns, Perm, Rus- sia, the seat of extensive iron works. Pop. 30,000^ Serglpe, ser-zhe'pa, coast state of Brazil, lying northeast of Bahia. Between the sandy coast lands and the mountains are considerable areas of fruitful country, and on the west side ot the latter are pastures. Forest products are obtained, and cot- ton, coffee, corn, rice, and sugar are cultivated, large quantities of the last -mentioned being ex- ported to North America. Graz- ing is the favorite occupation of the halfbreeds. Aracaju is the capital. Area, 15,090 square miles. Pop. (1920) 535.094. Sergius, sur'ji-us. the name ot four popes of the Roman Catho- lic Church. Sergius i. (687-701) sent St. Willibrord as apostle to the Fris- ians, and baptized King Cead- walla of Wessex at Rome. Sergius ii. (844-7) succeeded Gregory iv. During his pontifi- cate Rome was ravaged by Sara- cens. , - , Sergius hi. (904-911) fol- lowed Theodore ii. in 897. but was not recognized by the em- peror, who set up an antipope. Sergius overthrew the antipope in 904. SerGUIS IV. (1009-12) was elected Pope in 1009. but was merely a tool in the hands of the patrician families of Rome. Seri. See Seres. Sericite, ser'i-sit. a pale-gray or greenish, silky-looking mica, which occurs mostly in mica- schist gneiss, and other meta- morphic rocks. It is often mis- taken for talc, but may be dis- tinguished by its slightly greater hardness and the absence of the smooth, unctuous feel which char- acterizes talc. It is one of the resultant products in the altera- tion of orthoclase feldspar; and granites are sometimes observed to pass into sericite gneisses and schists. Sericulture. See Silk. Seriema, ser-i-e'ma. or Car- lAMA. a large, long legged, crested bird of Eastern South America, somewhat resembling the cranes and bustards. It is about 32 inches Series long, yellowish gray, with narrow cross bands and black wings and tail. It lives among the high grasses of the campos, running swiftly to avoid capture and tak- ing wing most reluctantly. It feeds on snakes, insects, and cat- erpillars. The cry is loud and unpleasant. There are two spe- cies, C. Cristala and C. burmets- teri. Series, in mathematics, is any succession of terms all of which are particular cases of a general type, arranged according to a definite rule. For example, the sum of the squares of the natural numbers is a series whose general term is of the form «2. It may be indicated by writing down the first few terms, 12+22-f 3H .2+ etc; and the sum of the series will 'depend upon the number of terms taken into account. In this case the sum steadily in- creases the greater the number of terms included, and can be made greater than any assigned num- ber by going far enough. It is an example of a divergent series. On the other hand, the sum of the squares of the reciprocals of the natural numbers, viz., l+-+-+-!l+ etc., ^^22~32 ' 4'* ' forms a series which, however far it is taken, never exceeds a certain limit. Such a series is called a convergent series. Con- vergent series are of great prac- tical importance in the evaluation of functions such as logaritnms, sines, tangents, and so forth. The convergency of a series may be independent of the algebraic signs of the successive terms. The series is then said to be absolutely convergent. But m many cases the convergency de- pends upon the fact that the successive terms are alternately positive and negative. This gives the semi-convergent or (as Stokes originally called it) the acciden- tally-convergent series. A simple example of a semi-convergent series which becomes divergent when the signs are all positive is 1-^ + ^-i + i-etc- The con- vergency may be proved kme- matically by imagining a move- ment through, say, one inch to the right, then half an inch to the left, then a third to the right, a fourth to the left, a fifth to the right, and so on. As the process is indefinitely continued, it soon becomes evident that the finish must be somewhere short of three-fourths. On the other hand, the sum of the reciprocals of the successive natural numbers may be easily proved to be diver- gent. This particular series is an example of harmonic pro- gression. The arithmetical and geometrical progressions are spe- cial types of series, probably the Serlnagar best known and most useful of all. The theory of series is of fundamental importance in the higher developments of mathe- matical analyses. Serinagar. See Srinager. Seringapatam, ser-ing'ga-pa- tam', town Mysore state, India, on an island in the Cauvery river; 8 miles north of Mysore. The former capital (1610-1799) of Mysore, its fort was built by Tipu (Tippoo) Sahib, who lost his life in defending it against the British in 1799. The ruins of Tipu's palace still exist. Pop. 9,300. Seringham. See Srirangam. Seriphos se-ri'phos, one of the Greek islands known as the Cyclades in the ^gean Sea. In Greek legend it was the place of refuge of Danae and her son Per- seus. In historical times it was inhabited by Ionian colonists from Athens. The modern is- land of Seripho has an area of 26 square miles and a population of about 3,000. It yields wine and iron. Serjeanty, sar'jen-ti. Grand, a form of tenure under the feudal law in England, whereby the ten- ant held lands of the king in re- turn for feudal services in person, as carrying the king's banner, or carrying his sword at coronation. Tenure by petty serjeanty re- quired the subject to furnish some weapon, as a dagger or ar- row, to the king each year. The recognition of the king as lord of the land was the basis of this tenure. It was abolished in 1660. See Tenure. Sermon. See Preaching. Ser'otlne ( Vesperugo seroti- nus), a large, long -eared bat, oc- curring in the United States and Europe. In France it is com- monly found among piles of wood in the timber yards of Paris, and in forests, where it flies among tall trees. Serous Fluids are those se- creted by serous membranes or by serous glands. The fluid se- creted by serous membranes is derived from the blood, and in appearance and character is sim- ilar to lymph. It contains fib- rinogen, and is capable of coagu- lation, the clot being colorless and consisting of fibrin and white corpuscles. In dropsy the balance between secretion and absorption is disturbed, and the serous fluid may be enor- mously increased. The fluids derived from the serous glands contain, in addition to their spe- cific ferments, albumin, but no mucin. Serous Membranes are closed sacs around serous cavities, which have no communication with the exterior of the body. The peritoneum in the female is an apparent exception, since communication exists between Vol. XI.— Oct. '21 112 the pelvic cavity and the interior of the uterus by means of the Fallopian tubes. But this com- munication is patent only for the passage of the ovum, and does not permit of interchange of fluids between the cavities dur- ing life. The chief serous mem- branes are the peritoneum, pleura, pericardium, and the brain membranes. They con- sist of a layer of transparent, squamous, nucleated cells known as endothelial, supported upon a deeper layer of fibrous tissue containing blood capillaries and lymph vessels. There is a close relationship between the endo- thelium lining serous cavities and that which covers the inner stirfaces of blood-vessel and syn- ovial sacs, a point of importance in the pathology of some diseases. Ser'ow, the Eastern name for the goat-antelope, of the family Nemorhedince. The serow is closely allied to the goral (q. v.) , but is shaggier and shows minor differences in the skull forma- tion. The Common Serow {H. hubalinus), found in India, is a fierce looking animal about the size of a donkey, with large ears, coarse black or grizzled hair, and long curving horns. It is a shy, solitary creature, delighting in the steepest, most rocky places, and is savage and dangerous when brought to bay. Other common species, all of them smaller than the common serow, are N. sumatrensis, found in Ti- bet, Siam, Burma, and Sumatra; N. crispus, of Japan: N. swin- hoei, of Formosa. ^ Serpa Pinto, ser'pa pen'too, Alexandre Alberto da Rocha (1846-1900), Portuguese ex- plorer, was born in the castle of Polchras on the Douro. Being entrusted with the command of a scientific expedition to South Africa, he traversed the conti- nent from west to east (1877), the result of his travels being How I Crossed Africa (1881). In 1884—6 he explored the country between Mozambique and Lake Nyasa, and in 1889 became gov- ernor of Mozambique. He failed in his attempt (1889-90) to bring Matabeleland under the domin- ion of Portugal. Serpens, s{ir'penz, an ancient constellation representing the snake grasped by Ophiuchus. The chief star. Cor Serpentis, is of 2.7.5 magnitude; 2, 6, and 55 Serpentis are close pairs divided by Bumham; the wide physical couple, d Serpentis, shows some light-fluctuations; R and S are long-period variables; d Serpentis changes in a double cycle of 8.7 days. The gloVjular cluster Mes- sier 5, containing eighty-five va- riables, lies near the star 5 Ser- pentis. Serpent. See Snakes. Serpent, a now almost obso- Serpentine lete form of wind-instrument, curved to resemble somewhat a wriggling serpent, and said to have been invented in 1590 by Edme Guillaume, a French can- on. It is about eight feet long, consists of conical sections of wooden tube held together by a covering of leather, and contains Serpent. a cupped mouthpiece like that in the bass trombone. Parts for the serpent are now usually played upon the ophicleide. Serpentaria, or Virginian Snake-root. See Aristolo- CHIA. Serpent Eagle (Spilornis), a large, dark brown, crested eagle, found chiefly in the Himalays.s and the Indian peninsula. It is sedentary and arboreal in its habits and is not often seen on the wing. Its food consists chiefly of snakes and other rep- tiles, whence comes its name. The best known species is S. cheela. The name serpent eagle is sometimes applied to the har- rier eagle (Circaetus gallicus) . Serpentine, sur'pen-tin or ten, H4Mg3Li209, a greenish, rather soft mineral with a dull, greasy or waxy lustre, occurring in Sweden, Silesia, Canada, the United States (Pennsylvania, Connecticut. New York, Ver- mont), and elsewhere. It has a specific gravity of 2.5 and a hard- ness of 2.5 to 4. It is commonly formed by the hydration of per- idotite. It is found in various shades of green, also yellow, gray, red, brown and black, and is of- ten spotted or mottled. There are several varieties; Common Serpentine, dark colored and abundant; Precious Serpentine, greenish and translucent, some- times used as a gem ; Chrysotile (q. v.), or fibrous serpentine, con- sisting of fine parallel fibres, the chief source of asbestos (q. v.) ; and Verd-antique (q. v.). Serpentine, The, an artificial sheet of water in Hyde Park, London, England, constructed sCt the instance of Queen Caroline, consort of George Ii. Serpent Mound KR 113 Sertularta Serpent Mound, a work of the Mount Builders, in Adams county. Ohio. Built in the form of a serpent, with a small oval mound lying between its dis- tended jaws, it extends 1,000 feet in length, has a breadth of 30 feet and is 4 feet high. It curves but little except at the tail, which has a triple curl. Serpent Worship, or Ophi- olatry. The cult of the serpent exists in many forms and among many peoples. The peculiar form of the serpent, its often remark- able beauty, its reputed power to charm, its mystery, the dangerous character of its bite, its ability to renew its si .in, suggestive of longevity or even immortality, and its rapid and stealthy means of locomotion, combine to make it one of the most admired and most dreaded of animals, and to give it a wide reputation for wis- dom and power. The cobra and the asp were worshipped from earliest times. A large living snake was kept at the Aescula- pium at Alexandria and one at the temple of Metele in the Nile Delta. In Greece serpents were regarded as guardians of graves, sanctuaries, and dwellings, and their presence in such places and in various religious rites suggests that certain of the Greek deities had once been worshipped as snakes. Serpent worship seems to have been established in Rome about 291 B.C. Serpent workship is undoubt- edly more general in India now than in any other portion of the world, probably because of the large number of reptiles found there and the great loss of life caused by them. The serpent is also worshipped throughout Africa, especially in Dahomey, though the advance of civiliza- tion is destroying the cult there; temples have occasionally been built and dedicated to serpents in China and Japan, and Egypt and Syria are rich in snake symbolism though evidences of actual wor- ship are less abundant there. Among certain of the North American Indians the 'snake dance' is a characteristic cere- monial (see MoQUi). In Central America living snakes are wor- shipped, and in Mexico the snake is an important religious symbol. Consult Ferguson, Tree and Ser- pent Worship; Cooper, The Ser- pent Myths of Ancient Egypt; Wake, Serpent Worship and Other Essays; Sampson. The Message of the Sun and the Cult of the Cross and Serpent; Oldham, The Sun and the Serpent; Brinton, Myths of the New World. Serpukhov, syer'pdo-kof, town and river port, Russia, Moscow government, on the Oka; 57 miles south of Moscow. It has a catherdal dating from 1710, and manufactures paper, textiles, leather, and chemicals. Pop. (1939) 90,766. Serpula, siir'pQ-la, a genus of Polychaete worms, of the family Serpulidae whose members con- struct coiled calcareous tubes, of a whitish color, which are at- tached to stones or shells. The worms bear on the anterior re- gion a crown of gills, often beau- tifully colored, which protrude from the mouth of the tube. On an alarm the gills are instantly withdrawn, and the mouth of the tube is closed by a plug called the operculum. In Serpula ver- micularis, found in fairly deep water, the tube is tapering, about three inches long, and often pink- ish in color. In shallow water occurs Pomatoceros triqueter, in which the tube is adherent and keeled on its upper surface. A much smaller and exceedingly abundant form is Spirorbis, in which the tube forms a minute flat spiral, which is fastened to weed. Serra, Miguel Jose. See JUNIPERO. Serradella or Serradilla. See Bird's-foot. Serra do Mar, ser'ra do mar', mountain range, Brazil, following the coast in the states of Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, and Parana. The valley of the Parahyba River separates it from the Serra da Mantiqueira on the northwest. It is very rugged near Rio de Janeiro, where its granite peaks attain altitudes of 6,000 to 7,000 feet. It forms the watershed be- tween the narrow coastal strip and the Brazilian plateau. Serrano y Dominguez, ser- ra'no e do-men'gath, Francisco, Duke de la Torre (1810-85), Spanish statesman and general, was born in Anjonilla, near Ca- diz. He took an active part in the Carlist war (1832-9), rising from the rank of captain to briga- dier general. Having been elected a member of the Cortes (1839), he assisted Espartero in the overthrow of Queen Christina's regency, and three years later, turning against his former ally, became minister of war in the Lopez cabinet. After living quietly on his estates for a few years, he became the staunch friend of Marshall O'Donnell, who made him marshal (1856) and governor-general of Cuba (1859-62), where he assisted in the reconquest of Santo Do- mingo. Returning to Spain, he became minister of foreign af- fairs under O'Donnell and on the latter's death succeeded him as leader of the Liberal Union. Having joined Prim, Sagasta, and others in conspiring against the government of Queen Isa- bella, he was banished to the Canary Islands (1868), but, re- turiiiug in the same year, de' feat^^d the queen's troops, and, hiving driven her away into France, became the chief ruler (as regent) of Spain until the ac- cession of Amadeus (1870). He waged successful war against the Carlists in 1872 and 1874, and during the greater part of the latter year was again at the head of the government, until he re- signed the power into the hands of Alfonso xii. He was ambas- sador at Paris in 1883-4. Serra San Bruno, commune, Italy, Catanzaro province, 27 miles southwest of Catanzaro city. Pop. 6,000. Sert, or Sairt, town, Turkey, Kurdistan; 90 miles east of Diar- bekr. Pop. 6,000. _ Sertorius, sur-to'ri-us, QuiN- Tus (c. 125-72 B.C.), Roman gen- eral, was a native of Nursia. He fought in the battle of Arausio against the Cimbri in 105 B.C., and was saved only by swimming the Rhone in full armor. Next he shared in Marius' victory over the Teutones at Aquae Sextiae in 102 B.C., and showed his courage by entering the enemy's camp as a spy before the battle. In 91 he was quaestor, and did good ser- vice in the social war of 90 to 89 B.C. On the outbreak of the civil war in 8S B.C. he joined the popu- lar party, and in 87 marched with Cinna against Rome, but took no part in the massacres which followed. In 83 Sertorius was praetor; the next year he went to Spain but was forced to take ref- uge in Africa from Sulla. In 80 he was invited by the Lusita- nians to lead them against the Romans, and at the head of an army of Spanish volunteers and Roman malcontents he defeated several Roman armies in succes- sion, including one led by Pom- pey in 77. Hostilities continued until 72, when Sertorius was mur- dered by Perpenna, his second in command. By the Spaniards he was worshipped for his noble character; he even used their superstition to attach them more closely to him, professing to re- ceive his plans from Diana through a pet white fawn which always accompanied him. He was, in Mommsen's opinion, the ablest Roman before Julius Cae- sar. He was also a fine orator. Sertula'ria, sur-tu-la'ri-a, a common genus of Hydrozoa (q.v.), whose species form some of the Sea Firs. The colony is branched and fir-like in appear- ance, each tiny branch bearing a double row of sessile cups, which in life contain individual polyps. In addition to these cups tfxere are larger ones, known as gon- othecae, which carry the sessile sporosacs; for sertularians do not give off free-swimming med- usoids, like many of their allies. Serum KR 113A Service The whole colony is fixed to stones, shells, seaweed, and the like on the sea bottom. Se'rum, a thin, alkaline, albu- minous fluid, separated from the blood during coagulation, and found in small quantities as exu- dation from serous membranes (see Blood). Serum Therapy. Serum therapy consists in the produc- tion of a state of passive immu- nity by the injection of the blood serum of an animal, commonly the horse, that has itself been made actively immune by treat- ment with large doses of a specific bacterium or its prod- ucts. Human serum from con- valescent patients is likewise occasionally employed. (See Immunity.) There are two kinds of protective serums used in the treatment of disease. The one kind is an antitoxic serum which neutralizes bacterial toxins, and the other is an anti-bacterial serum which prevents the mul- tiplication of the bacteria in the tissues. The chief antitoxic serums are the diphtheria anti- toxin, the tetanus antitoxin, and antivenene; the chief anti-bac- terial serums are the anti-strep- tococcic, the anti-cholera, anti- typhoid, and the anti-plague serums. The serums are supplied, as a rule, in the liquid form, and they are administered by subcutane- ous or intravenous or intraspinal injection, which must be done with the strictest antiseptic precautions. Since antitoxic sera act quickly, they may be used after a disease has set in, not merely as a prophylactic. Serum therapy is applied as a prophylactic as well as a curative agent, however, in cases where there has been probable exposure to infection. It has been shown experimentally that a much smaller quantity of serum is re- quired to protect an animal when the injection is made soon after infection than at a later period, and it has been found that after a certain time no amount of serum, however large, is effica- cious. Clinical experience bears out these observations. In the later stages of a disease the ad- ministration of a serum is of little value; the earlier the treat- ment is adopted the better the chance of recovery. The value of serum therapy has been most thoroughly estab- lished in the case of diphtheria, and the details of treatment are described under that head. (See Diphtheria.) It need only be pointed out here that diphtheria antitoxin, first prepared by Beh- ring and Kitasuto in 1890, has reduced the fatality of this dis- ease from between 2r) and 40 per cent to about 2 per cent for cases immunised within the first two days. The antitoxin for tetanus is essentially similar to that used for diphtheria, but on account of the rapid develop- ment of this disease it is of little value unless administered very early. Intraspinal inoculation has given particularly favorable results in the use of this serum. The treatment of cerebro- spinal meningitis with Flexner's serum, obtained from horses im- munized with several strains of meningococcus resulted in a reduction of the mortality rate from 70 per cent to 18 per cent. Also other types of meningitia responded more favorably to this therapy than to former methods of treatment, but recently ad- vances in chemotherapy have yielded such brilliant results in the treatment of infections, that serotherapy has been almost en- tirely superseded by the use of sulfonamides and antibiotics. However, some infections prove resistant to the new drugs and in such instances serotherapy still has its indications. The vi- rus infections will not respond to chemotherapy, and in many conditions a combination of chemotherapy and serotherapy will yield best results. Inten- sive scientific research will prob- ably lead to a clear indication for each of these methods or their combined use in the differ- ent infections. The cures ef- fected by serotherapy were as sensational in their day as those now being obtained with the new drugs, and the two methods should be regarded rather as supplementing than as excluding each other. Reference must be made to the ill effects which sometimes follow the use of a serum. Septic trou- bles arise if the serum is contami- nated or the injection is not made under strict antiseptic precau- tions. Apart from these avoid- able troubles, symptoms some- times arise from the mere intro- duction of an animal's serum in- to the tissues of man. These in elude rashes and articular pains; the former are usually of a pro- nounced erythematous char- acter, associated with slight fever; the joint inflammations are less common. More rarely, severe toxic symptoms, with jaundice, vomiting, collapse, rig- ors, and pyrexia, are met with. For the results of vaccine ther- apy see Vaccine Therapy. Serval, ser'val {Felis serval), a species of wild cat widely dis- tributed throughout Africa — the Bush Cat of the Cape. It is of medium size, the total length be- ing about four feet eight inches, of which the tail takes up about sixteen inches. The legs are rather long, and the coat is spotted with black spots on a light ground. Entirely black specimens, however, also occur. The fur of the serval is in great demand, and is known to furriers as Tiger Cat. Serve'tus,MiCHAEL(1511-53), or Miguel Serveto, Spanish physician and Anabaptist mar- tyr, was born at Tudela in Na- varre. In Germany he came into contact with Luther, Oecolam- padius, Bucer, and others of the Reformers; but his own views, especially in respect of the Trin- ity, were in discord both with those of the Reformers and the authoritative teaching of the Ro- man Catholic Church. The es- say in which he propounded his speculations — De Trinitatis Er- roribus (1531) — provoked con- siderable discussion. In 1536 he began to study medicine at Paris, and after a few years of wander- ing settled down to practice at Vienne (1541), where he became confidential physician to the archbishop. Meanwhile his theo- logical studies were gradually leading him to undiluted Socin- ianism. These he embodied in a work on Christianity, for which he was arrested. After a long trial, in which the influence of Calvin was exercised against him, he was condemned to be burned alive, and the sentence was car- ried out Oct. 27, 1553. Among his theological works were: Dia- logi de Trinitate (1532); Claudii Ptolemcei Alexandrini Ceograph- ica Enarratio (1535); Christian- ismi Restitutio (1553); Biblia Sacra ex Santis Paganini Tra- latione (1542). Consult J. S. Porter's Servetus and Calvin; Os- ier's Michael Servetus. Servia. See Serbia. Service. Robert William (I874- ). Canadian author, was born in Preston, England. He was educated in Scotland, and emigrated to Canada, where in 1905 he became associated with the Bank of Commerce, British Columbia. He was later transferred to White Horse, Yu- kon Territory, and to Dawson. He spent some years in travel in the far north and there gained in- spiration for his literary work. His books of verse include Songs of a Sourdough (1907); Ballads of a Chechako (1909); Rhymes of a Rolling Stone (1912) ; Rhymes of a Red Cross Man (1916); Ballads of a Bohemian (1921). He has also written novels; The Trail 0/ '55" (1910), The Pretender (1914); Master of the Microbe (1926); House of Fear (1927); etc., also his autobiography. Ploughman of the Moon. Service, Musical. Until the time of Ambrose, elected bishop of Milan in 374, church music was without uniformity. Am- brose arranged the chanting of Service KR 113B Servlss the Psalms according to the sys- tem of the tetrachords, and set the hymns to Greek melodies. A complete change was effected by Pope Gregory the Great (590- 604). The Gregorian service sys- tematized the plain-song of the Church, and eliminated the Ori- ental ornaments and subdivision of intervals which had charac- terized the system of Ambrose (see Plain-song) . Harmony, however, was not attempted. By the side of this plain church music gradually grew up the melodic and metrical music of the people. Harmonized and metrical humns became popular wherever the Reformation spread. The English liturgy was set to music by such men as Merbecke, Tye, Tallis, Byrd, and Morley. The great hymns ('Te Deum,' 'Sanc- tus,' 'Gloria in Excelsis,' Mag- nificat,' etc.), which the Roman Catholic Church sings in the Latin tongue, were translated into the vernacular by the Church of England, and they have been set to music by many composers for the use of the evangelical churches. An injunc- tion of Queen Elizabeth permit- ted metrical psalms and hymns before and after any service, and about this same time anthems (that is, musical settings of por- tions of Scripture or of the Ht- urgy) were recognized as a stated part of divine service. In 1551 Sternhold and Hop- kins' rendering of the Psalter was issued. A more adequate setting of the Psalms, with complete harmonies, was published by T. Este in 1592. Thomas Tallis, 'the father of English cathedral music,' first harmonized the re- sponses in the morning and eve- ning prayer. The term Service is employed in two senses: first, to designate any religious function, with or without music; second, as a col- lective term, to comprise a set of pieces including all of the musical portions of a stated function; for instance, Stainer's Communion Service in F. Best's Evening Ser- vice, Merbecke's Burial Service, Tours' Morning Communion, and Evening Service in F. In the United States, modern church music and organ building received their greatest impetus about the middle of the 19th century. Musical services of a high character were instituted by Dr. E. Hodges, continued by Dr. H. S. Cutler, and brought to their best development by Dr. A. H. Messiter during his term of nearly thirty years as organist of Trinity Church. The musical uplift which originated in these services has been felt throughout the country, and has extended to the other denominations. Much of the music composed for Prot- estant Episcopal churches has been found useful in other churches. The elaborate music of Roman Catholic churches was simplified by the edict of Pope Pius x prescribing plainer musical set- tings, and calling for the use of boys' voices in choirs wherever practicable. The music of the orthodox Russian church is entirely vocal, organs and other instruments being absent from their churches. Much of their music is in eight- part harmony, and many beauti- ful effects are obtained. A characteristic feature of the modern Jewish service is the antiphonal singing by the 'can- tor' and choir. See Antiphony; Hymnody; Mass.; Oratorio. Service of Process, in law, a notification of the institution of legal proceedings, generally re- quired before final judicial action can be taken against an indi- vidual. To secure a judgment m personam there must be personal service of a summons (q. v.) or other process upon the defendant personally within the jurisdiction of the court. Service ot process, in the United States, is regulated by the statutes of the different states, and by Federal statutes. In general, there are three classes of service — namely, personal ser- vice, service by publication, and substituted service, which is made by leaving a copy of the summons or writ at the defen- dant's usual place of abode. Serv- ice is invalid where the defend- ant's presence within the juris- diction is secured by trick or device, or by the use of force or criminal process. The statutes of some states require the service of a copy of the plaintiff's complaint with the writ; but unless there is such a statutory requirement, a copy of the complaint need not be served. Persons authorized to serve proc- ess are generally designated by statute. In some instances cer- tain officers are named. In oth- ers, any person not a party to the action is qualified. In such case the plaintiff's attorney may serve the process. In general, a valid personal service of process can not be made outside of the territorial jurisdiction of the court. Al- though a provision for personal service outside the state is fre- quently found in the statutes such a service can not give the court jurisdiction to render a personal judgment. The time within which process may be served varies according to the state in which the action is com- menced. Examples of statutory regulation in this regard are 'not less than six days before the re- turn day,' 'in or at any time be- fore the return day,' 'ten days be- fore the first day of the term,' 'within three years after issu- ance.' The usual method of serving process consists in reading the writ to the defendant and deliv- ering a copy to him. but by some statutes the reading is not re- quired. Substituted service is authorized where the defendant is a resident of the state, but can not be found. It is generally employed where the defendant is seeking to avoid personal service. Service by publication is the method of obtaining jurisdiction in certain cases, as where the defendant is a foreign corpora- tion, or has left the state for the purpose of defrauding his cred- itors. Service of process on Sunday is void, but in most states it may be served on public holidays. See Procedure. Service Tree (Sorbus deomes- tica), a European tree with foli- age similar to that of the moun- tain ash and edible fruit resem- bling a pear, but smaller. Servile Wars, wars of slaves or mercenaries against their mas- ters. The first known in history was the one waged by Cartha- ginian mercenaries, who, after the First Punic War, being un- able to obtain their arrears of pay, nearly brought Carthage to ruin before they were vanquished (238 B.C.). In 134 B.C. the slaves of the Roman patricians, goaded by ill usage, rose in Sicily, and defeated the praetors and the consul Fulvius Flaccus, but were eventually overcome by the con- sul P. Rupilius (132 B.C.). The second servile war of Rome also broke out in Sicily, but the rising was crushed by the consul M. Aquilius in 101 B.C. The most dangerous rising was that of the gladiators under Spartacus (q.v.) who. with seventy companions, having fled from their school at Capua, roused the slaves, drilled them, supplied them with arms, and inflicted defeat after defeat upon the Romans. The rebellion was quelled by Crassus in 72 B.C. Servlss, Garrett Putnam (1851-1929), American author, was born in Sharon vSprings, N. Y., and was educated at Cor- nell and Columbia Universities. He was an editorial writer on the New York Sun for some years, and after 1892 devoted himself largely to lecturing and writing. His works include Pleasures of the Telescope (1901) ; Other Worlds (1902); The Moon, a Popular Treatise (1907); Astronomy with the Naked Eye (1908); Curiosi- ties of the Sky (1909); Round the Year with the Stars (1910); A Columbus of Space (1911); As- Servltes KR 114 Sestrl Ponente tronomy in a Nutshell (1912) ; The Second Deluge (1912); Eloquence {1^12); The Moon Maiden (1915). Servltes, a monastic order de- voted to the glorification of the Virgin Mary. It was founded in 1233 by seven Florentine mer- chants, who retired to Monte Senario, 9 miles from the city, and adopted the rule of St. Aug- ustine with some modifications. They received papal sanction in 1255, and in 1424 were granted the privileges of the other men- dicant orders. Their habit is a white mantle with a black hood and scapular. They have houses in Italy, Austria, England, and the United States. Servitude, in Roman law and the systems derived from it, burden or restriction imposed upon the property of one person in favor of another, and also the correlative right residing in the latter. Servitudes are either personal or predial, according as the burden is imposed in favor of one individual as such, in which case the right must at all events end with his death, or in favor of him as owner of a piece of property, in which case the right descends to his heirs, or passes to purchasers or donees of such property. Personal servitudes may be illustrated by a life interest held by one person, while the radical right of ownership or remainder is vested in another. Predial servitudes include both easements and profits a prendre in Anglo- American law. The property in favor of which the burden is imposed is called the dominant tenement, and the property bur- dened the servient tenement. (See Easement.) Servitudes of this nature were in Roman law classified as rural or urban, according as the respec- tive properties were landed es- tates or buildings, not according as they were situated in the country or a town. Thus a right of way which the owner of an estate possesses over neighboring lands belonging to another is a rural servitude; while a right to prevent the erection of a house of a certain height is an urban servitude. A servitude is said to be posi- tive when the owner of the domi- nant tenement is permitted to do something which he might not otherwise have done; and nega- tive when the owner of the servient tenement is prohibited from doing something which he might otherwise have done. The law relating to apprentices is a modern form of the law of servi- tude (see Apprentice). Ser'vlus, a commentator on Virgil, and one of the most in- telligent of the Latin 'gram- matici,' lived at Rome about 400 A. D. Much of what is ordinarily cited as his work is by later hands, however. Ser'vius Tul'llus, (578-534 B. C.) the sixth legendary king of Rome. See Rome, History. Sesame, ses'a-me, Gingelly, or TiLSEED, an annual herbace- ous plant of the genus Sesamum, characterized by wingless seeds, and placentae with woody lobes attached to the inner wall of the fruit. The species most worthy of notice is 5. indicum. Sesame is cultivated throughout the East from Egypt to Japan for the sake of the seeds, which yield benne oil or Gingelly Oil. This oil is used in cookery, for lighting, and for lubrication. Ses'amoid Bones, small, rounded masses, cartilaginous in early life, but osseous in the adult, developed in tendons which glide over bony promi- nences. In the human subject the patella is the best example. They are much more numerous in the great majority of mammals than in man. Ses'amum. See Benne Oil. Sesos'trls, the Greek name of a celebrated Egyptian monarch, who, according to legendary his- tory, invaded Libya, Arabia, Asia, Europe, Thrace, and Scy- thia, leaving a colony at Colchis on his return. In the south he subdued Ethiopia, and placing a fleet on the Red Sea, conquered the adjacent isles, and extended his dominions to India itself. Historians are divided as to his identity. Herodotus places his reign long before that of Cheops of the fourth dynasty while Bun- sen supposes that there was more than one monarch of this name. Sesquicentennial Interna- tional Exposition, an exposi- tion held in Philadelphia, Pa., from June 1 go Dec. 1, 1926, to celebrate 150 years of American Independence. The U. S. Gov- ernment appropriated $2,1X6,500 for the expenses of governmental participation, $1,000,000 of which was designated for a build- ing program. Chief among the many buildings and other fea- tures of the exposition, which oc- cupied a site comprising all of League Island Park in South Philadelphia and 400 acres addi- tional, were a huge reproduction of the Liberty Bell, the Palace of Machinery, Transportation Building, Palace of Agriculture, Palace of Liberal Arts and Manu- facture, Mines and Metallurgy Building, Palace of Education, Palace of Fine Arts and the Tower of Light. More than 20 foreign nations, including Great Britain, Japan, Germany, Aus- tria, Denmark, Spain, Rumania, Persia, and the South and Cen- tral American republics partici- pated either officially or unoffi- cially, and a large number of the states of the United States had buildings or exhibits. A mam- moth pageant, entitled. Freedom, was a leading feature of the exposition. The attendance was estimated at nearly 5,000,000, but financially the exposition was a failure, closing on Nov. 30 with a deficit of $2,000,000. Sessa Aurunca, ses'sa ou- rdbng'ka, city, Italy, in the province of Caserta, 32 miles northwest of Naples. It has a fine cathedral, a theological sem- inary, a technical college, and ruins (amphitheatre and baths) of the ancient Suessa Aurunro- rum. On its hills were vineyards famous for the Falernian wine of the Romans. Pop. 24,074. Sesterce, ses't^rs, or Sester- tius, ancient Roman money of account. Its original value was two and a half ases, until made equal to four ases, a quarter of a denarius Cq.v.). Its value was then a little over 4 cents. The neuter plural sestertia equals 1,000 sestertii. Roman Sestertius Ses'tius, or Sextius, Pub- Lius, Roman patrician, quaestor in 63 B.C., aided Cicero in sup- pressing the conspiracy of Cati- line, and assisted Antonius in defeating Catiline's forces in Etruria. He became tribune in 57 B.C., and did much to promote Cicero's recall from banishment. In 56 Clodius, as aedile, caused him to be prosecuted on the charge of bribery at the elections. Cicero defended him, and he was acquitted. In 53 he was praetor, and in 49, at the outbreak of the Civil War, was with Pompey, but soon joined Caesar, by whom he was sent in 48 to Cappadocia. Ses'to, commune, Italy, 5 miles northwest of Florence. It has a 14th century palace. Cloth, hats, and potterv are manufac- tured. Pop. 8,346. Ses'tos, an ancient Greek town in Thrace, founded by Aeolian colonists on the northern side of the Hellespont, opposite Abydos. It is famous in legend as the home of Hero, the beloved of Leander (q. v.), and in history as the place where the bridge of boats for the crossing of Xerxes' army into Europe was formed. Sestrl Levante, ses'tre le- van'ta, town and pleasure resort, Italy, on the Gulf of Genoa; 27 miles vsoutheast of Genoa. Pop. 6,891 (commune 15,341). Sestrl Ponente, tn., prov. Italy, Genoa, 3 m. by rail w. of Genoa; Sete Quedas KR 115 Settemhrlnl is picturesquely situated on the Gulf of Genoa, and is a fashion- able summer resort. There are shipbuilding yards and machin- ery workshops. Pop. 24,522. Sete Quedas, or Guiara Falls (Seven Falls), a famous cascade on the Parana river, South America. Seth, Andrew. See Pringle Pattison. Set-off, Recoupment, and Counter-claim. By statute, it has become the practice to allow a defendant in an action for a liquidated claim to reduce or extinguish that claim by setting off against it a liquidated ac- tionable claim in his favor against the plantifif which ac- crued before the commencement of the action. A set-off is a liquidated demand arising from a distinct transaction, upon which a separate action might be maintained, and which is set up in an action by a defendant to counterbalance the plaintiff's recovery either in part or in whole. It may be an assigned claim. The defendant may have no other defense and rely en- tirely upon his set-off. A few states require a defendant who has a demand against a plaintiff which might properly be pleaded as a set-off, to do so and bar his right of action if he does not, but this is not the general rule. Re- coupment is the right to plead damages arising out of the same transaction as the main action, as a claim for damages by reason of a breach of the contract sued upon by the plaintiff. Counter- claim is a broader term, and includes claims which might properly be subjects of recoup- ment and set-off. The New York Code of Civil Piocedure defines a counter-claim as fol- lows: 'The counter-claim speci- fied in the last section must tend in sorrie way to diminish or defeat the plaintiff's recovery, and must be one of the following causes of action against the plaintiff, or, in a proper case, against the person whom he represents, and in favor of the defendant, or of one or more defendants, between whom 'and the plaintiff a separate judgment may be had in the ac- tion: (1) A cause of action arising out of the contract or transaction set forth in the complaint as the foundation of the plaintiff's claim, or connected with the sub- ject of the action. (2) In an ac- tion on contract, any other cause of action on contract existing at the commencement of the action. If the counter-claim is allowed and exceeds the plaintiff's claim the defendant may have judg- ment for the excess. Any valid defense against a set-off, recoup- ment, or counter-claim may be interposed by the plaintiff. A claim barred by the statute of limitations can not be set up by way of set-off, recoupment, or counter-claim. See Pleading. Consult Chitty, Pleading. Seton, a term in surgery, ap- plied both to the wound or issue and to the skein of silk or other material left therein. Where constant counter-irritation or an artificial issue is required, a fold of the true skin is pinched up be- tween the finger and thumb, and pierced from side to side, after which threads of silk or horse- hair, or a piece of tape, are drawn through the wound by an eyed probe, and left in position. The seton acts as a foreign body, and to keep the wound open it should be moved daily backward and forward without removing it from the wound. A seton in the back of the neck was once advo- cated for migraine. The remedy is an ancient one; formerly bristles were used for the purpose. Seton, Elizabeth Ann (Bay- ley) (1774-1821). An American Roman Catholic philanthropist, born at Emmettsburg, Md., the daughter of Dr. Richard Bayley. She was privately educated, and in 1794 married William Seton, a merchant of New York. His illness compelled her to go with him to Italy in 1803. He died in the following year at Pisa. She returned to the United States, and in 1805 entered the Roman Catholic communion. The loss of her husband's for- tune compelled her to open a private school in Baltimore, but a gift of $8,000 from the Rev. Samuel Cooper enabled her to found a conventual institution at Emmettsburg in 1809. She, with two sisters-in-law, and two other women, assumed the religious habit, and organized, under the constitution of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul, the Sisters of Charity. The order grew rapidly; in 1814 it took charge of an orphan asylum in Philadelphia, and in 1817 of a similar institution in New York. Organizations were es- tablished in many other cities. She remainded as Mother Supe- rior of the order until her death. Her autobiography was pub- lished in 1817, and a Memoir, Letters and Journal of Elizabeth Ann Seton was edited by the Rev. Robert Seton in 1869. Seton, Ernest Thompson (1860-1946), American author, illustrator, and lecturer, was born in South Shields, England, and was brought to Canada in 1866. He studied at the Toronto Collegiate Institute and at the Royal Academy, London, Eng- land, and settled in Manitoba in 1882, The publication of his Mammals of Manitoba (1886) and his Birds of Manitoba (1891) led to his appointment as official naturalist of Manitoba in 1891. Meanwhile he did much illustra- tive work for eastern publishing houses, passed some time in study in Paris, and in 1896 pub- lished Art Anatomy of Animals, a large work in plates. His first popular animal book. Wild Ant- Animals I Have Known (1898), was followed by The Biography of a Grizzly (1900), Lives of the Hunted (1900), Two Little Sav- ages (1903), Monarch, the Big Bear (1904), Animal Heroes (190.5), Wild Animals at Home (1913); Biography of an Arctic Fox (1937), etc' Through his attributing human thoughts and feelings to wild animals he received considerable criticism. His insistence upon attributing to his animal heroes not only extraordinary intelligence, but many of the subtler human emo- tions, aroused the sharp criticism of many responsible naturalists; but however much misinforma- tion his stories may convey, they have done not a little to pro- mote sympathy for our native animals and birds, and for their preservation. Seton, Robert (1839-1927), American R. C. prelate, was born in Pisa, Italy, and graduated (1867) at the Ecclesiastical Academy in Rome. He was made private chamberlain to Pope Pius IX in 1866, and pro- thonotary apostolic in 1867. From 1876 to 1902 he was rec- tor of St. Joseph's Church, Jer- sey City, N. J., then removing to Rome, where he was made titu- lar archbishop of Heliopolis in the following year. He pub- lished Memoir, etc., of Elizabeth Seton (1869), Essays on Various Subjects, Chiefly Roman Essays (1882), The Dignity of Labor (1893), and An Old Family (1899). Seton Hall College. A Ro- man Catholic institution for men, founded in 1856 at Madison, N. J., and removed in 1860 to its present site at South Orange, N. J. Two courses of study, classical and scientific, are of- fered, leading to the b.a. and b.s. degrees. The college property embraces 75 acres. There are about 4,000 students in South Orange, and an additional 3,000 in the urban division in Newark. This division is co-educational and the curricula lead to an M.A. degree. Sette Communl. See Vi- CENZA. Settembrini, Luigi (1813- 76), Italian writer and patriot, was born at Naples, and in 1835 became professor of rhetoric at Catanzaro; but between 1839 and 1860 he spent many years in prison (at St. Stefano) and in exile (in Malta and London) for Setter KR 116 Settlement his political views, expressed no- where more forcibly than in the Prolesta del Popolo (idle Due Sicilie (1847). In 1860 he re- turned from his English exile, and after holding an inspector- ship of studies, he occupied the chair of Italian literature in the University of Naples till his death. The Lezioni di Lettera- tura Italiana (1867-72; often re- printed), while not pretending to learning and scholarship, are full of sound criticism, as are also Scritli Variidi Letteratura, Politica ed Arte (1879-80). See his Ricordanze della mia Vita (1879-80) and the Epistolario (ed. by Fiorentino, 1883); also the monograph by Torraca (1877), and De Sanctis' Nuovi Saggi Critici (1879). Setter. There are three va- rieties of this dog — the English, the Scotch (or Gordon), and the Irish. The breed is doubtless de- scended from spaniels. It is more active than the pointer, but with somewhat inferior scent, and it 'sets,' or crouches, instead of pointing at game. Although a Setter well-bred dog is easily broken to game, many are inclined to be rather wild, and in this respect are generally inferior to the pointer. The following are the points of the three varieties: The English Setter. — Head long and"rather narrow; skull slightly domed, and not very broad at the base; muzzle long, square, and clean, and not too pointed at the end; nose moderately large, with wide nostrils; ears fine, set on low, and fitting close to the head; eyes soft, bright, and intelligent, and not too light in color; neck of fair length, and very muscular; shoulders clean and sloping; chest deep, not wide; back strong and muscu- lar; ribs deep and well sprung; loins broad and powerful; thighs fairly long, and very muscular; stifles well bent; hocks well let down; forelegs straight and well feathered; pasterns short, straight, and firm; flag medium length, well set on almost in a line with the back, and not turned up or curled; feet close and compact, slightly feathered between the toes; coat soft, silky, wavy, free from curl. Any color, except red or black and tan. Various kennels are noted for their special colors. The La- varack setters are liver and white, flint-colored, or blue; the Newark are distinguished by a topknot; the Seafields are lemon and white, and the Lovats black, white, and tan. The Irish Setter. — Higher on the legs than the English variety; body much the same; head long and narrow; muzzle square; lips moderately deep; ears fine, set low, and lying well back, giving a domed appearance to the skull ; stop well defined; eyes rich hazel or dark brown; coat of a rich dark red, with a golden tinge, without anv trace of black, and no white, except star on head or chest. The Gordon Setter. — Heavier than the English or Irish varie- ties, and shows more of the hound type, and less of the spaniel; head stronger, with deeper and broader muzzle and heavier lips; ears somewhat larger; eyes often show the haw; color black and tan, the black-jetty and the tan on the cheeks and over ears, on feet and pasterns, and on the feathering of forelegs and thighs. Settle, Elkanah (1648-1724), English poetaster, was born at Dunstable, Bedfordshire. His first tragedy, Cambyses, made somewhat of a hit (1671). In his next tragedy, The Empress of Morocco (1671), which was played at Whitehall by the lords and ladies of the court, and gained great popularity, he invited com- parison with Dry den, who forth- with castigated him in Absalom and Achitophel (1682). In 1687 Settle published Reflections on several of Mr. Drydens Plays. After that he eked out a living by writing verses for city pa- geants, and died a pensioner in the Charterhouse. Settlement. This term is used with distinct technical significa- tions in several branches of the law. In the law of property, it denotes a disposition of property by a conveyance, as a deed or will, whereby it is limited to two or more persons in succession; or by an agreement in contempla- tion of marriage, or after mar- riage between husband and wife, by which the manner of holding, mode of enjoyment, and future disposition are arranged. In the law of contracts, it is commonly employed to describe an agree- ment of a debtor with one or more of his creditors, whereby their accounts are adjusted. In the law of estates, it denotes the examination and approval of the account of an executor, adminis- trator, guardian, or trustee by the proper court. It is also ap- plied to the act of moving and living upon a parcel of the public lands to acquire title thereto under public land acts; and to describe the acquisition of a dom- icile or residence by a pauper in a particular district, whereby he becomes a charge on the public in such district. Perhaps the most common form of settlement of property is known as a 'marriage settlement.' The purpose is to deprive a pres- ent or prospective husband or wife of his or her common-law rights in the property. This may be effected by a conveyance from a third person to a husband or wife, or person about to be married, upon conditions pre- scribing the mode of enjoyment or future disposition; or by an agreement between a man and woman engaged to be married^ or between a husband and wife. For example, property may be conveyed to a bride upon condi- tion that she is to have the entire income therefrom, and power of disposition thereof, during her lifetime, free from con- trol by her husband, and from his statutory or common-law rights, and that if it is not disposed of at her death, it will go to her chil- dren. In contemplation of mar- riage, a man or woman may re- lease his or her prospective rights in the property of the other, as right of dower, homestead, cour- tesy, etc. A woman can not re- lease her right to support by her present or intended husband, as that obligation is imposed by law, and it would be contrary to public policy to abrogate it. Ante-nuptial contracts, whereby the wife releases her claim to her right of dower, and other rights to the estate of her husband up- on his decease, are not favored in law, but if fairly made without fraud or imposition, they will be enforced by the courts. If there is concealment of property the agreement may be set aside. A post-nuptial marriage settlement may also be made, whereby, rights are surrendered by either party. Where there is adequate consideration, the creditors of either party can not object. How- ever, if a voluntary settlement of property is made by one spouse upon the other, it may be set aside if it is in fraud of creditors. For example, if a gift is made by a husband to his wife of an amount out of proportion to his means, his existing creditors may subsequently attack it if he does not retain sufficient property to satisfy their claims; or if a hus- band, about to engage in a hazardous business enterprise, conveys the whole or the greater part of his property to his wife, it will be considered in fraud of his subsequent creditors and may be recovered by them. If a husband conducts a business in his wife's name, and his creditors seek to attach the profits, etc., the Settlement KR 117 Seven burden is on the wife of showing that the business was actually conducted with her capital and for her benefit. The general rule is that a husband may give his wife his labor, but not accumu- lated profits therefrom, if his creditors remain unsatisfied. In a number of states by stat- ute certain formalities must be observed in executing marriage settlements, as affixing a schedule of the property included, ack- nowledgment before a notary, etc. By the Statute of Frauds generally, agreements in consid- eration of marriage must be in writing and signed by the party to be charged thereby. Subse- quent marriage is a good consid- eration. Unless the settlement is made conditional upon continu- ance of the marriage relation, separation or divorce of the par- ties will not affect it. It may be abrogated any time by consent of all the parties thereto. The heirs and next o. kin of a deceased person may enter into a 'family settlement' in considera- tion of mutual releases or prom- ises, as an agreement for the dis- position of a testator's property contrary to the provisions of his will, to avoid litigation, and if fairly made it will be upheld by the courts. See Curtesy; Hus- band AND Wife; Marriage, Consult Bishop, Married Women; Parsons, Contracts (9th ed. 190.3). Settlement, Act of. See Crown. Settlement of the Poor. In all modern states, with the de- velopment of pauperism, and the introduction of systematic poor relief, the question of the resi- dence of poor persons, with the attendant obligation upon local authorities to support such per- sons in case of need became of vital importance. Definite rules were first established in England, as a consequence of the great importance which the question of pauperism assumed in early modern times. By the statute of 1662, a pauper could receive re- lief from a parish only after forty days' continuous residence therein. In principle this law remained unchanged until 1834. Its most serious consequences were the oppressive measures taken by the several parishes, under the law of removal, to pre- vent persons likely to become paupers from acquiring resi- dence. A person with no other means of support than his labor was liable, upon leaving his par- ish, to be forcibly expelled from any other parish in which he sought to reside. Hence laborers were practically compelled to re- main throughout their lives in the districts in which they were born. Beginning with 1834, succes- sive enactments were passed to remove the restiictions placed upon poor persons by the old law. At present a settlement, for the purposes of the poor law, is acquired, as a rule, by three years' residence. Various excep- tions are made, however, as, for example, provisions granting set- tlement to owners of estates; to women marrying persons who have acquired a settlement; to apprentices after forty days' resi- dence, etc. When a person not having a settlement in the place where he resides becomes de- pendent upon public authorities for support, he may be removed to the place where he has a set- tlement, if he has not resided in the place where he becomes chargeable for a year; if he has resided there above a year, he can not be removed; but he does not acquire a settlement there. In the American colonies the English laws of settlement were early introduced, modified, how- ever, to meet local conditions. Especially in New England set- tlement laws of considerable vig- or were adopted, and serious abuses arose out of the removal of persons not yet paupers, but liable to become such. After the Resolution laws of settlement were enacted by most of the states. As a rule these have be- come less and less vigorous with the lapse of time. At present settlement is commonly acquired by adult persons by one year's residence; legitimate minor chil- dren take the settlement of the father; illegitimate children, of the mother. A married woman has a settlement where the hus- band has one; if the husband is not settled in the state, the wife retains the settlement she had prior to marriage. Persons be- coming recipients of public relief in towns or counties where they have no settlement, are in most states removable to the places where they are settled. In some states, as New York, such per- sons are not removable, but if having a settlement in other places in the state, are to be sup- ported at the expense of the place of settlement. Various provi- sions exist for the removal from one state of paupers having a residence in another state. In some of the New England states the laws of settlement still present the complexities of the colonial laws. Thus in Massa- chusetts a settlement is acquired by ownership of, and residence upon, a freehold for three con- secutive years; by residence in a town, and payment of all state, county and town taxes, for five years; by election to certain town offices, provided that the duties of such office are performed for one year; by apprenticeship for four years, followed by five years' consecutive exercise of the craft or trade. A woman ac- quires a settlement by five con- secutive years of residence, or by marriage with a person having a settlement. Persons becoming public charges in places where they are not settled may be re- moved to their place of settle- ment, or may be supported at the expense of such place. Settlements. See Social Settlements. Setubal (Roman Cetobriga), seaport, Portugal, prov. Estre- madura, on r. bk. of Sado, on n. side of bay of Setubal, 17 m. by rail s.e. of Lisbon; has important sardine fisheries and exports salt, wine, corks, and fruit. It is the third seaport in Portugal. British sailors know it as St. Ubes or St. Ives. Pop. (1940) 35,071. Sevastopol, or Sebastopol, town, seaport and seaside resort, S. Russia, in s.vv. of Crimea, 34 m. s.w. of Simpheropol. It is an episcopal see and naval seaport. The buildings include the cathedral of St. Vladimir (1888), with paintings of modern Russian school, and tombs of Russian naval heroes; cathedral of SS. Peter and Paul, an imita- tion of Theseus temple at Athens; Admiralty buildings; museum; and both new and old (ruined) fortifications. There are also extensive dockyards and naval arsenals, two navigation schools, naval hospital, sea baths, and sanatoria. Sevastopol is a biological station. It possesses the best harbor of the Black Sea. In 1804 it was made the chief Russian naval station of the Black Sea (a first-class fortress in 1825). The allies invested it on Oct. 5, 1854, and gained posses- sion on Sept. 8-9, 1855. In 1890 the commercial port was trans- ferred to Theodosia (Feodosia). During the Russian troubles of 1905 organized revolts of sol- diers, sailors, and workmen took place, and much fighting oc- curred. Pop. (1939) 111.946. Seven. The number seven has had a mystic and even sacred import from time immemorial. In Dan. 9:24, 25, seventy weeks, or seventy times seven days, are appointed to bring in everlasting righteousness;' and 'from the going forth of the commandment to build Jerusalem unto the Mes- siah the Prince shall be seven weeks, and threescore and two weeks.' In Rev. 13:5 'the beast' endut-es 'forty and two months,' or six times seven lunar months. Seven is also the complete num- ber. The Lamb has seven horns to symbolize His perfect power. The universal church is repre- sented by seven candlesticks. Seven is also a good number. Seven Bishops KR 118 Seven Sleepers Job is rewarded with seven sons. Enoch, the holiest of the patriarchs, is 'the seventh from Adam.' Seven is intimately as- sociated with sacred rites. The blood of the sin-offering must be 'sprinkled seven times before the Lord.' Any Bible concordance will show how the number seven is interwoven with the whole re- ligious life and history, as well as with the thoughts and habits, of the Jewish people (Lev. 15: 13, 19; Num. 12:14). Nor was this limited to the Jews. The Gentiles had their Seven Won- ders, Seven Wise Men, and so on. See James Hadlev's Essays (1873). Seven Bishops, The. See Bishops, The Seven. Seven Champions of Chris- tendom were St. George of England, St. Denis of France, St. James of Spain, St. Andrew of Scotland, St. David of Wales. St. Patrick of Ireland, and St. Anthony of Italy. Seven Days' Battle, name applied to a series of conflicts, fought in the six days from June 26 to July 1, 1862, in the Penin- sula campaign (q.v.) of the Civil War. The Union army, which at the outset numbered about 100,000 men, was commanded by Gen. George B. McClellan (q.v.); that of the Confederates of about 90,000 men by Gen. Robert E. Lee, who had succeeded Gen. Joseph E. Johnston after John- ston was wounded at Fair Oaks. The first important conflict took place at Mechanicsville (Beaver Dam Creek) on June 26, and resulted unfavorably to the Con- federates, who lost about 1,500, as against a Union loss of about 400. Next day witnessed a much heavier battle near Gaines' Mill (Cold Harbor). Early in the afternoon the Union right, which was separated from the main army by the Chickahominy river, and was under the imme- diate command of Gen. Fitz- John Porter, was attacked by double its own numbers. The Confederates were at first driven back with heavy loss, but were later reinforced by troops under Gen. 'Stonewall' Jackson and pressed the Union forces so close- ly that Porter might have been overwhelmed had he not been opportunely reinforced by two brigades of fresh troops. As it was, night put an end to the conflict, and before morning Por- ter rejoined the main army on the south bank of the Chicka- hominy. The Union forces en- gaged in this action numbered about 30,000, those of the Con- federates about 60,000. The to- tal Federal loss was about 6,800, that of the Confederates consid- erably more. During this con- flict Gen. McClellan was in such a position that by a bold push forward he could probably have overcome the comparatively weak force in front of the main army and captured Richmond, but he lacked the necessary ag- gressiveness. He devoted the next two days to withdrawing his army to a new base on the James river. The Confederates, who had at first been deceived by the movement, came up with a portion of his army on the 29th, and an engagement took place at Savage's Station. On the next day battles occurred at White Oak Swamp and at Glen- dale, or Frayser's Farm, and in both places the Union forces en- gaged succeeded in holding their positions long enough to cover the withdrawal of the army. In the night following Gen. Mc- Clellan stationed his army on Malvern Hill, and on the next day the final battle of the cam- paign was fought. The Union position, which was in the form of a semi-circle, was strongly de- fended by artillery and was also supported by the fire of gunboats from the James river. After an artillery duel Gen. Lee attempted a general assault, but the signal was not properly given or else it was misunderstood, and the vari- ous divisions charged singly and were repulsed with a loss of about 5,000, while that of the Federals was hardly one-third as great. On July 2 McClellan withdrew to Harrison's Landing. Before he was ready to begin another forward movement he was re- called with his army to the vicin- ity of Washington. The total loss of the Federals during the seven days was about 19,000, of the Confederates about 20,000. See Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, ed. by Johnson and Buel (4 vols. 1887-88); Webb, The Peninsula (1881); Roper, Story of the Civil War (vol. ii 1898); Michie, General McClellan (1901); McClellan, McClellan's Own Story (1887), and Long- street, From Manassas to Appo- matox (1896). Seven Dolors of the B.V.M., Feast of, is celebrated in the Roman Catholic Church on the Friday before Passion (or Palm) Sunday. The hymn Stahat Mater expresses the sorrows of the mother of Jesus with touching pathos. The seven dolors are as follows: — (1) The prophecy of Simeon; (2) the flight into Egypt; (3) the loss of Jesus at Jerusalem; (4) the spectacle of Jesus bearing His cross; (5) the sight of Him upon the cross; (6) the descent from the cross; and (7) the en- tombment. A second festival is observed on the third Sunday in September. The festival dates from 1423. Seven Pines, (or Fair Oaks), Battle of, a battle of the Penin- sular Campaign in the American Civil War, fought on May 31 and June 1, 1862 at Seven Pines, and Fair Oaks (localities about 7 m. E. of Richmond) between a part of the Federal Army of the Potomac under Gen. McClellan and the Confederate Army guarding Richmond, under Gen. Johnston and (later) Gen. G. W. Smith. McClellan in advancing on Rich- mond divided his army, two corps, Keyes' and Heintzelman's, being stationed s. of the Chicka- hominy, and three corps, Sum- ner's, Franklin's, and Porter's N. of that stream to form a junction with Gen. McDowell expected from the N., and to protect Mc- Clellan 's base at White House on the Pamunkey. Gen. Johnston planned to crush Keyes and Heintzelman, before reinforce- ments could be crossed over to their aid, and on May 31, Keyes corps then being considerably in advance of Heintzelman's, deliv- ered his attack. The attack was admirably planned, but orders were misunderstood by Gen. Longstreet, to whom the opening of the battles was entrusted, and considerable confusion resulted. Generals Longstreet, Hill, and Huger attacked the Federals with great vigor and drove them back for more than a mile to the vicinity of Savage Station. Meanwhile Sumner had effected a crossing (though the Chicka- hominy had been considerably swollen by rain during the night of the 30th), and held in check the Confederate left under Gen. G' W. Smith, who had been sta- tioned along the river to guard the fords. Toward the close of the day Gen. Johnston, who had been with the Confederate left, was severely wounded, and was succeeded in command by Gen. Smith. On the following day the Confederates renewed their at- tack, but were driven back and the battle ended before noon. About 2 P.M. Gen. R. E. Lee ar- rived on the field from Richmond and superseded Gen. Smith; and at nightfall the Confederates withdrew to Richmond. During the two days the Federal loss in killed, wounded, and missing was about 5,000; that of the Confed- erates about 6,000. About 45,- 000 men had been engaged on each side. Consult Johnson and Buel (ed.), Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (1887), Michie, General McClellan (1901), Ropes, Story of the Civil War (1898), and Webb, The Peninsula (1881). Seven Sleepers of Ephesus. During the persecution of the Christians under Decius, in the 3d century, seven Christians from Ephesus were said to have taken refuge in a cavern, where they were tracked and immured; but they fell into a trance, and so continued for two hundred years. In the reign of Theodo- sius II, they were awaked (447 A.D.). Having convinced the emperor of the life beyond this Se?enth-Day Adventists KR 119 Severn world, they again sank into a trance till the resurrection. This story is generally current through out the East. In the Roman Catholic Church their festival is on June 27. Consult Baring- Gould's Curious Myths of the Middle Ages. Seventh-Day Adventists. See Second Adventists. Seventh-Day Baptists. See Baptists. Seven Wise Masters, the most common title given to a famous mediaeval collection of stories grouped round a central story. The leading story itself is briefly as follows: A young prince is born in answer to prayer as the only son of the aged king Kurush, and the astrologers foretell a great danger overhanging his fate at twenty. At seven years he is entrusted to masters, but at thirteen he has not learned any- thing. The sages then recom- mend Sindibad as the best master, but for six and a half more years the young prince studies under him uselessly, and at nineteen and a half he has still learned nothing. The king again assembles the wise men, and Sindibad offers to teach the prince everything in six months or forfeit hio life. He now shuts himself up with his pupil, who this time progresses to Ixis mas- ter's satisfaction. Before bringing him back Sindibad consults the stars, and sees that the prince will die if he should speak before seven days. Sindibad therefore hides himself, and the prince at court is found to be dumb. One of the king's women now tempts him as the wife of Potiphar tempted Joseph, and in the fury of disappointed rage accuses him to the king of an attempt on her virtue. The king condemns him to death, whereupon the seven viziers resolve to stay his execu- tion by telling him a series of tales, till the end of the seventh day when the prince is free to speak. The prince now comes to the king attended by the sages and by Sindibad, whereupon the woman is duly punished, and the king, after seeing proof of his son's wisdom, gives him his throne and retires into solitude to serve God. The earliest version of a Book of Sindibad is found in Arabian writers of the 10th century. The more important Eastern versions are the following: (1) the Synli- pas, a Greek text translated during the last years of the 11th century. (2) The Hebrew ver- sion entitled Parables of SandO' bar {Mischle Sandabar), trans- lated from the Arabic, probably in the first half of the 1.3th cen- tury. (3) The Sindibad-N dmeh, an unedited Persian poem, writ- ten in 137.5. (4) The eighth night of the TUti-ndmeh of Nachschebi, a Persian poet who died in 1.329. (5) The Seven Viziers, an Arabic text, of uncertain age, but not ancient. (6) An Ancient Spanish translation of an Arabic text existing in a 15th-century codex — the version closest to the Syntipas. Seven Wise Men, certain Greek philosophers living be- tween 620 and .550 B.C., whose wise and pithy sayings became proverbial, and were inscribed in the temple of Apollo at Delphi. Their names and special sayings are usually given as follows: Solon of Athens — 'Do nothing in excess'; Thales of Miletus — 'Suretyship spells ruin'; Pittacus of Mitylene — 'Recognize your opportunity'; Bias of Priene — the Greek equivalent of 'Too many cooks spoil the broth'; Chilon of Lacedaemon — 'Know thyself; Cleobulus of Lindus — 'Moderation is the best thing'; Periander of Corinth — 'Exercise forethought in everything.' Seven Wonders of the World, a group of famous works of ancient times, which comprises the Pyramids of Egypt, the Hanging Gardens of Semiramis at Babylon, the Temple of Diana at Ephesus, Phidias' Statue of Jupiter at Athens, the Mauso- leum at Halicarnassus, the Co- lossus at Rhodes, and the Pharos, or lighthouse, at Alexandria. Philo of Byzantium wrote a de- scription of these 'wonders,' edited in 1816 by Orelli. Seven Years' War (17.56-63), in one aspect, the final struggle between Britain and France for supremacy in North America India, and on the sea; in another aspect the last definite struggle between Austria and Prussia for Silesia. Both struggles were con- nected by the fact that, while France aided Austria, Britain aided Prussia. In January 1756, a treaty, between George ii and Frederick the Great was signed, known as the second treaty of Westminster. War between Britain and France had virtually broken out in America; and Louis XV, finding himself iso- lated, concluded, in May 1756, the first treaty of Versailles with Austria. Frederick the Great, aware of the hostile projects of Austria, Russia, and Saxony, invaded Saxony in August, and the Seven Years' War definitely began. Both Britain and Prussia in the early stages of the war suffered reverses — the former losing Minorca, and the latter being defeated at the battle of Kolin (1757). But later in that same year Frederick defeated the French and imperial armies at Rossbach, and the Austrians at Leuthen; while, under the guid- ance of Pitt, Britain rapidly gained the upper hand in the struggle with France, the year 1759 being styled the annus mirabilis on account of many British victories. Large subsidies were paid to Prussia by Britain. Three successive Russian gen- erals — Apraxin, Fermor and Sal- tikov — did not press their suc- cesses home, and eventually, in 1762, the accession of Peter iii freed Frederick from Russian hostility. Meanwhile the forma- tion of the Family Compact in 1761, between France and Spain had in no wise checked the triumphal course of the British arms; and in 1763 the Peace of Paris brought the Seven Years' War to an end, Austria and Prussia concluding the peace of Hubertsburg. British supremacy in India was secured, Canada be- came a British colony, and the British command of the sea was to a great extent assured. Con- sult Waddington, La guerre de sept ans; Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great (6 vols.) ; Corbett, England in the Seven Years' War; Brackenbury, Fred- erick, the Great. See French AND Indian War; Paris, Trea- ties OF. Sev'ern, river, England, rises on Plinlimmon (1,500 feet) on the border of Montgomeryshire. It flows northeast and east to Shrewsbury, southeasterly through Shropshire and Wor- cestershire to Tewkesbury, and southwesterly to Gloucester, be- low which it forms an estuary opening into the Bristol Channel, It receives the Teme, Wye, and Uske on the right, and the Vyrnwy, Stour, Terne, and Upper and Lower Avon on the left. It is 210 miles long and the Berkeley Ship Canal (17 miles), between Sharpness and Glou- cester, admits vessels of from 15 to 16 feet draught; vessels of 400 tons can ascend to Worces- ter and barges to Welshpool. Canals connect the Severn with the Thames and Trent. A rail- way tunnel of 43^ miles passes under the estuary between New Passage and Portskewett. The river is noted for the tidal wave or 'bore' which ascends to Glou- cester with front several feet high. Severn, Joseph (1793-1879). English artist, but known best as the devoted friend of Keats, was born in Hoxton, near Lon- don. In 1820 he accompanied Keats to Italy where he cared for him until Keats' death. On his return to England in 1841 he began to occupy himself more with literature and less with painting, but with small success in either department. He was appointed British consul at Rome in 1860, and retired in 1872. He died in Rome, and in 1882 his body was removed to a resting place beside that of Keats. Severo, Cape. See Chely- uskin, Cape. Severus KR 120 Sevres Severus, se-ve'rus, Lucius Septimius (146-211 A.D.), Ro- man emperor, a native of Leptis in Africa, was the only African who ever reached the imperial throne. He was governor of Gallia Lugdunensis, of Pannonia, and of Sicily, until he attained the consulship in 185 a.d. Subse- quently he commanded the armies in Pannonia and Illyria, and after the murder of Pertinax, in 193, was proclaimed emperor by his troops. He marched on Rome, which at once submitted. Pescennius Niger, who had been declared emperor by the Eastern legions, was defeated and cap- tured at Issus in 194, and put to death. In 196 Clodius Albinus, proclaimed emperor by the troops in Gaul, was defeated by Severus near Lyons in February 197, and Albinus slew himself. Shortly afterwards, in an expedi- tion against the Parthians, Sever- us captured the cities of Babylon and Seleucia, and the Parthian capital, Ctesiphon. The next three years he spent in Egypt. In 202 he returned to Rome, and celebrated the marriage of his eldest son, Caracalla, with Plau- tilla by games of unequaled os- tentation, and by an extravagant largess to the poorer people and praetorians. In 207 a rebellion in Britain took him thither; but in an invasion of Caledonia through disease and hardship he lost 50,000 men. His soldiers then rebuilt the wall between the firths of Forth and Clyde which bears his name. Severus was planning a fresh campaign when he died at York on Feb. 4. Severus, Marcus Aurelius Alexander (205-235 a.d.). Ro- man emperor usually known as Alexander Severus, who ascended the throne in 222, was born in Phoenicia, and was adopted by the Emperor Elagabalus, his relative, in 221, and proclaimed Caesar. In 231 he was forced to resist the invasion of the Persian king Artaxerxes and celebrated his triumph in Rome (233), but a German incursion into Gaul recalled him, and when on his way to repel it he was murdered bv mutinous soldiers, instigated by Maciminus, who succeeded him. Sevier, se-ver', John (1745- 1815), American pioneer, was born in Rockingham county, Va. He attended the academy at Fredericksburg; founded the vil- lage of New Market in the Shenandoah Valley, and in 1772 settled in the Watauga district, west of the Blue Ridge. He served as a captain in Lord Dun- more's War against the Indians, and when the Revolution broke out was active in securing the annexation ot the Watauga dis- trict to North Carolina. He was a member of the state con- vention, and afterwards of the legislature; in 1777 became clerk and district judge of the new Washington district; and in 1779 defeated the Indians at Boyd's Creek and elsewhere. In 1780 he was one of the leading spirits in the victory of King's Mountain over the British and Tories. Afterwards he conducted several expeditions against the Indians. When in 1784 North Carolina ceded the Tennessee region to the general government, the settlers of that region set up a new state, which they called 'Franklin', and elected Sevier governor. This led to a conflict with the North Carolina government, and Sevier was arrested, but was rescued by his friends. The general gov- ernment then took control; Se- vier was appointed a brigadier general in 1789; and in 1790 was elected to Congress. In 1793 he made a successful expedition against the Creeks and Chero- kees, and in 1796 was elected first governor of the new state of Tennessee, which office he held until 1801, and again during 1803-1809. He was elected to the Twelfth and Thirteenth Con- gresses, and was appointed a commissioner to locate the boun- daries of the Creek territory, but died while performing that task. Sevlgne, sa-ven-ya, M.\rie de Rabutin-Chantal, Marquise DE (1626-96), French writer, the descendant of an old Burgundian family, was born in Paris. Her girlhood was spent for the most part at Livry with her maternal uncle, Christophe de Coulanges, abbe de Livry. In 1644 she married Henri, Marquis de Se- vigne, who died in 1651. The rest of her life she devoted to her daughter whom she passionately loved. In 1669 this daughter married the Comte de Giignan, and in 1671 set out for Provence. Her love for her daughter, ill requited though it was, ap- proached infatuation, and its passionate expression fills many pages of her correspondence. Paris now became her head- quarters, and since between 1677 and 1678 Madame de Grig- nan also resided there almost constantly, the correspondence perforce languished. Madame de Sevigne was a warm-hearted and sympathetic woman, and the charm of her character pervades her letters, which owing to her powers of graphic description, her wit, humor, and constant gaiety of spirits, are perennially delight- ful. Her easy and flowing style, her warm and even poetic im- agination, and her originality of phrase have united to make them a model for all subsequent letter- writers. The definite edition is that of Monmerque (Collection des grands ecrivains,' 14 vols. 1862-68); also Lettres inedites, by Capmas (2 vols., 1876). Consult Boissier's Madame de Sevigne, in 'Grands ecrivains francais'; in English, Anne Thackeray Ritch- ie's Madame de Sevigne; Mason's Women of the French Salons. Seville, se-vil'; Sp. sa-ve'lya, province, Spain, reaching from Sierra Morena to Sierra de Gibraleon; area, 5,428 square miles. It is watered by the Guadalquivir and Genii and their tributaries. Agriculture, cattle-rearing and mining flour- ish; the natural products, espe- cially wool, silk, fruit, oil, and wine, have been famous since Phoenician times. Copper, iron, coal, and alum are mined. Pop. (1946 est.) 1,062,646. Seville, city, Spain, capital of the province of Seville, on the Guadalquivir river; 60 miles northeast of Cadiz. Remains of the walls by which it was for- merly surrounded are still visible and the city has a characteristi- cally Moorish aspect. The chief feature of interest is the ex- quisite Hispano-Gothic cathe- dral, commenced in 1403 and finished in 1519, one of the finest churches in the world; its Mudejar tower (Giralda) espe- cially meriting attention. This was begun in 1000 by the Moors, but its upper portion has been to some extent Christianized. It stands 350 feet high. Other in- teresting buildings are the Moor- ish palace, the Charity Hospital, with pictures by Murillo, art museum (with works by Murillo) a university, an academy of fine arts, the Casa Longja or ex- change, and several beautiful palaces. Murillo was a native and his house can still be seen. The city, once the center of the commerce with America, is still a busy and prosperous port, shipping wine, oil, fruit, lead, and cork; and producing ceramics, leather, iron works and tobacco. It was the seat of a Roman colony (Hispalis), and was a Moorish kingdom from 712 until its conquest by Ferdinand III in 1248. Pop. (1946 est.) 370,320. Sevlijevo, sev-le'yev-5, or Sel- VI, town, Bulgaria, capital of the county of Sevlijevo, at the foot of the Balkans; 28 miles west of Tirnovo. Pop. 12,000. Sdvres, sev'r', town, France, in the department of Seine-et- Oise, 6 miles southwest of Paris. It is famed for its porcelain manufacture, which since 1755 has been a state industry. Sev- res also produces painted glass and mosaic work. The museum contains examples of the potter's art of all ages and all countries, Paul's Photos, Chicago THE CATHEDRAL IN SEVILLE IS BUILT IN GOTHIC AND SARACENIC STYLE Paul's Ptiotos. Chicago A STREET IN SEVILLE. AND THE GIRALDA TOWER Vol. XL— Page 121 Se?re.s KR 122 Seward notably a complete series of all objects made in Sevres since the commencement of the industry. Pop. 15,061. Sfevres, Deux-, a western department of France, drained by the Sevre-Niortaise, in the south, on which stands the capi- tal, Niort, and the Sevre-Nan- taise, which joins the Loire near Nantes; area, 2.337 square miles. The department contains three natural regions — the Gatine, in the north and center, a poor, marshy country moderately wooded; a monotonous limestone plain in the south and southeast, producing cereals, beets, forage crops, and a little wine; the marsh country in the west, largely drained, and growing hemp and forage crops, and in the winter abounding in wild fowl. The climate is damp. Good breeds of horses and of mules are raised. Coal is mined at St. Laurs. Cloth and wool- ens are the chief manufactures. Pop. (1946) 312,756. Sevres Ware. See Pottery and Porcelain. Sewage. See Sewerage and Sewage Disposal. Sewall, su'al, Jonathan (1728-96), American Loyalist, was born in Boston. He was educated at Harvard College, and was admitted to the bar in 1758. In 1767 he was made attorney general of Massachu- setts, and a year later was offered the position of judge of the Admiralty Court for Nova Scotia, which he refused. He wrote vigorously in defence of the oppressive measures of the British Government in America, and for some time was credited with being the author of the his- toric series of letters written by Daniel Leonard in defence of the Tory ministry, published in the Massachusetts Gazette, and signed 'Massachusetts.' He fled to Eng- land in 1774, and in 1779 he came under the general proscription of loyalist refugees, and his prop- erty was confiscated. He was judge of the Court of Vice-ad- miralty at St. John, N.B., from 1788 until his death. Sewall, May Wright (1844- 1920), American educator and woman suffragist, was born in Milwaukee, Wis., the daughter of Philander M. Wright of that city. She was graduated (1866) from Northwestern University, was married in 1880 to Theodore L. Sewall, and was for some time principal of the girls' classical school founded by him in Indian- apolis, Ind. She became promi- nent in the Woman Suffrage movement, held office in several national societies, and was a delegate to the Universal Con- gress of Women at Paris in 1889, and to other international con- gresses. Mrs. Siewall was a mem- ber of the Board of Lady Man- agers at the Columbian Exposi- tion of 1893, and a Commissioner to the Paris Exposition of 1900. Her writings on reform subjects were published principally in pamphlet form. She also pub- lished Women, World War and Permanent Peace (1916); Neither Dead nor Sleeping (1920). Sewall, Samuel (1652-1730), American colonial judge, was born in Bishopstoke, England. He was taken to Massachusetts by his parents in 1661 and in 1671 was graduated from Har- vard. He was a member of the governor's council from 1692 to 1725, a judge of probate in 1692-1718, and chief justice of the province in 1718-25. In 1692 he was appointed a member of the special court sent to Salem to try persons accused of witchcraft. Nineteen persons were convicted during the summer and executed. When the witchcraft delusion had spent its force, Sewall be- came convinced that the court had erred, and in 1697 in a pub- lic confession manfully stated his belief and took a large share of the blame on himself. His Diary gives a valuable picture of early New England. Seward, city, Alaska, in Kenai Peninsula, on Resurrec- tion Bay; 460 miles south of Fairbanks. It is beautifully situated, with lofty mountains forming an impressive back- ground and has an excellent harbor. It is the southern ter- minus of the Alaska Northern Railroad opened from Fairbanks to Seward in 1923. The city is a center of the fishing and mining interests of Kenai Peninsula and has important canneries. Pop. (1939) 940. Seward, su'ard, Anna (1747- 1809), English author, known as the 'Swan of Lichfield,' was born in Eyam, Derbyshire. She was precociously literary, and all her life wrote verses on all sorts of occasions, having invented what one of her admirers. Dr. Erasmus Darwin, called 'the epic elegy.' Favorable specimens of her verse were the monody of Major Andre and the elegy on Captain Cook. Her letters, gushing and senti- mental, were published in 1811. Seward, Clarence Arm- strong (1828-97), American lawyer and soldier, was born in New York City. He was gradu- ated from Hobart College in 1848; was admitted to the bar; and practiced in Auburn and then in New York City. In 1856-60 he was judge-advocate general of New York. He served for a time in the Civil War as colonel of the 19th New York regiment; and in 1865, after the attempt to assassinate his uncle, William H. Seward, and his cou- sin, F. W. Seward, was for a time acting assistant secretary of state. Seward, Frederick William (1830-191.5), American public official, son of William H. Sew- ard, was born in Auburn, N. Y. He was graduated from Union College in 1849, was admitted to the bar and for ten years was an editor of the Albany Evening Journal. He was assistant secretary of state under his father during the administrations of Lincoln and Johnson, and April 14, 1865, was wounded in trying to defend his father from the assassin, Paine. He was a mem- ber of the New York legislature in 1875, and again assistant secretary of state in 1877-81. His publications include The Life and Letters of William Henry Seward (1891); A West Indian Cruise (1894). Seward, George Frederick (1840-1910), American diplo- mat, was born in Florida, N. Y. He was educated at Union Col- lege and in 1861 was appointed bv his uncle, William H. Seward, consul at Shanghai and in 1863 consul-general, retaining the po- sition until 1876. He was minister to China in 1876-80. In 1893 he became president of the Fidelity and Casualty Company of New York He favored Chinese im- migration and in 1881 published Chinese Immigration and Its Social and Economic Aspects. Seward, William Henry (1801-72), American statesman, was born in Florida, a village in the town of Warwick, Orange county, N. Y., May 16, 1801. He prepared for college at Farmers' Hall, Goshen, and at the age of fifteen entered the sophomore class at Union Col- lege. Finding his debts greater than he could pay, he suddenly left college in 1819, and with a friend went to Savannah, Ga., where for a few months he taught in an academy. He then returned home, and was gradu- ated from Union in 1820. Ija October, 1822, he was admitted to the bar in Utica. He soon after entered into partnership with Elijah Miller, of Auburn, whose daughter, Frances Ade- line, he married. He rapidly rose to prominence as a lawyer, and soon had a profitable practice. He also found time to take an active interest in military affairs, or- ganized an artillery company, and eventually attained the rank of brigadier general in the state militia. His first political affiliation was with the wing of New York Democratic-Repub- licans known as 'Bucktails,' who acknowledged the leader- ship of Tompkins; but in 1824 Seward 123 Sewell he abandoned the party, wrote and spoke against the 'Albany regency,' and voted for Clinton. A nomination for Congress, tendered him by the Anti- Masons, was declined, but soon afterward he joined the Anti- Masons, and in 1830 attended the national convention of the party at Philadelphia. He was also a member of the Anti- Masonic convention at Balti- more, in 1831, which nominated William Wirt for President. In 1830 he was elected a member of the State Senate, where he served four years. He found himself in increasing hostility to the Jacksonian democracy, then rapidly becoming ascendant. On Jan. 31, 1832, he made a notable speech in defence of the Bank of the United States, which had just applied for a renewal of its char- ter. In January, 1834, he de- nounced Jackson's course in removing the deposits. On Sept. 13, 1834, he was nominated by the Whigs for governor, but was defeated by William L. Marcy. In 1838 Seward again received the Whig nomination for gov- ernor, and was elected by a ma- jority of 10,421, being the first governor whom New York had had for forty years who was not a Democrat. He was re-elected in 1840, and the four years of his administration were filled with important events. In contrast to his earlier attitude, he favored internal improvements and the development of canals and rail- ways. He went out of office with the defeat of the Whigs in 1842 and resumed his law practice at Auburn. Seward's anti-slavery opinions were by this time becoming radi- cal, though he still adhered to the Whigs. To such Federal meas- ures, like the admission of Texas, as directly or indirectly favored slavery, he was strongly opposed. He took part in campaign speak- ing from year to year, and in the Presidential election of 1848 spoke in several States, including New England, as an anti-slavery Whig. On Feb. 6, 1849, he was elected a member of the United States Senate. On March 11, 1850, in a great speech favoring the admission of California as a free State, he declared that *a higher law than the Constitution' devotes the public domain to freedom. The death of Taylor, July 9, lessened his influence, since he had no sympathy for the ideas of Fillmore, who even went so far as to attempt, unsuccessfully, to prevent the indorsement of Seward by the Whig convention in New York in the fall of 1850. The Kansas- Nebraska bill of 1854 called forth another notable speech, remark- able for its exhaustive analysis Vol. XL— Oct. '20 of the measure, its moderation, and its judicial temper. Seward was now the acknowl- edged leader of the Whigs who opposed compromise. In 1855 he was re-elected to the Senate, despite the opposition of the pro- slavery Whigs and Know- Noth- ings. The proposed organiza- tion of the Republican party, in 1854, caused him to hesitate, iDut the platform adopted by the new party decided him, and thence- forth he was a Republican. He was not strong enough, however, to win the Presidential nomina- tion in the Republican conven- tion of 1856, though the influence of Horace Greeley in defeating him has probably been overesti- mated. He strongly supported Fremont. The same year he made an effective speech in the Senate in favor of the admission of Kansas under the free-State Topeka constitution. He op- posed the Lecompton constitu- tion, favored the use of force against the lawless Mormons of Utah, and urged the admission of Kansas under the Wyandotte constitution. ^ It was generally expected that Seward would be nominated for president at the Republican con- vention in Chicago in May, 1860; but his opposition to Know-Nothingism, and the su- perior management of Lincoln's candidacy, prevented. His dis- appointment was keen, but this did not prevent him from working hard for Lincoln's elec- tion. He was one of the many who wished to avoid war and 'violent emancipation,' and who hoped and labored for a peaceful settlement with the South, On March 5, 1861, he became secretary of state, and he was a powerful aid in that capacity to Lincoln. He was opposed to provisioning Fort Sumter, but declined to confer with the Con- federate commissioners. He ad- vocated the blockade of Southern ports, and ably defended the action. The attitude of Great Britain and France towards the Confederacy was a matter of great anxiety, but his firm and skilful management prevented the anticipated recognition of in- dependence. In the Trent affair, he insisted upon the release of the Confederate commissioners. The withdrawal of the French from Mexico was one of his diplomatic triumphs. On April 5, 1865, he was thrown from his carriage and seriously injured. On the night of the 14th an attempt was made to assassinate him, and for a time his life was despaired of. He recovered, however, and re- mained in the cabinet through- out Johnson's term. Of his dip- lomatic achievements at this time, the most notable was the purchase of Alaska from Russia, in 1867. On his retirement, in March, 1869, he spent some two and a half years in travel, including a journey around the world, and was everywhere re- ceived with distinguished hon- ors. He died at Auburn, N. Y., Oct. 10, 1872. Seward's Works, including a memoir, have been published in five volumes (1883). An Auto- biography, to 1834, with a mem- oir (1831—46), has been issued by his son, F. W. Seward. A Life and Public Services of John Quincy Adams, issued over his name in 1849, seems to have been only in part Seward's work. Consult Life by Bancroft, and William H. Seward's Travels Around the World, by Olive Seward, his adopted daughter. Seward Peninsula, Alaska, lies between Kotzebue and Nor- ton sounds. Its western extrem- ity is Cape Prince of Wales, on Bering Strait. On this peninsula is the city of Nome (q. v.). Sewel, su'el, William (1654- 1720), Quaker historian, was born in Amsterdarn, grandson of an English Brownist who settled in Holland. He became a trans- lator, wrote verses, and conduct- ed a periodical, but is chiefly remembered for having written a valuable work called History of the Rise, Increase, and Progress of the Christian People Called Quakers (published in Dutch in 1717; in English in 1722). A later edition published at New York in 1844 contains a bio- graphical sketch of his career. Sewell, Elizabeth Missing (1815-1906), English novelist, was born in Newport, Isle of Wight. In early life she was en- gaged in teaching at Bonchurch. She wrote many novels, in- cluding Amy Herbert (1844), Margaret Percival (1847), and Katharine Ashton (1854), as well as tales for children, elementary histories, and religious works. Sewell, Jonathan (1766- 1839^. Canadian jurist, was born in Cambridge, Mass., a son of Jonathan Sewall (q. v.), and was educated in England. He went to Canada with his father in 1785, and was admitted to the bar in 1789. For a year he prac- tised in St. John, and then re- moved to Quebec. He became solicitor-general in 1793, and two years afterwards was made attorney-general. From 1808 to 1838 he was chief justice of Lower Canada and for the first twenty-one years of that time he was president of the Execu- tive Council. He was speaker of the Legislative Council from 1809 until his death. In 1814 he appeared before the Privy Council in England to answer the various charges preferred against him in regard to the method of procedure practised Sewell 124 Sewerage by him in the Canadian courts. The Privy Council exonerated him on all counts. While in England he formulated a plan for the federation of the various Canadian ' provinces, *o them. Lamp-holes are used for P lowering lamps, in order to < ascertain if there is any local obstruction; they are usually ^ formed of pipes placed vertically, or of small brickwork shafts. For small sewers glazed earth- enware, stoneware, or fire clay pipes are used. Stoneware pipes are used for the majority of sewerage and drainage works, being less porous and more re- liable than pipes of earthenware or fireclay. These pipes, which are 24 inches in diameter, are usually made in 2-foot, but pref- erably in 3-foot lengths. The pipes are jointed with yarn or other gaskets and cement mortar composed either of pure cement or cement and sand. Sewers over 24 inches in diameter are usually formed of brickwork, concrete or concrete and steel (re-enforced concrete) . They are circular, oval, or more com- monly egg-shaped in section, the latter form being generally used in combined systems. All sewerage systems should be made as nearly self-cleansing as possible, so as to prevent deposits and the formation of gases. Where necessary they should be provided with special means of ventilation, in order to permit of an efficient expulsion of sewer gas from, and a free admission of fresh air into, the sewers at all parts. In America ventilation is commonly effected by making the man-holes do duty as inlet and outlet shafts for the air, by forming ventilating gratings in their covers at the surface of the ground. In Great Britain cast-iron. ventilating pipes, con- nected to the man-holes and car- ried up the gables of adjoining buildings, or connected to ven- tilating lamp-posts, are fre- quently used. At the commencement of sew- ers whose gradients are flat, flushing tanks are constructed for the purpose of flushing out the sewers and removing any silt or solid matter which may be lying on the bottom or adhering to the sides. These tanks are usually built underground, are formed of.brickwork or concrete, and vary in size according to the size, gradient, and length of the sewer. They are filled with water, and the contents are dis- charged into the sewer either by automatic siphons, which come into operation whenever the tank is full (the time oc- cupied in filling being regulated by a tap), or by metal tipping buckets so fixed in the brick- work of the man-hole that when the water supply reaches a cer- tain level the centre of gravity is upset and the contents of the bucket is projected down a slo- ping bench into the sewer. In place of flush tanks it is not un- common in America to flush sewers by means of hose con- nected to the city water distribu- tion system. When a free and continuous outlet for the sewage flow cannot be provided, tank or storage sewers are necessary, as in the case of a sea outfall for sewage when the condition of the tide must be considered. Such a tank is merely a widening out of the outfall sewer with a valve to prevent a backflow of sewage into the town end. Disposal of Sewage. — Original- ly • it was almost the universal practice to dispose of sewage by conveying it to the nearest watercourse, and even to-day disposal by dilution is the pre- vailing method in America. When the sewage can be carried directly to the sea, nothing fur- ther need be done, but where it is likely to cause trouble, as by contaminating a water supply, some method of purification must be employed. The prin- cipal methods now in use may be divided into two classes: (1) processes for preliminary clarifi- cation; (2) methods of final oxi- dation of the impurities. Clari- fication is carried out by means of screening, sedimentation, pre- cipitation and by liquefying in the septic tank; oxidation is car- ried out upon artificially prepared sewage filters or upon land. The object of screening is to remove the grosser suspended matters, such as paper, rags, sticks, etc., by passinjg Hhe sewage through coarse wire screens; sedimentation tanks are then used in which the sewage is allowed to settle, the solid matter sinking to the bottom in the form of sludge, which is sometimes barged out to sea and dumped or, more often, spread on land as manure. If chemicals are used to precipitate the solids in a tank, these are called precipita- tion tanks; lime and alum are the most commonly used precipi- tants. The septic tank system was introduced into England in 1896 by Mr. Donald Cameron. In this process the sewage is run into a large covered tank where, Septic Tank for the Removal of Suspended Solids from Sewage by Sedimentation and Their Subsequent Decomposition by Anaerobic Bacterial Action. Trickling Filters at Columbus, Ohio, for the Oxidation of Organic Matter in Sewage 'by the Action of Aerobic Bacteria. SEWAGE DISPOSAL. Vol. XI.— Oct. '20 Vol. XL— at Page 124 Sewerage 125 Sewing Machine after a considerable period, the solids and suspended matters become liquefied by the action of anaerobic bacteria, and only a small amount of sludge collects at the bottom of the tank. Artificial beds for the final treatment of sewage are classed as contact beds, intermittent sand filters, and percolating fil- ters. Contact beds consist of broken stone, cinders or clinkers, coke and other materials, ranging in size from 1 or 2 inches to yi inch, contained in water-tight compartments. The beds are filled, stand full (hence the term contact), are emptied, and then rest, the cycle taking from 4 to 8 or 12 hours. Intermittent sand filters are made of fairly coarse sand and have free underdrains. The sewage is applied for a few hours or days, and then the beds are given a rest. Percolating filters are composed of large stone, clinker or other material, on which the sewage is sprayed, and through which it percolates, con- tinuously. These beds are usual- ly deeper than the contact beds, and can treat nearly double the quantity of sewage per cubic yard. The septic tank and the various filters described, particularly con- tact beds and percolating filters, have come to the front since about 1895 (Intermittent filters much earlier), and are classed, with land filtration, as bacterial processes. No commercially prac- ticable method of sewage treat- ment can convert sewage into drinking water. Land treatment of sewage is the process by which it is applied intermittently to land at a rate so low that it does not interfere with the raising and harvesting of crops. This method has been used more or less widely in China, Germany, France, and England, but has never been in general use in the United States except in the far West. Objections to its use are increasing rather than de- creasing, these objections relate to disagreeable odors, prejudice against the use of sewage to grow vegetables; and the difficulty of obtaining a soil suitable in qual- ity and sufficiently extensive and isolated. The volume of sewage proper to be carried off depends on the water consumption of the dis- trict, and amounts usually to from 30 or 35 gallons per head of the population in Great Britain, and 100 gallons or more in the United States. The flow, how- ever, varies in volume through- out the twenty-four hours. Storm overflows are frequently con- structed at suitable points, throughout the system, by which part of the water brought down in times of heavy rain is dis- charged into the nearest river or stream. Bibliography. — Consult Lath- am's Sanitary Engineering; Ba- ker's British Sewage Works; Fol- well's Sewerage (1918) ; Kinnicutt Winslow, and Pratt's Sewage Dis- posal (1919). Sewickley, se-wik'li, residen- tial borough and summer resort, Pennsylvania, in Allegheny Coun- ty, on the north bank of the Ohio River, and on the Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne, and Chicago divi- sion of the Pennsylvania Rail- road; 13 miles northwest of Pittsburgh. Natural gas and petroleum are found in the dis- trict. The borough has a public library and a fresh-air home is supported. Pop. (1910) 4,479; (1920) 4,955. Sewing. See Needlework; Sewing Machine. Sewing Machine, a mechan- ical device for fastening fabrics together. The first practicable sewing machine was invented by Thomas Saint, in England, in 1790. Although crude in construc- tion, it embodied many of the CvS- sential features of the modern sewing machine, including the horizontal feed-plate, the over- hanging arm carrying a vertically descending needle, and the auto- natic feed; this machine produced the crochet-stitch. John Duncan, in 1804 and James Winter, some- what later, received patents for a less comprehensive machine and for certain improvements, A machine patented by Thimon- nier in France in 1830 was em- ployed for making uniforms in Paris in 1841. In that year, in England, Newton and Archbold patented a chain-stitch machine, employing for the first time the eye-pointed needle. The real de- velopment of the sewing machine as a competitor with hand labor, however, begins with the machine patented by Elias Howe (q.v.), Sept. 10, 1846. Some twelve years earlier an American named Walter Hunt is said to have ex- perimented with a sewing device which is claimed by some to be the first sewing machine invent- ed, but he was denied a patent because he allowed too long a time to elapse between its com- pletion and his application. Howe's machine combined the eye-pointed needle with the shut- tle for forming the stitch and the intermittent feed for supplying the material to be sewn. Although his patents were at first infringed upon, and he himself reduced to abject poverty, Howe finally suc- ceeded in establishing his rights to his invention, and amassed an enormous fortune from royalties. The next important improve- ment in the sewing machine was the invention of the four-motion feed by A. B. Wilson in 1850. Prior to this date all machines had employed an overhanging arm which held the needle direct- ly and vibrated with it. But in 1851 Isaac M. Singer, of New York, patented the first rigid- arm sewing machine and also made important improvements in the shuttle. In 1855 E. A. Gibbs invented a rotary looper which he employed successfully in a model machine. This rotary looper shortly thereafter was em- ployed commercially in machines of the chain-stitch type using a single thread and to the present day has been regarded as the standard method for producing single, thread chain-stitch seams. Sewing machines are of two classes — the chain-stitch ma- chine and the lock-stitch machine but the principal upon which the machine works is the same in all types: the needle is clamped to a bar or arm which moves vertical- ly up and down at great speed, piercing the material to be stitch- ed, which is placed upon a flat or curved steel plate. The needle is made with the eye near the point, the eye passing through the material, which is moved au- tomatically for a small distance at a time, to form the stitch. The single-thread or chain-stitch can be unravelled by pulling the end of the thread, but the double- thread or lock-stitch, in which an upper and lower thread are used, locks together in the centre of the material. The operation of the chain- stitch machine is as follows : The needle descends through the material and throws out a loop of thread, which is seized under- neath and held by a hook-shaped piece of steel called a looper, which has a vibrating or rotating movement. |The needle then rises, and as soon as it is clear of the material this is moved forward the length of the stitch. The looper then spreads the loop of thread across the path of the needle; this descends again through the loop and at the same time the looper takes the loop from the needle, drawing it through the previous loop that was held by the looper. The loop then slips off and is drawn tightly up to the underside of the mate- rial and the operation proceeds as before. The appearance of the stitch is as a straight line on the upper surface, and as a series of interlocked loops on the under side. In the lock-stitch machine the needle descends and throws out a loop as before; through the loop a second thread is passed by a vibrating shuttle, or the loop is passed over the under spool of thread by a steel circular hook having a rotating movement. When the needle rises, the second Vol. XL— 030 A. SHUTTLE ENTERING LOOP TROM '''M.LOOP P A 5 S I NG R OUNO BOO^ NEEDLE.B. THREAD FROM SHUTTLE OF SMUTTUEL ^ bHUTTLETHf^EAD A.PITMAMVCRAMK FOR SHUTTLE. B.FEECi SHAFT. C.T An E UP CAM J52 tons. The most modern development of the sewing machine is the elec- trically driven machine. This is of two types, the stationary and the portable. The former is built on a table or in a cabinet. Power is obtained by the use of an elec- tric motor, either as an integral part of the machine from which it cannot be disconnected, or by a detachable motor which may be discarded and the machine run by the usual treadle. There are two types of detachable motors, the jack-rabbit which stands on four feet on the table just back of the balance wheel, and the brack- et type which is screwed to the upright of the machine. At the present time there are sewing machines for making prac- tically every article of clothing, upholstery and leather goods, as well as for various kinds of em- broidery, smocking and other means of ornamentation. Of chief interest amongst the most recent developments is a high speed seaming machine em- ploying 4 needles and 4 loopers and 9 threads, capable of produc- ing a seam with perfectly abutted edges, while simultaneously trim- ming the raw edges of the fabric. High speed machines run by individual motors are used in factories where articles are pro- duced in immense quantities. This method is becoming increas- ingly popular and is regarded for certain classes of work as superior to the line shaft type of drive. American sewing machines have always been in extensive use abroad, owing to their vast su- periority over foreign makes. At present machines are shipped from the United States to nearly' every point in the civilized world. In 1927 there were in the United States 41 factories manufacturing sewing machines, cases and at- tachments, with 11,838 wage earners and a product valued at $45,221,816. Of this amount about $10,500,000 represents cas- es and attachments. The leading States were Illinois, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Jersey and Massachusetts. Consult Byrn's Progress of Invention in the Nine- teenth Century; R. C. Cook's Sew- ing Machines (1922). Sex, the physical difference be- tween male and female in the animal kingdom. In almost all animals and plants, except the unicellulars, the individual life begins as a fertilized egg-cell, in the union of two dimorphic germ- cells or gametes, the ovum and the spermatozoon. The only ex- ceptions are (1) where the mode of multiplication is asexual — i.e. where the offspring starts as a bud or as a separated portion of the parental body; and (2) where the egg-cell develops partheno- genetically (agamogenesis) or without fertilization, as in the case with the eggs which give rise to drone bees or to summer green flies. The organism which pro- duces ova is called female, and the organism which produces spermatozoa is called male; but in a large number of animals, such as the snail, earthworm, and leech, there is a production of eggs and sperms by the same in- dividual, which in consequence is known as hermaphrodite. It sometimes happens, as in the hag- fish {Myxine glutinosa) , that for a period the animal produces only spermatozoa, and thereafter only ova — thus, so to speak, changing its sex as it grows. The egg- bearer, or female, and the sperm- bearer, or male, are often con- spicuously different — e.g. in size, shape, color, decorations, habits, and length of life. In many cases the males and females are so dif- ferent that they could not be recognized as even related one to another if their life-history were not known — e.g. Bonellia, some rotifers, and some parasitic crustaceans. In some cases the two sexes found separately have been referred by zoologists to dif- ferent species. This is the ex- treme of sexual dimorphism, but visible dimorphism is not an es- sential element in sex. While the great majority of Protozoa are strictly unicellular organisms, showing no distinction between body substance (somato- plasm) and reproductive sub- VOL. XI.— 030 Sex 128 Sex stance (germ-plasm), there are some which form, by division without actual separation, simple colonies of cells — e.g. the Volvo- cineae. In one species of Volvox, a spherical colony of 1,000 or 10,- 000 cells, we have illustrations of various types of parthenogenesis, hermaphroditism, and separate sexes. The history of Volvox colonies is an epitome of the evo- lution of sex. In regard to various algae and fungi, Klebs has shown conclusively that certain external conditions (of nutrition, moisture, light, temperature, and chemical reagents) may determine the oc- currence of asexual reproduction by zoospores which require no fer- tilization, while others as certain- ly evoke sexual reproduction by gametes which conjugate. Nature of Sex. — When we keep to the lower reaches of sex expres- sion, we find that the problem resolves itself into this: — Of two ova of the same mother fertilized by spermatoza of the same father, one develops into an egg-bearing animal and the other into a sperm-bearing animal; there may be no other visible difference be- tween them, either in structure or in function, but what is it that determines the respective female- ness and maleness? According to most authorities the only funda- mental difference is a slight dif- ference in the physiological 'gear- ing,' in the life-ratio between ana- bolic and katabolic processes — i.e. between constructive and disruptive, assimilative and dis- similative vital changes. If a plant and an animal of equal weight be contrasted, the ratio of anabolism to katabolism — in the TDlant is greater than the corres- ponding ratio ^ in the animal; k and the same may be true of the fundamental contrast between fe- male and male organisms. But just as dimorphic varieties arise and become established in a spe- cies, so it may be that an incipi- ent sexual dimorphism arose long ago, based on a slight bias to one side or the other in the physio- logical gearing. There are various reasons why this initial dimorphism, once started, should continue, and should be gradually more and more accentuated. It tended to secure cross-fertilization, which implies the union or amphimixis of more or less diverse germ- plasms. This not only helps to swamp undesirable germinal idiosyncrasies, but to induce pos- sibly advantageous new varia- tions; for while there are parthe- nogenetic forms, some of which are variable, and while there are self-fertilizing (or autogamous) hermaphrodite forms, like some flukes and tapeworms and vari- VOL. XI. — 030 ous plants, the numerous arrange- ments throughout the animal and plant kingdoms for securing cross fertilization show that there must be decided advantage in ex- ogamous amphimixis. The ad- vantage as regards some plants has been proved by Darwin and others; the advantage as regards animals is hinted at by the occa- sionally dire results of too pro- longed and intimate inbreeding; and this form of inbreeding is known as self-fertilization. In most of the relatively simple multicellular animals, such as sponges and zoophytes, there is nothing analogous to sexual union; the fertilization of the ova by the spermatozoa is left, rough- ly speaking, to chance. Even in many complex forms, such as sea- urchins and bivalves, the sperms are usually liberated into the water to find or not to find the similarly liberated ova. In such cases there is little sexual di- morphism, though there are some- times special arrangements for the equipment of the ova with yolk, and the like. On the other hand, in actively moving animals ranging over a more or less exten- sive habitat, and not very closely gregarious, the fertilization of the ova could not be left to chance, and probably those variations in males and females were gradually selected which were most effec- tive in securing amphimixis — that is, practically, in producing offspring. Thus arose the almost endless intricacy of sexual di- morphism — all manner of ar- rangements for tracking and seiz- ing the females, for attracting the males, for transferring and receiv- ing the sperm. In short, sexual dimorphism arose as an adapta- tion for securing amphimixis, and had its physiological side in sexu- al appetency and mating in- stincts, as well as its structural aspect in the specialization of particular organs. We thus con- clude that almost all the details of sex-differences are adaptations, originating in the germinal va- riations of particular males and females, and established by nat- ural selection. Let us suppose that a particular male (or set of males) shows, as the result of germinal variations, some quality advantageous in mating: the progeny inheriting this quality will be similarly at an advantage, and the quality will gradually become dominant in proportion to its value. The same will hold good in regard to variations in the females. Now the inheritance must be multiple; it must, on Weissmann's argu- ment, consist, not of a single set of representative primary con- stituents or determinants for the various structures of the body that is to develop, but of several alternative sets. Thus drone bees with their masculine peculiarities, have no father; the ova which their spermatozoa fertilize devel- op into queens (females) or work- ers (sterile females) . When we consider a large number of cases of sexual dimor- phism, and observe, for instance, that the females are often larger, less active, less brightly colored, with a longer life and so on, and, conversely, that the males are often smaller, more energetic, more decorative, and of shorter life, we are tempted to regard the two sexes simply as expressions of different physiological diatheses, as literal embodiments of the ob- vious contrast between ovum and spermatozoon. We know, more- over, that subtle influences pass from the reproductive organs to the remotest parts of the body, and that the removal of the re- productive organs may be follow- ed by the appearance of feminine characters in a male or of mascu- line characters in a female. More- over, there are cases where dis- tinctive masculine or feminine secondary characters can be shown with some plausibility to be physiologically correlated with the general constitutional con- trast between egg-producer and sperm-producer. But while we adhere to the view that the fun- damental difference between male and female is a difference in the protoplasmic gearing or rhythm of metabolism — the phraseology must remain vague — yet it does not appear that we can in any way dispense with the comple- mentary view that the details of sex-dimorphism are the results of long processes of selection. Thus we arrive at a combination of the physiological and the adapta- tional theories of sexual dimor- phism. Another difficult question is that generally referred to under the phrase the 'determination of sex.' What determines whether an egg is to develop into a male or a female organism? On the one hand, most of the careful experiments and observations on mammals lead to the conclusion that the sex of the offspring is fixed ad initio by the constitution of the egg. In other words, there are ova whose 'organization' (to put it statically), or 'metabolic bias' (to put it kinetically), is such that they will develop into male or female organisms no matter what natural influences may be brought to bear on them. They are predetermined from the first, and their bias cannot be altered. Thus, in the case of mice, no alterations of nutrition, prolonged through two genera- tions, seem to make the least difference in the proportion of male and female progeny. More- over, cases are alleged where a mother produced only daughters, Sex 129 Sextant though paired with different sires; ana it seems that in man- kind a tendency to produce fe- male offspring is hereditary. But if there are ova predetermined to develop into females and others into males, to what is this pre- determination due — to the nutri- tive condition of the rnother, to her age, to her constitution, or to what ? Or is the predetermina- tion simply another expression of germinal variation, in which the complex germ-plasm is swayed rnore or less persistently to one side or the other by factors be- yond our analysis ? As to this we have no secure data. There is also the other view, that the sex of the offspring is not predetermined by the con- stitution of the ovarian ovum, but remains for some time un- determined and modifiable. It may be that a number of factors co-operate to settle the open question of whether the egg is to develop into a male or into a female. Among the possible de- termining factors, the most im- portant may be resolved into plus or minus nutrition, operat- mg upon parents, sex-cells, em- bryo, and in some cases larvae. Thus, Yung's experiments on tadpoles, though not conclusive, go to show that the condition of sexual indifference or undeter- mined sex may in this case persist even in larval life, and that the proportions of the sexes may be altered in a remarkable degree » by the nutrition afforded to the larvae. Those who believe in the view that the sex of the offspring is determined or is alterable after the ovum has left the ovary are on the whole agreed that favor- able nutritive conditions tend to result in a production of females, and vice versa; but, furthermore, that there are numerous factors which may exert their influence either in co-operation or antag- onism. At present the balance of opinion is m favor of the view that there is initial or ovarian predetermination. As elements somewhat apart from the general life of the body, the sex-cells multiply and claim liberation; thus the simplest forms of the 'sexual impulse' are concerned with the discharge of the germ-cells. This, which might have been, and often is, effected by internal reflexes as relatively simple as those of urirfation, has been restricted and regulated in the course of evolu- tion in a great variety of ways tending to secure fertilization and the continuance of the race. But what looks like providential in- tention can be interpreted by the selection principle. An early re- striction was that the presence or contact of the other sex became necessary in order to set the lib- erating reflexes in action. Thus arose what may be called phys- ical fondness. On this, however, more and more subtle attractions, rising to aesthetic emotion and further, have been grafted, until through many circuitous paths and devious ways a high psy- chical level was reached, as in many birds and mammals. In their higher expressions the phe- nomena of sex are complicated by the emergence of more or less obvi- ous psychical correlates. Sexual selection takes two chief forms— (1) where the rival males fight, it seems to us, for the possession of a desired mate or mates, and in so doing reduce the leet; and (2) where the females, it seems to us, choose certain individuals from amid a crowd of suitors. Darwin attached much impor- tance to both modes of selec- tion: the fitter males in the tournaments are most successful in reproduction, and those that most effectively evoke the pair- ing instinct by gentler methods become likewise dominant in the evolution of the race. Wallace and others have pointed out that there is insufficient evidence to show that the female birds or butterflies do really choose, or that even the most unattractive males remain unmated. On the whole, however, a belief in the reality of preferential mating sur- vives its criticism. It has been pointed out by Lloyd Morgan that the elaborate manoeuvres of courtship among animals prob- ably have in the main a suggest- ive value: they excite the sexual reflexes through specialized emo- tional paths; 'and those indi- viduals which were not expres- sive, together with those which were insensible to the suggestive influence of expression, would be less ready to mate and to trans- mit the specialized modes of expression.' Groos, again, has pointed out that the sexual im- pulse is often of extraordinary strength, and apt to exceed the requirements of race preserva- tion. That it may become quite pathological is well known. Therefore a long-continvied pre- liminary excitement, overcoming the instinctive coyness of the female, calling forth the best of the male, has been evolved. The human application is fairly ob- vious. See Biology. — Sex. See Darwin's The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871); A. R. Wallace's Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection (1871) and Darwinianism (1889); iP. Geddes and J. A. Thomson's The Evolution of Sex (2d ed. 1900); Havelock Ellis's Studies in the Psychology of Sex (1897); Schenk's Determination of Sex (new ed. 1899); H. B. Thomson's Mental Traits in Sex (1905); and Weiningcr's Sex and Character (1906). Sexagesima, the Sunday which, roughly speaking, is sixty days from Easter. On all the three Sundavs before Lent St. Paul is used as an example of self-denial and zeal. Sextans, a small constellation between Crater and Hydra. The chief star is of 4.5 magnitude. 8 Sextantis is a binary, with an assigned but uncertain period of ninety-four years. Sextant, an instrument of re- flection used by navigators for measuring the altitudes of heav- enly bodies, and for observing angles. It resembles the octant and quadrant, 'and may be traced directly to the astrolabe, cross- stafT, and to Davis's back-staff of a later date. The sextant con- sists of : — A, the graduated arc; the divisions are 10' each, and these are subdivided into 10" by the vernier, h, the handle by which the instrument is held in the right hand. M, a mirror called the index-glass; this is per- pendicular to the face of the in- strument, and moves with the index-bar m c, the end of which slides along the graduated arc. m, the horizon-glass, the lower half silvered, and the upper half left clear; this should be parallel with the index-glass when the in- I 6' (=3^^ Sextant. — Fig. 1. dex points to 0° at the beginning of the arc. E, the magnifying telescope; this gives greater dis- tinctness to the images, and is placed in the line of sight, and supported in the ring or collar at K, which can be moved by a screw at the back in a direction at right angles to the plane of the sextant, so that the axis of the telescope may be directed to- wards either the silvered or the transparent part of the horizon- glass. R, the magnifying glass for reading the vernier, attached to a revolving arm s, which is se- cured upon the index-bar. p and Q, colored shade glasses for shielding the eye from the glare of the sun. b, the tangent screw (set tangent to the arc of the limb), by which the vernier may Sextant be moved delicately along the arc after the index - bar has been clamped by the screw c at the back. I, the inverting telescope. F, the simple tube without glasses, for giving a direct line of sight from the centre of the telescope ring to the horizon-glass. The 130 about perpendicular to the line of sight) and bring the reflected image into coincidence with the real object. If the reflected image of the horizon line or straight edge does not appear to form a straight line with the real object, it should be made to do Z. ■■ : Sextant. — Fig. 2. inverting telescope is sometimes used for measuring the angles of heavenly bodies, and, as its name implies, the objects are shown upside down. Thus the horizon is brought down to the sun. g is a small ring containing a colored glass for fixing on the eye-end of the telescope, and for modify- ing the glare of the sun instead of depending upon the shade- glasses p and Q. To adjust the index-glass — i.e. to see that it is perpendicular to the plane of the sextant — look at it obliquely, and if the arc and its reflection are so by moving the horizon-glass adjusting screws. To find the index error, bring the reflected image of an object into coinci- dence with the actual object as seen through the unsilvered part of the horizon-glass. If the zero of the vernier then rests on the zero of the limb, there is no in- dex error; if the two zeros do not agree the reading of the ver- nier is the index error. If the vernier zero is to the right of the limb the index error should be added to the reading of all angles; and vice versa. An index r A lO B "1" "1" "1" 1 1 1 1 1 V 40 35 Sextant. — Fig. 3. not in the same straight line, turn the adjusting screws in the proper direction. The next ad- justment to make is the setting of the horizon-glass perpendicu- lar .to the plane of the instrument. To do this turn the instrument toward the horizon (or toward some distant object with a well- defined straight edge which is error is unnecessary, however, and may be corrected as follows: Set the zero of the vernier at the zero of the limb; then revolve the horizon-glass by means of its second set of adjusting screws until the object observed and its reflected image coincide. The vernier is a contrivance (applied to nearly all instruments Sexton for measuring lines and angles) for ascertaining with great ex- actness the measure of an angle or distance without dividing the, scale so closely as to be confus- ing. It consists of a short scale bearing some convenient relation to the scale of the arc or limb. In the accompanying sketch (Fig. 3), AB is the vernier and c d is a portion of the limb. The small divisions of the limb are evi- dently of 10' each. Ten divisions of the vernier are equal to nine of the limb. If the zero should fall upon a division of the limb, it is plain that the next division mark of the vernier will fall 1' of arc short of the next division rnark of the limb, that the second division mark of the vernier will fall 2' short of the second divis- ion of the limb and so on. If the vernier is moved to the left 1' of arc, the first division mark of the vernier — and no other — will coincide with a division mark of the limb; and if the ver- nier is moved 2' to the left the second mark of the vernier will correspond with the next mark of the scale. It is then apparent that we should read the degrees and minutes of the limb to the right of the zero of the vernier and to this add the number of minutes obtained by counting the number of division marks of the • vernier to and including the one which is in coincidence with a division rnark of the limb. Fol- lowing this rule it is apparent that the reading of the vernier in the sketch is 35° 55'. In most good sextants the vernier reads to 10", the divisions of the limb being 10' each and 60 divisions of the vernier equalling 59 of the limb. The geometrical and optical principles of the sextant are shown in Fig. 2. The lettering is the same as in Fig. 1 so far as the parts of the instrument are concerned, x m is drawn perpendicular to m and Ym to m. The angle to be measured is fhat between the objects lying in the directions m s and mz, and is equal to S M x. If O is the zero point of the limb, then M O is parallel to m. Hence angle S M X = M — E = 2 M — Y = 2 C M O. Sexton, an official^ employed by a church to act as janitor and to take general charge of the church building and furniture. The sexton often digs graves and attends funerals; in the United States he is usually an under- taker by profession. The term sacristan, of which sexton is a corruption, applies more par- ticularly to an official in the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches, who has charge of the sacristy and its contents, and of Sexton 131 Seymour the vestments worn during the service. He occupies a con- siderably higher rank than the ordinary sexton, and in English cathedrals is often one of the minor canons of the chapter. Sextus Empiricus, a Greek physician of the 3d century A.D., who lived at Alexandria and Athens. He was called Empiricus because he belonged to the Empiric school of medicine ; in philosophy he was a Sceptic. Two of his works are extant — the Pyrrhonice Hypotyposes, which explains the Sceptic doctrines; and Adversus Mathematicos Controversies, an attack on all positive philosophy; they are written in Greek. Eai- tion by Bekker (1842). See mono- graph by Pappenheim (1875). Sexual Selection, a term used by Darwin to indicate the effect produced upon a race by prefer- ential mating. The males, notably in birds, often possess a beauty of coloration, or a power of song, which does not seem to be actu- ally required for survival in the struggle for existence. Darwin, therefore, supposed that in these cases the coloring or song is the result of the persistent choice of the females, which in each genera- tion choose the most beautiful or the sweetest songsters, and they in their turn transmit their own characters to the male descend- ants. Wallace, on the other hand, holds that there is no evi- dence that such selection exists, even among birds, which are highly organized, and much less among insects, where the same color phenomena manifest them- selves. Nevertheless, those who, like Wallace, deny that the de- tails of the patterns and coloration of male organisms have been pro- duced by the persistent choice of the females, continued through- out many generations, do not deny that preferential mating has had, and is having, an impor- tant effect; they only maintain that its action is strictly subor- dinated to that of natural selec- tion. Wallace points out that great beauty, power of song, and so forth are frequently mere exter- nal indications of superabundant health and vigor, and that it is probably this health and vigor which lead to the individual be- coming the favored suitor. The subject may be pursued further under Sex. Seychelles, a group of islands in the Indian Ocean, 600 m. n.e. of Madagascar, constituting a British colony. Area, 149 sq. m. The chief islands are Mahe (55 sq^. m.), PrasUn, Silhouette, La Digue, Curieuse, and Felicite. Among dependent islands are the Amirantes, Alphonse I., St. Fran9ois, St. Pierre, Assumption I., Providence I., and Flat I. The capital, a naval coaling sta- tion, is Victoria, in Mahe. Pop. (1901) 19,237. The islands are surrounded by coral reefs, and some of them possess giant tor- toises and the curious coco de mer, or double cocoanut. The exports — chiefly vanilla, cocoanuts, and oil and tortoise-shell — amounted in 1904 to $234,94*9; the imports to $269,019. These islands were col- onized by the French in 1742, but were taken by the British, with Mauritius, in 1794, and formally ceded in 1814. They were made a separate colony in 1888. Seymour. (1.) City, Jackson CO., Ind., 60 m. s. by e. of Indian- apolis, on the B. and O. S. W., the Pitts., Cin., Chi. and St. L., and the S. Ind. R. Rs. It is a commercial and industrial centre, with flour mills, woollen mills, four furniture factories, hard- wood lumber plants, three har- ness factories, etc. The district raises consideraole wheat and other, agricultural produce. The first settlement here was made in 1854, the town was incorporated in 1864, and the city was char- tered in 1867. Pop. (1910) 6,- 305. (3.) Tn., New Haven co.. Conn., 10 m. n.w. of New Haven, on the Naugatuck R., and on the N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R. It is an industrial town, manufacturing brass and copper goods, horseshoe nails, mechan- ics' tools, auger bits, fountain rens, telegraph cables, paper, plushes, foundry products, stove trimmings, eyelets, lathes, etc. The town has a public library. The Soldiers' and Sailors' Monu- ment is situated in a natural park. The town was first settled in 1675 as part of Derby, and was separately incorporated in 1850. Pop. (1910) 4,786. See Sharpe, History of Seymour, and Sharpe and Campbell, Sey- mour, Past and Present. (3.) City, Wayne co., la., 45 m. w.s.w. of Ottumwa, on the Chi.^ Milw. and St. P. and the Chi., Rock I. and Pac. R. Rs. The leading industries are f:oal-min- ing and stock-raising. The first settlement here was made in 1872. Pop. (1910) 2,290. Seymour, Sir Edward Hobart (1840), British admiral; served in the Black Sea (1854-5); the China War (1857-60); on the w. coast of Africa (1870), when he was wounded; in the Egyptian War (1882); and, as commander-in- chief, in China (1898-1901). In 1900 he led naval contingents from the ships of seven European powers in an attempt to relieve the besieged legations at Peking, but was obliged to retire. He was created admiral in 1901, and admiral of fleet in 1905. He was British special representative at the Fulton-Hudson celebration in New York in 1909. Retired 1910. Seymour, George Franklin (1829-1906), American P. E. prelate, born in New York, and graduated (1 850) at Columbia, and at the General Theological Semi- nary (1854). He was ordained priest in 1855, and the same year founded St. Stephen's College, at Annandale, N. Y. He was rector of various churches in New York state from 1801 to 1867, meanwhile accepting in 1865 the chair of ecclesiastical hiscory in the General Theological Semi- nary, of which he was dean from 1875 until his consecration as bishop of Springfield, 111., in 1878. He published a number of con- troversial pamphlets, including What is Modern Romanism? (1885), Marriage and Divorce (1893), and Money, what it Really Is (1896). In 1903 appeared his Sacraments and Principles of the Church. Seymour, Horatio (1810-86), American politieal leader, born at Pompey Hill, Onondaga co., N. Y. He was educated in the public schools and at private academies and in 1832 was admitted to the bar, beginning his practice at Utica, N. Y. In 1833-39 he was military secretary to Governor Marcy; he was a member of the assembly in 1842 and in the same year was elected mayor of Utica. Defeated for re-election he was again returned to the assembly, serving in 1844 and 1845, as speaker in the latter year. In 1850 he was the unsuccessful Democratic candidate for gov- ernor, but was elected to the office two years afterwards. During his term' he vetoed a prohibition act passed by the legislature, being opposed to the policy and also believing the act unconstitu- tional, and this veto was probably responsible for his defeat for re- election in 1854, Clark^ the Whig and Temperance candidate hav- ing a pluraUty of 309. The pro- hibition act, passed again and signed by (jovernor Clark, was subsequently declared unconsti- tutional by the court of appeals. Seymour advocated loyalty to the government at the outbreak of the Civil War, but opposed many measures of the administration, and sturdily maintained the right of a citizen to criticise the conduct of government, even in time of war. He was again elected gov- ernor on the Democratic ticket in 1862 and rendered excellent ser- vice in the work of furnishing troops for the prosecution of the war, particularly during the Con- federate invasion of Pennsyl- vania in 1863. He was severely criticised during the draft riots in New York city for addressing the mob as 'My friends,' but his acts in suppressing the riots were effective. In 1864 he was de- feated for re-election by a small majority, and in 1868 was the un- Seymour successful Democratic candidate for the Presidency, receiving 80 electoral votes to 214 for Grant, although he carried New York by a substantial majority. Suymour, Sir Michael (1802- 87^ British admiral, third son of Sir Michael Seymour, was pres- «int at the capture of the Smiane in 1814. In 1854, when he at- tained flag rank, he accompanied Sir Charles Napier to the Baltic. From 1856 to 1859 he was com- mander-in-chief in China, and was present at the action in Fat- ^han creek, at the capture of Canton, and at the capture of the Taku forts in 1858. He be- came an admiral in 1864, and was made vice-admiral of the United Kingdom in 1875. Seymour, Sir Michael CuLME- (1836), British admiral, born at Berkhampstead, entered ^ the navy in 1850. He served in (y, the Burmese War (1852); in the (j^ Baltic (1854); was present at the \ bombardment of Sevastopol, and ^ took part in the capture of Kertch, (V^ Kinburn, and Yenikale (1854-5). In the China War (1858) he had command of a boat at Fatshan ^ creek, and in the operations on ^ the Canton river, and also took X part in the capture -of the Pei-ho forts. Sir Michael was promoted ^ rear-admiral (1882) and vice- ^ admiral (1888), and was suc- ^ cessively commander-in-chief in S), the Pacific, the Channel, and the Mediterranean. In 1897 he was appointed to the Portsmouth command, but retired in 1901. Seymour, Thomas Day (1848), American scholar, was born at Hudson, O., and graduated (1870) at Western Reserve College, con- tijiuing his studies in German uni- versities. He was professor of Greek at Western Reserve from ^ 1872 to 1880, when he accepted the ^ chair of Greek at Yale. From — 1887 to 1901 he was chairman of the managing committee of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, and he held membership and office in several learned societies. He edited a number of Greek text-books and lexicographical works, including Selected Odes of Pindar, with Notes (1882), Introduction to the Language and Verse of Homer (1885), and Homeric Vocabulary (1889), and was principal editor of the ' College Series of Greek Authors.' Seymour, Thomas Hart (1808-G8), American politician, soldier, and diplomat, born at Hartford, Conn. He was ad- mitted to the bar; became editor of The Jejfersonian; was for a time a probate judge, and during 184.'}- 45 was a member of the Federal House of Representatives. He served in tlie Mexican War with distinction, and attained the rank of colonel. He was an unsuccess- 132 ful candidate for governor of Conn, on the Democratic ticket in 1849, and was elected to that office in 1851, 1852, and 1853. In the last-mentioned year he resigned the governorship'to become minis- ter to Russia, where he remained until 1857. He opposed the sub- jugation of the South so actively that he incurred the suspicion of disloyalty, and in 18G3 was de- feated in a fifth contest for whe governorship. Seymour, Truman (1824-91), American soldier, born at Burling- ton, Vt. He graduated at West Point in 1846 as a second lieuten- ant of artillery, served in Mexico, and was one of the garrison of Fort Sumter in April, 1861. He was made brigadier-general of volunteers, served in the Army of the Potomac and on the Atlantic coast in S. C. and Florida until 1864, and was defeated at Olustee, Feb. 20, 1864, while commanding an expedition into the interior of Florida. In 1864-65 he returned to the Army of the Potomac and served with it and in the Shenan- doah valley until the close of the war, when -he received the brevet of major-general of volunteers. From 1866 to 1876, when he was retired, he was colonel of the 5th artillery. Seymour Family. See Som- erset, Dukes of, Seyne, La, tn., French dep. Var, opposite Toulon; builds steamers and engines. Pop. (1901) 21,002. Sezze (anc. Setia), tn. in Rome prov., Italy, 32 m. N.w. of Gaeta; has ruins of a temple of Saturn, and a 14th-century cathe- dral. Pop. (1901) 10,827. Sfax, fort, seapt., Tunis, N. Africa, on the Gulf of Cabes, 74 m. s. of Susa; exports dates, fruit, sponges, oil, alfa, and camels, and has manufactures of silk, cotton, and woollen foods. It was captured by the rench in 1881. Pop. 42,500. Sforza, the ducal family who ruled Milan from 1450 to 1535. The founder was Francesco Sforza (1401-66), a leader of condotti- eri, or mercenary troops. After fighting the battles of Filippo Maria Visconti, Duke of Milan, for many years, he demanded the hand of the duke's daughter and heiress, Bianca. Filippo re- fused, and Sforza immediately left him, entered the service of Florence — in fact, was supported all through by Cosimo de' Medici — and within a few months com- pelled Filippo to make peace, of which one of the conditions was Francesco's union with Bianca (1441). In 1447, on the death of Filippo, Sforza, after defeating the hereditary enemies of Milan, the Venetians, com- pelled the Milanese to receive him as their duke (1450). His Sgraffito rule was firm, just, and beneficent. He was a patron of arts and letters, and especially of the humanist Filelfo. The best trib- ute to his political sagacity, as remarked by Symonds, is that Louis XI. of France professed him- self Sforza's pupil in statecraft. He was succeeded by his eldest son, Galeazzo (1444-76), one of the greatest monsters of cruelty and sensuality that Italy has produced. His people groaned under his exactions and cruel- ties, until three young Milan- ese nobles murdered him in the Church of San Stefano. His place was taken bv his son, Giovanni Galeazzo (1469- 94); but in 1480 his uncle, Lodo- vico, ursurped the authority, and after keeping his nephew in con- finement, poisoned him at Pavia. LODOVICO (? 1446- 15 10) proved himself in some respects a capable ruler. The murder of his nephew brought its punishment from Louis XII. of France, to whom Lodovico was sold by his own Swiss mercenaries (1500), and he died a captive at Loches in 1510. Massimiliano (1491-1530), Lodo- vico's son, after an interval of two years, during which the state was held by the French, was placed in power by the Emperor Maxi- milian (1512). But he was prac- tically deposed by the French after the battle of Marignano (1515). Seven years later, the Em- ror Charles v., having wrested ilan from Francis I. of France, proclaim.ed Francesco Sforza, the second son'of Lodovico (1492- 1535), duke; and when he died the Sforza line became extinct. See Symonds's Renaissance in Italy (1875-1877), and Sismondi's Ital- ian Republics (Eng. trans. 1832). Sgambati, Giovanni (1843), Italian musical composer and pianist, was born at Rome. He .studied under Liszt; is a brilliant 1 pianist, and has played and con- <^ ducted performances of his works j-7 in London, Paris, and other Eu- ^ ropean capitals. He has been professor of the pianoforte at the conservatory of Rome since 1877. His compositions, many of which are celebrated, comprise sym- phonies, chamber music, concer- tos for piano, and songs. Sganarelle, a comic character introduced by Moliere into sev- eral of his plays, making his first appearance in Sganarelle ou le Cocu Imaginaire (1660). The best-known Sganarelle is that in Le Medecin malgre Lui. Sgraffito ('scratched work'), the term applied to a process which appears to have been prac- tised in Italy from very early times, and came probably from Etruria. The method employed is as follows: — The wall or pottery whereon the design is intended to be placed having been well I^habats 133 Shatter damped, a layer of white plaster about three-quarters of an inch thick is imposed, followed almost immediately by another layer of colored plaster. When this is set, a final 'face' of white plaster is applied, and on it is placed a plan of the drawing to be executed, the outlines being deeply cut with a dagger-Hke instrumenc, and the minor details then added. Shabats, sha'bats, Shabatz, or Sabac, town, district of Podrinye, Servia, on the river Save; 38 miles west of Belgrade. It has an active trade in corn and cattle. During the Great War Shabats was captured by the Austrians (August, 1914), was retaken by the Serbians, and again taken by the Austrians (November 1914, October 1915). Shackleton, Sir Ernest H. (1869-1922), British naval officer and explorer, was born in Kilkee, Ireland. He was educated at Dulwich College, London, and as a lieutenant in the Royal Navy sailed with Captain Scott in the Discovery Antarctic Expedition, reaching (in 1903) a point 463 miles from the South Pole, the southernmost point reached up to that time. In 1907, in the Nimrod, he commanded an ex- pedition to the Antarctic regions, and on Jan. 9, 1909, reached 88° 23' s. lat., and planted the Union Jack on Mount Gauss, 97 miles from the Pole — then the nearest approach on record (see Antarc- tic Exploration). In 1914 he headed an expedition to explore the continent of Antarctica. His ship Endurance was crushed by an ice floe in October and drifted until mid-winter, when he and his party landed on Elephant Island in the South Shetland Group. Four different relief ex- peditions were sent to their aid, and it was two years before the party was eventually rescued. In 1917 Shackleton helped provision and reinforce the British army in North Russia. In September, 1921, he started on the Quest on his fourth Antarctic trip, but he died of heart disease, Jan. 5, 1922, off the Gritvicken Station. The story of his experiences is given in his books: South; The Heart of the Antarctic; and The Diary of a Troopship. Shackle- ton's contributions to the knowl- edge of the flora and fauna of the Antarctic regions are many and important. He was knighted in 1909, and received medals from scientific and geographical socie- ties all over the world. Shad, a fish belonging to the herring family, of which the American species (Clupea, or Alosa, sapidissima) , is the most valuable. It differs from the her- ring in having no teeth on the jaws, and is larger, averaging about 4 pounds in weight, though often attaining to a greater size. Vol. XI —March '22 All shad are coast fi<5hes, ascend- ing rivers to spawn in late spring. They were formerly abundant in spring in all rivers of the Atlantic coast, but their great popularity as a food and consequent exces- sive seine and pound-fishing so reduced them that for several years the fishery authorities have been propagating them artifici- ally, turning millions of yovmg shad annually into the Potomac, Delaware, Hudson, and other rivers. Shaddock {Citrus deciimand), a tree of the same gemis as those which yield oranges and lemons. It is a native of the Malay region, and is very largely cultivated. The tree is larger than the orange or lemon tree, and the frttit — which is nearly spherical — is very much larger than those fruits. See Grape Fruit. Shadows, as ordinarily under- stood, are the result of the inter- ception of rays of light by an opaque or semi-opaque sub- stance. When the light issues from a point the sharpness of out- line is clear and definite, but when the source of light has a* sensible diameter, as, for exam- ple, the sun, the shadow is bounded by a broad, indistinct portion called the penumbra (q. v.). Other forms of radiant energy such as heat, sound, and electric rays, may also be inter- cepted and produce shadows. Such shadows are not as easily recognized as those produced by light. See Eclipse; Light. Shadrach Case, sha'drak, a famous case arising in February, 3.S.51, under the Fugitive Slave Act of 18.50. Shadrach, a colored waiter in a coffee house in Boston, was arrested under a warrant is- sued by U. S. Commissioner George T. Curtis on complaint of John de Bree of Norfolk, Vir- ginia, who claimed to be Shad- rach 's master. After a prelimi- nary hearing the case was post- poned. Shadrach was rescued by a crowd of colored men from the custody of the deputy marshal, and was sent to Canada. The rescue aroused great indignation on the part of slavery sympa- thizers. President Fillmore is- sued a proclamation calling upon citizens to assist in enforcing the law in such emergencies. A reso- lution, introduced by Clay, was passed by the Senate requesting the President to lay the facts before the Senate; three days later the President complied, but nothing came of this activity except some acrimonious debates. Five persons engaged in the res- cue were indicted, but the jury in every case disagreed. In one case the disagreement was due to the fact that one of the jurymen had himself driven Shadrach part of his way to safety. Shadrinsk, .shd-drinsk', town, Perm government, Northeast Russia, 105 miles southwest of Tiumen, on the Asiatic side of the Urals. It has tanneries and soap works. Pop. 14,000. Shad'well, Thomas (?1642- 92), English dramatist and poet- laureate, born at Weeting, Nor- folk. His plays give valuable pictures of the life of the time, but they lack literary distinction. He took Ben Jonson as his model, and adopted the Jonsonian scheme of humors. He was orig- inally on good terms with Dry- den, who collaborated in Notes and Observations on the Empress of Morocco (1674), and wrote a prologue to his True Widow (1678); but politics turned their friendship to open hostility. Shadwell replied to Dryden's Medal with The Medal of John Bayes: a Satire against Folly and Knavery, and an Epistle to the Tories (1682). For this he was pilloried in MacFlecknoe and, un- der the name of Og, in the second part of Absalom and Achitophel (1682). He made a poor reply in a translation of the Tenth Satire of Juvenal (1687). At the revo- lution, however, when Dryden was deprived of the office of poet- laureate, Shadwell had the tri- umph of being appointed his successor. His Dramatic Works (4. vols.) appeared, with Life, in 1720, and his Poetical Remains in 1698. Shafarik. See Safarik. Shaf'roth, shaf'roth, John Franklin (1854-1922), Amer- ican politician, was born in Fay- ette, Mo. He was graduated fron the University of Michigan in 1875, was admitted to the bar, and removed to Denver, Col., in 1879. He was city attorney of Denver in 1887—91, and member of Congress in 1895-1904. On Feb. 15, 1904, he resigned his seat because he believed his elec- tion to have been tainted by fraud. He was the Democratic candidate for Congress from the State at large in the fall of that year, but was defeated. He was governor of Colorado for two terms, 1909-11 and 1911-13, and was U. S. Senator from Colorado 1913-19. Shaf'ter, William Rtjfus (1835-1906), American soldier, was born in Galesburg, Mich. In 1861 he entered the volunteer service as first lieutenant in a Michigan infantry regiment, and served throughout the Civil War, reaching the rank of colonel and brevet brigadier-general of volun- teers. He was made lieutenant- colonel in the regular army in 1866, colonel in 1879, and briga- dier-general in 1897. At the be- ginning of the war with Spain he was made major-general of volunteers and given command of the army sent to capture San- tiago de Cuba, which was accom- Shaftesbury 134 Shaft Sinking pushed after some severe fighting and the destruction of the Span- ish fleet. He was retired in 1901 with the rank of major-general in the regular army. Shaftes'bury, Anthony Ash- ley Cooper, first Earl of (1621-83), British statesman, was born in Wimborne St. Giles, Dorsetshire, and was elected member of Parliament for March, 1663, and, at his request, John Locke devised the constitu- tion for that colony in 1669. He was a member of the 'Cabal' ministry (1670). involved the country in a war with Holland, and persuaded Charles to pro- mulgate the declaration for sus- pending the execution of the penal laws against the non- conformists and recusants (1672), m — rt^ ^Fig. 6 Sinking of Shafts and Wells (For explanation, see text.) Tewkesbury in 1640. He joined the parliamentary party in 1644, and was repeatedly appointed one of the Protector's council of state, while he was a member of his last Parliament and of that convened by Richard Cromwell (1659). He took an active part in the Restoration, and was ap- pointed chancellor of the Ex- chequer, He was one of the nine to whom Carolina was granted. Vol. XI.— March '22 on this point having a vigorous controversy with his friend John Locke. He was created Earl of Shaftesbury (1672), and appointed lord chancellor (November, 1672) ; but in November, 1673, he was dismissed. He then joined the opposition, and was consigned to the Tower for a time. As presi- dent of the council (1679), he car- ried through Parliament the Habeas Corpus Act. In October he was dismissed from his post. Then followed his presentation to the grand jury of the King's Bench of the Duke of York (whom he detested) as a popish recusant, his support of Mon- mouth's rebellion, and his com- mittal to the Tower on the charge of high treason, of which he was afterwards acquitted, when Dry- den (whose 'Achitophel' he rep- resented) wrote his famous poem. The Medal, as a satire on his release. Shaftesbury eventually retired to Holland, where he died. Constilt Martyn and Kippis' Life of A. A. Cooper; Memoirs, Letters, and Speeches, ed. by Christie; Christie's Life; Traill's Shaftesbury. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ash- ley Cooper, third Earl of (1671-1713), English authoi;, grandson of the first earl, was born in London. He attributed his education to John Locke, and entered Parliament as member for Poole (1695), but resigned (1698) and went to Holland, where he became acqviainted with Bayle and Leclerc. On the death of his father (1699) he re- turned to England, where he made a considerable figure in the House of Lords. His last years were devoted to literature, prin- cipally at Naples. A complete collection of his works was pub- lished (1713) under the title Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, and Times (ed. J. M. Robertson, 1900). His writings excited great admiration in his own day. They include, among other works. Letter on Enthusiasm (1708); Moralists: a Philosoph- ical Rhapsody (1709); Sensus Communis, or Essay on Wit and Humor (1709); and Soliloquy, or Advice to an Author (1710). Consult Fowler's Shaftesbury and Hutcheson (in English Philosophers Series) and Life by Rand. Shaftesbury, Anthony Ash- ley Cooper, seventh Earl of (1801-85), English philanthro- pist, was a member of Parliament (1826-1851), and a lord of the Admiralty (1834-5). As a com- missioner in lunacy (1831-85), he effected a complete reform of the Lunacy Acts. He also secured amendments to and an extension CI the Factory Acts; obtained the ■passing of an act (1842) abolish- ing apprenticeship in collieries and mines, and excluding women, and boys under thirteen, from employment underground. He worked unweariedly for fourteen years on behalf of a bill limiting the hours of labor of women and young persons to ten hours a day (passed 1847). He was chairman of the Central Board of Public Health (1848). Shaft Sinking. A shaft is a vertical or nearly vertical hole sunk into the ground for the pur- Shaft Sinking 135 Shahaptins pose of extracting mineral from mines or ventilating the same; to reach a water-bearing strata for a water-supply, as in the case of wells; or to establish a foundation on rock to support a superstruc- ture, as in the case of foundations. In the sinking of shafts various methods are employed, depending upon the nature of the work, the size of the excavation, and the material through which they must be driven. In mining the form is usually that of a rectangle divided into two or more compartments, depending upon circumstances; in wells the form is usuallj; circular, while in foundations any form is employed that is found to be most satisfactory. For about eight yards in depth the soil is thrown out to the sur- face in one or two stages. After which a hoisting engine should be employed to raise the debris, the headgear being erected over the pit top. Until hard rock is reached the sides of the excavation are sup- ported temporarily by a lining (Figs. 1 and 3) of sheet piling or timber, but where the material is soft and runs, as in quicksand, other means and precautions must be adopted. When rock is reached, a curb or crib (Fig. 2) of either wood or iron is inserted. It is made in segments, bolted together by cover strips, and is taken down the shaft in parts. It is laid on the prepared bed, and the wall (Fig. 4) is then built up to the surface. Sinking is then proceeded with, until it is deemed advisable to put in a fresh curb, whereupon the brickwork is again built up to the curb above. If only a small _ quantity of water is met with in sinking, it may be removed by bailing, but if a constant feeder is encountered, Eumps are usually employed, the est form being either the pulso- meter steam pump or an ordinary piston steam pump suspended from the surface by ropes and chains, so that it can be lowered as the sinking proceeds. Where water is met with, the shaft is sometimes lined with a water- tight lining of brick, wood, or iron. In the case of brick this consists in building separate walls, two, three, or up to five in number, with spaces between them filled with cement; but as brick is not suitable for very high pressures, iron is usually employed where large quantities of water are encountered. In the rocks at the base of the water-bearing strata a wedging curb of cast iron is laid instead of the usual oak bricking curb, and on this is built up the lining. Where much water is met with, the shaft has sometimes to be sunk by boring. There are two meth- ods — ^.thji Kind-Chaudron and the Lippman. In the former method the shaft is bored with a tool called a trepan (Figs. 5 and 6 for small and large holes respectively), in two or three operations, the first hole being 5 ft. and the last hole 16 ft. in diameter. The 5-ft. hole is put down first, and is kept in advance of the larger holes. The weight of the boring tool for the 5-ft. hole is about 8 tons, and for the larger hole anything up to 20 tons. The tool consists of a wrought-iron frame, in which a large number of steel chisels are inserted. It is suspended by wooden rods from a beam on the surface. A large sludger is ern- ployed to clear out the debris. After the water-bearing rocks have been sunk through, tubbing, composed of rings cast in one piece about 4 ft. high and bolted to- gether, is lowered into the shaft. At the bottom of the tubbing is a stuffing-box arrangement, which forms an air-tight joint as soon as the weight of the tubbing rests upon it. After the tubbing has been lowered, the water is pumped out of the shaft. In Lippman's method the shaft is bored the full size in one operation. Sinking through Quicksands. — Where soft ground is met with near the surface, sinking by driv- ing sheet piling is resorted to. This consists in laying down a large wooden curb on the surface, and driving down outside it pointed planks close together. As the ground inside the planks is excavated, fresh curbs are put in to keep the planks vertical. Another curb is laid down inside, and planks are driven down out- side this. In this way the shaft is gradually sunk until the hard ground is reached, when a brick wall is built up to the surface. The space between the brick lin- ing and the wooden planks is filled with cement. Where the quicksands are met with at some aepth from the sur- face long tubes are sometimes driven down into them, and a freezing mixture is forced through them; the ground round each tube is thus rendered solid, _ and the sinking is carried on as if in solid rock, with the exception that ex- plosives are not used. This is the Poetsch method. Sometimes quicksands are sunk through by using brick drums. A curb of wood or iron is constructed, vvith a cutting edge on the under side, and then a wall of dry brickwork is built on this, and the weight causes the drum to sink. At in- tervals a curb is placed in the wall, and bolts running from one curb to another keep the structul-e together. SinTcing through quick- sand by the pneumatic process consists in forcing back the water in the quicksand by pumping air into a cylinder built up of steel plates. The lower edge of the cylinder has a cutting edge, and the drum is forced down by hydraulic rams or by the addition from time to time of fresh seg- ments. The workmen are, of course, under pressure, so that the application of this system is limited to a thickness of 100 ft. of quicksand, which requires a pressure of three atmospheres, or 45 lbs. to the square inch. See also Boring and Mining. Sliag, or Green Cormorant {Phalacrocorax graculus), also called scart, or crested cormo- rant, a British bird much smaller Shag, or Green Cormorant. than the common form, from which it may be distinguished by its prevailing green color. It haunts rocky coasts. Shagbarls; or Shellbark. A common name for the most valu- able hickory {Hicoria ovata). It is a tall tree, of picturesque growth and straight trunk. Its gray bark splits off in long strips, hanging from their upper ends. Shagreen, a variety of leather made from the skins of such fishes as the ray, dog-fish, and shark, whose epmermis is covered with small, pointed, closely set, calci- fied papillse, which polish readily. Shagreen was also manufactured in the East from the skins of horses and asses. Certain seeds were forced into the skins when moist, and then scraped off; the skins then presented a dimpled appearance. The outside cover- ing of ancient Persian MSS., also horse and mule trappings, were made of shagreen. Shah, the title of the ruler of Persia, meaning 'emperor* or 'supreme monarch.' It may also be conferred on princes of the blood, as, for example, 'Shah- zada,' 'son of the reigning ruler.' Shahabad. (1.) Municipal tn., Hardoi dist., United Provinces, India, 60 m. s.E. of Bareilly. Pop. (1901) 20,036. (2.) Town, Ambala dist., Punjab, India, 17 m. s. of Ambala. Pop. (1901) 11,009. Shahaptins, a linguistic stock of N"orth American Indians for- merly occupying the country along the tributaries of the Columbia. ShahapuT The best-known tribes are the Nez Perces, KUkitat, Umatilla, and Walla Walla. See Nez Perces. Shahapur, tn. in feudatory state of Sangli, Bombay, India, 36 m. N.w. of Dharwar. Silk dyeing is the chief industry. Pop. (1901) 11,256. Shah Jahan (1592-1666), em- peror of Delhi, ascended the throne on the death of his father, Jahangir, in 1628. Europeans (Bernier, Tavernier, Mandelslo, and Manucci) who visited Delhi and Agra during his reign bear testimony to his popularity, his tolerance, and the magnificence of his court. They also dilate on the equity of his courts of law, and the general prosperity of the ernpire. His fame, how- ever, chiefly rests on the magnifi- cent buildings he constructed — notably the Taj Mahal at Agra, in memory of his wife. He was the founder of New Delhi, which he called Shahjahanabad, and there he constructed a most magnifi- cent palace, the remains of which are still in existence. The Pearl Mosque in the fort at Agra is another of his unrivalled struc- tures. His famous peacock throne, radiant with gems, was valued at over six millions sterhng. In 1658 he was captured by his son Aurungzebe, and was kept a prisoner at Agra until his death. Shahjahanpur, munic. tn. and cantonment, cap. of Shahjahan- pur dis.. United Provinces, India, 44 m. s.E. of Bareilly. Manufac- tures sugar. Pop. (1901) 76,458.' Shahnamah. See Firdausi. Shahpura, tn. and cap. of feu- datory state of Shahpura, Rajpu- tana, India, 60 m. s.E. of Ajmere. Pop. (1901) 11,250. The state has anareaof 400 sq. m., and a pop- ulation (1901) of 57,677. Shairp, John Campbell(1819- 85), English critic and poet, prin- cipal of St. Andrews, was Dorn at Houstoun, Scotland. He was assistant master at Rugby (1846- 56), and assistant professor of Latin at St. Andrews (1857-61). Thereafter he held the chair till 1872, but in 1868 he was ap- pointed principal of the United College. From 1877 he was grofessor of poetry at Oxford, [is Kilmahoe: a Highland Pas- toral, and Other Poems (1864), charming in description and feel- ing, includes the classic 'Bush aboon Traquair.' Glen Desseray, and Other Poems, with exquisite lyrics, and the fine and stately Balliol Scholars, appeared in 1888. The author's critical and expository work includes Studies in Poetry and Philosophy (1868; 4th ed. 1886); Culture and Re- ligion (1870; often reissued); Poetic Interpretation of Nature (1877); Burns, in English Men of Letters Series (1879); Aspects of Poetry (1881); Sketches in History 136 and Poetry (1887). Shairp collab- orated with Professor Tait in The Life and Letters of J. D. Forbes (1873), and he edited Dorothy Wordsworth's Journal (1874^ See Knight's Principal Shairp and his Friends (1888), Dean Boyle's preface to Studies in Poetry and Philosophy (ed. 1886), Scllars's 'Memoir' in Portraits of Friends (1889). Shakers, a religious society, styling itself the United Society of Believers in Christ's Second Coming, organized on a com- munistic basis, having as its fundamental principles 'virginal purity, confession of sin. Chris- tian communism, and separation from the world.' Acceptance of these principles is accompanied by belief in a duality of maternity and paternity in the Godhead, in the Second Coming of Christ, in the person of Ann Lee, in the new birth, resurrection and judg- ment of Delievers, in a coming millennium, and in spiritualism. Membership in the society is vol- untary, no inducements are of- fered to take membership, and no one is constrained to remain in fellowship. The origins go back to the manifestations of the 'French prophets' of the first half of the 17th century, a move- ment which spread on the Con- tinent and reached England. Among the Quakers it found a home, and there in 1747 Jane and James Wardlaw, the first of whom professed to 'have re- ceived illumination,' became the nucleus of a society, in the public services of which the members were affected with movements of the limbs and of the entire person, from which they received their name of 'Shakers.' Perse- cution followed with no result except to increase their numbers. In 1770 Ann Lee joined them, and although illiterate, soon be- came prominent. She was im- prisoned in Manchester, England, for obstructing the streets, and while in durance received a vision directing emigration to America. In 1774 she and seven companions, who called her Mother Ann (by which name she was thereafter known) landed in New York, and in 1776 settled at Niskayuna (now Watervliet), near Albany, organizing into community life in 1787 at Mt. Lebanon, N. Y., which has ever since been the central home. A tour of New England had in the meantime sown the seeds from which subsequently developed several settlements, no little in- fluence resulting from the policy of non-resistance to the attacks made upon them by those op- posed to the propaganda. In 1784 Mother Ann died, and Elder James Whittaker succeeded her in the leadership. In 1787 Shakespeare oseph Meacham became the ead of the society^ and the one whose formative mfluence has ever since been felt. The members form three or- ders. The first is the Novitiate, and includes those who while holding the Shaker faith, do not enter the community life. The Junior order embraces those who, not having families of their own, enter a Shaker 'family' (or group), devote services, and prop- erty if they so wish, to the benefit of that family and without return, but may at any time resume dis- posal of both service and prop- erty. The Senior, or 'church' order includes those who have permanently devoted person and property without compensation or claim to the uses and aims of the organization. In all thought and action, the religious and ethical element is foremost. Personal purity in thought, word, and act, gentleness in treatment of fellows, perfect honesty and fairness in all com- mercial operations, industry, and sobriety as the daily habit, char- acterize this people. In their eighteen settlements, located in nine states, and numbering about 1,000 members, the industries of lumbering, farming, pasturage, and various forms of manufac- turing arc carried on. The members of a 'family' rise at the same time, eat together, all must labor during the day under the directions of the officers (elders and deacons) and all attend the religious services unless excused. These last consist in singing of hymns, marching and exhortation, while occasionally all watch as some one or two of the members perform a sort of whirling dance. Revivals have been frequent, and membership has been at times increasea through this means. A sect known as Shakers was formed in England under the leadership of Mary Anne Gir- hng in 1864. The leader died in 1872, and the sect has entirely disappeared. See Evans's Shakers^ Compen- dium (1859); Ea.ds's Shaker Theol- ogy (1879); Robinson, Concise History of the Shakers (189^); Blinn, Concise History of the Shakers (1894); White and Tay- lor's Shakerism (1905); MacLean, Bibliography of Shaker Litzrature (1905). Shakespeare, William (1564- 1616), English dramatist and poet, was the descendant of a good stock of Warwickshire yeo- men. His father, John Shake- speare, was a native of Snitter- field, a village four miles north of Stratford-on-Avon, and moved into this latter town about 1551. He married (1557) Mary Arden, a daughter of his father's land A SHAKESPEARE PAGE. 1. Memorial Theatre Stra«^^ 2. The Globe Theatre, Sonthwaik. (From an old enqraving.) 3. Shakespeare Memorial. Btratforrt. 4. Portrait of Shakespeare, kno-wn as the Ohandos portrait, in the National Portrait Gallery. (Photo [by Emerii Walker.^ ,5. Stratforrl-on Avon. 6 Shakespeare's autograph. (Photoerraphed for Lee's L/Ye of S/iafcc.spmre ) 7. Shakespeare's birthplace: the nh'„i^ in. in diameter) was found at Mitchelhill in Aberdeenshire. Some of the early gold coins of Cunobeline show shields both of a circular and of a long and double-pointed form. The Homeric heroes are de- scribed as carrying shields large enough to cover the whole man. These shields were of osiers covered with several folds of ox hide, and bound round the edge Types of Shields Vol. XL— Oct. '25 Shield 168 Shields with metal. In their earhest form they were worn fastened to the waist by a belt; at a later period they were carried by the arm passing through a set of straps. The Roman shields were of two types — the clipeus and the scutum. The original form is said to have been square. Both were large. On his scutum the Roman soldier usually inscribed his own name and sometimes that of his commander. Mediaeval shields differ widely is that known as 'heater-shaped,' a type common during the thirteenth and fourteenth cen- turies. The targe of the Scotch Highlands, made of wood and leather, and studded with brass decoratively applied, is a rever- sion to the early circular form. Shields of North American Indians are highly'' prized by collectors and make up an im- portant part of ethnological col- lections. So far as is known, shields were used by the Mex- ican, the Pueblo, and all the North American Indian Shield in shape, size, and the amount of decoration. Probably the earliest form was circular, deeply convex, and fitted with a projecting sharp-pointed boss. It was usually of wood with a rim of metal. The early Nor- mans are said to have intro- duced the kite-shaped shield, and it was on these that armorial bearings were first placed, though the origin of the art of heraldry is traceable to the time of iEschylus (b. B.C. 525), who represents the seven chiefs who marched against Thebes as car- rying shields thus decorated. The best-known heraldic shield Vol. XI.— Oct. '25 plains tribes. The ancient Mex- ican shield was of leather and reeds, but among the plains Indians a disk of thickened, hardened buffalo hide was em- ployed. While such a shield was a protection against arrows, it seems to have been considered chiefly in the light of a charm or talisman. This was true of all shields bearing painted de- signs and decorations of feathers or other objects. When a young man was of the proper age to go on the war-path he made presents to some successful war- rior, who, having had a shield prepared, would paint upon it the symbols of some dream ex- perience. The form of these ex- periences was usually as follows: Some animal, or animal-person, would appear before the dreamer and offer to give him power to overcome his enemies and to es- cape injury in battle. This was interpreted as implying that if some part or symbol of the ani- mal making the communication was placed upon the shield it would stand as a perpetual prayer to the source of power, and thus insure its action in be- half of the bearer of the shield. Many tribes still use shields made of cloth bearing such sym- bolic designs. See also Armor. Shield, William (1748-1829). English musical composer, was born at Swalwell, in Durham. He produced several comic and other operas, including The Flitch of Bacon (1778), Rosina (1783), The Woodman (1792). He wrote several popular songs, such as The Ploughboy and The Wolf, and credit is claimed for him as the author of the tunes of Auld Lang Syne and Comin' through the Rye. He was master of the king's musicians at the time of his death. Shields, North, seaport and market town, Northumberland, England, forming a part of Tynemouth, is situated on the north side of the Tyne; 8 miles northeast of Newcastle-on-Tyne. It has shipyards and fishing in- terests. A ferry connects it with South Shields (q. v.). Shields, South, county bor- ough and seaport, Durham, England, on the south side of the Tyne, 9 miles east of Newcastle- on-Tyne. Interesting features are the parish church of St. Hilda, rebuilt about 1811, but still preserving its ancient tower; the town hall, dating from 1768; the police buildings, pubHc li- brary and museum, and mer- cantile marine school (founded 1861). Industries include the manufacture of glass and chemi- cals, shipbuilding, and paint and varnish works. There are exten- sive docks and a large export trade in coal. On the Lawe, an eminence %icluded in the modern town, are remains of a Roman camp. South Shields was founded in the thirteenth century, but its commercial development was greatly hindered by the action of Henry iii., who at the instance of the burgesses of Newcastle, ordered that no quays be built here and that no vessels be laden or unladen. The town is further interesting as the scene of the launching of the first lifeboat, in 1790. Pop. (1921), 19,104. Shields, Charles Woodruff (1825-1904), American theolo- Shields 169 Sbllob gian, was born in New Albany, Ind. He was graduated from Princeton College in 1844, and Princeton Theological Seminary in 1848. He was pastor of the Presbyterian Church at Hemp- stead, L. I. (1849-50), and of the Second Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia (1850-65). In 1865 he was appointed professor of the harmony of science and religion at Princeton, a post he held till his death. In 1896 he entered the Protestant Episcopal com- munion. He was a strong advo- cate of church unity. He wrote: Religion and Science in Relation to Philosophy (1875); The Order of the Sciences (1882); Essays on Christian Unity (1892); The His- toric Episcopate (1892); The United Church of the United States (1896); Scientific Evidences of Revealed Religion (1900). Shields, James (1810-79), American soldier and public of- ficial, was born in Dungannon, County Tyrone, Ireland, and emigrated to the United States in 1826. In 1832 he began to practise law in Kaskaskia, 111., and entered the political sphere as a Democrat. He was a mem- ber of the Illinois house of repre- sentatives (1836-8); State au- ditor (1841-3) ; judge of the State supreme court (1843-5); and commissioner of the U. S. Gen- eral Land Office (1845-7). In the Mexican War he served as a brigadier-general of volunteers under Gen. Zachary Taylor on the Rio Grande, under Gen. John E. Wool in Chihuahua, and under Gen. Winfield Scott in the south- ern campaign. He was brevetted major-general for gallantry at Cerro Gordo, where he was se- verely wounded, and he was again wounded at Chapultepec. In 1849-55 he was U. S. Senator from Illinois, and in 1858-9 from Minnesota. In August, 1861, he was commissioned a Federal brigadier-general of volunteers; and in March, 1862, succeeded to the command of General Lander's division. He was in command at the successful engagement at Winchester, being severely wounded (March 23, 1862), but was defeated by 'vStonewall' Jackson at Port Republic (June 9). In March, 1863, he resigned his commission. Shigatse, she-gat'sa, or Digar- CHi, town, Tibet, near the upper Brahmaputra or Sanpo; 140 miles southwest of Lhassa, at an altitude of 11,000 feet. Near here is the Tashi-lunpo monas- tery, the residence of the Rimpo- che Lama, one of the Tibetan in- carnations of Buddha; conse- quently it is one of the holiest places of the Buddhist world. Pop. 12,000. Shiites, she'its (also Sheeahs Of Shiahs; 'sectaries,' from the Arabic shtah, 'a party'), the name given by orthodox Moslems or Sunnites (q.v.) to All's followers, who call themselves al-adeltyyah, 'the right people.' They were the champions of All's right to be Mohammed's successor as being his cousin and son-in-law; and after Ali's death they took the part of his sons Hasan, Hosain, and Mohammed ibn al-Hana- fiyyah. Shiites reject the 'traditional law,' and pin their faith to the dicta of twelve imams or leaders, the lineal descendants of Ali. They are essentially mystics, and their morals are correspondingly lax. Differences of opinion among themselves have led to endless disputes, and this sect itself is divided into over thirty denominations. All Shiites al- legorize the Koran ; but the ultra- Shiites, founded by Abdallah ibn Saba, a converted Jew of Yemen, differed from the moderate Shi- ites or Zaidites in believing in the transmigration of souls, and in calling Ali and his legitimate suc- cessors incarnations of God. The moderate Shiism that has been the national religion of Persia since the native royal line of Safi- ides ascended the throne in 1499 is more Koranic than Sunnism. Shiism has spread through Af- ghanistan into India, but toward the west has made no way. The Shiites pilgrimage to Kerbela, near ancient Babylon, and to Meshed in Northeast Persia, be- sides Mecca. Yemen is predom- inantly Shiite. Their total num- ber is estimated at 10,000,000. See Mohammedanism. Shikari. See Shekarry. Shikarpur, chief town, Shik- arpur district, Sindh, India; 180 miles north of Haidarabad, on the railway to Quetta and Pishin. It occupies a low site, the adja- cent country being often inun- dated, but the soil is fertile, and yields heavy crops of grain and fruits. Carpets, coarse cottons, furniture, and pottery are made in the town. Pop. 50,000. Shikarpur, shik-ar-pobr', town, Buland-shahr district. United Provinces, India; 55 miles south- east of Meerut. Pop. 12,500. Shikohabad, town. United Provinces, India; 40 miles east of Agra. Pop. 10^000. _ Shikoku, she'ko'koo, smallest of the four main islands of Japan, south of Hondo, from which it is separated by the Inland Sea. Area, 7,030 square miles. Pop. 3,300,000. See Japan. Shil'don, town, Durham, Eng- land ; 3 miles southeast of Bishop Auckland. There are large rail- way shops, foundries, coal mines, and quarries. Pop. urban district of Shildon and East Thickley (1911), 13,488. Shilka (shel'ka) River, Asiatic Russia, in Transbaikalia, formed by the union of the Onon and Ingoda, 44 miles southwest of Nerchinski. After flowing north- east for about 300 miles it unites at Ust Stryelka with the Argun to form the Amur River (q.v.). Shillaber, Benjamin Pen- hallow (1814-90), American humorist, was born in Ports- mouth, N. H., and after serving his apprenticeship as a printer removed to Boston. After a visit to British Guiana (1837) he became editor of the Boston Post (1840- 50), The Carpet Bag, a comic paper (1851-3), and The Saturday Evening Gazette (1856— 66). His humorous sketches of 'Mrs. Partington' and her son 'Ike' gained him world-wide fame. Among his works are: Life and Sayings of Mrs. Parting- ton (1854); Partingtonian Patch- work (1873) ; Lines in Pleasant Places — a volume of poems (1875); Ike and His Friend (1879); Wideswathe (1884). Shillelagh, shi-la'lii, the cudgel of wood carried by the conven- tional Irishman, ready for in- stant use. The name is borrowed from the once famous oak forest of Shillelagh in the southwest corner of County Wicklow. Shilling is a current silver coin of Great Britain, being equal to the twentieth part of a British sovereign in nominal value, or about a fourth part of an Amer- ican dollar. Its name is most Shilling, Time of Henry VII. probably derived from a root skil, 'to divide.' The old Saxon coin of this name was worth about 10 cents. The modern shilling was first coined by Henry VII. in 1504; milled shillings were first coined by Charles ii. in 1662. Formerly the word shilling was widely used in the United States to denote different values in different parts, and in certain localities is still occasionally met with. A 'Mexican shilling' or 'bit' is equivalent to 12>2 cents. See Pine-Tree Shilling. Shi'loh (modern Seilun), a town of the tribe of Ephraim, the first permanent resting place of the Tabernacle, the home of Eli and Samuel, and long the re- ligious centre of Israel. The site is a ruined village 20 miles north of Jerusalem. The flat ground to the north of the ruins is thought to be the site where the sanctuary of the Ark was located, which in Samuel's time was some kind of permanent building with doors (1 Sam. iii. 15). The sanc- tuary was probably destroyed by the Philistines (c/. Jer, vii. 12) Shiloh, Battle of 170 Shinto Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, Battle of, a battle of the Civil War, fought on April 6-7, 1862, at and near Pittsburg Landing on the Tennessee River, 20 miles north of Corinth, Miss., between the Federal Armies of the Ten- nessee under General Grant and of the Ohio under General Buell, and the Confederate Army of the Mississippi under Generals A. S. Johnston and P. G. T. Beaure- gard. After the loss of Fort Donelson (q.v.), in February, 1862, Johns- ton concentrated his army at Corinth, Miss. The Federal army was ordered to ascend the Tennessee River, for the purpose of cutting railroad connections with the south, and Sherman es- tablished division headquarters at Shiloh Church, 2%. miles southwest of Pittsburg Landing. When Grant, who had been tem- porarily relieved of his command, was restored, and arrived at Savannah, on the east bank of the river (March 17), he contin- ued to send troops across the river, but awaited the arrival of Buell, who had been ordered from Nashville to co-operate. Meanwhile, as an offensive move- ment on the part of the Confed- erate forces was not expected, no entrenchments and no particular lines of battle were formed on the west side of the river. Even as late as April 5, Sherman thought the Confederate forces at his front were only skirmishers, though in reality Hardee's corps had taken position not more than a mile and a, half away. Early on Sunday morning, April 6, the pickets of Prentiss' division were driven in, and the Confederate attack followed at once. Before ten o'clock much pf the Federal camp had been captured. Though the Federal troops generally fought bravely, from 5,000 to 10,000 raw recruits became panic-stricken and re- treated in disorder to the river, and many swam across. About 5 o'clock Prentiss and a large part of his division, amounting to 2,200 men, were forced to surrender. Johnston was mor- tally wounded about 2 p.m., and died soon after. Beauregard as- sumed command, after some delay, and the Federal line was forced back almost to the river bank, where it was partially pro- tected by gunboats. Just as a fimal assault was being made the vanguard of Buell's army ar- rived, and the Confederate ad- vance was checked. During the night the Confed- erate army occupied the Federal camp; but meanwhile Gen. Lew Wallace, who had been encamped at Crump's Landing, five miles down the river, arrived with 5,000 troops, and the greater part of Buell's army crossed the river and was placed in line of battle. Early in the morning Buell ad- vanced to the attack. Wallace's fresh troops were engaged upon Grant's right; the regiments shat- tered by the previous day's fight- ing had been re-formed during the night; and Sherman and McClernand pressed their way toward their camps of the day before. The Confederates con- tested every foot of ground as stubbornly as their opponents had done the day before, but by five o'clock the Federal forces had regained the ground lost on the first day. Beauregard, how- ever, withdrew in good order, and retired unmolested to Corinth. Though General Grant claimed that his forces were not surprised, and that he was satisfied with the result of the first day's battle, many authorities have inclined to the belief that only the death of Johnston and the timely ar- rival of Buell prevented a serious disaster. Others have pointed out that the authority was di- vided, that important orders were undelivered, that the direction of the battle, clecisive- only as a Confederate repulse, devolved by force of circumstances upon sub- ordinate officers, and that there was no consistent plan of attack or defence. On the first day. Grant's army numbered more than 33,000 ef- fective troops; at the close of the second day, more than 60,000 Federal troops were on the ground. The Confederate forces included fully 40,000. The Fed- eral losses were 1,754 killed, 8,408 wounded, and 2,855 missing; total, 13,047. The Confederate losses were 1,723 killed. 8,012 wounded, and 957 missing; total 10,694. In 1894 Congress passed an Act providing for the purchase of 3,700 acres of land, covering the field of battle, which is now known as Shiloh National Mili- tary Park, and is a national cem- etery. Consult Grant's Memoirs; Sherman's Memoirs; Van Home's History of the Army of the Cum- berland; Swinton's Twelve Deci- sive Battles of the War. Shimoda, she-mo'da, or Si- MODA, town, Hondo, Japan; 56 miles southwest of Yokohama, on Izu peninsula. It was opened in 1854 to foreign commerce. Pop. 9,000. Shimoga, she-mo'ga, town, capital of Shimoga district, My- sore, India; 87 miles northeast of Mangalore. Pop. 6,000. The district has an area of 4,020 square miles, and a population of 533,000. The industries include sandalwood carving, cotton cloth, blankets, pottery, iron, copper, and brass goods. Shimonoselii, she'mo-no-sa'ke (formerly A kamagaseki) , fortified seaport in Southwest Hondo, Japan, on the Inland Sea, near its west entrance, opposite Moji. It has been open to foreign trade since 1890. In 1864 it was partly destroyed during a bombardment by a combined fleet of British, American, Dutch, and French vessels. The treaty signed at Shimonoseki in April, 1895, put an end to the war between Japan and China. The trade is valued at over $25,000,000 annually. Pop. 60,000. Shi'nar. See Babylonia. Shiner, the popular name of various small silvery fishes, chiefly belonging to the minnow family, and found in streams from Maine to Louisiana. See Dace; Minnow. Shingit, or Shingeti, town. Western Sahara, in the Adrar oasis. Pop. 4,000. Shing-liing. vSee Feng-tien. Shingles, thin, flat pieces of wood, rectangular in shape, gen- erally about eighteen inches long and from three to twelve inches in width, three-eighths of an inch thick at one end, and tapering to less than an eighth of an inch at the other; used for covering roofs or the sides of wooden buildings. Shingles are made mainly of cedar, but white pine, cypress, and yellow pine are also used. Shingles, the popular name for the skin disease Herpes zos- ter. See Herpes. Shingu, town, Hondo, Japan; 75 miles southeast of Osaka. Pop. 10,000. Shinjo, town, Hondo, Japan; 36 miles north of Yamagata. Pop. 10,000. Shinnecock Bay, a bay on the ■south shore of Long Island, in Suffolk county; 10 miles long, and, from 3 to 4 miles wide. Shin'necock Hills, summer re- sort, Suffolk county. Long Island, N. Y., included in Southampton township, between Shinnecock and Peconic Bays, and on the Long Island Railroad; 65 miles east of Brooklyn. The Shinne- cock Indian Reservation, 300 acres in extent, is in the vicinity. Shinnecock Indians, a tribe of North American Indians of Al- gonquin stock, who formerly lived in the eastern part of Long Island, and probably on the neighboring shore of Connecti- cut. They lived in dome-shaped lodges, thatched with grass. The tribe now numbers about 150, with a large intermixture of negro blood. The Indian lan- guage and customs have long been abandoned. Shinto, Shintoism (Japanese, Kami no Michi, 'the Way of the Gods'), the ancient mythology and religion of Japan. The char- acteristics of Shintoism in its pure form are 'the absence of an ethical and doctrinal code, of Ship KFF 171 Shipbuilding idol worship, of priestcraft, and of any teachings concerning a fu- ture state, and the deification of heroes, emperors, and great men, together with the worship of cer- tain forces and -objects in nature.' The principal divinity is the sun goddess Amaterasu, from whom the Mikado is held to be descend- ed. After the restoration the government attempted to free Shintoism from the Buddhist in- novations which had contami- nated it, and to revive it in its pure form as the national re- ligion. Shinto temples are destitute of ecclesiastical paraphernalia. A metal mirror generally stands on the altar, but even this is a Buddhist innovation. The spirit of the enshrined deity is supposed to be in a case, which is exposed to view only on the day of the deity's annual festival. The worship consists simply in wash- ing the face in a font, striking a bell, throwing a few cash into the money box, and praying silently for a few seconds; never- theless, long pilgrimages to fa- mous shrines and to the summits of sacred mountains are often taken to accomplish this. Shintoism is rather an engine of government than a religion; it keeps its hold on the masses chiefly through its being inter- woven with reverence for an- cestors and patriotic ideas. At present it represents principally the patriotism of the people, and provides the religious ceremonial now used at court. Consult Griffis' Religions of Japan. Ship. See Shipbuilding; Shipping; Sails and Rigging; Seamanship; Navies; Battle- ship; Navigation; Navigation Laws. Shipbuilding. Historical De- velopmeni. — The oldest authentic pictures or accounts of ships are those of the Egyptians, and their date is about 3000 B.C. Whether the Egyptians were the first to build vessels of consider- able size is unknown; but that other nations were contempora- neous builders at the date men- tioned is evinced by the fact that the vessels mentioned were war- ships. One of the most ancient types of vessels shown on the Egyptian monuments had 40 oars, and was probably 100 feet long. It had a mast made of two spars, with the heels slightly apart and lashed together at the heads, which were supported by a stay and several backstays or shrouds. The sail was nearly square, bent to a yard, and had sheets and braces; and the masts were, at least in some instances, fitted to be unstepped and carried on a frame above the deck. In a later type the mast consisted of a single spar with a square sail set between two yards. Some of these vessels were used on the Nile, and some in the Red Sea. The Chaldseans undoubtedly possessed ships, but possibly not at so early a date as the Egyp- tians, though there is reason to believe they were more enter- prising navigators than the latter. The Assyrians were fresh-water sailors, and ventured on seagoing vessels only when they were manned by the Phoenicians, over whom Assyria held suzerainty for a considerable period. The Persians were not themselves sea- faring; and though Persia was for a long time mistress of the Mediterranean, it was through utilizing the maritime ability of the Phoenicians, Greeks, Egyp- tians, Cypriots, and others. While the Greeks were good sailors and bold fighters on the sea, the Phoenicians were un- doubtedly the greatest seafaring people of antiquity. They never formed a compact nation, and were divided into two or more separate states, usually inde- pendent of each other; but throughout the greater part of their two or three thousand years of existence they were under the suzerainty of or tributary to Egypt, Chaldsea, Babylonia, As- syria, Persia, or Rome. During nearly the whole of this period they were the greatest shipbuild- ers and navigators of the world. To them is attributed much of the elegance of form, fighting ca- pacity, and seagoing qualities of ships of their time. Whether they were the first to build a trireme or not, they established it as the standard ship of war, and it so remained without much change from about 700 B.C. until the Battle of Actium (b.c. 31). The trireme was a vessel of considerable size. Its exact di- mensions doubtless varied, but the Attic trireme of about 300 B.C. was 100 to 140 feet in length, had a breadth of 15 to 25 feet, and carried 200 to 250 men. The hull was framed and planked much like mediaeval and modern wooden vessels. The stem was curved to form a swan-breasted bow. In the centre of the curve, a short distance above the water, there was a heavy projecting timber ending in a three-pronged beak covered with brass. Above this was a second beak, or more properly a figurehead, though it was strong enough to inflict dam- age on another vessel, as were also the catheads on either side of the bow. The stern post was carried high above and over the poop to an ornament called the aplustre; curving backward was the cheniscus. Most triremes had at least one mast, with a single square sail bent to a yard. The central part of a trireme was partly decked over, and there were gangways along the outside of the rail and projecting over the side, a construction permitted by the 'tumble home' of the sides. At the bow and stern there rose a series of decks or platforms; in later types, these were surmount- ed by a tower. On the decks, platforms, and gangways so formed the sailors operated the sails, and assisted the men at arms to fight the enemy. The rowers sat on small seats at- tached to the side and supported by diagonal timbers. While ar- ranged in three tiers or banks, the oarsmen were not directly above each other. The oars of each bank were nearly of the same length, but were longer than those of the bank next below. (See Trireme.) Galleys of four or five banks of oars were not uncommon during the century or two immediately preceding the Christian era, and those of forty banks are said to have been built. But the larger craft were unwieldy, rarely any faster, and generally much slower, so that their use was excep- tional. Speed was of paramount importance, and handiness not much less, for the greatest weap- on was the beak; though in the melee of battle, hand-to-hand fighting took place, to the great detriment of the oars and con- fusion of the rowers. In addi- tion to the triremes, or heavy fighting ships, nearly all ancient fleets had a certain number of smaller vessels carryimg their oars in one bank. These were very much lighter and somewhat faster. They were designated as triaconters (30 oars), pentaconters (50 oars), etc. The merchant galleys of the ancient world were broader than the war craft, deeper in the water (when loaded), and less high above it. Naturally, they made a greater use of sails for propul- sion. The earlier vessels were small, and were very commonly hauled up on shore during the winter season. But the greater safety and economy of the larger craft soon caused an increase of dimensions, and general improve- ment in speed and sea-going qual- ities. Some of the larger sailing galleys were able to carry from 200 to 800 passengers and very heavy freights. Many of these vessels made excellent passages under sail, attaining a speed of 9 or 10 knots. The development of the galley was slow. Its principal changes were at first in the direction of size, increase in deck space, and of the number of fighting men. The installation of warlike appli- ances on the deck followed, and the Romans erected fighting towers at the bow and stern. The Battle of Actium showed the advantage in speed of a class of Shipbuilding KFF 172 Shipbuilding light biremes called Liburnian galleys. Single-banked vessels, with large oars, and several men at each of them, soon became common, though biremes called droniones were in use until the Middle Ages. The improvement of war engines and appliances continued, Greek fire being one of great importance. This was eventually discharged on the decks of the enemy through tubes in the bow, and that ar- rangement may have led to the development of gunpowder and guns. (See Greek Fire.) When cannon were invented they were placed behind a shel- ter or parapet in the bows ; and it is interesting to note that the early guns not only occupied a similar position to that of the tubes, but, like them, were breech-loading, and had charg- ing pieces resembling those be- lieved to have been fitted in the tubes. As time went on, and an increasing use was made of sails, guns firing in broadside were added to the battery ; but it was not until the beginning of the fifteenth century that port holes were invented, and guns began to be carried on covered decks. The sailing vessels of the Mid- dle Ages were of many types, and were fitted with one, two, three, or four masts. The sails were put on in almost every con- ceivable way. Near the end of the thirteenth century ships of 1,000 to 1,500 tons burden were built, some carrying as many as 1,000 passengers. The crusades did much to develop shipbuild- ing -and commerce, especially as regards the Italian maritime states ; and the wars they waged among themselves, with the East- ern Empire, and with the Mos- lem powers greatly improved the design of war vessels. As late as the twelfth century the nations of the North of Eu- rope used quite small craft ; but about this time their boats began to improve in design and in di- mensions. The fall of Constan- tinople and the decline of sea power in the Italian states seemed to check maritime evolu- tion in that direction for a time, but the discovery of America in- fused new life into it. The long voyages necessitated the sole use of sails, and the restriction as to size which the use of oars en- tailed was then no longer felt. Lure of trade, thirst for more devastating combat effect, reduc- tion of disaster hazards, im- proved equipment and better ac- commodations provision, appear to have constituted the funda- mental reasons for the almost uninterrupted and complete drift away from the cumbersome and unwieldy craft of the fifteenth century to the clipper and its kindred type vessel built four centuries later for operation in international commerce. Not- withstanding that the finest spec- imens of sail craft of wood con- struction were built in the years between 1850 and 1900, that pe- riod may be said to have doomed the continued supremacy of sails as a propulsion medium and wood as a structural fundamen- tal, the gradual substitution of steam and steel, respectively, producing the more or less rev- olutionary transition almost con- currently. Notable sailing ves- sels of the latter half of the nineteenth century included many record creators, among which were the Lightning, Glory of the Seas, Cutty Sark, Ariel, Great Republic, Tacping, Flying Cloud, Red Jacket, Ther- mopylae, four-masted barque Richelieu, and five-masted full- rigged ship Preussen. Thus, when the twentieth cen- tury dawned, sailing ships were well on their way to become, be- cause befitting, the focus only of a great romance and glorious tradition. In 1936, a few ves- sels typical of the 1850-1900 era were still operating in overseas trade ; otherwise, except those set apart as memorials or being maintained as a training ground for budding ships' officers, what did not succumb to the sea in its fury was requisitioned to assume the undignified role of coal hulk. It has been said that as long as the America's Cup main- tained its challenge, sails will not disappear from the seven seas. Again, fishing, general trading, and pleasure schooners with their two to five tall masts of more or less equal height and installed auxiliary motors may be expected to retain their sails equipment if for no less valid reason than that of economy of operation. Svirviving as they have done and apparently pros- pering since the demise of the clippers and other full-rigged ships, schooners retain for the most part and in most cases a strict adherence to established nineteenth century practice. In the fore-and-aft type, equip- ment consists of fore-and-aft sails only, while the topsail type boasts a square fore topsail and, not infrequently, topgallant sail and royal. According to the 1936-1937 edition of Lloyd's Register Book of Shipping, world tonnage of real sailing vessels (windjam- mers) amounted to only some 374,000 gross tons in which were included nine ships of be- tween 3,000 and 3,400 gross tons each. Of the total tonnage, 97,000 was owned in the United States; 56,000 in Finland; 41,- 000 in Italy; 18,000 in France; 15,000 in Portugal; 14,000 in Peru, and 10,000 in Great Brit- ain and Ireland. Tonnage of world shipping of 100 gross tons and over — steamers, motorships, sail and other non-propelling craft — at same date amounted to 65,063,643 tons. From the small tonnage of genuine sailing vessels, it appears to be only a matter of time until that rem- nant will vanish from the sphere of commerce conveyance. Notwithstanding the numer- ous improvements effected and the considerable degree of ex- pansion achieved previous to and following the advent and un- questionable establishment of steam as a motive power, ship- building in both its wood and iron constituents retained to a great ^ extent many 'rule of thumb' practices and the charac- teristics of its chief exponents. Not until about 1871 did these wholly unsatisfactory aspects of the situation begin to disappear. In that year a Froude ship model testing tank was installed at Torquay, England, by order of the British Government. This notable and unique source of knowledge concerning vessel de- sign and performance promptly directed attention to other more or less unscientific and crude methods and processes employed throughout the industry, also to the materials of construction relative to strengths and shapes and particularly as regarded steel, then coming more and more into favor. Of course, the entire blame for wastefulness of fuel and unprofitable and unsat- isfactory service of the early steamships did not attach wholly to the vessels as such. They were 'fuel eaters,' these early engines and boilers, so much so that_ for long voyages, transat- lantic for instance, fuel space so usurped the pay space of pas- sengers and freight as to make service operation well-nigh un- profitable. Many steamships of the middle and even later dec- ades of the 19th century were sail-equipped — mostly fore-and- aft rigged — the combination fea- ture being expressive of an idea that the drain of fuel from the bunkers might at least be tem- porarily arrested when winds were favorable enough to pro- ceed under sail alone. As with ship forms and constructional materials, two to three decades before 1900 saw the steam en- gine evolve from a crude single cylinder reciprocating machine into compound, triple, and quad- ruple status of that type, and the equally crude box form boiler of little better than atmos- pheric pressure expand into the huge smoketube and watertube Shipbuilding KFF 173 Shipbuilding units of from two to three hun- dred pounds per square inch working pressure. In the years immediately preceding 1900, the steam turbine had begun to as- sume front rank importance as a medium for steamship propul- sion. In passing, it may be of interest to point out that in the early days of steam navigation wood as a hull constituent limited the length of vessels to something under three hundred feet. In 1843, the Great Britain of 322 feet length not only es- tablished the reputation of iron as a suitable constructional ma- terial but proved that wood ship- building could not longer hope to compete. Power Propulsion, — Paddle wheels were used by the Chinese in very ancient times. The Ro- mans fitted them to some of their Liburnian galleys, using three or more pairs of wheels, and driv- ing them by oxen on a tread- mill. The first man to suggest the use of steam to propel a vessel was Solomon de Cans, who was confined by the French govern- ment as a madman because he repeatedly importuned it to carry out his ideas. This was in 1640 or earlier. In 1690, Denis Papin, of Blois, France, in- vented his steam cylinder, and suggested its application to the propulsion of ships by driving paddle wheels. In 1698 the idea of steam-driven paddle wheels was suggested by Thomas Sa- vary, an Englishman. Savary made no effort to carry out his ideas, but Papin built a small paddle steamboat which he used in the Fulda in 1707. Notwith- standing his complete success, he was called a charlatan and a fool, and his boat was destroyed by boatmen who feared that their livelihood was in danger. Papin died three years later. In 1736, Jonathan Hulls designed a stern- wheel boat to be driven by steam, and described his engine and mechanism with much detail, but was unable to get money to carry out his ideas. Like Papin, he was ridiculed and abused by his contemporaries. Watt's successful development of the steam engine, and the general acceptance of its value and importance, gave a great im- petus to power propulsion of ships. Watt himself, in 1770, suggested driving them by means of one of his engines operating a screw propeller. The Marquis Jouffroy began experiments on the Seine in 1778, and was par- tially successful. In 1785, James Rumsey exhibited his steamboat on the Potomac, and showed that it could move against the cur- rent. In 1788 John Fitch, after several partial successes, built the first really successful steam- boat. About the end of July, 1788, she was propelled by steam from Philadelphia to Burling- ton, a distance of 20 miles, and made this trip several times af- terward. In 1788 and 1789 Mil- lar and Symington made their successful experiments in Scot- land, attaining a speed of 6.5 to 7 miles per hour. In 1789, John Fitch built a new and faster boat at Philadelphia which, in a public test, made 8 miles per hour. During the summer of 1790 this boat plied regularly be- tween Philadelphia and Trenton, carrying passengers and freight. After having run between two and three thousand miles in this service, she was laid up in the autumn of 1790 for lack of suffi- cient patronage to pay operating expenses. This boat was never given a special name. She was called and advertised as 'The Steamboat.' As there was no other steamboat in commercial use, and never had been, this designation was sufficient to identify her. In 1796, Fitch equipped a yawl 18 feet long with an engine and screw propeller ; the experiment was successful, and showed the practicability of the screw. In 1802 William Symington, who was associated with Patrick Millar in his experiments, built a stern- wheel tew boat called the Charlotte Diindas, which was eminently successful, but no more so than 'The Steamboat' of Fitch, built twelve years before, and was, like the latter, soon laid up for lack of profitable employ- ment. Though Robert Fulton (q. v.) had been studying the subject for some years, his first model was made in 1802. He tried his first large boat on the Seine in 1804, but it lacked speed. Com- ing to America shortly after- ward, he began the construction of the Clermont, which was launched in 1807, and which made her first trip on Aug. 7 of that year. Her success was due not only to her capabilities, but because she was able at once to enter a remunerative trade. The development of steam navigation now proceeded rapid- ly. In a few years steamboats covered the rivers and inshore waters of the civilized world. In 1815 the Demologos was built for the U. S. Navy. She was not only the first steam man-of- war, but no other was built for many years. She was by far the most powerful ship of her time, her protection was on a par with her gun power, and she had a speed of six to seven knots. In 1819 the first steam vessel (the Savannah) crossed the Atlantic, largely by assistance of her sails. She was followed in 1828 by the Dutch steamer Curagao, in 1832 by the Royal William, and in 1838 by the Sirius and the Great Western, which established trans-Atlantic traffic. In 1836 both John Ericsson (q. v.) and F. P. Smith took out patents for screw propellers, and both built small vessels which were successful, but the impor- tance of the invention was not realized in England. Captain R. F. Stockton, U. S. Navy, saw Ericsson's boat in England, and became an enthusiastic advocate of the screw for warship propul- sion. Ericsson built two small vessels for the U. S. Navy under his direction, and shortly after- ward accompanied Stockton to the United States. In 1843 the U. S. Ship Princeton, the first screw war steamer, was com- pleted, and achieved a marked success in speed and other quali- ties. Notwithstanding thess fa- vorable results, paddle war steamers continued in favor for yet a few years before their total disappearance. On the other hand, paddle merchant steamers, particularly those of the pleas- ure type of the late 19th and early 20th centuries were oper- ating in 1936 with but little change of vogue or greatly di- minished popularity. In the meantime came the change from wood to iron in hull construction. The first iron steamer, the Aaron Manby, was built in 1820, and in 1822 was launched the Garryowen, the first to have a system of water- tight compartments. Then ex- tensive use of iron enabled an increase to be made in the size of ships. The Great Western had a length of 205 feet, and the Sirius was still smaller. By a comparatively steady increase a length of 375 feet was reached in the Persia (1855); in the meantime, the Great Eastern (q. V.) was designed, though not completed until 1858. She had a double bottom and complete cellular subdivision, and aside from her dimensions was a great advance upon contemporary con- struction. Her size was too great for the existing traffic and harbor depths, however, and she was a commercial failure. Her length of 679.5 feet was not reached by another ship vmtil the completion of the Oceanic in 1899. Superliner Era Emergence. — It remains to be seen whether the Cunard White Star liner King George V of 1940 will still further enhance the four-decade shipbuilding and marine engi- neering achievement already es- tablished ; yet, being the cen- tenary year of the Cunard as a transatlantic trade and travel or- Shipbuilding KFF 174 Shipbuilding ganization, it may well be ex- pected that here, there, and yon- der, both the Normandie of 1935 and the Queen Mary of 1936 will be bettered and outclassed as was the Mauretania when the Bremen of 1929 and the Europa of 1930 made their debut as con- tenders for primacy of the 'At- lantic Ferry.' One must not overlook the notable fleet of sis- ter liners from which the two giants have evolved — the Mau- retania, Liisitania, Leviathan (ex-Vaterland), Olympic, Aqui- I tania, Berengaria (ex-Impera- ^ tor), Majestic (ex-Bismarck), Manhattan, Washington, Rex, Conte Di Savoia, Bremen and Europa, to name but a few. Queen Mary, Britain's Shipping Masterpiece, — This ship may be said to constitute the latest link in the Cunard White Star express service between Southampton, Cherbourg and New York and is the culmina- tion of almost a century's expe- rience of the needs of North At- lantic trade and travel. Size, speed, power and dignity are in- dividually and collectively sug- gested by the vessel's massive hull, clean-cut cruiser stern and three shapely smokestacks. Structurally there are embodied the latest advances in naval architecture, marine engineering and scientific research. Again, great artists and craftsmen have given of their best to ensure the aesthetic in the vessel's saloons and lounges, while designers and decorators have won new tri- umphs in planning the huge pub- lic rooms and, no less so, the numerous staterooms of the va- rious passenger classes. Essen- tially the Queen Mary is a ship sturdily constructed to withstand greater stresses than ever likely to be encountered and no less well-found of equipment as re- gards the most modern apparatus and appliances for safety and navigation. In each class of pas- senger accommodations there may be observed spaciousness, comfort and refinement. The Queen Mary was built at Clydebank, Dumbartonshire, Scotland, by John Brown & Co. Launching took place Sept. 26, 1934 and start of the maiden voyage to New York on May 27, 1936. Leading dimensions and components of the ship are : Length O. A. 1020 ft. Length W. L. 1004 ft. Length B. P. 965 ft. Beam Mid. 118 ft. Depth Mid. to 'C deck (bulk- head deck) 55 ft. 3 ins. Depth Mid. to promenade deck (strength deck) 92 ft. 6 ins. Depth Mid. to top of lounge structure, 124 ft. Load draft for scantlings, 38 ft. 10 ins. Gross tonnage, 80,773. Horse power, 200,000. With reference to the last named, more horse power has been packed into an ocean liner than ever before, being primarily so specified that service maintenance would be assured under almost any weath- er conditions. Unofficially cred- ited with a speed of 32.84 knots during its trial trips, the Queen Mary was expected to become the first four-day ship. Passen- ger capacities are: Cabin, 776; Tourist, 784 and Third, 579; officers and crew number 1,101. The hull structure comprises twelve decks from the sun deck down to the lower decks which are discontinued in way of the machinery spaces. On Aug. 23, 1936 the Queen Mary made a record crossing be- tween Cherbourg and Ambrose Channel Lightship (3,097 miles) in 4 days, 7 hrs. 12 min. She made the return trip Aug. 30, between the same lightship and the Scilly Isles in 3 days, 23 hrs. 57 min., a west-east record crossing. Motive power is derived through a system of Parsons sin- gle-reduction geared turbines which are supplied with steain generated in twenty-four water- tube boilers operated on the closed stokehold system of forced draught. The boilers are designed to generate steam to a working pressure of 400 pounds per sq. inch and of 700 degrees F. temperature. Propulsion is achieved through four screws, each driven by an independent set of single-reduction geared im- pulse-reaction type turbines ar- ranged in two separate compart- ments. The machinery for the outer screws is installed in the forward engine room and that for the inner screws in the after engine room. Apart from the actual mech- anisms of propulsion, the Queen Mary is to all intents and pur- poses an 'all-electric' ship ; thus, seven turbo generators capable of delivering approximately 10,- 000 kilowatts per hour form an important section of the ves- sel's electrical status. ^ Aside from a myriad applications of electrical energy in miscellane- ous directions, all the steering gear, deck machinery, and an- choring and mooring equipment are also electrically operated. These include a powerful elec- tric-hydraulic steering gear, anchor cable and capstan ma- chinery, cargo, mail, and bag- gage winches and hoists, life- boat installation, steam whistles and searchlights. Each one of the lifeboats installed is equipped with high speed Die- sel engine power. Their ca- pacity is such that any one of them can accommodate more passengers than the total com- plement of the first Cunard steamship Britannia. French Line Flagship Nor- mandie, — This vessel is also a masterpiece of shipbuilding and marine engineering practice, navigational and safety appa- ratus and equipment installation, while artistic and decorative ap- pointment, luxuriousness and restfulness of the various public rooms and staterooms fully meet the needs and satisfy the tastes of the most exacting travel vo- tarist. Passing over a mass of relatively minor differentiating detail other than a modified form of bulbous bow and a decided 'flare' forward, the major and most marked divergence from the Queen Mary lies in the first- time installation on a French ship of great tonnage of turbo- electric propulsion equipment. It completed the triangle, so to speak, of steam turbine, Diesel motor, and electric drive, two phases only of which had previ- ously been established. The 160,000 horse-power installed in the Normandie signalizes the vessel as the largest commercial electrically propelled craft afloat ; the record for aggregate power was previously held by the U.S.S. Saratoga and Lex- ington. On the Normandie, four steam turbines drive four alter- nators, the three-phase current from which is delivered to four synchronous propulsion motors located aft ; the latter being di- rect-connected to four propeller shafts. Steam of 400 lbs. pres- sure per sq. inch and 350 de- grees Centigrade temperature, is generated in and supplied to the turbines by twenty-nine water- tube type boilers. Two of the fifty- six lifeboats carried are motor propelled. Leading dimensions and associated data relative to the ship's hull are : Length O. A. 1029 ft. Length B. P. 963 ft. Beam at main deck 117 ft. 9 ins. Molded depth to promenade deck, 91 ft. 4 ins. Loaded draft, 36 ft. 7 ins. Gross register, 82,799 tons. The hull is divided throughout its length by eleven athwartship bulkheads. Of the eleven decks, five are contin- uous throughout the vessel's length. Ship Propulsion Progress, — Broadly speaking, the recipro- cating marine steam engine has had a century of existence, be- ginning with low revolutions and low pressures, finally con- forming to efficient propeller speeds for merchant ship adoption. Marine steam tur- bines have seen from three to four decades of service, be- ginning with high revolutions and ending at around 140 per minute at the propeller. Large oil engines for marine applica- Shipbuilding KFF 175 Shipbuilding tion have been developed for about 25 years ; the tendency here too is in the direction of revolutions reduction, taking a broad view of the situation. The direct Diesel engine drive re- mains open for further exam- ination. As a rule, the engine speeds are theoretically too high for single screw propulsion, yet propeller performance is not everything. What in the end counts is the actual running cost of a ship's operation year-in and year-out. Geared-turbine oil- fired steamers have shown good propeller performance but, with cheap and poor coal coupled with gearing difficulties, offer dovibt- ful prospects. The development of ship pro- pulsion machinery may be said to have kept pace with every ad- vance made in vessel design, size and type. Careful balancing of weight and rotary effort about the crankshaft had scarcely brought the triple and quadruple expansion, reciprocating steam engine to about its limit of per- fection when the steam turbine entered upon its career. The first successful application was consummated in 1897 by Sir Charles A. Parsons (1854- 1931) and his experimental ves- sel the Turbinia. Many and far- reaching have been the improve- ments effected in the four-decade interval yet the need hardly ex- ists for a presentation here of any detail. That most large and fast liners are more or less simi- larly equipped, in generous de- gree substantiate the achieve- ment record to date. Before the close of the first decade of the 20th century, internal combus- tion engines as ship propulsion mediums were the subject of considerable attention and specu- lation. It is generally accepted that the first practical and com- mercial sea-going motorship was the 1,200 d.w. ton oil tanker Vulcanus built in 1910. Its en- gine operated on the four-stroke cycle system. The first ocean- going motorship with passenger accommodations appeared in 1912 when the 7,400 d.w. ton Selandia crossed from Copen- hagen to the Thames on its maiden voyage to the east. Pro- pulsion was effected through twin sets of four-stroke cycle engines of 2,500 collective horsepower at 140 r.p.m. A 'milestone' was reached in De- cember 1924 with completion of the Aorangi, the world's largest oil motor passenger liner of 18,- 000 tons gross register, 600 ft. length, 72 ft. beam, and 46 ft. 6 ins. depth to lowest weather deck, with an additional four decks below and two above. Ac- commodations were provided for 740 passengers and a crew of 330. The propulsion installa- tion consisted of four Fairfield- Sulzer-Diesel 2-stroke cycle sin- gle-acting engines. The mammoth liner, by virtue of its size, is naturally restricted to North Atlantic service in which the motorship and espe- cially the cargo motorship do not as yet show up as well in econ- omy of operation as they do on other routes and services. The Gripsholin of the Swedish Amer- ica Line of Gothenburg has the distinction of being the first oil- motor passenger liner to enter and maintain a regular service on the North Atlantic. This vessel, of about 17,000 gross tons and 16,000 horsepower is twin-screw-propelled by double- acting engines of 4-stroke cycle type. Considering the efficiency and economy obtainable as be- tween burning oil in steam boiler furnaces and applying it asapow- er producer to the Diesel engine direct, the latter is superior to the former. While the total weight of marine Diesel installa- tions, when compared with those of steam of equal power, is open to difference of opinion, it may be accepted that the weight of fuel required is but one-fourth that of coal for the steamer and the space occupied about one- fifth. Electric propulsion, in spite of its rather tardy challenge to those just outlined, may be cred- ited with a structural back- ground perhaps far outweighing any resultant disadvantages. The background was that of the application of the electric motor to the driving of individual ma- chines or groups of them, lead- ing in due course to the displace- ment of steam as the motive power of ship deck and engine- room auxiliaries. To electrical- ly propel the ship itself was the natural sequence. Turbo-elec- tric drive with alternating cur- rent has for the most part been adopted for installation on ves- sels of substantial size and ton- nage. Aside from the French Normandie, the Panama Pacific liners Virginia, Pennsylvania and California, and the last con- structed capital ships of the United States Navy, may be cited as examples. Where Die- sel electric drive has been in- stalled, direct current apparatus predominates. It permits of simple control, all maneuvring being accomplished electrically without speed change. For barges, tugs, ferries, and coast- wise vessels of moderate size, bridge control offers many ad- vantages. Among a number of claims made on behalf of electric propulsion are those of a wide cruising radius, reliability, re- finement of control, reserve pow- er, flexibility of machinery ar- rangement, and low consumption of fuel when en route and in port. Because of its somewhat di- rect bearing on the subject, a Washington dispatch to the New York Times of August 8, 1936, is authority for the statement that 'A return to direct steam drive and innovations in design and weight distribution are ex- pected to make the two new bat- tleships slated to be built next year speedier than the compara- ble battleships of any other na- tion. The projected return to direct steam propulsion is a de- parture in American battleship construction, since the last five were electrically propelled. During the thirteen years since the last battleship was launched, the Navy has built and tested ten new cruisers whose speedy performances have foreshad- owed the speedier battleships of the future.' In a classified dis- tribution of propelling machin- ery installed in world shipping the 1936-1937 edition of Lloyd's Register lists 1,632 steamers of 11,319,169 tons fitted with tur- bine engines or a combination of steam turbines and reciprocat- ing engines, and 6,128 vessels (including auxiliary craft) of 12,290,599 tons fitted with inter- nal combustion engines. Steam turbines and reciprocating steam engines in combination are rep- resented by 400 vessels of 2,- 210,357 total tonnage. A fur- ther interesting feature is to be found in the case of 99 vessels of 604,573 total tonnage; here electric propulsion has been adopted, the motors being sup- plied with current from genera- tors which are driven either by steam turbines or oil engines. Of the 99 vessels so equipped, 58 of 286,168 tons were owned in the United States. Again, of those exceeding 20,000 gross tons and electrically propelled, five fly the British flag, two were Ameri- can and one French. Of 29,197 steamers and motorships of 100 gross tons and upward, 3,706 were twin screw and 115 had triple or quadruple screws. Al- though few paddle steamers are now being built, 325 of 246,790 tons were still in existence.' The tonnage of steamers using coal as fuel amounted to 31,- 948,000 tons or slightly less than 50 per cent of the tonnage of the world's merchant marine. In the twelve months ended June 1936, motorship tonnage in- creased by 986,000 tons and that of vessels equipped with steam turbines by 47,000 tons. On the other hand, vessels fitted solely with reciprocating steam engines decreased by 1,097,000 tons. Development of the steam Shipbuilding KFF 176 Shipbuilding boiler has been somewhat less spectacular than its ship and en- gine associates, yet it was no less progressive in its own rath- er limited sphere. The cylindri- cal smoke-tube type still main- tains much of its old-time favor with most types of merchant vessels, exceptions constituting the more prominent superliners and naval craft. Although cost- ing more for service upkeep, the water-tube type is better adapted to carry the higher working pressures now current. Besides being considerably lighter on a cornparative power capacity basis, repair and renewal of con- stituent parts can be more read- ily undertaken. Raising steam and maintenance of a given pressure are other desirable fea- tures of the water-tube type boiler. Oil fuel, which has con- tributed much to the convenience and comfort of steam genera- tion, may be said to have wholly displaced coal on naval ships and, indicative of the extent to which oil has achieved world merchant marine favor, no less than 3,895 steamers of 19,766,- 668 gross tons burn it in their boiler furnaces. The 20th cen- tury has witnessed unprece- dented development in the mer- chant fleets of the world, steam and motor tonnage having in- creased from 24,008,883 tons in 1901 to 64,004,885 tons in 1936. Aside from the galaxy of liners and superliners that have been built and have shed lustre on the period, a rather noteworthy development otherwise belongs to the huge fleets of tankers, built, operative and building throughout the world. ^ Ship Design and Construc- tion. — Shipbuilding consists of two branches, design and con- struction — the former the theo- retical, the latter the practical part of the work. It will be convenient to consider first the principles of design. Measurement. — It is mani- fest that the external form should be such as to give the greatest possible buoyancy or carrying capacity (with a given weight of hull) consistent with other necessary qualities. It is, therefore, one of the principal functions of design to ascertain what shape this external form should take to attain the ends in view. A vessel floating freely in still water displaces a volume of water equal in weight to its own, and this weight expressed in tons is called the vessel's dis- placement. The weight is sup- ported by the vertical compo- nents of the water pressure, and the sum of these vertical com- ponents is termed the buoyancy. Displacement tonnage repre- sents the weight of a vessel plus fuel, stores, and cargo, but as the three last named items are variable quantities and the weight of the vessel a well-nigh constant quantity, merchant ship size is based rather on measure- ment tonnage or internal capac- ity. Displacement tonnage measurement does not distin- guish between fast and slow ves- sels of like rating. The former with restricted cargo spaces com- paratively will have relatively restricted earning power on a weight basis ; on the other hand, the latter will have large cargo and small machinery spaces, therefore greater potential earning power. The fast vessel, under the circumstances, would be unfairly discriminated against. Dead-weight tonnage, which is the difference between the displacement or weight of a vessel when fully loaded and its weight when light, would obvi- ously be favorable to the fast ship carrying little cargo and cor- respondingly disadvantageous to its slower rival. Gross tonnage is measured and reckoned in terms of one hundred cubic feet being the equivalent of one ton. The tonnage deck is usually defined as the upper deck of ves- sels having one or two decks. In all other vessels it is recog- nized as the second continuous deck from below. The upper deck is understood to be the up- permost deck with properly closed openings of such a nature that any space underneath can be regarded as closed-in. Ton- nage under the tonnage deck is known as under-deck tonnage and that between the upper deck and the tonnage deck as 'tween deck tonnage where there are one or more ''tween decks. Summarized, gross tonnage is the aggregate of the under-deck tonnage, the 'tween deck ton- nage, and the tonnage of any closed-in spaces above the up- per deck. Net or registered tonnage constitutes in all sys- tems the gross tonnage less cer- tain deductions on account of non-earning spaces. In the dif- ferent systems the deductions al- lowable vary more or less, Brit- ish authorities being considered the most generous in permitting exemptions. War vessels are for the most part classified on a displacement basis, but as this varies with the amount of coal and stores on board, certain con- ditions of loading are assumed as standards, and these are gen- erally normal displacement and full load displacement. Normal displacement is a purely arbi- trary condition, which is sup- posed to be that of average cruising trim. At full load dis- placement the full supply of all stores is carried. Coefficient of Fineness. — Ships of different models, but of the same length, beam, and draught, may have quite differ- ent displacements, so that for certain purposes it is convenient to express the difference briefly. To do this the immersed portion of the hull is compared with (a) that of a parallelopipedon of the same length and breadth as the ship and of a depth equal to the ship's mean draught, or with (b) a prism whose length is that of the ship and whose base is the midship section of the ship. In the first method, if L, B, and D are respectively the length, beam, and mean draught of the ship, v and V the volumes of the ship and of the parallelopipedon, and w and W the corresponding weights or displacements ; then, since 35 cubic feet of sea water weighs a ton, we have V ^ ^ w X33 ^ V W LXBXD ^' which is called the coefficient of fineness of the ship. The second method is more accurate. Using the same notation, and denoting the area of the midship section (expressed in square feet) by A, we have WX35 ^ LX A ^' which is called the coefficient of water lines or prismatic coeffi- cient. In modern merchant ves- sels the midship section ap- proaches a rectangle in shape, so that for such vessels the two co- efficients are nearly the same. The coefficient of fineness varies from 40 to 75 per cent, and the coefficient of water lines from 55 to 83 per cent. Stability. — The stability of a ship depends upon the strength of its righting force in a trans- verse or longitudinal direction. The vertical components of the water pressure which supports a vessel may be considered to act as a point called the center of buoyancy (B, Fig. 1) ; and since the weight of the vessel may be considered to act at the center of gravity, it is manifest that when the vessel is floating freely and at rest in still water, the centers of buoyancy (B) and gravity (G) must be in the same vertical line (see Fig. 1). If the vessel be forcibly inclined (see Fig. 2) the position of the center of buoyancy changee to (B'). The buoyancy acting upward at B' and the weight of the vessel acting downward at G form a couple tending to bring the ves- sel back to the normal position. If w expresses the weight of the ship, the force of this couple is w X GP, which is called_ the moment of statical stability. The distance GP is called the righting arm, and the righting Speed in Knots SHIPBUILDING I-'undanientals of vShip Desif^n and Construction. Vol. XL— Page 177 Shipbuilding KFF 178 Shipbuilding force is evidently proportional to it. If the vertical line through B' be produced until it intersects BG, the point of intersection (M) is called the transverse metacenter, and the distance GM is called the transverse metacen- tric height, and is nearly con- stant for small angles of heel. The position of the longitudinal metacenter is shown in Figs. 3 and 4. The longitudinal meta- centric height and righting arm are much greater than the trans- verse, so that the danger of large vessels turning over end- on is very slight (see Figs. 3 and 4). When a vessel is forcibly inclined in still water the right- ing force is that of the couple ; but if she rolls and pitches in rough water the shape of the submerged body changes rapidly, adding to or subtracting from the force due to the couple. While the action of the couple (i.e., the moment of statical sta- bility) upon a ship inclined in still water causes her to roll toward the erect position, the motion does not stop there, for the ship acts like a pendulum, and her momentum causes her to roll almost as deeply on the other side of the vertical. Dur- ing the downward part of the roll the motion is opposed by the righting force acting in the op- posite direction, and it eventually overcomes the ship's momentum and causes her to roll back again, and so on until absolute rest is attained. While these rolls are of less and less ampli- tude, they are made in practi- cally equal times, and the time of each double roll is called the ship's still-water period. In rough water the period is ap- proximately the same, but is slightly increased or decreased by the action of the waves. As the rolling of a ship in rough water is caused by the action of the waves, their size, direction, and period (time be- tween the passage of wave crests past a fixed point) are of great importance. But the size and direction are not usually dan- gerous factors unless the wave period corresponds to the rolling period of the ship. In that case the action of the waves is cumu- lative, tending always to increase the amplitude of the roll, and, if the righting power is inadequate, eventually to capsize the ship — a disaster which may evidently be avoided by steering in some other direction. From the fore- going facts it is readily under- stood that if a ship had very lit- tle righting power she would not tend to roll ; that if she did roll, the roll might prove dangerous from lack of power to check it ; that a ship with strong righting power may roll deeply and will certainly roll quickly — perhaps too quickly and jerkily. These defects are cured by (a) giving adequate but not too great right- ing power, and — if necessary — arranging weights far away from the center of gravity to give a moment of inertia, which will increase the rolling period without affecting the righting force; (b) the placing of deep bilge keels on the outside of the hull near the turn of the bilge. A further check to rolling through small angles is the water chamber, a thwartship compartment with a central fore- and-aft dam or similar contriv- ance ; when partially filled with water the dam holds the greater part of the water on the rising side, and so decreases the action of the righting force ; but the noise and jar of the water were found to be intolerable. Bilge keels are usually of sharp wedge section, the base resting against the ship's side. The action of bilge keels is to greatly reduce the amplitude of the rolls, in some cases from 30° to 12°. They add, therefore, to both safety and comfort, and do not materially reduce the speed. Efforts have also been made to reduce the rolling of ships by means of gyroscope control. (See Gyroscope.) As already stated, the objec- tion to deep rolling — aside from the discomfort it causes — is that the roll may go so far that the righting force disappears ; for this varies with every change in inclination, usually becoming zero at or about 90° in small craft, and 60° to 75° in larger vessels (see Fig. 6). This posi- tion is reached when the vertical rising from the center of buoy- ance passes through the center of gravity ; any further roll will cause this vertical to pass be- tween the center of gravity and the keel, and then the ship must capsize. Vessels designed to carry heavy cargoes have a very high center of gravity when empty, and in this condition may have so little stability as to be in dan- ger of capsizing in a seaway. To counteract this, ballast of some sort has to be carried. It formerly consisted of any avail- able heavy material ; and while some was carried permanently, the taking on board and dis- charging of the remainder was a matter of considerable expense. Modern steamers are fitted with water-ballast tanks which may be filled or pumped out as desired. The fitting of ballast tanks in passenger steamers enables the rolling to be kept as easy as pos- sible consistent with safety, and has added much to the comfort of ocean traveJ. The position of the center of gravity and the metacentric height are readily determined. If a weight x (Fig. 5), which is on one side when a vessel is vertical, be moved across the ship a total distance of a feet, the center of gravity will move parallel to the movement of and be at some point G'. The vessel will there- fore heel through the angle 6. We have then, if zv is the weight of the ship, w X GO' = x x a; but GG' = GM tan e = w hence GM = ^-^cot 0. The w position of JVI being readily cal- culated from the position of B (center of gravity of immersed body), the position of G is at once known. For large inclina- tions the righting arm is com- puted by another and more ac- curate method. A curve giving the righting arm of an ordinary vessel for any degree of heel is shown in Fig. 6. Model Experiments. — The effect upon speed of variations in the form of the hull was but im- perfectly understood until within the past sixty years, and there is still much to learn. Until the adoption of the steam engine we were without power susceptible of exact measurement, but soon after this took place information was rapidly gained and results compared. A really scientific in- vestigation of the problem, how- ever, was not reached until Froude began his famous exper- iments in 1886 in a new and improved model tank at Haslar, England. Much that had been previously guessed at he defi- nitely proved, some time-hon- ored beliefs were shattered, and a great deal that was wholly new was discovered. Indeed, his work is the foundation of a great portion of all we know of the resistance of ships, though his discoveries and conclusions have been greatly extended, and in some minor points modified by the work of later experimenters — a model tank being now re- garded as a most necessary means of ascertaining the best forms for speed under given conditions. The models are 10 to 25 feet in length — usually 12 to 15 feet — and are towed by a travelling car containing appara- tus which records the speed, resistance, etc. To connect the data thus ob- tained with similar information for the full-sized ship we must apply Froude's law, which is as follows : Tf a ship be D times the "dimensions," as it is termed, of the model, and if at the speeds Vi, Vn, Vs, etc., the measured resistances of the model are Shipbuilding KFF 179 Shipbuilding Ri^2, Rs^etc, tlien for speeds \/d"Vi, VDV2, VDVs etc., of the ship, the resistances will be D=^Ri, D^Ro, D^Rs, etc. To the speeds of model and ship thus related it is convenient to apply the term corresponding speeds. Thus, if a ship have length, breadth, and depth each six- teen times those of the model, and if at a speed of 2 knots of the model the ascertained re- sistance is a, then at a speed of \/~l6 X 2 = 8 knots of the ship, the resistance will be 16X16 X 16 X a = 4096a. This law was effectively demonstrated by towing a full-sized ship and her model at various speeds. By means of model tank experi- ments the form of hull best adapted to each particular _ size and speed is readily obtained, provided we add to the model results the necessary power to overcome friction and other losses in the machinery, propel- ler, etc. Resistance to Propulsion. — The resistances to propulsion are of three kinds — surface fric- tion, wave making, and eddy making. In a vessel of fine or moderately fine lines (i.e., one fairly sharp at both ends) the friction between the skin of the ship and the water is the cause of nearly all the resistance at low speeds, and this frictional resist- ance varies directly as the area of wetted surface and as the square of the speed, while for rough surfaces the resistance is vastly greater than for smooth. The wave-making resistance _ is unimportant at low speeds with vessels of fine lines, but rapidly increases with the speed. Other things being equal, a vessel should have no^ greater fineness of lines than is neces- sary to enable her to be economi- cally driven at her designed speed, for fineness of form means loss of carrying power or increase of surface friction per unit of carrying capacity or both. And if a vessel has the fullest lines consistent with a definite speed, no attempt should be made to drive her faster than this. Thus, if a vessel be de- signed to give the greatest carry- ing capacity for a speed of 16 knots, the expenditure of power to drive her 17 knots may be almost twice that for 16. The speed curve shown in Fig. 7 is that of a vessel designed for a maximum speed of about 18 knots. At a point a little beyond 18 the curve becomes nearly ver- tical ; so that if the horse power required for 18 knots were doubled, the speed would proba- bly not reach 19. The waves which are made by vessels passing through water are of three types. One consists of a divergent wave which forms at the bow, rises to a certain height and then breaks off, when a new wave of similar size and direction is formed — and so on. The crests of these waves are sharp, and make an angle of con- siderably less than 90° with the course of the vessel, the end far- thest from the vessel's side being farthest to the rear. A second set of waves has its crests at right angles to the course. These waves are highest at the side of the ship, two or more ap- pearing between bow and stern, depending upon the length of the ship. Both crests and hollows are smoothly rounded. Lastly, there are the divergent stern waves, somewhat similar to those which form at the bow : these waves are distorted and reduced in height by the action of the propeller. The height, length, and volume of waves and the speed with which they travel indicate the amount of power expended in producing them. The resistance due to the formation of eddies is compara- tively unimportant. Eddies are formed along the sides of vessels when the surface is very rough, but the loss thereby is a small percentage of that due to sur- face friction. In the early days of steam vessels many of them were so bluff at the bow and stern as to cause eddies, those at the stern being strongly marked. The results were high bow waves, a dragging of the water after the vessel, and a great loss of power and speed. From the various investiga- tions and experiments that have been made we deduce that if high speed is an object, a vessel must have fine lines (i.e., be very sharp) at bow and stern, but particularly at the stern. That the surface of the hull must be kept as smooth as pos- sible, and that the shape and sta- bility should be such as to re- duce rolling and pitching to a minimum. The fineness of the fore body is necessary to keep down the height of the bow wave ; the fineness of the after body is not only necessary in or- der to reduce the stern wave, but also that the water may flow in freely and solidly to the propel- ler or propellers. It may be proper to remark here that the position of the propellers has been the subject of investigation. They have been tried at the bow, at the sides, at the stern, and under- neath the bottom, but the posi- tion of maximum efficiency was found to be at the stern. The most efficient shape and size of propeller is difficult to determine exactly in any particular case. Where the conditions differ ma- terially from those with which builders are familiar, many ex- periments are sometimes neces- sary to determine the most effi- cient design. High-speed pro- pellers are usually three-bladed, and the blades are narrower than those for slower craft. Tugs have broad-bladed screws, to give the desired area of pressure without too great diameter. Framing and Plating. — The internal structure of a ship consists of frames, beams, knees, bulkheads, decks, etc. (See Fig. 9.) Wooden vessels have a keel, and upon it are laid the floor timbers, which are curved at the 'turn of the bilge' and carried up to form the framing of the sides. Over the floor timbers, parallel to the keel and through-bolted to it, is the keelson. Deck beams extend from side to side under each deck, the ends joined to the frames by deep knees. Addi- tional strength is obtained by 'filling timbers' between the floor timbers of the frames, by outside planking and inside 'ceiling,' and by transverse and longitudinal bulkheads. Steel sailing ships had an external bar keel, but steel steamers have no projecting external keel. The keel plate is flat, broad, and thick. The vertical keel inside the keel plate is usually two feet or more in depth, and extends to the bow and stern to meet the castings or forgings which form the stem and stern post. The frames are of angle (L-shape), I, T channel (U-shape), or Z- section. The beams are usually of T-bulb riveted directly to the frames, the end being split and the lower half bent down to form a brace or knee. Double Bottom. — In most large ships the inner sides of the frames up to the turn of the bilge or beyond are covered with a plating which forms the inner bottom. (See Fig. 9.) At inter- vals of several feet, vertical (or nearly vertical) fore-and-aft plating is worked between the frames to form longitudinal stringers ; and these, with the frames, divide the space (called the double bottom) between the inner and outer bottoms into num-erous water-tight compart- ments. To reduce unnecessary weight, lightening holes are cut in the frame and longitudinal plating, and these reduce the number of water-tight compart- ments while affording access to all parts of each compartment without requiring too many man- holes through the inner bottom. This cellular double bottom adds considerably to the strength of the hull, and greatly to the safety of the ship in case of groimding, many large ships having safely Shipbuilding KFF 180 Shipbuilding reached port with their outer bottoms badly torn. The double- bottom system is chiefly due to Brunei, the designer of the Great Eastern (1852), in which vessel it was first fully devel- oped. The Titanic Disaster (q. V.) called attention to the desira- bility of extending the double bottom up the sides as far as the water line, and this was still fur- ther emphasized by the sinking of the Empress of Ireland (see Marine Disasters). Some large passenger steamers have this construction. Water-Tight Compart- ments. — Above the inner bottom most ships are divided into many large water-tight compartments by the deck plating and by longitudinal and transverse bulk- heads, and these divisions add to the stiffness and rigidity of the hull. The smaller bulk- heads in the living spaces are not usually water-tight ; and they are of such light material as to add but little to the struc- tural strength in any direction. All water-tight compartments are connected by drain pipes to the pumps, in order that they may be pumped out if water should enter in quantities not too great for the pumps to handle. Strength of Hull. — The strength of vessels to resist transverse stress is usually greatly in excess of the require- ments, but in a longitudinal di- rection the case is different. To secure adequate longittidinal ri- gidity considerable care is exer- cised in the design. The sides, decks, and fore-and-aft bulk- heads give most of the fore-and- aft strength. If a vessel, sup- ported at the ends, sinks in the middle, she is said to 'sag,' and if supported in the middle and the ends droop she is said to 'hog.' When a vessel is floating in rough water, 'sagging' strains may be produced in all parts not water borne, and 'hogging' strains in all parts which are water borne. Plans. — The principal char- acteristics of a vessel having been decided upon, a preliminary set of drawings is made to deter- mine the general arrangement and the important features. Based upon these, calculations are made of the weights, stabil- ity, trim, strength, speed, etc. If the shape of the hull has been determined by model experi- ments, the drawings are made in accordance with the ascertained results. The general drawings embrace three plans, called the sheer plan, the half-breadth plan, and the body plan, and represent the lines of the ship as developed upon three planes at right angles to each other. The sheer plan shows the lines cut out of the hull by planes parallel to the fore- and-aft vertical plane through the keel ; the half-breadth plan shows the lines cut by horizontal planes ; and the body plan shows the lines cut by vertical trans- verse planes. From these prin- cipal drawings the detail draw- ings are prepared, the plans of every part being drawn to scale and its dimensions marked. The drawings having been completed, the ship is 'laid down' on the mould loft floor in its full size as a whole or in parts. The 'laying down' consists in cutting lines representing those which appear on the plans. From the mould loft plans, or directly by meas- urement from the drawings, the scrive board, moulds, and tem- plates are prepared. The scrive board is in effect a full-sized drawing showing the shape of every frame in the vessel, but it is not always used, templates being sometimes built up from the smaller drawings and carried directly to the bending slab where the frames are shaped. Detail drawings are made of all parts, showing, on a convenient scale, their exact shape and size. Construction. — After the keel plates and a number of mid- ship frames are shaped or built up (according to the character of the framing), the keel may be laid and the first frames erected. The keel plates are laid on the keel blocks, lined up and riveted together. The frames are then erected and held in place by braces, cross spawls, ribands, or similar falsework. After the transverse frames are erected and riveted to the keel, they are connected by the inter- costal sections of the longitudi- nals and the inner and outer plating. The stern post and stem (in a steel ship) are heavy castings or forgings, and are not usually put in place until the framing has so far proceeded that they may be quickly sup- ported. After the frames are up, the work on the interior is pushed at the same time as that on the exterior. The plating is put on begin- ning at the keel, the plates being trimmed and punched before being set in place. The edges are lapped or flush. If flush, edge strips are riveted on the inside of each seam, to hold the plates together. If lapped, the rivets pass through the plates where they lap. The ends of plates may also be lapped, but they are usually butted flush and secured with inside butt straps. All seams are made water-tight by caulking with a tool which forces the edges of the metal into close contact. Launching. — After the out- side plating or planking is com- pleted and caulked, the vessel may be launched at any time. Large vessels are usually put in the water before the machinery is installed and while much of the_ interior work is unfinished. This admits of a lighter cradle being used, brings less pressure on the ways, and makes an easier launching ; it also reduces the height to which weights have to be hoisted. Small vessels are occasionally completed on the ways and launched with steam up ready for preliminary trials. To effect the launch a wooden framework called the cradle, resting upon the launching ways, is built under the ship and fitted to her bottom. By means of wedges the upper part of the cradle is forced upward, lifting the vessel off the keel blocks and building ways or shores. In some instances very large ves- sels are supported by sand boxes on the keel blocks. When the bilge shores are removed the sand is allowed to escape, and the hull then settles down until it rests on the cradle. The upper side of the launching ways being well lubricated, the cradle, carrying the vessel, slides down the ways into the water as soon as the tie plate is cut, dog-shore knocked out, or the holding gear released. The cradle then breaks up and is hauled clear. Emergency Fleet Corpora" tion. — The United States Ship- ping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation was organized un- der law on April 18, 1917, with a capital of $50,000,000, all of which was subscribed by the Government. The Corporation was to contract for and manage the construction of new ships for the Shipping Board, and to com- plete the construction of ships already building under private contract that had been com- mandeered. The earliest pro- gram drawn was well beyond the scope of already established shipyards ; hence a huge expan- sion of these was at once set on foot and a start was made in new plant creation. So broad in ex- tent was participation invited and welcomed that steel, con- crete, wood, wood and steel (composite), were accepted without too close scrutiny indi- vidually as basic constituents of vessel hulls. Steel ships were for the most part planned in a series of groups, an arrange- ment whereby a great deal of the material was fabricated in struc- tural steel plants and later erected in vessel form in the shipyards ; hence the nomencla- ture, fabricated ships. No at- tempt was made to adhere too strictly to generally accepted practice in hull design. Deck Shipbuilding KFF 181 Shipbuilding sheer was reduced or altogether eliminated and curves were avoided whenever possible. The speed of construction of fabri- cated ships was most remark- able, especially after the inter- relation of the steel mills, struc- tural plants and shipyards be- came adjusted to the co-ordinate requirements and capacities of each other. Wooden Ships. — Construc- tion of these was undertaken largely on account of the tempo- rary lack of facilities for imme- diate construction of a huge steel tonnage. The outcome was not altogether satisfactory, though some four hundred were built, launched, and equipped for service or were at some related stage when the war ended. They may have contributed something toward defeat of the submarine and thereby to the cessation of hostilities ; just then, however, their commercial value was at zero and their careers at an end. Save for a few of the most seaworthy, all vanished early. In extenuation, let it be said, wood shipbuilding was found to be an altogether lost industry and the supply of ship timber too remote from most shipyard sites. Concrete Ships. — Several concrete ships were built and completed for service but what service they actually rendered may be passed over. Of the ships built and completed, the hulls were three or more inches thick. One of the more noteworthy ex- amples consisted of a basket-like structure of steel bars and rib- bons on which the concrete was molded. Like the wood ships, they too passed out of sight and mind. Composite Ships. — Such ships as were constructed suf- fered in great degree from their close kinship to their wood sis- ters, so much so that during the construction furor and after, they enjoyed neither special des- ignation nor eulogy. Due, how- ever, to the nature of their hull construction — steel frames and wood planking — it may well be inferred that of such of the wood ships as demonstrated the greater fitness those of the com- posite category were included. Under the fabrication system mass production of ships and their machinery installations may best describe the magnitude and scope of an industry hither- to rather unspectacular in achievement. In 1917, 326 ships of 997,919 gross tons were built or building; in 1918 the total had reached 929 of 3,033,- 030 gross tons, only to be eclipsed both in number and ton- nage in the peak year 1919 when the vessel total registered 1,051 and the tonnage total 4,075,385 gross. In 1920 a sharp drop was recorded, the number of vessels and their aggregate ton- nage declining to 509 of 2,476,- 253 gross. The year 1921 had to its credit but 173 vessels of 1,015,377 gross tons. Naturally the end of the war in November 1918 affected the Shipping Board program relative to the immedi- ate and not over-distant future, leading to sharp curtailment on every hand. It was quickly realized too that there was a sur- feit of ships and that too many were totally unfit to carry on competitively in post-war trade. Many uncompleted construction contracts were cancelled. Wartime Construction Abroad, — The idea of stand- ardizing cargo ships was not new, but conservatism and prejudice on the part of shipbuilders and owners had hitherto barred even the slightest semblance of adop- tion. Grim necessity in due course swept conservatism and prejudice aside. Great Britain, France and Italy joining the United States in the building of standard ships. In Great Brit- ain most cargo carriers were constructed on a four-class basis which embraced single-deck steel steamers of 8,000 d.w. tons ca- pacity and unobstructed holds ; those of same size and like char- acteristics but with an interme- diate cargo deck above the hold ; steel steamers of 5,000 d.w. tons, and similar craft of 3,000 d.w. tons. Naturally, a number of other type and class groups were constructed, not a few being des- tined for specific services. Ma- chinery installations were also standardized, not the least ad- vantage derived therefrom being their production in plants else- where, however far distant from the shipyards. Particular atten- tion was given to the features of simplicity and economy of oper- ation in machinery and the pro- vision of unusually spacious hatchways. Future private ownership of the vessels was kept in mind, and as the event proved when the government later came to dispose of the ships, it had been a prudent and worth-while exercise of fore- thought. The fabricating idea was less fully developed than in the United States because of the lack in number and size of struc- tural plants. No wood or com- posite ships were built and rein- forced concrete construction got only a modicum of considera- tion. In Italy several vessels of concrete construction were built and placed in service. Mer- chant shipbuilding in both France and Italy assumed no ab- normal activity ; as a matter of fact, vessel output was under the peacetime average in the for- mer country and only slightly above the average in Italy. In Holland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark, new ship construction was wholly dependent on exist- ent facilities, and no excess pro- duction over normal was trace- able. In the case of Germany, the years 1915 to 1920 inclusive offer no inkling of shipbuilding activity or its specific nature other than that war vessel con- struction predominated. All through the war period it may be said that Japan increased its shipbuilding output to a marked degree, adhering, however, to the best design and construction practices. Post-War World Ship- building, — While the first four- teen years of the twentieth cen- tury saw many notable and not a few famous ships built and commissioned into service, it re- mained for the third and fourth decades to demonstrate just how far naval architecture, shipbuild- ing and marine engineering had progressed since then, with the war years thrown in, during which all manner of trade, com- merce and international travel dwindled to the vanishing point. The post-war period opened with most maritime nations not too badly off in cargo tonnage, and such as needed more, knew that the United States and Great Britain with huge surplus ton- nages were ready and anxious to make prompt delivery at more or less bargain prices. Germany, of all the maritime countries af- fected by the war, hardly pos- sessed even the nucleus of a merchant marine and, naturally, having regard to her pre-war ocean transportation record, she was far from being disposed to erect a new fleet structure on the doubtful foundation of what others were discarding. Liners and other vessels possessed and in service before the war had been seized, and those under construction or uncompleted she was forced to turn over to the Allies in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles. Of her own volition Germany has re- created her merchant marine, the material evidence being readily judged from the 1,441 vessels of 3,829,666 gross tons launched during the period 1921-1935. With the exception of Great Britain and Ireland, which substantially exceeded the respective totals, no other mari- time nation gave the least sem- blance of a like creditable show- ing. Of the vessel types built — tankers, cargo, combination car- go and passenger, liner and su- per-liner — in the last named category, the Bremen and Eii- ropa of 1929 and 1930 respeg- Shipbuilding KFF 182 Shipbuilding tively, became the most popular of their class in transatlantic travel. Between 1921 and 1935 inclu- sive, Italy's contribution to world shipbuilding consisted of 402 vessels of 1,380,417 gross tons of varied class and type, notable among them being the Rex and Conte di Savoia, super- liners, each of about 50,000 gross tons and 26.5 knots regvdar speed. These two ships entered service in the Fall of 1932 and almost immediately drew favor- able comment from the travel- ling public and especially that section of it which is partial to the southern or Mediterranean route between New York and Europe. France's contribution to world shipbuilding in the same period amounted to 419 vessels of 1,362,222 gross tons, the Normandic constituting the unique and conspicuous feature because of its size, speed, and tonnage. Merchant ships built and launched in Great Britain and Ireland in the fifteen-year period totalled 4,391 of 13,834,- 133 gross tons, the Queen Mary overshadowing all else. Due to the fact that in 1921 the United States was still build- ing and launching a considerable remnant of its war-created pro- gram, 173 vessels of 1,015,377 gross tons, that year's output, the aggregate of the 1921-1935 inclusive period of 990 vessels of 2,786,036 gross tons consti- tutes a somewhat unfair compar- ison with the others already quoted. Denmark, Holland, Sweden and Japan, in number ajid tonnage of vessels built and launched, may be said to have compared not unfavorably with United States outputs : Japan more particularly because of the number of unit additions of both fast freighters and fast combination freight and passen- ger ships. At June 30, 1936, a world to- tal of 1,951,005 gross tons was being built of which 348,732 tons was credited to Great Brit- ain and Ireland, 365,179 tons to Germany, 156,811 tons to Japan, 148,005 tons to Holland, 124,- 250 tons to Sweden, 90,275 tons to the United States, 71,620 tons to Denmark, 45,304 tons to France, 10,235 tons to Italy, and 90,544 tons to other countries. Motor vessels were represented by 1,184,231 gross tons and all type or class ships by 766,774 gross tons. Six ships of 20,000 gross tons and over were in- cluded in the aggregate total, four being credited to Great Britain and Ireland and one each to Holland and Germany. Throughout the post-war period, oil-tankers formed a consider- able proportion of ship construc- tion and, in view of the steady growth in numbers and size of oil-engine propelled vessels of almost every type and class, it may be inferred that tanker building holds great future pos- sibilities. Most of the recent tankers incorporate in their hull interior detail one or other sys- tem of longitudinal framing in lieu of that generally known as the transverse system. In the Isherwood system of ship con- struction the transverse frames and beams are fitted at widely- spaced intervals, general prac- tice having established this at about twelve feet. These form complete transverse belts arovmd the vessel hull and are riveted direct to the hull plating and deck, their strength being not less than the number of trans- verse frames fitted ordinarily for a ship of corresponding length. The transverse girder frames are slotted around their outer edges in order to admit of continuous longitudinal stiffen- ers being fitted not only at the decks but on the sides, bottom and tank top. The fitting of the longitudinals direct to the plat- ing prevents damage to the decks through buckling. The outstanding feature of a longitudinally framed ship is that for given dimensions a con- siderable saving in the weight of hull material is effected. A sub- stantial increase in hull strength is noteworthy, constituting a two-fold gain over the ordinary transverse system. Tanker in- teriors, with their multiplicity of brackets, indicate that there is room for much construction sim- plification, with resultant de- creases in tanker costs and maintenance. In the Isherwood Bracketless System these desir- able features have been achieved. By this latest constructional de- velopment, the corner brackets are eliminated from each tank by stopping the longitudinals at the sides of the ship, and at the mid- dle line bulkhead, short of the transverse bulkheads, and sup- porting thein by the transverses at the sides and the webs on the longitudinal bulkhead ; dealing in like manner with the horizon- tal stiffeners on the transverse bulkheads. This is accomplished through an ingenious disposition of materials and scantlings. Spacing of transverses and sizes of longitudinals are so adjusted that the strength of the longi- tudinals between the transverses coincides with the strength of the longitudinals between the transverses and the bulkheads. In 1908 the Isherwood system first sought endorsement by Lloyd's Register of Shipping, but its greatest progress and achieve- ment have ijeen recorded in the post-war period. It is adaptable to practically all types of ships, liners included, a noteworthy ex- ample of the latter being the President Roosevelt of the United States Lines. Ship design and ship construc- tion are the results of a long period of evolution, yet few- practical applications of new- construction methods have gone beyond the experimental stage, hence the uniqueness and practi- cability of the Isherwood systems have led to almost universal adoption. Later was added a new departure known as the Arcform cargo ship. In 1936 eight vessels already built were in service and ten more were un- der construction. The idea em- bodied in this type ship is reduc- tion of the wetted surface and relatively the reduction of hull resistance. This is accomplished by 'fining' the bilge yet retaining the same midship area, the lost area at the bilge being compen- sated by increasing the beam at the load water-line. The trend since the early years of this cen- tury has been towards making the midship section coefficient greater and greater until to- day it is not uncommon to find midship coefficients as high as .995, which is a box-like section ; the dominating idea be- ing to carry as much dead weight of cargo as possible without in- creasing the mean angle of en- trance and run. Not only has this box-shaped section become almost universal in cargo craft, but it is quite common in inter- mediate cargo and passenger ships and even in passenger ships. Summarized, the Isher- wood-Arcform design of ship gives, with any method of fram- ing, reduced fuel consump- tion or increased speed, im- proved ballast condition, in- creased cubic capacity, strength, dead-weight carrying capacity, and stability with homogeneous cargoes. Of the Arcform vessels under construction in 1936, two of 12,000 tons each were tankers building at Kearney, N. J., and one of 15,000 tons, also a tanker, building in Holland. The re- spective arcforms are 7 per cent and 10 per cent. See Boat, Bulkheads ; Ferry Boat; Ice Breaker; Load Line; Motor Boats; Navies; Navigation ; Navy, United States ; Oil Vessels ; Ship- ping, Merchant ; Steam En- gine; Turbines, Steam; Yacht. Bibliography, — H i s t o r i c a 1 and Sailing Ships : A. Jal, Archcologie Naval (1840) ; F. A. Parker, Fleets of the World — The Galley Period (1876) ; L. Fincati, Le Triremi (1881); G. C. V. Holmes, Ancient and Mod- Ship Canal KFF 183 Shipping Laws em Ships (1906); B. Lubbock, The Blackzvall Frigates (1922) and The Last of the Wind jammers (1927) ; H. I. Chapell, The His- tory of American Sailing Ships (1935) ; H. W. Van Loon, Ships and How They Sailed the Seven Seas (1935). For Construction and Design, consult W. H. White, Manual of Naval Architecture (1900) ; D. W. Tavlor, Speed and Pozver of Ships (1910-11); G. S. Baker, Ship Design, Resistance and Screw Propulsion (1933) ; H. E. Rossell, Riveting and Arc IV eld- ing Ship Construction (1934) ; Proceedings of the Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers (annual. New York) ; Transactions of the Institute of Naval Architects (annual, Lon- don ) . Ship Canal. See Canal, Navigatiox ; Panama Canal ; Suez Canal. Ship Fever, a name some- times given to Typhus Fever (q. v.). Ship'ka Pass, strategic pass through the Balkan Mountains, 47 miles northeast of Philippopo- lis, at an altitude of 4,370 feet. It was the scene of severe fight- ing in the Russo-Turkish War (1877-8). Ship'ley, town, England, in West Riding, Yorkshire, on the River Aire ; 3 miles northwest of Bradford (q. v.), of which it is practically a suburb, and in the industries of which it shares. Pop. (1931) 30,243. _ Ship Money is the name given to a tax or imposition levied by Charles i which had momentous results in English history. His object was to strengthen the fleet against the Dutch and French without the necessity of asking Parliament for subsidies. In 1635 ship money writs were issued over the whole kingdom, each county being ordered to provide a ship of war or contribute a certain sum in lieu thereof. John Hamp- den in 1637 refused to contribute his share of the levy, and an ac- tion was raised against him at the instance of the King in the Court of Exchequer, where after lengthy arguments the judges by a majority decided in favor of the legality of the King's policy. Ship money was abolished by the Long Parliament in 1641. See England. History. Ship'pensburg, borough, Pennsylvania, Cumberland and Franklin Counties, on the Penn- sylvania, the Western Maryland, and the Philadelphia and Read- ing Railroads; 38 miles south- west of Harrisburg. Here is the Cumberland Valley State Normal School. The borough has machine shops, hosiery and clothing mills, and furniture fac- tories. It was settled in 1750, and was a base of operations against the Indians. Pop. (1920) 4,372; (1930) 4,345. Shipping Articles, articles of agreement between the mas- ter of a ship and the seamen. See Seamen, Laws Relating TO. Shipping Laws is a widely used expression which has no well-accepted definition. By some it is regarded as practically equivalent to maritime law (q. V.) ; but its current signification seems to be that body of national or municipal laws (specific legis- lative acts and regulations au- thorized by them) which apply to the building of ships and their equipment for operation, though a considerable number of writers apparently regard certain laws affecting operation and naviga- tion as also included. This in- clusion would make the term cover nearly the whole field of municipal maritime law. As- suming the narrower definition, we may naturally divide the sub- ject into (a) building and (6) equipment and fitting for opera- tion. Building includes (1) con- struction, (2) survey and meas- urement, (3) registry, enrol- ment, etc., (4) nationality, own- ership, etc., (5) subsidy (build- ing). Equipment comprises (1) personnel (officers and crew), (2) material equipment for safe and efficient navigation, (3) sub- sidy (navigation). Laws applying to design and construction chiefly concern the seaworthiness and safety of the ship, such as water-tight bulk- heads and doors, collision bulk- heads, double bottoms, quarters for officers, crew, and passen- gers, and sanitary arrangements. Matters of construction affect- ing seaworthiness and safety of ships and cirgo ^re, for the most part, handled by the marine in- surance societies, which decline to insure ships in which con- struction is too faulty, penalize by high rates inferior construc- tion, encourage by low rates that which is best. Survey and measurement may be made by government survey- ors or by those of insurance so- cieties, and the act approved by the government authorities. The measurement includes the di- mensions of the ship, the gross and net tonnage (q. v.), cargo and passenger capacity, horse- power of engines, capacity of boilers, and other similar mat- ters. Registry, enrolment and li- censing are made pursuant to survey and inspection. Vessels in the foreign trade are regis- tered ; those in the coasting trade are enrolled ; while fishing ves- sels, small craft, etc., are li- censed. The certificate in each case is similar, A vessel acquires a definite na- tionality only after it is admitted to registry, license, etc. ; and the requirements are not the same in the shipping laws of all coun- tries. The U. S. laws provide that the vessel must be wholly owned either by an American citizen or citizens, or by a cor- poration (q. V.) organized under the laws of the United States or any of the several States, and having citizens of the United States as president and manag- ing director. Vessels not built in the United States may be registered in the foreign com- merce, but cannot enter the coasting trade unless the prop- erty of the Emergency Fleet Corporation (see Shipbuild- ing). British ships must be owned by British subjects or residents, or corporations having their principal place of business in some part of the British Em- pire. Foreign built ships may register and engage in any trade. The German and Norwegian laws are similar, the German somewhat stricter in details. At least 50 per cent of the value of a French vessel must be owned by French citizens, and the coasting trade is limited to French vessels. Japanese ships must be wholly owned by citi- zens or corporations all of whose directors are citizens ; the coast- ing trade is reserved to Japanese ships. The laws in regard to the per- sonnel of national ships are too extensive for adequate treatment here. They cover the national- ity of officers and crew, their number and qualifications, health, hygiene, safety, food, quarters, appointment, shipment, and the like ; the safety, health, hygiene, quarters, food, etc., of passen- gers are also considered. In U. S. ships the master, chief engi- neer, and all officers who are in charge of a watch on deck or in the engine room must be Ameri- can citizens. The percentage manning of American ships by alien seamen has been substan- tially reduced. Foreigners may be officers of British, German, and Japanese ships, with some restrictions, chiefly as regards subsidized vessels. All officers of French vessels must be citi- zens of France. British, Ger- man, and Japanese laws have no provisions in regard to nation- ality of crews except in subsi- dized vessels. In Norwegian vessels two-thirds of the crew must be citizens, and in French ships three-fourths. For the laws concerning subsidies for the operation of shipping, see SuBsiniKs. See Navigation. Shipping, Merchant KFF 183 A Shipping, Merchant Shipping, Merchant. Mer- chant shipping is the instrument by which international trade by sea is carried on. But for cen- turies merchant vessels were or- dinarily armed against pirates, and in case of war were promptly converted into war vessels or privateers. The successfvil naval battles of the American Revolu- tion were fought by armed American merchantmen. Historical. — The greatest maritime merchants of antiquity were the Chaldseans, Phoenicians, Egyptians, Greeks, Chinese, Arabs, and Hindoos. The use of trading vessels by the Egyp- tians and Chaldaeans extends be- yond the dawn of history. Of the Chinese, Arabs, and Hindoos we have no definite information ; when first known to the Western World they had been navigators for many centuries. The shipping of Egypt was mainly confined to the Nile, the Red Sea, and her Mediterranean littoral. The Chaldaeans were apparently bolder, trading both to India and Africa. But the Phoenicians were par excellence the greatest and iDoldest sailors of antiquity. Though possessing but a narrow strip of coast, and nearly always under the suze- rainty of one of the great em- pires of their day, they filled the Mediterranean with their ships, and traded as far as the Canary Islands and Britain. They planted maritime colonies in Eu- rope and Africa, and one of these, Carthage, became greater than either of the mother cities 6f Tyre and Sidon. The greatest rivals of the Phoenicians were the Greeks. While those of Europe retained their nationality and freedom imtil conquered by Rome, the Greeks of Asia Minor passed through the same vicissitudes of subjection as did the Phoeni- cians ; and like the latter, they manned the war galleys of the suzerains. Again like the Phoe- nicians, their merchant trade was their own. A thousand years before Christ, Corinth, Rhodes, and other Greek cities were centers of maritime trade and founders of colonies in Cen- tral and in Western Europe. Rhodes — and possibly other cit- ies — had a code of laws for the regulation of her shipping which is, in part at least, the basis of modern maritime law. The maritime code is therefore older than Roman civil law. Lord Mansfield referred to it as 'the ancientest law in the world.' Among its provisions was the following : Tf to lighten and save the ship, merchandise must be thrown overboard, what is thus abandoned for the benefit of all must be made good by the contribution of all' — a rule which still holds good in ques- tions of jettison and average. Ancient merchant ships were small, and were not much i:sed in the stormy season. Most were of a size which permitted them to be hauled up on the beach if bad weather was antici- pated. Those intended for long voyages and fitted chiefly for propulsion by sails were much broader than the ones designed for war or local traffic. The diminutive size precluded them from carrying on long voyages any cargo that could not pay a large profit or a high freight rate. This, of course, greatly limited maritime trade. After the decline of the Greek states the maritime commerce of the Mediterranean almost disap- peared, but eventually revived through the protection of the Eastern empire and the rise of Venice, Genoa, and other Italian cities, though their trade was harried and interfered with by the Mohammedan conquerors of Asia Minor and the African Coast. Venice increased in power until she was the mistress of the Mediterranean and of the Eastern empire. She also founded the first real merchant marine. The invasion of the Turks destroyed much of her trade, but did not replace it by a mercantile marine of their own. The seafaring races about the North Sea were now becoming traders as well as rovers and fighters, and the sceptre not only of sea power but of sea trade passed to England, where it has ever since remained. The early policy of maritime nations in respect to shipping was always protection, some- times to an extent which forbade competition. Thus, in the four- teenth century, Richard ii con- fined English trade to English ships. In 1663 the British gov- ernment proclaimed that 'no commodity of a growth, produc- tion, or manufacture of Europe shall be imported into the Brit- ish plantations, but such as are laden and put on board in Eng- land, Wales, or Berwick-on- Tweed, and in English-built ship- ping whereof the master and three-fourths of the crew are English.' This proclamation was due to the jealousy of British shipowners concerning the American colonists, who had, within forty years of the landing of the Mayflower, so developed their merchant marine as to seri- ously interfere with British trade. During the reign of George iii an act was passed forbidding the importation of sugar from the British West In- dia colonies except in British bottoms. United States, — Notwith- standing these and other restric- tive acts, the shipping of the colonies increased steadily until the Revolution, when Massachu- setts owned one sea-going vessel for every hundred inhabitants, and one-third the vessels flying the British flag were American. The colonies were too poor to build a great navy, but the nu- merous vessels of the merchant marine and the excellent quality of their seamen enabled them to commission hundreds of priva- teers. In 1781 the number was 449, carrying 6,735 guns. They cruised about the British Isles and captured prizes in sight of British ports, raising insurance rates to a hitherto unknown fig- ure, and seriously interfering with British industries of all kinds. After the war the merchant shipping of the States was well- nigh destroyed, and the ineffi- cient government afforded no protection. A further blow was dealt by the interdic- tion of all trade with the British West Indies. The cost of building ships was at that time less in America than in England, but the purchase of American-built ships was for- bidden by a British order-in- council. American navigators, finding little trade left for them in the West Indies, went farther abroad — to Holland, France, Germany, and the Mediterra- nean. Just as the Mediterranean business was becoming lucrative the Dey of Algiers discovered that American vessels were be- coming numerous and were with- out naval protection. Many were seized, and their crews re- duced to slavery. Nevertheless, there was some gain in the foreign shipping ton- nage before 1789. In that year the Constitutional government took possession of affairs, and in one of the first acts of the new Congress was a section for the relief of shipping. This pro- vided for a reduction of 10 per cent in the duties laid upon im- ports when carried by American ships. A tonnage bill laid a tax of 6 cents on American-built ships if owned by Americans, 30 cents if owned by foreigners, and 50 cents if foreign built and foreign owned. Heavy specific duties were laid upon tea if brought from the East in other than American ships, and even if brought in American bottoms from any port in Europe. All ships were in theory admitted to the coasting trade, but they were practically excluded because for- eign ships paid the tonnage tax every time they entered port, while American vessels paid it but once a year. Shipping:, Merchant KFF 183 B Shipping, Merchant The effect of this legislation was instantaneous. The regis- tered tonnage in the foreign trade increased from 123,893 tons in 1789 to 346,254 in 1790 ; 363,110 in 1791; 411,438 in 1792; 367,734 in 1793; and 438,863 in 1794. The percentage of imports carried in American ships was 17.5 per cent in 1789, 41 in 1790, 58 in 1791, 67 in 1792, 82 in 1793, and 91 in 1794. The drop of tonnage in 1793 was due to the depredations of the Dey of Algiers and the interference with trade which they occa- sioned. At this time in France the Revolution had driven_ all for- mer friends of America from power, and the semblance of gov- ernment during the Reign of Terror permitted all things. When the United States refused to allow its territory to be used as a recruiting ground for French forces, their anger turned against it. The French picaroons (styled letters of marque, but little better than pirates) in the West Indies cap- tured and confiscated American merchantmen on the flimsiest pretexts or on no pretext at all. The ill-controlled men-of-war followed suit. The conditions became so intolerable that the naval vessels which had been commenced for use against Al- giers were completed, added to, and the Navy Department estab- lished. At first the instructions to the naval commanders were to attack only such French vessels as were found to be interfering with our commerce ; but as nearly all were doing so, hostili- ties became general. After driv- ing from the sea the small priva- teers and crushing the French naval force by a series of bril- liant victories, the United States brought the French government to terms. Nevertheless, from that time (1800) until the War of 1812 American shipping suffered from the jealousy and animosity of France and her allies, as well as from England and hers. Inter- national law, treaties, right, jus- tice, and the accepted rules of trade and neutrality were wholly disregarded. By orders-in-coun- cil the British forbade nevitrals to trade with France, or else be regarded as enemies ; France re- torted by her Milan and Berlin Decrees. Both declared 'paper' blockades that they could not and did not try to enforce. The United States was the only im- portant neutral nation. It was engaged not only in its own for- eign commerce, but had a large carrying trade between the dif- ferent warring states. In addi- tion to her other indefensible acts, England began to enforce more strictly than ever her claim to the right of impressment. By 1807 millions of dollars worth of American vessels and cargoes had been seized and confiscated, and 6,000 American seamen were serving against their will in the British navy. President Jefferson and Congress were for peace at any price ; and their policy culminated in that final achievement of self-immolation and absurdity, the Embargo (q. v.) Act of Dec. 22, 1807. It was directed against the in- terests of the warring powers, and was designed to save Amer- ican ships from capture and con- fiscation, and her seamen from imprisonment ; but it was a most disastrous failure. It lasted for fifteen months, cost the country more than $100,000,000, and nearly destroyed the shipping and shipbuilding industries. For one-tenth its money cost to the people, the United States could have equipped a navy that would have quickly stopped the depredations, and prevented the War of 1812, as that conflict was engendered by the British treatment of the American mer- chant marine and sailors. Mad- ison, who succeeded Jefferson in 1809, soon saw that war was inevitable. Nevertheless, he and his advisers were so greatly im- pressed by England's naval pres- tige and great fleet that they re- garded as useless any attempt to meet it at sea, and therefore made no naval preparations. The conflict was brought to an end by the destruction or cap- ture of millions of dollars worth of British ships by American vessels which, as in the Revolu- tion, sought their prey in the very entrances to British har- bors. Notvyithstanding the bril- liant victories of the American navy, it was so few in numbers that two-thirds of the captures were made by privateers. The tonnage of American vessels in the foreign trade reached its highest point in 1810 — 980,000 tons. By the close of the War of 1812, conditions in Europe had utterly changed. War had ceased ; the various peoples were engaged in picking up the threads of their own commerce ; few foreign ships were needed ; and the shipping of the United States was soon driven back to its own carrying trade, foreign and domestic. The Reciprocity Act of 1815 offered the removal of the tonnage and preferential duties imposed by previous leg- islation. Fortunately, only Great Britain, Sweden, and Al- giers accepted the offer at the t'me, and the effect was not no- ticed in the large opportunities offered by America's growing- commerce. The proportion of that commerce carried in Amer- ican bottoms increased for three reasons. The first of these was the establishment in the trans- atlantic trade under the Ameri- can flag of a number of fine sail- ing packet lines which were managed, financed, and sailed in the most admirable way. The second was that European na- tions were too busy building up their home trade to compete in a foreign one. The third was the loss of the carrying business in Europe, which forced more American ships into the trade to and from home ports. The apparent prosperity of the merchant service led the Ameri- can people to believe that its flourishing condition was solely due to Yankee enterprise and ef- ficiency. To a large extent this was true, but not wholly. Our legislators, in the pride of suc- cess, now began to show that reaching for the ideal which is ethically praiseworthy, but prac- tically often fatal. In 1828 an- other act of Congress renewed the offers of reciprocity in ton- nage taxes and trade. This time it was generally accepted, and over thirty treaties and conven- tions were signed in which the last particle of protection was removed from American ship- ping. Foreign nations accepted the reciprocity idea in principle, but killed it by various subter- fuges, the most notable being shipbuilding and navigation sub- sidies. Steam propulsion now became important in ocean navigation. For twenty-five years after the building of the Clermont steam- boats were used only in interior or coastal waters or on short ocean voyages. The first steam vessel to cross the Atlantic was the Savannah, in 1819, but she was really a sailing ship, and her steam machinery only auxiliary. The first full-powered steamer to make the trip was the Curagao, which started on her initial voy- age to the Dutch West Indies on Aug. 12, 1828. She made sev- eral later voyages but for some reason — probably financial — the enterprise was given up. The next steamer to cross was the Royal William, built at Quebec in 1831 for the Quebec and Hal- ifax Steamer Navigation Com- pany. She crossed to England in 1832, carrying no cargo but coal, and was there sold to the Spanish government. During the next six years steamer lines were established all over Europe, along the United States coast, and to the West Indies. Transatlantic naviga- tion was now possible ; and an American, Junius Smith, in Shipping, Merchant KFF 183 C Shipping, Merchant 1836 organized the British and American Steam Navigation Company. After many delays in the building of a suitable vessel, the company chartered the steamer Sirius (700 tons) for the first trip. In the same year the Great Western Railway de- cided to build vessels for the transatlantic trade, and began work on the Great Western (1,320 tons). The Sirius sailed from Cork on April 4, 1838, and the Great Western left Bristol on April 8 ; both vessels arrived in New York on April 23. Transatlantic steamship navi- gation was thus inaugurated, but it was soon found that there was no money in the business. Samuel Cunard, of Halifax, was one of the first to realize the necessity of government help, and through his efforts the Cu- nard Line was started with a subsidy of $425,000 per annum from the British government. The first ship of the line, the Britannia, crossed the ocean in 1840. The subsidy was soon in- creased to $850,000, and the western terminus for the prin- cipal steamers changed from Boston to New York. Other lines were afterward started with even more liberal help — the Royal Mail Steam Packet Com- pany to the West Indies and South America, the Pacific Steam Navigation Company to the west coast of South America, and lines to the Cape of Good Hope, Australia, and India. The American government did not assist its shipping interests until 1845, when several trans- atlantic lines were established as a result of a postal subsidy. About the same time (1845-8) contracts were made for lines to the West Indies, Isthmus of Panama, and on the Pacific Coast from Panama north. In 1855 Congress repealed the Mail Subsidy Act, following which American transatlantic com- panies suspended operations and sold their vessels. The trade now fell almost solely into the hands of the British. The famous clipper ship was the last expiring effort of sail to hold its own with steam on long voyages and with heavy freight. It was moderately successful, only delaying the final victory of steam for a few years. The first ship of the type was the Rain- how, built at Baltimore, 1843. The Civil War gave the final blow to American foreign trade. Foreign commerce decreased, in- surance rose high, wages ad- vanced, seamen and firemen went into the navy, and capital was attracted to undertakings offering better returns. In the meantime, foreign lines in great numbers had appeared — English, French, German, Belgian, Dutch Austrian, Italian, Spanish ; while Norway and Sweden had captured a large part of the sail- ing-ship business. Shipping, During and Fol- lowing the World War. — At the outbreak of the World War in 1914, American commerce was paralyzed because of the lack of an American merchant marine and the fact that the United States depended almost entirely on the shipping of the nations at war. This brought forcibly home to Congress the vital need of an American mer- chant marine and resulted in the introduction of the Government Ship Purchase Bill, which, though bitterly opposed by ship- ping and corporation interests, was finally passed in 1916. After the first shock of the war had passed, foreign ships began to come under the Ameri- can flag in order to secure its protection, the United States then being a neutral. American- controlled steamship companies that had been operating their ships under the British flag transferred their ships to the American flag. No attempt was made by the United States to regulate or restrict ocean freight rates, with the result that they rose to extraordinary heights. British shipowners did not fare so well. Early in the war Great Britain commandeered the shipping under the British flag and fixed the compensation at figures that afforded the owners good profits, though not equal to those of American shipowners. In 1914, American shipping was in poor condition, amount- ing to only 2,970,284 gross tons, of which 943,376 tons were sail- ing vessels. This condition was due to lack of interest on the part of American capitalists, who, because of the generally unprofitable conditions, had long since ceased to invest in ship- ping enterprises. The cost of an American-built ship was ap- proximately 40 to 50 per cent higher than for one built in Eng- land. This represented a larger capital investment, and there- fore higher insurance and inter- est charges. American crews demanded higher wages ; vict- ualling cost more, and the ex- pense of upkeep was also higher in America than in foreign coun- tries. Consequently many American-controlled steamship companies operated their fleets, in whole or in part, under Brit- ish or other foreign flags. While the importance of _ the development of an American merchant marine, adequate for the country's needs, was recog- nized and agitated, it was not conceded possible, by those in- formed, without the aid of a sub- sidy. For years, such relief had been sought, but numerous at- tempts to secure a subvention had met with strong opposition. In 1891, the United States granted postal mail contracts to several lines, notably the Ameri- can Line and Ward Line. A ship subsidy bill was passed by both branches of Congress in 1907, but was defeated through failure to agree on amendments. In 1923, a subsidy bill seemed sure of enactment, but was killed in the Senate by a filibuster. This bill had previously passed the House of Representatives by a substantial majority, and had the whole-hearted support of President Harding, who strongly urged its passage. Great Britain gives postal sub- sidies to practically all its liner services, and has done so as far back as 1840, when the Cunard Line was established. France has freely subsidized shipping, more so, in fact, than any other nation. Chiefly because of its lower cost of operation and efficiency of operation the British mer- chant marine has forged far ahead of ^11 others in the world, but the cheapest water transpor- tation in the world is under the American flag, on ships built in American shipyards, and manned by American crews, namely, the shipping on the Great Lakes. In 1915 Congress passed the Seamen's Act. Previous to the enactment of this law, a seaman who signed on for a stated pe- riod, usually six months, could be arrested and taken back to his ship and placed in irons should he seek to leave his ship before the time for which he had signed-on had expired. The Seamen's Act abolished this practice. As a consequence, a seaman arriving in an American port on a foreign ship can leave his ship, with no more penalty than the loss of half of the wages due him, and can sign up with an American ship at the higher wages obtainable there. Foreign ships running to Amer- ican ports, in a few trades, in order to retain their crews, are therefore compelled ^ to pay wages in keeping with those paid on American ships, but in practically all other trades throughout the world crews of foreign vesels are paid accord- ing to the wage scale of their respective countries, which is considerably lower than Ameri- can wages. Shipping in England, even be- fore the war, was highly profit- able. Pre-war profits of steam- ship companies, as shown by an- nual reports taken from the Lon- Shipping, Merchant KFF 183 D Shipping, Merchant don Stock Exchange Year Book for 1914, ranged from 15 per cent to 150 per cent per annum. Inasmvich as American pri- vate interests did not engage in ocean shipping under the Ameri- can flag, because of its gener- ally unprofitable character, the crisis created by the war led Congress to appropriate funds to enable the Government to build and operate merchant ships. After the passage of this meas- ure a Shipping Board was cre- ated. In addition to advancing money to most of the private contractors, the Shipping Board financed the construction of three colossal shipyards : the Hog Island yard at Philadelphia, Pa., for which operation, includ- ing the ships built therein, it ap- pointed the American Interna- tional Corporation as its agents ; the yard at Chester, Pa., for which it appointed the Mer- chants' Shipbuilding Corpora- tion as its agents ; and the yard at Newark, N. J., for which it appointed the Submarine Boat Corporation as its agents. The full war powers of the Govern- ment were put back of the pri- vate contractors. Transporta- tion of material to the shipyards added greatly to the congestion and demoralization of the rail- roads at a time when they were most sorely needed. After the war, the Shipping Board turned most of the ves- sels over to managing and oper- ating agents in an endeavor to encourage the upbuilding of an American merchant marine. Many of these operators, most of whom sprang up during and immediately after the war, were inexperienced and financially tm- sound ; consequently, the experi- ment proved a failure financially and otherwise, and with the de- pression of 1920 many of them went bankrupt. Others, finan- cially stronger, encouraged by their success during the war, bought additional tonnage from the Board at the high prices then asked. Subsequently in 1921, failing in their efforts to have the purchase price of their ton- nage reduced to a _ parity with the price then existing, more failed, and their tonnage was turned back to the Board. Gradually the Board consoli- dated services and trade routes, while others were discontinued entirely. In contrast to the experience of the American people with their Government merchant ma- rine, other governments, notably the Canadian and the Australian Governments, which had been compelled to establish and oper- ate shipping facilities of their own without the intermediation of private agencies, decided to continue and to enlarge their merchant marines. But the re- sults showed no improvement over the American method. Canadian tonnage, however, is still operated on trade routes that were established to the West Indies, Australia and Eu- rope. In 1920 through the efforts of the Shipping Board a bill known as the Jones Bill was introduced. This directed the Board to sell all of the Government's ships on such terms as the Board chose to make, the only restriction being that payment for same should not be deferred for more than fifteen years after the making of the contract of sale. This bill contained other far-reaching pro- visions, the most important of which were : the exemption of American steamship companies from excess and war-profit taxes for a period of ten years, pro- vided the amount of this exemp- tion be reinvested in new ships ; the abrogation by the United States of all treaties which re- strict the United States from imposing discriminating customs duties on imports or discrimina- tory tonnage dues on foreign vessels in favor of vessels en- tering the United States which were of American registry ; the granting of preferential railroad rates for freight entering or leaving the country in American bottoms. In compliance with the Jones Bill, the Shipping Board placed its ships on sale but the prices per d.w. ton were so much higher than those of similar ships on sale in Great Britain that not a single bid was re- ceived. By 1925 the better type of cargo carrier was purchasable around $30 per d.w. ton. Not- withstanding that this figure represented a huge loss on the capital investment, there was no help for it but to bow to the inevitable. While the question as to whether United States merchant shipping should be governmen- tally or privately controlled over- shadowed all else in importance since the Armistice and right through until 1936, foreign mar- itime nations were far from lag- gard in adding to and strength- ening their merchant fleets, in spite of the burdensome eco- nomic handicaps imposed as an aftermath of war. In this con- nection, it is worthy of note that in 1935 the American merchant marine, while ranking second in ownership of gross tonnage vol- ume, ranked fifth in speeds and eighth in age fitness. In the elapsed ten years, Great Britain built 617 sea-going freighters each of 2000 gross tons or more while in the same period the United States launched only seven such craft of which but two were employed in general trade, the others being more or less employed as colliers, freight car ferries, etc. Although the 1935-1936 edi- tion of Lloyd's Register of Ship- ping credited the American mer- chant marine with 12,145,000 tons and classified it as being all equipped for sea service except 2,480,000 tons employed in Great Lakes trade, it should be borne in mind that nearly 1,700,- 000 tons represented craft rated between 100 and 2000 tons; that 3,000,000 tons belonged to coast- al services and perhaps well over 1,000,000 tons could be based on idle Shipping Board vessels. Summarized and as of 1936, the related status of the merchant fleets of various na- tions appears to emphasize to its disadvantage the speed and age of . American merchant vessel tonnage. Eight nations owned 29,633,000 gross tons out of a total of 35,900,000 gross tons operated in freight and passen- ger trades and internationally competitive. Great Britain owned 13,205,000 tons, the United States 3,065,000 tons, Japan 2,969,000 tons, Germany 2,740,000 tons, France, 2,250,- 000 tons, Italy 2,132,000 tons, Netherlands 1,757,000 tons, and Norway 1,515,000 tons. Vessels aged ten years or less totalled 8,423,000 tons, Great Britain again leading with 4,321,000 tons and the United States in eighth place with only 297,000 tons. France in seventh place had 527,000 tons. In the cate- gory of vessels with speeds of twelve knots and upwards to- talling nearly 18,000,000 tons. Great Britain had 8,320,000 tons, Germany 1,941,000 tons. United States 1,555,000 tons, Japan 1,551,000 tons, France 1,492,000 tons, Netherlands 1,340,000 tons, Italy 1,119,000 tons, and Norway 597,000 tons. From this it will be seen that in volume of tonnage Great Brit- ain outranks the United States more than 4 to 1 ; in speed of twelve knots or more by 5 to 1, and in ships of less than ten years old by 14 to 1. It goes without saying that the weak- ness in both carrying power and efficiency of that part of the American merchant marine which operates in foreign trade is so clearly demonstrated as to remove beyond all doubt every trace of competitive fitness. In the American foreign trade fleet, vessels of ten knots speed pre- dominate while eighty-five per cent of the entire tonnage is fourteen years old or more. Similar weaknesses are appar- ent too in American domestic trade and tanker fleets. Con- Shipping, Merchant KFF 183 E Ship Railway cerning the latter, probably 92 per cent relates to vessels of less than twelve knots ; in addition, 88 per cent of the entire tanker tonnage is also fourteen years old or more. For a number of years follow- ing the Armistice the United States Government through the Shipping Board Merchant Fleet Corporation operated its big fleet of ships at a huge financial loss. In 1927, President Coolidge op- posed expansion of the merchant marine by the Government and favored the sale of the fleet to private concerns with sufficient guarantees that it would be kept active. This policy was dili- gently followed. Of the vessel services sold by the Shipping Board most were transferred to routes on which American flag craft in pre-war days were con- spicuous by their absence. Nat- urally an increase in foreign trade and commerce transported in American bottoms was the re- sult. Enactment of the Jones- White Bill in 1928 as supple- menting and amending the Merchant Marine Act of 1920 may be considered the most progres- sive move ever made in Ameri- can shipping annals. Its avowed object was development of the American merchant marine to at least the point from which 51 per cent of American commerce would be transported by Amer- ican ships : to serve as well as a naval or military auxiliary in time of war or national emer- gency, and ultimately to be pri- vately owned and operated by Arnerican citizens. It provided for a construction loan fund to aid citizens of the United States in the building of vessels for service on routes approved by the Shipping Board. The Act also provided for compensation to American foreign trade ves- sels through mail contracts to offset as far as possible the higher cost of American ship operation. The Ship Subsidy Bill passed by Congress in 1936 and signed by President Roosevelt on June 30 marked the end of a long- standing fictitious situation by displacing with actual subsidies to shipbuilders and operators the ocean mail contracts. The legis- lation also set up a new govern- ment agency consisting of five members to administer its pro- visions. The new agency was styled the National Maritime Commission. The Merchant Shipping Bureau of the Depart- ment of Commerce, which pre- viously had replaced the Ship- ping Board, was in due course expected to be absorbed by the commission. The new Ship Subsidy Bill authorized the granting of direct aid up to the equivalent of SO per cent con- struction cost to ship operators. It provided for differentials in subsidies between East and West Coasts. Companies re- ceiving Federal aid were for- bidden to pay their execu- tives salaries in excess of $25,- 000 a year. Subsidies may be paid to ship operators after an investigation established what differentials in cost of operation existed between American ships and foreign vessels competing in the same trade. A number of stipulations on the conduct of the merchant marine were in- cluded in the measure. See Shipbuilding; Subsi- dies; Tonnage; Trade; Navi- gation; Blockade; Contra- band OF War; Declaration of Paris; Privateer; Prize. Bibliography. — W. D. Lind- say, History of Merchant Ship- ping and Ancient Commerce (1874-76); H. Fry, History of North Atlantic Steam Naviga- tion (1896) ; W. L. Marvin, American Merchant Marine (1902); R. G. Plumb, History of the Navigation of the Great Lakes (1911) ; J. R. Spears, The Story of the American Merchant Marine (1915) ; B. Lubbock, The China Clippers (1919) and The Colonial Clippers _ (1921) ; E. K. Chatterton, Sailing Ships and Their Story (1923) ; C. E. Cart- wright, The Tale of Our Mer- chant Ships (1924); C. Jones, British Merchant Shipping (1922); E. B. Pollister, The Modern Trend in Merchant Ships (1930) ; E. W. Blocksidge, Mer- chant Ships and Shipping (1933); B. Barton, Merchant Adventure (1936) ; Lloyd's Register of Shipping (annual) ; Annual Reports of the U. S. Commissioners of Navigation ; Department of Commerce Year Book. Shipping of Canada. See Canada, Shipping. Shipping Subsidies, govern- ment grants in aid of shipping. They may take the form of boun- ties for the construction and op- eration of ships, of postal sub- ventions or payments for carry- ing government supplies, or of payments to shippers whose ves- sels conform to certain required standards and are held in readi- ness for government service in time of war. See Shipping; Subsidies. Ship Railway. The trans- porting of boats and small vessels overland, around falls and rapids or across narrow necks of land separating navigable waters, has been common practice for thou- sands of years. The operation was carried out by simple porter- age or by means of light, tem- porary skids. The earliest at- tempts to move large vessels seem to have been made in Egypt, though the dates are un- certain ; and in no case do the ways on which the vessels were moved seem to have been per- manent. The first permanent railway or ways for moving ships of con- siderable size over a long distance on land is supposed to have been built by the (jreeks previous to 427 B.C., when it is known to have been used. It was capable of transporting galleys 149 feet long, 16 feet wide, 8.5 feet draught, and a displacement of about 300 tons. Other ship rail- ways were built by the Danes, Venetians, and Turks. In the nineteenth century many ship railways for the car- riage of large vessels were pro- posed or planned, and some were commenced ; but none of any im- portance were completed. De Lesseps' first solution of the problem at Suez was a ship rail- way for which he submitted a plan in 1860. In 1889 Captain Jarnes B. Eads (q. v.), who achieved such success in the Mississippi, proposed a ship rail- way across the Isthmus of Te- huantepec to transport ships of 6,000 tons or less from the At- lantic to the Pacific, a distance of ISO miles. The project was kept before the public for many years, but failed to obtain financial sup- port. In 1888 the Chignecto Ship Railway was actually com- menced. This was designed to save the long and stormy voyage from the Bay of Fundy and the ports of New Brunswick to the Gulf of St. Lawrence — a dis- tance of 400 or 500 miles. The length was about 17 miles, and vessels of 2,000 tons or less were to be carried. In 1891, after about three-fourths of the un- dertaking was completed, faith in the project became so weakened that work was stopped from lack of money to carry it on. In most of the ship railway schemes which have been at- tempted or proposed the vessel was to be carried in a framework called a cradle, supported on many wheels running on a num- ber of heavy tracks. Changes of grade made it necessary to raise or lower the ends of the cradle automatically, and hydraulic pis- tons above the pivots of the vari- ous trucks were interconnected' so that the weight was kept con- stantly distributed in the manner designed. Change in curves was met by means of a sub-cradle over the central truck or by other means. Haulage was to be ef- fected by locomotives of special type or by cable. Some designs provided for small vessels to be carried floating in a tank instead 9f supported by a cradle. Ships 183 F Shiras Marine Railways are struc- tures used fcJr the cleaning or re- pairing of the under-water body of small vessels. Inclined ways, somewhat similar to those for launching vessels, but heavier in proportion to the weight carried, extend from deep water to a dis- tance ashore sufficient to allow the vessel to be hauled complete- ly out of the water. On these rests a cradle, usually supported on many small trucks or rollers — or else the rollers are set in the ways. The cradle is run down to the end of the ways, the vessel brought over it, and both hauled in until the hull settles on the chocks and blocks on the cradle prepared to receive it. The cradle carrying the vessel is then hauled up the ways by means of chains operated by an engine at the up- per end. Ships. See Shipbuilding; Shipping. Ship's Company. This term is used to designate the comple- ment of officers and men assigned to a warship in commission or in reserve. In battleships of the United States Navy, the comple- ment of officers is about as fol- lows: captain, executive officer (usually a commander or lieuten- ant-commander) , first lieutenant, navigator, senior engineer officer, and ordnance officer (lieutenant- commanders or lieutenants) ; eight to ten divisional officers (generally of the rank of lieu- tenant and ensign) ; two or three officers (of about the same rank) for engine-room duty; six to twelve ensigns (recent graduates) acting as junior officers of divi- sions, aids, etc. In vessels detailed as flagships the number of officers is in- creased by those serving on the admiral's staff. There is a senior marine officer (usually a cap- tain), a junior marine officer (either a first or second lieu- tenant), a senior surgeon and an assistant surgeon, a paymaster and chaplain, and several ensigns. Of late years other commis- sioned officers are found on bat- tleships, such as a chief boat- swain, chief gunner, chief carpen- ter, and one or more chief ma- chinists, all of whom rank with ensign. There are usually an additional gunner, boatswain, three machinists, and sometimes a pharmacist — all termed war- rant officers. Next come the crew, consisting of chief petty officers, petty officers of the first, second, and third classes, sea- men, ordinary seamen, appren- tice seamen, messmen, marines, etc. There are the usual ser- geants, corporals, music, etc., with the marines. The number of officers and men comprising the ship's com- pany of naval vessels in full com- mission is about as follows: Vol. XL— Oct. '20 Battle cruisers 1,400 Battleships, new type 900 to 1,400 Battleships, old type GOO" 900 Armored cruisers 600 " 800 Light cruisers 250 " 800 Gunboats 120 " 220 Destroyers 50 " 125 . Torpedo boats 25 " 35 Submarines 8 " 75 When placed in reserve the ship's company is generally re- duced to about one-third of the full complement. Ship's Manifest. See Mani- fest. Ship's Papers. A merchant vessel is required to carry certain documents which are called the 'ship's papers.' These concern: (a) evidence of nationality; (b) ownership and charter; (c) cargo; (d) navigation; (e) officers, crew, and passengers; (/) health and in- spection. Evidence of nationality of U. S. vessels is given by: (1) certifi- cate of registry (foreign trade); (2) certificate of enrolment (coasting trade) ; (3) license (yachts, small vessels, vessels en- gaged in fisheries, etc.) ; (4) con- sul's certificate for vessels pur- chased abroad and not eligible for registry. The certificate of registry should give the name, character, nationality, and own- ership (name or names) of the vessel; also its rig, dimensions, tonnage, dates of building and registry, signal number (interna- tional code) , name of master, and the signatures and seals of the officers issuing the certificate. The principal evidence of na- tionality of foreign vessels is: Austrian, royal license and certifi- cate of registry; British, certifi- cate of registry; Brazil, Portugal and Sweden, passport; Denmark, certificate of nationality and reg- istry; Germany and Norway, cer- tificate of nationality; Russia and Spain, patent authorizing the use of the flag. Further evi- dence of nationality is given in the papers concerning ownership and charter, which are: (1) Sea letcer or passport issued by the collector of a port to certify to national character and owner- ship; (2) charter party (q. v.), if the vessel is chartered; (3) bill of sale (if vessel has been sold by citizens of a foreign country and not yet registered). The papers affecting the cargo are: (1) manifest, or general statement of cargo (see Mani- fest); (2) bills of lading (ac- knowledgment that goods have been received on board); (3) in- voices (detailed statement of each lot of goods). The naviga- tion papers are: (1) clearance (permission of the port authori- ties for the vessel to sail for a foreign port) ; log book, or record of the ship's voyage (see Log Book) ; permit (if a fishing ves- sel) to visit a foreign port. Pa- pers concerning the officers, crew, and passengers are: (1) officers' licenses; (2) muster roll and ship- ping articles (usually in one — comprising list of crew and their signed agreement to serve); (3) passenger list (if passengers are carried). The bill of health is a state- ment by the port authorities in regard to the prevalence or ab- sence of epidemic or infectious disease (see Bill of Health). The certificate of inspection states that the laws of the coun- try affecting health, safety, lad- ing, etc., have been complied with. Not all these papers are ob- ligatory. Thus, vessels in the U. S. coasting trade are not re- quired to have a clearance or certificate of registry; in place of the latter they have a similar document called certificate of enrolment. In time of war, for their own protection, neutral merchant vessels must possess official papers showing national- ity, ownership, cargo (and its ownership and consignees), clear- ance and destination, ports en- tered, course ptirsued, and inci- dents of voyage (log book). Shipton, Ursula (1488-c. 1560), known as Mother Ship- ton, reputed prophetess, whose name first appears in a tract dated 1 64 1, prophesying the death of Cromwell, Wolsey, Earl Percy, and others, the narrative being now regarded as a fiction. Eighteen other prophecies asso- ciated with her name were given in Lilly's Collection of Ancient and Moderne Prophesies (1645). Richard Head next published (1667) Life and Death of Mother Shipton, in which it was stated that Ursula Sonthiel (1488-1561) married Toby Shipton at Knaresborough, and after ac- qiairing a reputation as a proph- etess, died at Clifton. Her prophecies foretold the invention of the steam engine and the elec- tric telegraph, and the end of the world in 1881; but these were additions made by a certain Charles Hindley in 1871, who acknowledged the fraud in 1873. Consult Harrison's Mother Ship- Ion Investigated. Shipworm. See Teredo. Shipwreck. See Marine Disasters; Wreck; Salvage. . Shirakawa, she'ra-ka'wa, , town, Hondo, Japan, on the Northern Railway; 100 miles northeast of Tokyo. Pop. 9,000. Shi'ras, George, Jr. (1832), American jurist, was born in Pittsburgh, Pa. He was gradu- ated from Yale University (1853; LL.D. 1883), and from the Yale Law School (1854), and was ad- mitted to the bar in 1856. He practised law in Pittsburgh until 1892, when he was appointed an Associate Justice of the U. S. Shlraz 184 Shock Supreme Court. In 1894, on the reargument of the Income Tax case before that court, he changed his vote, originally given for the constitutionality of the Act, and thus decided the matter the other way. In 1903, on reaching the age limit, he retired under the provisions of the Act of Congress. Shiraz, she-raz', a celebrated city of Southern Persia, and the capital of the province of Fars, is situated in a pleasant valley, with a delightful climate; 155 miles southeast of Ispahan. The wine of Shiraz, which is very strong and resembles Tokay, is famous throughout the East. Rose water is prepared in large quantities. Inlaid articles in wood and metal, glass, and wool- lens are made here. Other ex- ports are gums, opium, cotton, and skins. The town has been several times almost destroyed by earthquake. It has since been partially rebuilt in a some- what inferior style. Shiraz was the birthplace of the poets Hafiz and Sa'di, whose tombs are nearby. In the pre-Mohamme- dan era it was a Zoroastrian town, and 2 miles northeast is ths famous Zoroastrian temple of M333lla. Pop. 55,000. S ilrebrook, village and ecclesi- astical district, Derbyshire, Eng- land; 4 miles northwest of Mans- field. Pop. 6,600._ S liire River, she'ra, in South- east Africa, issues from the southeast corner of Lake Nyasa, flows southwest, and beyond the rapids and the Murchison Falls (-where the river descends some 1,200 feet altogether) takes a southeasterly course, and joins the Zambezi near Shamo. It is navigable to Chiromo, and for smaller vessels as far as Katun- ga. It is also navigable from Lake Nyasa south as far as Matope. Total length, over 300 miles. The Shire was dis- covered by Livingstone during the Zambezi expedition (1858— 63). Shirland, parish and village, Derbyshire, England; 2 miles northwest of Alfreton. Pop. 3,- 900. Shirlaw, shdr'lo, Walter (1838-1909), American painter, was born in Paisley, Scotland. In 1840 his parents settled in Chicago, where he was educated in the public schools, and became an engraver of bank notes. Later he turned to art, and helped or- ganize the Chicago National Academy of Design (1868). Af- ter a course of study at Munich 0870-77) he returned to Amer- ica, where his genre, decorative, and illustrative work attracted wide attention. He was one of the founders and the first presi- dent (1878) of the Society of American Artists, and he was Vol. XI.— Oct. '20 elected to the National Academy in 1888. Among his noted pic- tures are: Tuning the Bell (1874) ; Sheep Shearing in the Bavarian Mountains (1876); Goose Girl (1878); Marble Quarry (1880); Street Scene in Brittany (1906); Rolling Steel Plates; Emptying the Crucible. He also executed nu- merous successful designs for stained glass and for mural deco- rations. Shirley, sher'li, James (1596- 1666), English poet and drama- tist, was born in London. He took orders, and held for a short time a living at or near St. Albans, but, becoming a Catholic, resigned it, and in 1623-4 was master of St. Albans Grammar School. In 1625 he returned to London, and wrote plays, chiefly for the Cockpit in Drury Lane. In 1636 he settled in Dublin, and wrote for a theatre newly opened there, but returned to London in 1640, where the suppression of stage plays in 1642 ended his livelihood. The Restoration revived his pla-^ S, but brought him no better for- tune; and Wood tells us that he and his second wife died on the same day distracted by the Great Fire. His plays include: Love Tricks (1625); The Witty Fair One (1628); The Wedding (1629) ; The Grateful Servant (1630) ; School of Compliment (1631) ; The Traitor (16S5); The Gamester (1637); The Lady of Pleasure (1637); The Ball (with Chapman, 1639); The Coro- nation (with Fletcher, 1640); The Cardinal (1641). As a writer of masques Shirley is second only to Ben Jonson. His complete Works were edited by Gifford and Dyce. Shirley, William (1693- 1771), American, colonial gov- ernor, was born in Preston, Sus- sex county, England. After studying law he entered the Middle Temple, and in 1731 came to Massachusetts, where he was appointed 'the king's only advocate-general in America ' (1734). He was a commissioner to settle the boundary dispute with Rhode Island, and in 1741 was appointed governor of Massachusetts. The most im- portant event of his adminis- tration was the conquest of Louisburg in 1745, which was undertaken at his suggestion, and the success of which was largely due to his energy and enthusiasm. Shirley had a rooted dislike of the French, and kept up active agitation for their expulsion from Canada. In 1755 he led an unsuccessful expedition against Fort Niagara, and after the death of Gen. Edward Brad- dock (1755) until June, 1756, he was commander-in-chief of the British forces in America. In September, 1756, he was recalled to England, and later became governor of the Bahamas. In 1770 he again returned to Massa- chusetts, and died in March of the following year. Shirpur, town, Bombay Presi- dency, India; 210 miles northeast of Bombay. Pop. 10,000. Shirvan, sher'van, capital of Shirvan district, Khorasan prov- ince, Persia, on the River Atrak; 122 miles northwest of Meshed. Pop. 7,000. Shishak, shi'shak or she'shak, or Sheshonk, the name of sev- eral kings of Egypt, of the Bubas- tite or Twenty-second Dynasty. Shishak I. is mentioned in 1 Kings XIV. 25 and 2 Chron. xii. Jeroboam fled to Shishak from the pursuit of Solomon, who wished to kill him, and lived there during the lifetime of Solomon. In the fifth year of Rehoboam, Shishak marched on Jerusalem with an army of 12.000 chariots, 60,000 cavalry, and an innumerable number of infantry. He invaded Judah, reduced its fenced cities, and plundered the Temple and Pal- ace. He added a court to the great Temple at Karnak, and placed near it a monument of his conquests, bearing the names of the cities he had captured. Shitomir. See Jitomir. Shittim Wood, the wood of which the Hebrew Tabernacle is said to have been largely made, is the wood of the shittah (Aca- cia seyal), a thorny tree that still flourishes on the western shores of the Dead Sea. Shizuoka, she'zu-o'ka, town, capital of Shizuoka prefecture, Japan; 95 miles southwest of Tokyo. Pop. 42,000. Shklov, shklof, town, Moghi- lev government, Western Russia, on the River Dnieper; 18 miles north of Moghilev city. It is a river port. Pop. 13,000. Shoa, sho'a, former kingdom, now the southern division of Ab- yssinia, Africa, covering an area of over 20.000 square miles. The country is elevated, consisting largely of plateaus 3,000 feet above sea level, traversed by ranges of mountains, which reach their culmination in Mount Met- atite, at an elevation of 10,700 feet. The people, who are partly Abyssinians and partly (Dallas, number about 1,500,000. The chief town is Adis Adeba (q. v.), the present capital of Abyssinia. In 1889 the king of Shoa, Mene- lik, was made king of all Ab- yssinia, and Shoa was incorpo- rated with the rest of Menelik's dominions. See Abyssinia. Shock, a suddenly produced depression of all the bodily func- tions. Its chief characteristics are lowered activity of the car- diac and respiratory systems, with depression of the sensory functions and fall of the sur- Shoddy 5ace temperature. Shock varies with the temperament, and with the physical and mental condition of the patient. It is usually im- mediate in its effects, but may be deferred in those who are under intense mental preoccupation _ or excitement. Burns and crushing injuries are rnore apt tc produce the condition than are incised wounds, unless the latter are complicated by severe haemor- rhage. A sUght degree of shock in cases of haemorrhage is often beneficial, since it lowers the blood pressure and allows^ of the sealing of the vessels. Since the introduction of anaesthetics, operations are much less fre- quently followed by collapse, tnough this may still occur even while the patient is anaesthetized. The cause of shock is most prob- ably a reflex inhibition of the splanchnic nerves, leading to sudden paralysis and great dila- tation of^all the abdominal blood- vessels, which become engorged with blood at the expense of the rest of the body. Recovery is frequently heralded by an attack of vomiting. In the graver cases a fatal result may follow the collapse almost immediately, or the torpid condition may be transformed int9 ^ state of pros- tration with excitement, in which the respiration is hurried, and the skin is hot and flushed. Such a patient often exhibits intense headache, thirst, and suppression of urine, and becomes restless, excited, and delirious. Death may ensue from exhaustion. The patient must be kept at rest in the recumbent position with the head low. External warmth must be supplied by means of hot blankets and hot-water bot- tles; mustard may be applied over the heart, and friction of the limbs is sometimes useful. Should the patient be unable to swallow, alcohol and other stimulants, such as ammonium carbonate, may_ be introduced by the bowel, while ether may be injected subcutancously. In pro- found shock artificial respira- tion may be required, and benefit has in some cases been derived from electrical stimulation of the phrenic nerves, the electrodes being applied to the neck and to the epigastrium. In shock after severe haemorrhage, transfusion of blood or of saline solution may be advisable. As soon as possible nourishment ought to be admin- istered in a form easy of assimila- tion and along with diffusible stimulants. vShoddy. See Woollen Tex- tiles. S h o e - b i 1 1 , or Whale-heAd (Balccmceps rex), a large and very remarkable bird found only in the marshes round the White Ni!'j and its affluents, regarded Vol. XL— 13. 185 by some authorities as an aber- rant heron, and ^ by others as a stork. The special peculiarity is the bill, which is very large, broad, and depressed, and down the middle of the upper portion bears a strong ridge which ends in a prominent hook. There is a short crest; the j)lumage _ is brownish-gray, the wings, tails, and feet being black. The bird, which is rare, feeds on fish caught while wading. Shoeblacking. See Black- ing. Shoeburyness, cape, in Essex, England, on Thames, opposite Sheerness. The School of Gun- nery and Royal Artillery works are established here. Pop. (1901) 4,081. Shoes, Manufacture of. The manufacture of shoes in the United States dates back to the landing of the Pilgrims, for one of the passengers on the Mayflower was a shoemaker with a supply of hides. By the end of the 17th century shoe making was a flour- ishing industry in New England, and during the Revolution all the shoes worn by the Continental army were made in Massachu- setts. Up to the middle of the 19th century the manufacture of shoes in the United States was strictly a hand process. Shoes were hand sewed, nailed with copper, or pegged with wood. The cobbler worked at his bench, with a few simple tools, and labored over each shoe until it was complete. The few factories were little less primitive, dividing the various stages of the labor among several workmen, although no machinery was employed. The first successful application of machinery to American shoe manufacture was made in 1845. In this year was invented a rolling machine for softening leather, and almost immediately afterward there was introduced a wax-thread Shoes sewing machine for sewing the uppers, a buffing machine for removing the grain from sole- leather, a machine for making pegs, and a peg-driving machine; a splitting machine for sole leather soon afterward came into extensive use. The McKay sewing machine, introduced in 18G0, had probably more to do with revolutionizing the shoe industr}' than any other machine before or since invented. In this the shoe was placed on a saddle or horn, and the thread passed from the outsole through the sole and insole, forming a loop stitch. The next important invention was a machine for compressing and nailing heels. An epoch in shoe manufacture was marked by the introduction of the Goodyear out- sole lock-stitch machine about 1860. This united the outsole tc the welt by a chain-stitch from a channel in the outsole. This appliance was soon afterv/ard improved upon, so that in one operation it prepared and trimmed the insole, and rounded and chan- neled the outsole, as well as making the actual stitches. From this machine was developed the Goodyear welt system, which is now employed almost universallv for making the better grades o'l shoes. In the early 70's a machine was invented for automatically drawing the shoe-upper over the last to allow of its being tacked by hand. In comparatively recent times a lasting-machine has been introduced which not only fits the upper to the last but tacks it as well. Numerous other shoe- making appliances have been per- fected in recent years, among them a machine designed to attach the soles with wire instead of the usual waxed thread. Al- most all of the improvements in machinery for shoe manufacture have been made in the United States, and American made shoes are acknowledged to be the best in the world, both as regards style and durability. In modern shoe manufacture almost the only hand process now employed is the first one, that of cutting the leather for the uppers. This is done by men laying the skin over a bench, placing the pattern ypon it, and cutting out the piece of leather, which is shaped close to the metal or brass- bound cardboard pattern. In this manner the vamps, quarters, tops, side linings, stays, facings, and other trimmings are cut. The various component parts having been cut, are passed, in dozen pair lots or more, into the machine room to be stitched together. The first machine employed is one with a rapidly revolving circular knife for 'skiving' or beveling the edges of the leathers that have to be seamed or folded, after which 8boes 186 Shoes, IN&IOE LINlNiO.LOOP.ftiBACK STAY JOINtD TOOtTH ER . tY E LETS MADE f^iAtL& F oncto INTO MfiCb fkACtO IN MOULD MAMNO THE THE FINISHED SHOE The Manufacture of a Shoe. Fig. 1, the parts of a shoe as cut out of the skin (drawn to scale). Fig. 2, the two pieces of upper, inside lining, leather back-stay, and loop, all sewn together. Fig. 3, quarter, vamp and toe-cap sewn together, and attached to the upper : the quarter is cut smaller than the upper, stretched, and joined at a. The toe and sides are pulled over the block, and nailed loosely to the inner sole (' rough rounding '). Fig. 4, vamp and quarter are sewn to the 'feather ' (1, B); the welt is sewn through channel and feather (2); the middle sole (3) is laid on, and then the outer sole (4), the dotted line shows the shape of the piece. Fig. 6, stages in the construction of the heel. the parts are carefully pasted together and jDassed to the ma- chines to be stitched, and finally hammered off under a little power- hammer to level the seams. Here, also, the eyelets are put in by a machine that punches a hole, feeds in the eyelet, and clinches it all at one stroke. The completed upper is now passed to the sole-leatner depart- ment, the first section of which is usually styled the assembling toom. In it the uppers and lasts and the component parts of the bottom — soles, insoles, etc. — are assembled together.^ These bot- tom parts are cut in the rough- stuff department from butts, bends, shoulders, and bellies under Sowerful eccentric presses, with ies shaped to the various lasts and parts required. The soles and insoles are levelled and passed through heavy rolling-machines, which harden the leather and remove all surface irregularities. The heels arc built with 'lifts' in shaped moulds in a machine which nails them loosely together, and then they are crushed in a machine which brings a pressure of several tons to bear on them, and so makes them into a solid heel. The top lift, however, is not added until the heel has been nailed to the shoe. These parts are then sent to the assembling room to join the uppers. The uppers, lasts, and bottom parts are now started through the making and finishing rooms. The insole is placed on the lasting machine, and the upper is then added, being moulcled into the shape of the last, the machine twisting it in with pincers, and driving in tacks to hold it to the insole, just as a man would do by hand. By the Goodyear welt process the upper is nailed flat down to the insole, but is brought up against a lip previously cut in the latter. It stands out with this lip vertically from the insole, the tacks only holding it temporarily. The shoe is now welted, the ma- chine sewing through the lip and upper with a curved needle, and through the welt, which the ma- chine holds in position, binding the three together, all this being done on the outside, the last still remaining in the shoe. The shoe being now welted, the seam, as it is called, is trimmed level, the welt beaten out straight, and the bottom packed level with felt or other material. The outsole is now laid on, and held in position with nails, paste, or rubber cement. The shoe is now sent to the rounding machine, which cuts the channel in the outsole to receive the stitch; from there it passes again through the sewing machine, which stitches through the welt outside of the upper. After this it is passed to the level- ling machine, which rolls down the sole with considerable pressure levelling it, and mouldingit into the waist of the last. The shoe is now ready for heeling. This is done on a machine that nails the previously built heel on at one stroke. Another machine drives slugs round the wearing part of the top-piece, making its own slugs from a continuous wire, and driv- ing them home so rapidly that the operation cannot be followed by the eye. The shoe is now technically 'made,' and is passed to the finishing room. The first opera- tion here is cutting down the breast of the heel with a guillo- tine knife regulated to reach the sole but not mark it. The second operation is trimming the heel to the desired shape, which is done by revolving knives running at a very high speed. The heel is after- wards smoothed with sandpaper. A similar operation trims the edge of the sole smooth, and then tne Shofar KR 187 Shooting sole-edge and heel are colored and burnished with hot irons by machinery. The shoe is then passed forward to have the bot- toms buffed, colored, and pol- ished. The completed shoe is then cleaned, treed, and packed for shipment. Consult Hide and Leather (weekly); Shoe and Leather Re- porter (weekly): H. G. Bennett, The Manufacture of Leather (1909); F. H. Nichols. The Build- ing of a Shoe (1912) ; W. H. Doo- ley. A Manual of Shoemaking (1912); H. H. Proctor, The Mak- ing of Leather (1915); P. N. Hasluck, Boot Making and Mend- ing (1915); F. Plucknett, Intro- duction to the Theory and Practice of Boot and Shoe Manufacture (1916); F. J. Allen, The Shoe Industry (1916). Shofar, Schofar or Shofer, the ancient ram's horn of the He- brews, consisted of a natural horn curled up at the bell end. It has a short conical bore of large cal- iber. At best it is capable only of producing the fundamental oc- tave and twelfth. Sho-gi, the game of chess as played by the Japanese educated classes. It was introduced from China in early times and is still popular in Japan. It is played on a board divided into 81 squares, nine on a side, with twenty peices on each side, arranged on the three outer rows. The pieces are flat and punt-shaped with the smaller end toward the front, and they represent, by means of different inscriptions, the O or Sho, King-General with whose checkmate the game ends; his two aides, the Kin and Ghin, Gold and Silver Generals (two each); Ka-ma, horse or knight (two) ; Yari, spearman (two) ; one Hisha, or flying chariot (rook) ; one Kaku (bishop) ; and nine Hio or Fu, soldiers or pawns. All the pieces, as in chess, have different functions. For details of this old-time, popular game, consult E. Falkener's Games An- cient and Oriental (1892). Shogun, sho'goon', was the name applied during the exis- tence of the feudal system in Japan to the hereditary com- mander-in-chief of the army. When in the sixth century a.d. the Mikado adopted the Chinese military system he conferred this title on the commanders of his expeditionary army. The post in time became hereditary, and the Shogun completely eclipsed in real power the Mikado (q.v.) himself. The post was abolished in 1867. See Japan, History. Shola, sho'lii, or Solah, the white pith of the leguminous plant Aeschynomene aspera, a na- tive of India. With this sub- stance, which is exceedingly light, the natives make a great variety of useful articles, espe- cially hats, which being very light and cool, are in much de- mand. Sholapur, sho'la-pdbr, town, India; capital of Sholapur dis- trict Bombay, 147 miles south- east of Poona. An important railway station and trade center, with manufactures of silk and cotton. Pop. (1941) 212,620. Sholapur district has an area of 4,542 square miles and a popula- tion of 877,520. Shonts, Theodore Perry (1856-1919), American engineer and railway official, born in Crawford county. Pa.; was grad- uated from Monmouth College (1876). He was admitted to the Iowa bar, and practiced law in Centerville. In 1882 he became interested in the construction of a railway between Centerville and Albia. now a part of the Burling- ton system. He built the Indi- ana, Illinois, and Iowa Railroad, of which he was president, and in 1893 he reorganized the Toledo, St. Louis, and Western Railroad. In 1905 President Roosevelt ap- pointed him chairman of the Panama Canal Commission, and he played an important part in the drawing up of the plans for the Panama Canal (q. v.). After February 1907, he was presi- dent of the Interborough-Met.ro- politan Company (now Inter- borough Consolidated Corpora- tion) and the Interborough Rapid Transit Company of New York City; and he was later made head of the New York Rail- ways Company and the Rapid Transit Subway Construction Company. He also served as president of many other railway companies, and was a director in numerous corporations. Shooting, as a sport, includes a variety of branches each with an enthusiastic following. Many to whom firearms appeal more particularly as weapons of the chase hold that big game hunting with the rifle has unequaled at- tractions. (See Hunting for Big Game). With others, field shooting with the shotgun in pursuit of game birds takes high rank. This sport is almost uni- versally practiced with the aid of dogs, which add markedly to the pleasure to be derived as well as to the success of the hunter. The ruffed grouse, wild turkey, quail, woodcock, and snipe furnish ex- cellent sport; while the introduc- tion of pheasants into the United States has been attended with a fair degree of success. (See Grouse; Quail; Pheasant; etc.) In the southern states the opossum and his first cousin the raccoon afford many pleasant moonlight hunts by packs of dogs trained for this purpose. For field shooting, the double- barrel hammerless shotgun is the typical arm. (See Shotgun.) Smokeless powders, because of their absence of smoke, lessened recoil, and greater cleanliness, have generally displaced black powder. Sporting models of the military rifle, but using soft point bullets, have superseded the heavy express arms of other days. (See Rifle.) Repeating and semi-automatic shotguns and ri- fles have been developed to a high state of efficiency; but while used by some hunters, they are condemned by the better class of sportsmen. Small game, such as rabbits (See Rabbit) and squir- rels, are hunted with rifles of .22, .25, .28, and .32 caliber frequent- ly equipped with telescope sights. The accuracy of such weapons is remarkable, and their light weight and slight recoil result in their use to the exclusion of arms of larger caliber. During their migrations, ducks of all varieties, though their num- bers have noticeably decreased in recent years, furnish sport for many hunters. Various meth- ods are in vogue in connection with duck shooting, though the laws of most states tend to uni- formity in prohibiting the moles- tation of wild fowl during the breeding season. (See Duck.) Target Shooting. — Shooting at targets with rifles, revolvers, and pistols has long been a recog- nized pastime in America, and there are many clubs devoted ex- clusively to that purpose. Ranges 200 yards in length have been most popular in recent years, and a high degree of skill has been developed. The record scores have been made with the improved schuetzen type of rifle, an arm weighing from 13 to 16 pounds, with a set or hair trigger and peep or telescope sights. The calibers most in use are .32, .33, and .38. The bullet is of lead and tin, grooved and lubri- cated, and for the most accurate results is loaded from the muzzle, thus centering and fitting per- fectly in the rifling. The shell, charged with black powder and primed with a few grains and smokeless to aid in cleaning the bore, is inserted at the breech. The target in general use for offhand shooting at 200 yards is the Standard American, the di- mensions of which are as follows: 10 circle, 3.36 inches; 9 circle, 5.54; 8 circle, 8; 7 circle, 11; 6 circle, 14.8; 5 circle, 19.68; 4 circle, 26; 3 circle, 34.22; 2 circle, 46; and balance of target 4x6 feet, counting 1. The bull's eye includes either the 8 or 7 circles, as individual riflemen may elect. For indoor rifle shooting or gallery shooting the usual dis- tance is 25 yards, and the caliber of the rifle is limited to .22. No restrictions are made as to weight, sights, or trigger pull, and the schuetzen type of weap- on is in general use. The ring target, with 3/^-inch center count- ing 25, }/^-inch. rings counting Shooting down to 1, and the bull's eye in- cluding the 22 ring, is generally used. The National Rifle Associa- tion was organized in 1871, and the National Board for the Pro- motion of Rifle Practice in the United States was established under the War Department in 1904. Through the National Association this Board makes the rules for the national matches, and formulates plans for the gen- eral promotion of rifle practice throughout the United States among civilians, colleges, and secondary schools. The modern military type of rifle, which is es- pecially adapted to long-range firing, is prescribed by the shoot- ing rules of the Association, and the regulation military targets are used. The dimensions of these tar- gets are as follows: third class for 200 and 300 yards — bull's eye 8 inches, center 26 inches, inner 46 inches, outer 4x6 feet; second class for 500 and 600 yards — bull's eye 22 inches, center 38 inches, inner 54 inches, outer 6 x 6 feet; first class for 800,900, and 1,000 yards — bull's eye 3 feet, center 43^ feet, inner 6 feet square, outer 12 x 6 feet. The bull's eye counts 5, center 4, in- ner 3, and outer 2. At 200 yards the position required is standing, the body and arm being free from any artificial support; at 300 yards, kneeling or sitting; at 500 yards and over, the prone posi- tion. Regulations for gallery shoot- ing permit the use of any .22 caliber rifle weighing not over 10 pounds, and prescribe the Na- tional Rifle Association indoor target at 50 or 75 feet. Target shooting with revolver and pistol has developed as a popular pastime within the last half century. Fifty yards is the range generally adopted, though military competitions sometimes include a 75-yard stage, and good shooting has been done at 100 yards and over. According to the rules of the U. S. Revolver Association, the recognized national organization of the revolver and pistol marks- men of the United States, target revolvers are limited to a length of barrel, including the cylinder, of 10 inches, and a minimum trigger pull of 2^ pounds. Sights may be adjustable, but they must be strictly open, in front of the hammer, and not over 10 inches apart. The most popular weap- ons are .32, .38, and .44 caliber though pistols of any caliber may be used. The maximum length of the barrel is placed at 10 inches, and the minimum trigger pull at 2 pounds. Military revolvers or pistols are defined as revolvers or maga- zine pistols adopted by any civil- ized government for the arma- ment of its army or navy. The maximum weight allowed is 2% pounds, the maximum length of barrel 7)4 inches, and the mini- mum trigger pull 4 pounds. For pocket revolvers the maximum weight is 2 pounds, the maxi- mum length of barrel 4 inches, and the minimum trigger pull 4 pounds. The Standard American rifle target is used in practice with target revolvers and pistols at 50 yards, and Target L (U. S. Army) for military revolver com- petitions. This has a bull's eye of 5 inches diameter, counting 10, and 6 concentric rings 1% inches apart, counting 9, 8, 7, 6, 5 and 4 respectively. The 4 ring is 26 inches in diameter, the 3 ring 46 inches, and the rest of the target 4 X 6 feet. Indoor revolver and pistol clubs adopt a range of 20 yards, using the Standard American target with a 2.72 inch bull's eye. For trap shooting, see Pigeon Shooting. See also Hunting FOR Big Game; Game and Game Laws; Target; Rifle; Revol- ver. Consult A. Askins, Rifles and Rifle Shooting (1912); W. A. Bruette, Guncraft (1912); L. R. Tippins, Rifle Shooting (1913); A. L. A. Himmelwright, Pistol and Revolver Shooting (rev. ed., 1915); W. H. Miller, Rifles and Shotguns (1917); Annual Report of Rifle Shooting in the United States (National Board for the Promotion of Rifle Practice). Shooting Star. See Cowslip. Shooting Stars. See Meteor- ites. Shore. See Seashore, Coast; Shore, Jane (1445?-1527?) a woman of singular wit and beauty, wife of a London gold- smith, who subsequently became the mistress of Edward iv. She lived till Edward's death in the greatest luxury, enjoying great power through his favor. When he died she became a companion of Thomas Grey, Marquis of Dorset. She was tried for witch- craft by order of the Duke of Gloucester, afterward Richard III, and condemned (1483) to walk in penitential garb, with a taper in her hand and attired only in her kirtle, an incident utilized by Shakespeare in his Richard III. Shore Birds. See Limicolae. Shoreditch, a borough of London, England. See London. Shoreham, William of. See William of Shoreham. Shore Larlt, or Horned Lark (Otocorys alpestris), a bird found in the northern parts of North America, and the only true (alaudine) lark on the continent. It is a small ground-keeping, yet often high-flying bird, with Shoring brownish streaked plumage, and conspicuous black feathers form- ing a little erectile 'horn' on each side behind the head. The shore larks sing in spring with great brilliancy while hovering high in the air over the place where, among the grass, their mates are attending to their nests and speckled eggs, Shorey, Paul (1857-1934), American Greek scholar, was born in Davenport, la., and was graduated from Harvard (1878), subsequently studying at the Universities of Leipzig, Bonn, and Munich (ph.d. 1884). He was professor of Greek at Bryn Mawr from 1885 to 1892, and in the latter year accepted the same chair at the University of Chi- cago (head of the department after 1896). In 1901-02 he was professor at the American wSchool of Classical Studies in Athens; and in 1913-14 Roosevelt Ex- change professor at the Univer- sity of Berlin. He was a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. In 1910 he served as president of the American Philological Association. He published: De Paltonis Idearum Doctrina (1884); The Idea of Good in Plato's Republic (1895); The Odes and Epodes of Horace ( 1 898 ) ; The Unity of Plato's Thought (1903). Shoring refers to the support- ing of walls from which the natural or original supports have been temporarily removed. The shoring timbers are 10 or 12 in. square. One is first placed against the wall to be shored, and holes Shoring are cut through the upright plank from 4 to 6 inches into the wall. Into this mortise is fitted a scant- ling, termed a needle, with a cleating piece above. This forms an abutment for one end of the Short KR 189 Shorthand shore (see Fig. p. 188), the other end of which is firmly fixed in the ground. A method frequently adopted in remodeling or altering existing structures, so that the under part may be taken out and steel girders substituted for the purpose of supporting the wall above, is known as a raking shore. Short, William (1759-1849), American diplomat, was born in Spring Garden, Surrey county, Va. He was secretary of legation at Paris in 1784-92, being charge d'affaires in 1790-92, and with William Carmichael was com- missioner to Spain in 1792-94, striving unsuccessfully to secure a treaty of commerce and the settlement of the questions of boundary and the navigation of the Mississippi. He was minister to Spain in 1794 and in 1808 was sent to Europe by Jefferson with instructions to proceed to St. Pe- tersburg as minister as soon as the senate had confirmed his nomination. The nomination, however, was unanimously re- jected for the avowed reason that a minister at the Russian court was an unnecessary expense. Shorter, Clement King (1856-1926), English author and journalist, was born in London. In 1891 he joined the staff of the Illustrated London News, of which he became editor. During his tenure of this office he added The Sketch, English Illustrated Maga- zine, and The Album to his editorial responsibilities. He severed his connection with the Illustrated London News in 1900, and became editor of The Sphere, a weekly illustrated journal, and later of The Tatler, another illus- trated weekly, to which he contributed a special column of journalistic gossip. Among his publications are Charlotte Bronte and Her Circle (1896), Sixty Years of Victorian Literature (1897), Charlotte Bronte and her Sisters (1905), and George Bor- row (1905). Shorter, Mrs. Clement. See SiGERsoN, Dora. Shorthand, or Stenography, is best defined as a system of handwriting that reduces the number of muscular movements required to represent words and sentences in graphic outline; op- posed to longhand. This defini- tion excludes mechanical devices, such as the shorthand machine or the phonograph, or mere codes of longhand breves (abbreviations), which will be briefly referred to later. Antiquity. — The art of short- hand is very ancient. The de- motic writing of the Egyptians was virtually a popular short- hand form of the hieratic writing of the priests. Whether the an- cient Hebrews or the Greeks had a system of shorthand writing for their languages is still uncertain. All authorities are agreed, how- ever, that the history of short- hand begins definitely not later than 63 B.C., when Marcus Tul- lius Tiro, a freedman of Cicero's, evolved the Tironian notes. These Tironian notes involved not only shorthand signs for the letters of the alphabet, derived to some extent from the Roman capital letters, but also many more or less arbitrary abbrevia- tions; 5,000 at least in Tiro's day, thousands more in the course of their later evolution. They formed the apparently quite uni- form basis of Roman shorthand writing, which attained to con- siderable importance during the imperial era and, with various corruptions and modifications, lasted well down into the Middle Ages, probably till about the 10th century. The latest surviv- ing example of the Tiro- nian notes is a codex of Louis the Pious, written in the 9th century. Early Modern Shorthand. — The era of modern shorthand dawned first in England in 1588, with Timothy Bright's quaint publication, grandiloquently de- dicated to Queen Elizabeth and securing from her a royal grant of exclusive rights for fifteen years. Credit for the first alphabetic or workable system, which set the pattern followed more or less closely for at least one hundred years, belongs to John Willis, who published anonymously in 1602 The Art of Stenographie. In the 250 years from Bright to Isaac Pitman, who is justly re- garded as the father of modern English shorthand, more than 180 different systems were pub- lished for English alone. Among all these, Shelton (1620) is in- teresting as being the system in which Samuel Pepys kept his famous diary; Gurney (1750) as the system of most enduring vitality, being the system chiefly UvSed for British parliamentary reporting until comparatively re- cent times; Byron (1767) as showing the first practical recog- nition and application ot the need for a scientific study of the sounds of English and the signs of shorthand as a basis for the shorthand art; Taylor as the system which, by virtue of a rugged simplicity, exerted a more profound influence on the short- hand of more European coun- tries than any other English lan- guage system before or since. The system of Gould, first published in 1820 in the United States, is interesting as having dominated shorthand in the United States for the succeeding generation quite as completely as Pitmanic shorthand dominated the generation following its intro- duction to the United States in 1853, or as Gregg shorthand in its turn dominates the United States field today. Modern Shorthand. — Nearly a thousand different systems of shorthand have been published for English alone within the past one hundred years. Among them all, the outstanding feature of modern English language short- hand has been Pitmanic short- hand. The original invention and subsequent modifications by Sir Isaac Pitnam (q.v.) have been subjected to a host of adap- tations and variations but the resemblances of the principal Pitmanic systems are far more important than their differences. Among the leading variations of the parent Isaac Pitnam system have been the Benn Pitman (q. v.), Graham, and Munson systems and more recently Suc- cess. Although largely displaced today by Gregg (1867-1948) shorthand for the training of business office stenographers. Pitmanic shorthand is still used by the great majority of ver- batim reporters and its impor- tance to the shorthand reporting profession is so great that the National Shorthand Reporters Association has maintained for twenty years a Standardization Committee, to standardize so far as practicable, Pitmanic report- ing shorthand. This standard- ized form is used in the Pitmanic shorthand alphabet and speci- mens herewith. While Isaac Pitnam did not achieve his life-long dream of shorthand for universal use, a destiny for which Pitmanic short- hand is essentially unsuited, he did exert a more profound influ- ence on English language short- hand than any other shorthand inventor, and the complete and rational phonetic basis which he established represents the great- est and most enduring contribu- tion to modern shorthand. Among the most important non-Pitmanic systems of the modern period must be men- tioned Lindsley's Takigrafy, first published in 1864 and an impor- tant factor for the next thirty years; Cross's Eclectic Shorthand, first published in 1877, and Per- nin's Universal Phonography, first published in 1877, important both for itself and as leading directly through Sloan-Duployan shorthand (1882) and Malone's Script Phonography (1885, 1886) to Gregg Shorthand, first pub- lished as Light Line Phonography in 1888, which, taken to Amer- ica by Gregg in 1893, has since achieved an almost unprece- dented success and is todav taught in most of the public high schools and private business schools of the United States. Alphabets and apecimens of representative shorthand systema 1-Pitmanic Shorthand (NSRA) 2-Gregg Shorthaqd 3-General Shorthand Consonants p\Jtdkgfv^liszS scJjmnqrlwyh / \ ^ ^ i i ) ) J J / / ^ Z C C ^ rj / / / _ Z 7 6 / ^ I / fP / 7 9 Vowels aaaeoi loououmddid tu -I J J '\ J 3 / t t ' ♦ / . / Specimens 5 <^ J^/^^^S^-^/c 2A^^^^f^ Vol. XL— Page 190 Sbortband KR lOl Shorthand Shorthand in Other Languages. — In other countries, for other languages, modern shorthand has developed along altogether dif- ferent lines, differing not merely in textbooks and in systems, as might be expected, but in some of the most basic structural features. In France, two systems, both wholly geometric in type, largely divide the field: Prevost-Delau- nay, a disjoined vowel type, which predominates among re- porters and in and about Paris, and Duploye, a simpler and joined vowel type, which pre- dominates among stenographers and for personal use and in the provinces. In Germany, where shorthand is more widely used for general personal non-vocational purposes than in any other country, Gabelsbergers Shorthand (1834) at once established the true script type of shorthand as the dominant type. Next in im- portance to Gabelsberger's fun- damental work, was that of Stolze (1841). Schrey (1887) be- came in 1897 Stolze-Schrey, which till 1924 divided about equally with Gabelsberger at least nine-tenths of the whole German shorthand field. In 1924, the German government promul- gated officially a compromise unification system, the Reichs- kurzschrift, to be henceforth the only system taught officially in the public schools, and a civil service requirement in many government departments. In other languages and coun- tries shorthand has largely fol- lowed the lead of English, French, or German shorthand. The lead- ing Spanish system is that of Marti (1800), derived from Taylor. The first dominant Italian system was that of Aman- ti (1809), also derived from Tay- lor. Later, the shorthand ma- chine of Michela (1863) achieved considerable importance, and, still later, an adaptation of Ga- belsberger to Italian by Noe (1865). In general, the short- hand of the European countries, for languages other than French, has been a more or less direct outgrowth of the German script systems, particularly Gabels- berger, and in more recent years Stolze-Schrey. Shorthand Structure. — All mod- ern shorthand systems worthy of serious consideration write pho- netically — that is by signs for sounds, disregarding the complex and cumbersome irregularities of our current conventional speiliiig. A shorthand system consists es- sentially of a basic alphabet of simple signs, representing the simple sounds of the language; various characteristic devices for expressing more than one sound per sign — the Pitmanic append- ages and length devices, the Gregg blends, the General Short- hand compends; general rules for using and joining the basic ma- terial; and specific breves for affixes, words, and phrases. The most fundamental differences between shorthand systems are found in the structure of the basic alphabet, which may be either geometric or script or some compromise between the two. A geometric shorthand system selects for its basic material the geometrically simplest signs — straight lines and segments of simple curves, differentiated by slope, shading, length, etc.; dots and dashes, hooks, circles, etc. — • which are usually simplest to write when standing alone but present various serious difficul- ties when joined together in prac- tical writing. A script shorthand system selects for its basic ma- terial the grapically simplest signs — those signs easiest to write and to read when joined to- gether in actual writing — even though such signs may be of less simple geonietric form or slower to write when standing alone. Pitmanic shorthand is the out- standing example of geometric shorthand. Gregg shorthand is often referrred to as a script shorthand system but is in fact a hybrid type which must be classi- fied as semi-geometric, script- geometric, or semi-script, since it uses, like Pitmanic shorthand, the geometrically simplest signs, merely excluding from the ac- cepted geometric material a sub- stantial proportion of the least facile signs, such as those of left diagonal or vertical slope. The true script type of shorthand is virtually unknown in the United States as yet, though highly de- veloped abroad. General Short- hand (Dewey) is the most repre- sentative English language short- hand system of the true script type. Shorthand Attributes. — There are three and only three essential characteristics or functional at- tributes of shorthand in any language, regardless of style or structural type: brevity, legi- bility, and simplicity. Brevity, or ease and speed of writing, which most people think of first in connection with short- hand, is in fact the least difficult factor to secure, and historically the first to have been achieved. The Gurney system, first pub- lished in 1750, with whose diffi- cul»^ie« Ci^arles Dickens struggled a century ago, as told in David Copperfield, has proved equal to the most difficult task of report- ing the British Parliament down to the present day. A high standard of legibility, or ease and certainty of reading, is much harder to secure, and remains today the greatest weak- ness of business office stenogra- phy. The stenographer who can not read another's notes is still the rule rather than the ex- ception, and the stenographer who can not read her own notes accurately when the> a t 'cold, is still all too common. Real simplicity, in harmony with the inescapable t^honetic facts of English, without sacrifice of brevity or legibility, is most difficult of all to secure, and is still the chief obstacle to the dream of so many shorthand authors for so many years — shorthand for general personal use. Fields of Shorthand Use. — There are today three main broadly marked fields of short- hand use. which may be desig- nated as reporting, business, and personal; to which correspond three somewhat differentiated styles of shorthand writing. A different style of shorthand by no means requires a different shorthand system, any more than a different model of motorcar re- quires a different make, yet it is a fact that in the United States today, each field is covered pri- marily by a different system, of fundamentally different type. A reporting style of shorthand will be used for court and legisla- tive, convention and commission, reporting and public addresses, and in general all verbatim re- porting purposes, where the speaker ignores the shorthand writer. It must make brevity the paramount consideration, with such sacrifice of easy legi- bility and simplicity as may be necessary. It must reach a mini- mum sustained speed of 150 to 180 words per minute, and may reach , momentarily, speeds as high as 280 to 300 words per minute. The reporting style of any system of shorthand will re- quire at least 1,000 hours of effective study for mastery. Successful verbatim reporting requires in addition a high stand- ard of natural ability and of general education. A business style of shorthand will be used chiefly for business office dictation of correspondence. It must achieve the maximum possible legibility with reason- able brevity and simplicity. From 80 to 125 words per minute, with the actual average below 100 words per minute, is the normal shorthand speed in busi- ness offices today. Effective mastery of a business style of shorthand of any first-class sys- tem requires today at least 300 hours' study, despite the ever- present claims of shorthand char- latans to develop a vocational standard of shorthand ability in anj'^thing from a few weeks to a few hours. There are nearly a Shorthand KR 192 Shoulder million stenographers and secre- taries in the United States today — about 99 per cent of the whole field of present-day stenographic use. Specduoriting is a scientific system of shorthand which uses the letters of the alphabet instead of signs or symbols. In view of the fact that every individual has acquired habits of writing and reading the letters used in Speedwriting, it takes approxi- mately % of the time usually allowed in other systems to mas- ter it. Speeds up to 150 words per minute can be acquired which is more than the speed usually required for every day shorthand users. Notes can be read back with a greater degree of accuracy than can be done in other shorthands. Another ad- vantage is that any speedwriter can read another's notes, which can not be done by users of Gregg and Pitman. A personal style of shorthand will be used for personal corres- pondence, original composition of every description, lecture, con- ference, and telephone notes, and in fact almost any or all of the present purposes of longhand. Such a style must achieve maxi- mum simplicity without sacrifice of explicit legibility and with a reasonable degree of brevity. The shorthand alphabets and specimens herewith illustrate by Pitmanic shorthand, a reporting style of geometric shorthand; by Gregg shorthand, a business style of hybrid (script-geometric) shorthand ; and by General short- hand, an essentially personal style of shorthand of the true script type. The specimen in each case is the first sentence of the Declaration of Independence: When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bonds which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separ- ate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. Shorthand Subslitutes. — Vari- ous substitutes for handwritten shorthand, including the short- hand machine, the phonograph, and notehand, have been pro- posed and tried, with varying success. The shorthand machine is essentially a light, quiet portable typewriter of limited keyboard on which one may strike several keys at once as well as singly. It writes in ordinary Roman letters (phonetic print letters would be better) on a long narrow paper tape. The best known machine in the stenotype. The phonograph for business office dictation has certain impor- tant advantages over any short- hand. For the dictator, it per- mits dictation at any time or place, independent of the sten- ographer. For the transcriber, it saves the time and interruptions of dictation and, in a large office, facilitates an equitable division of work among the transcribers. Where many corrections in the course of dictation are necessary or usual, the phonograph method is not convenient. For verbatim reporting which requires the constant exercise of a high degree of discriminating intelligence, the phonograph is entirely inade- quate and unsuitable; but in the immense field of business office dictation it has great possibili- ties of usefulness. Notehand, or any system of shortening either longhand or typewriting by systematic abbre- viation, using only the familiar Roman alphabet, is of great value in personal note-taking, as a partial substitute for shorthand for personal use. Since about 100 of the commonest words of Eng- lish make up by their frequent repetitions at least half of all the words we read or write, a simple code of breves for words will materially increase one's writing speed with little effort. As a substitute for vocational short- hand, however, such devices are totally inadequate, becoming il- legible long before a satisfactory vocational standard of speed is reached. Shorthand Literature. — The two greatest shorthand collec- tions of the world are that of the Stenographische Landesamt at Dresden, with nearly 2.5,000 vol- umes, largely of European origin, and the collection sponsored by the National Shorthand Re- porters Association at the New York Public Library, with more than 25,000 volumes, mainly with English language short- hand. Shorthouse, Joseph Henry (1834-1903). English novelist, was born in Birmingham, where he became a manufacturer of chemicals. In 1881 he published his romance, John Inglesant, and its remarkable qualities both of matter and manner at- tracted much attention. It was followed by The Little School- master Mark (1883), Sir Percival (1886), A Teacher of the Violin (1888), The Countess Eve (1888), and Blanche, Lady Falaise (1891). Shoshone, sh5-sho'ne, or Snake, the name used for one of the great divisions of the North American Indians, whose original domain extended from Oregon and Idaho nearly to the Gulf of Mexico, and from Montana and Wyoming to the Pacific Ocean. The Shoshone stock lan- guage, of which there are over forty distinct dialects, shows strong phonetic and some lexical affinities with Aztec. This fact lends support to the now gener- ally accepted theory that the Aztec and other Nahua tribes came from beyond the Rio Gran- de and belonged to the Shoshone connection. (See Aztecs.) The chief divisions of this stock are the Bannock, Comanche, Paiute, Shoshone and Ute. As a whole, the Shoshone were roving In- dians similar to the Sioux and other tribes of the Great Plains. Shoshone Falls, celebrated waterfall in Snake River, south Idaho. It descends the first 30 feet through several rocky chan- nels, and then in one sheet 1,000 feet in width falls more than 190 feet into a dark green lake. Shotgun. A term employed to denote a small, smooth-bore firearm, single or double-barreled designed to fire a charge of shot pellets at short range. The most commonly used shotgun is the double-barreled type of 12 gauge. Such a gun, with the ordinary game load, should, at 30 yards, spread the shot over a thirty-inch circle, and so uniformly as to leave no space large enough to admit of the escape of a bird as large, say, as a quail. A stronger shooting gun, i.e. one which will propel shot farther, is required for ducks and for ruffed grouse. The regularity of a gun's 'pattern' {i.e. the area over which the shot is scattered) depends upon the quality, as well as upon the size of the shot, the kind and quan- tity of powder used, and the bor- ing of gun barrels. The repeating shotgun, pro- vided with a magazine carrying four or five shells and operated by a mechanism similar in prin- ciple to those used for repeating rifles, has been brought to a high state of efficiency. Many sportsmen are prejudiced against these guns, because the rapidity with which they can be used lessens the need of skill on the part of the shooter, and increases the mere 'slaughter' of game. This class of sportsmen is, naturally, even more violently opposed to 'automatic' shotguns — weapons in which the recoil is used to reload the gun, making very rapid fire possible. Their use is forbidden in some states. See also Shooting. Shoulder, a ball and socket joint, the large, globular head of the humerus being received into the shallow, glenoid cavity of the scapula. It is well supplied with blood-vessels and nerves, and is capable of movement in every direction. Movements of the scapula at the coraco-clavicular articulation and of the clavicle at the tserno-clavicular joint in- crease the range of elevation of the arm, and strengthen the shoulder by furnishing an elastic spring whose mobility diminishes the risk of sudden strain. From Shoulder Straps KR 193 Shreve the anatomical structure, how- ever, dislocation is more common at the shoulder than at any other joint; but as a rule it is easily- reduced if treated soon after the injury. In old-standing luxations reduction is difficult, and often leads to serious damage of sur- rounding parts. After reduction of a dislocation the arm must be Shoulder Bones and Ligaments (A) and Section through Joint (B) 1. Humerus. 2. Glenoid cavity. 3. Scapula. 4. Tendon of biceps. 5. Capsular ligament. 6. Acromion. 7. Coracoid process. 8. Clavicle. 9. Synovial membrane and sac. kept at rest for about ten days, at the end of which period gentle passive movement should gener- ally be begun. Shoulder Straps. See Uni- forms, Military and Naval. Shovel, Steam. See Steam Shovel. ShoT'ell, Sir Clowdisley (1650-1707), English admiral, was born in Norfolk. In 1675, when serving with Sir John Nar- brough, he led the boats of the squadron in an attack on the shipping in the harbor of Tripoli. At the battle of Bantry Bay, in 1689, he again distinguished him- self, and earned a knighthood. He took part in the battle off Cape Barfleur in 1702; and served under Rooke at the battle of Vigo (1702), and at the battle of Malaga (1704). He was then appointed rear admiral of Eng- land, and commander in chief in the Mediterranean, where, in 1705, with the Earl of Peter- borough, he effected the reduc- tion of Barcelona. On the home- ward voyage his ship was wrecked on one of the Scilly Is- lands; he was cast ashore, and murdered by a woman who later confessed her crime. His body was taken to England and buried in Westminster Abbey. Shoveller (Spatula clypeala), also called Spoon Bill, or Boat Bill, a large duck, occurrmg in Europe, Asia, North America, and North Africa. It is dis- tinguished by the great size of the fiat bill, which is longer than the head, compressed at the base, and very broad at the tip, the upper portion overhanging the lower. The drake is brightly col- ored, being chiefly dark brown, with a green head, white neck, and chestnut underparts; some of the scapulars are black with Shoveller white stripes, and the anterior wing coverts pale blue. The duck is more soberly colored. Shov- ellers feed on water plants, worms, insects, and mollusks, and are greatly prized for the table. Showbrcad, or Presence Bread, the twelve loaves of bread which, according to the ancient Jewish ritual, were set upon a table of acacia wood, over- laid with gold (Ex. XXV, 23-30), in the holy place. The bread was renewed every Sabbath, and the old loaves were eaten by the priests in the Sanctuary. The showbread is said to have sym- bolized the constant communion of Jehovah's people with Him in those things which His bounty provided, and which they en- joyed in His presence and used in His service. Shower of Fishes, a phe- nomenon caused by the strong updraught which occurs in the center of a tornado, passing over the surface of water. A column of water (waterspout) is formed in the vortex, and fish, especi- ally such as habitually swim near the surface in shoals, may read- ily be swept up and showered down upon the land. In 1817 a shower of herrings, which varied in size from one and a half to three inches, fell near Edinburgh, while other similar showers fell near Loch Leven in 1825, and in Ross-shire, about three miles from Cromarty Firth, in 1828. Shra'dy, George Frederick (1837-1907), American surgeon, was born in New York City. He was graduated from N. Y. Col- lege of Physicians and Surgeons in 1858; was assistant surgeon in the U. S. Army during the Civil War, and later consulting sur- geon to several New York hospi- tals. He was General Grant's physician during his last illness, and also attended President Gar- field. He was editor of the Medi- cal Journal for over thirty years, and wrote on medical, surgical, social, and scientific subjects. Shrady, Henry Merwin (1871-1922), American sculptor, was born in New York City. He was graduated from Columbia University in 1894, and studied law, but abandoned it for mod- eling. In 1901 he won the first prize in a competition for an equestrian statue of Washington for Brooklyn, and the next year he received the commission for a Grant Memorial in Washington. In 1903 he was commissioned by the Holland Society of New York to make an equestrian statue of William the Silent for New York City. He also executed the sta- tue of Washington for the Brook- lyn terminal of the Williamsburg Bridge, an equestrian statue of General Williams for Detroit. and statues of General Lee (Char- lotteville, Va.) and Jay Cooke (Duluth). He was a member of the National Institute of Arts and Letters. Shrap'nel, a form of case shot designed to be ruptured by a bursting charge during flight. It was invented by Henry Shrap- nel (q. v.). See Ammunition. Shrapnel, Henry(1761-1842) English inventor, was born in Bradford-on-Avon. Wiltshire. In 1784 he began the experiments which led to the invention of the shell that bears his name. In 1803 it was recommended for adoption, and has now super- seded the old type of case shot. Shreve,HENRY Miller(1785- 1854). American inventor, was born in Burlington county, N. J. In 1810 he was engaged in trans- porting lead between the Galena River and New Orleans, and in 1812 was a blockade runner on behalf of the U. S. Army. In the battle of New Orleans he commanded a field battery. In 1815 he became interested in the Enterprise, the first steamer that ascended the Mississippi as far as Louisville. Subsequently he placed the Washington on the river trade, and demonstrated the superiority of her machinery, which he had designed, to that in Fulton's latest vessel. Fulton claimed the exclusive right to navigate all vessels 'propelled by fire and steam' on the river and began suit, but after much liti- gation Shreve won. In 1826-4] he was superintendent of western river improvements. While hold- ing that position he removed an obstruction to navigation, known as the 'Great Red River raft.' which consisted of an accumula- tion of trees, logs and debris more than 160 miles in length. In 1829 he designed a steam battering ram. Shreve, Samuel Henry(1829- 84). American civil engineer. was born in Trenton. N. J. He was graduated from Princeton in 1848, and studied law and then civil engineering at Harvard. He spent many years as superin- Shreveport KR 194 Shrewsbury tendent of construction on rail- roads in the eastern states, and built a number of important roads. In 1875 he settled in New York and became engineer to the New York Rapid Transit Com- mission. He was afterward con- sulting engineer to the N. Y. Metropolitan Elevated Railroad Company, and engineer-in-chief to the Brooklyn Elevated Rail- road. He was author of The Strength of Bridges and Roofs. Shreve'port, city, Louisiana, county seat of Caddo parish, on the Red River, and on the Kan- sas City Southern, Illinois Cen- tral, the Louisiana and Arkan- sas, the Southern Pacific, the St. Louis Southwestern, and the Texas and Pacific railroads; 170 miles west of Vicksburg, Missis- sippi. The Jefferson Highway, the Dixie-Overland Highway, and the Old Spanish Trail pass through the city. Educational institutions include two high schools, parochial schools, Cen- tenary College, Foster Hall (a college for girls), and two busi- ness and four private schools. Shreveport is a commercial center shipping cotton, oil, and lumber. Industries include metal products, petroleum production and refining, lumber and logging, paper products, food processing, ceramics and glass, etc. The surrounding district raises cot- ton, corn, grain, and feed crops; it has an abundant supply of natural oil and gas, which is piped into the city, and is one of the largest oil fields of the South. Shreveport was settled in 1833 and incorporated six years later. The commission form of govern- ment was adopted in 1910. It is noted for its many beautiful homes and gardens. It is the home of the Louisiana State Fair, and on the fair grounds is the unique exhibit building. Pop. (1930) 76,655; (1940) 98,167. Shrew, a family (Soricidae) of Insectivora, mouse-like in ap- pearance, characterized by long, pointed snouts, by rounded ears. Pigmy Shrew pressed close to the sides of the head, and by the peculiar nature of the teeth. The first upper in- cisors are always different from the other teeth, being long and sickle-shaped, usually with a cusp posteriorly, while the cor- responding teeth in the lower jaw project horizontally forward and are also long. With one excep- tion, shrews have never more than six teeth at each side of the lower jaw. They are furnished with scent glands, secreting a substance of strong and disagree- able odor, apparently a means of defense. The animals are found through the greater part of the Eastern Hemisphere, and also in North America. They hibernate during the winter months. Common Shrew Shrews are retiring in habit, but extremely pugnacious. They feed upon insects, worms, snails, and slugs, and even the flesh of weaker members of the same species. They are attacked in turn by weasels, cats, and owls. To the genus Crocidura, or Musk Shrews, belong the largest members of the family. A num- ber of species are known, of which C. suaveolens is European, while C. coerulea, which may reach a length of six inches, is the so-called musk-rat of India. To the genus Anurosorex belong two Central Asiatic species, which in some points of structure and in habits closely resemble the mole. North America has several genera and many species, of which the best known are the Short-tailed or Mole Shrew (Blarina) and the Long-tailed Shrew Mouse (Sorex). Other varieties, as the Water Shrew, are aquatic in habit. Shrew Mole, or Web-footed Mole {Scalops aquaticus), the American representative of the Old World mole (Talpa). In gen- Shrew Mole (Scalops aquaticus) eral appearance the animal closely resembles a mole; but the hind feet are webbed, the tail is short and nearly naked, and there are only thirty-six instead of forty-four teeth. The genus is exclusively American. Related are two other genera — Scapanus, including the Hairy-tailed Moles; and Condylura, with the single species C. cristata, the Star-nose of North America, so named from the ring of tentacles at the end of the muzzle. Its habits resemble those of other moles. See also Mole. Shrewsbury, shrooz'ber-i or shroz'-, England, capital of Shropshire, on the Severn, 43 miles northwest of Birmingham. It is pleasantly situated on high ground in a bend of the river, here crossed by five bridges con- necting with the suburbs of Al> bey Forcgate, Coleham, Belle- vue, Kingsland, and Frankwell. It has a number of interesting old churches — the parish church of St. Mary, a handsome cruci- form edifice retaining portions of Norman building, and with a 14th-century Jesse window; the church of Holy Cross, rich in ancient monuments, formerly connected with a Benedictine abbey, founded soon after the conquest; a fragment of Old St. Chad on the site of a palace of the princes of Powis, and St. Julian's and St. Alkmund's both representing ancient foundations. The grammar school, founded 1551, was transferred to the sub- urb of Kingsland in 1882. The old buildings are occupied by the free library and museum. Other public buildings are the county and town hall, post office, gen- eral market, old market hall (1596), railway station, jail, and military barracks. There are monuments to Darwin (educated here), and to the soldiers who fell in South Africa (1903), a statue of Lord Clive (m.p. for Shrewsbury, 1761-74), a lofty columnar monument (1816) to Lord Hill, and the Clement me- morial. The castle, erected in the 11th century on the site of a Saxon fortress, overlooks the river. It was captured in 1645 by the Parliamentary forces, and in the reign of James ii partially demolished. Two towers, the connecting keep (time of Henry III), and other portions remain, the whole converted into a mod- ern residence. The Quarry and Abbey Gardens are beautiful pleasure grounds, bordering the Severn. Glass-staining is a spe- cial industry, and there are agri- cultural implement works, foun- dries, and linen yarn factories. Athelstan established a mint here. Near the town was fought in 1403, the battle in which Hot- spur was slain. Pop. 32,370. Shrewsbury, town, Massa- chusetts, Worcester county; 5 miles northeast of Worcester. Pop. (1945 est.) 9,694. Shrewsbury, Charles Tal- bot, Duke of (1660-1718), English statesman, was born of an intriguing family, and lived true to the family traditions. In 1679 he left the Roman Catholic Church, took an active part against James ii, and was largely Shrewsbury KR 195 Shrimp instrumental in bringing to Eng- land the Prince of Orange. Though secretary of state under William, he was constitutionally timid and vacillating, and also, for a time at least, insincere, for he intrigued with the Jacobite court of St. Germains. With the Whigs he never was in perfect harmony, and during Queen Anne's reign he gradually came otherwise very similar logger- head {L. ludovicianus) . The for- mer is a northern bird, not seen in the United States or southern Canada except as a winter visi- tor, where it haunts the road- sides, open fields and farmsteads and catches mice and small birds, killing them by a blow of its hawk-like beak. Its feet are too weak to hold the prey firmly southern bird, making its nest (in orchard trees and the like) throughout the southern United States. Europe has four species of shrikes resembling ours in habits and appearance except that some of them have more color in their plumage. With the shrikes in the family Lanidae is included a number of other more or less closely related Views in Shrewsbury, England. 1 English Bridge. 2. Shrewsbury School. 3. Abbey Church. 4. Free Library (formerly the Grammar School). (Photos by Frith.) to be the associate of the Tories. After the death of Anne he se- cured the Protestant successsion, and whatever his Jacobite in- trigues, he loyally supported the throne in 1715. See his Corre- spondence, ed. by Coxe (1821). Shrewsbury, John Talbot, FIRST Earl of (1388- 1453), Eng- lish soldier. After service in Ire- land, of which he was three times governor, he went to the French wars, where he took part in more than forty battles and sieges. He was checked at Orleans by Joan of Arc, and was taken pris- oner at Patay (1429), and finally in 1453 fell at Castillon-on-Dor- dogne. He was created Earl of Shrewsbury in 1442. Shrike, the name of a sub- family (Lanidae) of passerine birds, whose members are widely distributed over the Old World, while only two species occur in the New, the great northern shrike (Lanius horealis) which is gray, with black frontlet and wing-quills; and the smaller, but while it tears it to pieces, and the bird therefore impales its quarry on a thorn, the spike of a barbed- wire fence, or some other sharp point, so as to eat it easily. Hence 'butcher-bird' is a natural Shrike. and widely spread name for all the shrikes. The loggerhead has very similar habits, but is a birds, such as the shrike-tits which are Australian, and the wood-shrikes. Shrimp (Crangon), a genus of decapod Crustacea, whose most familiar member, the common shrimp (C. vulgaris), is found on sandy shores all around the North Atlantic, and is caught for food. The shrimp turns brown when boiled, instead of bright red like the prawn. It has a de- pressed carapace and a minute rostrum. The color shows a marked correspondence with the color of the sand in which it lives. As it occurs chiefly in shallow water, shrimping (an industry important in Great Britain, but of little account in U. S. except in the south) is carried on usually by wading, the shrimper pushing a wide-mouthed net in front of him. Shrimps are extensively caught for market in San Fran- cisco Bay. There are a consider- able number of other species of this genus, and the term is equally applicable to the mem Shropshire KR 196 Shunt bers of a number of allied genera. By extension it is also applied to amphipods, such as the skeleton shrimp (Caprella) and the fresh- Shrimp. water shrimp {Gamtnarus piilex), as well as to certain Entomos- traca, such as the brine shrimp. Shropshire, or Salop, inland CO., England, on border of Wales. The N. is occupied chiefly by a continuation of the Cheshire plain, with many small meres; the w. is hilly; and in the s. are several parallel ranges, generally N.E. and s.w. The country is drained almost entirely to the Severn. There are several small coal fields, and iron and lime- stone are worked; barytes, lead, and zinc are other minerals. More than half the cultivated land is under pasture, and cattle and sheep are reared. Manufactures include pig iron, agricultural im- plements, earthenware, mosaic and other tiles, and bricks. The Romans had many stations in the county {e.g. Wroxeter, otherwise Uriconium). Under the Saxons it formed part of Mercia; in the w. is Offa's Dyke. There are re- mains of several ancient earth- works (Bradbury Ring) and of monastic establishments (Shrews- bury Abbey, Cluniac Priory at Wenlock). Area (anc. co), 1,347 sq. m. Pop. 244,156. Shrouds, ropes or chains ex- tending from the heads of the masts or bowsprit to the sides of the ship, to the edges of the tops, or to ends of outriggers, and are designed to support the masts from side pressure. Lower shrouds, which support the lower masts, are usually fitted in pairs, the rope passing around the mast head and extending down to form two shrouds. The ends are set up with dead-eyes and lanyards (as in the illustration) or with rigging screws. Shrouds take their names from the spar they support, thus: main shrouds, fore-topmast shrouds, bowsprit shrouds, etc. Shrove Tuesday, the day be- fore Ash- Wednesday, so called in the English Church from the custom which enjoined con- fession of sins and shriving im- mediately before the Lenten fast. It was an ancient custom that, after confession and abso- lution on this particular Tues- day, the people should partake of pancakes. Shrub, a woody-stemmed per- ennial plant, which may be either deciduous or evergreen. The gardener uses shrubs for their individual beauty, for their dec- orative value in masses, and for purposes of screens or shelters. Lilacs, syringas, rhododendrons, laurels, barberries, viburnums. Shrouds. and Daphnes may be taken as representatives of this section. There are two courses open to the planter — one, to arrange the plants far enough apart to allow for several seasons' growth; and the other, to plant somewhat closer, and remove a certain pro- portion of the plants when they are beginning to touch each other. Until the shrubs occupy the whole space, the borders can be made bright with bulbs in spring and annuals in summer. Very little pruning is required, and in the case of flowering shrubs it should be limited to the removal in the winter of the old and exhausted growths. The pruning should invariably be done with a knife, as shears disfigure the leaves. Among the flowering shrubs specially worthy of considera- tion are Magnolia stellata, M. conspicua, azaleas, rhododen- drons, brooms, flowering al- monds, plums, peaches, and cherries, Pyrus, japonica, Phil- adelphus coronarius, P. aureus, the flowering currant, lilacs, Forsythia suspensa, Choisia tor- nata, Weigela grandiflora, the barberries, and Hydrangea pan- iculata. See Gordon, The Book of Shrubs (1901); Newhall, Shrubs of Northeastern America; Garden and Forest; and Bailey, Cyclopedia of American Horticul- ture (1904). Shubricl£, William Bran- ford (1790-1874), American naval officer, born on Bull's Is- land, S. C. He entered the Navy as midshipman, and in the War of 1812 was a lieutenant on the Constitution in the battle with the Cyane and the Levant. In the Mexican War he commanded the Pacific squadron, and in 1859 the squadron sent to demand repar- ation from Paraguay, an Amer- ican steamer having been fired upon. He secured an apology and the promise of a money in- demnity. He was retired as a rear admiral in December 1861, having remained loyal to the government upon the secession of his native state. Shu men or Shumla fort, town, Bulgaria, at base of Balkan Mts., 56 m. by rail N.w. of Varna; is a military center, and exports wine, cloth, and copper goods. It was formerly a place of great strategic importance, and was occupied by the Russians in 1878. Pop. (1942) 25,486. Shunt, in electricity, is a con- ductor placed between two points in closed circuit, to divert or shunt part of the current. Thus, a D B is a shunt between the points a and b. This is simply a case of a branched or divided circuit, and in such a circuit it is a well-known law that current in a c B _ resist, of a p b current in A d B resist, of a c b. Also if R, Ri and R2, be the resist- ance between a and B, due to the divided circuit and the resistance of A D B and a c B respectively, 11,1a,- = 1 — -.A shunt IS very often R Ri R2 placed across the terminals of a galvanometer, so that only a small part of the current may pass through its coils. When a Sburl KR 197 8huya shunt is to be used for this pur- pose, it is specially constructed to suit the instrument with which it is to be used, and has several re- sistances, each of which is an ali- quot part of the resistance of the galvanometer, as shown in figure "ig^^^'g^- "a plug be in- serted at c, the current through the galvanometer is only ^qqq and the current through the 999 shunt is Yqoo total current in circuit. If G = resistance of gal- vanometer, s= that of shunt, and R = total resistance in cir- cuit between the points c and d across which the shunt is placed, then - = — I — . Applying this R G S ^ u • 1 1 , 999 to the above gives - = - H = ^ R G G 1000 . G . . . , . • • R = TTr;:^^; total resis- G 1000' tance between c and g is only ^ , or resistance in circuit has 1000 999 been lessened by - — g, 1000 and 999 hence a resistance equal to G 1000 must be inserted in the main circuit to bring c to its original value. When this is done the shunt is said to be 'compen- sated.' Similarly, when B E and 99 9 A F are used, and — of g re- 100 10 spectively must be inserted for compensation. In all the arc lamps in common use, the coil, by means of which Galuanom*t»r Twnm^iMiz c 999 1 99 1 To Battvry the automatic maintenance of the arc is kept up, is placed as a shunt across the terminals of the lamp. In many dynamos a shunt coil is placed across its poles — i.e., between its brushes — and is wound round the field magnets. By this means the current gen- erated by the dynamo, as it passes out by the brushes, di- vides into two parts; one goes round the field-magnets and magnetizes them; the other goes round the external circuit and does work either in producing light or in driving motors. A similar shunt is to be found in many motors. Shurl, shoo're, or Shiuri, town, Japan, in Okinawa, one of the Luchu or Ryukyu Archipel- ago, of which it is the capital. It was formerly the seat of govern- ment of the native kings, and ruins of the castle may still be seen. Shurt'leff College, Baptist coeducational institution in Al- ton, 111., founded in 1827. Its organization comprises a college of liberal arts and a conservatory of music. The collegiate courses lead to the bachelor's degree in arts or science, and the courses in music to the bachelor's degree in music. Shusha, town, Azerbaijan, in the autonomous Karabakh Ter- ritory, It grows fruit and is fa- mous for its carpets and silks. Shusha was the capital of Kara- bakh khanate before the Russian occupation. Shushan. See Susa. Shushwap, shoo'swop, a North American Indian tribe of Salish stock, inhabiting the in- terior of British Columbia, along the Fraser River, and around Shushwap Lake. It is a hunt- ing and fishing tribe, and the women are skilful in basketry and the making of mats. Un- like the neighboring tribes, they live in underground circular houses and do not possess a clan system. They have many curi- ous customs in regard to mar- riage, burial, and other cere- monies. At the present time the number of Shushwaps is prob- ably about 2,200. Shuster, shoo'star, Iran, for- mer capital of the province of Khuzistan, on the Karun River; 2.50 miles southwest of Ispahan. The town is in a dilapidated con- dition, chief among the ruins be- ing those of the citadel situated on a lofty eminence overlooking the town. The Mosque of Mas- jed-i-Juma is of interest. Pop. about 20,000. Shuster, George N. (1894- ), educator, president of Hunter College (1940). He wrote English Literature (1926); The Catholic Church and Current Literature (1929), and edited Hitler's Mein Kampf (1939). Shuster, William Morgan (1877- ), American lawyer and financial expert, was born in Washington, D. C, and was edu- cated at Columbian College and Law School (now George Wash- ington University). He entered the War Department in 1898; was employed in the customs service in Cuba (1899-1901); was collector of customs for the Philippine Islands (1901-06); and was a member of the Philip- pine Commission and secretary of public instruction for the Philippine Islands (1906-09). As chairman of the Code Com- mittee, he did important work in codifying the American legisla- tion for the Philippine Islands covering a period of ten years. In 1911 he was appointed treas- urer general and financial ad- viser for the Persian Empire, which position he filled with marked ability until 1912, when, following the destruction of the Nationalist government, he re- signed. He returned to New York, and in 1915 became presi- dent of The Century Company, of that city. He wrote The Strangling of Persia (1912). Shute, Henry Augustus (1856-1943), American author, was born in Exeter, N. H, He was graduated from Harvard University in 1879 and was ad- mitted to the bar in 1882. In 1883 he became judge of the po- lice court in Exeter, N. H. He is the author of many popular and amusing books about boys, among which are: Real Diary of a Real Boy (1902); Letters to Beany and Love Letters of Plupy Shute (1905); Real Boys (1906), The Country Band (1908), Pulpy (1910); A Country Lawyer (1911) ] Misadventures of Three Good Boys (1914); Brite and Fair (1918); The Real Diary of the Worst Farmer (1919); Chadwick and Shute, Gob Printers (1927); Plupy, The Wirst Yet (1929). Shute, John. See Barring- ton. Shut'tle, an instrument used in weaving cloth, by which the threads of the weft are passed between the threads of the warp. It is a sort of boat-shaped wood- en carriage, containing the bob- bin on which the weft is wound. In olden times the weaver moved the shuttle with his hands, but this is now done automatically by machinery. See Cotton. Shuttleworth. See Kay- Shuttleworth. Shuvaloff, shu-va'lof, Peter Andreievitch (1827-89), Russian soldier and diplomat. As governor-general of the Baltic provinces (1864) he distinguished himself by repressing Nihilism and other forms of revolutionary agitation. He was placed at the head of the political police, and became the confidential agent of Emperor Alexander ii. He was ambassador to Great Britain ; and in 1878, after the Russo- Turkish War, he conducted the negotiations with Lord Salisbury which led to the Berlin Congress. Shuya, ancient town, central Russia, in Vladimir government; 63 miles northwest of Vladimir Shwan-pan KR 197A ^tant city. It has manufactures of fioap, cotton, calico, linen, and cloth, dyeworks, and trade in hides and furs. Pop. about 35,500. Shwan-pan, or Suan-pan. See Abacus. Shwedaung, shwa-downg', town. Lower Burma, in Prome district, on the Irawadi River ; 1 1 miles southwest of Prome. Weaving is the chief industry, and rice is exported. Pop. 10,000. SiaFagogue, a substance which increases the flow of sa- liva. Some drugs effect this by direct contact with the mucous membrane of the mouth — e.g., dilute acids, ether, tobacco, mus- tard, and spices ; others by act- ing upon the salivary glands— e.g., potassium iodide, jaborandi, mercurial salts, and physostigma. Sialkot, se'al-kot, or Seal- KOTE, municipal town, India, Sialkot district, Punjab, 66 miles northeast of Lahore, Notable buildings are the church, with a lofty steeple, and the old fort. A mile to the north is a military cantonment. Excellent paper and cloth are manufactured. Pop. 100.973. Slam', or Thailand, an inde- pendent kingdom of Asia, 20° north of the Gulf of Siam, which separates the Malay from the Indo-China Peninsula. Its area is about 200,148 square miles. The natives call their country Muang-Thai', meaning 'the king- dom of the free.' Within com- paratively recent years the limits of Siam have varied consider- ably, especially by the definition of the French sphere of influence in the East. The kingdom is bounded on the west by Burma and the Bay of Bengal, and on the east by the Mekong and the French protec- torates of Luang Prabang and Cambodia. Formerly the Lai Mountains were claimed as the eastern boundary, but in 1893 the French pressed the claims of Annam to the territory between the mountains and the river, and the Siamese were compelled to retire. The most important part of Siam lies in the valley of the Menam, the country of the true Siamese. The boundaries on the Bay of Bengal reach from Burma in a southerly line to the northern frontier of Kelantan and Kedah in the Malay Penin- sula in the latitude of about 7 deg. north. The island of Puket, containing enormous deposits of tin ore, is included in Siam. The boundary line runs southeast from the mouth of the Perlis River across the Peninsula slightly to the north of Kota Bharu, the capital of Kelantan. By the treaty of 1909 Siam ceded to Great Britain her Malay de- pendencies of Perlis, Kedah, Ke- lantan, and Trengganu, and the boundary was delimited during 1909-10. Siam also comprises a great part of the ancient do- main of Lao, but the rich and valuable possession of Battam- bang, once a part of the king- dom of Cambodia, was ceded to France in 1907. A treaty in 1904 between France and Siam settled some disputed points over the frontier between Siam and Cambodia and Siam and French Indo-China. By the 1907 treaty the terri- tories of Battambang, Sien-reap and Angkor were handed to France in exchange for the dis- trict of Krat and some slight concessions in Dansai (Laos). France then agreed to the grad- ual abandonment of the extra- territorial privileges hitherto en- joyed by French Asiatic subjects and proteges in Siam. The vari- ous dependencies and outskirts are peopled by a variety of races, some unique, others representing every form and shade of the transition between the original race and the Annamites on the east and the Malays and Bur- mese on the south and west. The former capital of Siam was Ayut- hia, on the Menam River (liter- ally the 'Mother of Waters'), about 90 miles from its mouth. In 1767 desperate combats be- tween Siamese and Burmese ended in the capture and de- struction of that city by the vic- torious Burmese general and the consequent exodus of the con- quered. They moved down the river about 60 miles, and there founded the present populous and flourishing city of Bangkok. The chief of the Siamese army ral- lied the scattered troops and, building a walled city at Dhon- buri {i.e., Bangkok on the west bank of the river, the modern capital being mainly on the east bank), declared himself King un- der the title P'ya Tak. In 1782 P'ya Tak became insane, and the kingdom passed to his most dis- tinguished general, named Chao P'ya Chakkri, who founded the present dynasty. The geography of Siam falls naturally into four main divi- sions, Northern, Central, Eastern and Southern. Northern Siam embraces about 60,000 square miles and consists of a series of roughly parallel hill ranges and valleys trending north and south. Increasing in elevation towards west and north, they reach heights of over 6,000 feet. They are all thickly forested, except where scarred by tribal clearings or bare rock. Numerous streams drain the hills ; those on the ex- treme west join the Salween ; those on the extreme north, the Mekong ; the remainder flow southwards into four streams which join to form the Menam. The soil is rich. The town of Chiengmai lies in the heart of this region and is connected with Bangkok by rail. Central Siam, about 50,000 square miles, is practically a vast plain extending from the moun- tains on the borders of Burma on the west to the ridge which bounds eastern Siam on the east, and for 300 miles from the north to the head of the Gulf of Siam in the south. The general dead level is broken in places by small hills. Lying slightly above sea level, the plain is subject to regu- lar annual inundations. Sluggish streams drain the region, of which the Menam is the chief. About a quarter of the area is under cultivation; belts and patches of jungle occur north- wards and in the east and west littoral districts, but the greater part of the plain consists of wide expanses thinly spotted with tall Palmyra palms and clumps of bamboo (marking the presence of villages), or is entirely tree- less. An irrigation system con- structed in recent years has opened up considerable tracts in this region north of Bangkok. Eastern Siam covers about 65,000 square miles and consists of a huge shallow basin encircled by hills, between which and the Mekong lies a strip of country, and the whole region forms the boundary of the kingdom. About 20 people to the square mile, some million and a quarter, Laos, Siamese and Cambodians, in- habit the territory, eking out a precarious existence from a re- luctant soil, damp and muddy half the year, and dry and hot the other half. Epidemics and dis- eases haunt both humans and cattle. Southern Siam, with an area of about 25,000 square miles, comprises all the narrower part of the Malay Peninsula, and far- ther north a strip between Lower Burma and the Gulf of Siam. The natural scenery is very beautiful, making a picture, re- peated with minor variations, of cerulean blue water, golden beaches, villages nestling among tall palm trees, with miles of evergreen jungle rolling behind these, and at the back of all the magnificent purple mountains towering into the sky. Though generally of a hilly character, the east coast district comprises several broad open plains with a light but rich soil where crops of rice are grown and large herds of cattle raised. The most fer- tile plains are situated round about the towns of Lakon and Patalung, where a large popula- tion lives and prospers on agri- culture and fishing. Here- in- © livTton Holmes, from Ewing Galloway, N. Y. SCENES IN SIAM 1. One of the Many Fine Temples of Bangkok, a Good Example of vSiamese Architecture 2. Houses Built in the Menam River, the Chief Highway of the Siamese Interior Vol. XI.— Vol,. XT.— Page 197 B Siam 197 C Siam deed, is an idyllic earthly para- dise, plenty of food, little or no disease, and an equable climate — a great contrast to Eastern Siam, It is through the delight- ful east coast of Southern Siam that the railway between Malaya and Bangkok nms. The west- ern coast is more indented than the eastern and resembles that of Tenasserim (Burma) to the north. On one of the islands lies the town of Puket, long famous for its tin mines, and with a large Chinese population. Siam has one great river of its own — the Menam, which with its tributaries lies completely within Siamese territory. The Salween and the Mekong, on the other hand, form the boundary lines of the country for considerable dis- tances. The Menam (or Menam Chao Phaya) is to Siam what the Nile is to Egypt. The river is thronged with craft of all kinds, a highway, a sewer, and the sole water supply for a large propor- tion of the people. Bangkok be- strides the Menam and is re- markable for its size relative to the total population of the coun- try — over 600,000 — and it han- tlles 85 per cent, of the foreign trade of Siam. Its position amid iiuimnerable sidecreeks has made the city a Venice of the East. The climate and seasons in Siam resemble those of India — the so-called cold season from the end of October to February, the hot season from March to May and the rains from June to October. Central Siam benefits from the cooling winds from the Gulf of Siam from March to October ; the basin of Eastern Siam is cut off from these and suffers greater extremes as well as a lower rainfall. The south of Siam, in the Peninsula, has a short dry season and a small annual range. The teak forests of the north- west are cominercially impor- tant ; the cutting of the timber is a great industry and is mainly under British management. The logs are floated down the Menam to Bangkok or down the Salween to Moulmein in Burma. The chief product of Siam is rice, which forms both the national food and the staple article of ex- port. The crop normally covers an area of over 4,000.000 acres. Other crops of note are pepper, tobacco and betel-nuts ; rubber in the extreme south. Both fauna and flora in Southern Siam gradually merge into those char- acteristic of Malaya. Elephants, tigers, and several kinds of deer are abundant, and there is a great variety of birds, reptiles and fish. The chief geological character- istics of .Siam are immense beds nf limestone rocks resting on 1 1 3-1-2 sandstone and much broken by frequent intrusions of granite, (jold, silver, coal, copper, lead, iron, petroleum, wolfram and salt are found in limited amounts, and large quantities of tin are worked. Sapphires, garnets, ru- bies and topaz crystals occur in the northerji part. The only manufacturing in- dustry of any importance is rice- milling, which is steadily grow- ing and is carried on in most places by means of modern ma- chinery. There are almost a hundred rice mills in and about Bangkok. Boat building and pottery making are practised on a modest scale. The chief port is Bangkok, but ships of heavy draught have to transfer their cargoes at Paknam on the coast, owing to a bar at the mouth of the river which permits the pas- sage of vessels drawing 13 feet only. About 1,000 vessels visit Bangkok annually ; roughly a third of the tonnage is British. Until recent years the rivers and canals were the chief means of internal communication and transport. The first railway line, from Bangkok to Paknam, was opened by King Chulalongkorn on April 11, 1893. Mainly a pas- senger, line, it has not been able to build up any freight traffic worth mentioning, though the dividend averages 7 per cent. Another railway, a Government line via Ayuthia to Korat, was the first important line completed. The first section, from Bangkok to Ayuthia, about 50 miles, was opened in 1897 ; another section, to Gengkoi, followed the same year ; a third, to Hinlap, was opened in 1898 ; and the whole line completed in 1900. The con- struction of a line branching oft" the Korat line near Ayuthia and intended to open up the country to Chiengmai, was opened in 1898; other sections came, Lop- buri-Paknampo ; Pitsanulok in 1907, and the final link, to Chiengmai, was opened to traf- fic Jan. 1, 1922. The line run- ning south-west to Petchaburi, Tia Ratburi, was opened in 1903. This southern line was continued in 1909 from Petchaburi, and now runs to the Kedah frontier at Padang Besar and to the Ke- lantan frontier at Sungei Golok. .A. through rail service was opened between Bangkok and Penang in 1918 ; the Eastern line from Bangkok to Patriev was completed in 1908. It now runs to Aranya Prades near the Cam- bodian frontier, while the Korat line has been extended to Ubon. The World War interrupted railroad construction in Siam. In 1930 there were 1,774 miles of State Railways open to traffic, and 1 1 1 miles under construc- tion. The Southern Line con- nects (through Penang) with the Federated Malay States Railway to Singapore. The Northern and Southern systems are linked to- gether by means of a railway bridge over the Menam since 1927. Both lines are under one management. Some private lines (66 miles) are operated by companies and form connection in parts with the State Lines. There were 1,300 miles of highways in 1930. Post offices (1929-30) numbered 832. In those years there were 581 telegraph offices, with a length of wire of 8,251 miles (lines, 4,905 miles). In 1929-30 there were 18 telephone exchanges with 3,162 subscribers; number of calls were 13,880,220. Three wireless stations (Telefunken system) operate in Bangkok, Sin- gora (Senggora), and Koh-Khan, two under the Navy Department and the last under the Post and Telegraph Department. In 1929 a new, high-powered station was added in Bangkok. Direct wire- less commercial communication operates with France, Germany, (ireat Britain, Philippine Islands, Hong Kong and Java. Currency reform in 1928 abol- ished the tical, long the monetary unit of Siam. The unit of cur- rency now is the silver baht, di- vided, as was the tical, into 100 satang. The baht rates at eleveti to the pound sterling, and is worth, roughly, 44 cents Ameri- can. Other silver coins are 50 and 25 satang. Nickel coins are 10 and 5 satang; bronze, 1 sa- tang. In 1902 there began the issue of 5, 10, 20, 100 and 1,000 tical notes; in 1918, 1 tical notes were added. By the 1929-30 census the population was 11,506,207, over two-thirds Siamese. The Sia- mese are a small, well-propor- tioned race with olive skin and black hair. They are essentially peaceful and inclined to indolence. There is no hereditary nobility. The position of women is much better than in many Oriental states, and they enjoy many legal and actual rights. Though po- lygamy is legal, it is rare among the peasants. The language is monosyllabic and has five tones, somewhat like the Chinese, which makes its acquisition difficult for Westerners. The alphabet con- sists of 44 consonants and 32 vowels, which latter are written over, under, and at either side of the consonant, not unlike the vowel signs in Arabic. There is little literature of value.. The sacred books are written in Pali. The state religion is Bud- dhism, of the Hinayana or 'Les- ser Vehicle' school, with more than 16,000 temples and 133,000 priests. There are many Mo- hanuuedans (Malays), and the Siam KFP 197 D Siam northern tribes practice Shaman- ism. French Jesuit missionaries have long been established, and British and American societies work in Bangkok and other parts of Siam proper. The greatest toleration prevails, and Christian missionaries are often assisted by the government in education- al and medical work. Education —For many gen- erations education was princi- pally of a religious nature, the boys having to spend some months in Buddhist monasteries. Elementary education is now free and compulsory (since 1921) for boys and girls. In 1871 King Chulalongkorn founded a school to teach the native lan- guage, arithmetic and govern- ment service methods. English was soon added, though this training was intended only for sons and relatives of officials. A royal decree in 1898 made it in- cumbent upon the priests to pro- vide 'general knowledge.' There are 429 government schools. There are 10,768 local elemen- tary schools with 1,325,891 pu- pils (over 80 per cent girls). Higher education is provided by the Chulalankarana Univer- sity in Bangkok (1917), organ- ized in three faculties, medicine, arts and sciences, and engineer- ing. A new University of Moral and Political Sciences was founded in 1934 for the teach- ing of law, politics and econom- ics, and the training of Civil servants. The Department of Education was established in 1887. Training is also given in agriculture, and for nurses and midwives. There are also mili- tary and naval colleges and a Law School. Some of the upper classes send their sons abroad for study ; while a large number of promising students are sent to Europe and the United States supported by the government and the royal purse. Public Health— Since 1917, when the International Health Board of the Rockefeller Foun- dation carried its work to Siam, the government has labored for the wide dissemination of medi- cal treatment and preventive work, in which foreign experts have been employed. The be- ginning of the government's ef- forts for public health dates from the opening of a medical school in 1889. Shortly afterwards, an American physician at Bangkok was placed in charge of the health conditions in the capital, and the first public health decree was issued in 1897. The gov- ernment supports numerous hos- pitals and dispensaries. There is a hospital in Bangkok for Chinese exclusively ; other hospitals in the interior were, originally, missionary enter- prises. The missionary leper in- stitution at Chiengmai dates back to the early part of the 19th cen- tury. Infant and maternal work, with nursing, has made great progress, while particular atten- tion is devoted to epidemic dis- eases — plague, cholera, small- pox and cerebrospinal meningi- tis. There is also a Siamese Red Cross which, in conjunction with the Rockefeller group, leads an educational campaign against hookworm disease. The Red Cross also has charge of the Pas- teur Institute, opened in 1905. Defense, — The Military Serv- ice Act (June 1, 1937) made every able-bodied man between 18 and 30 years of age liable to serve two years with the colors ; seven years in the first reserve ; ten years in the second reserve, and six years in the third re- serve. The army has 26 battal- ions of infantry, 4 regiments and 1 squadron of cavalry, two anti- aircraft sections, 9 groups of ar- tillery and 2 battalions of engi- neers. The total personnel is about 30,000. The navy includes 2 sea gun- boats, 4 coast defense gunboats, 3 sloops, 1 destroyer, 7 seagoing torpedo boats, 3 small torpedo boats, 8 motor torpedo boats, 4 submarines, 2 minelayers, and 11 transport vessels. Most of the ships were built in Japan and Italy. The mouth of the Menam is fortified. ^ Government. — Siam was, un- til 1932, an absolute monarchy, the person of the king being sa- cred. A brief military revolu- tion in June, 1932, resulted in a constitutional monarchy being set up, with power vested in the people, including votes for wom- en. The king exercises his legis- lative powers with the advice and consent of the Assembly of the People's Representatives, and the executive power through the State Council of 14 to 24 mem- bers. The president and 14 members of the Council are se- lected from the Assembly, one half nominated by the king and the remainder elected by popular vote for four years. After ten years all the members were to be elected by popular vote. The Ministers are directed by State Councillors. For local ad- ministration the country is di- vided into 70 provinces called Changwads, under Commission- ers responsible to the Minister of the Interior. Subdivisions are 406 Districts and 5,087 Com- munes. The census of 1937 showed a population of 14,464,- 489, an increase of 2,958,282 over the 1929 census. Estimated population in 1940 was 15,718,- 000. Foreign Relations. — S o m e European nations and the United States enjoyed extraterritorial jurisdiction until the close of the First World War. France had renounced such rights in 1907 ; Great Britain followed two years later. These concessions were based upon the modernization of Siamese judicial procedure. In 1936 Siam denounced all her ex- isting treaties with foreign coun- tries and negotiations for new ones began. Siam's full sover- eignty was recognized by Great Britain in 1926. With Siam's entry into the First World War on the side of the Allies (July, 1917), her struggle for full autonomy and territorial integrity entered its final phase. Germany and Aus- tria-Hungary lost their extrater- ritorial and all other rights fol- lowing Siam's declaration of war. Then, in 1920, by the Si- amese-American treaty (Dec. 16), the United States granted to Siam legal jurisdiction over American nationals. Under the absolutist regime a majority of the foreign judges held their positions on the initia- tive of the Siamese, even those who had a treaty status sat as individual foreigners and not as representatives of a specific for- eign government. History. — Siam has been de- fined as a 'treaty-defended buffer state between British and French territory in the Indo-Chinese peninsula.' Its modern history begins from 1511, when Portu- guese traders arrived at Siamese ports, followed by other adven- turous foreigners. As was the case in other Oriental countries, the foreign trader fell into dis- faror for many years, but in Siam, as later in Japan, was wel- comed eventually, although it meant for the country foreign impositions on the freedom of the state, such as foreign dictat- ed tariffs and extraterritoriality. Among the early arrivals was the son of a Levantine innkeep- er, ^ Constantine Faulkon, who arrived at Ayuthia in 1659 and soon became adviser to the rul- ing monarch. For many years he served Siamese interests faith- fully by encouraging commerce with foreigners. But in 1688 he swerved into a plot with French missionaries to bring the land under French political control. The Siamese revolted against the ruling house, drove it out. murdered Faulkon and expelled the French ships and soldiers. Then came a long period of dis- order and, eventually, the Bur- mese war, when Bangkok was founded after defeat, in 1767. It was king Monghkut who in 1851 decided to modernize Si- am's entire government to secure for his country a place of equal- ity among the nations. This en- Siam KFP 198 Sian-fa lightened ruler had spent 27 years of his manhood as a Bud- dhist monk, studying Western civilization and learning Eng- lish, French and Latin from American and French mission- aries. He ruled from 1851 to 1868. Chulalongkorn succeeded his father Monghkut at the age of 15 and reigned 42 years, dur- ing which long period he intro- duced progressive reforms and Hin, on the coast. Soldiers and sailors seized strategic points of the city and arrested a number of the royal princes, whom they held as hostages. The plot had been brewing for some years among a small group of young civilians who were ed- ucated in Europe. They suc- ceeded in winning over to their cause some younger officers of both the army and navy to bring sent several of his sons to be educated in England. He abol- ished slavery and established lib- erty of conscience. Chulalong- korn was succeeded in 1910 by his son Rama vi, who died in 1925 and was followed by his younger brother, Prajadhipok. Both these monarchs received part of their education in Eng- land and France. The latter, with his queen, Rambai Barni, visited the United States in 1931. On June 24, 1932, there was staged in Bangkok one of the most remarkable revolutions re- corded in history. It was a peaceful event from start to fin- ish. The king and (|ueen were away at a small village at Hua about, by force if necessary, a change in the form of govern- ment. The king was invited to return to Bangkok — as a consti- tutional sovereign. Siam thus became a democracy. The king was threatened with blindness, which caused him to travel many thousands of miles for operations in England and the United States. While on a visit to England in 1935 Pra- jadhipok made certain demands for royal prerogatives which were rejected by the National Assembly, in consequence of which he abdicated his throne and became Prince of Sukho- daya. His nephew, Prince Ananda Mahidol, then an 11- year-old schoolboy in Switzer- land, was chosen as king. Ananda, who was born in Eu- rope, lived for a time at Cam- bridge, Mass., where his father, Prince Mahidol, attended Har- vard Medical School. During the king's minority a Council of Regency of three of- ficials was appointed to conduct the government. In the Second World War, Siam became a pup- pet of Japan until 1945 and was technically at war with the United Nations, though resisting underground. The young king came of age in 1942 but did not return to Siam until three years later. On June 9, 1946 the king was fatally shot in his palace. He was succeeded by his broth- er, Phumiphon Aduldet. Consult Carter, The Kingdom of Siam (1904); Thompson, Lotus Latid (1906) ; Wales, Si- amese State Ceremonies (1932); idem. Ancient Siamese Govern- ment and Administration (1934) ; Riviere, Siam (1937) ; Wood, A History of Siam (1926) ; Pierre Loti, Siam (1923) ; Sir J. Bow- ring, The Kingdom and People of Siam (2 vols. 1857) ; Thomp- son, Thailand, The New Siam (1941). Siam, Gulf of, a branch of the China Sea, between the Ma- lay Peninsula on the west and Cambodia and Cochin-China on the east, 235 miles wide at its mouth, and extending inland 470 miles. Siamese Twins, Chang and Eng (1811-74), an instance of the monstrosity known as 'dou- ble.' The twins exhibited them- selves in various parts of the world. After their death a post- mortem examination showed that they were united by a fleshy band, situated between the xiphi- sterna and the umbilici, contain- ing peritoneal and hepatic tis- sues. The twins engaged in farming in southern United States before the Civil War. They adopted the name of 'Bunk- er' and left a numerous progeny by twin sisters. _ Sian-fu, seng'a-foo', Sing- ANFU, HSIAN-FU, Or SlGAN-PU. formerly Chang-an, provincial capital of Shensi, northwest China ; about 250 miles west of Honanfu railroad station. It is situated on a lofty plateau a few miles south of the Wei River, the chief tributary of the Yellow River (Hoang-ho). The city is surrounded by walls measuring nearly 12 miles in circumference and 35 feet in height, and having four gates surmounted by tow- ers. In the N.E. part is the Man- chu quarter, including a large tract of walled land where stood the ancient imperial palace ; the N.w. part is mainly Mohamme- dan, and contains the oldest 2 c/2 ^ 3 Q 5 .. W > bo H -.S "I Siang-tau KFI 199 Siberia mosque in China ; in the s.w. part are the governor's Yamen and many residences ; while the s.E. corner boasts the 'Peilin,' a valuable collection of ancient carved tablets. Little shipping is seen, the Hoang-ho not being navigable to any extent in Shensi and West Honan. The transit caravan trade is important, how- ever, for here converge the great trade routes from the north, south, and east. The Roman Catholics, English Baptists, and Scandinavian Alliance Missions maintain stations in Sian-fu. Pop. about 1,000,000. Sian-fu is a city of great his- torical interest. Under various names its history extends con- tinuously down to the present time from the days of the Chow dynasty (1100 B.C.), when it was the capital of China. It was a great center of Christian mis- sions and Nestorian influence in the 7th and 8th centuries of the Christian era. In 871 the fa- mous Nestorian Tablet was erected here, giving among other things a vague and figurative ab- stract of Christian doctrine. The Tablet was accidentally un- earthed in 1625, and re-erected on a stone tortoise. In 1907 the Danish explorer Frits v. Holm procured a monolith replica of the monument, which was exhib- ited in the Metropolitan Museum of New York from 1908 to 1916, and was subsequently placed in the Lateran Palace in Rome. Sian-fu became the temporary capital of China when the Em- press Dowager Tze-Hsi and Em- peror Kwang-Hsu fled thither from Peking in 1900, during the Boxer rising. In 1911 the city joined the revolt against the Manchus. Siang-'tau. See Hsiang-tau. Siaton, se-a-ton', pueblo, Philippines, on Negros Island, 26 miles southwest of Duma- guete. Pop. 14,000. Sibalom, se-ba-lom', pueblo, Antique province, Panay, Phil- ippine Islands; 10 miles n.e. of San Jose de Buenavista. Pop. 17,700. Sibelius, se-ba'li-us, Jean ri865- ), Finnish composer, was born in Tavastehus. He studied music in Helsingfors and later in Berlin and Vienna. Re- turning to Finland in 1893, he became principal of the Helsing- fors Conservatorium, devoting much of his time, however, to composition. In 1900 he toured Scandinavia, Germany, France, and Belgium and in 1914 visited America to produce his Daugh- ters of the Ocean, at the Nor- folk, Conn., festival. His work shows marked individuality and a strong leaning toward his na- tive folk-music. Among his chief works are several Symphonies, The Swan of Tnonela, Overture and Suite of Karelia, Finlandia, Pohjola's Daughter, The Maid in the Tower (an opera), incidental music to Pelleas ct Melisande, Konig Christian II, and Kuo- lema. He also composed more than 100 songs. Siberia (Russ. Sibir) is a vast Russian territory in north- ern Asia, extending from the Ural Mountains to Bering Strait, about 5,000 miles across ; and in the west, from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Mongolian border in the south, about 2,300 miles, with a total area of about 5,200,000 square miles. This northern part of Asiatic Russia consists of several autonomous, semi-autonomous and territorial areas. The coast line measures 19,300 miles, of which rather more than half skirts the Arctic Ocean. The Amur River marks the southern boundary in part on the east, cutting through the Great Khingan, between which and the Sayan Mountains on the west the plateau of Transbai- kalia extends across the bound- ary. Siberia extends west to the Urals only in the north, and is divided from the steppes by a conventional line crossing the basin of the Ob. A mountainous arc extends from Bering Strait southwest to the Transbaikal plateau, and is continued north- west by ranges on the right bank of the Yenisei, one of which, the Pitski, crosses that river at the 'Gates,' not far from the mouth of the Stony Tunguska, and ends in low hills at the source-region of the Taz River. Within this arc lie several other elevations, running more or less from west to east, chief of which are the Siverma Mountains (2,000 feet), and the great Verkhoyansk arc, extending from the mouth of the Olenek to the Stanovoi range on the Anadyr boundary. That much remains to be learnt of this region was shown by the discovery of S. V. Obru- chev in 1926 of a hitherto un- known range rising to heights of 10,000 feet, which forms an in- ner arc parallel to the outer arc composed of the Verkhoyansk- Kolymsk-Anadyrsk range. From the Sayan Mountains ranges rvm northeast, enclosing the basin of Lake Baikal. On the shores of the Arctic Ocean the country frec|uently rises into tablelands or forms low plains, as along the Indigirka and Kolima. Nearly the entire northwestern section is covered by the great Siberian swamp, the most extensive in the world. South of the great arc the surface is much diversified by mountains, on the Sea of Okhotsk and in the Amur re- gion by spurs of the Stanovoi ; in the Ussuri districts by the Sikhota-alin ; while the Little Khingan crosses the Amur. Owing to the configuration the principal rivers — Ob, Yeni- sei and Lena — flow into the Arctic Ocean, and only one im- portant stream, the Amur, de- bouches on the east coast. The rivers, all slow and navigable al- most to their sources, form the chief highways of Siberia. Their great disadvantage is that they are closed to navigation by ice more than half the year. Lakes, salt and fresh, are nu- merous in the basin of the Ob, and also within the great mountain arc. The largest and most important is Lake Baikal (area 13,300 square miles). See Baikal, Lake. Climate, — In Siberia the eter- nal cold of the northern tundra contrasts with the burning heat of the arid steppes of Kazakstan, the level prairie lands with some of the greatest mountain ranges in the world. There are no pro- tecting mountain ranges against the cold winds from the Arctic, which have full play to sweep across the vast plain which, in- deed, is actually inclined north- wards to receive their entire force — right down to the Cri- mean movmtains and the Cau- casus. The continental charac- ter of Siberian climate makes for greater dryness, a severer winter and hotter summer than the lands of Western Europe which, as a rule, are nearer salt water and especially the Atlantic Ocean. In the northern section the ground is perpetually frozen to a great depth — in the Vitim dis- trict the frost reaching 300 feet below the surface. During the long winter the Lena-Vitim gold-mining district remains cut off from civilization and the rail- roads. Only at the end of spring does transportation become pos- sible again. The farther east one passes from the moderating inflvience of the Atlantic and the seas of the temperate zone, the greater be- comes the difference in the tem- peratures of the summer and win- ter months. The remains of mammoths and other animals are found intact in the frozen depths. In winter the isotherms circle round Verkhoyansk (67^° n., 134^° E.), said to be the coldest inhabited place in the world. Here the mean for the year is about zero, and the absolute maximum and minimum are 88° and —89° p., so that the range is 177°. In summer the surface thaws, and the whole northern country is covered with deep mud. In the south, at Irkutsk, in Siberia KFI 200 Siberia Transbaikalia, and on the Amur, the annual mean is 32° or less, and even at Vladivostok the har- bor is frozen for more than three months. But the summer mean is over 60°, and therefore crops ripen. Western Siberia has a better climate, with an annual mean of 37 ^ tempera- ture of 67° in July. The pre- cipitation also increases toward the south. It is very slight along the Arctic coast, and only 14 inches in the Irkutsk region ; but it is 20 inches at Nikolaievsk (mouth of the Amur) and 19 in Western Siberia. Flora and Fauna, — Owing to the cold and dryness of the Arc- tic littoral, the surface is covered with tundra vegetation down to about 66° N. lat. Then follows the forest zone (taiga) which, along the rivers, sends out tongues northward. The forests are chiefly coniferous, pine, spruce, fir and larch predominat- ing. The deciduous trees are oak, elm, ash and maple. Birches, alders, willows and pop- lars fringe the streams. The agricultural zone extends from the Baraba Steppe (Tomsk) east along Southern Siberia. Fur- bearing animals are hunted by natives and Russian settlers, and the most valuable, the sable, has been almost exterminated in the Yakutsk region. The chief fur trade is in polar hare and fox, otter, red fox, ermine, wolf, bear and squirrel. Reindeer are typi- cal for the tundra, as also are multitudes of wading and swim- ming birds, especially the tundra swan, geese and barnacles. All over the taiga are to be found brown bears, lynx, wolverines, wolves, and more than 200 spe- cies of birds. Typical of the steppes are the large jerboa, mar- mot, crownsnipe, bustard, etc. The lakes swarm with fish — salmon, sturgeon and allied forms. The Eskimo dog and the reindeer are used as dravight ani- mals in the north, and the camel in the south. Mineral Resources* — Siberia is incalculably rich in mineral deposits, particularly in coal. There are vast deposits of iron ore. Until recent years most at- tention was paid to gold-mining, but numerous expeditions des- patched by the Soviet govern- ment have located deposits of sil- ver, copper, graphite, zinc, plat- inum, manganese, marble, emer- alds, and lapis lazuli. The min- eral extracting industry of Si- beria is as yet but poorly devel- oped though considerable effort is being devoted to increase out- put. Agriculture is the main occu- pation ; eight out of ten persons are thus employed, and three- quarters of the total income of the country is derived from this source. Animal-breeding is greatly developed, as also the butter-making in connection therewith. In the south is found the fertile black earth region so favorable to the cultivation of wheat, oats, barley, rye and vegetables. Market-gardening is everywhere a favorite occupa- tion, and of late years cotton has been raised in the s.w. Cattle- grazing and horse-breeding are important industries, especially among the Cossacks, Buriats and Kirghiz. Reindeer take the place of cattle in the north and east and in the Sayan Moun- tains. Industries are as yet in their infancy. In pre-revolutionary times (before 1917) Siberia served as raw material basis for European Russia in a number of branches of industry. At pres- ent the first place is occupied by local industry, followed by gold- mining and dressing of hides and furs. In Eastern and Northern Siberia mining, hunting and lum- bering are the chief occupations. Distilling and brewing are carried on, and there are match factories, soap and tallow works, saw mills, oil refineries, flovir mills, brick works and potteries. On the peninsula of Kamchatka, Eastern Siberia, there are great modern floating and land canneries, where salmon, crab meat and boneless sturgeon are canned. Transportation, — Naviga- tion on the rivers is open only about five months a year in their upper courses and three at their mouths. But this defect has been in part compensated by the construction of the great Trans- Siberian Railway from the Urals to Vladivostok. (See Siberian Railway). An important cara- van route runs from Irkutsk through Kiakhta to Peiping, by which Chinese and Mongolian wares, tea principally, are im- ported. Another important out- let is Tiumen, where the naviga- ble waters of the Ob are con- nected by rail with Perm in the basin of the Volga. Population, -;~ln 1939 the population of Siberia was about 9,000,000, the great majority be- ing Russian or of other Slav na- tionalities. Cossacks are dis- tributed in villages over all the southern part, especially on the Amur frontier and in the north of the Ussuri District. The na- tive tribes include Kirghiz in the southwest, Buriats in Irkutsk, Southern Yeniseisk and Trans- baikalia, Tungusi tribes from the Arctic shore to the Ussuri Dis- trict, Ainus and Gilyaki in Sak- halin, Yakuts in the Lena basin, Lamuti on the Sea of Okhotsk, Chukchi in the northeast, Sa- moyeds and Ostiaks west of the Anabara River. Other tribes of the Far Eastern Region are the Goldi, Samogiri, Malegri, Oro- chi ; in Kamchatka are the Kor- yaki, also Chukchi, Samoyeds and Lamuti ; along the Zeya River, Manchurians, and near the Chinese border, Chinese and Koreans. Most of the Far Eastern peo- ple are semi-civilized and many are nomadic, roaming by tribes through the taiga and along the coast, living by hunting, fishing and raising reindeer. At several points along the coast what are known as 'cultural combines' have been established where a school, hospital, veterinary sta- tion, moving-picture theatre and workshops are all combined in one institution. These centers, under the direction of experi- enced teachers, play an important part in the cultural development of the country, opening to the natives a hitherto unknown world. Prior to the World War thou- sands of convicts were brought into the country annually to work in the government mines or be assigned to private mine owners and manufacturers. The land was, in fact, regarded as a penal colony for three hundred years by tsarist and imperial Russia. About a million persons were thus exiled since the dawn of the 19th century, but in 1900 the em- peror substituted imprisonment as penalty for offenses which heretofore involved exile to Si- beria. Religion and Education, — The only recognized religion — so far as it is permitted — is that of the Orthodox Church, though dissenters are allowed much free- dom. Many natives have been baptized, though most of these cleaye to their old faiths — Sha- manism, Lamaism, or Islam. Religion is not encouraged un- der Soviet rule. Education has progressed in Western Siberia and numerous schools are in op- eration. History, — Study of early Chi- nese annals indicates that in the second and third centuries of the Christian era Central and Western Siberia were inhabited by various Finnish tribes. Dur- ing the fourth to the sixth cen- turies certain Turkish tribes known as Hunni began mingling with the Finnish aborigines and by the 11th century the Finns had become greatly modified by Turkish stock, and a population had been formed in which both racial elements existed about e(|ually. In the 13th century the generals of the Great Khan of Mongolia penetrated Siberia and subjugated the tribes along the Yenisei, Ob and Irtish, forcing the others to retreat to the north. Siberia : Principal Street, Vladivostok. Wide World Photos. Shaman, a Religious Leader of Nomadic (ioldi Tribe, Vol. XL— Page 201 Siberia KFI 202 Siberian Railway The power of the Mongols weak- ening in the 14th century, the in- habitants of Southern Siberia re- volted and established an inde- pendent khanate with headquar- ters at Sibir. This khanate during the 15th and 16th centuries was disturbed by internal dissension and at length Ivan the Terrible, the Muscovite Tsar, determined to bring it under Russian protec- tion. In this attempt he was ably aided by Yermak, a Russian Cossack, and Anika Strogonof, a man of considerable wealth, who prepared an expedition to Sibir in 1579 and after 18 months of hardships met and completely routed the forces of Kutchum Khan. The Cossack victors built forts and stockades along the shores of the principal Siberian rivers, steadily advanc- ing and acquiring new territory, and before the end of the 17th century had established them- selves as far south as Lake Baikal. In 1643 a party of Cossacks set out to explore the territory of the Amur, reaching the movith of that river, and in 1649 an- other expedition under Khabaroff started to visit this new territory with the idea of bringing it into subjection to the Tsar. This was the beginning of the struggle with the Manchus for the posses- sion of the Amur and of Man- churia, which was temporarily ended by the Treaty of Ner- chinsk (1689), by which the boundary between China and Russia was clearly defined. The two succeeding centuries wit- nessed various attempts by Rus- sia to . obtain an outlet to the Pacific and the right to free nav- igation of the Amvir, but little was accomplished until the mid- dle of the 19th century. In 1847 Count Muravieff was appointed governor of Eastern Siberia and he at once gave his attention to the Amur question with the result that in 1854, after the outbreak of the Crime- an War, he led an expedition down the river. After peace was declared in 1856, Muravieff suc- ceeded in negotiating the Treaty of Aigun (1858), by which the Amur was declared to be the boundary between China and Siberia, the left bank to belong to Russia. In 1860 the Peking Treaty gave Russia the Ussuri districts and Vladivostok was founded. In 1872 this became the chief naval station of Russia on the Pacific, superseding the icebound port of Nicolayevsk. In 1895 Russia established a na- val station at Port Arthur and obtained the lease of the free port of Dalny in the Liaotung Peninsula. Both of these she lost in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5), and Vladivostok again became the chief port. The Russian Revolution in 1917 was welcomed generally in Siberia and most of the popula- tion was content with the aboli- tion of tsarism ; but a discon- tented minority started a Bol- shevistic propaganda and Siberia was. soon involved in civil war. The Bolsheviki gained control and maintained a sort of soviet government which was inter- rupted by the influx of some 40,- 000 Czechoslovak troops who, having deserted to Russia prior to its withdrawal from the war, secured permission to retire from Russian territory via the Trans-Siberian Railroad and Vladivostok. By the end of June, 1918, they had won control throughout Western Siberia. Soon after this the Siberian (anti-Bolshevik) Government was created, and Admiral Kol- chak became the head of the counter-revolutionary forces. A period of foreign intervention followed, dviring which Ameri- can, Japanese, and other for- eign troops entered Siberia. Meantime Kolchak had fallen from power, was captured and shot, and intervention became in- creasingly unpopular. Conse- quently, by December, 1919, all but the Japanese troops with- drew, their final evacuation not taking place until November, 1922. In April, 1920, a new state known as the Far Eastern Re- public was constituted in Siberia, consisting of the former prov- inces of Transbaikal, Amur, Primorsk and northern Sakhalin. It was recognized by the Russian Soviet Republic alone. In 1922 it voluntarily dissolved and handed back to Moscow the pow- ers it had received from her, be- coming again an integral part of the Russian commonwealth. In 1925—6 Siberia was politi- cally divided into the Western Siberian Region with the capital at Novo-Sibirsk, and the Far- Eastern Siberian Region (capi- tal, Irkutsk), the latter division being regarded as the Union's economic bulwark on the Pacific. For this reason there were in- cluded in it the Okhotsk littoral, Kamchatka and the Anadyr- Chukot area. Principal cities of the Regions, besides the capitals, are Omsk, Tomsk, Barnaul, Krasnoyarsk and Buisk. Consult Intourist Co., Pocket Guide to the Soviet Union; A. Rado (ed.), Giiidc-Book to the Soviet Union; C. G. Channing, Siberia's Untouched Treasure (1924); M. P. Price, Siberia (1912); A. Noble, Siberian Days (1928); J. B. Wood, In- credible Siberia (1928) ; M. Burr, In Bolshevik Siberia (1931); I. A. Lopatin, Russian Asia (1933); P. Lucchini, Se- crets of Siberia (1934). Siberian Railway, or Trans- Siberian Railway, strictly speaking, the railway reaching from Leningrad to the Japan Sea. Construction began in 1892 and continued, with inter- ruptions, for a number of years^ In 1895 the section from Chelya- binsk to the Ob was completed ; in 1897 from the Ob to Irkutsk. The difficult section around Lake Baikal took from 1899 to 1904, and that from Khabarovsk to Vladivostok was not finished un- til 1904. As originally planned, the line followed the Amur River, but the building of this part of the line was deferred, and by spe- cial treaty with China, the Chi- nese Eastern Railway was built across northern Manchuria through Hailar, Tsitsihar and Harbin to Vladivostok, thus shortening the route consider- ably. The section along the Amur was not built until 1915, completing the Siberian Railway as first planned. Several branch lines connect the trunk line with important points. There are also several local spur lines. This great railroad made possible the devel- opment of Siberian industry and trade. In 1900 the freight ton- nage carried was 2,566,000 ; in 1930 it was 19,116,000 tons, and has steadily increased since then. It had long been realized that a single trunk line was inade- quate to serve so vast a terri- tory, and plans were being studied for a second transconti- nental line, to be known as the Great Northern Route, to run north of the trunk line. The outside world heard no more of this project until, on Dec. 19, 1937, an official radio broadcast from Moscow an- nounced completion of a new 1,800-mile railroad paralleling the Far-Eastern section of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The new line, constructed with ut- most secrecy because of its tre- mendous military importance, runs from Karymskaya, east of Lake Baikal, to Khabarovsk, 150 miles from the Pacific Ocean. At Khabarovsk it joins the Trans-Siberian, a branch of which runs from there down to Vladivostok. Building of the new railway, which lies to the north of the double-tracked Trans-Siberian line, took nearly four years. Its construction had been carried on at top speed, to provide the Soviet Army with sufficient transportation facilities to wage defensive warfare in Far Eastern Siberia and along the shores of the Pacific. Imperial Russia's inability to move troops and supplies rapidly Sibley KFI 203 Sicily across Siberia was a fatal weak- ness in the war (1904) with Japan. It was believed the line would have great commercial value. Cut through the heart of a veritable empire, it opened up a region rich in minerals, timber, farmlands and fur-bearing an- imals. Sibley, Henry Hopkins (181 6-86 ) , American soldier, was born in Nachitoches, La. He was graduated from the U. S. Military Academy in 1838; fought against the Seminoles and in the Mexican War. He partic- ipated in the Utah expedition, and in operations against the Navahos. In May, 1861, he re- signed from the army. He was commissioned brigadier-general in the Confederate army ; fought the battle of Valverde, and occu- pied most of New Mexico ; but was afterward driven out. Sibley, Hiram (1807-88), American financier, was born in North Adams, Mass. In 1838 he became a banker in Rochester, N. Y. He was one of the organ- izers and first president of the Western Union Telegraph Com- pany, and while president ex- pended $3,000,000 on a projected telegraph line to Europe across Bering Strait, which was aban- doned on the completion of the Atlantic cable in 1866. He also founded the Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering at Cor- nell University. Sibong°a, se-bong'a, town Ce- bu, Philippine Islands ; 27 miles s.w. of Cebu. Pop. 27,000. Sibthorpia, sib-th6r'pi-a, a genus of prostrate herbaceous plants, with five-parted, yellow or red flowers, belonging to the order Scrophulariaceae. The Cornish money-wort, S. cxtropcca, is a dainty little plant, with threadlike stems and notched, more or less circular leaves, which bears very small, pale- colored flowers in late summer. The Madeira species, 6". pcrc- grina, is a pretty greenhouse trail- ing plant, bearing yellow flowers in summer. Sibyl, in ancient mythology, a prophetess. Babylonian, Lib- yan, Delphian, Cimmerian, Ery- thrjean, Samian, Cumaean, Phry- gian, and Tiburtine sibyls are mentioned ; but the most famous is the sibyl of Cumae in Italy, who conducted yEneas to the lower world, and who came to King Tarquin and offered him the nine Sibylline books at a great price, which he rejected with scorn. Next day she burned three, and offered him the six at the same price ; again he refused to buy. The next day again she burned three more, and offered him the remaining three still j^t the same price ; then he bought them. Sicilian Vespers, a revolt of the Sicilians against the misgov- ernment of Charles of Anjou in 1282. See Sicilies. Sicilies, Kingdom of the Two, was virtually created by the Norman conquest in the 11th century, when S. Italy and Sicily were united in the hands of one family, the sons of the Norman Tancred of Hauteville. Robert Guiscard, the most famous of this Norman family, svibjugated (1060) most of S. Italy, while his younger brother Roger con- quered (1061-91) Sicily from the Saracens. Between 1127 and 1140 these two regions became united under the son of the latter, Roger II, who added the parts of S. Italy which Robert Guis- card had not conquered. He welded them all into one do- minion, and was crowned king of Naples and Sicily in 1130. It was impossible, however, to form a united nationality out of the heterogeneous elements com- posing the population — Greek, Italian, Saracen. Lombard, and Norman ; and this want of vmity accounts for much of the confu- sion of the later history of the Sicilies ; while the Norman dom- ination gave a fevidal character to the government and institu- tions which differentiated them from the rest of Italy. The earlier Normans were allies of the popes ^gainst the emperors. Robert Guiscard and Roger ii, in order to strengthen their hold on their conqviests, consented to do homage for them to the pa- pacy, thus giving it a claim to the position of feudal overlord, which became a matter of vital importance when the Norman line died out and the kingdom passed by marriage to the Ho- henstaufen emperor, Henry vi, and then to his son, Frederick ii (1197). Frederick make his court in Sicily, and initiated a high culture and a strong admin- istration. He hoped to build up an Italian kingdojp from this center ; but the popes insisted on homage, and on keeping the Sic- ilies separate from the empire. Round this dispute raged the great struggles of the 13th cen- tury. Urban iv granted (1265) the kingdom to Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis ix of France. Frederick's illegitimate son Man- fred was killed at Benevento (1266); an attempt of the last Hohenstaufen, Conradin, Fred- erick's grandson, to recover his inheritance was defeated at Tagl- iacozzo (1268), and the Ange- vins founded a new dynasty in S. Italy. In 1282, however, Sicily revolted from their tyrannous government, the first outbreak being the massacre of the French at Palermo, known as the Sicil- ian Vespers. The island then gave itself to an Aragonese dy- nasty, so that its hi.story and that of Naples once more became dis- tinct. From 1442-58 they were again held by one king, Alfonso of Aragon and were finally re- united by Ferdinand the Catholic of Aragon and Sicily, who con- quered Naples in 1504. The Sicilies now became Spanish de- pendencies, and were ruled by tyrannous and greedy viceroys, who utterly neglected the welfare of the country, and only thought of collecting money for them- selves and for the royal ex- chequer. The people were so crushed by taxation that again and again mere starvation drove them to revolt ; but the rebellions were in every instance unsuc- cessful. The Sicilies, like other Italian states, were used as pawns in the diplomatic game of the 18th cen- tury; but in 1738 they became the property of Don Carlos, of the Bourbon house of Spain. In his family they remained till 1861, with the exception of the period of the French Revolution, when the mainland state fell into the hands of the French, and formed a kingdom, first for Jo- seph Bonaparte (1806). and then for Joachim Murat (1808-15). The possession of an independent monarch did not, however, bring much amelioration to the lot of the Sicilians ; an attempt to se- cure a constitution was put down with the help of Austrian force in 1821. Ferdinand ii (1830- 59) was perhaps the worst ruler that the country had ever known. In 1848 Sicily broke out into re- bellion, and extorted a constitu- tion ; but the failure of the war of Italian independence enabled Ferdinand to reassert his ab- solutism, and the cruel bombard- ment of Messina which he sanc- tioned earned for him the title of 'King Bomba.' With the aid of Garibaldi, however, . the last Bourbon, Francis ii, was ex- pelled in 1860, and the Two Sicilies were united to the king- dom of Italy. Sicily, island in Mediterra- nean, lies s.w. of Italy, of which kingdom it forms an integral part. It is triangular in shape (anc. Trinacria) , and has an area of 9,935 sq. m. It is an elevated region, comparatively little of its surface being below 1,000 ft. Apart from the Nebrodici and Madonie (6,840 ft.) mountains along the n., there are no par- ticularly well-defined ranges ; but there are several detached peaks, such as the great volcano of Etna (11,870 ft.) in the e., and Monte San Giuliano (anc. Eryx), 2,460 ft., in the extreme n.vv. The rivers are short, and useless for navigation ; the largest are the Simeto, flowing e., and the Salso Sicily KFI 204 Sickles (anc. Himera) and the Platani (anc. Halycus), both flowing s. In ancient times the fertility of the soil, and the exceptionally genial climate, made the island famous for its wheat and wine and honey. Its principal prod- ucts are wheat, wine, oranges, almonds, prickly pear, and vari- ous other fruits, olive oil, su- mach, carob beans, cream of tar- tar, sulphur, salt, tobacco, licorice, and silk ; while the seas yield tunny and anchovies, and (irreg- vilarly) coral. Manufacturing industry is not very extensive, the chief branches being leather, glass, gloves, iron, furniture, and vehicles. Malaria is a fatal scourge in many parts, especially in the s.e. The people, who numbered 4,000,078 in 1936, are generally poor and not well edu- cated, but sober and industrious. The practice of private ven- geance {mafia) has been stamped out and no longer usurps the place of the law. There are three universities — at Catania, Messina, and Palermo. See fur- ther under Italy. The earliest inhabitants, prob- ably of the original Iberian race which inhabited most of S. Eu- rope, were called Sicani. They were generally regarded as indig- enous, but more probably were immigrants from Italy, as were certainly the Siculi or Sicels, who gave their name to the island. They were of the same nationality as the mass of the Italian peoples, being also akin to the early population of Greece and the vEgean islands. Thucyd- ides dates their invasion of Sicily at about 1000 B.C., but more probably it took place at an earlier date. A third race, the Elymi, occupied the n.w. corner of the island. Their racial affini- ties are uncertain, but probably they too were of Iberian race. When Sicily first appears clearly in history, the Sicels had occu- pied the whole of the e. half of the island, thrusting the Sicani- ans back to the w. Phoenician trading-posts had been estab- lished at various points along the coast ; but they too were gradu- ally driven by Greek colonization to the extreme w., where they had three towns — Motya, Panor- mus, and Soloeis. This Greek colonization began in the latter half of the 8th century b.c, and was practically completed in a century and a half. The chief colonies were Naxos, Syracuse, Catania, Leontine, Zancle (after- wards Messina), Himera, Me- gara Hybljea, Gela, Selinus, Acragas (Lat. Agrigentum, now Girgenti), Acrae, Casmenae, and Camarina. Originally their con- stitutions were probably aris- tocratic; but during the 7th century b.c. despots ruled in most of them, particularly Pha- laris in Agrigentum, Cleander at Gela, and Terillus at Himera. Cleander was succeeded by his brother Hippocrates, and he by Gelon, who in 485 made himself master of Syracuse, and raised that city to the leading position in the island — an honor previ- ously shared between Gela and Agrigentum. Gelon's rule was made memorable by his decisive defeat of the Carthaginians at Himera in 480 b.c, which deliv- ered the Greek states from Punic aggression for seventy years. His . brother Hiero succeeded him. After his death, in 467, democratic governments were set up in most of the cities, which for the next half-century en- joyed tranquillity and reached their highest prosperity. In 413 the defeat by Syracuse of the Athenian expedition greatly in- creased the power of that city. From 405 to 367 Dionysius was tyrant of Syracuse, and ruled over most of Sicily ; but he failed to make a complete resistance to the Carthaginians, who in 408 had destroyed Selinus, and in 406 Acragas. During most of his reign the w. part of Sicily, as far as the river Halycus, be- longed to Carthage. The fall of his dynasty in 343, owing to the liberator Timoleon, set the cities free for a time ; and Timoleon's great victory over the Carthagin- ians, at the river Crimisus in 339 put a check upon their ag- gressions. But in 317 a fresh tyranny was established at Syra- cuse by Agathocles, who failed to offer an equally successful re- sistance to Carthage. After his death, in 289, confusion pre- vailed in the island until Hiero ii established a royal power at Syr- acuse, and Sicily was roughly divided between him and the Carthaginians. The first Punic War (264-241 b.c.) brought the Romans into Sicily. At its con- clusion they had expelled the Carthaginians entirely from the island, and ruled it as a province, with the exception of Hiero's do- minions ; but they too were added to the province through the de- fection of Hiero's grandson Hie- ronymus from the Roman alli- ance during the second Punic War, and his conquest by Mar- cellus in 212. In 210 the whole island submitted to Rome. For over six hundred years Sicily was part of the Roman empire ; and except for disturbances caused by slave rebellions from 135 to 132 B.C., and again from 102 to 99 B.C., it enjoyed tran- quillity and good government on the whole. During the first two centuries of its subjection it was the chief source of the Roman corn supply ; after the establish- ment of the empire it fell into a state of decay, and pasturage took the place of agriculture. When conquered by Rome, Sic- ily was a thoroughly Greek country ; apparently all its in- habitants spoke Greek, the Sicel and other old languages having disappeared. It was under Ro- man rule that Palermo, the an- cient Panormus, became the chief city of the island, as it still is, instead of Syracuse. In the middle of the 5th century a.d. Genseric conquered the whole island, and attached it to the Vandal kingdom. Belisarius re- stored it in 535 a.d. to the East- ern empire, by which it was gov- erned until it was taken by the Saracens, who first landed in 827 A.D., but did not capture Syra- cuse until 878. The Byzantine emperors, aided by the Normans, partially reconquered it (1038- 50) ; the Norman Roger Guis- card conquered it completely af- ter a long struggle (1061-91), and held it for himself. The story is continued at Sicilies, Kingdom of the Two. See E. A. Freeman's History. Sickingen, Franz von (1481- 1523), captain of German Lands- knechte, was born at the castle of Ebernburg, near Kreuznach, and entered the service of Francis i of France, but afterwards aban- doned it for that of the emperor Charles v. He was a strenuous advocate of the Reformation. He laid siege to Treves (1522), and after defeat by its bishop retired to his fortress at Ebern- burg, where he was besieged in turn, and died from wounds. See Life, in German, by Ulmann (1872) and Bremer (1885). Sickles, Daniel Edgar (1825-1914), American soldier, born in New York city. He at- tended the University of New York, and was admitted to the bar in 1844. He was elected to the legislature as a Democrat three years later ; became secre- tary of legation at London in 1853; in 1855 was elected to the state senate, and dur- ing 1857-61 was a member of the national House of Repre- sentatives. In the Civil War he served in the Peninsula campaign, at Antietam and Fredericksburg ; was appointed major-general in March, 1863, and fought at Chan- cellorsville and at Gettysburg, where he lost a leg. He was ap- pointed colonel in the regular army in July, 1866; was for a time in command of the second military district including the Carolinas, but showed himself so energetic that he was relieved, and in 1869 was retired with the rank of major-general. He was minister to Spain during 1869- 73 ; was president for a time of the New York board of civil Sicyon KR 205 Sldgwlck Service commissioners; was sher- iff of New York county in 1890. and in 1892 was once more elec- ted to Congress as a Democrat. Sicyon, ancient Greek city in N.E. Peloponnesus, on w. bank of Asopus, 2 m. from the sea. Homer speaks of it as being sub- ject to the Achaean Agamemnon. Later it was seized by Dorians from Argos; but during the rule of its tyrants in the 7th and 6th centuries B.C., of whom the chief was Cleisthenes, it threw off the domination of Argos and joined the Spartan League. It was founded a second time by Deme- trius Poliorcetes in 303 B.C., and was prosperous in the 3d cen- tury, thanks largely to its famous citizen Aratus. who brought it into the Achaean League. Ruins of the theatre, the racecourse, and an aqueduct still remain. Slddhartha. See Buddha. Siddons, Mrs. Sarah (1755- 1831), English tragic actress, born at Brecon in S. Wales, was the daughter of Roger Kemble, an actor, and sister of John Philip Kemble, the tragedian. She traveled with her father's com- pany, one of whom, Siddons, she married in 1773. She played with Garrick's company at Drury Lane (1775), and after an interval in the provinces achieved a triumph at the same theatre as Isabella in The Fatal Marriage (1782). During that season she appeared as Euphra- sia, Zara, Jane Shore, Belvidera, and Calista. Her other favorite characters were Lady Macbeth, Queen Katherine, Constance, Portia, Isabella, Desdemona, Imogen, Hermoine, and Volum- nia. She took her leave of the stage in 1812, and made her final appearance at Covent Garden, June 9, 1818. On the stage Mrs. Siddons displayed great origin- ality, and in private life she bore an unblemished character and reputation. See Boaden, Mem- oirs of the Life of Mrs. Siddons (1832), Campbell, Life of Sarah Siddons (1834), and Matthews and Hutton, Actors and Actresses of Great Britain and the United States (1886). Sldebones. See Horse — Dis- eases of. Sidereal Clock, a clock set and regulated so as to keep sid- ereal time, and show Oh, Om. Os. when the vernal equinox is on the local meridian. At any given moment, accordingly, the reading of such a timepiece gives the hour-angle of the first point of Aries, and also, what comes to the same thing, the right ascen- sion of any object just then cross- ing the meridian. Siderite, Chalybite, or Fer- rous Carbonate, is one of the group of carbonates of which calcite is the most important member. When crystallized it usually forms rhombohedra, which sometimes have curved faces, and it is pale yellow and transparent when fresh, but cov- ered with an opaque brown crust when weathered. It contains 62 per cent of ferous oxide, has a specific gravity of 3.5, and a hard- ness of 8. When heated before the blowpipe it becomes mag- netic. The clay ironstone and blackband ores of iron are mas- sive varieties and are important in the Appalachian region. In the Carbonfierous strata of Penn- sylvania, Ohio, W. Virginia, and Kentucky, they are abundant. A noted vein of crystalline siderite occurs at Roxbury, Conn. The Cleveland ironstone of the north of England is largely composed of it. It weathers to limonite or haematite, and is, in this way, the original source of many ore beds of that class. Important deposits of massive siderite occur in Westphalia, Bohemia, Saxony, and France. Slderostat, an instrument de- scribed by Foucault for transmit- ting a beam of light along the optical axis of a fixed horizontal telescope. It consists essentially of a plane mirror moved by clock- work so as to keep pace with the heavenly bodies. The great Paris refractor (1900) is mounted in connection with a siderostat, the mirror of which is seventy- nine inches in diameter, and weighs three and three-quarter tons. Of late the coelostat, an improved form of siderostat, has come into use, especially as an adjunct to solar researches. Its mirror rotates once in 48 hours round a line in its own plane parallel to the earth's axis. And since the rate of motion is doubled by reflection, the image of the sky thus viewed is com- Siderostat, built by Sir Howard Grubb for the Smithsonian Ob- servatory, Washington, D. C. pletely at rest, the apparatus acting as an equatorial. A hori- zontal position can not, however, be given to the observing tele- scope unless a second mirror be employed, as in the coelostat mounted at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Washington, in 1903. In prin- ciple, this instrument was de- vised by August in 1839; it was perfected by Lippmann in 1895. Sideroxylon, a genus of tropi- cal trees and shrubs belonging to the order Sapotacac. They bear usually coriaceous leaves and small flowers, followed by globose berries. The berries of some of the species have a sweet taste, and are known as miraculous berries. Side-saddle Flower. A name sometimes given to the Sarra- cenia. Sidesmen, Synodsmen, Questman, or Testes Synod- ales, were two or three persons generally elected yearly in Easter week by the minister and church- wardens in each parish of Eng- land, and sworn to present here- tics and other heretical persons before the ecclesiastical courts. Their duties are now limited to assisting the churchwardens. Sidgwick, Henry (1838- 1900), English philosopher, was born at Skipton in Yorkshire, and became a fellow and lecturer of Trinity College, Cambridge. In 1883 he was elected professor of moral philosophy in the uni- versity, and held the offlce till his death. His reputation was made by his Methods of Ethics (1874; 6th ed. 1901). Character- ized, like all his writings, by the utmost carefulness in the defini- tion, elaboration, and exact ex- pression of conceptions, and by a truly remarkable candor and im- partiality in argument, it was speedily recognized as a classical work on the subject. In it the author sought to separate and combine the elements of truth on both sides of the controversy between intuitionists and utili- tarians. He accepted the utili- tarian end of the universal happi- ness, but maintained that that end could only be authoritative for the individual, in virtue of certain ultimate intuitions, by which the fundamental principles of man's duty were defined. Two other important works from his pen were Principles of Political Economy (1883) and Elements of Politics (1891), besides an out- line History of Ethics (1886) and a small volume on Practical Ethics (1898). Since his death several volumes have been edited from his lectures and papers — viz. Scope of Philosophy (1902); Ethics of Green, Spencer, and Martineau (1902); Philosophy of Kant (1905); Development of European Polity (1904) ; and Mis- cellaneous Essays{190A). He was concerned in the foundation of the Society for Psychical Re- search, and took an active inter- est in the higher education of women, especially in Newnham College, Cambridge. His widow, Eleanor Mildred Sidgwick (d. 1936), a sister of the first Earl of Sidi-bel-Abb^s KR 206 Slebold Balfour (1848-1930), was prin- cipal of Newnham College from 1892 until her death. See Life (1906) by A. S. and E. M. S. Sidgwick. SIdi-bel-Abbes, town, capital of an arrondissement, depart- ment of Oran, Algeria, 38 m. s, of Oran; exports grain, alfa, and cattle. Pop. 51,094. Sidlaw Hills, a range of hills, Scotland, running from Kinnoul Hill, near Perth, in a n.e. direc- tion through Forfarshire to the coast at Stonehaven. They are mainly of Old Red Sandstone formation. The highest summit is King's Seat (1,235 ft.). Dun- sinnan, or Dunsinane, is men- tioned in Macbeth. Sid mouth, Henry Adding- TON, Viscount (1757-1844), British politician, born at Read- ing; was returned as member for Devizes (1784); elected Speaker (1789); and on the retirement of his friend Pitt (1801) was called on to form a ministry. The most memorable event of his short administration was the Peace of Amiens, after which he resigned, Pitt succeeding him. He was made a peer (1805); became Lord Privy Seal under Fox and Grenville (1806); and president of the Council under Percival (1812), on whose assassination in the same year he was ap- pointed Home Secretary, a post which he held for the next eleven years, retiring from official life in 1824. See Life by Pellew (1847). Sidney. City, Ohio co. seat of Shelby co., 65 m. w.n.vv. of Co- lumbus, on the Miami R., and on the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chi- cago and St. Louis and the Cin- cinnati, Hamilton and Dayton railroads. It is a manufacturing center producing carriages, wheel stock, whips, brooms, wooden ware, churns, fiour, leather, hollow ware, scrapers, wheel barrows, newspaper fold- ers, automobile bendings, bicycle rims, band saws, etc. It has a public library, court house and Monumental Building. The first settlement here was made about 1810. It was incorporated in 1819 and chartered as a city in 1897. Pop. (1930) 9,301; (1940) 9,790. Sidney, village, Delaware co.. New York, 29 m. n.e. by E. of Binghamton on the Susquehanna R. and on the N. Y. Ontario and W. and the Delaware and Hudson railroads. Its manu- factures include silk gloves, carriages, novelties, toys, cigars, etc. It is a dairying center. It was settled in 1772 and incor- porated in 1888. Sidney, Algernon (1622-83). English republican and patriot, the nephew of Sir Philip Sidney. In 1642 he served against the Irish rebels, and having de- clared himself for Parliament, was wounded at Marston Moor; but being opposed to the ag- grandizement of Cromwell, he went into retirement. At the Restoration he betook himself to the Continent, and there lived till a pardon was procured for him in 1677. Returning later to the Continent, he endeavored to separate Louis xiv from his alli- ance with Charles ii, and some of his dealings with that sov- ereign can be justified only by political exigencies, if at all. In 1680 he returned to England, and in 1682 the court party got him involved in the general massacre of notables by Judge Jeffreys on the occasion of the Rye House Plot. He was condemned and executed on Tower Hill, London. His Discourses concerning Gov- ernment, which played an impor- tant part in the evidence against him, did not appear in print till 1698, when they were published in London. See Sidney Papers and Life by Mead ley (1813) and Life and Times of Algernon Sid- ney by Ewald fl873), also Life by Van Santvoord (1851). Sidney, Sir Philip (1554-86), English soldier and poet, was born at Penshurst, Kent. He was with Walsingham at Paris during the Massacre of St. Bar- tholomew. In 1574 he carried on diplomacy for Burghley in Sir Philip Sidney. Venice. For some years after his return home in 1575 his life was mostly spent at court, de- fending his father's Irish policy and holding converse with Spen- ser, Sir E. Dyer, Gabriel Harvey, and other poets and scholars. He wrote The Lady of the May for a royal entertainment in 1578, and in 1579 was stung by Thomas Gosson's railing at the stage into composing his Apology for Poetry. Then he quarrelled with Lord Oxford, and fell into disfavor with Elizabeth as a result of Leicester's marriage and his own protest against the Anjou match. He retired in 1580 to the house of his sister, Mary, Lady Pem- broke, at Wilton, and wrote the Arcadia (c. 1581). Elizabeth re- lented, and he returned to court. Hitherto his love affair with Penelope Devereux had been but trifling. After her marriage with Lord Rich in 1581 it flamed into the passion of the Astrophel and Stella sonnets. When Elizabeth sent Leicester with troops to the Netherlands, she made Sidney governor of Flushing. Before Zutphen he was mortally wound- ed, and behaved with a chivalry which has impressed itself upon history. Collected Poems (ed. Grosart, 1873, 1877); Selections: A Cabinet of Gems by Philip Sidney (ed. G. Macdonald, 1891). See Biography, by Fulke Greville (1652); ed. Grosart, (1870), by T. Zouch (1809), by J. Lloyd(1862), by H. R. Fox Bourne (1862, 1891), by J. A. Symonds (1886); Corres- spondence of Sidney and H. Lan- guet (ed. S. A. Pears, 1845); The Works of Sir Philip Sidney, by E. J. Morley (1901); Miscellan- eous Works (1860); Davis' Life and Times of Sir Philip Sidney (1859); and Ely's Chaucer, Spen- ser, and Sidney (1894). Sidon (modern Saida), Syria, the largest seaport and capital of ancient Phoenicia, 25 m. s. of Beirut, Syria; now exports olive oil, oranges, and lemons. Fine gardens surround the town. In ancient times it was specially famous for purple dyes. Pop. 13,000. Sidonius, whose full name was Gaius Sollius Sidonius Apollinaris (431-482 or 484 A.D.). was one of the last poets of ancient Rome. He was a native of Lyons in Gaul, and married the daughter of Flavins Avitus, who became emperor in 456 a.d. As a reward for a panegyric on him Sidonius was made a senator and prefect of the city of Rome. But the fall of Avitus caused .Si- donius to be imprisoned at Lyons; however, he purchased forgive- ness by a second panegyric, on Avitus' successor Majorian, which won him the title of count. A third panegyric on Anthemius gained him the title of patrician and his reappointment to the of- fice of city prefect. Five years afterwards he was compelled to accept the bishopric of Clermont, in Auvergne. His writings con- sist of Poems and Letters. His prose approaches the language of daily life, and is full of barba- risms. Editions by Sismond (1652) and Mohr (Teubner Series). Siebold, Karl Theodor Slebold KR 207 Stena Ernst von (1804-85), German physiologist, born at Wiirzburg, became successively professor of zoology and comparative ana- tomy at Erlangen (1840). Frei- burg (1845), and Munich (1853). Among other works he wrote a Lehrbuch der Vergleichenden Ana- tomie der ivirbellosen Tiere (Eng. trans.) Manual of Comparative Anatomy of the Invertebrates, (1848). Siebold, Philipp Franz von (1796-1866), German explorer, was born at Wiirzburg, and ac- companied the Dutch expedition to Japan as physician and natu- ralist (1823), spending seven years in scientific researches in that country. He wrote a valu- able Epitome Linguce Japonicce (1824), Flora Japonica (1834), Catalogus Librorum Japon- icorum (1845), and Fauna Jap- onica (1833). Si e dice, or Syedlets, prov- ince, Poland, bounded on w. by Drov. Warsaw, with an area of 5,535 sq. m., and a population of 775,316. The surface is gener- ally very fiat, but in parts thickly wooded; the whole area belongs to the Vistula basin. Agriculture is the principal employment. Of the population, 40 per cent are estimated to belong to the Ortho- dox Church and to be Russians, 43 per cent Roman Catholics and Poles, 15 per cent Jews. Siedlce, town, Poland, cap. of Siedlce gov., 53 m. E.s.E. of Warsaw, in a marshy region. It is an episcopal see (Roman Catholic) and has a famous cas- tle and bakeries. Pop. 36,927 more than two-thirds Jews. Stege. It has been roughly estimated that a besieging army should be about three or four times as numerous as the garri- son of the place besieged. The first operation is to invest the place by surrounding it in such a way as to cut off all communica- tion between the garrison and the outer world and starving them out or capturing the place by assault. The side to be at- tacked will then be selected, the determining factors being the ease with which trenches can be dug, the local weakness of the works, the effect of success in that quarter, and the besieger's own security and ease of supply. Then artillery and engineer parks are established out of gun- fire range of the place, where easy communications with the base of supply exist. After the parks are equipped a 'first artillery posi- tion' is established. This con- sists of batteries armed with guns to silence the fire of the de- fence over the ground to be crossed by the attack. The bat- teries all open fire simultan- eously, generally at daybreak, and when the enemy's fire has been subdued, the 'first parallel' is begun at night, about 1,000 yards from the fortress. This is a wide trench, concave to the fortress attacked, and meant to shelter the troops whose busi- ness it is to protect the working parties and the siege works them- selves by repelling the sorties of the enemy, should they endeavor to destroy them. From the first, parallel approaches are exca- vated in a zigzag direction so as to prevent the enemy enfilading (or firing along) them. While these are being constructed, the existence of the first parallel will allow a second artillery posi- tion to be taken up nearer the place. From the approaches a 'second parallel' is constructed 400 or 500 yards from the for- tress, and then a third at the foot of the 'glacis' or slope outside the place. The last parallel will contain the troops who are ul- timately to rush in and assault the place through the breaches. After the 'third parallel' is com- pleted, batteries for sweeping the lines of works and breaching the ramparts are constructed, some of which are usually placed in the first parallel. Mining is em- ployed when the besieging force has worked its way quite close up to the fortress, and the mines as- sist in making breaches. Ditches are filled up by casting into them fagots, fascines, and other ma- terials and, finally, the breaches are assaulted. The methods by which the siege works have to be constructed vary as the ap- proach to the enemy increases the difficulties: 'common trench work,' 'flying trench work,' and several kinds of 'sap' have to be successively employed. All siege works are carried on day and night. During recent wars the most notable sieges have been those of Metz, Strasbourg, and Paris, in the Franco-German War of 1870-71; Plevna (1877) in the Russo-Turkish War; Lady- smith and Kimberley (1901), in the S. African War; and Port Arthur (1904-5), in the Russo- Japanese War. The experiences of the Japanese in the last named have had a far-reaching effect upon the theory of modern sieges. Siege Gun. See Artillery. Guns, Siegen, town, Germany, in Westphalia, on Sieg R., 47 m. by rail E. of Cologne. It manufac- tures leather, cloth, paper, and machinery, and is the center of an iron-ore district. Pop. 32,736. Siegen, Ludwig von (1609- 80), artist, of German extraction, born at Utrecht, and the inventor of mezzotint engraving, his first production in this art being a portrait (about 1640) of Amelia Elizabeth, mother of the land- grave of Hesse. Siegen imparted his secret to Prince Rupert, who introduced it into England. Among his best mezzotints are a Holy Family, after Annibale Caracci, and a portrait of Fer- dinand III of Austria. Sigfried, or Sigfrid. See NiBELUNGENLIED. Slemans, Ernst Werner von (1816-92), German elec- trical engineer, was born at Lenthe, Hanover. He con- structed the first telegraph line in Germany. After the founding of the firm of Siemens and Hal- ske (1847), he devoted himself to electrical engineering. To him we owe, in particular, improve- ments in telegraphic apparatus, galvanometers, and methods of testing lines and cables, the use of gutta-percha as an insulator, and the construction of a unit of resistance. He also investigated the use of selenium in photo- meters, and the causes of the motion of the air, and appears to have been an independent dis- coverer of the principle of the dynamo. His collected Papers have been translated into Eng- lish (1892-9), as also have his Recollections (1893). Siemens, Sir William (Karl Wilhelm) (1823-83), German- English electrician, was born at Lenthe, Hanover. In 1844 he went to England, and was natu- ralized in 1859. His first im- portant work was the devising of the system of regenerative heat- ing, the principle of which is that the heat contained in the products of an action are made to warm up the materials about to be used. This idea, although unsuccessful when first applied to the steam-engine, eventually revolutionized furnace practice, and rendered the open hearth or Siemens-Martin process of steel manufacture practicable. The idea was also applied to gas burners for illumination. He also invented the electric resist- ance pyrometer and water py- rometer, instruments capable of the highest accuracy. Besides his more purely scientific work, he rendered much service in the laying of telegraphic cables, including the Indo-European, North China, direct United States, and other Atlantic lines, and he also laid the electric tramway at Portrush, one of the first in the kingdom (opened in 1883). He was knighted in 1882. See Life by Pole (1888) and Scientific Works (ed. Bamber, 1889). Siemens-Martin Process. See Steel. Siena. province, Italy, bounded n. by province Florence and s. bv province Rome. Area, 1,471 sq. m.; pop. 216,000. The principal products are wheat, wine, olives, and silk. Siena, town, capital of above. 30 m. by rail s. of Florence. It is the seat of a bishop, has several interesting public buildings, and is exceptionally rich in works of art. The cathedral, a SlenkiewIcK KR 208 Sierra Madre splendid example of Gothic archi- tecture, was built in the i:sth and 14th centuries. Its most note- worthy features are the west fagade, a pulpit by Niccolo Pi- sano, a font (1428), mosaics, and frescoes by Pinturicchio. The university was founded in 1203. The Piazza del Campo, cele- brated by Dante in his Purga- torio, contains the Loggie di San Paolo, the seat of a commercial tribunal in the middle ages. Siena was the center of an art school; the chief representatives were Buoninsegna, Sodoma, and Peruzzi. Here were born Pope Pius II, Ochino, the two Socini, Agostino, and Delia Querela. Pop. 47,688. Sienkiewicz, Henryk (1846- 1916), Polish novelist, born at Wola Okrzeiska, district Lukow, government of Siedlce, of an old and noble family. On account of the Russian War his family re- moved to Warsaw, where Henryk received his education at the gymnasium and at the Warsaw University, He inherited from his mother, Stephani Cieciszew- ska, who was a gifted writer of verse, his leaning toward literary work, and is said to have begun with a series of critical articles in 1869. In 1870, or perhaps ear- lier, he wrote his first novel, In Vain, and in 1872 published No- body Is a Prophet in His Own Country. He visited the U. S. in 1876, having already traveled extensively in Poland, Russia, France, Germany, and England, and joined Mme. Modjeska's Polish colony near Los Angeles, Calif. His American experiences were described in letters to the Warsaw Gazette. They were signed 'Litwos,' a pseudonym also attached to his early short stories, such as 'Hania,' 'Yanko the Musician,' 'Memoirs of a Teacher from Posen,' 'In the New Promised Land,' 'Across the Prairie,' etc., some of these being descriptive of the life of the Polish exiles with whom he had been associated. The writing of a story, 'In Tartar Captivity,' first gave him the idea of his great tiilogy of historical ro- mances dealing with the resis- tance of the Poles to the Cos- sack, Swedish, and Turkish in- roads from 1648 to 1872. Of these. With Fire and SwordilSS4) is pre-eminently superior, the others. The Deluge (1886) and Pan Michael (1887- 8), being too closely crowded with chracters and events. The writing of them gave him at once a repre- sentative position as the na- tional interpreter of Polish his- tory and sentiment. The author has said that he 'prepared for a novel by reading every book and document referring to it, in all languages, that I can lay hold of.' He followed the trilogy with Without Dogma (1890), a psycho- logical story of 19th century life, in diary form, presenting the theory that without faith there can be no love. In 1891 he vis- ited Egypt and other parts of Africa, and wrote Let'ers from Africa. Three years afterwards he published another psvcho- logical novel. Children of the Soil, setting forth the shams of mod- ern life as he had observed them. His romance of the days of Nero's persecution of the early Christians, Quo Vadis (1896), was preceded by a short story in a similar vein, 'Anthea,' For its proper treatment he traveled in Italy and Greece, visiting the scenes indicated, and giving great attention to research in an- cient history and literature. Quo Vadis was immensely popular in the U. S., and was dramatized and produced both in that country and in England. It is as the interpreter of the Poles, however, that Sienkiewicz is looked up to in his own coun- try, and in recognition of this character he was, in 1901, on the 25th anniversary of his regular entrance into literature, pre- sented with an estate of 300 acres at Oblengorek in Russian Poland, the gift of the Polish na- tion. His 'official' home was at Warsaw, and to this he was con- fined for a time in 1905 for sign- ing a protest against the Russifi- cation of the Polish schools. The same year he received the Nobel prize for 'the most important work of idealistic tendency.' He was nominated as a candidate for the Duma of 1906 by the Polish Nationalists, but declined to enter public life. Shortly before the election he delivered to his Polish compatriots an important speech on the necessity of Polish so idarity in voting, as against the Socialistic and Jewish ele- ments. Among his more recent books than those mentioned are The Knights of the Cross (1900) and On the Field of Glory (1906). His novels and short stories have been translated into English by Jeremiah Curtin and Iza Young. See S. C. de Soissons in North Amer. Rev. (Aug. 1902) and L. E. Van Norman in The Outlook (Aug. 3, 1902); also Lives bv Chmielowski (1901) and Nowin- ski (1901). Sienna consists of hydrated ferric oxide along with manga- nese dioxide and more or less earthy matter. When 'raw' it is a dull brown color, but becomes much brighter and redder in tone when heated or 'burned.' Both varieties are used as pigments, and are permanent and harm- less. Sierra, the name applied to mountain ranges with serrated or saw-like ridges, as the Sierra Nevada in Spain, the Sierra Madre in Mexico, and the Sierra Nevada in the United States. Sierra Leone, a British colony and protectorate on the w. coast of Africa, between Liberia and French Guinea, with a coast-line of 210 m. The colony extends inland to a varying distance of from 8m. to 20 m., and includes Sherbro and other islands. The surface rises in Sugar Loaf Mt. to 3,000 ft. The capital is Free- town (1944, 86,000 pop.) at the mouth of the Rokel, navigable for 40 m. Its harbor is the best on the w. coast of Africa, and is well fortified. Freetown is a coaling station, and is an im- portant trading center. Other rivers are the Great and Little Scarcies and the Sherbro. The protectorate extends 180 m. in- land to the source region of the Niger. The northern part of the territory is hilly. Mount Daro, near the Niber, rising to 4,396 ft; but the southern part is low and swampy near the coast. The temperature is high, averaging 83° F., and the rainfall at Free- town is 138 in., but much less in the interor. Sierra Leone has been known as the 'White Man's Grave.' The chief exports are Sierra Leone. palm oil and kernels, rice, gin- ger, iron ore, chromite, kola- nuts, and india-rubber. Sierra Leone was discovered by the Portuguese Pedro da Cintra in 1462. At the end of the 18th century the Sierra Leone Com- pany founded a colony for freed slaves, but ceded its rights to the crown in 1807. Area of colony. 2,500 sq. m.; population (est. 1940) 121,100. Area of pro- tectorate, 27,669 sq. m.; popula- tion about 2,000,000, Sierra Madre, Mexico, the mountains which, in two chains, the Oriental and the Occidental enclose the central plateau. They converge toward the south in the state of Oaxaca, and extend into sierra Maestra KR 209 Sleyfts Central America. No structural connection is traceable with the Rocky Mountains or with the Andes. The highest peaks occur in the Sierra Madre Occidental, and attain altitudes of 8,000 to 9,500 feet. The eastern range reaches 7,000 to 8,000 feet, and includes the great volcanoes Orizaba, Popocatepetl (qq.v.), and others. The formation of the western range, instead of be- ing volcanic, is composed mainly of cretaceous and earlier lime- stones. Sierra Maestra, se-er'a ma- es'tra, or Macaca, mountain range, Cuba, extending along the southern coast from Cape Cruz to Guantanamo. Its summit, Pico Turquino (8.400 ft.), is the highest point of Cuba. Sierra Morena, mo-ra-na, mountain range (7,900 ft.) of southern Spain, dividing the val- leys of the Guadiana and the Guadalquivir. Lead, silver, quicksilver, and coal exist, and tin ore is mined at Rio Tinto in the west. Sierra Nevada, ne-va'da; Span, pron., na-va'xHa ('Snowy Range"), a mountain range about 500 miles long in eastern California, separating the Great Basin region of Nevada from the interior valley of California, and continuous with the Cascade (q.v.) Range of Oregon and Washington. Structurally the range is carved out of a great fault block, tilted slightly to the west so that, on a broad view, it slopes gently westward and abruptly and precipitously east- ward. All parts are much dis- sected by stream gorges, so that the region is extremely rugged. Alpine glaciers have existed on many of the slopes and several still remain on Mount Shasta. The crest line averages over 11,- 000 feet elevation, and the range presents an unusually massive aspect from the eastern side, where it rises about 5,000 feet above the Great Basin level. Granite forms the core of the range, with associated schists and slates on either side, which are in turn overlaid on the western by later marine sediments and ig- neous materials. Volcanic ac- tion has been extensive, some of the greatest individual moun- tains being extinct volcanoes. The highest peaks are Mount Whitney (q.v.), 14,502 feet, the highest peak in the continental United States; Mount William- son, 14,500 feet; Fisherman's Peak, 14,448 feet; Mount Tyn- dall, 14,386 feet; and Mount Shasta, 14,380 feet. The chief passes are important transportation routes, such as Truckee at 5,818 feet, traversed by the Central Pacific Railroad, and Tehachipi at 3,966 feet, trav- ersed by the Southern Pacific Railroad. Yosemite Valley, not- ed for its falls and scenery, lies on the western side (see Yosemite National Park). The well- watered western slope is the home of the giant redwoods. The 'Mother Lode' gold belt, an extremely complex and persistent system of mineral veins, lies in the metamorphic slates of the western slope. This is the source also of the gold of the auriferous gravels of California. Some of the gravels of ancient stream courses, even those covered by later lava flows, have been mined on a large scale. Consult King, Mountaineering in the Sierra Ne- vada; John Muir, My First Sum- mer in the Sierra (1911). Sierra Nevada, mountain range in southern Spain, running east and west parallel to the Mediterranean Coast, through the province of Granada to the frontier of Almeria — about 60 miles long. The southern por- tion is called the Alpujarras, and contains some of the grandest mountain scenery in Europe. The highest points are Mulhacen (11,420 feet). Veleta (11,146 feet) Alcazaba. and Machos. Sierra Nevada de Merida, da ma're-THa. mountain group south of town of Merida. in Ven- ezuela, about 250 miles long. The highest summits are Picacho de la Sierra (15,420 ft.), Coluna (15,400 ft.), and Concha (15, 100 ft.). Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. See Santa Marta. Sierra Pacaraima. See Pa- CARAIMA. Sieur de Monte National Monument. See National Parks. Sievelting, se've-king, Mar- tinus (1867), Dutch pianist, was born in Amsterdam, and was a pupil of his father and of Ront- gen at the Leipzig Conservatory. He began concert work in 1889, playing in all the European capitals. In 1895 he made the first of several visits to the United States, where he appeared as solo pianist with the Thomas and other orchestras. Sievers, ze'vers, Eduard (1850-1932) German philologist, was born at Lippoldsberg in Hesse-Nassau. He was success- ively professor of philology at Jena (1871-83), Tubingen (1883- 87), Halle (1887-92). and Leip- zig (1892). His works include: Angelsdchsische Grammatik (18S2; Eng. trans.); Der Heliand und die Angelsdchsische Genesis (1875); Zum A gelsdchsische Vo- kalismus (1900); Grundciige der Phonetik (5th ed. 1901); Met- rische Studien (3 vols., 1901-05). Sievershausen, village, Ger- many. Prussia. 15 miles east of Hanover, noted for the victory of Maurice of Saxony over Albert of Brandenburg in 1553. Sievsli, town, Russia, govern- ment of Orel; 90 miles southwest of Orel city. Pop. 9,000. Sieyfes, si-a-yes'. Emmanuel Joseph, Comte (1748-1836), French revolutionist, who as the Abbe Sieves figures prominently in the p'rench Revolution, was born in Frejus. He became canon in the diocese of Treguier (1775). next chancellor and vicar- general of the diocese of Char- tres, and was sent by the latter to the Chambre Superieure of the Clergy of France. Between the dissolution of the Assembly of Notables and the reunion of the Constituent Assembly he pub- lished three famous pamphlets which carried his name over the length and breadth of France: Vues sur les Moyens d' Execu- tion, Essai sur les Privileges, and, the most famous of all, Qu'est- ce Que le Tiers-Etat? He was elected one of the deputies for Paris, and it was on his mo- tion (June 10, 1789) that the tiers-Hat sent a final invitation to the noblesse and clergy to join them, with the intimation that if they refused they would constitute themselves into the States-General. Seven days later the National Assembly was formed, the name being due to the suggestion of Sieyes. He took part in the memorable declaration of the Rights of Man (Aug. 26, 1789). He was elected to the National Convention, sat in the center, voted for the king's death sans phrase; but as the Revolution grew sank into 'philosophic si- lence,' his heart filled with dis- dain alike at its illogical excesses and the bombastic rhetoric of its leaders. He and Rewbell, in 1795, organized the Batavian re- public on the model of the French republic, and brought about a treaty between France and Hol- land. He sat in the Council of Ancients, and did not interfere with the policy of the Directory. He took no part in the coup d'etat of Fructidor, 1797. In 1798 the Abbe Sieyes was sent on a mission to Berlin to try to persuade the Prussian king to make an offensive and defensive alliance with France; but he failed. In May, 1799, he was elected to the Directory, and then, like Barras a traitor to the republic, he plunged into a web of dark intrigues with a view to find a soldier who would be con- tent to be an instrument. Bona- parte (q.v.) returned from Egypt on Oct. 25, 1799, and together they plotted the revolution of the 18th Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799), the result of which was the insti- tution of the Consulate of Sieyes, Bonaparte, and Roger Ducos. Sirton KR ^10 Sights But Sieyes soon discovered in his new ally a master. Finding himself befooled by Bonaparte, he threw up his consulship in dis- gust. After the Restoration he was exiled, and lived in Belgium till 1830. Consult Mignet, Notice historique sur la Vie et les Travaux de Sieyes; Bigeon, Sieyes. Strton, Sir Clifford (1861- 1929), Canadian public official, was born in Middlesex, Ontario. He was graduated from Victoria University, Cobourg (1880), and was called to the Manitoba bar in 1882. He was a member of the Manitoba legislature (1888-96), and provincial attorney-general (1891-6). From 1896 to 1911 he was Minister of the Interior in the Cabinet of Sir Wilfrid Laurier, and in that office greatly stimulated immigration into Canada. In 1911 he resigned from the Laurier Cabinet because of his opposition to the proposed reciprocity agreement with the United States. He was agent for the British government on the Alaska Boundary Tribunal (1903); Canadian representative at the International Conference on Conservation of Resources, Washington (1909); and became chairman of the Commission for Conservation of Natural Re- sources (1909). He was knighted in 1915. Sigel, se'gd, Franz (1824- 1902), German- American soldier, was born in Sinsheim, Baden, and was graduated from the Karlsruhe military school. He resigned his commission in the grand ducal army in 1847, and joined in the insurrections of 1848-9, becoming provisional minister of war and adjutant to General Mieroslawski. Later he retired to Switzerland and to England, and in 1852 migrated to St. Louis, Mo., where he was a journalist and school teacher. On the outbreak of the Civil War he raised a German regiment and artillery company, and took a prominent part in the struggle for Missouri. He made an orderly retreat after the engagement at Carthage (May, 1861), and ren- dered conspicuous service at Wil- son's Creek (q.v.), assuming command after the death of Gen- eral Lyon (q.v.). As a brigadier general of volunteers he led a successful charge at the Battle of Pea Ridge; was promoted major general and given command at Harper's Ferry; commanded a corps under Pope in the Manas- sas campaign; and while in com- mand of the Department of West Virginia was defeated by Breck- enridge at New Market. In 1865 he resigned from the army; was register of New York City in 1871-4; U. S. pension agent in 1886-9; and edited the New York Monthly, a German-Ameri- can periodical. Slgerson, sij'er-sun, Dora (Mrs. Clement Shorter) (1866-1918), Irish poetess, was born in Dublin. Her published works, which are more remark- able for beauty of ideas than for finished workmanship, and deal in large part with Irish folklore, are as follows: Verses (1894); The Fairy Changeling, and Other Poems (1897); My Lady's Slip- per (1898); Ballads and Poems (1899); The Father Confessor (stories, 1900); The Woman Who Went to Hell, and Other Ballads (1902); As the Sparks Fly Up- ward (1904); The Country House Party (1905); The Story and Song of Earl Roderick (1905); Through Wintry Terrors (novel, 1907); Collected Poems (1909); The Troubadour (1910); New Poems (1912); Love of Ireland (ballads, 1916). Sigfrted, or Siegfried. See NiBELUNGENLIED. sight. For the organ of sight, its anatomy, physiology, defects, and diseases, see Eye; also Blindness; Color Blindness; Optics. For the theory of vision, see Vision. Sights for heavy guns and small arms are devices for cor- rectly aiming these weapons. When a projectile leaves the bore of a gun it is moving in the direc- tion of the axis of the bore and at a high velocity, but is acted upon be forces that cause it to deflect from its original linear path (see Projectiles. These forces are gravity, pressure of the air, and movement of the gun. The gyro- scopic force of rotation tends nor- mally to keep the projectile in its original path, but, acted upon by the resistance of the air, it also causes certain deflections. If the air is movmg across the line of fire it tends to press the pro- jectile out of its path. If the gun itself is moving (as on a ship), another deflecting force comes into play. Varying density of the atmosphere and inequalities of the powder (due to age, mois- ture, etc.) also have their ef- fect. Sights are of no value unless the guns themselves possess con- siderable accuracy. Consequent- ly they were not fitted to heavy guns until early in the nineteenth century, when gunnery became a serious study and guns more ac- curate weapons. In 1801 a pro- posal to fit sights to naval guns was referred to Lord Nelson. He said he would be glad to see and use them, but hoped to be able to get so near the enemy that his shots could not miss. During the War of 1812, sights of their own devising were used by offi- cers of American ships, and some cf the superiority in gunnery shown by the Americans was due to them. As the range of guns increased and the paths of suc- cessive projectiles fired from the same piece became more uniform, sights steadily improved until, in 1892, Admiral Fiske (q. v.) of the U. S. Navy brought out a prac- ticable sight of the telescope type. This was an enormous step in advance, and made mod- ern gunnery possible. Short-range weapons, like shotguns and revolvers, are still fitted with very simple sights — ■ the front one being a pointed bit of metal, while the rear one is a simple notch or omitted alto- gether. In long-range small arms the front sight is of 'knife- edge' type; or consists of a small bead on a short pin, or of a circle — the bead and circle usually be- ing combined. The rear sight is a notch of some sort or a peep- hole through a smaU circular plate; in either case it is suscep- tible of being raised for increase of range and of a side movement to correct for lateral deflection or movement of the object at which aimed. For long-range shooting telescope sights are fitted to some sporting and military rifles. Modern sights for heavy guns are much more complicated. The great range of the guns now used, the cost of each shot, and the importance oi every hit make the correction of errors most nec- essary; and the sights are there- fore as efficient as science, care, and money can make them. Practically all are telescopic, for the advantages of the telescopic type are manifold. By the use of suitable lenses and proper ar- rangement, the target is magni- fied sufficiently to render the pointing as accurate as at close range; by means of prisms, the line of sight can be bent or turned in any direction that is conve- nient for the gun pointer; while not the least of the telescope's advantages is the bringing of the target and sighting point (cross- hairs) together in the focus of the telescope. When using the old- fashioned front and rear sights the eye endeavors to bring three objects in line — the two sights and the target. Since each is at a different distance, only one can be clearly seen at a time, and the error due to this state of affairs is considerable — inadmissibly great at long ranges. A telescope sight is not at- tached to the gun, but to the sleeve or slide in which the gun travels during recoil; and it is firmly clamped to a pivot bar which has movement in eleva- tion and in azimuth, separate scales being provided for each. The scales are either flat or mul- tiplying. A flat scale is a gradu- ated plate over which passes a pointer connected to the pivot bar. A multiplying scale is on a drum or a cylinder connected to the bar by a worm shaft or gear- ing. By means of these devices the pointing of a gun is made as Sight, Second KFP 211 Signal Corps accurate as the varying charac- ters of the deflecting causes per- mit. Sights are adjusted from time to time by bore sighting, a procedure by which the line of sight through the telescope is brought parallel to the axis of the bore (using temporary sights in the bore) while the pointers of the deflection and elevation scales are kept at zero. To cor- rect for variations in the powder and for certain other errors, cali- bration (i.e., test) firing is re- sorted to, the zero of the sights being adjusted to allow for the mean observed error of the shots. On naval guns and many land pieces there are two sets of sights — one each side — for the use of the gun pointer and trainer. Field and siege guns, which are often so placed that the tar- get can not be seen, may be laid in azimuth by panoramic or pris- matic sights or by other means, and in elevation by a gunner's quadrant. The latter consists of a graduated drum or circular scale carried on a pivot bar on which is mounted a second pivoted bar supporting the spirit level. Prismatic sights have tele- scopes of the usual power and with the customary fittings, but the line of sight between the ob- ject glass and the eyepiece is bent through one or more angles. This enables the sighting hole to be cut through the side of a tur- ret instead of through its front, and permits the pointer of a gun using high-angle fire (especially an anti-aircraft piece) to stand erect, or nearly so, even if the gun is pointed vertically. In operating a modern gun the adjustment of the sight is ef- fected by the sight setter on in- formation given by the division crfficer or battery commander, leaving the gun pointer (who fires the piece) free to carry on his own duty without interrup- tion. See Gunnery; Guns; Projectiles ; Target Prac- tice. Sigrht, Second. See Second Sight. Sigillaria, sij-i-la'ri-a (Latin sigillum, 'a seal'), a family of fossil plants, which ranges from the Devonian to the Permian system, but is more especially abundant in Carboniferous strata. The plants had slender, pillar-like trunks, some of which attained a diameter of 5 feet and were proportionately tall, reach- ing a height of SO to 70 feet. The columnar stems are ribbed and fluted longitudinally in a very regular manner, the flut- ings being marked by rows or whorls of scars left by fallen leaves. The fruit is still un- known, some botanists supposing that Sigillaria had cones like those of lycopods, while others think it probable that the fruit resembled that of yew trees. The structure of the stem is pecul- iar : the external rind or coat is hard, beneath that is a great thickness of cellular tissue trav- ersed by rope-like bands of fibers forming an inner bark, while in the center is a com- paratively small firm woody axis. See Lepidodendron ; Stig- MARIA. Sig-ismund, sij'is-mund (1368-1437), Holy Roman Em- peror, son of the Emperor Charles iv. He succeeded his fa- ther as margrave of Branden- burg (1378) ; married Mary, the daughter and heiress of Louis the Great, king of Hungary, and on the death of the latter as- cended the Hungarian throne. In 1396 he led a crusade against the Turks, but suffered a crush- ing defeat_ at Nicopolis. A popu- lar uprising deposed him in 1401, but with the aid of mer- cenary troops he recovered his throne. Sigismund was elected Holy Roman emperor in 1410. He was the author and protector of the Council of Constance, called together for the purpose of ending the Hussite and other schisms ; but the martyrdom of John Huss led to the Hussite War (see Hussites, War of the). Sigismund, three kings of Poland, of the Jagello dynasty. Sigismund i (1466-1548) suc- ceeded his brother Alexander in 1507. His reign was notable for the constant wars waged with Basil, tsar of Russia, and for the intrigues of his wife (Bona Sforza of Milan) against the Reformation. His code of laws for Lithuania shows an enlight- ened prince, anxiovis for the wel- fare of his people, as against the tyranny of the nobles. In his reign Copernicus (q. v.) flour- ished. — He was succeeded by his son Sigismund ii (1520-72), surnamed Augustus, who reigned from 1548 to 1572, and was in his later years continually at war with Ivan the Terrible of Russia and with the Swedes. He was at first favorable to Protestant- ism, then permitted severe per- secution of the reformers, but finally _ was compelled to allow a nominal toleration in spiritual matters. — Sigismund hi (1566- 1632) was a Swedish prince, the son of King John iii of Sweden and Catherine, sister of Sigis- mund II, and was elected to the throne on the death of Stephen Bathori. During his reign, from 1587 to 1632, rebellions among the nobles were frequent. Though he finally crushed them at the Battle of Guzow, the spark was only smothered, not quenched. He also had several wars with the Turks, the great victory of Chodkiewicz (his general) over them at Khotin (September, 1622) forming the theme of more than one Polish epic. He was a bitter persecutor of the Protestants. For twelve years (1592 to 1604) he was also king of Sweden, being eventually de- posed by the Swedish estates. See Poland, History. Sigmaringen. See Hohen- ZOLLERN. Sigmaringen, town, Ger- many, Prussia, on the Danube; 30 miles northeast of Constance. Pop.^ 5,210. Sigma Xi, sig'ma zi or kse, an honorary scientific college fraternity that derives its name from the initials of the two Greek words Hirovbdv "Evvoves ('companions in zealous re- search'), founded in 1886 at Cornell University. Its object is to encourage original inves- tigation in science, pure and ap- plied, by meeting for the discus- sion of scientific subjects ; by the publication of such scientific rnatters as may be deemed de- sirable ; by establishing frater- nal relations among invtistiga- tors in the scientific centers ; and by granting the privilege of membership to such students as have during their college course given special promise of future achievement. It admits as active members resident professors, in- structors, graduate students, and undergraduates ; as alumni mem- bers former active members and any graduate of the institution of not less than five years' stand- ing ; and as honorary members scientific workers who have achieved eminence in some work of pure or applied science. The badge or insignia is a gold watch chain pendant, with a monogram of the two Greek letters. The so- ciety has 93 chapters, and about 45,000 members. Sigmoid Flexure. See In- testines. Signa, commune. Italy, on the Arno ; 8 miles west of Florence. Pop. 8,500. Signakh, town, Russian Transcaucasia, government of Tiflis; 50 miles east of Tiflis city. Pop. 9,000. Signal Corps, U. S. Army, one of the principal branches of the army, whose duties are con- nected with the collection and transmission of military knowl- edge. The Chief Signal Officer, a major general, has the direc- tion of all matters pertaining to military cables, military tele- graph and telephone lines and field trains, radio and radar in- stallations. He must also super- vise the development and use of improved signal codes ; must, through modern laboratory Sigrnallingr, Military KFP 211 A Sig:nalling, Naval methods, develop new and better signal equipment ; and must, when war strikes, be ready to merge all necessary civilian means to communication with existing military equipment to take the field in the communica- tion service of combat and sup- ply troops. The father of the United States Signal Corps was Major (later Brigadier General) Albert James Myer, a surgeon, who was given the rank of Ma- jor, June 27, 1860, as Signal Of- ficer, the first such appointment in history. The first Signal Officer put into use the wigwag system — hand flags by day, torches or lanterns by night. The flaming torch and crossed signal flags in- signia of the Corps commemo- rate this beginning. From these crude signal beginnings to the use of radio relay in the Second World War and radar spotting is a far cry but, in the years of its existence, the U. S. Army Signal Corps has practically led the world in devising and oper- ating the most modern means of observation and communication. See Signalling, Military ; Telegraph, Military. Signalling, Military. Mili- tary signals are of two types, visual and sound. In simple form, signals were used in very ancient times. For fleet opera- tions, Aeneas Tacitus (300 B.C.) proposed a signal code. Polybius (204-125 B.C.) described the code of Tacitus and proposed one of his own. From this point forward, the trend of code pat- terns was definitely towards sim- plification. Improvement in the tools of war made necessary bet- ter code systems and in early days this was particularly so in naval operations. Visual signals are made dur- ing the day by means of flags, heliographs, heliostats, shapes (e.g., panel signals laid on the ground to be read from the air by flying pilots), smoke, and semaphores. By night, visual signals are made by flame, torches, lanterns, lamps, flash- lights, rockets, night helio- graphs, searchlight, and para- chute flares. In modern warfare, airplane scouting and observa- tion balloons have considerably curtailed the use and efficiency of visual signalling. Sound signals are made by bugles, drums, gongs, ^un shots, horns, steam or air whistles, tel- egraph (line or radio), and tele- phone. Ordinary day signals are sent by flags or mechanical sema- phores. The flag signals most used are of two types — the wig- wag and the hand semaphore. The wigwag flag is two to three feet square, and mounted on a staff from four to six feet long. For fast, short-distance work the small flag and short staff are used. Both transmit with the telegraph code; a wave to the right corresponding to a dot ; one to the left, a dash ; one to the front, interval. The hand sema- phore is faster, but can not be seen so far. Two small flags on short staves are used, one in each hand. The code is that of the two-armed semaphore, each po- sition forming a letter. Mechani- cal semaphores are less portable than flags, and are not much used except from stations hav- ing some degree of permanence. (See Semaphore). For long distance day signal- ling, heliographs are commonly employed, the self-adjusting he- liostat being too heavy and com- plicated for ordinary service. The usual type of military helio- graph consists of a reflecting mirror, a transmitting mirror, and an occulting shutter. Its easy working range is 30 to 40 miles under fair conditions, but double this distance has been covered. (See Heliograph). For signalling at night, oil acetylene lanterns fitted with hoods and occulting shutters are useful. If supplied with a long tube for surrounding the ray, svich a lantern may be operated with considerable secrecy, pro- vided the exact direction of the receiving station is known. Elec- tric lamps with operating switches ^ are useful where the current is obtainable. Night he- liographs with artificial light are sometimes used, but are not common. Field or fortress searchlights are used in two ways — with occulting shutters and without. In the latter case they are directed vertically (or nearly so), and operated like the wigwag — a swing to the right signifying a dot, to the left a dash, to the front an interval. When employed in this way the signals may be read for 50 miles or more over intervening hills or mountains. In all^ armies, certain men are specially trained in signal- ling. All enlisted men are given some signal instruction, and the non-commissioned officers must be reasonably expert in the hand semaphore, wigwag, and arm signals. Arm signals are used by the patrol leader, squad leader, and others when in extended or- der, and all men are required to be familiar with their significa- tions, which include forward march, halt, double time, squads right, squads left, to the rear, assemble, enemy in sight in small numbers, enemy in sight in force, have important information. In wartime, messages from first-line trenches are common- ly sent by telegraph, but circum- stances sometimes permit visual signalling up and down the line and to the rear, especially simple arbitrary signals of urgent char- acter. In permanent works, and par- ticularly in those which have communication with naval ves- sels, the 4-lamp ardois (see Signalling, Naval) is very convenient. Torches on the end of a staff and used like a wigwag flag were formerly in vogue, but are not desirable when near the enemy in time of war. A simple night signalling equipment con- sists of two oil lanterns, one of which is placed at the operator's feet, but where it can be seen from the receiving station. The other is moved to the right to form a dot, to the left for a dash, up and down for an inter- val. All the night signal apparatus which have been described use the telegraph code or (in some foreign armies) one of similar type. In the ardois each display is a letter, figure, or arbitrary signal. In time of war, signals of importance are blinded by the use of a secret code, or in some other fashion, so that their mean- ing can not be determined by the enemy. Sound signals, aside from those of the bugle, telegraph, and tele- phone, are very little used in military operations except in connection with the water trans- port service or in other special cases. See Signal Corps ; Sig- nalling. Naval. Signalling, Naval. Signals of simple form were of course used in very ancient times, for the idea of them is common with the least civilized tribes and races. Reasoning from analogy and from such information as we possess, we may conclude that the development of naval signals went hand in hand with that of the war vessels and of naval tac- tics. The demand for a compre- hensive code in fleet operations in order to provide for unfore- seen contingencies is shown in the code of Aeneas Tacitus, pro- posed by him about 300 B.C., and described by Polybius (204-125 B.C.), and one devised by Polyb- ius by which any word could be spelled. To what extent these codes were used is not known, but it is probable that they were found too cumbrous for ordinary use. At any rate, the codes of la- ter centuries were much simpler. Doubtless the battle tactics of the gallery period had something to do with this. The vessels were comparatively small, slow, and under good control by means of their oars ; they were usually near enough to each other to pass the word by voice ; and the Sigrnalling, Naval KFP 211 B Signalling, Naval evolutions performed, the arms used, and the methods of attack were of simple character. All sorts of signals were employed — torches, flames, flags, banners, pennants, shapes, sound signals (drums, gongs, horns, etc.) ; flags, torches, flames, banners were displayed in unusual posi- tions or in special numbers ; sails were loosed and hoisted one or more times. When sails definitely displaced oars as the motive power of war- ships, the latter grew rapidly in size — also in unwieldiness ; and the size and number of the guns of different signals could be transmitted, and a system em- ploying thirty flags — including one for each letter — was certain- ly in use by the middle of the eighteenth century. About 1780, Admiral Kempenfelt of the Brit- ish navy devised a code which used flags for day work and lan- terns for the night. From these two systems the day and night signals of the present day are in a great measure derived. In 1792, McArthur, secretary to Ad- miral Lord Howe, devised a day code that was adopted by the British Admiralty in 1792 as own tactical and administrative signals. In 1816 a code diction- ary was issued, but no regular method of arrangement was fol- lowed, and the code was defec- tive in other respects. In 1846, H. J. Rogers, superintendent of telegraphs, devised a code which was adopted by the Navy De- partment. It consisted at first of nine flags (one for each numeral from 1 to 9) and five pennants. In 1861, Rogers' code was re- vised and rearranged ; a flag for zero was added, three pennants for repeaters, and a number of other flags and pennants. Signal Practice on an American Battleship. increased with the dimensions of the ships. The complications thereby introduced into naval war rendered the simple codes inadequate, and attempts were made to develop better ones. The first of these to be extensively used appears to be one adopted about 1665 by the Duke of York (afterward James ii of Eng- land) while in command of the British fleet which was operat- ing against the Dutch. The de- tails of the system are not known. It is believed by some that sepa- rate flags were used for each of the letters of the alphabet. What- ever the means, a large number ' Lord Howe's code. This had 13 flags which, by inversion, com- bination, and shift of hoist to fly, could be made to represent the twenty-six letters of the alphabet and other significations. Nelson's famous signal at Traf- algar was made with this code. The first U. S. naval code was adopted in 1795, and was similar to some of the British develop- ments of King James' code. There were twenty-six flags (one for each letter) and a number of pennants. No code dictionary was prepared, and except for a few general signals each squad- ron commander prepared his In 1887, the British Board of Trade was charged with bring- ing the international signal book up to date. In 1889 the re- sult of its work was published. The number of flags was in- creased to 26 plus a code or an- swering pennant. With this in- crease, many of the more impor- tant signals could be made by single or 2-flag hoists, general signals by 3-flag hoists, and geo- graphical signals by 4-flag hoists. During the war period, 1914- 18, this code was severely tested and proved inadequate, princi- pally in that it was not interna- tional in scope. After the war, it Signallingt Naval KFP 212 Signalling, Naval was proposed that revision of the code should be considered by the International Radiotelegraph Conference to be held in Wash- ington, D. C, in 1927. This con- ference brought out a new code. It was comprehended in two vol- umes, one for radiotelegraphy, the other for visual signaling. The number of flags was in- creased by the addition of 10 numeral pennants and 3 substi- tute (repeater) flags. The numer- al pennants made possible sig- naling of numbers, times, lati- tude, longitude, courses, bearing, etc., without making use of code mercial code (see Signal, Ma- rine) and contain signals of various kinds — tactical, adminis- trative, urgent, geographical, spelling, and phrase. The signals given in the books are designed primarily for transmission by flags, but they can be sent by other means. Shape signals consist of hol- low drums, cones, balls, and the like, visible at long distances. Visibility of flags is limited to three or four miles, and they are sometimes difiicult to see at a few hundred yards when the wind is unfavorable. accurately reflecting the sun's ray to the distant station, and an occulting shutter or a device to throw the ray slightly out of alignment and bring it back. The telegraph code is used. (See Heliograph). In the United States Navy the six standard night signals are the ardois, the 'winker,' the sem- aphore with lighted arms, two lanterns (see Signalling, Mili- tary), a wigwag torch, and the searchlight. The ardois consists of four double lanterns arranged vertically. Each lantern may be made to show white or red, and Navy Signalling — International Code Flags. groups. The repeater flags made possible the use of any combina- tion of four letters or four fig- ures. Morse signalling methods were amended to bring them in line with radiotelegraphy, in so far as was possible and practi- cable. The use of distant signals and of fixed semaphores was abandoned. Signal letters of ships were designated to be the same as their radio call signs, consisting of four letters, which definitely indicate nationality of the ship. The new code, known as The 1931 International Code of Sig- nals, was printed in English, French, German, Italian, Japa- nese, Spanish, and Norwegian. Code books in most navifis are based on the international com- Motion signals are chiefly of the semaphore and wigwag types. In the wigwag type, the oper- ator uses a single flag on a staff of convenient length. The code used in the U. S. Navy is the Continental Morse telegraph code — a wave to the right sig- nifying a dot ; to the left, a dash ; down in front, interval (once, end of word ; twice, end of sen- tence ; three times, end of mes- sage). It is slower than the flag semaphore, but as the flag used may be quite large and the pole long it may be read much far- ther. Heliograph signals are not used in the Navy except by shore parties. A heliograph sig- nal apparatus consists essentially of a reflecting mirror, means of the apparatus is operated by a keyboard like that of a typewrit- er. The code used is the tele- graphic, a red light signifying a dot and the white a dash ; each display is a letter. Winker lights are operated by a key, and are simple white lights installed singly or in pairs. The telegraph code is used. Searchlights are used for long-distance signal- ling, and are operated with an occulting shutter or by waving the beam_ to the right or left as in the wigwag. In time of war, naval vessels carry no light, and do not us** the ordinary visual night signal* except in cases of emergency For necessary night signalling between adjacent ships, an elec- tric light is placed in the rear Signals, Marine KFP 213 Signorelli end of a tin tube (3 inches in diameter and 2 feet long) and operated by a contact key. Sound signals, except the si- ren, trumpet, and gun, use the telegraph code. The most impor- tant is the radio. The submarine signalling is effected through the water by a bell and a receiver attached to the inner side of the hull plating below water. The whistle gives a short toot for a dot, and a longer blast for a dash. See Signalling, Military ; Fog Signals; Rule of the Road at Sea. Sigrnals, Marine. Signals used in the merchant marine, by establishments connected there- with, and in connection with navigation and seafaring in gen- eral, are similar to those used in naval services except for the variations brought about by the different requirements. All merchant vessels are fitted with radio apparatus, and com- munication between ships so equipped is usually_ by that means. Flags employing the in- ternational signal code are also used. This was first published by the British in 1856, and has since been adopted by all maritime nations. In the original code, x, z, and the vowels were not used, but in a recent revision these were included. The present code flags are shown in the plate on page 212. It consists of a code pennant, five other pennants, two swallow-tail flags, and nine- teen rectangular flags. Each, ex- cept the code pennant, represents a letter of the alphabet. These flags or pennants may be hoisted singly or 2, 3, or 4 at a time. One-flag signals are used for such signals as 'pilot wanted,' T am about to sail,' 'the ship is in (juarantine,' etc. Two-flag signals are urgent and impor- tant. Three-flag signals cover all ordinary messages. Four-flag signals are geographical (names of countries, seaports, islands, capes, bays, etc.), code 'number' of vessels, etc. Each nation as- signs a signal 'number' to every new ship when she is registered or enrolled, if she is large enough to be entitled to such a distinction. These designations do not appear in the signal book, but each nation issues a list of its documented vessels (see Ship's Papers), and such lists give the names and code 'num- bers' of all vessels large enough to receive the license. In deter- mining a vessel's name from her signal number it is necessary, therefore, to know her national- ity. This is shown by her colors, which she must display when 'making her number.' Each sig- nal in the international signal book — whether it expresses a sentence, a phrase, or a word — has the same meaning in the sig- nal books of all nations, irre- spective of the difference in language, so that an Italian and a Swede may converse by signal without understanding the oth- er's language. In this respect, the international signal is supe- rior to the radio telegraph mes- sage, which may require transla- tion. Nations having languages in which Roman characters are not used, or used in part only, adapt the book to their own needs ; so far as international communication is concerned the letters are merely signs desig- nating the flags ; but the signifi- cation and ease of communica- tion is unimpaired. The American edition of the international code is published by the Hydrographic Office of the U. S. Navy. It is printed by the Government Printing Office in Washington. See Signalling, Naval. Signals, Block. See Rail- roads. Signals, Fog. See Fog Sig- nals. Sig'nature, in printing. See Book. Signature. In law, one's sig- nature may consist of his name, or some mark or sign designed to represent it, affixed to a written instrument to attest his approval or_ ratification of its contents. Initials of a name have been held sufficient. It may be printed or written by lead pencil. It may generally be affixed by another, if duly authorized. It need not be at the end of an instrument, un- less subscription is required. Signboards were known to both Greeks and Romans. There are allusions to them in classic writers ; and specimens have been found at Pompeii and Her- culaneum, sometimes painted, but oftener carved. During the illiterate Middle Ages of Europe every trade had its emblem, some of which have survived to our day, as the chemist's pestle and mortar, the pawnbroker's three balls, and the barber's pole and basin. Besides these trade emblems, every individual trader might have his own special de- vice. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries huge paint- ed signs came greatly into vogue in European countries. They were suspended either from pro- jecting metal work, from a post or an obelisk, or from a sort of miniature triumphal archway. A good many signboards have been painted by great artists, as Hol- bein, Correggio, Paul Potter, Hogarth. Wilson, Morland, David Cox, 'Old' Crome, Sam Bough, and Millais, some of which are still extant. Sig'net is the name of one of the seals used by the British sec- retaries of state to authenticate royal warrants. In Scotland there is a special signet under which most judicial writs issu- ing in the name of the sovereign must still pass. Sig'nia (modern Segni), a town, Italy, in ancient Latium, noted for its temple of Jupiter, its wine, its pears, and for the manufacture of a peculiar kind of cement used for pavements and reservoirs. In the Roman wars with the Volscians it was an important outpost for Rome, to which it was always a faithful dependency, except during the Latin revolt of 340 B.C. Parts of the ancient cyclopean walls still exist. Pop. 7,459. Sign Language, a means of communication among the North American Indians, especially the Indians of the Plains, in which ideas were conveyed by move- ments and positions of the hands. It differs from that employed by civilized people for conversing with mutes in that it is based upon ideas, and not upon the phonetics of any one language. The conditions under which the North American Indians lived were such as to bring together small groups of people witTi com- mon interests but with different speech ; and to overcome this difficulty of communication they devised their sign language. And it is doubtless due to this that the many Plain tribes came to have a uniform culture and the germs of nationality. A few examples may be of- fered : The common sign for horse is to hold the left hand in front of the left breast, fingers extended and pointing forward, and then place the first and sec- ond fingers of the right hand as- tride the left index finger. The idea represented is riding. To lie is expressed by parting the first and second fingers as the hand is carried forward and out from the face. The idea is that the speech goes^ in two directions at once. Rain is expressed by hold- ing the hands in front of the body at about the height of the head, and with the fingers ex- tended move the hand up and down by a wrist motion. The idea is that the clouds throw the water down. See Language. Consult Clark's The Indian Sign Language. Sig"norelIi, sen-yo-rel'le, LucA (1441-1523), Italian painter, born at Cortona ; was master of Michelangelo, and kinsman to his biographer, Va- sari. He worked with Piero della Francesca and with Melozzo da Forli on the frescoes in San Francesco at Arezzo. and thus developed his broad methods and grand style ; he was influenced Sigourney KFP 214 Sikeston also by Donatello's statues, and by Antonio Pollaiuolo. He set- tled in Cortona when thirty- eight, and was elected (1479) to an important civic position. He painted in Perugia Cathedral in 1484, at Volterra in 1491, and executed the frescoes at Monte Oliveto in 1497. In 1499 he was commissioned to decorate the Capella Nuova of the Orvieto Cathedral, and finished it in four years. In 1508 he visited Rome, but his paintings in the Vatican were afterward destroyed to give space to Raphael. He was es- sentially the painter of the dig- nity of life, of the human form in vigorous aspects ; preoccupied with the expression of move- (1841); Pleasant Letters from Pleasant Lands (1841); Scenes in My Native Land (1844) ; Myrtis (1846) ; Letters to My Pupils (1850) ; Past Meridian (1854); The Man of Us and Other Poems (1862). Her auto- biography was published under the title Letters of Life. Sigsbee, sigz'be, Charles DwiGHT (1845-1923), Ameri- can naval officer, born in Albany, N. Y., was graduated from the U. S. Naval Academy (1863). He saw active service in the Civil War, notably at Mobile Bay, and Fort Fisher. He served on the Asiatic station (1865-9) ; with the U. S. Coast Survey (1874-8), sounding the Gulf of Jon (1811-79), Icelandic states- man and author, born in the west of Iceland ; became secretary to the bishop of Iceland (1830). It was mainly through his efforts that Iceland obtained (1871-4) a constitution from Denmark, and he was the most prominent Icelander of the nineteenth cen- tury. His most important works are : The Speakers of the Lazu and Law-Men in Iceland; Con- tributions to Iceland Literature and History ; an edition of the Sagas (1843-7) ; a collection of Icelandic laws (17 vols.) ; Dip- lomatarium Islandicum (1857). Sihun River (ancient Sarus), Asia Minor, rises in the east, flows nearly 300 miles south- Signalling Aircraft for Landings with a Colored Light System during Army Maneuvers ment, he was intensely realistic, with a keen sense of the beauty of decoration. His work can be seen at Cortona, Florence, Ber- lin, London, and there are fine drawings in the Louvre, Uffizi (Florence), at Dresden, Wind- sor, and in the British Museum. Consult Luca Signorclli, by Maud Cruttwell. Sigourney, sigVr-ni, Lydia Howard (Huntley), (1791- 1865), American writer, was born in Norwich, Conn. In 1809, with Ann _ Maria Hyde, she opened a private school at Nor- wich, which in 1815 was re- moved to Hartford. In 1819 she married Charles .Sigourney, a merchant of Hartford. Among the best of her works are : I^et- ters to Young Ladies (1833) ; Pocahontas and Other Poems Mexico ; and as hydrographer of the Navy Department (1893-7). He was in command of the bat- tleship Maine when she was de- stroyed in Havana Harbor on Feb. 15. 1898 (see Maine), and displayed high qualities of cour- age and self-possession. During the Spanish-American War he commanded the cruiser St. Paul ; and was subsequently chief in- telligence officer, in command of the South Atlantic squadron, and of the second division of the At- lantic fleet. He was made rear admiral in 1903, and retired in 1907. He was awarded the Red Eagle of Prussia for his deep- sea explorations. He published : Deep Sea Sounding and Dredg- ing, U. S. Coast Survey (1880) ; The Story of the Maine (1899). Sigurdsson, sc'gdbrds-son. west, past the town of Adana into the Mediterranean Sea near Mersina. Sika, a small deer native to Japan and China, naturalized in European parks, with brown coat in winter and spotted coat in summer. Sikandarabad, se-kun'da-ra- bad', municipal town, India, Bulandshahr district, United Provinces ; 30 miles southeast of Delhi. Fine muslin is manufac- tured. Pop. 20,000. Sikandra Rao, se-kun'dra ra'o, municipal town, India, Ali- garh district, United Provinces ; 43 miles northeast of Agra. Pop. 12,000. Sikeston, city, Missouri, Scott county, on the St. Louis and San Francisco and the St. Louis, Iron Mountain, and Sikhs KFP 215 Silesia Southern railroads; 165 miles southeast of St. Louis. It has flour mills, a shoe factory and a cotton oil mill. Pop. (1930) 5,- 676; (1940) 7,944. Sikhs, siks. originated in the Punjab, about 1510, as a reli- gious sect, founded by Nanak (born a Hindu), who preached a faith borrowed from both Mo- hammedanism and Hinduism. By reforming and purifying the old faiths, he sought to unite Hindus and Mussulmen in the bonds of a new common religion. Under Nanak and his immediate successors, who were termed gurus, or leaders, the sect was wholly religious. Later, however, it assumed political importance, and at the end of the seventeenth century Guru Govind (1675- 1708) undertook the overthrow of the Mogul empire and the establishment of the Sikhs as an independent power. He added fresh sacred writings to the Granth (the Sikh Scriptures), instituted the pahiil, or baptis- mal ceremony, and commanded the daily duty of carrying arms. Under the name Khdlsa ('the pure brotherhood'), the sect in- creased rapidly and ultimately became dominant in the Punjab. Early in the nineteenth cen- tury Maharajah Ran jit Singh (the lion of the Punjab) deter- mined to gain possession of Lahore, nominally under the rule of Afghanistan. This he did in 1798, later organizing an army on European lines for the further extension of his sway, which, however, was checked by the British. In 1845 the Sikhs made predatory incursions into British territory south of the Jehlum. War resulted, and in 1846, after the hard-fought battles of Mudki, Ferozshah, Aliwal, and Sobraon, in which Sir Hugh Gough defeated the Sikh forces, a peace was made by which the country southeast of the Jehlum became British. Lahore was occupied, and Dhu- leep Singh (son of Ranjit) was set on the throne of the Punjab. After two years of peace, a rebellion broke out at Multan, in April 1848, the Sikhs allying themselves secretly with their former enemies the Afghans. The British had hardly quelled this rebellion before a fresh war broke out (in 1849). and the Sikh po\yer was finally broken by a series of battles culminating in the bloody victories of Chilian- wala and Gujarat. The Punjab was annexed on March 29. 1849. Henceforth the Sikhs were loyal adherents to British rule, espe- cially during the mutiny of 1857. The Sikhs in India number (1941) 5,691,447. Consult Payne's A Short History of the Sikhs (1915). Si-kiangr, se-kyang', or West River, the most important waterway of southern China, is formed by two main head- streams, the Yukiang from the borders of Tong-king and the Hun-shui from the west of the province of Yun-nan. Joining at Sin-Chau, they flow mainly east through Kwang-si and Kwang- tung, and reach the China Sea by an extensive delta, on one branch of which, the Canton River (q. v.), the city of Canton is situated. The main stream is over 1,650 miles long. Sik'kim, feudatory state, northeastern India, in the East- ern Himalayas, between Tibet on the north and Darjeeling on the south, and Bhutan and Nepal on the east and west re- spectively ; area, 2,818 square miles. It has dense forests of oak, maple, and chestnut ; copper is mined ; and rice, corn, millet, tea, and cotton are grown. The leading industries are ivory carving, gold embroidery, and silk weaving. Beside the natives, called Lepchas, who are akin to the Tibetans, the inhabitants in- clude Bhutas and a large num- ber of Nepalese. The state reli- gion is Lamaism, but a majority of the people are Hindus. Sik- kim is governed by a maharajah imder British supervision. Tum- long is the capital. Pop. (1941) 121,520. Sikorsky, IG9R I. (1889- ), aeronautical engineer, was born in Kiev, Russia and was educated at the Naval Col- lege in Leningrad and at the In- stitute of Technology in Kiev. He was a pioneer in the design and construction of flying craft. He came to the United States in 1919 and became a citizen in 1928_. He developed the Sikorsky multimotored amphibian, the first successful helicopter in the Western Hemisphere, and sev- eral other types of planes. Si'las, or SiLvANUs, one of the chief men of the early Chris- tian church at Jerusalem. He was chosen by the apostles and elders to accompany Paul on his missionary jovirney to Syria and Cilicia (Acts xv and xvi). _ Silay, se-li', pueblo, Philip- pine Islands, in the province of Negros Occidental, on Guimaras Strait, 9 miles north of Bacolod. Pop. 23,328. Sil'chester, town, England, in Hampshire, 7 miles north of Basingstoke. Near by is the site of the ancient Roman city Calleva Atrchatum, which is enclosed by remains of an old wall. Excavations, begun sys- tematically in 1890, have dis- closed the general plan of the principal buildings, including the forum, a large hall, temples, public baths (1904), a Christian church (1892) believed to be the oldest in Britain, and many villas. Without the walls, was a large amphitheatre. Most of the movable objects discovered are now in Reading Museum. Con- sult Davis' Romano- British City of Silchester. Silene, sl-le'ne, a genus of plants belonging to the order Caryophyllaceae, of which ex- amples are the moss campion, bladder campion, sea campion, and catchflies. See Catchfly. Sile'nus, in ancient Greek mythology, a companion of Dionysus, variously represented as a son of Hermes and of Pan. He is generally depicted as a fat, jolly old man, bald, and with a snub nose ; he always carries a ^ wine_-bag,^ and is usually drunk. Silesia, si-le'shi-a (Ger. Schlcsicn) , Germany, former province of Prussia, was divided between Prussia and Poland, 1,628 square miles being in Po- land and 14,026 square miles in Prussia. The greater portion be- longs to the basin of the Oder. Along the southern border rise the Sudetic Mountains (Rie- sengebirge, Eulenbebirge, Glatz Mountains, Katzbach Moun- tains). The district has exten- sive coal mines, great iron fields, vast deposits of zinc and lead, and considerable amounts of sil- ver, copper, and cobalt, as well as many mineral springs. It is also an important manufactur- ing region, the chief industries being the production of textiles and of iron and other metals, brewing, distilling, tanning, flour milling, and the manufacture of cotton, linen, and woolen goods, iron, gloves, carpets, sugar, pa- per, leather wares, chemicals, to- bacco, glass, porcelain, and ce- ment. Cereals (oats rye, wheat, and barley), potatoes, beets, hay, and forage plants are raised. From the beginning of the 10th century to nearly the mid- dle of the 14th, the greater part of Silesia was subject to the Pol- ish crown, but was extensively colonized by Germans. The suze- rainty then passed to the crown of Bohemia. In 1740-2 Fred- erick the Great laid claim to it, and at the close of the Seven Years' War the larger portion was ceded to Prussia. At the close of the First World War, to meet the conflicting demands of the German and Polish elements of the population, the Peace Conference at Versailles con- stituted Upper Silesia a plebi- scite area. The plebiscite of March 1912 showed a marked preference for Germany, but the division of the territory caused such serious disorders that the League of Nations was called on to settle the rival demands. The southern and eastern districts, Silesia KFP 216 Silicon of some 1,300 square miles, were turned over to Poland, and it was provided that for fifteen years all of Upper Silesia should be under the supervision of a mixed commission of Poles and Germans. The defeat of Ger- many in the Second World War (1939-45) left the question of the status of Silesia to the peace treaty which is still pending. Silesia, former duchy and crown land of Austria, since the First World War belonging to Czechoslovakia; area 1,719 square miles. The country is mountainous, being traversed by the Sudetic Mountains and spurs of the Carpathians ; the princi- pal rivers are the Oder and the Vistula. Agriculture is of impor- tance, flax being grown over large areas. The chief mineral * deposits are coal, lignite, iron, and marble. Linen and woolen goods, porcelain, alcohol, chemi- cals, and beet sugar are manu- factured. Pop. 738,000. Silhouette,sil-oo-et',ETiENNE De (1709—67), from whose name the process of profile shadow- drawing has been derived, was born in Limoges, and was one of the three delegates chosen to demarcate the frontier between the British and French terri- tories in Acadia in North America (1749). Ten years later he became minister of finance to Louis xv, but having called upon the people to practice many unpopular economies, in order to improve the govern- ment's financial position, was soon dismissed, and his name became a part of the current slang of the day, denoting any- thing reduced to its simplest form. In a spirit of irony French caricaturists reduced their por- traits to mere outline and al- though the other economies of Silhouette soon disappeared, the outline picture continued to flourish under the name Silhou- ette. Silhouettes are usually- made of black paper on a white ground but many beautiful ones have been painted on ivory, porcelain and glass, and color has been used to enhance their life-like character. Silicic Acid, si-lis'ik, ordinarily represented by the formula, H2Si03, may be regarded as the acid from which the numerous and complex silicates are de- rived. It is prepared by the dialysis of a solution of a soluble silicate to which an acid has been added. It forms a jelly-like solution from which silicon diox- ide is precipitated on prolonged heating and evaporation. The silicates occur widely distributed in nature, forming the basis of most rocks. They may be prepared by fusing silicon diox- ide, usually in the form of fine quartz sand, with the appro- priate metallic oxide. Except those of the alkali metals, the silicates are insoluble in water and are not easily decomposed by acids. Glass, made by the fusion of sand with lime and soda, is the most important of the artificially prepared silicates. The lime- soda glasses consist essentially of a fused mixture of calcium and sodium silicates and are mar- keted as window glass, plate glass, and ordinary bottle glass. The lead glasses are similar 'used mixtures of silicates in which lead largely replaces lime. They are ordinarily used for cut glass and other objects requiring a high refractive index. The borosilicate glasses, extensively used tor baking ware, consist of mixtures of silicates and borates, ordinarily considered compounds of the two, of metals made by fusing borax in the glass mixture. (See Glass.) The silicate of sodium is also an important article of com- merce, under the name, water glass. It is largely used in certain types of laundry soaps to increase their detergent prop- erties and as an adhesive in the manufacture of cardboard boxes and shipping containers. It is employed to some extent as a size in paper pulp products, and small amounts are used in the preservation of eggs. (See Soluble Glass.) Other widely used commercial silicates are earthenware, asbestos, granite, and smalt (qq.v.). Sirtcon, Si, atomic weight 28.1, is a non-metallic element, which, though not found free, is in combination more widely distributed in the solid crust of the earth than any other element except oxygen. It is chiefly found as its oxide, silica, Si02, both free and in combina- tion with the metallic oxides as silicates. The chief forms of silica that occur naturally are quartz or rock crystal, in which the silica is pure and trans- parent, and cairngorm, ame- thyst, smoky and milky quartz, in which the crystals are colored by impurities. Flint, chalcedony, agate, and jasper are amorphous silica; opal is hydrated silica; most sand is also silica in fine particles, and in a more or less impure state; while kieselguhr consists of the siliceous skeletons of Diatomaceae. Silicates of widely differing composition, of great variety and complexity, are distributed in all parts of the earth, both as separate minerals and as components of such rocks as granite and ba- salt. Of the former, olivine, hornblende, asbestos, serpen- tine, topaz, clay, feldspar, mica, and beryl are examples. The element silicon exists in two allotropic varieties, one of which, the amorphous form, may be obtained by heating fine sand and magnesium powder, 2Mg + Si02 = 2MgO + Si, and dissolving out the magnesium oxide with acid. The product is a dark brown powder of very high melting-point. It burns in air, and dissolves in caustic soda solution, evolving hydrogen. Crystalline silicon is prepared by heating quartz, wood char- coal, lime, and manganese oxide in an electric furnace. It is used industrially in the manufacture of ferro silicon and iron silicon alloys resistant to corrosion. The crystals obtained by this process are lustrous, black octa- hedra, having a hardness greater than that of glass. Crystalline silicon has a specific gravity of 2.49 and is highly resistant to chemical action, being unat- tacked by any acid except a mixture of nitric and hydro- fluoric acids. It is converted to the silicate with the evolution of hydrogen by boiling with strong sodium hydroxide solution. It will not burn in an atmosphere of oxygen even at a red heat, and is a conductor of the electric current. The amorphous form burns easily in oxygen, is an electrical insulator, and is con- verted into the crystalline form by heating near its melting point (1420° C). Of the compounds of silicon, the dioxide, silica, Si02, is the chief. It can be prepared artifi- cially in an amorphous form by the action of acid on sodium silicate or by passing silicon fluoride into water, and after washing with water strongly heating the product. Pure silica is a hard (h. = 7), clear, colorless, and transparent solid, insol- uble in water, and highly re- sistant to chemical action. The hexagonal crystals are of two kinds, showing right and left hand hemihedral faces, one being the mirror image of the other, and twisting the plane of polar- ized light opposite ways when it is passed through them parallel to the axis of the prism. When it is fused at the high temperature of the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe or of the electric arc, silica forms a viscous liquid, that can be drawn into fine threads, and when solid again is no longer optically active, but possesses valuable properties in very nearly per- fect elasticity, power of resisting high and sudden changes of temperature and the action of acids and water. Quartz is thus a most valuable material for the construction of scientific appara- tus, particularly in the applica- tion of the drawn fibers, as sug- gested by Boys, for the delicate Silicosis 217 Silk suspensions of galvanometers; in the use of blown quartz flasks, tubes, thermometers for special purposes; while its transparency to ultra-violet light, and the polarizing properties of the crys- tals, render it invaluable for optical uses. Its resistance to wear and atmospheric influence also makes it useful for orna- mental purposes, for standard weights, and for mortars for grinding minerals. (See Quartz.) As prepared artificially, silica is an amorphous white solid, the product obtained by the reac- tions in aqueous solutions being united with water to form a silicic acid of undetermined con- stitution. If prepared by the reaction of dilute solutions of sodium silicate and hydrochloric acid, the silicic acid remains dis- solved, the solution being sep- arable from the salt and excess of acid by dialysis. On evapora- tion of the solution a glassy mass results, that does not redissolve; but the solution, which does not affect litmus, and shows no marked chemical properties, soon sets to a jelly. For silicon steel, see Steel. Silicosis, a disease of the lungs, due to the inhalation of stone dust, known also as Grinders Disease. It is characterized by the formation of fibrous tissue throughout the lung substance, and its principal manifestation is shortness of breath on exer- tion. Tuberculosis is a frequent terminal stage. Periodic ex- amination of workers in dusty trades and removal of those in the early stages of the disease from the dust-laden atmosphere are important preventive meas- ures. The substitution of com- position wheels (i.e., wheels manufactured of abrasives con- taining little or no free silica) for sandstone wheels in the grinding industries also tends to minimize the occurrence of the condition. Sllique, sil-ek' or sil'ik, the fruit of certain cruciferous plants, as the mustard and radish, con- sisting of a pair of valves which separate from a central septum. Sllis'tria (anc. Duroslorum) , town, Roumania, on the right bank of the Danube; 60 miles southeast of Bucharest. It is an important trade centre, with cloth factories, distilleries, tan- neries, and tobacco factories. It was a Bulgarian possession from 1878 to 1913, but was seized by Roumania in the Bal- kan Wars and awarded to her by the treaty of Bucharest (1913). It was occupied by the Germans in 1916. Pop. 12,000. Sil'Ius {c. 25 to 100 A.D.), Italian poet, whose full name was Gaius Silius Italicus, won distinction as an advocate, and became a member of the judicial board of the centumviri; in 68 (Nero's last year) he was made consul, and afterwards governed the province of Asia. The latter years of his life he passed in studious retirement, either at Puteoli or in the house known as Virgil's, near Naples. He starved himself to death be- cause of the pain caused by an incurable disease. He wrote a dull epic poem Punica, on the chief events of the Second Punic War. It has been edited by Bauer (1890-2) and was trans- lated into English verse by Ross (1672). Silique Siljan, sil'yan, one of the most picturesque lakes of Central Sweden, formed by the Dal River and known as the 'eye' of Dalecarlia. Silk, the fibre produced by the silkworm to form its cocoon. It is exceedingly fine and strong, consisting of fibroin, a horny substance, insoluble in water, which forms the core of the fibre, and an outer coating of serecin, or silk gum, a gelatinous substance to which is added an insignificant amount of waxy coloring matter. The history of silk textiles dates from about 2600 B.C., when Hoang-Ti, emperor of China, induced his queen to examine the silkworms and as- certain whether their fibres could be fashioned into garments. Some two thousand years later the Chinese gave silk to the Persians, and they in turn car- ried it to the Western nations, but the secret of its production was for centuries jealously guarded. . In the first and second centuries B.C. the Greek and Roman aristocracy used silken garments, but until the sixth century a.d. all raw silk was imported from China, and the export of silkworm eggs from that country was forbidden on pain of death. In 555, however, the Emperor Justinian bribed two Nestorian monks to journe}' to China and bring back a quan- tity of the eggs. This was the beginning in Europe of an indus- try which soon spread rapidly over the Mediterranean coun- tries, reaching Italy in the six- teenth and France in the sev- enteenth century. Silk culture in the United States had its inception in Vir- ginia in 1622, since which time it has been attempted in many other States, with varying re- sults, on the whole unsuccessful. The raising of the worms re- quires infinite patience and pains- taking attention, making it es- sentially a household process, manifestly unsuited to most Western peoples. The manufacture of silk in America began in New England early in the eighteenth century, steam-power for the manufac- ture of sewing silk was intro- duced in 1810, and improved machinery quickly followed, un- til before the Civil War a great trade had grown up in twist, dress trimmings, ribbons, and woven silk goods. Laces were manufactured at Brooklyn in 1871, and since 1876 tapestry, velvets, and dress silks have been produced in increasing quantities and excellent qualities. The centre of the industry is Pater- son, N. J. The Silkworm. — The silkworm most commonly employed for the production of raw silk is Bombyx mori, extensively culti- vated in China, Japan, Italy, France, and Spain. The eggs are laid in the summer on the leaves of the mulberry tree, and soon change from pink to a dark grey, remaining that color until hatched the following spring. The larva or caterpillar at once attacks the mulberry leaf, and feeds voraciously for a month or six weeks, meantime growing rapidly until it measures about three inches in length. During this time it sheds its skin four times, the molting periods being characterized by a cessation from feeding and a condition of torpor. About ten days after the fourth molt the creature ceases to eat, attaches itself to a twig, and begins to spin its cocoon from a glutinous secretion contained in two tubular glands, one on each side of its body. Out of two openings in its head, called 'spinnerets,' proceed two slender filaments of this glutinous sub- stance. These stick side by side and form a flat thread, which the silkworm, by turning its head from side to side, folds around its body, until it is com- pletely embedded in the silky covering; this usually occupies about three days, after which the insect rests in the pupa state. When unmolested, it is ready to emerge in two or three weeks, and bore its way out at the end Vol. XL— Oct. '25 silk 217 A Silk of the cocoon, to appear as a small ashy-white, feeble moth. Mating takes place at once, the eggs are laid, and within a week the cycle of life is complete. This is the natural course of events, but since the exit of the moth from the cocoon cuts the silken fibres, the silk grower al- lows only as many insects to emerge as may be necessary to produce eggs for next year's crop; the others are stifled by being placed in a heated oven. Silkworms are subject to a number of diseases, of which the most important are pebrine, an epidemic disease characterized in factories called filatures. In front of each operator is a basin of water, the temperature of which is regulated by a steam- pipe or a fire, and overhead is a slowly turning reel. The cocoons are first assorted as to color and similarity of texture, and the outside flossy covering is re- moved. They then are placed in the water, which softens the natural gum in the silk and al- lows it to be wound off. The filaments are gathered together, from 4 to 18 for two threads, passed through two glass or metal guides, brought together, and twisted around each other silk for the weaver, which is known as 'silk throwing,' con- sists in cleaning, assorting, and doubling to the necessary thick- ness, and twisting to give the strength desired. The singles are frequently used for warps for light fabrics, and although some of this silk is exceedingly fine (five hundred thousand yards of length in one pound weight, technically known as '9 denier silk'), it is quite strong enough to be woven in a power loom. For the warp of heavier fabrics a silk known as 'organ- zine' is required. For this, singles are twisted one way on Silkworms 1. Bomhyx mori, male; 2. female. 3. Cocoon reared in Italy; 4. variety reared at Drome. 5. Mulberry leaf, the food of Bombyx tnori. 6. Larva. 7. Tussur moth (Anthema mylitta), male. 8. Tussur cocoon. 9. Cocoon opened, showing chrysalis. 10. Larva. 11. Ficus Benjaminii leaf, food of tussur moth. 12. Tussur silk fibres and cross sections. 13. Silk fibres of Bombyx mori. 14. Same, with cross sections. by slow, irregular development of the worms; flacherie or flac- cidity, a fatal form of indigestion, due to careless preservation of the eggs, overfeeding, fermenta- tion or other unfavorable leaf conditions, lack of ventilation, and other causes; galtine, mani- fested by torpor, dysentery, and emaciation; calcino or muscar- dine, due to a minute fungus which causes the worm to turn red, die, and dry up, after which it becomes covered with a white chalky efflorescence. Manufacture. — The first proc- ess in manufacturing is to wind as much silk as possible off the cocoons into hanks. In Europe and in some Oriental towns this is done with improved machinery several times, again separated, and passed upward over a hori- zontal rod to the reel. The threads, which are known as 'singles,' are then reeled into large hanks called 'knots,' the hanks are gathered into bunches called 'mosses,' and these into bundles known as 'books.' In this form Asiatic silk is imported into Europe and the United States. The quantity of such silk ob- tained from one cocoon is small — seldom as much as a thousand, generally not more than five or six hundred yards. The remainder of the cocoon, which is either too flossy or too entangled to be wound, forms the material from which spun silk is prepared. The further preparation of the single thread, and then two or more threads twisted the oppo- site way on the double or plied thread — thus giving strength and elasticity. Silk known as 'tram' for weft has no twist on the single thread, and only a slight twist on the double or plied thread. Heavier threads for sewing, embroideries, and fringes are made from the singles by doubling up the requisite num- ber of strands. At first spun silk, which is made from the waste portions of the cocoons and the fluff and cleanings from thrown silk, was carded like woollen yarn — a method adapted to produce felt- ing, but to injure lustre. This process is still employed, pro- VoL. XI —Oct. '25 silk ducing 'short spun silk'; but it has been largely superseded by combing in the same way as is done with wool. The fibres are straightened, equalized, and twisted. The straightening is done by steel combs, which re- move impurities, lay the fibres all one way, and deliver them in the form of a ribbon or 'sliver.' Groups of slivers are run to- gether again and again, and drawn out, till at length an equalized and level thread is produced. This is finally twisted to the required degree, but the product is inferior in lustre to thrown silk. Silk fabrics are produced by methods of weaving similar to those employed for other textiles (see Cotton), though special contrivances have been devised to handle the delicate threads of a material so valuable. In their manufacture, dyeing and finish- ing are most important opera- tions. Thrown silk, before being dyed, is boiled in a strong solu- tion of fine white soap, to ex- tract the natural gum. In 'boil- ing off,' a considerable propor- tion of the weight is lost, and manufacturers to make up for this loss have resorted to the practice of 'loading,' that is per- mitting the silk to absorb, dur- ing the process of manufacture, sufficient tin, lead, iron, zinc, or other metallic salts, to make up for this loss, or even to exceed it. In small quantities loading is not injurious, but excessive loading seriously impairs the strength and endurance of the fibre. After boiling off, the silk is dyed and put into a steam finisher,' which brightens it and gives it a lus- trous, glossy appearance. The hanks, which come quite stiff from the 'finisher,' are placed on the 'stringer,' which, by twisting them in different directions, makes them smooth and soft. Finally the silk is again wound on bobbins, and spooled, skeined, or balled as it is wanted. Many varieties of silk fabrics are produced, depending upon the method of weaving. Thus we have plain weaves, as in the China silks, India silks, and taffetas; poplins, bengalines, grosgrain silks, failles, moires, and other ribbed silks, in which a corded effect is produced by varying the size of threads in the warp or weft or by the use of filling threads; twill weaves, as in foulards and surahs; satins, so woven that nearly all the warp is brought to the surface and nearly all the weft left under- neath; gauze weaves, giving an open-work eff ect ; velvets, plushes, and other pile fabrics; brocades, in which there is a raised design, often of gold or silver threads; changeable or shot silks, with the warp of one color and woof of another; crepes, in which a Vol. XL— Oct. '25 218 pebbly effect is produced by twists in the yarn and by tension in weaving; damasks, in which the ground and figures are of contrasting weaves; and double face materials, as crepe-back satin. For figured silks the patterns are produced by weaving, espe- cially on Jacquard looms (see Cotton), or by printing from copper rollers on which the de- sign is etched, a separate roller being used for each color (cf. Calico Printing) , Various finishing processes are applied to the woven silk. Prac- tically all silk is calendared to add to its lustre. Soft silks may be stiffened by treatment with glue, after which they are passed through a breaking machine to make them more pliable. A moire finish is given by folding corded silk and then submitting it to heavy pressure between heated rollers, or by using rollers upon which the desired grain is engraved. Wild Silks. — Besides the mul- berry-feeding silkworm there are other species which yield what are usually spoken of as wild silks. The most important of this class is the tussur worm {Anlhercea pernyi), an cak feeder, produced largely in China; a similar species is also cultivated in India. The cocoon gives off a coarse filament, which is flat like a ribbon, and of a peculiar glittering appearance. It is of a yellowish-brown color, which cannot be discharged by boiling; but it dyes well, though requir- ing special treatment by stretch- ing and steaming to bring up the lustre. The natural tint is pleasing and durable, and un- dyed tussur (or tussahr) cloths are not only much worn in the East, but are largely imported into the United States and Eu- rope. Pongee belongs to this class. The only other so-called wild silks which are of com- mercial value are eria (Attacus ricini) and muga {Anther cea as- sama); but they cannot be profitably reeled and serve for spun silk only. Artificial Silk is made from cellulose, obtained either from wood pulp or from specially pre- pared cotton. The manufacture involves three main processes: (1) The cellulose solution, being forced under high pressure through glass tubes or steel plates provided with capillary openings, emerges in the form of filaments. (2) These filaments are passed through various pre- cipitating solutions to cause them to coagulate and, where necessary, to render them non- inflammable. (3) The filaments, thus prepared, are spun into threads. In the past few years, the use of artificial silk has in- creased enormously, particularly Silk in the knit-goods industry, where its lustre and elasticity make it especially desirable. It dyes brilliantly, and the filaments can be moulded into any desired shape. It is made into fabrics, ribbons, braid, and imitation straw, grass, and horse hair. On the other hand, it is sensitive to treatment with soap, alkalies, and bleaches; and when wet is not as strong as natural silk, the cellulose having a tendency to return to the jelly state in the presence of water. Under improved methods of manufac- ture, however, the fabric has at- tained a high position on its own merits, while by no means proving a formidable rival to the genuine article. Several varieties of artificial silk are on the market. Chardonnel artificial silk is prepared by treating cotton with nitric acid, and dissolving the resulting nitro-cellulose in a mixture of alcohol and ether. The collodion jelly thus obtained is then forced through capillary tubes, and treated as already described. Cupro-ammonium silk is made by dissolving cellulose in a solu- tion of copper hydroxide in am- monia water, and pressing into threads that take on a glossy ap- pearance. Viscose silk (cellulose xanthogenate) is made by treat- ing wood pulp with caustic soda and carbon disulphide; the solu- tion is pressed into threads which are made glossy (mercerized) by stretching and treating with caustic soda. Acetate silk is prepared by the action of acetyl chloride on cotton, dissolving in chloroform, and moulding. This product is also formed into sheets, like celluloid, and called Cellit, which because of its non-inflammability is especially adapted for moving picture films. Cellit is also used as a water- proof covering for paper, leather, cloth, wood, etc. In 1924 a committee of the National Retail Dry Goods Association (U. S.) suggested the word 'rayon' as a name for all artificial silk and this has been generally adopted by the manu- facturers. Statistics. — China and Japan are the greatest producers of raw silk. The Japanese crop in 1923 was approximately 47,- 000,000 pounds. In that year the amount of raw silk exported from Asia was 57,439,000 pounds. The European production was 8,841,000, and that of the Le- vant 1,543,000 pounds. Tussah silk production was 2,034,000 pounds, making a grand total of 69,857,000 pounds. The United States is the greatest silk manufacturing coun- try in the world. According to the Census of Manufactures for 1923, establishments for the pro- duction of silk fabrics, not in- silk Cotton eluding hosiery or other knit goods, numbered 1,598, with an average of 125,234 wage earners, and a product valued at $761,- 322,119. Of these establishments 754 were in New Jersey, 455 in Pennsylvania, and 250 in New York. Of the total value, 814,728,743 represented spun silk. In 1924 the production of artificial silk in the United States was estimated at 38,- 850,000 pounds, an increase of almost 10 per cent, over that of 1923. Exports of artificial silk products from the United States in 1923 were valued at $6,596,452. Raw silk imported into the United States in 1923 amounted to 49,505,581 pounds, valued at $391,942,417, the largest amount coming from Tapan. Consult Sheffeld's Silk: Its Origin, Culture and Manufac- ture; Hooper's Silk: Its Produc- tion and Manufacture; Chattick's Silk Manufacturing and Its Prob- lems; Manchester's The Story of Silk (1924). Silk Cotton, the fibre which fills the interstices between the seeds in the large, woody capsules of certain tropical trees belong- ing to the order Malvaceae. The fibre is too short to be used except for packing purposes. It is extensively utilized in stuffing pillows, cushions, mattresses, and the like. Among the trees from which silk cotton is obtained are Ochroma lagopos, Eriodendron an- fractuosum, and Bomhax mala- baricum. Silkworm. See Silk. Silkworm Gut, a strong ma- terial used by anglers for dressing the hook ends of fishing-lines, and in surgery as a suture ma- terial. It is obtained from the caterpillars of the ordinary silk- worm when these are about to spin their cocoons. The worm is immersed in vinegar for a time, and the long glutinous thread formed by the silky secretion of the caterpillar is re- moved and dried. It is chiefly prepared in Spain and Italy, though some exports are made from other silk-growing coun- tries. It is less pliable than catgut for sutures and less ab- sorbable. Sill, Edward Rowland (1841- 87), American poet, essayist, and educator, was born in Windsor, Conn. He was graduated from Yale in 1861, then passed several years in California on account of poor health, and in 1866 studied divinity at Harvard. He was occupied as a teacher and with literary work in New York and Ohio until 1871, when he became principal of the Oak- land, Cal., high school. From 1874 to 1882 he was professor of English literature at the Univer- 219 sity of California, afterward re- siding at Cuyahoga Falls, N, Y. His lyrics are marked by melody and insight. He published Her- mione, and Other Poems (1867), and The Hermitage, and Later Poems (1867). Posthumous vol- umes are Venus of Milo, and Other Poems (1888), Prose of Edward Rowland Sill (1900), Complete Poems (1906). Sill, Joshua Woodrow (1831- 62), American soldier, was born in Chillicothe, O. He was graduated from the U. S. Mili- tary Academy in 1853, and was an instructor at that institution during 1854-7. He was ap- pointed assistant adjutant-gen- eral of Ohio in April, 1861, was promoted colonel in August 1861, and brigadier-general in July 1862. He fought at Rich Moun- tain and Perrvville and was killed in the Battle of Stone River while gallantly endeavor- ing to rally his brigade. Siriiman, Benj.a.min (1779- 1864), American scientist, was born in North Stratford, now Trumbull, Conn. He was gradu- ated from Yale in 1796, and soon after his graduation was invited to accept a professorship of chemistry and natural history in that institution. He accepted the call, and after studying in Philadelphia and in Edinburgh, returned to New Haven, and in 1806 entered upon his duties. Besides teaching, he gave the first course of lectures before the Lowell Institute in Boston; and was called to many other cities, where his brilliant experiments, striking diagrams, and delight- ful presentation of scientific themes made him a most popular lecturer. He represented his college at public functions and secured for it many important donations, including the Clark telescope, the collection of min- erals made by Col. George Gibbs, and the Trumbull Gallery of Paintings. He was also influ- ential in promoting the geological survey of Connecticut. In the organization of the Medical School at Yale College he was particularly active, and his influ- ence in the foundation of the vSheffield School was noteworthy. His contributions to the progress of science were for the most part indirect. He inspired many who became teachers and investi- gators; but his influence was chiefly exerted in the establish- ment and maintenance of the American Journal of Science, which from the time of its com- mencement in 1818 remained for many years in the charge of suc- cessive members of his family. For twenty years he was the sole editor, and for eight years more the senior editor of that journal. He also published several vol- umes of notes on his travels in SUo Europe and America. Consult Fisher's Memoir (2 vols.). Silliman, Benjamin (1816-85), American chemist, son of Ben- jamin Silliman (q. v.), was born in New Haven, Conn. He was graduated from Yale in 1837 and at once became assist- ant to his father. From 1849 to 1853 he was professor of medical chemistry and toxicology in the University of Louisville, Ky., and in 1854 he succeeded his father as professor of chemistry at Yale. In 1842 he had fitted up a private chemical laboratory, where with the assistance of his pupils he made many valuable experiments, the result being that in 1846 the Yale trustees yielded to his request for a similar laboratory for the uni- versity, and established the Case School of Applied Science, which later became the Sheffield Scien- tific School. In 1870 he resigned his chair of general and applied chemistry but remained as lec- turer in the medical department until his death. He lectured on scientific subjects, notably agri- cultural chemistry, was editor of the American Journal of Science (1845-85), and with Charles Goodrich edited the World of Science, Art and Indus- try. His publications include First Principles of Chemistry (1846); Principles of Physics (1858); American Contributions to Chemistry (1875). Sil'Iimanite, a fibrous silicate of aluminium, AhSiOs, with a composition similar to that of cyanite. It is found in certain gneisses and schists. Sills, Kenneth Charles Mor- ton (1879- ), American edu- cator, was born in Halifax, Nova Scotia. He was graduated from Bowdoin College (1901) and studied at Harvard (a.m. 1903) and Columbia, was assist- ant in English at Harvard (1901-03), instructor in English and the classics at Bowdoin (1903-04), and tutor in English at Columbia University (1904- 05). He returned to Bowdoin College as adjuvant professor of Latin in 1906, and was subse- quently Winkley professor of Latin language and literature there (1907- ), dean (1910- 18), acting president (1917-18), and president (1918- ). Si'lo, a specially-constructed building for storing ensilage (q. v.). Originally a pit in the earth, the silo is now a surface structure of any convenient form and depth, strongly built and air-tight. It is generally constructed of wood, but various other materials, notably con- crete, are used. The circular form of silo is more expensive to construct, but it is more con- venient and economical in use be- cause it permits uniform packing Vol. XL— Oct. '25 Slloam 220 Sllyanus and settling and prevents the waste caused by loosely packed corners. Square silos should have their corners boarded across. The inside sheathing should run perpendicular to the bottom, and where stone, brick, or cement is used the inside walls should have a smooth dressing of Portland cement. The size de- pends on the number of animals to be fed, calculating a cubic foot of ensilage to weigh 35 to 40 pounds, which is about the daily ration of a dairy cow weigh- ing 1,000 pounds. One cow will, therefore, consume 180 cubic feet of ensilage, or about 3M tons during a period of six months. No account is made in this calculation for spoiled ensil- age and waste, and a liberal al- lowance should be made for this. A circular silo 14 feet in diam- eter and 30 feet deep will hold 90 tons of ensilage, and a silo 15 feet square and 20 feet deep will hold 94 tons. Silo'am, or Shiloah, a rock- cut pool or reservoir at the south wall of Jerusalem, near the mouth of the Tyropoeon Valley (now Birket Silwan). Its waters were believed to have healing properties (John ix. 7). The Siloam inscription, discov- ered 1880, cut on the rock of a conduit, leading from the Vir- gin's Spring, 500 yards to the north, to the Pool of Siloam, re- cords the construction of the conduit. Its date is put by most scholars as in the reign of Hezekiah, about 700 B.C. (see 2 Kings XX. 20). The tower of Siloam (Luke xiii, 4) may have been part of the wall near the pool. Siloam Springs, town, Arkan- sas, in Benton county, on the Kansas City Southern Railroad; 229 miles south of Kansas City. It is the seat of John E. Brown College. Industrial estabHsh- ments include a canning factory, ice plant, creamery, and flour and meal mills. Siloam Springs is situated in the picturesque Ozark region and is a popular summer resort. Pop. (1910) 2,405; (1920) 2,569. Siloti, se'lo-te, Alexander, Russian pianist, was born in vSouth Russia. He made his first appearance at a symphony concert, given by the Imperial Moscow Musical Society in 1880, and after this studied for several years (1883-6) with Liszt. He was professor in the Moscow Conservatoire from 1889 to 1891, and from 1891 to 1900 lived abroad, making concert tours in Europe and America (1897). He conducted his own concerts in Petrograd for 15 seasons. After the Russian Revolution he was manager of the vState Opera (1917) but fled from Russia during the Bolshevist regime. SlFphium, a genus of tall, coarse perennials of North Amer- ica, with resinous juice, from which they are known also as Rosinweed. They bear corymbs or panicles of yellow flowers. Species include the Compass or Polar Plant (S. lancinatum) , known also as Pilot Weed, Rosin- weed and Turpentine Weed, whose leaves generally turn their edges north and south; the Prairie Dock {S. terebinthina- ceum); Whorled Rosinweed (S. Irifoliatum) ; Asterisk Rosinweed {S. asteriscus) ; Indian Cup or Cup Plant (5. perfoliatum) . Sllu'res, an ancient people inhabiting the southeast of Wales and the adjoining English area. They were a dark and curly- haired race, and were probably of a non-Aryan stock — Iberian or Euskarian — though ultimately Celticized in language and man- ners. Less civilized than their British neighbors, they were more warlike, and offered fierce resist- ance to the Roman commanders who invaded their country. From them the name Silurian has been given to a geological formation (see Silurian). Silu'rian, in geology, a general name for those rocks which are post-Cambrian and pre-Devo- nian. Many writers recognize two systems as occupying this interval — a lower or Ordovician (see Ordovician), and an upper or Silurian; but others prefer the terms Lower Silurian and Upper Silurian. The Silurian proper or Upper Silurian rocks consist mainly of conglomerates, sand- stones, and shales, with a few important beds of limestone. The Silurian series as worked out in New York is the standard for America, having been first worked out in detail in that State. The subdivisions are: (3) Cayugan — Manlius limestone. Rondout waterline. Cobleskill limestone. Salina beds. (2) Niagaran — Guelph dolomite. Lockport limestone. Rochester shale. Clinton beds. (1) Oswegan — Medina sandstone. Oneida conglomerate. Shawaugunk grit. There is widespread uncon- formity between this series and the preceding Ordovician in America. The interval was one of mountain making, especially along the North Atlantic border. The Silurian strata are most heavily developed in the eastern part of the United States, border- ing the new mountain ranges. Important beds of waterlime used for the manufacture of natural cements occur; and the Clinton iron ores traced through- out the Appalachian belt and as far west as Wisconsin also belong in the Silurian. As more or less isolated areas rise to the surface in the interior of the continent, it is probable that Silurian strata, concealed under younger forma- tions, extend throughout the in- terior continental basin; and they reappear in the Rocky Mountains. In Europe the sequence of formations in the type district, the Welsh borders, as established by Murchison, are: (3) Ludlow limestone. (2) Wenlock limestone. (1) Llandovery or Tarannon, corresponding closely to the three larger subdivisions in America. The best-known areas of Silu- rian rocks on the Continent are those of Sweden, Bohemia, and Brittany. The limestones and shales of the island of Gothland have long been famous for the number and perfection of the fossils which they contain. Silu- rian rocks are also present in the Western Alps and in Southern Russia. The number of fossils obtained from some of the lime- stones is enormous. In many respects the fauna is a continua- tion of that of the Ordovician. Fishes are characteristic of the highest Silurian strata. They belong to strange types, the affinities of which are not always clear, and include forms which are among the most interesting vertebrates known to science. The rise of the crinoids was a dominant feature, and the in- auguration of reef building among corals is notable. Near the close of the period a remarkable crustacean fauna, represented by Eurypterus and Pterogotus, was developed. There is evidence also of the existence of seaweeds, lycopods, and ferns. In most parts of the globe the Ordovician and Silurian rocks have been much folded, crushed, and com- pressed. The shales have often been converted into slates. Con- sult Murchison's Siluria and text-books on Geology. Siluridae. See Cat-fish. Silva, Antonio Jose da (1705- 39), Portuguese dramatist, was born in Rio de Janeiro and went to Lisbon, where he became one of the earliest writers of librettos for comic operas in Portugal. They were produced anony- mously, all that was known of the author being that he was a Jew. His principal vaudevilles were Dom Quixote, and the Esopaida. Silva was burned by the Inquisition. Silva'nus, in ancient Latin mythology, the god of the fields and forests; he also watched over the boundaries of cultivated lands, and in particular over Vol. XI.— Oct. '25 Silver KSH 221 Silver City plantations. Later writers iden- tified him with the Greek Pan and with Faunus. The poets represent him as a cheerful old man. in love with Pomona. Silver, Ag, atomic No. 47 ; atomic weight, 107.880, a metal- lic element that occurs native in masses, scales, and twisted wire- like filaments, also alloyed with gold, copper, platinvim, and mer- cury, and in combination. Of these compounds the chief are the sulphide, argentite, AgsS, stephanite or brittle silver ore, AgsSbS, pyragyrite or ruby sil- ver ore, Ag.?SbS, and silver chlo- ride or horn silver, AgCl ; similar compounds with arsenic and cop- per sulphides also occur. Lead ores and copper pyrites yield in the aggregate a quite consider- able amount. The principal sil- ver-producing countries are Mex- ico, United States, Canada, Peru, British India, Australia and New Zealand. Silver is a pure white metal having a brilliant lustre, it is a little harder than gold, and is excelled only by that metal in malleability and ductility. Its tenacity is about 17 tons per square inch ; its specific gravity is 10.5 ; it melts at 960° c, is vola- tile at very high temperatures, and it excels all other metals as a conductor of heat and electricity. Silver undergoes no change in water or pure air, though when melted in air it absorbs oxygen to the extent of 22 times its volume, which is expelled (spitting) on cooling. It is tarnished by the presence of sulphur compounds, owing to the formation of silver sulphide. Silver forms colloidal solutions if reduced in alkaline liquids, and these dry up to col- ored masses, which behave dif- ferently from the ordinary form of the metal. The metal is obtained from its ores by two main types of proc- ess, known as wet and dry. Dry Processes, — Silver and gold may be extracted from most gold- and silver-bearing ores and products by smelting with lead ores, the reduced lead acting as a vehicle for the collection of the silver and gold, which are after- wards separated by Pattinson's or Parke's processes. (See Lead), The precious metals may be collected equally effectu- ally by smelting with copper ores in reverberatory or blast fur- naces, the resultant copper mat- ter being then separated from the siliceous slag and converted into crude copper, generally by Bes- semerizing. (See Copper). The silver is obtained from the crude copper by electrolytic refining. Wet Processes. — The patio amalgamation process has been in use for more than three cen- turies. It depends on the power of mercury to combine with sil- ver, forming an amalgam, which is separated from the ground ore and subset|uently distilled ; the volatile mercury passes off and is condensed for further use, the residual crude silver being then refined by fusion methods. In this process the ore is ground very fine, transferred to a cir- cular paved space, and thorough- ly mixed with common salt by the treading of mules or horses, roasted copper pyrites, known as 'magistral,' being afterwards added. Mercury is then intro- duced, and the incorporation con- tinued as before, resulting finally in the formation of the silver amalgam, which is then removed, washed, dried, and the mercury distilled off. In amalgamation in pans — the Washoe process — the ores are crushed, then stamped to a fine powder, and in a wet state put into cast-iron pans containing revolving mul- lers, where the powder is ground to a thick pulp with mercury, to amalgamate the silver set free chiefly by the iron of the pan. Refractory ores are roasted with salt before treatment in the pan. The Augustin process was for- merly used for argentiferous copper mattes. The material, after fine crushing, is roasted to expel sulphur, ground, and again roasted with salt to form silver chloride. It is then treated with a hot solution of common salt, which dissolves the silver chlo- ride, from which the silver is precipitated by copper. The Ziervogel process is used to a slight extent for extracting silver from copper mattes. The matte is roasted so as to transform the silver sulphide into silver sul- phate, which is then leached out by water and the silver precipi- tated by metallic copper. The Von Patera process, as modified by Kiss and Russell, depends on the solubility of silver chloride in sodium, or calcium thiosulphate, followed by precipitation by so- dium sulphide. The silver sul- phide is then roasted, and the silver set free. The cyanide process is extensively used in the recovery of silver from its ores, the general process being the same as with gold (q. v.). The separation of silver from gold, called 'parting' (see Gold), is accomplished by dissolving the silver in sulphuric or nitric acid, leaving the gold as the residue. The two metals may also be sepa- rated by electrolytic processes. (For electrolysis of silver see Electrometallurgy). The most important oxide of silver is AgoO, obtained by treat- ing silver with certain oxides. It is decomposed into the metal and oxygen on heating. Silver ni- trate, or 'lunar caustic,' is pre- pared by dissolving the metal in nitric acid. It forms monoclinic crystals that melt at 200° c, and are readily soluble in water. It constitutes the starting-point for the preparation of other silver compovmds. Silver chloride (horn silver), bromide, and io- dide are obtained by adding a soluble halide to silver nitrate solution. They are white to pale yellow insoluble solids, and are particularly valuable due to their property of being affected by light. This action is made use of in various photographic proc- esses. Silver, on account of its unalterability in air, is largely used for the manufacture of or- naments, of spoons, forks, and dishes for table use, and for coin- age. It is also largely used for electroplating baser metals, for ornament, or protection. Silver is also deposited chemically for the purpose of silvering mirrors ; the reduction by a tartrate or by grape sugar in alkaline solutions is the process most frequently employed. In medicine, silver salts are used externally as a caustic. Silver ores occur in the rocks of various geological ages, and are generally associated with the ores of gold, lead, zinc, cop- per, cobalt, and antimony. Consult J. Percy, Silver and Gold (1880); C. A. Stetefeldt, Lixiviation of Silver Ores (tech- nical : 1890); W. Gowland, Metallurgy of the Non-Ferrous Metals (1914); B. White, Sil- ver: Its History and Romance (1920); H. M. Bratter, Silver Market Dictionary (1933). Silver Agreement. — This important international conven- tion was secured by Senator Key Pittman of Nevada at the World Monetary Conference held in London, 1933, and signed July 22. The signatories were the United States, Canada, Australia, China, India, Mexico, Peru and Spain, and the agreement became effective April 24, 1934. By this instrument India, which held large stocks of de- monetized silver, agreed to re- strict sales for four years to an average of 35,000,000 ounces an- nually. Sales of silver by Spain were not to average more than 5,000,000 ounces annually, while China undertook to refrain from selling any. Silver City, town. New Mex- ico, county seat of Grant county, on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad; 165 miles N.w. of El Paso. It is the head- quarters of a mining and ranch- ing country, and a health resort for tuberculous patients. It is the seat of the State Teachers College and of St. Mary's Acad- emy (R. C). The place was settled in 1873 and incorporated Silver Creek KSH 222 Silversmiths' Work in 1878. Pop. (1930) 3,519; (1938 est.) 5,000. Silver Creek, village, New York, in Chautauqua county, on a small bay on the shore of Lake Erie, and on the New York, Chi- cago and St. Louis, the New York Central, and the Pennsyl- vania Railroads ; 30 miles s.w. of Buffalo. Its manufactures in- clude grain-cleaning machinery, U. S. post office cancelling ma- chines and furniture. It has noted vineyards and natural gas abounds in the region. It was settled about 1810, and incorpo- rated in 1856. Pop. (1930) 3,160. Silver Purchase Act (U. S.) 1934, was approved by the Presi- dent on June 19. The act de- clared it to be the policy of the United States to increase the amount of silver in its monetary stocks with the aim of having and maintaining one-fourth of their monetary value in silver, and three-fourths in gold, and the Treasury was directed to pur- chase silver at home or abroad to achieve this end. The Presi- dent was also authorized by ex- ecutive order to require the de- livery to the Government of all silver within the country in ex- change for coin or currency. By the terms of the Silver Coinage Act of 1933 the Govern- ment accepted the entire produc- tion of virgin silver at a price to be proclaimed by the Presi- dent. At first the price was set at 64.64 cents per ounce; then, later, raised to 77.57 cents per ounce. An authority on gold and sil- ver problems, Walter Renyon Ingalls, of New York, wrote : 'Silver is dominated by the myth that its production in the United States engages several hundred thousands of men and the idea that the possession by the Treas- ury of a great quantity of silver bullion is economically beneficial. Hence the payment of a bonus- price for all domestically Tono- pah. Sunshine and the Presidio mined silver and the purchase of large quantities of foreign silver. In fact, upward of 50 per cent of the domestic production of silver is supplied by a dozen large companies, whereof only three, viz., Tonopah, Sunshine and the Presidio mine of the American Metal Co., may be classed as straight silver mines. In respect of the other major producers, and likewise as to the smaller pro- ducers, their silver is in the main recovered as a by-product in the treatment of copper, lead and zinc ores. A premium for sil- ver naturally assists in the min- ing of such ores.' — The Ameri- can Year Book, 1938. Silversmiths* Work. In an- cient times all work in the pre- cious metals and the setting of stones and gems were included in one industry, but now gold- smiths' and silversmiths' work are distinct industries. In France during the Revolution and the revolutionary wars thousands of beautiful examples of silver- smiths' work were destroyed at home and also in Spain, in order that the metal might be used for other purposes. Much church plate and large quantities of corporation and collegiate silver plate were destroyed in England at the Reformation and during the civil wars of the 17th century. The use of silver for vessels of all kinds was common among the Greeks, and even to a greater extent among the Romans. A beautiful little two-handled cup of Greek manufacture (4th cen- tury B.C.), with a delicately mod- elled band of ornament in relief, is typical of the best era of Greek art. Most of the early specimens are, however, of Roman times. Of these, the collection discovered at Hildesheim in Hanover in 1868, and consisting of complete table service for three persons, is perhaps of most importance. It includes salt cellars, wine vessels, cups and ladles, stew pans, dishes, and vases of beautiful design, with embossed ornaments of figures and foliage. These are of the 1st to 4th century a.d. Other treasures of Graeco-Roman work of the 1st century have been discovered near Pompeii ; and at Bernay and Montcornet in France beautiful collections of Gallc-Roman work of the 2d and 3d centuries have been found. From the decline of Roman su- premacy down to the 15th cen- tury the finest silversmiths' work was executed for ecclesiastical use. In Germany, at Nuremberg and Augsburg, the silversmiths of the 15th and 16th centuries were noted for the elaborate standing cups, generally deco- rated with bulbous ornament and chasing resembling pine forms. Cellini's treatise supplies a good description of the methods in use during the 16th century in Italy. In England, silversmiths' work revived after the restoration. Tankards, cups, toilet sets, and punch or Monteith bowls and ta- ble ware formed a considerable portion of the silversmiths' out- put during the 17th and 18th centuries. In the latter part of the 18th century the revival of classic Greek forms and the influence in England of Flaxman, the brothers Adam, and other sculp- tors and architects made itself strongly felt in the silversmiths' art ; and the Dutch style of de- sign, which had affected the work of the preceding period, gave place to the more severe and refined classic shapes. Sheffield plate or copper, with a thin sheet of silver on each side, was intro- duced in the middle of the 18th century. The methods of work- ing were similar to those used in silver plate ; but the manufacture has been superseded by electro- plated silver on white metal. In working silver it is neces- sary to add a small quantity of baser metal. This admixture causes it to be harder and more durable ; but at the same time it opens the door to fraud. Hence from the 13th century onwards regulations were made to control the works executed by British silversmiths, and to ensure that the metal used by them was of the requisite standard of purity. The standard was 11 oz. 2 dwt. The Goldsmiths' Company in London was the first body de- puted to test and hall-mark these goods. The test was decided by rubbing the ware upon a stone, hence the phrase 'testing by the touch' applied to the process ; subsequently the more scientific methods of assaying were adopt- ed. Several provincial cities were afterwards allowed to hall- mark ware. At the present time the following cities of Great Britain and Eire have halls where silver is assayed and hall-marked — London, Birming- ham, Chester, Dublin, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Sheffield. The hall- mark proper denotes the city in which the work has been marked. London is represented by a leop- ard's head within a shield, and this has been in use with some variations since 1300. The mark of Birmingham is an anchor ; of Chester, the city coat of arms and a sword ; of Dublin, a harp crowned ; of Edinburgh, a cas- tle ; of Glasgow, a tree, fish and bell, while the hall-mark of Shef- field is a crown. The date mark denotes the ex- act year in which the work was marked, and consists of a letter, which is changed every year. This system dates back to the 15th century. Goods made abroad and imported are marked in a special manner, and hall- marks are used in foreign coun- tries, but vary considerably from those in use in Great Britain. In America there is no system for stamping silver and gold, but legislation has been proposed in certain States making it an of- fence to stamp 'sterling' on sil- verware that does not comply with trade standards. In Great Britain the manufac- ture of silver ware is carried on chiefly in Birmingham, London, and Sheffield. The continental capitals and cities, ^ especially Paris, Berlin, and Vienna, also manufacture largely. In the Silver Thaw 223 Simeon United States, Rhode Island, es- pecially Providence, and Newark, New Jersey, are important cen- ters of the industry. Cups and circular shapes are often spun on a wooden mould or chuck in a lathe instead of being hammered out as formerly. Dies and stamp- ing presses are also used. Tea sets, vases, and dinner ware are struck in two or more pieces by means of dies and stamps, and afterwards soldered together. Casting is largely resorted to for handles and innumerable small articles, such as waist and cloak clasps. Electroplate, which is a branch of silversmiths' work, comprises nearly all the articles that can be made in silver, but for which white metal of baser quality is used, and afterwards coated with a layer of silver deposited by electro-processes. (See Electrodeposition.) Nevertheless there are many processes in which hand labor is still employed. Salvers, cups, tea and coffee sets, and plates are mostly fashioned on steel stakes or tools with different shaped heads, on which the silver sheet is hammered by means of ham- mers of various shapes. The work of early American silversmiths was largely in imi- tation of articles of English or Dutch origin. The most noted member of the craft in colonial times was Paul Revere, of Revo- lutionary fame, who established himself in Boston about 1760. With the introduction of ma- chinery the making of silverware passed from the shops of the artist-artisan into factories. The immense business done by a few large manufacturing firms makes possible, however, the employ- ment of highly skilled designers, so that the finer work done in the United States compares well w'ith that of Europe. Silver Thaw, Glazed Frost, or IcE-STORMj an accumulation of smooth ice on trees, rocks, and other objects, formed when rain, falling with a temperature below freezing, and perhaps itself cooled below the normal freezing point of water, congeals upon the cold surfaces. It occurs when a warm, humid upper air current, pene- trating a region that has been cooled by radiation during a peri- od of clear, anti-cyclonic weath- er, makes the temperature of the upper strata warm enough for rain while it remains much cold- er below, an inversion of the nor- mal conditions. On Ben Nevis, Scotland, silver thaw frequently occurs and in the United States the phenomenon is fairly com- mon, although by no means fre- quent, in New England. The accumulation of ice is sometimes sufficient to break off the branch- es of trees. Silverton, mining district, in the western part of New South Wales, Australia, 18 miles from the South Australian border, in the Barrier Ranges silver mining region, 17 miles northwest of Broken Hill. Silvester. See Sylvester. Silvestre, sel-ves'tr', Paul Armand (1837-1901), French litterateur, was born in Paris. He entered the ministry of finance (1869), afterwards becoming in- spector of finance and deputy chief of the Bureau of Archives. He was a prolific writer in prose and verse, contributing 'Rabelai- sian' tales to Gil Bias. His prose includes Lcs memoircs d'lm galopin (1882), Contes gras- sonillcts (1883), Lcs cas difficilcs ( 1885), and Maima (1888). In verse he wrote Les renaissances (1869), La chanson dcs Jieiircs (1878), and Lc chemin dcs ctoiles (1885), as well as words for a number of operas, notably those for Saint- Saens's Henry VIII and Massenet's Grisclidis. Silvestre de Sacy. See Sacy. Silvretta Group. See Rh^- TiAN Alps. Simbirsk, renamed Ulya- novsk, a province of Russian S.F.S.R., west of the Volga, bounded on the N. by the Chu- vash and Tatar republics ; on the w. by Penza and Nizhegorod provinces, and Samara on the e. It has an area of 20,000 square miles. Along the right bank of the Volga, which forms the east- ern boundary for nearly 300 miles, run the Volga highlands. The south and southwest are bro- ken and hilly, in the northwest it is more level, but all over the north the woodlands are compar- atively thick. Simbirsk belongs entirely to the Volga basin. Be- sides the Volga, its tributary, the Sura, is the only navigable stream (245 miles). Lakes and marshes are numerous. The dis- trict contains deposits of coal, asphalt, and sulphur, some of which were worked as early as Peter the Great's time ; mineral springs occur at Undory. Near- ly all the soil is 'black earth,' and Simbirsk is among the richest agricultural districts in Russia. Potatoes are grown and also flax and hemp. Market-gardening flourishes, and the Volga and Sura fisheries are important. In- dustries are largely concerned with timber ; but there are also distilleries, tanneries, glass works, oil works, and manufactures of machinery and cloth (the last celebrated from the 18th cen- tury). Pop. 1,463,000. Simbirsk, renamed Ulya- novsk, town in U.S.S.R., capi- tal of Ulyanovsk province, situ- ated on the right bank of the Volga; 100 miles s.vv. of Kazan. The industries include breweries, brick works, flour mills, iron and copper foundries, and manu- factures candles, soap, malt and potash. The town was founded in 1648 as a fort, and was the scene of fighting during the Civil War of 1917-20. It was the birthplace of V. I. Ulyanov ('Lenin'). The town has a re- gional study museum and a li- brary started by the acquisition of the libraries of two townsmen who became famous in Russian literature — Karamzin, the his- torian (1766-1826) and Gon- charov, the novelist (1812- 1891). Pop. (1933) 73,700. Simcoe, sim'ko, lake, Canada, in Ontario, between Simcoe and Ontario Counties ; about 30 miles long and 18 miles wide. It has densely wooded shores and fur- nishes excellent bathing and fish- ing. It drains by the Severn in- to Georgian Bay, in the north- eastern part of Lake Huron. Simcoe, town, Ontario, Can- ada, county seat of Norfolk county, on the Canadian Nation- al and Wabash Railroads, con- necting with the Canadian Pa- cific Railroad; 37 miles s.w. of Hamilton. A beautiful carillon with 23 bells has been erected as a War Memorial. Industries in- clude the largest canning factory in Canada, tin-can plant, green- houses, knitting factory, pickle factory, saw mills, woolen and flour mills. Simcoe is the cen- ter of a very rich fruit and dairy district. Pop. (1931) 5,226. Simcoe, John Graves (1752- 1806), British general, was born in Exeter. He was educated at Oxford, and in 1770 entered the army. At the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, he bought a captaincy in the 40th foot, which regiment he com- manded at the battles of Brandy- wine and Monmouth. Subse- quently he raised a battalion called the Queen's Rangers, with which he did good service in the Royal cause in the South during the remainder of the war. Late in 1779, while engaged on a small expedition, he was taken pris- oner and narrowly escaped death. He was included in Lord Corn- wallis' capitulation at Yorktown. In 1791 he was appointed gov- ernor of Upper Canada. He was gazetted colonel in 1790 and four years afterwards was made a major general. From 1796-97 he was governor of Santo Do- mingo, and in 1798 was promot- ed to lieutenant general and re- tired. Simeon, sim'i-un. a tribe of Israel, united with Judah for the conquest of Canaan (Judges 1) and settled in the extreme s.w\ of Palestine. The tribe became merged in the desert tribes and in its powerful neighbor, Judah. Simeon KSH 224 Simmons The towns which were assigned to Simeon in the distribution of territory by Joshua are men- tioned in Josh. xix. 2-7. Simeon, Charles (1759- 1836), English clergyman, was born in Reading. In 1782 he was elected fellow of King's College, Cambridge, where he was also appointed to the living of Holy Trinity (1783), which he held all his life. He was soon recognized as a power far beyond the university, and be- came leader of the Evangelicals. He was one of the founders of the Church Missionary Society, and was a mainstay of the British and Foreign Bible Society. His works appeared in 1840 in 21 volumes. five simian retains its earlier zoological meaning of pertaining to monkey or ape in the general sense. Simile. See Metaphor. Simla, town, India, capital of Simla district, in the Punjab, on the southern slopes of the Hima- layas ; 66 miles northeast of Ambala. The town is beautifully laid out and is a sanitarium and the seat of the government of India during the summer months. The viceregal residences, Mayo orphanage, town hall, and gov- ernment offices are its chief architectural features. The Eu- ropean houses are spread over a crescent-shaped ridge five miles in length running east to west. Prospect Hill, at the western medical school for Japanese stu- dents. Simmons, Edward Emerson (1852-1931), American painter, was born in Concord, Mass. He was graduated (1874) from Har- vard and studied art under Lefebvre and Boulanger at Paris, beginning to exhibit in 1879. At first a painter of easel pictures, chiefly figure pieces, in 1893 he shared in the mural decorations of the Columbian Exposition buildings, and later executed mural work for court houses and hotels in New York City, for the Congressional Library in Wash- ington, D. C, the Minn. State Capitol, the Mass. State House, the S. Dak. Capitol and other public buildings. He also deco- Simla: the Viceregal Lodge Simeon Stylites. See Sty- lit KS. Simferopol, sem-fer-6'p6l, town and capital of the Crimean Republic ; 30 miles northeast of Se\astopol. It consists of two parts — the Moslem or Tatar town to the south and the Rus- sian town to the north. It has a fine cathedral in the Venetian style, and a museum of antiqui- ties and natural history. It is famous as a fruit growing region and has vineyards, nursery gar- dens and extensive orchards. Manufactures include soap, candles, and tobacco. Pop. 98,600. _ Sim'ia, the genus name of the orang, while .Simiid;e is the fam- ily name of the anthropoid apes. Popularly, however, the adjec- extremity, is 7,140 feet high. The scenery is magnificent. Pop. 27,494. Simla Hill States is the name given to a cluster of twenty-seven petty states in the neighborhood of Simla. Sim'mons, Duane (1834- 89), American physician, was born in Glens Falls, N. Y. He studied medicine privately and in 1859 went to Japan as a mission- ary, accepting a position in the Japanese civil service. In 1862- 3 he obtained leave of absence in order to improve his medical education, and studied medicine in the hospitals of Berlin, Ger- many. On his return to Japan he did valuable work in improv- ing public sanitation and hygiene. He founded the Juzen Hospital in 1869 and established a free rated the Vanderbilt home at Hyde Park, N. Y. and the home of Rockefeller at Tarrytown, N. Y. Simmons, Franklin (1839- 1913), American sculptor, was born in Webster, Me. At the close of the Civil War he settled in Washington, where he made medallion portraits in marble of Farragut, Porter, Grant, Meade, Sheridan, Thomas, Sherman, and Hooker. In 1868 he took up his residence in Rome. Among his important works are statues of Roger Williams, Governor Pier- pont of Virginia, Longfellow, and General Logan. He made the statue of Grant for the Grand Army of the Rr]Miblir Memorial in the rotunda of the Capitol at Washington, and a large number Simmons KSH 225 Simon of ideal figures, such as Paris and Helen and Grief and His- tory on the Peace Monument in Washington. Simmons, Furnifold Mc- Lendell ( 1 85 4-/0/'^4o Simmons College, a non- sectarian institution for women in Boston, Mass., founded in 1899 under the provisions of the will of John Simmons, and de- signed to afford instruction in such branches of art, science, and industry as will best enable ■women to earn an independent livelihood. The courses of study are grouped in ten schools as follows : English, library science, social studies, social work, busi- ness and secretarial studies, store service education, general sci- ence, home economics, nursing and physical education. With the technical subjects essential to specialization are associated related academic subjects. The plan of instruction provides com- plete programs of four or five years for students who have ful- filled the requirements for ad- mission, and affords one or two year technical programs for those who have already had collegiate training. Simms, William Gilmore (1806-70), American author, was born in Charleston, S. C, the son of an Irishman who emigrated to that city soon after the Revolu- tion. He was a great reader from childhood and began writing verses in honor of the victories of the War of 1812 at the age of eight. His first regular publica- tion was a Monody on General Charles Cotesworth Pincknev (1825). It was followed by Lyrical and Other Poems (1827) and Early Lays (1827). In 1827 Simms was admitted to the bar at Charleston, and practised for a year with some success. In 1828 he took the joint editorship of The Tablet, or Southern Monthly Literary Gaaefte, which continued for a year. In 1830- 32 he was editor and part pro- prietor of the Charleston City Gazette, which he conducted in harmony with the principles of the 'Union and States Rights' party, incurring much hostility from the 'Nullifiers' or Calhoun party. Meanwhile he had published two other collections of poems in 1829 and 1830, and in 1832 ap- peared his Atalantis : a Story of the Sea, his chief poetical pro- duction. In 1833 he published his first novel, Martin Faber, partly based on the confessions of a murderer. It was success- ful, and Guy Rivers: a Tale of Georgia (1834), was still more so. The latter was followed by The Yeniassee : a Romance of Carolina (1835), The Partisan: a Talc of the Revolution (1835), Border Beagles (1840), The Kinsmen (1841, new ed. 1854, entitled The Scout), The Wig- cvam and the Cabin, short stories (1854-6), Katharine Walton (1851), The Stvord and the Dis- taff (1852, new ed. 1854, en- titled Woodcraft) , The Forayers ( 1855), and other novels and volumes of short stories dealing with the romantic history of the Southern States. He also pub- lished several local histories and biographies, and several addi- tional books of verse. His metri- cal compositions were collected as Poems Descriptive, Dramatic, Legendary, and Contemplative (2 vols. 1853). His separate publications number more than sixty, including three dramas, two of which were produced. During 1842-3 he edited the Magnolia, or Southern Monthly, and during 1845 the Southern and Western Monthly Magazine , the latter of which was merged in the Southern Literary Mes- senger, which he edited for a time after 1849. During the Civil War he edited a little paper. The Phccnix, at Columbia, S. C, after the burning of that city. His country seat, 'Woodlands,' was twice burned, and his library with it. Sim'nel, Lambert ( ?1475- 1525), pretender to the English throne who tradition says was the son of a baker. On account of his resemblance to the impris- oned Edward, Earl of Warwick, a priest conceived the idea of passing him off as the young earl. In 1486 the young impostor was taken to Ireland, where most of the nobility and officials declared in his favor. He was crowned as King Edward vi in Dublin (1487), and crossed over to Eng- land, but was defeated at Stoke- upon-Trent. He was taken prisoner, pardoned, made a scul- lion in the royal kitchen, and afterwards a falconer. Simois, sim'o-is, in ancient Greek legend, one of the rivers of Troy, the other being the Sca- mander. They rise in Mount Ida, unite in the plain of Troy, and, flowing northwest, fall into the Hellespont. Simon, Sir John (1816- 1904), English surgeon, was born in London. He was joint dem- onstrator of anatomy at King's College, London, for nine years ; then senior assistant surgeon at King's College Hospital (1840), lecturer in pathology at St. Thomas' Hospital (1847), of- ficer of health for the city of London (1848), and medical officer to the Local Government Board in 1855-76. Simon, Sir John All.se- BROOK (1873- ), British statesman, was educated at Edin- burgh and Oxford. Called to the bar in 1899, he became a King's Counsel in 1908, and en- tered Parliament in 1906 as Lib- eral member for Walthamstow. Among the numerous posts he filled were Solicitor-General, 1910-13; Attorney-General, 1913-15; Home Secretary, 1915-16; Foreign Secretary, 1931-35, and again Home Secre- tary in 1935, also deputy leader of the House of Commons. He acted as a counsel for the Brit- ish Government in the Alaska Boundary Arbitration, 1903, and leading counsel for Newfound- land in the Labrador Boundary Reference, 1926. He served in the Roval Air Force during the World "War. Simon, se-mon', Jliles Fran- cois (1814-96), called also Simon-Suisse, French philoso- pher and legislator, was born in Lorient. After a few years of teaching he became professor of philosophy (1839-51) at the Paris Sorbonne. He was elected a member of the Constituent As- sembly (1848) ; sat in the Legis- lative Assembly (1863) for Paris ; became minister of public instruction (1870-3), and was premier for a few months at the beginning of 1877. He was elected to the French Academy in 1875. ^ His many publications include Etudes sur la thcodicee dc Platon et d'Aristote (1840) ; Hisfoire de I'ecole d' Alexandria (1844-5) ; manuals on Lc devoir, La liberie civile, Le travail, etc. ; Lc gouvernement de Thiers (1878); Victor Cousin, and Lc soir dc ma journce. Simon, Richard (1638- 1712), French theologian, the founder of modern Biblical crit- icism, was born in Dieppe. As a member of the Congregation of the Oratory, he lectured for a time at Juilly, and was commis- sioned to catalogue mss. in its library at Paris. His chief work was the Histoire critique dn Vieux Testament (-1678), in which he applied literary canons to the Old Testament, and an- ticipated the methods and con- clusions of many modern schol- ars. Other works include a His- toire critique du tcxtc dn Simon bar Glora KSH 226 Simpson Nouveau Testament (1689), and Histoire critique des principaux commentateurs du Nouveau Testa- ment (1693). Simon bar Giora, si'mun bar jo'ra, one of the leaders of the Zealots in the Judaeo-Roman War. On the fall of Jerusalem (70 A.D.) Titus took him to Rome for his triumphal procession, after which he was thrown from the Tarpeian Rock. Simonds, Frank Herbert 0878-1936), American journal- ist and author, was born in Con- cord, Mass. He was graduated from Harvard University in 1900 and served in Porto Rico during the Spanish- American war. After a short period at the Uni- versity Settlement in New York City he entered the field of jour- nalism becoming correspondent for the New York Tribune and the New York Evening Post. In 1913 he became editor of the New York Evening Sun, in 1915-18 was an associate editor of the Tribune, and from 1919- 33 contributing editor to the Re- view of Reviezvs. His publica- tions include They Shall Not Pass — Verdun (1916) ; History of the World War (5 vols.) ; They Won the War (1931); Can America Stay at Home (1932) ; ABC of the War Debts (1933) . Simonides of Amorgos, sl- mon'i-dez, a Greek poet who flourished about 650 B.C. He was a native of Samos, but led a colony to Amorgos. Only a few fragments of his works, which attack entire classes rather than individuals, are extant (in Bergk's Poeiae Lyrici Graeci, 1877-82). Simonides of Ceos, one of the greatest of lyric poets, is said to have lived from 556 to 467 B.C.; certainly he survived the great Persian wars. He was born at lulls, in the island of Ceos; became intimate at Athens with Hipparchus and Themisto- cles; and from about 477 until his death was under the patronage of Hiero at Syracuse. His poems exhibit that perfection of metre, language, and thought which marks the highest Greek genius; there is no reckless profusion or disorder in his writings; they have the clearness of outline and exact proportions of an ancient statue. He wrote epinicial odes, like those of Pindar, hymns, drinking songs, paeans, elegies, dirges, and indeed every sort of lyric poetry; but it was in epigram, in the Greek sense, that he excelled. The fragment of his lament of Dariae is matchless in its pathos, its restraint, and its beauty of style. In the variety of the sub- jects of which he treated, his exquisite choice of words, and his finished versification, vSimonides is almost unequalled. The frag- ments of his works are to be found in Bergk's Poetae Lyrici Graeci (1877-82). Consult also Brook's Selections from the Greek Lyric Poets, with translations, Wright's A Short History of Greek Literature. Si'mon Ma'gus {i.e. 'the ma- gician'), a Samaritan of New Testament times, credited with supernatural gifts. According to Acts viii.9-24, he became a be- liever at the preaching of Philip, was baptized, and afterwards sought to buy from Peter and John the power of conff^rring the Holy Spirit. (See Simony.) In the Church Fathers he figures as the author of all heresy (c/. Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. ii. 13-14), According to Justin (c. 150 a.d.), Simon and Helena, his com- panion, went to Rome and were regarded there as incarnations of God and of the divine creative thought (Logos) respectively. His alleged followers in the 2d century, called Simonians, elab- orating the legend, saw in the pair the final embodiments of the male and the female elements in the Deity, the female being man- kind, which is delivered from its earthly or cosmic limitations by the voluntary suffering of the male — i.e. Simon — who thus be- comes a pseudo-Messiah, and has been regarded as the parent of Gnosticism. The centre of the legend is a conflict between Si- mon and Peter in Rome, and this led the Tubingen School to claim that Simon is not an historical character at all, but represents Paul — a theory not widely ac- cepted. The fullest form appears in the Apostolic Constitutions, the pseudo-Clementine Homilies and Recognition, and the apocryphal Acts of Peter and Paul; certain features reappear in the Faust story. See Gnosticism and works mentioned there. Simonoselci. See Shimono- SEKI. Simony, sim'o-ni, the buying or selling of holy orders or ecclesi- astical preferment. The name is derived from Simon Magus, who offered the Apostles money for the power to work miracles. Simony has always been severely con- demned by the canon law. In England a law of Elizabeth (1589) imposed fines of £40 and £lO on persons simoniacally con- ferring orders, and the recipients thereof respectively, and the act renders void simoniacal presen- tations, and imposes penalties for them. The ecclesiastical courts have jurisdiction independently of statute law to deal with si- moniacal offences, which they may punish by deprivation, or even by degradation from holy orders, _ Simoom, si-moom', a hot, suffocating wind, laden with clouds of sand, experienced in the deserts of Africa, Arabia, as well as in Sindh and Baluchistan. The simoom usually lasts only ten minutes or so, but such are the heat, dryness, and dustiness of the atmosphere that it fre- quently overwhelms caravans, suffocating men and beasts. Al- though no rain falls, lightning is sometimes seen. Simplified Spelling. See Spelling Reform, Sim'plon Pass, an Alpine pass (6,592 feet), which leads from Brigue in the upper Rhone valley (Swiss canton of Valais) to Domo d'Ossola in Piedmont, It is traversed by a fine carriage road, built by order of Napoleon in 1800-5, and by a railway tunnel under the pass begun in 1898, and formally opened by the King of Italy on May 19, 1906. It is cut at an elevation of only 2,312 feet above sea-level, and is 12J4 miles long, from Brigue to Iselle. In 1921 a second Simplon Tunnel, 12^ miles long, was completed. It was not wholly a new construction as it comprised the enlarging of a ventilation heading made parallel to the first tunnel at its construction. In the centre of the tunnel are always two guards, one Swiss and one Italian. Electricity is the motive power for all trains in the tunnel. Simpson, Sik Alexander Russell (1835-x916), Scotch gynaecologist, was born in Bath- gate, Linlithgowshire. After assisting his uncle. Sir James Simpson, for seven years, he practised in Glasgow, whence he was recalled to the Edinburgh chair of midwifery on Sir James' death in 1870. He retired as professor emeritus in 1905 and was knighted in 1906. He wrote Contributions to Obstetrics and Gyncecology (1880) and many memoirs and papers for medical journals. Simpson, Edward (1824-88), American naval officer, was born in New York City, He entered the navy as a midshipman in 1840; was graduated in 1846 in the first class which went out from the new Naval Academy; and served on board the Vixen during the siege of Vera Cruz, In 1856, as a lieutenant, he assisted in the capture of the 'Barrier Forts' in China. He was stationed at the Naval Academy during 1858-63; com- manded the monitor Passaic in the operations of 1863-64 against Charleston; as fleet captain of the Gulf Squadron received the surrender of Confederate ships on the Tombigbee river; was pro- moted rear admiral in 1884; and was retired in 1886. His pub- lished works include Ordnance and Naval Gunnery (1862); The Naval Mission to Europe (2 vols. Simpson KSH 227 Sims 1872) ; and Modern Ships of War (1887). Simpson, Sir George (1792- 1860), Canadian statesman and explorer, was born in Ross-shire, Scotland. At the age of twenty- eight he was sent to America as a superintendent of the Hudson's Bay Company (q. v.) and brought about an amalgamation of that company and the Northwestern Trading Company. Shortly after this he was made governor of the northern department, and then general superintendent of the company in America. In 1836 he sent out a successful expedi- tion to the unexplored regions of the Canadian Northwest, and in 1841 accomplished what is said to be the first 'overland' journey around the world, an account of which he published as A Narra- tive of a Journey Around the World. Simpson, Sir James Young (181 1-70) , Scottish physician, was born in Bathgate, Linlithgow- shire, and when only twenty-nine years old was appointed professor of midwifery in Edinburgh. In 1847 he was appointed one of Queen Victoria's physicians for Scotland. In the same year, after numerous experiments upon him- self and others, he read to the Medico-chirurgical Society a paper upon the action of chloro- form, and the rest of his life was chiefly devoted to the introduc- tion of anaesthetics, in which he had a fierce struggle against old- standing prejudices. He was awarded the Montyon prize of the French Academy of Science in 1856, and was created a baro- net in 1886. Simpson, Matthew (1810- 84), American Methodist Epis- copal bishop, was born at Cadiz, O. He was graduated from Madison (now Allegheny) Col- lege (1832), and took up the practice of medicine, which he soon abandoned for the ministry. After a short term as circuit preacher in Ohio, he was pastor at Pittsburgh and Williamsport, Pa., until 1837, when he became vice-president and professor of natural science in Allegheny College. From 1839 to 1841 he was president of Indiana Asbury (now De Pauw) University, and in 1852 was elected bishop. He was a close friend . of President Lincoln, who greatly admired his oratorical powers. He published A Hundred Years of Methodism (1876), Cyclopcedia of Methodism (1878), and Yale Lectures on Preaching (1879). His Sermons (1885) appeared posthumously. Simpson, Thomas (1710-61), a self-taught English mathema- tician, was born at Market Bos- worth, Leicestershire. At Nun- eaton he acquired a local repu- tation as an astrologer and wiz- ard, and in 1735 settled in Lon- don, as a weaver at Spitalfields, where he studied and taught mathematics in his leisure time. In 1737 he published A New Treatise on Fluxions, republished as The Doctrine and Application of Fluxions in 1750. In 1743 he was appointed professor of mathe- matics at the Royal Academy, Woolwich, and in 1745 he be- came a fellow of the Royal So- ciety. Simpson College, a co-edu- cational institution of learning affiliated with the Methodist Episcopal Church, established in Indianola, Iowa, in 1860_. It comprises a college of liberal arts, with classical, philosophical, •scientific and business courses, and a conservatory of music. Complete and accredited train- ing is offered for preparation of teachers. Simrock, zim'rok, Karl Jo- seph (1802-76), German scholar and poet, was born at Bonn, where his father was a music publisher. He entered the Prus- sian government service (1823), from which he was dismissed seven years later for having written a poem in praise of freedom. He devoted himself chiefly to the early literature of his own country, and wrote voluminously. His chief works are his rendering into modern German of the Nibelungenlied (1827), an edition of Walther von der Vogelweide (1833), and mod- ernized versions of Hartmann von der Aue's Der Arme Heinrich (1830), Wolfram von Eschen- bach's Parzival und Tilurel (1842), the Eddas (1851), Beowulf (1859), and Heliand (1856). His Heldenbuch (1843-9) was a col- lection of heroic legends from German literature. His original works include Wieland der Schmied (1835). He also edited the valuable Deutsche Volks- bucher (1839-67), and Handbuch der Deutschen Mythologie (1853- 5). He was, moreover, one of the early students of Shakespeare, and translated several of his dramas and the poems. He was professor of Old German language and literature at Bonn from 1850 until his death. Sims, George Robert (1847- 1922), English journalist and dramatist, born in London. He was first attached to Fun (1874), and was associated with the Weekly Dispatch in the same year. In 1877 he began to write for The Referee under the pseudonym of 'Dagonet.' His works include The Social Kaleidoscope (1879- 81); Ballads of Babylon (1880); The Theatre of Life (1881) ; Dago- net Ballads (1881); Mary Jane's Memoirs (1887) ; Tales of To-day (1889); Young Mrs. Caudle (1904) ; For Life and After (19 i6) , and The Mysteries of Modern London (1906). Among his plays. Simplon Pass and Tunnel. Sims KSH 228 Sin some of which have been very popular in the United States, are: The Lights o' London; The Romany Rye ; The Harbour Lights ; Master and Man. Sims, James Marion (1813- 83), American surgeon, was born near Lancaster, S. C. He was graduated from the Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, in 1835, began to practise in Montgomery, Ala., and in 1848 founded a private hospital there, in which he carried out a series of researches on vesicovaginal fistula, during the years 1848-52, resulting in the discovery of methods for curing that condi- tion. While doing this work he invented the Sims speculum, and other useful surgical instru- ments. In 1853 he settled in New York and founded the Woman's Hospital Association. In 1870 he went to Sedan as surgeon-in-chief of an ambulance corps composed of an equal nvnn- ber of Americans and English- me_n, and attended to the injtiries which Marshal MacMahon re- ceived from the fragments of an exploded shell. He was deco- rated by the kings of Spain, Italy, Belgium, and Portugal. His publications include : Silver Sutures in Surgery (1858) ; On Intrauterine Fibroid Tumors (1874) ; Clinical Notes on Uter- ine Surgery (1866) ; The Dis- covery of Ancpsthesia (1877). Consult The Story of My Life (1884), edited by H. M. Sims. Sims, Thomas. See Sims Case. Sims, William Sowden (1858-1936), American naval officer, was born in Canada of United States parents. He was graduated from the U. S. Naval Academy (1880), and was pro- moted through the various grades to commander (1907), captain (1911), rear admiral (Jan. 5, 1917), and vice admiral (May 28, 1917). He served on the North Atlantic^ Pacific, and China Stations; was attache at the American embassy at Paris and at St. Petersburg (1897- 1900) ; and aid on the staf? of the commander-in-chief of the Asiatic fleet (1901-2). In 1902 he served as fleet intelligence of- ficer and inspector of target prac- tice for the Asiatic fleet, on board the Nczv York, and from 1902 to 1909 as inspector of target prac- tice at the Bureau of Navigation. He commanded the battleship Minnesota (1909-11), was a member of the staff of the Naval War College, Newport, R. I. (1911-13), and was in command of the Atlantic Torpedo Flotilla (1913-15). On February 16, 1916, he was appointed com- mandant of the naval station at Narragansett Bay and president of the Naval War College at Newport. Shortly before the United States entered the World War (1917), he was sent as a special naval representative and observer to England. From April 28, 1917 until the end of hostilities, he was in command of the American naval operations in European waters. In 1919 he resumed the presidency of the Naval War College, retiring in 1922. Sims, WiNFiELD Scott (1844-1918), American inven- tor, was born in New York City. He served in the Civil War and subsequently studied electrical engineering and devised im- provements in the construction of electro-magnets. He was one of the earliest experimenters with motor boats driven by elec- tric machinery, and the first to utilize electrically driven and guided torpedoes for harbor and coast defense purposes. He in- vented a wireless dirigible tor- pedo and the Sims-Dudley dyna- mite gun. Sims Case, a celebrated case arising in the United States un- der the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850. On April 3, 1851, Thomas Sims, a negro, was arrested by the city marshal of Boston on a false charge of larceny, and later held under heavy guard in the court house on complaint of James Potter of Georgia, who claimed to be his master. After vainly applying to several judges of the State supreme court for a writ of habeas corpus, his coun- sel obtained one from Judge Woodbury, who, however, after hearing the arguments, refused to take the negro from the cus- tody of the United States mar- shal. Meanwhile the case had aroused great excitement in Bos- ton, and several meetings were held, at which such speakers as Wendell Phillips, Theodore Parker, William Lloyd Garrison, and Thomas Wentworth Higgin- son denounced the Fugitive Slave Law in unsparing terms. Sims was, however, escorted by 300 armed policemen to a vessel in the harbor, was taken to Savan- nah, and was ultimately sold to a brick-mason in Vicksburg, from whence in 1863 he escaped to the besieging army under Gen- eral Grant. Sims'bury, town, Hartford county, Connecticut, on the Farmington River, and the Cen- tral New England and New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroads ; 14 miles northwest of Hartford. Pop. (1930) 3,625. Simson, Robert (1687- 1768), Scottish mathematician. In 1711 he became professor of mathematics in Glasgow, occupy- ing the chair for half a century. The work by which he is best known is his Elements of Euclid, which appeared both in Latin and English in 1756, and was the basis of nearly all the editions published for more than a hun- dred years afterwards. Sin is any voluntary act which violates the divine will as re- vealed, or the corrupt state of the spirit from which such viola- tion springs. It is more than natural evil, which causes pain, and shocks the intellectual or asthetic ideal of the world ; and more than moral evil, which offends against the conscience. It is related, however, in some manner to both. Consciousness of sin is organically connected with religion ; but this conscious- ness is found nowhere so intense as in Christianity, with its pre- paratory stage of 'Hebraism,' as is strikingly evidenced by the fact that the origin of sin in man is narrated in the Bible in immedi- ate connection with his creation. The problem of sin exists for philosophy as well as for the- ology. Thus pessimism, which emphasizes the evil side of hu- man life, makes sin a necessary outcome of the nature of things ; while optimism (as in evolution- ary theories generally) regards it as the vestige of the animal stage above which man has risen. Hegel sees in sin a necessary step in the progress of the human spirit ; Schleiermacher traces it to the sensuous nature of man and Ritschl to ignorance. All these tend to identify it with nat- ural evil, and thus allow it a cer- tain relative justification. Yet it is possible to see in each of these theories, not error pure and simple, but rather the exaggera- tion of some aspect prone to be ignored by the more orthodox view, which is largely founded on the story of Gen. iii, a passage admittedly of difficult interpreta- tion. In the rise of man from an animal stage to a point where the dawning conscience was begin- ning to review instinctive and natural actions, and where the consciousness of God was com- ing into operation, the appetites would still play a large part as the motive force of man's con- duct, and when indulged in in spite of the incipient checks, would result in what we call sin. Thus the actual sin would be organically traceable to natural propensity, but the possibility of its being sin would depend upon a moral and spiritual judgment which was not a natural product, and would, literally enough, im- ply a 'fall upward.' There is nothing in this necessarily op- posed to the profound views of the character of sin found in Scripture, nor anything subver- sive of the need of that great process of redemption by which God would bring the world into Sinai KSH 229 Sinclair harmony with His holy purpose. The "sin unto death' ( 1 John v. 16) is probably the sin against the Holy Ghost — i.e., an obdu- rate, impenitent resistance to the grace of God. Throughout the Scriptures sin appears as that element in man which puts him at enmity with God. and for his salvation from its guilt and power required the work of a Redeemer. Sin is not defined in Scripture, and it was not till the controversies between Pelagius and Augustine, at the end of the fourth century, that the doctrine received full devel- opment. Augustine maintained that Adam's sin completely cor- rupted his whole nature ; that the corruption of his guilt and its penalty, death, pass to all his chil- dren ; that man is born not merely corrupt, but in a state of sin, guilt, and liability to punishment. The Greek Church continued to deny hereditary guilt, and to af- firm man's will as free as Adam's before the fall. Duns Scotus and his followers admitted that man had lost by Adam's fall justifia originalis, but laid stress on the freedom of the will. Thomas Aquinas taught that hereditary sin is truly sin, and the unbap- tized infant is damned. At the Reformation both Luther and Calvin asserted what they re- garded as Augustinian and Paul- ine views. Zwingli looked on hereditary sin as an inherited evil or disease ; Arminians and Socinians practically denied he- reditary sin altogether. See Adam and Eve; Atone- ment; Confession; Augus- tine; Devil; Ethics; Evil; Fall; Hell; Jesus Christ; Paul; Pelagius; Sacrifice; Will. Consult Julius Miiller, Christian Doctrine of Sin (Eng. trans.) ; P. Galtier, Sin and Pen- ance ; D. L. Morse-Boycott, Is It a Sinf ; M. W. Doggett, The Tragedy of Sin. Sinai, sT'ni or sT'na-i, the sa- cred mountain on which Moses received from Jehovah the tables of the Ten Commandments (Exod. xix), also called Mount Horeb fDeut. v. 2 /; 1 Kings xix. 8), at the foot of which the Israelites encamped for over a year. The so-called Peninsula of Sinai, of which the wilderness of Sinai is the central hilly region, is the southern half of a triangu- lar tract between the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Akabah (northern arms of the Red Sea), and embraces Mount Um Shomer (8,000 feet) to the south ; Mount Serbal (6,725 feet), identified with Sinai by Ebers, Lepsius, and others ; Mount Katerina (8,540 feet ; on which is the Con- vent of St. Catherine), the high- est of a group including Mount Mu.sa (i.e., Mount of Moses), the traditional site, which proba- bly suits the Biblical data better than any other — the actual peak of promulgation being taken as the Rases-Sufsafeh (6,937 feet). Some investigators, however, place Sinai outside the Peninsula altogether, seeking it in Eastern Mount Seir (Sayce), south of Kadesh (Gratz), or east of the Gulf of Akabah (Stade). Mount Sinai is named after the Baby- lonian moon goddess Sin, and was a sacred center before the Exodus. The old turquoise mines of Wady Maghara and the ancient temple at Sarabit el- Khadem were explored by Flin- ders Petrie in 1904. Consult W. Flinders Petrie, Researches in Sinai; M. J. Rendall, Sinai in Spring. Sinaia, se-ni'a, town and mon- astery in Prahova county, Rou- mania, at the southern foot of the Transylvania Alps; 37 miles northwest of Ploesci. Built in 1695, it served as a shelter and hostel to travelers in winter ; but since King Carol i built a palace there, in 1873-84, it has become the fashionable summer resort of the Roumanian gentry. Sinaloa, se-na-l6'a, a Pacific coast State of Mexico, with the Gulf of California on the west. The coast lands are low, with a gradual rise toward the Sierra Madre Mountains in the east. Silver, gold, copper, lead, and iron are abundant. The State is well watered, and yields grain, cotton, tobacco, sugar cane, cof- fee, fruit, rubber, and dyewoods. The capital is Culiacan (q. v.) ; the seaport is Altata. Area, 22,- 580 square miles. Pop. (1930) 395,618. Sinbad the Sailor. See Sindbad. Sinclair', John. See Pent- land, Baron. Sinclair, Sir John (1754- 1835), Scottish public ofiicial and author, was born at Thurso Cas- tle in Caithness. In 1780 he en- tered Parliament, and in 1786 was made a baronet by Pitt. At the time of the American Revo- lution he was a strong advocate of peace with the colonies. He became interested in sheep breed- ing and in wool, and founded the British Wool Society. He also induced Pitt to form the Board of Agriculture (1793), of which he was president (1793-8 and 1806-13). In 1790 he designed a Statistical Account of Scotland, in 21 vols. (1791-9), to which he added the Analysis of the Statistical Account (1825). He Peninsula of Sinai. Sinclair KSH 230 Sines, Curve of wrote also on medicine, Ossian, philology, and the currency. Sinclair, Upton (1878- ), American author, was born in Baltimore, and was edu- cated at the College of the City of New York and at Columbia University. He began the com- position of his first serious novel at the age of twenty, and experi- enced many hardships, some of which are set forth in his volume. The Journal of Arthur Stirling (1903). His book The Jungle, published in 1906, which exposed the deleterious practices followed in the meat-packing industry, at- tracted national attention ; and he assisted in the Government in- vestigation of the Chicago stock yards that followed. In 1906 he founded the Helicon Home Col- ony, a co-operative enterprise at Englewood, N. J. and founded the Intercollegiate Socialist So- ciety. He was Socialist candi- date for Congress (Calif.) in 1920 ; for U. S. Senate in 1922 ; for governor of Calif, in 1926 and 1930 and Democratic candi- date for governor in 1934. Other published works are The Industrial Republic (1907); Sylvia (1913) ; The Cry for Jus- tice (1915) ; King Coal (1917) ; The Goose-Step (1923); Oil (1927); Mental Radio (1930); The Wet Parade (1931); The Way Out (1933) ; We People of America (1935) ; Depression Is- land^ (1936) ; Co-op (1936). Sind, SiNDH, or SciNDE, an avitonomous Province of British India, until 1936 a Division of Bombay Presidency. It has an area of 46,378 square miles. It is bounded on the north by Baluchistan and the Punjab, east by Rajputana, west by Baluchis- tan, and south by the Indian Ocean and the Rann of Cutch. The River Indus traverses the province from north to south. Along each bank of the river is an alluvial tract of great fertility. The regions beyond the reach of the Indus consist, for the most part, of barren sand dunes. The Hala Mountains, which separate Sind from Baluchistan, run par- allel with the valley of the Lower Indus. The climate is very dry and sultry. The inhabitants are engaged principally in agricul- ture; grain, oil seeds, cotton, indigo, hemp, and tobacco are raised. The manufactures in- clude embroideries, pottery, car- pets, paper, leather, laccjuered ware, swords, and cotton goods. The chief exports are rice, sugar, tea, tobacco, leather, cotton yarn, metals, coal, wool, and li(|uors. The population consists of the na- tive Sintlis, with a large sprin- kling of Baluchis and Afghans ; the greater portion of them are Mohammedans of the Sunnite faith. Although originally subordi- nate to Afghanistan, the rulers of Sind, at the period when it came under British influence, claimed semi-independent authority. The disastrous retreat of the British army from Kabul (1841) encour- aged the rulers to repudiate their treaty engagements, and in 1843 Sir Charles Napier invaded the province. At Meanee he won a decisive victory which led to the annexation of the whole terri- tory, except Khairpur. The population of Sind at the census of 1931 was 3,887,000; Muslims numbered 2,831,000 and Hindus 1,015,000. The chief language is Sindhi. The princi- pal town and port is Karachi (263,565). Sind'bad the Sailor, or Sin- bad, a character in one of the Arabian Nights. A citizen of Bagdad, he makes seven remark- able voyages, in which he achieves a nvmiber of wonderful feats. The original Sindbad was an early Arabian traveler of the ninth century, whose narrative was translated into French by Langles. Sindhi (the language of Sind) and Lahnda or Lahinda, two closely related languages of the western branch of the Indo- Aryan family, to which Kash- miri also belongs. Consult S. F. Mirza, Sindhi-English Diction- ary (1879) ; W. St. Clair Tisdall, Simplified Panjabi Grammar (1889). ^ Sin'dia, a family of Maratha (q. V.) chiefs and princes. Rano- JEE SiNDiA, originally a 'bearer of slippers' to the Peishwa Bajerow, rose to the highest rank of Ma- ratha chiefs, and became (1743) hereditary governor of the larger portion of the province of Malwa. His son Madhajee (1750-94) succeeded him, and was defeated at the Battle of Panipat (1761) ; but he soon regained the Peish- wa's possessions in Malwa and Northern Hindustan, expelling the Sikhs, seizing Delhi, and be- coming the Peishwa's deputy. By the British he was recognized as an independent prince (1783). He then conquered Agra and Aligarh, and obtained possession of nearly the whole of the Doab (1785), to which he added the States of Udaipur, Jaipur, and Jodhpur. He was succeeded by his grand-nephew, Daulat Rao SiNDiA (1794-1827), who had a singularly troubled reign, owing to the enmity of his servant Holkar, who defeated him. But the interference of the British put a stop to Holkar's career of spoliation and bloodshed. Then Sir Arthur Wellesley (after- wards Duke of Wellington) de- feated the confederated Marathas at Delhi, Assaye, and Cuttack, after which they ceded to the British the Upper Doab, Delhi, Agra, Meerut, and Cuttack, Holkar being allowed to retain Gwalior. In 1818, however, the Maratha power was wholly de- stroyed, whereupon Daulat sub- mitted to the British, retaining his territories. See India. His- tory. Sindibad. See Seven Wise Masters. Sine. See Trigonometry ; Sines, Curve of. Sin Eating, a custom prac- ticed, under one form or another, in India, Turkestan, Tahiti, the Hebrides, and in Ireland, Wales, and the Isle of Man. The idea was akin to that of the scapegoat, and also to the doctrine of trans- ference of disease. It was be- lieved that a professional sin eater could take upon himself the sins of another, moribund or dead. In most cases he received money as for performing a serv- ice. Consult Fiona Macleod (William Sharp), Sin Eater ; Sir J. G. Frazer, Golden Bough. Sinecure, sm'i-kur, an office which has revenue without em- ployment ; popularly, any posi- tion of emolument with few or no duties. In the canon law a sin- ecure is an ecclesiastical bene- fice, such as a chaplainry, can- onry, or chantry, to which no cure of souls is attached, and where residence is not required. Sines, Curve of, sinz. If the magnitudes of angles in degrees or circular measure be set oflf as abscissae, and the value of the sine of each angle be set oflf as the corresponding ordinate, and the points so obtained be joined. Curve of Sines. the curve of sines is obtained. It represents the variation of a sim- ple periodic function whose equa- tion is y = sin x, or more generally 3J = A sin (xm.r-\-n) . The cosine curve is of the same form, since cos .r = sin (90° — .r), but dififers in phase by ^ or 90°. This curve is the simplest form of wave, and is of much importance in the the- ory of recurring disturbances in alternating currents, in simple harmonic motions, and Fourier's Theorem. In the form y = a cos (iit~mx), where t denotes time and m and n are constants, it rep- resents a simple harmonic wave 7? motion of speed — , in which, ni when X is constant, we have the Sinew KSH 231 Singer rise and fall at any place, and when t is constant the instanta- neous wave surface. Sinew. See Tendons. Si-ngan-fu. See Sian-fu. Singapore, sing-ga-p6r', an island and fortified British naval base off the southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula, to which it is joined by a causeway ( opened in 1924) 3,465 feet long, across the Strait of Johore. With the outlying territories of Christmas Island, Labuan and the Keeling or Cocos Islands (qq. v.), it con- stitutes the most important of the Straits Settlements. The island is about 26 miles long and 14 miles broad, covering an area of 206 or, with adjacent islets, 223 square miles. The surface is generally low and undulating. The climate is hot and damp, but not unhealthful. The flora and fauna are those of the Malay Peninsula. The principal min- eral deposit is granite. Para rub- ber, pineapples and other fruits, vegetables, indigo, cocoanuts, gambler, pepper and gutta percha are produced. Cattle, pigs, sheep and goats are raised. In the 13th and 14th centuries Singapore was a Malay city of importance till it was destroyed by the Javanese about 1365. It then remained almost uninhabited until the present Settlement was founded in 1819 by Sir Stamford Raffles. It was purchased from the Sultan of Johore in 1824, remaining under the jurisdiction of the East India Company until 1867, when the Straits Settle- ments became a crown colony. Pop. (1935) 587,321. Chief City, Singapore (q. v.). See Straits Settlements. Singapore, city, capital of the Straits Settlements, on the southeastern coast of the island of Singapore, and on the Strait of Singapore. It has a magnifi- cent harbor, easily accessible, and provided with excellent shipping facilities. The principal build- ings are Government House, on the outskirts of the city, the Court House, Town Hall, the Anglican and Roman Catholic Cathedrals, Raffles College (opened 1929), and King Ed- ward VII College of Medicine. On the sea front is a fine es- planade, close to which stands the Raffles Institution, a government school. Fort Canning crowns a hill above the city, and a park and botanical garden occupy a neighboring slope. Singapore is a free port, situ- ated on the principal waterway for vessels trading between Eu- rope or India and the Far East, Australia and Netherlands In- dies. It is defended by numer- ous batteries and forts, and is a naval coaling station and depot. The Tanjong docks and wharves were taken over by the Govern- ment in 1905. The King's Dock (opened in 1913) is the largest east of Suez. The trade is most- ly transport. Pop. (1931) 445,- 719. Singara, sen-ga'ra, or Sinjar, a strong fortress in Northern Mesopotamia ; its exact site is not known. Apparently Trajan first captured it, and it was a Roman colony in the days of the Em- perors Severus and Gordian. Near it Constantius and Sapor of Persia fought (348) an inde- cisive battle. In the reign of Julian it was captured (361 to 363_A.D.)^ by the Persians. Singeing. See Bleaching. Singen, zing'cn, town, Baden, Germany; 18 miles northwest of Constance. Pop. 8,'500. Singer, Isaac Merritt (181 1- 75), American inventor, was born in Oswego, N. Y. A machinist by trade, he became interested in the sewing machine designed by Elias Howe (q. v.), and in 1851 took out a patent for a machine of his own. In 1852 he patented an improvement in the tension device, and in 1854 an attach- ment for chain stitch embroidery. Other features of his machine were the fixed horizontal arm above the work table, the verti- cal standard, the foot treadle, and the self-adjusting feeder. He was sued by Howe for infringe- ment of the latter's patent rights, but a compromise was reached whereby Singer paid a royalty. In 1863 his firm united with that of Howe and others to form the Singer Manufacturing Company. The later years of his life were spent in Paris and Torquay, England. Singer, Isidore (1859- ), Jewish author and editor, was born in Weisskirchen, Moravia, Austria, and was educated at the Universities of Vienna and Ber- lin. In 1887 he went to Paris, where he entered the service of the French Foreign Office, and subsequently founded and edited La Vraic Parole. In 1895 he came to New York, where he was editor of The Jcivish Encyclo- pccdia (12 vols., 1901-5). He published Russia at the Bar of the American People (1904) ; Christ or God (1908); Social Justice (1923) ; Theology at the Crossroads (1928); The Chris- tians' Vindication of the Jezvs (4 vols. 1934). Singer, Otto (1833-94), Ger- man-American pianist and com- poser, was born in Sora, Saxony, and studied music under Mo- scheles at the Leipzig Conserva- tory, and under Liszt. In 1867 he settled in New York City, where he taught, in the Mason Thomas Conservatory. In 1873 he conducted the first of the Cin- cinnati May festivals, becoming professor of the piano at the Cin- cinnati College of Music (1873- 93). Among his compositions are cantatas — the Landing of the Pil- grim Fathers (1876) and Festi- val Ode (1878), several sym- phonies, and numerous pieces for the piano. Singer, William H., Jr. (1868-Ii^»), American painter, born Pittsburgh, Pa. His prin- cipal works are exhibited in mu- seums and galleries at The Hague, Amsterdam, Antwerp, the Luxembourg, Paris, Munich, New York City, Brooklyn, Fort Worth, Texas, New Orleans, and Memphis, Tennessee. He was awarded a silver medal at the San Francisco Exposition, 1915. , - '.a^ Singapore. Singhalese KSH 231 A Single Tax Singhalese. See Sinhalese. Singhara Nut. See Trapa. Singhbhum, sing-boom', dis- trict, British India, in the Chota Nagpur division of Behar and Orissa. The headcjuarters is Chaibasa. Area 3,879 s(|. miles. Pop. about 760,000. Singing. See Voice; Music; Opera; Oratorio; Sol-fa; Sol- feggio; Song; Sound. Singing Flame. vSee Flame. Single-stick. See Fencing. Single Tax, the plan proposed by Henry George (q. v.) whereby all taxes would be abolished save one tax on the value of land, irre- spective of improvements. The name for his political vsystem was not invented by Henry George, but came by accident. Thomas G. Shearman (q. v.), a distin- guished lawyer of New York, made a speech on May 28, 1887, entitled 'The Single Tax.' Henry George adopted the name, and gradually it came to stand for George's political and economic philosophy, as well as for the fis- cal method he advocated. The single tax under that name had been proposed by the famous French physiocrats of the latter part of the eighteenth century, to whom George dedicated his book, Protection or Free Trade. Herbert Spencer (q. v.) presented in So- cial Statics, in 1850, the philos- ophy of the 'right to the use of the earth' ; but the book was little known until it was popularized by George. Then Spencer wrote Justice, in which he modified the views expressed in Social Statics. George replied in The Perplexed Philosopher, published in 1892. In 1869 George came from Cal- ifornia to New York, which he had not seen since boyhood. He was appalled by the poverty in the midst of wealth, and made a vow 'to seek out, and remedy, if I could, the cause that condemned little children to lead such a life as you know them to lead in the squalid districts.' Speculating upon the fact that wages after a few years are high in a new and poor country like the United States in the first half of the nine- teenth century, and low in an old and rich country like England; high in the unexploited Western United States, and relatively low in the Eastern States; George came to the conclusion that this inequality in the existing social and economic order is the result of some radical defect. The rapid progress of land monopolization in California suggested to him that the connecting cause be- tween poverty and progress lay in the appropriation by a rela- tively small class of the natural resources of the country. So long as free land is accessible to the man without means, wages re- main high enough to afford a comfortable subsistence; but as soon as practically all fertile land is appropriated, the laborer is compelled to pay a price for the use of land, and his share in pro- duction declines accordingly. Assuming as fundamental ax- ioms that what a man produces by his labor is inalienably his own, and that what nature freely gives is the common heritage of all mankind, Henry George con- cluded that the existing system of taxation is radically unjust, since it takes a part of the prod- uct of each man's industry, in the shape of excise, customs, and general property taxes; while it leaves in the hands of private individuals the 'unearned incre- ment,' or rent, of land, as well as royalties for the use of mines, and other forms of income from natural resources. Accordingly, he proposed to abolish all taxes except such as fell upon natural opportunities; and upon the lat- ter, taxation should be so heavy as to take practically all the an- nual rental for the public treas- ury. This would involve a careful distinction between that part of the value of land which is due to improvements made by in- dustry, and that part which is due to nature or to the growth of society, and between the two corresponding forms of income. This distinction was already familiar in economics, and the income from the land, as dis- tinguished from the income from improvements, was generally known to economists as 'pure rent.' The single tax thus in- volved the taxation of rent; and since the value of land, apart from the value of improvements thereon, is the capitalization of rent, the single tax involved the reduction of the selling value of all land. Since they regard pri- vate ownership of land rent as inherently unjust, the single tax- ers view with equanimity its heavy taxation; and they reject any plan for compensation of land owners, holding that pres- ent possCvSsion of unearned in- come does not create a perpetual title to it, and that most land owners would gain more than they would lose by the change. The full application of George's system, the single taxers con- tend, would equalize opportunity and abolish all poverty not due to personal inefiiciency. It would give a great impetus to produc- tion, since labor and capital would be freed from the onerous taxes now resting upon them. It would throw open to appropriate use the areas of land now held for speculative purposes, since no man could pay heavy taxes on land v.'hich he did not use and which would not increase in sell- ing value. Thus farms and build- ing sites would be obtainable by any one who wished to use them upon payment of their present value for the use for which they are now adapted. Some opponents of the single tax deny the truth of the assumed axioms that the products of labor are inalienably the laborer's, and that the free gifts of nature be- long inalienably to all mankind. They allege that property in all its forms is a social product, created for reasons of social ex- pediency. Apart from social in- stitutions, it is impossible even to say what is actually the product of labor, under modern complex conditions of industry. Each per- son is entitled to what he is as- sured of by contracts, express or implied, under the authority of the state. The income from land is assured to the owner of the land in the same way that wages are assured to the laborer. The two forms of income rest upon the same ethical and legal founda- tion. The opponents of the single tax argue that it would be a grave injustice to confiscate the land of the small farmer, purchased with the product of labor, or won by the hardships of pioneer life, in order to free the vast masses of personal property from taxa- tion. They claim that confisca- tion of the land value would de- stroy the value of all mortgages secured by land; and this would mean the ruin of the savings banks, which have invested heavily in this form of security. Single taxers retort that the small farmer is the very one who pays much more taxes than he should, because most of his prop- erty is in improvements on land and tangible personal property; and that under the single tax he would pay less taxes and reap many other advantages. As to the value of mortgages, they as- sert that very little money is loaned on vacant land, and that in most cases the security would be improved. Opponents of the single tax further deny that industry as a whole would be stimulated by the redistribution of the burden of taxation. They contend that ab- solute ownership of land is re- quired to encourage improve- ments on the land; that to trans- form all freeholders into virtual tenants of the state, with rentals arbitrarily fixed by state officials, would be to remove all incentive from the small farmer, and ac- celerate the movement from country to city; and that the im- possibility of gains accruing from the rise in value of land would check speculative building in the single Tax KSH 231 B Singular Points large cities, and increase the evils of urban overcrowding. These objections are of course denied by single taxers, as being based on erroneous conclusions. They assert that ownership of land would not be disturbed, and the present tendency toward ten- ant farming would be checked; while speculative building, which ruins so many builders and house owners, would be replaced by or- derly development. Further objections made by students of finance are as follows: PubUc revenues derived from rentals of land would be inelastic in the extreme; they would bear no relation to the varying needs of government; they would be wholly inadequate in sparsely settled communities, and unduly productive in well-developed re- gions. With such a revenue sys- tem, no progress could be made toward the much-needed separa- tion of Federal, State, and local revenues. The revenues would necessarily be collected by one central authority, and distributed by that authority to the other governmental agencies, with con- sequent annihilation of State and local autonomy. Moreover, taxes levied for other than fiscal pur- poses, as protective duties and taxes upon spirituous liquors, would fail to harmonize with a revenue system based upon land taxes. These fiscal objections are said by single taxers to be made by those who are ignorant of statis- tics, as well as facts that are ob- vious to the ordinary man who uses his eyes. Land values are low in country townships where com- mon needs are small, and high in congested centres where many public services are necessary. They say that the need for reve- nue is automatically met by the increased rental value; that mod- ern methods of administration show there is little real need for the separation of sources of reve- nue; and that even if found desir- able, they can be separated with- out violence to single-tax prin- ciples. There is no necessary ob- jection to fees imposed under the police power. In the lapse of time since Henry George pubUshed his work on Progress and Poverty (1879), the single tax agitation has developed in different places and in the va- rious nations of the world in har- mony with diverse laws and cus- toms. In the United States, single taxers of to-day emphasize espe- cially the need of levying heavier taxes upon urban land, and upon the franchises that naturally in- crease in value with urban devel- opment. They have been active in the national and State move- ments for the conservation of national resources; for municipal ownership of public utilities, and the regulation of rates of private- ly operated public utilities; for the improvement of administra- tion of tax laws, and for the bet- terment of tax laws. In the manifold social and economic re- forms of the past thirty years, single taxers have played an im- portant part, sometimes in public office, but always having in view the advancement of the economic principles of Henry George. In Western Canada most of the cities have abolished taxes on buildings, and British Columbia imposes a tax on land for provin- cial purposes. The third biennial report of the Minnesota Tax Commission states that: 'The most striking feature in a study of tax reform in Western Canada is the strong trend throughout the country in the direction of the single tax principle.' The Australian provinces and New Zealand have made ad- vances toward the single tax; and recently the city of Sidney imi- tated the smaller cities in abolish- ing taxes on improvements. In Great Britain, propaganda has been active, and resulted in certain taxes imposed by the Lloyd-George budget of 1909, and the more important measure for the first complete appraisal of all the land of Great Britain. In the German Empire, the first step was taken in the colony of Kiao-chau in 1898 by the im- position of a land tax of 6 per cent., and a tax of 33 per cent, on the increment of value of lands acquired from the government. This latter provision has been copied throughout Germany, both nationally and locally, by impos- ing a tax on the increment of land at the time of sale. There are single tax periodicals published in practically all Euro- pean countries, and an especially active propaganda in Denmark and Norway. In South Africa, the agitation has resulted in legis- lation of some importance. In both China and Japan statesmen of first rank are reported to be converts. The logical Latin mind takes kindly to the philosophy of Henry George; and Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay have made progress toward the single tax. In the state of Rio Grande do Sul the law of 1902 imposing a tax on real estate was amended in 1913 to exempt improvements; and the governor, in his message of 1916, commended the law. In 1910 the mayor of Nictheroy, capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro, in his message announced the intention to establish a land tax in 1917. In Argentina the House of Depu- ties has requested the Minister of State to report on the possibility of raising the state budget by the single tax. Uruguay has com- pleted a system of valuation of the whole country, and has voted a fixed rate of tax on the value of land exclusive of improvements. Consult the works of Henry George, especially his Progress and Poverty; L. F. Post, Taxa- tion of Land Values (1915) ; A. N. Young, The Single Tax Movement in the United States (1916) ; C. V. Drysdale, The F allacies of Henry George (1922) ; H. G. Brown, The Sin- gle-Tax Complex (1924); L. F. Post, IVhat Is the Single Tax? (1926) ; E. J. Burke, Permanent Prosperity Possible, Unemploy- ment Unnecessary (1932) ; J. F. Muirhead, Land and Unemploy- ment (1935); E. O. Jorgensen, Did Henry George Confuse the Single Tax? (1936) ; J. G. Mor- ton, The Philosophy of the Sin- gle Tax. Singleton, Esther ( P-1930), American author, was born in Baltimore, Md. She resided in New York City from 1887, and contributed musical and literary criticisms to leading periodicals. Her published works include : A Guide to the Opera (1899, 1900); Great Pictures (1899); The Furniture of Our Forefa- thers (2 vols., 1900) ; Famous Paintings (1902) ; Famous Women (1904) ; Great Portraits (1905); Historic Buildings of America (1907) ; Standard Gal- leries, Holland (1908) ; Famous Cathedrals (1909); The Art of the Belgian Galleries (1909); Dutch New York (1909) ; Fa- mous Sculpture (1910) ; How to Visit the Great Picture Gal- leries (1911) ; Furniture (1911) ; The Shakespeare Garden (1922) ; The Collecting of Antiques (1926); Dolls (1928); Old World Masters in New World Galleries (1929); Shakesperian Fantasias (1929). Sing Sing. See Ossining. Singular Points. In general, the portion of a curve close to any point lies on one side of the tan- gent at that point. Figs. 1, 2, 3 may be imagined to represent portions of a curve, the straight lines representing the tangent at the point considered in Figs. 2 and 3, which may meet the curve in an even (2) or an odd (3) num- ber of coincident points at the place of contact : in the latter case crossing as well as touching the curve. In general, the tangent meets the curve in only two coin- cident points at the place of con- tact, as it is the limiting position of the secant (Fig. 1) through two points on the curve which coin- cide ultimately. If this does not occur, there is some form of singu- singultus KSH 232 Sinking Fund larity. This subject is closely con- nected with the theory of equal roots of an equation. Multiple Point is one through which more than one branch of a curve passes. A double point occurs when there are only two •(branches, and therefore two tan- gents. If these are real there is Singular Points. a node or crunode (4) ; if imagi- nary, a conjugate point or ac- node; if coincident, a cusp (5). To investigate, transfer the origin to the singular point, whereupon the branches and their tangents may be easily found. Singultus. See Hiccough. Sinliaiese, sin-ha-lez', or Sing- halese, inhabitants of Ceylon, comprising about two-thirds of the population of the island. Though of mixed blood, they are essentially of the white race, and their language belongs to the Aryan family. In customs and general appearance, they have changed little in more than 2,000 years. They are Buddhists. See Ceylon. Sinigaglia. See Senigallia. Sining-fu, se-ning-fob', town, China, province of Kan-su, on the Si-Xing-Ho; 110 miles north- west of Lan-chou. It has an im- portant caravan trade with Lhas- sa. Pop. about 60,000. Sin'i.ster, in heraldry, a term meaning left — the left side. See Heraldry. Sinjar. See Singara. Slnjirli, sin-jir-le', village in Northern Syria, about 40 miles northeast of Alexandretta. Vast ruins of an ancient city, supposed to have been a capital of the Hit- tites, have been excavated here. Sinlttioles. Because of the sol- ubility of certain rocks, as lime- stone, surface waters, in passing through them, often remove ma- terial unevenly. As a result, a pitted surface form is produced, without outlet except the subter- ranean one. Natural bridges re- sult from the preservation of por- tions of the roof of such collapsed caverns. Sinkholes are occasion- ally large and numerous enough to become prominent topographic features. See Caves. Sinldang, sin-kyang', or Hsin- CHiANG, province of China, com- prising Chinese or Eastern Turk- estan, Kulja, and Kashgaria. It is bounded on the north by Russian Turkestan, Siberia, and Mongolia; on the east by the Chinese prov- ince of Kan-su; on the south by Tibet and Kashmir; and on the west by the lofty Pamirs. The Al- tin-Tagh and Kuenlun Mountains wall it in on the south, and the Tian-Shan range crosses it from east to west. The Tarim River traverses the southern part, its basin forming the great Takla- makan desert, and the Hi and its tributaries drain the section north of the Tian-Shan. Cereals, fruits, and vegetables are grown on the oases fringing the desert and in the Hi valley. Camels, oxen, asses, sheep, and goats are raised, and wool and silk are produced. Gold and other minerals occur, and jade is worked extensively. The inhabitants are Turkis, Hindus, Mongols, Manchus, and Chinese. The pre- vailing religion is Mohammedan, and the principal language Turki. The chief cities are Tihwa-fu, the capital ; Yarkand, Khotan and Kashgar. Area, 705,769 ; pop. (1936) 4,360,000. See Turk- estan, Chinese. Sinking, or the excavation and construction of shafts and wells. See Shaft Sinking. Sinking Fund, in public fi- nance, a sum annually appropri- ated for the payment of the public debt. The term first became cur- rent in English finance in 1716, when such of the revenues as were pledged to the payment of interest and principal of specific obligations were grouped into four funds, one of which, consist- ing of the surplus of pledged rev- enues above interest payments, was called the sinking fund, and was applied to the payment of principal. The sums thus applied varied from year to year, but in- crease d automatically as the annual interest charges dimin- ished. In 1772 Dr. Price published An Appeal to the Public on the Subject of the National Debt, in which he argued that a sinking fund con- sisting of a small annual appro- priation, devoted to the purchase of public stock, the interest on which should be regularly applied to further purchases of public stock, would in the lapse of time extinguish the whole debt, which had at that time become a serious burden upon the nation. An es- sential feature of the scheme was the inviolability, even in time of war, of the fund thus created. In 1786 the scheme was adopted by Pitt, who placed a fund of £l,- 000,000 under the control of a special board of commissioners, to be invested in public stock, A yearly payment of £1,000,000 was to be added to the sinking fund, together with the interest on stocks purchased. In the war with France the British govern- ment was compelled to borrow heavily for current expenses; pay- ments to the sinking fund could be made only through loans, and the rate of interest at which the loans were raised almost invari- ably exceeded the rate on the debt which the sinking fund was intended to cancel. The fatuity of an inviolable sinking fund was not exposed until 1829, when the plan was abandoned. In 1830 a plan was adopted for setting aside annually at least £3,000,000 for the repayment of the debt; but constantly recur- ring shortage of revenues pre- vented the carrying out of the plan. In 1875 a new sinking fund was created. A specific sum, larg- er than the interest of the public debt, was to be set aside each year. It was to be a part of the regular budget, and deficiencies in the sinking fund were to be treated as deficiencies in ordinary expenditure. This fund, known as the 'New Sinking Fund,' is still maintained. In the United States, the first Federal sinking fund was created in 1790, the surplus for the year from import and tonnage duties being set aside for debt redemp- tion. The sum was small, and though increased in 1792 by other funds, with the provision for re- tention by the fund of interest on Government obligations pur- chased, the net results were tri- fling. By a law of 1802 the annual fund applicable to interest pay- ment and reduction of debt was increased to $7,300,000. In the succeeding j'ears the fund was further increased, and the pro- cess of debt repayment was rapid. Sinking fund provisions were em- ployed in connection with the loans occasioned by the War of 1812 and the Civil War. In neither case was the sinking fund taken seriously by the financiers. When a surplus revenue ap- peared, as was usually the case, it was applied to debt payment; when revenues fell short, no at- tention was paid to the sinking fund. The chief importance of the sinking fund in American financial history is that it has served to popularize the view that provisions looking to repayment Sin-le-Noble KSH 233 Slouan should be made upon the creation of a loan. Sinking funds are not uncom- mon in local finance ; they may be required by State authority to check the tendency of municipal- ities toward reckless financiering. Terminable annuities are akin in principle to inviolable sinking funds. Instead of paying interest alone, a government may pay a somewhat larger sum annually, payments to cease, say, in fifty years. Such payments are in re- ality com posed of two distinguish- able parts: interest, and part pay- ment of principal. The disad- vantages of terminable annuities are the same as those of an in- violable sinking fund — viz., the government may in time of crisis be compelled to borrow at a high rate to make payments on the principal of a debt bearing a low rate. Sinking funds are not uncom- monly maintained by private cor- porations. When such funds have for their purpose the replacement of equipment deteriorating in process of operation, their main- tenance is a mark of sound finan- cial policy. As in public finance, they are maintained, on occasion, through the proceeds of fresh loans. See Debt, Public; Finance, Public. Sin-le-Noble, san le no'b'l, commune, France, department of Nord, an eastern suburb of Douai. It has iron foundries. Pop. 10,000. Sinnar, town, Bombay Presi- dency, India; 100 miles northeast of Bombay. Pop. 10,000. Sinn Fein, shin fan (Gaelic, 'ourselves alone'), an Irish party, actively dating from 1906, and taking its name to mean both for and by the Irish alone. It dis- claimed identity alike with either of the two old parties aiming at Irish autonomy, the Separatists, who wished recognized total inde- pendence, and the Parliamenta- rians, desiring self-government with nominal English connection, like Canada or Australia. In the words of a founder, it undertook 'the aid and support of all move- ments originating from within Ireland, instinct with national tradition, and not looking outside Ireland for accomplishment.' How thoroughgoing this was meant to be, an authorized list of means and ends indicates: gov- ernmentally, a purely Irish par- liament, army and navy, mint, civil and consular service, judici- ary, and school system; indus- trially, 'economic reorganization of Ireland by its own people on a l)urely Irish basis,' including mer- chant marine, stock exchange, banks, agricultural workings; in- lellectually, the use of Gaelic alone in official or business mat- ters or private intercourse. Among the means to these are the boycott of all English-made arti- cles, all English institutions in Ireland, and all who enlist in the English army or navy; the non- recognition of all English-made articles, all English institutions in Ireland, and all who enlist in the English army or navy; the non-recognition of all English- made laws; and, necessarily, ex- pulsion from public or private service of all not conversant with Gaelic. The Sinn Fein, as such, pro- fesses not to uphold active revo- lution, though many of its mem- bers and leaders were prominent in the Dublin revolution of 1916. From that date to the present (1922) Sinn Fein leaders have been prominent in the rioting, raiding, and lawlessness that have been rampant in Ireland. After the passage of the Home Rule bill Sinn Feiners steadily denounced it and opposed all efforts at a peaceful settlement. See Ire- land. Sinob. See Sinope. Si'non, in ancient Greek and Roman legend, a cousin of Odys- seus, whom he accompanied to the Siege of Troy. Having allowed himself to be taken prisoner by the Trojans, he persuaded them to bring the wooden horse into the citadel. Then at midnight he freed the Greek warriors which were within it. His name has thus become proverbial for a treacherous spy. Sinope, si-no'-pe (Turkish Sinob), town, Asia Minor, on a promontory on the coast of the Black Sea; 220 miles northwest of Trebizond. The town is sur- rounded by ancient Byzantine walls, and has a ruined castle built under Byzantine influence. There is an arsenal, dockyard, and prison. The harbor is the finest on the northern coast of Asia Minor. Pop. 32,500. Ancient Sinope was the chief of the Greek colonies on the shores of the Euxine, and was founded before 700 B.C. by settlers from Miletus. It prospered greatly, and in the fifth century B.C. came into friendly relations with Ath- ens. In 183 B.C. it was captured by the king of Pontus. It was the birthplace and chief residence of Mithridates the Great. In 72 B.C. it capitulated to Lucullus, and in 45 B.C. was made a Ro- man colony. After belonging successively to the empire of Trebizond (from 1204) and the Seljuks, it was conquered by the Turks in 1470. Sinope was the birthplace of Diogenes the cynic. The bay was the scene of a naval engagement on Nov. 30, 1853, when a Turkish squadron was de- stroyed by the Russian fleet. Sin'ter, the loose, porous, usu- ally friable deposit left on the evaporation of calcareous or sil- iceous waters. Of the two prin- cipal kinds of sinter, calc-sinter is the more common (see Calc- sinter). Siliceous sinter is prac- tically confined to a few districts, where volcanoes are now or have been recently in operation. The best-known localities are the Yel- lowstone Park, Iceland, and New Zealand. Siliceous sinter (fiorite) is really a porous form of opal, and dead stumps of trees per- meated by heated mineral waters have been partly converted into wood opal or petrified by im- pregnation with silica in solution. Sinuessa, sin-u-es'a, a Roman colony in Latium, ancient Italy; about 6 miles north of the mouth of the Volturnus. It was founded in 296 B.C. and suffered greatly in the Second Punic War. The most important ruins are an aque- duct and fragments of a trium- phal arch. Near Sinuessa are hot springs, much frequented in an- cient times. Si'nus, in anatomy, a term for the air cavities contained in the interior of certain bones — as the frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, tem- poral, and superior maxillary. The frontal sinuses are two irreg- ular cavities which give rise to the prominences above the root of the nose called the superciliary ridges. They are larger in Euro- peans than in Negroes, and are imperfectly developed in the Aus- tralians. They communicate on each side of the upper part of the nostril by a funnel-shaped open- ing, which transmits a prolonga- tion of mucous membrane to line their interior. The sphenoidal sinuses are two irregular cavities in the sphenoid bone. They com- municate with the upper and posterior part of the nose. The ethmoid sinuses lie in the lateral masses of the ethmoid bone and open into the cavities of the nose. The superior maxillary sinus, commonly known as the Antrum of Highmore, is the largest of the sinuses, and the only one present in the infantile skull. It also communicates with the nasal cav- ities. (See Nose.) In pathology the term sinus in- dicates a narrow channel leading from an abscess cavity to the sur- face of the body or limb, formerly called an 'issue.' The treatment of a sinus is by treatment of the abscess. Sion, se-6h , or Sitten (Roman Sedunum), picturesque capital of canton Valais, Switzerland, on the Sionne; 25 miles east of St. Maurice. It has three ruined cas- tles, several ancient bridges, the thirteenth-century church of St. Catherine, and a fifteenth-cen- tury cathedral. Pop. 7,000. Siouan, sob'an, one of the large groups of North American In- dians, constitu ting a distinct stock of languages. At the time of their discovery they held practically Sioux KSH 234 Sioux Quartzite all of the territory drained by the Missouri, the Upper Mississippi, and the Red River of the North. However, they were never con- federated in the strict sense of the word, and many of the tribes were constantly at war with one an- other. The main divisions were the Dakota-Assiniboine group, Dhegiha group, Chirwere group, Winnebago, Mandan, Hidatsa group, Biloxi group and Eastern group. Of these the Dakota-As- siniboine was by far the largest. It is now generally believed that all tribes of the Siouan stock were formerly agriculturists re- siding in permanent villages, and that, after the introduction of horses, they gradually became roving Indians. While it is evi- dent that the various Siouan tribes sprang from one parent stock, they were so differentiated at the time of the discovery of America that the term Siouan ex- presses linguistic relations rather than ethnological attributes. See Sioux; AssiNiBOiNES ; Man- dan ; Omaha ; Osages ; Winne- bago. Consult J. Mooney, The Siouan Tribes of the East. Sioux, sob, or Dakotas, the principal tribe of the Siouan (q. V.) stock of American Indians now settled mostly in North and South Dakota and Nebraska. Formerly they occupied that part of the prairie area included in the States of North and South Dakota, southern Minnesota, southern Nebraska, and west- ern Montana, and parts of Mani- toba and Saskatchewan. They lived in tents covered with buf- falo skins, and made their cloth- ing of skins, and their utensils of bone, horn, and stone. As a rule, they made no attempts at agri- cvxlture, and for food depended upon the buffalo and other rumi- nants, supplemented in season by a few vegetables. The personal decorations of the men were elaborate, much use be- ing made of feathers and plumes, but all such forms of decoration seem to have originated as badges of rank or symbols of deeds in war. Picture writing was prac- ticed. The sun dance (q. v.) was observed until suppressed by the U. S. Government. Each group, or band, indulged in certain cere- monies and rites peculiar to it- self. In the War of 1812 the Sioux sided with the British. By the treaty of July, 1815, peace be- tween the Sioux and the United States was established and by that of August, 1825, boundary lines were defined. Forced by the Chippeways south and west, the Sioux made their first cession of lands to the U. S. Government in 1830. in 1837 ceded all their lands east of the Mississippi, and in 1849-51 those in Minnesota. For all these lands annuities were promised, which were, however, allowed to fall into arrears ; and meanwhile the Indians were de- moralized by the introduction of whiskey. In 1862 a number of famishing men broke into a gov- ernment warehouse, and thus be- gan a desperate war which deso- lated thousands of square miles of territory, cost a thousand whites their lives and the Govern- ment $40,000,000, and ended in the execution of the leaders. After some years of further mismanagement the Santee Sioux were placed on a small reserva- tion near Yankton, where they have developed into industrious and peaceful farmers, and are permitted to hold their lands in severalty. Meanwhile, the hos- tile Sioux had retired to the northern parts of Dakota, where, under Sitting Bull (q. v.), they gathered the young braves who were exasperated by the Govern- ment's failure to send supplies to the several agencies. The war which began and ended in 1876 is chiefly memorable for the disas- ter in which General Custer (q. V.) perished. It was ended in a few months, and Sitting Bull took refuge in Canada, but in 1880 was induced by the Domin- ion officials, on a promise of par- don, to surrender. The Brule Sioux and the Ogallalla Sioux were afterward settled on the Rosebud and Pinewood agencies in South Dakota. In 1890 there was a general rising of the Indians in the Northwest, under a 'Messiah' ; and on Dec. 15 Sitting Bull was slain — whether killed in fight or slaughtered was questioned. The insurrection was finally subdued by General Miles early in 1891 and since that time there have been no further hostilities. The Sioux number about 35,412. Sioux City, city, Iowa, coun- ty seat of Woodbury county, on the Missouri River, at its junc- tion with the Big Sioux, and on the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy, the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul, the Illinois Central, the Chicago and Northwestern, the Great Northern, and the Chi- cago, St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Omaha Railroads ; 89 miles northwest of Omaha. The city has an extensive park system, including Grand View Park, West Side Park, River- side Park and several public playgrounds. Stone Park (set outside of the city limits) , a mag- nificent wooded tract of 800 acres, has been transferred to State control and made an Iowa State Park. Two miles south of the city is Floyd Monument, erected to the memory of Ser- geant Floyd of the Lewis and Clark expedition, and adjoining Riverside Park are the Interstate Fair grounds. The principal public buildings are the County Court House, Federal Building, City Hall, Post Office, Public Library, and Audi- torium. Educational institutions include Morningside College (q. v.), Trinity College (Roman Catholic), Briar Cliff College (girls. Catholic), Midwest Busi- ness College and the National Business Training School. There are 28 public graded schools, 2 high schools, 4 junior high schools and several parochial schools. Hospitals are the Meth- odist, St. Joseph's, St. Vincent's, the Lutheran, Hillside Sanata- rium, and Samaritan. There are 68 churches, including a Roman Catholic Cathedral and numer- ous charitable institutions. Sioux City is an important manufacturing and commercial city, with a large jobbing busi- ness, livestock and meat packing concerns, grain and dairy prod- ucts. It has large railroad shops, flour mills, ' foundries and ma- chine shops, planing mills, and manufactures of harness and saddlery, brick and tile, candy, butter, and stock foods. Sioux City was settled in 1849, and became a trading and mili- tary post. The city was laid out in 1854, and incorporated three years later. The commission form of government was adopted in 1910. Pop. (1920) 71,227; (1930) 79,183. Sioux Falls, city, South Da- kota, county seat of Minnehaha county, on the Big Sioux River, and the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul, the Chicago, Rock Is- land, and Pacific, the Great Northern, the Illinois Central, and the (Chicago, St. Paul, Min- neapolis, and Omaha Railroads ; 240 miles southwest of St. Paul, Minn. Public buildings of note are the Federal Building, Ad- ministration Building, Sioux Falls College (Baptist), All Saints School, Augustana Col- lege, Columbus College (R. C), children's home. State school for deaf mutes, and State peniten- tiary. The city's manufactures, supplied with water power from Big Sioux Falls, produce ma- chinery, flour, brooms, boilers, agricultural implements, cream- ery supplies, and sheet iron prod- ucts. Permanent settlement of Sioux Falls dates from 1867. The village was incorporated in 1877 and in 1883 chartered as a city. Pop. (1920) 25,202; (1930) 33,362. Sioux Falls township had a pop. of 692. Sioux Quartzite, a pre-Cam- brian quartzite of considerable extent in adjacent parts of Iowa, Minnesota, and South Dakota. The rock is perfectly indurated, and therefore extremely hard and Sfphnos KR 235 Slrhlnd durable. It varies in color from light pink to a very deep red and takes a beautiful polish. It is used to a limited extent for build- ing purposes, but the difficulty of working the stone makes it un- usually expensive. Sipbnos, island, Greece, one of the Cyclades, in the Aegean Sea, lies n.e. of Melos. Area, 29 sq. m. Pop. 4,000. It was colon- ized at an early date by lonians from Athens, and its people at- tained much wealth from its gold and silver mines. They fought for the Greeks at Salamis (480 B.C.), and subsequently were included in the Athenian confederacy. In ancient days, as now, the island was noted for its pottery. Siphon, a bent tube with one limb longer than the other, by means of which a liquid can be drawn off to a lower level over the side of a vessel or other point higher than the upper surface of the liquid. When the tube is filled with liquid, the atmos- pheric pressure on the surface tends to force the liquid up the tube to an extent that is more or less opposed by the downward pressure of the column of liquid up to the bend. In the other limb the atmospheric pressure is Siphon. also opposed by the pressure of the column of liquid; but if this is longer than the column on the other side, there will be a cor- responding unbalanced down- ward pressure, and the water will flow in that direction, unless the height of the upper level to the bend is such that the pressure of the column of liquid is greater than the atmospheric pressure can support, when a vacuum forms at the bend instead. In order to start syphons conve- niently, they are sometimes made with an additional tube joined near the end of the lower limb, so that by temporarily crossing the lower end of the syphon the liquid can be sucked over with- out the risk of getting it into the mouth. Siphonophora. See Hvdro- ZOA. Siphon Recorder. See Re- corder, Siphon. SIpontum, ancient Italian city, on the Adriatic coast, s. of the promontory of Garganus. It was taken by Alexander, king of Epirus, about 330 B.C., and in 194 .it became a Roman colony. In the middle ages malaria caused it to decay, and in 1250 Manfred, king of Naples, re- moved its inhabitants to Man- fredonia, a mile farther north. The ancient cathedral of Sta. Maria still marks the site. Sippara. See Sepharvaim and Babylonia. Sipunculus, a genus of Gephyrea, of which a common species is 5. nudus, found in the North Sea, Atlantic, and Medi- terranean. It reaches a length of from six to eight inches and is found in sand. Siquijor, pueblo, Philip- pines, Negros Oriental province, 35 m. s.w. of Tagbilaran, on an island of the same name. Pop. 15.237. The island produces a fine quality of tobacco, hemp, cacao, rice, maize. Area, 126 sq. m. Pop. 57,000. Sir, a complimentary form of address, used in society among equals, and by inferiors toward superiors. It is derived from the Latin senior, through the suc- cessive French forms seigneur, sieur, sire. In England it is ap- plied to baronets and knights and formerly to members of the clergy. Sirach. See Ecclesiasticus. Sirajganj, town, Pabna dis- trict, Bengal, on the Brahma- putra, 70 m. N.w. of Dacca; has jute trade. Pop. 32.000. Siraj-ud-Dauia, or Surajah DovvLAH. a nawab of Bengal, put to death (1757) by the British for having caused the tragedy of the Black Hole of Calcutta (1756). He was defeated by Clive at Plassey (1757). Sirdar, a word meaning 'head man,' or 'chief.' It is in use among most Mohammedan na- tions in the sense of a commander in chief. It was the title given to the British commander of the Egyptian forces. Sir-daria. See Syr Daria. Sir Donald, peak of the Sel- kirk Mts., in British Columbia, Canada. Alt. 10.640 ft. At its base is situated the station of 'Glacier' on the Canadian Pacific Railroad. Its form is a steep py- ramid. See Glacier. Siren, a peculiar form of whistle, the sounds from which are produced by the passage of air or steam through two disks pierced with holes, one disk fixed, the other revolving freely parallel with it. Sirens of various types have been invented by Seebeck, Cagniard de la Tour, Dove, and Helmholtz. See Fog Signals. Siren, a genus of tailed am- phibians, including only one spe- cies, the mud-eel {S. lacerlina) of the southeastern parts of the United States. It reaches a length of about two and a half feet, and is found in ditches and Siren. ponds, where it burrows in the mud. The tail is large and fringed, the hind limbs entirely absent, while the weak fore limbs have only four fingers. Like Proteus and the axolotl. Siren retains the external gills through- out life. It has three pairs of these organs. Sirenia, or Sea-cows, a small order of marine mammals which includes only the dugong, the manatee, and the recently exter- minated Rhytina. The sea-cows resemble the Cetacea in the absence of hind limbs and the conversion of the fore limbs into flippers; but they are vegetable feeders, and are found in rela- tively shallow water. The bones Sirenia. are very massive; the head is not disproportionately large; the mammae are thoracic in position; there are traces of nails on the digits; the cheek teeth when present are adapted for crushing. Possibly the Sirenia have been derived from a primitive ungu- late stock, though there is no clear evidence of this. Sirens, in ancient Greek mythology, were fabulous beings of the female sex, who by their songs lured to destruction any who heard them. They were one of the dangers encountered by Odysseus; but being forewarned by Circe, he closed the ears of his sailors with wax, and had himself bound to the mast, before passing their coasts. The Argonauts also passed them, but Orpheus over- came the power of their song with his own. After that they were changed into rocks. Sirhind, India, district in the N.E. of the Punjab, between the Sutlej and the Jumna; is irri- gated by a canal system which consists of 538 m. of main canal and 4,639 m. of distributaries. Sirlus KR 236 SIsmondl Slrlus (a Canis Majoris), a its disturbed proper motion by lustrous white star of — 1,6 photo- Bessel in 1834, was verified by metric magnitude, showing a first Alvan G. Clark in 1862. The type spectrum. It was venerated companion is a tenth-magnitude perature making the air ex- tremely sultry and oppressive. Sirsa, city, India, Punjab, 123 miles s.w. of Ambala. The Mount Sir Donald, in the Selkirks, British Columbia, Canada. (On the line of the Canadian Pacific Railway.) by the ancient Egyptians as the star of Isis; it marked by its ris- ing the advent of the Nile flood. To the Greeks and Romans the star's reappearance was of bale- > ^ If / / \ ^ / \ f / \ uetoctMM 1 / I » / A / \ 1 dr ^ ^ ^.1 unit VLti ilfr ^ Sirius. ful import from its association with the torrid heats of late sum- mer. The binary character of Sirius, predicted on the ground of star, and while possessing half the attractive power of its prim- ary, gives only z\loo of its light. Their period of revolution is fifty-one years. Sirmium, under the ancient Roman empire, an important town in s.e. of Lower Pannonia, on the Savsu R., though the ex- act size is not known. In the Dacian wars it was used as a mili- tary arsenal; it became the chief city in Pannonia, and (6th cen- tury A.D.) was captured by the Avars. Sirocco, or Scirocco, the hot, moist southerly wind experienced on the African coast of the Medi- terranean Sea, and blowing over Malta, Sicily, and Italy, some- times extending as far as the Black Sea. The temperature ac- companying it is very great, a reading of 110° F. having been recorded in Sicily. In S. Italy and Greece it is parching hot and dry; but farther north it becomes moist and cloudy, its high tem- ruins of old Sirsa lie to the s.w. of the modern city, founded in 1837. It exports grain. Pop. 19.000. Siskin, or Goldfinch {Car- duelis spinus), a small finch, which is distributed over Europe and parts of Asia, and breeds in the northern parts of Great Britain and in Ireland. The male is prettily colored black and yellow, has a sweet song, and in habits resembles the goldfinch. Siskins are often kept in confine- ment. The American siskin (Spinus tristis) is the goldfinch, the English term siskin not being used here except with reference to a northern relative, the pine- siskin, occasionally visiting the northern states in midwinter. Sismondi, Jean Charles Leonard de (1773-1842), French historian, born at Gen- eva, who, on the outbreak of the French Revolution, removed to a farm near Lucca in Italy. There he wrote Tableau de VagricuUure Sisterhoods KR 237 Sisyphus toscane (1801), followed two years later by Traite de la ri- chesse commerciale. In 1803 he formed the acquaintance of Madame de Stael. In 1807 ap- peared the first two volumes of his History of the Italian Repub- lics, which won an immediate success, and were followed by 14 other vols. (1807-18; Eng. trans- 1832). He also undertook a co- lossal History of France, which, though 29 vols, were published, was still unfinished at the time of his death. A man of enormous industry, he wrote and compiled many minor works — e.g. Nou- veaux Principes d'Economie Poli- tique (1819), Histoire de la Re- naissance de la Liberie en Italie (1832), Histoire de la Chute de r Empire Romain (1835). See his Journals and Correspondence, edited by Mongolfier and Tail- landier (1863); Sainte-Beauve's Nouveaux Lundis, vol. vi. Sisterhoods, a term generally used to denote those who live in community but are not clois- tered. The first society of the kind, the Filles de la Charite, was founded by St. Vincent de Paul in 1633-34. They were formally sanctioned by the pope in 1655. Their office was to seek and tend the sick and poor in the great cities. In 1840 the Abbe le Pail- leur founded the society of the Petites Soeurs des Pauvres at Servan in Brittany. - Marie Jamet, a poor needle-woman, was the real originator of this scheme. About the same time (1840) the Abbe Miller founded the Soeurs de Bons Secours, an order of nursing sisters, which seems to do much the same work as a similar order of the same name founded in 1825. A sisterhood was or- ganized by Cardinal Lavigerie in 1868 for work in Africa. During the latter half of the 19th cen- tury a vast number of sisterhoods were founded in the various dio- ceses of France, chiefly for the purpose of teaching, and when in 1905 the law was passed sup- pressing instruction by religious communities, it affected more than 110 different congregations of women. The Irish Sisters of Charity were founded at Dub- lin (1815) by Mary Aikenhead, They number about 500. The Irish Sisters of Mercy, founded in 1831 by Catharine M'Auley, have about 500 houses. In the Dominion of Canada there are 32 Catholic sisterhoods engaged in teaching and in various works of charity. The total number of professed sisters is about 8,300. The rapid growth of the Catholic Church in the United States dur- ing the nineteenth century was accompanied by a remarkable multiplication of sisterhoods, whose activities extend to every branch of charitable endeavor, and in particular to the instruc- tion of children in the paro- chial schools. The principal Eu- ropean congregations of women, such as the Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, the Sisters of St. Benedict, of St. Dominic, the Sisters of Mercy, etc., have flour- ishing branches in this country, while many other sisterhoods have been founded here in the various dioceses. The American branch of the Sisters of Charity was established in 1850 by Mother Elizabeth Seton, a con- vert to the Catholic faith. This sisterhood numbers 500 institu- tions of various kinds, viz. aca- demies, parochial and industrial schools, hospitals, orphanages, asylums, etc, Angelican Sisterhoods. — The earliest religious communities for women in England were found- ed by members of royal fami- lies. One of the most famous was the foundation at Whitby (658 A.D.) ruled over by the Abbess Hilda, grandniece of King Ed- win. During the middle ages numerous orders flourished, but their estates were all seized in the general dissolution of monas- teries. Nicholas Ferrar and the nuns of Little Gidding attempted to revive the religious life in the 17th century, but their house was sacked by the Puritan army. Since the beginning of the Oxford Movement in 1833, many sister- hoods have been founded, and now there are about 28 different orders under vows. In the American branch of thp Anglican communion, or Protes- tant Episcopal church, the term sisterhood is used in a twofold sense: it is applied first to women living in community under the three perpetual vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, and bound to the observance of a reg- ular rule of life and the daily recitation of the breviary offices; secondly, it comprises in a broader sense a great variety of organizations for charitable work, the members of which are either bound by no vows or by vows of a temporary character. The following list includes the sisterhoods of the first group: 1. The Community of Saint Mary (founded 1865). Mother House, St. Mary's Convent, Peekskill, N. Y. Institutions: St. Mary's School, N. Y.; St. Gabriel's School, Peekskill, N.- Y.; Kemper Hall, Kenosha, Wis.; St. Mary's School, Memphis, Tenn.; St. Katharine's Hall, Davenport, la.; St. Mary's Hos- pital, N. Y.; Trinity Mission, N. Y.; The House of Mercy, N. Y,; St. Mary's Home for Chil- dren, Chicago; The Church Home, Memphis. Tenn.; St. Mary's-on-the-Mountain, Sewa- nee, Tenn. 2. The Sisterhood of the Holy Nativity (founded 1882). Con- vent of the Holy Nativity, Fond du Lac, Wis. 3. The Sisterhood of St. Mar- garet (founded at East Grinstead, Eng., in 1855, by Rev. J. M. Neale; established in Boston, in 1873). Mother House, 17 Louis- burg Square, Boston. Institu- tions: Children's Hospital, Bos- ton; St. Barnabas Hospital, New- ark; St. Katharine's Home, Jer- sey City; St. Michael's Home, West Philadelphia; Home for In- curables, Montreal, 4. The Sisterhood of St. John Baptist (founded at Clewer, Eng., in 1851; established in America in 1881). Mother House, 233 E. 17th Street, N. Y. Institutions: St. John Baptist School, 231 E. 17th Street; St. Helen's Hall, Portland, Oregon; St. Andrew's Convalescent Home, 213 E. 17th Street; St. Michael's Home (reformatory), South Amboy, N. J. 5. The All Saints' Sisters of the Poor (founded in London in 1851; established in America in 1890). Mother Hou~e, 801 N. Eutaw St., Baltimore, Md. In- stitutions: All Saints' Home for Children, Baltimore; St. Mary's Home for Little Colored Boys, Philadelphia; A Boarding School for Young Ladies, Germantown, Pa. 6. The Sisters of St. Mary and All Saints. A sisterhood of col- ored women working under the All Saints' sisters among their own people. The sisterhoods of the second group comprise several orders of deaconesses and a great many small communities for diocesan or parochial work. (For lists, see the Living Church Annual.) Sisters ville, city, West Vir- ginia, Tyler co., 49 m. s.s.w of Wheeling, on the Ohio R. and on the Baltimore and Ohio R, R. It manufactures oil-well supplies, barrels, leather, window glass, flour, beer and ale, cigar boxes, woolen goods, machinery, etc. It is situated in a great oil region, and oil and gas are the chief in- dustries. They are being re- placed by chemical derivative plants. Sistersville was estab- lished in 1815 and incorporated in 1839. Pop. (1940) 2,702. Sistlne Chapel. See Rome. Sistova (Bulg. Svishlov), town, Bulgaria, capital of co. of same name, on the Danube, 40 m. N.N.w. of Tirnova, is one of the emporia of the Bulgarian grain trade. Pop. 12,112. Sisyphus, in ancient Greek legend, the son of Aeolus; other accounts make him the father of Odysseus and of Sinon. Ephyra, afterwards Corinth, was said to have been founded by him. As its king he fostered commerce. Sitka KR 238 Skagerrak but was of ill-repute for his greed and treachery. It is on account of his punishment in the lower world that his name has become famous. His task was to roll a huge stone to the top of a hill; but the stone, as soon as it neared the top, always escaped from his hands and rolled down to the bottom again. Sitka, town, Alaska, 98 m. s.s.w. of Juneau, on the w. coast of Baranov I., and on Sitka Sound, an arm of the Pacific Ocean. It is connected by steamer with Seattle. Mining, lumbering, sal- mon fishing, and the curing and canning of salmon are the leading industries. It has an industrial training school for natives (Pres- byterian), and, in connection with the latter, the Sheldon Jack- son Museum, and several public schools. Among the buildings and institutions are the Church of St. Peter's by the Sea, built in 1899, the Greek Church (1816). Russian Greek Orthodox Church, mission hospital, U. S. magnetic observatory, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey station and Mount Edgecombe School and Hospital. The Indian totem poles and Indian River Park are interesting features of the place. The Japan current, which flows to these shores, strongly influ- ences the climate of the city, which is mild for the latitude (57° 3' N.). The scenery of the region, including Sitka Sound and several snow-capped moun- tains, is of picturesque beauty. In 1799 a trading station of the Russian-American Company, the place was permanently settled by the Russians in 1804 and called New Archangel. The Russian territorial government estab- lished headquarters here. The transfer of Alaska from Russia to the United States took place in 1867, at Sitka, which was made the capital of the territory. In 1906 the capital was changed to Juneau. Pop. (1940) 1,945. Sitting Bull, (c. 1830-1890), famous Sioux leader, born on Grand River (now in S. D.) of low caste parentage in the Hunkpapa tribe of the Sioux. He shared his tribe's hostility toward white domination and actively resisted encroachment on the Indians' hunting grounds. He rose to leadership because of his ability as a medicine-man although he had no rank as a warrior. While the defeat of Custer on the Little Big Horn River, Montana, June 25, 1876, is popularly accredited to Sitting Bull, his actual part in the battle was that of a non-com- batant. A few months after the battle, a great many of the hos- tiles fled to Canada where Sitting Bull and his immediate followers remained until July 1881, Upon the return of Sitting Bull to the U. S. he was confined with 140 others at Ft. Randall, Dakota Territory, in a prison camp until May 1883. He was then allowed to return to Grand River. His remaining years were divided be- tween reservation life and circus engagements. In 1890 he took up the Messiah cult. On Dec. 15, 1890 he was killed by Indian police at his Grand River home while resisting arrest ordered by the military authorities. He is buried at Ft. Yates, N. D. Siva ('Blessed One'), also called Mahadeva ('Great God'), is the third person of the Trimur- ti, or trinity of Hinduism, and is commonly known as the des- troyer of life. But his function as destroyer is only in order that re- production may take place. On this account his symbol is the linga, phallus, or yoni, under which symbols he is everywhere worshipped. With this cult is frequently connected a series of degrading rites. A third aspect of Siva is his asceticism, in which he is stern and uncompromising and is then the favorite deity of Hindu ascetics. In still another phase, he appears as a reveller and the patron of the carousal and the dance. Sivaji (1627-80), founder of the Maratha or Mahratta empire in India. He early became con- vinced that his mission was to emancipate his countrymen from Mogul tyranny. Brahmas pro- claimed Sivaji an incarnation of the deity, and the Marathas flocked to his standard. Estab- lishing himself at Raighad, be- tween Bombay and Poona, he carried his conquests as far as Surat in the north, and to the eastern confines of the Deccan. An act of treachery brought him into the power of the emperor Aurungzebe; but escaping from Delhi, he rallied his followers, and so successful were his efforts that a British ambassador was deputed to 'assist' his coronation in 1674. Sivas (anc. Sebasteia) , Asiatic Turkey, capital of vilayet of same name, 170 m. s.w. of Trebi- zond, has manufactures of coarse woolen goods. It was the birth- place of Mekhitar, founder of the Armenian monastery at Venice. There was an Armenian massacre in 1895. Pop. (1945) 45,419. The vilayet covers an area of 32,300 sq. m. Wheat and barley are grown on the plateau, and vines in the lower districts. Sil- ver, lead, copper, iron, coal, and salt are abundant. The seaport is Samsun. Pop. (1945) 494,373. Sivori, Ernesto Camillo (1815-94), Italian violin virtuoso, the only well-known pupil of Paganini, was born at Genoa. He was a brilliant executant, and famous in nearly every part of Europe, and in North and South America, which he visited in 1846. Siwah (anc. Ammomium), oa- sis, Egypt, 280 m. w.s.vv. of Alexandria; is well watered, and yieMs dates and olives. Rock salt is also worked. It contains remains of the Temple of Am- mon and the Fountain of the Sun. Siwalik Hills, range in Dehra Dun district. United Provinces, and in Punjab, India; stretches for 200 m. parallel with the Hima- layas, from Hardwar on the Ganges N.w. to the Beas. The hills are covered with forests, and abound in wild animals, many of which appear in fossil remains. Alt. 3,500 it. Six Nations. See Iroquois. Sixtus IV, Francesco della RovERE (1414-84), succeeded Paul II on the papal throne in 1471. He was born at Albissola, near Savona, and was constantly involved in political intrigue. He encouraged the conspiracy of the Pazzi against Lorenzo de' Medici, and with the aid of the king of Naples threatened Flor- ence, but was compelled by the defection of his ally to make terms. The Florentines and Neapolitans later combined against the pope, who had gained the cooperation of Venice. The emperor then intervened, and Sixtus excommunicated the Ven- etians. Sixtus V, Felice Peretti (1521-90), was born at Grottam- mare, near Montalto (Ancona prov.), and was elected pope in 1585. He exterminated the ban- ditti who swarmed about Rome. The name of 'Papa Sisto' for swift and summary punishment is proverbial in Rome to the present day. He abolished the profane sanctuaries known as quarteiri, or franchises, and made the papal power locally respected. He it was who gave his benediction to the Spanish Armada. He built the Vatican Library. S. J., Society of Jesus. Sjaelland, or Zealand, the largest of the Danish islands; area, 2,709 sq. m., but with its dependent islands 2,901 sq. m. The Isse and Roeskidel fjords, penetrating deeply on the N. divide it into three peninsulas. Sjaelland is, on the whole, a low- lying, undulating, very fertile province, whose splendid beech woods are the remains of former vast forests. Pop. 1,204,000. Skagerrak, arm of the North Sea, from 70 to 90 m. broad, and extending for about 150 m. N.E. between Jutland and s. of Norway. It communicates with the Baltic by means of the Kattegat. Violent northwesterly storms are frequent. Skagway KR 239 Skating Skagway, town, and sub-port of entry, s. district of Alaska, 178 m. N. of Sitka, at the mouth of the Skagway R., and at the head of the Lynn Canal. It is the s. terminus of the White Pass and Yukon R. R., and is on the routes of the Canadian Pacific, the Alaska, and the Pacific Coast S. S. companies. Bric-a-brac is manufactured by Indians in factories owned by white men and Japanese, and there are bottling works, a lumber mill, and breweries. The town is the gateway to the Yukon, and is of importance as the center for the distribution of supplies for that region, where gold, silver, and copper mining are carried on. The surrounding district produces celery, cabbage, root crops, and berries. Skagway has a public library, three hospitals, Army post, and Government building. The gorges of the Skagway and Dyea rivers, Dewey and Henry Falls, and the Davidson and Dyea glaciers are some of the the bards of the Celtic tribes. Few complete Skaldic poems are extant, but fragments are found in the Younger Edda and the Sagas. See Iceland. — Language and Literature. Skaneateles, or Skeneateles, village. New York, Onondaga CO., 7 m. E. by N. of Auburn, at n. end of Skaneateles L., and on the Skaneateles R. R. It is mainly a residential place and summer resort. Canoes and boats are manufactured. Pop. (1930) 1,882: (1940) 1,949. Skargard (Nor. Skjaergaard), islands stretching along the coast of Sweden and Norway. Skat, a card game for three players, invented in Altenburg, Thuringia, in 1817. It is im- mensely popular throughout Ger- many. The pack, like that of pi- quet, consists of thirty-two (spec- ifically German) cards. The suits rank in order according to color, and the individual cards have certain numerical values. The number of points required notched. There are a large num- ber of species, widely distributed over temperate seas, especially Common Skate. in the north, and grouped by fishermen into two sets — the long-snouted forms, which are called skates, and the short- snouted forms, which are called rays. The commonest and smallest skate of the eastern coast of the United States is the spring tobacco-box — {R. erina- cea), but the smooth 'barndoor' {R. loevis), which may be four Fancy Skating Figures. 1. Outside edge forward. 2. Inside edge forward. .3. Outside edpre backward, i. ' Figure three,' turning. 5. • The sernentinfi » 6. ' Figure eight.' 7. ' Pigs' ears.' 8. 'The loop.' scenic features in the vicinity. The place was settled in 1897 and a charter granted in 1900. Pop. 1,000. Skalds, the ancient Scandi- navian poets, who sang or recited verses of their own composition in praise of the deeds of living or dead heroes. They were similar to the troubadours of S. France, the minnesinger of Germany, and for a single win is sixty-one; for a double win, eighty-nine; and for a quadruple win, the full num- ber of a hundred and twenty. Skate, a common name for several species of the genus Raia (ray). The members of this genus are characterized by the two dorsal fins on the tails and the absence of a tail spine, and by the pelvic fins being deeply feet in length. The great Pacific coast skate {R. binoculata) is sometimes six feet long. (See Ray.) Several species inhabit the European coasts. All are edible, the part which is especially eaten being the base of the great pec- toral fins; but all rank among the coarser kinds of fish. Skating. The use of skates in one form or another has been Skating KR 240 Skeleton popular for nearly 1,000 years. They originated in Continental Europe and were later introduced into England; Norsemen, Swedes and Dutchmen being pioneers in the art of self-propulsion over the ice on improvised runners. The earliest known mention of skating is in the Icelandic litera- ture of 10.56-1133. An English writer of the 12th century, Fitz- stephen, states that the art was introduced into England from the Low Countries. The style of skate used then was the brisket bone of an ox, which was fastened to the sole of the foot and around the ankles. The skater, armed with an iron-shod stick, pushed himself forward by striking it against the ice, getting up very high speed by this means. The wooden skate, shod with steel or iron, made its appearance in the 14th century, while iron blades were used about two centuries later. The first races were held in Holland, but they were crude affairs, and the first race of which there is an authentic record was in England, in 1823, at five miles. Races were not common for the next fifty years, but after that they became more frequent, and in 1880 the British National Skating Association was formed. The first American skater of prominence was Charles June of Newburgh, N. Y., who came to the front late in the thirties. Then came Tim Donoghue, G. D. Phillips, S. J. Montgomery, F. W. Craft, Joseph Donoghue, J. S. Johnson and others. Joseph Donoghue held the world's cham- pionship until 1893, when he lost it to J. S. Johnson of Minnesota, who in turn lost it to John M. Nilsson of the same place. The latter was not only the fastest speed skater but was unequaled as a trick skater. The crack ama- teur skater was Morris Wood. The modern speed skate body is of tubular steel with A inch tool- steel hardened blade from 14 to 16 inches in length. For figure skating the blade is considerably shorter. Leading books are Fifiure Skating (1889), by T. M. Witham; Art of Skating (1880), by G. Anderson; Combined Fig- ure Skating (1892), by S. F. Williams; Handbook of Fen- Skating (1882), by N. and G. A. Goodman; Skating (Badminton Library, 1894), by J. M. Heath- cote and Tebbutt; Figure and Fancy Skating (1895), by G. A. Meagher; G. Wood's Figure Skating (1906); and Figure and Speed Skating, Spalding's Athle- tic Library. Skeat, Walter William (183.5-1912), English philologist born at London, and elected pro- fessor of Anglo-Saxon at Cam- bridge (1878). He was a volumi- nous author, his works including Chaucer (new ed. 1904); Piers Plowman{1886) \ Barbour's Bruce (1870); Havelok the Dane (1868); William of Palerne (1867), and others for the Early English Text Society; and The Kings Quhair (1884) for the Scottish Text Society. His great work, how- ever, is his Etymological English Dictionary (1882; new ed. 1901), one of the most accurate as well as popular works of its kind. He was one of the founders of the English Dialect Society, for which he has edited many works. Skeleton, a general name for the hard parts of animals, includ- ing both the external hard parts, the exoskeleton, and the internal, which form the true or endo- skeleton. Among invertebrates the hard parts usually take the form of an exoskeleton. In the cuttle-fish among mollusca there is, however, an interesting form of endoskeleton — namely, a car- tilage surrounding the chief nerve-centers, which is the ana- logue, but not the homologue, of the vertebrate skull. In the ver- tebrates the parts of the skeleton are homologous throughout. Only among them does true bone occur, and it is confined to the more specialized types. In its simplest form the skeleton is represented merely by a dorsal supporting rod, the notochord, which lies beneath the spinal cord. This simple condition is The Skeleton. 1. Head of cuttle-flsh: be, brain cavity. 2. Section of AmpMoxus: fr, fin ray; ct, con- nective tissue ; nc, notocnord ; snc, supraneural crest. 3. Side view of same : fs, fln •upports ; nc, notochord ; ot, oral tentacles. 4. Dermal denticles of Centropnorus. 6. Membranous cartilage skull of Cyclostoma. 6. Skull of Salamandra maculosa. 7. Greek toi-toise. 8. Corvua corone. 9. Deei. 10. Baboon. 11. Man : 6c, brain cavity. 18-16. Development of notochord : msl, mesoblastic skeletogenous layer ; pdc, paired dorsal cartilage ; pvc, paired ventral cartilage; ns, neural spine ; na. neural arch; tp, transverse process ; ap, articular process; c, centrum. 17. Human skeleton. Skeleton KR 241 Ski seen in Amphioxus, where, apart from the notochord, the skeleton is only represented by the sup- porting bars of the pharynx and connective tissue supports in the unpaired fin, and in the fringe of the mouth. In the cyclostomes there is a slight increase in com- plication, for there is a trough of cartilage, which forms a simple skull, and there are rudiments of cartilaginous arches which pro- ject upwards from the sides of the notochordal sheath, as well as supports for the gill-pockets. Above cyclostomes a consider- able number of complications ap- pear, which may be summarized as follows: The notochord to an increasing degree becomes re- placed by the segmented verte- bral column, until in the higher vertebrates it ceases to be any- thing but a purely embryonic structure. In connection with the vertebrae, ribs develop, and a ventral sternum appears. At the same time hoops of cartilage ap- pear in the throat region, which in fishes support functional gills posteriorly and form the jaws anteriorly. Above these fishes, gill arches tend to disappear, ex- cept for those which are metam- orphosed into parts of the skull. Another complication is the de- velopment of the skull. This is at first a mere open trough or car- tilage, to which the capsules of nose and ear become attached; but to this primitive brain-box the anterior gill arches become united, and a further complica- tion is the development of what are known as membrane bones, which are plastered on the out- side of the skull. The origin of these is interesting. Though Am- phioxus and cyclostomes have no exoskeleton, the»-e is much evidence that primitive verte- brates possessed an exoskeleton of bony plates, of which rem- nants persist in many classes. Thus elasmobranch fish have placoid scales or dermal denticles which consist of teeth placed upon a bony base. Many ex- tinct fish, also, were invested with a complete armor of bone. This armor tended gradually to disappear as specialization con- tinued, but some of the bony plates sank inward, and were added to the skull as investing membrane bones. At the same time, in the higher vertebrates true bone developed in the carti- laginous brain-case, forming what is known as cartilage bone. Cyclostomes have no paired fins, but above them all verte- brates have typically two pairs of limbs, each pair being attached to the body by a girdle, the two girdles being known respectively as the pectoral and pelvic girdles. Above fishes the structure alike of girdles and of limbs is in all essentials the same in all classes. The pectoral girdle consists of the dorsal scapula; the ventral cora- coid, which is a mere rudiment in the vast majority of mammals; and a clavicle or collar-bone, which in mammals is not infre- quently absent. In the pelvic girdle the corresponding bones are the ilium, ischium, and pubis. The fore limb consists, in order, of humerus, radius, and ulna, numerous wrist or carpal bones, metacarpal or palm bones, and digits of several phalanges. The structure of the hind limb is similar, the bones being femur, tibia, and fibula, ankle-bones or tarsals, metatarsals, and digits of several phalanges. See Wieders- heim's Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates (Eng. trans. 1897). Skelton, John (1460-1529), English poet and satirist, born in Norfolk. He was appointed tutor to Prince Henry, afterwards Henry viii. Having entered the church, he became rector of Diss in Norfolk, but was suspended for immorality. He then took to literature, more particularly to satire, written in short ani- mated meters abounding in homely terms easily understood by the common people. The great target of his invective was Wolsey, whose greed and rapa- city, whose tyrannical rule and subserviency to the king, were all recounted in Why come ye not to Courte, and Colyn Cloute. His Phyllyp Sparrow, a girl's lament over her dead bird, is, however, instinct with tender pathos and poetical beauty. His Tunnyng of Elynour Rummyng is a satirical picture of low life in London, while his Bowge of Courte and Garlande of Law ell are examples of the 'allegorical' and 'aureate' poetry so popular at that time. He was also a prolific writer of interludes, but only one of these, Magnyfycence, has survived. Skelton found refuge from Wol- sey in the sanctuary at Westmin- ster until the cardinal's death. His collected works appeared in 1568, and a new edition by Dyce in 1843; a selection, Poetical Works, ed. Williams (1903). Skelton, Sir John (1831-97), Scottish essayist and historical writer, who wrote under the name of Shirley, was born in Edinburgh. He contributed to Eraser's Magazine and Black- wood's Magazine; was secretary to the Scottish Board of Super- vision (1868-92), and chairman (1892-4), and vice-president of the Scottish Local Government Board (1894-7). His works in- clude Nugce Criticce (1862), The Great Lord Bolingbroke (1868), Mailland of Lethinglon (1887-8), The Royal House of Stuart (1890), Mary Stuart (1893), The Essays of Shirley (1895), and Charles I (1898). Skene, Alexander Johnston Chalmers (1837-1900), Ameri- can physician, born in Fyvie, Scotland. He graduated at the Long Island Medical College, N. Y. in 1863 and during the Civil War he served as acting- assistant-surgeon at Decamp's hospital, David's Island, and at Port Royal, Charleston, S. C. After the war he became adjunct professor of gynaecology in the Long Island Medical College, and was staff surgeon in the New York state national guard. He specialized in the treatment of the diseases of women, and was consulting physician in obstetrics and gynaecology to several New York hospitals. He was author of Diseases of the Bladder and Urethra in Women (1878), Trea- tise on the Diseases of Women (1888), Education and Culture as Correlated to the Health and Dis- eases of Women (1888), Text-book on the Diseases of Women (1888), and Medical Gynaecology (1895). Skene, William Forbes (1809-92), Scottish historian and. Celtic scholar, born at Inverie, Knoydart, Inverness-shire; be- came a writer to the signet (1832) and practised law for forty years. He published The Highlanders of Scotland (1837), The Four An- cient Books of Wales (1868), and edited for the Scottish Historian Series Fordun and Adamnan. His Celtic Scotland, published in 3 vols. (1876-80), established his reputation. He became historio- grapher royal for Scotland in 1881, and in 1887 published, through the New Spalding So- ciety, Memorials of the Family of Skene. Skerryvore, rock with light- house, 12 m. s.w. of island of Three, Inner Hebrides, Scotland, at end of dangerous reef stretch- ing 8 m. W.S.W., in the fairway of vessels making for the Clyde and the Mersey. The lighthouse, erected by Alan Stevenson (1838- 44), cost $423,647. Skewback, the inclined stone on which the arch rests or from which it springs. The direction of the thrust of the arch passes through it. Ski, the Norwegian snowshoe, is from 8 ft. to 12 ft. in length and from 4 in. to 6 in. wide. It is rectangular at the heel and turned up at the toe. At the center where it is an inch thick, and from which it gradually tapers to each end, it is secured to the foot by straps. Some- times it is shod with iron. Great speed is obtained in descending hills, a mile being run in a minute and a half; the runner guides and supports himself with a staff or steering-pole. Ski-run- ning provides the chief na- Sklddaw KR 242 Skin tional sport of Norway. Com- petitions are held for speed, style, and jumping, and the best ski-runner is selected from each village to go up to the annual gathering on the first Sunday in February, at HolmenkoUen, a steep hill three miles from Oslo. The world record leap recorded is 350.96 ft. established by Joseph Bradl of Austria in 1938. The sport is also practiced in Switzerland, the season being in March and April. Skiddaw, mountain (3,054 ft.), Cumberland, England, 6 m. N. of Keswick. On the s. is Low Man (2,837 ft.). Skien, town, Norway, co. of Bratsberg, on riv. Skien, 43 m. s.w. of Drammen; has timber and paper factories, and is the birthplace of Ibsen. In 1886 it was almost totally destroyed by fire. Pop. (1946) 14,744. Skimmer, or Scissor-bill (Rhynchops), a genus of marine birds, allied to the terns, but re- Skimmer, or Scissor-bill. markable for the shape of the bill, which is elongated, com- pressed, and has the lower jaw considerably longer than the upper. The flight is peculiar, the birds seeming to skim the water, with the elongated lower jaw beneath its surface. There are three species, inhabiting respec- tively America, India, and the vicinity of the Red Sea, ours be- ing the black skimmer (R. nigra). Skin. The skin or integument of the human body consists of two portions, the superficial epi- dermis and the derma or corium or true skin. The epidermis is bloodless, and consists of many layers of stratified epithelial cells united by a cement substance. The corium, or true skin, is sup- plied with blood-vessels, and over its whole surface are papillae, some of which cover capillary loops, while others contain tac- tile corpuscles. Almost the whole of the skin, except that on the palms, soles of the feet, and eye- lids, is covered with hairs, the erection of which produces the condition known as 'goose flesh.' Of the glands of the skin there are two varieties — (1) the sebace- ous, and (2) the sudoriparous or sweat glands. The sebaceous glands secrete a sebaceous or fatty substance, which helps to keep the skin smooth and soft. The sweat glands are organs of excretion. The functions of the skin are manifold. It is a protective covering, and the subcutaneous fat forms a soft elastic pad which protects delicate parts from ex- ternal pressure. The epidermis, corium, and fat prevent undue radiation from the body. The epidermis exercises elastic pres- sure on the cutaneous capillaries, and prevents excessive diffusion of fluid from the vessels. The skin has respiratory functions. The sweat glands excrete water and certain waste products, and to some extent supplement the kidney excretion, while they exer- cise a great influence in the regu- lation of the body temperature. The skin is also in some senses an organ for the sensation of touch, for that of pain, and for that of heat and cold. Certain drugs are absorbed, though slowly, by the unbroken skin. Dry skin is a bad conductor of electricity, but when soaked with salt water the epidermis offers much less resistance to the pass- age of an electric current. The diseases of the skin are described under Eczema, Favus, Lupus, Rashes. Skin-grafting is the trans- plantation of skin, either from one part of the body to another or from one body to another. Sometimes the skin of the lower animals is used. The main point in such operations is the careful cleansing with soap and water and weak antiseptic fluids both of the skin which is to be re- moved and of the site for which it is intended. Any healing sur- face may be treated by skin- grafting, but the operation is most commonly used for the ul- cers following burns and scalds. Section of Skin. 1, Horny layer ; 2, rete Malpiphii ; 3, co- rium ; 4, blood-vessels; 5, fat cells; 6, hair; 7, root of hair in follicle ; 8, miiRcular fibres ; 9, sebaceous glands ; 10, sudoripa- rous gland. Sometimes the whole thickness of skin is transplanted, and some- times only the epithelial layer. After the operation the grafted surface and that from which the skin has been removed must be dressed antiseptically and en- couraged by rest and protection to heal like other wounded sur- faces. Ski: a Norwegian jumping in Correct Style, Engadine Ski Races, 1906. (Photo by Ballance.) Sklnk KR 243 Skoptsy Skink (Scincus), a genus of lizards, characterized by the short Hmbs. which each bear five toes serrated at their edges, and by the rather short and conical tail. Skinks can burrow with great rapidity, and are distri- buted throughout N. Africa, Ara- bia, Persia, and Sindh (India). The - most familiar form is S. officinalis of the Sahara and Egypt, which sometimes reaches eight inches in length, and is a true desert form, harmonizing in color with the sands of its natural habitat. When dried and pow- dered it was formerly used for medicinal purposes, as it still is by the Arabs. Skinner, Cornelia Otis (1901- ), actress, monologist, and author, daughter of Otis Skinner (q. v.), was born in Chi- cago and was educated at Bryn Mawr and at the Sorbonne, Paris. In 1928 she married Alden S. Blodget. She appeared in many plays and starred in Candida, Theatre, The Searching Wind, and Lady Windermere's Fan. She was the author of sev- eral books, and monologue sketches in which she appeared, including 'Henry VIII's Wives' and 'The Empress Eugenie.' Her best known books are Our Hearts Were Young and Gay (with Em- ily Kimbrough) published in 1942 and Family Circle published in 1948. Skinner, John (1721-1807), Scottish divine and song-writer, was born at Birse in Aberdeen- shire. In 1742 he was ordained Episcopal minister at Longside in Aberdeenshire. Though not an active sympathizer, he suffered for Jacobitism. He published several theological works (col- lected by his son and republished 1809), of which The Ecclesiastical History of Scotland (1788) was the chief. His fame rests on his songs, which won the enthusias- tic praise of Burns, as well as in- stant popularity. Of these Tul- lochgorum. The Ewie wt the Crookit Horn, and John o' Baden- yon are the most famous. His songs and other poems were also issued in 1809 by his son, and in 1859 were reissued with a memoir by H. G. Reid. Skinner, Otis (1858-1942), American actor, born at Cam- bridge, Mass. His professional career began in 1877 at the Phila- delphia Museum. Afterwards he played in New York in a Kiralfy spectacle, but in 1880 he was en- gaged by Booth and for the next ten years was associated with the best companies in the country. For three years (1892-95) he was leading man with Mme. Mod- jeska. Thereafter he acted as a star in romantic plays. He was an actor of ambition, picturesque force, and excellent taste. Sklpton, town, England, W. Riding, Yorkshire, near the Aire, and on Leeds and Liverpool canal, 18 m. n.w. of Bradford. The 11th-century church, en- larged 15th century and restored 1655, contains the Clifford tomb, with brasses (1570). The castle dates chiefly from the 14th cen- tury (eastern part, 16th century). 'Fair Rosamond' is believed to have been born here. The town has spinning and sewing-cotton factories. Pop. 12,434. Skirret (Stum sisarum), an Asiatic plant long cultivated in Europe. Its value consists in its dahlia-like bundle of fleshy roots. These are grayish in color, and sweet-flavored when properly cooked. Skirret is easily cultivated from seed or root divisions. The seeds are sown either in spring or in autumn, the seedlings being planted out in good, rich, deeply-dug soil. The root divisions are planted in April. The crop may be dug as required through the autumn and winter, for the plant is quite hardy. To cook the roots, they should be washed, scraped, placed in boiling salted water, and boiled for about two hours till tender. Skittagetan, a group of peo- ple on Queen Charlotte Island off the coast of British Colum- bia. They sometimes pass under the name of Haida. Their culture is in most respects similar to that of the tribes on the adja- cent coast. See Tlingit. Skittles. This game, called in olden times 'kails' in England and 'kyles' in Scotland, is played in a specially prepared place called a skittle alley. It was played in England in the 14th century, and is supposed to have come thither from Germany. At one end of the alley is a wooden frame or platform, on which are set up nine cigar-shaped wooden pins about a foot high and from 7 lbs. to 9 lbs. in weight. At the other end of the alley, 21 ft. away from the nearest pin, stands the player with a flattish circular wooden ball, which he throws at the pins. The pins are set up in the form of a square, with one angle towards the player, and the object of the player is to knock the pins down or 'floor' them in as few throws as possible. The balls weigh from 10 lbs. to 14 lbs. It is necessary to have two players or two sides. Accomplished play- ers can often knock down all nine pins at one throw, called a 'floorer,' which counts three in scoring. If the pins are knocked down in two throws, two are scored; if in three, one is scored; and if after three throws any are still standing, nothing is scored. Another system of scoring is by chalks, one being chalked to the best of two players each turn. Another game is to play for 31 exact. Each pin knocked down counts one, and the player who reaches that score with the fewest throws is the winner. If the final throw in this game added to a score should carry it beyond 31, that throw does not count, and the player must go again, the lost throws being reckoned against him. A game called 'four corners,' with four very large pins, one at each corner of the square, is also played. In Dutch skittles the ball is bowled instead of being thrown, and grooves are cut for it to run in. The ball has a slight bias, and the center pin, which sometimes has to be knocked down before the knock- ing down of any other pin scores, is usually taller than the others. Enfield skittles is a parlor game played with balls of ivory or box- wood driven by a billiard cue. The nine pins may be set on a dining-room table, and the ground hedged in by a frame to prevent the balls from falling off. See Cassell's Book of Sports and Pastimes (1892) and Rothe's Das Kegelspiel (1879). Skobeleff, Michael Dmitrie- vitch (1841-82), Russian soldier, bom near Moscow; was sent into Turkestan (1868), and distin- guished himself in the expedi- tions to Khiva and Khokand, and in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-8. Having cut Osman Pa- sha's communications at Plevna, he occupied that position after Osman Pasha's sortie. In 1880 he captured Geok-Tepe in Trans- caspia, and in 1881 he was gov- ernor of Minsk. He was a prom- inent Panslavist. He died in a hotel at Moscow under mysteri- ous circumstances. See Madame de Novikoff's Skobeleff and the Slavonic Cause (1883). Skopin, town, central Russia, Ryazan government, 53 m. s. of Ryazan city. It is an episcopal see, and has a cathedral, town library and several schools. Tan- neries, potteries, oil works, manu- factories of Russia leather, soap, candles, wax, and starch, flour mills, foundries of bell-metal, iron, and tallow indicate the industries. Pop. 14.737. Skoplje, or Uskub., town, Yugoslavia, province, Kossovo, on the Vardar, has a fortress, is the see of a Greek archbishop and of a Bulgarian bishop, and manu- factures leather. Uskiib was the residence of the Servian kings after 1279. Pop. 68,334. Skoptsy, a religious sect origi- nated in the 18th century in government Orel, Russia, and now found also in central and S. Russia and in Finland. Many have emigrated to Rumania. Their founder gave himself out Skowhegan KR 244 Skull for a Son of God and is honored as such by the sect. He was tjanished to Siberia, later re- turned to Russia, and died in 1832 at an advanced age. Severe measures have not been sufificient to suppress the sect. They prac- tice bodily mutilations. See Gehren, Sekten der russischen Kirche (1898); Grass, Heilige Schrift der Shapcen (1904); Wal- lace, Russia (1905). also raises general farm produce. It is the home of the Skowhegan State Fair, the oldest fair in North America, having operated without a break since 1812. The town has a public library and Bloomfield Academy. The first settlement was made here in 1775 Formerly part of Canaan, and in- corporated as a town in 1823, under the name of Milbum, Skowhegan, in 1836, received the and placed either in a separate family or a subfamily. Skuas are powerful, predaceous birds, which do not hesitate to attack man if The Human Skull. A. Skull at birth, side view ; b, seen from above, c. Adult skull, side view ; d, front view ; E, seen from below ; f, seen from above. 1, 2. Anterior and posterior fontanelles ; 8, frontal bone ; 4, parietal ■ 6, occipital; 6, sphenoid, great wing ; 7, temporal ; 8, mas- toid ; 9, zygmoid; 10, malar; 11, superior maxillary; 12, nasal bones ; 13, orbit; U, la- chrymal bone ; 16, palatine surface of maxillary bone ; 18, palatine bone ; 17, occipital condyles ; 18, anterior nares ; 19, posterior nares ; 20, foramen magnum ; 21, mastoid process ; 22, auditory meatus ; 23, styloid process ; 24, pterygoid plate of sphenoid bone ; 25, glenoid fossa. Skowhegan, town, Maine, CO. seat Somerset co., 40 m. N. by E. of Augusta, on the Kennebec R., and on the Maine Central R. R. The river supplies excellent power to its manufactories, which produce shoes, yarns, bowling pins, skis, wooden ware, textiles, worsted and woolen goods, pulp and i)aper, lumber, flour, etc. The surrounding district is en- gaged principally in dairying, but name it now bears. In 1861, Bloomfield was annexed. Pop. (1940) 7,159. Skrzynski, Count Alex- ander (1882-1931), Polish states- man. He was prime minister (1925-1926) and helped organize the League of Nations and the Locarno Pact (1925). Skua, a marine bird closely related to the gulls, but differing from them in minor characters. Great Skua. molested in the breeding season; hence the name 'jaegers' given them by the Germans. They feed on fish, small birds, eggs, the flesh of whales, carrion, and even on small mammals, such as the lemming. Fish they rarely catch for themselves, but obtain by robbing smaller marine birds, such as some of the gulls and the terns. The eggs, usually two in number, are laid in a mere de- pression of the herbage. The cry is a curious 'mew.' The great skua (Megalestris catar- rhactes), a large and handsome bird, measuring twenty-one inches in length, breeds in the Shetland Is. and about New- foundland. It is brown, with a white wing-patch, and is a north- em form. To the same genus be- long three southern forms, of which one, M. antarctica, with its variety M'Cormick's skua, which may be a distinct species, is characteristic of the Antarctic region. All the other skuas are northern forms. Skull, an expansion of the vertebral column at its upper or anterior extremity. The human skull is sometimes described as formed by four vertebrae. Its bones develop from the meso- blastic layer (see Embryology), and unite in several cases by sutures, the ledges being irregu- lar or toothed. Two spots in the vault of the skull are uncovered by bone at birth. These are called the anterior and posterior fontanelles, or little fountains, since there the pulsations of the blood may be felt or even seen. The anterior is the larger, and is not covered by bone for the first year or two years. The posterior becomes ossified in a few months after birth. In addition, the sutures are open at birth, and re- main open for a varying number of years. The cranium, formed by the upper and back part of the skull, contains the brain, which is connected with the spinal cord through an opening in the base of the occipital bone. The Skunk 245 Sladen bones of the skull — eight in num- ber — are pierced in various places for the issue of cranial nerves, starting from the brain, and for the passage of blood- vessels. . The skull may vary greatly m size, within certain limits, with- out any apparent effect upon the brain contained; but the hydro- cephalic skull, containing often extraordinary quantities of fluid, and the microcephalic skull, very small, particularly above the level of the eyes, are patho- logical examples of exaggeration in different directions. The form of the skull also varies, some skulls being of a general oval shape, others practically round. This variation has found an important application in an- thropology (q. v.). Certain diseases — e.g. rickets, syphilis, and acromegaly — alter the shape and size of the skull. It is also liable to the inflamma- tory diseases incurred by bone generally. Skunk {Mephitis), a genus of American carnivores, with a most fetid secretion which the members discharge when at- tacked or irritated. The com- mon skunk of North and Central America is M. mephitica, an animal about the size of a cat, black, vividly marked by broad white stripes along each side of the back. The coat consists of long, fine hair, especially well developed on the elongated and bushy tail and furnishing a valuable fur, sometimes known as 'Alaska sable.' Skunks are partially plantigrade, and have Skunk small heads, with short, rounded ears. In structure they resemble the other members of the weasel family, to which they belong. The food is varied, consisting of insects, mice, salamanders, frogs, and eggs, skunks being frequent marauders in poultry yards. The characteristic secretion is contained in two glands near the tail, and is ejected with so much force that it is said to carry up to sixteen feet. It is not only highly offensive, but also very irritating, especially to the eyes. Several smaller species of skunk are to be found in the Southwestern United States in which the stripes are broken into a handsome pattern of spots. The White-backed Skunk {Cone- palus mapurito), of Mexico and southward, differs from the other forms in several respects, and is referred to a separate genus. The Hydrophobia Skunk belongs to the genus Spilogala, and is found chiefly throughout the Southwestern United States, though its range extends much farther northward along the Pacific. This species is the only member of the skunk family that climbs trees. Consult Stone and Cram's American Animals. Skunk Cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus), a perennial herb of the family Araceae, common in swamps and wet meadows throughout the Eastern U. S. and Canada, and found also in Northeastern Asia and Japan. It has a thick, fleshy, hood-like spathe, 3 to 6 inches high, purplish brown to greenish yel- low in color, appearing very early in the spring, enclosing an oval or globular spadix covered with apetalous flowers. Later a cluster of large bright green leaves appears. The plant has a disagreeable odor, from which it derives its name. Skutari. See Scutari. Skvira, skve'ra, town, Ukraine, 60 miles southwest of Kiev. It manufactures Astrakhan caps and pottery. Pop. 18,000, mainly Jews. Sky. See Atmosphere; Cloud; Dust; Meteorology. Skye, largest island of the Inner Hebrides, Inverness-shire, Scotland, extends 48K miles northwest from the Sound of Sleat to Little Minch, which separates it from the Outer Hebrides. It has bold, deeply indented coasts, while the interior consists chiefly of inhospitable moor and rugged mountain — e.g. CooHn Hills (3,234 ft.). Be- tween the Coolins and Loch Scavaig lies the oppressively dark Loch Coruisk (see Scott's Lord of the Isles) ; and to the north the picturesque Glen Sligachan. The total area of the island is 535 square miles. Fishing and sheep-farming are the chief occupations. Portree is the capital, and is a fishing centre. Pop. 13,500. Consult Macculloch's Misty Isle of Skye. Skye Terrier, a well known breed of dog which came orig- inally from the Isle of Skye in Scotland. Its length from point of nose to tip of extended tail should equal from three to three and a half times its height. Although almost smothered in hair, sometimes to such an ex- tent as to obscure its vision, it is full of life, and ready for sport of any sort. Two varieties are shown in the ring, the prick- eared and the drop-eared, and the following are the points: Head long, with powerful jaws and incisive teeth, closing level; skull wide at front of brow, nar- rowing between the ears, and tapering toward the muzzle; eyes hazel, medium size, close set; muzzle always black; ears, when prick, not large, erect and slant- ing towards each other or, when drop, larger, hanging straight, lying flat and close at front; body pre-eminently long and low; legs short, straight, and muscular; coat hard, straight, and flat, with average length of Skye Terrier five and a half inches; tail grace- fully feathered; color dark, light blue, gray, fawn with black points. Skylark. See Lark. Skyros. See Scyros. Slade, Felix (1790-1868), English art collector, was born in London, and devoted his wealth to the acquisition of books and engravings, and in making a collection of glass, which on his death, together with his engravings and his pottery, he bequeathed to the British Museum. He also left money for the endowment of (Slade) professorships of fine art in Oxford and Cambridge, and in University College, London, Slade, Henry {c. 1825-1905), American spiritualistic medium (?), was born at Johnson's Creek, Hartford, Niagara county, N. Y., of which his parents were among the first settlers. He left home when about twenty-one years old, and during the period of the American spiritualistic excite- ment in the '50s and '60s at- tracted great attention by his 'slate- writing,' purporting to de- liver messages from the other world. Henry Ward Beecher at- tended his exhibitions in New York City, and admitted himself baffled by the mystery. Slade visited London in 1876, and gave 'sittings' to many leading people, among them scientists who were unable to explain what they saw in his presence. In the same year Prof. E. Ray Lankester and Dr. Donkin visited him and exposed his trickery, and he was sentenced to three months' im- prisonment. The sentence was quashed through a technicality the following year, and Slade fled the country. Sla'den, Douglas ('Brooke Wheelton') (1856- ), English author and critic, was born in London. He was edu- cated at Oxford and was for a time professor of history in the University of Sydney, New South Wales. His numerous works in- Vol, XL— Oct. '25 Slag 246 Slang elude Australian Lyrics (1882); A Summer Christmas (1884); In Cornwall and Across the Sea (1885); The Spanish Armada (1888) ; The Japs at Home (1892) ; A Japanese Marriage (1895); In Sicily (1901); Queer Things about Japan (1903-05); Sicily, the New Winter Resort (1904); A Sicilian Marriage (1905); Carthage and Tunis (1905); Egypt and the English (1908); Queer Things about Egypt (1910); The Curse of the Nile (1913); Twenty Years of My Life (1915); His German Wife (1915); From Boundary Rider to Prime Minister (1916); The Shadow of a Great Light (1917); Black Water (1924). He was editor of Who's Who, 1897-9, and of The Green Book, 1910-11. Slag, the mixture of silicates produced in many metallurgical operations. In making pig iron in a blast-furnace, from which the greatest quantity is obtained, it consists chiefly of lime, magnesia, alumina, and silica, and varies in character from a rough kind of semi-transparent glass, which re- mains unchanged by atmospheric influences, to an opaque grayish stone, which rapidly falls to pieces when the excess of lime present becomes 'slaked' by the action of the moisture of the air. A slag composed chiefly of silica and iron oxide is called a 'scoria' or 'cinder.' Blast-furnace slag is almost valueless. The vitreous Icinds are used as road-metal and as railway ballast, and, when cast into blocks, for paving and building purposes; a little is con- verted, by blowing steam through it when molten, into a fibrous material known as slag wool, which is used as a non-conducting covering for steam-pipes and boilers (see Mineral Wool). Slags containing a large propor- tion of lime are utilized to some extent to make cement, the slag being granulated and ground with additional lime. The slag obtained in the basic process of steel-making is of considerable value as a fertilizer; besides lime, it contains about 12 per cent, of phosphoric acid. It requires to be very finely ground for use. Slaked Lime. See Lime. Slander, defamation by spoken words, or by intelligible signs, as the sign language employed by deaf and dumb persons. To be actionable, its effect must be to impair the reputation of a per- son for honesty or virtue, or in- jure him in his position, business, or occupation, or to bring upon him public contempt, ridicule, or hatred, or cause him to be shunned or avoided. By the common law, in order to recover, the plaintiff must show special damage, except in case of certain particularly scurrilous imputa- tions, as accusations of offences involving moral turpitude, or unchastity in a female. The latter cases are actionable with- out proof of special damage. The requirement that special damage must generally be shown is the chief distinction between slander and hbel (q. v.). The general rules of the law of libel govern in actions for slander in so far as they are applicable to spoken words. The defamatory words must be published, that is, made public. A person in a public or quasi-public position is subject to 'fair comment,' and this in- volves questions of both law and fact. Truth is a justification for alleged slanderous statements. See Defamation; Libel. Con- sult Newell's The Law of Libel and Slander. Slander of Title, false and malicious statements tending to discredit or cast suspicion upon the title of another to real or personal property, or to dis- parage its quality. To be action- able, such statements must cause 'special' or actual damage. The plaintiff must show that he had a complete or qualified title, or at least a greater interest in the property than the defendant had; that the statements were made with malice, or without heed to the reasonable consequences: and that he suffered special damage as a result thereof. For example, if B has contracted to purchase goods from A, and C falsely and maliciously states to B that the goods are worthless, and B breaks his contract by refusing to take the goods be- cause he believes C, A may sue C for slander of title. A mere statement of honest opinion, as that a picture is worthless from an artistic standpoint, will not constitute slander of title. Slang (Fr. argot; Ger. Sauner- sprache. Jargon), a name applied to a certain part of the current vocabulary which may be said to consist of such colloquial words and phrases as are felt to be out of the common run, exaggerated, highly metaphorical, or outre, without being at the same time the creation of the person who uses them. Slang shades off into ordinary colloquial speech, and is constantly supplying the or- dinary spoken language with new words and phrases. Expressions stigmatized at first as pure slang are often in the end accepted as legitimate, as the words 'gloam- ing,' 'pony,' 'banter,' 'cab,' and the term 'slang' itself. What is slang in one district or among one set of people may not be so elsewhere, but, in fact, an ordi- nary part of everyday speech. The distinction of certain words and phrases as slang im- plies the conception of a standard language or a normal form of speech, popularly regarded as correct. Yet slang is not simply a departure from what is stand- ard or normal. In the first place, it differs from dialect, with which it is sometimes confused. Dialect is the peculiar speech of a special district or locality, and may have a slang of its own. Nor is slang the same as vulgar speech. A vulgarism may be defined as a colloquialism which is rejected as undignified by speakers of a cer- tain grade in the social scale. Slang consists of those words and phrases which stand out promi- nently even in colloquial speech by virtue of the characteristics above defined. But just as there are many grades of colloquial English, so there are many grades of slang. What is current in one class may be absolutely unknown or condemned in an- other. Each of the different professions and occupations has its special slang: there is the slang of commerce, of the army, of the college and school, of the stock-exchange, and even of art. Slang is essentially vivid and striking; it comes quickly into general use; but for the same reason it is quickly overworked, grows stale, and is then as quickly dropped. Hence, while slang has, indeed, contributed to the common fund of speech in every language, its importance in this respect may easily be overrated, since for every slang word or phrase which is adopted, thousands are rejected. The vogue of any particular expres- sion of this sort is apt to be very brief; and the constant use of slang tends not only to vulgar- ize, but to limit, one's command of language. Very often slang adapts tech- nical language to general use. Its expressions may be perfectly natural and legitimate as origin- ally employed. They become slang when they are used meta- phorically. They commend them- selves to outsiders by their vigor and simplicity and somewhat bizarre character. Well-known examples of this class are 'pan- out,' from the language of gold- digging; 'four-flusher,' from the poker-player; 'cinch'; to 'spot' {i.e. detect); a 'deal'; a 'walk- over'; 'in the swim'; 'up the flume.' The more unexpected or picturesque the application, the more terse and emphatic the word, the better fitted it is to become slang. Hence such ex- pressions as to 'cut' a person, a 'fast' life, bad 'form,' a 'wall- flower,' a 'bird,' a 'jim-dandy,' a 'peach,' 'frozen face,' to 'dish' a person, 'fly the coop,' 'glad rags,' to 'nail' for to catch, 'mazuma' for money, and words like 'gas' and 'green' and 'spicy,' all be- come slang in much the same way. 'Watered' stock and a 'corner' in wheat are of more lim- ited use. To 'bring off' an event Vol. XI.— Oct. '25 Slang KSF 247 Slater Fund to 'make a pile,' to 'take a back seat,' to 'beat the band,' to 'be the whole shooting-match,' and 'to talk shop,' are examples of phrases whose metaphorical origin is clear. Another class, not very numerous, consists of coined words and phrases. Some are descriptive compounds like 'sky- pilot' for clergyman, and 'pot-boiler,' which at the same time signifies and stig- matizes certain works of art and literature. Other words seeni to be of purely arbitrary formation, like 'absquatulate,' 'razzle-daz- zle,' etc. Phrases are formed on the analogy of slang expressions already in use (hence 'in the know' compared with 'in the swim'); and contractions originate new words, especially perhaps in older slang (hence 'pmz' and 'bus,' and 'mob'). Nicknames like 'Peeler' from the name of Sir Robert Peel, may be included in this class; and also words now generally accepted, like 'boycott' from Captain Boy- cott, and 'hooligan' from a Lon- don thief of that name. Thieves* slang or 'cant' is hardly slang in the proper sense; nor is the so- called 'back-slang,' of which there are several varietiies such as 'yennep' for penny, and 'anmer' for man. The contribution made by foreign languages to the slang of any country, though it is not to be disregarded, does not form a large proportion of the whole. Thus 'boss' is from the Dutch (baas), 'tiffin' is Anglo-Indian, 'dago' is Spanish (Diego), and 'spiel' and bum' are German. The Celtic languages and the im- ported foreign languages, such as Romany or Gypsy and Yid- dish, have made contributions especially to the older slang vo- cabulary. For example, 'sheeny * is said to be Yiddish, and 'twig' to be of Celtic origin. But most of the Romany words which are given in the slang dic- tionaries are now either part of the standard language, or have become obsolete, or may simply be classed as vulgar. 'Cove,' 'jockey,' 'mug' (face), 'pal,' 'moke,' and to 'tool' (horses along) may be given as specimens. Even old EngHsh contributes a few resuscitated words, such as to 'be nuts on' and to 'lark,' and 'larky.' After eliminating the preceding classes of slang words, there re- main a very large number whose origin is uncertain or unknown. Monosyllabic and dissyllabic words are in a great majority. The origin of words like 'dinky,* 'brick,' 'scads,* 'batty ' (un- sound or shaky), 'fly' (cunning), 'fishy,' to 'dope,' to 'swipe,' 'bazoo,* and a scratch team, is more or less obscure or conjec- tural. Tt is noteworthy that much slang is euphemistic; it delights in the invention of synonyms for particular words, and devises substitutes for others which peo- f)le for a variety of reasons dis- ike or hesitate to use. The gal- lows had a great variety of names in the old thieves' slang, as 'hempen-widow;' the act of dying is expressed by many slang words, as 'squeak,* 'slip his wind;' and, similarly, drink- ing and drink and the various stages of intoxication, as 'booze,' 'slewed,' 'dippy,' 'shot,' etc. To be feeble-minded or silly or eccentric is expressed by phrases such as 'to have a screw loose,' *a slate off,' 'bats in his belfry,' *to be cracked,' or 'dotty,' or 'touched,' or 'off his base'; to be in difficulties is expressed by 'to be in a hole,' 'in a box,' 'on his beam ends,' or 'in the soup'; to outwit or practise an impo- sition on a person, by such equiv- alents as 'do,' 'give him a song and dance,' 'pull his leg,' 'take in,' 'josh.* It is remarkable how many slang expressions, of various degrees of humor, signify head, especially in lower-class slang ('nut,' 'think-box,' 'brain- pan,' 'upper story'). Monev has many equivalents in all classes of society ('dough,' 'the stuff,' 'tin,' 'shekels,' rhino'), and so has the 'swell,' 'dude,' 'giddy- boy,* 'sport,' or 'masher' (com- pare also the older designations, 'beau,' 'blade,' 'blood,' 'buck,' 'exquisite,' 'gallant,' 'spark'). The vocabulary of praise and blame is largely augmented by the use of slang equivalents. 'Ripping,' 'swagger,* 'stunning,' 'the cheese,' 'rot,' and 'poppy- cock,' are but a few of many well-known examples. A pe- culiarly English contribution to the vocabulary of praise is made hy what may be called mini- mizing expressions, like 'not half bad' and 'a very decent fellow,' representing the rhetorical figure called meiosis. The more highly cultivated the language, the more prolific is it in slang. Greek and Latin had each its argot, specimens of which may be found in the plays of Aristophanes (Greek) and in Latin in the comedies of Plautus, the Satires of Horace, Persius, and Juvenal, and especially in the curious fragment by Petronius known as the Satiricon. Of modern languages, French, Ger- man, and English (including American argot) afford the most numerous and interesting ex- amples. See the Dictionary of Slang and Cant, by Barrere and Leland (2 vols. 1897)- Slang and its Analogues, by Farmer and Hen- ley (7 vols. 1890-1904); Argot and Slang (French), by Albert Barrere (revised ed. 1889); De Lande, Glossaire Erotique (Brus- sels, 1861) ; Farrar, Chapters on Language, (1865) ; Brander Mat- thews, Parts of Speech, pp. 187- 213 (1901) ; Maitland, American Slang Dictionary (1901); C. Stoffel's Studies in English (1894) ; Storm's Englische Philo- logie (2d ed. 1892-96) ; and, for special classes of American slang, the bulletins issued by the American Dialect Society. More recent publications are R. H. Thornton, American Glossary (1912); C. H. Darling, The Jargon Book (1919); G. M. Tucker, American English (1921) ; F. N. Scott, List of American Slang (in Tract No. 24 of the Society for Pure Eng- lish, Oxford, 1926). Slater, John Fox (1815-84), American manufacturer and ben- efactor, nephew of Samuel Sla- ter, was born at Slatersville, R. I., and received an academic edu- cation. His father, John Slater, brother of Samuel, had bought a woollen mill at Hopeville, Conn., and John Fox was placed in charge of this, and afterward of the Slater cotton mill at Jewett City, three miles away. His brother William came into the business, and after 1842 John Fox resided at Norwich, Conn., becoming sole owner of the mill property in 1872. He was a founder of the Norwich Free Academy, gave liberally to other local institutions, and in 1882 placed $1,000,000 in the hands of trustees (the Slater Fund), the interest to be used for the edu- cation of the freedmen in the South. For this he received the thanks of Congress. Among the chief beneficiaries of the Fund are Tuskegee and Hampton In- stitutes. See the Memorial (Norwich, 1885). Slater, Samuel (1768-1835), American manufacturer, was born in England, and emigrated to the U. S. in 1789, after hear- ing of the act of Congress of that year for the encouragement of manufactures. Through the en- couragement of Moses Brown of R. I., he went to Pawtucket early in 1790 and there constructed from memory the first Arkwright cotton-spinning machinery erect- ed in America. In 1806 he sent for his brother John, and they established the mills at the pres- ent town of Slatersville, R. I. ; and the next few years the manu- facture of cotton was widely ex- tended, with the Slater system taken as a model. See White's Memoir (1836). Slater Fund. See Slater, John F. Slates KSF 248 Slavery and Slave Trade Slates are a microgranular crystalline stone derived from argillaceous sediments by region- al metamorphism, and are charac- terized by a perfect cleavage quite independent of original bedding, which has been induced by pressure within the earth. In a prehistoric geologic period it was clay. Under tremen- dous heat and pressure due to convulsions in the crust of the earth the original clay was compressed into layers, forming as now extracted, thousands of years later, a remarkable rock with a natural cleavage or fissility. The essential mineral constitu- ents of slate are white mica (chiefly sericite) and quartz. Secondary prominent constitu- ents are black mica (biotite), chlorite and andalusite, barite, rutile, pyrite, graphite, feldspar, zircon, tourmaline and carbona- ceous matter. Slate-mining is practically confined in the United States to the northeastern part of the country. Slate is classified as roofing stock and mill stock ; the latter is divided into 'clear' stock, free from all ribbons or veins, and 'ribbon' stock, which comprises about 80 per cent of the total output of structural slate. The dense, compact structure of natural slate makes it one of the least absorptive of all natu- ral stones, the absorption of water being only 174 one-thou- sandths of one per cent. The specific gravity of slates from the Pennsylvania region is 2,813, and the approximate weight is about 180 pounds per cubic foot. Compressive strength is about 10,250 pounds per square inch for clear slate and 16,375 pounds f or_ ribbon slate. Because of its resistance to sudden shocks, blows and impacts, it is used in thin layers for roofing, and in slabs for such purposes as black- boards and electric panel boards. Slabs five or six feet long can be readily ^ split into H" thickness and finished on machines without danger of damage, while roofing slate is split by chisels into thin slabs and then cut to the required sizes, generally from six by twelve to twelve by twenty-four inches. Channelling machines cut ver- tical grooves in solid beds of slate in open quarries, to a depth of 6-8 feet and about 6-10 feet apart. Wedges then split it into slabs 6 or more inches in thick- ness, and these are then sent to a mill or roofing 'shanty' as may be determined. Slabs carried to the mill, some weighing as much as four tons, are sawed into pieces of adaptable size by slow turning steel or cliamond edged saws. These pieces are then split into desired thicknesses and surfaced as required for ultimate use. Pennsylvania is the principal slate-producing State, where the product is generally blue-gray or nearly black ; Vermont produces a green and a purple slate, while New York furnishes the only supply of a natural red color. Quarries are found also in Can- ada, and in Europe in Great Britain, France, Portugal, Ger- many, Belgium and Austria. Consult Tests of Physical and Electrical Properties of Slate (Lehigh University, 1921); The Slates of Wales (National Mu- seum of Wales, 1927) ; Struc- tural Slate: Uses and Standard- ised Types (Structural Service Bureau, 1927) ; and Slate in the United States (Bulletin No. 586, U. S. Geological Survey). Slatin Pasha, Sir Rudolf Karl (1857-1932), Egyptian officer, born in Vienna ; went to the Sudan (1878), and was ap- pointed by Cieneral Gordon gov- ernor of Darfur. After fighting twenty-seven battles, he had to surrender to the Mahdi (1884), and was placed in chains in Khartum. In 1895 he succeeded in escaping. He then became one of the chief officers in the Egyptian Intelligence Depart- ment, and took part in the cam- paign ending with Omdurman. In 1900 he was appointed in- spector-general of the Sudan. He has written Fire and Sword in the Sudan (1896). Slaughter House Cases. The name applied to a group of cases of far-reaching importance de- cided by the U. S. Supreme Court at the December term of 1872. The state of Louisiana in 1869 had given to a corporation, for sanitary reasons, the exclu- sive right to maintain stockyards, slaughter houses, etc., in the city of New Orleans, for a term of twenty-five years. Though any one was allowed to kill at these establishments upon payment of fees, suits were brought upon the ground that privileges guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment were infringed. By a majority of five to four the Supreme Court decided that such an act was within the proper exercise of the police power of the state, and that the Federal government could not interfere. It declared that 'there is a citizenship of the United States and a citizen- ship of a state which are dis- tinct,' and, further, that 'there is a difference between the privi- leges and immunities belonging to a citizen of the United States, as such, and those belonging to a citizen of the state as such, and that the latter must rest for their security and protection where they have heretofore rested.' This decision and its implications indicated a reaction against the doctrine of the supreme power of the Federal government. It is in Wallace's Reports, v. 16. See Burgess, Political Science and Constitutional Law (1890). Slaughtering: and Slaugh- ter House. See Abattoir; Packing Industry ; Meat. Slave Coast, part of coast of Upper Guinea, W. Africa, from the Volta to the Benin, now in- cluded in the spheres of influ- ence of France and Great Brit- ain. See ToGOLAND ; Dahomey ; Lagos. Slavery and Slave Trade. The desire to obtain freedom from drudgery by the possession of and absolute control over one or more of one's fellow beings appears to be inherent in the na- ture of men ; and even certain species of ants are accustomed to capture other species, and to force them to labor for their captors, and to provide them with food. Among savages and the inferior types of civilized men this tendency usually mani- fests itself in the habit of as- signing all disagreeable work to women, the man only following those pursuits which please him. Where polygamy is practised, it frequently happens that the lord and master increases the number of his wives more for the sake of using them as slaves than from any motive approaching affection. Bt;t organized slavery generally consists in the subjugation of one race by another, the subject people being condemned to a life of enforced labor for the benefit of their lords. It is contended, indeed, by J. S. Stuart-Glennie that the main determining condi- tion generally of the origins of civilization has been a conflict between higher and lower races, resulting in the former reducing the latter to a state of vassalage. It is obvious that the leisure essential to the advancement of thought, the practice of the arts and sciences, and the creation of a refined society, cannot exist in a community whose members are all engaged in a struggle for the common necessaries of life. Anyway, slavery was a recog- nized feature of the early civi- lizations. The ancient literature of the Chaldaeans shows a due regulation of all matters relating to slaves, one remarkable circum- stance being that female slaves were absolutely at the disposal of their master as concubines, and that they even resented as a slight the omission on his part to exercise his legal right in this matter. Not improbably the jus primcc noctis, which was so widely prevalent in feudal Europe, is derived from such source as this. During some Slavery and Slave Trade period in Babylonia many of the slaves were Jews, and the Jews were also in bondage to the Egyptians. Nevertheless, the Jews were slaveholders in their turn. For the crime of selling a free man as a slave, the punish- ment was death. But fathers were allowed to sell their own daugh- ters into an actual state of bond- age; and the creditors of an in- solvent debtor were entitled to sell him, his wife, and his chil- dren as slaves. A man reduced to poverty could even sell him- self. All these instances relate to people of Hebrew race, and not to foreigners. Frequently the bondage was limited in time and character; but sometimes it became lifelong {e.g. Exod. 21 : 6), and the bondman for life was marked by a hole bored in his ear. In India the Chandala tribes, assumed to be conquered aborig- ines, were enslaved by the Hindu invaders. Of these serfs the Hindu law recognized fifteen dif- ferent classes. Early Japanese history also reveals a system of slavery, although, as among the Jews, intermarriage between bond and free seems to have been not uncommon. These slaves appear to have been often low - caste Japanese ; but there is mention also of captives taken in war (Koreans, Malays, and others) who were held as bondsmen. Among the Greeks slaves were often prisoners of war, as well as natives of the soil. Their condi- tion was announced to all men in letters tattooed upon their fore- heads in blue or red. The helots of Sparta are beHeved to have been the dregs of the aboriginal race, conquered by the Dorians. The household of a Roman patri- cian included his slaves as well as his own family, and over all these he exercised despotic power. The Greek and Roman galleys were rowed by slaves, and indeed galley-slaves were employed long after the decay of the Roman empire. On the other hand, the Celts enslaved their Saxon cap- tives, and the Saxons retaliated by enslaving Celts. Those serfs of early Britain were obliged to wear a metal collar, the ends soldered together, inscribed with their own and their master's names, a usage which continued in Scot- land down to the dawn of the 18th century in connection with those condemned by the state to be * perpetual servants ' of their masters. The state of serfdom persisted in all the countries of Europe until quite recent times. (See Serf.) The ' salters and col- liers ' in Scotland continued to be so treated until emancipated by an act of Parliament of 1775, the terms of which proved so inade- quate that a supplernentary act was found necessary in 1799. 250 * Indented servants * were pur- chased by Virginian planters during the 18th century alike from kidnappers and from gov- ernment, the term of inden- ture varying from five to seven years. The atrocious system of kidnapping British children for deportation to the N. American colonies as slaves was carried on in Aberdeenshire as recently as 1744. But the great development of the African slave trade in the 18th century was itself sufficient to put an end to the traffic in white slaves. Negro slavery is of very ancient date in the Old World, and it spread into the newer lands discovered and colo- nized by European nations in the 15th century and afterwards. But it reached its height in the 18th century. Prior to 1792 the East India Company used to put to death any slave, male or female, in the island ot St. Helena, who struck a white person with a weapon, unless that white person had been the associate of slaves. For an ordinary attempt to strike a white person without a weapon, a male slave suffered castration, and a female had both ears cut off, was branded in the forehead and both cheeks, and was ' se- verely whipped.' Runaways were branded in the forehead with the letter R. In Jamaica slaves were branded on the shoulder with their owners' initials with a brand dipped in burning spirits. African slavery was introduced into the English colonies in America in 1619, when a cargo of slaves was landed in Virginia by a Dutch slave-ship. For some years the institution spread slowly; later, with the great de- velopment in tobacco culture, im- portation became more rapid, and by 1740 about_ 140,000_ negro slaves had been imported into the colonies. Experiments with In- dian slaves were also tried in several of the colonies, but these proved unsatisfactory, increasing greatly the danger of Indian mas- sacres. In the Southf^rn colonies many of the Indians taken in war were carried to the West Indies, where they were exchanged for negroes. _ At first negro slaves were as- similated by custom and law to the status of indentured servants, the slave, however, being bound for life. Before the end of the 17th century the status of slaves, as it existed in later American history, had been established by law. The property rights of the master to his slave, and to the issue of female slaves, were prac- tically absolute. In the latter half of the 18th century the number of slaves had in some of the colo- nies become so great as to ex- cite apprehensions of slave in- surrection, and several of the Slavery and Slave Trade colonial legislatures endeavored by duties and prohibitions to re- strict further importation. Such restrictive laws were in some cases disallowed by the British government as prejudicial to the interests of British merchants engaged in the slave-trade, and to those of the new planters in the colonies who would have been forced to buy slaves at mo- nopoly prices from the old plant- ers had they not been enabled to import them from Africa. At the time of the Revolution a strong sentiment against slavery existed in both North and South, owing partly to the enthusiasm for liberty created by the war, and partly to the fact that dec- ades of over-production of to- bacco, the staple crop in the South, had greatly impaired the profitableness of the institution. Virginia in 1778 prohibited fur- ther importation of slaves, and by 1790 most of the other states had done likewise. Slavery was abol- ished in 1780 in Pennsylvania, and by 1804 in every other Northern state. In the meantime the inventions of machinery in the cotton industry in England (1775-85) and the invention of the cotton-gin in America (1793) opened up a new field for the profitable use of slave labor. Cotton - growing extended with remarkable rapidity, and slaves rose in price from an aver- age of $300 in 1792 to $450 in 1800. South Carolina, which in 1787 had prohibited the impor- tation of slaves, reopened her ports to the slave trade in 1803. In 1807 Congress enacted a law prohibiting further importations of slaves into the United States. The law was not enforced with any degree of severity, and the smuggling of slaves continued, sometimes on an extensive scale, down to the Civil War. The il- licit importations, together with the natural increase of the slave population, swelled the number of slaves to nearly four million before the abolition of the insti- tution. In a number of the states laws were enacted penalizing certain forms of cruelty to slaves; but these were rarely enforceable, owing to the principle, univer- sally held in the slave states, that the testimony of a slave could not be employed as evidence. Local custom was practically the only force rnitigating the rigors of the institution. Among the better classes of slaveholders there was a dispositon to avoid the separa- tion of slave families, and to grant certain other limited rights to the slaves. Economic and Political Ef- fects OF Slavery in America. — Slave labor proved efficient only in the cultivation of crops glaTery and Slave Tradi^ 251 Slavery and Slave Trade affording opportunity for the working of men in gangs under trained overseers. In the greater part of the South cotton and to- bacco were the only crops of this nature; in hmited districts rice and sugar were profitably grown by slave labor. Cotton and tobacco quickly exhausted the fertility of the soil; hence it was necessary for the planter to take up large tracts of land in order to have new fields when the old ones were worn out. A consequence of this was the constant demand for new slave territory — a demand which brought on the Mexican War, as well as frequent schemes for the annexation of Cuba. Large plan- tations were the most profitable; hence a tendency during the ex- istence of slavery for the concen- tration of slaves and landed v/ealth in fewer and fewer hands. Slave labor could not be profit- ably employed in manufacture, and the general contempt in which manual labor was held, grov.'ing out of the existence of slavery, prevented the native white non-slaveholding popula- tion from seeking employment in factories; moreover, immigrants from Europe, who were rapidly building up manufactures in the North, avoided the slave states. Hence the whole region became dependent upon the North and Europe for manufactured goods; and this dependence upon im- ported manufactures early in the century committed the South ab- solutely to free trade. Even the crdmary mercantile business of the South was largely in the hands of Northerners and Eng- lishmen, owing to the absorption of Southern capital by invest- ments in land and slaves. The necessity of protecting slavery against interference by the Federal Government forced Southern statesmen to adopt the extreme states' rights view of the relations of the Federal and state governments. As, with in- crease in population and wealth, the North was steadily gaining in political power, which would eventually endanger the local in- stitutions of the South, Southern politicians gave adherence to the view that any state might secede from the Union at will. In order to extend the slave power into the new territories, South- erners held that the territories were the common property of the states, not of the Federal govern- ment; hence the latter had no right to prohibit slavery in the territories, since the institution was recognized in some of the states. Thus the general effect of slavery was to create in the South an economic and political oligarchy, completely united in adherence to territorial expan- sion, free trade, and states' rights. Abolition of Slavery. — As early as 1760 the Quakers in Pennsylvania made the holding of slaves, and trade in slaves, sub- jects for church discipline. In 1774 an _ abolition society was formed in Pennsylvania, and within a few years similar so- cieties were in existence in New York, Rhode Island, Maryland, Connecticut, Virginia, and New Jersey. These societies looked toward the gradual emancipation of the slaves, with compensation, where necessary, to the masters; and their activities aroused no antagonism even among the slave- holders. A popular plan of the early abolitionists was the coloni- zation _ of freedmen in Africa, since it was not believed that white and black could well live side by side in freedom. A so- ciety having colonization for its object was founded in New Jersey in 1816; later in the same year a National Colonization Society was formed. In 1821 a colony of liberated slaves was started at Cape Mesurado, Africa. This grew in numbers, and in 1847 declared itself an independent republic under the name of Li- beria. The plans of colonization societies, however, proved futile, so far as reducing the number of slaves was concerned. Moreover, the constant rise in the value of slaves made the burden of com- pensating the masters a serious one. About 1830 the abolition movement changed its character. Under the leadership of such men as Lundy, Garrison, Weld, May, and Phillips, an agitation was car- ried on for the immediate eman- cipation of all slaves in America. This movement soon aroused the hostility of the South, and of certain classes in the North; and frequent riots, with many cases of violence against the abolition- ists, marked tiie progress of the agitation. Statutes were passed in some of the Southern states penalizing the conducting of abo- litionist meetings and the circu- lation of abolitionist literature; Southern postmasters, with the consent of the Federal post offxe department, refused to distribute such literature through the mails. Sporadic negro uprisings, sup- posed to be fomented by the abo- litionists, intensified the hostility of slaveholders against the agi- tators. In 1840 the abolitionists formed the Liberty party, and placed James G. Birney in nomi- nation for the Presidency. The vote was insignificant; but four years later, with the same candi- date, the party drew enough votes away from Henry Clay to give the election to Polk, whose policy of expansion apparently greatly strengthened the slave power. In the remaining years up t9 the outbreak of the war, the abolitionists were mainly occu- pied in assisting fugitives slaves to escape to Canada. In politics they acted with the Free Soil, later with the Republican party. The latter party, while opposing extension of slavery, did not at first contemplate abolition of slavery within any brief period. Abraham Lincoln, even after the outbreak of the war, favored the plan of gradual emancipation, extending through half a century, with compensation to loyal slave- holders. In 1862, however, slavery was prohibited by Con- gress in the territories; in the same year it was abolished for the District _ of Columbia, com- pensation being given the slave- holder. The Emancipation Pro- clamation of January 1, 1863, declared all slaves in the seceding states free; it did not affect slav- ery in the loyal states. West Virginia had already incorpo- rated in its constitution provisions leading to gradual emancipation; in 1863 Misouri, and in 1864 Maryland,^ made provisions for emancipation. Slavery continued a legal institution in Delaware and Kentucky until 1865, when it was abolished throughout the United States by the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution. Following Lord Mansfield's de- cision in the negro Somerset case (1772), that slavery could not ex- ist in England, a movement was started by Thomas Clarkson about 1782 for the abolition of the slave trade. Of those associated with him, the chief was William Wil- berforce. In 1792 a motion was passed in the House of Commons, Pitt consenting, for the gradual abolition of the slave trade. In 1805 an order in council forbade the trade with new colonies, and in 1807 this was extended to al! British possessions by the Gen- eral Abolition Bill. Various ef- forts were then made to put down slavery in the colonies; but these were unsuccessful until the pass- ing of the Emancipation Act of 1833, which put an end to slav- ery by gradual steps, and which arranged for the payment of £20,000,000 to slaveholders. Slavery was abolished by France in 1848, by the Netherlands in 1863, and by Brazil in 1888. Russian serfdom, formally organ- ized in the 16th century, was abolished by Alexander ii. in 1861. From the beginning of the 16th century the Algerine corsairs were the scourge of Eu- ropean waters, and thousands of white captives were annually borne to Barbary, there to lan- guish for years in slavery. It was not until 1812 that the naval powers of Europe and the United States succeeded in putting an Slavery and Slave Trade KSF 252 Sleep end to their raids. The Arabs have always proved themselves inveterate slaveholders, and their African slave trade was only sup- pressed towards the close of the 19th century by means of British victories in Egypt and the Sudan, and by the vigilance of British cruisers. Although the trade in slaves was suppressed throughout Af- rica with the exception of Liberia and Abyssinia, the custom of slave ownership took longer to eradicate. In the British West African colonies of the Gold Coast and Nigeria permissive emancipation (with the consent of both slave and master), as contrasted with compulsory meas- ures, gradually secured freedom for all slaves, but in the Sierra Leone colony similar steps were not introduced until Jan. 1, 1928, when, also, it was provided that all children born of slaves after that date were free from birth. An international Convention to sweep away the entire institution of slavery was concluded in 1919 at St. Germain's, and this was followed in 1926 by a second Convention to which all member States of the League of Nations were signatories. The League's Slavery Committee reported that considerable numbers of slaves were being exported from Abys- sinia to Arabia, and admission of that kingdom to League member- ship in 1923 was conditioned upon efforts to stamp out the ne- farious trade. In 1932 it was reported that the Slavery Depart- ment set up by the Abyssinian ruler had failed in accomplish- ment of its objects, and the con- tinuance of slavery in that country was a justification put forward by Italy three years later for her encroachments. In Liberia, similarly, slave conditions persisted. A League of Nations Commission reported in 1931 that slavery within the meaning of the 1926 Convention was widespread ; that forced la- bor was wastefully recruited, frequently by systematic intimi- dation on the part of officials of the government and the Frontier Force ; and that laborers were shipped under conditions of crim- inal compulsion scarcely dis- tinguishable from slave-raiding for constant service in Spanish Fernando Po and the French Gabun. The long-awaited era of total abolition of slavery through- out the world had not yet arrived. Consult H. Wilson, History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America 0872-77); Spear, The American Slave Trade (1900) ; W. H. Smith, A Political History of Slavery (1903) ; Hume, The Abolition- ists (1905); Washington, Up from Slavery (1913); Phillips, American Negro Slavery (1918) ; Lauber, Indian Slavery in Colo- nial Times (1918); F. D. Lu- gard, The Dual Mandate in Trop- ical Africa (1922); N. W. Eppes, The Negro of the Old South (1925) ; Phillips, Life and Labor in the Old South (1929). Slavonia. See Croatia- Slavonia. Slavs, one of the chief divi- sions of the Aryan race of man- kind. They have been divided into two leading families, the eastern and the western. The eastern family again may be subdivided into — (1.) Russians. These include — (a) Great Rus- sians, numbering about forty-two millions ; they stretch as far north as to Vologda and Novgo- rod, south to Kiev, and east to Penza; (&) Little or Malo Rus- sians, amounting to nearly seven- teen millions ; they are found in the southern republics of Russia, and include the Ruthenians or Red Russians in Galicia, and the Boiki and Guzules in Bukovina ; and (c) White Russians, who amount to about four millions in the western districts of Russia. (2.) The Bulgarians, the ma- jority of whom inhabit the King- dom ; they amount to more than five millions. (3.) The Serbo- Croats, among whom are includ- ed the Serbs, together with the Montenegrins, part of the popu- lation of S. Hungary, and a few in Russia. They amount to nearly ten millions. (4.) The Slovenes, in Carinthia, Carniola, and part of Styria, amounting to more than one million. The western family includes — (1.) Poles, amounting to nearly twelve millions, and the Kashubes or Kassubes, who are found near Danzig, and number less than 200,000. (2.) Czechs (Bohe- mians) and Moravians, amount- ing to nearly five millions ; and to them may be added the Slovaks of Czechoslovakia, numbering some two millions. (3.) Lusa- tian Wends or Sorbs, divided into Upper and Lower, the for- mer (96,000) in Saxony, the latter (40,000) in Prvtssia. When the Slavs first appear in history we find them in parts of Europe where at the present time almost all traces of them have disappeared. The most generally accepted theory is that the orig- inal home of the Slavs was in Volhynia and White Russia. The Slavonic languages fall naturally into an eastern and western group, distinguished from each other by marked characteris- tics. The oldest form of Slavprfic known is the so-called Church or Palseoslavonic, into which the Bible or portions of it were trans- lated by Cyril and Methodius, the apostles of the Slavs, in the 9th century. Various opinions have been held as to the char- acteristics and original home of this language. Some scholars {e.g. Schleicher, Safarik, J. Schmidt, and Leskien) consider it to be old Bulgarian, whereas Miklosich, Kopitar, and Jagic have held it to be old Slovenian. The older forms of all the lan- guages show a greater resem- blance to one another. The two alphabets employed are the Glag- olitic and Cyrillic. As to the relative antiquity of these most scholars are now agreed in as- signing the priority to Glagolitic. We find Glagolitic underlying Cyrillic palimpsests, but never the reverse. The two alphabets are certainly connected : the let- ters are almost entirely in the same order, and there is the same deficiency in expressing the praeiotized vowels. Both are de- rived from the Greek, the Cyril- lic from the uncial and the Glago- litic probably from the cursive form of writing. The Glagolitic was not entirely confined to sa- cred subjects : thus in it was written the Statute of Vinodoal, so called from a district in Dal- matia, one of the most interesting monuments of early Slavonic law. In some mss. we find Cyril- lic and Glagolitic together, as in the Psalter of Bologna (12th centviry). For modern Slav lan- guages and literatures, see Rus- sia, Serbia, and so forth. Sledge. See Sleigh. Sleep, a natural condition of insensibility, more or less com- plete, recurring normally (for the adult) with each night, and last- ing for from six to eight or nine hours. The infant may sleep twenty hours out of each twenty- four ; the growing child may take twelve hours at a stretch. After middle age sleep tends to become lighter — i.e. more easily broken, and of shorter duration. The cavise of sleep is undetermined, but is supposed to depend upon the production of sedative agents during our waking activities, which ultimately clog the higher functions of the brain. It is be- lieved that the brain is compara- tively bloodless during normal healthy sleep. Sleep of a sort may, however, occur with a con- siderably congested brain, as un- der the effects of alcohol. The necessary amount of sleep varies greatly with the individual, and also with the occupation of the waking hours. Manual occupa- tion out of doors is among the surest inducers of sleep ; but over-fatigue, whether bodily or mental, may produce insomnia, or, in a lesser degree, broken sleep or frequent dreams. Ex- periment is said to show that the healthy individual sleeps deeply for the first two hours or so ; then the sleep becomes lighter for Sleeping Sickness KSF 253 Slidell a while, and then heavier again. The ideal sleep is dreamless ; but there is good reason to believe that absolutely dreamless sleep is comparatively rare, dreams tend- ing to be forgotten if followed by deep sleep, and the vividly re- membered dreams being those which occur just before waking. Sleep is a physiological neces- sity, and the average individual suffers considerably after forty- eight hours of absolute sleepless- ness. A legal punishment among the Chinese is death by depriva- tion of sleep, and is reported to come in a few days. In natural deep sleep all the higher brain- centres are more or less out of action, together with the senses of sight, touch, taste, smell and hearing, though in varying de- grees. The vital functions are lowered ; respiration and the heart's action are slower. More oxygen is inspired, less carbon dioxide is expired. It is sug- gested that in this way those products of activity which have produced sleep become oxygen- ated, and waking is the result. Sleep becomes exaggerated in many idiots, and in many 'hys- terical' cases, when it may be- come trance, lasting for days or weeks ; and it is the prominent characteristic in sleeping sick- ness. Sleeplessness, besides being caused by cerebral stimu- lants, such as tea, coffee, and co- coa, accompanies rise of tempera- ture, frequently precedes delirium tremens, may be caused by small doses of opium, and occurs in the opium-eater or the morphino- maniac when the usual dose is denied. Many drugs will pro- duce sleep, but they must be used with great caution. Gen- eral aids to sleep are a well-ven- tilated, quiet, darkened room, and a fairly hard bed. See In- somnia. Sleeping Sickness, a name applied to two distinct patho- logical conditions : the first an African disease known also as Negro Lethargy ; the second a recently discovered condition — Encephalitis Lethargica or Epidemic Encephalitis. Negro Lethargy is due to a protozoan blood parasite, Try- panosoma gamhiense, and seems to have been confined originally to certain circumscribed dis- tricts of the west coast of Africa, but is now found in parts of Uganda, Tanganyika Territory, and elsewhere. Two types are known, transmitted by two varieties of the tsetse fly (q. v.) : an epidemic form transmitted by Glossina palpalis, and a highly fatal, non-epidemic form carried by Glossina morsitans. It seems specifically a cerebral disorder, there being little sign of organic mischief elsewhere, ex- cept such as follows secondarily from the nervous disorganiza- tion. The invalid sleeps more and more, until he sinks into a stupor, from which he cannot be roused, and at last dies of exhaus- tion, the only obvious physical signs being those of malnutri- tion. The disease is practically confined to Negroes, but cases occur in Europeans. Atoxyl, a derivative of arsenic, is the only drug as yet found to be of any value in treatment, and even this is vmsatisfactory. Prophylactic measures include the establish- ment of segregation camps, and destruction of the breeding places of the tsetse fly, particu- larly along the shores of lakes and streams. Consult Manson's Tropical Diseases (1914) ; and Report of League of Nations International Commission on Human Trypanosomiasis. Encephalitis Lethargica is a disease of the central nervous system reported first in 1917 from Vienna and in 1918 from France and England, after which it became prevalent elsewhere in Europe^ and America. The con- dition is obviously an infective one, but the causative agent is unknown. As a rule, though not invariably, the symptoms develop gradually, beginning with abnormal drowsiness, with a tendency to fall asleep when reading or working ; diplopia ; defective vision consequent upon paresis of accommodation ; a feeling of light-headedness ; some loss of emotional control ; pro- nounced constipation ; difficulty in passing urine, and occasion- ally severe peripheral pains simulating a localized neuritis. A rise in temperature, usually accompanied by headache, an increase in the state of apathy, and perhaps vomiting, mark the true onset of the illness. In a typical case the patient may lie on his back motionless for hours at a time, the eyes half closed, the face flushed, and sometimes covered with beads of perspira- tion. Variations in the lethar- gic state, from a slight degree of somnolence to actual coma in severe cases, may be observed from time to time. Meningitic, apoplectiform, and neuralgic types have been observed but are of less frequent occurrence than the somnolent type. The mortality varies, as does also the duration of the illness. In 47 cases observed by Bram- well (of England), 7 terminated fatally. ^ In 25 cases the dura- tion varied from 6 to 49 days. No therapeutic means have proved undoubtedly beneficial. Consult Viggo Christiansen, Encephalitis Epidemica, in Nel- son's Loose-Leaf Living Medi- cine, Vol. VI (1934). Sleeplessness. See Insom^ nia. Sleep-walking. See Som- nambulism. Sleepy Hollow, a small pic- turesque valley near Tarrytown, N. Y., the scene of 'The Legend of Sleepy Hollow' in Washington Irving's Sketch Book. See Tarrytown. Sleeve Dog. See Spaniels. Sleidanus, Johannes (1506- 56), German historian, whose real name was Philippson, was born at Schleiden. He is chiefly known by his De Statu Religionis ct Reipublicce, Carolo Quinto CcEsare Commentarii (1555), and Dc Quatiior Summis Imperiis (1559). He also epitomized and translated into Latin the his- tories of Froissart and Philippe de Comines. Consult Life by Baumgarten. Sleigh, or Sledge, a convey- ance without wheels, chiefly used for travelling on snow and ice. Some move on runners ; but many, such as the sharp-beaked, boat-shaped sledge of the Lap- lander (drawn by reindeer) and the majority of those used in Russia, glide along on iron or strong wood-protected bottoms. In Arctic regions dogs are gen- erally used as draught animals. See also Motor Sleighs. Sleswick. See Schleswig. Slick, Sam. See Halibur- ton, Thomas C. Slickensides, the wall-faces of veins and fault-fissures in rocks which have been smoothed by mutual attrition and marked with fine striations. The appear- ance is due to slow movement of the sides of the fissures on each other, and bears some resem- blance to glacial striation, except that the markings are vertical, or nearly so, and are found under- ground. Slidell, John (1793-1871), American politician, was born in New York City. He was gradu- ated from Columbia College in 1810, studied law, settled in New Orleans in 1819, became U. S. district attorney in 1829, and was elected to the Twenty-eighth Congress (1843-5) as a States' rights Democrat. In 1845 he was appointed minister to Mex- ico, but that State, because of the annexation of Texas, refused to receive him. He became a member of the U. S. Senate in 1853, but resigned on February 4, 1861, after the withdrawal of Louisiana from the Union. Later in the same year he was ap- pointed Confederate commission- er to France, ran the blockade to Havana, and from thence sailed with James M. Mason for Europe on the English mail steamer Trent. On the open sea the vessel was stopped by the U. S. vessel San Jacinto, and he was Slide Rule KSF 254 Slocum taken prisoner, carried to Boston and imprisoned in Fort Warren. Representations, however, were immediately made by Great Britain to our government with the result that he was released. Slidell reached Paris in February, 1862, but beyond securing some money and buying a small iron- clad, the Stonczvall, which did not reach American waters until the war was over, he did not succeed in accomplishing much of impor- tance. The remainder of his life was spent in England. Slide Rule is a rule having two or more linear graduations, some of which are on a sliding piece, so that some function of a number on one piece is formed opposite to it on the other. Such scales are much used by draughtsmen to assist in rapid calculation. The first modern calculating rule was produced (1620) by Gunter, a London pro- fessor, while the cursor or run- ner is the invention of Mann- heim of the Paris Polytechnique (1851). Modern small slide rules are about 10 inches long, and consist of two pairs of scales, with a cursor and hair- line for accurate reading. The top and bottom scales give for any position of the hair-line the corresponding numbers and their squares, or conversely numbers and their square roots. The moving portion of the rule is called the slide, and on the back of it there are three distinct scales, giving sines, tangents, and logarithms. The results can be read to three significant figures. Slide Valve. See Steam- Engine. Sligo, maritime county, prov- ince of Connaught, Ireland; area 707 square miles. The sur- face rises gradually from the coast line, which is broken by Sligo and Killala Bays, to the Benbulben range (2,072 feet) and the Slieve Gamph. Iron, copper, lead, and barytes occur ; woollen, linen, and leather are manufactured ; and there is fishing on the coast. The chief occupation, however, is agricul- ture. Pop. (1911) 78,850; (1926) 71,393. Sligo, seaport and county town of county Sligo, Ireland, is situated on Sligo Bay ; 34 miles southwest of Enniskillen. It was the scene of St. Patrick's first missionary efforts, and has traces of an old castle and fort, and ruins of a thirteenth-cen- tury Dominican abbey. There is also a Roman Catholic cathedral. The town has woollen and corn mills and exports live stock, grain, butter, and pork. Pop. (1926) 11,439. Slip, the loss of efficiency (measured as a percentage) caused by a driving belt slipping on the pulleys, or from a pro- peller slipping through the water. The term is also applied to a water-space between two piers, as a ferry-slip. Sloane, Sir Hans (1660- 1753), Irish physician and natu- ralist, was born in county Down. He became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1685, and in 1687 went to Jamaica as physician to the governor, and there made a large collection of plants, of which he published a catalogue in 1696. Meantime he had settled in London to practise his profession. In 1707 he pub- lished the first volume of A Voyage to the Islands of Ma- deira . . . and Jamaica, with the Natural History of the Last. He became president of the Royal Society in 1727, and was court physician to Queen Anne and the first two Georges. He bequeathed his collections to the nation,^ and with them and the Cottonian collection the British Museum was founded in 1754. He was one of the promoters of the colony of Georgia in 1732. Sloane, Thomas O'Conor (1851— ), American scien- tist, was born in New York. He was graduated from St. Francis Xavier College (1869) and from the Columbia School of Mines (1872), and was professor of natural sciences in Seton Hall College, South Orange, N. J. (1888-9). He invented a re- cording photometer and other scientific instruments. He trans- lated Algave and Bouard's Elec- tric Light (1884), and published, among other works. Home Ex- periments in Science (1888), Arithmetic of Electricity (1891), Standard Electrical Dictionary (1892), Liquid Air and the Liquefaction of Gases (1899), and The Electrician's Handy Book (1905) ; Elementary Elec- trical Calculations (1909) ; Mo- tion Picture Projection (1921) ; and Rapid Arithmetic (1922). Sloane, William Milligan (1850-1928), American educator and author, born in Richmond, Ohio. He was graduated from Columbia University (1868), was an instructor at the Newell school in Pittsburgh, Pa. (1868- 72), and was secretary to George Bancroft, the historian, at Berlin (1873-5). He continued his his- torical studies in Germany, under Mommsen and Droysen, and received the degree of ph.d. from Leipzig in 1876. From 1883 to 1896 he was professor of history at Princeton, and in 1896 he accepted the same chair at Columbia. He was editor of the Princeton Reviczv from 1886 to 1889. His published works in- clude Life and Work of James Rcnwick Sloane, his father (1888); The French War and the Revolution (1896) ; Napo- leon Bonaparte: a History (4 vols., 1895-7) ; Life of James McCosh (1896); The French Revolution and Religious Re- form (1900); The Balkans, a Laboratory of History (1914; new ed. 1920) ; Party Govern- ment in the United States of America (1914) ; Powers and Aims of Western Democracy (1921). He was once president of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. Sloat, John Drake (1780- 1867), American naval officer, was born in New York City. During 1800-01 he was a mid- shipman in the navy; re-entered the service in 1812 and partici- pated in the capture of the frig- ate Macedonian by the United States. During 1823-5 he saw active service once more against the West Indian pirates. He commanded the Pacific squadron in 1844-6, and, at time of the outbreak of the Mexican War, believing that the English had designs on California, he occu- pied Monterey and San Francis- co. While the war was in prog- ress he was relieved by Commo- dore Stockton. Slobodskoi, town, Viatka dis- trict of Russia, 21 miles north- east of Viatka. Tanning and leather-dressing and manufac- ture of fur garments, matches, soap, and a bell-metal foundry are the chief industries. Pop. 10,900. Slocum, Henry Warner (1827-94), American soldier, was born in Delphi, Onondaga county, N. Y. He was graduated from West Point in 1852. He became colonel of the 27th New York volunteers in May, 1861 ; was severely wounded at the battle of Bull Run, and was pro- moted brigadier-general of vol- unteers in August. He fought in the Peninsula campaign under McClellan ; was promoted major- general of volunteers in July, 1862 ; fought at Manassas, South Mountain, Antietam, and Chancellorsville, and command- ed the right wing at Gettys- burg. He was then transferred to the West ; participated in the operations against Atlanta as commander of the 20th Army Corps ; and commanded the Army of the Cumberland in 'the march to the sea' and in the campaign through the Carolinas. Resigning from the army in September, 1865, he was in the same year Democratic candidate for secretary of state of New York, but was defeated. He was elected to Congress in 1868, 1870, and 1884, and in 1876 was chosen president of the Brooklyn board of city works. Slocum, Joshua (1844; deceased), sailor, born in Wilmot Slocum Disaster 255 Slovaks township, Nova Scotia. He be- came a sailor in boyhood, and commanded trading vessels ply- ing to various parts of the world. When the Brazilian navy re- belled against the republic he was put in command of the Destroyer, which he navigated to Brazilian waters, though he did not engage in any actual fighting. In 1892 he built at Fairhaven, Mass., a sloop of nine tons called the Spray, and in her made a voyage alone around the world. He contributed to periodicals and published: The Voyage of the ' Liberdade' from Brazil to New York (1891); Sailing Alone around the World (1900); The Voyage of the Destroyer (1894). Slo'cum Disaster. On June 15, 1904, the large steamboat General Slocum left her pier in the East River, New York City, having on board about 1,800 persons, chiefly members of St. Mark's Lutheran Church of that city, bound for a day's outing. When the vessel had gone about three miles up the river a fire was discovered on the lower deck. A panic at once ensued, and as the fire spread with great rapidity, many hundreds leaped into the water and were drowned. The vessel was finally grounded near North Brother Island. According to the U. S. Steam- boat Inspection Service, 938 persons perished; the New York police authorities estimated the number at 1,031. In the investi- gation that followed it was shown that the official inspection of the boat had been merely casual; that the life-preservers were nearly worthless, and that there had been little or no attempt to train the officers or crew for emergencies. The captain, William H. Van Schaick, was tried for criminal negligence in 1906, and was found guilty and sentenced to ten years' imprison- ment, but the attempt to fasten legal responsibility upon the officials of the concern which operated the steamboat failed. Sloe. See Blackthorn. Slonim, slo'nyem, town, Po- land, in the government of Grod- no, 75 miles southeast of the city of Grodno. It has distilleries, tanneries, potteries, brick fields, and factories for woolen and linen cloth. Pop. 16,000. Sloop, a small fore-and-aft- rigged vessel with one mast and fixed bowsprit. Before the ad- vent of steam a sloop of war was a vessel of ship-rig smaller than a frigate, and carrying guns on the upper deck only. See Sails and Rigging. Slos'son, Edwin Emery (186.5-1929), American author and editor, was born in Albany, Kan. He was educated at the University of Kansas and ob- tained his Ph. D. at the University of Chicago in 1902. From 1891 to 1903 he was professor of chem- istry in the University of Wyom- ing and chemist of the Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station, and from 1903 to 1920 was liter- ary editor of The Independ- ent. He was an associate of the Columbia School of Journalism, 1912-20, and was subsequently director of Science Service. His publications include Great Ameri- can Universities (1910); Major Prophets of Today (1914); Six Major Prophets (1916); Creative Chemistry (1919); Easy Lessons in Education (1921); Plots and Personalities (1922); Chats on Science (1923). Sloop Sloth, sloth, a South Ameri- can edentate of the family Brady- podidae. It is a purely arboreal animal, varying in size from that of a small bear to that of a cat, and its structure indicates that it is the specialized relict of a primitive group. The fore limbs are greatly elongated (a common characteristic of arboreal ani- mals), and terminate in hook- like digits, never more than three in number, by means of which the creature clings to the branches. The hind limbs termi- nate in similar hooks. The tail is rudimentary, the head short and rounded, the ears very small, and the hair long and coarse. In the natural habitat the hair has a greenish color, due to a covering of algae. Examination of sub-fossil sloths shows that this is a relatively recent adapta- tion, believed to be protective. The teeth have the same general characters as in other edentates. The stomach is complex, in keep- ing with the diet of vegetable matter. There are only two teats, and but one young is pro- duced at a birth. Two genera are known, both confined to the forest region of Central and South America. In the genus Bradypus there are three toes on both fore and hind feet. The species are not well defined; but the type form is B. tridactylus, remarkable in having nine in place of the ordinary seven cervical vertebrae. The two-toed sloths (Cholaepus) have two toes on the fore foot and three on the hind. In one species at least (C. hoffmanni) there are only six cervical verte- brae. See illustration on page 256. Consult IngersoH's Life of Mamals. Sloth Bear (Melursus ur- sinus), a carnivore peculiar to India, which differs both in struc- ture and habits from the typical bears, and is in consequence placed in a separate genus. The incisor teeth are reduced in number, and the cheek teeth are small and weak, but the claws are well developed and powerful. The snout is elongated and mobile, while the palate is deeply arched. The animal lives upon ants, beetles and their larvae, termites, and similar forms; it only rarely eats fish, but is exceedingly fond of fruit and honey. Both size and bulk are notably less than in the brown bear, the body-length being usually from 43^ to 53/2 feet. The fur is long and coarse, and is black, save for a white horseshoe on the chest. The tip of the long muzzle is gray. Though generally inoffensive and easily tamed, this bear has been known to attack man, its strong claws inflicting terrible wounds. Slough, sluf, dead soft tissue, such as results from gangrene and low-grade inflammations. Sloughing may take place from the living tissues as a whole, or the dead tissue may come away in shreds. Slough, slou, market town, England, in Buckinghamshire, 2 miles northeast of Windsor. It is the seat of the Leopold Insti- tute, in memory of the Duke of Albany, and the British Orphan Asylum. Sir William Herschel did much of his astronomical work in Slough, and it was here that he discovered the planet Uranus. During the First World War a huge depot for govern- ment motor cars and lorries was erected here. Stoke Poges and the Burnham Beeches are in the vicinity. Pop. 33,530. Slovaks, slo-vaks', a people belonging to the western branch of the Slav family, occupying principally parts of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire which were included in the republic of Czechoslovakia (Moravia and northwestern Hungary). They are essentially an agricultural people, slow in mind, peaceful in character, and fond of music. Nearly 95 per cent of them are Roman Catholics. Their lan- guage was a dialectal form of Slovenes KR 256 Small Holdings Act Czech, and Czech was employed in all their writings till the close of the eighteenth century, when the Slovak dialect supplanted it. They number over three million. There are about 331,000 Slovaks in the United States, engaged and it was subsequently estab- lished in Sweden and in Den- mark, through the efforts of Dr. Salomon and Dr. Nieffert. In 1872 a sloyd school for boys and young men was founded in Niiiis. Three Ncars later a scini- From the American Mwseum of Natural History Two-toed Sloth of Costa Rica chiefly in mines and steel mills. See Czechoslovakia. Slovenes, slo-venz', a South Slavic people, chiefly inhabiting Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and portions of Istria. They are a placid, peaceful race, numbering some 1,144,298, of whom 85 per cent are Roman Catholics. Slo- vene is a language closely akin to Serbo-Croatian. There are about 100,000 Slovenes in the United States, chiefly unskilled laborers. See Jugoslavs; Serb- Croat-Slovene State. Sloyd, sloid (Swed. Slojd), a system of manual training which originated in Finland and Swed- en. It is now an integral ele- ment of the curriculum in all Swedish schools, and has also been introduced into other coun- tries. It includes instruction in carpentry, iron-work, stonework, and the like. Otto Cygnaeus, the organizer of the Finland public school system, was the first to secure for it a prominent place in a school curriculum, nary for the training of teachers was added. See Manual Training. Slug, in popular language any air-breathing (pulmonate) gas- tropod in which the shell is rudi- mentary or absent. As, how- ever, the shell has been lost independently in various fami- lies of pulmonates, the term has no well-defined zoological sig- nificance. Slugs belong chiefly Common Black Slug (Arion empiricorum) . to the families Limacidae and Arionidae. Typical forms are elongated, contractile, and point- ed posteriorly. Most of them are vegetarian, but some are carnivorous at times. They live in damp places, and hide under decaying vegetation during the hot sunshine. Hundreds of eggs are laid in the course of a sum- mer. The European slugs, of which L. maximus, the Great Gray Slug, is typical, are often destructive to gardens, but none of the American species is large or harmful. The shelled slugs (Testacellidae) constitute a family, some mem- bers of which are snail-like in appearance, while others, includ- ing the type genus, have only a very small shell placed at the extremity of the elongated body, near which is the breathing pore. The species of Testacella are carnivorous, feeding upon earth- worms. They occur, somewhat infrequently in Great Britain. See Gasteropoda; Snail. Sluis, slois, village, Nether- lands, 14 miles northeast of Bruges, Belgium. Near here, on June 24, 1340, an English fleet, under the command of Edward iii, crushingly defeated a French fleet. In 1492 an English squadron, under Sir Edward Poynings, cooperated with the elector of Saxony in re- ducing Sluis. Pop. 3,000. Slutsk, sldbtsk, town, Russia, in the government of Minsk, 62 miles south of the city of Minsk. The chief industries are tanning, brickmaking, and the manufacture of pottery and tobacco. Pop. 14,000. Smack, a fishing vessel, either under sail or steam, having a well amidships in which the fish are kept alive. Smaland, smol'an, division of Sweden, comprising the counties of Kalmar (minus Oland), Kron- oberg, and Jonkoping. Small Arms, a general name for portable firearms. See Fire- arms; Rifle; Revolver. Smalley, smol'i, George Washburn (1833-1916), Ameri- can journalist, was born in Franklin, Mass. He was gradu- ated from Yale in 1853, studied law, and practised (1856-61) in Boston. In 1861 he became war correspondent for the New York Tribune, and afterwards went to Europe to report upon the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Having settled in London, he represented the Tribune there until 1895, when he returned to the United States as correspond- ent of the London Times. His publications include London Letters (1890), Studies of Men (1895), and Anglo-American Memories (1911, 1912). Small Holdings Act. In Great Britain, under an act of 1892, a county council may, if there is a demand for small agri- cultural holdings, and if it thinks it will not lose money on the transaction, acquire or lease land. Smallpox KR 257 Smeaton and adapt it for small holdings exceeding one acre, but not ex- ceeding fifty acres, and either let it, where the holding does not ex- ceed fifteen acres, or in any case sell it, receiving one-fifth of the purchase money on completion, and the balance by half-yearly instalments within fifty years. Smallpox, or Variola, a highly infectious and contagious eruptive fever, said to have been the cause during the 18th century of one-tenth of the total mortal- ity. The name smallpox was used to distinguish it from the so- called 'great pox' of epidemic syphilis, prevalent in that period. Smallpox is believed to be caused by a filtrable virus. It is now a comparatively rare and mild dis- order in civilized countries, thanks to Jenner's discovery of the protective power of vaccina- tion. The vaccination for small- pox was introduced to America in 1799 by Benjamin Waterhouse. Thomas Jefferson was largely re- sponsible for its more widespread application. Isolation of the sufferers and ordinary attempts at disinfection do not prevent spread of the disease. Smallpox hospitals, should have uninhabi- ted ground for a radius of at least four hundred yards about them. Occasional cases have cropped up in soldiers returning from wars in foreign countries, and in tradespeople returning from abroad, but the prompt in- stitution of mass vaccination wherever the disease has appear- ed has prevented epidemics. The largest number of cases are reported from states in which vaccination is still not compul- sory. Public health authorities and teachers should warn the people of the dangers of such neglect. Incubation period is twenty-four hours to twelve days. An attack is ushered in by chills, rise of temperature, head- aches, vomiting, and violent pains in the loins. Three days later an eruption develops, and the temperature falls, but rises again about the eighth day after the onset. The eruption first appears as pimples at the mar- gins of the hair. Then on the hands, back, and legs and a little later spreads all over the body. The pimples turn to vesicles full of lymph. About the eighth day these become pustular, and the temperature rises again. About eleven days after the on- set crusts begin to form and the temperature falls again. Con- valescence is then usually unin- terrupted. In uncomplicated cases, convalescence may take from 3 to 21 days. The sufferer is a danger to others from the time of the onset until all crosts and scales have fallen from the body. Attendants may carry the infection to others without themselves being ill. Various forms of small pox are described. The discrete type is mild and occurs in adults who become infected after vaccina- tion in infancy only. In confluent smallpox the vesicles run to- gether, and nearly, half the cases are fatal. Such cases are prac- tically unknown among the vac- cinated. In the haemorrhagic or 'black' form all symptoms are ex- aggerated, and death is prac- tically certain, and generally rapid. Small hemorrhages occur into each vesicle. These cases are unknown among the vaccin- ated. Possible complications and nearly sequel of smallpox are bronchitis, pneumonia, laryn- gitis, inflammatory conditions of the middle ear, and of the eye, at times ending in loss of sight. Other residual conditions include myocarditis, nephritis, necrosis of the sort palate, erysipelas, celUitis, and osteomyelitis. Diag- nosis is based on the appearance of the characteristic vesicles. Chickenpox has a much shorter period of incubation, and the lesions become pustular within 24 hours, as compared with the 4 to 8 days required for this de- velopment in smallpox. Vaccination in infancy in- sisted upon by law in most civil- ized countries renders the child immune for many years, and tends to modify any attack in adult life. Revaccination at about the age of fifteen should be practiced, and about once in 3 to 5 years thereafter, or whenever an epidemic appears. Vaccina- tion within three days after in- fection may favorably modify the course of the disease, and in many cases will greatly lessen the danger modifying all symp- toms. In treatment, immediate isola- tion is the first step, with all possible precautions concerning the disinfection of excreta, clothes, and attendants. Any sign of eye-trouble must be at once met by guarding the eyes from light, and by the frequent use of mild antiseptic lotions — e.g. boracic lotion. Oily oint- ments during and after pustula- tion aid removal of the crusts and lessen irritation. Many methods are advocated for the prevention of disfigurement by pitting; but if the pustules are deep they will leave scars in spite of all care. Hospitalization is recommended whenever possible. Some persons are apparently per- fectly immune, being neither capable of vaccination nor sus- ceptible to infection. Although it can be truly stated that this dread disease is now on the wane, neglect of vaccination and re- vaccination might very shortly lead to a growing non-immune population with disastrous re- sults. Cases of exaggerated re- action to vaccination, which may be severe or even fatal, are ex- tremely rare. See Vaccination. Smallwood, William (1732- 92), American soldier, bom in Kent CO., Md. He commanded the Maryland troops at the bat- tle of Long Island in 1776; was wounded at the battle of White Plains; was promoted brigadier general in October, 1776; and fought at Ft. Washington, Ger- man town, Camden, and else- where. In 1780 he was commis- sioned major general, but de- clined to serve under Baron Steuben, and threatened to with- draw from the army, but ulti- mately remained in it until the close of the war. In 1785 he was elected governor ' of Maryland and also a member of the Con- gress of the Confederation. Smalt, a silicate of potassium and cobalt, obtained by melting the crude cobalt oxide, which is got by roasting cobalt ore, with potassium carbonate and quartz. The product is poured into water and then finely ground. It forms a permanent blue pigment, which is used for glass-staining, china- painting, and as an oil and water color; but it has been largely superseded by artificial ultra- marine. Smart, Christopher (1722- 71), English poet, bom at Ship- boume, Kent, became fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge, in 1745. When debt and dis- sipation drove him from Cam- bridge, he went to London and worked as a bookseller's hack. About 1756 he went mad, and was confined till 1759 in an asy- lum. During this time he is said to have scratched with a key a part of his now famous Song to David (1763) on the wain- scot of his room, he being denied the use of pen, ink, and paper. His last days were spent in the King's Bench prison, where he was relieved from the extremity of want through the kindness of Dr. Burney. Other poems are the Hop-Garden; the HilUad (1753), an attack on Hill the botanist; Fables {17 &2>); a prose translation of Horace (1756); Odes and Ballads: and much Latin verse. The best biography is in Anderson's British Poets. See also Browning's Parleyings with Certain People (1887). Smart weed, a name some- times given to Polygonum Hydro, piper, the common waterpepper- It bears slender, loose, drooping spikes of greenish flowers. The fresh juice is acrid, and possesses a characteristic flavor. Smeaton, John (1724-92), English civil engineer, was bom near Leeds. Starting as a maker of philosophical instruments, he gradually turned his attention to engineering, and became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1753. After 1755 he designed the third Eddystone lighthouse entirely of Smectymnuus KR 258 Smillie stone, dovetailing the stones in their various courses. This Ught- house stood until 1877 when it was taken down because the reef on which it was built had become undermined. After that Smeaton built several bridges in Scotland, and strengthened the foundation buttresses of the North Bridge, Edinburgh (1769). He was also the surveyor and engineer of the Forth and Clyde Canal, begun in 1768, but not completed till 1790. See Smiles' Lives of the Engineers (ed. 1874). S mec ty m nuu s, the initials of certain Nonconformist writers who published (1641) a reply to Bishop Hall's Humble Remon- strance to the High Court of Par- liament (1641), written in defence of Episcopacy and the Book of Common Prayer. Their names were Stephen Marshall, Edmund Calamy, Thomas Young, Mat- thew Newcomen, William Spurs- tow. Milton supported the Smec- tymnuan divines with three pam- phlets. Smederevo. See Semenexria. S medley, Francis Edward (1818-64), English novelist (known as Frank Smedley), was bom at Great Marlow, and was a cripple. In 1850 he published Frank Fairlegh, a series of sketches contributed (1846-8) to Sharpe's London Magazine. An- other edition was published in New York and Philadelphia, also in 1850. This novel, which ranks with Tom Brown's School Days, was an instant success. He also wrote Lewis Arundel (1852), Harry Coverdale' s Courtship (1855) which were illustrated by Cruikshank and Phiz, and Mirth and Metre (with Edmund Yates) (1855). Smedley, William Thomas (1858-1920), American painter and illustrator, bom in Chester CO., Pa., and a student of the Pennsylvania Academy, and of J. P. Laurens in Paris. He set- tled in New York city in 1880 and devoted himself to illustra- tions, of which he made a large number for Harper s and other magazines. In 1882 he accom- panied the Marquis of Lome in a trip through Canada, making the sketches for the volume Pic- turesque Canada. He was elected a member of the National Aca- demy of Design in 1905. He re- ceived the Evans Prize at the American Water Color Society in 1890. In later years, in addition to effective illustrations of every- day life for books and magazines, he painted a number of portraits, among them that of a man in the N. Y. National Academy exhi- bition of 190.3, and that of Ruth at the exhibition of 1906. Smee Cell. See Cells, Vol- taic, Smellle, William (1740-95), Scottish printer, antiquary, and naturalist, was born in Edin- burgh, and became an enthus- iastic botanist. Meantime he continued his business as a printer, and wrote a goodly part of the first edition of the Encyclo- paedia Britannica, which he printed. See Kerr's Memoirs of the Life of Smellie (1811). Smelling Salts, a prepara- tion of ammonium carbonate to- gether with some pleasant per- fume, used as a restorative and stimulant in faintness, and for relief in cases of nasal catarrh. Smelt (Osmerus), a genus of fish belonging to the salmon family, characterized by the elon- gated body, the wide mouth- cleft, the moderate-sized scales, and the well-developed teeth, some of which are tusklike. The common European smelt (O. eperlanus), the sparling or spir- ling of Scotland, spawns in brack- ish water, and is found in the mouths of rivers in N. Europe. The eastern American smelt (O. merdax) is almost the same. It does not exceed twelve inches in length, and is light olive-green on the back, and silvery at the sides and below, with a specially silvery band running along each side. Another species of the same genus is found in Califor- nia, and a fourth in Japan; and everywhere they are delicate and important additions to the local supply of sea-food, and are taken in vast numbers. Smelting and Chemical Furnaces, Electric. See Elec- trometallurgy. Smerdis, a son of Cyrus the Great, who was put to death about 525 B.C. by his brother Cambyses, But he was person- ated by Gaumata, a Mede, who, after Cambyses' death, secured the throne, Darius, the son of Hystaspes, formed a conspiracy against him, killed him (521 B,c.) and seized the throne. Smerwick, peninsula and bay, Ireland, west Co, Kerry, 5J^ m, N,w, of Dingle; was in 1579 the scene of the slaughter of six hundred invading Italian and Spanish soldiers by Lord- Deputy Grey and Walter Ra- leigh. Smetana, Friedrich (1824- 84), Bohemian pianist and com- power, born at Leitomischl. He studied under Liszt; was a bril- liant pianist; held appointments as conductor — e.g. at Gothen- burg (1856-61) — and as director of the National Theatre at Prague (1866-74); founded a school of music in Prague, and was the teacher of Dvorak, His compositions are distinctively Bohemian in character. Smew, Smee, or Nun (Mer- gus albellus), a duck belonging to the same genus as the merganser, and an occasional visitor to the British area. The drake in nuptial plumage is a beautiful bird, having a white head marked with greenish blue, while the neck and under surface are white, and the back is marked with black, brown, gray, and white. The bird is only about seventeen inches long, S michow, town, Czechoslova- kia, a suburb of Prague, Pop. 56,000. Smilacina, a genus of hardy herbaceous plants, belonging to the order Liliacae, bearing ra- cemes or panicles of mostly small flowers. They are easily grown in ordinary garden soil. 5. stel- lata, the star-flowered lily of the valley, and 5, racemosa, the false Solomon's seal, are most worth cultivating. Smilax, a genus of shrubbery plants belonging to the order Liliaceae, They bear umbels of small, dioecious flowers, and the roots of several species consti- tute sarsaparilla, 5, herbacea is the carrion-flower, an unarmed climber, with tassels of evil- smelling flowers. Other species viciously armed with prickles are the various green-briers or catbriers (S. rotundifolia) {S. glauca). Smiles, Samuel (1812-1904), Scottish biographer, was born at Haddington, In 1838 he became editor of the Leeds Times. Ap- pointed in 1845 secretary of the Leeds and Thirsk Ry., and changing in 1854 to the same post on the South-Eastern Ry., he retired in 1866. Smiles is the biographer and historian of self- made men and noble industry. His books include George Stephen- son (1857); Lives of the Engineers (1862) ; Industrial Biography (1863) ; Boulton and Watt (1865); Thomas Edwards, Scottish Nat- uralist (1876); Robert Dick, Ge- ologist and Botanist (1878); Men of Invention and Industry (1884); and Jasmyn, Barber, Poet, and Philanthropist (1891). He edited the Autobiography of James Na- smyth (1883). His Self-Help (1860) had an extraordinary suc- cess, and was followed in 1871 by Character, Duty, Thrift, and Con- duct. A History of Ireland (1844), The Huguenots in England and Ireland (1869), and The Hugue- nots in France after the Edict of Nantes (1874) are his main his- torical works. See Autobio- graphy, edited by Thomas Mac- kay (1905), Smillie, George Henry (1840-1921), American painter, born in New York city, and a pupil of his father, the engraver, and of James Hart, After some European study he settled in New York in 1862, and was elected to the National Academy of Design in 1882, and later to the Water Color Society. At St. Louis in 1904 he was awarded a bronze medal. Among his works in Smillie KFP 259 Smith public museums are The Merri- mac River (Boston Art Club), Light and Shadow Along Shore (Union League Club, Philadel- phia), and Autumn on the Mas- sachusetts Coast and Long Is- land Farm Scene (Corcoran Art Gallery). His September on the New England Coast gained a prize at the exhibit of the Amer- ican Art Association in 1885. His other pictures include Boats of Venice (1902); Gloucester Harbor (1903) ; Grey Day (1904) ; Vineyard Sound (1905) ; At Narragansett (1906). Smillie, James David (1833- 1909), American engraver, etch- er, and landscape painter, broth- er of George Henry Smillie (q. v.), was born in New York City, studied with his father at the National Academy of Design and later in Germany, and did his first work in banknote en- graving. In 1876 he was elected a member of the National Acad- emy. He was one of the found- ers of the American Water Color Society (1866) and of the New York Etching Club (1878), and was an 'original fellow' of the Painter-Etcher Society of Lon- don. He organized and taught the department of freehand etch- ing in the National Academy of Design, and made reproductive etchings of paintings by Wins- low Homer, Alma-Tadema, and others, as well as a number of portraits. Many of his paintings are spirited portrayals of far western scenes. Smirke, Sir Robert (1781- 1867), English architect, was born in London. His best known buildings are the Post Office, London, and the British Muse- um (1847). He also designed the Covent Garden Theatre, London and Union Club. Smirke, Sydney (1798- 1877), English architect, was born in London. He collaborated with his brother. Sir Robert (q. V.) ; completed the Temple Church restoration and the Brit- ish Museum ; restored the Savoy Chapel ; remodeled the Carlton Club, and rebuilt the Inner Tem- ple Hall. His latest work was the Royal Academy buildings, Bur- lington House. Smith, the most general sur- name in the world, being com- mon not only in its English form, but under the designations which correspond to it in various languages. There can be no doubt that, like most other names, it originated from the trade of the bearer. The name is still further defined by such qualifying terms as Whitsmith (= white smith), Brownsmith, Arrowsmith, Nasmyth (= nail smith). Smith. Adam (1723-90), Scottish political economist, was born in Kirkcaldy, was educated at Glasgow University and at Oxford, and in 1748 joined the literary circle in Edinburgh, where he delivered a course of lectures on literature and criti- cism. He was appointed profes- sor of logic in (jlasgow Univer- sity in 1751 and the next year was transferred to the chair of moral philosophy. In 1759 he published his Theory of the Moral Sentiments, in which he takes sympathy as the root idea in morals — a doctrine for which modern sociologists — e.g., Gid- dings — claim an importance al- most equal to that of his eco- nomic researches. He became tutor to the young Duke of Buc- Adam Smith cleuch, in 1763, resigned his chair in Glasgow, and returned to Kirkcaldy, where in 1776 he published his famous Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The book won immediate recognition and Adam Smith was unhesitatingly hailed as a master. During the war with the American colonies, Lord North seems to have been influenced by this work in im- posing new taxes; and in 1783 Smith was consulted by the Sec- retary to the Board of Trade in regard to the regulation of trade with the United States. The in- fluence of his theories is further manifested in the reform of the British commercial system by the repeal of the Corn Laws and the Navigation Laws. Smith, Alexander (1865- 1922), American chemist and educator, was born in Edin- burgh, Scotland. He was educat- ed at the Universities of Edin- burgh and Munich ; was assist- ant in chemistry at the Univer- sity of Edinburgh (1889-90); professor of chemistry and min- eralogy at Wabash College (1890-4) ; assistant and associ- ate professor of chemistry (1894-1903); professor and di- rector (1903-11), and dean of the Junior Colleges (1900-11), Chicago University ; and profes- sor of chemistry in Columbia University (1911-21). He pub- lished Laboratory Outline of General Chemistry (1899) ; General Inorganic Chemistry (1906) ; General Chemistry for Colleges (1908) ; Textbook of Elementary Chemistry (1914) ; Intermediate Chemistry (1919). Smith, Alfred Emanuel (1873-1944), American public official, was born in New York City, and was educated in the parochial schools there. He was a member of the New York As- sembly (1903-15), of which he was speaker in 1913, sheriff of New York County (1915-17), and president of the Board of Aldermen of New York City (1917-19). He was elected gov- ernor of New York in 1918, was defeated for the same office in 1920, but was re-elected in 1922, 1924, and 1926. He was an un- successful candidate for the Democratic Presidential nomi- nation in 1924, but in 1928 he was the Democratic nominee for President of the United States. He received 87 out of 531 elec- toral votes. Thereafter he re- tired from public life, devoting his time to business in New York and taking an active inter- est in the civic affairs of his na- tive city as well as of the state and nation. As a statesman and as a man of deep religious and charitable convictions, he en- joyed the highest esteem of the whole country. Smith, Andrew -Heermance (1837-1910), American physi- cian, was born in Charlton, N. Y. He was graduated from the College of Physicians and Sur- geons, New York (1858), prac- ticed medicine in New York (1859-61), and in 1861 joined the Forty-third New York vol- unteers as assistant surgeon. In 1862 he was surgeon to the Ninety-fourth New York volun- teers, in 1862—8 assistant sur- geon in the United States Army, and in 1867 was brevetted ma- jor. In the following year he re- sumed his medical practice in New York, and became promi- nent in hospital work and teach- ing. He was called in consulta- tion at the time of Garfield's as- sassination. He was vice-presi- dent and professor at the New York Post Graduate Medical School. Smith, Andrew Jackson (1815-97), American soldier, was born in Berks County, Pa. He was graduated from West Point in 1838, and served in the West and in the Mexican War. He was given command of the Smith KFP 260 Smith Second California Cavalry in 1861 ; became a brigadier gen- eral of volunteers in 1862, and major general of volunteers in 1864. He took a prominent part in the campaigns in the Missis- sippi Valley ; commanded a di- vision of the Thirteenth Corps in the Vicksburg campaign ; was ordered with three divisions of the Sixteenth Corps to Banks' army in Louisiana in the spring of 1864, and distinguished him- self in the disastrous Red River expedition. In the battle of Nashville (December 1864), he commanded the Sixteenth Corps, on Thomas' right, and for his services received the brevet of major general in the regular army. In 1866 he was appointed colonel of the Seventh Cavalry in the regular service. He re- signed from the army in 1869. Smith, Benjamin Bosworth (1794-1884), American Protes- tant Episcopal bishop, was born in Bristol, R. I. He was gradu- ated from Brown University in 1816; ordained priest in 1818; and was in charge of churches in Massachusetts, Virginia, and Vermont until 1828, after which for two years he presided over Grace Church mission in Phila- delphia. In 1830 he became rec- tor of Christ Church at Lexing- ton, Ky., and in 1832 was conse- crated first bishop of Kentucky. From 1868 he was presiding bishop of the Protestant Episco- pal Church. Smith, Benjamin Eli (1857- 1913), American lexicographer and editor, was born in Beirut, Syria, the son of Eli Smith (q. v.), and was graduated from Amherst (1877). From 1883 he was managing editor and from 1894 editor of The Century Dic- tionary. He was also editor of The Century Cyclopaedia of Names (1894), The Century At- las (1897), and The Century Dictionary Supplement (1909) ; translated Schwegler's History of Philosophy (1879) and Cic- ero's De Amicitia (1897) ; and edited selections from Marcus Aurelius (1899), Epictetus (1900), and Pascal (1902). Smith, Charles Alphonso (1864-1924), American educa- tor, was born in Greensboro, N. C. He was graduated from Davidson College, North Caro- lina (1884), and from Johns Hopkins University (ph.d., 1893), and was thereafter pro- fessor of English language and literature at Louisiana State University (1893-1902); pro- fessor of English language (1902-07), head of the English department (1907-09), and dean of the graduate department (1903-09) of the University of North Carolina ; Edgar Allan Poe professor of English at the University of Virginia (1909- 17). From 1917 until his death he was head of the English de- partment at the U. S. Naval Academy. He was Roosevelt professor of American history and institutions at the Univer- sity of Berlin in 1910-11. His published works include Repeti- tion and Parallelism in English Verse (1894) ; Old English Grammar (1896) ; Elementary English Grammar (1903) ; Stud- ies in English Syntax (1906) ; The American Short Story (1912) ; Keynote Studies in Keynote Books of the Bible (1919) ; Essays on Current Themes (1923). Smith, Charles Emory (1842-1908), American journal- ist and U. S. Postmaster Gen- eral, was born in Mansfield, Conn. He was graduated from Union College in 1861, and was active during the Civil War in organizing a volunteer regiment. He was editor of the Albany Ex- press (1865-70), of the Albany Journal (1870-80), and of the Philadelphia Press (1880-1908); was president of the Republican State Convention (1879), min- ister to Russia (1890-92), and Postmaster General of the Unit- ed States (1898-1902). Smith, Charles Ferguson (1807-62), American soldier, was born in Philadelphia. He was graduated from the U. S. Military Academy in 1825 ; served under Generals Taylor and Scott in the Mexican War, and received the brevets of ma- jor, lieutenant colonel, and colo- nel for gallant and meritorious service. He was commissioned lieutenant colonel in 1855 ; was appointed brigadier general of volunteers in August 1861 ; commanded the district of West- ern Kentucky ; served under Grant in the operations against Forts Henry and Donelson, and led the decisive assault at the latter place. In March 1862, he received an accidental injury, which resulted in his death. Smith, Charles Forster (1852-1927), American philolo- gist and educator, was born in Abbeville county, S. C, was graduated from Wofford Col- lege, S. C, in 1872, and studied at Harvard, Berlin, and Leipzig (PH.D., 1881). He taught at Wof- ford College and at Williams, was professor of Greek at Van- derbilt Universitly from 1883 to 1894, and professor of Greek and classical philology at the University of Wisconsin from 1894 to 1917, when he retired as professor emeritus. In 1903 he was president of the Ameri- can Philological Association. He wrote Reminiscences and Sketches (1909); Charles Ken- dall Adams, a Life Sketch (1924) ; edited Thucydides vii (1886), III (1894), and vi (1913) ; Xenophon's Anabasis (1905), and Herodotus vii (1907); and translated Hertz- berg's Geschichte Griechenlands (1900), and Thucydides (1919- 23). Smith, Charles Sprague (1853-1910), American educa- tor, was born in Andover, Mass. He was graduated from Am- herst (1875), studied abroad for five years, and in 1880 was ap- pointed instructor in Italian and Spanish at Columbia University, where he became professor of German in the same year. Two years later he was transferred to the chair of modern languages and literatures, and in 1890 to that of Romance languages and literatures, from which he re- signed in 1891. In 1895 he or- ganized, in New York City, the Society of Comparative Litera- ture, of which he became presi- dent, and in 1897 the People's Institute, of which he was man- aging director. He published Barbizon Days (1902) ; Work- ing with the People (1904) ; Poems^ (1908). Smith, Charles William (1840-1914), American Meth- odist Episcopal bishop, was born in Fayette county. Pa. He was ordained in 1859, and was for twenty years pastor of various churches in and near Pittsburgh. From 1884 to 1908 he was edi- tor of the Pittsburgh Christian Advocate, and in 1908 was made a bishop of the Methodist Epis- copal Church. He was a member of the Centennial Conference at Baltimore (1884), the Ecumeni- cal Conferences at Washington (1891) and London (1901) ; vice-chairman of a commission to revise the constitution of the Church (1896-1900); chairman of a commission to revise the judicial procedure of the Church (1908-12). Smith, Clement Lawrence (1844-1909), American educa- tor, was born in Upper Darby, Pa. He was graduated from Haver ford College (1860), and from Harvard (1863), and was assistant professor of classics and mathematics at Haverford (1863—5), and professor of Greek and German at Swarth- more College (1869-70). In 1870 he became tutor in Latin at Har- vard, where he was subsequently assistant professor (1873-83), and professor (1883-1904), dean of the college (1882-91), and of the faculty of arts and science of the university (1898-1902). In 1897-8 he was director of the American School of Classical Studies at Rome, and in 1898-9 was president o^ the American Philological Association. Smith, David Eugene (1860- Smith KFP 261 Smith 1944), American mathematician, was born in Cortland, N. Y. He was graduated from Syracuse University in 1881 and was admitted to the New York bar in 1883. In 1884-91 he was teacher of mathematics in the state normal school in Cortland ; in 1891-8, professor of mathe- matics in the state normal col- lege at Ypsilanti, Mich. ; and in 1898-1901 principal of the nor- mal school, Brockport, N. Y. In 1901 he became professor of mathematics in Teachers Col- lege, New York. His publica- tions include : History of Mod- ern Mathematics (1896) ; Teach- ing of Elementary Mathematics (1900) ; Primary Arithmetic (1904) ; Advanced Arithmetic (1905) ; Rara Arithmetica (1909). Smith, Edgar Fahs (1856- 1928), American chemist, born in York, Pa. He graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in 1874, and studied chemistry for several years in Europe. On his return to America he filled chairs in various western col- leges, eventually becoming direc- tor of the John Harrison labora- tory in the chemical department of the University of Pennsyl- vania. He carried out a large number of important experi- ments, and became an authority on electrolytic methods of assay- ing metals and inorganic sub- stances. His publications in- clude : Chemistry of the Carbon Compounds (2 vols., 1900) and, with H. F. Keller, Experiments Arranged for Students in Gen- eral Chemistry (1900). Smith, Edmund Kirby (1824-93), American soldier, was born in St. Augustine, Fla. He graduated from West Point in 1845 ; was twice brevetted for gallantry during the Mexican War; and in 1861, having reached the rank of major of cavalry, resigned to enter the Confederate service. He was made brigadier general, and at Bull Run commanded the brigade of Johnson's army which was first to arrive on the field to the relief of the Confederates. He became major general in the fall of 1861, and in 1862 commanded in east Tennessee. In August of that year he invaded Ken- tucky, in concert with Bragg ; defeated a small Federal force at Richmond, and captured Lexing- ton. Forced to retreat, he joined forces wtih Bragg at Harrods- burg, and both commanders re- tired into east Tennessee. Smith was appointed lieutenant general in October, 1862; in 1863-65 he commanded the Trans-Missis- sippi Department, reaching the rank of general in 1864. He de- feated Banks's expedition up the Red River in April of that year, winning, with Dick Taylor, the victory of Sabine Cross Roads. On May 26, 1865, he surren- dered the last Confederate army to General Canby. He was presi- dent of the Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph Company in 1866- 68 ; chancellor of the University of Nashville in 1870-75 ; profes- sor of mathematics in the Uni- versity of the South in 1875-93. Smith, Eli (1801-57), Amer- ican missionary and traveler, born in Northford, Conn. He graduated from Yale College in 1821, and the Andover Theologi- cal Seminary in 1826. In the latter year he was sent to Malta by the American Board to su- perintend a missionary printing plant. He spent some time at Beirut, acquired a knowledge of Arabic, and in 1829, with Dr. Rufus Anderson, traveled through Greece. In 1830-31, in company with Dr. H. G. O. Dwight, he made an extensive tour through Armenia, Georgia, and Persia. As a result of this journey, the American Board es- tablished the important Armeni- an and Nestorian missions. He accompanied Dr. Edward Robin- son in his geographical expedi- tions in Palestine in 1838, and again in 1852, and contributed to the volumes which resulted from these journeys. Under his super- vision there was cast, at Leipzig, a new and improved font of Ara- bic type. From 1847 to his death he was engaged on a translation of the Bible into Arabic. This was completed by Dr. C. V. Van Dyke. He wrote : Missionary Researches in Armenia (with Dr. Dwight, 1832) ; Sermons and Addresses (1834). Smith, Elizabeth Oakes (Prince) (1806-93), American author, was born in Cumberland, Me. She was early married to Seba Smith (q. v.), whom she assisted in editorial work. Her first metrical compositions were published anonymously, but in 1839 she began to write over her own name. Removing with her husband to New York City in 1842, she added lecturing to au- thorship, and was an early advo- cate of women's suffrage, pub- lishing in this connection Wom- an and Her Needs (1851). Some of her volumes are : Riches Without Wings (1838); Sinless Child, and Other Poems (1843); Jacob Leisler (1853) ; Bald Eagle (1867). Smith, Ellison Du Rant ri866-1944),^ American mer- chant and legislator, was born in Lynchburg, S. C. He graduated from Wofford College, Spartan- burg, S. C. (1889), and received the degree of a.m. from Vander- bilt University in the following year. He became a merchant and planter, and in 1896 entered public life as member of the South Carolina House of Repre- sentatives. After the expiration of his term (1900) he was active in the movement that resulted in the formation of the Farmers' Protective Association, and was the general organizer of the Southern Cotton Association (1905-8). In 1909 he was elect- ed U. S. Senator from South Carolina, and was re-elected four times successively. Smith, Erminie Adelle (1836-86), American ethnologist, born in Marcellus, _ N. Y. _ She graduated as a mining engineer in the School of Mines, Freiberg, Saxony. She founded and acted as president of the Aesthetic So- ciety, Jersey City, and was an active public lecturer on scien- tific subjects. In 1878 she under- took some ethnological studies for the Smithsonian Institution. She visited the Tuscarora Indi- ans in Canada, and obtained and classified 15,000 words of the Iroquois dialects. She was au- thor of an Iroquois-English dic- tionary and a volume of essays and poems. Smith, Francis Hopkinson (1838-1915), American engi- neer, artist, and author, was born in Baltimore. As a contractor he built works for the U. S. Gov- ernment, including the sea wall around Governor's Island, N. Y. ; another at Tompkinsville, Staten Island; the Race Rock Lighthouse off New London, Conn., and the foundation for the Bartholdi Statue in New York Harbor. He also became noted for the delicacy and spirit of his water-color sketches, which include ^ views in this country, and in Holland and Venice, and for his lectures on art. He began to write sketches of travel for the magazines in 1880, and since that time pro- duced many books marked by force and humor. Among his works are : Old Lines in New Black and White (1885); A White Umbrella in Mexico (1889) ; Colonel Carter of Car- ter sville (1891) ; A Day at La- guerre's (1892) ; American Il- lustrators (1892) ; Tom Grogan (1896) ; Venice of To-day (1897) ; Caleb West (1898); Fortunes of Oliver Horn (1902); Under Dog (1903); The Veiled Lady (1907) ; Peter (1908) ; Forty Minutes Late (1909) . Smith, George (1840-76), English Assyriologist, was born in Chelsea, London. In 1867 he entered the service of the British Museum. In 1870 he published Annals of Assur-banipal ; in 1872, Chaldean Account of the Deluge. In 1873 he Jed the Daily Telegraph expedition for re- search at Nineveh, which was so Smith KFP 262 Smith fruitful that he went again for the Museum authorities. In 1875 he published Assyrian Dis- coveries, and in 1876, Chaldean Account of Genesis. He went again to the East, and died at Aleppo. Smithy Very Rev. Sir George Adam (1856-1942), British Orientalist, was born in Calcutta, India. He was educat- ed at Edinburgh and the Univer- sities of Tubingen and Leipzig. He held the charge of Queen's Cross Free Church, Aberdeen, from 1882 until elected (1892) to the chair of Hebrew and Old Testament literature in the Free Church College, Glasgow. In 1909 he became principal and vice-chancellor of Aberdeen Uni- versity. He was the Percy Turn- bull lecturer on Hebrew poetry at Johns Hopkins University (1896) ; Lyman Beecher lectur- er on Modern Criticism and Preaching of the Old Testament (published 1901), at Yale Uni- versity (1899) ; Jowett lecturer in London (1900) ; Schweick lecturer at the British Academy (1910). He revisited the United States in 1903 and 1909. and lec- tured at Union Theological Sem- inary and elsewhere. He was moderator of the General As- sembly of the United Free Church of Scotland in 1916-17, Baird lecturer at Glasgow in 1922, and became chaplain to the King in Scotland in 1933. His books . include : Book of Isaiah (1888-90) ; Preaching of the Old Testament to the Age (1893) ; Historical Geography of the Holy Land (1894, many editions) ; Life of Henry Driim- mond (1898) ; Forgiveness of Sins, and other Sermons (1904) ; Jerusalem (1908) ; The Early Poetry of Israel (1912) ; Jere- miah (1923, rev. ed. 1929) ; The Kirk in Scotland (with John Buchan, 1930). Smith, George Otis (1871- 1944), American geologist, was born in Hodgdon, Me. He was graduated from Colby College, received the degree of ph.D. from Johns Hopkins in 1896, and meanwhile was engaged in geological work in several states. He was assistant geologist and geologist in the U. S. Geologi- cal Survey, 1896-1907. He was director of the Survey, 1907-30, except for 1922-23, when he was a mernber of the U. S. ^ Coal Commission. He was chairman of the Federal Power Commis- sion, 1930-33. Smith, Gerrit (1797-1874), American abolitionist and phi- lanthropist, was born in Utica, N. Y., the son of Peter Smith, partner of John Jacob Astor in the fur trade. Gerrit graduated from Hamilton College in 1818, and made his residence in Peter- toro, N. Y. The father had been an owner of slaves, but the son early became interested in the emancipation movement. He was one of the first members of the American Colonization Society, and was mobbed for his views in Syracuse in 1831. He organ- ized the Liberty Party at Ar- cade, N. Y., in 1840, and was its candidate for the Presidency in 1848 and 1852. In 1853 he was an independent U. S. Congress- man, and during his term mani- fested his friendship for the slaves at every opportunity. He abandoned the Colonization So- ciety, and associated himself with the Anti-Slavery Society, becoming an open advocate of abolition. He was accused of active participation in the John Brown raid, at Harper's Ferry ; but his only connection was to supply money to Brown, as he had done previously to him and to others in the Kansas Free-Soil campaign. Gerrit Smith's bene- factions were continuous through life ; one estimate places them at $8,000,000. He gave plots of land, averaging fifty acres each, to more than three thousand per- sons, white and black, during a series of years. An earnest sup- porter of the government dur- ing the Civil War, he counselled moderation at its close, and with Horace Greeley signed the bail bond of Jefferson Davis. Origi- nally a Presbyterian, Smith be- came an independent in reli- gion ; and in 1847 he formed a society at Peterboro, for which he built a chapel, where he fre- quently preached to the congre- gation. His publications, besides pamphlets, include Speeches in Congress (1855); Religion of Reason (1864) ; Nature the Base of a Free Theology (1867). See O. B. Frothingham, Gerrit Smith. Smith, Gerrit (1859-1912), American composer and organ- ist, grand-nephew of the preced- ing, was born in Hagerstown, Md. He was organist at St. Paul's Cathedral, Buffalo; St. Peter's Church, Albany ; and, after 1885, Old South Church, New York. He was professor of music at Union Theological Seminary and professor of mu- sical theory at the Master School, Brooklyn. He was the founder, and for six years presi- dent, of the Manuscript Society of Composers ; was president of the New York State Music Teachers' Association ; and hon- orary president of the American Guild of Organists. Besides songs, anthems, and piano pieces he composed King David, a can- tata, and Thistledown, a song cycle. Smith, GoLDWiN (1823- 1910), British publicist, histo- rian, and man of letters, was born in Reading, England. He was graduated from Magdalen College, Oxford (1845) ; was afterward a fellow at University College, London, and was called to the bar (1847). He contrib- uted largely to the newspapers, and, with Lord Morley and others, helped to launch the Sat- urday Review. He became asso- ciated with the leading public men of England, and was one of the most pronounced of the philosophical Liberals of the time, and an active champion of the cause of the North during the American Civil War. He was Regius professor of history at Oxford (1858-66). He came to America, lectured on English history at Cornell University (1868-71), and in 1871 settled in Toronto, Canada. He wrote for the English and American, as well as the Canadian press, and started The Canadian Monthly, The Week, The Nation, The Bystander, and The Weekly Sun. His warfare against machine politics, his advocacy of the union of Canada and the United States, and his opposition to Irish Home Rule made him un- popular among politicians and others, but his sincerity gained universal respect. He rightly judged himself to be pre-emi- nently a journalist; it has been said that even his histories have the vividness and actuality of contemporary record. He pub- lished Rational Religion (1861) ; Empire (1863) ; Three E1^glish Statesmen (1867); Political Destiny of Canada (1879) ; Wil- liam Cowper (1880) ; Jane Aus- ten (1890) ; United States {l%9 A) ; United Kingdom (1899) ; Com- monwealth or Empire (1902) ; Irish History and the Irish Question (1905) ; Labor and Capital (1907). Consult his Reminiscences (edited by A. Haultain, 1910). Smith, Green Clay (1832- 95), American soldier, was born In Richmond, Ky. He served as a lieutenant in the Mexican War ; graduated from Transyl- vania University in 1849, and the Lexington Law School in 1852 ; and was elected to the legislature in 1860. When the Civil War began he adhered to the Union, and was commis- sioned colonel of the Fourth Kentucky Cavalry; in 1863 he attained the rank of major gen- eral. He_ was a member of Congress in 1863-66, and gover- nor of Montana in 1866-69. In the latter year he became a Bap- tist minister. He was the Pro- hibition candidate for President in 1876. Smith, GusTAvus Woodson (1822-96), American Confeder- ate soldier, -vyg.? born in George- Smith KFP 263 Smith town, Ky. He graduated from the U. S. Military Academy in 1842, and joined the army in Mexico in 1846. He com- manded a company of engineers, and participated in the siege of Vera Cruz and the battles of Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Chur- ubusco, and Chapultepec ; brevet- ted first lieutenant for gallantry at Cerro Gordo. In 1849 he was assistant professor of engineer- ing at West Point. In 1861 he joined the Confederate Army, and was commissioned major general. After the departure of Beauregard for the West he was for a time second in command of the Army of Northern Vir- ginia, taking entire command upon the wounding of Gen. Joseph E. Johnston at Seven Pines, until relieved next day by the assignment of Gen. R. E. Lee. He acted as secretary of war of the Confederate states from^ Nov. 17 to Nov. 21, 1862, and in 1864 was placed in com- mand of the Georgia state troops and served with distinction. Smith, Harry Bache (1860- 1936), comic opera librettist, was one of the most prolific of song writers, collaborating with such composers as Victor Her- bert, DeKoven, Sousa, Lehar, Irving Berlin, Jerome Kern, etc. His first success was The Be- gum, written with Reginald De- Koven with whom he also wrote Don Quixote (1888) and Robin Hood (1890), the latter a popu- lar favorite for twenty years. With Victor Herbert he wrote The Wizard of the Nile, The Fortune Teller, The Serenade, and The Idol's Eye. In 1914, with Irving Berlin, he wrote Watch Your Step and Stop! Look ! Listen ! Among many oth- er works were The Little Cor- poral, Fencing Master, Foxy Quiller, Little Miss Fix-It, and The Belle of Mayfair. He was an enthusiastic collector of books and autographs, and wrote sev- eral books on literary subjects. Smith, Henry Hollings- woRTH (1815-90), American surgeon, born in Philadelphia. He graduated from the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania in 1839, be- gan to practice medicine in Philadelphia, and in 1849 was appointed surgeon to St. Joseph's and Blockley hospitals. In 1854- 71 he was professor of surgery in the University of Pennsylva- nia. At the beginning of the Civil War he organized the army hos- pital department and was ap- pointed surgeon general of Pennsylvania. He was author of Minor Surgery (1846) ; System of Operative Surgery (2 vols. 1852) ; and Practice of Surgery (2 vols. 1857-63). Smith, Henry Preserved (1847-1927), American clergy- man, was born in Troy. N. Y. He was graduated from Amherst in 1869, from Lane Theological Seminary in 1872, and con- tinued his studies at German universities. He was professor of Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis at Lane Theological Seminary, 1877-93. As the re- sult of his paper on 'Biblical Scholarship and Inspiration' the Presbytery of Cincinnati found him guilty of heresy and sus- pended him from the ministry in 1892. Appeals to the Synod of Ohio and the General Assembly of 1894 were rejected, and Prof. Smith, refusing to renounce his views, entered the Congregation- al ministry and accepted a pro- fessorship at Andover Theologi- cal Seminary. From 1898 to 1906 he was a professor and as- sociate pastor at Amherst^ from 1907 to 1913 professor at Mead- ville (Pa.) Theological School, and from 1913 to 1925 professor and chief librarian at Union Theological Seminary, there- after being professor emeritus. His publications include his de- fense, Inspiration and Inerrancy (1893); The Bible and Islam (1897) ; A Commentary on the Books of Samuel (1899) ; Old Testament History (1903); The Religion of Israel (1914); Es- says in Biblical Interpretation (1921). Smith, HERBEkT Knox (1869-1931), American public official, was born in Chester, Mass., and g:raduated from Yale University in 1891 and Yale Law School in 1895. He prac- ticed law in Hartford, Conn., in 1895-1903 and after 1912. He was a member of the Connecti- cut legislature, 1903-05 ; deputy commissioner of corporations, in the U. S. Dept. of Commerce and Labor, 1905-07 ; and com- missioner of corporations, 1907- 12. In 1912 he was the Progres- sive candidate for governor of Connecticut. He served as a ma- jor in the quartermaster corps of the U. S. Army, 1918-19. Smith, Hoke _ (1855-1931), American politician, born in Newton, N. C. He removed to Georgia at the age of 17, was admitted to the bar, and during 1887-96 was proprietor of the Atlanta lournal. In 1893 he was appointed secretary of the interior by Pres. Cleveland, but resigned Aug. 22, 1896, to sup- port Bryan for the Presidency. He was elected governor of Georgia for 1907-09 and 1911- 13 but resigned to serve as U. S. Senator 1911-15 (an unexpired term) and was re-elected, 1915- 21. Smith, Horatio, known as Horace (1779-1849), English novelist and parodist. He came suddenly into fame as one of the authors of the Rejected Ad- dresses (1812), a series of paro- dies of the poets of the day. In this he was associated with his brother James, who contributed the best of the parodies. Horace Smith turned out several histori- cal novels in the style of .Scott, of which the best was Bramble- tye House, or Cavaliers and Roundheads (1825). See Epes Sargent's Memoir, prefixed to Rejected Addresses (1871). Smith, Jacob Hurd (1840- 1918), American soldier, born at Jackson Iron Furnace, O. He served in the Civil War, and at the outbreak of the war with Spain had reached the rank of major in the regular army. He became colonel in 1899 and brigadier general of volunteers in 1900 and in the regular army in 1901. He was retired from active service July 16, 1902, with a reprimand from the President because of unneces- sarily harsh orders given to his subordinates while commanding in Samar, Philippine Islands. Smith, James {c. 1715- 1806), American politician and signer of the Declaration of In- dependence, born in Ireland. In early youth he was taken to Pennsylvania. He studied law, was admitted to the bar, and at the beginning of the Revolution was practicing his profession at York, Pa. He was prominent in the Revolutionary movement in Pennsylvania and was a member of the Continental Congress in 1775-78. He also served in the state constitutional convention in 1776, and jn 1780 was a member of the legislature. Smith, James (1737-1812), American pioneer, born in Franklin county. Pa. During 1755-59 he was a captive among the Indians ; served in Boquet's expedition of 1764 as a lieuten- ant; and in 1766-67 went on an exploring expedition into Ken- tucky. He served in Lord Dun- more's war against the Indians ; was a member of the Pennsyl- vania assembly in 1776-77; fought for a time against the British ; was appointed colonel and assigned to duty on the west- ern frontier; and in 1788 settled in Bourbon county, Ky. He published several works, among which are An Account of the Remarkable Occurrences in the Life and Travels of Col. James Smith (1799) and A Treatise on the Mode and Meaner of Indian War (1811). Smith, James (1775-1839), English poet and parodist, elder brother of Horace Smith, was born in London, and succeeded his father as solicitor to the Board of Ordnance in 1812. In the same year he collaborated with his brother in the produc- Smith KFP 264 Smith tion of the Rejected Addresses. Among other works, he produced the text for Charles Matthews' comic entertainment, The Trip to America (1822). Smith, James Francis (1859-1928), American soldier and administrator, born in San Francisco, Calif. He was ad- mitted to the bar in 1881, and in 1898 went to the Philippine Is- lands as colonel of the 1st Cali- fornia volunteers. He saw much active service with his regiment in the campaign against Manila and in the subsequent war with the Filipinos, becoming a briga- dier general of volunteers, April 29, 1899. He was associate jus- tice of the Supreme Court in the Philippines in 1901—3, a member of the Philippine Commission and secretary of public instruc- tion in 1901-06, and governor- general of the islands 1906-09, succeeding Gov. Ide. In 1910 he was appointed associate judge of the U. S. Court of Customs Appeals. Smith, Jeremiah, Jr. (1870- 1935), American financier, was born in Dover, N. H. His grandfather was a Revolution- ary soldier and governor of New Hampshire, his father a state supreme court justice. He was graduated from Harvard in 1892 and Harvard Law School in 1895 and practiced law in Bos- ton most of his life. During the First World War he served as a captain in the quartermaster corps of the A. E. F. He acted as adviser in the organization of the Chinese financial consortium and in the debt settlement with Mexico. His expertness in fiscal affairs was proved when in 1924 he was appointed commissioner to Hungary for the League of Nations, and in two years had put that country's finances in order. Subsequently he served as an advisory member of the League's financial commission and also aided in drafting the Young Plan. Smith, John (1580-1631), English explorer and colonial administrator, born in Willough- by, Lincolnshire. While still a youth he went to the Continent in the train of a nobleman's sons, and became a soldier of fortune. After _ serving with the Hugue- nots in France, he drifted to eastern Europe, and served against the Turks. In his ac- count of his own life he has de- tailed many occurrences of this period, among them his killing of three Turks successively in single combat before Regal In Transylvania, and his escape from Turkish captivity after killing the man to whom he had been sold as a slave. Returning to England, he sailed, Dec. 20, J 606, with the first expedition sent out by the London Com- pany to colonize Virginia. On the voyage Smith quarreled with Wingfield, who charged him with mutiny, and he was put in irons until their arrival in Vir- ginia, when it was found that by the sealed instructions to be opened on their arrival Smith was designated as one of the council, and he was released. In the autumn of 1607 Smith was given charge of the supplies of the little colony, and showed great ability in getting corn from the Indians. In December, how- ever, while exploring the Chick- ahominy, he was captured by Powhatan, and according to his story was saved from death by the intercession of that chief's daughter, Pocahontas. Upon his return to Jamestown he was ar- rested by his enemies in the council, charged with responsi- bility for the death of two men killed at the time of his capture, sentenced to death, and only saved by the arrival of Newport with the 'First Supply' for the colony, and by his interposition in Smith's behalf. Smith was re- stored to his seat in the council, spent the summer of 1608 in ex- ploring the shores of Chesapeake Bay and its tributary rivers, and Sept. 10th was elected president of the council. During the winter of 1608-09 the colony, almost perished for want of food, being reduced in number from 120 to 60, and most of Smith's energy was de- voted to securing corn from the Indians. In fact, his courage and ability to get what he wanted of the Indians probably saved the colony from destruction. At the expiration of his year in office he sailed for England, having been badly injured in an explosion. He explored the coast of New England in 1614 in the interest of private adventurers, made a good map of the country, and gave it its name. The following year he entered into the employ of the Plymouth Company with the title of 'Admiral of New England,' but an attempted voy- age of settlement was foiled by his capture by the French. He never revisited America, but de- voted himself to recording his experiences. He published A True Relation (1608) which was the first published account of the Virginia colony ; A Map^ of Vir- ginia (1612) ; A Description of New England (1616) ; New England Trails (1620); The General History of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles (1622) ; An Accidence for Young Seamen (1626) ; The True Travels (1630); and Ad- vertisements for the Inexperi- enced Planters of New England (1631). The historical value of his writings has been the subject of much controversy, and many consider them to be largely ro- mance, while the more generally accepted view is that they are vainglorious, but not essentially inaccurate accounts of what he saw and did. The famous story of his rescue by Pocahontas, which has been widely disbe- lieved, is so in accordance with Indian character that it might be true, if it is not. His Works have been edited by Edward Ar- ber (1884 ; 1895). Consult E. K. Chatterton, Captain John Smith (1927); J. G. Fletcher, John Smith — also Pocahontas (1929). Smith, John (1618-52), English philosopher, was born at Achurch in Northamptonshire. He is chiefly known as one of the Cambridge Platonists. His Select Discourses was published in 1660. Smith, Joseph. See Mor- mons. Smith, Joseph, III (1832- 1914), leader of the Reorganized Latter Day Saints, son of Jo- seph Smith, II, was born at Kirt- land, O. After the church found- ed by his father became disor- ganized in 1844, the Reorgan- ized Church was formed among members who refused to recog- nize the authority of Brigham Young. In 1860 he accepted the presidency of the Reorganiza- tion which opposes polygamy and other alleged innovations. He was editor of The Saints Herald from 1866 to 1914. He died at Independence, Missouri. Smith, Melancthon (1810- 93), American naval officer, born in New York City. He entered the Navy as a midshipman in 1829, and in 1 86 1-62_ command- ed the Massachusetts in the Gulf Squadron. In the passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip, April 24, 1862, he commanded the Mississippi^ and after pass- ing the forts, compelled the Con- federate ram, Manassas, to run ashore. In the passage of Port Hudson, March 14, 1863, his ship ran aground, and he was obliged to set her on fire and abandon her. He commanded the Monongahela in the battle of Mobile Bay, and the Wabash in the attacks on Fort Fisher. He became rear admiral in 1870, re- tiring in 1871. Smith, (Edmund) Munroe (1854-1926), American jurist, born in Brooklyn, N. Y. He graduated from Columbia Uni- versity in 1877, studied law in the Universities of Berlin, Leip- zig, and Gottingen in 1877- 80. In 1881 he was appoint- ed adjunct professor of law in Columbia, and in 1890 he became professor of Roman law and jurisprudence in that institution. He assisted in es- Smith KFN 265 Smith tablishing the Political Science Quarterly in 1886, and was managing editor of that maga- zine in 1886-93. He was author of Bismarck and German Unity (1898) and Selections from Cic- ero (1899). Smith, Richard Somers (1813-77). American soldier, born in Philadelphia. He grad- uated at West Point in 1834, and resigned his commission in the army two years later to take up engineering work. He re-entered the army in 1840 and for fifteen years was instructor and profes- sor at West Point. He again re- signed in 1855 to become profes- sor of mathematics at the Brook- lyn Polytechnic Institute. In 1861 he again entered the army, served in the Peninsula and An- tietam campaigns, and command- ed a brigade at Chancellorsville, resigning from the army soon after the battle. He was presi- dent of Girard College in 1863- 68, professor of engineering at Pennsylvania State College at Gettysburg in 1868-70, and pro- fessor of drawing at Annapolis in 1870-77. Smith, Richmond Mayo, See Mayo-Smith. Smith, Robert (1689-1768), English mathematician, was born near Gainsborough ; became Plu- mian professor of astronomy at Cambridge in 1716, and master of Trinity College in 1742. By his will be founded the Smith prizes, competed for by Cam- bridge wranglers. He pub- lished A Compleat System of Opticks (1738) and Harmonics (1749). Smith, Robert (1757-1842), American statesman, who served as Secretary of the Navy (1802- 5) and Attorney General (1805- 9) under President Jefferson and as Secretary of State (1809- 11) under President Madison. His official career on the national stage was stormy, and it was Secretary Smith who broke off relations with the British minis- ter at Washington in 1811. He had many political enemies, and he came into bitter conflict with Albert Gallatin, Madison's Sec- retary of the Treasury. As re- sult of the latter feud he re- signed from the State portfolio in 1811. Thereafter he held sev- eral positions in Maryland. He was the last survivor of the electoral college of 1789 which elected Washington as first Pres- ident. Consult S. F. Bemis (ed), The American Secretaries of State and Their Diplomacy (1927). Smith, Robert Payne. See Payne-Smith. Smith, Robertson. See Smith, William Robertson. Smith, Samuel (1752-1839), American soldier, born in Lan- caster, Pa. He traveled in Eu- rope, became a captain in a Maryland regiment and fought in the battles of Long Island and Harlem ; was wounded at White Plains; and in 1777 attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel. He participated in the battle of the Brandywine, and from Septem- ber to November gallantly de- fended Fort Mifflin and was dan- gerously wounded. During 1790- 92 he was a member of the Mary- land legislature ; commanded the Maryland militia in the army sent to suppress the Whisky Re- bellion (q. V.) ; during 1793- 1803 and 1815-22 was a member of the Federal House of Repre- sentatives, and during 1803-15 and 1822-33 of the Federal Sen- ate. He assisted in the defense of Baltimore against the British in 1814. During 1835-38 he was mayor of Baltimore. Smith, Samuel Francis (1808-95), American clergyman, was born in Boston, Mass. He graduated at Harvard College (1829) and at Andover Theolog- ical Seminary (1832), in the lat- ter year writing his national hymn, 'My Country, 'tis of Thee,' for a meeting on July 4, at the Park Street Church, Boston. He was ordained to the Baptist min- istry in 1834, and was pastor at Waterville, Me., from 1834 to 1842, at the same time acting as professor of modern languages at Waterville College (now Colby University). From 1842 to 1854 he was pastor at Newton, Mass. He edited the Christmas Review during 1842-48, and the publi- cations of the Baptist Missionary Union from 1854 to 1869. He wrote over one hundred hymns, including, 'The Morning Light is Breaking' and other popular church pieces. These were col- lected in Poems of Home and Country — Sacred and Miscellane- ous Verse (1895). His prose writings include Missionary Sketches (1879) and Rambles in Mission Fields (1884). Smith, Samuel Stanhope (1750-1819), American clergy- man and educator, was born at Pequea, Pa., and graduated (1769) at Princeton. He was a tutor there during 1770-3, and was ordained to the Presbyterian ministry in 1774. After brief missionary service in Va. he was first president of Hampden Sid- ney College from 1775 to 1779, then taking the professorship of moral philosophy at Princeton, to which were added that of theol- ogy in 1783 and the vice-presi- dency in 1786. From 1795 to 1812 he was president of Prince- ton (then the College of New Jersey). He published among other works : Lectures on the Evidences of Religion (1809) and Lectures on Moral and Po- litical Philosophy (1812). See Menvoir in Sermons (1821). Smith, Seba (1792-1868), American journalist and humor- ist, was born at Buckfield, Me., and graduated (1818) at Bow- doin. Entering newspaper life he edited in succession at Port- land, Me., the Eastern Argus, the Family Recorder, and the Daily Courier, in part of which work he was assisted by his wife, Elizabeth Oakes (Prince) Smith (q. v.). To the Courier he con- tributed the amusing political letters, in Yankee dialect, which purported to describe the life and associations of one Major Jack Downing of Downingville, and particularly his friendship- with President Andrew Jackson. They were collected as The Life and Writings of Major Jack Down- ing (1833). Mr. Smith wrote other similar papers during President Polk's administration, and subsequently published all his writings of this character as My Thirty Years out of the Sen- ate (1859), the title being a travesty on that of Sen. Benton's well-known work. He met with financial reverses in 1839, and he removed to New York city in 1842, where he was profitably engaged in journalism for many years. He published Pozvhatan, a metrical romance (1841), New Elements of Geometry (1850), and Way Dozvn East; or, Por- traitures of Yankee Life (1855). Smith, Sir Sidney. See Smith, Sir William Sidney. Smith, Sophia (1796-1870), American philanthropist, born at Hatfield, Mass. The greater part of her life was spent in re- tirement in her native town. In 1861, at the death of her brother Austin, she came into possession of a large estate left by her fa- ther, Oliver Smith. She gave generously to the Andover The- ological Seminary and other in- stitutions, but her chief efforts were devoted to the founding of Smith College at Northampton, Mass. In her own words its object was to furnish women 'means and facilities for educa- tion equal to those which are of- fered in our colleges for young men.' This was the first insti- tution for the collegiate educa- tion of women founded in Mass. At her death she left for its foundation nearly $400,000. She endowed also a preparatory school for the college at North- ampton. Smith, Sydney (1771-1845), English author and wit, born at Woodford, Essex. In 1794 he was ordained to the curacy of Netherhaven, Salisbury Plain, and in 1797 went to Edinburgh as a private tutor. There he found entrance to literary so- ciety, and was soon noted for his Smith KFN 266 Smith conversation and preaching. His first publication was Six Ser- mons preached at Charlotte Chapel, Edinburgh (1800). In 1802 he founded, with Jeffrey and Brougham, the Edinburgh Review. Jeffrey termed Smith the 'original projector' (Cock- burn's Life of Jeffrey, i. 125). In 1803 he removed to London. His Whig politics gave him the entree to Holland House, and his wit, his sermons, his lectures on moral philosophy at the Royal Institution (1804-6), and his Letters on the Catholics by Peter Plymlcy (1807-8) won him wider reputation. In 1806 he was given the rectory of Foston-le-Clay in Yorkshire, but he did not reside there till 1809; and in 1825 he obtained in addition the living of Londesborough. In 1827 he was made a canon of Bristol cathe- dral, and in 1829 exchanged the living of Foston for that of Combe-Florey, near Taunton. In 1831 he became a canon of St. Paul's. He fought determinedly for Catholic emancipation ; he at- tacked the Ecclesiastical Com- mission in his Letters to Arch- deacon Singleton (1837) ; and his last work was A Fragnicnt on the Irish Roman Catholic Church. He also wrote Letters on Amer- ican Debts (1843). Unlike Jef- frey, he had little ability in liter- ary criticism ; but he is generally admitted to have been the most brilliant of the early contribu- tors to the Edinburgh Review. His Works were published in 1839. See Memoir and Letters, by Lady Holland and Mrs. Aus- tin (1855) ; J. Reid's Life and Times of Sydney Smith (1884) ; A. Birrell's Sydney Smith, in English Men of Letters Series ; Wit and Wisdom of S. Srnith, with memoir, by Duyckinck (1856) ; Selections, in Elia Se- ries (1897) ; and Jerrold's edi- tion of Bon Mots of Smith and Sheridan (1893). Smith, Walter Chalmers (1824-1908), Scottish poet and preacher, born at Aberdeen ; was minister successively of a Pres- byterian church in London, of the Free Church at Orwell (Kinross- shire), of the Tron Church, Glas- gow, and of the High Church, Edinburgh. He was an able and eloquent preacher, and was chosen moderator of the Free Church in the jubilee year (1893). His works include Bishop's Walk (1861), Olrig Grange (1872), Borland Hall (1875), Hilda (1878), Raban (1881), Kildro- stan (1884), North-Country Folk (1887), A Heretic (1890), and Thoughts and Fancies for Sunday Evenings (1887). His Collected Works appeared in 1903. Smith, Wayland. See Way- land. Smith, William (1769-1839), English geologist and engineer, was born at Churchill in Ox- fordshire, and was practically self-educated. In 1793 he sur- veyed a canal through the Somer- set coal fields, and from that time till about 1820 was kept busy with drainage and irrigation works. In geology his theory of the stratification of rocks consti- tutes his title to fame. He ruined himself by producing a strati- graphical map of England. See Memoirs, by J. Phillips (1844). Smith, Sir William (1813- 93), English lexicographer, was born at Enfield. He edited Greek and Roman Antiquities (1842), Greek and Roman Biography (1849), Geography (1857), and wrote The Student's Greece (1854). Thc_ Bible Dictionary (1860—5) attained a high stand- ard of scholarship, and he was associated with Cheetham in the Dictionary of Christian Antiqui- ties (1875-80) and with Dr. Wace in the Dictionary of Chris- tian Biography (1877-87). From 1867 he edited the Quarterly Re- view. Smith, William Farrar (1824-1903), American soldier, born at St. Albans, Vt. He grad- uated at West Point in 1845, and at the outbreak of the Civil War had reached the rank of captain. He was appointed colonel of the Third Vermont volunteers, July 16, 1861 ; brigadier-general of volunteers, Aug. 13, 1861, and major-general of volunteers, July 4, 1862. Subsequently he con- manded a division of the 6th Corps in the Peninsula and Maryland campaigns in 1862, and commanded the corps at Freder- icksburg. In the summer of 1863 he assisted in the defense of Pennsylvania against Lee's inva- sion, and from Oct. 10 to Nov. 1, 1863, was chief engineer of the Army of the Cumberland, and suggested and carried out the op- erations by which the army in Chattanooga was supplied with provisions and evacuation pre- vented. In 1864-65 he com- manded the 18th Corps, Army of the James, taking part in the op- erations around Richmond, the assault at Cold Harbor, and the siege of Petersburg. He re- signed from the army in 1867, and was one of the police com- missioners of New York City in 1875-81 and president of the board in 1877-81. Smith, William Henry (1825-91), English politician, was born in London, and became partner in his father's business of news-agency in 1846. It was he who developed the railway bookstall system, and to that he added a circulating library. In 1868 he defeated John Stuart Mill for Westminster, and in 1877 was appointed by Disraeli to the Admiralty. He was Sec- retary for War under Lord Salis- bury in 1886, and succeeded Lord Randolph Churchill as leader of the House of Commons. See Life and Times of the Rt. Hon W. H. Smith (1893) and Life of Lord Randolph Churchill (1906). Smith, William Henry (1833-96), American journalist and publicist, born in Columbia CO., N. Y. When he was but two years of age his parents removed with him to Ohio, where he re- ceived a common school and academic education. While act- ing as tutor he wrote a series of articles attacking the Know- Nothing Party. These attracted attention, and as a result he be- came editor of the Type of the Tim'cs of Cincinnati, in 1855. He subsequently became an edi- torial writer on the Cincinnati Commercial and the Cincinnati Gazette. In 1864 he was elected Secretary of State, and was re- elected in 1866. In 1867 he retired from public life, and was one of the founders of the Cin- cinnati Chronicle, and its editor until ill-health compelled him to retire. In 1870 he became agent in Chicago for the Western Asso- ciated Press. He was appointed Collector of the Port of Chicago in 1877. At the expiration of his term he resumed charge of the Western Associated Press, and effected its consolidation with the Eastern Associated Press in 1882, becoming general manager of the new organization. He held this position until 1893. He published The St. Clair Papers (2 vols. 1887), which contain many docu- ments on the early history of the Northwest, and at the time of his death he was engaged upon A Political History of Slavery, which was published posthu- mously in 1903. Smith, William Robertson (1846-94), Scottish theologian and Orientalist, was born at Keig, Aberdeenshire, and acted as assistant in natural philosophy to Professor Tait at Edinburgh University. Having made him- self master of the current Ger- man theology, he was appointed professor of the Old Testament in the Free Church College at Aberdeen (1870), and he at once became known as the interpreter of modern Biblical criticism. In 1870 he also began to contribute Biblical articles to the 9th edi- tion of the Encyclopccdia Britan- nica. Some of these were made the basis of charges against him in the church courts, and al- though he defended himself with great skill, he was removed from his chair in 1881. He then be- came joint editor of the Encyclo- pccdia, and in 1883 was appointed professor of Arabic at Cam- Smith KFN 267 Smithson bridge. He published Old Testa- ment in the Jewish Church (1881) , The Prophets of Israel (1882) , Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia (1885), Religion of the Semites (1889), and a very large number of articles in the Encyclopadia Britannica. See Life by J. Sutherland Black in Diet. Nat. Biog. Smith, Sir William Sidney (1764-1840), British admiral, was born in Westminster. He was a midshipman at Rodney's relief of Gilbraltar and victory ofif St. Vincent in 1780; was present at Graves' action in 1781, and at the battle of the Saintes in 1782. During the war of the French Revolution he was with Hood at Toulon, and on the evac- uation of that town he was en- trusted with the duty of burning the French fleet, destroying ten ships of the line. In 1796, while endeavoring to cut out a French ship off Havre, he was taken prisoner, and was kept for two years in the Temple at Paris. Having effected his escape, he won great fame by his defense of St. Jean d'Acre against Bona- parte in 1799, Smith, William Sogy (1830- 1916), American soldier and en- gineer, was born in Tarlton, O. He was graduated from West Point in 1853, but resigned from the army in 1854 to become a civil engineer. At the outbreak of the Civil War he entered the army as lieutenant colonel of volunteers, and later became colonel, then brigadier general, of U. S. volunteers. In 1863 he was made chief of the cavalry de- partment of Tennessee. After the war he carried through much difficult work as engineer and contractor for the government and for railroad companies. He built the first all-steel railroad bridge in the world (Glasgow, Mo.) by pneumatic process, and aided in the development of plans for high steel buildings. He in- vented the first pneumatic cais- son, as well as a new method of fireproof building. Smith College, one of the leading institutions for the high- er education of women in the United States, located in North- ampton, Mass. Miss Sophia Smith, of Hatfield, Mass., founded the college, leaving a bequest of $393,106 for the pur- pose. It was incorporated and chartered in 1871, opened in 1875 with fourteen students, and it granted the first degrees in 1879. It has assets of nearly $16,500,- 000, a study body of 2,000, and over 18,000 alumnae. The degrees of a.b., a.m., ED.M., and PH.D. are conferred, and a diploma is awarded to graduate students who complete a course in the training of teach- ers of physical education. A modified elective system is in force. The normal secondary school program for admission consists of sixteen units. Enter- ing students are required to take the Scholastic Aptitude Test and three sections of the Achievement Test given by the College En- trance Examination Board. They must submit reports showing the courses taken and the grades ob- tained, with credentials from the school as to character and fitness for college work. A number of scholarships are offered, some covering full tuition, and fellow- ships are awarded for advanced study. In addition to the administra- tion building, nine buildings con- taining lecture rooms, class- rooms, and laboratories, and 35 dormitories, there are John M. Greene Hall seating nearly 2,300; the Library with 306,- 151 books and pamphlets; Sage Hall with an auditorium and large music library ; botanic gardens and nine greenhouses ; Elizabeth Mason Infirmary ; Alumnae House ; Students' Building in which there is a small theatre ; and two gymna- siums, one with a 75-foot pool. The Allen and the New Ath- letic fields cover over thirty acres, and with a boathouse, crew house, and field house add considerably to the facilities for outdoor physical activities. The college is nonsectarian and draws its students from practically every state, from for- eign countries, from various races. Though a college for women, about forty per cent of the faculty of professorial rank are men, and men are accepted as graduate students, but are not granted a degree. Among the distinctive features are the Smith College School for Social Work ; the Smith College Day School and the Elisabeth Morrow Mor- gan Nursery School, conducted by the Department of Education and Child Study ; the Depart- ment of Art with the Smith Col- lege Museum of Art (the Tryon and the Hillyer Galleries) and the Department of Music, housed in a well-equipped building, af- fording work in technical art and practical music, in addition to training in the theory and his- tory of these arts ; the William Allan Neilson Chair of Research, occupied annually by a scholar or scholars chiefly concerned with the carrying on of research in any of the fields represented by the curriculum. To compensate somewhat for the Junior Year Aboard, suspended by the war, three houses have been set aside for students interested in French, Spanish, and German where the languages are spoken and the at- mosphere of each house repre- sents as far as possible that of the country represented. The college cooperates in the support of the American Schools of Classical Studies in Athens and Rome, and contributes an- nually toward the maintenance of the American School of Oriental Research in Jerusalem. Smith-Dorrien, Sir Horace LocKWOOD (1858-1930), British army officer, was educated at Harrow. He entered the army in 1876, served in the Zulu War (1879), and the Egyptian War (1882), and took part in the Nile Expedition with the Egyptian Army (1884), and in the Soudan Campaign (1885). He was in India from 1893 to 1898, was re- called to Egypt, and accompanied the Nile Expedition of 1898. He served in South Africa in the Boer War, during which he was promoted to major general and placed in command of a division. He was again in India from 1901 to 1907, when he was made lieutenant general (1906), was commander-in-chief at Aldershot from 1907 to 1912, became a general in 1912, and held the Southern command from 1912 to 1914. In the early part of the First World War (see Europe, Great War of) Smith-Dorrien was in command of the Second Army of the British Expeditionary Force (1914-15), and it was by his wise generalship that the greater part of the British forces was saved in the retreat from Mons. In 1915 he was appointed commander-in- chief in British East Africa, but resigned shortly after on account of ill health. He was knighted in 1904, was created g.c.b. in 1913 and G.c.M.G. in 1915. He wrote Memories of Forty-eight Years' Service (1925). Smithfield, a district north of St. Paul's, London, England. From the twelfth century it was a famous cattle market and the scene of fairs, tournaments, exe- cutions, and burnings of heretics. Wat Tyler (q. v.) was put to death there in 1381. It is now the Central Meat Market of Lon- don. Smith's Falls, town, Canada, in Lanark county, Ontario, on the Rideau River, the Rideau Canal, and the Canadian Pacific and Canadian Northern rail- roads ; 45 miles south of Ottawa. It has manufactures of farm implements, malleable castings, sashes and doors, baking powder, cattle markers, and poultry sup- plies. There are mica mines near by. The Rideau Lakes, near Smith's Falls, are popular as a summer resort. Pop. (1941) 7,088. Smith'son, James (1765- 1829), English scientist and Smithsonian Institution KFN 268 Smithsonian Institution founder of the Smithsonian In- stitution, was born in France. He was the natural son of Hugh Smithson (afterward Percy), who became the first Duke of North- umberland of the third creation. He was taken from France when a young boy, was naturalized as a British subject, and entered Pem- broke College, Oxford, where he specialized in chemistry and mineralogy, receiving the de- gree of M.A. in 1786. The fol- lowing year he was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society, of which he was afterward vice- president. He resided for many years of his life in Continental .cities, and gained special repute as an analytical chemist. He died in Genoa, Italy, and was buried on the heights of San Benigno. Smithson's wealth is thought to have come largely from his half-brother. Col. H. L. Dickin- son. He bequeathed his proper- ty to his nephew, Henry James Hungerford, and in default of direct heirs of the latter, to the United States, to found an in- stitution at Washington. (See Smithsonian Institution). His mineralogical specimens, numbering more than 10,000, and his manuscripts were placed in the building in Washington, but were destroyed by fire in 1865. At the suggestion of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, the body of James Smithson was brought from the cemetery near Genoa to the Smithsonian Insti- tution, where it was received on Jan. 25, 1904, and on Mar. 6, 1905, it was sealed in the origi- nal tomb. Consult Biographi- cal Sketch of James Smithson (Publication 2276, Smithsonian Institution, 1914). Smithso'nian Institution, The, a learned institution in Washington, D. C, established in 1846 under the terms of the will of James Smithson (q. v.), who bequeathed his fortune 'to the United States of America, to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Insti- tution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowl- edge among men.' This bequest, amounting to $508,318.46, was formally accepted by Congress, and the Institution established by an act approved Aug. 10, 1846. The original bequest of the founder has been increased from time to time by other gifts and legacies, of which the most notable was a gift of $250,000 from Thomas G. Hodgkins in 1891. On July 1, 1943, the per- manent fund was $2,642,923 of which $1,000,000 was deposited in the Treasury of the United States, bearing interest at six per cent, under special Congressional provisions. The income from the permanent fund, supple- mented by private contribu- tions, amounts to about $245,000 annually. The Institution has its home in a building of Seneca brownstone in the Norman style of architecture, erected on the Mall in 1847-55. The statutory members of the Smithsonian Institution are the President of the United States, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the Executive Departments. The governing body is a Board of Regents composed of the Vice President of the United States, the Chief Justice, three members of the Senate, three of the House of Representatives, and six citizens selected by Congress, two of whom must be resident in the District of Columbia. The Board elects one of its members Chancellor who acts as its pre- siding officer. The executive officer is the Secretary who is also elected by the Regents. There have been five Secretaries : Joseph Henry, 1846-1878, Spen- cer F. Baird, 1878-1887, Samuel P. Langley, 1887-1906, Charles D. Walcott, 1907-1927, and Charles G. Abbot, 1928-1944; and Alexander Wetmore, acting secretary (1944). The objects of the Institution, as defined in the original plan of the first Secretary, are : first, to increase knowledge by original investigation, and, second, to diffuse knowledge, not only in the United States, but through- out the world, especially by its publications and by promoting an interchange of scientific thought among all nations. Its publications constitute the principal medium for carrying out one of the fundamental func- tions of the Institution, 'the dif- fusion of knowledge.' The In- stitution proper issues four se- ries : Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, containing in quarto form the results of stud- ies constituting important con- tributions to knowledge ; Smith- sonian Miscellaneous Collec- tions ; Smithsonian Special Pub- lications, including the annual Smithsonian exploration pam- phlet ; and the Annual Report of the Institution. If to these series be added the publications issued under its direction by the Na- tional Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology, and the Astrophysical Observatory, the scientific literature produced by the Institution up to 1943 amounted to nearly 850 volumes. The Miscellaneous Collections and Museum Proceedings vol- umes are made up of numerous separate papers, so that the total number of scientific publications issued to date exceeds 7,700. The works issued at the ex- pense of the Institution proper are distributed to about 1,100 of the principal libraries of the world. The Annual Reports, the general appendix of which is made up of selected papers, re- viewing in nontechnical language progress in scientific work in all its branches, are public docu- ments, and are more widely dis- tributed than the other series, being printed in editions of 10,000 copies. The L;brary of the Institution is devoted to the collection of periodicals and publications of a scientific nature as well as to the publications of the scientific in- stitutions and learned societies of the world. An accumulation of over 900,000 volumes has thus been acquired, the main part of which forms the Smiith- sonian Deposit of the Library of Congress (q. v.). Smaller librar- ies are maintained at the various branches of the Institution, and 35 sectional libraries of technical works in all branches of science are maintained for the use of the scientific staff. The achievements of the In- stitution in the advancement of science are notable, and it is the parent of many of the scientific bureaus of the government, no- tably the Weather Bureau, Bu- reau of Fisheries, and National Advisory Committee for Aero- nautics, besides the six govern- ment bureaus now under its direction. In addition to the researches carried on under its own roof, scientific investigators in the United States, as well as those abroad, have been aided. Books, apparatus, and laboratory accommodations have been sup- plied to thousands, and a num- ber of money grants have been made. Personal encouragement and advice have been given, and thousands of letters are written each year in response to inquiries for scientific information. During the Second World War the Institution served as an im- portant source of technical infor- mation to the Army and Navy. In the first two years of the war more than 2,000 requests for such information were recorded. The scientific staff, laboratories, and other facilities of the Institution were largely devoted to war re- searches assigned by the Army and Navy. A prominent field of activity is the scientific exploration of regions imperfectly known, not only in North America, but throughout the world. Besides the expeditions fitted out under the Institution's immediate di- rection, others organized by pri- vate enterprise, or under govern- mental auspices, have been aided by counsel and instruction, Among the 1,500 or more expe^ Smithsonian Institution KFN 269 Smock ditions under Smithsonian aus- pices may be mentioned the Smithsonian African expedition, under the direction of Theodore Roosevelt (q. v.) which obtained exceptionally valuable collections of the larger African mammals now exhibited in the National Museum, a biological and geo- logical survey of the Panama Canal Zone, and the Smithso- nian-Chrysler expedition to East Africa to obtain living wild ani- mals for the National Zoological Park. . . J Two medals are maintained bv the Smithsonian Institution. The Hodgkins Gold Medal, founded in 1895, is awarded for exceptional contributions to the knowledge of the nature _ and properties of atmospheric air, or for original and practical appli- cation of existing knowledge of the air to the welfare of man- kind. It was first bestowed in 1899 on Prof. James Dewar, and again in 1902 on Prof. J. J. Thomson. The Langley Gold Medal was established m 1908 m memory of Secretary Langley and his contributions to the science of aeronautics, 'to be awarded for specially meritori- ous investigations in connection with the science of aerodromics and its application to aviation.' It was awarded in 1909 to Wil- bur and Orville Wright, in 1913 to Glenn H. Curtiss and M. Gus- tave Eiffel, and in 1927 to Colo- nel Charles A. Lindbergh, in 1929 to Charles Matthews (post- humously) and Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd, and in 1935 to Dr. Joseph S. Ames. From the early activities of the Smithsonian Institution a number of dependencies or branches have grown up, which with the exception of the Freer Gallery of Art, are supported by appropriations from Congress, but are administered by the In- stitution. These are as follows : The International Exchange Service, begun in 1850, which has for its object the free inter- change of scientific and govern- mental publications with other countries. Exchange agencies throughout the world cooperate in the enterprise. The U, S. National Mu- seum, which is the legal deposi- tory of objects of art, of histori- cal interest, and of foreign and curious research, and all objects of natural history, plants, and geological and mineralogical specimens belonging to the Unit- ed States. These collections, now numbering well over 17,000,000 specimens, are preserved in the Smithsonian building and the adjacent buildings of the Na- tional Museum, where they form the basis of important researches by the Museum staff and outside investigators. The buildings of the Museum are the Arts and Industries Building, erected in 1881, the Natural History Build- ing, completed in 1911, and the Aircraft Building, a temporary structure used to display the unrivalled collection of historic airplanes. The Museum pub- lishes Annual Reports, Bulletins, and Proceedings, and a series of Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium. The National Collection of Fine Arts (formerly National Gallery of Art) was provided for in 1846 by the act establishing the Smithsonian Institution, but this phase of the Institution's ac- tivities lay dormant for various reasons until 1905, when a valu- able collection bequeathed by Harriet Lane Johnston in 1903 was received. In 1907, Wil- liam T. Evans, of New Jersey, presented to the National Collec- tion about 50 selected paintings, later increased to 114, repre- senting 80 American artists, and other important collections have since been added, including the Ralph Cross Johnson collection of Old Masters. The Collection is temporarily housed in the Nat- ural History Building of the Na- tional Museum, but has since 1920 been administered as an in- dependent unit under the Smith- sonian. The Freer Gallery of Art, opened in 1923, was the result of a gift in 1906 of Charles L. Freer of Detroit, who bequeathed to the Smithsonian Institution his unrivalled collection of Amer- ican and Oriental art, now num- bering over 9,000 objects, and in addition the means of erecting a suitable building for their recep- tion. The Bureau of American Ethnology is an outgrowth of researches beginning early in the history of the Institution, which has from the outset devoted much attention to the native American tribes. The Bureau has done much in the exploration and preservation of American antiquities, especially the pre- historic ruins in the Southwest, and has published a large series of Annual Reports and Bulletins on the history, habits, customs, and languages of American In- dians. The Bureau began its formal existence in 1879, under the directorship of Major John W. Powell. The National Zoological Park was established in 1890 'for the advancement of science and the instruction and recrea- tion of the people,' and for the preservation of such American animals as are in danger of ex- tinction. It occupies 167 acres two miles north of the center of the city of Washington. Its col- lection of animals in 1943 num- bered 2,435 individuals, repre- senting 684 different species. The Astrophysical Observ- atory was established in 1890 and has carried on various investi- gations in astrophysics, especially with regard to the invisible por- tions of the solar spectrum and to solar radiation. Its researches are carried on at an observatory in Washington, and at observing stations on Table Mountain, California, Mount Montezuma, Chile, and Burro Mountain, near Tyrone, New Mexico. It has published six volumes of Annals. The most important result of its work on solar radiation has been to show that the sun's heat varies and that these variations can be accurately measured. There is indication of periodicity in the variation, and recent in- tensive studies of the relation be- tween solar variation and weath- er give much promise of the pos- sibility of long-range weather forecasting. The Division of Radiation and Organisms was set up in 1929 to study the rela- tion between radiation and plant growth. The National Gallery of Art, opened in 1941, is the re- sult of Andrew W. Mellon's gift to the Gallery of his unexcelled art collection and a $15,000,000- buildjng to house it. The Gal- lery is a bureau of the Smithso- nian Institution but is adminis- tered by a separate board of trus- tees. Smithsonite. See Cala- mine. Smith Sound, a body of wa- ter between western Greenland and Ellesmere Land. It has Baffin's Bay on the south, and opens on the north into Kane Basin. It was discovered by Baffin jn 1616. Smithville, town, Texas, in Bastrop county, on the Colorado River, on the Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroad ; 38 miles s.E. of Austin. It has railroad shops, cotton gin, and ice fac- tory. Sports Ships Lake and Lake Park are nearby features of interest. Pop. (1930) 3,296; (1940) 3,100. Smock, the Anglo-Saxon word for a woman's undermost garment. It was generally made of the finest linen and towards the end of the thirteenth century it became the fashion to orna- ment the garment with elaborate embroidery and fine lace. Later on, the word was applied to a coarse linen garment worn as a sort of overall by the European peasants, particularly in Eng- land. In modern times the word smock is used for a gaily colored garment of cotton or linen worn by women as a protection for their frocks. Smoke KFN 270 Smoot Smoke, the visible — whence either solid or liquid — product of combustion that is carried away by the current of gases and heated air formed in the process. In the case of coal it consists chiefly of fine carbon or complex hydrocarbon particles. The more bituminous the coal, the greater the volume of smoke that may be emitted ; anthracite, coke, and charcoal burn practically without smoke. Even with bituminous coal, the emission of smoke can be largely prevented by the use of properly designed furnaces, in which the coal and air are brought together in suitable and well regulated proportions — pref- erably by mechanical means. Overworking, bad stoking, and excess or deficit of air are the main causes of the production of smoke. See Furnaces ; Smoke Prevention. Smokeless Powders. See GuNCOTTON ; Gunpowder; Ex- plosives. Smoke Prevention, a plan to do away with the dirt caused by dense black smoke whose emis- sion from chimneys, and in some instances from locomotive and steamboat stacks, is a nuisance punishable by fine in some American and foreign munici- palities. The avoidance of the nuisance in plants already estab- lished is best attained by means of proper combustion of the fuel, which is effected (1) by rightly designed furnaces of ample fire- grate surface, and (2) by proper charging and stoking. In England legislation against the smoke nuisance as caused by locomotives dates back to 1845, while general legislation against smoke nuisance from_ fireplaces and manufactories is in effect in England, Ireland, and Scotland. In the United States, smoke prevention rests chiefly with the several cities, after direct or in- direct legislative authority has been given by the states in which they are located. New York City proceeds against smoke nuisances through its local health authorities, while Cleveland, O., and some other cities act through separate departments. Since 1908 no coal-burning locomotive has been permitted on Manhat- tan Island. Electricity has been substituted for steam power on the elevated lines, and on all rail- roads entering the city within a zone of a number of miles be- yond the city limits. Steam turbine power plants, now estab- lished in several of the large cities, use the cheapest grades of coal, but operate without smoke because of their scientifically constructed furnaces and skilled workmen. Recent experiments conducted by the government through the Geological Survey- show a similar high utility in gas engines. Consult Popple- well, Prevention of Smoke; Booth, Smoke Prevention and Fuel Economy. Smoky Mountains, or Great Smoky Mountains, a part of the Appalachians (q. v.), found in Tennessee. Smolensk, smol-yensk', prov- ince, Russian S.F.S.R., bounded by Kalinin on the north ; area, 28,000 square miles. Lying southwest of the Valdai plateau, Smolensk has a fairly elevated and sometimes hilly surface, though it has also vast unbroken plains. It is divided between the Volga, Dnieper, and western Dvina basins ; the chief water- shed lies in the northeast, where the land is highest (over 900 feet). Lakes are numerous; ex- tensive marshy tracts exist in the northwest. Deposits of coal, limonite (very rich in iron), and iron constitute the chief mineral wealth and forests cover a large part of the surface. Agriculture is the main occupation, the chief crops are flax, oats, rye and po- tatoes. The preparation of tar and pitch, saw milling, flour milling and leather works are the chief industries. Pop. (1926) 2,258,064. Smolensk, town, Central Russia, capital of Smolensk prov- ince, 227 miles s.w. of Moscow. It is an important railway junc- tion. The modern town lies on both sides of the Dnieper, but the ancient city, with walls built by Boris Godunov (1596-1602), is on the left bank. Smolensk has a cathedral, built (1676-1772) on the site of a far older church (c. 1100-1) ; ancient churches of SS. Peter and Paul (1146), St. John Baptist (1160-81), St. Michael (1180); and a citadel built by Sigismund iii of Poland in 1611. Tanneries, brick fields, oil works, breweries, distilleries, flour mills, potteries, limekilns, and manufactures of soap, tallow, linen, and leather are the chief industries. Smolensk existed be- fore the Rurik immigration of 862, and was the capital of the Krivichi. It was an appanage of the Kiev grand princes from 882 to 1054 ; it was acquired by Rus- sia in 1686. It was the scene of some of the fiercest fighting in the Napoleonic invasion of 1812. In the Second World War, when Hitler invaded Russia in 1941, Smolensk fell to the Germans and was Hitler's headquarters for some time. The Russians re- captured the town Sept. 25, 1943. Pop. (1939) 156,677. Smol'lett, Tobias George (1721-71), Scottish novelist, was born in Dalquhurn, near Dum- barton. He studied at the Uni- versity of Glasgow and was afterwards apprenticed to a doctor. In 1739 he went to London — a journey described in his Roderick Random, and being unsuccessful in literary work he accepted the post of surgeon's mate in the navy, and took part in the Carthagena expedition (1740-1). Quitting the service, Smollett set up as a surgeon in London, but was forced to live chiefly by his pen. In 1746 he published Advice, followed by Reproof (1747), two satirical poems. But Roderick Random (1748) proved an instant success. Its realistic and convincing pic- tures of the Navy aroused an indignation to which Byng had to be sacrificed, and ultimately led to a drastic reform in the sea service. Smollett's next novel of adventure, Peregrine Pickle (1751), incorporating some Pa- risian experiences, was even more eagerly received by the gen- eral public than had been its predecessor. A final attempt to establish himself as physician in Bath (1750-1) having failed, he settled in Chelsea, and published (1753) Ferdinand, Count Fath- om, the career of a thorough- paced villain, and translated Don Quixote (1755). In 1756 he be- came editor of The Critical Re- view and the same year com- menced a History of England (1757-65). Then followed The Reprisal (1757), a comedy; Voyages (1756) ; Universal His- tory (1759-66) ; a translation of Voltaire (1761); and State of the Nations (1764). He edited the British Magazine (1760-7) and The Briton (1762-3) but in 1759 a libel on Admiral Knowles cost him three months' imprison- ment. A journey in search of health furnished materials for Travels through France and Italy ( 1 766) . In the Adventures of an Atom (1769), Smollett belabors everything in England. His in- nate generosity and kindliness of heart, hidden under a can- tankerous exterior, were worthily vindicated in Humphrey Clinker (1771). Smolt. See Salmon. Smoot, Reed (1862-1941), American legislator, was born in Salt Lake City. He was edu- cated at Deseret University and at Brigham Young University, and became extensively inter- ested in banking and manufac- turing, and a leading member of the Mormon Church, of which he became an apostle in 1900. He was elected U. S. Senator for five terms (1903-33). Although not himself a polygamist, a de- termined effort was made to va- cate his seat in the Senate in 1906, on the ground that the church of which he is a high of- ficer countenances polygamy, and that as a member of its hier- archy he had taken an oath which Smugg^ling KFN 271 Smyrna implied disloyalty to the United States. The Committee on Privi- leges and Elections ruled against him, but the Senate, by vote, de- cided that he was entitled to his seat. He served on many impor- tant committees, was Chairman of the Senate Committee on Fi- nance, ranking member on the Appropriations Committee, rank- ing member on the Public Lands Committee, Chairman of the Public Buildings Commission, and a regent of the Smithsonian Institution. Smuggling, a violation of the revenue laws with reference to customs duties upon imports and exports. The officers of the customs, and inspectors on reve- nue-cutters and elsewhere, are empowered to stop any vessel within four leagues of the coast of the United States, board and search her and all persons aboard for goods carried or concealed in violation of the customs laws. Vehicles and other modes of conveyance on land may be stopped and searched for contra- band goods. Persons coming into the United States are required to make oath as to articles brought with them, subject to duty. The penalty for concealing dutiable articles in the baggage or about the person, and failing to declare them, is forfeiture of the articles, and a penalty of treble their value. Persons convicted of knowingly defrauding the Gov- ernment in the matter of cus- toms duties are subject to a fine not exceeding $5,000, or im- prisonment for a term not exceed- ing two years, or both, at the dis- cretion of the court. Provision is made for the appraisement and sale of forfeited goods, and a dis- tribution of the proceeds, a por- tion being retained by the gov- ernment, and the balance divided between the informer, the col- lector, naval officer, officer mak- ing the seizure and surveyor according to circumstances. If the owner of goods declared for- feited can establish his innocence of intent to defraud the customs, remission of forfeiture may be granted upon payment of the proper duties. See Customs Duties. Smut, one of the many popu- lar names for certain diseases of the cereal grasses caused by fungi belonging to the family Ustilagineae. The mycelium ram- ifies in the leaves and stems or the reproductive organs and fruit of the higher plants, and is there transformed into a brown or black mass of spores, which con- vey the idea of burning or its re- sults. The spores fall and ger- minate in the damp, manured soil, on which they live as sapro- phytes. When the food supply is exhausted mycelial hyphae are sent out, which penetrate the seedlings, and living there para- sitically, travel upwards with the growth of the higher plant, and complete the life-cycle by the development of smut or brand- spores. The loose smut of oats is caused by Ustilago avence, and that of wheat by U-. tritici ; the latter differs from bunt or the stinking smut of wheat (Tillctia caries) in not being fetid. U. maydis attacks Indian corn. Spring-sown corn is always more liable to attacks of smut than that sown in the autumn. Other species attack grasses, reeds, and sedges, scabious goat's beard, and bladder campion. For the control of smut in barley, oats, and wheat soaking the seed in formalin solution is efficacious, but for corn smut the only rem- edy is to destroy the affected plants before the spores mature. Consult Massee, Text-book of Plant Diseases ; Swingle, Grain Smuts ; U. S. Department of Ag- riculture, Farmers' Bulletin 75. Smuts, Jan Christiaan (1870- ), South African sol- dier and statesman, was born in Cape Colony. He was educated at Cambridge University, was called to the bar and began the practice of law in Cape Town, 1895.^ In 1898 he was appointed State's Attorney to the Trans- vaal, served with distinction in the Boer War (1899-1902), and after peace was declared aided in the work of reconstruction. He was colonial secretary imder Botha, labored for the union of the South African colonies and as minister of finance and de- fence after the Union of South Africa was consummated, played an important part in preventing a general labor strike in Johannes- burg (1914). During the First World War he was in command of military operations against German East Africa; represented South Africa at the Imperial War conference in London (1917), accepted a seat in the War Cabinet and super- vised London's air defenses. He represented South Africa at the Peace Conference, and he is the author of The League of Na- tions : A Practical Suggestion, which met the approval of Presi- dent Wilson and Premier Lloyd- George and in substance became the Covenant of the League. In 1919-24 he was Prime Min- ister of the Union of South Af- rica and Minister for Native Af- fairs, and in 1933-39 was Min- ister of Justice. In the latter year he again became Prime Min- ister and also Minister of Ex- ternal Affairs and Defense. He was in command of the Union Defense Forces in the Second World War and was made a Field Marshal in 1941. Marshal Smuts wrote : Holism and Evo- lution (1926) ; Africa and Some World Problems (1930) ; and Plans for a Better World (speeches) (1942). _ Smyrna (Turk. Izmir), chief city of Asia Minor, on the west coast, at the head of the Gulf of Smyrna; 200 miles s.w. of Istan- bul (Constantinople). It is the seat of archbishops of the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Armenian churches. The Euro- pean quarter, stretching along the shore of the gulf, is clean and attractive. The native city stretches up the slopes of Mount Pagus, crowned by the ruins of a Greek citadel. The city is of considerable archseological inter- est and there are several schools maintained by different nations. Its principal industry is the manufacture of carpets, other branches being connected with machine shops, iron foundries, silks, cotton and woolens, and pottery. Smyrna is the princi- pal seaport of Asia Minor. The exports consist chiefly of carpets, figs, tobacco, valonia, raisins, and silk. Smyrna was founded, probably about 1000 B.C., by Achaean or ^olian colonists from Greece, though it subsequently became Ionian. Early in the 7th century B.C. it resisted the Lydian king Gyges ; but in 627 B.C. his grand- son Alyattes took the city, and destroyed it utterly. At last it was restored by Antigonus, and completed by Lysimachus, early in the 3d century B.C., when it became one of the finest cities in Asia Minor. From the Ro- mans it received privileges be- cause of its fidelity in their wars with Mithridates. In 178 and 180 A.D. it suffered greatly from earthquakes. A Christian church was established there at an early date. In 1084 Smyrna was cap- tured by a Turkish chief, but was recovered by the emperor Alexis Comnenus. Afterwards it suffered greatly from a siege by Tamerlane (1402), and in 1424 fell into the hands of the Turks. It was bombarded by the Al- lies in the First World War and in 1920 was occupied by the Greeks vmder the terms of the Treaty of Sevres. But Turkish troops under Mustapha Kemal soon engaged in hostilities and at length the Kemalists drove back the Greek army and the Turks entered Smyrna, which under the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) re- verted to Turkey. Pop. (1940) 184,652. Smyrna, town, Delaware, in Kent county, on the Pennsyl- vania Railroad; 11 miles north- west of Dover. The town has an opera house and a fine school building. It has manufactures of phosphates, overalls, farming im- Smyth KFN 272 Snake Bite plements, hosiery, shirts, and electric and ice milk coolers. The surrounding country raises large quantities of tomatoes, peaches and grain, which are shipped to northern markets. Pop. (1930) 1,958; (1940) 1,870. Smyth, Charles Piazzi (1819-1900), English astrono- mer, was born in Naples, Italy. He became assistant at the Roy- al Observatory, Cape of Good Hope, in 1835, and in 1845-88 was astromoner-royal for Scot- land. He went to Sweden to observe the total solar eclipse of July 28, 1851, and experimented upon telescopic vision from the Providence, R. I. From 1870 to 1875 he filled a pastorate at Ban- gor, Me., and from 1876 to 1882 at Quincy, III., in the latter year becoming pastor of the First Con- gregational Church in New Ha- ven, Conn. Among his pub- lished works are The Orthodox Theology of To-day (1881) ; The Reality of Faith (1884) ; Chris- tian Facts and Forces (1887); Personal Creeds; Christian Eth- ics (1893) ; The Place of Death in Evolution (1897) ; Through Science to Faith (1902); Con- structive Natural Theology (1913), Snail, a term of popular, not body, and having in it at the right side the breathing pore. The mouth is anterior, and at the right side of the head the genital opening is visible. It is some- times possible to distinguish the brown jaw against which the radula or tooth-ribbon, with its innumerable teeth, works. Be- neath the shell is the mantle which makes and lines it, and roofs in the spacious pulmonary chamber. Snails are eaten com- monly in Europe, a single spe- cies, H. pomatia, being the kind preferred ; and in former times various medicines were made from their crushed bodies. Con- Paul's Photos, Chicago MOSQUES AND MINARETS RISE ABOVE THE ROOFTOPS OF SMYRNA peak of Tenerifife in 1856. In his spectroscopic investigations he emphasized the significance of the rain-band, introduced the use of 'endon' tubes, and con- structed a map of the solar spectrum. He published Three Cities in Russia (1862) and Our Inheritance in the Great Pyramid (1864). Smyth, Samuel Phillips Newman (1843-1925), Ameri- can theologian, was born in Brunswick, Me. He was grad- uated from Bowdoin College in 1863, and was an assistant teach- er at the Naval Academy at New- port. In 1864-5 he served as lieutenant in the Sixteenth Maine Infantry. He was graduated from Andover Theological Semi- nary in 1867, and until 1870 was pastor of a mission chapel in zoological, significance, applied to any pulmonate gasteropod in which there is a well-developed, spirally-coiled shell capable of lodging the whole body. The typical snails belong to the genus Helix, which includes thousands of species scattered over all the warmer parts of the world. Snails are characterized as fol- lows : The head, furnished with two pairs of tentacles, of which the larger and posterior carry simple eyes at their tip ; the elongated foot, which tapers behind, and contains a mucotis gland, which secretes the trail of slime that the snail leaves behind it ; the shell, which covers the or- gans of the body, contained in the visceral hump ; the collar, or thickened margin of the mantle, seen where the shell joins the suit Binney, Terrestrial Mollusks of the United States, published by the Smithsonian Institution. Snake-Bird. See Darters and Wryneck. Snake Bite. The results of a venomous snake bite are local and general. Pain and swelling are followed by local paralysis, and by infiltration of the sur- rounding parts. The general symptoms are shock, depres- sion, faintness, hurried respira- tion, exhaustion, lethargy, in- coordination, paralysis, uncon- sciousness, convulsions or coma, and death. Snake poison paralyzes the nerve centers and sometimes the peripheral nerves, and causes profound alterations in the blood, which in man usu- ally remains permanently fluid after death from snake bite. The Snake River KFP 273 Snakes poison is also septic, and when death does not follow, slough- ing and haemorrhage occur. In- jected into a large blood-vessel, snake virus causes almost imme- diate death, possibly by direct action on the heart, which stops in systolic spasm. Attempts should be made to prevent the spread of the virus from the bite. This may be done by a tight liga- ture between the wound and the heart. The part may also be sucked, though this procedure is not altogether free from danger to the operator. Artificial suc- tion with a breast pump may be applied after incision of the wound. For bites of the more deadly snakes 'there is only one fairly reliable treatment, that by serum therapeutics — the injection of considerable quantities of serum of animals which have been par- tially immunized by repeated doses of snake- venom' (Dr. Mar- tin). A horse, into the veins of which a non-fatal dose of snake poison has been injected, is proof against the ordinary minimum lethal dose of snake poison ; and if gradually increasing doses of the poison be administered, the serum becomes so highly antago- nistic to the virus that snake poison sufficient to kill fifty non- immunized horses may be in- jected without fatal result. Fur- ther, the blood serum of the pro- tected horse is itself protective. Unfortunately one serum does not confer immunity against all varieties of snakes, the prepara- tion is necessarily expensive, and the duration of its potency is un- certain. The Antivenin Institute of America supplies three sorts of antiserum for snake bites. The antivenin is injected every hour or every two hours until symp- toms subside. The serum is usu- ally administered by intramus- cular injection. If the patient is seen late, intravenous or in- traperitoneal administration may be required. The ordinary treatment for shock is given and cardiac tonics to stimulate the heart. It is necessary to keep the patient under observation and treatment is continued as long as swelling or paralysis persists. Children require 2 or 3 times the adult dose. They must be warned against over ex- ertion and over heating. Snake (or Lewis) River, the longest branch of the Colum- bia R., rises in Shoshone Lake in the Yellowstone National Park, flows s. through Jackson's Lake, then, turning w., cuts a deep canon through the Teton range in its escape to the Snake R. plains. It flows over these plains in southern Idaho, then curves N. along the w. boundary of the state. In the Snake R. plains its descent is extremely rapid, and is interrupted by the American, Salmon, and Shoshone falls. It joins the Columbia R. in south- ern Washington, after a course of 939 m. It is navigable to the Grande Ronde R., 170 m. above its mouth. Snake-charming. This has been practiced from remote an- tiquity, and is still frequent in India, where the cobra is the snake usually made use of. The 'dance' of the cobra, usually to the accompaniment of a pipe, is the natural swaying movement of the animal as it prepares to strike. The cobra of the Indian conjurer usually has its fangs drawn. In dealing with an un- tamed cobra prior to the extrac- tion of the fangs, the charmers appear to depend upon their dex- terity in avoiding the stroke, and on their knowledge of the ani- mal's probable movements. Snake Root, the name of a number of plants reputed to pos- sess healing virtues in cases of snake bite: Aristolochia serpen- taria, Asarum canadcnse , Psora- lea pedunculata, Eupatorium sp., Nabalus sp., Lacinania, sp., Sa- nicula sp. and Polygala senega. Snakes, or Ophidia, a high- ly specialized order of reptiles whose members are most nearly related to lizards. From lizards the most notable point of distinc- tion is that the two halves of the lower jaw are connected merely by an elastic band, so that the mouth parts have great mobility. An apparent distinction from lizards lies in the elongated body, which has no external trace of limbs ; but some lizards, such as the blind-worm, have bodies which are quite snakelike. It is true that internally the blind- worm differs from a snake in retaining the limb girdles, but in the more primitive snakes traces of these may remain. Snakes are typically carnivorous, and many of thern are furnished with powerful poison fangs. These are modified teeth, associated with a modified salivary gland. In non-poisonous snakes the teeth are numerous, small, and sharp. In the Colubridae Opisthoglypha {e.g. Dipsas, the tree-snakes) one or more of the posterior maxillary teeth are somewhat enlarged, and have in front a groove or furrow, connected with the duct of the poison gland. The fact that these fangs are placed far back and are rela- tively small makes these snakes practically harmless to man, al- though they can benumb small animals. In the Colubridae Pro- teroglypha, to which the deadly cobra belongs, the poison fangs are two in number, are of large size, and are placed on the front of the maxillae, their anterior position making them much more effective weapons. Finally, in the Viperidae, each maxilla is greatly shortened, is capable of being erected, and bears a very large fang, which is not grooved but perforated, bearing a canal down which the duct of the poison-gland passes. In this case, when the mouth is opened to strike, the fang is automati- cally erected, and its canal en- sures the introduction of the poi- son into the deepest part of the wound. The tongue is bifid, can be rapidly protruded and re- tracted, and functions as an efii- cient sense organ. Upon it and the well-developed nostrils the snakes largely depend, for nei- ther sight nor hearing is very acute. There are no eyelids, the eyes being covered over by a transparent convex scale. The whole skin is covered with scales, which are folds of the epidermis, continuous with one another. In consequence, when the snake casts its coat — which occurs sev- eral times in the year — it casts it in one piece, this being a com- plete replica of the snake. The vertebrae are very numerous ; with the exception of the most anterior (atlas), all bear ribs, which are very freely movable and are the snake's main organs of locomotion. Snakes are ca- pable of moving with great swiftness. As regards the in- ternal organs, the most interest- ing point is the reduction of the left lung, for which the narrow- ness of the body leaves apparent- ly no room. In both sexes scent glands are present, whose secre- tion in some instances is very strong and disagreeable. Most snakes lay eggs, but some bring forth living young. Snakes are most abundant in warm coun- tries. Few fossil forms are known ; it seems probable that snakes are a relatively recent de- rivative of some Lacertilian stock. The classification of snakes is difficult. Gadow, following Bou- lenger, recognizes nine families, but many of these are very small and only of zoological impor- tance. The most important are the Boidae or Pythonidae, in- cluding the boas and pythons ; the Colubridae, including the Coronellidae, and comprising about nine-tenths of the living species ; and the Viperidae, in- cluding the vipers and rattle- snakes. Owing to its large size, it is necessary to subdivide the Colubridae into three series — (1) the Aglypha, in which there are no poison fangs, and the snakes are therefore harmless — here are included the well-known blacksnakes, garter-snakes, wa- ter-snakes, raiJk-snakes, and Snakes KFP 274 Snellius many others commonly seen ; (2) Opisthoglypha, in which some of the posterior maxillary teeth are grooved (see below); (3) Proteroglypha, in which the anterior maxillary teeth are grooved (see below). Of the suit also Ditmars, Snakes of the World (1938). Snapper, a familiar name ap- plied to several common fishes, especially the large, handsome sparoid sea-fishes of the genus Lutjanus, common on the South Life Magazine Photo OBTAINING RATTLESNAKE VENOM FOR USE IN THE PREPARATION OF ANTI-VENOM above, the Boidae are non-poi- sonous, the Colubridae include both venomous and non-veno- mous forms, and the Viperidae are markedly venomous. Gadow .states that there is no easily ascertained external character which can be invariably relied upon to distinguish p,< ■> Messers, S. ( . . . I ' J Mi-viTs Mil'. .1 ' .\!ic':,. 1 i; ; .Mh ' ,,,], s I .... I- ! Mi.i ,' .1 . S I I 1 .! Mill( tlvillr. .S, (■ .MixiM. .S. (■ .M...l..r. S. (• M.i.K.iiia. .s, c. . .1; .? MnrTisvillo. S. ( .K 3 Moselcy, S. C . ..1! 2 Motbridge, .S. CE 3 Moultrieville. S.C.E 4 Mt.Carmcl. S.C.H 2 .n 3 SaltersDepnt. S ^.F. 3 Mt. Will. M.irns. S Murs r.lnlT. S. C.E 2 Mriry. S. (■ E 3 Mand. S. (■ C 1 Mauldin. S B 2 May. .S. C E 2 Mayesville. S. CD 3 Max, S. C... ..E 3 Mayucha. S. C. ..A 2 Mechanicsv'e, S.C.D 2 Meggett, S. C..D 4 1) M..hsv, S. (■ C 3 M.inMtvillr, I'.i; 2 Mmii/.i,,^, S. r. . .K 3 M..vJ. S. (■ E 3 Mull, t II, ill, .S.C.D 4 Mullms, S. ( . . . .E 2 Murphv. S. (-....B 2 Myers." .S. C E 4 MyrtleBeach, S.C.E 3 Neeses, S. C C 3 Nelson. S. C C 2 Nesmith. S. C E 3 Newberry. S. C.C 2 Ncwcut.'S. C 1) 2 Xruni.irKit. S. C. 1! 2 NiiK-lv Six. S. C.H 2 Nixonvillc, :;. CF 3 Norlh. S. C C 3 North Augusta, S. C..........C 3 Norris, S. C B 2 Norton, S. C F 3 Norway, S. C C 3 Pacolet, S. C C 2 Pages Mills, S. C.F PalmervilU-, S.C.I- Palms. S. C 1-: 4 Palmetto, S. C. . .E 2 Parksville, S. CB 3 !■ . 11, :-, 1 . . . .< - . . I' 2 1 ,) 1 . S, ( I J S.I 11 tec, S ( . . S.llltlli I., S. ( . . . I-; 3 . . C 2 i ', , . Ii . . s. 1 J S.inliiua. S. C . . 1 1 ,i 1'. 1 L.I 111. s. 1 . . . . i; -' Sci 'tia. S. ( . . . . < 4 I'l hull, S, I c * .ScolKaiid, S. ( . , 1 ) 2 !'( 1 / 1 1 , S . 1 ■ 1 '• 2 .Si ranlnii, S. ( . . \: 3 Sidalia. S. C. I'. l. rslirl.l, S. C. . K 3 Scivcrii, S. C. . , C 3 I'h.rnix, S. ( . . . . r. 2 Scllc rs, S. (' . . . . ]• 2 I'u-K. iis, S. ( . . . ,l| J Scliif, C. , . . , 1; 3 Seniino'le. 'S. C' '.'.C 4 I''h!! vi11,".''s^'i'*. : J) 3 Seneca, .S. C. ..B 2 l',i,,i|„,li.. S. ( . . .1) 3 Sharon. .S. C. . ...C 2 I'laiiUrsvilk-. .S.C.K 3 Sheldon. S. C. . .n 4 Plateau. S. C C 3 Shell, S. C... . ,F 3 Pkasan' Hill, .S,C.l) 2 Sheltnii. S. C. . C 2 Plum nr.. .S.C..,11 3 Shilnli. S. ( .. . . 1 ) 3 I'nm.aria, S. C....C 2 Shirlcv, S. C. l'iiii|uiii. S. C 1) 4 S,ct;l.ii,.MlIr, S. C,C 3 I'l.lla. -, Kiai, S.C.I'. 3 . .D 3 rml K'liv.al, S. ('. 1) 4 Sllvt i sll'r, 1, S. C.C 2 I'm, l,.irilvillr,S.C.I) 4 I'rivalcer. S. C._.l) 3 Prosperity, .S. C.C 2 Providence, S. CD 2 Ramsay. S. C .P 3 Ravencls. S. CO 4 Ray. S. C li 2 Rnvmond, S. C, . .1) 3 RavMu-. Mill.S.C.n 4 K', , v.-,Mllr, S. CD 4 Krhulioth, S. ('...H 3 St.Charles. S.C,.,D Saint (leorgc S C D Sl.Matlliews.'s.C. n MkIi !c 3 , C.C 3 illc, S.C.B 2 .. C E 3 . .. . . C C 2 :lis Mills S.C.E 3 Smithville. S. CD 2 Smoaks. S. C D 3 sIldfi'uK, S.' (* Socaolcc. S. C, . .E 3 Socictv Hill. S,C..E 2 Snphia, S. C B 3 South Island. S.C.E 3 S.l.vnchliurK.S.C.n 2 S|.,iilanlnirp, S.C.C 2 Spear, S. C — SprinRbank, S.C.E 3 SprinKllcId, S. C.C 3 SlalTnnl. S. C C 4 Si, I II. S. (• C 3 St.ilvrv, S. (■ I- ,\ Starr. S. <■ i; 2 Stei-.lnrili, S, C .C 3 Stev. n-.iiii. S. r. .(■ 2 Still. in, S ( ' 1 ) 3 Stii-liiiL', S, f. . . . 1! 2 St, ikes, S. (■ 1) 4 Stone, S. C I) 3 Stonebnro, S, C. .D 2 Storevillc. S, C. , .B 2 Stover. S. C D 2 Slrntli.a-, S. C. . ,C 2 c. .E 3 Swit/iM- S C C 2 Switzcilaiid, S. C.C 4 Sycamore. S. C.C 3 Syracuse, S. C . . . E 2 Tabernacle, S. C.E 2 Taft, S, C E 3 Tnlatba. S. C C 3 Taniav- ee. S. C A 2 T:nli..r,.. S. C C 4 Taluin. S C K 2 Taxl.irs. S. C. ...Tt 2 Tax.ib iu. S. CD 2 Ten Mile. S, CD 4 Tliickety. S. C.C 1 Thompson. S. C.E 3 Thor, S. C C 3 Tieerville. S. C...B 1 Tillman. S. C, .C 4 TimuMn^ville. S.C.E 2 Tinilal C D 3 Tradesville. S. CD 2 i'ravelersKest. S.C.B 2 Travis, S. C C 3 Trenton. S. C C 3 Trial, S. C D 3 Trio, S. C E 3 Trimgli, S. C C 2 Tr.iv. S. C B 3 Inn'ililiML; Sh.ials, Vance. S. C D 3 Van Wvck, S. CD 2 Varnville, S. C.C 4 Vaucluse. S. C . . . C 3 Vaught. S. C, ,..F 3 Venters, S. C E 3 Verdery, S. C.B 2 Virgo, S. C E 3 Vox, S. C E 3 Wageuer. S. C.C 3 Walhalla. S. C. . .A 2 Wallaceville, S, C.C 2 Walterboro. S. CD 4 Wampee, S. C . . . F 3 Wando, S, C....E 4 Ward, S. C C 3 Ware Shoals, S.C.B 2 Warrick, S. C.C 3 Westville, S. CD 2 Wattacoo, S. C.B 1 Waterlco, S. C.B 2 Watts, S. C B 2 WaverlyMills, S.C.E 3 Waycross, S. C.C 3 Weathersbee, S.C.C 3 Wedgefield, S. CD 3 Weeks, S. C D 3 Weimer, S. C....C 3 Wellford, S. C.B 2 Wells. S. C D 3 Westminster. .S.C,.\ 2 Weston. S. C D 3 ^\'est l^nion. S. C.A 2 Whetsell. S. C.D 3 Whetst.ine. S. C.A 2 White Rock, S. C. — Whiteh.all, S. CD 4 Wllitniire. S. C.C 2 Whitnev. S, C.C 2 White 'Oak. S,C..,.C 2 White Pon.l, S.C.C 3 White Stone. S.C.C 2 Wiggins, S. C .D 4 Wil.Icat. S. C, , . .D 2 Wilksburg. S. C.C 2 Wilkins. S. C ..D 4 Wilkinsville. S.C.C 2 Williams. S. C.D 3 Williamston. S.C.B 2 Willington. S. C.B 3 Williston. S. C.C 3 Wilson. S. C D 3 Winnsboro. S. C.C 2 Winona. S. C. . . .E 3 Wisackv. S. C.D 2 Wofford. S, C .B 3 Wolsie, S. C E 3 Woodford. S. C.C 3 Woodlawn. S. C.B 3 Woodruff. S. C.C 2 Woodward. S. C.C 2 Workman. S. C.E 3 Wren, S. C E 3 Vanhannah. S. C.E 3 Yemassee. S. C.D 4 Yonges Id.. S.C.D 4 Yorkville, S. C.C 2 Tii.l.lville. S. C.E J Tonev ( reek. S.C.B -> Townville, S. C.B 2 INDEX OF SOUTH CAROLINA SOUTH CAROLINA Abbeville, S. C.B 2 Acton, S. C — Adams Run. S.C.D 4 .Xdani.sliurg. S. C.C 2 lan. .\ikeii. S. <■ .Mill. 111. S. C .\leiilu. S. ( AleNamler. S. C Allen. laic, S. C Allison, S. C Alma. S, C Almeda, S. C... Alston, S, C C 2 Alvin. S. C E 3 Anderson. S. C.B 2 Andrews, S. C E 3 -Angelus. S. C. . .D 2 Annandale. S. C.E 3 Antioch. S. C D 2 Antreville, S. C.B 2 Appleton, S. C.C 3 Arlington, S. C.B 2 Arthur, S. C — Ashton, S. C D 3 Atkins, S. C D 2 Atlanticville, S.C.E 4 Auburn, S. C E 2 Autun, S. C B 2 Avon, S. C C 2 Awensdaw, S. C.E 3 Azmon. S. C D 2 Badham, S. C D 3 Bakersville, S. C.D 3 Baldock, S. C...C 3 Ballentine, S. C . — Bamberg, S. C.C 3 Bandana, S. C C 1 Rannockburn, S.C.E 2 Bardv. S. C F 3 Barksdale, S. C.B 2 Barnes, S. C F 2 Barnwell. S. C.C 3 Barr. S. C C 3 Barton. S. C C 4 Ra.'icomville. S.C.D 2 Rateslnirg, S. C. .C 3 Bath. S. C C 3 Batonrouge, S. C.C 2 Batson. S. C B 2 Battlecreek, S.C...\ 2 Bavboro, S. C.E 2 Rcaufort. S. C.D 4 Beaverdam. S. C.C 3 Bellfield. S. C D 2 Rellinger, S. C.C 4 Relton. S. C R 2 Rennettsville. S.C.E 2 Ren son, S, C E 3 Rerlin, S. C C 3 Rethera. S, C E 3 Rethune. S. C D 2 Beulah. S. C....C 3 Beverley. S. C.B 2 Rigcreek, S. C C 2 Bingham, S. C ..E 2 B^rch. S. C A 2 Bir.co. S. C F 2 Ri<-.hopville. S. C.D 2 Blacks. S. C C 3 niack.sburg, S. C.C 1 Blackstock, S. C.C 2 Rlackville, S. C.C 3 Rlairs, S. C C ^ Blake. S. C E 3 Blanche. S. C E 2 Rlanev. S. C....D 2 Rlenheim. S. C.E 2 Blocker. S. C D 4 RIoomingVale. S.C.E 3 Blossom S. C...E 3 Bluffton. S. C D 4 Rlythewood. S. C.D 2 Ronneau. S. C. . .E 3 Bookman, S. C.C 2 Bordeaux. S. CB 3 Borden, S. C D 2 Bostick. S. C E 3 BowlingGreen, S.C.C 1 Bowman. S. C.D 3 Bowyer. S. C D 3 Box, S. C F 2 Boykin, S. C....D 2 Bradley, S. C B 2 Branchville. S.C.D 3 Jirant, S. C D 4 I'.reezew ood, S. C B 2 Brighton. S. C.C 4 linttons Neck.S.C.K 3 I'.ri.g.lon, S. C . .1) 3 111 iMikgi cen. S. I. .1-; 3 l'.r..wnlee. S. C . . I; 2 l-irownsville. S. (■..!■ ' liroyles, S. t . . . . r. 2 I'ruce. S. C F 3 lirunson. S. (.'...14 Hryson, .S. C' C 2 Buck lleail. S.C,..C 2 Bucksport, S. C.E 3 Bucksville, S. C.E 3 Buffalo. S. C C 2 Bullock Cr., S.C.C 2 Burcol, S. C F 3 Burton, S. C D 4 Bush, S. C C 3 Byrds, S. C D 4 Cades. S. C E 3 Calhoun. S, C B 2 CalhounFalls, S.C.B 2 Callison, S. C. . .B 2 Calvin, S. C C 2 Cambridge. S. C.C 2 Camden, S. C.D 2 Cameron, S. C.D 3 Campfield. S. C.E 3 Campobello, S. C.B 1 Cantey, S. C D 2 Cantrell, S. C. . ..D 4 Carlisle, S. C C 2 Carris. S, C E 3 Carroll, S. C C 2 Cartersville, S. C.D 2 Cashs Depot. S. C.E 2 Cassatt, S. C D 2 Cassels, S. C D 2 Catawba, S. C D 2 Cateechee, S. C.B 2 Cat Island, S. C.E 3 Catehall. S. C.D 2 Cato, S. C D 2 Cave, S. C B 2 Cebu, S. C E 3 Cedar Spring, S.C.C 2 Celestia, S. C C 2 Centenary. S. C.E 2 Central, S. C...B z Chandler, S. C.B 2 Chapin, S. C C 2 Chapman, S. C.E 3 Chappells, S. C.C 2 Charleston, S. C.E 4 Cheraw, S. C E 2 Cherokee. S. C.C 1 CherokeeFalls. S.C.C I Chester. S. C C 2 Chesterfield. S. C.D 2 Chick Sprs,. S.C .B 2 Chicora, S. C D 3 Choppee, S. C. . .E 3 Church. S. C E 3 Claremonf. S. C.D 3 Clarks Hill. S. C.B 3 Claussen, S. C.E 2 Clearwater. S. C.C 3 Clemson College, S. C :...B 2 Cleora. S. C B 3 Cleveland. S. C.B 1 Clifton, S. C . .C 2 Clinton, S. C C 2 Clio, S. C E 2 Clover. S. C C 1 Cogburn, S. C .C 3 Cokesburv. S. C.R 2 Coldpoint. S. C.R 2 Colerain, S. C. . .C 2 Colemans. S. C.C 2 Columbia. S. C.C 3 Colleton, S. C.D 3 Colliers. S. C R 3 Colon. S. C B 2 Colston. S. C C 3 Congaree. S. C. . .D 3 Conifer. S. C....E 3 Connors, S. C .D 3 Converse, S C 2 Conway, S. C E 3 Cooper, S. C E 3 Coosawhatchie.SCD 4 Cope, S. D 3 Copeland. S. C , . D 2 Cordesville. S, C.K } ( rer.ceiu. S. (,'. . ..I: ' C ,.ston, S. I . . . . I) Crocketville, S.C..C 4 Cross, S. I I ) 3 Cross. \nchor. S.C.t' ' Cross Hill. S. C . .( ■ Crosskeys, S. C.C 2 Crouch. S. C C 2 Crow Creek, S. CU 2 Cummings, S. CD 4 Dacusville. S. C.B 2 Daisy, S. C F 2 Dale, S. C D 4 Daley, S. C C 4 Dallon, S. C B 2 Dalzell. S. C D 2 Darlington, S. C.E 2 Davisbridge, S.C.C 3 Davis Sta., S.C.D 3 Dawkins, S. C .C 2 Delmar. S. C C 2 Delta, S. C C 2 Denhams, S. C.E 3 Denmark, S. C.C 3 Denny, S. C C 2 Dentsville, S. CD 2 Denver, S. C B 2 Derrik, S. C C 2 Dillon, S. C E 2 Donalds, S. C B 2 Dongola. S. C ..E 3 Dorchester, S. C.D 3 Douglass. S. C.C 2 Dovesville, S. C.E 2 Drake, S. C E 2 Dresden, S. C B 2 Due West, S. C.B 2 Dulah. S. C F 3 Dunbar. S. C E 2 Dunbarton. S. C.C 3 Duncan. .S. C . . . B 2 Dupier, S. C C 2 Dupont, S. C....C 2 Durant, S. C D 3 Dyson, S. C C 2 Eadytown, S. CD 3 Earfe, S. C C 3 Easley, S. C R 2 EarlyBranch.S. CD 4 Eastover, S. C.D 3 Ebenezer. S. C. . E 2 Eddy, S. C K 3 Edgefield. S. C.C 3 Edgmoor, S. ('...(' 2 Edisto Id., S.C,. .!> 4 Edmund. S. C . . ( ' 3 Edwards, S. C. . .O 2 Effie, S. C B 3 Effingham, S, C.E 2 Ehrhardt, S. C . .C 3 Eldorado. S. C. . . P 3 Elgin, S. C D 2 Elko, S. C C 3 Ellenton. S. C.C 3 Elliott, S. C D 2 Elloree. S. C D 3 Elzie. S. C C 2 English, S. C....D 2 Enoree. .S. C C 2 Enterprise. S. CD 4 Epps, S. C E 3 Epworth, S. C.B 2 Equality, S. C B 2 Estill. S. C C 4 Ethel, S. C D 4 Eulala, S. C C 2 Eulonia, S. C. . . .E 3 Eureka, S. C C 3 Eutawville, S. C.D 3 Fairbanks, S. C Ft, 1- Fort Mill, S. CD I Fort Motte, S. CD 3 Ft. Sumter. S. C.E 4 Former, S. C B 1 Fountain Inn, S.C.B 2 Fowler, S. C E 3 I-Vanklin, S. C. . . R 3 Fredonia, S. C. . , C 3 Freeman. S. C . . 1'. 2 Frogmore, S. C.I) 4 Gadsden, S. C.D 3 Gaffney, S. C C 1 GalivantsFy., S.C.E 2 Gary, S. C C 2 (iarnett. S. C. . ..C 4 Gaston. S. C C 3 Gershom, S. C. . ..F 2 Georgetown. S. C.E 3 Getsinger, S. C.D 4 Gevhaus, S. C ..1)4 Gideon, S. C....E 3 Gilford, S. C....C 4 Gilbert, S. C C 3 Gillisonville, S. C.C 4 Glendale, S. C.C 2 Glenn Sprs., S.C.C 2 Godbold, S. C . .E 3 Goethe, S. C C 4 Goldmine. S. CD 2 Goldville, S. C . .C 2 Gooduill. S. C.D 3 Gordon, S. ( . . I . ,i Go.shenliill, S. ( . .1 Gough, S. (■ K 3 Gourdin, S. C. . .E 3 Govan, S. C C 3 Grahamville, S. C.D 4 Gramling. S. C . .1! 1 Grandeur, S. ( ' . . . 1'. I Granitev.ll.-, S. ( .( ,1 Gray, S. C ( 4 Gray Cmrt, S. CI! 2 Grays Hill, S. C.D 4 Great Falls. S. CD 2 Gr.elevville, S. C.E 3 Green ' .Sea, S. C...F 2 Green Pond. S.C.D 4 Greenland, S. C.C 3 Greenville, S. CI! 2 Greenwood, S. C.B 2 Greer, S. C R 2 Grove, S. C R 2 Grover. S. C D 3 Guin. S, C D 2 Gurley, S. C F 2 Guthriesville, S.C.C 2 Hagood. S. C....D 2 Haile. S. C D 2 Halsellville. S. C.C 2 ITamer, S. C E 2 Hammond, S. C.F 3 Hampton, S. C...C 4 Hand, S. C F 3 Hannah, S. C E 3 Hardeeville, S. C.C 4 Harleyville, S. C.D 3 Harmony, S. C.D 2 Harpers. S. C.E 3- IlarrisSprs., S.C.C i llartsville, S. CD 2 Haskell, S. C....E 3 Ilattieville, S. C.C 3 Hawthorne. S.C...C 3 llavville, S. ( . . . .C 3 - ( . . ,C 3 1) 2 S.l ,.D 2 S. C.E 3 C...C 2 llevxvanl. , r. lliI.eM,,,.. S. C 1 111. lor. S, C li.eklins, S. C. ilickinan, S. C llickorvGrovcS Hilda. S. C. . . Hilton, s. c. Hilti.nlie.iil, S. Hn.lL'.s. S. (■ llolilrll. S. C ll..iie.i I'alli, S.l lliiiu-vliill. S. C llomeuood. S. C. 11. ip, S. C Hopkins. S. C. Hornshoro, S. C. Horsegall, S. C Howard, S. C... Howclton, S. C. Hudson, S. C., Huger, S. C Hunters, S. C, Hyman, S. C..., .1) 4 .C 3 .B 3 .C 2 .F 2 .C 1 Tndiantown, S.C.E 3 Inman, S. C B 1 Ionia, S. C D 2 loppa. S. C E 2 Irmo. S. C — Irvingti.n, S, C . I) 2 Lslandtnn. S. C.I) 4 Iva, S. C B 2 Jacobs, S. C D 2 "l.aekson, S, C....C 3 ■|... I.s.iiiliiir... S. CP 4 |,.l,i|ia. S. C C 2 l.iiii. s III., S. C.E 4 "l.aiiiisi.n, S. C..D 3 .1) 3 Tordanville, S. C.E 3 Tudson, S. C E 2 Justice, S. C E 2 Kalb, S. C D 2 Kathwood. S. C.C 3 Keaton, S. C B 2 Kelton. S. C C 2 Kemper, S. C E 2 Kershaw. S. C.D 2 Killian. S. C D 2 Kinards. S, C . . C 2 Kings Creek. S.C.C 1 Kingstree, S. C . K .1 Kingville, S. C.D 3 KitchingsMillsS.ee 3 Kirksey. S. C. . . .R 2 Kline. S. C C 3 Kollock, S. C....E 2 Labana. S. C E 3 Laco, S. C B 2 INDEX OF SOUTH CAROLINA Ladson, S. C D Bradley, S. C B 2 Lake City, S. C..E Branchville, S.C..D 3 Lamar, S. C D Brant, S. C D 4 Lambert, S. C...E Breczevvood, S. C.B 2 Lambs, S. C D Brighton, S. C...C 4 Lancaster, S. C..D Bnttons Neck,S.C.E 3 Landrum, S. C...J5 Brogdon, S. C...D 3 Lando, S. C C Brookgreen, S. C.E 3 Lane, S. C E Brownlee, S. C...B 2 Laneys, S. C....E Brownsville, S.C..E 2 LanfordSta., S.C.C Broyles, S. C B 2 Langley, S. C....C Bruce, S. C F 3 Latimer, S. C B Brunson, S. C...C 4 Latta, S. C E Bryson, S. C C 2 Laurel, S. C E Buck Head, S.C.C 2 Laurens, S. C....B Bucksport, S. C.E 3 Lees, S. C C Bucksville, S. C.E 3 Leeds, S. C C Buffalo, S. C...C 2 Leesville, S. C...C Bullock Cr., S.C.C 2 Legare, S. C D Burcol, S. C F 3 Lena, S. C C Burton, S. C D 4 Lenud, S. C E Bush, S. C C 3 Leo, S. C E Byrds, S. C D 4 Lesslie, S. C D Level Land, S.C..B Levys, S. C C Cades, S. C E 3 Lexmgton, S. C.C Calhoun, S. C B 2 Liberty, S. C B CalhounFalls, S.C B 2 Liberty Hill, S.C. D Callison, S. C..B2 Lickville, S. C...B Calvin, S. C C 2 Lincolnville, S. CD Cambridge, S. C.C 2 Little Mtn., S.C.C Camden, S. C..D 2 Little River, S.C. F Cameron, S. C...D 3 Livmgston, S. C.C Campfield, S. C.E 3 Lockhart, S. C..C Campobello, S. C.B 1 Lodge, S. C D Cantey, S. C D 2 Lofton, S. C E Cantrell, S. C....D 4 Lonestar, S. C...D Carlisle, S. C C 2 LongbreviT, S. CD Carris, S. C E 3 Longcreek, S. C.A Carroll, S. C C 2 Longmires Store, Cartersville, S. CD 2 S. C B Cashs Depot, S. C.E 2 Long Ridge, S. CD Cassatt, S. C....D 2 Long Run, S. C.C Cassels, S. C D 2 Longs, S. C F Catawba, S. C D 2 Longtown, S. CD Cateechee, S. C.B 2 Loopers. S. C B Cat Island, S. C.E 3 Loris. S. C F Catchall, S. C..D2 Lownaesville, S.CB Cato, S. C D 2 Lowryville, S. CC Cave, S. C B 2 Lucile, S. C.....E Lebu, S. C E3 Lucknow S. CD Cedar Spring, S.C.C 2 Lugoff, S. C D Celestia, S. C....C 2 Lulu, S. C C Centenary, S. C.E 2 Lumber S C . . . . E Central, S. C . . . B ^ Luke, S. C C Chandler, S. C.B Luray, S. C C Chapin, S. C C 2 Lykesland, S. C..D Chapman, S. C.E 3 Lynchburg, S. CD Chappells, S. C.C 2 Charleston, S. C.E 4 TIT c ^ n S^heraw, S. C....E 2 Mac, S. C. C Cherokee, S. C.C 1 McBee, S. C ...D CherokeeFalls,S.C.C 1 Macbeth. S. C.E Chester, S C C 2 McClellanvilleS.CE Chesterfield, S.'C.'d 2 McColl, S. C ....E Chick Sprs., S.CB 2 McConnellsville, Chicora, S. C D 3 S C.. ...... .C Choppee, S. C.E 3 McCormick S. C.B Church, S. C E 3 Macedon, S. C...C Claremont. S. CD 3 McKies, S. C....B darks Hill, S. C.B 3 McLaunn S. C.C Claussen, S. C.E 2 McNeils, S. C.C Clearwater, S. CC 3 McPhersonville, Clemson College, S. C D S C B 2 Madden, S. C. . . .B Cleora, "i. ' t' .V, 3 Madison, S. C.A Cleveland, S. C.B 1 Mallory, S C ...E Clifton, S. C....C2 Manning, S C ..D Clinton, S. C....C 2 Mannville S CD Qio, S. C E 2 Mappus, S C ...E Clover, S. C C 1 Marietta, S. C.B Cogburn, S. C.C 3 Marion. S. C. ..E Cokesbury, S. C.B 2 Marlboro S C.. E Coldpoint, S. C.B 2 Marlow, S C.-.-E Colerain, S. C.C 2 Martins Pt., S.C.D Colemans, S. C .C 2 Mars Bluff. S. C.E Columbia, S. C.C 3 JJ^'-y- C E Colleton, S. C...D 3 Maud S. C C Colliers. S. C....B 3 Mauldin, S B Colon, S. C B 2 May, S C. . .E Colston, S. C C 3 Mayesville S. CD Congaree, S. C.D 3 Max, S. C..^...E Conifer, S. C....E3 Mayucha, S. C .A Connors, S. C.D 3 Mechanicsv e, S.C.D Converse, S C2 Meggett, S. C..D Conway, S. C..E 3 Cooper, S. C E 3 Coosawhatchie,SC.D 4 Cope, S. C D 3 Copeland, S. C...D 2 Cordesvillc, S. C.E 3 Cordova, S. C. . .D 3 Cornwell, S. C...C 2 Coronaca, S. C..B 2 Cottageville. S. C.D 4 Countsville, S. C.C 2 Coward, S. C E 3 Cowdcn, S. C. . . . C 3 Cowjjens, S C 1 Crescent, S. C B 2 Cx.ston, S. C D 3 Crocketville, S.C.C 4 Cross, S. C D 3 CrossAnchor, S.C.C 2 Cross Hill, S. C.C 2 Crosskeys, S. C.C 2 Crouch, S. C C 2 Crow Creek, S. C.B 2 Cummings, S. C.D 4 Dacusville, S. C.B 2 Daisy, S. C F 2 Dale, S. C D 4 Daley, S. C C 4 Dalton, S. C B 2 Dalzell, S. C D 2 Darlington, S. C.E 2 Davisbridge, S.C.C 3 Davis Sta., S.C.D 3 Dawkins, S. C .C 2 Delmar, S. C C 2 Delta, S. C C 2 Denhams, S. C.E 3 Denmark, S. C.C 3 Denny, S. C C 2 Dentsville, S. CD 2 Denver, S. C B 2 Derrik, S. C C 2 Dillon, S. C E 2 Donalds, S. C B 2 Dongola, S. C E 3 Dorchester, S. C.D 3 Douglass, S. C.C 2 Dovesville, S. CE 2 Drake, S. C E 2 Dresden, S. C B 2 Due West, S. C.B 2 Dulah, S. C F 3 Dunbar, S. C E 2 Dunbarton, S. C.C 3 Duncan, S. C B 2 Dupier, S. C C 2 Dupont, S. C C 2 Durant, S. C D 3 Dyson, S. C C 2 Eadytown, S. CD 3 Earle, S. C C 3 Easley, S. C B 2 EarlyBranch,S. CD 4 Eastover, S. C.D 3 Ebenezer, S. C.E 2 Eddy, S. C E 3 Edgefield, S. C.C 3 Edgmoor, S. C.C 2 Edisto Id., S.C. .D 4 Edmund, S. C.C 3 Edwards, S. C.D 2 Eff^e, S. C B 3 Effingham, S. C.E 2 Ehrhardt, S. C.C 3 Eldorado. S. C.F 3 Elgin, S. C D 2 Elko, S. C C 3 Ellenton, S. C .C 3 Elliott, S. C D 2 Elloree, S. C D 3 Elzie, S. C C 2 English, S. C D 2 Enoree. S. C C 2 Enterprise, S. C.D 4 Epps, S. C E 3 Epworth, S. C.B 2 Equality, S. C B 2 Estill, S. C C 4 Ethel, S. C D 4 Eulala, S. C C 2 Eulonia, S. C E 3 Eureka, S. C C 3 Eutawville, S. CD 3 Exchange, S. C.D 4 Exile, S. C E 2 Fairbanks, S. C. .C 2 Fairfax, S. C C 4 Fairforest, S. C.B 2 Fair Plav, S.CB 2 Falfa, S: C B 3 Farmer, S. C . ..F 2 Fechtig, S. C D 4 Ferguson, S. C..D 3 Filbert, S. C C 1 Fingerville, S. C.B 1 Finklea. S. C....F 2 Flinthill, S. C.D 2 Florence, S. C.E 2 Fork, S. C E 2 Forestville, S. C.E 2 Foreston, S. C.D 3 Forkshoals, S. C.B 2 Forney, S. C. . . . E 3 Ft. Fremont, S.C.D 4 Fort Lawn, S. C.D 2 Fort Mill, S. CD 1 Fort^Motte, S. C.D 3 Ft. Sumter, S. C.E 4 Fortner, S. C B 1 Fountain Inn, S.CB 2 Fowler, S. C E 3 Franklin, S. C.B 3 Fredonia, S. C.C 3 Freeman, S. C...B 2 Frogmore, S. C.D 4 Gadsden, S. C.D 3 Gaffney, S. C C 1 GalivantsFy., S.CE 2 Gary, S. C C 2 Garnett, S. C C 4 Gaston, S. C C 3 Gershom, S. C F 2 Georgetown, S. C.E 3 Getsinger, S. C.D 4 Gevhaus, S. C .D 4 Gideon, S. C E 3 Gifford, S. C..C 4 Gilbert, S. C C 3 Gillisonville, S. CC 4 Glendale, S. C.C 2 Glenn Sprs., S.C.C 2 Godbold, S. C.E 3 Goethe, S. C C 4 Goldmine, S. C.D 2 Goldville, S. C.C 2 Goodwill, S. C.D 3 Gordon, S. C. . . .E 3 Goshenhill, S. C.C 2 Gough, S. C E 3 Gourdin, S. C . .E 3 Govan, S. C C 3 Grahamville, S. C.D 4 Gramling, S. C.B 1 Grandeur, S. C. . .B 1 Graniteville, S. C.C 3 Gray, S. C C 4 Gray Court, S. C.B 2 Grays Hill, S. CD 4 Great Falls, S. CD 2 Greeley ville, S. C.E 3 Green Sea, S. C...F 2 Green Pond, S.C.D 4 Greenland, S. C.C 3 Greenville, S. C.B 2 Greenwood, S. C.B 2 Greer, S. C B 2 Grove, S. C B 2 Grover, S. C D 3 Guin, S. C D 2 Gurley, S. C F 2 Guthriesville, S.C.C 2 Hagood, S. C D 2 Haile, S. C D 2 Halsellville, S. C.C 2 Hamer, S. C E 2 Hammond, S. C.F 3 Hampton, S. C...C 4 Hand, S. C F 3 Hannah, S. C E 3 Hardeeville, S. C.C 4 Harleyville, S. C.D 3 Harmony, S. C.D 2 Harpers, S. C .E 3 HarrisSprs,, S.C.C 1 Hartsville, S. CD 2 Haskell, S. C E 3 Ilattieville, S. C.C 3 Hawthorne, S.C.C 3 liayville, S. C C 3 Hazel, S. C B 2 Hazelton, S. C.C 3 Heath, S. C D 2 Heath Spr., S.C.D 2 lleinemaiin, S. C.E 3 Helena, S. C C 2 lleudersonvilie, S. C D 4 Heriot, S. C D 2 Hester, S. C B 2 Hey ward, . C D 4 Hibernia, S. C .C 3 Hibler, S. C B 3 Hicklins, S. C C 2 Hickman, S. C.F 2 HickoryGrove,S.C.C 1 Hilda, S. C C 3 Hilton, S. C — Hiltonhead, S. C.D 4 Hodges, S. C B 2 Holden, S. C B 2 Holly Hill, S. CD 3 Holmesville, S. C.E 2 Honea Path, S.CB 2 Honeyhill, S. C.E 3 Homewood, S. C.E 3 Hop, S. C C 2 Hopkins, S. C. . .D 3 Hornsboro, S. C.D 2 Horsegall, S. C.C 4 Howard, S. C F 2 Howelton, S. C.C 3 Hudson, S. C..E 3 Linger, S. C E 3 Hunters, S. C.B 2 Hyman, S. C E 3 Indiantown, S.C...E 3 Inman, S. C B 1 Ionia, S. C D 2 loppa, S. C E 2 Irmo, S. C — Irvington, S. C .D 2 Islandton, S. C.D 4 Iva, S. C B 2 Jacobs, S. C D 2 Jackson, S. C...C 3 Jacksonboro, S. C.D 4 Jalapa, S. C C 2 James Id., S. C. .E 4 Tamison, S. C. . .D 3 ay, S. C E 3 edburg, S. C....D 3 efferson, S. C.D 2 enkinsville, S.C.C 2 Jennings, S. C...C 2 Tocassee, S. C B 2 Johns Island, S.C.D 4 Johnsonville, S.CE 3 Johnston, S. C...C 3 Jones, S. C B 2 Jonesville, S. C.C 2 Jordan, S. C . . .D 3 Tordanville, S. CE 3 judson, S. C E 2 Justice, S. C E 2 Kalb, S. C D 2 Kathwood, S. C.C 3 Keaton, S. C B 2 Kelton, S. C C 2 Kemper, S. C E 2 Kershaw. S. C...D 2 Killian, S. C D 2 Kinards. S. C.C 2 Kings Creek, S.C.C 1 Kingstree, S. C.E 3 Kingville, S. C.D 3 KitchingsMillsS.C.C 3 Kirksey. S. C B 2 Kline, S. C C 3 Kollock, S. C E 2 Labana, S. C. Laco, S. C. . . , .E 3 .B 2 South Carolina KFN 328 South Carolina lina, Winthrop College, and other colleges and universities of the state. Institutions of higher learning supported by the state include the University of South Caro- lina (q. v.), at Columbia; Clem- son Agricultural and Mechanical College, at Clemson ; the Medi- cal College of South Carolina, at Charleston ; the Citadel, the Mil- itary College of South Carolina, at Charleston ; Winthrop College (for women), at Rock Hill; and the State Agricultural and Me- chanical College for Negroes, at Orangeburg. Among private institutions of higher learning are Wofford Col- lege (q. v.), at Spartanburg; Furman University (q. v.), at Greenville ; Erskine College, at Due West ; Columbia College, at Columbia ; College of Charles- ton, at Charleston ; Presbyterian College of South Carolina, at Clinton; Lander College (for women), at Greenwood; Coker College, at Hartsville ; Newberry College, at Newberry ; Converse College, at Spartanburg ; Lime- stone College (for women), at Gaffney ; Claflin University (Ne- gro), at Orangeburg; Allen Uni- versity (Negro), at Columbia; Morris College (Negro), at Sum- ter; and Benedict College (Ne- gro), at Columbia. Charities and Corrections, — The state charitable and penal institutions include the Indus- trial School for Boys, at Flor- ence ; the Industrial School for Girls, at Columbia ; the Confed- erate Home School, at Charles- ton ; the State Hospital, and the Reformatory for Negro Boys, at Columbia ; the Training School for the Feeble-minded, at Clin- ton ; the Fairwold Industrial School for Negro Girls, near Columbia ; the South Carolina Sanatorium (white) and the Pal- metto Sanatorium (colored), both for tubercular patients, at State Park ; the John de la Howe School, at McCormick ; and the State Penitentiary (in- cluding a women's unit), at Co- lumbia. There is a school for deaf and blind, at Cedar Springs. A Veterans' Hospital was erected near Columbia in 1932 and great- ly enlarged in 1937. Government —The state has adopted constitutions at various times — namely, 1776, 1778, 1790, 1865, 1868, and 1895. Amendments may be proposed in either house of the legislature ; they must be approved first by a two-thirds vote of each house, then by a majority of the voters at a popular election, and finally by a majority of each house of the succeeding legislature. A constitutional convention may be called by a two-thirds vote of the legislature, ratified by a ma- jority vote of the people. Citi- zens resident in the state two years, in the county one year, and in the precinct four months, who have registered, may vote. In order to register, it is neces- sary to be able to read and write English or to have paid taxes payable the previous year on property within the state assessed at $300 or more. The chief executive officers are the governor, lieutenant-gover- nor, secretary of state, treasurer, budget secretary, attorney-gen- eral, controller-general, adjutant- general, and superintendent of education. The governor has the pardoning and veto power, which extends to items in appropriation bills, and which is overcome by a two-thirds vote of both houses of the legislature. The legislature consists of a senate, one-half of whose mem- bers are elected biennially (for four years), and a house of rep- resentatives of 124 members elected biennially. Regular ses- sions convene annually in Jan- uary. Bills for appropriating revenue must originate in the house of representatives. The judicial authority is vest- ed in a supreme court, consist- ing of five justices elected by the legislature for ten years ; in two circuit courts — namely, a court of common pleas and a court of general sessions, the judges of which are chosen by the legislature for four years ; and in county and municipal courts. Under Congressional appor- tionment based on the 1940 cen- sus. South Carolina has six Rep- resentatives in the National Con- gress. Columbia is the state capital. History, — The Spaniards are credited with being the first vis- itors to the region which com- prises the present State of South Carolina, landing at what is now Port Royal in 1520. On May 27, 1562, a party of French Hu- guenots, led by Jean Ribault. made a second landing at Port Royal, established a fort and named it Arx Carolina (Fort Charles) for Charles ix. Upon the burning of their fort, in the following year, they abandoned the country and returned to France. In 1629 Charles i of England, claiming the land on the basis of the Cabots' explorations, granted to Sir Robert Heath a strip of territory, to be known as Caro- lina, lying between the parallels of 31° and 36° n. latitude, and extending to the Pacific Ocean. Heath neglected this princely grant, and in 1663, Charles ii made a second graht of the same area to eight 'Lords Proprietors.' Two years later these limits were changed to the parallels of 29° and 36° 30'— the northern limit being nearly on the line of the northern boundary of the present State of North Carolina. In 1670, William Sayle, with about 200 followers, established on the Ashley River the first English colony in what is now South Carolina, calling it Charlestown. Ten years later the colony removed to the junction of the Ashley and Cooper rivers, where a new town, called Charles Town, was founded. The government of Carolina was vested in the proprietors, subject to certain limiting pow- ers left to the colonists them- selves. The northern and south- ern settlements, Albemarle and Clarendon — afterward respec- tively North and South Carolina — had from the beginning sepa- rate governments. The proprie- tors gave to the colony a constitu- tion which had been draughted by John Locke (q. v.) and known as the 'Fundamental Constitu- tion.' Proprietors, however, su- perseded most of its provisions with instructions to the various governors, putting into operation only those provisions which were practicable in a new and sparse- ly settled province. From the beginning, the South Carolina settlements were pros- perous. Agriculture early be- came the leading industry, and no scarcity of food, such as troubled many of the other set- tlenients, was felt here. The cultivation of rice was begun about 1680 and increased rapidly. In 1747 the combined value of rice and indigo exported was $550,000, and in 1775, $5,000,- 000. ^ This agricultural development made slavery profitable. The first settlers had brought Negroes with them from Barbados and Bermuda, and in 1720 the num- ber had increased to 12,000 — the whites numbering at the same time only 9,000. In 1717 an import duty of $150 each was placed upon slaves. The year 1731 saw the intro- duction of the first printing press, and in that year the first newspaper, the South Carolina Weekly Journal, was published. A rapid immigration of Swiss and Scotch-Irish occurred after 1730 ; and settlers from Virginia, Pennsylvania, and other prov- inces to the north arrived. From 1725 to the Revolution the in- crease of population is estimated at seven-fold. The native Indians were for the most part friendly, but were from time to time antagonized by the colonists. In 1715 the Yemassee Indians caused trou- ble, and Cherokee uprisings oc- curred in 1757, 1760, and 1775. South Carolina KFN 329 Southcott The Cherokees ceded almost all their possessions in the territory in 1755. The oppressions of the mother country had little effect upon the agricultural population of South Carolina, and for a long time it remained loyal. Once enlisted in the cause of freedom, however, the province became an ardent supporter. In 1769 it entered into a non-importation agree- ment ; in 1774 it sent financial aid to Boston, and was repre- sented at the Continental Con- gress ; and it was the first of the provinces to adopt a provincial constitution (1776). In 1776 the British under Sir Henry Clinton and Sir Peter Parker tried to capture Charles Town and sum- mon the Loyalists, but they were repulsed in an assault on Fort Moultrie (q. v.). During the War of the Revo- lution, South Carolina contrib- uted more money than any other state, except Massachusetts ; and furnished the leaders Marion, Sumter, and Pickens. More than one hundred actions were fought within its borders, and the state suffered greatly from invasion. In 1780 Sir Henry Clinton surrounded Charles Town, and compelled its sur- render by Gen. Benjamin Lin- coln, with about 4,000 men. Other engagements were fought at Camden and King's Mountain in 1780, and at Hobkirk's Hill (near Camden) and Eutaw Springs in 1781. In 1786 it was voted to move the capital from Charleston to Columbia (actual removal, 1790). On May 23, 1788, the General Assembly adopted the Federal Constitution. In 1790 a new state constitution was adopted, which greatly extended the pow- ers of the legislature. After the formation of the Federal Government tariff trou- bles began. South Carolina re- garded the ever-increasing pro- tective duties as unjust to her agricultural interests, and the so- called Nullification (q. v.) move- ment culminated in a state con- vention, called in 1832, which declared such laws unconstitu- tional. Congress retaliated with the Force Bill (q. v.) in 1833; but in the same year passed the Clay Compromise Bill, which promised a gradual reduction of the tariff until 1842. One of the earliest railroads in the country was the Charles- ton and Hamburg, built by the state. It was begun in 1830, and opened in 1832. South Carolina took the lead in the Secession (q. v.) move- ment and the organization of the Confederate States — the ordi- nance of secession being passed on Dec, 20, 1860. The bom- bardment of Fort Sumter (q. v.) in Charleston Harbor, on April 12-13, 1861, marked the open- ing of the Civil War ; while the evacuation of Charleston in Feb- ruary, 1865, was one of its clos- ing events. In 1865, after his famous march to the sea, Gen. W. T. Sherman (q. v.) led his army across South Carolina, in- flicting enormous damage to property within the state. Dur- ing the war South Carolina con- tributed 62,838 effective fighting men to the Confederate Army. At the close of the war, upon the refusal of the state to adopt the Fourteenth Amendment, a military government was main- tained for twelve years. In 1868 a new constitution was adopted providing for Negro suffrage, and the state was readmitted to the Union on June 25. South Carolina was one of the worst sufferers during the Reconstruc- tion period. (See Reconstruc- tion). The gubernatorial elec- tion of 1876 resulted in an ex- tremely bitter contest, and the establishment of rival govern- ments. On Aug. 31, 1886, Charleston was visited by a destructive earthquake. (See Charleston, S. C). In August, 1893, a ter- rible storm inflicted immense damage, with a loss of over a thousand lives. In 1902 the South Carolina and West Indian Exposition was held in Charleston. In 1920 a state board of pub- lic welfare was created, but it ceased functioning in 1926, when its appropriation was vetoed. A state board of fisheries was cre- ated in 1921. A law establish- ing a statewide road system to be financed by taxes on gasoline and motor cars was passed in 1924. In the same year an equalization education law was enacted, providing for more near- ly equal educational opportuni- ties for rich and poor districts. In 1929 roads were financed by a bond issue of about $65,000,- 000. In that year also a bridge connecting Charleston and the mainland was opened (cost, $6,- 000,000). In 1930 Saluda Dam (also known as Dreher Shoals Dam) near Columbia was com- pleted, one of the largest devel- opments of its kind in the United States. A state planning board, with advisory powers only, was created in 1933 and legalized as part of the government in 1938. In 1937 a child-labor law was passed, prohibiting children un- der the age of sixteen from work- ing in mines, factories, and tex- tile establishments. Two torna- does struck Charleston in Sep- tember, 1938, resulting in twen- ty-nine deaths and property dam- age of more than $2,000,000. In August, 1940, a hurricane swept the coast, hitting hardest Beau- fort, Edisto Island, and Charles- ton ; about forty persons were killed and there was heavy dam- age to property and crops. The Santee Dam, a major power project, was completed in 1941. In national politics South Car- olina has been Democratic, ex- cept from 1868 to 1876, when the Republican government was up- held by the presence of United States troops. Bibliography. — Consult D. F. Houston, Critical Study of Nullification in South Carolina (1896) ; E. McCrady, History of South Carolina (4 vols., 1897- 1902) ; W. W. Ball, The State That Forgot (1932) ; F. B. Sim- kins and R. H. Woody, South Carolina during Reconstruction (1932) ; D. D. Wallace, History of South Carolina (4 vols., 1934) ; S. G. Stoney, Plantations of the Carolina Lozv Country (1938); J. H. Wolfe, Jcfferso- nian Democracy in South Caro- lina^ (1940); South Carolina Writers' Project, South Caro- lina: A Guide to the Palmetto State (1941); R. G. Rhett, Charleston {\94\) ; C. J. Milling, Red Carolinians (1941). South Carolina Inter- State Exposition. See Exhibitions. South Carolina, Univer- sity of, a state institution for both men and women, at Colum- bia, was founded in 1801, opened in 1805, closed during the Civil War, when the buildings were used as a hospital for both armies, and reopened with amended charter in 1866. Be- cause of the unsettled political condition of the state, its charter was amended and the university was reorganized in 1878, 1880, 1887, 1890, and 1906. It now comprises a Graduate School, Schools of Arts and Science, of Commerce, of Engineering, of Education, of Pharmacy, and of Law, and an Extension Depart- ment. South'cott, Joanna (1750- 1814), English domestic servant who became a religious visionary and sectary, was born in Git- tisham, Devonshire. Having prophesied with some success, she proclaimed herself, about 1792, the 'woman' of Rev. xii, and began to 'seal the elect,' en- suring their salvation for a mone- tary consideration. She went to London on the invitation of Sharp, the engraver, and pub- lished The Book of JVonders, Prophecies and Visions, and other works. Her followers numbered over 100,000. many of whom were still to be found fifty years after her death. Large sums of money were left by a devoted follower for printing the Sacred Writings of Joanna Southcott. South Dakota KFN 330 South Dakota South Dakota (popularly called the 'Coyote State' and the 'Sunshine State'), one of the North Central States of the United States, lies between the parallels of 42° 28' and 45° 57' N. lat. and the meridians of 96° 26' and 104° 3' w. long. It is bounded on the north by North Dakota ; on the east by Minne- sota and Iowa; on the south by Nebraska ; and on the west by Wyoming and Montana. Por- tions of its boundary are marked by Lake Traverse and Big Stone Lake on the northeast, by the Big Sioux River on the east, and the Missouri River on the south. The total area is 76,536 square miles, of which 511 are water surface. Topography, — The surface of the state is divided by the Missouri River into almost equal parts. East of the river it is a gently rolling plain, treeless ex- cept for a narrow margin along the streams, and diversified by a number of small lakes, such as Poinsett, Kampeska, and Wau- bay. The region west of the river is for the most part dry, barren, and more deeply eroded and weathered. It is diversified by sandstone buttes, such as Thunder, Saddle, Wedge Tent, and Twin Buttes, and by short ranges of hills, such as the Cave and Short Pine Hills, which cul- minate in the southwest corner in the Black Hills and the so- called 'Bad Lands' surrounding them. The Black Hills range in elevation from about 3,000 to 7,242 feet, the highest summit being Harney Peak. They cover a total area of about 6,000 square miles, of which more than one- third is covered by a dense, dark forest of yellow pine. The Missouri River drains the entire state, except a small area in the northeast, which drains into the Red River of the North. The chief tributaries of the Mis- souri are, on the west, the Grand, Moreau (or Owl), Cheyenne, Bad, and White; on the east, the James (or Dakota), which rises in North Dakota and flows en- tirely across the state, and the Big Sioux, which flows along the eastern boundary. Climate and Soil. — The cli- mate is distinctly continental, be- ing characterized by great ex- tremes and abrupt changes. The dryness of the atmosphere is a marked feature and makes the winter extremes much less se- vere. The mean annual tempera- ture at Yankton is 13° f. in January and 74° in July, with extremes of —34° and 107°. Snow -Storms accompanied by high winds are occasional fea- tures of the winter season. The mean annual precipitation is about 20 inches, ranging from 14 inches at Ashcroft to 26 inches at Aberdeen. The soil east of the Missouri River is mainly a glacial till, which is rich and easily culti- vated. Much of the soil west of this river, excluding that of the Bad Lands and mountainous sec- tions, consists of aqueous drift. Geology, — Except for the southeastern and southwestern corners, the state is covered with Cretaceous deposits of lime- stones, clays, and marls, which include in the northwest portion the sandstones, conglomerates, and clays of the Laramie stage. The surface soil of that portion east of the Missouri River is composed of the glacial till of the Pleistocene ice age. There are three areas of Archaean rocks ; near Big Stone Lake is an area of Laurentian granite ; in a limited area between the Big Sioux and James rivers is an area of Sioux quartzite ; and in the Black Hills and surrounding region a series of concentric folds of Archaean rocks and later formations, representing every period of the Palaeozoic age ex- cept the Devonian, and some limestones of Jura-Trias. Mining, — The mineral re- sources of the state are found principally in the Black Hills in the southwest. Gold, discovered in that region in 1874, has always been the leading mineral product. South Dakota ranks second (to California) among the states of the nation in gold production. The Homestake Mine, at Lead in Lawrence County, is the larg- est gold-producing mine in the United States, and has yielded more than $300,000,000 worth of the precious metal since 1877. The act of 1934 which fixed the price of gold at $35 an ounce brought prosperity to the gold- producing regions. Although gold deserves the greatest emphasis, there is a substantial yield of other min- eral substances, as well as of building stone and other struc- tural materials. South Dakota is one of the leading states in the output of tin, mica, beryllium ore, feldspar, and lithium min- erals. Large deposits of lignite coal in the northwest part of the state have not been exploited be- cause of the lack of transporta- tion. Also listed among the state's products are sand and gravel, cement, silver, natural gas, raw clay, clay products, gems and precious stones, gypsum, lead, manganese, bentonite, lime, ar- senous oxide, sandlime brick, tungsten ore, and mineral waters. Forestry, — Most of the wood- land is in the Black Hills dis- trict. The principal trees are western yellow pine and white spruce ; others are red cedar, elm, Cottonwood, box elder, aspan, ground juniper, balsam, poplar, birch, ash, elm, and willow. There are three national forests, the Harney and the Black Hills, covering more than a million acres in the Black Hills region, and the Custer, in Harding Coun- ty. Fisheries, — The commercial fisheries are unimportant. Game fish abound in the lakes and streams of the state. The Mis- souri River and its tributaries yield catfish and such other varie- ties as sunfish, crappies, bull- heads, and wall-eyed pike ; trout is the principal variety in the Black Hills region ; and there are popular fishing resorts at numer- ous lakes, among them Pickerel, Enemy Swim, Kampeska, Trav- erse, and Big Stone. The state maintains a number of fish hatch- eries. Agriculture, — Farming is the leading industry of South Da- kota. Corn, the most important crop, is raised in all counties, but the yield is heaviest in the eastern river valleys, which are favored by rich soil and abundant rain- fall. Wheat is next in impor- tance, and in the output of spring wheat South Dakota is one of the leading states of the nation. Oats and barley also are raised in great quantity, and there is a large production of hay and for- age, rye, flaxseed, and potatoes. Other vegetables include cab- bage, string beans, cucumbers, tomatoes, and onions. There is a considerable yield of apples, strawberries, raspberries, plums, and cherries. West of the Missouri River are large areas not suited to farming because of poor soil, scanty mois- ture, or unfavorable topography, which are dependent on stock raising. In sharp contrast with the surrounding prairies is the irrigated area near the western boundary, where the Belle Fourche Dam provides water for more than 100,000 acres. Here sugar beets are the important crop, and there is a large growth of alfalfa. In the valleys of the Black Hills vegetables, especially potatoes and lettuce, are raised for market. Drought, accompanied by dust storms and hordes of grasshop- pers, in the years 1933-36, brought sufl^ering to farmers throughout the state, though the southeastern section was least af- fected. Federal aid to both agri- culture and business was invalu- able in this period of adversity. Stock Raising, — Large num- bers of cattle are raised on the ranges west of the Missouri River. Many of the young steers, however, are brought from the range country to the eastern part Photos Courtesy The Burlington Route WEIRD ROCK B^ORMATIONS IN THE BLACK HILLS OF SOUTH DAKOTA South Dakota KFN 332 South Dakota of the state, where they are fat- tened on the surplus corn grown here, then shipped to market. Dairying is important, especially in the northeast part of the state. Sheep are raised in great number, both in large range flocks and in farm plots throughout the state ; an area of a hundred square miles in the northwestern corner of the state is notable for the large number of sheep it sup- ports. Hog raising accompanies the production of corn and other grains. A large revenue is de- rived from the poultry industry. Manufactures, — With a sparse population and few large cities, South Dakota is predomi- nantly an agricultural state, and the manufacturing enterprises depend largely on the agricul- tural output. In the total value of manufactured products, South Dakota ranks low among the states of the nation. In 1919 the value of products was nearly $62,200,000; in 1929 it was about $97,700,000; and in 1939, nearly $81,200,000. Meat packing is the most im- portant industry. Of major im- portance also is the production of butter, cheese, and condensed milk. Flour, feed, and grain-mill products and bread and other bakery products are of consider- able value. Other leading indus- tries or products are railroad-car construction and repairs ; lumber and timber products ; newspaper and periodical printing and pub- lishing ; wholesale poultry dress- ing and packing ; ice cream ; planing-mill products ; sheet- metal work ; non-alcoholic bev- erages ; and concrete products. The state owns a cement plant at Rapid City, which has virtually monopolized the cement business of the state since 1925. Transportation. — The state is well provided with transporta- tion facilities. Nearly every county has one or more railroads. The total railway mileage is about 4,200. The principal lines are the Chicago and North West- ern and the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific ; others in- clude the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, the Great Northern, and the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific. There are six bridges across the Missouri Riv- er. The state has an excellent network of graveled highways. The port of entry for both North and South Dakota is Pembina. Population, — According to the Federal Census for 1940 the population of South Dakota was 642,961, a decrease of 49,888, or 7.2 per cent, since 1930 (com- pared with an increase of 8.8 per cent during 1920-30). The ur- ban population was 158,087, or 24.6 per cent of the total (com- pared with 18.9 per cent in 1930). Cities of more than 10,000 population in 1940 were: Sioux Falls, 40,832; Aberdeen, 17,015; Rapid City, 13,844; Huron, 10,- 843; Mitchell, 10,633; Water- town, 10,617. The population according to previous census reports for South Dakota was: (1890) 348,600; (1900) 401,570; (1910) 583,- 888; (1920) 636,547; (1930) 692,849. Education, — South Dakota has a state board of regents of five members, appointed by the governor for six years, having charge of the state educational institutions, and a state super- intendent of public instruction, elected for a term of two years. A county superintendent is elect- ed biennially on a non-partisan basis in each county. Attendance is compulsory at some public or private school for children of eight to seventeen or until com- pletion of the eighth grade, for the full school term, which is at least eight months. The educa- tion and training of teachers are provided in state teachers' col- leges at Aberdeen, Madison, Spearfish, and Springfield. The state maintains the South Dakota Agricultural College (q. v.), at Brookings; State School of Mines, at Rapid City ; and the University of South Da- kota (q. v.), at Vermilion. The denominational colleges are Augustana College (Luther- an) and Sioux Falls College (Baptist), both at Sioux Falls; Dakota Wesleyan University (Methodist), at Mitchell; Huron College (Presbyterian), at Hu- ron; and Yankton College (Con- gregational), at Yankton. The Federal Government maintains three Indian schools, at Flandreau, Rapid City, and Pierre. Charities and Corrections, — Under control of the state board of charities and correc- tions, consisting of three mem- bers appointed by the governor, are the following state institu- tions : a hospital for the insane, at Yankton ; a tuberculosis sana- torium, at Sanator ; a school for the deaf, at Sioux Falls ; a school and home for the feeble-minded, at Redfield ; a school for the blind, at Gary ; a reformatory at Plankinton ; and the state peni- tentiary, at Sioux Falls. At Hot Springs are a national soldiers' home and a state soldiers' home. Capital punishment was abolished in 1915 but was restored in 1939. Government. — The present constitution is that adopted in 1889, as since amended. Amend- ments must be approved by a majority of both houses of the legislature, and subsequently by a majority of the electors. A convention to revise the consti- tution must be summoned when desired by two-thirds of the members of each house of the legislature and by a majority of the electors. The usual suffrage qualifications are required. The state was the first to adopt the initiative and referendum. Five per cent of the voters may initi- ate legislation, or may require the referendum of bills for pop- ular approval. The chief executive officers are the governor, lieutenant-gov- ernor, secretary of state, auditor, treasurer (ineligible after two successive terms), superintend- ent of public instruction, attor- ney-general, and commissioner of school and public lands — all elected every two years. The governor's veto extends to items in an appropriation bill, and may be overcome by a two-thirds vote of both houses of the legislature. The legislature consists of a senate, limited to not fewer than 25 nor more than 45 members, and a house of representatives of not fewer than 75 nor more than 135 members — all elected for a term of two years. Regu- lar sessions convene in January of odd years, and are limited to sixty days. Under Congressional appor- tionment based on the 1940 cen- sus. South Dakota has two Rep- resentatives in the National Congress. Pierre is the state capital. History, — The present State of South Dakota, a part of the Louisiana Purchase (q. v.) of 1803, was first visited by the Verendrye brothers, Frenchmen from Canada, in 1743 ; later, in 1804 and 1806, came the Lewis and Clark expedition. In 1817 Fort Teton was established on the site of Fort Pierre ; and in 1831 the American Fur Com- pany's steamboat ascended the upper Missouri River to Fort Pierre, and, the following year, to the mouth of the Yellowstone. In 1838-39 General Fremont (q. v.) made extensive explora- tions in the eastern and central portions of the state. In 1851, by a treaty with the Sioux Indians, the United States acquired all their lands east of the Big Sioux River. Upon the decline of the fur trade in the region. Fort Pierre was sold to the U. S. Government for a mil- itary post, which in 1855 was occupied by General Harney with 1,200 soldiers. In 1857 Sioux Falls, the first industrial settlement, was established ; and other settlements in the eastern part of the territory followed the chartering of the Dakota Land Company in the same year. Dakota Territory, as organ- ized on March 2, 1861, had orig- inally formed part of Louisiana "Tislo hi ^ -iMound Cityj \ ° Maitel Cogiwell A, JEvarts eBangor\ .«»Hdle .AVALVVOUTI Houehtj? Amhc!4tc t j'o.to "» ^^^vi^ 'ATOr T 11, 'r . Si$seto'S^s^o^S^^ Lindsay l] g^,,^ j^jj^ , ,. "\ \LeVjie (lH<>peU4ll ( \h\> a k o\ N k lohnSSL^^ f / KA$htre,-r IV V ^-^'"■'W ^ Fort Pier>«l^=aiffitW«<^e ^Pavil' ? r'V PorcupMe ButtK ' LjODtftl. ilmoe \,„„„/?erf Butte \ „■^~--^<^i^^llaIube^•laia 1 Hover , \ o 5:"«Jla ^^Uo"^sjlon^\p_^^™^^^^-;^o___^ jiln.bn Red I^ke. S.Dak.E 4 Kee Ilts., S.Uak.E 3 Keliance, S. Uak.E 4 Keva. S. Uak....A 2 Revillo, S. Dak..H 2 Rezek. S. Dak...G 4 Richards. S. Dak.K 3 Ridge. Dak ... F 3 Riverside. S. Dak.CJ 4 Roanoke, S. Uak.l- 2 Robev, S. Dak. . .F 4 Rochford, S. Dak. A 3 Rockerville.S.Dak.A 4 Rockham. S. Dak.F 3 Roscoe, S. Dak..IC Rosebud. S. Dak.D 4 Roslyn. S. nak..(; 2 Roswell. S. Dak..(; 3 Roubaix. S. Dak.A 3 Rousseau, S. Dak.D 3 Roweua, S. Dak.H 4 Roy, S. Dak K 3 Rudolph. S. Dak.F 2 Rumford, S.Dak.G 2 Running Water, S. Dak G 5 Twin Brks.,S.Dak.H 2 Tyndall, S. Dak.G S Utica. S. Dak...G S Vale. S. Dak A 3 ValleySprs.S.Dak.Il 4 Valleyview, .S.Dak.E 3 Vandervoort.SDak.c; 3 VanMetre, S. Dak.D 3 Veblen, S. Dak..G 2 Vega, S. Dak E 4 Verdon, S. Dak. .F 2 Vermilion. .S. Dak. II S Vernon. S. Dak. .112 Vesta, .S. Dak. ...R 3 Viborg, .S. D.il (; 4 Vienna, S. I )ak ...(', 3 Viewfiehl. .S, Dak.li 3 Vis " Vin Virgil, S. Dak...F 3 Vounany, S. Dak.G 4 Volga, .S. Dak...H 3 Volin, S. Dak G 5 Volunteer, S.Dak.A 3 St. Elmo, S. Dak.F 4 St.Herbert. S.Dak.F 2 St. Lawrence SDak.F 3 St. Marys. S.Dak.G 3 St.Onge, S.Dak..A 3 Salem. S. Dak....G 4 Savo. S. Dak....F 2 Scalp, S. Dak. . .F 2 Scoma, S. Dak. ..A 3 Scotlaii.l. S. Dak.G 4 Scd^^»i^l, S. Dak.E 3 Snin S :),,! ...» 2 Si'll.v, S 1 1 11 . . .1) 2 Suio;,, .S. li,:K..E 2 Shc-ndan, .S. Dak.A 4 Sherman, S. Dak. II 4 Shiloh, S. Dak. .1) 3 Shindlcr, S. Dak. II 4 Silverfity, S.Dak.A 3 SiouxFalls, S. Dak. 1 1 4 Sisoka, S. Dak... I! 4 Sisseton, S. Dak.G 2 Sisseton Agency, S. Dak G 2 Smith. S. Dak....C 3 Smithville, S.Dak.15 3 Smithwick, S.Dak.A 4 So.Shore, S.Dak..II 2 Spain, S. Dak...G 2 Spearfish, S. Dak.A 3 Spencer. S. Dak..(; 4 Spink, .S. Ilak. . ..II S Spiil.K"^. S. 1),,K. ..F. 1 S HlM^lirM, S,ll,,l. (, Sta.rh.r. S. l).,k.l' 4 Stearns, S. Dak. .C 4 Stephan, S. Dak. .E 3 Stickncv, S. Dak.F 4 Stockholm, S.Dak.lI 2 Stoneville. S.Dak.B 3 Storm, S. Dak. . .G 2 Strandburg.S.Dak.H 2 Strouseton, S.Dak.G 2 Sturgis. S. nak..\ 3 Summit. S. Dak. .(". 2 Sunnyside, S.Dak.G 2 Sutherland, S.Dak.F 2 Sutley, S. Dak...E 2 Sweeney, S. Dak.E 4 Sylvia, S. Dak. . .E 4 Wallace. S. Dak..G 2 Wakot:da, S. Dak.G 4 Ward, S. Dak...H 3 Warner. S. Dak..F 2 Watertown, S.Dak.lI 3 Waterbury. S.Dak.F 3 Waubay, S. Dak..G 2 Webster, S. Dak.G 2 Templeton, S.Dak.F 3 Wentworth.S.Dak.H 4 Weoley, S. Dak. .F 2 Wessington, S.Dak.F 3 Wessington Sprmgs, S. Dak F 3 Westerville.S. Dak.G 5 Wcstover, S.Dak..D 4 Weatport, S.Dak.F 2 Whec-lcr, S. Dak.F 4 While l.„ S.Dak.F 4 W'Inlc. S. D.ik. . .11 3 WhitiOwl. S.Dak.B 3 Whitcwood. S.Dak.A 3 Willow L., S.Dak.G 3 Wilmot, S. Dak.. II 2 Winans, S. Dak..H 2 Windcave, S.Dak.A 4 Win. lorn, S. Dak.. II 2 WiMlr.Ml. S, IV.k.d 3 W nmn-. S. I V.k. . I'. 4 Wnill.n'p. S. Dak.l- 3 W -il-.r^. S. I),k, .1- 3 W,M,ns,„Lrl.S.ll,-ik.l' 3 Wurlhin^. S. Dak.U 4 Zickrick, S. Dak..D 4 Tabor, S. Dak...G 5 Tea, S. Dak 11 4 Tennis, S. Dak...E 3 Tepee, S. Dak... A 3 Terraville, S. Dak.A 3 Terry, S. Dak.... A 3 Tilford. S. Dak.. A 3 Tislo, S. Dak D 2 Topbar, S. D.ak..C 3 Toronto. S.Dak..H 3 Trent, S, D.ik. . .H 4 Tripp. S, Dak G 4 Trov, S. Dak,...H 2 Tulare, S. Dak. . .F 3 Turton, S. Dak..F 2 INDEX OF SOUTH DAKOTA SOUTH DAKOT.\— . Aberden, S.Dak. .F 2 Academy, S. Dak.E 4 Afton, S. Dak....E 3 Agar, S. Dak D 3 Albany, S. Dak. .A 3 Albee, S. Dak...H 2 Alcester, S. Dak.H 4 Alexandria, S.Dak.G 4 Allen, S. Dak C 4 Alpena, S. Dak. .F 3 Alsen, S. Dak. . .H 5 Altamont, S.Dak. H 3 Altraria, S. Dak.H 3 Ames, S. Dak E 3 Amherst. S. Dak.G 2 Andover, S.Dak. .G 2 Andrus, S. Dak..F S Ardmore, S.Dak.A 4 Arlington. S. Dak.G 3 Armour, S. Dak. . F 4 Artas, S. Dak E 2 Artesian. S. Dak.G 3 Ashcreek, S. Dak.C 3 Ashcroft, S. Dak.A 2 Ashtori, S. Dak. .F 2 Astoria, S.Dak.... H 3 Athol, S. Dak....F 2 Aurora, S. Dak..H 3 Avon, S. Dak. . .F 5 Bailey, S. Dak...E 3 Bakerville, S.Dak.A 4 Baltic, S. Dak. . .H 4 Bancroft, S. Dak.G 3 Bangor. S. Dak. .D 2 Bard, S. Dak G 4 Bates, S. Dak F 3 Bath, S. Dak F 2 Beaver, S. Dak. .G 4 Belle, S. Dak G 3 Belief ourcheSDak. A 3 Bemis, S. Dak. . .H 3 Bend, S. Dak A 3 Bendon, S. Dak..E 4 Beresford, S. Dak.H 4 Bern, S. Dak F 2 Bethel, S. Dak. . .G 2 Big Bottom.S.Dak.A 3 BigstoneCy,S. Dak.H 2 BijouHills, S.Dak.E 4 Bison, S. Dak B 2 Bixby, S. Dak... .B 2 BlackHawk.S.Dak..\ 3 Blunt, S. Dak,...E 3 Bonesteel, S.Dak.F 4 Bonilla, S. Dak...F 3 Bossko, S. Dak. .G 2 Bowdle, S. Dak..E 2 Boz, S. Dak F 3 Bradley, S. Dak. .G 2 Brandon, S. Dak.H 4 Brandt, S. Dak. .11 3 BridgewaterS.Dak.G 4 Bright, S. Dak. . .F 2 Bristol, S. Dak. .G 2 Britton, S. Dak..G 2 Broadland, S.Dak.F 3 Brookings. S.Dak.lI 3 Brown Val.S.Dak.H 2 Brule, S. Dak. . ..E 4 Bruce, S. Dak. . .H 3 Bryant, S. Dak...G 3 Buffalo, S. Dak.. A 2 Buffalo Gap. S.Dak.A 4 Burbank. S. Dak.H 5 Burch, S. Dak. . .G 2 Burdette, S. Dak.F 3 Burkmere, S.Dak.E 2 Bushnell, S. Dak.H 3 Butler, S. Dak.. .G 2 Cactus, S. Dak. ..H 3 Cadwell, S. Dak. .(; 2 Callihan, S.Dak.. G 3 Campbell. S. Dak.D 2 CampCrook.S.Dak..\ 2 Canastota. S.Dak.G Canning, S. Dak.E .■ Canova, S. Dak. .G i Canton. S. Dak. .H 4 Carbonate, S.Dak.A 3 Carpenter, S. Djk.G 3 Carthage, S. Dak.G 3 CascadeSps.S.Dak..A 4 Castlewood, S.Dak.G 3 Cavite, S. Dak...D 4 Cavour, S. Dak. .F 3 Centerville,S.Dak.H 4 CentralCy., S.Dak.A 3 Chamberlains Dak.E 4 Chance. S. Dak..B 2 Chancellor, S.Dak.H 4 Chandler, S. Dak.E 4 Chapelle. S. Dak.E 3 Chautauqua, S.Dak.G 2 Chester, S. Dak..G 4 Cheyenne Agency, Claremont, S.Dak.F 2 Clark, S. Dak....G 3 Clayton, S. Dak..G 4 ClearLake, S.Dak.H 3 Clifton, S. Dak..D 3 Colman, S. Dak. .H 4 Colton, S. Dak...H 4 Columbia, S.Dak..F 2 Cornell, S. Dak. .F 3 Corsica, S. Dak..F 4 Corson, S. Dak. .H 4 Coyle, S. Dak. ...F 4 Conde, S. Dak. . .F 2 Corona, S. Dak..H 2 Crandon, S. Dak.F 3 Crawford, S.Dak.H 2 Cresbard, S.Dak..F 2 Creston, S. Dak. .B 4 Crooks, S. Dak..H 4 CrowCreek, S.Dak.E 3 Crowlake, S. Dak.F 4 S. Dak D 2 Custer, S. Dak... A 4 Cyanide, S. Dak.. A 3 Dakota Cy.,S.Dak.B 3 Dalenberg, S.Dak.H S Dallas, S. Dak...E 4 Dalzell, S. Dak...B 3 Date, S. Dak B 2 Davis, S. Dak , . . H 4 Dead wood, S.Dak.A 3 Dean, S. Dak F 3 Deerfield, S. Dak..\ 3 De Grey, S. Dak.E 3 Delhi, S. Dak F 2 DellRapids. S.Dak.H 4 Delmont, S. Dak.F 4 Dempster, S.Dak.H 3 Denmark, S.Dak..G 3 De Smet. S. Dak.G 3 Detroit, S. Dak. .F 2 De Voe, S. Dak..F 2 Dexter, S. Dak. .G 2 Doland, S. Dak. .F 3 Dooge, S. Dak. ..H 4 Dolton. S. Dak..G 4 Drakola, S. Dak.G 3 Dumont, S. Dak.A 3 Duncan, S. Dak..E 3 Dunlap, S. D,ak..F 4 Dunsmore. S.Dak.E 3 Dupree, S. Dak. .C 2 Eagle, S. Dak. ...E 4 Eales, S. Dak....D 2 E. SiouxF., S.Dak.H 4 Eckard. S. Dak.. A 4 Eddy, S. Dak....G 2 Eden, S. Dak. . . .G 2 Edgemont, S,Dak..\ 4 Edna, S. Dak E 4 Edwin. S, Dak, , . E 3 Eflington. S. Dak, IT 2 Egan, T),,l:. . , .11 3 Elhion, S. D.il. , ,.[•■ 2 Elktn,,, S. Il.,k, .113 Elk Mtn.. ,S.I)ak.,\ 4 Elk Point, S.Dak. H 5 Ellis. S. I)ak....H 4 Ellisville. S. Dak. E 3 Elm Spi-,. S.Dak.B 3 Elro.l, S. DiK. . . 3 Enierv. S. I ).,! . . .C 4 Ei.iiilKM->-, Ii,-,l .(; 4 Erwni. ,s. . .(; 3 Esterley, S. Dak.G 2 Ethan, S. Dak. . .G 4 Eureka, S. Dak. .E 2 Evarts, S. Dak. ..D 2 Fairburn, S. Dak..\ 4 Fairfax, S. Dak. .F 4 Farmer. S. Dak. .G 4 FarmingdaleSDak.B 4 Farnsworth, S.Dak.F 3 Fairbank, S. Dak.D 3 Fairview, S. Dak.H 4 Faulkton, S. Dak.E 2 Fedora, S. Dak. .G 3 Ferney, S.Dak F 2 Flandreau, S.Dak.H 3 Flynn, S. Dak...F 4 Folsom, S. Dak. .B 4 Forestburg, S.Dak.F 3 ForestCity, S. Dak.D 2 Forestville, S.Dak.H 2 Ft.Bennett, S. Dak.D 3 Ft.Meade, S.Dak. ..\ 3 Ft.Pierre, S.Dak..D 3 Ft.Randall, S.Dak.F 4 Frank, S. Dak . . . G 2 Frankfort, S. Dak.F 3 Frederick, S.Dak.F 2 Freeman, S. Dak.G 4 Fulton, S. Dak..G 4 Gale, S. Dak D 2 Galena, S. Dak. . ..\ 3 Gamble, S. Dak..C 4 Gann valley, S.Dak.F 3 GardenCity.S.Dak.G 3 Garretson, S.Dak.H 4 Gary, S. Dak II 3 Gayville, S. Dak.G 5 Geddes, S. Dak..F 4 Gem, S. Dak F 2 Gettysburg, S.Dak.E 2 Giddings, S. Dak.E 3 Glen, S. Dak F 4 Glendale, S. Dak.E 3 Glenham, S. Dak.D 2 Goodwill, S. Dak.G 2 Goodwin, S. Dak.H 3 Gordon, S. Dak. .F 4 Goudyville, S.Dak.E 3 Greenway, S.Dak.E 2 Greenwood, S.Dak.F 5 Gregory, S. Dak.,E 4 Grenville. S, Dak.G 2 Grindstone, S. Dak.C 3 Grobe, S, Dak. . .F 3 Grosse, S. Dak...E 4 Groton, S.Dak.. . .F 2 Grover, S. Dak...G 3 Gustave, S. Dak.. A 2 Hanson, S. Dak. .G 4 Harding, S. Dak..\ 2 HardingroveSDak.C 3 Harrisburg.S.Dak.H 4 Harrison, S. Dak.F 4 Harrold, S. Dak.E 3 Hartford. S. Dak.H 4 Hartman, S. Dak.G 4 Hawley, S. Dak. .E 3 Hayes, S. Dak. . .C 3 Hayti, S. Dak. . .G 3 Hazel, S. Dak G 3 Hecia, S. Dak. . .F 2 Helgen, S. Dak..G 2 Helmick, S. Dak.F 3 Henry, S. Dak. . .0 3 Hereford, S. Dak.B 3 Hermnsa, S. Dak..\ 4 Herreid, S. Dak. .D 2 derrick. S. Dak. .E 4 Hetland, S. Dak. .G 3 Highmore, S. Dak.E 3 Hill City, S. Dak.A 4 Hillside, S. Dak..F 4 Hillsview, S.Dak..E 2 Hilmoe, S. Dak. .D 4 Hitchcock, S.Dak.F 3 Holabird, S. Dak.E 3 Holmquist, S.Dak.G 2 Hooker. S. Dak. .G 4 Hopewell. S. Dak.D 3 Hosmer, S. Dak..E 2 Hot Sprs., S.Dak..\ 4 Houdek, S. Dak..E 3 Houghton, S. Dak.F 2 Houston, S. Dak.E 4 Hoven. S. Dak..E 2 Howard, S. Dak..G 3 Howell, S. Dak..F 3 Hudson. S. Dak..H 4 Hutfton. S. Dak..F 2 Humboldt. S. Dak.G 4 Hummer, S. Dak.F 4 Ilurlev, S. Dak. .(; 4 Huron. S. Dak. . .F 3 Hyde, S. Dak F 3 Ida, S. Dak E 3 Interior, S. Dak.C 4 lona, S. Dak E 4 Ipswich, S. Dak..E 2 Irene, S. Dak C 4 Iroquois, S. Dak.G 3 Irving, S. Dak. . .F 3 Tames, S. Dak. . .F 2 lava, S. Dak E 2 Tetferson, S. Dak.H S Jolley, S. Dak....(; 3 Joubert, S. Dak..F 4 Junius, S. Dak...(; 3 Kampeska, S.Dak.G 3 Kaspar, S. Dak . . E 3 Kennebec. S. Dak.E 4 Kent, S. Dak t; 2 Keystone. .S. Dak.. A 4 Kidder, S. Dak..(; 2 Kimball, S. Dak.F 4 Komstad, S, Dak.H 4 Kranzburg.S.Dak..II 3 Kyle. S. Dak I! 4 Labolt, S, Dak,..TT 3 I,akeAn.lrs, S.|i:,l,.l' 4 I.k.r'resl.in, S.D.ik.i; 3 Lakeside, S. Dak..F 3 Lane, S. Dak F 3 Langford, S. Dak.G 2 Laurel, S. Dak...D 3 Lead. S. Dak \ 3 Lebanon. S. Dak..E 2 Le Beau, S. Dak.D 2 Lemmon, S. Dak . H 2 I^ennox. S. Dak . . H 4 Leola, S. Dak. . .F 2 Leslie. S. Dak. . .C 3 I,estervillc. S.Dak.G 4 Letcher. S. Dak. . I" 4 Lewiston. S. Dak. I ) 3 Lily, S. Dak C ' Lindsay, S. Dak.l) .i Lithia, S. Dak \ 4 Littlehcn.l. S.I)..K.M ,i LittleEaKl.-, S.Dal I) Lohre, S. Dal ... .D Longlake. S. Dak. !■: J Loomis, .S. 1 )ak . . k" 4 Lorrett, S. Dak. ..F 5 Lo. Brule. -S.Dak.E 3 Loyalton. S. Dak.E 2 Ludlow. S D.ik . . \ ; Luffman, S, D,,l i; ' Lund, S. I i.il . D I Toyman. S. Dak . . . k ) Lynn, S. D.il D J Lyons. S. Dak. . .114 Lyonville, S. Dak.F 4 McCamley, S.Dak.E 3 McClure, S. Dak.D 3 McCook, S. Dak. II 5 Madison. S. Dak..G 3 Manchestpr.S.Dak.t; 3 Man,!, rs,,,,, S Dak.B 4 Manila. S, Dak, .C 3 Mansfield. S, Dak.F 2 Marion, S, Dak..G 4 Marlow, S. Dak..G 2 Marston, S. Dak.D 3 Martel, S. Dak..E 2 Marvin, S. Dak..H 2 Matthews, S.Dak.G 3 Meckling. S. Dak.G 5 Medas, S. Dak. ..F 3 Mellette, S. Dak.F 2 Menno. S. Dak..(; 4 Merritt, S.Dak... A 3 Midland, S. Dak.C 3 Milbank, S. Dak.H 2 Millard, S. Dak...E 2 Miller, S. Dak...F 3 Milltown, S. Dak.G 4 Mina, S. Dak F 2 Minnekahta,S.Dak..\ 4 Miranda, S. Dak.F 3 Missionhill, S.Dak.G S Mitchell, S. Dak.F 4 Mobridge, S. Dak.D 2 Monroe, S. Dak. .G 4 Montrose, S. Dak.G 4 Moore, S. Dak...D 4 MoundCy., S. Dak.D 2 Mt. Vernon, S.Dak.F 4 Mystic, S. Dak... A 3 Naples, S. Dak. .G 3 Nemo. S. Dak. . .A 3 Newark. S. I)ak..<; 2 NewlI.illand.S.DakI' 4 Ney, S. Dak D 3 Nora, S. Dak H 5 Norden. S. Dak. .C, 3 Northville, S.Dak.F 2 Nowlin, S. Dak..C 3 Nutley, S. Dak..G 2 Oacoma, S. Dak..E 4 Oahe, S. Dak. . . .D 3 Oelriohs. S. Dak.. A 4 Okolinju. S, Dak,,D 3 Ola, S, D,,k 4 < Iklli.iin, S, I l.ik, ,(13 (Hivul. S, Dak...(; 4 Onida. S. Dak. . .1)3 Oral, S. Dal< A 4 Ordway, S. Dak..F 2 Orient. S. Dak. . .E 3 Orleans. S. Dak. .E 2 Osceola. S. D.iK. .(13 Otis, S. D.ik \ 4 Otto, S. D.ik (; 2 Ottumwa, S. Dak.C 3 Pactola, S. Dak. .A 3 Parker, S. Dak. . .G 4 Parkston, S. Dak.C 4 Pedro, S. Dak, . , I! 3 Pecver, S. Dak. . II 2 Pemliriikc. S.Dak.E 2 Pi no. S, D,ik l', 3 Phi Ramona, S, Dak..G 3 Ranville. S, Dak.t; 2 Rapid City, S. D.ik. A 3 Raymond, S. I ).ik .( ', 3 Recluse, S. Dak, .C 4 Redfern. S. Dak.,\ 3 Redfield, S. Dak.F 3 INDEX OF SOUTH DAKOTA Red Lake, S.Dak. Ree Hts., S.Dak. Reliance, S. Dak. Reva, S. Dak Revillo, S. Dak.. Rezek, S. Dak... Richards, S. Dak. Ridge, S. Dak.., Riverside, S. Dak Roanoke, S. Dak Robey, S. Dak.. Rochford, S. Dak Rockerville, S.Dak. Rockham, S. Dak Roscoe, S. Dak,. Rosebud, S. Dak. Roslyn, S. Dak. Roswell, S. Dak. Roubaix, S. Dak Rousseau, S. Dak Rowena, S. Dak. Roy, S. Dak Rudolph, S. Dak Rumford, S.Dak. Running Water, S. Dak St. Elmo, S. Dak St.Herbert, S.Dak St.Lawrence SDak St. Marys, S.Dak St.Onge, S.Dak.. Salem, S. Dak... Savo, S. Dak... Scalp, S. Dak.. Scoma, S. Dak.. Scotland, S. Dak Sedgwick, S. Dak Seim, S. Dak. . . Selby, S. Dak... Seneca, S. Dak. Sheridan, S. Dak Sherman, S. Dak Shiloh, S. Dak.. Shindler, S. Dak. SilverCity, S.Dak SiouxFalls, S.Dak, Sisoka, S. Dak.. Sisseton, S. Dak Sisseton Agency, S. Dak Smith, S. Dak... Sniithville, S.Dak Smithwick, S.Dak So.Shore, S.Dak.. Spain, S. Dak., Spearfish, S. Dak Spencer, S. Dak. Spink, S. Dak.., Springs, S. Dak. . Springfield, S.Dak Starcher, S. Dak Stearns, S. Dak. Stephan, S. Dak. Stickney, S. DaV Stockholm, S.Dak Stoneville, S.Dal< Storm. S. Dak. . Strandburg,S.Dak Strouseton, S.Dak Sturgis, S. Dak Summit, S. Dak. Sunnysule, S.Dak Sutherland, S.Dat Sutley, S. Dak. . Sweeney, S. Dak Sylvia, S. Dak.. Tabor, S. Dak.. Tea, S. Dak Tennis, S. Dak.. Tepee, S. Dak.. Terraville, S. DaV Terry, S. Dak... Tilford, S. Dak. Tislo, S. Dak. . . Topbar, S. Dak. Toronto, S.Dak. Trent, S. Dak.. Tripp, S. Dak. . . Troy, S. Dak. . . Tulare, S. Dak. . Turton, S. Dak. Carthage, S. Dak.G 3 CascadeSps.S.Dak.A 4 Castlewood, S. Dak.G 3 Cavite, S. Dak. ,.D 4 Cavour, S. Dak. .F 3 Centerville.S.Dak.H 4 CentralCy., S.Dak.A 3 Chamberlains Dak.E 4 Chance, S. Dak. .B 2 Chancellor, S.Dak.H 4 Chandler, S. Dak.E 4 Chapelle, S. Dak.E 3 Chautauqua, S. Dak.G 2 Chester, S. Dak. .G 4 Cheyenne Agency, Claremont, S.Dak.F 2 Clark, S. Dak G 3 Clayton, S. Dak..G 4 ClearLake, S.Dak.H 3 Clifton, S. Dak..D 3 Colman, S. Dak..H 4 Colton, S. Dak...H 4 Columbia, S.Dak,.F 2 Cornell, S. Dak. .F 3 Corsica, S. Dak, .F 4 Corson, S. Dak,,H 4 Coyle, S. Dak. ...F 4 Conde, S. Dak. . .F 2 Corona, S. Dak..H 2 Crandon, S. Dak.F 3 Crawford, S.Dak.H 2 Cresbard, S.Dak..F 2 Creston, S. Dak,.B 4 Crooks, S. Dak..H 4 CrowCreek, S. Dak.E 3 Crowlake, S. Dak.F 4 S. Dak D 2 Custer, S. Dak. . .A 4 Cyanide, S, Dak.. A 3 Dakota Cy,,S.Dak.B 3 Dalenberg, S.Dak.H 5 Dallas, S. Dak...E 4 Dalzell, S. Dak...B 3 Date, S. Dak B 2 Davis, S. Dak. . .H 4 Deadwood, S.Dak.A 3 Dean. S. Dak F 3 Deerfield, S. Dak.A 3 De Grey, S. Dak.E 3 Delhi, S. Dak. . . .F 2 DellRapids, S.Dak.H 4 Delmont, S. Dak.F 4 Dempster, S.Dak.H 3 Denmark, S.Dak..G 3 De Smet, S. Dak.G 3 Detroit, S. Dak. .F 2 De Voe, S. Dak..F 2 Dexter, S. Dak. .G 2 Doland, S. Dak..F 3 Dooge, S. Dak. ..H 4 Dolton. S. Dak. .G 4 Drakola, S. Dak.G 3 Dumont, S. Dak.A 3 Duncan, S. Dak. .E 3 Dunlap, S. Dak..F 4 Dunsmore, S. Dak.E 3 Dupree, S. Dak..C 2 Eagle, S. Dak... Eales, S. Dak E. SiouxF., S.Dak, Eckard. S. Dak,. Eddy, S. Dak..., Eden, S. Dak. . . , Edgemont, S.Dak Edna, S. Dak... Edwin, S. Dak. . Effington, S. Dak, Egan, S. Dak. . . . Elbion, S. Dak.. Elkton, S. Dak.. Elk Mtn., S.Dak, Elk Point, S.Dak. Ellis, S. Dak.... Ellisville, S. Dak Elm Sprs.. S.Dak El rod, S. Dak... Emery, S. Dak . . Epiphany, S. Dak Erwin, S. Dak . . F^smond, .S. Dak Estelline. S. Dak, E 4 E 3 E 3 Esterley, S. Dak.G 2 Ethan, S. Dak. . .G 4 Eureka, S. Dak..E 2 Evarts, S. Dak. ..D 2 Fairburn, S. Dak.A 4 Fairfax, S. Dak. .F 4 Farmer, S. Dak..G 4 Farmingdale SDak.B 4 Farnsworth, S.Dak.F 3 Fairbank, S. Dak.D 3 Fairview, S. Dak.H 4 Faulkton, S. Dak.E 2 Fedora, S. Dak..G 3 Ferney, S.Dak. ...F 2 Flandreau, S.Dak.H 3 Flynn, S. Dak. . .F 4 Folsom, S. Dak. .B 4 Forestburg, S.Dak.F 3 ForestCity, S. Dak.D 2 Forestville, S.Dak.H 2 F't.Bennett, S. Dak.D 3 Ft.Meade, S.Dak.. A 3 Ft.Pierre, S.Dak..D 3 Ft.Randall, S.Dak.F 4 Frank, S. Dak. . .G 2 Frankfort, S. Dak.F 3 Frederick, S.Dak.F 2 Freeman, S. Dak.G 4 Fulton, S. Dak..G 4 Gale, S. Dak D 2 Galena, S. Dak... A 3 Gamble, S. Dak..C 4 Gannvalley, S.Dak.F 3 GardenCity,S.Dak.G 3 Garretson, S.Dak.H 4 Gary, S. Dak H 3 Gayville, S. Dak.G 5 Geddes, S. Dak..F 4 Gem, S. Dak F 2 Gettysburg, S. Dak.E 2 Giddings, S. Dak.E 3 Glen, S. Dak F 4 Glendale, S. Dak.E 3 Glenham, S. Dak.D 2 Goodwill, S. Dak.G 2 Goodwin, S. Dak.H 3 Gordon, S. Dak. .F 4 Goudyville, S.Dak. E 3 Greenway, S. Dak.E 2 Greenwood, S.Dak.F 5 Gregory, S. Dak..E 4 Grenville, S.Dak. G 2 Grindstone, S.Dak.C 3 Grobe, S. Dak...F 3 Grosse, S. Dak. . .E 4 Groton, S.Dak F 2 Grover, S. Dak...G 3 Gustave, S. Dak. .A 2 Hanson, S. Dak. .G 4 Harding, S. Dak.A 2 HardingroveSDak.C 3 Harrisburg.S. Dak.H 4 Harrison, S. Dak.F 4 Harrold, S. Dak.E 3 Hartford, S. Dak.H 4 Hartman, S. Dak.G 4 Hawley, S. Dak. .E 3 Hayes, S. Dak. . .C 3 Hayti, S. Dak. . .G 3 Hazel, S. Dak G 3 Hecla, S. Dak. . .F 2 Helgen, S. Dak..G 2 Helmick, S. Dak.F 3 Henry, S. Dak. . .G 3 Hereford, S. Dak.B 3 Hermosa, S. Dak.A 4 Herreid, S. Dak. .D 2 llerrick, S. Dak. .E 4 Hetland, S. Dak. .0 3 Highmore, S. Dak.E 3 Hill City, S. Dak.A 4 Hillside, S. Dak. .F 4 Hillsview, S.Dak..E 2 Hilmoe, S. Dak. .D 4 Hitchcock, S.Dak.F 3 Holabird. S. Dak.E 3 Holmquist, S. Dak.G 2 Hooker. S. Dak. .G 4 Hooewell. S. Dak.D 3 Hosmer, S. Dak..E 2 Hot Sprs., S.Dak.A 4 Houdek, S. Dak..E 3 Houghton, S. Dak.F 2 Houston, S. Dak.E 4 Hoven, S. Dak..E 2 Howard, S. Dak..G 3 Howell, S. Dak..F 3 Hudson, S. Dak..H 4 Huffton, S. Dak..F 2 Humboldt, S. Dak.G 4 Hummer, S. Dak.F 4 Hurley, S. Dak..G 4 Huron, S. Dak. . .F 3 Hyde, S. Dak....F 3 Ida, S. Dak E 3 Interior, S. Dak.C 4 lona, S. Dak E 4 Ipswich, S. Dak..E 2 Irene, S. Dak G 4 Iroquois, S. Dak.G 3 Irving, S. Dak. . .F 3 James, S. Dak...F 2 Java, S. Dak E 2 Jefferson, S. Dak.H 5 Tolley, S. Dak. ...G 3 Joubert, S. Dak..F 4 Junius, S. Dak...G 3 Kampeska, S. Dak.G 3 Kaspar, S. Dak..E 3 Kennebec. S. Dak.E 4 Kent, S. Dak G 2 Keystone, S. Dak.A 4 Kidder, S. Dak..G 2 Kimball, S. Dak.F 4 Komstad, S. Dak.H 4 Kranzburg,S.Dak..H 3 Kyle, S. Dak B 4 Labolt, S. Dak...H 2 Lacy, S. Dak D 3 La Delle, S. Dak.F 3 LakeAndes, S.Dak.F 4 Lk.Preston, S.Dak.G 3 Lakeside, S. Dak..F 3 Lane, S. Dak F 3 Langford, S. Dak.G 2 Laurel, S. Dak...D 3 Lead, S. Dak A 3 Lebanon, S. Dak..E 2 Le Beau, S. Dak.D 2 Lemmon, S. Dak.B 2 Lennox, S. Dak. .H 4 Leola, S. Dak...F 2 Leslie, S. Dak. . .C 3 Lesterville, S.Dak.G 4 Letcher, S. Dak..F 4 Lewiston, S. Dak.D 3 Lily, S. Dak G 2 Lindsay, S. Dak.D 3 Lithia, S. Dak.... A 4 Littlebend, S. Dak.D 3 LittleEagle, S. Dak.D 2 Lohre, S. Dak....G 2 Longlake, S. Dak.E 2 Loomis, S. Dak..F 4 Lorrett, S. Dak. ..F 5 Lo. Brule. ^S. Dak.E 3 Loyalton, S. Dak.E 2 Ludlow, S. Dak.. A 2 Luffman, S. Dak.G 2 Lund, S. Dak D 4 Lyman, S. Dak...E 4 Lynn, S. Dak G 2 Lyons, S. Dak...H 4 Lyonville, S. Dak.F 4 McCamley, S. Dak.E 3 McClure, S. Dak.D 3 McCook, S. Dak.H 5 Madison, S. Dak..G 3 Manchester, S. Dak. (; 3 Manderson, S. Dak.B 4 Manila, S. Dak . . C 3 Mansfield, S. Dak.F 2 Marion, S. Dak..G 4 Marlow, S. Dak..G 2 Marston, S. Dak.D 3 Martel, S. Dak..E 2 Marvin, S. Dak..H 2 Matthews, S.Dak.G 3 Meckling, S. Dak.G 5 Medas, S. Dak...F 3 Mellette, S. Dak.F 2 Menno, S. Dak..G 4 Merritt, S.Dak.. .A 3 Midland, S. Dak.C 3 Milbank, S. Dak.H 2 Millard, S. Dak...E 2 Miller, S. Dak. . .F 3 Milltown, S. Dak.G 4 Mina, S. Dak F 2 Minnekahta,S. Dak.A 4 Miranda, S. Dak.F 3 Missionhill, S.Dak.G 5 Mitchell, S. Dak.F 4 Mobridge, S. Dak.D 2 Monroe, S. Dak. .G 4 Montrose, S. Dak.G 4 Moore, S. Dak. . .D 4 MoundCy., S. Dak.D 2 Mt. Vernon, S.Dak.F 4 Mystic, S. Dak... A 3 Naples, S. Dak..G 3 Nemo, S. Dak. ..A3 Newark, S. Dak..G 2 NewHolland.S.DakF 4 Ney, S. Dak D 3 Nora, S. Dak H 5 Norden, S. Dak. .G 3 Northville, S.Dak.F 2 Nowlin, S. Dak. .C 3 Nutley, S. Dak..G 2 Oacoma, S. Dak. .E 4 Oahe, S. Dak D 3 Oelrichs, S. Dak,. A 4 Okobojo, S. Dak..D 3 Ola, S. Dak E 4 Oldham, S. Dak..G 3 Olivet, S. Dak...G 4 Onida, S. Dak...D 3 Oral, S. Da"k A 4 Ordway, S. Dak..F 2 Orient, S. Dak...E 3 Orleans, S. Dak..E 2 Osceola, S. Dak..G 3 Otis, S. Dak A 4 Otto, S. Dak G 2 Ottumwa, S. Dak.C 3 Pactola, S. Dak. .A 3 Parker, S. Dak...G 4 Parkston, S. Dak.G 4 Pedro, S. Dak. . .B 3 Peever, S. Dak. .H 2 Pembroke, S. Dak.E 2 Peno, S. Dak E 3 Perkins, S. Dak..G 5 Philip, S. Dak...C 3 Pickerel, S. Dak.G 2 Piedmont, S. Dak.A 3 Pierpont, S. Dak.G 2 Pierre, S. Dak...D 3 Pioneer, S. Dak.F 2 Pine Ridge. S. Dak.B 4 Plana, S. Dak. . .F 2 Plankinton, S.Dak.F 4 Platte, S. Dak F 4 Poinsett, S. Dak..G 3 Pollock, S. Dak..D 2 Porcupine, S. Dak.B 4 Potter, S. Dak. . .D 3 Powell, S. Dak...E 2 Presho, S. Dak. .D 4 Pringle, S. Dak.. A 4 Provo, S. Dak.... A 4 Pukwana, S. Dak.E 4 Putney, S. Dak..F 2 Ramona, S. Dak..G 3 Ranville, S. Dak.G 2 Rapid City, S.Dak.A 3 Raymond, S. Dak.G 3 Recluse, S. Dak..C 4 Redfern, S. Dak.A 3 Redfield, S. Dak.F 3 South Dakota KFN 333 Southend-on-Sea Territory in 1804 — changed to Missouri Territory in 1812. The part east of the Missouri had been successively included in Michigan Territory in 1834, Wisconsin in 1836, Iowa in 1838, and Minnesota in 1849; and the part west of the Missouri in Ne- braska Territory in 1854. Da- kota Territory later included large parts of Montana and Wyoming, which were set off in 1863, when the Territory of Idaho was formed. In 1862 the territorial capital was located at Yankton, but in 1882 it was removed to Bis- marck. The destruction of Sioux Falls by the Indians and the building of Fort Dakota marked the years 1862 and 1865, respectively. The construction of the rail- roads, begun in 1872, with the discovery of gold by the Custer expedition in 1874, and the open- ing of the Deadwood and White- wood mines in 1875, hastened the development of the Black Hills region. In 1876 the Indians of that region ceded their lands to the government, and Deadwood was laid out. In 1883, at a convention held in Sioux Falls, a constitution was drawn up, and a petition for statehood was presented to Con- gress, but it met with no success. In 1889 an enabling act was passed, providing for division of the Territory 'on the line of the seventh standard parallel,' and the admission of the states of North and South Dakota. State- hood by South Dakota was at- tained Nov. 3, 1889. The opening to settlement of 9,000,000 acres of Sioux land in 1890 was the occasion for a no- table land rush. The smaller tract of the Sisseton Indians was opened in 1892, and the Rosebud Reservation in 1904. In 1909 the state celebrated the public anniversary of its settlement with elaborate ceremonies at Yankton. South Dakota has been among the first states to adopt certain new ideas in legislation. An act passed in 1911 provided that con- tributory negligence of employees should not bar recovery for dam- ages, and a primary law of 1912, known as the Richards' primary, practically did away with all par- ty organizations. Under a bank guaranty law of 1915 the state sought to protect bank depositors by administering a fund to which the banks contributed and by liquidating closed banks ; the plan failed, however, when the fund was exhausted during eco- nomic depression. A rural cred- its constitutional amendment, of 1917, provided means whereby landowners could borrow money directly from the state, from funds secured by bonds. As with the bank guaranty project, this plan worked during normal times, but in the depression of the 1930's a large amount of land reverted to the state and a great bonded indebtedness had accu- mulated. The state ventured into the operation of two coal mines, unsuccessfully, but the state- owned cement plant at Rapid City, which began operations in 1925, proved a financial success. A law providing for hail insur- ance was repealed when it became clear that the average farmer did not want the insurance. In 1924 Gov. William H. McMaster, de- claring that the oil companies were charging too much for gas- oline, ordered the state to enter the gasoline business ; though the step was popular at the time, and carried McMaster into the U. S. Senate, it was later found un- constitutional. In 1927 President Coolidge spent a vacation in the Black Hills, occupying the State Game Lodge in Custer Park and using the high school at Rapid City as office. At that time he dedicated Mount Rushmore, on the side of which a national memorial was to be created, in the form of a series of sculptures carved under the direction of Gutzon Borglum, the. sculptor. By 1939 colossal heads of Washington. Jefferson, Lincoln, and Theodore Roosevelt had been completed in the rough and unveiled. The hard times resulting from droughts, grasshoppers, dust storms, and business depression were reflected in a decrease of nearlv 50,000 in the state's popu- lation during 1930-40. At the end of the decade, however, the economic picture was brighter. In national elections South Dakota has been Republican, ex- cept in 1896, when a coalition of the Populists and Democrats won; in 1912, when Theodore Roosevelt carried the state for the new Progressive party ; and again in 1932 and 1936, when the state went Democratic. Bibliography . — C o n s u 1 1 South Dakota Historical Collec- tions ; South Dakota Legislative Manual (biennial) ; G. W. Kings- bury, History of Dakota Terri- tory (5 vols., 1915) ; L. K. Fox, Who's Who Among South Da- kotans (2 vols., 1924-28) ; D. Robinson, Encyclopedia of Sotith Dakota (1925), Brief History of South Dakota (1926), and His- tory of South Dakota (3 vols., 1930) ; P. D. Peterson, Through the Black Hills and Bad Lands of South Dakota (1929) ; O'Har- ra and Connolly, Mineral Wealth of the Black Hills (1929) ; Hun- kins and Lindsey, South Dakota : Its Past, Present, and Future (1932); E. L. Waldo, Dakota; Scenes from Pioneer Days in the Dakotas (1936) ; Federal Writ- ers' Project, A South Dakota Guide (1938). South Dakota State Col- lege of Agriculture and Me- chanic Arts, a co-educational institution at Brookings, S. D., founded in 1881. It received a grant of 160,000 acres of public land under the Act of 1862. The departments of instruction in- clude graduate courses, arts and sciences, journalism, agriculture, home economics, engineering, pharmacy, and music, and a sec- ondary school of agriculture. The college owns 800 acres, of which 640 acres are under culti- vation. South Dakota, University of, a co-educational state insti- tution at Vermilion, S. D., incor- porated in 1863, and organized in 1882. It is controlled and supported by the state, and has an endowment of 86,000 acres of land granted by the Federal Gov- ernment. The university con- sists of the Colleges of Arts and Sciences and Fine Arts, Schools of Business Administration, Ed- ucation, Law and Medicine, and the Graduate School. Southdown, a breed of sheep. See Sheep. Southeastern Alps, the most easterly division of the Alps, in- clude the mountains rising south of the Drave Valley (separating them from the central Tyrolese Alps) and east of the Piave Val- ley (separating them from the Dolomites). Herein three dis- tinct groups are usually distin- guished. East of the Dolomites rise — (1) the Carnic Alps, which culminate in Kellerwand (9,105 ft.), though their best-known summit is Paralba (8,830 ft.) ; while the principal pass is the Monte Croce or Plocken Pass (4,462 ft.). Separated from the Carnic Alps by the Pontebba line of the railway over the Saifnitz or Pontebba Pass (2,615 ft.), from Tarvis to Udine, rise to the east (2) the Julie Alps, which culminate in the Terglou or Triglav (9,395 ft.) and the Montasio (9,039 ft.), their best- known pass being the Predil (3,813 ft.) ; traversed by a car- riage road from Tarvis to Gorz. To the northeast of the Julie Alps, and separated from them by the Save Valley, (3) the Karawanken Alps rise iDetween that valley and the Drave. See Alps. Southend-on-Sea, municipal- ity, borough, and watering place, Essex, England, at the mouth of the Thames ; forty miles east of London. It is the chief station of the coast survey. In 1915 it was bombarded by German aircraft. Westcliff, a residential suburb, has many attractive villas. Pop. (1931) 120,093. Southern Alps KFN 334 Southey Southern Alps, a chain of snow-clad mountains, New Zea- land, with an average height of 8,000 feet, and a snow line of 7,500 feet, forming the backbone of the South Island, running parallel with and close to the west coast for about 100 miles, and thrusting many long spurs eastward. Their culminating point is Mount Cook or Aorangi (12,349 ft.), and several others exceed 10,000 feet. The range is crossed by three low passes — Harper's Pass ; Arthur's Pass (3,000 ft.), over which runs the road from Christchurch to Hokit- ika, and over which the Midland Railway is constructed ; and Haast Pass (1,716 ft.). This re- gion was first explored by Sir Julius von Haast in 1862. Southern Baptist Theologi- cal Seminary, a divinity school under the control of the South- ern Baptist Convention, at Louisville, Ky., established at Greenville, S. C., in 1859. It was closed during the Civil War, and was removed to Louisville in 1877. Courses are offered for persons without collegiate train- ing as well as for college grad- uates. Opportunity is also of- fered for graduate work leading to the degree of doctor in theol- ogy, and courses are provided for training women missionaries. Southern California, Uni- versity of, a co-educational in- stitution under Methodist con- trol, at Los Angeles, founded in 1880. It includes the Colleges of Arts and Sciences, Commerce, Education, Engineering, Speech, Architecture, Pharmacy, Dentist- ry, Law, Music and Theology ; and directs the Marine Biological Station at Venice, Cal. Southern Cross. See Crux. Southerne, suth'ern, Thom- as (1660-1746), English dram- atist, was born in Oxmantown, near Dublin. His first play. The Loyal Brother, or the Persian Prince, was produced in 1682. His best plays were tragedies, brought out after the Revolution — The Fatal Marriage (1694) and Oroonoko (1696). Southern Education Board, a body organized in 1901, as an outcome of the fourth Conference for Education in the South at Winston-Salem, N. C, to pro- mote the development of state public school systems in the Southern States. Co-operation with similar bodies, such as the General Education Board and the Peabody and Slater Funds, is secured by mutual representa- tion in the membership. Under the impetus of the Board's efforts in the first five years of its existence the follow- ing increases occurred in six of the Southern States : expenditure for public education, 69 per cent ; amount raised for school pur- poses from local taxation, 78 per cent ; value of school property, 51 per cent; and expenditure for equipment, 164 per cent. The field of its influence along similar lines has since been greatly ex- tended ; and it has been an im- portant factor throughout the South in the development of in- dustrial and high-school educa- tion and the training of teachers ; in the improvement of supervi- sion, progress in rural schools, and the founding and mainte- nance of school-improvement leagues. Consult Dickerman, Ed- iicational Progress in the South ; Reports of U. S. Commissioner of Education. Southern (or Cold) Lakes of New Zealand, twelve large and numerous smaller lakes of glacial origin in the southwest of South Island. Tekapo (15 m. by 3 m.), Pukaki (10 m. by 4 m.), and Ohau (12 m. by 2^ m.) are in Canterbury, and are drained by the Waitaki. The others are all in Otago. Hawea (19 m. by 3 m.), Wanaka (35 m. by ^ m.), and Wakatipu (50 m. by ^ m.) are drained by the Clutha ; Te Anau (40 m. by % m.), Mana- pouri (50 sq. m.), and Monowai by the Waiau. The southernmost group consists of Pouteriteri, Hakapoua, and Haviroto. Southern Nigeria. See Ni- geria. Southern Rhodesia. See Rhodesia. Southern University, for- mer name of Birmingham-South- ern College, a co-educational in- stitution under the control of the Methodist Church founded in 1856 in Greensboro, Ala., but removed in 1918 to Birmingham. It offers classical and scientific courses leading to the bachelor's degree in arts and science, and graduate courses leading to the master's degree. Southernwood, Old Man, Lad's Love, or Maiden's Ruin {Artemisia abrotanum) , is an old garden plant, now mainly grown for the fragrance of its leaves, but formerly valued for its real or supposed medicinal qualities. Southey, Robert (1774- 1843), English poet and man of letters, was born in Bristol. He was sent in 1788 to Westminster School, from which he was ex- pelled for writing an essay against corporal punishment, and later went to Balliol College, Ox- ford ( 1 792 ) . There he met Sam- uel Coleridge, with whom he formed an intimate friendship and in whose dream of founding a 'Pantisocracy' on the banks of the Susquehanna in the United States he became much inter- ested. The scheme was aban- doned, however, for lack of funds, and in 1795 Southey se- cretly married Edith Fricker and went to Portugal to visit an uncle. Returning to England in 1796 he began the study of law, but soon abandoned this to de- vote himself to literature. He finally settled with his wife at Greta Hall, Keswick, where the Coleridges and Lovels lived, and labored industriously, support- ing not only his own, but Cole- ridge's family as well. In addi- tion to what he made by his writings he received a small an- Robert Southey. nuity from his friend Wynn, re- placed in 1807 by a pension from the government and augmented in 1813 by his salary as poet laureate and in 1835 by an addi- tional pension of £300 from the government. His wife died in 1837, and in 1839 he married the poetess Caroline Anne Bowles (1786-1854) ; but his mind was by this time giving way, and he died on March 21, 1843. Southey's works fill more than a hundred volumes and he con- tributed nearly a hundred articles to the Quarterly Review alone. Among his best-known works are Joan of Arc (1796); Thalaba (1801); Madoc (1805); The Curse of Kehama (1810) ; Rod- erick, The Last of the Goths (1814) ; History of Brazil (1810- 19) ; and History of the Penin- sula War (1808-14). His best biographies are the Life of Nel- son (1813) and the Life of Wes- ley (1820). He wrote also a Life of Cowper (1833-37), trans- lations of Amadis (1803) and The Cid (1808), Espriella's Let- ters (1807), pseudo-Spanish sketches of England, and The Doctor (1834-37), a medley of aphorisms, anecdotes, and humor. Southey is recognized as a clas- sic prose writer. He was a ca- pable biographer, a second-rate essayist, and a poet who rarely South Downs KFN 335 South Portland rose to distinction. His Poeti- cal Works appeared (1837-8), Lives of the Admirals (1833- 40), and Letters (1849-50). See Dowden, Southey in English Men of Letters (1879), new ed. (1895); and Dennis, Southey: Story of His Life (1887). South Downs. See Downs. South Foreland, on the coast of Kent, the nearest point of England to the coast of France. Off it an important naval battle was fought on Aug. 24, 1217. Eustace the monk, in the service of Louis of France, left Calais in order to attempt a landing in the mouth of the Thames. Hubert de Burgh, justiciary and gover- nor of Dover Castle, intercepted him, and the French were com- pletely defeated, only fifteen ships out of eighty escaping. South Fork, borough, Penn- sylvania, Cambria county, on the Conemaugh River, and on the Pennsylvania Railroad ; 7 miles E.N.E. of Johnstown. It has a brick factory and planing mill, but the leading industry is the mining of bituminous coal, which abounds in this region. The en- tire lower part of the borough was destroyed by the flood which overwhelmed Johnstown. The breaking of the South Fork dam, about a mile above South Fork, was the cause of this disaster. Large coal yards of the Pa. R. R. now occupy the bed of the former lake which the dam confined. The place was first settled in 1865 and incorporated in 1884. Pop. (1930) 3,227; (1940) 3,023. South Fork of the Platte, a river which rises in Colorado, near Mt. Lincoln, crosses the South Park, and continues, in a general n.e. and n. course to Denver and Evans, then turning E., enters Nebraska, where it joins the N. Fork after a course of 550 miles. South Framingfham. See Framingham. South Glens Falls, village. New York, Saratoga county, op- posite Glens Falls, on the Hud- son River at the falls, and on the Delaware and Hudson and Hud- son Valley railroads. It is a manufacturing center, with pa- per and lumber mills and lime kilns. Paper is supplied in con- siderable quantities to the New York newspapers. The famous 'Cooper's Cave' is situated in South Glens Falls. The village was settled in 1840 and incorpo- rated in 1895. Pop. (1930) 2,689; (1940) 3,081. South Hadley, town, Massa- chusetts Hampshire county, 4 miles N. of Holyoke, and about 2 miles e. of the Connecticut River. It is the seat of Mount Holyoke College (q. v.). Paper, woolen goods, bricks, etc., are manufactured. The town has two public libraries. The scen- ery of the region is very beauti- ful. Features of special interest are Mount Tom and Mount Holyoke and the great dam built across the river. The town was settled in 1721 and incorpo- rated in 1753. Pop. (1930) 6,- 773; (1940) 6,856. South Haven, city, Michigan, Van Buren county, on the shore of Lake Michigan, and on the Pere Marquette and the Michi- gan Central railroads ; 50 miles s.w. of Grand Rapids. It is a summer resort and has manufac- tures of pianos, lumber, crates, flour, canned fruit, and two foundries. It is a shipping point for fruit, which is extensively raised in the vicinity. The city has a public library and hospital. The water-works and electric- lighting plant are owned and op- erated by the municipality. It was settled in 1833, incorporated as a village in 1869, and char- tered as a city in 1902. Pop. (1930) 4,803 ; (1940) 4,745. South Holland. See Hol- land, South. Southington, borough, Con- necticut, Hartford county, on the New Haven and Northampton Railroad; 15 miles n. of New Haven. Various kinds of hard- ware are manufactured. It was settled about 1697. The town was incorporated in 1779 and the borough in 1889. Pop. (1930) 5,125; (1940) 5,088. South Island. See New Zealand. South MacAlester, city, Oklahoma, capital of the Choc- taw Nation. The city was in- corporated in 1899. In 1906 the town of MacAlester (q. v.) was annexed and its name was taken for the city. Pop. (1930) 11,- 804; (1940) 12,401. South Milwaukee, city, Wisconsin, Milwaukee county, 10 miles from the center of Mil- waukee, on the Chicago and North Western Railroad. It is a manufacturing city. The out- put includes steam shovels, dredges, and wreckers. Othei manufactures are stoves, chains, hinges, rakes, merchant iron, baskets, and woolen goods. The steam dredges and shovels made here were used in the construc- tion of the Panama Canal. The first settlers arrived in 1835. The place was incorporated in 1892 and chartered as a city in 1896. Pop. (1930) 10,706; (1940) 11,134. South Norwalk, city, Con- necticut, Fairfield county, consol- idated with Norwalk in 1913, 40 miles n.e. of New York, on Long Island Sound, at the mouth of the Norwalk River, on the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. It has important man- ufactures, including those of hardware, stoves, corsets, silk, woolen goods, gasoline engines, air compressors, boats, earthen- ware, paper boxes, and shoes. It has a good harbor, and is finely situated, overlooking the Sound. The water-works and electric- lighting plant are owned and op- erated by the municipality. Pop. (1930) 36,019; (1940) 39,849. South Orange, village, New Jersey, Essex county, on the Del- aware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad ; 4 miles west of New- ark. It is a residential place, most of the inhabitants being New York businessmen, and is one of the most beautiful locali- ties in the neighborhood of New York. It is the seat of Seton Hall College (R. C.) and has a fine public library. Essex Coun- ty Park, of 300 acres, is situated upon Orange Mountain, which forms the n.w. boundary of the village, and which affords an ex- tensive view. The place was set- tled about 1670. Pop. (1930) 13,630; (1940) 13,742. South Park, a tableland in the central part of Colorado, sur- rounded by rugged mountains. Alt. 9.000 ft. It is fertile and is well watered, being traversed by the South Fork of the Platte and other streams. Its area is 2,000 sq. m. On the n., lofty moun- tains separate it from Middle Park. South Pole. See Antarctic Ocean. Southport, municipal borough and watering-place, Lancashire, England, 18 miles n. of Liver- pool ; it has a handsome espla- nade and marine drive. Marine park and lake (44 ac.) front the shore. Hesketh Park is prettily laid out at the northern end of the town ; there are botanic gar- dens, winter garden and zoologi- cal park. The public buildings include town hall, Cambridge Hall, Atkinson Art Gallery and Free Library, and market hall, and there are several hydropathic establishments. Birkdale is a southern residential suburb. Pop. (1931) 78,927. South Portland, city, Maine, Cumberland county, on the inner harbor of Portland, opposite that city, with which it is connected by ferry. It is a residential city and summer resort. The chief industrial establishments are boat-building yards, flour mills, and oil and lead works. The more important institutions in- clude the Maine School for Boys and the City Home. Features of interest are Cape Cottage, a pic- turesque shore resort, and Forts Preble and Williams, each with two companies of coast artillery. The chief industry is shipbuild- ing. The city was chartered in 1899, before which it was part South River KFN 336 Souza-Botelho of Cape Elizabeth. Pop. (1930) 13,840; (1940) 15,781. South River, borough, New Jersey, Middlesex county, 5 miles s.E. of New Brunswick, on the South River, and on the Rari- tan River Railroad. It has brick yards, conduit works, and manu- factures of handkerchiefs, em- broidery, shirts, dresses and smoking pipes. Clay and mould- ing sands are abundant in the district. The place was first in- corporated in 1871 and char- tered as a borough in 1898. Pop. (1930) 10,759; (1940) 10,714. South Saint Paul, city, Min- nesota, Dakota county, on the Mississippi River, and on the Chicago, Great Western and the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific railroads ; 5 miles from Saint Paul. It is of industrial impor- tance as a packing center. Large stock yards are situated here. Malt, plaster, and cement are manufactured. The packing- houses and allied interests em- ploy 5,000 hands. The river is very picturesque at this point, having high bluffs opposite the city. The place was settled about 1880 and incorporated in 1887. Pop. (1930) 10,009; (1940) 11,- 844. Southsea, town, Hants, Eng- land, forming part of Ports- mouth, immediately s. of Land- port. It is a residential suburb and watering-place, and has an esplanade adorned with many naval memorials. South Sea Scheme, or, as it is often named, the 'South Sea Bubble,' arose out of Lord Treasurer Harley's desire to get taken up the large floating debt which the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-13) had cre- ated. The Company of Merchants of Great Britain was granted ex- clusive rights of trading on the east and west coasts of S. Amer- ica, and all lands it might dis- cover within three hundred leagues from the shore were to be held by the company under the crown. The peace of Utrecht (1713) transferred to England the Assiento privilege of carry- ing Negroes to Spanish America, and this privilege was handed over to the company. In 1714, by the further transformation of government debt, the capital stock was increased to £10,000,- 000; and in 1719 the directors of the company proposed to absorb the whole national debt and pay 5 per cent interest for seven years and 4 per cent thereafter. They offered for this privilege £7,567,000. The company seems to have done little legitimate trading. The public, however, misled by the countenance and support which the government gave to the company, formed extravagant ideas of the possible value of the South Sea trade, and speculation carried the stock to £1,000 for every £100 sub- scribed. Then all sorts of com- panies were floated, and men invested blindly in the most ridiculous projects, such as pro- posals to import asses from Spain and to extract silver from sea-water. The whole of Eng- land seemed to have gone mad, save only Walpole. He had al- ways opposed this South Sea Scheme, and to him the nation turned to restore the public credit and to find the best way out of the mess. Walpole dealt leniently with the directors, and remitted the obligations of the company to the public, thus fa- voring the ordinary stockholder. The South Sea Company was not dissolved, but it carried on a le- gitimate business thereafter. It engaged in the whale fishery with no great success, and trafficked in Negro slaves. Although after 1750 it ceased to be a trading company, it was not till 1807 that it was deprived of its exclusive trading privileges in the South Seas. See Mackay, Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delu- sions (1852), and Coxe, Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole (1802). South Shetlands, group of mountainous islands in the Ant- arctic Ocean, about 600 m. s. of Cape Horn. They are twelve in number — Clarence, George i, Livingstone, Deception, and Smith being the chief — and cover an area of 880 sq. m. South Shields. See Shields. Southwark, a London bor- ough, in Surrey, England, on the Thames, called by Londoners 'the Borough.' St. Saviour's Church, now the cathedral of the diocese of Southwark (constituted 1905), belonged to the 11th-century priory of St. Mary Overy. It was rebuilt 13th century. Its monuments include one to the poet Gower, buried here. Among other noteworthy buildings are Spurgeon's Tabernacle, St. George's Church, Roman Catho- lic cathedral, Guy's Hospital, Hop Exchange, Bethlehem Hos- pital, and the Surrey and Ken- nington theatres. The site of Shakespeare's Globe Theatre is now occupied by a brewery. Pop. (1931) 171,657. Southwell, Robert (c. 1561- 95), English poet and Jesuit spy, was born probably at Horsham, Norfolk, and admitted a Jesuit in 1578. In 1586 he went to Eng- land with Father Henry Garnet, and passed as a Protestant under the name of Cotton. In 1592 he was caught, and was taken to prison and to torture, and in 1595 he was hanged for treason. He left a good deal, of prose and verse of which the lines The Burning Babe are best known. His Collected Poems were edited by A. B. Grosart (1872), and Collected Prose by W. J. Walter (1828). South Williamsport, bor- ough, Pennsylvania, Lycoming county, opposite Williamsport, on the Susquehanna River, and on the Pennsylvania Railroad. It has a furniture factory, dairy plant, wholesale produce market, machine shop, etc. The place was settled in 1825 and incorpo- rated in 1886. Pop. (1930) 6,- 058; (1940) 6,033. Southworth, Emma Doro- thy Eliza (Nevitte) (1819- 99), American novelist, born in Washington, D. C. Her first novel. Retribution (1849), was published in the National Era, and she wrote many other works of fiction, dealing mostly with social conditions in the South. Her collected works were pub- lished in 1872. Souvestre, Emile (1806-54), French litterateur, born at Mor- laix, settled at Paris (1836), where his Breton novels won him fame. Among these are Les Dernier s Bretons (1835-7), Pierre ct Jean (1842), Foyer Breton (1844), Scenes de la Chouannerie (1852) and Chro- niques de la Mer (1853). His best book is, however, Un Philo- sophe sous les Toils (1850). He also wrote many plays and farces and published Causeries Histo- riques et Litteraires (2 vols., 1854). Souza-Botelho, so'za-bo- tel'yo, Adele Marie Emilie Filleul, Marquise de Flahaut (1761-1836), French novelist. She was educated in a convent, and when very young married Count de Flahaut. On the out- break of the Revolution she fled with her son to England, where she learned of the death of her husband on the scaffold (1793). In England she wrote her first novel Adele de Senanges, a work full of freshness and charm. She lived for two years in Ham- burg where she earned her liv- ing as a milliner. After the fall of Robespierre she returned to France, and at the home of Talleyrand met the Portu- guese diplomat M. Souza-Bo- telho, whom she married in 1802. Her wit, the charm of her con- versation and disposition made her a favorite among distin- guished men and women of the time. She lost her social power after the fall of the First Em- pire. Her books include Eugene de Rothelin, generally considered her best work ; Emilie et Al- phonse (1799); Charles et Marie (1802); Eugenie ct Mathilde (1811); Mile, dc Fournon (1820) ; La Comtcsse de Fargy (1822). Her CEuvres Completes, revised, appeared in six volumes Souza-Boteiho 337 Sower sophe sous les Toils (1850). He also wrote many plays and farces and published Causeries Histo- riques et Lilteraires (2 vols., 1854). Souza - Botelho, s6'za-b6- tel'yo, Adele Marie Emilie FiLLEUL, Marquise de Flahaut (1761-1836), French novelist, was born in Paris. She was edu- cated in a convent, and when very young married Count de Flahaut, The union was not a happy one, and on the outbreak of the Revolution she fled with her son to England, where she learned of the death of her hus- band on the scaffold (1793). While in England she wrote her first novel Adele de Senanges, a work full of freshness and charm. After the fall of Robespierre she returned to France, and at the home of Talleyrand met the Portuguese diplomat M. Souza- Botelho, whom she married in 1802. Her wit, the charm of her conversation, and her sweetness of disposition made her a favor- ite among the distinguished men and women of the time. Her books include Eugene de Rothelin, generally considered her best work; Emilie et Alphonse (1799) ; Charles et Marie (1802); Eugenie et Mathilde (1811); Mile, de Fournon (1820); La Comtesse de Fargy (1822). Her CEuvres Com- pletes, revised and corrected, ap- peared in six volumes in 1821—22; and CEuvres Choisies, with a notice by Sainte-Beuve in 1840-5. Sovereign. One who exer- cises supreme control or do- minion, but generally applied only to the hereditary rulers of states — e.g. king, emperor, czar. See also Sovereignty. Sovereign, a British "gold coin worth one pound sterling, or $4.86f, first issued by Henry VII., and which continued to be issued till the time of James i. It was revived by George iii., and is still issued. Sovereignty. During the Middle Ages the word 'sov- ereign' and its compounds were simply equivalent to 'head' or 'chief.' It was, of course, most frequently applied to the king as the head of the state; but it was also used to describe the bishop of a diocese, the abbot of a monastery, and even the provost or master of a college. With the political speculators of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, however, especially with Bodin, Grotius, Hobbes, and Filmer, the term was used to signify that absolute freedom from external control, combined with that absolute power over its own members, which the revolt against the mediaival doctrine of the Holy Roman Empire led the modern school of thinkers to attribute to every independent state. Thus sovereignty became Vol. XL— March, '20 an abstraction, used to signify that totality of independence and power which may be vested in a king, or in a king and parliament, or in an assembly alone. The great champion and popularizer of this view in England was the jurist John Austin (A Plea for the Constitution, 1859). Not only did he labor to prove that every act of political power in the United Kingdom (he does not seem to have considered the case of the colonies) was the act, direct or indirect, of the crown, lords, and commons, or, as he subsequently modified it, of the crown, lords, and electors; but he asserted in spite of manifest evidence to the contrary, that a person or body of persons in- vested with similar powers must necessarily exist in every organ- ized political community. The first serious check which this view met with was from the advocates of the new historical method of legal and political study, prominent among whom was Sir Henry Maine, whose brilliant book on Ancient Law was published in 1861. Some- what staggered by his attack, the Austinian school of jurists fell back on the compromise that, whatever may have been the case in rudimentary stages of develop- ment, the Austinian doctrine was true of all civilized communities. Even this claim has, however, been powerfully resisted by re- cent writers, conspicuously by Professor Dicey, who points out that many of the most advanced modern political communities have in practice rejected the doc- trine of sovereignty as Austin preached it. The truth of the matter appears to be this, that there have from time to time ex- isted certain political communi- ties in which the acts of a given person or body of persons could not be legally questioned by any regularly constituted authority, internal or external. Two con- spicuous examples are the em- pire of the Russias, in which the ukase of the czar could not be questioned before any tribunal; and the British empire, in which a formally enacted statute of the crown in Parliament enjoys a similar immunity. Of course there is always the 'sacred right of revolt'; but this is not a legal restriction. Of these and simi- lar communities Austin's doc- trine is only approximately true. One of the most conspicuous features of the many 'written constitutions' which sprang into life during the nineteenth century is the careful restriction placed by them on the powers not mere- ly of the monarch or head of the state, but on the parliament or other legislative body. These restrictions are legal; they can be pleaded before regularly con- stituted tribunals. Their exist- ence is a complete answer to the theory of sovereignty as under- stood by Austin. This is the case even in so-called 'unitary' con- stitutions, such as those of France and Belgium. It is still more true of Federal constitu- tions, such as that of the United States, by which political power is elaborately partitioned out among various co-ordinate and independent authorities. The writers of the Austinian school have endeavored to rebut this obvious truth by arguing that the body with whom lies the power of amending the constitu- tion is in such case the real sov- ereign body. This argument is a shade stronger than that of Blackstone, who asserts that sov- erign power necessarily belongs to that body in the state which has power to enact laws, appar- ently quite regardless of what laws it has power to enact. But even the Austinian argument re- veals the weakness of the doc- trine which it is quoted to sup- port. Austin's 'sovereign' is an active, constantly watchful, and vigilant power, from which pro- ceeds every political act — legis- lative, executive, judicial. The constitution-amending power of the written constitution is usually a very elaborately formed body, apparently devised in such a manner as to present the most extreme possible difficulty in calling it into action. Such a power may be a sovereign in posse; and to such a sovereign it has been proposed to apply the epi- thet of 'political,' while the sov- ereign power as ordinarily under- stood is to be known as 'legal.' But to make such a distinction is to destroy the whole point of Austin's theory. As a matter of fact, the framers of the written constitutions have usually aimed at preventing the exercise of un- limited power by any person or body of persons. See States' Rights. Con- sult Merriam's History of the Theory of Sovereignty since Rous- seau; Dicey's Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitu- tion (8th ed., 1915). Sovereignty, Popular. See Popular Sovereignty. So'viet, Russian term first applied to a revolutionary com- mittee of workmen in 1905, and later extended to a large variety of revolutionary councils and committees. It is used especial- ly of that form of government in which the unit of industrial or- ganization becomes the nucleus of political organization. See Bolshevism. Sow Bread. See Cyclamen. Sower (or Saur), Christo- pher (1693-1758), American printer and publisher, was born Sowerby 338 Spadefooi in Laasphe, Germany, studied medicine at Halle, and emigrated (1724) to the United States. He settled in Germantown (1731), established a printing press there, and undertook (1738) the publi- cation of an almanac which was continued by his relatives until 1798. He established a quarterly magazine, D er Hoch-Deutsch Pensylvanische Geschichle-Schrei- ber, in 1739, and in 1743 pub- lished an edition of Luther's translation of the Bible, the first copy of the book (excepting Eliot's Indian Bible) to be printed in America. Sowerby sou'er-bi, James (1757-1822), English scientist and artist, was born in London. He taught drawing and painting, was employed to execute plates for the Botanical Magazine, and thereafter devoted himself to colored illustrations of botan- ical, zoological, and other scien- tific subjects. He published Eng- lish Botany (1790-1814), with 2,592 colored plates; Colored Figures of English Fungi (1797— 1815); The Mineral Conchology of Great Britain (1812-46); and similar works. Sowerby, James de Carle (1787-1871), English naturalist and artist, son of James Sowerby (q. v.), was born at Stoke Newington, London, and fol- lowed the lines of his father's work. He was one of the founders (1838) and secretary of the Royal Botanic (jar- dens. Sowerby Bridge, town. West Riding, Yorkshire, England, on the Calder, at the termination of Rochdale Canal, 2 5 miles south- west of Halifax. The town has woollen mills, cotton factories, and engineering and chemical works. Pop. (1911) 11,350. Sowing Machines. See Im- plements and Machinery, Agricultural. Sow Thistle, a genus of plants belonging to the order Compositas. The Common Sow Thist\e(Sonchus oleraceus), some- times called Milk Thistle, is found throughout North America except in the far north. It is a hardy annual, growing to a height of 2 or 3 feet, and bearing large, more or less prickly mar- gined leaves, and small yellow flowers in corymbs. It blooms from June to September. 5. arvensis, the Field Sow Thistle, closely resembles it, but has larger flowers. In Europe the plant is used as a pot herb and is kept succulent by constantly pinching out its buds. Soy Bean (Glycine soja), a bushy, leguminous annual, grow- ing from 2 1 to 4 feet high, cul- tivated as a food and forage plant. It has small white or purplish flowers and fiat white seed pods, 2 to 3 inches in length. Vol. XI.— March, '20 It is a native of Asia and is largely grown in Japan and China, where it constitutes an important element in the national dietary. In the United States its principal use is as a forage plant for livestock and as a soil reno- vator. It is cultivated from Massachusetts to the Gulf of Mexico and its economic im- portance is rapidly increas- ing. The soy bean requires about the same' temperature and soil constituents as corn, though it will thrive on a poorer soil than corn provided there is adequate drainage. Planting should take place after all danger of frost is over, in soil which has been well prepared by deep ploughing and working with disc and har- row until a firm seed bed, with two or three upper inches of loose mellow soil, is secured. The planting should be shallow — one to two inches — in rows thirty to thirty-six inches apart if the crop is raised for seed; either broadcast or in rows if for forage. A bushel of seed is sufficient for 2 or 3 acres if the planting is in rows. The seed- ling plants appear in about a week and tillage should then begin. Soy beans may be plant- ed from early spring to midsum- mer, but June first is the general- ly accepted time. In Tennessee and North Carolina and farther south, two crops may be raised in a season. When used for hay, soiling, or silage, the crop is cut wnen m blossom, but when grown for seed the harvest is deferred until the seeds are ripe. The plant is little subject to dis- ease or insect attacks. Rabbits are extremely fond of it and are perhaps its most destructive enemy. The soy bean has a high pro- tein content and may be ground and used in combination with other feeding stuffs. Its com- position is as follows: water, 10.8 percent.; ash, 4.7 per cent.; protein, 34 per cent.; fibre, 4.8 per cent.; nitrogen-free extract 28.8 per cent.; fat 16.9 per cent. The whole plant is frequently used with corn as ensilage. In China, Japan, Cochin- China, and Annam several prod- ucts are obtained from the seed of soy beans. In Japan a con- centrated milk and a flour have been prepared; in China soya flour, soya bread, soya milk, and soya cheese are obtained; and in Cochin-China and Annam vege- table milk and vegetable cheeee are made for food and a vege- table casein is prepared for in- dustrial purposes. Soy, a thick piquant fauce, is made by mixing the beans softened by boiling with an equal quantity of wheat or barley roughly ground. The mixture is covered up and kept in a warm place to ferment, then put into a pot and covered with salt. The results obtained from the utilization of the soya bean in Asia for food and in industry have led many Europeans to a study of its possibilities with a view to its availability in the rationing of armies. In the United States in 1919 the production of soy beans was 2,233,000 bushels on an acreage of 157,900, with a farm value of $7,704,000. Consult C. V. Piper's Forage Crops (1914); Farmers' Bulletins 58 and 372 and 509 (U. S. Department of Agri- culture). Soyer, swa-ya', Alexis Benoit (1809-58), French cook and practical philanthropist, was born at Meaux, went to England in 1830, and eventually became chef at the Reform Club, London (1837-50), where he made a great reputation. At the time of the Irish famine he was sent by the government to superin- tend the erection and working of public kitchens for the issue of rations, and there succeeded in re- ducing the cost of food by 50 per cent. On the outbreak of the Crimean War he was associated with Florence Nightingale in reorganizing the victualling of the army hospitals. He in- vented a military cooking wagon, and (in 1849) a magic cooking stove, and published successful books on cookery — e.g. The Gastronomic Regenerator (1846), The Modern Housewife (1849), and Shilling Cookery Book (1854). Consult Memoirs by Volant and Warren. Sozzini. See SociNUS. Spa, town and watering-place, province of Liege, Belgium, is situated at the confluence of the Spa and Picherotte; 20 miles southeast of Liege. There are sixteen mineral springs in or near the town, which is frequented by over 15,000 visitors annually, a large number of whom are Eng- lish. The town is the original 'Spa' from which has come the generic name now applied to any watering-place. It has flourished since the sixteenth century. Painted and varnished articles of wood are a specialty. Pop. 8,600. Space. See Psychology; Di- mensions; Geometry, Spadeflsh. See Paddlefish. Spadefoot, a species of small toad belonging to the family Pelobatidce, characterized by ab- sence of the tympanum and by extensive webbing of the hind feet. The skin is smooth and brown, marbled on the upper part with darker markings. Pelobates fuscus is found in Cen- tral Europe, from Belgium to Northwestern Persia and from Sweden to Italy; P. cultripes in Spain and Portugal; P. scaphio- pus in North America. Spadl: KR 339 Spain Spadix. See Spathe. Spagnoletto. See Ribera, Jesepu de Spahi, spa-he', a term applied to the irregular Turkish cavalry- men, who were from 1326 a formidable body in the army of the sultan, down to its reorgani- zation by Moltke in 1835. The French apply the name to the native Algerian cavalry in the French service. The word is Persian, and is etymologically identical with sepoy. Spahlinger, Henry (1882). Swiss bacteriologist, studied medicine at the University of Geneva, also law, but decided to devote himself to research. tuberculosis, the Spahlinger method seems to us at the pres- sent moment the most helpful and promising.' Consult R. G. Lovell, Why Tuberculosis Ex- ists; How it Can Be and Has Been Cured and Prevented (London 1927). Spahr, spar, Charles Bar- ziLLAi (1860-1904), American author and editor, was born in Columbus, O. He was an asso- ciate editor of the Outlook (New York) in 1886-1904, and in the latter year became editor of Cur- rent Literature, a position which he occupied up to his death. Be- sides miscellaneous essays, he published The Present Distribu- versed by loftier ranges. On the east the plateau is buttressed by chains which descend rapidly to the Mediterranean. The mountains of Oca, the Sierra de Moncayo, and the Idubeda Mountains rise sharply from the valley of the Ebro on the north; the Sierra Morena on the south is of inferior elevation; the west- em ranges run into the frontier of Portugal, and lose themselves in the Atlantic. Outside the plateau lie the highest summits of the whole country, the Aneto (11,168 feet) and the Pic de Nethou in the Pyrenees (11,151 feet) , and Nulhacen in the Sierra Nevada (11,420 feet), while Courtesy The Art Institute of Chicago Court of Myrtles at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain He invented numerous me- chanical and electrical labora- tory devices and devised two lines of attack upon tuberculosis: passive immunization, conferred by a serum neutralizing the toxin, and active immunization, produced by vaccination with antigens which stimulate the body's resistance to disease. His first experiments, on guinea pigs, were performed in 1912. In that year he treated his first patient and effected a complete cure. After the First World War he began replenishing his sera stocks in Geneva; these and the antigens require four years to produce by intricate and costly processes. He treated many pa- tients free, but refused to re- veal or commercialize his formu- las. Investigating his work in 1925, a commission of British physicians declared that 'of all known methods of combating lion of Wealth in the United States (1896) and America's Working People (1900). Spain (Espana, from the Latin Hispania), a nationalist state of western Europe, oc- cupying, except for the small country of Portugal, the entire Iberian peninsula. It extends from the Pyrenees and the Bay of Biscay on the north to the Strait of Gibraltar on the south, and from the Atlantic on the west to the Mediterranean on the east. Continental Spain has an area of 190,0.50 square miles; the total area of the country, in- cluding the Balearic and Canary Islands (qq.v.) is 195,504 square miles, with a coast line of 1,317 miles, 712 on the Mediterranean and 605 on the Atlantic. Topography . — The greater part of Spain consists of a pla- teau of between 2,000 and 3,000 feet above the sea-level, tra- the Picos de Europa in the Can- tabrian Range attain over 8,000 feet. The plateau itself is tra- versed by four mountain-ranges, the Oca and Idubeda Mountains mentioned above, which separate the valley of the Ebro from that of the Douro; the Gua- darrama Range, which divides this river from the basin of the Tagus; the Sierra de To- ledo, which forms the water- shed between the Tagus and the Guadiana; while the southern buttress, the Sierra Morena, forms the northern wall of the valley of the Guadalquivir. The whole plateau has a general slight inclination from east or northeast to southwest, and hence all the considerable rivers of Spain except the Ebro flow westward to the Atlantic. The five great rivers are the Tagus. Douro, Ebro, Guadiana, and Quadalquivir. Spain KR 340 Spain Climate and Soil. — The posi- tion of the peninsula at the ex- treme southwest of Europe, its isolation from the rest of the continent, and the broken and mountainous character of its sur- face give it a great diversity of climate, in sharp contrast to that of other countries of similar latitude. In the northwest the rainfall is almost the heaviest in Europe, while the east and south- east are extremely dry, some- times without rain for an entire year. The great central table- land, owing to its elevation, is bleak and arid, icy winds alter- nating with parching sunlight. In the southern zone the climate is subtropical, with rainless summers and mild winters. Of the soil 88.45 per cent is classified as productive, 35.5 per cent is devoted to agricul- ture and gardens, 2.5 per cent to vineyards, 2.9 per cent to olive culture, 25.3 per cent to natural grass, and 22.2 per cent to fruits. Flora and Fauna. — The great variety of the Spanish cli- mate and soil is reflected in the country's vegetation. Shrubs and herbaceous plants charac- teristic of the Mediterranean region cover considerable areas of the central plateau. In the south the vegetation, like the climate, is subtropical, with many varieties of bright-colored flowers clothing the surface after the prolonged drought of sum- mer. In the north the flora is closely similar to that of central Europe. Forests are compara- tively insignificant, covering less than 6 per cent of the country. Beech, Spanish pine, Corsican pine, the date palm, and the dwarf palm occur in the various climatic zones. Of special eco- nomic value are the cork oaks of southern Spain, saffron, and esparto grass. Insect life is abundant, and birds are numer- ous, owing perhaps to the fact that Spain lies in the route of the birds of passage which cross from Africa to Europe. In the oak forests, wild boars are still hunted. Minerals. — Spain is one of the richest countries in the world in mineral resources. The Rio Tinto copper mines in Huelva were worked by the Phoenicians and Romans. Copper is abun- dant also in the provinces of Se- villa and Cordoba and iron in Vizcaya, Santander, Oviedo, Navarra, Sevilla, and Huelva. Coal, the most important min- eral, contributes over 40 per cent of the value of all minerals in a normal year; copper, a sixth; iron, a seventh;" and lead, an eighth. Zinc, tungsten, coke, cement, manganese, quicksilver, silver and tin are also exported. Antimony, barytes, bismuth, bauxite, fluospar, graphite, as- phalt, phosphate rock, potassium salts, soapstone, sodium sul- phate, sulphur, tripoli, cobalt, and wolfram are produced. Gold, lime, arsenic, marble, slate, gar- net, amethyst, jasper, agate, vanadium, platinum, and cinna- bar occur. Agriculture. — Agriculture is the leading industry. The larg- est area is planted to wheat and the second largest to barley, but these crops do not average more than sufficient for home con- sumption. Other food staples are oats, rye, corn, rice, peas, chick-peas, and beans. The vine- yards are world-famous and cov- ered 3,387,494 acres in 1944, chiefly in Catalonia, New Cas- tille, Aragon and Andalusia. The wines of Malaga, Jarez, and Alicante have been renowned for centuries. The olive crop, grown chiefly in Jaen, is equally im- portant. Of the large orange crop three-fourths are normally exported. Lemons, almonds, hazel nuts, raisins, flax, hemp, esparto, pulse, tomatoes, and po- tatoes are grown. Cotton has been successfully raised in An- dalusia. Large quantities of beet and cane sugar are produced. Silk culture is carried on in Valencia, Murcia, and else- where. Rich pastures are abundant in the northern provinces. Fine Merino sheep supply very nearly all the requirements of the na- tive woolen factories. Pigs, goats, cows, mules, asses, horses, and camels (Canary Islands) are also raised. Fisheries. — The extensive coasts have made fishing impor- tant, especially in the Basque provinces. The catch was worth 1,275,468,100 pesetas in 1945, mostly sardines, tunny, and cod. M anujactures . — Spain is a large producer of cotton, wool, and silk textiles. An increasing proportion of its ores are smelted and worked into finished pro- ducts at home, the output in- cluding pig iron, puddled iron, forged iron, cast iron, steel sheets and tempered steel. Numerous metal refineries produce refined lead, copper and other metals. Sulphuric acid, zinc in pigs and sheets, sulphate of copper, bri- quets, benzol, and cement are produced. Catalonia is Spain's chief manufacturing region, with extensive textile mills and iron foundries. Cotton weaving here dates from the 6th century and woolen manufactures from the 11th and 12th. Paper, glass, machinery, ships, electrical sup- plies, sugar (beet and cane), olive oil and hand-made shoes are also produced. Commerce. — The foreign trade of Spain reached a peak in 1928 when it was valued at 5,188,469,- 000 pesetas, and declined to 742,- 300,000 pesetas in 1932. In 1945 the value of Spain's foreign trade was 1,749,704,000 pesetas. The principal exports are olive oil, wine, cork, oranges and other fruits, and preserves, flax, iron and copper ores, timber, pottery, and stone and glassware. Im- ports are mainly machinery, coal, chemical products, and tex- tiles. Great Britain, France and the United States (named in ranking order) have the largest share in the commerce of Spain. Communications. — Spain in 1944 had 10,887 miles of rail- ways, all privately owned. The railways of normal gauge passed into state ownership Feb. 1, 1941 and under the control of a gov- ernment board. The official gauge of the principal railways is kept different from that of French railways. Passengers must, therefore, change at the frontier. The state operates Madrid- Barcelona and Madrid-Seville airways. In 1934 a German air- line linked Cadiz, the Canary Is- lands and South America. Ships ply from Spain to all parts of the world. Barcelona, Bilbao and Cadiz are the chief ports. Population. — The census of 1940 gave a population of 25,- 877,971 and in 1946 the popula- tion was estimated at 27,285.489 with a density of 139.5 per square mile. The population of the leading cities a§ estimated in 1946 was: Madrid, 1,171,428; Barcelona, 1,125,158; Valencia, 544,039; Seville, 370,320; Zar- agoza, 283,857; Malaga, 271,407; Murcia, 221,209; Bilbao, 216,- 263; Granada, 180,664; and Cordoba, 171,735. Religion. — Catholicism is the established religion of the state but under the republic, religious orders, which took a vow of obe- dience to the pope, had been ex- pelled and their properties seized. Religious orders were prohibited from owning property except for dwellings and for religious prac- tices. Education. — In 1943 42.35 per cent of the people could neither read nor write. Primary educa- tion is free, compulsory, and non-sectarian. Secondary schools (at least one in each province) prepare students for the eleven universities — Barcelona, Gra- nada, Madrid, Murcia, Oviedo, Salamanca, Santiago, Seville, Valencia, Valladolid, and Zara- goza. A medical and science faculty at Cadiz and a school in the Canary Islands are connected with the University of Seville. Army and Navy. — Military Spain KSD 341 Spain service is compulsory, the total term being 18 years. Active service in the army is norrnally for 2 years ; 5 years' service is required in the First Reserve. The army is organized with 3 high inspectors under major gen- erals at Madrid. Eight army di- visions are distributed among the provinces ; a military command in Africa (2 military districts in Morocco) ; and forces in the Balearic Islands and the Canary Islands. In 1933 there were about 135,798 men in active serv- ice (105,367 soldiers). In 1933 the strength of the navy was fixed at 14,000 sailors (1,729 officers). There were 10 flotilla leaders, 4 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats, 4 gunboats, 13 submarines, two 10,000-ton cruisers nearing completion ; and construction was authorized of 12 submarines and 4 flotilla lead- ers of which two submarines and the flotilla leaders were building. There is a naval wireless station at San Fernando and wireless stations at Cartagena and Ferrol. There is also a naval flying service. Government, — Spain is a democratic republic 'of workers of all classes.' Legislative power is vested in the people who ex- ercise it through the Cortes or Chamber of Deputies. The president 'Head of the Nation' cannot succeed himself but may be reelected after an interven- ing term ; he appoints the premier and through him the other ministers of government ; he is elected for a 6-year term con- jointly by the single-chamber Cortes (elected for 4 years) and a number of compromisers equal to that of deputies. Both the compromisers and the deputies are elected by universal suffrage, equal, direct, and secret, on the system of proportional represen- tation. The right to vote is limited to males and females over 23. Initiative and referen- dum are provided for. By Article 8 of the constitu- tion Spain is a federative repub- lic, since autonomous government may be established to handle local affairs as in the case of Cat- alonia, Galicia, and the Basque provinces. The Cortes authorizes the gov- ernment to enact laws by decrees on the recommendation of the Council of Ministers. A per- manent committee of the Cortes may suspend public guarantees and arrange for the prosecution of members. The Premier and his cabinet are responsible for the program of the government, as in England and France. Right of divorce and civil marriage are provided. The flag of the Spanish Re- public is a plain field of three equal horizontal stripes, the top one red, the centre yellow, and the bottom purple ; dimensions of the official flag, about 2% by 4 feet. The state may intervene in the direction and control of industry and may nationalize public utili- ties. The president may wage war and make peace subject to the conditions prescribed in the Covenant of the League of Nations. Justice, — Justice is adminis- tered by tribunals and courts. The Supreme High Court (con- sisting of a president, appointed by the nation's president, 3 courts of justice — one for administra- tive purposes and one for mili- tary trials), is a court of cassa- tion in civil and criminal trials and decides in first and second instances disputes between pri- vate individuals and the state ; di- visional high 'courts have power to try in second instance sen- tences passed by judges in civil cases and in first instance all criminal cases of the province ; provincial high courts may try and pass sentence in first instance on all cases filed for delinquency ; district courts, consisting of a judge and 2 deputy judges may try small civil cases involving values of 20,000 pesetas or less and petty offenses. A Court of Minors tries cases involving de- linquency of boys and girls from 9 to 18 years of age. Labor dis- putes are brought before the In- dustrial Tribunal for decision. The maximum penalty that can be imposed in Spain for any of- fense is 30 years' imprisonment. There is trial by jury. History, — The recorded his- tory of Spain begins with the establishment by the Phoenicians of the trading colonies on the south coast, especially at Ga- deira (Cadiz), about 1100 B.C. Almost simultaneously Greek settlements were founded on the east coast, first at Rhodae (now Rosas) and the Baleares, and later at Emporiae, Dianium (Denia), and Saguntum. The settlers found in possession of the country a short, dark-skinned, hirsute people organized on tribal lines. Whence these Ibe- rians came is disputed. Some authorities claim them as a branch of the great Indo- European family ; others believe them to be of cognate origin with the aboriginal North Afri- can tribes, whose descendants now inhabit portions of the Atlas region. Long before the arrival of the Phoenicians a great invasion of undoubted Celts took place across the western Pyrenees, and for ages they warred with the Iberian tribes. Eventually the two races (and probably a third race of aborigi- nal cave-dwellers, of which little is known) fused to a great ex- tent on the central table-land, but the Celts remained almost pure in the northwest and west, as the Iberians did in the south and southeast. The influence of the Phoenicians was almost entirely confined to the material and civilizing effects of commerce, while the Greeks to some extent colored the social and religious organization of thti people. At length, about 500 B.C., the Phoenicians attempted to push their influence into the interior, and came into inimical contact with the less civilized tribes. The Phcenicians were forced to appeal for help to their kinsmen, the Carthaginians. The latter came to Spain, and re- pelled the Celtiberian tribesmen. In the great Punic struggle with Rome, Iberia furnished the best soldiers to the armies of Hamilcar and Hannibal on the one side, and to those of Gnaeus and Scipio Africanus on the other. After the ruin of the Punic power the victorious Ro- mans dominated (205 b.c) Spain. True to their system of cen- tralizing bureaucracy, they gov- erned the new dependency, as they governed the rest of their dominions, from Rome. Once a formidable federation of Celtic (Lusitanian) tribes almost wrest- ed independence from the Ro- mans. The leader of the revolt (151-140 B.C.) was Viriatus, a Lusitanian shepherd, who, after holding out for ten years, and beating all the generals that Rome sent against him, suc- cumbed only to the knife of the hired assassin. With the fall of the heroic city of Numantia and the suicide of its brave Iberian defenders the hope of rescuing any portion of Spain from Ro- man control came to an end. The revolt of Sertorius (83-72 B.C.) — a Sabine by a Spanish mother — was raised on behalf of the party of Marius, who con- tinued in Spain, then the most influential colony of Rome, the political conflict which shook the metropolis. For a time he was successful, organizing the coun- try with great ability ; but he too fell by the dagger. Finally (45 B.C.) Caesar succeeded not only in trampling down in Spain the party of Pompey, but also in extinguishing the hope of Ibe- rian independence. Thencefor- ward Spain became an integral part of the Roman possessions. Latinization became fixed. With the division and corrup- tion_ of the Roman Empire, Spain too became divided and corrupt ; and when the barbarians swarmed across the Pyrenees at the invitation of one of the Ro- man claimants to empire (a.d. 409), they overran the country without resistance. Like locusts Spain 342 Spain the Alans, Suevians, and Van- dals devastated the land — the Alans spreading down the ex- treme east and west and on the central tableland, the Suevians establishing themselves in Gali- cia, and the Vandals, prior to their migration to Africa, settling down for a few years in Baetica. In 415 Ataulf the Goth crossed the Pyrenees, and thencefor- ward the Goth held sway, for the first forty years in the name of the Roman emperor, and after- wards independently, ruling all Spain, except the Suevian north- west corner, from the Gothic capital of Toulouse. But the Visigothic monarchy, although introducing new cohesion and vigor into the chaotic govern- ment which had survived the fall of Roman bureaucracy, never succeeded in acclimatiz- ing to any great extent their own governmental traditions in Spain. On the contrary, the aristocracy, living apart and not intermarry- ing with the natives, became themselves to a large extent Latinized. The Gothic monarchy was destroyed by the Saracens under Tarik, at the battle of the Guadelete (711), where fell Roderic, the last of the Gothic kings. The Jews, whom the ecclesiastical councils had per- secuted, everywhere made com- mon cause with the invaders, and within two years virtually all Spain bowed beneath the rule of the infidel. The new con- querors left the Spaniards in full enjoyment of their religion, social usages, and local autonomy, and were gentler masters than the Visigoths had been. Almost the only permanent trace left of the domination of the latter in Spain was the code of laws called the Lex Visigothorum, which sub- sequently became the foundation of the law of Christian Spain. For the first forty years after the Moslem conquest Spain was ruled in the name of the caliph of Damascus by Arab or Sara- cenic emirs. After the over- throw of the Ommiade dynasty of the caliphs of Damascus by the Abbasides and the transfer of the caliphate to Bagdad, the only surviving prince of the fallen dynasty, Abdur-Rahman, fled to Spain, and there assumed independent sovereignty (755). Under his vigorous rule Islamic Spain became united and strong. In an attempt to subdue the sur- vivors of the Visigothic force the Arabs were crushingly de- feated in 718 at the semi-legend- ary battle of the cave of Cova- donga, and the tiny mountain principality of which Pelayo then became the head was the nucleus out of which the Chris- tian kingdom of Asturias was subsequently organized. On the Vol. XL- east of the Pyrenees another Christian advance was made al- most at the same time by a powerful force from Aquitaine, Catalonia, having been conquered (800-801), was held, first as tributary to Aquitaine, and sub- sequently (after 811) as an in- dependent dominion by its own counts. For the next two centuries Spain may be roughly divided into two portions. All north of the Ebro — the Guadarrama mountains and the range that separates the valleys of the Douro and the Tagus — was Christian; south of that line was Moslem. There was as yet no persecution on the Moslem side; marriage between the races was common; the skill, wealth, and elegance of the Arabs were agreeable to the Christians among whom they lived; and the mass of the population was prosperous. But the priests and leaders of the Asturian kingdom fomented the religious mysticism and zeal of the Christians. Fanat- icism on the one side was an- swered by fanaticism on the other. The Christians deliber- ately sought martyrdom by in- sulting the faith of Islam (850); and thus gradually religious persecution embittered the situ- ation. Racial disaffection and discontent drove the Moslems into revolt, until the Caliph Abdur-Rahman ill. (912-961) temporarily subdued all the jar- ring elements, and once more unified Islam. Meanwhile in the kingdom of Asturias the priests had not been able to re- establish the purely theocratic system. But the sovereigns of the Frankish state of Catalonia and the little Basque mountain kingdom of Navarre were politi- cal chiefs, elected by their peers with strictly limited powers, and with no trace or presence of divine warrant or sacer- dotal privilege. These growing obstacles to ultimate Christian unity were increased by the elective traditions of the Visi- gothic monarchy, which led suc- cessive kings to bequeath sepa- rate realms to their several sons, and so to weaken the Christian cause by division and regional jealousy. Thus when Alphonso III., king of Asturias, abdicated in 909, he divided his realm into three; and this subsequently allowed the great Moslem minis- ter Almansor to drive the Chris- tian power back again to its original mountain stronghold, to lay waste Leon and Galicia, and to make the Asturian king a vassal of the Moor (981). Even Barcelona fell before Almansor (985). The anarchy that followed the death of Almansor enabled the Christians again to advance their borders, and the period is marked by the assembly (1020) in Le6n, then the premier king- dom', for the first time, of a great legislative council of bishops and and nobles (the former prepon- derating). The constant divi- sion and reintegration of the petty kingdoms, the jealousies engendered by diversity of racial traditions and systems, and the topographical causes already referred to kept the Christian realms constantly at war with one another. The border nobles, especially the counts of Castile, upon whom the lion's share of the fighting fell, were impatient of the control of the central sov- ereign in Leon, and in order to strengthen themselves they ac- corded charters of great liber- ality to the vassal towns which sprang up in the conquered ter- ritory, or which remained peace- fully under Christian rule when the Moors were driven back. Thus the autonomy of the towns — always a cherished tradition of the Iberian race — grew stronger and stronger. The murder of the last count of Castile in 1027 enabled Sancho the Great of Navarre to seize the country in right of his wife, a Castilian princess; and on the death of Sancho (1035), Castile, in future a kingdom, fell to his second son, Fernando I., who succeeded two years afterwards to the kingdom of Le6n in right of his wife. Although Castile ind Leon were on more than one occasion divided again, their interests tended to unity, as their tradi- tions were the same, both hav- ing sprung from the Asturian advance; and in 1230 both realms fell by inheritance to Fer- nando III. (St. Fernando), and were not again separated. Under Alfonso vi. of Castile and Leon (1072-1109) a great forward Christian movement was made. The Moslem caliphate of Cordova had fallen (1031), and had been succeeded by twelve petty kingdoms, each jealous of the others, and appealing in turn for aid to the strongest power in the peninsula, Castile and Leon. In 1085 Alfonso vi. took posses- sion of Toledo, and made it the Christian capital, the Moorish king of Toledo being maintained in the kingdom of Valencia as a vassal of the Christian. The great Castilian free-lance, Ruy Diaz de Bivar (El Cid). who fought now on one side and now on the other, seized Valencia for himself, and held it against all comers until his death (1099). In the meantime a wave of Moslem fanaticism had swept over North Africa, and a great host of the puritans of Islam (the Almoravides) swarmed into Spain. At the battle of Valaca (near Badajoz). in 1086, Alfonso Copyright by Underwood & Underwood. NEAR THE OLD SEA WALL, CADIZ. SPAIN I Spain 344 Spain VI. met with a complete defeat, which for a time stayed the Christian advance, and allowed the Almoravides to subdue the Arab kings. Everything that was beautiful and artistic was sternly destroyed by the Moslem puritans, and Islamic Spain became a province of the theo- cratic empire of Morocco. With the establishment of the Christian capital at Toledo a great change was worked. By the influence of the French arch- bishop of Toledo, Bernard, and of the French queen of Castile and Leon (Constance of Bur- gundy), the Roman missal was adopted instead of the Gothic ritual, and thus a great step was made toward the submission to the Roman pontiff of the Castil- ian church, with its national sac- erdotal traditions. But more far-reaching still was the policy of Alfonso VI. in inducing the Moorish inhabitants of the con- quered kingdom to remain peace- fully under his tolerant rule. He encouraged marriage between the races, and his policy was powerful in introducing into the Christian kingdoms a large ad- mixture of Moorish blood, cul- ture, and taste. Meanwhile, the towns success- fully withstood all attempts upon their rights, and finally, by means of a confederacy, were able not only to become the leading power in the state, but to oust the nobles entirely from the govern- ment. The new political in- fluence was first felt in the reign of Urraca of Castile, daughter of Alfonso VI., who was at war with her husband, Alfonso the Battler of Aragon. Discontented with the light behavior of the queen, a confederation of towns pro- claimed her infant son by her first husband, Raymond of Bur- gundy, king of Galicia, under the title of Alfonso vii. This led Alfonso VII. (the emperor) gen- erally to side with the towns as against the nobles when he suc- ceeded his mother as ruler of Leon and Castile (1126). When in 1134 Alfonso the Battler of Aragon was killed in battle, leav- ing no issue, his crown passed to his brother Ramiro the Monk, who three years afterward ab- dicated in favor of his infant daughter Petronilla. As a mili- tary elective monarchy such as Aragon could not be ruled by a woman, Petronilla was married to Ramon Berengar, count of Barcelona, sovereign of^ Catalo- nia, and thenceforward Aragon and Catalonia were united under one crown, though each state re- tained its autonomy and separate institutions. The same period saw the rise (1094) of Portugal as a separate state. Meanwhile the Almoravide sect had become infected with the Vol. XL— March, '20 soft luxury of the Spanish Mos- lems, and their dominion became broken up into a great number of petty mdependent states, which fell before another great invasion of fanatics from the Atlas tribes (the Almohades), who between 1145 and 1149 sub- dued the whole of Moslem Spain, and made it subject to the mahdi of Morocco. Thenceforward cruel oppression, and even extermina- tion, were the fate of Jews and Mozarabes under Moorish rule; and Christian Spain received great numbers of refugees, who brought with their mixed blood, their Oriental tastes, habits, and culture, a fierce hatred of the Moors who had driven them from their homes. The crowns of Leon and Cas- tile were finally united by the marriage of Berengana, daughter of Alfonso III. (viii.) of Castile by Eleanor Plantagenet, to Alfonso IX. of Leon (1195). The fruit of this marriage was St. Fernando (Ferdinand) iii., who succeeded to the united kingdom in 1230. The Almohade power had been broken by Alfonzo viii. at the great battle of Navas de Tolosa (1212), and during the reign of his grandson, Fernando the Saint, the Christian conquests were pushed down to the Moorish capital, Cordova (1236), and to Seville (1248). Simultaneously with this, the great and vigorous king of Aragon, Jaime i. (the Conqueror), possessed himself of Majorca (1229) and Valencia (1238) ; and the Moslem territory in Spain was thenceforward con- fined to the kingdom of Granada as a tributary of Castile. The long reign of the masterful and unscrupulous Jaime i. was a con- tinued struggle against the great- er feudal nobles, whose power he checked; and though feudalism on one occasion (1288) again obtained the upper hand by the extortion of the Privilege of Union, its power waned before that of king and parliament, and the institutions of Aragon be- came representative of all classes. It was at this period that the adaptation of the old Gothic Roman law code to the modern spirit was undertaken both in Aragon (1247) and in Castile: the Castilian Siete Partidas, ordered by St. Fernando and formed by his son Alfonso the Learned, was recognized for cen- turies as the foundation of re- vived European jurisprvtdence. Although drawn up by Alfonso the Learned (1284), it was not promulgated oflficially as the national law until 1348. To the literary ardor of Alfonso the Learned the world owes much. To him is largely due the translation into modern tongues of the Greek classics and Eastern scientific works which the Span- ish Jews and Moslems had res- cued from oblivion in Hebrew or Arabic. To Alfonso also is to be credited the final victory of the Castilian tongue as the na- tional speech over Gaiician, Por- tuguese, and Catalan (or Proven- cal). But his vague ambitions, his weakness, and his bookish- ness encouraged the nobles of Castile to side with his rebel- lious son Sancho, in the hope of regaining the power which was fast drifting from them. San- cho, on his accession (1284), dis- appointed the nobles, and a civil war ensued, which continued after his death (1295) against his infant successor Fernando iv. and the regent Maria de MoHna. It was at this juncture that a great confederacy of self-govern- ing towns banded together for mutual defence and support; and their representatives, meeting for the discussion of common interests, developed rapidly into a national Cortes, from which nobles and priests were elimi- nated. The struggle between the forces continued through the reigns of Fernando iv. and his son Alfonso xi. (1312-50), the sovereigns and regents usually favoring the towns. The ac- cession of the boy king Pedro (1350) seemed a good opportu- nity for the nobles to make a final attempt to assert their power. The violent and tyrannical char- acter which gained for Pedro the name of the Cruel aided the nobles; they chose as their puppet Henry of Trastamara, illegitimate son of Alfonso xi. The war which ensued between the half-brothers was compli- cated by the participation of England on the side of Pedro, and of France and Aragon on that of Henry. With the mur- der of Pedro the Cruel by his half-brother Henry (1369), and the accession of the latter, the nobles obtained the upper hand; but though the weak king dis- tributed fiefs liberally among them, he dared not entirely alienate the towns, the chief power in the realm that could protect him against the numerous claimants to the crown, and especially against the Planta- genet English princes, who had married the two daughters of Pedro the Cruel. For the next hundred years, under the Trastamara kings — Juan I. (1379-90), Henry ill., who married Catherine of Lan- caster (1387), Juan ii. (1406- 54), and Henry iv. — the 'leagues' of nobles reduced Spain to com- plete anarchy outside the walls of the chartered towns. The towns still managed, thanks to their unity (Hermandad), to withstand the open infringement of their rights, though the grad- ual introduction by the crown of Spain KFI 345 Spain of Charles ii (1665-1700) the decline continued unabated. In the Seven Years' War of the Spanish Succession, which en- sued upon the king's death, all Europe took part (England on the side of the Austrian claim- ant), and Spain itself was swept from end to end by civil war. At length, by the treaties (1713- 14) of Utrecht and Rastadt, Philip V, the grandson of Louis XIV of France and great-grand- son of Philip IV of Spain, was recognized as king of Spain. Everything was changed by the introduction of French culture, modern finance, and vigorous administration, and for a time Spain appeared renascent. Un- fortunately Philip V married as his second wife the ambitious Elizabeth Farnese (1714), who was allowed to keep Spain at war continually for many years in order to win Italian sovereign- ties for her sons. Philip was succeeded (1746) by his only surviving son by his first wife, Fernando vi, who brought peace and some measure of prosperity to Spain, but the country was still ignorant and in many re- spects a century behind the rest of Europe. The autonomous Aragonese parliaments had all disappeared in the great war of succession (1714) ; the town councils, though now mainly nominative, were the only sur- viving framework of the ancient popular governments. On the death of Fernando vi (1759), Charles iii, king of Naples, the eldest son of Philip v by Elizabeth Farnese, ascend- ed the Spanish throne. Shocked at the backward condition of his people, he used his despotic power freely to force reform and enlightenment upon them. Pub- lic works, roads, canals, sub- sidized factories, academies, and institutions sprang up all over Spain ; a great edifice of public credit was devised to pay the vast sums needed ; but when the king died (1788) reaction set in, and under his weak, uxorious successor, Charles iv, collapse came. The wife of Charles iv (Maria Louisa of Naples) im- posed upon her husband an ig- norant, foolish young man with whom she was in love, Manuel Godoy (afterward Prince of the Peace), as prime minister and generalissimo of the army and navy. Godoy was beguiled by Napoleon, by a promise of prin- cipalities for himself, to allow the French army to march through Spain (1808) to conciuer Eng- land's ally Portugal. When it was too late the Spanish people saw how they had been tricked and the Peninsular War ensued, Charles iv alxHcating at Napo- leon's bidding in 1808. While Charles' son and heir Fernando was a prisoner in France and foreign armies covered the coun- try, a Cortes of extreme politi- cians met at Cadiz (1812) and devised a new constitution, com- pletely at variance with old Spanish traditions. This Fer- nando VII repudiated on his re- turn to Spain in 1814; and though he was forced by a revolu- tion to accept it in 1821, he reas- serted his despotic power by the aid of French bayonets in 1823. When he died, in 1833, he left his infant daughter Isabel ii, un- der the regency of his wife Maria Christina of Naples, the injunc- tion to maintain intact all the old regal prerogatives. It was almost impossible for her to do this because the whole Con- servative party had rallied to Don Carlos, the late king's brother, who claimed under the Salic law, and the queen could only hope to reign by the sup- port of the Liberals whom Fer- nando VII had persecuted and banished. A long civil war en- sued in which Don Carlos was beaten ; but the impossibility of reconciling the despotic lean- ings of the queen with the demo- cratic views of the party which upheld her produced a period of turbulence, military pronimcia- micntos, and civil revolts, which culminated with Prim and Ser- rano's successful revolution of 1868, and the flight of Isabel ii to France. After six years of violent ex- periment, a limited monarchy under Amadeus of Savoy (1870- 3), Duke of Aosta, three differ- ent types of republic, and a mili- tary dictatorship, the only son of Isabel ii was restored in 1875 as Alfonso xii. A new mod- erate constitution was adopted with some reform. The death of Alfonso xii in 1885 placed upon his widow, Maria Christina of Austria, the burden of the regency till 1902, when her son, Alfonso xiii, as- sumed power. During her re- gency the material progress of the nation was considerable. Un- wise action in Cuba, however, led to a revolt in that colony, result- ing in American intervention and finally in the loss to Spain of her colonial empire. (See Spanish- American War.) In May. 1906, King Alfonso married Princess Victoria Eu- genie, daughter of Prince Henry of Battenberg and of Beatrice, sister of Edward VII. On the marriage day an attempt to assassinate the king and queen by bomb failed, but the explosion cost the lives of several persons in the crowded streets. A few months later a furious agitation on the part of the Catholic clergy arose when the king signed an ordinance declaring that the civil marriage of Catholics was valid. In July, 1909, a campaign against the Riffs in Morocco caused serious riots in Barce- lona, order only being restored after the invocation of martial law and the shedding of much blood. A military reign of ter- ror lasted until the end of Sep- tember, and Sehor Ferrer, who was charged with being the prime mover in the revolutionary movement, was arrested, tried by court-martial on October 9, and shot. This caused a sensation throughout Europe and America, there being a widespread sus- picion that Ferrer had been sac- rificed to clerical prejudices. On June 11 a royal ordinance was issued canceling the prohibi- tion of 'any emblem, attribute, or lettering' on the exterior walls of places of worship other than Catholic. A violent clerical agi- tation followed, and Don Jaime de Bourbon, who had succeeded his father Don Carlos as pre- tender in 1909, was approached with a view to stirring up civil war. Matters were complicated by the overthrow of the mon- archy in Portugal on October 5, 1910, and on November 4 the Senate passed the Cadenas Bill, which forbade the settlement of further congregations in Spain until negotiations with the Vati- can should have been completed. In June, 1911, the situation in Morocco led to the dispatch of a Spanish force to Alcazar. But the indignation aroused in France at this action was quite overshadowed by the sensation caused when it became known that Germany had sent a warship to Agadir. In the same year an attempt was made to pass the suspensory Bill, the chief object of which was to cope with the in- rush of foreign religious orders. Trouble between Church and State, negotiations with France in regard to Morocco, and a seri- ous labor outbreak marked an eventful year. In 1912 Spain lost one of her greatest states- men by the assassination of Senor Canalejas. Meanwhile the struggle between capital and la- bor continued. The militarv class of 1907 to 1911 was called out, and railway employees were placed under military law. A second attempt on the life of the King in 1913 was denounced alike by monarchists and social- ists. Upon the outbreak of the World War (1914), Spain de- clared her neutrality, which she continued to maintain in spite of an extensive German propaganda on the one hand and interference with her commerce by German submarines on the other. Dur- ing the period of the war and the Spain KFI 346 Spain reconstruction era, political, so- cial, and industrial unrest pre- vailed. A general strike was called in July 1916, martial law was proclaimed, and the strikers were compelled to accept arbi- tration. Agitation for political and economic reform continued, however, and from June 27, 1917, to Oct. 7, 1917, the coun- try was again under martial law. The suspension of the constitu- tional guarantees led to further strikes and rioting which, at Barcelona especially, took on a revolutionary character. After numerous cabinet changes. Count Romanones succeeded in forming a cabinet, but serious riots in the spring of 1919 led to his resignation and to a general election. Labor troubles marked by numerous strikes continued throughout the year, making any permanent civil government im- possible and causing a constant change in ministries. In 1921 Dato, who in April 1920_ had been called on to form a ministry, was assassinated. During the years 1921—24 the conduct of the war in Morocco (see Morocco, History) was a leading question in the country and the cause of frequent cabinet changes. In December 1922, General Beren- guer, former high commissioner for Morocco, assumed full re- sponsibility for the disasters of the preceding year and demanded a trial, charging general ineffi- ciency and lack of foresight on the part of the government. Findings of an investigating com- mission, further reverses in Mo- rocco, and increasing labor troubles paved the way for a mili- tary revolution and on Septem- ber 13, 1923, Cap.-General Primo de Rivera seized the civil administration of Barcelona and forced the resignation of the government. Thereupon the King requested de Rivera to head a military directorate and form a government. Under his regime economic and adminis- trative reforms were carried out, causing considerable discontent, particularly among the propertied classes, because of a severe tax policy, but on the whole meeting with general approval. On July 4, 1924, by royal decree, the military directorate was placed on a civil basis and de Rivera's powers were somewhat abridged. Toward the latter part of the year affairs in Morocco became so se- rious that de Rivera himself went to assume charge of military op- erations. His policy involved a withdrawing of garrisons from the zone extending toward the interior, and a native government in the Spanish zone, acting under Spanish direction. In December 1925, civil government was re- stored in Spain, General de Rivera resigned as Chief of the Military Directorate and the King at once appointed him premier of a new cabinet. In September 1926, a national plebiscite was held in which the balloting resulted in a vote of confidence of nearly 7,000,000 votes for de Rivera and his gov- ernment, but it was claimed by many neutral observers that many contributing factors must be considered before reaching definite conclusions as to the sig- nificance of the result. In January 1930 de Rivera re- signed and departed for Paris, where he died suddenly on March 17. General D'Amaso Beren- guer formed a new government and adopted a less rigorous policy. In April it was decided to hold parliamentary elections in the Fall of the year and a return to constitutional government was promised to the people. Re- publican sentiment spread throughout the country accom- panied by numerous riots and disorders. January of 1931 found King Alfonso vainly ex- perimenting with various expe- dients for saving his throne by concessions, real or apparent, to Republican and Socialist de- mands. Chief of these was a proposal to hold the semblance of general elections on March 1st, and then convoke an ordi- nary parliament, with a coalition cabinet loyal to the Crown. This was flatly rejected by Spain's Liberal statesmen, who declined to take any part in the venture. On January 28, former Premier Sanchez Guerra served notice upon the King that he and his followers would have nothing to do with the proposed 'sham elec- tions' and would be satisfied with nothing less than the calling of an honestly elected constitu- tional assembly to determine the future form of government. In the following fortnight the situa- tion became so serious that for a time Alfonso seemed to be on the point of a complete surrender to the Liberal demands. He can- celled the order for general elec- tions and on Feb. 18, after forc- ing the resignation of General Berenguer, his Prime Minister, commissioned Guerra to form a new government. Senor Guerra made an earnest effort to induce Republican and Socialist repre- sentatives to take part in the new cabinet and even visited in prison Alcala Zamora and other lead- ers awaiting trial on the charge of complicity in the revolt at Jaca in the preceding December. His efforts were fruitless, how- ever, and he abandoned the at- tempt. The King thereupon pro- ceeded to the organization of a new government, with Admiral Juan Bautista Aznar as Premier and Count de Romanones as Minister of Foreign Affairs. The Aznar cabinet formulated a new plan for a series of elec- tions, municipal, provincial and National. The municipal con- tests were scheduled for April 12. The ultimate intention was to call a constitutional conven- tion to modify the basic laws of the nation but in such a way as to continue the Monarchy with powers unimpaired. The people, however, were in no mood for half-way measures and the situation in March be- came steadily more serious. The threatened execution in that month of Captain Sediles, the leader of the Jaca revolt, was the occasion at Madrid and Sara- gossa of riots so violent that the King hastened to order a re- prieve. On March 30, Alfonso had a secret meeting with Santi- ago Alba, the Liberal leader, and sought his cooperation in form- ing a government upon conditions which would save the throne. With this effort, which met with a peremptory refvisal, Alfonso had played his last card and the fateful elections of April 12 fol- lowed in due course. Their outcome was overwhelm- ing and decisive. In the smaller towns and agricultural villages which count for little or nothing in the political life of the nation, the Monarchists found some ad- herents, but in nearly all the large cities the Republicans won by sweeping majorities, secur- ing in Madrid 30 seats to the 20 won by their opponents. In town after town, of Old Spain, includ- ing Seville, Barcelona, Cordoba, Cartagena, Malaga, Bilbao, Va- lencia and San Sebastian, the verdict was the same — an em- phatic repudiation of the Mon- archy. Although the elections were for municipal offices their significance as an expression of popular sentiment was unmis- takable. To all save, perhaps, the King himself, it was obvious that only his abdication could save the country from violent upheaval and revolution. At half-past ten o'clock of the morn- ing of April 14, Admiral Aznar called at the Palace and tendered his resignation, and Alfonso, after a last fruitless effort to enlist the support of his Minis- ters in still another effort to save the Crown, drafted and signed a proclamation, in which without explicitly abdicating, he made known his purpose to leave Spain, ostensibly to avert the pos- sibility of violence and blood- shed. T do not renounce any of my rights,' he declared, 'because they are more than mine — they are the accumulated store of his- tory and I shall have one day to Spain KFI 346 A Spain make a rigorov:s account of their conservation. I am waiting to learn a real expression of the col- lective opinion of my people, and while I am waiting until the Na- tion shall speak, I am deliberate- ly suspending the exercise of the Royal power.' The King's deci- sion, which became known early in the afternoon, threw all Spain into a tumult of rejoicing. At four o'clock the flag of the new- born Republic, a banner of red, yellow and purple stripes, was run up on the Madrid postofhce. A few hours later the King, ac- companied by only three mem- bers of his entourage, including the Duke of Miranda and the Infante Alfonso, the Crown Prince, left the Palace incon- spicuously by a rear door and sped in an automobile to Carte- gena, where he embarked on the Spanish cruiser Principe Alfonso for Marseilles. From that port he proceeded to Paris and later to England, where he began his life of exile. The momentous change, which involved the ex- tinction of a Monarchy that had endured, with but one brief in- termission, for fifteen centuries, was effected with no more seri- ous disturbances than the cele- brations of a rejoicing populace. A Provisional Republican Gov- ernment was constituted on April 14, 1931 under President Niceto Alcala Zamora. The ease and almost startling rapidity with which the transition from Monarchy to Republic was ef- fected, bore testimony both as to the care with which the Republi- cans had prepared for the event and the extent of the popular discontent. After centuries of dominion, one of the most bril- liant courts in Europe passed out of existence within the space of a few hours. At the crisis, the avowed Monarchists stood aside and allowed events to take their course. Even the forces of Army and Church, traditionally the first to come to the defense of the Crown in times of stress, made no serious effort to avert the inevitable. General San Jurjo, head of the 30,000 na- tional police and civil guards, who called at the palace just after the elections, could only tell his sovereign that these forces were at the disposal of the Republicans. Such personal popularity as Alfonso had among certain classes — a popularity based on admiration for his sportsmanship, his bonhomie and his undoubted courage rather than upon solid esteem — was ap- parently swept away in the wave of resentment aroused by his temporizing policies in the clos- ing months of his reign. The crisis following the fall of the Monarchy found the Republi- can leaders fully prepared. The Revolutionary Committee at Ma- drid had already drawn up a list of cabinet officers to take over the duties of administration and on April 14 announced the ap- pointment of Sehor Zamora as Provisional President, with Mi- guel Maura as Minister of the Interior and Alejandro Lerroux as Minister of Foreign Affairs. The other important offices were taken by Indalecio Prieto, Min- ister of Finance ; Ferdinand de Los Rios, minister of Justice ; Manuel Azana, Minister of War ; and Casares Quiroga, Minister of Marine. The ensu- ing steps toward the erection of a stable government followed swiftly and with the precision of a pre-arranged programme. On April 14 the Committee issued its first decree proclaiming Spain a Republic. It declared that 're- ceiving its powers from the will of the Nation, it fulfills an im- perious political duty to estab- lish the standards of justice re- quired by the people' and offered specific pledges to submit the in- dividual and collective acts of its members to the judgment of a Cortes Constituyentes (Constitu- tional Convention) ; to hold an open inquiry into the civil and military measures of the late re- gime ; to respect 'in the fullest manner' religious liberty ; to up- hold and increase by statute civil rights and individual liberties ; and to provide immunity of pri- vate property from expropria- tion 'except for public utility and with due indemnity.' One of the first acts of the new government was to order a general amnesty for all prison- ers except those charged with capital crimes. In preparation for the promised elections for a constitutional convention in June, the government on May 4 abol- ished Spain's antiquated election system, substituting one under which each district would elect one representative for every 50,000 inhabitants. The fran- chise was extended to include priests and election frauds were to be severely penalized. To be legally elected, candidates must receive 20 per cent more than a majority of the votes. During the first weeks of the Republic, a number of measures designed to wipe out all trace of Royalist tradition and influence were adopted. Coats of arms and symbolic crowns were removed from monuments and public buildings. By formal decree, the red, white and purple banner was made the offlcial flag of Spain. Royal parks and estates were thrown open to the public. The use of titles of nobility or royalty 'except for social pur- poses' was forbidden ; this order, according to statistical records, affected 97 dukes, 1310 mar- quesses, and very nearly 3000 counts, viscounts, barons and grandees. Simultaneously dras- tic measures were taken to pre- vent a recurrence of dictator- ships based on military support. The division of Spain into mili- tary districts was abolished, the nvimber of mobilization centers reduced from seventy to sixteen and all military titles above the rank of brigadier-general were prohibited. On April 15, 1931, France gave official recognition to the new Republic, the governments of Mexico, Portugal, Uruguay, Cuba, Chile, Argentina, Turkey, Czecho-Slovakia, Yugoslavia, Greece and Belgium quickly fol- lowing suit. Recognition was ac- corded by Great Britain and her Dominions on April 21 and by the United States on April 22. The Minister of Finance an- nounced on April 18 that in ac- cordance with Spain's desire to be independent of foreign influ- ence, the loan of $60,000,000 ne- gotiated by the Monarchy with French and American bankers would not be carried out. The negotiations by which Spain withdrew from this bargain were tactfully conducted and its an- nulment was effected without ill- feeling. The new government was prompt in taking action upon the many difficult social and political problems awaiting solu- tion. One of the most urgent of these arose from the strength of the autonomist movements in northern Spain. Catalonia and the Basque provinces seized upon the revolution as an opportunity to nenew their ancient demands for something akin to independ- ence. A Catalonian republic was declared even before the republi- can flag had been raised at Ma- drid. On April 26, President Zamora paid an official visit to Barcelona to confer with General Macia, acting president of Cata- lonia, and effect a reconciliation. He offered to concede to the Catalans their rights to their own flag, language, national anthem and parliament, provided they recognized the superior authority of Madrid and paid taxes to the Central government. He was enthusiastically received but failed to secure a satisfactory settlement. In a decree issued May 4, the Catalonian government assumed the power 'to take whatever reso- lutions of action may be neces- sary without consulting the central government, although later submitting the action to Madrid.' In the Basque prov- inces the separatist movement, while less acute, was the occasion for similar demands. A prelimi- Spain KFI 346 B Spain nary draft of the Federal consti- tution, published June 19, pro- posed to meet the issue by pro- viding that any Province might secure autonomy if its legisla- ture, acting upon the mandate of three-fourths of its voters, asked for it, but reserved to the Central Government the right to give or withhold final approval. Other important measures proposed in the new Constitution provided for the abolition of state religion, compulsory primary education, the recognition of equality in sex and the correction of abuses in the elective system. Members of the Chamber of Deputies were to be elected by universal suffrage, all citizens being eligible to vote. The Senate was to have 240 members, 60 elected by employ- ers' associations, 60 by indus- trial, agricultural and mining groups, 60 by free associations of professors and 60 by univer- sities and cultural or religious associations. A Supreme Court was to be formed by the chief of the State from members of the various judicial colleges and or- ganizations, the president of the court to hold office for ten years and the other judges for life. In the National elections for the Constitutional Cortes, held ac- cording to programme on June 28, the new Republic received decisive, and apparently final, confirmation in power at the hands of the people. The con- tests passed with little or no disorder. Every member of the Government was elected. Twenty-five parties, representing all phases of political thought, from the Monarchists and right wing Republicans, to the Com- munists, put up candidates. The Republican-Socialist coalition, comprising the moderate groups forming the center, won an over- whelming majority of the 462 deputies, the Socialists securing the largest number of seats. The Communists made a negligible showing. Apparently all pros- pect of Alfonso's return to the Throne or of a revival of the Monarchical form of government \\"as removed, for a time, at least, by the unexpected weakness of the Monarchists, who elected only five Deputies, most of them from Navarre, where adherence to Royalist causes is a tradition growing out of medieval times. The Cortes held its opening session on July 14, when the Pro- visional Government submitted its draft of a constitution and took up in earnest the task of restoring to the nation the par- liamentary rule of which it had so long been deprived. Don Julian Besteiro, leader of the So- cialists, the largest homogeneous body in the Cortes, was elected Speaker. A constitution providing for a unitary, and not a federal, state was unacceptable to the Catalo- nians, who renewed their de- mands for home rule. On July 28, 1931, Sefior Zamora formally resigned his special powers as Provisional President, thus ced- ing the final authority in legisla- tive matters to the Cortes. On Jvily 30 he was reelected by an almost vmanimous vote of con- fidence, and thus for a time, at least, confirmed in office. From the outset the new Government found itself beset with difficul- ties ; dissensions arose even in the ministry and the Clericals were alarmed at the abolition of discrimination on religious grounds. When the Spanish Republic was proclaimed amid general re- joicing on April 14, 1931, it was implicitly believed by the masses that the abuses under which they had groaned for centuries would forthwith be swept away. The peasants were confident that their poverty and misery were at an end, and that the huge estates of the grandees were to be par- titioned among them ; the urban workers expected to man the fac- tories, to take possession of the mines, and to reap the benefits formerly accruing to the owners ; and the Catalonians and Basques believed they had now achieved the long-dreamed-of autonomy. The 'Workers' Republic' was to bring about the Millenium in a twinkling. But events did not move so swiftly. Indeed, it was only after months of wrangling that the Cortes adopted the Consti- tution (Dec. 9, 1931); the new leaders of the country were soon beset by the financial difficulties of the world-wide depression ; they were attacked by the ex- treme Leftists for their too great moderation, and assailed no less by the Rightists for their radi- calism. Armaments had to be increased ; too little money was available to institute the prom- ised agrarian and other reforms. Though many months or even years might be required to reme- dy economic ills already cen- turies old, the masses found the waiting for the 'new deal' in- tolerable and incomprehensible. On Dec. 10, 1931, ^ Alcala Zamora was formally inaugu- rated as constitutional president for six years, and he chose as his first premier Manuel Azana y Diaz. These men did their best to interpret the provisions of the Constitution, which declared that Spain was a Democratic republic of workers of all classes, an in- tegral state consistent with the autonomy of the municipalities and regions ; that it had no offi- cial religion ; that all citizens en- joyed freedom of conscience and liberty of worship ; and that all were equal before the law. A national flag of red, yellow and purple was adopted, and war was renounced as an instrument of national policy. The most pressing problem following adoption of the Consti- tution was disposal of the de- mands of Catalonia for virtual independence. Under the leader- ship of Col. Francisco Macia, the Catalonians had declared a republic at the time King Al- fonso had left the country, and now they demanded recognition of claims that would have split the country permanently both politically and economically. After months of negotiation, on Sept. 9, 1932, the Cortes enacted a statute under which Catalonia (the provinces of Barcelona, Tarragona, Lerida and Gerona) became 'an autonomous region within the Spanish state.' Cata- lan became an official language equally with Castilian ; the Gene- ralidad (comprising a local legis- lature. President and Executive Council) was to discharge state legislation ; and Catalonia was to maintain its own police and educational, economic and social systems. To the central govern- ment was left the control of for- eign affairs, the collection of customs and certain taxes, and the right to preserve public order. Also on Sept. 9, 1932, another piece of legislation of equal im- portance was enacted. This was the agrarian reform bill, which authorized expropriation of all lands owned by the nobility. Provision was made for indemni- ties to be paid under certain cir- cumstances ; some fifty-two mil- lion acres of land, comprising twenty former royal estates and the holdings of 340 dukes, mar- quises and counts, were to be taken over and allocated among the peasants ; the government was required to find about $4,- 000,000 _ annually to put the scheme into operation. The pro- posed plan aroused bitter opposi- tion from extreme conservatives and radicals alike, and because the lack of money delayed its execution the prospective bene- ficiaries were enraged no less. Yet another of the reversals of previous fundamental policy were the despoliations of the Roman Catholic (Thurch, which alienated the support of highly influential persons. Since readmission after 1851, the religious orders had regained much of their wealth and influence. They received from the state some $11,000,000 annually for educational and other purposes, and derived con- siderable income from invest- ments and landed property ; be- Spain KR 346 C Spain ing exempt from taxation, they were able to compete success- fully in commerce and industry. A series of enactments of the Cortes deprived them of much of their property, and what was left to them was burned or despoiled from time to time by exasperated mobs. The Jesuit Order was dis- solved by law in January, 1932, their property, valued at over $30,000,000, being distributed for social welfare ; government subsidies to the clergy, it was en- acted in December, 1932, were to cease not later than Nov. 11, 1933. On March 24, 1933, the Cortes voted to nationalize all church property (including buildings, ornaments and pic- tures), valued at more than $500,000,000. In May of the same year it was decreed that members of religious orders must desist from teaching and trading, must submit to taxation, and must render annual accounts of their investments. Neither a Papal encyclical of protest nor the provisions of the canon law automatically excomm,unicating those enforcing the decrees served to delay their execution. These * great changes in the social fabric of Spain, ardently as they had been sought by a majority of the people, only weakened the government re- sponsible for their achievement. It fell ever more and more into disrepute, on the one hand for going too far, and on the other for not going far and fast enough. The nation appeared to be temper- amentally unable or unwilling to hasten slowly — those whose in- terests were threatened were out- raged to a degree scarcely ex- celled by those eagerly awaiting the benefits to come. Conservatives came out in re- bellion in August, 1932, only to be defeated and have their lead- ers exiled, but national elections in November of the following year made them the strongest party in the new Cortes. Forth- with radicals were expelled from the government and the public services ; anti-clerical and land reform laws were suspended ; the power of the labor unions was checked ; and the autonomy of Catalonia and the Basque prov- inces was curbed. But the workers were not disposed to be supplanted in so summary a fash- ion. Fighting which broke out in all the large cities in October, 1934, endangered the very ex- istence of the republic. Unex- pectedly, the army remained loyal to the government, but it was only after a bitter struggle that the radical opposition was crushed. Damage to public buildings amounted to more than 300 million pesetas; 1,378 lives were lost ; two rebel leaders were shot, and hundreds were sen- tenced to long terms of imprison- ment. But the government real- ized it was sitting on a powder barrel. Radicalism was crushed for the time being but was by no means extinguished, while Con- servative ranks were dividing in- to schools of thought with con- flicting aims. Amid the welter of discord but one fact was emerging — that there were not enough moderates in the country to support a government pre- pared to hold a balance between the extremist elements. The so- cial and economic justice which the overthrow of the monarchy was expected to ensure was ap- parently to be imattainable with- out another revolution. Within the next twelve months, no less than six cabinets came and went ; constitutional guarantees were suspended over much of the country ; and on Jan. 7, 1936, the Cortes was dis- solved. To the surprise of many observers, in the general election of Feb. 16 control of the Cortes was captured by the Leftist united front. Manuel Azana was recalled to the premiership, political prisoners were released and a general amnesty was or- dered. Now, once more, it was the turn of the Conservatives to take up arms, seeking to recap- ture by force the power which they had lost through the ballot boxes. Alcala Zamora was ejected from the presidency on April 7 on the charge that he had illegally dissolved the previous Cortes, and on May 10 Azana was formally elected to his office. Meanwhile the cabinet, though living under the continual threat of an armed attack, contented it- self with making strong speeches while doing almost nothing. Anti-Republican army officers were not deprived of their au- thority but were merely trans- ferred to commands in Africa, where they were free to continue their plottings against the gov- ernment. Widespread industrial strikes broke out in the latter part of May, and in the follow- ing month the government at length commenced to act. At- tacks were launched against armed Monarchists on June 5, but still the disorders continued and in desperation, on July 6, the government ordered the sup- pression of all Fascist organiza- tions. From all over the coun- try reports of risings continued to reach the outside world, but accounts gradually became less trustworthy because, for 'politi- cal reasons,' the telephone serv- ice with Spain was terminated on July 17. 1936. [What follows was written at the time Spain was in the throes of a desperate Civil War. While the causes leading up to the out- break were clear, the fog of cen- sorship and partizan propaganda obscured the facts of the devel- oping situation upon which the verdict of history will be based.] As was to be anticipated, the spark that touched off the revo- lution was set in Morocco. Here Gen. Francisco Franco com- menced a revolt with the aid of native troops (July 18, 1936), seeking to bring about a Fascist regime in his country. Without difficulty he consolidated his po- sition in the African protector- ate, and as Insurgent command- er-in-chief he directed the oper- ations of Gen. Gonzalo Quiepo de Llano in southern Spain. Gen. Emilio Mola took command of Insurgent forces in the North, and the Provisional President of the Insurgent government was Gen. Miguel Cabanellas. Catalonia proclaimed its loy- alty to the Government in Ma- drid, which was supported by the Center party (comprising the Radicals, the Conservative Re- publicans and Independents) and the Leftists (comprising Social- ists, Radical Democrats, the Communists and the Anar- chists) ; Government forces in- cluded a portion of the Civil Guard, a lesser proportion of the Regular Army, a Workers' Mili- tia, armed police and volunteers. The Insurgents were made up of Royalists, Fascists, Catholic Na- tionalists, peasant militia, the Foreign Legion and native Mo- roccan Regulars. As the conflict spread, the am- bassadors and ministers of lead- ing powers withdrew from the country to neutral territory, and Great Britain, France, Germany and Italy agreed to a procedure of strict neutrality. Portugal, whose sympathies were avowedly with the Insurgents, refused to conform, while Russian work- ers pledged monetary aid to the Government. By the end of July the Govern- ment was retaining control of only twenty-two of the Spanish provinces, the remaining twenty- eight being in the hands of the Insurgents. As one important city after another continued to fall to the forces of the latter, the character of the Govern- ment's administration underwent an unmistakable change. No longer was it dominated by par- tizans of the conservative Re- publicans but by 'People's Tri- bunals' and Red militia, and as the Insurgents drew nearer to Madrid President Azana was compelled to take a realistic view of his desperate situation. In September he offered the pre- Spain KR 346D Spain, Language miership to the prominent So- cialist Largo Caballero who, on taking ofifice, announced that when he had achieved victory he would proclaim a 'dictatorship of the proletariat' and establish a Soviet regime. So little was this swing of the Government to the extreme Left to the liking of its representatives abroad that num- bers of them (including the Span- ish Ambassador in Washington) resigned their appointments. Thus the Spanish people were locked in the greatest struggle in the last 100 years of their his- tory, with the republic, in the form in which it had existed for five years, fighting desperately for survival. During September 1936, the insurgents captured San Sebastian and Toledo, and on Oct. 1 Franco was proclaimed head of the revolutionary gov- ernment. Madrid was invested on Oct. 21, and its resistance until the close of hostilities was one of the most memorable feats of the entire conflict. The Re- publican government moved to Valencia on Nov. 6, but it could do little to check the spread of the insurgent movement. Malaga fell to the insurgents on Feb. 8, 1937, but the follow- ing month the Loj^alists were heartened by a decisive defeat at Brihuega of the Italians, who were advancing on Madrid from the north. On May 17 a new Loyalist government was formed under the premiership of Juan Negrin, and soon it had to with- stand repeated air bombings of the temporary capital, with de- struction alike of lives, buildings and morale. The insurgents captured Bilbao (June 19) and Santander (August 25) , and with the fall of Gijon (October 21), the whole of the north was in their hands. By this time the position of the Loyalists was des- perate. Their capital was moved to Barcelona (October 28), and though they recaptured Teruel (December 21) they lost it once more to the insurgents (Feb. 22, 1938). With increasing aid from both Italy and Germany, Franco now launched great offensives, hop- ing to force a quick decision in 1938. An attack on the Aragon front (March 9) signalized a long-awaited drive to the Medi- terranean, and more than 1,000 persons lost their lives in re- peated air raids on Barcelona (March 17). Loyalist Spain was cut in two when the Insurgents reached the sea at Vinaroz (April 1.5), but in a surprise at- tack on the Ebro river the gov- ernment forces succeeded in breaking through the insurgent lines (July 2.5-2G). In October Italy began a 'token with- drawal' of troops from Spain, and the government commenced to dispense with its thousands of foreign volunteers, but still the conflict dragged on, with the final issue still undecided. In Christmas week an insur- gent offensive was launched against Catalonia, and with the fall of Borjas Blancas (Jan. 5, 1939) the Loyalists of the Madrid area opened a desperate attack on the Estramadura front. Tar- ragona was captured by the in- surgents on Jan. 15, and the re- lentless advance continued to- ward Barcelona. That city fell on Jan. 26 and the Republican resistance collapsed. The gov- ernment and soldiery fled into France; President Azaiia re- signed his office in February. Gen. Jose Miaja maintained a show of resistance in Madrid, but on March 28, after a siege lasting two years, four months and 21 days, the city surren- dered. The civil war was at an end. On April 19, 1937, the various political groups in the nationalist movement were united by Gen. Franco into a single political party ruled by a national coun- cil of 100 members. There is also a Junta Politica presided over by the chief executive. On March 31, 1947 Gen. Franco announced that Spain would become a mon- archy with a regency council and with himself as head of the state. The last decision came after fruitless negotiations with Don Juan, son of Alfonso xiii who declined the Franco terms. The law of July 1942 restored the Cortes as the supreme state or- gan for preparation and enact- ment of laws. Bibliography. — Consult Bol- laert. Wars of Succession in Por- tugal and Spain (2 vols.); Conde, History of Dominion of Arabs in Spain (3 vols.); Coppee, History of Conquest of Spain by the Arab Moors; Macaulay, War of Suc- cession in Spain; Prescott, Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella and Philip the Second; Borrow, Bible in Spain; Stanhope, History of the War of the Succession in Spain; de Amicis, Travels in Spain; Hare, Wanderings in Spain; Hay, Castilian Days; Bates, Spanish Highways and Byways; Bonilla, Spanish Daily Life; Marden, Travels in Spain (1909); Cambridge Modern His- tory (1909); Fitzgerald, Rambles in Spain (1910); Bell, The Magic of Spain (1912); Howells, Famil- iar Spanish Travels (1913); Hume, Spain: Its Greatness and Decay (3d ed.. 1913); Batcheller, Royal Spain of Today (1913); Kenny, Glimpses of Latin Eu- rope (1913); Keith Clark, The Spell of Spain (1914); Adams, Spain and Portugal (1914); Hume, Modern Spain (1923); Sedgwick, Spain (1925); Alta- mira y Crevea, Hisloria de Es- pana de la Civilizacion Espanola (4 vols, 1902; Eng. trs. 1930); Baerlein, Spain: Yesterday and To-morrow (1930); Cooper, Un- derstanding Spain (1928); Gallop, A Book of the Basques (1930); Riggs, The Spanish Pageant (1928); Moore, In the Heart of Spain (1927); Martins, A His- tory of Iberian Civilization (1930) ; Sencourt, The Spanish Crown (1932); Trend, Origins of Modern Spain (1934); Cannes and Rep- ard, Spain in Revolt (1936); Peers, The Spanish Tragedy (1936) ; Bone, Old Spain (1936); Mendizabal, Martyrdom of Spain (1937) ; Orwell, Homage to Cata- lonia (1938); Sencourt, Spain's Ordeal (1938) ; Foss and Gerahty, The Spanish Arena (1938) ; Steer, The Tree of Gernika (1938). Spain, Language and Lit- erature. The Spanish language is one of the modern languages derived from the Latin. It owes its origin, however, not to the literary language of Cicero or Virgil, but to the so-called vul- gar Latin used by the mass of the people and by the Roman soldiery. At the present time three chief Romance languages still survive in Spain: the Cas- tilian, generally known as Span- ish; the Catalan (q. v.), a dia- lect of Proven gal; and the Galle- gan, closely allied to Portuguese. Castilian, which has been de- servedly called 'the noblest daughter of Latin,' is spoken with slight local variations by more than two-thirds of the population, having to a great de- gree supplanted Catalan and Gallegan. Its chief character- istics are the purity of its vowel sounds and the strong guttural, the origin of which is doubtful, although its introduction is un- doubtedly modem. The Castil- ian vocabulary contains a num- ber of Arabic words, chiefly con- nected with agriculture and sci- ence, some few Greek words, and slight traces of Basque and Gothic. The influence of French is noticeable, particu- larly during the later centuries. The chief literary works of Spain are written in CavStilian. The earliest monuments of Spanish literature, which began not much earlier than the twelfth century, are poetical. Among them are the Poema del Cid, a typical chanson de geste (see Chansons de Geste) ascribed to the latter half of the twelfth century, and the Poema de Ferndn Gonzalez, which deals with the life and deeds of Count Feman Gonzalez, the first inde- pendent sovereign of Castile. Gonzalo de Berceo, a secular priest, the first Spanish author whose name has come down to TEMPORARY PAGES FOR NELSON'S L. L. ENCYCLOPEDIA Insert in Volume XI, fpUowing page 346B Spain: The Genesis of the Civil War of 1936. kff When the Spanish Republic was proclaimed amid general re- joicing on April 14, 1931, it was implicitly believed by the masses that the abuses under which they had groaned for centuries would forthwith be swept away. The peasants were confident that their poverty and misery were at an end, and that the huge estates of the grandees were to be par- titioned among them ; the urban workers expected to man the factories, to take possession of the mines, and to reap the bene- fits formerly accruing to the owners ; and the Catalonians and Basques believed they had now achieved the long-dreamed-of autonom}'. The 'Workers' Re- public' was to bring abov:t the Millennium in a twinkling. But events did not move so swiftly. Indeed, it was only after months of wrangling that the Cortes adopted the Constitu- tion (Dec. 9, 1931); the new leaders of the country were soon beset by the financial difficulties of the world-wide depression ; they were attacked by the ex- treme Leftists for their too great moderation, and assailed no less by the Rightists for their radi- calism. Armaments had to be increased ; too little money was available to institute the prom- ised agrarian and other reforms. Though many months or even years might be required to rem- edy economic ills already cen- turies old, the masses found the waiting for the 'new deal' in- tolerable and incomprehensible. On Dec. 10, 1931, Alcala Zamora was formally inaugu- rated as constitutional president for six years, and he chose as his first premier Manuel Azaha y Diaz. These men did their best to interpret the provisions of the Constitution, which declared that Spain was a democratic republic of workers of all classes, an in- tegral state consistent with the autonomy of the municipalities and regions ; that it had no offi- cial religion ; that all citizens en- joyed freedom of conscience and liberty of worship ; and that all were equal before the law. A national flag of red, yellow and purple was adopted, and war was renounced as an instrument of national policy. The most pressing problem following adoption of the Con- stitution was disposal of the de- mands of Catalonia for virtual independence. Under the leader- ship of Col. Francisco Macia, the Catalonians had declared a republic at the time King Al- fonso had left the country, and now they demanded recognition of claims that would have split the country permanently both politically and economically. After months of negotiation, on Sept. 9, 1932, the Cortes enacted a statute under which Catalonia (the provinces of Barcelona, Tarragona, Lerida and Gerona) became 'an autonomous region within the Spanish state.' Cata- lan became an official language equally with Castilian ; the Gene- ralidad (comprising a local legis- lature. President and Executive Council) was to discharge state legislation ; and Catalonia was to maintain its own police and educational, economic and social systems. To the central govern- ment was left the control of for- eign affairs, the collection of customs and certain taxes, and the right to preserve public order. Also on Sept. 9, 1932, another piece of legislation of equal im- portance was enacted. This was the agrarian reform bill, which authorized expropriation of all lands owned by the nobility. Provision was made for indemni- ties to be paid under certain cir- cumstances ; some fifty-two mil- lion acres of land, comprising twenty former royal estates and the holdings of 340 dukes, mar- quises and counts, were to be taken over and allocated among the peasants ; the government was required to find about $4,- 000,000 _ annually to put the scheme into operation. The pro- posed plan aroused bitter opposi- tion from extreme conservatives and radicals alike, and because the lack of money delayed its execution the prospective bene- ficiaries were enraged no less. Yet another of the reversals of previous fundamental policy were the despoliations of the Roman Catholic Church, which alienated the support of highly influential persons. Since readmission after 1851, the religious orders had regained much of their wealth and influence. They received from the state some $11,000,000 annually for educational and other purposes, and derived con- siderable income from invest- ments and landed property ; be- ing exempt from taxation, they were able to compete success- fully in commerce and industry. A series of enactments of the Cortes deprived them of much of their property, and what was left to them was burned or despoiled from time to time by exasperated mobs. The Jesuit Order was dis- solved by law in January, 1932, their property, valued at over $30,000,000, being distributed for social welfare; government suId- sidies to the clergy, it was en- acted in December, 1932, were to cease not later than Nov. 11, 1933. On March 24, 1933, the Cortes voted to nationalize all church property (including build- ings, ornaments and pictures), valued at more than $500,000,- 000. In May of the same year it was decreed that members of religious orders must desist from teaching and trading, must submit to taxation, and must ren- der annual accounts of their in- vestments. Neither a Papal en- cyclical of protest nor the pro- visions of the canon law auto- matically excommunicating those enforcing the decrees served to delay their execution. These great changes in the social fabric of Spain, ardently as they had been sought by a majority of the people, only weakened the government re- sponsible for their achievement. It fell ever more and more into disrepute, on the one hand for going too far, and on the other for not going far and fast enough. The nation appeared to be temperamentally unable or un- willing to hasten slowly — those whose interests were threatened were outraged to a degree scarce- ly excelled by those eagerly awaiting the benefits to come. Conservatives came out in re- bellion in August, 1932, only to be defeated and have their lead- ers exiled, but national elections in November of the following year made them the strongest party in the new Cortes. Forth- with radicals were expelled from the government and the public services ; anti-clerical and land reform laws were suspended ; the power of the labor unions was checked ; and the autonomy of Catalonia and the Basque prov- inces was curbed. But the work- ers were not disposed to be sup- planted in so summary a fashion. Fighting which broke out in all the large cities in October, 1934, endangered the very exist- ence of the republic. Unex- pectedly, the army remained loyal to the government, but it was only after a bitter struggle that the radical opposition was crushed. Damage to public buildings amounted to more than 300 million pesetas; 1,378 lives Spain KFF 2 were lost ; two rebel leaders were shot, and hundreds were sen- tenced to long terms of imprison- ment. But the government real- ized it was sitting on a powder barrel. Radicalism was crushed for the time being but was by no means extinguished, while Con- servative ranks were dividing into schools of thought with con- flicting aims. Amid the welter of discord but one fact was emerging — that there were not enough moderates in the country to support a government pre- pared to hold a balance between the extremist elements. The so- cial and economic justice which the overthrow of the monarchy was expected to ensure was ap- parently to be unattainable with- out another revolution. Within the next twelve months, no less than six cabinets came and went ; constitutional guarantees were suspended over much of the country ; and on Jan. 7, 1936, the Cortes was dis- solved. To the surprise of many observers, in the general election of Feb. 16 control of the Cortes was captured by the Leftist united front. Manuel Azana was recalled to the premiership, political prisoners were released and a general amnesty was or- dered. Now, once more, it was the turn of the Conservatives to take up arms, seeking to recap- ture by force the power which they had lost through the ballot boxes. Alcala Zamora was ejected from the presidency on April 7 on the charge that he had illegally dissolved the previous Cortes, and on May 10 Azana was formally elected to his office. Meanwhile the cabinet, though living under the continual threat of an armed attack, contented it- self with making strong speeches while doing almost nothing. Anti-Republican army officers were not deprived of their au- thority but were merely trans- ferred to commands in Africa, where they were free to continue their plottings against the gov- ernment. Widespread industrial strikes broke out in the latter part of May, and in the follow- ing month the government at length commenced to act. At- tacks were launched against armed Monarchists on June 5, but still the disorders continued and in desperation, on July 6, the government ordered the sup- pression of all Fascist organiza- tions. From all over the coun- try reports of risings continued to reach the outside world, but accounts gradually became less trustworthy because, for 'politi- cal reasons,' the telephone serv- ice with Spain was terminated on July 17, 1936. [What follows was written at the time Spain was in the throes of a desperate Civil War. While the causes leading up to the out- break were clear, the fog of cen- sorship and partizan propaganda obscured the facts of the devel- oping situation upon which the verdict of history will be based.] As was to be anticipated, the spark that touched off the revo- lution was set in Morocco. Here Gen. Francisco Franco com- menced a revolt with the aid of native troops (July 18, 1936), seeking to bring about a Fascist regime in his country. Without difficulty he consolidated his po- sition in the African protector- ate, and as Insurgent command- er-in-chief he directed the oper- ations of Gen. Gonzalo Quiepo de Llano in southern Spain. Gen. Emilio Mola took command of Insurgent forces in the North, and the Provisional President of the Insurgent government was Gen. Miguel Cabanellas. Catalonia proclaimed its loy- alty to the Government in Ma- drid, which was supported by the Center party (comprising the Radicals, the Conservative Re- publicans and Independents) and the Leftists (comprising Social- ists, Radical Democrats, the Communists and the Anar- chists) ; Government forces in- cluded a portion of the Civil Guard, a lesser proportion of the Regular Army, a Workers' Mili- tia, armed police and vokmteers. The Insurgents were made up of Royalists, Fascists, Catholic Na- tionalists, peasant militia, the Foreign Legion and native Mo- roccan Regulars. As the conflict spread, the am- bassadors and ministers of lead- ing powers withdrew from the country to neutral territory, and Great Britain, France, Germany and Italy agreed to a procedure of strict neutrality. Portugal, whose sympathies were avowedly with the Insurgents, refused to conform, while Russian workers pledged monetary aid to the Government. By the end of July the Gov- ernment was retaining control of only twenty-two of the Spanish provinces, the remaining twenty- eight being in the hands of the Insurgents. As one important city after another continued to fall to the forces of the latter, the character of the Govern- ment's administration underwent an unmistakable change. No longer was it dominated by par- tizans of the conservative Re- publicans but by 'People's Tri- bunals' and Red militia, and as the Insurgents drew nearer to Madrid President Azana was compelled to take a realistic view of his desperate situation. In September he offered the premiership to the prominent So- cialist Largo Caballero who, on taking office, announced that when he had achieved victory he would proclaim a 'dictatorship of the proletariat' and establish a Soviet regime. So little was this swing of the Government to the extreme Left to the liking of its representatives abroad that numbers of them (including the Spanish Ambassador in Wash- ington) resigned their appoint- ments. Thus the struggle, the most important in Spanish history for one hundred years, developed into a class war. The Republic, in the form in which it had ex- isted for five years, appeared doomed to give place ultimately to a dictatorship, of the Left or of the Right, which in either event would be the antithesis of the ideals for which it had been brought into being. Indisputable facts clear by the beginning of October, 1936, were that many thousands were losing their lives ; historic buildings and ob- jects were being ruthlessly de- stroyed ; homes and industries were being ruined ; and untold suffering was being inflicted upon countless numbers of the innocent. Such was the terrible toll being paid by the Spanish people in its efforts to secure liberty and freedom for all. Consult H. Cannes and Theo. Repard, Spain in Revolt (1936) ; E. A. Peers, The Spanish Trag- edy (1936). W. B. Preston. Spain, Literature KFI 347 Spain, Literature us, wrote lives of the saints and praises of the Virgin, in rhyme, and Alfonso x (q. v.), king of Castile, wrote or caused to be written Side, which has been the groundwork of all subsequent Spanish legislation, and Cronica general, a kind of universal his- tory, material for which was gathered from many sources. Alfonso's literary tastes were shared by his nephew Don Juan Manuel, who is best known by the Conde Lucanor or Libro de Patronio, a series of short tales which long served as a model for similar writings. The most original writer of the fourteenth century was Juan Ruiz (q. v.), archpriest of Hita, a disreputa- ble cleric, who relates his love adventures in poetical form, quaintly interlarding them with moral fables and religious hymns. The Jewish rabbi, Sem Tob, wrote endless quatrains of Moral Proverbs of Eastern or Biblical origin. Pedro Lopez de Ayala (q. v.), one of the few Basqi;es to attain prominence in Spanish literature, produced both verse and prose. He wrote an histori- cal account of his own times (1332-1407) and Rimado de Palacio, a series of independent poems, cleverly satirizing all ranks of society while exhorting the wicked to repentance. The fifteenth century saw the rise of a school of lyric poets markedly influenced by Dante and Petrarch. They include Enrique de Villena (1384-1434), a man of great erudition, who translated the Divina Commcdia, but whose translation has been lost; Juan de Mena (1411-56), the official court poet of the time, who wrote an allegorical poem known as Laberiuto, remi- niscent of the Divine Comedy; Lopez de Mendoza, Marques de Santillana (1398-1458), whose sonnets in Petrarchan fashion were the first of their kind in Spain ; and Jorge Manrique (1440-78), whose Coplas por la miierfe de su padre, consisting of 43 stanzas, is among the famous monuments in the Spanish lan- guage. (See Manrique ; Mena ; Santillana; Villena). In the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries a new branch of Spanish literature appears — the romances of chivalry (libros de caballerids) . The Amadis de Gaida (see Amadis), first and best of books of this type, has come down to us in a translation from a Portuguese version, of which the original is lost. Un- like later books of its class, it contains passages of great beauty. Innumerable imitations followed, each more extravagant than its predecessor, until the ap- pearance of Cervantes' immortal satire, Don Quixote, with its rol- licking fun, melancholy touches, and profound views of human nature. Unique among the works of its time and far superior to the other efforts of its author, it belongs to no class and has no successor in Spanish or any other literature (see Cervantes) . The rise of the novel in its different forms is coincident with the decline of the romances of chivalry. The Celestina of Fer- nando de Rojas, a tragicomedy of the sixteenth century, had great influence on the theatre as well as on the whole realistic literature of Spain. It was writ- ten in dramatic form but its great length precludes its presentation. The Diana Enamorada of Monte- mayor (1520—61), one of the first of the Spanish pastoral romances, is one of the best, and the novel of the same name by Gil Polo is also one of the most successful works of its kind. Cervantes and Lope de Vega (qq. v.) each pro- dvtced similar works, but the false and exaggerated sentiment and inferior verse characteristic of these compositions make it hard to understand their popu- larity. Side by side with the pastoral novel, but with stronger growth, throve the realistic no- vela picaresca or rogue's story, subsequently brought to perfec- tion by Le Sage, who in his Gil Bias drew largely upon Spanish models. The earliest book of the kind is Lazarillo de Tormes ascribed to Diego Hurtado de Mendoza (q. v.), but whose au- thorship is unknown. So admi- rable a vehicle for amusement and satire was not neglected, as is proved by the popularity of such works as Guaman de Alfa- rache, Marcos de Obregon, and La Picara Justina. A solitary and not very brilliant example of the historical novel of early date is the Guerra de Granada, by Hurtado de Mendoza. In the meantime, at the court of John II (1407-1454) the in- fluence of Provengal literature had begun to make itself strongly felt, and a generation of stilted and affected poetasters arose. The works of many authors of this school are collected in the celebrated Cancioncro de Baena. The modern Spanish drama must reckon its origin from the end of the fifteenth century, when Juan del Encina (q. v.) wrote fourteen dramatic poems, Representaciones of pastoral character. Gil Vicente (q. v.) and Torres Naharro imitated and improved upon the methods of Encina, but Lope de Rueda (q. v.), playwright and actor (1510-65), is usually considered the father of the Spanish drama- tists, and as such he is mentioned by Cervantes. Continuing the pastoral drama of his predeces- sors, Rueda also wrote short comedies known as pasos, full of vigorous wit. Cervantes com- menced his career as a dramatic author, bvit his two earlier pieces, La Numancia and El Trato de Argel, thovigh finely conceived, were unsuccessful. Lope de Vega also wrote more than 2,000 dramas, and it is by these that he is best known. Other impor- tant dramatists of the school of De Vega are : Calderon de la Barca (1600-81), a poet of fine passages rather than a dramatic author of high merit, Tirso de Molina (1571-1648), Moreto y Cabana (1618-69), Ruiz de Alargon y Mendoza 1581-1639), and Rojas-Zorilla (1607-61) (qq. v.). Tirso de Molina is known chiefly as the author who first dramatized the story of Don Juan Tenorio, the Biirlador de Sevilla. Moreto is the most correct of Spanish dramatists, and his Desden con desden merits special mention, even in an age of dramatic excellence. Lyric poetry in the sixteenth century had as its leading expo- nents, Fernando de Herrera (q. v.), who sang of the victories and reverses of his time ; Luis Ponce de Leon (q. v.), who drew his inspiration from nature, solitude, and religious medita- tion ; Cristoval de Castillejo, whose poems are among the best of his time; St. Teresa (q. v.), one of the world's great women, whose mystical experiences are related in her Moradas O Castillo inferior; Luis de Gongora y Argote (q. v.), regarded by some as the greatest poet of Spain but whose later style became obscure and complicated ; and Quevedo y Villegas (q. v.), who wrote a picaresque novel in addition to many poems. The origin of the Spanish ballads is uncertain, though they are probably of indigenous growth. The great mass of them was collected in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but many of them are of much earlier date. In subject matter they range from sacred history to the Arthurian and Carolingian cy- cles, but far the most interest- ing are those which celebrate the national heroes and the Moorish champions against whom they fought. At the end of the seventeenth century, with the decline of Spanish glory, the sun of Span- ish literature so suddenly and completely disappeared as to leave not even an afterglow. Of the succeeding century, only a few names deserve mention. Jose Francisco de Isla (q. v.), in Fray Geriindio, with wit and good sense worthy of a better age, ridiculed the low ebb of edu- cation. Samaniego and Yriarte Spain, Literature KFI 348 Spalding: wrote some clever fables in the style of the inimitable La Fon- taine. The Spanish Academy, founded during the first half of the eighteenth century, produced the magnificent dictionary which is its chief claim to the gratitude of scholars, and when literature seemed at its lowest ebb, Mora- tin (q. v.), the ' Spanish Moliere,' came to add one more name to Spain's glorious list of drama- tists. The War of Independence roused the Spaniards from the seemingly hopeless state of leth- argy into which they had sunk, and there arose a group of lyric poets whose patriotic zeal awoke the whole nation. Chief among them are Quintana, Gallego, Olmedo, Heredia, and Bello, all distinguished by work of the highest order. The period of Romanticism was one of the most brilliant epochs in the history of Spanish letters. The movement appeared in Spain somewhat later than in other parts of Europe, and only after the death of Ferdinand vii did literature begin once more to flourish. Among the outstanding names in the Romantic move- ment are Martinez de la Rosa, who gave to Spain real historic dramas, full of life and move- ment ; Jose de Larra, whose novel El Donccl dc Don Enrique el Doliente takes high rank in the Romantic school ; the Duque de Rivas, whose play Don Alvaro ensured the triumph of romanticism ; Jose de Espronceda (q. v.), a lyric poet greatly in- fluenced by Byron ; Gutierrez, a dramatist ; Zorilla, lyric poet and dramatist ; Campoamor y Campoosorio and Nunez de Arce (qq. v.), both notable poets. By the middle of the nine- teenth century the Romantic drama was out of fashion and there came a period of transi- tion, in which writers tried to combine the classic and the Ro- mantic schools. Of this transi- tion period the most famous rep- resentatives are Tamayo y Baus (1829-98), often regarded as the greatest dramatist of the nineteenth century, his Virginia being the only Spanish classic on a level with the tragedies of Sophocles and Racine ; and Ade- lardo Lopez de Ayala (1828-79), whose work reveals a psycho- logical trend. Jose Echegaray (1832-1916) attempted a return to Romanticism and his drama El gran Galcoto is a powerful study of the evil effects of slan- der, A renaissance of the Span- ish novel occurred with the works of Galdos and Valera. Preced- ing Galdos the only name of importance is that of Fernan Caballero ((|. v.), nom de plume of Cecilia Boehl de Faber (1796- 1877), whose novels contain an exact picture of the life and customs of the times. Perez Galdos (q. v.) (1845-1920), is a novelist of the first rank, whose Episodios nacionales give a vivid idea of Spain in the nineteenth century. His masterpiece is, however, Fortunata y Jacinta, a vigorous study of modern Span- ish life. Contemporary with Galdos and of almost equal merit are Alargon (1833-91), a delightful story teller ; Juan de Valera y Alcala Caliano (1824- 1905) , whose Pcpita Jimenez is a keen psychological study of a soul ; and Jose de Pereda (1833- 1906) , one of the greatest of Spanish realistic writers, the Balzac of Spain. See Alarcon, Pereda ; and Valera. Following the realistic school came the naturalistic school, whose members claimed to be not only accurate but also scien- tific in their treatment of things. The leading novelists of this group are Emilia Pardo Bazan (1851-1921), an imitator of Zola, the author of Los Pazos de Ulloa, La Madre Naturaleca, and other admirable works ; Palacio Valdes (1853-1938), whose best works are Marta y Maria, Jose, and La Hcrmana San Sulpicio ; and Blasco Ibanez (1867-1928), probably best known for his powerful novel Los cuatro Jinetes del Apocalipsis (see Pardo Ba- zan ; Valdes; Blasco Ibanez). Other contemporary writers are Ramon del Valle-Inclan (1870- ), whose Sonata de Otono is among the masterpieces of Span- ish literature ; Jose Martinez Ruiz (1874- ), who writes under the pseudonym Azorin ; Rufino Jose Cuervo (1844- 1911), an important philologist; Marcelino Melendez y Pelayo (1856-1912), one oi Spain's greatest literary critics, whose masterpiece is Historia dc las ideas cstcticas en Espaiia ; his fol- lowers, Ramon Pidal (1869- ) , Adolfo Bonilla y San Martin (1875- ), and Jose Enrique Rodo (1872-1917); and the eminent dramatists Jacinto Ben- avente (1866- ), the brothers Serafin (1871- ) and Joaquin (1873- _) Quintero, whose gay comedies present a whole- some picture of Andalusian life ; Martinez Sierra (1881- ), Joaquin Dicenta (1863-1917), and Manual Linares Rivas (1867- ). The Modernist movement in Spain is represented by the poets Ruben Dario (1867-1916), whose influence in America as well as in Spain has been considerable ; Gabriel y Galan 1871-1905); Antonio Machado (1875- ) ; Ramon Jimenez (1881- ) ; and Vincente Me- dina (1866- ). The Mexi- can Amado Nervo (1870-1919), the Peruvian Jose Santos Cho- cano (1875-1934), the Cuban Sanchez Galarraga (1888- ), the Argentinian Alfonsina Storni (1892- ), and the Chilean Gabriela Mistral (Lucila Goday) are also Spanish poets of note, while the historian Rafael Alta- mira (1866- ), the philoso- pher Miguel de Unamuno (1864- 1937), and the journalist Ramido Maetzu cannot be ignored. Bibliography, — Consult F. Bouterwek, History of Spanish and Portuguese Literature ; H. S. Conant, Primer of Spanish Lit- erature ; Ticknor, History of Spanish Literature ; Fitzmaurice Kelly, History of Spanish Litera- ture, Chapters on Spanish Litera- ture, and Spanish Literature, a Primer (1922) ; Ford, Main Cur- rents of Spanish Literature (1919); Perrier, History of Spanish Literature (1924) ; Northrup, An Introduction to Spanish Literature (1925) ; Bell, Contemporary Spanish Litera- ture (1933). Spalato, spa'la-to, Italian form of Split, an Adriatic seaport of Yugoslavia, capital of the Lit- toral banat, situated 40 miles southeast of Sibenik (Sebenico). In the old town is the quadrangu- lar Palace of Diocletian (third century), the most important Roman monument of the former Austrian Empire ; the Cathedral, with a twelfth-century campa- nile ; the Battistero di San Gio- vanni ; and the Museum. The new town with broad streets and modern buildings lies to the west. Spalato is the center of the Dal- matian wine trade in which it does a large export business. From 1420 to 1797 it belonged to Venice. Pop. 43,808. Spalding, Albert (1888- ), American violinist, was born in Chicago. He studied with Buitrago in New York, with Chiti in Florence, and with Lefort in Paris, where he made a successful debut in 1905. He toured France, Germany, and England, and made his first public appearance in the United States in November 1908. He made a second American tour in 1912, and after 1914 appeared in the United States annually, with ever increasing popularity. His works include Concerto quasi fantasia; Suite for Piano and Violin ; Sonata for Piano and Violin ; twenty violin pieces ; Prelude and Fugue for the piano, variations on My Old Kentucky Home for violin and orchestra, and other orchestral works. Spalding', John Franklin (1828-1902), American Prot- estant-Episcopal prelate, was born in Belgrade, Maine, and was graduated (1853) from Bowdoin, and from the General Spalding 349 Spaniels Theological Seminary in 1857. He was ordered deacon in 1857, ordained priest in 1858, and was rector of churches in Me., Mass., and R. I. until 1862, when he became rector of St. Paul's Church, Erie, Pa. In 1873 he was consecrated missionary bishop of Colorado, his juris- diction extending over Wyoming also. Colorado was subsequently created a diocese, of which he remained as bishop. His works include The Church and Its Apostolic Ministry (1887) and Jesus Christ, the Proo} of Chris- sanity (1890). Spalding, John Lancaster (1840-1916). American R. C. prelate, nephew of Archbishop Martin John Spalding, born at Lebanon, Ky., and was educated at Mt. St. Mary's College, Md., at the University of Louvain, Belgium, and at Rome. He was ordained a priest in 1863, and in 1865 was appointed secretary to the Bishop of Louisville, becoming chancellor of the diocese in 1871. He was stationed in New York from 1872 to 1877, when he was consecrated Bishop of Peoria. He became promi- nent as an adjuster of labor dis- Eutes, and in 1902 was appointed y President Roosevelt one of the arbitrators for the settlement of the anthracite coal strike. A graceful and forcible writer on both sacred and secular subjects, his many publications include America, and Other Poems (1885), Education and the Higher Life (1891), Education and the Future of Religion (1900), Socialism and Labor, and Other Arguments (1902), and Religion and Art, and Other Essays (1905). Spalding, Martin John (1810- 72), American R. C. prelate, was born near Lebanon, Ky., and was educated at St. Mary's Seminary, Ky., at St. Joseph's Seminary, Ky., and at Rome. He was ordained a priest in 1834, and held various charges in Ky. until 1844, when he was appointed vicar-general of Louisville. He became Coadjutor - Bishop of Louisville in 1848, Bishop of the same diocese in 1850, and Arch- bishop of Baltimore in 1864. Archbishop Spalding was a founder of and writer for the Catholic Advocate, and published among other works Sketches of the Early Catholic Missions in Kentucky (1846) and History of the Protestant Reformation (1860). See Life by his nephew, Bishop J. L. Spalding (1872). Spallanzani, Lazzaro (1729- 99), Italian physiologist, was bom at Scandiano (Modena); taught logic and Greek at Reggio (1754), but deserted Homer for science, though he still taught Greek at Modena (1760). He combated the theory of sponta- neous generation advanced by Bufifon and Needham (1767), and went to Pavia (1768) to teach natural science. In his Opuscoli di Fisica Animale e Vegetabile (1777-80) he demonstrated the theory of digestion by solution, not trituration. He wrote also on reproduction and the heart's action (1768); the circulation of the blood, of which he had the first notions (1777); respiration; and animal nature of infusoria. Spandau, fort, tn., Prussia, 8 m. by rail n.w, of Berlin, at the influx of the Spree into the Havel. Here is the Julius tower, containing, since 1874 the sum of six million pounds in coin for the purpose of immediate use in case of war, the money being part of the war indemnity paid by France after tTie Franco-Ger- man War. Pop. (1905) 70,301. Spaniels comprise one of the six generic groups into which some naturalists have divided the canine race — viz., (1) wolf dogs, (2j spaniels, (3) greyhounds, (4) hounds, (5) mastififs, and (6) ter- riers. The varieties consist of field spaniels, divided into two groups known as springer (the larger) and cocker (the smaller type); water spaniels; and toy" spaniels, both British and foreign. The spaniel characteristics are large, pendulous ears, long, silky hair, curled or shaggy, an acute scent, great intelligence, and a wonderful affection for man. (1.) The Field spaniel (black), a dog to which very great atten- tion has been paid by breeders and fanciers, who have length- ened its body and shortened its legs at the expense of symmetry. This spaniel must be active, with plenty of life, and any resem- blance in shape, action, or move- ment to the basset-hound or dachshund should be discarded. (2.) The Clumber spaniel, so called from the breed having originated at Clumber, in Not- tinghamshire, a seat of the Duke of Newcastle. This variety works mute, and is wonderfully intelli- gent. For covert shooting it is the most popular of all spaniels, and can be trained to hunt in packs and take the place of beaters. (3.) The Norfolk spaniel is Breeds of Spaniels. 1. Field spaniel (black). 2. Irish water spaniel. 3. Crocker. 4. King Charles. 5. Japanese spaniel. 6. Clumber. Spaniels 550 Spanisli-Amerlcan Wat very like the Clumber, but shorter in body. It is distinguished by its color, which is black, liver, and yellow, more or less mixed with white. (4.) The Sussex spaniel is smaller than the Clumber, and weighs from 35 to 40 lbs. It is perhaps the oldest variety of the breed. It is now rare, its place having been taken by the Clum- ber, (5.) The Cocker spaniel is a much smaller dog than the vari- eties previously noticed, scaling from 18 to 25 lbs. They hunt nearly mute, but whimper slightly on a scent, and, when well broken, distinguish each kind of game by the note they orange star must appear. The toy spaniel was brought into favor by the Stewarts. The modern toy spaniel scales between 4 and 10 lbs. The colors in all should be brilliant; dull color is a great defect. (8.) Foreign toy spaniels. There are two varieties, the Pekinese and the Japanese; but both are probably the same breed. They were first imported into England toward the close of the 19th century, and fabulous sums were paid for fancy specimens. Later they began to be seen in New York, The Japanese spaniel, sometimes called the ' sleeve dog,' is black and white or lemon and white in color; coat massive Maine, while in Havana harbor, was blown up, with a loss of 266 of her officers and crew. This catastrophe vastly intensified the feeling in the United States against Spain. After exhausting the re- sources of diplomacy, President McKinley on April 11 sent a mes- sage to Congress saying that 'In the name of humanity, in the name of civilization, in behalf of en- dangered American interests . . . the war in Cuba must stop.' Eight days later Congress passed a joint, resolution declaring that the people of Cuba 'are, and of right ought to be, free and inde- pendent,' demanding that Spain at once^ relinquish her authority in the island, and directing the give out. Their proper quarry is the woodcock. (6.) The Water spaniel. There rre two varieties, the English and the Irish, but the former is sel- dom seen, and its purity of strain is doubtful. The Irish water spaniel is admirable as a re- triever. Its height is about 22 in,, and weight 40 lbs, (7.) Toy spaniels have for many years been drawing-room dogs. There are four varieties, distin- guishable by color only. The King Charles is black and tan; the Prince Charles, black, tan, and white; the ruby, rich red: and the Blenheim, orange and white, with a blaze on its fore- head, in the centre of which an San Juan Hill, from * Bloody Bend.* (Copyright, 1901, by Detroit Photographic Co.) and very silky; tail tightly curled over its back, with flowing plume ; very diminutive, some specimens weighing under 4 lbs,; face short; ears small, but well feathered. Con- sult books mentioned under DoG, Spanish - American War, a conflict fought in 1898 between the United States and Spain, In 1895 a revolt against Spanish authority broke out in Cuba, and much sympathy was felt in the United States for the insurgents, particularly after the Spanish government adopted a 'reconcen- tration' policv that brought suf- fering and death to thousands of the inhabitants of both sexes and of every age. On Feb. 15, 1898, the United States battleship President to use the land and naval forces to accomplish that result. On April 21 the President sent a copy of this resolution to the Span- ish minister, and he thereupon asked for his passports. The ultimatum was also cabled to the American minister at Madrid, Gen. Stewart L. Woodford, but before he had an opportunity to present it to the Spanish govern- ment he was given his passports. On the same day the American fleet at Key West was ordered to blockade Havana; on the 23d the Nashville of this fleet captured a Spanish merchant vessel; and on the 25th Congress formally declared that a state of war had existed since April 21. Spanish-American Wat The first notable conflict oc- curred in the far East. In February Commodore George Dewey, commander of the Amer- ican Asiatic Squadron, had been instructed by assistant secre- tary of the navy Roosevelt to assemble his vessels at Hong- kong and be prepared for opera- tions against the Spanish naval forces in the Philippines. On April 26 a despatch was received by Dewey announcing that war had begun and directing him to 'use utmost endeavors' to cap- ture or destroy the Spanish fleet. In the early morning of May 1 he entered' Manila Bay with seven war vessels and two 351 patliy of the Continental Eu- ropean powers was generally with Spain, and a movement to intervene in her favor would probably have taken place if it had not been for the attitude of Great Britain, By the end of July about 11,000 troops, most- ly volunteers, under command of Gen. Wesley Merritt, had ar- rived, and after a few .compara- tively bloodless conflicts, in which the army was assisted by the fleet, Manila was forced on Aug. 13 to capitulate. Meanwhile still more decisiye events had been taking place in the West Indies. Captain W. T. Sampson (acting rear-admiral) with Spanish-American War which was making her way round South America from California. In the thought that perhaps the Spanish fleet would put in at San Juan, Porto Rico, Captain Sampson visited that port with his fleet, and, not finding Cervcra, bombarded the fortifications and then withdrew. The Spanish fleet had reached Martinique on the preceding day, and from thence, with the exception of one of the destroyers, went to Cura- sao, and finally toward the end of May entered the harbor of San- tiago de Cuba in southern Cuba, where it was a few days later blockaded by both the American fleets, Sampson assuming com- Spanish FortificaHon at El Caney, Cuba. (Copyright, 1901, by Detroit Photographic Co.) auxiliaries, and within a few hours destroyed the forces op- posed to him (see Manila, Bat- tle of). The city of Manila was now at the mercy of the victor, but as he did not have the troops to occupy the place he contented himself with seizing the arsenal of Cavite, instituting a blockade, bringing over from Hong - kong Emilio Aguinaldo, a former in- surgent chieftain, to start a new revolution, and waiting for re- inforcements. Aguinaldo suc- ceeded in his attempt, and soon a large force of natives, partly armed with weapons from the Cavite arsenal, was besieging the citv from the land side. Throughout the war the sym- the North Atlantic Squadron blockaded Havana and other ports as soon as the war began, while Cornmodore W. S. Schley with the 'flying squadron' was held in reserve at Hampton Roads. At the end of April five Spanish cruisers and three torpedo-boat destroyers under Admiral Cer- vera sailed westward from the Cape Verde Islands, and for some weeks the destination of this fleet remained a mystery. Much unnecessary nervousness was felt in some of the American coast towns that the Spaniards medi- tated a descent upon them, and there was a better grounded fear that the fleet might attempt to intercept the battleship Oregon, mand on June 1. The more ef- fectively to bottle up the harbor and prevent any of the Spanish vessels from escaping, Lieut. Richmond P. Hobson (q.v.) and seven men, early on the morning of June 3, attempted to sink a steam collier, the Merrimac, in the entrance of the harbor; but, though the attempt was made with great gallantry, the vessel drifted too far into the harbor to block Cervera's exit. To as- sist the navy, an army of about 15,000 men, mostly regulars, under Major-General Shafter, was despatched from Key West, and on June 22 landed at Daiquiri IG miles southeast of Santiago. On the 24th Gen. Wheeler, with a « Spanish-American War 352 Spanish Fork force of regulars and a regiment of Rough Riders under Col. Wood and Lieut. -Col. Roosevelt, struck the advanced posts of the Span- iards, and won the battle of Las Guasinias. The rest of the army came up a few days later, and on July 1 the main land battle of the war occurred. Gens. Lawton and Chaffee stormed the Spanish fortifications at EI Caney, while the positions about San Juan Hill were captured on the same day in brilliant assaults, led by Col. Roosevelt and Gen, Haw- kins. The total losses of the American forces were 241 killed and about 1,300 wounded, while those of the Spaniards were prob- ably much greater. Although his army had achieved considerable success throughout the campaign, Gen. Shafter now thought of re- treating and waiting for reinforce- expedition under Gen. Nelson A. Miles, the commander-in- chief of the American forceS) was despatched against Porto Rico. The expedition seized Guanica and Ponce on the south coast; defeated the enemy in several skirmishes and captured several other towns; and was advancing on San Juan, when, on Aug. 13, all operations were brought to a standstill by the news that a peace protocol had been signed on the previous day. This protocol, which was the result of negotiations conducted through M. Cambon, the French ambassador at Washington, stip- ulated for a relinquishment by Spain of all claims of sovereignty over Cuba, the cession to the United States of Porto Rico and an island in the Ladrones to be selected by the victor, and for the by the Senate on Feb. 9, 1899, with but one vote to spare; ana was signed by the queen regent on March 17. Consult: Lodge, The War with Spain (1899); Spears, Our Navy in the War wUh Spain (1898); Wheeler, The Santiago Cam- paign (1898); Wilson, The Down- fall of Spain (1900); Bonsai, The Fight for Santiago (1899); Davis, The Cuban and Porto Ricap- Campaigns (1898); Goode, With Sampson through the War (1899); Mahan, Lessons of the War with Spain (1899): and Roosevelt, The Rough Riders (1899). Spanish-American War, Na- val AND Military Order of THE. An organization founded in 1899 to preserve th'^ memories and associations of the war with Spain. Membership is open to those who served as regular or 2t I ments, but he was dissuaded by some of the under officers from doing so, and instead a siege of Santiago was immediately begun. Believing that surrender was in- evitable, Admiral Cervera, having received peremptory orders from Sp'ain, on July 3 issued from the harbor, and. after a running fight, all of nis vessels were de- stroyed or sunk (see Santiago, Battle of- Sampson, W. T,; and Schley, W. S.). The Americans now pressed closer their invest- ment of the city, which was also bombarded by the fleet. On July 10 Gen. Toral, the Spanish commander, signed articles of capitulation, not only for the troops in Santiago, but for those in the vicinity, numbering in all more than 22,000 men. The formal surrender of Santiago took place on July 17. Later in the same month an Morro Castle, Havaiui, Cuba. (Copyright, 1901, by Detroit Photographic Co.) occupation by the United States of the city and bay of Manila pending the conclusion of a defini- tive treaty. This treaty was ne- gotiated at Paris, the head ot the American commission being Judge WilHam R. Day, who had just resigned the position of sec- retary of state. The American commissioners demanded the ces- sion of the Philippines. To this the Spaniards objected with great vigor and many arguments; but the islands were ultimately ceded to the United States, which paid $20,000,000 in return, and also agreed that for ten years Spanish ships should be admitted into the islands on the same terms as those of the United States. Persistent efforts were made to induce the Americans to assume the Cuban debt, but without success. The treaty was signed on Dec. 10; was ratified volunteer commissioned officers or as naval or military cadets, and to the olde^ male descend- ants of original members. The headquarters of the National Commandery are in New York. State Commanderies have been established in New York, Massa- chusetts, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Ohio, Connecticut, and California. Spanish Fly. See Canthar- IDES. Spanish Fork, chy, Utah cc, Utah, 45 m. s. by E. of Salt Lake City, on the Rio Grande W. and the S. Ped,, Los A. and Sah L. R. Rs. It is an agricultural, trade, and manufacturing centre. Sugar beets are extensively raised in the district and copper, gold,_ coal, and iron are found. An irriga- tion project by the government is to cost $1,500,000. It was set- tled about 1852 and incorporated in 1857. Pop.(1910) 3,464. Spanish Legion 353 Sp arrow-hawk Spanish Legion. See Evans George de Lacy. Spanish Main, name applied indiscriminately to the Carib- bean Sea and to the Spanish possessions washed by it on the coasts of Central and S. America. The latter was the original mean- ing. Spanish Reformed Church, originated in Mexico, after the establishment of the Mexican republic, from a Protestant mis- sion introduced by Miss Rankin in 1866. The converts approached the American Episcopal Church, and Dr. H. C. Riley was conse- crated first bishop of the Mexican Reformed Church (1879). Since then two other bishops have been consecrated. The movement then spread to Spain. Lord Plunket, bishop of Meath, and afterward archbishop of Dublin, appealed in its behalf in 1881. There are re- formed congregations at Seville and Malaga. The reforming movement has also reached Por- tugal. A liturgy has been drawn up from the English Book of Common Prayer and from an- cient Mozarabic sources. Spanish Town, tn., Jamaica, W. Indies, 12 m. w. of Kingston; was formerly the capital of the island. Pop. about 6,000. Spanish War Veterans, United. An organization founded in 1904 by the consolidation of the Spanish War Veterans, Span- ish-American War Veterans, and Service Men of the Spanish War. Membership is open to regular and volunteer soldiers, sailors, and marines who served during the war with Spain or in the Philippine insurrection. The so- ciety is a social organization, in- tended to keep alive the history of the war. It holds annual meet- ings. The headquarters of the National Encampment are in Cleveland, O. Spar, a term popularly applied to crystallized vitreous, cleavable minerals, and in some instances adopted by the mineralogist to designate some of the most abun- dant species, such as calc-spar, fluor-spar. Formerly the spars were considered a group by them- selves. The present chemical basis of classification makes them of very different relationships. • Sparaxis, a genus of South African bulbous plants, belonging to the order Iridiceae. They bear large flowers, mostly yellow, and are often cultivated as green- house plants. Spark Discharge. See Elec- tro-magnetic Waves. Sparlis, Jared (1789-1866), American historian, born in Willington, Conn. He graduated at Harvard in 1815; fought against the British in Maryland in 1813- and during 1817-19 studiecl divinity at Harvard and was acting editor of the North Ameri- can Review. In the latter year he became pastor of a Unitarian church at Baltimore; was ap- pointed chaplain of the Federal House of Representatives in 1821; and in 1823 returned to Boston, bought the North American Review, and edited it during the years 1824-1831. In 1825 he Degan to edit the writings of George Washington, and the result was published in twelve volumes in the years 1834-38. The first volume, which contained a life of Washington, was also pubHshed separately in 1839, and an abridged edition of the whole work in two volumes ap- E eared in 1843. In 1830 he egan to publish the American Almanac and Repository of Useful Knowledge; during 1839-49 was professor of ancient and modern history in Harvard; and was president of the institution during 1849-53. Among his numerous other publications are: Life of John Ledyard (1828); Diplomatic Correspondence of the American Revolution (12 vols. 1829-30); Life of Gouverneur Morris (3 vols. 1832); Correspondence of the American Revolution (4 vols. 1853), and Works of Benjamin Franklin, with Notes and a Life of the Author (10 vols. 1836-40). He was also the editor of The Library of A merican Biography (10 vols. 1834-8), containing twenty- six lives, and a second series (15 vols. 1844-7) containing thirty- four lives. As a pioneer in the field of American history Sparks is entitled to great credit, and his works have been much used; but unfortunately he had a habit of changing the wording of the documents which he edited and of omitting passages without warning, and in consequence his compilations have now been largely superseded by more trust- worthy works. Consult his Life by H. B. Adams (2 vols. 1893). Sparling, or Speriing, the Scottish name for the smelt. Sparrow (Passer), a genus of finches, which includes F. do- mesticus, the house sparrow. The members of the genus are widely distributed over the Old WorM, and may be recognized by the short, stout bill and the short wings. The diet of the house sparrow is very varied, but al- though in the early part of the year the bird is useful in that it feeds its young upon insect larvae, yet the fact that the adults are excessively destructive both in gardens and to the crops of the farmer more than counterbalances this benefit. The sparrow is an active and pugnacious bird, and drives away useful insect-eating forms, such as the house martin. In plumage there is a distinct dif- ference between the sexes, and some variation in color according to the season. The adult male may be recognized by the black throat. Partial albinos arc not at all infrequent. The nest is very roughly constructed, and is usually of straw or grass; but the birds are also partial to rags, especially if these are brightly colored. There is always a thick lining of feathers. Several broods are reared in a season. There are from five to six eggs in a clutch, these being bluish-white, speckled or blotched with brown and black. The com- mon sparrow is now scattered throughout nearly the whole civil- ized world, where it has followed colonists. It was introduced into the United States about 1850, and has now spread all over the country, and is everywhere a lively denizen of towns and vil- lages, in the latter doing some damage to fruit buds, and making war on the small native birds, especially the swallows, which it has driven from barns formerly thronged with these pleasanter visitors. Hence the bird is usually regarded as a great nuisance. The native sparrows of North America are many, and all wear the characteristic brown-streaked plumage of the group. Among the best known are the small chestnut-capped chipping spar- row of gardens; the song-sparrow, whose song is among the finest heard in American fields; the little active seashore sparrows; the white-throat and the large, hand- some fox sparrow. See Finch. Sparrow - hawlc [A cc ipiter nisus), a small but bold and rapa- Sparrow-hawk. cious hawk, which inhabits wood- ed districts throughout the Tem- perate Zone. It is very variable in size and color, but is about thir- teen inches long in the male, the female exceeding this measure- ment by nearly two and a half inches. In the adult male the plumage of the upper parts is dark bluish-gray; the under sur- face, cheeks, and chin are rufous, barred with brown; the tail has from three to five dark bands. It feeds upon the smaller mam- mals and on birds, and frequently captures young poultry. The bird Sparta " 354 Sparta usually builds its own nest, which is placed in a tree. In Europe the sparrow - hawk was formerly employed extensively in hawk- ing, and the sport is still pur- sued in Hungary. In India and Japan it is also prized by fal- coners. There are in all about twenty species of sparrow-hawk. Sparta, the chief city of La- conia, in the Peloponnesus of Greece. It was also called La- cedaemon, which was the original name of the country. Sparta stood on the right bank of the Eurotas, on some low hills run- one royal house was Dorian, the other Achaean or pre-Acha;an, though later legends traced both dynasties back to Heracles. Be- sides the SpartiatcT, or Spartan citizens proper, there were two other classes in the state — the Helots and the Perioeci. The former were the descendants of the conquered population; the latter either Dorians dwelling in other communities than Sparta it- self, or non-Dorians who had made terms with the invaders without being conquered. Thev had no political rights in the state, secret police was kept up to watch tnem, and to remove per- sons of dangerous ability. About 424 B.C. the government issued a proclamation asking all Helots who claimed to have done good service in the war to give in their names. About two thousand did so, and were crowned and treated with honor, and shortly after- ward all were done to death in secrecy. Again, in 403 a rising of the Helots was with difficulty put down. The establishment of the Spartan constitution was at- tributed to Lycurgus, but modern critics regard his existence as legendary. In any case the con- stitution was the result of a com- promise. The two kings were perpetual commanders-in-chief of the army; they had the right of making war as they chose, but were accompanied by two ephors on their campaigns, and were re- sponsible to the people for their conduct. They also held certain priesthoods and judicial func- tions, possessed royal domains and a variety of personal privi- leges. The oligarchic element in the state was the council of elders, consisting of twenty-eight men over sixty years of age, with the two kings. They were chosen by acclamation in the assembly. This, the democratic element in the state, consisted of all free citizens over thirty years of age. The ephors, the most character- istic and powerful element in the state, were elected by the people, and were five in number. They could indict and judge the kings, and were the supreme civil court at Sparta; the council of elders was the supreme criminal court. The ephors were. also responsible for the maintenance of order and discipline. This discipline was practically a perpetual military training. No deformed child was reared; from the age of seven every boy was taken away from his mother's side and trained to war and hardship. He wore the same scanty clothing summer and winter, slept on the bare ground, and was exercised in hunting, gymnastics, and the use of weapons. At twenty the youths joined the army, and were en- rolled in the military messes or syssitia. Even when allowed to marry, a Spartan could only live with his wife by stealth. The Spartan women, too, were trained to gymnastics; they were re- nowned for their beauty and their heroism, and also for their in- fluence over the men. Wealth in Sparta consisted chiefly in land. The use and possession of money was forbidden; instead of coin, bars of iron were used until 320 B.C., though long previous to that silver coin was in circulation. Such a state of society pre- vented any growth of litera- Ancient Sparta. ning down from Mt. Taygetus. It was, in fact, an aggregation of five villages. In the Mycenaean age Amyclae was the chief town in the district. In Homer, Mene- laus is king of Sparta; this fact implies that Achaean conquerors superseded the native rulers. Soon after the Trojan War, prob- ably about 1100 B.C., the Dorian invasion took place, and it was in Sparta that the Dorian char- acter and institutions were dis- played to the fullest extent. The most obvious explanation of the double kingship at Sparta is that though they were free, and man- aged their own local affairs; they also served in the Spartan armies. The Helots were serfs of ^ the people, not of individuals, and were attached to the soil; they cultivated the land of Spartan owners, paying them a certain proportion of the produce. They served in the army as light troops, attendants of the Spartans, and sometimes as regular infantry. But they were always regarded with suspicion by the Spartan government, as they v^ere more numerous than the citizens; a Sparta 355 Spasm ture or art; though in the eighth and seventh centuries B.C., before the system was crystallized into its later rigidity, Spartan poets and musicians were famous, and the names of Spartan artists are known. But after 600 B.C. Spar- ta's one trade was war; all alien influences were discouraged, and the wit of Sparta found its only expression in the many 'laconic' sayings quoted by ancient writers. Sparta, in two great wars dated traditionally about 725 and 625 B.C., conquered Messenia, ex- pelled its kings, and made the Messenians Helots. In the sixth century she overpowered Argos, though without destroying that city's independence, and became the head of a league which in- cluded nearly all the states in the Peloponnesus, and many, such as Athens, outside. Accord- ingly, Sparta headed Greece against the Persian invasions (480 B.C.); but her conduct sub- sequently disgusted many Greeks, and the Athenian confederacy was established as a rival to that of Sparta. The Peloponnesian War (431-404 B.C.) restored the supremacy in Greece to Sparta; but again her domineering treat- ment of her allies caused her to lose her power, and in 371 the Theban victory at Leuctra re- duced her to a secondary position in Greece. In 369 B.C. the The- bans restored liberty to Messenia. Sparta was captured by the Macedonians in 221 B.C. It then joined the Achaean League, was ruled by the tyrants, Nabis and others, and in 146 was conquered by Rome. The new town of Sparta, which was founded in 1834 after the restoration of Greek independ- ence, is a regularly built place, with broad streets and gardens, and a population of 4,000. Spar'ta, city, Illinois, Ran- dolph county, on the Mobile and Ohio and the Missouri Illinois Railroads; 56 miles southeast of St. Louis. The leading industries are coal mining, railroad repair shops, and the manufacture of ploughs and harrows, ice, flour, and planing-mill products. Pop. (1910) 3,081; (1920) 3,340. Sparta, city, Wisconsin, county seat of Monroe county, on the La Crosse River, and the Chi- cago, Milwaukee and St. Paul and the Chicago and North Western Railroads; 24 miles northeast of La Crosse. The more important institutions in- clude a State school for depen- dent children, and a public library. The city is a shipping point for small fruits, tobacco, and live-stock. Pop. (1910) 3,973; (1920) 4,466. Spar'tacides, Spartacans, or Spartacists, the name assumed by the 'Spartacus group' of Inde- pendent Socialists in Germany who, after the signing of the Armistice of 1918 (see Armis- tice) attempted, in Berlin and elsewhere, to overthrow the tem- porary German government and to substitute therefor a reign of the proletariat akin to Bolshe- vism (q. v.). The most credible interpretation of the name ex- cludes its association with that of Spartacus (q. v.), the Thracian gladiator, and points to its em- ployment by Dr. Karl Liebnecht as a pseudonym signed to his anti-war pamphlets early in the war — revolutionary writers in Germany having frequently af- fected the classical. Liebnecht appeared as the leader of the Spartacan movement soon after his liberation from prison, in the first week of November, 1918, under the amnesty decree of the Imperial Chancellor, Prince Max- imilian. Formerly a member of the Reichstag for Potsdam, and all his life a bitter opponent of German militarism, he had, in August, 1916, been convicted of 'war-treason' and sentenced to penal servitude. Emerging from prison his overtures to the dele- gates of the Soldiers' and Work- ers' Council, then controlling Berlin, were rejected, whereupon he associated himself with the anarchist, Rosa Luxemburg, a Russian-Polish Jewess who had married a Dresden physician (leaving him next day) merely to acquire German citizenship. A Spartacan manifesto issued in Berlin, Nov. 26, 1918, called upon the proletarians of all nations to unite against the common enemy, capital, and outbreaks followed in Berlin and other German cities. On Jan. 7 civil war raged in the capital; on Jan. 11 the Ebert Government had managed to gain the ascendancy. Meanwhile came reports of disorders in the Rhine towns; of rioting in Dres- den, Hamburg, Augsburg, and Dusseldorf. On Jan. 14 the ar- rest of Dr. Liebnecht was or- dered; while in custody of the soldiers he attempted to escape, and was shot and killed. Almost at the same time, Rosa Luxem- burg was seized by a mob and lynched. But Spartacan activi- ties did not cease. In Bremen, Wilhelmshaven, and Munich re- volts were suppressed with diffi- culty. The general elections late in January 1919 proved a victory for orderly Government, but dis- orders continued through Febru- ary and March, after which the movement died out. Spar'tacus, Roman gladiator, was by birth a Thracian. After being by turns a shepherd, a sol- dier, and a brigand chief, he was taken prisoner by the Romans, and sold to a trainer of gladiators. In 73 B.C. he and two Gaulish fellow prisoners broke loose with about seventy comrades, and took refuge in the crater of Vesu- vius. Spartacus then proclaimed freedom to slaves; and for two years he defeated all the armies sent against him, finally having 100,000 men under his command, and holding all Lucania and Bruttium. He was defeated and slain by Crassus in 71 B.C. Spar'tanburg, city. South Car- olina, county seat of Spartanburg county, on the Charleston and Western Carolina, the Southern, and the Carolina, Clinchfield and Ohio Railroads, 93 miles north- west of Columbia. It is the seat of Wofford College (men) and Converse College (women), the Kennedy Free Library, and a State institution for the deaf and blind. According to the Federal Census for 1919, industrial estab- lishments number 61, with $9,- 588,547 capital, and products valued at $11,991,321. Cotton mills alone number 33, and em- ploy 10,000 persons. A $5,000,- 000 bleachery and finishing plant, iron works, fertilizer and lumber mills, and cotton-seed products plants are the chief industrial establishments. The city has the commission form of government. A large army training camp was established here in 1917. Pop. (1900) 11,395; (1910) 17,517; (1920) 22,638. Spasm, a violent and involun- tary contraction of a muscle, or a group of muscles, or of a mus- cular organ. The contraction may be either continuous — i.e. 'tonic' — or contraction and re- laxation alternating in quick, jerky succession may produce the form of spasm known as 'clonic' Cramp is tonic in character, while convulsions are typical of clonic contraction. Spasm is essential- ly a nervous disorder, and has its centre in the medulla oblongata. This centre is stimulated by the sudden interruption of the nor- mal gaseous interchange between the blood and the tissues; also by the rapid destruction of the me- dulla. It is further acted upon by certain drugs; many poisons, both inorganic and organic, pro- ducing spasms and convulsions before death. Injury and elec- trical stimulation of the motor areas of the cortex cerebri have both been followed not only by localized but by general convul- sions. Uraemia frequently pro- duces general convulsions. A very large group of neuroses, or functional disorders of the nervous system, are classified as spasmodic. Spasm is the chief symptom in cramp, histrionic spasm, wry-neck, writer's cramp, tetany, chorea, tarantism, hydro- phobia, tetanus, paralysis agi- tans, epilepsy, strychnine poison- ing, and many forms of hysteria. To these may be added asthma, hay fever, Raynaud's disease, laryngismus stridulus, whooping Vol. XL— March '24 Spathe 356 Species cough, renal, biliary, and intes- tinal colic, vesical and rectal spasm, and those cases of angina pectoris that are due to spas- modic contraction of the coronary arteries of the heart. As a rule, rest and warmth are indicated, with local and general nerve seda- tives, although in a large num- ber of spasmodic affections coun- ter-irritation and stimulation are essential. Spathe, spath, in botany, a large bract which occurs on the peduncle below an inflorescence. A fleshy spike "of flowers cov- ered by a spathe is termed a spadix. In palms the spathe usu- ally takes the form of a broad blade. Spathic Iron Ore, another name for Siderite (q. v.). Spavin. See Horse. S. P. C. A. See Cruelty to Animals. S. P. C. C. See Cruelty to Children, Speaker, The, the presiding officer in various legislative bodies of English-speaking countries, in- cluding the House of Representa- tives at Washington, the British Houses of Parliament, the lower houses of the State legislatures of the United States, the Australian House of Representatives, the houses of the Federal Parliament of Canada, and of the provincial or state legislatures in these and other self-governing British col- onies. There is a fundamental difference between the functions of the speaker of the House of Representatives at Washington and the speaker of the House of Commons in London. The for- mer not only presides over the deliberations of the House, but is the chief of his party therein, and advances the party interests according to his power and op- portunities. He appoints the committees, and has the right to vote and debate. The British speaker presides over and en- forces the rules of the House of Commons, but his office is non- political. He cannot debate, and has only a casting vote when the votes on opposite sides of a ques- tion are equal. Spealcing Trumpet, an instru- ment for artificially magnifying the sound of the human voice, formerly much used at sea, but now somewhat superseded by the use of the megaphone or by the semaphore, steam, and other methods of signalling, though still of great service in giving orders in a storm. In the United States navy it is the recognized badge of the officer of the deck when at sea. The invention ascribed to Sir Samuel Morland (1670), has been also assigned to Athanasius Kircher. Spear, a weapon of offense, consisting of a wooden shaft or pole varying in length up to 8 or Vol. XL— March "24 9 feet, and provided with a sharp piercing point. The spear may be regarded as the prototype of the various forms of piercing weapons, such as the arrow, bolt, and dart, which are projected from bows, catapults, or other engines, and the javelin, assegai, and lance, held in or thrown by the hand. The longer and heavier spears and lances are mainly retained in the hand while in use, but there is no absolute dis- tinction, and the throwing of a spear has in all ages been a form of offen- sive warfare. In its earliest form the spear would natural- ly consist of a simple pole of tough wood sharpened to a point at one ex- tremity, which point might be both formed and hardened by charring in fire. From this an improve- ment would consist in fitting to the shaft a separate spear head of bone, as is still practised amongst primi- tive races. No trace of these early spears remains to us, but of the more developed forms having heads of chipped flint or other hard stones examples are plentiful. The bronze spear heads found in Northern Europe were cast with sockets, into which the end of the shaft was inserted, but on the eastern Mediterranean coasts tanged spear-heads were used. The war lance of the mediaeval knights was 16 feet long. The modern spears of savage tribes, used equally for hunting and for warlike purposes, are frequently barbed with fish and other bones, and their fighting spears have sometimes poisoned tips. Spearmint. See Mint. Spear'wort, a name given to certain species of the genus Ra- nunculus on account of their nar- row, tapering leaves. The creep- ing R. pusillus and R. reptans are among our spearworts. Special Sessions, in England, a court formed by two or more justices of the peace sitting to- gether for the trial of important cases within their jurisdiction, in New York, a criminal court, consisting of three judges sitting together, without a jury, for the Various Forms of Spears 1-5. Prehistoric Irish (bronze.) 6, 7. Prehistoric British. 8. Anglo-Saxon (iron). 9. Japanese. 10, 11. Mediaeval types. 12. German boar spear (16th century). 13, 14. West African. 15. Philippine. 16. Bantu. trial of misdemeanors and petty criminal cases. Specialty Debt. By the com- mon law, a debt secured by deed — i.e. by writing under seal — as distinguished from a simple con- tract debt, or from a debt of record, such as a judgment or recognizance. In most jurisdic- tions actions to recover specialty debts may be brought at any time within twenty years, where- as in the case of simple contract debts the period of limitation is six years. See Seal. Specie, spe'shi, metallic cur- rency, as against paper money (bank notes, etc.) , which is ordin- arily redeemable in specie. Banks have sometimes suspended specie payments in time of financial panic. Spe'cies, one of the grades in biological classification — a group of individuals, fertile inter se, and resembling one another in certain distinctive hereditary characters which mark them off from other groups Three criteria of well- gpecies established species are: — (1.) The distinctive specific characters which the members share should show some degree of constancy from generation to generation, and they should not be similar- ities directly acquired in each individual lifetime through the influence of similar conditions of life. (2.) The distinctions be- tween one species and another should always be of greater mag- nitude than the distinctive fea- tures which may characterize the members of a family (using the word family here to mean the Erogeny of a pair). (3.) The mem- ers of a species are normally fertile inter se, but not usually or not readily, with members of other species. In fact, the evolu- tion of distinct species has in part depended on a restriction of the range of fertile intercrossing. A species often means, however, nothing more than a group of individuals whose common and distinctive features seem to natu- ralists important enough to war- rant the use of a special name. It should be clearly understood that a species is a relative concep- tion — a. device for scientific con- venience when we wish to include under one title all the members of a group of individuals who resemble one another in certain distinctive hereditary characters. But as resemblances which seem important to one naturalist may seem trivial to others, there are often wide differences of opinion as to how many species should be recognized in any particular case. Thus Haeckel says of cal- careous sponges that, as the naturalist hkes to look at the problem, there are 3 species, or 21, or 289, or 591! When we study a large number of more or less similar organ- isms, we find that they can be ar- ranged in groups. In each group there is, so to speak, a densely packed centre of closely similar individuals, and a more sparsely peopled periphery of more diver- gent forms. This big fact of ob- servation may be expressed with precision by measuring particular characters throughout a large number of similar individuals, and plotting out a curve, known as the curve of frequency. It will then be seen that the great majority of the individuals meas- ured occupy an area near the top of the curve, and that there are only a few at the two basal ends. Whether we call one of these groups a variety, a subspecies, a species, or a genus, matters little. These groups represent stages in an evolutionary process: they are never quite constant, and often fade into one another, being linked by the divergent outliers or variants of each group. It remains to give an illustra- VOL. XI.— 24. 357 tion of the different grades of classification. All the tigers are said to form the species Felis Tigris, of the genus Felis, in the family Fclidoe, in the order Car- nivora, within the class Mam- malia, in the series or phylum Vertebrata. The resemolances of all tigers are very close; well marked, though not so close, are the resemblances^ between tigers, lions, leopards, jaguars, pumas, cats, etc., which form the genus Felis; broader still are the re- semblances between all members of the cat family Felidee, which includes, besides the genus Felis, the cheetah {CyncElurus), the extinct 'sabre - toothed tiger' {Mach'xrodus), etc.; still wider . the likenesses between all the cats, dogs, bears, and seals which form the order Carnivora; even more general are the affinities of structure which bind mammals together in contrast to birds or reptiles; and, finally, there are the common characters of all vertebrate or chordate animals. A list of about a score of defini- tions of 'species' will be fcund in Quatrefages's Darwin et ses Precurseurs frangais (1870). Romanes in his Darwin and after Darwin (vol. ii. 1895) reduced the number of logically possible definitions to five. Specification. See Patents. Specific Gravity, or Relative Density, is the comparison of the heaviness of a substance with that of a standard substance, and may thus be defined as the num- ber of times the weight of a cer- tain volume of the substance contains the weight of the same volume of the standard. In the case of solids and liquids, water at the point of its maximum density — i.e. at 4'^ c. — is usually taken as the standard; while in the case of gases, air, or, better, hydrogen, measured under the same conditions of temperature and pressure as the gas m ques- tion, is employed. As the result in either case is a ratio, the specific gravity is independent of the actual volume, weights or system of weights and measures used, and is numerically equal to the absolute density, or weight of unit volume, if the unit of volume of the standard substance is of unit weight, as in the metric system is the case with water. Methods of Determination. — For solids and liquids two general principles are relied on to deter- mine specific gravities — viz.: (1) by weighing measured volumes; (2) by measuring buoyancy. In the case of liquids the measure- ment of their hydrostatic pres- sure can also be utilized. The methods employed for gases are in general similar in principle, and are described in the article on gas and vapor density. In Specific Gravity the weighing method a suitable vessel to contain a measured quantity of the substance is weighed, filled to the mark with the substance, if a liquid, and weighed again. The process is then repeated with water, and the weight of the substance is divided by the weight of the equal volume of the water. Due regard has to be taken of the temperature, the substance being Specific Gravity Bottle. A, Mark to which stopper is pushed down. either measured at the required temperature or the volume cor- rected by calculation from the coefficient of expansion. In using this method for solids, the diffi- culty that they cannot be made to fit exactly into the vessel is got over by filling up the inter- stices with water, the weight of which is subtracted from the weight of water filling the whole vessel in order to get the weight of water equal in volume to the substance. The vessels used in the above methods are called pyknometers or specific gravity bottles, and consist essentially Sprengel's Pyknometer. of a bottle with a very narrow neck or perforated stopper, so that the Dottle can be nlled ex- actly with the same quantity ot liquid each time. The difficulty of filling is got over by the plan suggested by Sprengel of using a U-tube with very narrow tubes sealed to each limb into which the liquid can be readily sucked. In the case of solids a wider aperture must be provided, so that the solid can be inserteq Specific Gravity in small pieces; this opening is afterwams closed by a stopper, and the bottle or tube filled up with water as described. With solids that are affected by water, liquids such as petroleum or benzine may be used, or the volume may be determined by the volumenometer, which also allows for pores in the substance not readily filled hj liquids. This instrument consists of an air-tight vessel to enclose the solid, connected by a tube to a mercury reservoir, so that the pressure on the contained gas can be varied. The increase in volume caused by a given dim- inution of pressure from P to pi is read when the vessel is empty; when in accordance with Boyle's law the volume, v, of air in the vessel is found from the equation, VP = (vi 4- v)pi, whence v =— — j. Repeating with the solid in posi- tion, a second and smaller value for v will be found, the difference giving the volume of the solid, so that if its weight is known the specific gravity can be calculated. The buoyancy methods, which are very varied in detail, depend upon the principle discovered by Archimedes, that a body im- mersed in a liquid is buoj^ed up by a force equal to the weight of liquid it displaces. Thus, if an object is weighed first in air, and then, when suspended by a thread, in water, it weighs less the second time by an amount equal to the weight of water equal in volume to itself. This weight, divided as before into the weight of the ob- ject, gives the specific gravity. In applying this method to liquids, it is only necessary to find the loss of weight of an object both in the liquid and in water to ob- tain the necessary weights of equal volumes of the two. Hy- drometers, Mohr's specific gravity balance, and the use of 'heavy liquids' also depend on the prin- ciple of buoyancy. Hydrometers are of two kinds — viz. of fixed and variable immersion. Nichol- son's hydrometer is an example of the first kind, and consists of a hollow brass cylinder with conical ends, provided with a weighted basket at the lower end to make it float upright, and a pan supported on a thin vertical wire at the upper end. The in- strument is adjusted by weights on the pan so as always to be immersed to a fixed point on the wire. If the weights required to produce this when immersed in water and in the liquid of which the specific gravity is sought are added to the weight of the in- strument, the weights of equal volumes of the liquid and of water are obtained, and hence the specific gravity. The specific gravity of a solid can also be 358 determined if it is first placed in the upper pan and then in the basket, the hydrometer being ad- justed with weights each time; the difference between the weights used with and without the object in the upper pan gives its weight in air, while its weight in water is equal to the difference of weights used when the body is in the pan and in the basket. The specific gravity is then calculated in the same way as before. Mohr's specific gravity balance is on the same principle as the Nicholson hydrometer, a plummet or loaded glass weight being sunk to the same point by placing riders or D-shaped weights on a balanced beam, from which the weight is hung by a fine wire. It is, how- ever, much more sensitive and easy to work with, as the plummet and weights are made of such sizes as to give specific gravities without calculation Specific gravity beads are fixed immersion hydrometers, and con- sist of small differently weighted bulbs that sink or swim in a liquid according to its density, which is that of the bead that remains in equilibrium, neither sinking nor floating. The same principle is made use of in deter- mining the. density of minerals, a heavy liquid being adjusted by admixture with a light one till the fragments of the substance are just in equilibrium; the spe- cific gravity of the liquid is after- ward found by a hydrometer or otherwise. Suitable heavy liquids are methylene iodide, solutions of thallium and silver nitrates, mercury and potassium iodides. H3^drometers of variable im- mersion are usually light hollow Hydrometers. A, Usual form. B, U. S. Internal Revenue pattern. glass spindles weighted by shot or mercury. The divisions on them are of unequal size, for as the volumes immersed are in- Specific Gravity yersely as the densities of the liquids, the spaces representing equal increments in densit}^ di- minish harmonically. Variable Sikes's Hydrometer. A, Weight to be slipped on at c. immersion hydrometers are made of special forms and sizes to test the specific gravities of particular liquicls, such as alcohol, milk, urine. The U. S. Treasury Dept. in its internal revenue service uses a series of carefully adjusted hy- drometers for determining the amount of alcohol in various dis- tilled liquors. In Great Britain for a similar purpose Sikes's hydrometer is used. It is made of gilded brass, and is provided with weights (a) that can be placed to the stem to increase the range; the graduations represent .00175 difference in specific gravity, and are convertible into degrees under and over proof by gradu- ated scales. In using the hydrostatic pres- sure method of measuring spe- cific gravities, the liquid is poured into one limb of a vertical (J -tube and water into the other, care being taken that the less dense liquid is not forced round the bend, and the heights of the bal- ancing columns measured. Then, as the product of the height of the liquid into its specific gravity is equal to the same product in the case of the water column, the specific gravity of the liquid is found by dividing the height of its column into that of the water. With liquids that mix with water the columns are sucked up from different beakers into an inverted U-tube by a branch tube at the bend, so that the liquids are separated by an air space. The same principle is then applied. Specific Heat 359 In general, substances vary to, but differs widely with the considerably in specific gravity, material of which the body is Thus, ordinary liquids, with the composed. In order to express exception of mercury, which has a this difference, it is necessary to specific gravity of 13.6, range from formulate a standard unit of heat, about .6 to 3, and homogeneous The one most commonly used is solids from under 1 to over 22. the quantity of heat that is re- Figures for the specific gravities quired to raise the temperature of the elements are given under of unit mass of water one degree. Elements, and those of other In metric units this is called a substances under their specific 'calorie,' and is the heat required headings. A table of the specific to raise the temperature of 1 gram gravities of a. few common sub- of water 1° c; in British units the stances is given below. Full British Thermal Unit (b.th.u.) is tables have been compiled by the heat required to raise 1 lb. of F. W. Clarke, and published by water 1° r. As the quantity of the Smithsonian Institution. The heat required to raise the tem- practical details of carrying out perature of a body varies some- the various methods may be what with the temperature, the found in Kohlrausch's Physical unit is usually specified to be Measurements, Ostwald's Phy- measured at 15° c, or else the sico - Chemical Measurements mean value between 0° and 100*^' C. (trans. Walker, 1894), and Glaze- is chosen; the two values, how- brook and Shaw's Practical ever, differ but slightly. Instead Physics (1893). See also Hy- of using a water standard, it is DROMETER. perhaps more scientific to express quantities of heat in the absolute Table of Specific Gravities. units of mechanical work into Solids. which the heat can be converted Aluminium .... 2.7 (see Thermodynamics); but un- Brass 8.4-8.7 til the exact value of the ratio Clay 1.8-2.6 between the two is more definitely Coal 1.2-1.7 decided, the water standard will Copper ..... 8.9 probably be retained, especially Diamond 3.5 as in practice most measurements Ebony 1.1-1.2 are compared with it. Gold 19.3 Methods of Determination. — Glass 2.4-3.4 The method of determining spe- Granite 2.5-2.9 cific heats most frequently used Ice .92 is the 'method of mixtures.' A Iron 7.8 known weight of the substance. Lead 11.3 best in small pieces, at a known Marble 2.5-2.8 high temperature is mixed with a Oak 85-.95 known weight of water at a lower Pinewood .... .5 temperature, and the temperature Quartz 2.65 of the mixture is taken. Then, Silver 10.6 as the heat given out by the hot Sugar 1.59 substance in cooling to the tem- Sulphur .... 1.98-2.07 perature of the mixture is equal Tin 7.3 to that received by the cold water Zinc 7.1 in being warmed up, the product of the specific heat of the sub- Liquids. stance into its mass and fall of Alcohol .80 temperature is equal to the prod- Ammonia solution . . .88 uct of the mass of the water into Benzine .89 its rise of temperature, the spe- Ether .73 cific heat of the water being, by Glycerin 1.26 definition, unity. Due allowance Hydrochloric acid . . 1.27 must be made for the heat re- Mercury 13.6 quired to warm the vessel (calo- Milk 1.03 rimeter) in which the experiment Nitric acid .... 1.56 is carried out, and for heat lost Sea-water .... 1.03 to the atmosphere; and the Sulphuric acid ... 1.85 method needs to be further modi- Tufpentine 86-.89 fied, if the substance and water Gases (compared with water). interact, by substituting some Air .00129 other liquid for water. In this 4mmonia 00077 case, as m the case of liquids, in Carbon dioxide . . . .00198 which a hot soHd, such as iron or Chlorine 00316 copper, is added to the Hquid, the Hydrogen 00009 specific heat of the substance used Nitrogen 00126 instead of water requires to be known; and from the fact that Specific Heat. The quantity the product of the specific heat of heat required to raise the tem- into the change of temperature perature of a body is proportional and mass of both substances is the to the mass of the body, and same, the unknown specific heat nearly proportional to the range can be calculated. This process of temperature it is to be raised requires considerable quantities Specific Heat of the substance in question in order to get an accurate result— a difficulty avoided in Bunsen's ice calorimeter. Ice calorimeters, which depend on the fact that to melt unit weight of ice requires approximately eighty times as much heat as is required to raise the same weight of water one de- gree, were invented by Black, but did not give very good results, owing to the difficulty of measur- ing the amount of ice melted. This was obviated by Bunsen, Bunsen's Calorimeter. who measured the contraction caused by the melting of ice, this being equal to .09 c.c. per gram melted. In Bunsen's instrument a test tube is sealed into and en- closed by an outer tube, the lower part of which, together with a tube leading from it to a narrow gauge, is filled with mercury. Water fills the upper part of the outer tube, and is frozen round the test tube; the whole appara- tus is then immersed in snow, to grevent the ice from being melted y outside heat. The substance of weight (w) is then dropped into the test tube, and the volume (v) by which the mercury recedes in the gauge is measured; the specific heat of the substance can be calculated from the rela- V X 80 = .09 X W X t ^ ^^^^^ ' is the fall of temperature of the substance. The rate at which a substance loses heat by radiation can also be utilized to measure its specific heat by noting the times that heated quantities of it and of water take to cool through a given range under exactly similar cir- cumstances. This method can, however, only be applied to liquids, the specific heat being given by dividing the product of the time taken by the substance into the mass of the water by the product of the time taken by the water into the mass of the liquid. In determining the specific heat of gases, not only do practical difficulties arise owing to the bulk of the gas, but also there is the theoretical difficulty that gases have a different specific heat according to whether they are allowed to expand when heated Specific Heat 360 Spectacles or not. This is due to the fact that when a body expands in the open air it does work in pushing back the atmosphere; and this work requires a corresponding amount of heat to be expended. This amount is neghgible in the case of solids and liquids, but ow- ing to the great expansibihty it becomes appreciable in the case of gases. In order to measure the specific heat of gases at con- stant pressure, the gas is con- ducted through a worm heated to a known temperature, and is then passed through a spirally divided chamber immersed in the water in a calorimeter, which is warmed up at the expense of the heat of the gas. The calculation is per- formed as in the method of mix- tures given above. The specific heat of gases at constant volume may be determined by Joly's steam calorimeter, in which a large globe containing the compressed gas is immersed in steam, some of which is condensed in warming up the gas and globe. Allowance is made for the heat used in warm- ing the globe by making a simi- lar measurement with an empty globe, and the specific heat is cal- culated from the relation s.H. = w X 536 ^ J ^Yie weight of water condensed, 536 is the latent heat of steam, wi is the weight of the gas, and i its rise of tempera- ture. The ratio of the specific heats of a gas at constant volume should be as 1.66: 1 if the gas con- sists of simple particles. This is, however, rarely the case, the ratio varying from 1.42: 1 downward, except in the cases of gases such as argon, helium, and mercury. The reason is that internal work between the parts of the molecule has to be done in most gases, making an addition to both figures of the ratio, and thus approxi- mating it toward, unity. The de- termination of this ratio, which may be carried out by indirect as well as by the above direct methods, affords valuable infor- mation as to the complexity of the gas molecule. With the notable exception of the specific heat of Hquid hydro- gen, which approaches 6, the spe- cific heats of almost all substances are smaller than 1 — i.e. are less than that of water. In the case of most of the sohd elements they vary inversely as the atomic weight, the atomic heat or prod- uct of atomic weight into .spe- cific heat being approximately 6.4. This fact is known as Du- long and Petit's law, from its dis- coverers. It 'shows considerable divergences from exactness in some cases, particularly with ele- ments of low atornic weight, such as carbon and silicon, in which the specific heat is too small, but the divergence becomes less and less the higher the temperature at which the element is measured. Dulong and Petit's law can be applied to a certain extent to some compounds, but the con- stancy is confined at best to com- pounds of similar classes. A knowledge of specific heats is utilized to determine high temperatures in Siemens's pyrom- eter, in which a metal cylinder is heated in the furnace and then dropped into water; then if the rise of temperature and mass of the water and the specific heat and mass of the metal cylinder are known, the original tempera- ture of the metal cylinder can be calculated. For a table of the specific heats of the elements see Elements; and see further Ed- ser's Heat (1899), Ostwald's Phys too- Chemical Measurements and Kohlrausch's Physical Meas- urements. Specific Performance. In certain cases of breach of con- tract, where an action for dam- ages would not be an adequate remedy, courts of equity will compel the actual or substantial performance of the contract by the delinquent party. This re- lief is technically known as specific performance. There must be inadequacy of remedy at law; and, in general, there must be mutuality, that is, it must be such a case that if a bill had been filed against the plaintiff, the same relief could have been obtained against him. Equity will almost invariably decree specific per- formance of contracts for the conveyance or purchase of real property, but not generall}^ for personal property unless it is of a nature that cannot be ob- tained elsewhere, as in the latter case damages would not be ade- quate relief. Equity will usually enforce an award or compromise, and in some states, will enjoin a person who has contracted to give exclusive services to another and agreed not to work elsewhere during a certain period, as a singer, from rendering services for any one else during the term of the contract. Of course the plaintiff must perform his part of the contract. If great hardship will be occasioned to the de- fendant, and little corresponding benefit to the plaintiff by specific performance, the court will refuse the relief. Equity will not de- cree specific performance of a contract where it is impossible to enforce the decree, as to com- pel personal services, or where performance would be practi- cally impossible. See Contracts; Equity. Consult Pomeroy, Spe- cific Performance. Spectacles are frames of metal, supporting lenses of ground opti- cal glass, and are aids for pre- serving sight or correcting defects of vision. Spectacle lenses are of two principal classes — spherical and cyhndrical — and these in turn are either convex or concave. In some cases compound spectacle lenses are used where the person requires the one pair of glasses to suit both distance and reading. These are called bi-focal, and were first invented by Benjamin Franklin. Torric lenses form another combination; in them a cross cylinder is ground on one part of the surface and a spher- ical curve on the other half of the glass. Pebble lenses are made from rock crystal. The frames for supporting the two lenses are of two forms — the ordinary spectacle frame with straight sides or curved arms extending to behjnd the ears, and those which by means of a spring keep in contact with the nose of the wearer, and are called eye-glasses or 'pince-nez.' The latest de- sign, the frameless spectacle, shows the minimum of bridge or spring in the centre and is in great contrast to the heavy tor- toiseshell goggles or horn frames of a century ago. Spectacles were probably first invented by the Chinese. Al- hazen, an Arab writer, makes mention of them in the 11th cen- tury, and Italian monks in Pisa and Florence used them in the 13th century. Nuremberg carried on spectacle-making in 1842, and later the house of Dolland in Lon- don and other English makers vied with those of Paris. The in- dustry was soon established in the United States, and now both frames and lenses are made of the highest grades and in large quan- tities. There are four general conditions of eyesight which require spec- tacles. Presbyopia, or old sight, becomes manifest after forty-five years of age, and is noticed when persons cannot read fine print with comfort at fourteen inches distant. Myopia, or near sight, is caused by an over-development of the eyeball, and is noticed when, in order to see clearly, a short-sighted person has to hold his book or work closer to his face than is natural or comfort- able. To correct this condition the weakest concave lens is used that will afford the best vision. Hypermetropia, or long-distance sight, is a condition caused by the under- development of the eye, and for this the strongest convex lens is used that will make the distant vision normal. Astigma- tism is a condition of the eye which requires the most careful fitting of spectacles. It is a dis- tortion of the image on the retina, caused by the curvature of the cornea being uneven. Nearly every eye exhibits traces more or Spectator Spectrum and Spectroscope less of this defect. The test is generally made for this by the light of the retitioscope in a darkened room, or by asking the patient to look at certain lines on a card, or at the hands of a clock when they are moved to the different figures. In certain forms of astigmatism the clock hands would not be seen when they were in a vertical position, as at 12.30, but would be distinguished quite clearly when they were horizontal at the hour 9.15. Once spectacles have been used, the eyes should be tested every three years. The following is a homely test to prove whether spectacles may be necessary: These discs are equally black and distinct. Hold this four feet from one eye at a time: should one appear blacker than the other, the defective vision is due to astigmatism. The standard test for reading is to read the fol- lowing passage clearly, when the book is held in a good light at a distance of ten inches from the eyes, each eye being tried sepa- rately : ' It is natural for the wonderful accom- modative power of theej'e to bepradually depleted and the elasticity of the acute- ness of vision diminished with advancing years.' For distant vision the following letters should be placed in a good light at a distance of sixteen feet from the eyes. Each eye should be tried separately while the per- son names each letter: DMIEF Spectator, The. See Addi- son and Steele, Spectator, The, British weekly review, was started in 1828 by Joseph Hume and other Radicals, the editorship being given to Robert Stephen Rintoul. Under his control, which en- dured without a break until his death (1858), the Spectator rose to considerable influence and con- sequence as a literary and politi- cal review; but it had declined again when it passed into the hands of Meredith Townsend. He, with the assistance of Richard Holt Hutton, and, after 1885, with that of Mr. St. Loe Strachey, made the Spectator the chief ex- ponent of cultured Liberalism. In 1886, when Gladstone declared for Home Rule, the Spectato withdrew its support. Since Hut- ton's death (1897) the paper has been owned and edited by Mr. J. St. Loe Strachey. Spectre of the Brocken. See BRocKEisr. Spectroheliograph, an instru- ment devised in 1889 by Professor Hale of the University of Chicago for the purpose of photographing the solar prominences. It is essentially a spectroscope with a double slit (as suggested by P. Janssen in 1869), the second slit serving to exclude from the sensitive plate immediately be- hind it all light except that of one selected quality, usually the K-line of calcium. By giving properly adjusted movements to the several parts of the apparatus, a picture of the object in mono- chromatic light can thus be built up in sections as its image drifts across the collimator slit. The sun's disc can be similarly photo- graphed in light of any chosen wave-length. The Rumford spec- troheliograph of the Yerkes Ob- servatory was in 1900 the most powerful instrument of its class in existence,^ but was surpassed by one of eight inches aperture erected on Mt. Wilson in Cali- fornia in 1905. Spectroscope. See Spectrum AND Spectroscope. Spectroscopic Binaries are coupled stars in such close con- tiguity as to be separable only by the spectroscopic effects of their motion. At quadratures the con- trary radial velocities of the stars attain a maximum, and their spec- tral lines are observed to be cor- respondingly displaced; at con- junctions, motion being then di- rected across the line of sight, they drop to zero, and the lines resume their normal positions. Systems of the kind are very numerous.^ They are estimated to exist in tue proportions of about one in five or six Sirian and solar stars, and of at least one in three helium stars. Three varieties are distinguishable — (1) eclipsing couples; (2) non-eclips- ing stars, variable in the period of revolution; (,3) pairs constant in light. Algol is the exemplar of the first class; 5 Cephei of the second, which at present includes twelve members, consisting, in rnost cases, of a bright and a sen- sibly dark star. In the third and most numerous family the com- panion is also very frequently ob- scure; Polaris and both the tele- scopic components of Castor are thus conditioned. The periods of spectroscopic binaries range from a few hours to Iwo and one-third years (that of tj Pegasi). At the upper limit they merge into tele- scopic binaries. No line of de- marcation separates the two families; their discrimination depends solely upon visual pos- sibilities. Most of the orbital elements of revolving stars can be calculated from spectroscopic data; their planes, however, evade determination (in non-eclipsing pairs)- consequently their real exceea their measured dimensions to an uncertain degree, and hence only minimum values can be as- signed to the mass(;s of the bodies traversing them. A catalogue of 140 spectroscopic binaries was Eublished by Prof. W. W. Camp- ell in 1905 (Lick Bulletin, No. 79). Spectrum and Spectroscope. When a ray of sunlight passes obliquely across the surface of a transparent medium such as glass, it is spread out into a bundle of rays of different colors. The ex- periment is usually made, as New- ton originally made it, by means of a glass prism; and to view the phenomenon at its best 'the ray should be first passed through a narrow slit parallel to the edge of the prism. The ray then emerges from the farther side of the prism as a broad rectangular strip of rainbow tints, the color passing gradually from red at the one ex- tremity through orange, yellow, green, and blue to violet at the other end. This strip of colors is called the spectrum of sunlight or the solar spectrurn. It demon- strates that white light is com- posed of a great number of dif- ferently colored constituents, which have different refrangi- bilities. (See Dispersion.) The narrow slit is necessary to pre- vent as far as possible the over- lapping of the diff'erently col- ored rays. The light from any other source may be treated simi- larly; and in every case a spec- trum is formed characteristic of the particular source. _ Thus an ordinary gas jet will give a spec- trum not unlike the solar spec- trum; but gaslight is not so rich as solar light in blue and violet rays. The electric light, again, gives a spectrum very similar in its broad outlines to the solar spectrum. If we burn salt in a bunsen flame, the flame becomes strongly yellow; and when we examine its spectrum, it is found to consist almost entirely of two bright yellow bands or lines. This is the spectrum of the metal sodium when in an incandescent state, .and it is found that line spectra are characteristic of glow- ing masses of gas or vapor. Not only so, but each gas has a charac- teristic spectrum of its own, which means that molecules vibrate in definite periods, and send out through the ether radiations of these particular periods. When the substance is in the gaseous state, the molecules vibrate quite freely, and are thus able to emit rays of definite wave-length. When the gas is highly con- densed, or when the substance is solid, the molecules have not the same freedom of vibration, so that a confusion of rays of Spectrum and Spectroscope many different wave-lengths is radiated forth into the ether. When the solar spectrum is looked at very narrowly, or when by means of a lens it is sharply focussed, it is found to be crossed by thin dark lines. These dark lines mean a diminished intensity of light in the rays correspond- ing to them. This feebler in- tensity may be an original prop- erty, or it may be the result of a greater absorption by media situated between us and the sun. The latter is the more prob- able cause, and indeed may be said to be beyond dispute. For ex- ample, there are certain of these lines more distinct when the sun is low than when it is high, simply because they are due to the ab- sorptive action of the earth's at- mosphere, and the rays from the rising or setting sun have to pass across a much greater breadth of air than the rays from the sun at noon have to do. Moreover, it can be demonstrated, by a direct comparison of the solar spectrum with the bright line spectra of gases and metallic vapors, that many of the dark lines in the solar spectrum correspond accu- rately with the bright lines of these spectra. Not only so, but they correspond in groups, so that the observer soon recognizes a certain group to belong, say, to hydrogen, a certain other group to calcium, and so on through a great range of metallic vapors. For example, corresponding to the .wo well-marked yellow lines in the spectrum of sodium vapor we find in the solar spectrum two well-marked and closely contigu- ous dark lines occupying in the yellow exactly the position of the sodium lines. This double line is called the D line, that being the name given to it (long before its true significance was known) by Fraunhofer, who was the first to measure the positions of the dark lines, and who named them after the first few letters of the alphabet. We now know that C and F are hydrogen lines, that a characteristic group of three lines in the green called b is due to magnesium, and so on. For the careful study .of the lines in any spectrum an instru- ment called the spectroscope has been constructed. Its essential parts are a collimator with slit arrangement and lens, a train of prisms, and a telescope with cross wires in the eye-piece, and mounted on a graduated circle so that its angular position rela- tively to the direction of the en- tering ray can be measured. Such an instrument enables us with great accuracy to determine the relative refrangibilities of the different colored rays which make up any line spectrum, and also the refrangibility of the rays corresponding to the dark rays in the solar spectrum. These dark rays, indeed, form a very conven- ient set ^of standard rays with which to describe the optical prop- erties of different kinds of glass and other transparent media. It is found, for example, that though the lines always come in the same order with prisms of different glass, their spacing is different. In short, the law of dispersion varies with the nature of the medium of which the prism is constructed. It is possible, in- deed, to form a prism of a mate- rial for which the law of disper- sion is so peculiar as to show blue and violet light less refrangible than red or yellow light. There is, however, another way of producing a spectrum in which the lines are arranged in accord- ance with a very simple law. Such a spectrum is called a 'nor- mal spectrum,' and its great merit is that it gives immedi- ately the relative wave-lengths of the rays which make it up. It is produced by means of diffrac- tion grating, which consists of a surface ruled with a great many very fine parallel eciuidistant lines, several thousands to the inch. The surface may be one side of a glass plate, in which case the spectrum is produced by passing light through it, or it may be the surface of a bright re- flecting metal, and the spectrum is then produced by reflecting the light off it. To simplify the de- scription, let the grating be of the latter kind. When it is illu- 9 Diagram of Action of Diffraction Grating. minated by a beam of light fall- ing, say, normally on it, each of the ridges between the ruled lines becomes a centre of disturbance, and is the source of spherical waves radiating out in all pos- sible directions. Let A B be a magnified representation of part of the grating, the short lines being the reflecting ridges, and the gaps the comparatively non- reflecting furrows. Since by sup- gosition the grating is illuminated y a normally incident beam, the waves from the contiguous ridges start in the same phase. Consider the vKysp e and ^' g', which start from contiguous ridges, p /?'and meet at a point in the direction p e -p'e'. It is evident that the path Spectrum and Spectroscopy p' e' is longer than the path p e by a length, which is represented by the base of the small right-angled triangle formed by dropping a Spectroscope. C, Collimator ; p, centre of group of prisms ; T, telescope ; s, slit through which the ray of light enters ; R, ray on its progress through prisms to telescope. perpendicular from p on p' e'. Hence, in accordance with the rinciple of interference, if this ifference is, say, equal to a wave- length of blue light, the blue will be intensified. In directions farther to the side the yellow will be intensified, and in directions still farther the red will be in- tensified. The result will be the formation of a spectrum, with its violet end nearest to the incident ray and its red end farthest from it. It is easy to show that the ratio of the distance of any part of the spectrum from the grating is to the distance of this part from the incident ray in the same ratio as the distance between the ridges to the wave-length corre- sponding to that part of the spec- trum. These diffraction spectra are formed on both sides of the grating, and on each side there is theoretically an endless suc- cession of them produced by con- tiguous rays which differ by two wave-lengths, three wave-lengths and so on. Practically, after the second and third, they become confused by superposition. The late Professor Rowland of Johns Hopkins University greatly im- proved the construction of dif- fraction gratings, and his pho- tographs of the solar spectrum are the best we have. An important use of the spec- troscope is in the study of what are called absorption spectra. For instance, when a solution of permanganate of potash is inter- posed in the path of the ray from a white-hot soHd, the spectrum, instead of being of uniform bright- ness throughout, shows variations of brightness, especially in the green. It becomes fluted in ap- pearance, demonstrating selective absorption in the permanganate of potash solution. Many other substances may be similarly stud- Spectrum and Spectroscope ied, and the absorption spectrum so obtained in any particular case is found to be characteristic of that substance. This method has some valuable applications, as in the study of changes in blood and the coloring matter of plants. The careful examination of the spectra of different substances forms a practical branch of sci- ence known as spectrum analysis. It is, however, in the domain of astronomy that the lessons of the spectroscope appeal most strongly to the imagination. Not only have we learned what substances exist in the cooler regions of the so- lar atmosphere, but similar knowl- edge has Deen attained regarding the constitution of certain stars, nebulae, and comets. The fact that different stars give different dark lines in their spectra prove that these dark lines are mainly due to absorption in the stellar atmospheres. Stars have been grouped in four great classes, ac- cording to the broad character of their spectra; and each class is be- lieved to indicate a certain stage of decay in the life-history of the stars that belong to that class. When the new star in Perseus blazed out in the year 1901, yery remarkable changes were noticed in the nature of the spectrum during the first week of its ap- pearance. The spectrum passed m the course of a day or two from the condition of a continuous and uniformly bright spectrum to that of a faintly continuous spectrum, crossed by bright bands and dark bands. The dark bands flanked the bright bands on the more re- frangible side, which means that the absorbent and probably cooler medium absorbed light of wave- lengths slightly shorter than the wave-lengths of the light emitted by the hotter substance, probably gaseous, which was no doubt the source of the extraordinary but short-lived brilliancy of the star. It is conceivable, however, that these bright and dark bands are really due to the same substance in different physical conditions, in accordance with what is known as the Doppler principle. This principle is a very obvious one when the wave-theory of light is fully realized. For it is evident that the wave-lengths of radia- tions coming from a luminous source to an observer travelling from or toward that source with a fairly large speed will be al- tered in virtue of the relative motion. Thus if the observer is approaching the source of light, the waves will come a little more frequently, and the ray will be raised in refrangibility; whereas, on the other hand, if the observer is moving away from the source of light, the waves will seem to come a little less frequently. This is precisely what has been 363 observed to occur in the case of certain stars. When carefully measured by means of a high- power spectroscope, a group of lines due to the presence of some element is found to be slightly shifted toward one end of the spectrum. And the same shift exists in the case of other groups of lines. A shift toward the violet end indicates that the star and observer are approaching each other; a shift toward the red end, that they are retreating from each other. The amount of shift depends upon the ratio of the relative speed in the line of sight to the speed of light, and consequently the spectro- scope enables us to measure this relative velocity in the line of sight. By comparison of the spectra of the light coming from the opposite sides of the sun, it has been found possible to meas- ure the rate of rotation of the upper regions of the sun, the Fraunhofer lines in the two spec- tra being not exactly coincident. See Kayser's Handbuch der Spec- troscopic (1900-5). Specular Iron Ore. See Hem- atite. Speculation. The word specu- lation in commercial usage has two meanings, one broad and rather vague, the other clear and definite. In the broad sense, it is applied to any form of business which is peculiarly risky and in which results depend upon future conditions which cannot be easily foretold. In this sense the build- ing of a new railroad or an in- vestment in a new patent might be spoken of as speculative en- terprises. In the narrower sense speculation means the buying and selling of property with a view to making money from chance fluctuations in its value. Thus, to buy a farm for purposes of culti- vation is not speculation, while to buy up farms in a * boom ' local- ity, with the intention of selling out at a profit, is speculation. Furthermore, speculation is sharply differentiated from ordi- nary mercantile transactions. Every merchant, to be sure, airns to make money by buying his wares at a low and selling at a high price, but this difference in price, though not always certain, is a normal difference between different markets. The specula- tor, on the other hand, is con- cerned with uncertain fluctuations over a period of time in the same market. Speculation, then, may occur anywhere, and always has oc- curred, wherever men have seen a chance to make money from future changes in price. A great speculative deal is recorded in Genesis in the account of Jo- seph's corner in the food-supplies of Egypt, and Aristotle in his Speculation Politics has described how the philosopher Thales cornered the olive-presses of Miletus. Commonly, however, we think of speculation in a still narrower sense as connected with such in- stitutions as the New York Stock Exchange or the Chicago Board of Trade. This is the ' organized speculation of the exchanges,' and has two important characteristics. First, it is carried on through a body of professional brokers, who are organized in an associa- tion with elaborate rules to facili- tate business; and, secondly, it provides for speculation ' for the fall ' as well as ' for the rise.' Without this peculiar feature, speculation could only be spo- radic. The older form of specu- lation was always ' f or_ the rise.' and consisted simply in buying property at one time in the hope of selling later at a higher price. The speculators were always those who expected prices to rise; in the jargon of the modern market, they were * bulls.' But if a continuous speculative market is to exist, in which buying and selling with speculative intent is to go on all the time, some ar- rangement is necessary by which those who expect prices to fall, in modern jargon the ' bears,' can also trade in the hope of a profit. How, now, can men make money from falhng prices? Since profit is the difference between the buying price and the selling price, this can be done only by revers- ing the usual practice and selling goods before one buys them. This can be done by means of the so- called / future-contract.' A ' fu- ture ' is a contract by which one party agrees to deliver at some future time certain goods, the character and price of which are fixed in the present contract. This may be done by a manufac- turer, for example, who Avishes to take advantage of prevailing high prices, fearing that they will not continue, and knowing that he can make delivery on the contract out of his future production. The practice seems to have _ arisen early in the 17th century in con- nection with the whale fisheries among the Dutch, where the great uncertainty of the enterprise led dealers to sell the product of any particular voyage long before its result became known. Indeed, by the early part of the 18th cen- tury the Dutch had adopted prac- tices almost identical with those of the modern speculative market in the case of grain, cocoa, salt- petre, and especially coffee. In the United States such sales for forward delivery were early adopted in the cotton trade, where the dealer would sell a given quantity 9f cotton ' in tran- sit,' or ' to arrive,' or even ' tor shipment.' I^peculatioii 364 Specuiatiofl In such cases as the above, however, these future sales were made by the men who already owned or had contracted for the goods in question. They were made rather to prevent a loss from falling prices than strictly to make a profit. But if a person owning none of the goods in question should contract to de- liver a certain quantity at pre- vailing prices at some future date, he would, of course, make a profit in case the price of the goods should fall before the time of delivery, since he could then purchase in the open market and fulfil the obligations of his con- tract. Such sales are known as ' short-sales,' and the person who sells goods for delivery at some future time which he does not own at the time the contract is made, is known as a 'short-seller.' Without such short-selling mod- ern speculation would be impos- sible.^ It is a common impression that the practice of selling what one does not own is in some way im- moral. A slight consideration will show the falsity of this idea. Many contracts have to be * for future delivery.' A builder, for example, takes a contract to build a certain house for a certain price befpre a given date. He is really selling what at the time he does not own. All manufacturers con- stantly sell goods for later de- livery which they have not yet produced, and if a coal dealer or a wheat dealer who has no stock on hand agrees to deliver a re- quired amount at a specified time, knowing that he can procure it in the regular markets, he does nothing wrong. But if no moral opprobrium attaches to the prac- tice, there are evident difficulties attending it. Goods to be sold short must possess certain definite characteristics. Such practices are impossible in the case of real estate, since a contract in such case must specify the par- ticular parcel of land to be trans- ferred, and no one would dare to contract to give future title to land in which he had no rights. For this reason all real estate speculation is bull speculation. For purposes of short-selling goods must be ' representative,' that is, of such a character that each part is like every other part, so that contracts for delivery need not specify particular lots, but may be made in general terms. Money is the most perfect illustration, or the shares of any specific stock issue, all of which are evidently identical with each other. Such identity of quality does not exist in the case of commodities, but may be secured for practical pur- poses by a system of classification and grading, so that a contract for the delivery of a certain quantity of a certain grade may be made in general terms. The warrant or warehouse receipt is again an important factor in fa- cilitating such business. The sys- tem of classification, grading, and warehousing is one of the most interesting features of the specu- lative market, but cannot be ex- plained at length here. Further qualifications are nec- essary before goods can become the object of organized specula- tion. They must be of uncertain demand or uncertain supply, since otherwise the fluctuations which tempt speculation would not arise, and they must be inde- pendent of control by a monop- oly or any small number of men, since otherwise the supply and price can be arbitrarily deter- mined. Consequently speculation occurs chiefly, outside of stocks, in the great staple commodities — grain, cotton, cofi^ee, and the like. Great speculative markets have arisen in connection with particu- lar commercial associations. The greatest speculative market for grain and provisions is the Chi- cago Board of Trade. The chief centres of cotton speculation are the Cotton Exchanges of New York and New Orleans. _ The New York Stock Exchange is far and away the leading market for securities in this country and one of the greatest in the world. These exchanges are made up largely of brokers (members) who are not necessarily specula- tors themselves, but through whom all outsiders must do their business, and who aim to keep as much of a monopoly of the trade as possible. In recent years the value of a ' seat ' on the New York Stock; Exchange has reached $95,000, which is sup- posed to represent the value of a chance to make brokerage com- missions in the ceaseless buying and selling of this market. The speculation of these noted exchanges is the source of many evils, and at the same time an important and necessary factor in the business world. The evils of speculation are more generally commented on than is its legit- imate function, and even the evils are frequently misunder- stood. The chief evil is the in- centive and opportunity given a wide outside public to engage in transactions which, so far as they are concerned, are little more than gambling. It would be a mis- take, however, to subscribe to the popular notion that these transac- tions are themselves nothing but bets. Every contract on an ex- change is a contract involving definite property rights and obli- gations, and differs from gam- bling proper in this, that whereas in gambling money changes hands on account of some artificially created risk of a fortuitous event, in the case of speculation there are inevitable economic risks of fluc- tuating values, and the speculator steps in and assumes these risks. It is claimed that no real deliv- eries are made and that, there- fore, such speculation is not real business. This is due to a mis- understanding of the form of contract. All speculation on produce exchanges is made by means of futures, and every con- tract of sale requires a delivery; but since the time of delivery is postponed, the short-seller can * cover ' by buying in before that time arrives, and whoever sells to him can be directed to deliver on the original contract. This, of course, can be repeated many times before delivery time ar- rives, and convenient methods are adopted for 'clearing' all these transactions so that the holder of the commodity may deliver to the final purchaser and the others settle their ' differences.' This, however, is as simple and legiti- mate as the clearing process among banks and does not im- pair the strict business nature of the contracts. The same is true of the stock exchange, except that in New York futures are seldom used, the same result being se- cured by borrowing stocks for de- livery on short sales. Despite these facts, the small outside speculator trades in a gambling spirit, and the facilities afforded him lead to demoralization, bank- ruptcy, and crime of an alarm- ingly widespread character. Another evil on which much stress is laid is the manipulation of the market by powerful forces to the detriment of the public. In the case of the produce mar- kets the extent of this manipula- tion is greatly exaggerated. The prices of these commodities are ultimately regulated by the actual and anticipated conditions of de- mand and supply, and cannot be much controlled by plungers or syndicates. The so-called ' cor- ner,' for example, is usually tem- porary and local, resulting from the inability of the ' shorts ' to deliver on a certain day in a cer- tain market. It injures the specu- lators, but not the outside public. In the famous wheat corner of September, 1888, for example, though the price in Chicago went to $2 at the end of the month, the New York market was hardly af- fected; and in Chicago the price dropped to normal on the first day of October. In the case of the stock market the chances for manipulation are much greater, since the directors of a corpora- tion who control its destinies may at the same time speculate in its shares. This inside specu- lation is one of the worst scan- dals of Wall St., and cases have speculation not been lacking, though they are on the whole rare, when men have, as directors, intentionally ruined their own enterprises in order to make great speculative profits on the short side of the market. _ . Against these evils must be set the important advantages of organized speculation. In the first place, it provides a class of professional speculators, among whom there are some ready to buy and some ready to sell at any moment at the market price. Holders of property or regular dealers in commodities can al- ways avoid the inevitable dangers of fluctuating prices by throwing the burden on these speculators. This risk-taking function of speculation reveals its true char- acter, as a form of business which has arisen in response to the enormously increased risks which result from the extension of the old local market into a world-wide market through the growth of steam transportation and electric communication. In the wheat market, for example, prices are determined by world- wide conditions which are so un- predictable as to make the busi- ness of a wheat dealer extremely precarious were it not for the speculative market. Now. how- ever, he can use this market to insure himself against loss by the practice called ' hedging.' When- ever he buys wheat, instead of carrying himself the risk of a fall in price, he can sell short on the exchange for an equal amount for future delivery, and then cover this contract by buying in from another speculator when- ever he sells his real wheat. By this means the profit or loss on one contract is offset by the corresponding loss or profit on the other. The rnerchant avoids these dangerous risks, which are assumed for him by professional speculators. The second great service of the speculative market lies in its price-making function. Here all the conditions of all parts of the world which can affect the price of an article are brought to a focus. A body of professional experts express their opinion of the present and probable future conditions of demand and supply by means of their purchases and sales, and the resultant price shows what the best equipped judges think the price ought to be. This distributes the use of commodities to the best advantage of the public. If expert opinion anticipates a shortage in supply, the price rises now, consump- tion is lessened, and a surplus is carried over to the lean period, preventing a disastrous rise in price at that time. The reverse process takes place when a bum- 365 per crop is anticipated. Thus speculation steadies prices and intelligently directs the use of commodities by consumers. In the same way speculation in securities by fixing prices which are the result of careful study of all conditions affecting an enterprise, furnishes a guide to investment. To-day millions of capital are put into enterprises by small investors who can know nothing of their intrinsic merit. If, however, these shares are listed on the stock exchange, a great body of experts is set to studying their value, and their opinion is inexorably registered in the prices made by their trans- actions. Each enterprise is here brought to the bar of competent judgment, and the ignorant in- vestor receives the advantage of it gratis and can place his money accordingly. The real function of speculation, then, may _ be summed up as follows : To relieve trade of the risks of fluctuating values by providing a class always ready to take or deliver a prop- erty at the market price, and, in so doing, to direct commodities to their most advantageous uses and the investment capital into the most profitable channels, by fixing for commodities and securities comparative prices for delivery at different times and places. See Stock Exchange. Bibliography. — For further in- formation the reader should con- sult H. C. Emery's Speculation on Stock Exchanges of the United States (1896) ; Sereno Pratt's Work of Wall Street (1903); Crump's Theory of Stock Specu- lation ; Giffen, Stock Exchange Securities (1877); and Clews, Twenty - eight Years in Wall Street (1888). Speculum, in medicine, an in- strument used to facilitate the in- spection of some passage or recess in the body or the introduction of remedies. Specula are made of various materials, silver or plated metal being much used on account of its reflecting power. Other substances are necessary when caustics or corrosives are to be in- troduced through the speculum. Speculum Humanae Salva- tionls, a rhyming work of the 14th century, dealing with Scrip- ture history commingled with media:val legends, and traditions especially relating to the worship of the Virgin Mary. Speculum Metal is an alloy of two parts copper and one tin, with a trace of arsenic. It is hard, white, and brittle, and can be highly polished. It is used for making the mirrors of reflecting telescopes, but has been largely superseded by silvered glass. Speculum Perfectlonls, a work by Leo of Assisi, which has Speedwell been recently brought to notice through Sabatier, contains the oldest account extant of St. Francis, having been written about 1227. See P. Sabatier's Col- lection d' Etudes et de Documents pour I'Hisioire du Moyen Age; Speculum Pcrjectionis, vol. i. (Eng. trans, by S. Evans, 1898). Spedding, James (1808-81), EngUsh editor of Bacon's Works, was born in Cumberland. At Cambridge he was intimate with the Tennysons, Arthur Hallam, and Trench. He was secretary to Lord Ashburton's mission to the United States in 1842, and secre- tary to the Civil Service Commis- sion in 1855. With these brief ex- ceptions, his life was entirely de- voted from 1841 to the study of Bacon. In 1847 a complete edi- tion of Bacon's Works was under- taken conjointly with Heath and Ellis, and appeared in 1857-9 in 7 vols., and the Life and Letters in other 7 vols. (1861-74). See Life by Venables prefixed to his early essay on Macaulay's * Bacon,' Evenings with a Reviewer (1881), and Lord Tennyson's Memoir of his Father (1897). Speech. See Philology; Grammar; Voice. For defects of speech, see Aphasia; Stam- mering; and Deaf and Dumb, Education of the. Speed, James (1812-87), Ameri- can politician, born in Jefferson CO., Ky. He graduated, at St. Joseph's College and was ad- mitted to the bar, beginning his practice in Louisville. He was a prominent leader of the Union cause in Ky. during the Civil War, and was attorney-general of the U. S. in 1864-66, when he re- signed because he did not agree with Johnson's policy of recon- struction. Speed, John (? 1552- 1629), English historian and cartogra- pher, was born at Farringdon in Cheshire. Through the generosity of Sir Fulke Greville he was en- abled to give up his trade (tailor- ing) and devote himself to the making of maps of the counties of England {Theatre of the Em- pire of Great Britain, 1611) and to The History of Great Britain Speed Pulley. See Belt and Rope Gearing. Speedwell, a name given to certain species of plants belong- ing to the genus Veronica, a sub- division of the order Scrophula- riaceae. The flowers have wheel- shaped corollas and two stamens. Among the species are the thyme- leaved speedwell {V. serpylU folia), a common little prostrate plant, with oval leaves and spikes cf light blue flowers; the germander speedwell (F. chamcedrys), a little naturalized plant, with bright blue flowers and hairy stems; the common speedwell (F. officinalis). Speer 366 Spelling Reform found on dry pastures; and the wall speedwell (V. arvensis). Speer, Emory (1848), American jurist, born in CuUoden, Ga.; re- ceived a classical education; served in the Confederate army in 1864-5; was graduated at the University of Georgia in 1869; and the same year was admitted to the bar and began practice at Athens. He was appointed solic- itor-general for the eleven coun- ties embraced in the western judicial circuit of the state in 1873, and held the office for three years; represented his district in • Congress as an Independent Democrat in 1879-81, and as an Independent in 1881-83, during which term he differed with his party on protection and other is- sues and supported many Repub- lican m.easures; was United States attorney for his district in 1883— 85; and was appointed judge of the southern Federal judicial dis- trict in 1885. He was also presi- dent of the law department of Mercer University. He achieved distinction not only as a jurist but also as an orator, especially as chief speaker at the great Peace Jubilee at Chicago in 1898. His publications include Removal of Causes from State to United States Courts (1888), Lectures on the Constitution of the United States (1897), and Lectures on the Storrs Foundation, Yale University (1906). Speise. See Metallurgy. ^ Speiss, the impure arsenide of cobalt or nickel obtained on smelting the arsenical ores of those metals. Speke, John Hanning (1827- 64), English African explorer, was born near Ilchester in Somer- setshire. After serving in the Crimea, he was associated with Burton in an expedition to dis- cover the traditional equatorial lakes. Tanganyika was fully ex- plored by them, and Speke com- mitted himself to the theory that the Mountains of the Moon cir- cled the north of the lake. This later gave Burton his opportunity to vent the jealousy he felt be- cause on a side expedition Speke discovered Victoria Nyanza, which he was convinced was the source of the Nile. In 1860 Speke renewed his work on Victoria Nyanza, and followed the course of the Nile for some distance; and he gave Baker information which led to the discovery of Albert Nyanza. His works are Journal of the Dis- covery of the Source of the Nile (1863) and What Led to the Dis- covery of the Source of the Nile (1864) . Spell. See INCANTATION. Spelling. See Orthography. Spelling Reform, properly so called, consists in such modifica- tion of the spelling of words as to increase the utility of the written form of the language as a medium for the expression of ideas. The written form of a language tends to become fixed, while the changes in the spoken language continue relatively unchecked. In order to prevent the written language from becoming a system of arbitrary symbols it is necessary that changes should from time to time be made to bring it into reasonable ccnfoimity to the spoken language. Such changes are constantly in progress by the slow natural processes of develop- rnent, and they are also occa- sionally effected as the result of deliberate convention or govern- mental action. The conservatism of the public, however, is such that any attempt to introduce or force the use of reformed spellings, however wise or needful, against public opinion meets with but little success. Changes of more or less importance have, however, been brought about by compulsive governmental action, as in Ger- many, and in other cases by public agitation and a convention among scholars or literary bodies, as in France and Spain. The last systematic change of a deliberate nature in all English (British and American) spelling was the dropping of the 'k' in such words as 'politick, fanatick, picnick,' etc., and the substitution of 's' for 'f.' That our present spelling needs and admits of reform is the general view of com- petent persons. As to how this simplification should be accom- plished, however, no such con- sensus exists. The measures ad- vocated vary from those involving but little change to those that would Italianize our vowel system and by this and other fundamen- tal changes revolutipnize English spelling. When opinions are so divergent it is evident that there are no generally accepted prin- ciples upon which they are based. The reasons advanced for re- form are various, but much the most important one is the saving of time and labor that would result from the adoption of a reasonably phonetic spelling. The chief ob- jection to a change in spelling is the fact that the new spelling would be less intelligible and sig- nificant than the old one to per- sons educated before the intro- duction of the reform. Other objections are based on etymolog- ical grounds, and others appear to be purely sentimental. Any re- form, however, must evidently be of such gradual adoption as not suddenly to make any ma- terial loss of value in existing books, and not seriously to inter- fere with the ability of persons al- ready educated to read and write in the new forms. The saving of time in learning to read and spell that would result from a reformed spelling of English is variously estimated at from about one and a half to three j^ears in school work for each child. Whether any of these estimates be correct or not, it may reasonably be inferred that the gross advantages to English- reading people to be derived from a reformed spelling are likely to lead to changes. The complicated orthography of English is a hindrance to its acquisition by foreigners; and this is of special importance in the U. S., which absorbs hundreds of thousands of immigrants every year. Our arbi- trary spelling also hinders the wider adoption of English as a world-language — that is, as the second tongue of all educated men, whatever their native speech. On the other hand, the conse- quences of a sudden or general reform would mean so serious a loss to the present generation as to make any radical action both unwise anci impossible; and the possible injury to be done by unwise change is so great as to make it imperative that proposed changes should be adopted only when they have been shown to afford a reasonable certainty of being beneficial. From the time of Orm, who about 1200 doubled consonants to indicate short vowels, there have been various agitations for a reform by convention in English spelhng. The most important movement, however, is that pro- moted by members of the Ameri- can and British Philological societies. This movement was along the general lines that had been in part followed by Webster in his dictionary, and that gave '-or' and '-er' as the preferred American forms instead of '-our' and '-re,' .as in 'color, flavor, center, theater,' etc. The move- ment had its principal inception in the work of A. J. Ellis and Pitman, and later has had among its promoters the chief American and British philolo- gists. It resulted in the forma- tion of a Spelling Reform Asso- ciation in America (1876) and in Great Britain (1879). A list of several thousand reformed spellings was made, and public discussion and agitation carried on. Subsequently the Modern Language Association and the National Educational Association of America also took up the work of advancing the jcause of spelling reform, and in connection with it have, through a committee, re- ported on a phonetic English alphabet for ultimate adoption, recognizing that this at present is merely an ideal to be aimed at. In the winter of 1905-6 a few of the m.ore active promoters of r Spelling Reform the spelling reform movement procured a fund from Andrew Carnegie to be used in conducting a campaign for furthering the cause of speUing reform, accord- ing to the directions of a body of men who have adopted the name of the 'Simplified Spelling Board.' To this SimpUfied Spelling^ Board belong leading professors^ in Ox- ford and Cambridge, in Yale and Columbia, the editors of all the dictionaries, as well as distin- guished educators on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. In 1909 a similar body was organized in England, called the Simplified Spelling Society. The campaign has been conducted to bring into use some 300 'simplified spellings' recommended to the public by the board; and as a result of it, Presi- dent Roosevelt, in August, 1906, by executive order directed that these spellings be used in printing public documents, and that they should also be used in the execu- tive correspondence. At the open- ing of Congress in December, 1906, opposition was manifested to this innovation, and the cus- tomary spelling was re-established for all government printing. Of the 300 forms recommended for adoption, nearly one-half are already preferred or in good usage in America. The only consider- able changes from current usage that are recommended are that past participles be formed by adding 't' instead of 'ed' where this represents the pronunciation, as in 'claspt, mist, tipt, tost,' etc., instead of 'clasped, missed, tipped, tossed,' etc.; and that words now ending in '-gue' and their deriva- tives be spelled with '-g,' as 'cata- log, demagog, epilog,' etc., for 'catalogue, demagogue, epilogue,' etc. The governing principle on which the simplifications recom- mended by the Simplified Spell- ing Board are based is that the 'only proper office' of spelling is to serve as 'a guide to pronunciation.' If this principle is not true it is plain that such changes as counter the true principle are unwise, and that to give them a forced cur- rency by propagandism or incon- siderate action is pernicious, be- cause the older and better forms would necessarily be restored bv the slow processes that produced tnem. The spelling, or written form, of English is, equally with its pro- nunciation, a result of its organic development, and its history be- gins with the history of our alpha- bet. The first step toward the for- mation of alphabets was the repre- sentation of simple ideas or events by pictures inscribed upon wood or bone. From these were developed successively (1) the system of picto- graphs or hieroglyphs (the expres- sion of thought by the use of pic- SB? tures more or less conventional- ized, and directly symbolizing some object or idea); (2) the sys- tem using ideographs (which are symbols for ideas); (3) the sylla- bary (or system of representing words by syllabic symbols, as in Japanese); (4) finally, the alphabet m which both picture and ideo- graphic value are entirely lost, the sound values alone remaining. With the establishment of the alphabet, which represents pho- netic combination, the function of the word symbols has shifted from that of directly symbolizing the idea to that of symbolizing a sound that is the name of an idea. The value of written words in the first stage of an alphabet is purely Ehonetic, or sound - representing, ut with the development of litera- ture the written word acquires more or less of an ideographic (or idea-representing) value. This new value was decidedly subordi- nate, however, even as late as the 14th century, when the English language was taking literary shape. Then there was no standard of English spelHng, and there con- tinued to be none until the inven- tion of printing rendered a relatively uniform spelling and a practi- cally uniform typography essen- tial to the general utility of books. Word lists, vocabularies, and finally dictionaries were made; and at last by the time of the pub- lication of Johnson's Dictionary (1755) the generally accepted spellings of most of our words had become fixed as they now are. Changes have not now altogether ceased; they are only relatively less, and are mostly effected by a slow and unconscious process. The results, which are recorded in the successive editions of larger dictionaries, show a gradual swing- ing toward a morephonetic spelling. Our words have acquired insep- arable literary, scientific, social, and aesthetic associations and differentiations of meaning. The multiplication of books and the universalizing of education has worked a radical change in the value of written words, and now a main function of the written word is to suggest ideas directly through the visual impression made by it. Our reading vocabulary becomes several times larger than our spoken vocabulary, and we read to ourselves, and understand with ease, passages that we should be able to read aloud only with considerable stumbling. Printed words have thus become more than mere sound symbols: they are now the algebraic symbols of implicit thinking. Nor is it the word alone that now has an individuality of its own and aproper significance as a symbol. The conditions of mod- ern English terminology have created a class of prefixes and Spelling R-eforni suffixes or combining forms that are suggestive of the primitive ideographs — forms treated as wholes with fixed meanings re- gardless of differences of pronun- ciation. In all the arts and sciences there are various terms beginning or ending in -ide, -itis, -logy, -ism, -meter, haemo-, hemi-, -graphy, hypo-, philo-, phylo-, palaeo-, sub-, super-, etc., the form and significance of which is fixed; but their pronunciation varies both with different persons and with the same person for different words. The British pro- nunciation, also, of some classes of them is different from the American pronunciation. No corresponding changes take place in the meanings of the prefixes or suffixes, however; they remain tha same for all forms and for all per- sons. In all these cases any at- tempt to conform the spelling to the established pronunciation ol these words would not only be impracticable, but would nullifji the effect for which the suffixea have been created. Invariability of form and of the suggested meaning teaches the mind to neg- lect the sound and depend upon visual impression alone for the thought. This has created a defi- nite consciousness of the meanings of visible word elements, and the mere general form of the suffix is sufficient to indicate to the reader the particular sense conveyed by the word. This is one of the most extraordinary phases of the devel- opments of modern English. The classification of lists of suffixes and prefixes in the schoolbooks for the teaching of language has become nearly universal, and the child is taught that a certain group of let- ters occurring in a word indicates a certain idea or group of ideas. Whole compound words also vary in pronunciation, while the form and sense remain the same. Thus, in the word 'geography' the 'o' in the accented syllable is distinctly 'o' as in 'not'; but in the deriva- tive 'geographical' the 'o' as- sumes a new value. Yet the con- sciousness of this alteration is en- tirely absent in reading; and any calling of the attention to it would undoubtedly interfere with the intelligibility of the word as a symbol of an idea. If these facts have any meaning we are inevitably led to the con- clusion that with the majority of educated people the meaning of the printed page is suggested directly through the stimulation of the visual organs and not through the mediation of the sense of hearing. The same conclusion is to be drawn from the fact that, as psychologists have shown, a majority of hterate people (and probably of all people) are visu- alizers; that is, complement and aid their thought processes by thR J Spel man 368 Spencer formation of visual images of words. Though the auditory image, or sense, materially assists the process of thinking with most people, and with some is a pri- mary source of understanding, for the great majority the visual sense is the primary basis of recognition and the means of quick discrimi- nation. Ease of reading is de- pendent upon the immediate sig- nificance of the symbol, enalDling the mind to associate or distin- guish directly as by a sort of algebra of thought. We must conclude, then, that we cannot in the execution of any scheme for simplifying our spell- ing wisely ignore the ideographic, or thought-representing, values of our written words and assume that their sole function is phono- graphic, or to serve as guides to the sounds of spoken words; nor can we so arrive at results that can be depended upon to prove beneficial rather than pernicious. Uniformity and distinctiveness are desirable as well in our thought symbols as in our sound symbols, and a change that simplifies the representation of sounds may create difficulties in the symboliz- ing of ideas more objectionable than those removed. Also, from the great complexity of English phonetics and spelling a change that simplifies the spelling of one word may cause difficulties in re- lated words that make the change unwise. It is obvious that a complex such as the English language, having upwards of one hundred thousand parts (ignoring the fact that there are several times this number of words reckoned as part of the language), cannot be grasped in all its parts by the mind without the aid of statistics; and no scien- tist would attempt the simplifica- tion of so complex a system with- out exact knowledge of the parts affected, and the nature of the effect caused by any proposed modifica- tion. Exact knowledge of what would be the result of any particu- lar measure of reform must be ob- tained by the systematic making of lists and tables of words by which the effects of proposed changes may be studied and analyzed. Lists of such words have already been made by the philological societies, but they are far from exhaustive; indeed, they are but the beginning of the task. In the end these will be made, for a wise spelling reform cannot come without them. The cause of orthographic prog- ress can be aided by forming the habit of always using the simpler of any two spellings now in reputable use; and by keeping our minds open and ready to wel- come such further simplifications as may recommend themselves to our intelligence. The latest book is Professor Lounsbury's E. Spell- ing and Spelling Reform (1909). Speljnan, Sir Henry (?1564- 1641), English historian and an- tiquary, born at Congham in Nor- folk. His chief work, Councils^ Decrees, Laws, and Consiitulions of the English Church, appeared in 1639; and he wrote much on ecclesiastical antiquities, his His- tory and Fate of Sacrilege (1698) being the most notable book. Spelt {'I riticum spelta), a variety of the comrnon wheat {T. sativum). It was cultivated by the Romans, Spelt {Triticum spelta). 1, Spicula ; 2, calyx (glumes) ; 3, floret. and is still grown in certain parts of Europe, notably in the south of Ger- many and in German Switzerland. Spelter, an alloy, consisting of about equal parts of copper and zinc, used for hard soldering or brazing. The term is also ap- plied to zinc in the ingot form as produced by the smelter. Spence, Joseph (1699-1768), English anecdotist and man of letters, was born at Kingsclere in Hampshire. In 1726 he published an Essay on Pope's Odyssey, which won him the poet's friend- ship and the professorship of poetry at Oxford (1728-38). He became rector of Great Horwood and prebend of Durham. In 1747 he published Polymetis, a treatise on classical mythology; but he is remembered as the collector of the anecdotes of Pope and his literary circle, which were not published till 1820. See Singer's Memoir and edition of Anecdotes, also Dobson's essay on Spence in Eighteenth Century Vignettes (first series, 1892). Speneer. See Sunderland, Earl of. Spencer. (1.) Tn., Worcester cO., Mass., 10 m. w. by s. of Worces- ter, on the Bost. and Alb. R. R, It is a summer resort. It has manu- factories of boots and shoes, under- wear, woollen goods, wire articles, satinet?, boxes, etc. The town possesses the Richard Sugden Public Library, a children's in- dustrial home, and three public parks. Spencer was settled in 1720 as a part of Leicester. In 1753 it was incorporated as a separate town. Pop. (1910) (1,740. (2.) City, la., co. seat of Clay co., 80 m. N.E. by E. of Sioux City, on the Little Sioux R. and on the Chi., Mil. and St. P. and the Minn, and St. L. R. Rs. It has manufactures of hay-presses, tile, brick, cement, iron products, wagons, machinery, shingles, flour, flax products, etc. Spencer pos- sesses a Carnegie library. The city owns and operates the water- works and electric-lighting plant. It was settled in 1866 and incor- porated in 1880. Pop. (1910) 3,005. (3.) City, Ind., co. seat of Owen CO., 37 m. e.s.e. of Terre Haute, on the W. fork of the White R., and on the Vandalia R. R. It manufactures lumber, flour, kitch- en cabinets, bricks, tiles, staves, bottles, etc. It was settled in 1815 and incorporated in 1846. Pop. (1910) 2,150. Spencer, Ambrose (1765- 1848), American jurist and poli- tician, born at Salisbury, Conn. He graduated at Harvard in 1783, settled in Hudson, N. Y., and was admitted to the bar. He was a member of the Assembly in 1794 and state senator in 1795-1802, introducing the bill which abol- ished capital punishment except for murder and treason. He was attorney-general of New York in 1802-4, justice of the Supreme Court in 1804-19, and chief jus- tice in 1819-23. He was a promi- nent leader of the Clintonian faction of the Democratic-Repub- lican partVj and afterwards be- came a Whig. He was a member of the constitutional convention of 1821, and after leaving the bench was mayor of Albany in 1824-26 and member of Congress in 1829~- 31. In 1844 he presided overthe convention which gave Henry Clay his last nomination for the presidency. Spencer, Arthur Coe (1871), American geologist, born in Car- mel, N. Y. He graduated at the Case School of Apphed Science, Cleveland, O., 1892, and at Johns Hopkins in 1896. In 1893-4 he surveyed the coal deposits of Iowa, as an assistant on the state geological survey. In 1896 he became an assistant on the U, S. geological survey and was as- signed to survey duties in the San Juan region, Col. In 1900-1 he Spencer 369 Spencer reported on the mineral resources of the Copper river district, Alaska, and in 1901-2 investi- gated the geology of a portion of Cuba. He returned to Alaska again in 1903 to report on the gold deposits of Juneau, and in 1904-5 reported on the Pre-Cambrian geology of New Jersey. Spencer, Herbert (1S20- 1903), Enghsh philosopher, born at Derby. In 1837 young Spen- cer accepted a position as engineer on the London and Birmingham Ry. For a year and a half he worked in London as a civil engineer, and subsequently for two and a half years on the Birmingham and Gloucester Ry. After the crisis of the great rail- wav mania he had to begin anew (1846). In 1848 he was invited to take the sub-editorship of the Economist newspaper; this post he held till 1853. It is a mis- take to suppose that when he began his philosophical studies Spencer set himself consciously and dehberately to search for the unifying root of nature's multiform manifestations. At first his mind was mainly directed to questions of a political and social nature. In 1850 appeared Social Statics, the object of which was to base his practical views on a coherent set of first principles. It is a common ob- jection to the Spencerian system of thought that it is a revival in modern times of the a priori methods of the schoolmen — a kind of materialistic Hegelianism, in which facts are made to fit a pre- conceived theoretic framework. Nothing could be further from the truth. Spencer began with fact, and stuck to the induc- tive process; and it was only at a certain stage of his scientific ex- ploration that the thought flashed across his mind that the law of biological and social evolution is a universal process, traceable in the cosmical changes and in the latest results of civilization. His originality consists in the unique manner in which he has combined the two processes, induction and deduction. Even to a greater ex- tent than in England his works have moulded the religious and philosophic thought of the New World. A number of his essays written between 1852 and 1860 reappeared in the U. S., where Mr. Youmans, editor of the Popular Science Monthly, with others of his American friends, aided Spencer in the continuation of his work. On the Continent his books have been translated by enthusiastic disciples, and among Oriental thinkers, in India and in Japan, the bold and massive generalization of the Spencerian philosophy has found a con- genial home. What, then, is the precise po- sition which Spencer occupies in the history of philosophic thought ? In his First Principles (1862) he adopts and approves the Hamiltonian demonstration of the relativity of knowledge, hold- ing that, from the constitution of the human mind, knowledge of noumena is impossible. Thus his task was to find the root principle of phenomenal existence. Spen- cer found the path of discovery cleared by three great general- izations — the universal law of gravitation, the nebular theory, and the doctrine of the conser- vation or persistence of force. These three isolated generaliza- tions Spencer fused into one by his theory of evolution. Accord- ing to him, the one universal and ultimate fact is the redistribution of matter and motion, all phe- nomena being simplv the multi- plex and complex phases pf the one fact. Evolution is defined as an integration of matter and concomitant dissipation of mo- tion, during which matter passes from an indefinite incoherent homogeneity to a definite coherent heterogeneity, while the retained motion goes through a parallel transformation. In his First Principles (1862) Spencer has ap- phed his formula to the evolu- tion of the earth from its nebu- lous to its present stage. In Principles of Biology (1864-7) the problem Spencer set before him was to explain by his evolution hypothesis the structural and functional complexities of plant and animal life. The key to this part of the subject is found in the Spencerian definition of life as the continuous adjustment of inner to outer relations. Given an environment gradually increasing in heterogeneity, it Herbert Spencer. (Photo by E. H. Mills.) Spencer follows that, in order to survive and propagate themselves, organ- isms must, in adapting them- selves, also increase in hetero- geneity. Through the struggle for existence everywhere going on among organisms, there is se- cured the killing out of the unfit, and the survival and perpetua- tion of those organisms charac- terized by successful variations, which by the law of heredity be- come structural and functional. The human organism, in its evo- lution from the germ cell, sum- marizes the ancestral develop- ment, in being progress from an indefinite, incoherent, protoplas- mic homogeneity to the definite coherent heterogeneity of the fully developed body, through successive integrations and differ- entiations, all of which are neces- sitated by the law of the persist- ence of force. In like manner Spencer, resting on organic evo- lution, proceeds to trace the course of psychological evolution from the first indefinite unit of feeling to the most complex intellectual processes — instinct, memory, rea- son, being all evolved in the mind by its efforts to maintain the ad- i'ustment with the environment, n his Principles of Psychology (1855), in tracing back the so- called intuitions of the individual to racial experiences, he has dealt what his followers beUeve to be a heavy blow to the Kantian and similar philosophies, and has given to the experiential philos- ophy of Mill and his school the scientific basis of which it stood in sore need. Philosophy, deal- ing with evolution, not with orig- ination, can throw no light on the great cosmical mysteries of beginnings and endings. Here the mind is baffled, and thus we are brought to the religious as- pect of the evolution philosophy — worship at the altar of the Un- known and Unknowable. Spencer visited the U. S. in 1882, remained here for several months and de- livered a number of lectures. Spencer's other books include Principles of Sociology (1876), Principles of Ethics (1892), Edu- cation (1905). See Spencer's Ati- tobiography (1904), Hudson's iJer- bert Spencer (1894), Collier's Epitome of the Synthetic Philos- ophy (1889), and Macpherson's Herbert Spencer: the Man and His Work (1900). Spencer, Jesse Ames (1816- 98), American clergyman and scholar, was born at Hyde Park, N. Y., and graduated (1837) at Columbia, and at the General Theological Seminary in 1840. He was ordered deacon in 1840 and ordained priest in 1841, and was in charge of a church at Goshen, N. Y., during 1840-2. when, his health failing, he passed several years in travel and general 370 literary and educational work. From 1851 to 1857 he was secre- tary and editor of the P. E. Sunday-school Union and Church Book Society, afterward holding the rectorship at Flatbush, L. I., from 1863 to 1865. From 1869 to 1891 he was professor of Greek at the College of the City of New York, and in 1883 he was made custodian of the Standard Bible. His numerous works include sev- eral Greek and Latin text-books and History of the Reformation in England (1846), History of the United States from the Earliest Period to the Death of President Lincoln (1856-69), and Memora- bilia: 1820-86 (1890). S p e n c e r , John Canfield (1788-1855), American politician, born at Hudson, N. Y. He grad- uated at Union College in 1806 and was admitted to the bar in 1809, having been for two years private secretary to Gov. Tomp- kins. He served in the army as judge-advocate-general in 1813, and in 1817-19, while a member of Congress, wrote the report of the committee which investigated the Bank of the United States. This report furnished most of the arguments afterward used by Jackson in his attack on the bank, while its author, who was then a Whig, had come around to its sup- port. He was a member of the Assembly in 1820, 1821, 1831, and 1833 (being speaker in 1820), state senator in 1825-28, and secretary of state of New York in 1839-41. In 1829 he was appointed special attorney-general to prosecute the Morgan abductors, but resigned in 1830 because of a controversy with the governor. He was in President Tyler's cabinet in 1841- 44, first as Secretary of War and then as Secretary of the Treasury, resigning because of his opposi- tion to the annexation of Texas. Spencer, Joseph William WiNTHROP (1851), American geol- ogist, born in Dundas, Ont. He graduated at the McGill Univer- sity, Montreal, in 1874, and at G5t- tingen in 1877. In 1877-80 he was an instructor in the Colle- giate Institute, Hamilton, Ont., and in 1880-2 professor of geol- ogy in King's College, Nova Scotia. He was professor of geology in the University of Mis- souri in 1882-7, and state geologist of Georgia in 1888-93. While holding the latter position he became interested in the geology of the Niagara district, and wrote several monographs descriptive of the physical changes the coun- try in the vicinity of the Niagara Falls has undergone. He also published Reconstruction of the Antillean Continent (1894) and Submarine Valleys off the Ameri- can Coast (1903). Spencer, Platt Rogers (1800- 64), American penman, was born Spencer Family at East Fishkill, N. Y., and early became an adept at penmanship, in which he gave instruction at the age of fifteen. His family re- moving to Ashtabula, O., in 1810, he taught in that state and in New York, and was treasurer of Ashtabula co. for twelve years. His system of penmanship was first published as Spencer and Rice's System of Business and Ladies' Penmanship (1848), and was subsequently reissued as The Spencer ian or Semi- Angular Penmanship. Spencer, Sara Andrews (1837), American reformer, was born at Savona, Steuben co., N. Y., and graduated at the St. Louis normal school. She was married (1864) to Henry C. Spen- cer, and afterwards made her home at Washington, D. C. Attention was called to her by her effort, with other women of Wash- ington, to register and vote in April, 1871. She brought suit in the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, but received an adverse decision, which was reafj5rmed by the U. S. Supreme Court in 1874. She was active in other reforms affecting women, and held office in national and local woman suffrage associations. She became principal of the Spen- cerian Business College at Wash- ington, and published Problems on the Woman Question (1871). Spencer, William Robert (1769-1834), English poet and wit, grandson of the third Duke of Marlborough; Jpecame commis- sioner of stamps (1797-1826). Pitt, Fox, Sheridan, and Sydney Smith were his friends. His works in- clude translation of Burger's Leo- nore (1796); Urania, a burlesque (1802); The Year of Sorrow; Poems (1811); ed. with Memoir (1835). Spencer Family. Charles Spencer (1706-58), fifth Earl of Sunderland, on becoming (1733) third Duke of Marlborough, as- signed the Sunderland estates to his younger brother, John, father of John Spencer (1734-83), created first Earl Spencer (1765). The second earl, George John Spencer (1758-1834), eldest son of the preceding, brother of Georgiana, the beautiful Duchess of Devonshire, represented, as Lord Althorp, Northampton (1780) and Surrey (1782) in the House of Commons, and reached the Upper House in 1783. A sup- porter of Burke on the French revolution question, he became (1794) keeper of the Privy Seal, first lord of the Admiralty (1794- 1801), home secretary under Fox (1806-7), and first president and part founder of the Roxburghe Club (1812). He built up the famous Althorp Library, acquired (1892) by Mrs. Rylands for the John Rylands Library in Man- chester. — John Charles Spen- Spener KFP 371 Spermaceti CER, the third earl (1782-1845), eldest son of the preceding, was member of Parliament for Oak- hampton (1804) ; junior lord of the Treasury (1806); Chancel- lor of the Exchequer under Earl Grey (1830), when he bore the brunt of the Reform Bill debate ; attained the peerage (1834) ; and when the Whigs left office devoted himself to agricultural interests, originating, and be- coming first president of, the Royal Agricultural Society (1838). — Frederick Spencer, fourth earl (1798-1857), young- er brother of the preceding, be- came member of Parliament for Worcestershire (1831) and Mid- hurst, and a peer (1845). From 1846-8 he was lord chamberlain and lord steward (1854). — John PoYNTz Spencer, fifth earl (1835-1910), entered Parlia- ment in 1857, but in the same year was elevated to the peerage. In Gladstone's first ministry he was lord-lieutenant of Ireland (1868-74). When _ Gladstone came into power again in 1880 Lord Spencer was given the lord presidency of the council. But in May, 1882, Lord Cowper, lord-lieutenant of Ireland, and W. E. Forster resigned their seats in the cabinet owing to disagreement with the govern- ment's Irish policy, and Lord Spencer and Lord Frederick Cavendish were appointed to the respective positions. The ad- ministration of Lord Spencer during the succeeding three years, particularly in reference to the trial and execution of the Phoenix Park murderers, and of Myles Joyce for the Maamtrasna murder in 1884, was the object of the most bitter and enven- omed attack by the Irish parlia- mentary party. A year later he declared in favor of Gladstone's Home Rule policy for Ireland. For third earl, see Memoir by Sir Denis Le Marchant (1876), Biographical Studies by Bagehot (new ed. 1895), and Lord Al- thorp by E. Myers (1890). Spener, Philip Jakob (1635- 1705), German clergyman, the father of German Pietism, was born at Rappoltsweiler in Al- sace. He became public preacher at Strasbourg in 1662, and from 1666 was first pastor at Frank- fort-on-the-Main. His attacks on Calvinism attracted much atten- tion, but he gradually adopted a more spiritual and less aggres- sive style, and in 1670 instituted the collegia pietatis, from which arose the sect of the Pietists. In 1675 he published his Pia Desideria, which urged Christian charity and humility of faith. In 1686 he was made court preach- er at Dresden. There the clergy combined against his teaching. A di.spute with the University of Leipzig led to the condemnation of his religious meetings, after which he changed (1691) his residence to Berlin. The Univer- sity of Halle became the center of Spener's 'pietism.' See Life by Wildenhahn (Eng. trans, 1881). Spengler, Oswald (1880- 1936), German philosopher, was educated at Halle and later stud- ied at Berlin and Munich. He became known shortly after the First World War by the publica- tion of Untergang dcs Abend- landes (Decline of the West) in which he predicted the end of Western civilization within 200 to 300 years, 'menaced by the proletarian revolution.' At the time of his death appeared his Hour of Decision (Part I). In Man and Technics he prophesied that increasing technical effi- ciency would bring man's doom. He denounced all forms of gov- ernments then existing in West- ern countries. Spenser, Edmund (c. 1552- 99), English poet, was born in London, being related to the Spencers of Althorp. In 1576 he retired to Hurstwood in Lanca- shire, where he wrote verse in the pastoral vein in honor of his Rosalind, who has not been satis- factorily identified, but was pos- sibly Rose Dineley of Clitheroe. In 1578 he went to London, be- came a member of the Earl of Leicester's household, and ac- o,uainted with Sidney and Sir Edward Dyer ; joined with them and Harvey in the literary co- terie known as the 'Areopagus,' and experimented in the adapta- tion of classical meters to Eng- lish verse. The publication of The Shepheard's Calendar in 1579 brought him literary fame. In 1580 he went to Ireland as secretary to the lord-deputy, Lord Grey de Wilton. In 1581 he was made clerk of the Irish Court of Chancery. He also ob- tained grants of land at New Ab- bey, Co. Kildare, and elsewhere. He looked upon himself as an exile, but worked away at The Faerie Qucene, and in 1588 be- came clerk of the council of Munster, and later obtained a grant of Kilcolman Castle, Co. Cork, the Mulla of his verse. He had litigious neighbors in Lord Roche and others, and a con- genial one in Sir Walter Ra- leigh at Youghal. From 1589- 91 he was in England, and pub- lished the first part of The Faerie Queene and other poems. By this time Spenser had become the leading influence in English letters. He returned to Ireland, and wrote his autobiographical Colin Clout's Come Home Againe (1595). His courtship and marriage of Elizabeth Boyle in 1594 produced the Sonnets and Epithalamion, and in the same year he resigned his Clerk- ship. In 1597 he once more re- turned to Ireland, and in 1598 he was sheriff of Cork. Kilcolman Castle was burnt during the ris- ing of the Earl of Tyrone in the same year. Spenser fled to Cork, and thence went to London to plead the wrongs of the Munster colonists. Here he died in pov- Edmund Spenser. erty, according to a more than doubtful legend, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Poems — The Shepheard's Calendar (1579; ed. H. O. Sommer, 1890; ed. C. H. Herford, 1895) ; The Faerie Queene (1590-6; ed. G. W. Kitchin, bks. i, ii, 1868-71; ed. K. M. Warren, 1897-1900) ; Daphnaida (1591) ; Prothalami- on (1596). Prose Work — View of the Present State of Ireland (1633). Collected Works (1611; ed. J. P. Collier, 1862; ed. R. Morris, with Life by J. W. Hales, 1869; ed. A. B. Grosart, 1880- 2). Biography and Criticism — Warton, Observations on the Faerie Queene (1754) ; Craik, Spenser and His Poetry (1845) ; Prof. F. J. Child's edition of the works (1855, 1878); Courthope, Genius of Spenser (1868) ; Fleay, Guide to Chaucer and Spenser (1877) ; essay by Low- ell in Among My Books, 2d se- ries (1876) ; Church, Life of Spenser (1879); Carpenter, Out- line Guide to Study of Spenser (1894) ; Davis, Edmund Spen- ser (1933). Spermaceti consists chiefly of cetyl palmitate, C51H31COOC16- H33, along with smaller quanti- ties of similar compounds. It oc- curs in the oil of the sperm and allied whales, particularly in the portion obtained from the head cavities, from which it separates in the solid state on cooling. Aft- er purification, spermaceti forms a snow-white, almost odorless, crystalline solid of specific grav' Spermatozoa KFP 372 Sphere ity .94, that melts at about 45° c, and is insoluble in water, but dissolves in hot alcohol and ether. It is apt to become rancid on keeping and is often adul- terated with paraffin, fats, and fatty acids. It is used as an in- gredient of ointments and for making candles. Spermatozoa. See Repro- duction and Sex. Sperm Oil consists chiefly of dodecatyl oleate C17H33COOC15- H25, along with similar esters of the higher monohydric alcohols, and thus differs materially from animal and vegetable oils, which are glycerol derivatives. Sperm oil is obtained from the cachalot or sperm whale. The bottle-nose whale yields a similar product — a thin, pale yellow liquid of spe- cific gravity about .88, and of more or less fishy odor. It does not readily become rancid or gummy, and is thus a valuable lubricant. Sperm-whale. See Cacha- lot. Sperry, Charles Stillman (1847-1911), American naval officer, born in Brooklyn, N. Y. He received a public school edvi- cation at Waterbury, Conn., and was graduated at the U. S. Na- val Academy in 1866. He be- came rear admiral in 1906. His special service comprised a term as president of the U. S. Naval War College, membership on the General Board of the Navy, membership in the National Coast Defence Board, and as- signments as delegate to the con- ference for the revision of the Geneva Convention for the treat- ment of the sick and wounded in 1906, and to the second Peace Conference at The Hague in 1907. On the organization of the battleship fleet he was selected as one of the four rear admirals to command the divisions, and he succeeded to the chief command after Rear-Admiral Evans had taken the fleet from Hampton Roads to San Francisco. Sperry, Elmer Ambrose (1860-1930), electrical engineer and inventor, was born in Cort- land, N. Y. and was educated at Cornell University. He held more than 400 patents from America and Europe. Among his inventions, he is perhaps best known for his gyro compass, electric automobile, and the 'metal mike' or automatic steers- man which stabilizes sl\ips and keeps them on a set course and an even keel. He was a founder of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and of the American Electro-Chemical So- ciety. Sperryllte, a platinum arsen- ide, PtAso, found in the nickel mines of Sudbury in Canada. Speusippus, ancient Greek philosopher, was a native of Athens, and nephew of Plato, whom he succeeded as the head of the Academy (347 to 339 B.C.). Spey, second longest river of Scotland ; rises between Bade- noch and Lochaber, Inverness- shire, and flows 110 m. in a n.e. direction to Moray Firth. Spezia (near ancient Partus Lunac), fort tn. and summer re- sort, Italy, prov. Genoa, on bay of same name, 56 m. by rail s.e. of Genoa ; was the chief naval station and arsenal in Italy. There are shipbuilding yards and docks. In the bay Shelley lost his life. Pop. 107,958. Sphagnum, a genus of moss- es, commonly known as bog- mosses. They have erect stems several inches long, and bear the male organs on lateral stems, somewhat resembling catkins, and the female organs on shorter lateral stems, resembling buds. The sphagnums grow in compact masses, often covering large areas. They are much used by gardeners, especially in the cul- tivation of orchids, by reason of the large quantity of water which they absorb and yield up according to the needs of the plant. Sphene, or Titanite, calcium silicate and titanate, CaSiTiOc, and a common accessory rock- forming mineral of the acid rocks, such as granite, rhyolite, trachyte, and syenite. It has strong double refraction and considerable dispersive power (h. = 5 ; sp. gr. 3.5). Fine speci- mens of dark brownish-green color are used as gems, though they are too soft to be of great value. The best stones are found in the gneiss of the Alps, espe- cially Tyrol. Sphenodon, or Hatteria, the genus name of a New Zealand lizard {S. pnnctatum). It is the only living member of the order Rhynchocephalia, and in many respects displays archaic char- acters, known elsewhere only among fossil forms. The usual length is under two feet. There is a long tail, which is strongly compressed, and both fore and hind limbs each bear five toes, which are clawed and webbed at their bases. The upper parts of the body are clothed with small scales, intermixed with tuber- cles, while a crest of spines runs from the posterior part of the head to the tail. It excavates bur- rows, in which it remains dur- ing the day, emerging in search of food in the evening. The food always consists of small living animals. The animals are fond of lying in water, and can re- main below the surface for a prolonged period. The eggs are deposited in a hole in sandy soil during the summer, but do not hatch till about thirteen months afterwards. The embryos appar- ently undergo what corresponds to a summer sleep within the shell. It would seem also that the mortality among the embryos is very great, relatively few^ hatching out. The following are among the more generally inter- esting features : the quadrate, the bone to which the lower jaw is attached, is fixed to the skull, and not movable as in lizards and snakes ; the vertebrae are cupped at both ends, as in fish, and the primitive reptiles, in- stead of having the ball and socket arrangement usual in liv- ing reptiles ; as in crocodiles, there are abdominal ribs on the ventral wall of the abdomen ; the wrist bones show no signs of fusion, the primitive number of ten bones being present. But the special peculiarity is the fact that the pineal body of other vertebrates — a curious structure found in the brain, which was long an entire puzzle — here takes the form of a median unpaired eye, which retains traces of the retina, and lies beneath a hole in the bones of the skull. Gener- ally, Sphenodon is a specialized remnant of the stock from which the other existing reptiles arose. , Sphere, in astronomy, the hollow vault of the sky upon which the heavenly bodies are seen projected. Its momentary center is at the eye of the ob- server ; its surface is conceived to be indefinitely remote. Hence, parallel lines produced to meet it, such as meteor-tracks, or the earth's axis during its annual revolution, converge to a single point. The situations of objects on the sphere are defined by ref- erence to two alternative systems of polar co-ordinates. Aristotle assigned seven spheres, centered on the earth, to the sun, moon, and five planets, and an eighth to the fixed stars ; Arab astrono- mers added a ninth, the 'primum mobile,' exterior to the rest, and imparting to them revolution in twenty-four hours. The purely ideal 'homocentric spheres* of Eudoxus became subsequently materialized into crystalline orbs, finally shattered by the in- cursion of the comet of 1577 as determined by Tycho Brahe. Sphere, in mathematics, a surface every point of which is equally distant from a fixed point known as the center. Every plane section of a sphere is_ a circle — known as a great cir- cle, if the plane be diametral. Two spheres intersect in a circle whose plane is at right angles to the join of their centers. A sphere may be described through any four points, as a circle may be described through any three. The shortest line in the surface join- Sphere of Influence ^ ing any two points is an arc of a great circle. Also for a given surface the volume of the sphere is a minimum. The Cartesian equation to the sphere is a par- ticular case of the general equa- tion of the second degree, and is obtained by equating to a con- stant r (the radius) the length of the straight line joining the centre to any point on the surface. Vol- ume of sphere, | ; surface of sphere, 4 r^. Sphere of Influence, a com- paratively modern development of international politics. This and cognate phrases date prac- tically from the Conference of Berlin in 1884. In 1885 arrange- ments were entered into between Great Britain and Germany, 'rel- ative to their respective spheres of action in portions of New Guinea.' Other similar agree- ments were made in relation to the British and German spheres of influence in the Western Pacific (1886); betv/een Great Britain and Russia in regard to Lake Victoria and the Pamirs (1895); between Great Britain ana France in ref- erence to Siam (1896), Egypt (1899), and Morocco (1904). In like manner, after the Chino- Japanese War, the various Euro- f)ean powers and Japan estab- ished spheres of influence in China. Disputes between Russia and Japan as to the delimitation of their spheres of influence in Manchuria and Korea formed the occasion for the outbreak of hos- tilities between the two powers in 1904. Mr. W. E. Hall, in his International Law (1904), says the expression indicates 'the regions which, geographically, are adjacent to, or, poHtically, group them- selves naturally with, possessions or protectorates' in which 'control can be exercised with tolerable regularity,' and represents 'an understanding which enables a state to reserve to itself the right of excluding other European powers from territories that are of im- portance to it, politically, as affording means of future ex- pansion to its existing dominions or protectorates, or strategically, as preventing civihzed neighbors from occupymg a dominant mili- tary position.' Spherical Aberration. See Aberration; Lenses; and Mi- croscope. Spherical Harmonics, a mathematical method of great value in the investigation of distributions of attracting and repelling 'matter' (gravitational, electrical, or magnetic), which act on other distributions of the same kind according to the New- tonian law of the inverse square. The method originated with La- place, and consists analytically m finding forms of functions of position which satisfy a particu- Vo^. XL— 25. 373 lar differential equation. All such functions are known as po- tential functions. When found for any region of space, the po- tential function gives at once, by its rate of change in any direc- tion, the force acting in that direction. Now, just as any simply periodic function can be expanded as a Fourier series, in terms of sines and cosines of suc- cessive integral multiples of the variable, each term representing a simple harmonic function, so here any potential function can be expressed as a series of ascend- ing or descending powers of a certain variable, the coefficients being definite, assignable func- tions of the sines and cosines of the spherical co-ordinates which fix the position of a line in space, say, for example, the latitude and longitude of a point on a spherical surface. Laplace ap- plied the method to the cal- culation of the attraction of a spheroid like the earth; Gauss made it the basis of his theory of terrestrial magnetism; and im- portant contributions to the theory have been made by Le- gendre, Kelvin, Dirichlet, Jacobi, and others. See Thomson and Tait's Natural Philosophy (1879), Heine's Kugelfunctionen (1878- 81), Todhunter's Elementary Treatise on Laplace's Functions (1875), and special chapters in Byerly's Fourier's Series and Spherical Harmonics (1895), and in Whittaker's Modern Analysis (1893). Spherical Triangle and Spherical Trigonometry* When any three points on a spherical surface are joined by arcs lying wholly on the surface, the arcs form what is called a spherical triangle. Each of the arcs so drawn is always under- stood to lie in one plane; and, un- less there is a statement to the contrary, the planes in which the arcs lie are always understood to pass through the centre of the sphere. In other words, the arcs C Spherical Triangle, o. Centre of sphere. are parts of great circles. The relations among the arcs, and the angles between each pair of planes containing the arcs, form an important branch of mathe- matics known as spherical trigo- nometry. It is incfispensable for the astronomer and geodetic sur- Sphinx veyor. The solution of a spherical triangle can be made to depend on the solution of the right-angled spherical triangle — that is, the tri- angle two of whose arcual sides ^ie in perpendicular planes. Thus the spherical triangle abc may at once be divided into two right- angled spherical triangles by simply drawing through one ver- tex, say A, a plane perpendicular to the plane bc containing the other two vertices. This will form on the spherical surface an arc AP meeting the arc bc, pro- duced if necessary, in the point p. The triangles apb and apc are two right-angled spherical triangles. Spheroid is the surface gener- ated by the rotation of an ellipse about either its major or its minor axis. When the major axis is the axis of rotation, the surface is a prolate spheroid somewhat like an egg. When the minor axis is the axis of rotation, the spheroid is oblate. The figure of the earth is approximately an oblate sphe- roid. The spheroid is a particular case of the ellipsoid. Sphex, a genus of fossorial Hymenoptera, belonging to the family Sphegidae. It has attracted special attention from the pe- culiar habits, first studied by Fabre. The female excavates horizontal galleries in the soil, usually ten in number, with each of which are connected three or four cells intended for the young. The cells are fully provisioned and closed up, and the whole gallery is abandoned. The provisions consist of three or four large in- sects, such as cicadas or crickets, which are stung by the wasp in three spots, corresponding to the position of the three chief nerve- centres. The result is that the quarry is paralyzed, but not killed. When the sphex larva hatches, it consumes the living crickets. Later, pupation occurs, and the imago emerges from the ground to begin the life history anew. Sphincter Muscles surround an opening or a short canal (e.g. pupil of eye, mouth, rectum), which they either constrict or close when it contracts, the mus- cular fibres being arranged in a more or less circular fashion. Sphinx, in ancient Greek le- gend, was a monster, which appeared in Boeotia, and killed all the inhabitants who could not solve a riddle which she pro- pounded to them. The riddle was — 'What animal is it that has four feet, and two feet, and three feet, and only one voice; yet its feet vary, and when it has most it is weakest ? ' OEdipus answered rightly, 'Man; for he crawls on all fours as an infant, and in old age moves on his feet and a staff.* Upon this the Sphinx slew her- self. The idea of the Sphinx Sphinx 374 Spldel came to Greece, no doubt, from Egypt. But in Egypt the Sphinx is represented as a lion without wings, with a human head; while the Greek Sphinx is a winged The smoked plate is moved at a known rate by clockwork, and the pressure of the spring upon the artery can be regulated by a screw. A most convenient instru- other substances containing salt. Among the chief spices are cassia, cloves, ginger, mace, nutmegs, cinnamon, pepper, pimento, cara- way, and coriander. lion, with a woman's breast and head. See Sophocles's CEdipus Tyrannus. Sphinx. See Hawk-moth. Sphygmograph, or Pulsom- ETER, an instrument for recording the movements of the arterial wall during and between the pulse- beats. The earliest form was in- vented by Vierovdt and per- fected by Marcy, and consists of a lever with an elastic spring. One end of the spring is placed Dudgeon's Sphygmograph. on the radial artery, and has above it a rack and pinion at- tached to a lever. The other end of the lever carries a style, which records on a moving smoked plate the movements of the vessel wall. The Egyptian Sphinx at Gizeh, ment is Dudgeon's sphygmograph, in which clockwork moves a strip of smoked paper below a style attached to a spring that rests on the radial artery. The writ- ing levers are so adjusted that the movements of the arterial wall are magnified fifty times. Besides yielding much valuable information about the frequency, strength, and regularity of the cardiac pulsations, the sphygmo- graph records the tension of the pulse, which is often altered by morbid changes in the blood pres- sure and in the vessel walls. S p i c a {a Virginis ), in as- tronomy, a helium star of 1.2 magnitude, representing the ear of wheat held by the zodiacal Virgin. Vogel discovered it in 1890 to be a spectroscopic binary, revolving in four days round a semi-obscure companion. Spica. See Bandage. Spice Islands. See Moluccas. Spices, vegetable products with a definite and pronounced taste used for adding flavors to simpler foods, usually to articles of food which contam sugar. They are distinguished from condiments, which are commonly used with meat or meat substitutes, or with Spicheren, vil., Eorraine, Prussia, 3 m. s. of Saarbriick, was the scene of a defeat of the French under Frossard by the Germans, Aug. 6, 1870. Spider. 1 he spiders consti- tute the specialized order Ara- neida of the class Arachnida. The specialization, as compared with the scorpion, is shown in the absence of apparent segmenta- tion, and in thfe shortening of the body, which consists of an an- terior cephalothorax, separated by a constriction from the large, rounded abdomen. The append- ages of the cephalothorax consist Normal Pulse Curve. of two small chelicerae close to the mouth, which here contain the poison gland used in ob- taining prey; the pedipalps, or Spider-crab 375 Spielhagen second pair of appendages, which are not chelate at the extremity; and four pairs of walking legs. On the ventral surface of the ab- domen in most spiders are the openings of a pair of lung-sacs, but a few have two pairs of these structures. In most spiders there are also present tracheal tubes :omparable to those of insects; the spiders therefore illustrate the transition between these two modes of breathing. The other structural pecuUarities include the spinnerets at the end of the abdomen; these are little tuber- cles perforated by a great number of holes, through which exudes the silk of which the web is made. The mouth is minute, as is also the lumen of the aUmentary canal; for the spider does not take solid food, but feeds upon animal juices. The nervous sys- tem shows much specialization, and there are numerous eyes on 'the head region. The sexes are separate, the males being smaller than the females. The prey is usually entangled in the web or lures, and killed by the poison glands of the chelicerae. The web is very varied in shape and structure. The orb form is well seen in that of the common garden spider, where there is a well- marked difference between the radial lines which form the scaf- folding of the web and the viscid circular ones which catch the in- sects. Other species use the silk to make snares or traps (c/. the trap-door spider). Another inter- estmg point is the frequency of what IS known as protective coloration among spiders. There are a very large number of spiders, the majority of which have two lung -sacs, while relatively few (like Mygale. the bird-catching spider) have four. See M'Cook's American Spiders and their Spin- ning Work (1890-4), Moggridge's Trapdoor Spiders (1872), Thorell's European Spiders (1870), and Camb. Nat. Hist., vol. iv. (1905). Spider-crab. See Crab. Spider-monlcey (Ateles), a by the slender body, the very long prehensile tail, and the elongated, spider-like limbs. On the fore limbs the thumb is ab- sent. The best-known species is A. paniscus, sometimes called the Spieiberg. See Brunn. Spiegei - ei.sen, or Mirror- iron, a pig-iron containing from about ten per cent, to forty per cent, of manganese and about five per cent, of carbon, prepared by Spiders. 1. Garden spider (Epeira diadema) and web. 2. Spinneret of spider. 3. Enlarged view of spiral thread or web, showing viscid globules. 4. Trap -door spider. 5. Lycosa tarantula. 6. Thomisus foka. 7. iMtrodectus Menavodi. 8. Platform web of house spider. 9. House spider (Tegenaria domestica). 10. Segrstria perjioa. 11. Tetragnatha ' sailing ' by means of loose webs. 12. Water spider and nest. 13. Gasteracantha can- cri/ormis. U. Foot of garden spider, showing 'combs ' for clinging to web. Spider-monkey (Ateles paniscus). genus of New World monkeys, whose members are characterized coaita, in which the fur is black, while the naked parts of the face are reddish. This monkey is readily tamed, and is a favorite S. American pet. There are a considerable number of other spe- cies, all purely arboreal in habits, and remarkable for their extreme agility. smelting manganiferous iron ores in a blast furnace. When broken, it forms large crystalline plates of vex-y lustrous appearance, from which it derives its name. It is used to add to the molten pure iron of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes in order to obtain steels. Spielliagen, Friedrich (1829)f Splelmann German novelist, born at Magde- burg. He produced novels of the Young German school, influenced by Gutzkow, well constructed in plot, but somewhat over- weighted with moraUzings. These placed him in the front rank of author- ship. They include Problematical Natures (1861; 9th ed. 1880), with sequel. Through Night to Light (1862); Hammer and Anvil (1869-, 8th ed. 1881); Storm-Floods (1878); Noblesse Oblige (1888); A New Pharaoh (1889); Faustulus (1897); Ever Forward (1872)- What the Swallow sang (1873); The Hohen- steins (1864); Rank and File (1866); Low Land (1879); Love for Love (1875); Quisisana (1880). See Study by Karpeles (1889). He translated into German Curtis's Howadji and Emerson's English Traits, among other translations. Spielmann, Marion Harry (1858), English art critic and author, born in London; was an engineer till 1884. He soon turned to literature, and contributed to the Pa// Mall Gazette (1883-90), Daily Graphic, and Graphic as art critic (till 1891); Black and White as art editor (1890). Spiel- mann was editor of the Magazine of Art from 1887 till its publication ceased in July, 1904. (See Maga- zine OF Art.) In 1886 he pub- lished a Pall Mall extra on ' The Works of Mr. G.F. Watt§, R.A.'; also Henrietta Ronner (1891), The Hist, of Punch (1895), Millais and his Works (1898), Thackeray (1899), Ruskin (1900), Chaucer's Portraits (1900), Charles Kean (1903), and The Art of John MacWhirter, R.A. (1904). Spigelia, a genus of American herbaceous plants belonging to the order Loganiaceae. They bear spikes of yellow, red, or purple flowers, and a few species are sometimes grown in gardens. S. Marylandica, with scarlet and yellow tubular flowers in a one- sided spike, is the Indian pink or pink root, somewhat used as a vermifuge. Spike, an inflorescence in which the flowers are arranged without stalks along a simple, un- divided axis, as in the plantain. Strobilus, spadix, and amentum are terms used to indicate special forms of spikes, as illustrated by the inflorescences of the hop, the arum, and the willow respec- tively. Spikenard, or Nard, a hardy perennial Himalayan herbaceous giant {Nardostachys jatamansi) elonging to the order Valerian- aceae. It has a thick, fusiform root, which is very fragrant, and it bears dense heads of reddish flowers in late autumn.^ It is quite easy of cultivation in ordi- nary soil. As a perfume and as a stimulant medicine, spikenard root has always been held in great esteem in the Orient. 376 Spiking Guns is now prac- tically an obsolete term. It ap- f)hed to muzzle-loaders, fired rom a vent or touch-hole in the breech, which was closed by driving into it a spike or iron rod, afterwards broken short off by a hammer. The only remedy was drilUng another vent, a long and tedious process. The modern equivalent is the removing or de- stroying of the breech-block and the sights of the gun. Spina Bifida, or Cleft Spine, a condition due to arrest of de- velopment in some vertebrae, re- sulting in the protrusion of the spinal cord and its membranous coverings. It may occur in any part of the spinal column. The appearance is that of a tense, fluctuating tumor, covered often by only a very thin skin. The condition is generally fatal within a few days or weeks after birth. But sometimes the condition is spontaneously cured bv the grad- ual oozing away of the cerebro- spinal fluid and the closure of the aperture in the column. In- jections of iodine sometimes suc- ceed by inducing absorption. Forms of Spike. 1. Spadix (arum). 2. Catkin (willow). 3. Spike (plantain), i. Strobilus (hop). Spinach. An annual kitchen vegetable {Spinacia oleracea), the arrow-shaped root leaves of which are used for greens. It may be sown out of doors as early in the spring as the ground can be worked, in rows 12 inches apart, putting in 30 to 40 seeds to each foot of row. For the early spring crop the seed is planted in August or early Septemoer and the crop covered on the approach of winter with a 2-inch mulch of leaves, straw, or other clean litter. This is removed early in the spring, and the plant rapidly reaches edible size. The plants are thinned to 6 to 8 inches in the rows and are ready for gathering within about 8 weeks from the time of planting. Spinach is in greatest demand in Spinal Column early spring and late fall. Th^ growth of the plant is greatly accelerated by a top dressing of nitrate of soda, using about 160 pounds per acre. Spinal Column, called also Spine, Backbone, or Vertebral Column, consists in man of thirty-three bones, of which in the adult the four lowest are united to form the coccyx, and the five above the coccyx are fused together as the sacrum. Of the others, the seven highest, which are situated in the neck, Spinal Column. A. The spinal column, side view. b. Atlas (1st cervical vertebra) from above. C. Axis (2d cervical vertebra), side view. D. Dorsal vertebra, side view. E. Section of a vertebra, showing structure, f. Sec- tion of two lumbar vertebrae, showing ligaments. 1, Cervical, 2, dorsal, 3, lumbar vertebrae ; i, sacrum ; 5, coccyx ; 6, body of vertebra ; 7, spinous process ; 8, 9, trans- verse process ; 10, superior articular sur- face ; 11, inferior ; 12, superior articular process; 13, inferior; 14, articulation for rib ; 15, intervertebral substance ; 16, an- terior common ligament; 17, posterior; 18, ligamenta subflava ; 19, interspinous ligament ; 20, supraspinous ligament ; 21, foramen for spinal cord ; 22, foramen for blood-vessel. are called cervical- the next twelve lie between the shoulders and the waist, and are known as dor al; while the remaining five, the lumbar vertebrae, are situated immediately above the sacrum. Each vertebra consists ci two essential parts — an anterior solid segment or body, with concave surfaces above and below, and a posterior hollow segment or arch. The vertebrae are superimposed one upon the other, so that the bodies make a strong, solid pillar, while the arches form a con- tinuous bony canal behind. Be- tween each pair of vertebrae apertures exist for the spinal nerves arising from the spinal cord within the canal. The two highest cervical vertebrae pre- sent characteristic modifications in connection with the move- ments of the head, the upper being known as the atlas, and the second as the axis. The atlas has no body, but is a mere bony ring, capable of rotation around the odontoid process of the axis. Spinal Column All the cervical vertebrae have the transverse process on each side pierced by a foramen, through which the vertebral artery and vein pass. The spine is thick and nearly horizontal in direction. It furnishes attachment for the strong ligamentum nuchae or ligament of the neck. Its aver- age length is about two feet two inches. Viewed laterally, the spine presents several curvatures which correspond with its differ- ent regions. The cervical curve is the least marked, and is con- cave backward, the dorsal is concave forward, the lumbar is concave posteriorly, while below the lumbar region the sacrum and coccyx form the pelvic curve, which has its concavity looking forward. From the greater trac- tion exercised by the muscles of the right arm, the dorsal region of the spine generally presents a lateral curvature, the convexity of which is toward the right side, and also a slight compensa- tory curve of an opposite nature in the lumbar region. The carti- lages between the vertebrae form in the aggregate nearly one-fourth of the total length of the spine; but they are not uniform in thickness, being . thinner in the dorsal than in the cervica4 and lumbar regions, which have, con- sequently, greater pliancy and mobility. The ligaments of the spinal column are mostly char- acterized by the large amount of elastic tissue which they contain, and which serves to maintain the upright position with but little expenditure of muscular energy. The transverse ligament of the atlas stretches across the ring of that bone, and retains the odontoid process of the axis in the anterior arch. Death by hanging is due to the rupture of this ligament, as a result of which the odontoid process crushes the medulla oblongata and destroys the vital centres. Strong ligaments also connect the occipital bone with the axis and with the atlas. The spinal column is the central support for the framework of the body. The maximum of movement be- tween two adjacent vertebrae is very slight, but the aggregated movements of several such joints amount to a considerable range of mobility. The curvature of the spine adds to its strength, and confers upon it the properties of an elastic spring. It thus dis- sipates the force of a fall instead of transmitting it to the head, as a rigid and straight column would do. The spine also forms an armored flexible tube for the protection of the delicate spinal cord. The spinal column may be the seat of sprains, fractures, or dis- locations, as well as of synovitis 377 in one or more of the many syno- vial joints. Sprains are apt to be associated with persistent pain, and are often followed by rheumatic inflammations. Frac- tures and dislocations are at- tended by the serious risk that the spinal cord may suffer either laceration or compression. Dis- location of the spine without fracture is impossible except in the cervical region, and there it is uncommon. For Pott's disease of the spine and for abnormal curvatures, see Hunchback. Spinal Cord, the elongated cylindrical part of the central nervous system. It is usually about sixteen inches in length, and does not nearly fill the spinal canal, its investing membranes being separated from the bony wall by areolar tissue and a plexus of veins, as well as by cerebro-spinal fluid, while in the adult it does not reach lower than the first lumbar • vertebra, where it terminates as a slen- der thread of gray matter. The spinal cord is a flattened cylinder, with a deep longitudinal furrow or fissure on both the anterior and the posterior aspects. These fissures divide the cord into sym- metrical halves, which are united Diagrammatic Section of Spinal Cord in Cervical Region. 1, Anterior cornu of gray matter ; 2, pos- terior cornu ; 3, commissure ; 4, central canal ; 5, anterior nerve root, 6, postei'ior; 7, anterior median Assure, 8, posterior ; 9, fasciculus of Tiirck ; 10, antero-internal column ; 11, probable tract of sensations of pain, heat, and cold ; 12, crossed pyra- midal tract ; 13, posterior column ; 14, postero-internal column of Goll ; 15, tract for sensation of touch and muscular sense ; 16, postero-median, or postero- internal column, or column of Goll. in the middle line throughout their whole length by a trans- verse band of nervous substance known as the commissure. In transverse section the cord is seen to consist of white and gray matter, of which the white lies externally, and constitutes the greater part. The gray matter IS arranged somewhat in the shape of a crescent in each half of the cord, the two crescents being united near their middle by gray matter which passes across the commissure. Both the white and the gray matter contain a supporting tissue known as neu- roglia, which consists of elastic fibres and nucleated cells. The Spinal Cord nerve cells are large, and stellate or multipolar, possessing many processes, which break up like the branches of a tree into fine nerve networks. The spinal cord is suppHed with a large number of blood-vessels, and the blood- vessels and ganglion cells are surrounded by lymph spaces. The cord is enveloped in three membranes — the dura mater, the arachnoid membrane, and the pia mater — which are composed of fibrous connective tissue and endothelium. The _ white medullated fibres which join the anterior pyramids of the medulla oblongata decus- sate almost entirely before en- tering the spinal cord, and it is owing to this that hemiplegic paralysis so often affects the side of the body opposite to that on which the lesion is. The nerve filaments of the white matter depend for their vitality upon the cells from which they spring, and should haemorrhage or other lesion destroy the cell in the cortex cerebri, the whole filament undergoes speedy degeneration. Should the filament be severed at any point, the portion situated distally from the cell degenerates in the same way. Destruction of the ganglionic cells of the cord is followed by degeneration of the motor fibres of the corresponding spinal nerve, and the muscles are also dependent upon these cells for their nutrition. Throughout the entire length of the spinal cord sensory fibres cross from one side to the other. A unilateral lesion of the spinal cord, there- fore, produces motor paralysis on the same side as the lesion, along with sensory paralysis on the opposite side, the paralysis in each case being only below the seat of the lesion. The column of Goll, which lies in the pos- terior column close alongside the posterior median fissure, seems to convey the sensation of touch and the muscular sense. All the nervous system is built up on the reflex plan. The spinal cord alone may carry out a re- flex act, a sensation being re- ceived bv the sensory ganglion cell of the cord, transmitted to the motor cell, and transformed into a motor impulse. But com- monly part of the sensory im- pulse is sent up to the higher centres in the brain, which may then direct or control the result- ing motor phenomena. In strych- nine poisoning the subordinate spinal centres become hyper- excitable, and the slightest sen- sory stimuli lead to excessive discharge of energy, which is altogether beyond the control of the brain. Similarly, a lesion which cuts the communicating fibres between the brain and cord leaves the reflex centres uncon- Spinazzola trolled, and the reflex move- ments which then follow — say, tickling of the sole — are conse- quently enormously exaggerated from want of the restrainmg in- fluence of the higher centres. See also Sclerosis, Spinazzola, tn., prov. Bari, Italy, 42 m. w. by s. of Bari; ex- ports oil and fruit. Pop. (1901) 11,532. Spindle Tree. The common spindle tree {Euonymus euro- paus) is a European shrub, which Dears glossy lanceolate leaves, and in late spring clusters of small Spindle Tree. 1, Flower ; 2, section ; 3, fruit ; 4, seed. greenish flowers, followed by Fruits which become beautifully rose-colored. The wood is very compact, and is used for making skewers. See Euonymus. Spine. See Spinal Column. 378 oxide, but zinc and manganese may also be present. As a rule the spinels form excellently de- veloped octahedral crystals, be- longmg to the regular or iso- metric system, and their refractive index is high and their hardness usually great. The best known are precious spinel or balas ruby (pink and transparent MgAl204), magnetite (black, metallic, and magnetic), chrornite (dark brown or black); but zinc- spinel (frank- linite), chrome-spinel (picotite), gleonaste, and hercynite also ave a wide distribution. Spinel lo Arctino, properly LucA Spinello (c. 1330-1410), Italian painter, born at Arezzo. He was a disciple of Giotto, and is known for his painting of fres- coes, only a few of which have been preserved. His most famous are the Fall of the Rebel Angels and those executed for the sacristy of the church of San Miniato (Florence), with others at Pisa, Siena, and Arezzo. Spines, in botany. See Thorn. Spinet, a keyed musical instru- ment much in use from 1500 to 1760. It derived its name from the spines or crowquills which, attached to levers called jacks, plucked the string and produced the tone. In England it was Interior Mechanism of Spinet. A, Jack ; B. tonprue ; c, quill ; d, bristle spring ; E, cloth damper ; F, pivot ; g, wire. specially popular in the reign of Elizabeth, its other name being virginal. In 1611 there appeared Parthenia, the First Musicke that ever was printed for Spinoza in that continent. Its narrow leaves are coarse and hard, and land covered with the grass is not easy to traverse. Spinning. See Cotton {Manu- facture); Woollen Textiles; Silk; Yarns. Spinola, Ambrosio, Marquis OF (1569-1630), general, in the service of Spain, Dorn at Genoa. He served under Mendoza in the Netherlands, was made com- mander-in-chief to cope with Maurice of Nassau (1604), when he took Ostend after a three years' siege; raised the siege of Ghent (1605), concluding a twelve years' truce (1609). In 1620 he conquered part of the Palatinate for the emperor; and returning (1621) to the Netherlands, took Breda (1625). See Life, in French, by Siret (1851). Spinoza, Baruch or Benedic- TUS de (1632-77), Cartesian phi- losopher, was born at Amsterdam, and belonged to a Jewish family, but was later excommunicated on account of his heretical views. His life was entirely uneventful. His livelihood was earned by grinding lenses, his leisure de- voted to philosophy. The works pubHshed by Spinoza in his hfe- time — an exposition of Descartes's philosophy and (anonymousl)^) the Tractatus Theologico-Politi- cus (1670) — are of less impor- tance than those published after his death — his masterpiece, the Ethica, which is really a meta- ghysics as well; the short, un- nished treatise De Intellectus Emendatione; and the Tractatus Politicus. His system is essen- tially a development of Carte- sianism, the most conspicuous feature of which is the funda- mental dualism between thinking and extended substance. The res cogitans and the res extensa, aUke in being substances, are so totally diverse in nature other- wise, that the problem of their relation to each other could only be solved by subordinating them both to God as the infinite and only self - subsistent substance Thinking and extension are for Spinoza not two substances of different nature, but only two diverse attributes of one and the same substance. They no longer have to be brought together by divine agency, for they are them- selves alreacly attributes of God — the infinite, as He is also the only substance. The dualism of Descartes is thus transformed into a pantheistic monism, and this pantheism is worked out by Spinoza in terms of the three related conceptions of substance, attribute, and mode. His method of exposition and proof is an imitation of geometry, then the ideal of scientific demonstration, and starts with definitions and axioms, from which a series of Spinet. Spinel, a mineral group which contains a combination of a protoxide and a sesquioxide, the commonest bases being iron (in the ferrous and ferric states), alumina, magnesia, and chromic theVirginalls. The composers were WiUiam Byrd, Dr. John Bull, and Orlando Gibbons. Spinifex, or Porcupine Grass, an Australian grass {Triodia irri- tans), which covers large areas Spinthariscope propositions is then deduced. In the original definitions the main features of the system are virtu- ally involved and assumed. God, the infinite substance, has, accord- ing to Spinoza, an infinity of attii- butes, but all finite things known to us belong to the two attributes of thought and extension. And since it is the same substance that is expressed in both these attri- butes, there is a thoroughgoing parallelism between the modes of thought and the modes of ex- tension. The difficulties of Spi- noza's doctrine in regard to tlie attributes were already seen in his own day by his acute critic and correspondent, Tschirnhau- sen. The leading idea of the ethical part of Spinoza's great work is, that in becoming con- scious of the unity of all things in God we rise above the bondage of the passions and desires which belong to our finitude. His po- litical doctrine owes much to the EngUsh philosopher Hobbes. The standard edition is that of Van Vloten and Land (1882), There are translations of the Works by Elwes (1884), and of the Ethica and De Intell. Emend. by Hale White (1883), expositions by Caird (1888), Martineau (1882). Pollock (1880), Joachim, and of his ethico-poiitical doctrine by Duff (1903). See also Fullerton's trans. The Philosophy of Spinoza, selections with introduction (1894), and Fullerton's On Spinozistic Immortality (1899), for a study. Spinthariscope, an instru- ment contrived by Sir William Crookes in 1903 to show the luminous effects due to radium. It consists of a short brass tube closed at one end by a convex lens, and at the other by a zinc sulphide screen, with a small piece of radium salt placed close in front of it. An observer, look- ing at the screen through the lens, sees it lit up by dazzling scintillations, each of which marks the impact of an 'alpha particle,' hurled from the disin- tegrating radium. The flashes of light are held by Becquerel to be occasioned by actual cleavage of the crystals composing the screen; but Prof. R. W. Wood has obtained from later experiments some data which, though not conclusive, make it probable that this is not the actual process in operation. Spiraea, a genus of herbs and shrubs belonging to the order Rosaceae. It includes the hard- hack {S. tomentosa), meadow- sweet {S. salicifolia), and a large number of beautiful cultivated plants. Spiral, a curve which winds round a centre or pole, while con- tinuously approacning or reced- ing from it. The following are the best-known spirals: (1) r = aO, spiral of Archimedes; (2) rO = a. 379 hyperbolic or reciprocal spiral; (3)r2 0 = a^, lituus; (4) r_== ae *»t0^ equiangular or logarithmic spiral. Forms of Spiral. 1. Spiral of Archimedes. 2. Lituus spiral. 3. Logarithmic spiral, i. Hyper- bolic spiral. In all these curves r is the radius vector, 0 the angle it has de- scribed, a and m constants. These curves may be traced by finding the values of r for given values of 9, and plotting by polar co- ordinates the points so obtained. There are an infinite number of convolutions about the pole in each case; r sin 0 — a is an asymp- tote to (2), the initial line is an asymptote to (3), while in (4) as the angle increases in arithmetical progression, the radius vector in- Splrlfet creases in geometrical progression. Spiranthes, a genus of terres- trial orchids, bearing flowers in spikes. The American species are now included in the genus Gyrostachys and are known as 'ladies' tresses.' The small flow- ers are pale or white in spirals or close ranks. Spire, an elongated pyramidal roof^ over a tower. It is a very important feature in Gothic churches and cathedrals. Spires are usually of stone, but are formed also of wood and covered with slate or lead. In the Norman period corner turrets were com- monly terminated with a sort of spire, the form or plan being the same as the turret itself, either round or square, and rising direct from the top of the tower without any parapet, as at St. Peter's at Oxford, or St. Stephen's at Caen. Later the spire proper, being a much longer pyramid, was octag- onal, on a square tower, the cor- ners being filled in, as it were, with angular pieces, when it was termed a Droach. In later styles the parapet is well marked and ornamented with pinnacles and flying buttresses, as at Lichfield Cathedral; while the spire itself is often perforated with openings, either simply moulded or having perpendicular jambs, covered with small gables and sometimes filled in^ with regular tracery. The spire is also ornamented with moulded or ornamental bands, as at Salisbury, while the angles are sometimes^ enriched with beads and sometimes with crockets. In Germany the later spires are entirely composed of tracery, as at Freiburg, Vienna, Cologne. Spires (Ger. Speyer), tn., prov. Palatinate, Bavaria, on the Rhine, 21 m. by rail s. of Worms. There are remains of town walls, of an old palace, and of a subterranean bath. The cathedral was built in 1030, and contains the tombs of eight German emperors and some of their consorts. The Diet of the empire was frequently held here, and Spires was tne seat of the im- perial tribunal from 1513 to 1689. The town was taken and almost de- stroyed by the French in 1689, and again in 1794. Pop. (1905) 21,823. Spirifer, a fossil brachiopod. The shell is usually marked ex- ternally with radiating furrows, and the ventral valve has often in addition a well-marked mesial groove, to which a ridge corre- sponds on the dorsal valve. The opening for the peduncle is found only on the dorsal valve. In the interior there are two large spi- rally coiled supports for the arms. In shape the species vary greatly, some being oblong, others very broad from side to side and short from front to back. The number of fossil forms, especially in th" Spirit 380 Spiritualism Silurian, Devonian, and Carbon- iferous formations, is very large. Spirifers. 1. S. Sowerbyi. 2. S. Sheppardi. 3. S. costalis. Spirit. Originally there ex- isted no distinction between spirit and soul or mind, because the only distinction that appeals to the Erimitive mind is the broad one etween the outward and visible body and the inward or animat- ing principle. Moreover, this latter principle is conceived in materialistic fashion, and is very usually identified with the breath. Even for philosophical reflection the true distinction between the material and the immaterial is not easily seized, and the early Greek philosophers were not much in advance of primitive thought in that respect. But when at last the immaterial nature of the soul was recognized, the notion of spirit still continued to play an impor- tant part in physiological theory (e.g. with Aristotle and the Peri- patetics), and spirit was regarded as a sort of connecting link be- tween soul and body — a view which survives as late as Des- cartes's doctrine of 'animal spir- its.' When materialism revived, as it speedily did, this ambiguous position of spirit made the notion peculiarly available, and in the Stoic philosophy it was widely extended to signify the principle which, all pervasive yet material, animates the whole world, as in the particular form of the human soul it animates the human body. In the religious notion of spirit as developed in the Old and New Testaments the central element comes to be that of divine or supernatural agency operative in the life of man. Hence spirit, though it may still be conceived in materialistic fashion, takes the highest place as the presence of the divine in man. Both the materialistic or physiological and the religious notions of spirit have now ceased to possess any psycho- logical significance — the former because it has disappeared before a truer physiology, the latter be- cause it is a religious notion with which a purely scientific psychol- ogy has no concern one way or the other. Consequently, in phi- losophy, the term spirit has now no special meaning distinct from mina or soul. Spirit. See Alcohol; Distil- lation; Methylated Spirit; Proof Spirit; Rectified Spirit. Spirit, Holy. See Holy Spirit. Spirit - fresco. See Mural Decoration. Spirit-level. See Level. Spiritualis m. Spiritualism is a term that denotes two closely re- lated and yet distinguishable be- liefs. Its older import applied to that view of the human mind which opposed it to materialism and which maintained that the soul in consequence of its not being a function of the bodily organism survived death. This view describes the position of Christianity against the claims of Epicurean materialism. It repre- sented the philosophic conception of past history from the decline of ancient civilization, and it did not begin to lose its hold on men's minds until the agnosticism of Im- manuel Kant substituted Idealism for it. He accepted the term as properly defining the opposing conception to materialism, but was too sceptical to protect it from the weakness of philosophic systems. The existence of the soul and its survival were really a matter of faith and not of fact, and the term had no suggestion of communication with the dead to give it meaning. But the second import of the term, which is a scientific one, was conferred by the belief that communication with the deceased is possible or a fact. Swedenborg was perhaps the first to give this idea its present standing, though he was not the inventor of the term nor the person who gave it the asso- ciations of charlatanism which pervade its history since his time. This second meaning of the term concedes that materialism can be supplanted only by communica- tion with the dead, and so bases its contention upon the facts of present experience, or evidence of communication, while the older vie^y was based upon purely philosophic speculation. The two points of view are reconcilable and may ultimately be united. The possibility of communicat- ing with the dead early gave rise to the fraudulent simulation of it, and the revival of modern Spir- itualism is usually traced to the Fox sisters instead of Sweden- borg. Raps and knockings con- stituted the method by which these adventurers and others pre- tended to establish communica- tion with the dead. But the dis- covery of their frauds and their final confession of them gave the doctrine a setback, from which it has been very difficult to recover. It was the organization of the Society for Psychical Research that has revived recent interest in the doctrine, and its work has tended to put limits to the claims which have generally been made for communication with the dis- carnate, though it has at the same time tended to strengthen the be- Hef by giving it better scientific credentials than it has hitherto possessed. Its publications have discriminated between pseudo- spiritistic phenomena and such as have genuine claim to being supernormal, whatever the final explanation. To escape the mis- conceptions which have accom- panied the term ' spiritualism,' it has coined that of ' spiritism ' to denote the point of view descrip- tive of many of its phenomena, though not committing itself to the belief in the fact of commu- nication with the dead. Much of the Society's material bears upon other questions than spiritism, and so relates to such ideas as telepathy, clairvoyance, premoni- tions, coincidental dreams, coin- cidental apparitions whether of the living or of the dead, and other residual phenomena. Medi- umistic phenomena, which usually claim to have their source in dis- carnate spirits, are equally a sub- ject of its investigations, though they often have not adequate evi- dential claims to the source which they superficially represent. Spiritism or spiritualism, there- fore, in its expurgated form, is confined to the idea of communi- cation with the dead, at least in so far as its strictly scientific im- port is concerned. There are various phenomena which have given the popular mind its conception of the prob- lem and its solution. They are such as * materializations ' asso- ciated with cabinets and dark seances, independent slate writing in which messages purporting to come from the discarnate are thought to be written between closed or concealed slates by in- visible agencies, rope-tying per- formances which Zollner ex- plained by a fourth dimension, the movement of objects without physical contact, and the produc- tion of sounds in some way not explicable by ordinary means. Assuming these as genuine, for which there is no adequate scien- tific evidence as yet, they are not indicative of spirit agency what- ever they may suggest and al- though they might be explicable by it when once proved. The real problem of discarnate agency is in the evidence of personal identity after death and some- thing very different from physical marvels, though scientific obser- vation should neither neglect the investigation of such claims nor refuse them, if true, the possible explanation which they claim. The phenomena which are m9st pertinent to the doctrine of spir- itism are apparitions of the dying and the dead and mediumistic communications, when they are undoubtedly supernormal and m 1 ^ t942 Spirochaeta KFK 381 Spleen referable to the memories of surviving souls. One of the best illustrations of this type of phenomena was the experience of the Rev. Stainton Moses. The automatic writing of this gentle- man purported to represent the communications of discarnate spirits, and had it received the scientific investigations which it deserved might have substan- tiated his claims. His phe- nomena, however, were an im- portant influence in suggesting the organization of the Society for Psychical Research. The Proceedings of this soci- ety supply much more material having at least a plausible claim to representing spiritistic agency. The Reports on the re- markable case of Mrs. Leonora Piper, published in five different volumes of the Proceedings, of- fer the best mass of scientific evidence extant in support of possible spirit communication. For this case and its extensive record the world is indebted to Dr. Richard Hodgson, the late Secretary of the American Branch of the Society for Psy- chical Research. The work of Mr. Frederick W. H. Myers is only less important and impres- sive in the same direction. It was published in two large vol- umes, Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death. This includes most of the best results of psychical research. Sir Oliver Lodge, Sir Wil- liam Barrett, and Professor Charles Richet of Paris have made important contributions to the subject during the last three decades, most of which are em- bodied in the Proceedings of the Society. Professor Henry Sidg- wick and Dr. Richard Hodgson share in the same work to an equal extent. Mr. Frank Pod- more contributed, besides arti- cles, a work on Apparitions and Thought Transference, and Mod- ern Spiritualism. Both are criti- cal and sceptical works, though admitting the existence of phe- nomena oridnarily inexplicable. Important literature on the subject, in addition to what has been named will be found in the following: Phantasm of the Living, 2 vols., by Gurney and Myers ; Spirit, Identity and Spirit Teachings, both by Rev. Stainton Moses ; L'Inconnu, by M. Flammarion. Less impor- tant or evidential are the works of Judge Edmunds, of Alfred Russel Wallace, and Andrew Jackson Davis. Consult also, H. Houdini, A Magician Among the Spirits (1924) ; D. H. Buett- ner, The Spirit Life of Pure Spiritualism (1939). Spi'rochaeta, or Spirochete, a genus of flexile protozoa in- cluding Spirochccta obermcieri. the causative organism of re- lapsing fever, Spirochccta {Tre- ponema) pallida,^ the pathogenic parasite of syphilis, and a large number of other species. Spitalfields, spit'al-feldz, a northeastern district of London, England, deriving its name from the Hospital of St. Mary found- ed there in 1197. Spit'head, roadstead, English Channel, between the northeast of the Isle of Wight and Ports- mouth. It is 14 miles long by about 4 miles in breadth. The Battle of Spithead was fought in 1545, between the Eng- lish fleet and the French fleet. The latter was kept at bay, and finally driven off. Sp'itsbergen (Norwegian Svalbard), an Arctic archipel- ago between Greenland and No- vaya Zemlya, some 400 miles north of Norway. Total area about 24,294 sq. miles. They include West Spitsbergen or Mainland (15,200 sq. m.), North East Land (6,000 sq. m.). Edge Island (2,500 sq. m.), Barents Island (580 sq. m.), Prince Charles Foreland, the Wiche Is- lands, Hope Island, Bear Island (68 sq. m.) and many smaller islands. The interior is covered with a thick ice sheet, through which project peaks, some of which are 2,000 feet high, and one, Hornsund, in West Spits- bergen, 4,500 feet. There are magnificent glaciers on the east of North East Land. Seals and walruses are found on the coasts, and sea-fowl — e.g., eider duck — breed on the islands. There are extensive deposits of coal especially in West Spits- bergen, and these are being worked by Norwegian, Swedish, and Dutch companies. British companies also control large coal areas. Pop. about 3,000. It is believed that the archi- pelago was discovered by the Norsemen in 1194 and re-dis- covered by the Dutch navigator Wm. Barents in 1596. The English explorer Henry Hud- so visited Spitsbergen in 1607, and thereafter was visited by British and Dutch whalers and later (18th century) by Russian hunters and trappers. Attempts at permanent settlement came to nothing, and the islands re- mained a sort of no-man's land until well into the 20th century. In 1920 a treaty was signed by the Great Powers (Feb. 9) rec- ognizing Norwegian sovereignty over the archipelago. The is- lands were formally proclaimed Norwegian territory on Aug. 14, 1925. Many North Pole expe- ditions have started from Spits- bergen. See Arctic Explora- tion. Spitzka, Edward Charles (1852-1914), American psychia- trist, was born in New York. He was the first to discover the interoptic lobes in saurians, the absence of pyramidal tracts in the cetacea, and the interoptic lobes of the lower brain. He was professor of medical juris- prudence and neurology in the New York Post-Graduate Hos- pital (1885); editor of the American Journal of Neurology (1881-4), and author of a Trea- tise on Insanity (1883). Spleen, in anatomy, a small organ, the largest of the so-called ductless glands, is about five inches long, lying high on the left side of the abdomen, near the upper end of the stomach, and partly behind it and the in- testine. It is of soft, pulpy tis- Spitzbergen Spleenwort KFK 382 Spokane sue, in a meshwork of fibrous and elastic substance, and is sur- rounded by an elastic capsule. The spleen is believed to assist in maintaining the portal circu- lation; to be concerned with the destruction of the red blood cor- puscles and the formation of both red and white ones, especi- ally the latter; to exercise a special nitrogenous metabolic function; and to have a definite connection with digestion. Spleen'wort, any fern of the genus Asplenium, of the family Polypodiaceae, the distinguishing characteristics of which are the long sori, or spore cases, at the back of the fronds, covered by a protective membrane (the indu- sium). A number of varieties oc- cur in the Eastern United States. Splenic Fever. See Anthrax. Splicing, a method of uniting two ropes, or two parts of the same rope, in which the separate strands are interwoven and tucked in so as not to alter materially the size or flexibility of the rope at the point of splicing. The two commonest Common Methods of Splicing methods are the short splice, for uniting the ends of two separate ropes, and the eye-splice, for making a permanent loop in the end of a rope. In making a short splice the ends of the ropes are unlaid for a short distance and brought together, the strands interlacing (a in the illustration). Taking any one strand, this is woven into the laid strands of the other rope, working from left to right; the other two strands are similarly woven, but from right to left (shown at b). For making an eye-splice, the end of the rope is unlaid and the strands are bent back upon the body of the rope and interwoven as in the short splice Other common splices are: the long splice, in which the ropes are unlaid tor a considerable dis- tance and the two sets of strands relaid upon each other before being interwoven; and the chain- splice, for splicing a rope to a chain. Wire-rope may also be spliced, but the operation is one for an expert. See Knot; Ropes. Splint, or Splent. See Horse — Diseases. Splints, in surgery, are certain mechanical contrivances for keeping a fractured limb in its proper position, and for prevent- ing any motion of the ends of the broken bone; they are also em- ployed for securing perfect im- mobility of the parts in other cases, as in diseased joints, after resection of joints, etc. The ordinary splint is now to a great degree superseded by im- movable bandages, which consist of the ordinary bandage satu- rated with a thick mucilage of starch, with glue, or with water- glass (a solution of silicate of soda), or plaster of Paris. Spliigen, shplu'gen, Alpine pass (6,946 feet), traversed by a good carriage road from Coire (Swiss canton of Grisons) in the Rhine valley to Chiavenne in Italy. This pass was crossed in the winter of 1800 by the French army under Macdonald. Spofford, AiNSwoRTH Rand (1825-1908), American librarian, was born in Gilmanton, N. H. Removing to Cincinnati, O., he became a bookseller in that city, and was associate editor of the Cincinnati Commercial from 1859 to 1861. He was appointed assistant librarian of Congress in 1861, and was librarian of Con- gress from 1864 to 1899, when he became chief assistant under Herbert Putnam. Besides writ- ing many miscellaneous articles, he edited several compendiums, including Library of Choice Liter- ature (1881-8) and Library of Wit and Humor (1884). He also published a Practical Manual of Parliamentary Rules (1884) and A Book for all Readers (1900). Spofford, Harriet (Eliza- beth) Prescott (1835-1921), American author, was born in Calais, Me. She early removed to Newburyport, Mass., and in 1865 was married to Richard S. Spofford, a lawyer of Boston. Her books include Sir Rohan's Ghost (1859); The Amber Gods, and Other Stories (1863); New England Legends (1871); The Marquis of Car abas (1882); Poems (1882); Ballads about Au- thors (1888); The Children of the Valley (1901); The Great Proces- sion (1902); Four Days of God (1905); Old Washington (1906); A Fairy Changeling (1910); The Making of a Fortune (1911). Spohr, shpor, Ludwig (1784- 1859), German violin virtuoso and composer, was born in Brunswick. He was musical director successively at Gotha (1805-13), Vienna (1813-15), Frankfort - on - Main (1817-19), and Kassel (1822-57). Though he seldom deviated from tradi- tional principles in his com- positions, he was among the first to recognize and proclaim the genius of Wagner. His num- erous musical compositions in- clude operas, oratorios, sym- phonies, concertas and other works. He is also the author of a celebrated Violin School. Con- sult his Autobiography. Spokane, sp6-kan', city, Washington, county seat of Spo- kane county, on the Spokane River, 60 miles above its junc- tion with the Columbia River and on the Northern Pacific, Great Northern, Chicago, Mil- waukee and St. Paul, Union Pa- cific, and Spokane International Railroads ; 340 miles east of Seattle. It is the urban center of a region of 100,000 square miles rich in a variety of natu- ral resources. The city occupies an area of some 40 square miles on both sides of the river which runs through the heart of the business section and falls spectacularly about 70 feet. It has the larg- est park area per capita of any city in the country, comprising 53 parks, 16 playgrounds, and five golf courses. Manito Park and Natatorium Park, the latter across the river from the Fort George Wright Reservation, are especially popular recreation spots. The surrounding country is famous for its rugged beauty. The city has a commission form of government. Among the notable buildings are the Court House, Old National Bank, Carnegie Library, Masonic Temple, Sacred Heart Hospital, and the Spokane Amateur Ath- letic Club. There are 133 churches, 13 public libraries, and 13 theatres. The public school system includes 38 grade schools, three high schools, and two junior high schools. There are three colleges — Gonzaga University, Whitworth College, and Spokane Junior College — eight business schools, 20 pri- vate schools, three training schools for nurses, and several aviation schools. Felts Field, the municipal air- port, is regarded as one of the best of its type in the country. Daily Mail, express, and passen- ger service is provided by the United Airlines over the mid- Transcontinental routes and by the Northwest Airlines over the northern Transcontinental route. The city is a key point in the national system of air defense and the headquarters of the Sec- ond United States Army Air Corps operating in the north- western States. Spokane is the industrial and commercial metropolis of east- ern Washington, northeastern THE SPOKANE CIVIC CENTER Photos Courtesy Spokanf: ( li i , i .un-n-i; THE BEAUTIFUL SUNKEN GARDENS OP MANITO PARK IN SPOKANE, WASHINGTON Vol. XL— Page 383 Spokane River KFK 384 Sponges Oregon, northern Idaho, western Montana, and southern British Columbia. It is in the heart of a country rich in lumber and mines, with great agricultural, livestock, and dairying interests and vast water power resources. The commercial apple industry is very extensive. Generating plants supply electric service to 77,645 patrons in 19 counties of eastern Washington and north- ern Idaho. The several hundred manufacturing establishments operating in Spokane have a to- tal output of $60,000,000 annu- ally, based on a five-year aver- age. The city is one of the pri- mary jobbing and wholesale markets of the Pacific North- west, distributing products val- ued in excess of $70,000,000 an- nually, is the hub of more rail- road mileage than any other city west of Omaha, and is the center of a vast network of improved highways, embracing more than 13,000 miles, including the main transcontinental arterials from the east and the south. The city's growth from a pioneer trading post in 1872 has been remarkable. Pop. (1880) 300; (1900) 36,848; (1920) 104,437; and (1940) 122,001. Spokane River, the outlet of Coeur d'Alene Lake in north- western Idaho. It flows north- west through the State of Wash- ington to its confluence with the Columbia River, a course of 120 miles. Spoleto, sp5-la'to, city, prov- ince of Perugia, Italy ; 60 miles by rail n.e. of Rome. It is the seat of an archbishop, and has a fine cathedral dating from the eleventh century, an ancient cit- adel now employed as a prison, and the ruins of a theatre and triumphal arch — traces of the Roman colony of Spoletium, founded about 240 b.c. The principal industries are the gath- ering of truffles, the mining of lignite, the preserving of fruits and vegetables, and the manufac- ture of olive oil and silk. In 574 Spoleto became the seat of a powerful duchy until the twelfth century. Pop. (1938) 32,341. Spo'lia O'pima, the arms taken by a Roman commander in per- son from a hostile commander, whom he had slain. They were consecrated to Jupiter Feretrius. Only three occasions are known upon which these 'richest spoils' were won: by Romulus, from Aero, king of the Caeninenses; by Aulus Cornelius Cossus, from Toluminus, king of the Veientes; and by Marcus Claudius Marcel- lus from Viridomarus, king of the Gaesata?. Spon'dee, in prosody, a foot consisting of two long syllables, as fdlu. It is metrically equivalent to a dactyl or an anapaest, and is therefore found in all dactylic and anapaestic metres; it is also used under certain restrictions in tro- chaic and iambic rythms. Spondias, spon'di-as, a genus of tropical trees belonging to the family Anacardiaceae. They bear small flowers, followed by fleshy drupes. The principal species are 5. lutea, the so-called golden ap- ple or Jamaica plum, and 5. dul- cis, the sweet Otaheite apple. Sponges, a group of aquatic animals characterized by extreme simplicity of structure. While they cannot be classed with the Metazoa, neither do they prop- erly belong to the Protozoa, since the embryo consists of different groups of cells giving rise to dis- tinct tissues. Many zoologists, therefore, place them in a special subkingdom known as Porifera. About two thousand species of sponges are known, ranging in size from a pin's head to masses several feet in height, and vary- ing in weight from a grain to over a hundred pounds. They are ex- tremely varied in shape; when alive they are of all colors and may be soft and glutinous, fleshy, leathery, or stony. They are found in all seas and at all depths, from the shallows along the shore margin to water many fathoms deep. One of the simplest of sponges, which may be taken as typical, Ascetta primordialis, a Mediter- ranean variety, has a small vase- shaped body, fixed at its base and open at the apex. Examined mi- croscopically the body shows an internal layer of ciliated cells, a very delicate external skin, and between these a middle stratum in which lie numerous needles of lime forming the supporting skel- eton of the sponge. Currents of water, bearing microscopic organ- isms and particles of organic debris as food for the sponge, en- ter through minute pores, are conveyed through the walls by numerous fine canals, and are ex- pelled by the larger apical aper- tures. Respiration is effected in a similar manner, the bright pig- ments characteristic of many sponges readily absorbing oxygen. Sponges do not move about, yet there is great motor activity in the ciliated cells of the endo- derm. Like many other passive organisms, they are profoundly influenced by environment, their shapes varying with the nature of their anchorage and of the cur- rents which play around them. Sensitiveness to external stimuli is shown by the closure of the lit- tle superficial pores and some- times even of the larger exhalent aperture or apertures. Sponges multiply by overgrowth and bud- ding, as well as by sexual pro- duction. They are hermaphro- ditic, development after fertiliza- tion of the ova by spermatozoa proceeding through several stages before the embryo leaves the parent. Not infrequently sponges form associations with other animals, ranging from the apparently chance connections, such as that of the Halichondria and certain spider-crabs, to an apparently definite symbiosis, such as occurs in the glass-rope sponge, which seems always to have a coelen- terate colony (Palythoa) on its long 'rope' of spicules. Since sponges are usually inedible, this association with Crustacea can be partially explained as protective to the latter. Sponges are abun- dantly represented as fossils in all rocks. There are three classes of sponges — the Calcarea, in which the skeleton consists of lime; the Hexactinellida, or glass sponges, in which the spicules are siliceous; and the Demospongia, or common sponges, which are also siliceous in structure. The Calcarea are divided into two groups, the Homocoela, in which the collar- cells line the entire interior of the simple or branched sac, and the Heterocoela, in which the collar- cells are confined to the radial tubes, the gastric cavity being lined with flat cells; examples of this class are Ascetta primordialis, Sycandra, and Grantia. Calcar- eous sponges are found chiefly in caves, under stones, and in thick- ets of seaweed. They are widely distributed, but are commonest in shallow water, rarely being found at depths exceeding 150 fathoms. The Hexactinellida, or glass sponges, the simplest in form of the non-calcareous sponges, are divided into two groups, the Lys- sacina, in which the spicules are loose and separate, and the Dic- tyonina, in which the spicules form a solid framework. To this class belong the beautiful 'Venus's flower-basket' (Euplectella) and the curious glass-rope sponge (Hyalonema) of Japan. The members of the class for the most part inhabit water more than 150 fathoms in depth, and have elab- orately beautiful skeletons. The Demospongia, unlike the well-defined group of hexactinel- lid sponges, are difficult of classi- fication. Among them are sponges whose skeletons consist chiefly of uniaxial spicules, others in which the skeleton consists of horn, and still others in which it is composed of quadriradiate spicules. In consequence four interrelated subdivisions of this group are generally recognized: (1) monaxonid sponges, (2) horny sponges, (3) tetractinellid sponges and (4) fleshy sponges. To the monaxonid division belong many of the common northern sponges — the Cliona, which bores into SPECIES OF SPONGES 1. Spongilla fluviatilis (fresh-water sponge). 2. S. lacustris (fresh-water sponge). 3. Thrinacophcra funiformis. 4. Dendropsis bidentifera. 5. Esperiopsis Challengeri. 6. Siphonochalina annulata. 7. Hyalonema Sieboldii. 8. Euplectella aspergillum. 9. Semperella Schultzei. 10. Selerothamus clausii. 11. Desmacidon grandis. 12. Farea occa. 13. Periphragella elisa?. 14. Reniera aquaeductus. 15. Echinoclathria Carteri. 16. Phakelha flabellata. 17. P. ventilabrum. 18. Cinachyra barfata. 19. Isodictya palmata. 20. Diagram showing circulation of water in living sponge. Vol. XL— Oct. '22. Sponges 386 Spontaneous Generation various shells and constitutes an active agent in their disintegra- tion; the orange-yellow Suberite, which lives in symbiosis with a hermit-crab; the mermaid's glove (Chalina), a common branched sponge; the extraordinarily abun- dant crumb - of - bread sponge (Halichondria), which forms a thick crust over many objects be- tween tide-marks; and the cu- rious fresh-water sponge (Spongil- la), with its green coloring mat- ter. The monaxonids mostly in- habit shallow water (under 50 fathoms) ; the siliceous skeleton is never complex, and shows a tendency to become reduced. Of the horny sponges (Cera- tosa) the most important are the bath sponges (Euspongia and Hippospongia), in which the horny fibres are exceptionally soft, fine, and elastic. These sponges are widely distributed in the eastern half of the Mediter- ranean, the most favorable local- ities being the eastern shore of the Adriatic, the coast of Greece, Asia Minor, and parts of the Af- rican coast; they also occur in the Red Sea, off the coast of Aus- tralia, round the Bahamas, and elsewhere. They are found at all depths down to 200 fathoms. Efforts have been made in the Adriatic and off the Florida coast to cultivate horny sponges arti- ficially by a process of planting cuttings; but, owing to the slow- ness of growth, the experiments have hitherto proved to be of no economic value. The tetractinellid sponges in- clude some of the most highly specialized genera, as the stony sponges(Lithistids) , which usually live in depths exceeding 100 fath- oms. This group is commonest at depths of from 50 to 200 fathoms. The fleshy sponges (Carnosa) constitute a small group, charac- terized by a tough rind enclosing a softer pith, a slightly developed skeleton, and a highly developed canal-system. The sea-kidney leather sponge (Chondrosia reni- fiormis) is included in this sub- division. Sponge Fishing. — In various regions, notably the Mediter- ranean and the waters off the coast of the Bahamas, Cuba, and Florida, sponge fishing is an industry of great importance. Five methods are employed — wading, naked diving, harpoon- ing, trawling, and machine diving. Wading, perhaps the earliest method, is, with the disappear- ance of the sponge from shallow waters, rapidly becoming obso- lete, save along the coast of Tunis. Sponges so obtained are inferior in quality. Naked diving, also a method of great antiquity, is practiced mainly by the Greeks and Syri- ans. The diver carries a stone so shaped that, by holding it in a Vol. XL— Oct. '22. certain position, a required point of the ocean bottom can be reached. This method is best suited to an uneven ocean bottom and to water of moderate depth. Harpooning, or hooking, is employed where the water is not too deep, and is the sole method permitted in the valuable Ba- hama grounds. The harpoon, an implement fitted with a long handle and a varying number of points or tines, is used, while the sea bottom is scanned through the water telescope, a bucket-like instrument with a glass bottom. Since the sponges are often torn or rent by this process, they are of less value; on the other hand, the beds are less likely to be depleted, since a portion of the sponge remains to insure reproduction. Trawling, or dredging, is em- ployed only on smooth bottoms, and requires a round iron bar about three inches in diameter with the ends bent at right angles and connected by a wooden bar to form the top. It is a very destructive method, and hence is either limited or prohibited entirely. Machine diving was intro- duced in 1866 and has since come into general use. While the diving dress, or scaphander, permits the attainment of greater depth, the objection is raised that the diver must take large and small sponges indiscrimi- nately, thus depriving the grounds of the growth necessary for reproduction. Consult Zoological Articles, by Professor Ray Lankester and others; the Challenger volumes on sponges, especially vol. xx. (Re- port on Monaxonida, by Ridley and Dendy), vol. xxv. (Report on Tetractinellida, by W. J. Sollas), and vol. xxi. (Report on Hexacti- nellida, by F. G. Schultze) ; 'The Position of Sponges in the Ani- mal Kingdom,' by G. A. Minchin, in Science Progress (vol. i, 1897) ; 'Sponges,' by R. Kirkpatrick in Royal Natural History, vol. vi.; and the publications of the U. S. Fish Commission and National Museum. Sponsors, spon'serz, the god- parents of infants baptized into the Christian church. They be- come sureties for the child, prom- ising in its name to renounce the devil and all his works, and to be- lieve in God, and serve Him; and undertaking that the child shall be brought up in the Christian re- ligion. In the early Christian church the parents of the child were allowed to be its godparents, but this was formally prohibited by the Council of Mainz in 813. There was originally no rule gov- erning the number of godparents; but in the 16th century, the Council of Trent determined that there should be preferably one, or at the most two. In the Church of England the rubric of the Pray- er Book directs that there shall be for every male child two god- fathers and one godmother, and for every female one godfather and two godmothers. The Luth- eran churches retained god- parents at the Reformation; the other reformed churches imposed the duty on the parents. Spontaneous Combustion, ig- nition occurring without any ap- parent cause. It is an important phenomenon, inasmuch as it is reputed to be the cause of many fires, especially among such or- ganic materials as cotton, soot, hemp, hay, and oil-soaked waste. It usually occurs in materials closely confined and not reached by air, especially when these ma- terials are minutely subdivided and porous, as moist hay. The explanation lies in the fact that certain substances have such an affinity for oxygen that they will ignite at a temperature only very slightly in excess of ordinary con- ditions of temperature. Spontaneous Generation, or the direct production of life from non-living matter, was held by the ancients to be true, and their belief was adhered to by some in- vestigators as late as the nine- teenth century, though it is gen- erally considered as untenable in the light of modern scientific re- search. Aristotle taught that some animals sprang from putrid matter, and that some insects arose from dew, and for many years this view was accepted. In 1638 Redi proved, by a very sim- ple experiment, that decaying meat does not 'breed maggots' if the access of flies be prevented by using screens of fine gauze, and from this he drew the con- clusion that there is 'no life with- out antecedent life.' The work of Redi was perfected in the nine- teenth century by Pasteur and Tyndall, whose experiments indi- cated that no form of life comes into being save from a parent body of the same kind. Yet in that century certain scientists, notably Huxley, Haeckel, Nageli, Pfliiger and Lankester, main- tained that in the beginning of organic evolution protoplasm originated from non-living mat- ter. Helmholtz and Kelvin sug- gested that life germs were borne to earth by meteorites. While the scientific attitude to- ward spontaneous generation must remain agnostic, the discus- sion has resulted in many re- markable achievements: facts of prime importance in the preser- vation of foodstuffs; knowledge regarding the occurrence of para- sites, the use of antiseptics, and the nature of disease; and ad- vances in synthetic chemistry, such as the building up of sugars from inorganic substances. See Spontlni 387 Spore Burke's The Origin of Life, and Nature; also Huxley's Presiden- tial Address to the British Asso- ciation (1870); Spencer's Prin- ciples of Biology; Haeckel's Natural History of Creation; Verworn's General Physiology (trans.); Bastian's Studies in Hetero genesis. See Biology, Spontini, spon-te'ne, Gasp arc LUIGI PacifiCO (1774-1851), Italian operatic composer, was bom in Majolati, Ancona. In 1803 he went to Paris, where he chiefly resided until 1820, when he was appointed musical direc- tor to Frederick William iii. of Prussia, a position which he held until 1842. His operas, once very popular, are now almost forgot- ten. The most celebrated were Milton (1804), La V estate (1807), Ferdinand Cortez (1809), and Olympia (1819). Spoonbill, a bird of the family Plataleidae, resembling the ibis Spoonbill (q. V.) in structure and color, and having a broad spoon-shaped bill. There are about six species, all but one of which are found in Central and Southern Europe, Asia, and Northern Africa. The American representative, the Ro- seate Spoonbill (Ajaja ajaja), found in tropical and subtropi- cal America, is a handsome bird about thirty to thirty-five inches long, with beautiful rosy plum- age. It has been nearly extermi- nated by hunters seeking its lovely plumes. The name Spoonbill is also applied to a duck — the Shoveller (q. v.). Spoon'er, John Coit (1843- 1919), American public official, was born in Lawrenceburg, Ind. He was graduated from the Uni- versity of Wisconsin in 1864 and served in the Civil War, attaining the rank of captain and brevet major of volunteers. He was a member of the Wisconsin legisla- ture in 1872-4, U. S. senator in 1885-91, and in 1892 was unsuc- cessful Republican candidate for governor. He was again elected to the Senate in 1897, and in 1903, but resigned on March 3, 1907, to resume the practice of law. He was generally consid- ered one of the ablest of the Republican senators, and was a fine speaker. SpOOner,SHEARJASHUB (1809- 59), American dentist and author, was born in Brandon, Vt. He was graduated from Middlebury College in 1830, and from the New York College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1835, and suc- cessfully practised his profession in New York City until 1858. Besides several books on dentistry, he published: Anecdotes of Paint- ers, Engravers, Sculptors, and Architects, and Curiosities of Art (3 vols., 1853) and Biographical and Critical Dictionary of Paint- ers, Engravers, Sculptors, and Architects (1853). He purchased and republished John Baydell's Shakespeare Gallery. Sporades. See Grecian Ar- chipelago. Sporad'Ic Disease, an infec- tive disease occurring occasion- ally in a district, but not present as an epidemic or endemic. Sporangium. See Spore. Spore, a specialized reproduc- tive cell, capable of giving rise to a new vegetable organism. This method of multiplication, charac- teristic of the Cryptogams (see Cryptogamia), may be antici- pated in single-celled bacteria, algae, and fungi, where the vege- tative body divides, each portion developing into an independent plant. In higher algae and fungi, spores are formed in special organs called sporangia. Propagation by spores may be asexual or sexual. The simplest mode of sexual reproduction is by conjugation, or the union of two similarly formed sexual cells or gametes, producing a zygospore or zygote. In some of the higher cryptogams the sexual cells are differentiated into microspores, or male cells, and macrospores or megaspores, the female cells. When the spores are all of one kind — i. e. undifferentiated — the plants are said to be homospor- ous, as the true ferns, horsetails, and club mosses; the water-ferns and Selaginaceae are hetero- sporous. Tetraspores are spores produced in groups of four, as in some of the higher algae. Chlamydospores are spores in- vested by two distinct envelopes, as in the common Mucor. Teleutospores and uredospores are the winter and summer spores, respectively, of the rust fungi (q. v.). Spore-cases also receive special names, as micro- sporangium, macrosporangium; the part on which they are borne Vol. XL— March '25 Types of Spores 1. Tetraspores of alga in sporangium. 2. Spores escaped. 3. Chlamydospores of fungus. 4. Chlamydospores germinating and bearing a sporangium. 5. Spores extruded from sporangium. 6. Teleutospores, one germinating, bearing conidia. 7. Zygospore from two conidia conjoined. 8. Cone of horsetail. 9. One sporophyll with empty sporangia. 10. A spore. 11. Scale sporophyll and sporangium of club moss. 12. Three spores from same. 13. Frond of fern bearing sporangia in sori. 14. One sporangium of fern. 15. One spore. 16. Macrosporangium of Selaginella, containing four macrospores. 17. Microsporangium of Selaginella, containing microspores. Sporer 388 Spottsylvanla Court House is the sporophyll — a frond, as in ferns, or the apex of a shoot, sometimes known as the fiower- cone, as in the horsetails. See also Reproduction. Sporer, shpu'rer, Friedrich WiLHELM GUSTAV (1822-95), German astronomer, was born in Berlin. He was educated in his native city, and began to observe sun-spots at Anklam in 1860. He verified the equatorial accelera- tion of the sun's rotation, and established a relation between the mean latitude of spots and the course of the eleven-year cycle. He joined the German eclipse expedition to the East Indies in 1868, was appointed observer in the astrophysical observatory at Potsdam in 1874, and was chief observer from 1882 to 1894. Sporozo'a, a class of Protozoa (q. v.), including the Gregarina Sporozoa A. Adult individual, b. Two individuals conjugating, c. A spore, d. Cyst con- taining spores. 1. Protomerite; 2. deuto- merite; 3. cortex; 4. nucleus; 5. cyst; 6. capsule; 7. spores; 8. ducts. (q. V.) and its allies, which occur as parasites in invertebrates; Sacrocystis, parasitic in the muscles of cattle and other ani- mals and possibly in man; and certain organisms parasitic in the red blood corpuscles of man and animals, as the malarial parasites. See also Protozoa. Sports. See Athletics and articles cited under that heading. Sports, Book of, or Declara- tion OF, the proclamation made by James i. of England, in 1618, that, after divine service on Sun- days, 'no lawful recreation should be barred to my good people,' such sports being permitted as morris dances, dancing round the May- pole, archery, May games, vault- ing, Whitsun-ales, running, leap- ing, and the like; such pursuits as dramatic interludes, bear- baiting, bull-baiting, and bowling were forbidden. This 'declara- tion' was called forth by the action of some of the Lancashire Puritans. The Book of Sports was ordered by the Long Parliament to be burned by the common hangman (1644). Spot. See Lafayette Fish. Spotted Fever, a term some- times applied to epidemic cere- brospinal meningitis (see Menin- gitis), and sometimes to typhus fever (q. v.). Spott'iswoode, John (1565- 1639), Scotch prelate, archbishop of St. Andrews, was born in Mid- Calder, near Edinburgh, He was educated at Glasgow Uni- versity and in 1583 succeeded his father as minister of Calder. In 1601 he accompanied the Duke of Lennox on his embassy to France, and in 1603 went with James vi. to England. The same year he became, archbishop of Glasgow in succession to James Beaton; in 1615 he was transferred to vSt. Andrews. He crowned Charles i. at Holyrood in 1633, and in 1635 received the chancellorship of Scotland. As moderator of the General Assem- bly he promoted the establish- ment of Episcopacy in vScotland, and by his influence the ob- noxious Five Articles of Perth (1618) were sanctioned. On the ascendency of the Covenanters he was deposed (1638) and ex- communicated, and was com- pelled to resign his office of chancellor. He was buried in Westminster. His History of the Church and State of Scotland (1655) was reprinted, with a Life, by the Spottiswoode Society (1847-51). Spottiswoode, William(1825- 83), English mathematician and physicist, was born in London. He was educated at Balliol Col- lege, Oxford, and in 1846 suc- ceeded to his father's business as Queen's Printer. He remained, however, a devoted student of mathematical and physical sci- ence and spent much time in travelling and lecturing. From 1878 until his death he was president of the Royal Society. His published works include Meditationes Analyticce (1847), The Polarization of Light (1874), and A Lecture on the Electrical Discharge, its Forms and Func- tions (1881). Spottsylvania Court House, spot-sil-va'ni-a. Battles of, a series of engagements in the Civil War, fought around Spottsyl- vania Court House, Va., 11 miles southwest of Fredericksburg, from May 8 to May 21, 1864, be- tween the Army of the Potomac, commanded by General Meade, but directed by General Grant, and the Army of Northern Vir- ginia, under General Lee. After the battles of the Wilderness (q. V.) Grant determined to concen- trate his army at Spottsylvania Court House, 15 miles away, be- tween Lee and Richmond, and on May 7 began the movement, which Lee, however, had fore- seen. When the van of Warren's corps had advanced within one and a half miles of the court house, on the morning of May 8, it was met and repulsed by two brigades of Longstreet's corps, then commanded by General R. H. Anderson. Later in the day a part of the Sixth Corps, com- manded by General Sedgwick, together with troops of Warren's corps, again attacked Anderson and a part of Ewell's corps, but were finally driven back. The next day was occupied by each commander in getting troops into position and in studying the other's line. Lee occupied a well- intrenched arc of a circle about eight miles in length with Anderson (Longstreet's corps) on the left, Ewell in the centre, and Early (commanding Hill's corps) on the right. During the day General Sedgwick was killed by a sharpshooter and was suc- ceeded in the command of the Sixth Corps by Gen. H. G. Wright. On the morning of May 10 the Confederate left was attacked, but the assault was repulsed, and two other attacks in the afternoon likewise failed. General Heth struck the rear of Hancock's corps, which had been ordered to threaten the Confederate left and rear. Late in the afternoon, Rodes' division, in the centre of the Confederate line, was furi- ously attacked by a part of the Sixth Corps, led by Colonel Upton. He broke the line, forced the Confederates back to a second line of defences, but was not properly supported, and was forced to retire with a heavy loss, though taking several hundred prisoners. The Confederate loss in killed and wounded on May 10 was about 2,000, while the Fed- eral loss was at least 4,100. A storm raged on the next day and there was little fighting, but Grant determined to attack the centre of Lee's line, where a salient projected nearly a mile beyond the remainder of the line. During the day Lee, fearing that Grant was planning another flank movement, had removed the greater part of the artillery pro- tecting this part of his line. About half-past-four on the morning of May 12, Hancock attacked the salient, took nearly a mile of the works, and captured General Edward Johnson, 20 guns, and more than 2,800 pris- oners. General Stuart was also taken prisoner. The divisions of Barlow and Birney pushed on until halted by the second line, held by Gen. J. B. Gordon. Both sides were heavily reinforced from other parts of the line, and the heaviest and fiercest fighting of the whole war took place over the possession of the salient. The battle continued without ceasing until 12 o'clock at night, making nearly twenty hours of deadly struggle. The Federal Vol. XI.— March '25 S. p. Q. R. 389 Spree assaults on the Confederate right and left during the day were un- successful. The Federal killed, wounded, and missing number- ed nearly 7,000, and the_ Con- federate loss was decidedly greater. From the 13th to the 18th there was little fighting, but Grant prepared to turn Lee's right flank. On the morning of May 18 the Second Corps, well supported, attacked the line held by Ewell, but was repulsed with a loss of 2,000 or more, and this ended the attempt to break through the Confederate lines. Grant began on May 19 a move- ment toward the North Anna River, but was checked for twentj'-four hours by Ewell, who crossed over to attack the Fed- eral left. The movement toward the North Anna began in earnest on May 20, but Lee again moved by a shorter road and reached the stream first. The total Federal strength is given as 118,000, the Confederate _ as 61,000. The Federal loss is reported as 2,725 killed, 13,416 wounded, and 2,- 258 captured or missing. The amount of the Confederate loss is not accurately known. Consult Johnson and Buel, Battles and Leaders of the Civil War ; Gor- don, Reminiscences of the Civil War ; Grant, Personal Memoirs. S. P. Q. R. {Senatus Popii- lusqiie Romamis) , the Senate and People of Rome, the motto placed at the top of the Roman stand- ards. Sprague, sprag, Charles (1791-1875), American poet, was born in Boston, Mass., and received a public school educa- tion. From 1820 to 1824 he was teller in the State Bank at Bos- ton, and from 1825 to 1865 was cashier of the Globe Bank in the same city. Among his best- known poems are The Winged Worshippers, Curiosity, and The Family Meeting. A collective edition of his Poetical and Prose Writings appeared in 1841 (rev. eds. 1850, 1876). Sprague, Frank Julian (1857-1934), American electri- cal engineer, was born in Mil- ford, Conn. He was graduated from the U. S. Naval Academy (1878) and served in the Navy until 1883. In 1885 he began experiments in electric traction on the New York Elevated Rail- way, previously steam operated, and in 1887 built an electric line in Richmond, Va., working out the basis of many present prac- tices, as the separation of the car body and motor truck, the under- running trolley, and multiple-unit control. He was responsible, also, for the introduction of the high-speed electric elevator, and did much to promote under- f^round railway development. He was a member of the U. S. Naval Advisory Board during the First World War, devoting special at- tention to the development of fuses and air and depth bombs. He was awarded the Elliott Cres- son medal of the Franklin Insti- tute in 1904 ; the grand prize for invention and development in electric railways at the St. Louis Exposition in 1904; the Edison gold medal in 1910; and the Franklin medal in 1921. Sprague, Williaim Buell (1795-1876), American clergy- man and annalist, was born in Andover, Conn. Having grad- uated from Yale and studied divinity at Princeton, he was ordained as co-pastor of the First Congregational church at West Springfield, Mass., in 1819. He remained there as sole pastor from 1820 to 1829, and was pastor of the Second Presby- terian church in Albany, N. Y., from 1829 to 1869. Sprague made large collections of auto- graphs, pamphlets, and manu- scripts connected with the reli- gious and secular history of the country. His chief literary work is his Annals of the American Pulpit (10 vols. 1857-69). Sprain, or Strain. A sprain is due to laceration of, and effvi- sion into and around, the liga- ments of a joint and the neigh- boring tendons, and is usually produced by a violent twist or wrench. Even slight sprains are accompanied by severe pain and by considerable swelling, partly from extravasation of blood into the surrounding tissues, and partly from inflammatory effu- sion into the joint. Permanent weakness and stiffness, or even anchylosis, may follow a neg- lected sprain. Treatment. — Immediately after the accident the injured part should be held under a cold jet and then a hot jet, alternating for a few minutes. The limb should then be raised, wrapped thickly in cotton and snugly bandaged. In most cases a splint should be applied, and the limb raised to the greatest height con- sistent with the patient's com- fort. When the acute symptoms have subsided, gentle passive movement should be employed, and a little later active move- ments of the joint may be made. If treatment is not initiated for some hours, the pain may be so intense as to necessitate the ap- plication of hot fomentations ; but as these dilate the blood vessels and tend to increase the swelling, they should be em- ployed as little as possible. In- flammatory symptoms are best combated by cold applications. As soon as the pain permits, elastic pressure should be applied to the joint by means of band- ages. Novocain injected into thd injured ligament at the site of maximum tenderness is a valu- able therapeutic measure. A gentle massage may help to dis- pel the swelling. Sprat {Clupea spraitus) , a fish of the herring family, abun- dant on the coasts of Great Brit- ain. Young sprats are not easily distinguished from young her- ring, though they differ from the herring in having seven rays in the pelvic fin instead of nine ; the edge of the belly is narrow in- stead of blunt as in the herring, and the spines in this region are strong and sharp. The sprat is about five inches long, and its eggs are pelagic or floating. The adults live in brackish water, from which they migrate to the open sea. Besides being used as food in London and elsewhere, sprats are sometimes sold for manure. They are also dried and salted, and put upon the market as 'kilkies' — i.e. sprats from the Baltic cured with spices — and as 'Norwegian anchovies.' In nar- now waters, such as estuaries, sprats are chiefly taken in stow- nets ; seines and small-meshed drift-nets are also used. Sprat, Thomas (1635-1713), English bishop and man of let- ters, was born in Beaminster in Dorsetshire. He was educated at Oxford and soon became known as a clever versifier and wit. He was originally a fol- lower of Cromwell but after the Restoration he developed into an ardent royalist. He was ordained priest in 1661 ; was appointed canon in 1669, dean of West- minster in 1683, and bishop of Rochester in 1684. He assisted at the coronation of William and Mary. His most important works are Observations on M. de Sorhicr's Voyage into England (1664) and History of the Royal Society of London (1667). Spreck'els, Claus (1828- 1908), American businessman, was born in Lamstedt, Germany. He emigrated to Charleston, S. C, in 1846, and in 1856 went to San Francisco, where he became a brewer and later a sugar re- finer. In order to learn the most approved methods used in refin- ing sugar, he visited Europe in 1865, and returning to San Fran- cisco, built up a flourishing busi- ness, acquiring such large inter- ests in California, the Hawaiian Islands, and elsewhere that he became known as the 'sugar king.' Spree, shpra, river, Germany, rises in Saxony and flows in a northwesterly direction, empty- ing into the Havel at Spandau. It is about 250 miles long and is navigable for almost its entire length. Several canals connect it with the Oder. Sprensel KFN 390 Springer Sprengel, shpreng'el, Her- mann JOHANN PhILIPP (1834- 1906), German chemist and phys- icist, was born in Schillerslage, near Hanover, He was educated at the Universities of Gottingen and Heidelberg and in 1859 went to England. His name is princi- pally connected with the Sprengel pump for obtaining high vacua by the fall of drops of mercury in a narrow tube; with the Spren- gel tube for the accurate deter- mination of specific gravity; and with the explosive properties of aromatic nitro-derivatives, large- ly employed as safety explosives — e. g. melinite, lyddite. Sprengel, Kurt (1766-1833), German physician and botanist, was born in Boldekow (Pome- rania). He was educated at Halle and became professor of medi- cine there in 1789, and of botany in 1799, retaining both chairs until his death. His works in- clude: Geschichte der Arzneikunde (1792-1803); Antiquitates Bo- tanicce (1798); Geschichte der Botanik (1817-18); Institutiones Medicce (1809-16) ; FlorcB Halen- sis tentamen novum (1806-15, 1832). Sprenger, shpreng'er, Aloys (1813-93), Austrian Orientalist, was born in Nassereit in Tyrol. He was educated at the Univer- sity of Vienna, was naturalized as a British subject in 1838, and in 1843 obtained an appointment in the medical service of the East India Company at Calcutta. In 1844 he became principal of a Mohammedan college at Delhi and in 1848 was made assistant resident at Lucknow. He left India in 1857, going first to Heidelberg and later to Bern, where he was professor of Orien- tal languages (1858-81). His chief works are Life and Doctrine of Mohammed (1861-5), The Ancient Geography of Arabia (1875), and Babylonia (1886), all in German. He edited numerous editions of Persian and Arabic classics. Sprigg, Sir John Gordon (1830-1913), British colonial statesman, was born in Ipswich, England, and went to South Africa in 1858, settling in Cape Colony. He was elected to the House of Assembly in 1869, and later became Colonial Secretary and Prime Minister (1878-81). He was again Prime Minister, and Treasurer, in 1886-90, in 1896-98, and in 1900-04. He was a strong Imperialist and one of the most conspicuous figures in the political history of Cape Colony. Spring, an underground body of water which appears at the surface without extraneous aid. When the contour of the ground intercepts what is known in geol- ogy as the water-table, i.e., the upper level of ground-water, this ground water appears at the sur- face; if it issues in a quantity sufficient to make a distinct cur- rent it forms a spring. Porous surface rock and impervious rock strata at a lower level are neces- sary to produce a spring. Some springs are exceedingly cold, only one degree, or even less, above the temperature of ice, while the waters of others, especially in volcanic districts, issue at the boiling point. Between these two extremes every degree may be registered. Thermal springs, or those having a higher tem- perature than the locality in which they are found, are prob- ably warmed by the internal heat of the earth. All springs con- tain dissolved gases and at least a small portion of mineral solu- tions abstracted from the soil and rocks through which they have passed, the amount depend- ing on the chemical energy of the water and on the composition of the rocks, and all deep well waters are radio-active. Springs may be grouped in a general way into two classes: (1) common springs, fit for or- dinary domestic purposes, and (2) mineral springs, in which there is so great a proportion of dissolved mineral matter as to differentiate the water from or- dinary potable water. Com- mon springs frequently have a lower temperature than the local- ities at which they rise and or- dinarily contain, besides atmos- pheric air, calcium-carbonate and sulphate, salt, chlorides of cal- cium and magnesium, and occa- sionally organic matter. Spring water which contains a minute percentage of mineral matter, dissolves soap readily and is known as 'soft' water; that which contains an appreciable amount of magnesic carbonate, sulphate or chlorides, decomposes soap, causing a white curdy pre- cipitate, and is known as 'hard' water. For a discussion of min- eral springs see M iner al Waters. Consult Geikie's Text Book of Geology (1924). Spring, the first season of the year. As astronomically defined, it begins in the northern hemi- sphere about March 21, when the sun enters the sign of Aries — i.e. at the vernal equinox. It ter- minates at the summer solstice, about June 22, with the sun's attainment of its greatest north- ern declination. In the southern hemisphere spring extends from the northern autumnal equinox to the winter solstice. Spring, Gardiner (1786- 1873), American clergyman, son of Samuel Spring, was born in Newburyport, Mass. He was graduated from Yale University (1805) and was admitted to the bar (1808), but the following year entered Andover Theological Seminary. As pastor of the Brick Presbyterian Church in New York City from 1810 until his death, he became one of the most notable preachers in the country. He was instrumental in organiz- ing the American Bible Society, the American Tract Society, and the American Home Missionary Society. Consult his Personal Reminiscences of the Life and Times of Gardiner Spring, pub- lished in 1866. Spring, Samuel (1746-1819), American clergyman, was born in Northbridge, Mass. He was graduated from Princeton Col- lege in 1771, and studied theology there until 1774. At the out- break of the Revolution he be- came a chaplain in the Conti- nental army, went with Arnold's expedition against Quebec, took part in the attack on that city, and is said to have carried Aaron Burr, wounded, from the field. He left the army in 1776, and in 1777 became pastor at Newbury- port, Mass. He was one of the leaders of the church party known as the Hopkinsonians, and was active in the establish- ment of the Andover Theologi- cal Seminary and in the founda- tion of the American Board of Foreign Missions. Among his published writings were A Ser- mon on the Death of Washington (1779), and a sermon on the Hamilton-Burr duel entitled A Discourse in Consequence of the Late Duel (1804). Spring Balance. See Bal- ance. Spring Beauty (Claytonia), a low annual or perennial herb having delicate pink flowers, blooming in early spring. Two species are known in the United States — C. virginica and C. caro- liniana. Other species are found in Europe and Asia. Springbolc (Gazella euchore), a South African gazelle, with bold markings in white and dark brown on a yellowish ground. Down the middle of the back there runs a stripe of long, white erectile hairs. The name is given on ac- count of the animal's habit of springing up into the air. Spring City, borough, Penn- sylvania, in Chester county, on the Schuylkill River and the Pennsylvania Railroad; 27 miles N.w. of Philadelphia. Its indus- tries include the manufacture of paper, stoves, window glass, bot- tles, foundry facings, knitted goods, terra cotta, and shafting. Pop. (1930) 2,963; (1940) 3,022. Springer. See Spaniels. Springer, Alfred (1854- ), American chemist, was born in Cincinnati, O. He was graduated in chemistry from the University of Heidelberg, Ger- many, and, settling in Cincinnati, began to practise as a consulting chemist. He devoted much at- tention to the chemistry of brew- ing. In 1883 his monograph Springer KFN 391 Springfield on the Reduction of Nitrates by Ferments drew attention to his discovery of denitrifying ele- ments occurring in the soil, which opened a new field of scientific research. In 1884 he became general secretary of the Ameri- can Association for the Advance- ment of Science and in 1892 vice-president. He was also a corresponding member of the British Association for the Ad- vancement of Science. He was a co-inventor of the torsion bal- ance. In 1931 he received the degree of Doctor of Natural Science from Ruperto Carola University, Germany. He wrote many papers in the fields of chemistry and physics. Springer, William McKen- DREE (1836-1903), American public official, born in New Lebanon, Ind. He was gradu- ated from Indiana State Univer- sity in 1858, and admitted to the bar in 1859. Removing to Illinois, he was a member of the State Legislature in 1872-4, and of Congress, 1875-95, where he was the author of the resolution that declared it inadvisable for any man to serve more than two Presidential terms. He became judge of the Northern District of Indian Territory and chief justice of the U. S. Court of Appeals of the Territory (1895- 9). Springfield, city, Illinois, capital of the State and county seat of Sangamon county, on the Chicago and Alton, the Illinois Central, the Baltimore and Ohio, the Wabash, the Chicago, Spring- field and St. Louis, and the Chi- cago and Illinois Midland Rail- roads ; 185 m. by rail s.w. of Chicago and 96 m. n.e. of St. Louis. It has a municipal air- port and is the centre of a net- work of hard surfaced roads. It stands on the Sangamon River, in a fertile valley producing grain and live stock, and in the heart of great coal fields which extend in parts under the very city. Oil fields are distant about 150 miles. Nearby are deposits of sand and gravel, oil shale, and limestone. The city is regularly laid out with broad streets and a number of fine parks, notable among which is Washington Park, cov- ering 240 acres. In beautiful Oak Ridge Cemetery is the mau- soleum of the Lincoln National Monument (Lincoln's tomb). Springfield has preserved many spots sacred to his memory. The house in which Lincoln lived, the only one he ever owned, is main- tained by the State. Notable buildings are the State Capitol, an imposing structure of Niagara limestone ; the State Arsenal ; the State Supreme Court Build- ing; the Federal Building; City Hall ; Lincoln Library ; the Gov- ernor's mansion ; and the Cen- tennial Building containing the State Museum and the State His- torical Society's library with its fine collection of Lincolniana. Educational institutions include the Springfield High School, Concordia Seminary (Evangel- ical Lutheran), Ursuline Acad- emy (R. C.) and the Academy of the Sacred Heart (R. C). Springfield is noted for its commercial development and the diversity of its industries which include railroad shops and manu- factures of shoes, garage equip- ment, electric meters, clocks, and watches, mining camp supplies, boilers, cast iron pipe, radio parts, machinery, and flour. It ships large quantities of coal, grain, live stock, and the products of its factories. Springfield was first settled in 1818; became the county seat in 1821, named Springfield. It was called Calhoun for a short period after 1823, in 1832 it was in- corporated as a town, and in 1837 it became the State capital. The city charter dates from 1840, the original government being changed only at the adoption in 1911 of commission government. Among outstanding public im- provements are the sanitary dis- posal plant and ample water sup- plies. Pop. (1930) 71,864; (1940) 75,503. Springfield, city, Massachu- setts, port of entry, county seat of Hampden county, on the east bank of the Connecticut River, here spanned by 4 bridges ; 99 m. by rail s.w. of Boston. It has a municipal airport and is served by the Boston and Albany, the Boston and Maine, and the New York, New Haven, and Hart- ford Railroads, bus and truck lines. It is attractively located on a level strip of land along the river bank and on higher ground to the east, commanding a fine view of the Connecticut valley. Springfield is called 'The City of Homes' as there is a home for approximately every five people of the population. Under the control of the Springfield Park Department are more than a score of children's playgrounds and 94 parks (1,647 acres) ; Forest Park, the largest (757 acres) contains a zoological gar- den with a fine collection of lotus plants. Features of interest in- clude a Soldiers' and Sailors* Monument, the Miles Morgan statue, and The Puritan by Saint-Gaudens. Since 1921 the city has had a planning board. The Union Railroad Station (1926) is one of the most complete in New England. The 'Municipal Group' includes the Administration Building and the Auditorium flanking the imposing Campanile Tower (its carillon purchased by public subscription). Other notable buildings are the Court House ; the library ; the Art Mu- seum, a handsome edifice in the Italian Renaissance style, hous- ing a fine collection of art ob- jects contributed by G. W. V. Smith ; the Fine Arts Museum, founded by Mr. and Mrs. James P. Gray (1933); the Science Museum, containing a scientific library and natural history col- lections ; the U. S. Armory for the manufacture of Springfield rifles and small arms ; the Y. W. C. A. and Y. M. C. A. Build- ings ; and the William Pynchon Memorial Building (1927) of the Connecticut Valley Historical Society. There are many fine business structures and church edifices. The public educational pro- gram is of a high order and leads through junior high schools into a choice of four high schools : Central High School (academ- ic) ; the Technical High School (engineering) ; the High School of Commerce (business), and Springfield Trade School (indus- trial). There is also a Junior College. Springfield is the seat of the American International College, the International Y. M. C. A. College, and Bay Path Institute. There are 4 general hospitals, ^ 2 maternity hospitals, an isolation hospital, and the Shriner's Hospital for Crippled Children for the New England area. Industry is highly diversified with the manufacture of elec- trical goods and equipment par- ticularly important. Many prod- ucts manufactured here are known the world over. Westing- house Motors, Bosch Radios, Indian Motorcycles, Rolls Royce automobiles. Smith and Wesson revolvers, Springfield rifles, Ab- sorbine Junior liniment, Fiber- loid products, and Milton Brad- ley games and toys are typical. Carpets and rugs, stationery, foundry and machine shop prod- ucts, confectionery, paper goods, valves, tools, and bakery prod- ucts are of major importance. Springfield is the home of the New Lamed History and also of Webster's Dictionary. Springfield was settled by William Pynchon of Roxbury in 1636, who named it Agawam. Four years later it became Springfield, the name of Pyn- chon's English home. It was burned in 1675 during King Philip's War ; was the scene of rioting during Shays's Rebellion (q. v.), the most serious trouble being the demonstration on Jan- uary 27, 1787, when a body of 2,000 malcontents were dispersed by the militia. Springfield was Springfield KFN 392 Spring-Rice chartered as a city in 1852. Pop. (1930) 149,900; (1940) 149,554. Springfield, city, Missouri, county seat of Greene county, on the St. Louis-San Francisco and the Missouri Pacific rail- roads ; 202 miles s.e. of Kansas City, and 238 miles s.w. of St. Louis. It is beautifully situated in the Ozark Mountains at an al- titude of 1,300 feet. Here are located Drury College, the South- west Missouri State Teachers College^ the Assembly of God Bible College, St. de Chantal Academy ('Elfindale') , the Pub- lic Library, O'Reilly General Hospital, U. S. Medical Center for Federal Prisoners, and the Abou Ben Adhem Shrine Mosque with auditorium seating 3,500, the Mecca for Masons in the Middle West. Sequiota State Park is 6 m. distant. Springfield is located in a rich agricultural and mining region, and has large fruit, grain, lum- ber, dairy, live-stock, and mining interests. It is also an important jobbing and manufacturing cen- ter. Transcontinental air lines use the municipal airport. The city is called the poultry capital of the United States. Industrial establishments include packing plants, creameries, railroad re- pair shops, and factories produc- ing furniture, lime, overalls, flour, grain, and clothing. The city, strategically situated almost equidistant between St. Louis, Tulsa, Kansas City and Memphis, is the northern gate- way to the Ozarks, and the cen- ter of a network of fine high- ways. Springfield was settled about 1830. It was incorporated as a town in 1838 and chartered as a city in 1847. During the Civil War it was a strategic point, the battle of Wilson's Creek (q. v.) being fought about 10 miles south. In 1863 the 2,400 militia- men stationed here were attacked by General Marmaduke in com- mand of a force of 4,000 Con- federates. Fighting began in the forenoon, and at nightfall Mar- maduke retired, both sides hav- ing suffered heavy losses. Springfield adopted the commis- sion form of government in 1916. Pop. (1930) 57,527; (1940) 61,238. Springfield, city, Ohio, county seat of Clark county, is situated at the junction of Mad River and Lagonda Creek, and on the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chi- cago, and St. Louis, the Detroit, Toledo, and Ironton, the Erie, and the Pennsylvania railroads ; 45 m. west of Columbus. On an elevated site are the fine build- ings of Wittenberg College (q. V.) and the State Homes of the Masons, the Odd Fellows, the Eagles, and the Knights of Pythias. Fernclifif Cemetery west of the college contains a hand- some Soldiers' Monument. The city has 238 acres of parks, the largest, Snyder Park (217 acres), containing the Snyder Memorial Bridge and a memorial arch. There is a municipal golf course. Notable edifices are the County Building, the Court House, the City Building, Clark County Memorial Building, Municipal Court Building, Warder Public Library, City Hospital, the High School Building, and the Cham- ber of Commerce Building. Springfield lies in the midst of grain and dairy farms. In 1932 it ranked second in the United States as a producer of rose plants, shipping about 4,- 500,000. Baby chick and duck hatcheries are important. It is the home of the International Harvester Company and is a leading city of the world in the production of agricultural imple- ments. Other important prod- ucts are gas and steam engines, tools, coffins, steam rollers, piano plates, iron wheels, automobile accessories, incubators, electric fans, motors, paper-hangers' sup- plies, castings, rubber products, blank books, electric washing inachines, wood patterns, fabric gloves, sewing machine parts and furnaces. _ The first settlements in the vicinity of Springfield were made in 1799; it became the county seat in 1818; was incorporated as a town in 1827 and chartered as a city in 1850. The commis- sion-manager type of government was adopted. Pop. (1930) 68,- 743 ; (1940) 70,662. Springfield, town. Tennes- see, Robertson county, on the Sulphur Fork of the Red River, and the Louisville and Nashville Railroad ; about 27 miles north of Nashville. Pop. (1930) 5,- 577; (1940) 6,668. Springfield, town and village, Vermont, Windsor county, the town bordered on the east by the Connecticut River, and the vil- lage is situated on the Black River; 42 miles s.e. of Rutland. The falls on the Black River furnish power for various indus- trial establishments making gear cutting machinery, thread gen- erators and cvitters, lathes, cast- ings, cloth shearing machinery, grinders and tools and re-worked wool. Settlements were made here about 1760. Pop. (1940) of town 7,720 ; of village 5,182. Spring Frog, another' name for the Green Frog (q. v.). Spring Gun, a gun having wires connected with its trigger, was so fixed and planted that when wild animals, or trespassers stumble against the wire the gun is discharged. Springhill, town, Cumberland county, Nova Scotia, Canada, on the Canadian National Railroad ; 121 m. N.w. of Halifax. The principal industry is coal-mining. It is a region of soft and hard wood timber and diversified farming (hay, grain, and truck crops). There are bottling works. Salt and limestone occur in the neighborhood. Pop. (1931) 6,355; (1941) 7,123. Spring Hill, Battle of, a bat- tle of the Civil War, which oc- curred at Spring Hill, Tennes- see, Nov. 29, 1864, between a part of the Federal Army of the Cumberland under General Scho- field, and a part of the Confeder- ate Army of Tennessee under General Hood. While General Thomas was concentrating his army at Nashville upon the ap- proach of Hood, 28,000 men un- der the command of Schofield were overtaken at Colvnnbia by 45,000 Confederates. About 3 P.M. Cleburne's division of Cheatham's corps attacked Brad- ley's brigade, which held the out- post near Spring Hill, and drove it back, but in return was re- pulsed by the artillery with the loss of 150 men on each side. The failure of the Confederates to occupy Spring Hill probably had great influence on the result of the Battle of Franklin, fought the next day (see Franklin, Battle of). Spring Hill College, a Ro- man Catholic institution, directed by the Jesuits, situated in Mobile, Ala. It was founded in 1830, incorporated in 1836, and em- powered in 1840 to grant degrees in philosophy and theology. The college offers a four-year classi- cal course, leading to the degree of A.B., and a four-year scientific course, leading to the degree of B.S., and grants certificates for 2 years of engineering, pre-dental, or pre-legal or 2 or 3 years of pre-medical work. Teacher training courses are given. Spring-Rice, Sir Cecil Ar- thur (1859-1918), British dip- lomat, was educated at Oxford University. He served succes- sivel}^ as secretary of legation at Brussels, Washington, Tokyo, Berlin, and Constantinople; charge d'affaires at Teheran, Iran (1900); British Commis- sioner of Public Debt at Cairo, Egypt (1901) ; first secretary of embassy at St. Petersburg (1903-5) ; minister and consul- general to Persia (1906-8) ; and minister to Sweden (1908- 12). In 1912 he succeeded Viscount Bryce as British Am- bassador to the United States. He was knighted in 1916. He died at Ottawa on his way home to England, February 14, 1918. Consult S. Gwynn, Letters and F riendships Springs KSE 393 Sprue of Sir Cecil Spring-Rice (2 v. 1929). Springs. See Carriages. Springtail Duck. See Pin- tail Duck. Springtails, or Snow Fleas of the order Collembola, with the somewhat similar Thysanura (q. v.), make the subclass Ap- terygota; very small, showing not more than 6 segments ; an- tennae with 6 to 8 joints; caudal appendages absent ; usually hav- ing a forked spring attached on the abdomen, folded beneath, which serves for leaping. At times they destroy planted seeds or young plants by eating them or carrying fungous diseases. They may be killed by watering frequently with 40% nicotine sul- fate to 800 parts of water. They inhabit moist places, the young living in darkness ; the adults in winter massed on snow or stag- nant water. Spring Valley, city, Bureau county, Illinois, on the Illinois River, and the Chicago, Burling- ton and Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific, and the Chicago and Northwestern Railroads ; 6 miles west of La Salle, with river craft connec- tion. The leading industry is the mining of bituminous coal. Timber lands and good farming country are nearby and there are sand and gravel pits. Overalls and garters are manufactured. Pop. (1930) 5,270. Spring Valley, village, Rock- land county. New York, on the Erie Railroad ; 30 m. north of New York City. Pop. (1930) 3,948. Springville, city, Utah county, Utah, on the Denver and Rio Grande and the Union Paci- fic Railroads ; 50 m. s.e. of Salt Lake City. Fruit growing is the principal industry. Stock raising and dairying are also important. Its factories produce steel, sugar and canned goods. Pop. (1930) 3,748. Sprit Sail, a fore-and-aft sail, bent to the mast at the weather leech, and having the after peak stretched by a spar or sprit, the foremost and lower end of which is hitched to the mast. In small boats the sprit end rests in a cord collar, attached to a cord ring round the mast, which may be pushed upward to extend the sail, and which will remain fast with the angular pressure. (See Sail.) Sprocket Wheel, a toothed wheel working in a chain. (See Gearing.) Spruce (Picea), a genus of trees of the family Coniferae, in- cluding 40 species native to the Arctic and Temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, and ranging from the Arctic Circle to the slopes of the Southern Appalachians, Northern New Mexico and Arizona, in the United States. The spruces are slow-growing evergreen trees, pyramidal in form, with tall, straight, taper- ing trunks ; slender, horizontal brcMches occurring in whorls at regular intervals ; and drooping branchlets. The leaves are soli- tary, stiff, linear, and four-sided, spirally arranged on the branch- lets, and jointed to persistent woody bases, from which they fall in 7 to 10 years or upon drying. The catkin-like flowers, which appear in the early spring from buds of the previous year, are yellow to scarlet in color and monoecious in character. The fruit is a pendant, woody cone maturing in one season. At the base of each fertile scale are two ovoid or oblong winged seeds. The timber is soft and straight grained, and is much used for general construction, interior fin- ish, the spars and masts of sail- ing vessels, fuel, and the manu- facture of wood pulp (q. v.). The bark of some species is used in tanning, and the resin is em- ployed medicinally and as spruce gum for chewing. The White Spruce {P. cana- densis), known also as the Single, Double, Skunk, and Cat Spruce, extends across the entire north- ern portion of North America, constituting the great bulk of the forests of Alaska and Northern Canada, and reaching south to South Dakota, Southern Minne- sota, Wisconsin, Northern New York, and in the Appalachians to Northern Virginia. Attain- ing a height of 150 feet farther north, in its southeastern limits it is seldom more than 60 to 70 feet tall. The timber is used ex- tensively for making wood pulp. The Weeping Spruce {P. Brcwcriana) , native to Oregon and Northern California, is the most elegant and graceful picea. It resembles the Norway spruce ; Sprit Sail. its distinguishing beauty is in long pliant pendulous branchlets, 6 to 8 feet long and slender as a pencil. P. pungens called 'queen of the species' is a noble tree, hardy on all soils where tested. The Red Spruce (P. rubra), known also as the Spruce Pine, ranges from Prince Edward Island and the St. Lawrence Valley south- ward to Cape Cod ; it occurs in the interior highlands of New England and New York, and on the peaks of the Appalachians as far south as North Carolina. It is from 70 to 100 feet high, with branches reaching to the ground. The timber is valuable for gen- eral construction, but its chief use is for pulp. The Englemann Spruce (P. Englcnianni) is a Rocky Moun- tain species sometimes known as White Spruce. It is planted as an ornamental tree in the East. An important foreign variety is the Norway Spruce (P. excelsa), extensively used in Europe for general construction work and interior finish, and planted in America as an ornamental tree and as a windbreak. The trees of the genus Pseu- dotsuga, or False Hemlocks, are sometimes incorrectly grouped with the Spruces. These include three species : the Red Fir, Doug- las Fir or Douglas Spruce (P. mucronata), and the Big Cone Spruce or California Hemlock (P. macrocarpa). Sprue, or Psilosis, a tropical affection of the digestive tract, prevalent in India, China, the Straits Settlements, and the Phi- lippine Islands ; also known as Ceylon Sore Mouth and Diar- rhoea Alba. It is characterized by an inflamed, superficially ul- cerated, extremely sensitive con- dition of the mucous membrane of the tongue and mouth, render- ing deglutition exceedingly pain- ful; irregular action of the bowels, with the passage of copi- ous, pale, frothy stools ; contrac- tion of the liver ; the general symptoms of dyspepsia, as sour eructations, heartburn, and flatu- lence ; and progressive emacia- tion, associated with anaemia, great physical and ^ intellectual debility, and not infrequently marked depression and irritabil- ity of temper. The course of the disease is chronic, characterized by frequent relapses. With- out proper treatment the patient becomes gradually worse, and dies as a result of intense anaemia or from an attack of some inter- current disease, or infrequently, from perforation of an intestinal ulcer. Treatment, to be successful, should be undertaken early in the course of the disease and be persistently carried out. Com- plete rest and a milk diet have proven valuable, with calcium lactate and extract of parathyroid (free from thyroid). Consult T. Spur KSE 393 A Spy Thaysen, Non-tropical Sprue (1932). Spur, an appliance fastened to the heel of a horseman, for goading or controlling the horse. It is much less used than for- merly, and the modern apparatus, having only minute serrations on its rim, does not possess the cruel effect of the formidable spiked spurs of olden times. In the age of chivalry spurs were an essen- tial ensign of knighthood, the spurs of knights {equites aurati) being golden or gilt, while those of squires were of silver. In the degradation of a knight, one part of the proceedings consisted in hacking the spurs from his heels. Spurge, a genus of plants be- longing to the order Euphorbia- ceae. (See Euphorbia.) Spurge Laurel. See Daphne. Spurgeon, spur'jun, Charles Haddon (1834-92), noted Eng- lish Nonconformist preacher, was born at Kelvedon, Essex, and at- tached himself to the Baptists, becoming pastor of a congrega- tion at Water-beach, Cambridge- shire, in 1852. In 1853 he was invited to preach in New Park Street Chapel, London, and in 1854 he was unanimously called to become pastor of the church. Charles Haddon Spurgeon. Growing popularity rendered the enlargement of New Park Street Chapel a necessity in 1855, and again in 1856. In 1859 the erec- tion of the vast Metropolitan Tabernacle was begun, in which Spurgeon preached to the end of his life. Strangers flocked thither from all parts of the world to hear him. In 1879 he received a pastor's silver wed- ding testimonial of over $30,000 ; a further sum of about $25,000 was presented to him on his at- taining his fiftieth year, all of which he devoted to benevolent projects. A rigid Calvinist, Spurgeon was no ascetic. A musical voice, clearness, directness, independ- ence, and simplicity of style, combined with humor, common sense, a rich store of anecdote and continuous hard work, were the chief factors in his great success. In his zeal for pure doctrine he abandoned the Evan- gelical Alliance. Besides weekly sermons and a monthly magazine, Sword and Trowel (1865), Spurgeon gave to the world upward of a hun- dred volumes. He always preached extemporaneously, and had his notes written on a half sheet of notepaper. His ser- mons, taken down in shorthand, were afterward carefully revised by himself. The average weekly circulation of his sermons was 30,000. He published: The Saint and His Saviour (1867) ; John Ploughman's Talk (1868) ; John Ploughman's Pictures; Treasury of David, a commen- tary on the Psalms in 7 vols. (1865-80); Interpreter (1874); Morning by Morning; Evening by Evening; Feathers for Ar- rows; Lectures to My Students ; Commenting and Commentaries ; My Sermon Notes ; Salt Cellars (Proverbs) ; Flashes of Thought ; Sermons in Candles (1891) ; Messages to the Multitude (1892). Consult Autobiography, Letters, and Records, in 4 vols., compiled by his widow and Mrs. Harrald (1897-1900); J. C. Carlile, C. H. Spurgeon (1933) ; R. E. Day, Shadow of the Broad Brim (1934) ; J. J. Ellis and J. T. Allen, Mighty Messenger of Christ (1933) ; C. F. Perry, Spurgeon's Boyhood and Won- derful Life (1934). Spurn Head, a promontory with two lighthouses stretching 2^ miles into the mouth of the Humber, and forming the south- eastern extremity of Yorkshire, England. Spurry (Spergula Sativa), a species of dull green viscid plants of the Caryophyllaceae family growing in waste lands and sandy soils ; annuals ; much branched, often grow in spreading rosettes, have linear leaves, clustered so as to resemble verticils, seeds margined, not papillate. The flowers have a calyx of 5 sepals, 5 white petals, 5 or 10 stamens, and 5 styles ; the capsule is 5 valved. In Germany, France, Holland, and Belgium, spurry is grown as a soil renovator and forage crop. In Holland it has long been used to hold in place the sifting sands near the sea. It is recommended in America only as a cover-crop to plow under. Spurs, Battle of the. See CoURTRAI ; GUINEGATE. Spur Wheel, a toothed wheel, the teeth radiating from the cen- tre. (See Gearing.) Spurzheim, shpoorts'him, Jo- HANN Kaspar (1776-1832), German physician, one of the founders of phrenology. While a student of medicine at the Uni- versity of Vienna he became ac- quainted with Franz Gall (q. v.), and imbibed many of his doc- trines. The two in 1805 started on a lecturing tour through the principal countries of Central Europe, and in 1807 settled in Paris. Spurzheim after 1814 de- voted himself largely to prosecut- ing his campaign in England, where George Combe became his disciple. From 1817-25 he was engaged in spreading his views in France. In 1832 he came to the United States, but died sud- denly in Boston the same year. His chief works are : Elementary Principles of Education (1821) ; Phrenology (1825) ; Philosophi- cal Principles of Phrenology (1832). Consult Memoir by A. Carmichael (1833) ; N. Capen, Reminiscences of IDr. Spurzheim and George Combe (1881). Sputum, medical term for the secretion ejected from the mouth in spitting. It consists of saliva and mucus from the nasal fossae and the fauces. In diseased con- ditions it may contain pus, mucus, fibrin, or blood. Con- sult R. Clifford, Sputum (1932). SpuytenDuyvil, spi't'n di'v'l, a creek connecting the Harlem and the Hudson Rivers, bound- ing the extreme north end of Manhattan Island. The former village of Spuyten Duyvil is part of New York City (q. v.). Spy, in military usage a per- son who secretly and in disguise collects information as to the enemy's condition or designs, for the purpose of communicating such information to the opposing force. The use of spies is held to be legitimate in war ; but if a spy is captured, he or she may be lawfully 'executed.* Espionage was used among primitive peoples ; it was impor- tant and well-organized in an- cient Asia ; fell into disrepute in Europe as incompatible with an age of chivalry ; and was a strong arm of the medieval church during five centuries. Up to 1870 no spy system surpassed that of the Mongols of the 12th and 13th centuries; emperors of India employed thousands of spies. Akbar sent them in the role of scavengers into every house twice daily. Espionage as a part of military science was described by Maurice de Saxe in Reveries ou memoires sur I'art de la guerre (1756), and later distinguished the skill of Frederick the Great. In 1870 Wilhelm Stieber, Bismarck's po- lice minister, claimed that he had over 30,000 spies in France. At the outbreak of the World War the too complicated spy Spy KSE 393 B Squall systems of Europe were bewil- dering and led to counter-espio- nage, or spying upon spies, which proved very effective. After peace, governments continued to employ counter-spies, an efficient system merging with the mili- tary police. Secret police spied upon minorities. In the United States they spied upon radical organizations. After the World War the U. S. Espionage Act of 1917 was not repealed. The Espionage Act. — In the United States a drastic Espion- age Law was passed by Congress shortly after the entrance of that country into the World War. As approved June 15, 1917, the Act provides for the punishment by a fine not to exceed $10,000, or imprisonment for not more than two years, or both, of any per- son who, with intent or reason to believe that the information to be obtained is to be used to the injury of the United States, or to the advantage of any for- eign nation, obtains information concerning any place directly connected with the national de- fence or any place in which ves- sels, aircraft, arms, munitions, or other materials or instruments for use in time of war are be- ing made, prepared, repaired, or stored, under any agreement with the United States, or otherwise on behalf of the United States ; or, with like intent or reason to believe, copies, takes, makes, or obtains, or attempts, or induces or aids another to copy, take, make, or obtain, any sketch, pho- tograph, photographic negative, blue print, plan, map, model, in- strument, appliance, document, writing, or note of anything con- nected with the national de- fence ; or, lawfully or unlawfully having possession of, access to, or control over such material, wilfully communicates or trans- mits or attempts to communicate or transmit the same to any per- son not entitled to receive it, wilfully retains^ the same and fails to deliver it on demand to the officer or employee of the United States entitled to receive it, or, through gross negligence, permits the same to be removed from its proper place of custody or delivered to any one in viola- tion of his trust, or to be lost, stolen, abstracted, or destroyed; or any person who, when the United States is at war, shall wilfully make or convey false reports or false statements with intent to interfere with the oper- ation or success of the military or naval forces of the United States or to promote the success of its enemies and whoever, when the United States is at war, shall wilfully cause or attempt to cause insubordination, disloyal- ty, mutiny, or refusal of duty, in the military or naval forces of the United States, or shall wil- fully obstruct the recruiting or enlistment service of the United States, to the injury of the serv- ice or of the United States. It provides also that whoever, with intent or reason to believe that it is to be used to the injury of the United States, communi- cates to any foreign government information relating to the na- tional defence, shall be punished by imprisonment for not more than twenty years, or, in time of war, by death or by imprison- ment for not more than thirty years ; and that whoever, in time of war, with intent that the same shall be communicated to the enemy, shall collect, record, pub- lish, or communicate, or attempt to elicit any information with respect to the movement, num- bers, description, condition, or disposition of any of the armed forces, ships, aircraft, or war ma- terials of the United States, or any other information relating to the public defence which might be useful to the enemy, shall be punished by death or by impris- onment for not more than thirty years. The Hague Convention (1907) makes the following rulings con- cerning spies : 'An individual can only be considered a spy if, acting clandestinely, or on false pretences, he obtains or seeks to obtain information in the zone of operations of a belligerent, with the intention of communicating it to the hostile party. 'Thus, soldiers not in disguise who have penetrated into the zone of operations of a hostile army to obtain information are not considered spies. Similarly, the following are not considered spies : soldiers or civilians, carry- ing out their mission openly, charged with the delivery of des- patches destined either for their own army or for that of the ene- my. To this class belong like- wise individuals sent in balloons to deliver despatches, and gen- erally to maintain communica- tion between the various parts of an army or territory. 'A spy taken in the act can- not be punished without previous trial. ' A spy who, after rejoining the army to which he belongs, is sub- sequently captured by the ene- my, is treated as a prisoner of war, and incurs no responsibility for his previous acts of espion- age.' Commercial espionage is often practiced. British spies claimed early in the World War that they had obtained the se- crets of the German dye indus- try. Consult G. G. Aston, Secret Service (1930); S. C. Howard and R. Dunn, The Labor Spy (1924) ; R. Mennevee, L'espion- nage international en temps de paix (2 vols. 1929) ; R. W. Rowan, Spy and Counter-spy (1928) ; J. Vidor, Spying in Russia (1929). Squadron. — (1) A unit of cavalry. In the United States the normal command of a major composed basically of a head- quarters and two or more troops. (2) In the navy, one or more di- visions of battleships, destroyers, or aircraft, or a group of vessels assigned to a special duty. (3) In military aviation, an air fleet or division of an air fleet. In Great Britain, airplanes and men sufficient to maintain 12 airplanes ready for service. In the United States, the basic unit of three flights of three to six airplanes each, known as bombardment squadrons, attack squadrons, ob- servation squadrons, pursuit squadrons, service squadrons. Squall, a sudden violent in- crease of wind velocity, which may rise for a few seconds to hurricane violence. Squalls are caused by meteorological condi- tions and are frequently associ- ated with thunderstorms. The circulation of the winds is shown in the diagram. Here we may assume that a cold westerly current impinges on a warmer one from the southeast or south. The warmer current ascends, as indicated by the small arrows, and curls over at the black Diagram of 'Line SqualL* wreath (ti) of cloud, and then the commingling of the two cur- rents forms an imposing dark dome (v) of cloud, from which heavy rain (r) or hail descends. The light grayish cloud which is seen behind the black wreath is the rain descending from the dark dome. The heavy rain- drops bring down a large quan- tity of cold air, which flies straight out in advance of the storm, and produces the squall (q) indicated by the long arrow. It has been suggested as a con- tributory cause that the expan- sion of the moist rising air, in- creased by the warmth due to the cloudy condensation that results, may produce a downward pres- sure upon the air below, or that the low temperature of the cold column of air preceding the storm may cause a difference of pres- sure sufficient to force the air outward toward the lower pres- sure of the warmer ascending Squarcione KSE 394 Squier portion. That rain alone can- not account for the phenomenon is shown by the fact that squalls sometimes occur under clouds from which no rain is falling. The white squall derives its name from the whitening of the sea with foam and spoondrift as it traverses the water. (See Storm.) Squarcione, skwar-cho'na, Francesco (1394-1474), Italian painter. He is called the 'father of painting' from his being the founder of one of the first Italian academies of art. Among his pupils was Mantegna (q. v.). He was chiefly engaged in church decoration, his best-known work being an altar piece in Padua. Square is a four-sided plane rectilineal figure, having all its sides equal, and all its angles right angles. Its area is deter- mined by multiplying the length of the side by itself, represented algebraically by the formula a X a = a2. (See Quadra- ture.) Square Knot. See Knot. Square Measure. See Weights and Measures. Square Rig is a nautical term implying that the principal sails of a vessel are extended by yards, slung to the masts by the middle, and not by gaffs, booms, or lateen yards. They can thus be braced to a greater or less angle on either side to suit the wind, but not directly fore and aft. (See Sail.) Square Root. See Involu- tion. Squares, Magic. See Magic Squares. Squares, Method of Least. By this method the most prob- able value may be determined from a number of observations, and the accuracy of observations and adjusted results ascertained. If a, a2. . .a^ be value of the same quantity derived from different observations of equal precision, the most probable value, x, is that which renders the expression 2 2 2 or (x— o)2H X — a X — fl2 X — an a minimum. The differential of the expression when equated to zero gives the arithmetical mean of the observed values as the most probable value. The prob- able error (c) of a single obser- vation is g iven by the equation e =0.6745- /^^, where Sm2 is the \ n — 1 sum of the above squares, and the probable error («) of the arithmetical mean by the equa- tion €= /— . When the observa- tions are not of equal precision, the squares must be weighted by coefficients derived from the number of observations, the man- ner of taking the observations, etc., and in this and more com- plicated cases the most probable value is not the arithmetical mean. By this method the most probable values of the constants or parameters in any function of independent variables may be ob- tained. Consult Prof. Merri- man's Text Book on the Method of Least Squares. Squaring the Circle. See Quadrature. Squash, a trailing vine of the genus Cucurhita, bearing large leaves, large yellow blossoms, and gourd-like fruits, which are used as a vegetable and a filling for pies. The summer sorts, includ- ing the Crook Neck and Scallop varieties, belong principally to Cucurhita pcpo, while the winter squashes, like the Hubbard and Boston Marrow, belong to C. maxima, and winter crook-necks, Cushaws, etc., to C. moschata. They thrive best in warm situa- tions and rich sandy loam. There are bush and trailing forms. The seeds are planted in hills 8 to 10 feet apart for run- ning varieties, 4 to 5 feet apart for bush squash. A couple of shovelfulls of well-rotted barn- yard manure^ is usually placed under each hill to insure vigor- ous growth. When danger from insects is past the hills are thinned to three or four of the strongest plants. Summer squashes are cooked and eaten whole before the skin hardens. Winter squashes are gathered as soon as fall^ frosts threaten, and left to lie in piles in the stm- shine for a few days until the skin becomes hard and flinty. If frost threatens, they are cov- ered at night. They should be stored in a dry room at a tem- perature of about 50° F. Sum- mer Crook Neck is one of the best early summer sorts. Bos- ton Marrow, Hubbard, and Marblehead are all excellent winter varieties. Squash Insects are trouble- some Squash Bugs (Anasa tristis), about Ys inches long; adults brownish-black, nymphs (Yii to 5^ inch long) w-hitish with black legs ; lay eggs on the foliage in spring, the young bugs feeding on plant juices. The lat- ter may be killed by a spray of 1 part nicotine sulphate to 400 parts soapy water, but it is al- most impossible to reach them. No known insecticide kills the adults which must be removed by hand before eggs are laid. The eggs of the Squash Vine Borer (Melittia satyriniformis) may be killed by a spray of 40% nicotine sulphate (1 oz. to 2^ gals, water) and 1 ounce caustic potash fish-oil soap. The Striped Cucumber Beetle (Diabrotica vittata) is the most serious pest of Cucurbits east of the Rocky Mountains and the Western Cucumber Beetle (Diabrotica trivittata) is worst on the Pacific Coast. These feed on the plants at all stages of growth and also carry wilt ; to combat them, cover plants as soon as they pierce the ground. Dust with 1 part cal- cium arsenate and 20 parts burned gypsum or land plaster. Squash Rackets, a court game, similar to rackets (q. v.), is played with ball and racket by two persons. The floor of the court is divided into four smaller courts, while on the front wall are drawn the 'service ' line and the 'play' line, 72 and 19 inches from the floor respectively. The player serving stands in one of the rear courts and sends the ball to the front wall, above the service line, causing it to re- bound. His opponent tries to re- turn the ball to the front wall, above the play line. A player scores a point when his oppo- nent returns the ball on any but the first rebound, returns it be- low the play line, or fails en- tirely to return it. In the United States, IS points and in Eng- land 9 constitute a game. Con- sult F. D. Amr, Art of Squash Rackets (1934). Squid, popular name for members of the sub-order Teu- thoidea of Cephalopoda (q. v.), aggressive, with ten arms, a horny (except in Sepia) pen, the remnant of a shell, and a cornea closing the eye. The body is long pointed behind, and bears two triangular posterior fins. The skin round the mouth bears suckers ; the two longest seizing arms bear four or more rows of suckers, and are not entirely re- tractile ; one of the shorter arms becomes much modified in the male to form a sperm-holding organ. Some fossil forms oc- cur in the Jurassic strata. The Common Squid (Loligo vulgaris) has a pinkish or yellow- ish white color, with purplish brown spots, and measures a foot and a half or more in length, not including the arrns. It is com- mon in the Atlantic and Mediter- ranean, swims actively in shoals and is sometimes eaten, or used as bait. The Giant Squid {Architeuthis princeps) reaches a record length of 52 feet (in- cluding tentacles). Other 'giant squids' are over 7 feet long. There are phosphorescent squids bearing light-organs upon their bodies. Flying Squids attain their motion by a series of leaps sometimes landing on ships. Squi'er, Ephraim George (1821-88), American archaeol- ogist, born in Bethlehem, N. Y. With E. H. Davis he examined pre-historic ruins in the Mis- sissippi valley ^ (1846-7) and later studied similar ruins in Squill 395 Squirrel Monkey several districts in New York. In 1849 he was special charge d'affaires to the Central Ameri- can states, and negotiated the treaties with Nicaragua, Salva- dor, and Honduras. He was au- thor of: Aboriginal Monuments of the State of New York (1849); Serpent Symbols (1852); Nica- ragua, Its People, Scenery, and Monuments (1852); Notes on Central America (1854); The States of Central America (1857); Tropical Fibres (1861); Peru, In- cidents and Explorations in the Land of the Incas (1877). Squill, any plant of the ge- nus Scilla (q. v.). In medicine, squill is a drug consisting of the inner part of the bulb of Urginea scilla, a. liliaceous plant of the Mediterranean region, cut into slices and dried. It is an expec- torant and diuretic, and in large doses is purgative and emetic. It is used in bronchitis, croup, and dropsy. Squilla, or Mantis Shrimp, a genus of marine Crustacea, which, with some closely allied genera, constitutes the suborder Stomatopoda. The common species is 5. mantis, so called from a fancied resemblance to the insect mantis. It is abundant in the Mediterranean, and oc- curs occasionally in British Squilla mantis waters. It attains a length of seven inches. The body is slightly flattened, and the short carapace leaves a part of the thorax uncovered. The abdomen ends in a powerful tail fin. The second maxillipedes form power- ful prehensile appendages. Squinting. See vStrabismus. Squire, an abbreviated form of esquire (q. v.), denoting under the old system of chivalry a knight's armor-bearer. He was next in degree to the knight, and was himself entitled to coat armor, and to exemption from jury duties. The title is now used somewhat loosely. It is extended to country gentlemen in England, and sometimes in the United States to local judges and justices of the peace. Squirrel, a rodent belonging to the genus Sciurus, character- ized by a long and bushy tail, usually held curled over the back. On the fore hmbs the thumb is rudimentary, but the other digits are well developed, and are furnished with long, sharp, curved claws. The color- ing is usually reddish-brown above and white below, but many species are gray or black; in the tropics they are often brightly variegated. The squirrel is an arboreal animal, and climbs and leaps with great agility. Its food consists chiefly of nuts, seeds, bark, buds, and young shoots, but at times it eats eggs and even young birds. In the more northerly parts of the world squirrels hibernate during the winter, but the sleep is never very profound, and in mild weather they often go abroad, even in mid-winter. Their tem- porary periods of inactivity are provided for by the storing in the autumn of a winter supply of food. The young are produced in early summer, often four or five in number. The pelts of the squirrel are of considerable commercial value, particularly the soft, thick fur of the more northern species. Squirrels inhabit all temperate and tropical parts of the globe except Madagascar and Aus- tralia. There are some fifty or sixty species, most numerous in the Malayan region. Of these Malayan squirrels, the best known are the large S. bicolor, sometimes measuring ten or twelve inches exclusive of the tail; the Indian Palm Squirrel (S. palmarum), a small prettily striped animal, easily tamed; and the Golden-backed squirrel (S. caniceps), which assumes a beautiful orange color during the breeding season. The best- known American species are the Red Squirrel or Chickaree (5. hudsonianus) , found all over the northern portions of the country, a lively and fearless little crea- ture about eight inches long; the Grey Squirrel (5. carolinensis) , a larger species found farther south, also very active and easily tamed; and the large, dark Fox Squirrel (5. niger) of the South Atlantic and Gulf States. The common European squirrel (5. vulgaris) much resembles the red squirrel in appearance and hab- its, but in winter its ears are tipped with a thick fringe of hair. It is found throughout Europe, Northern Africa, North- ern Asia, and as far east as Japan. Related to the true squirrels are the Ground Squirrel or Chipmunk (q. v.) of the genus Tamias and the Flying Squirrel (q. v.). Consult works on natural history, especially Stone and Cram's American Animals and Hornaday's American Natural History (1915). Squirrel Monkey, a small, ac- tive, furry South American monkey of the genus Chrysothrix. The common squirrel-monkey (C. sciurea) inhabits the valley of the Orinoco. It is not much larger than a squirrel and has a remarkably expressive face. To one species (C. torquata) the Spaniards give the name of Vol. XL— March '25 Courtesy American Museum of Natural History, N. Y. Western Fox Squirrel Srinagar 395 A Stadholder 'widow,' on account of its black and white coloring. All the species have elongated heads and large eyes, and are favorite pets in the tropics, but rarely survive long in colder climates. Srinagar, town, India, capital of the native state of Kashmir, 115 miles northeast of Rawal- pindi. The city is divided by the Jhelum River, crossed here by several quaint wooden bridges, and is traversed by numerous canals. It contains the summer residence of the Maharaja and many interesting mosques, some constructed of wood. It was formerly a shawl-weaving centre, but is now engaged chiefly in silver-working, carpet-weaving, and the manufacture of paper and leather. Pop. (1921) 141,735. Srirangam, town, India, in Madras, on the Coleroon River, 3 miles north of Trichinopoli. It is famous for its huge temple to Vishnu. This enormous struc- ture comprises seven concentric squares, each surrounded by walls and having four high- towered gates. The outer wall is at least four miles in circum- ference. Pop. (1921) 23,153. Srlrangapatam. See Serin- GAPATAM. Srivillipatur, town, India, capital of Tinnevelli district, Madras, 45 miles southwest of Madura. Pop. (1921) 31,195. S. S., Steamship, Sunday- school. Ssu-mao, or Esmote, city, China, in the province of Yiin- nan, on the route from Yiin- nan-fu to East Burma. It was opened to foreign trade in 1897. It contains an interesting medley of population, but the Chinese are predominant. Pop. (1922) 22,069. St. See Saint. Staal, Marguerite Jeanne Delaunay, Baronne de (1684- 1750), French writer, was born in Paris. She became the confi- fidential maid of the Duchesse de Maine at Sceaux, and underwent two years' imprisonment in the Bastille for complicity in the Cellamare conspiracy to deprive the Duke of Orleans of the regency. In 1735 she married the Baron de Staal. She is gen- erally designated Staal-Delaunay to distinguish her from Madame de Stael-Holstein. She left val- uable Memoir es (4 vols., 1755), edited by Lescure (2 vols., 1878). Consult Sainte-Beuve's Portraits litter aires. Stabat Mater, a Latin poem sung during Passion week in Ro- man Catholic churches, begin- ning 'Stabat mater dolorosa.' It is said to have been written near the close of the thirteenth cen- tury by Jacobus de Bencdictis (Jacopone da Todi). Celebrated musical settings of it are those by Palestrina, Pergolesi, Haydn, Astorga, Rossini, and Dvorak. Vol. XI.— March '25 Stablse, an ancient town in Campania, Italy, a few miles south of Pompeii. In 89 B.C. it was destroyed by Sulla, but was restored, only to perish with Her- culaneum and Pompeii in a.d. 79. It was at Stabise that the elder Pliny died. Excavations were begun in 1750. The modern town of Castellammare di Stabia (q. V.) occupies the site. Stability, the dynamic condi- tion of a body or system in virtue of which it retains its position or configuration of equilibrium or approximately steady motion. It is usual to distinguish static stabiUty and kinetic stability. The test of static stability is, however, to give a displacement or motion to the body or system. In other words, static stability is conditioned by kinetic stability, and is, in fact, a particular limit- ing case. The stability of steady motion has many important illus- trations, of which the spinning top is one of the most familiar. The rotating projectile fired from a rifled gun or firearm is another interesting case of stability, the rotation being effectual in keep- ing the projectile always pointing in the line of flight. The motions of the solar system furnish a re- markable example of stability on a large scale. If no dissipative forces exist in the system, it can be demonstrated that such a sys- tem will continue in approxi- mately the same configuration forever, the variations in the form and position of the various orbits being of a fluctuating character, never causing devia- tions beyond a certain limit. The existence of dissipative or fric- tional forces, however, leaves no doubt that the history of the system has not been and will not be in accordance with this theoretical conclusion; but dur- ing long lapses of time the condi- tions of everlasting stability are very approximately realized. It is an interesting point that, if we assume the planets to be under the influence of a central force, depending on an inverse power of the distance, stability is not pos- sible for an integral power greater than 2. Dynamically the condition of stability is that the potential energy should be a minimum; but when we deal with physical systems undergoing chemical and thermal changes, it is very diffi- cult to take strict account of this principle. There is no doubt that in the interplay of chemical and physiological processes the condi- tions for stability and instability are of first importance. To Willard Gibbs in particular is due the credit of showing how to take account of the complicated ther- modynamic relationships in- volved. Consult his Elementary Principles in Statistical Mechan- ics. Stable Fly, a biting fly (Sto- moxys calcitrans) closely re- sembling the House Fly (q. v.). Stachys, Hedge-Nettle, or Woundwort, a genus of herba- ceous plants belonging to the order Labiatae. There are more than 250 species, found mainly in the temperate zones, with a few in the tropics. The flowers, purple, scarlet, yellow or white Stachys sylvatica 1. Single flower. in color, have a tubular, bell- shaped, ten-ribbed calyx, an un- equally two-lipped corolla, the lower lip being three-lobed, and four stamens, the two front ones being the longest. Among the species are the European Hedge Woundwort (5. sylvatica), a tall hairy plant, with heart-shaped leaves, and numerous whorls of dull purple flowers, usually six in a whorl; the Corn Woundwort (5. arvensis), a small plant bear- ing whorls of light purple flowers — six in a whorl — in autumn; and the Marsh Woundwort (S. palustris), found from Maine to Pennsylvania and westward to the Pacific. The Japanese 5. sieboldi has edible tubers known as 'chorogi,' crosnes du Japan, or Japanese artichokes, for whicla it is sometimes cultivated. Stade, town, Germany, in Hanover, 24 miles west of Ham- burg. It has manufactures of leather, cigars, alcohol, and beer. Pop. (1919) 10,590. Stadholder, or Stadtholder, corrupt forms of Stadhouder (Dutch) and Statthalter (Ger- man), a title formerly applied to the governor or lieutenant-gov- ernor of a province, and in a stadium 396 Stafford higher sense to the chief magis- trate of the United Netherlands. Stadium, originally a Greek measure of length, 600 Greek feet (606 feet, 9 inches). The exact distance between the pil- lars of the great Olympic amphi- theatre on the Altis, where the foot races were held, was a stadium, and the word eventually came to be used for the structure in which the athletic contests took place. Historic stadia in- clude that of Laodicea, in Asia Minor; the Panathenaic stadium in Athens, which was erected in the fourth century B.C.; the stadium at Ephesus, accommo- dating more than 75,000 persons; and the stadium on the Palatine in Rome. Modern stadia, usually constructed of concrete and seat- ing from 6,000 to 100,000 persons, are a feature of many of the leading American universities, and some few municipal stadia have also been erected. Among the best known of the modern structures in America are the following. The Greek Theatre at the Uni- versity of California (q. v.), modelled after the famous theatre at Epidaurus. It was built in 1903, one of the first of such structures in the United States, and has a seating capacity of 7,000. It is not, however, in the strictest sense a stadium, being intended primarily for theatrical performances rather than ath- letic contests. The University of California has also a large Memorial Stadium seating 72,800 persons. The Harvard Stadium, con- structed in 1903, with a per- manent seating capacity of 23,000, capable of being in- creased temporarily to 49,000. The Syracuse Stadium, erected at Syracuse University in 1907, having a seating capacity of more than 20,000. The Tacoma Stadium, built in 1910 for the Tacoma, Wash., High School with a seating capacity of 30,000. The Yale Bowl at New Haven, a true amphitheatre in type, built in 1914-15, having a seat- ing capacity of more than 60,000. The San Diego Stadium, built by the city of San Diego, Cal., in 1914-15, with a seating ca- pacity of 28,000. The Palmer Stadium at Prince- ton, N. J., built in 1914, seating 41,000. The University of Michigan Stadium, built in 1914, seating 47,000. The Grant Park Municipal Stadium in Chicago, seating 100,000. There are many other fine stadia in the United .States ac- commodating from 5,000 to 70,000 persons, and larger and finer structures are constantly being built. Mention may be Vol. XI.— March '25 made of the Venable Stadium, Baltimore, Md. (seating 78,000); the Los Angeles (Cal.) Stadium (75,000); Ohio State Universitv Stadium (63,000); Ilhnois Uni- versity Stadium (60,000) ; Frank- lin Field Stadium, University of Pennsylvania (53,100). Stael-Holstein, Anne Louise Germaine, Baronne de, gen- erally known as Madame de Stael (1766-1817), a French writer, was born in Paris, the daughter of Jacques Necker (q. v.), minister of finance under Louis XVI. Her parents were the centre of a brilliant intellectual group of philosophers and wits, and in this literary environment she spent her girlhood. In 1786 she was married to Baron de Stael-Holstein, Swedish Ambas- sador to Paris. Soon after the outbreak of the Revolution she fled to Coppet, Switzerland, and there established herself on her father's estate near Lake Geneva. During an extended visit to Paris after the Revolution, she incurred the displeasure of Napoleon, and in 1803 was banished from that city and again retired to Coppet. Having separated from her first husband in 1788, she married, in 1811, a young officer named De Rocca, and with him travelled in Russia, Sweden, and England, returning to France after the fall of Napoleon and reopening her famous salons. Madame de Stael's writing, though not notable from the point of view of style, is distin- guished for its clearness of thought and for the writer's enthusiastic belief in human progress and democracy. Her principal works include Lettres sur J. J. Rousseau (1788); Del- phine, a novel (1802); Corinne, her greatest novel (1807); De VAllemagne (1810), an eloquent account of the life and literature of the German people, for which Napoleon exiled her from France after ordering the confiscation of the entire edition; Dix annees d'exil (1821); Considerations sur la revolution franQaise (1818). Her complete works appeared in 1820-1, in 17 volumes. Consult biographies by D'Haussonville, Stevens, Lady Blennerhasset, and Bella Duffy. Staff, a military term used in its most general sense to dis- tinguish the administrative and supply departments of an army from the line or the fighting units composed of men in the ranks. The business of the general staff in all countries is to study all matters which can serve the general in understanding the situation in which he is placed, and in forming his plans, and which may assist him in carrying out his operations, actually in war or prospectively in peace. The arrangement and planning of these operations in detail are also part of its duties, as are the gathering of statistics and record- ing of facts and circumstances. In European armies the 'great general staff' carries out this work on a large scale for the army as a whole; while the staff of each general attends to the special requirements of his com- mand in the same way, issuing the general's orders, and having charge of all documents; there is often added to these purely staff duties a large amount of execu- tive and administrative work, connected with discipline, inte- rior economy, drill, and instruc- tions. For the organization of the Staff in the United States Army, see Army of the United States. The personal staff of a general officer consists of one or more aides-de-camp (according to his rank), and in some cases of an assistant adjutant-general. These officers are usually chosen and recommended for appointment by the general concerned. Staffa, uninhabited island of the Inner Hebrides, Argyllshire, Scotland, 54 miles west of Oban. It is built up of basalt and has an area of 71 acres. Caves are numerous, Fingal's, or the Great Cave, being the most remarkable. Staff College, an army school for the training of staff officers. The U. S. Command and General Staff School is at Fort Leaven- worth, Kansas, and is governed by regulations issued by the War Department from time to time in the form of general orders. Its object is to provide instruction for selected officers (who have completed the advanced course in the special service schools of their branch or equivalent in- struction in actual service or in other schools) in the use of the combined arms of divisions and larger units and in the duties of commanders and general staff officers for divisions and army corps. The course covers about ten months, and after its com- pletion officers are eligible for selection to take the Army War College course. The Command and General Staff School provides, also, a short special course for officers of the National Guard and Or- ganized Reserves who have com- pleted the command and gen- eral staff correspondence course in corps area correspondence schools. See Military Educa- tion. Stafford, municipal and par- liamentary borough, England, county town of Staffordshire, on the Sow; 16 miles northwest of Lichfield. Features of interest are the parish church of St. Mary's, which contains a bust of Izaak Walton, who was born in Stafford in 1593; St. Chad's, a Norman church largely rebuilt by Scott; the William Salt Stafford 398 Stair Library, with a valuable collec- tion of books and Mss.; and the royal brine baths. The chief industry is the manufacture of boots and shoes. Pop. (1921) 28,632. Stafford, town, Connecticut, in Tolland county, on the Central Vermont Railroad; 23 miles northeast of Hartford. It in- cludes the borough of Stafford Springs, which contains a famous mineral spring. It is a popular summer resort and has manufac- tures of woollen goods. Iron mines, now exhausted, supplied material for cannon used in the Revolution. Pop. (1910) 5,233; (1920) 3,383. Stafford, William Howard, Viscount (1614-80), English Ro- man Catholic nobleman, fifth son of Thomas, Earl of Arundel and Surrey. He was accused (1680) of complicity in the Popish plot, on the evidence of Titus Oates (q. v.), and beheaded on Tower Hill. Staffordshire, inland county, England, surrounded by Derby- shire, Leicestershire, Warwick- shire. Worcestershire, Shropshire, and Cheshire; area 1,128 square miles. It is especially rich in de- posits of coal, with the famous 'Potteries' field in the north; the 'Black Country,' rich also in iron, in the south; and the Cannock Chase field in the central part, southeast of the town of Staf- ford. The county is drained chiefly by the Trent and its affluent the Dove. It is pre- eminently an industrial region, with manufactures of iron and steel goods, chemicals, boots and shoes, bricks, pottery, cotton goods, silks, and glass. Agricul- ture is unimportant. Pop. (1921) 711,003. Stag. See Red Deer. Stag Beetle, agenus (Lucanus) of beetles remarkable for the Stag Jieetle large size of the mandibles (in the male), which bear some re- semblance to the antlers of a stag. The adult male of the common European Stag Beetle sometimes reaches a length of over two inches, with mandibles about one inch long. It feeds on the juices of plants, whose bark Vol. XL— March '25 it pierces with its strong jaws, while the larva lives in wood, especially that of the oak. The larval state lasts about four years. There is great variation in the size and development of the males, dwarf forms being frequent. Stag-beetles are lamel- licorns, related to the Scara- bseidae, or sacred beetles. Stage. See Drama; Opera; Theatre. Stagecoach. See Coaching. Staggers. See Horse : Dwea^e^ of. Stag-horn Moss, the common club moss (Lycopodium clava- tum), so named from its branched stem. See Lycopodium. Staghound, a name applied both to the buckhound and to the Scottish deerhound. The deerhound is an immense shaggy dog, standing nearly 30 inches high in some cases, and has a peculiar swing in his action sug- gestive of great speed, with a keen, determined expression. In conformation the deerhound is similar to the greyhound, but with more bone and power; the head is long, with powerful jaws. The body is covered with wiry hair about 3 inches long. Stagirus, or Stagira, ancient Greek city, on the east side of Chalcidice peninsula, Macedonia. It was the bithplace of Aristotle, often called 'the Stagirite.' Stagnelius, Erik Johan (1793-1823), Swedish poet, was born on the island of Oland. He established his literary reputa- tion in 1817 by his epos, Vladimir den Store, which was crowned by the Swedish Academy. His chief works, however, are his semi- philosophical, semi-religious col- lection of poems entitled Liljor i Saron, and the dramas Visbur, Sigurd Ring, Glddjejlickan i Rom, Kdrleken efter Doden, and Mar- tyrerne. Stagnelius is one of the most powerful and pathetic of Scandinavian writers. His Sam- lede Skrifter were published in 1830-2 (new ed. 1866-8). S t a h 1 , Friedrich Julius (1802-61), German legal writer, was born in Munich and became a convert from Judaism to Prot- estantism. He studied law, and after teaching at Erlangen and Wurzburg (1832-40), became professor of the philosophy of law in Berlin University (1840). As a member of the Prussian upper house, he was an ardent conservative in church and state. Among his published works were: Die philosophie des Rechts (1830- 7); Der christliche Staat (1847); Der Protestantismus als polit- isches Prinzip (1853); Wider Bunsen (1856). Stahl, Georg Ernst (1660- 1734), German chemist, was born in Anspach. He was appointed professor of medicine and chem- istry at Halle in 1694, and physi- cian to the Prussian king in Berhn in 1716. Though his theory of 'phlogiston' was un- sound, it at all events was a rea- sonable attempt to explain com- bustion and classify it with the phenomena of calcination and reduction of metals, and at- tracted many adherents. His chief works are Experimenta et Observationes Chemicce (1731) and Theoria Medica Vera (1707). Stained Glass. See Glass. Stainer, Jacob (1621-83), Aus- trian violin-maker, was born in Absam, near Innsbruck. He was the founder of the Tyrolese school of vioHn-making, and as regards excellence of material and beauty of workmanship, his instruments rank with the best productions of Cremonese mak- ers. Unfortunately the model he used is too high, and the tone of his violins, though pure and penetrating, lacks roundness and volume. Stainer, Sir John (1840-1901) , English musical composer and organist, was born in London. From 1872-88 he was organist of St. Paul's. He was knighted in 1888, and became a professor of music at Oxford (1889). His works include two sacred can- tatas. The Daughter of Jairus (1878) and Mary Magdalen (1883); an oratorio. The Cruci- fixion (1887); and a popular Treatise on Harmony. Stains. See Inks and Stains. Stair, a Scots family, which took its titular designation from the village of that name in Ayr- shire, 'Dalrymples of Stair' afj^ pearing in history as early as the reign of James iv. The first mem- ber of the house to attain celeb- rity was James Dalrymple of Stair (1619-95) , who was created by Cromwell one of the lords of Session (1657), and rose to be president of the court (1670). When the Duke of York (after- wards James ii.) came to Scot- land, Dalrymple had to retire from the bench. He then com- piled his Institutes of the Law of Scotland. Being a staunch Covenanter, he was forced to flee to Holland (1682), but returned with William of Orange (1688), and was restored to his position as president of the Court of Ses- sion on the death of Lockhart of Carnwath. He was also created Viscount Stair and Lord Glenluce and Stranraer. — His eldest son, John Dalrymple (1648-1707), first Earl of Stair, after suffer- ing imprisonment for the Cove- nant, was suddenly taken into favor by James ii., appointed king's advocate (1685), and lord justice-clerk three years later. After the revolution he was ap- pointed lord advocate, created Earl of Stair (1703), and became a prominent advocate for the union of the kingdoms. — His son, John Dalrymple (1673-1747), second Earl of Stair, after dis- stalactites KFN 399 Stambul tinguishing himself as a soldier under Marlborough, was ap- pointed British minister pleni- potentiary in Paris (1715-20), where he did much to thwart the schemes of Cardinal Alberoni to succor the Jacobites. In the War of the Austrian Succession he had persistent ill-fortune, though he showed great personal cour- age. Sir David Dalrymple, Lord Hailes, was a collateral descend- ant of the first viscount. Stalactites and Stalagmites, long masses of lime or other mineral substances which occur in caves, forming pillars which rise from the floor to the roof, pendent spearlike masses, erect columns, draped curtains, mush- room-shaped projections, and oth- er varied configurations. When grouped together they often re- semble the vaulted aisles of a ca- thedral. They are all deposited by water which, dripping from apertures and cracks in the roof, is charged with calcium carbon- ate in solution. As it evaporates the mineral inatter is deposited partly on the roof before it falls, partly on the floor as it soaks away, and two columns grow, one downward (stalactite), one up- ward (stalagmite). The great caverns and grottos — such as Adelsberg (Carniola), the Mam- moth Cave, the Peak Cavern, Aggtelek in Hungary, the caves of central France, Jenolan (New South Wales), contain the finest examples. St. Albans, etc. See Saint Alban.s, etc. Stalin, Joseph (Iosif Vis- SARIONOVITCK Dz HUGAS HVILI ) (1879- ), Russian premier, supreme commander of all Soviet forces, and marshal of the Soviet Union, who became dictator of the U.S.S.R. on May 6, 1941 by virtue of his appointment as chairman of the Peoples' Commis- sars, at the same time succeeding Vyacheslaff Molotov as premier. He was born at Gori, Tiflis Prov- ince, Georgia, Dec. 21, 1879, the son of a peasant shoemaker named Vissarion Dzhugashvili ; he assumed the pseudonym of Stalin (Man of Steel) in 1905. He was educated at Tiflis Semi- nary, and from his student days was an active revolutionary, later helping to plan the abortive rev- olution of 1905. He met Lenin the same year and became his de- voted follower. He was arrested and imprisoned several times, and the last time was freed by the amnesty granted after the fall of the Romanov dynasty in March, 1917. He was given command of the Red Army soon after and gained several victories over the forces of reaction. Stalin's rise to power was ex- pedited by Lenin's withdrawal from politics in 1922, and on Lenin's death in 1924, he as- sumed the highest political posi- tion in the Soviet. He brought about Leon Trotsky's expulsion from the Communist Party and his subse'quent exile in 1928. He sponsored the First Five-Year Plan for industrialization and collectivism the same year, the Second Five-Year Plan in 1933, and the Third Five-Year Plan in 1937. Meantime he had become one of the 37 members of Pre- sidium of the All-Union Central Executive Committee of the U.S.S.R., his first government position, as distinguished from party posts. His prestige suf- fered considerably when, in 1939, he signed a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany and subse- quently launched the war against Finland. It was not until June, 1941, when Hitler attacked Rus- sia, that Stalin's policies began to receive some sympathetic un- derstanding on the part of the democratic nations. The ensu- ing conflict between Germany and Russia definitely placed the latter in the camp of those coun- tries struggling against the Nazi power. In December of 1941 Stalin launched his brilliant counter offensive which ultimate- ly raised the siege of Leningrad, removed the danger from Mos- cow, expelled the foe from the Ukraine and the Crimea, liber- ated all but a small portion of Russian territory, and invaded both Poland and Rumania. Sta- lin was acclaimed as the genius behind this series of heroic cam- paigns. In November, 1943, Marshal Stalin met President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill at Teheran, Iran, and there was planned the grand strategy which brought such no- table results in the Russian, French, and Italian campaigns of 1944. Consult Mikhail Kalinin. A Book About the Leader, and Boris Souvarine, Stalin (1939). Stalingrad. See Tsaritsin. Stalybridge, municipal bor- ough, England, in Cheshire, on the Tame, and on the Hudders- field and Manchester Canal ; 8 miles northeast of Stockport. Public buildings include the town hall, market hall, Astley Cheet- ham Free Library (1901), and mechanics' institute. Industries comprise cotton mills, iron foundries, machine and engineer- ing works. Pop. (1937) 25,000. Stambul. See Constanti- nople. Press Association, Inc. Joseph Stalin. Stambuloff KFN 400 Stamp Act Congress Stambuloff, Stepan Nikol- OFF (1855-95), Bulgarian states- man, was born in Tirnova. He studied for the priesthood but was forced to resign because of revolutionary sympathies. In 1879 he was elected to the Sobranye (national assembly) of which for two years (1884-6) he was president. On the abdica- tion of Prince Alexander (1886), Stambulofif became head of a council of regency, and was suc- cessful in obtaining the election of Prince Ferdinand to the throne (1887), with himself as prime minister. His tyranny brought about his dismissal (1894), and in the following year he was killed by assassins in Sofia. Stamens. See Flower. Stamford, municipal borough, England, in Lincolnshire, on the Welland River, 13 miles n.w. of Peterborough. Features of inter- est are St. Mary's Church, with a fine tower and spire (c. 1300) ; All Saints', containing 15th cen- tury brasses and monuments ; St. John's, St. George's, and St. Martin's, attractive old churches ; the fine gateway, formerly be- longing to Brazenose College ; ruins of a Benedictine priory church (11th century) ; and me- diaeval hospitals, called calises (from the Calais merchants with whom the town had trade), the oldest being Browne's Hospital (15th century). Industrial es- tablishments include coach fac- tories, agricultural implements, motor, and engineering works. Stamford was one of the 'five burghs' of the Danes. Brazenose College was founded in 1333. After the battle of St. Albans (1461), the town suffered ter- ribly at the hands of the Lan- castrians. Southwest of the town, in Northamptonshire, is Burghley (seat of Lord Exeter), with magnificent park and a rich collection of pictures. Pop. (1931) 9,947. Stamford, city, Connecticut, in Fairfield county, on Long Island Sound, and on the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad ; 35 miles n.e. of New York City. It is a favorite resi- dential place and summer resort of New York people, and has im- portant industries. Among the philanthropic and educational in- stitutions are the Stamford Hos- pital, the Children's Home, Day Nursery, Ferguson Library, and several private preparatory and business schools. The town hall was erected in 1906. Features of interest are Shippan Point and other places of resort along the shore. The leading manufac- tured products are locks, build- ers' hardware, engines, choco- late, stoves, embroideries, boats, wall paper, rubber supplies, arti- ficial leather, and chemicals. The first settlement here was made in 1641, and the town was incorporated in 1662. The city charter was granted in 1895. Pop. (1930) 46,346; (1940) 47,- 938. Stamford, village. New York, in Delaware county, on the Ul- ster and Delaware Railroad; 75 miles N.w. of Kingston. It is sit- uated in the Catskill region and is a popular summer resort. Mt. Utsayantha (3,213 feet) is near the village. Pop. (1940) 1,088. Stammering, or Stuttering, a spasmodic disorder of speech, in which the production of cer- tain sounds is arrested. A stam- merer's chief difficulty lies in harmonizing the mechanism for vowel sounds and consonantal sounds. In his effort to shape the mouth aright for consonant production he has difficulty in using his respiratory and laryn- geal apparatus for the production of voice. But even bad stam- merers do not stammer when they sing, because in singing the thoughts are concentrated upon the production of voice. A sec- ond phenomenon associated with stammering is the occurrence of spasmodic muscular convulsions. The tongue may be protruded, the eyes wink, or more complex facial contortions display the stammerer's anxiety and effort. While forgetting his respiratory muscles and larynx, the stam- merer sends message after mes- sage to the nerve centers which control the muscles of the mouth and tongue employed in speech. From the nerve centers sur- charged by successive messages the energy overflows to neighbor- ing centers, so that other facial muscles contract, and frequent repetition of these movements leads to the establishment of a habit spasm. In the treatment of the condition the stammerer must be carefully taught the mechanism and physiology of speech. He must also acquire the habit of filling his lungs with air before he attempts to speak, and by slow and careful practice must accustom himself to syn- chronize the laryngeal with the oral movements. Reading aloud for a definite period each day is beneficial. Consult Wyllie, The Disorders of Speech. Stamp Act, an act passed in 1765 by the British Parliament taxing the American colonies. When in 1763 George Grenville became prime minister, he re- solved upon a more vigorous colonial policy, involving the three following points : the more vigorous enforcement of the Acts of Trade, the establishment in the colonies of a permanent Brit- ish force, both for protection against foreign enemies and for strengthening the power of the royal governors, and the raising by parliamentary taxation within the colonies of at least a part of the money necessary for the sup- port of these forces. In March, 1764, therefore, he brought for- ward and secured the passage in the House of Commons of a res- olution to the effect that 'for fur- ther defraying the expenses of protecting the colonies it may be proper to charge certain stamp duties in the said colonies.' Fur- ther measures were then post- poned for a year in the hope that the colonists would themselves propose some way of furnishing the necessary money, but, as this was not done, the government in February, 1765, carried through a bill making it necessary that stamped paper be used for all colonial bills, bonds, leases, in- surance, and legal documents of all kinds, and that stamps be af- fixed to playing cards, newspa- pers, pamphlets, and various oth- er articles. Stamps and stamped paper were to be sold by public officers. The bill passed without attracting much attention in Eng- land, but the colonists claimed that Parliament had no right to tax them without their consent, and opposed the act so vigorously (see Stamp Act Congress) that the government found that it could not be enforced and in 1766, after the fall of Grenville, the measure was repealed, but at the same time Parliament in the Declaratory Act set forth its legal right to tax the colonies. Stamp Act Congress, a body of delegates from the American colonies, except North Carolina, Georgia, Virginia, and New Hampshire, which met in New York City on October 7, 1765, to protest against the Stamp Act (q. v.). The Con- gress continued in session until the 25th, and in a Declaration of Rights and Grievances set forth the case of the colonies. This paper acknowledged that the colonies owed allegiance to the Crown, and 'all due subordina- tion to that august body, the Par- liament of Great Britain' ; but maintained that Americans were entitled to all the inherent rights and liberties of natural born subjects ; 'that it is insep- arably essential to the freedom of a people, and the undoubted right of Englishmen, that no taxes be arbitrarily imposed on them' ; that the colonists 'are not, and from their local circum- stances cannot be, represented in the House of Commons of Great Britain' ; that the only repre- sentatives of the colonies con- stitutionally competent to tax them, were the members of the colonial assemblies ; and 'that all supplies of the Crown being free stamps KFN 401 Standards gifts of the people, it is incon- sistent with the spirit of the Brit- ish Constitution to grant to his majesty the property of the colo- nies.' A petition to the king and memorials to both houses of Par- liament were drawn up embody- ing these views. The memorial sent to the House of Commons was objected to as proceeding from an unconstitutional gather- ing and as being a denial of the right of parliamentary taxation, and no further attention was paid to it. The memorial to the Lords and the petition to the king met with an equally unfavorable re- ception. The work of the Con- gress was, however, approved by many of the colonial assemblies, and unquestionably did much to- ward strengthening opposition to the enforcement of the act. Stamps. See Post Office, Mining, and Engineering. Stamp Taxes. Stamp taxes appear to have been first devised by the Dutch in 1624. They were introduced into England in 1694. In 1765 they came into promi- nence when Grenville's Stamp Act aroused the violent opposi- tion of the American colonies. In the United States stamp taxes became an important part of the fiscal machinery in 1814; and with the development of the in- ternal revenue system during the Civil War, stamp taxes were im- posed upon a wide range of ob- jects. Another important devel- opment of such taxes took place during the Spanish War. Stamp taxes were imposed upon a great variety of commercial transac- tions involving the use of docu- ments, such as the sale of cor- poration securities ; upon bank checks, bills of exchange, drafts, etc. ; upon express and freight receipts, telephone and telegraph messages, insurance policies, and a great variety of other business operations. Stamps were also used in taxing wines, proprietary medicines, oleomargarine, chew- ing gum. Most of these duties have since been repealed. At present the most important stamp tax is that upon cigars and other forms of manufactured tobacco. Stamp taxes upon various com- mercial documents, as bills of ex- change, drafts, bank checks, are employed by some of the leading nations. They are also gener- ally levied upon legal papers relating to commercial transac- tions, as deeds, etc. In such cases a great advantage of this form of impost is the ease of collection, since legal provisions invalidat- ing documents not stamped, or in any degree impairing their va- lidity, are a simple means of checking evasion. Stamp taxes upon ordinary articles of com- merce, like cigars or tobacco, give greater occasion for eva- sion ; they have nevertheless proven very efficacious in Ameri- can finance. A serious objection to stamp taxes is their tendency unduly to burden small transactions, al- though such taxes are generally graded, large bills of exchange, for example, requiring more stamps than small, there are very few stamp taxes that are graded in such a way as to impose pro- portional burdens upon the large transaction. Furthermore, heavy stamp taxes tend to check com- mercial activity. Stanberry, city, Missouri, Gentry county, on the Wabash Railroad; 35 miles n.n.e. of St. Joseph. It is the trade center of an extensive farming district. The place was settled and incor- porated in 1879. Pop. (1930) 2,029; (1940) 1,893. Standard Oil. See Trusts. Standards, Royal, are heral- dic banners rather than stand- ards, the essentials of a true standard (in England) being that it shall have the red cross of St. George next to the staff, with the rest of the flag bearing the ap- propriate device of the bearer ; that it shall be split at the end, and rounded off ; and that it shall contain the cognizance of the owner. The three lions were not established as the royal arms un- til they appeared on the great British Royal Standard {English Quartering). seal o£ Richard Cceur de Lion in 1195. In the modern arms the rampant lion within a tressure or border represents the arms of the kings of Scotland, and is found on the great seal of Alexander ii about 1230. The harp in the third quartering, for Ireland, first appeared in the royal arms in 1603. Its adoption was by virtue of conquest, and not of the political union of Jan. 1, 1801. Edward iii in 1340 quartered the golden fleurs-de-lis of France. When George i came to the throne, the arms of Hanover were added ; but were removed when Victoria succeeded Wil- liam IV. The imperial standard of Ger- many consisted of the black iron cross with white border on a field of gold. In the center was a shield bearing the arms of Prussia, sur- mounted by a crown and sur- rounded by the collar of the order of the Black Eagle. The Czar's imperial standard was yellow, bearing the black two-headed ea- gle displayed. Its distinctive fea- tures were, that both heads were crowned ; that on the breast was a red shield with a figure of St. George and the dragon in white, surrounded by a golden collar of St. Andrew's order ; that in the dexter talon was a scepter, in the sinister a regal sphere ; and that on the wings of the eagle were four shields representing incorporated territory. The royal standard of Spain bore in the first quarter the golden tower on red for Cas- tile, and the red lion on white for Leon, arranged quarterly ; sec- ond quarter, (a) the nine vertical yellow and red bars of Aragon, and (b) the device of Sicily, the same vertical bars surmounted by two demi-lozenges inverted, ar- gent, a spread eagle sable, these two portions being arranged side by side; third quarter, (a) the red and white horizontal stripes of Austria, above (b) the yellow and blue diagonal bars, sur- mounted by a red border for Bur- gundy, and (c) the black lion on golden ground of Flanders ; fourth quarter, (a) the fleurs-de- lis and red and white checkers of Burgundy, (b) the golden lion rampant on black for Brabant, and (c) the red spread eagle on white for Antwerp. The whole was charged with two escutcheons vertically placed — (1) the arms of Portugal, (2) three golden fleurs-de-lis on blue within a red border for France. Standards, National Bu- reau OF, a bureau of the United States Department of Commerce which functions as one of the principal research and testing laboratories of the Government, a large part of its work being conducted at the request of or in cooperation with government agencies. Its main plant is in Washington ; small branch lab- oratories for testing cement and miscellaneous materials are maintained at Allentown, Pa. ; Denver, Col. ; San Francisco, Permanente, and Riverside, Calif. ; and Seattle, Wash. The Bureau's services may be noted under the following heads : Main- tenance of Working Standards ; Electrical Measurements and Services ; Standards of Weights and Measures; Temperature Standards, and Motor and Build- ing Material Tests ; Develop- ment of Radiation Standards : Chemical Tests ; Testing of In- struments, Appliances, and Struc- tures ; Standards for Organic Materials ; Metallurgical Serv- ices ; Tests of China, Porcelain, and Building Materials ; Scien- standard Time KFN 402 8tang tific Instruments and Gages ; Standardization of Manufac- tured Products ; and Commer- cial Standards. The Bureau was organized in 1901. It pub- lishes a Bulletin. Standard Time. See Time. Standing Orders (ParHamen- tary), the permanent resolutions which the House of Lords and the House of Commons have agreed to for the regulation, guidance, and order of their pro- ceedings. Each house has its own standing orders, and those of one house have no force in or application to the other house. In the United States such orders are commonly known as rules. The purpose of the rules is to per- mit the majority to determine what measures shall be debated and voted upon; to free legislative procedure from factional obstruc- tion, and to preserve order. The rules of the Senate are a cumbrous bodv which only long experience enables a member to master; hence they play a potent part in limiting the mfluence upon legisla- tion of new members. _ In the House the rules expire with each Congress; they are generally re- adopted in a body by the follow- ing House. They are, howeyer, subject to frequent and radical change. Standing Stones. See Cir- cles OF Stone. Standi sh, Miles (or Myles) (c. 1584 - 1650), American colo- nist, born probably at Duxbury in Lancashire, England. After serving in che Netherlands in the English army he joined the Separatists at Leyden and with them came to Plymouth in 1620. For the first five years of the colony's existence he was its principal military leader, and rendered excellent service in keeping the Indians quiet and in f)rotecting the infant settlement rom its disorderly neighbors. He returned to England in 1625 and in 1626 came back and founded Duxbury, where he spent the remainder of his life. He is the subject of Longfellow's poem, 'The Courtship of Miles Standish.' See Bradford's Plym- outh Plantation (1898). Stand Pipe, a tall pipe open to the water main at the foot and to the air at the top, and used at pumping stations for equalizing or taking up the successive im- pulses of the pump which is sup- plying water to the mains, in order that a continuous stream may be delivered. Air vessels are used as cushions for the same urpose. See Pumps and Water UPPLY. Stanfleld, Clarkson (1793- 1867), English marine painter, born at Sunderland. ^ Disabled by an accident while in the navy, he became a scene-painter, first in Edinburgh and then in Lon- don. He exhibited A Calm at the Royal Academy (1827), and in 1831 received a commission from William iv. for The Ceremony of Opening New London Bridge and Portsmouth Harbor. In the following year he was elected A.R.A., and A.R. in 1835. His work is remarkable for his great technical knowledge of shipping and the sea, and for the origi- nality and realism of his treat- ment. In the National Gallery and South Kensington Museum are pictures by him. Stanford, Sir Charles Vil- liers (1852-1924), Irish com- poser and conductor, born in iDublin. In 1872 he became or- ganist of Trinity College; was appointed professor of composi- tion and orchestral playing in the Royal College (1882) and profes- sor of music at Cambridge (1887). He stands in the front rank of British composers, and his pro- ductions comprise operas, choral- orchestral works in various forms, symphonies, orchestral suites, chamber music, compositions for piano and for violin, and numer- ous songs. His cantata Eleg^'ac Ode (1884) is a setting of Walt Whitman's Burial Hymn. Stanford, Jane Lathrop (1825- 1905), American philan- thropist, born at Albany, N. Y., a daughter of Dyer Lathrop, who was sheriff of Albany county. She was married in 1850 to Leland Stanford (q.v.), subse- quently governor of California and tJ. S. senator. After the death of their only son, Leland, in 1884, and the establishment in his memory by Senator Stanford of the Leland Stanford Junior Uni- versity (q.v.) at Palo Alto, Cal., Mrs. Stanford actively interested herself in the development of the institution, _ presenting to it a museum building. After her hus- band's death, in 1893, she devoted her entire time and thought to the university, of which by the terms of the original grant she and her husband were during their lives in effect the board of trustees. Her devotion and force of char- acter were shown on many occa- sions in the early history of the university, as when she insisted that the university should remain open although the government suit for $15,000,000 against the estate, and the difficulties attend- ing the payment of legacies aggre- gating $7,000,000 under her hus- band's -will, made it seem to her advisers impossible to do so. Her interest in the university lay chiefly in the completing of the buildings as her husband had planned them. The development of the educational side of the insti- tution she left entirely to the presi- dent and faculty, and to the board of trustees after her retirement from active control, which occurred in 1903, when the last of the impor- tant buildings of the university was under way. She had the sat- isfaction of seeing the full endow- ment of the university of more than $30,000,000 secured to it safe from possible contest and the origi- nal plan of its buildings practi- cally complete. Prior to the establishment of the university she devoted herself to the mainte- nance of a system of kindergarten schools for San Francisco. In later years the university absorbed her interests, but her benefactions included a children's home at Albany, N. Y., and many chari- table and religious organizations in California and elsewhere re- ceived substantial remembrances in her will. Notable among her bequests was the gift of her private jewels, estimated at nearly a million dollars in value, which she directed the trustees of the university to sell, devoting the proceeds to the establishment of a fund, to be known as the 'Jewel Fund,' for the endowment of the University Library. Her death occurred on Februarj^ 28, 1905, in Honolulu, the Hawaiian Islands, under circumstances which lent some color to the theory that some one had put poison in a bottle of medicine she had used; but au- thoritative analyses and exam- inations assured her friends that her death was due to natural causes. Stanford, Leland (1824-93), American capitaHst and states- man, born at Watervliet, N. Y. He began to practise law at Port Washington, Wis., in 1849, re- moved to California in 1852, and there, after some experience in mining, entered the mercantile business in Sacramento. He was one of the prime movers in the building of the Central Pacific Railroad in 1861 and became its first president. He was also one of the four builders and owners of the Southern Pacific Railroad, and amassed a fortune of many rn.il- lions. He was governor of Cali- fornia during 1861-63, and was a member of the U. S. Senate from 1885 until his death in 1893. He founded the Leland Stanford Junior University, in memory of his son. After providing liber- ally for relatives, he left the resi- due of his large estate to his wife. Jane Lathrop Stanford (q.v.), to be turned over oy her to the univer- sity. Stanford University. See Le- land Stanford Junior Uni- versity. Stang, Frederik (1808-84), Norwegian statesman; chief of the department of the interior (1845-56). During the illness of the king in 1857 he was one of the members of the interim govern- ment. In 1861 he formed a new stanhope ministry, which he reconstructed in 1873, but resigned in 1880. His work, Om den Kongelige Sanktionsret efter Norges Grimd- lov (1883), is an important contri- bution to the constitutional ques- tion in Norway. Stanhope, Charles, third Earl Stanhope ( 1 7 53- 1 8 1 6), E ng- lish politician and scientist, was born in London. He was created F.r.S. in 1772, having published a memoir on the pendulum, and a volume dealing with the coinage. He made numerous experiments regarding the application of steam to ships; made great im- provements in the art of printing, inventing a printing press, which, like his microscopic lens, is known by his name; and con- structed calculating machines. With the assistance of Robert Fulton, the American engineer, he projected a canal from his estate in Devonshire to the British Channel. Stanhope was a mem- ber of the Philadelphia Philosoph- ical Society. In politics he first allied himself with the younger Pitt, but disapproved of the war with the American colonies, and heartily approved of the French Revolution. He was a steady advocate of the cause of the slave, was earnest for education, fiscal reform, electoral reform, and spoke and wrote on the monetary questions of his day. See Fletch- er's The Late Earl Stanhope's Opinions (1819). Stanhope, Lady Hester Lucy (1776-1839), the eccentric daugh- ter of the third Earl Stanhope. She kept house for her uncle, the younger Pitt (1803-6), and many stories are told of her brilliant manner and wit. She wielded an enormous political influence. After Pitt's death she set out for the East (1810), and settling among the Druses of Mount Lebanon, constructed a kind of mediaeval castle and maintained a sort of mediaeval state. She died as she had lived — proud, isolated, and eccentric. See Meryon's Travels of Lady Hester Stanhope (1846) and Me- moirs of Lady Hester Stanhope (1854); also Kihglake's Edthen (ed. 1896). Stanhope, James, first Earl Stanhope (1673 - 1721), British statesman and general, was born in Paris. After service in Italy and Flanders and in the Peninsula he was despatched with Peter- borough's expedition to Spain (1705), his main achievement being the capture of Port Mahon in the Balearic Isles. In 1710 he was captured by the French, but returned to England in 1712. He took an active part in the sup- pression of the Jacobite rebellion of 1715, and in passing the Sep- tennial Act; but his strongest in- clination was for foreign affairs. 403 The Peerage Bill, which he pro- moted, was a failure, owing to Walpole's opposition; but the collapse of the South Sea Bubble, which occurred in 1720 while he was first minister, raised such an outcry against the ministry that his health gave way under the strain. Stanhope, Philip Henry, FIFTH Earl Stanhope (1805-75), English historian, was born at Walmer. He sat in the House of Commons from 1830 till 1852, a,nd was under-secretary for foreign affairs (1834-5) and secretary of the India Board (1845); but he shared Peel's conversion to, and loss of office on account of, free trade. His chief parliamentary monuments are the Copyright Act (1842), the National Portrait Gallery (1856), and the Historical Manuscripts Commission (1869). It is mainly as a historian that he is noted. He had access to private documents inaccessible to other writers, and his History of the War of Succession in Spain (1832) is on that account specially val- uable. He published also The History of England from the Peace of Utrecht to the Peace of Versailles (1836-53), and a connecting link, entitled The History of England, compris- ing the Reign of Queen Anne to the Peace of Utrecht (1870). His most important work out- side this series was The Life of the Right Hon. William Pitt (1861-2). Stanislau, cap. of dist. of same name, Galicia, Austria, on Bistritza, 58 m. s.v^^. of Tarnopol; has railway workshops, tanneries, flour mills, dye works, and tile works. Pop. (1900) 29,628. Stanislaus. See Poland. Stanley, city, Chippewa co., Wis., 30 m. e.n.e. of Eau Claire, on the Wis. Cent. R. R. It is a manufacturing centre, producing lumber, boxes, brick, etc. It was setded in 1890. Pop. (1910) 2,675. Stanley. See Derby, Earl of. Stanley, Arthur Penrhyn (1815-81). English scholar and divine. A pupil of Dr. Arnold at Rugby, he became a fellow of Uni- versity College, Oxford, in 1838, and in 1839 was ordained. Stanley was neither a High Churchman nor an Evangelical, and was therefore suspected by both par- ties; and it was only the appoint- ment of Dr. Arnold to the chair of modern history in 1841 that reconciled him to stay at the uni- versity. The sudden death of Arnold in 1842 led Stanley to write his greatest and only per- manent book, The Life and Corre- spondence of Dr. Arnold (1844). He continued to live at Oxford, and in his Sermons on the Apos- tolical Age fl847) he became marked as tne Broad Church Stanley leader. After his Commentary on Corinthians (1855) he con- fined himself to historical and descriptive work. Many of his best books arose out of his vaca- tion journeys — Sinai and Pales- tine (1856) and Lectures on the Eastern Church (1861). He be- came canon of Canterbury in 1851 {Memorials of Canterbury, 1854), and in 1856 returned to Dean Stanley. (Pnoto by London Stereoscopic Co.) Oxford to the chair of ecclesi- astical history and a canonry at Christ Church. In 1864, after a journey to the East in the train of the young Prince of Wales, he was appointed to the deanery of Westminster, where he was able to put in practice his convictions regarding the com- prehensive and Broad Church character of the Church of Eng- land. He invited ministers of all Christian churches to his pulpit. He visited the U. S. in 1878, travelled extensively, and delivered many sermons and addresses which were later pub- lished as Addresses and Sermons delivered in the United States and Canada. See Prothero's Life (1893), and Bradley's Recollec- tions (1883), Stanley, Davip Sloane (1828- 1902), American soldier, born in Cedar Valley, O. He graduated at West Point in 1852, fought at Wilson's Creek and in other battles in Mo. during the first year of the Civil War; and was commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers in September, 1861. He participated in the operations against Island No. 10 and Cor- inth; served at Stone River and in the Atlanta campaign; and was severely wounded in the battle of Franklin. After the Civil War he served in various Indian campaijorns; was com' Stanley missioned brigadier - general of regulars in 1884; and retired from the service in 1892. Stanley, Sir Henry Mor- ton (1841-1904), Anglo-American African explorer, whose original name was John Rowlands, was born at Denbigh in Wales, At seventeen he sailed to New Or- leans, and found employment with Mr. H. M. Stanley. Having as- sumed the name of his bene- 404 yika, and returned to the coast at Bagamoyo, bringing with him the traveller's journals and pa- pers. On his return from the Ashanti expedition of 1873-4 he was provided by the proprietors of the Daily Telegraph and New York Herald with funds for a journey across Central Africa, which he began from Bagamoyo on Nov. 17, 1874. On this occa- sion he circumnavigated the factor, Stanley served in the Con- federate army until captured at Shiloh. In 1863 he entered the Federal navy, serving throughout the war and until 1867, when he entered on a journalistic career. His first important journey was to Magdala with the British army as war correspondent for the New York Herald. In 1869 Stanley was commissioned to find Living- stone, and met him on Nov. 10, 1871, at Ujiji, on Lake Tangan- Sir Henry M. Stanley. (Photo by Russell & Sons.) Victoria Nyanza and Lake Tan- ganyika, partly surveyed the Al- bert Nyanza, and traced the Congo from Nyangwe, the lowest point on the Lualaba reached by Cameron and Livingstone, to the highest point reached from the ocean by Tuckey in 1816, proceed- ing thence to Banana. He re- turned to the Congo at the in- stance of the king of the Belgians, and remained there from August, 1879, till June, 1884. Stanley's last Stannaries visit to Africa (1887) was as leader of the Emin Pasha relief expedi- tion, when he discovered Ruwen- zori and the Albert Edward Ny- anza. The following year, on June 12, he married Miss Do- rothy Tennant, and in 1899 he received the Grand Cross of St. Michael and St. George. From 1895 to 1900 he sat in Parliament as member for North Lambeth. His chief works are : How I Found Livingstone (1872), Coomassi and Magdala (1874), Through the Dark Continent (1878), The Congo and the Founding of its Free State (1885) , In Darkest Africa (1890), and My Early Travels and Adven- tures (1895). Stanley, Thomas (1625-78), English poet and classical scholar, was born at Cumberlow, Hert- fordshire. He studied law at the Middle Temple, but preferred to devote himself to letters. In addi- tion to two volumes of Poems (1647 and 1651), including a trans- lation of Anacreon (ed. A. H. Bullen, 1893), he produced a History of Philosophy (1655-62) and an ed. of yEschylus (1663). His Collected Poems were ed. by S. E. Brydgesin 1814-5. Stanley Pool, expansion (25 m. by 16 m.) of Lower Congo, Africa, above the rapids 4° s. Stanmore, Arthur Hamil- ton Gordon, Baron (1829), Brit- ish colonial governor, youngest son of the fourth Earl of Aber- - deen, whose biographer he be- <^ came in the Prime Ministers of Queen Victoria Series (1893). ' He was secretary to Gladstone's Corfu mission (1858-9), governor of New Brunswick (1861-6), of Trinidad (1866-70), Mauritius (1871-4), Fiji (1875-80), New Zealand (1880-2), and Ceylon (1883-90). During 1877-83 he was high commissioner for the Western Pacific. He sat in the House of Commons as member for Beverley (1854-7), and was raised to the peerage in 1893. He is author of Wilderness Jour- neys in New Brunswick (1864), and Story of a Little War (1879). Stannard, Mrs. Arthur (1856), English novelist, writing _ under the name of 'John Strange ^Winter,' was born in York; wrote ^ her first story in 1874, and since rq that date has produced a large number of novels, dealing chiefly with army life and character. Her works, which were the favor- ite fiction of Ruskin, include Booties^ Baby (1885), Army Society (1886) , Beautiful Jim (1888), Grip (1896), The Man I Loved (1901), Uncle Charles (1902), Love and Twenty (1905), and many other books. Stannaries, those districts in Cornwall and Devon, England, where special customs as to tin- mining, and special courts in which tin miners may sue and be Stannic Acid 405 Stanton sued, have existed from time immemorial. The jurisdiction formerly exercised by stannary courts has been transferred to the county court, from which an appeal lies to the Court of Appeal. (Companies which work mines on what is known as the cost- book system, although not ab- solutely confined to the stan- naries, were first known and chiefly exist there. A license to search for minerals is obtained by one or two persons, and then the persons who intend to become adventurers meet and decide as to the regulations under which the company is to work, the number of the shares, the allot- ment of the shares among them, and the liability to contribute to the working expenses. These particulars, together with the . names and addresses of the ad- venturers, are entered in the cost book, or the book kept for the purpose of entering the working expenses. Stannic Acid. See Tin. Stanton, Edwin McMasters (1814-69), American statesman and secretary of war, born at Steu- benville, p., Dec. 19, 1814. After an experience as clerk in a book Store ne entered Kenyon College in 1831, but did not complete the course, leaving college in 1833 to study law. He was admitted to the bar in 1836, and practised for three years in Cadiz, O., serving in 1837-39 as prosecuting attorney of Harrison county. He returned to Steubenville in 1839 and in 1848 removed to Pittsburg. While he was practising in Steubenville he was for three years (1842-45) reporter of the Ohio Supreme Court, and after his removal to Pittsburg he soon gained a leading position at the bar of that city and a national reputation as a sucess- ful advocate. His increasing prac- tice before the United States Su- preme Court led to his making his norne at Washington in 1856, and during the next five years he was retained in many of the most im- Eortant causes before that court, [e was in California in 1857-58 in relation to important land cases, having been retained by the gov- ernment. Among the other im- portant cases in which he acted as counsel during this period was the McCormick Reaper case. Stanton had always been a Democrat, although he supported the Free-Soil candidacy of Van Bijren in 1848, and after the se- cession of South Carolina and the resignations of Cobb and Cass from Buchanan's cabinet (the first caused by the expressed in- tention of the President not to give up the Southern forts and the latter bv his decision not to rein- force them) he was appointed attorney-general in place of Jere- miah S. Black, who nad succeeded Vol. XL— 27. Cass as secretary of state. He served with credit until the close of the administration. Black, John A. Dix, and Stanton, three old-time Democrats of the Jack- sonian school, did much to stiffen Buchanan's backbone and make him less vielding to Southern de- mands during the trying time between the secession of S. C. and the inauguration of Lincoln. He became a bitter critic of Lincoln's administration, but in spite of that fact the latter nominated him for Secretary of War, to succeed Simon Cameron, Jan. 13, 1862, and the nomination was con- firmed the same day. Stanton found the department in a disor- ganized condition and honey- combed with corruption, but his immense energy and capacity for hard work, coupled with an un- swerving integrity, soon brought it to a high state of efiiciency. From the time when McClellan was relieved of the command of all the armies, March 11, 1862, to Tune 11, 1862, when Halleck was brought from the West to become general-in-chief, Stanton practi- cally acted in that capacity, and during the entire war took an active part in overseeing the cam- ?aigns of the Federal generals, n this, however, he was not as successful as in the more purely administrative part of his duties. His ignorance of the art of war and his inability to understand the problems with which the com- manders in the field had to con- tend, made his interference with the movements of the armies always inadvisable and often disastrous. For this, however, Lincoln must share the blame. Stanton, too, was harsh and des- f)Otic in his manner, was often un- air in his treatment of others, and sometimes was not over- scrupulous in the measures he took in order to rid the adminis- tration of the services of any offi- cer who had incurred its displeas- ure or lost its confidence. On the other hand, the integrity and ability which he showed in pro- tecting the Treasury against the rascalitj' of contractors, the energy which he infused into every branch of the service, and the lofty courage which he displayed in the face of every disaster and in times of deep despondency, were of invaluable service to the nation and to the administration, and place him among the great war ministers of all time. It is prob- able that Stanton was a prospec- tive victim with Gen. Grant in the plot which resulted in the assassi- nation of Lincoln and in the wounding of Seward, but, if so, the conspirators made no actual effort to carry out their intentions, and after offering his resignation to President Johnson, who de- clined to accept it, he continued in office as Secretary of War in the latter's cabinet. Wheh the break came between President Johnson and Congress over the policy to be pursued in the Southern states, Stanton favored the position taken by Congress, and on Au^. 5, 1867, Johnson asked for his resigna- tion. He refused to resign. By the Tenure of Office Act, Eassed in the preceding March, it ad been provided, as a curb to the President, that the consent of the Senate was necessary for the removal of any officer whose ap- pointrnent was subject to con- firmation, but gave the executive power to suspend such an officer during the recess of Congress, and if in any case the Senate at its next session did not approve the removal the officer was to be reinstated. Accordingly, on Aug. 12, 1867, Johnson suspended Stanton. At its next session the Senate refused to concur, Jan. 13, 1868, and Stanton was thus restored to office. Johnson re- fused to recognize him, and on Feb. 21 removed him in con- travention of the terms of the act. By the advice of the Republican leaders in Congress, Stanton re- fused to get out. This attempted removal of Stanton was the direct cause of Johnson's impeachment, which was voted in the House on February 24, and the main charge upon which he was tried. After Johnson's acquittal Stanton re- signed, resumed the practice of law, and on December 20, 1869, was nominated by President Grant an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court. His nomination was confirmed by the Senate, but he died at Wash- ington December 24, 1869. See Gorham's Lije (2 vols. 1899). Stanton, Elizabeth Cady (1815-1902), American reformer, was born in Johnstown, N. Y.. and was the daughter of Daniel Cady, afterward a judge of the N. Y. Supreme Court. She was educated at the Emma Willard Seminary, Troy, N. Y., and in 1840 was married to Henry B. Stanton (q.v.), the anti-slavery orator and journalist. She re- moved to Seneca Falls, N. Y., in 1846, and there issued the call for and organized the first woman's rights convention held in the U. S., at which she secured the passage of resolutions demanding woman suffrage. She had previ- ously (1840) advocated laws giv- ing married women special prop- erty rights, and in 1848 her advo- cacy resulted in the passing of a bill by the N. Y. legislature. From 1865 to 1893 she was president of the National Woman Suffrage Association, and afterward hon- orary president. Mrs. Stanton addressed the N. Y. legislature on reform topics in 1854 and 1860, Stanton 406 Staraya-Bussa and after 1869, for twenty-five years, annually addressed congres- sional committees on the rights of women, and she forwarded v/oman suffrage movements in many parts of the country. In 1868, Elizabeth Cady Stanton. He married Elizabeth Cady (q.v.) in 1840, and the same year visited London as delegate to an anti- slavery congress in that city. He subsequently studied law with his father-in-law, Daniel Cady, and settled at Seneca Falls, N. Y., in 1846. Mr. Stanton served in the N. Y. state senate. Originally a Democrat, he ioined the Free Soil party, and took part in the founding of the Republican garty. He wrote frequently for rarrison's Abolitionist papers, and was a constant supporter of the cause with word and pen. From 1868 until his death he was a member of the editorial staff of the Sun, to which he contributed ^ principally political and bio- ^ graphical material. He published ^1 Sketches of Reforms and Reformers wi in Great Britain and Ireland (1849) ^and Random Recollections (1886). J Stantony Oscar Fitzalan Hs(1834), American naval officer, ^ ^ born at Sag Harbor, N. Y. He 'V graduated at Annapolis in 1855 A and served in the Civil War both on the Atlantic coast and in the ulf of Mexico. He became with Susan B. Anthony and Vieutenant commander in 1862, Parker Pillsbury, she established ' Jcommander in 1867, captain m The Revolution, which was issuedV V 1879, commodore in 1891, and > • - was retired m 1894 with the rank for several years, and in the same year she was a candidate for Con- gress. She was a joint-author of A History of Woman Suffrage (3 vols. 1881-8), and her auto- biography, Eighty Years and More, appeared in 1895. Stanton, Frank Lebby (1857), American poet and journalist, was born in Charleston, S. C. He began work as a printer on the Savannah Morning News, and in 1887 published the Smithville, Ga., News for a year. In 1889 he joined the staff of the Atlanta Constitution, of which he became an editor in 1890, and to which, as well as to the magazines, he contributed pastoral lyrics which met with critical and popular approval. His books include: Songs of a Day (1892), Songs of the Soil (1894), Comes one with a Song (1898), Songs from Dixie Land (1900), Up from Georgia (1902), and Little Folks Down South (1904). Stanton, Henry Brewster (1805 - 87), American reformer and journalist, was born at Griswold, Conn., and began work as a newspaper man on the Monroe Telegraph at Rochester, N. Y., in 1826. He soon entered political life, and gained reputa- tion as a speaker. He studied for a time at Lane Theological Seminary, left this institution to take up anti-slavery work, and was mobbed at the anniversary of the Anti-slavery Society in New York in 1834. Mr. Stanton was one of those who endeavored, in the late '30s, to organize the Abolitionists as a separate party. of rear-admiral. Stanton Drew, par., Somer- set, England, 7 m. S. of Bristol, with a group of stone circles. The great circle has a diameter of 368 ft. (Dymond). Stanwix, Fort. A fortress built by General Stanwix in 1758 on the present site of Rome, New York. On August 3, 1777, the fort, which had been renamed Fort Schuyler, was besieged by a motley force of British, In- dians, and Tories under General St. Leger. General Nicholas Herkimer, commander of the militia of Tryon county, hurried to the relief of the fort, but after a desperate battle, in which he was mortally wounded, his forces were compelled to retreat. Meanwhile, however, the garrison under Colonel Peter Gansevoort made a sortie, drove back the enemy, and captured large quan- tities of supplies. Upon return- ing into the fort, the garrison hoisted a rude flag, hastily ex- temporized out of a white shirt, an old blue jacket, and some strips of cloth from the petticoat of a soldier's wife — the first Arnerican flag with stars and stripes ever hoisted. The enemy, however, were still strong enough to continue the siege, but on Au- gust 22, upon the approach of a strong force under General Ar- nold, retreated in great haste to Oswego. See Bogg's Pioneers of Utica (1877), and Stone's Life of Joseph Brant (2 vols. 1838). Stanyhurst, Richard (1547- X618), translator of Virgil, was born in Dublin. In 1577 he pub- lished, in vol, i. of Holinshed's Chronicles, his Description of Ire- land and his History of Ireland. His translation of the first four books of the JBneid (1582) illus- trated the contention of Gabriel Harvey, that quantity rather than accent should govern Eng- lish prosody. In 1602 he became a convert to Roman Catholicism, and was then involved in various Catholic and Spanish plots against England. See Arber's introduc- tion to a reprint of his Transla- tion (1895). Stapfer, Paul (1840), French essayist, born at Paris, became {professor of French at the Col- ege Elizabeth, Guernsey, and of foreign literature at Geneva (1876). He was afterwards ap- pointed to a chair at Grenoble and at Bordeaux. He has written Petite Comedie de la Critique Litteraire (1866), Causeries Guer- nesiaises (1869), Laurence Sterne il870), Moliere et Shakspeare 1886), Racine et Victor Hugo 1887), and La Grande Predica- tion Chretienne en France (1898). Staple. The staple system was a method employed in me- diaeval England for regulating the export trade with a view (1) to maintaining the prices of exports, and (2) to facilitating the collec- tion of the king's customs. The staple exports were wool, wool- fells, leather, lead, and tin. The earliest form of the system was the selection of a town in Flanders as the sole market in which Eng- lish wool might be sold. This led to quarrels and to changes of the staple town, and eventually to the transfer of the staple to certain English towns (1353). But this method did not answer; and when Calais fell into English hands (1363) the staple was removed thither, and there it remained till the capture of Calais in 1558. Staples, city, Todd co., Minn., 65 m. N.w. of St. Cloud, on the N. Pac. R. R. It is important as a railroad division headquarters and transfer point. It was settled and incorporated in 1892. Pop. (1910) 2,558. Star, bee Stars. Star Apple, the popular name of shrubs and trees belonging to the genus Chrysophyllum, a sub- division of the order Sapotaceae. C. cainito, a native of the W. Indies, is the best-known species. It bears delicious fruit, beauti- fully colored green, yellow, and red. All the species are natives of the tropics. Staraya-Bussa, tn., Novgorod gov.. Central Russia, 36 m. s. of Novgorod city. It is an episcopal see (cathedral, built in 1701), and has an imperial palace, saline baths, salt deposits, and tan- neries, brick fields, sawmills, and Stara-Zagora 407 Starling tallow foundries. Pop. (1897) 15,234. Stara - Zagora (Turk. Eski- Zagra), tn., s. of Balkans, E. Roumelia, Bulgaria, 50 m. N.E. of Philippopolis; manufactures coarse clotn and copper, and has tanneries and mineral springs. Totally destroyed by the Turks in 1878 and rebuilt on modern lines. Pop. (1901) 19,428. Starch, (CeHioOs)!!, a carbohy- drate of undetermined composi- tion, found in granules of varying size in different plants. Cereals contain most — rice approximately 76 per cent., corn and wheat 70 per cent., corn about 54 per cent., peas 50 per cent., and potatoes 20 per cent. Starch is prepared from such sources by grinding, steeping, or fermentation; the starch granules are then washed out and allowed to settle after the liquid has been strained from the cellular tissue. Starch is insol- uble in cold water, but swells up and becomes gelatinous with hot. It is colored intensely blue bv iodine. When it is boiled witn dilute acids, glucose is obtained, and by the action of diastase it is converted into maltose; dextrine is an intermediate product that is also obtained by neating alone. Starch is also converted into maltose and dextrine 'oy the action of the saliva and pancreatic juice, and is thus a valuable food. Star Chamber, an English court, founded in 1487 by Henry VII. Tradition says that it de- rived its name from the golden stars which decorated the ceiling of the room in which it met. It revived certain of the former powers of the king's council, but in such a manner as to constitute a new court of justice. The reason for its creation was the desire of the king to curb and bring fully under the law of the land the greater nobles, who were in their own districts powerful enough to overawe both judge and jury. Its function was to punish the mis- demeanors of sheriffs and juries, and all illegal assemblies and disturbances. The new court was composed of the chancellor, the treasurer, the keeper of the privy seal, the president of the council, a bishop, and the chief justices. It had jurisdiction over all cases short of capital offences, both civil and criminal. In tho hands of Laud it became the instrument of oppression. Torture was freely used to extort confession of some sort, whereupon the pro- ceedings became oral, and the prisoner was condemned without ever having been given a chance of being heard in his own defence; In 1641 it was abolished. Stare Decisis. A doctrine of the law to the effect that the prin- ciples of cases decided in courts of superior jurisdiction will be fol- lowed by inferior courts in the determination of analogous cases arising subsequently. court is not bound by the decisions of another court of concurrent juris- diction, but may give them great weight. Where the decision of a court of last resort in a state is reversed by a United States court, the inferior courts of the state will recognize the later decision as binding. In writing an opinion a judge may use illustrations and reasoning which are not approved by his colleagues. They may, therefore, only concur in the de- cision and not in the reasons ad- vanced by the judge writing the opinion. In such a case, such reasoning, etc., is not given the weight of a decision of the entire court. Statements of law not involved in the determination of a case are known as obiter dicta, and need not be followed under the doctrine of stare decisis. Rulings of departments of the government have not the effect of decisions. Contracts entered into, and vested rights acquired with reference to the law declared by a decision, are not impaired by a reversal. See Precedents; Res Judicata. _ Starfish form the class_ Aster- oidea of the phylum Echinoder- mata. A considerable number of species occur. On the under sur- face of the starfish is the central mouth, from which lead five open grooves, extending to the tips of the arms. These are the ambu- lacral grooves, and lodge the numerous tube-feet, which are the organs of locomotion, and ter- minate in suckers. On the upper surface are the spines, which have the curious pedicellariae mingled with them. Less conspicuous are the delicate skin-gills, protrusions of the skin which serve for pur- poses of respiration. Between two of the arms on the dorsal surface lies the madreporite, or perforated plate, which allows of the entrance of water into the water-vascular system. The anus is a minute opening also on the dorsal surface. The viscera extend into the arms. Starfish feed chiefly upon bivalve molluscs. Starfish {Asterias ruhens). and are very destructive to oyster and mussel beds. The oyster Elantations in New York Bay, ong Island Sound, and on the Rhode Island shores are especially harassed bv them, and it is neces- sary for the oystermen to catch them by draggmg tangles, or the beds would be utterly destroyed. They do not as a rule mutilate themselves so readily as do brittle- stars, but possess a remarkable power of regenerating parts of the body which have been acci- dentally injured. The sexes are separate, and the free-swimming larva is known either as a bipin- naria or as a brachiolaria. See Reports of the 10th U. S. Census, and Mayer's Sea-shore Life (1906). Stargard, tn., prov. Pomer- ania, Prussia, 22 m. by rail E. of Stettin. The cathedral dates from the 14th century. The town manufactures machinery and woollen and cotton goods. Pop. (1905) 26,908. Starii-Krim, or Eski-Krim, tnship., Crimea, 15 m. w. of Feo- dosia, on the s. coast of the pen- insula; the first capital of the Nogai khans in the 13th century. Starli, John (1728-1822), American soldier, born in Lon- donderry, N. H. He was cap- tured by the Indians in 1752, but was later ransomed; served in the French and Indian War, and attained the rank of captain; and after the war became a farmer at Derryfield in his native prov- ince. He assisted as colonel of a regiment in the siege of Boston- earticipated in the battle of unker Hill; and afterward served at Trenton and Princeton: but not having received deserved promotion he left the army and went back to his farm. When, however. Gen. Burgoyne began his invasion from Canada, Stark accepted comrnand of the N. H. troops, and with them defeated and destroyed two detachments of British troops at the glorious battle of Bennington (Aug. 16, 1777). For this service, which did much toward forcing the sur- render of Burgoyne, Stark was ap- pointed a brigadier-general, and received the thanks of Congress. He commanded the northern de- partment during 1778-81, and at the close of the war retired once rnore to private life. See his biography by Edward Everett in Sparks's American Biography^ and his Life and Official Corre- spondence by his grandson, Caleb Sparks (1860). Starling {Sturnus vulgaris), a passerine bird, generally distrib- uted throughout temperate Eu- rope. It destroys vast numbers of the larvae of insects; but attacks cultivated fruit, sometimes causing great destruction in orchards on account of its large numbers. It also eats the eggs and young of other birds. The diet further includes worms, slugs and snails, wild berries, and even small mam- mals. The nests are usually constructed in holes in walls or Staro-Byelsk 408 Stars buildings, or in banks and cliffs, or even in trees. To a consider- able extent the birds roost in com- Sanies, and assemble in large ocks in the evening. The starling has considerable power of song, but much more striking is the habit of imitating the notes of other birds, or even mere noises. The blackbird is frequently mim- icked. The male in summer has the plumage black, shot with bril- liant metallic reflections. After the autumn moult it is spotted with buff above and white below. In S. Europe the common starling of Britain is replaced by the black starling (S. unicolor), and this same bird has become acclimated about New York city. To the starlings in the wide sense (family Sturnidae) belong a large number of beautiful birds — e.g. pastor, myna, and grackle. The last- named belongs to the tree-star- cum has fragrant white flowers, and is of large size. It is a tender plant. Common Starling. lings which are sometimes erected into a separate family as the Eulabetidae. Of the tree-star- lings, the glossy starlings (Lam- protornis) of Africa have a beauti- ful plumage, displaying shades of bluish-green, purple, and violet, relieved by golden bronze. Star- lings occur also in India and Africa, but there are no American species. Staro-Byelsk, tn., Kharkov gov., S. Russia, 130 m. e.s.e. of Kharkov city. It has flour mills, tallow foundries, and manufac- tures of candles and Astrakhan caps. Pop. (1897) 13,128. Starodub, tn., Chernigov gov., S.W. Russia, 94 m. n.n.e. of Chernigov city. It has flower nurseries, hemp culture, tanner- ies, tallow and bell-metal foun- dries, and manufactures of leather and copper ware. Pop. (1897) 12,451. Star of Bethlehem, or Or- NITHOGALUM, a genus of bulbous Elants belonging to the order riliaceae. The flowers are white, and the petals do not fall as the seed ripens, as do those of the scillas. The best-known species is O. umbellatum; its white-mar- gined, greenish flowers are borne in umbel-like corymbs. It is often escaped from gardens. O. Arabi- Star a} Bethlehem {Ornithogalum umbellatum). 1, Pistil ; 2, stamen. Star of India. See Orders OF Knighthood. Starokonstantinov, tn., Vol- hynia gov., W. Russia, 62 m. w. of Berdichev. It has breweries, distilleries, brick fields, tallow foundries, and manufactories of soap, potash, and tobacco. Pop. (1897) 16,527, largely Jews. Starr, Eliza Allen (1824- 1901), American author, was born at Deerfield, Mass., and became a Roman Catholic in 1850. She subsequently removed to Chicago. Her early eaucation was obtained in her native town. She gave many years' study to religious art, on which subject she lectured. Her writings received the special approbation of Leo xiii., who sent her a medallion. They include: Patron Saints (1871), Songs of a lifetime (1887), Christian Art in our Own Age (1891), and The Three Archangels and the Guard- ian Angels in Art (1899). Starr, Frederick (1858), American anthropologist, born in Auburn, N. Y. He graduated at Lafayette College in 1885; was professor of science in the Normal School, Lock Haven, Pa., in 1883-4, and professor of biology in 1884-7 in Coe College. In 1889-91 he had charge of the department of anthropology in the American Museum of Natural History, New York, and in 1893 was appointed professor of an- thropology in the University of Chicago. In 1Q06 he lived with Ndombe, a South African chief ruling a small dominion near the headwaters of the Kassai, the largest southern tributary of the Congo river. The object of his visit to the Congo Free State was the ethnological and an- thropological study of certain native tribes. His chief publica- tions are: On the Hills (an ele- mentary geology, 1890); Some First Steps in Human Progress iXS^f); American Indians (1899); Indians of Southern Mexico (1899); Strange Peoples (1900); and Readings from Modern Mexi- can Authors (1904). Starr, Moses Allen (1854), American neurologist, born in Brooklyn, N. Y. He graduated M.D. at Columbia University in 1880, established a medical prac- tice in New York and specialized diseases of the nervous system, vin 1889 he was appointed pro- >Afessor of nervous diseases in the k medical department of Columbia i| University. He edited Psycho- cj logical Review and Journal of \ Nervous and Mental Diseases, ^ and has published Familiar Forms of Nervous Diseases (1893): Brain Surgery (1895); Atlas of Nerve Cells (1897); and Organic Nervous Diseases (1903). Star Route Frauds. The name given to frauds perpetrated at the expense of the Federal gov- ernment in the conduct of the mail service on the ' Star Routes ' — that is, -lines upon which the mail could not be carried by rail- road or steamboat. Officials in authority showed favors to a combination, or * ring,' of con- tractors, who obtained control over a large number of routes in the West and Southwest, and after the service had been let on contracts the compensation was largely increased by expedit- ing the time required for trips and increasing the number of trips beyond the necessities of the service. In 1882 indictments were found against Thomas J. Brady, who had just resigned the position of second assistant post- master-general, Senator S. W. Dorsey of Arkansas, and others on a charge of conspiracy to de- fraud the government. On the first trial two of the defendants were convicted, while in the cases of others the jury dis- agreed, but on the second trial all escaped punishment. Stars, self-luminous bodies in space. About 4,400 are visible to the naked eye in both hemi- spheres; but the total number it is possible to photograph with long exposures may reach, or surpass, 100,000,000. Their total light is estimated by Professor stars 409 State Simon Newcomb at 680 times that of Vega. Their total heat, judging from experiments by Professor Nichols, does not ex- ceed that derived from a standard candle six^y feet distant. The classification of the stars by mag- nitude depends upon their appar- ent brightness, tnat by spectral quality upon their physical con- stitution. They may thus be divided into five leading families or types: (1.) Helium stars, the absorlDing layers of which are composed mainly of helium, hy- drogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and magnesium. They are intensely luminous bodies of low mean density. Nearly half of them are close binaries. Most of the stars in Orion are of the helium kind. (2.) Sirian stars are bril- liantly white and strongly actinic. They give spectra in which dusky hydrogen bands are prominent, iron lines being faint and fine. More than half the stars belong to the Sirian type. (3.) The sun is the prototype of the next class, which is also very numerously represented. (4.) Antarian stars show a fluted spectrum due to ab- sorption by titanium, in addition to a spectrum of lines resembling that of the sun. They are red or orange, and frequently variable. Antares and Mira Ceti are_ ex- amples. About 1,000 such objects have been discovered. (5.) Carbon 3tars are distinguishea by deep bands of carbon-absorption, with which are associated dark lines indicating the presence of iron, calcium, and other metals. Nu- merous bright lines of unknown origin have further been detected by Professor Hale in their photo- graphed spectra. The arresting action of their atmospheres on ';heir blue and violet rays causes them to appear red and faint. The brightest (152 Schjellerup) is of 5.5 magnitude. About 250 carbon stars are known, of which 14 per cent, are variable. The first four star types are connected by close gradations, and are held to be in course of development, each into the next, through the advance of cooling and condensa- tion. ^ The position of carbon stars in the evolutionary scheme is not clear. The spectra of vari- able stars are rarely of helium or Sirian quality. The stars differ enormously in size and light power. The giants among them, such as Canopus and Rigel, are thousands of times more luminous than our sun; while others give only a fraction of his light, and an undetermined multitude are sensibly obscure. A few of these are known by their gravitative effects; but they are not, properly speaking, stars. The massiveness of the stars va- ries less than their luminosity, owing to the circumstance that the most brilliant orbs are the most distended (Newcomb). The parallaxes of about 80 have, so far, proved measurable. They are excessively minute, implying distances needing the great unit of the ' light-year' to express them. Thus, stellar observations are all belated by intervals rang- ing from 4j years for a Centauri to 3,000 or" 4,000 for outlying ob- jects. Most stars are so nearly fixed that their displacements will be perceptible only after the lapse of several centuries. Bossert's catalogue of 2,675 proper motions (189G) includes, however, 1,500 which exceed 0".2 annually; and an eighth-magnitude star in Pictor describes a yearly arc of 8". 7. Apparent stellar move- ments are in part 'peculiar' or individual, in part parallactic — a perspective effect of the sun's translation. Using this latter element as a criterion of the mean distance of bodies of stars. Professor Kapteyn reached the conclusion (anticipated by Monck of Dublin) that, on an average, Sirian are fully twice as remote from us as solar stars. From an analysis of 280 radial velocities. Professor Campbell found the mean rate of stellar movement through space to be twenty-one miles a second. A few stars, however, progress with from five to fourteen times this medium speed; others, particularly those of helium type, are relatively slow-paced. No general plan of sidereal movement is discernible; but in Taurus, Ursa Major, and other parts of the sky, squadrons of stars drift together, swayed by a common impulse. The modes of stellar distribution vary with spectral type. Solar and Anta- rian stars appear to constitute an immense quasi-globular assem- blage, with the sun near its centre. They show none of the preference for the Milky Way that is strongly visible in the Sirian and helium classes. Towards this zone the varieties of bright-line objects are also attracted; so that, as Professor Pickering remarks, a galactic and an extra - galactic world of stars can be distinguished. The combined structure, although of colossal magnitude, is evidently of finite compass. See also Fixed Stars. Stars and Stripes. See Flag. Star Spangled Banner, the na- tional anthem of the United States, prescribed by military and naval regulations to be played on oc- casions of ceremony. It was written by Francis Scott Key (q.v.) while a witness from a British ship of the bombardment of Fort McJHenry near Baltimore, in 1814. The words were sung to a British air, 'Anacreon in Heaven,' and at once acquired wide popular favor as a patriotic hymn. Naval and military regu- lations prescribe that officers and men should either uncover or stand at attention and salute when this hymn is played, and it is the custom in all public gatherings for the audience to rise and stand uncovered. It should never be played in a medley or with other patriotic airs. Star-stone. See Sapphire. Start, Edwin Augustus (1863), American educator, was born at North Bridgewater, Mass., and graduated (1884) at Tufts. His early years were devoted to news- paper work, and from 1892 to 1900 he was professor of history at his alma mater, after which he devoted himself to general writing. Starvation. See Fasting. Starwort. See Stellaria. Stas, Jean Servais (1813-91), Belgian chemist, born at Louvain. He worked in Paris with Dumas till 1840, when he was appointed professor of chemistry in the mili- tary school at Brussels, a post he held till 1865. He held the office of commissaire des mon- naies till 1872. Stas's life-work was his masterly revision of the atomic weights. It settled the question that atomic weights are invariable, and disposed of the hypothesis of Prout, that they were integral multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen. Stas also developed a process of de- tecting alkaloids which has been of great service in forensic medi- cine. His CEuvres Completes ap- peared in 1894. See Mallet's 'Memorial Lecture,' in Jour. Chem. Soc. (1893). Stassfurt, tn., prov. Prussia, 19 m. by rail S. of Magdeburg. The principal product is salt, which is exported in large quan- tities. Pop. (1900) 20,011. State. The lofty political con- ceptions of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle have had an immense influence upon the history of the state. Aristotle's work is of a far more practical character than that of Plato. But in those days the state was only merging from the chrysalis stage of the farnily and the clan. Notwithstanding the increased importance of terri- torial rights, arising from the development of commerce, the Greek regarded blood and re- ligion as the only binding polit- ical ties. His fellow - citizens were those, and those only, who could claim descent _ from an ancestor common to him and to them. Strangers in blood might be tolerated as helots and slaves, or possibly as resident aliens; they formed no part of the state. As a consequence the Greek con- ception of the state was that of a minute community. At moments of intense enthusiasm, such as that which preceded the Persian invasion, these little communi- state 410 State ties sometimes formed a tempo- rary union ior defensive purposes. But any attempt at closer soli- darity, such as the Athenian hegemony, was^ regarded with the bitterest jealousy. Plato likens the state to an individual, and makes the organization of his model state approach as nearly as Eossible to the organization of a uman being. With him, there-^ fore, unity is everything. All ' independent organization which could possibly militate against the complete unity of the state is to be rigidly suppressed. Aris- totle lays it down that a state is formed by the union of clans and villages. Hence the complete ab- sorption of the individual in the community, which is so striking a characteristic of Greek political speculation, is explained by the fact that in the patriarchal house- hold the authority of the house- father was supreme. Thus is ex- plained also tne unlimited sphere of the state's authority and ac- tivity. To the Romans belongs the credit of having found a prac- tical difference between the house- hold and the state. The early history of Rome strikingly resem- bles the early history of Athens and Sparta. We find there the same patriarchal basis of theory, the same exclusiveness toward strangers, the same devotion to blood and ancestor worship as the basis of society. But the great revolution with which is connected the name of Servius Tullius marks, far more than the expulsion of the kings, an epoch-making change. The co- mitia centuriata was a body organ- ized on totally different lines from those of the patriarchal state. It did not exclude any one on the ground of birth. Its members were not grouped together in bodies of kmdred. On the other hand, it was no democratic body, either in the ancient or the modern sense. Though it included all free titizens, it gave immense pre- ponderance to wealth, and prob- ablv to wealth of a peculiarly Stable kind — to land, cattle, and slaves. But the comitia centu- riata was even more remarkable in its military than in its eco- nomic character. It enunciated the essential principle that every free citizen of the state, house- holder or subordinate, native or immigrant, is bound to serve the state in arms. These were the essential principles of a new type of state — the state founded on military liability and the ownership of property. _ The new state was capable of infinite expansion, so long as it could find men willing to enroll themselves as citizens and undertake the lia- bility to military service. The old race distinction between the patricians and the plebeians gradually disappeared in politics. The alien blood of the Italian communities found a place in the Roman state; the old Latin feder- ation was replaced by the Roman empire. Citizenship had ceased to be a matter of birth; it had become a matter of allegiance. The new idea was independent of any particular form of govern- ment. It began with the patri- archal kings and senate; it suited equally the republican system of co-ordinate magistrates; and it was not even inconsistent with the despotic empire of the Csesars. Nor did it change until the Caesars substituted paid professional troops for the citizen armies of the republic. Then, indeed, the conception of citizenship altered. It was no longer military service but military subjection which made the bond of the state. To the political speculator of the middle ages the universal empire of Rome was the highest ideal of the state. Accordingly, he strove to re-create the empire, and more than once succeeded in doing so. The Frank empire (800- 888) and the Holy Roman empire (962-180G) were the results of his teaching. The only serious in- road upon Roman imperial theory was made hy the growing power of the church, chiefly as concen- trated in the pretensions of the Roman see. The object of polit- ical speculators was to reconcile the conflicting claims of the two powers; and the solution of the problem usually put forward was that the pope was to wield the spiritual, the emperor the phys- ical, powers of the universal em- pire. If they could not agree, there was no real remedy. The feudal state arose as the Frank empire dissolved, and the feudal state was a compromise between patriarchal leadership and mili- tary supremacy. Based on cus- tom, supported largely by ser- vices which, in fact as well as in name, were free gifts, the feudal state recognized the rights of subjects as well as of rulers. The duty of the ruler was to protect his vassals against inva- sion and disturbance; the duty of the vassals was^ to support their ruler loyally in his task. It is formally admitted by the feudal law-books that if a ruler fails in his duty, his vassal may solemnly defy him and dissolve the bond; just as, if the vassal fails in his allegiance, the ruler may deprive^ him ^ of that fief or benefice which, in theory, the feudal vassal always received from his lord. In this system the husbandmen and the crafts- men, the producers of the com- munity, were left almost out of account, probably because they usually represented a conquered community. The winning of their way to power was the task of modern history. Mediaeval ideas of polity rested, therefore, on two great distinctions — the distinction between the spiritual and the secular power in the papacy and the empire, and the distinction between the military classes and the other classes in each community. Two great events were destined to destroy these distinctions. One was the Reformation of the 16th century; the other was the development of a world-commerce which, taking its rise in the crusades, expanded rapidly from the time of tne dis- coveries of Vasco da Gama and Columbus. The effects of the growth of commerce made them- selves felt, politically, in the movement toward representative government which took place all over Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries. The consequent fall in the value of money compelled resort to new kinds of taxation, and this resort led to the estab- lishment of representative states- general and parliaments. But in almost every country save Eng- land the movement, after a bril- liant beginning, received a decided setback. During the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries, the English nation, compact and strong, was gradually formed by the habit of political association. Elsewhere in Western Europe the old class divisions survived, and the theory of the dual empire still hung over the field of politics, until it per- ished in fact (though a shadow of it long survived) in the Thirty Years' War. It was impossible for a pope to claim authority over countries which considered him as Antichrist. It was necessary to find a substitute for mediaeval ideas. The task was taken up with alacrity by the writers of those states which had discarded the supremacy of Rome, and even by those who still remained Catho- lics, Bodin, Grotius, Hobbes, Montesquieu, each in his own way, freed the theory of the state from the trammels of mediaeval- ism. Wherever there existed a definitely recognized community, manifesting obedience to an organ- ized government (which govern- ment did not, in fact, obey the directions or acknowledge the authority of any external author- ity), there was a sovereign state. Forms of government were imma- terial, though each writer had his own preference. All states were equal in law, whatever their differ- ences of wealth and strength, be- cause, recognizing no human authority, they were in a condition of nature- and in a condition of nature all men are equal. This doctrine has remained supreme in international politics until our own day. But with regard to the state KFK 411 State Rights relations of rulers with their subjects, the agreement of the post-Reformation publicists dis- appears. Although the sever- ance of England from Rome at the Reformation had been brought about by the king, the principles of the Reformation soon led to a desire for free criti- cism and independence in po- litical as well as in religious mat- ters. This desire found its natural expression in Parlia- ment, and, after the desperate struggle of the Civil War, re- sulted in the establishment of constitutional government at the time of the revolution of 1688. In the Netherlands the adoption of Protestant principles had much to do with the establish- ment of the republic. In Scot- land, where Parliament, though surviving, had never obtained a deep hold on national feeling, an entirely new organization for the furtherance of Reformation prin- ciples was called into existence. But in the Protestant states of Germany the excesses which fol- lowed on the adoption of Protes- tantism roused even ardent re- formers like Luther to take the side of authority ; while in Ro- man Catholic countries, such as Southern Germany, France, and Italy, the hands of authority were apparently strengthened by the movement, and from the pe- riod of the Reformation may be dated the rise of that absolutism which lasted until the French revolution. It is not, therefore, surprising to find that, just at this very time, the absolutist theory of the state as the actual property of the ruler found distinguished supporters — e.g., Machiavelli in Italy, and Filmer in England. The 'divine right' theory of mon- archy is in truth a curious blend from several distinct sources, in which Roman law, ecclesiastical doctrine, and feudal conceptions are moulded to the advantage of the ruler. But as the popular in- fluence on politics became great- er, the old contrast between rulers and ruled gradually dis- appeared, and reformers began to look upon the machinery of government as a thing to be coveted rather than destroyed. England in the eighteenth cen- tury exhibited a monarch not merely bound by the rules of positive law, but actually exer- cising his undoubtedly legal pre- rogatives at the bidding of men who called themselves his serv- ants, but who really were his masters. And when it was per- ceived that the choice of these servants could be (luite directly influenced by means of popular elections, it was soon realized that without violence or illegal- ity, the majority in a community could really get its wishes car- ried out. Under the influence of this conception the attitude of the masses toward the state has en- tirely changed. The desire is now, not to destroy state machin- ery, but to control it. The anti- political thinkers — the nihilists, the anarchists, and the individu- alists — are decidedly at a dis- count. So obvious is the path before the reformers that the privileged classes have awakened to their danger, and have organ- ized themselves into opposition. The old opposition to the State as an institution has almost en- tirely disappeared. It is regard- ed as a natural organ for the expression of the national will, and the only dispute is as to what are the precise dictates of that will. See Government; Poli- tics ; Sovereignty. State and Church. A State church is one established by acts of the legislature or otherwise as the church par excellence of the nation. It receives official recog- nition from, and officially recog- nizes in retvirn, the head of the State. It also receives, directly or indirectly, endowment from the State, but is not necessarily under State control. State religion has brought about order in most national emergencies. The Roman em- pire since the days of Constan- tine (313), and the mediaeval kingdoms which succeeded it, went further than this (a) by recognizing the duty of the State to support the Christian Church, (b) by requiring all their sub- jects to be members of that church. Since the division of the Christian Church, which be- gan with the Reformation and the growth of toleration, these principles have been abandoned, and in modern times the endow- ment of churches is left almost entirely to private beneficence, while all persons are allowed complete liberty of conscience. The existence of an established church in countries which still retain one, such as England and Scotland, merely means that the State professes that form of Christianity in its corporate ca- pacity, and, in the case of Eng- land, defines by law the condi- tions under which any person may call himself a member of the established church. See Church ; Papacy. Staten Island, the Borough of Richmond, one of the five counties of New York City, is lo- cated in New York Harbor, ly- ing south of Manhattan Island, between New Jersey and Brook- lyn. Triangular in shape, it is 13.9 miles long, 7.13 miles across at its widest point, and has an area of 57.154 square miles. Todt Hill (413 ft.) is the highest point on the Atlantic Coast between Maine and Florida. There are 124 churches, 83 private and public schools, 3 colleges, several hospitals, libraries and museums, and 47 city parks with a total of 2,800 acres. East shore ship- building terminals include the U. S. Foreign Trade Zone No. 1. The north shore is a shipbuilding center. The Island is mainly a residential community, but there are extensive truck farms and industries, the chief manufac- tures being soap, oil refining, shipbuilding, dental products, brewing, smelting and refining, etc. Pop. (1930) 158,346; (1940) 174,441. Staten Island, a lofty rocky island off the southeastern ex- tremity of Tierra del Fuego, South America, from which it is separated by Le Maire Strait. It is long (45 miles) and narrow in shape, with steep coasts pene- trated by deep fiords, and rises to nearly 3,000 feet. Snow cov- ers it almost all the year. It has a lighthouse at its eastern end. State Rights,^ a term used to designate those rights of govern- ment and administration that a 'State' which has become a mem- ber of a federal union or confed- eration may still exercise, and within which the central admin- istration may not legally intrude. State rights are of two classes : residuary and delegated. They are delegated when derived from some central supreme authority which existed before and created the 'States.' Thus the rights of the Mexican 'States' are dele- gated to the States by central national authority. In federa- tions like the American Union formed of 'States' once separate or independent. State rights are usually residuary, that is, in forming a central government certain specific powers are given to it, while the remaining or residuary rights of government (what they are is seldom speci- fied) are left to the States. In federations of the former class there is seldom any controversy over State rights, the presump- tion being in favor of the author- ity of the central government ; but the reverse is true of federa- tions of the second class. In these the States cling to the pow- ers of government, allowing to the central government only those rights definitely granted in the organic law. The rights re- served to the State range all the way from simple police powers to complete sovereignty. In the United States the ques- tion of State rights has been and is still of great practical impor- tance. In theory the rights re- tained by the States can be re- duced only by constitutional state Rights KFK 411 A State Rights amendment. Since the forma- tion of the Union in 1789 there have been two methods of con- struing the Constitution or or- ganic law of the Union — one would interpret it strictly and would limit as much as possible the sphere of the central govern- ment ; the other would construe it liberally and thus restrict the rights of the States by expanding the authority of the central gov- ernment. State rights advocates have based their case largely upon the record of events during and following the Revolution, to the formation of the Union in 1789. The British colonies were separate before the Revolution ; during the Revolution there was no organic imion, each State as- serting separately its independ- ence and sovereignty ; by the provisional articles of peace in 1782 and in the final treaty of 1783 the English king recognized the former colonies as 'free, sov- ereign and independent States.' Under the Confederation, 1781- 1789, the central government was given few powers, while each State remained 'sovereign' ; the union of 1789 under the Consti- tution was a stronger one, but still the central government was given only specific limited pow- ers, each State retaining for ex- clusive control almost the whole field of governmental activity re- lating to the every-day life of the people. Sovereignty, it was claimed by some, was reserved by each State, but it is not men- tioned in the Constitution. The theories of Nullification (q. v.) and Secession (q. v.) were based upon this view. Various methods have been re- sorted to by States to retain their respective sovereignty : inter- state compacts, Federal-State co- operation and trade barriers. The most notable tendency in re- cent years has been the conflict between the growth of centrali- zation in an effort to maintain a free national market and the de- sire to preserve the rights of States to perform their tradi- tional function. By virtue of the commerce clause of the Federal Constitution, the power of Con- gress has in the past been de- clared to be plenary in scope — free from interference by the States, paramount to all State legislation in the premises, capa- ble of being exerted to its utmost extent over every part of such commerce and acknowledging no limitations other than are pre- scribed in the Constitution. The majority of the Supreme Court, in the face of a long line of precedents to the contrary, ruled that control of the United States over its waterways was not lim- ited strictly to navigation, but could be utilized for the inter- ests of the commerce of the whole country. Proof of the fluctuating nature of 'newer' law is the Court's insistence that 'navigability' could not be deter- mined by a formula fitting every stream under all circumstances and at all times. This pro- nouncement was evoked by the protest of Mr. Justice Roberts to the effect that if the philosophy of the majority of the court be the law of the land. Congress can create 'navigability' by de- termining to improve any non- navigable stream. (U. S. v. Ap- palachian Electric Power Com- pany, 61 Sup. Ct. 291.) On the other hand, in Federal Trade Commission v. Bunte Brothers, Inc., (61 Sup. Ct. 580) the Court set aside a cease and desist order of the Federal Trade Commission as being in excess of its authority. Bunte Brothers manufactured and sold candy in Illinois in what the trade called 'break and take' packages, which made the amount of candy which the buyer re- ceived dependent upon chance. The Federal Trade Commission, deeming this an unfair method of competition, prohibited the use of this method. The Court was of the opinion that the Fed- eral Trade Commission Act only empowered the Commission to restrict practices employed in in- terstate commerce and did not give them the power to restrict practices in intrastate sales whose only relation to interstate commerce was to affect such commerce detrimentally. The Supreme Court has re- cently encouraged many of these measures erecting trade barriers on the theory that they were neither arbitrary nor discrimina- tory and were predicated upon justifiable classification. For- merly fixed-sum license fees, re- gardless of the amount, for the privilege of carrying on the com- merce, have been thought likely to be used to discriminate against interstate commerce. Privilege taxes requiring a percentage of the gross receipts from interstate transportation or from other ac- tivities in carrying on the move- ment of that commerce, which if sustained could be imposed wher- ever the interstate activity oc- curs, have been struck down for fear they would place interstate commerce at a competitive dis- advantage. In the now famous New York City sales tax case, McGoldrick V. Berwind-White Coal Mining Co., (309 U. S. 33) the Supreme Court recently upheld a sales tax levied by the city of New York of 2% on every sale for consump- tion, of tangible personal prop- erty in the city, in any manner or by any means whatsoever — the tax to be measured by the sales. The Coal Company was a Pennsylvania corporation min- ing coal in Pennsylvania but hav- ing a sales office in New York City and selling through this of- fice direct to buyers' plants and steamship companies. The city sought to collect the sales tax on such direct sales and was upheld by this decision. The Court said that it must balance protection of the commerce clause from dis- criminatory state action against State taxing power under which interstate commerce must bear a fair share of the tax burdens. In Nelson v. Sears, Roebuck and Co. (61 Sup. Ct. 586), the Court sustained the Iowa use tax as imposed upon Iowa pur- chasers of goods from a New York corporation, Sears, Roe- buck & Co., and required the company to collect the tax. It was conceded that Iowa can im- pose a use tax upon State resi- dents buying goods outside the State and bringing them in and using them in the State, but in this case the company asserted that Iowa cannot require it, an out-of-state corporation in an out-of-state transaction, to col- lect the tax simply because the corporation carries on a distinct line of business in owning and operating stores in Iowa. To the claim that the company was at a serious disadvantage as com- pared with other foreign cor- porations not owning stores in Iowa in making out-of-state sales to residents of Iowa, the Court answered that other cor- porations escape merely because of the 'impotence of State power' and that this company, by hav- ing stores in Iowa, receives ben- efits from Iowa for which that State may exact a price. However, States through such taxing power, have not been per- mitted to discriminate against in- terstate commerce. In Best & Company, Inc. v. Maxwell, (61 Sup. Ct. 334) the Court held that a North Carolina tax on out- of-state merchants discriminated against interstate commerce. The statute levied an annual privilege tax of $250 on every person or corporation, not a reg- ular retail merchant in the State, who displayed samples for the purpose of the privilege of do- ing business even where they engaged in the sale of goods by sample in display rooms. The Court said that interstate com- merce could hardly survive such hostility. A $250 investment in advance can operate only to dis- courage interstate commerce. Extra- State merchants would be compelled to turn over their trade to local merchants selling by sample. To the extent North Carolina inerchants prospered, Mi 1 4 ^^42 States KFK 411 B State, U. S. Dept. of Name of State Popular Name Flower Alabama Cotton ; Lizard ; Yallerham- mers Goldenrod Arizona Baby ; Sunset ; Apache Sahuaro Cactus Arkansas Bear ; Bowie Apple Blossom California Golden ; El Dorado Golden Poppy Colorado Centennial ; Silver Columbine Connecticut . . . Constitution ; Nutmeg Mountain Laurel Delaware Diamond ; Blue Hen's Chick- ens Peach Blossom Florida Everglade ; Land of Flowers . Orange Blossom Georgia Empire State of the South ; Cracker ; Buzzard Cherokee Rose Idaho Gem Syringa Illinois Sucker ; Prairie Wood Violet Indiana Hoosier Tulip Tree Blossom Iowa Hawkeye Wild Rose Kansas Sunflower ; Jayhawk Sunflower Kentucky Dark and Bloody Ground ; Blue Grass ; Corn-Cracker . Trumpet Vine Louisiana Pelican ; Creole Magnolia Maine Pine Tree ; Old Dirigo Maryland Old Line ; Cockade Blackeyed Susan Massachusetts . Bay ; Old Colony Mayflower Michigan Wolverine ; Auto Apple Blossom Minnesota Gopher ; North State Moccasin Flower Mississippi .... Bayou ; Eagle ; Magnolia .... Magnolia Missouri Ozark ; Iron Mt. ; Show Me . . Hawthorne Montana Stub Toe; Bonanza; Treasure Bitter Root Nebraska Antelope ; Black Water ; Corn- husker Goldenrod Nevada Silver ; Sage Brush Sagebrush New Hampshire Granite Purple Lilac New Jersey .... Garden ; New Spain ; Jersey Blue ; Mosquito Violet New Mexico . . . Sunshine ; Spanish Cactus New York Empire ; Excelsior Rose North Carolina . Old North ; Turpentine ; Tar Heel Goldenrod North Dakota . . Flickertail ; Sioux Wild Prairie Rose Ohio Buckeye Scarlet Carnation Oklahoma Sooner Mistletoe Oregon Beaver ; Web-Foot , Oregon Grape Pennsylvania . . Keystone ; Steel ; Coal No choice Rhode Island . . Little Rhody ; Plantation .... Violet South Carolina . Palmetto Yellow Jasmine South Dakota . . Sunshine ; Swiagecat Pasque Flower Tennessee Big Bend ; Volunteer ; Hog- and-Hominy Passion Flower Texas Lone Star ; Beef Bluebonnet Utah Deseret ; Beehive ; Mormon . . Sego Lily Vermont Green Mountain Red Clover Virginia Old Dominion ; Mother Amer. Dogwood Washington . . . Evergreen ; Chinook Rhododendron West Virginia . Panhandle ; Mountain Rhododendron Wisconsin Badger ; Copper Violet Wyoming Equality (Suffrage Pioneer) .Indian Paintbrush interstate commerce would suf- fer. States, Popular Names and Flowers, generally applied to States because of some physical characteristic or historical inci- dent peculiar to that State. The State flower has usually been chosen by the legislature, al- though in some instances the schools of the State or the peo- ple by popular vote have selected it. These popular names and flowers are given in the table on this page. State's Evidence, in Eng- land called Queen's or King's evidence, a term applied to testi- mony given by one who has been an accomplice in committing a crime, used in the conviction of the person or persons with whose cooperation he committed the crime, the State prosecutor hav- ing agreed, in view of the evi- dence rendered, not to bring to trial the accomplice who has thus aided the State. According to popular parlance, when an ac- complice thus aids the State, he is said to 'turn State's evidence.' A number of States have stat- utes which stipulate that such evidence, if uncorroborated, is insufficient to convict a man of crime. In such a case, unless the facts are unquestioned, or some rule of law may settle the question, it is for the jury to decide whether or not a witness is an accomplice whose testimony should be corroborated. If a prosecutor obtains a confession by promising immunity, and later withdraws the promise and prosecutes the criminal, a gen- eral rule re(iuires that such con- fession be not used against the person who made it. For a while the law does not declare valid an agreement between prosecutor and accomplice, actually a prose- cutor generally keeps faith in such an instance, and the courts approve of this method as a proper means of securing evi- dence for the State. Statesboro, city, Georgia, county seat of Bulloch county, on the Central of Georgia and Georgia and Florida Railroads ; 50 miles n.w. of Savannah. It is the seat of the South Georgia Teachers College. Pop. (1930) 3,996 ; (1940) 5,013. States-General, the name given to the representative body of the three estates in France — nobility, clergy, and burghers. They seem to have been first summoned in 1302 by Philip the Handsome ; but their sole func- tion was to give sanction to measures imposing general taxa- tion. They had no legislative function, and only by petition could they affect the course of public affairs ; moreover, they were very seldom called together. When in 1614 Louis xiii sum- moned them, they displayed such an interest in the finances of the country that he hastened to dis- miss them. They did not meet again until the revolution of 1789, when they transformed themselves (at the invitation of the third estate of burghers, who were as numerous as the other two put together) into a National Assembly (June 17). The name states-general is also applied to the representative body elected by the seven united provinces of The Netherlands, a body which continued to meet at The Hague until the French con- quest (1593-1795). It was of a federal character, voting being by provinces. The name is re- tained for the existing legislative body or parliament of the king- dom of the Netherlands. States of the Church. See Church, States of the. State, U. S. Department of, a department of the U. S. Gov- ernment authorized by act of July 27, 1789, and originally known as the Department of Foreign Affairs, whose principal officer, at first designated Secre- tary for the Department of For- eign Affairs, was 'to perform and execute . . . duties relative to correspondence, commissions, or instructions, to or with public ministers or consuls, from the United States, or to negotiations state, U. S. Dept. of KFK 412 Statice with public ministers from for- eign States or princes, or to me- morials or other applications from foreign public ministers, or other foreigners, or to such other matters respecting foreign affairs as the President of the United States shall assign to said de- partment.' On Sept. 15, 1789, by an act which made this ofificer keeper of the Seal of the United States, and gave him authority to afifix it 'to all civil commis- sions to officers of the United States to be appointed by the President,' the name of the de- partment was changed to Depart- ment of State, and the title of the principal officer was changed to Secretary of State. The Secretary of State is the ranking member of the Presi- dent's Cabinet and, with an Un- der Secretary of State and fovir Assistant Secretaries of State, supervises the Department which consists of various divisions and offices. There are three advisers to the Secretary — Legal, Eco- nomic, and Political Relations and a Counselor. Divisions of the Department are Far Eastern Affairs, American Republics, European Affairs, Near Eastern Affairs, Passport, Current In- formation, Foreign Service Ad- ministration, Foreign Service Personnel, Protocol, Internation- al Communications, International Conferences, Treaty, Research and Publication, Commercial Treaties and Agreements, Visa, Communications and Records, Cultural Relations, Accounts, Controls, and Special. The of- fices of the Department are those of Arms and Munitions Control, Central Translating, Consular Commercial, Editor of Treaties, Coordination and Re- view, Fiscal and Budget Affairs, Foreign Service Buildings, For- eign Service Officers' Training School, and Philippine Affairs. In addition the Department com- prises the Foreign Service Per- sonnel Board, Committee for Reciprocity Information, and National Munitions Control Board. The Secretary, as directed by the President, conducts negotia- tions relating to the foreign af- fairs of the United States, and has charge of the correspondence with the diplomatic and consular representatives of the United States and with representatives of foreign powers accredited to the United States. He grants and issues passports to nationals of the United States, and issues exequaturs to foreign consuls. He prescribes, promulgates, and administers regulations under treaties and laws governing in- ternational traffic in arms. He has custody of the Seal of the United States, of current rec- ords relating to presidential elec- tors, and of the originals of acts and resolutions of Congress sub- sequent to the Sixty-seventh Congress, and treaties, conven- tions, and other international agreements of the United States since Aug. 14, 1906, the procla- mations thereof by the President. He certifies the adoption of amendments to the Constitution. He publishes the acts and reso- lutions of Congress, Territorial papers, treaties and other inter- national acts of the United States, and papers relating to the foreign relations of the United States. The Under Secretary of State is one of the two principal as- sistants to the Secretary in the discharge of his various func- tions, aiding in the formulation and execution of the foreign pol- icy of the Government and the reception of representatives of foreign governments and in other responsible work. He gives special attention to politi- cal relations with foreign gov- ernments. In the absence of the Secretary he becomes Acting Secretary. The Liaison Office serves as a part of the secretariat of the Liaison Committee composed of the Chief of Staff, Chief of Na- val Operations, and the Under Secretary of State. The Office is responsible for the coordina- tion of communications between the Department of State and the War and the Navy Departments. The Division of Foreign Serv- ice Administration is charged with the general administration of the Foreign Service, includ- ing matters of appropriations and expenditures, rentals, equip- ment and supplies, organiza- tions, instruction of diplomatic and consular offices, etc. ; cor- respondence relating to the foregoing and to customs cour- tesies, letters rogatory, diplo- matic pouch service between the United States and foreign coun- tries, and the designation of mil- itary and naval attaches ; the whereabouts and welfare of Americans abroad, settlement of estates of deceased Americans in foreign countries, consular pro- tection of American interests and, other than commerce, the general work of consular offices such as quarantine, notarial acts, protection of the customs rev- enue, etc. ; supervision over the Department's agencies in New York, New Orleans, and San Francisco. The Division of Protocol is charged with presentation to the President of foreign ambassa- dors and ministers, their accepta- bility, their rights and immuni- ties, and arrangements for all ceremonies national and interna- tional and for the reception of distinguished foreign visitors ; in short, all matters involving official courtesies. The first Secretary of State was John Jay (1789). Others have been : Thomas Jefferson (1789); Edmund Randolph (1794) ; Timothy Pickering (1795) ; John Marshall (1800) ; James Madison (1801); Robert Smith (1809) ; James Monroe (1811) ; John Q. Adams (1817) ; Henry Clay (1825) ; Martin Van Buren (1829); Edward Living- ston (1831); Louis McLane (1833); John Forsyth (1834); Daniel Webster (1841); Hugh S. Legare (1843); Abel P. Upshur (1843) ; John C. Cal- houn (1844); James Buchanan (1845) ; John M. Clayton (1849) ; Daniel Webster (1850) ; Edward Everett (1852) ; William L. Marcy (1853) ; Lewis Cass (1857); Jeremiah S. Black (1860) ; Wil- liam H. Seward (1861); Elihu B. Washburne (1869); Hamil- ton Fish (1869); William M. Evarts (1877) ; James G. Blaine (1881); Frederick T. Freling- huysen (1881) ; Thomas F. Bay- ard (1885); James G. Blaine (1889) ; John W. Foster (1892) ; Walter Q. Gresham (1893); Richard Olney (1895); John Sherman (1897) ; William R. Day (1898) ; John Hay (1898) ; Elihu Root (1905); Robert Ba- con (1909) ; Philander C. Knox (1909); William J. Bryan (1913) ; Robert Lansing (1915) ; Bainbridge Colby (1920); Charles E. Hughes (1921); Frank B. Kellogg (1925) ; Hen- ry L. Stimson (1929); Cordell Hull (1933). States'ville, city, North Car- olina, county seat of Iredell county, on the Southern Rail- way ; 44 miles north of Char- lotte. Here are located Mitchell College, Statesville Academy, two hospitals, a public library, and a State experimental farm. Tobacco and grain are shipped. Lumber, furniture, cotton, to- bacco, and leather are manu- factured. Pop. (1930) 10,490; (1940) 11,440. Statia. See Saint Eu- STACHE Island. Statice, a genus of herbaceous and shrubby plants, belonging to the order Plumbaginaceae. They are mostly of Asiatic origin, though the sea lavender (S. li- monium) is a native British plant, being fairly common in certain parts of the coast. It has broad oblong leaves, and in late summer bears spike-like clusters of scentless flowers. Other British species of less fre- quent occurrence are S. spathu- lata, the spathulate sea lavender, and S. reticulata, the netted sea lavender. The flowers of the sea m 1 4 mz statics KFK 413 Statistics lavender usually consist of a funnel-shaped calyx, of a corolla five-cleft nearly to the base, and of five stamens and carpels. The S. caroliniana, a native of the United States, known as 'Marsh Rosemary,' is bitter and astrin- gent. The hardy species are eas- ily grown in ordinary garden soil ; the greenhouse kinds re- quire a light, sandy, fibrous loam. Statice Limonium 1. Single flower. 2. Section. Statics, stat'iks, the branch of dynamics which deals with the equilibrium of bodies and sys- tems of bodies. As usually de- veloped, it is based upon the fundamental theorems of the bal- ancing of forces. In order that the forces acting on a system should produce equilibrium, it is necessary that there should be no tendency to translational and rotational motion. If then the system be supposed to suffer small displacements consistent with the geometrical conditions of constraint, and if the work done during these small displace- ments against the forces be esti- mated by multiplying each force by the displacement in its direc- tion of the point of its applica- tion, then by adding all the products together, the sum so ob- tained ought to vanish. This is the principal of virtual veloc- ities or virtual displacements which Legrange made the basis of his Mecanique Analytiquc (1788). It is really fundamen- tally equivalent to the principle of the minimum potential energy. For special types of problems other methods of attack lead more easily to the solution. For example, equilibrium requires that the sum of the moments of all the forces about each and every axis must vanish. This method may apparently not be immediately applicable when, as is often the case, the forces are not all completely specified. But in such cases there are always other conditions given, which, with the statical conditions of equilibrium, lead to the complete determination of the position of equilibrium and of the non-speci- fied forces. For example, to find the position of a hemisphere rest- ing on two smooth inclined planes, the only force given is the weight of the hemisphere act- ing through its known center of gravity. The inclinations of the planes give the directions of the pressures on the planes ; and since these two pressures known in direction must balance the known weight acting vertically, the values of the pressures are practically known. The equa- tion of the vanishing resultant moment about any convenient point will give the positions of contact of the hemisphere and the planes. Problems of this kind are readily solved by use of graphical methods, aided by calculation. (See Graphic Statics.) It is usual in most treatises to discuss attractions as a branch of statics, simply be- cause the mathematics is of the same kind — vi^. the calculation of the resultant of a number of forces. If under the action of this resultant force the particle begins to move, the problem ceases to be statical. Another important branch of statics is that which deals with the equi- librium of a strained solid. (See Elasticity.) The best known English treatises on statics are those by Todhunter, Routh, and Minchin. Jellett's treatise on Friction has many excellent points. Stations. (1.) The weekly fasts on Wednesdays and Fri- days. These were called station- ary days. (2.) Churches in which indulgences are granted on special days, in the Church of Rome. A 'station' also signifies the ceremonial procession of clergy and choir from the church to a tomb or other hallowed place. (3.) A picture or carv- ing placed in a church, in com- memoration of the stages of Christ's passion, and before which devotional exercises are practised ( Stations of the Cross). They are — (1) His condemnation; (2) bearing the cross; (3) falling under the cross; (4) meeting the Virgin; (5) the Cyrenian ; (6) Veroni- ca; (7) Christ falling; (8) con- soling the daughters of Jerusa- lem ; (9) falling; (10) stripped; (11) His crucifixion; (12) His death ; (13) the descent from the cross; (14) in the grave. Statira, the sister (and wife) of Darius iii (Codomannus) , the last king of the ancient Per- sian dynasty, who was captured by Alexander the Great after the battle of Issus (333 b.c). She died shortly after the battle of Arbela, two years later. Statistical Association, American. An organization founded in 1839 and incorpo- rated in 1841 to study and dis- cuss the collection and interpre- tation of statistical data and their application to practical problems, and to encourage im- provements in statistical meth- ods and data. Membership in- cludes about 3,000 college and university teachers, business and government executives, research workers, and administrators in a wide variety of fields. Holds an- nual and special meetings, and its chapters in twenty cities hold quarterly or monthly meetings. Publishes quarterly the Journal of the American Statistical As- sociation, and six times yearly the American Statistical Associ- ation Bulletin. Statistics, the study of social facts in so far as these can be counted or enumerated ; though some writers would include all arithmetical investigation or ar- rangement of facts. In this work there are three stages — (1) Collection; (2) analysis; (3) comparison. The collection of statistics is an expensive mat- ter, and is undertaken chiefly by governmental and quasi-govern- mental agencies, though occa- sionally individuals undertake the task. Governments collect statistics of trade to facilitate the collection of revenue. They collect statistics of crime in the ordinary course of judicial pro- cedure. They collect vital sta- tistics to prevent crime, to facili- tate the transference of property, and to make the foundations of social life secure. In some cases governments count social facts that are not susceptible of exact estimates. The United States census is a case in point. The collection of statistics may be according to one of two methods — (1) periodical enumeration, of which the census is the best in- stance ; and (2) continuous reg- istration, as of births, marriages, and deaths. Registration is the method employed when the date of occurrence is almost as im- portant as the fact. The mere figures collected are of little val- ue. They are simply the raw material, and need to be worked up. But unfortunately statistics are frequently analyzed and ma- nipulated to establish some fore- gone conclusion rather than to statistics KFK 414 Statutes elicit or illustrate a truth. Com- parison of statistics, into which the question of average generally enters, may be according to time, comparing wages or prices or population in the 19th century with wages, etc., in other cen- turies. Or it may be according to place, as when we compare birth-rates of France and Ger- many ; or according to social conditions, as when we compare the income of different classes or trades. Comparison, however, is a very dangerous operation, be- cause of the complexity of social phenomena. Probably the most important of the statistical work performed in the United States is that of the Bureau of the Census and the Bureau of Foreign and Do- mestic Commerce, both in the Department of Commerce, of the Bureau of Labor Statistics in the Department of Labor, and of the Bureau of Agricultural Economics in the Department of Agriculture. There are also the statistics of wages and prices compiled by the state statistical and labor bureaus and the vital statistics compiled in the large cities of the country. See Cen- sus, Bureau of the. The Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce is charged with the promotion and develop- ment of the foreign and domestic commerce of the United States, and serves as the direct liaison between American business in- terests and the Government. Statistical information showing the articles imported and ex- ported as well as the countries traded with is compiled by the Collectors of Customs. The statutory functions of the Bureau of Labor Statistics are 'to acquire and diffuse among the people of the United States use- ful information on subjects con- nected with labor, and especially upon its relation to capital, the hours of labor, the earnings of laboring men and women, and the means of promoting their material, social, intellectual, and moral prosperity.' The Bureau prepares and publishes current reports on employment, pay rolls, earnings, and hours of labor in manufacturing, trade, public service, building construction, other industries, union wages, industrial accidents, labor turn- over, industrial disputes, prices, and changes in cost of living of workers' families in the princi- pal cities. The Bureau puljlishes the Monthly Labor Review and the Labor Information Bulletin, also special bulletins on specific subjects. The statistical work of the De- partment of Agriculture includes estimates of crop conditions and production of leading articles. the value of crops, farm prices of the principal articles, records of rainfall, and other statistical statements bearing upon agricul- tural production. Statutes. Legislative enact- ments, declaratory of existing common law, prescribing new principles of law, or otherwise expressing the legislative will, in the form necessary to make them authoritative. With reference to their application they are classed as public or general, private, and local. Public or general statutes are those which affect the whole community ; private statutes af- fect only an individual, or several persons ; local statutes affect a limited locality, as a county or a municipality. The formalities connected with the enactment of a statute include : the favorable vote of a majority of all the members, or a majority vote of a quorum of members, of a prop- erly constituted legislative body, after a proper introduction and presentation, usually by three readings on different days, etc. ; the enrolment of the bill upon the legislative journal ; authenti- cation by the presiding officers ; and usually the approval of the chief executive. The constitu- tions of most States require the legislative body to send a bill to the governor for his approval or veto, after its passage and au- thentication by the signatures of the presiding officers of both houses. If the governor signs the bill, it becomes a law ; if he vetoes it, that is, sends it back with his objections, it must usu- ally be passed again by a greater majority of the members than is ordinarily required in order to become a law. There is no abso- lute power in the executive to prevent the legislature from en- acting a statute. If the chief executive does not sign or veto a bill, the constitutions of most States provide that it shall be- come a law, after the lapse of a certain number of days, unless meanwhile the legislature ad- journs sine die, in which case it is of no effect. ■ In most States a statute must have a descriptive title. A statute usually contains a clause fixing the time when it shall take effect. It will ordi- narily take effect when signed by the governor, or after the lapse of the proper number of days in case of his failure to act ; or after it has again passed both houses in case it is vetoed by the governor ; or on the date fixed in the statute itself. A statute may be made retroactive in its op- eration by its terms. If it ap- plies to civil matters it must not interfere with vested rights, and if penal it comes within the in- hibition against ex post facto laws found in most constitutions. Most State constitutions provide that a statute shall have only one subject or object. This is to avoid confusion. Punctuation is generally held not to constitute a part of a statute, although it is sometimes considered in order to arrive at its meaning. English statutes formerly were not punc- tuated at all. A statute which contravenes any of the provi- sions of the constitution of the State or United States is invalid. A statute may be mandatory, that is, of such a nature as to render void any act done contrary to its provisions ; directory, in that it prescribes the manner in which acts may be done, or proceedings conducted ; permissive, in that it confers rights or privileges upon those who care to take advantage of it, as to form a volunteer fire company or corporation ; or pro- hibitory or penal, defining and prescribing penalties for crimes and misdemeanors. Where a statute is contrary to the com- mon law it supersedes the latter, but only in so far as it is incon- sistent. The construction and interpretation of statutes is a function of the courts. In some States there are statutory con- struction acts, which prescribe certain rules of construction. The ordinary meaning of words is followed where possible, un- less it is clear that words or phrases are employed in a tech- nical sense. The courts will not consider the opinions of the leg- islators who enacted a statute, but may look to the legislative journal in some cases. A bill cannot generally be amended during its passage in such a way as to change its orig- inal purpose, but can be to make the object clear, or to better ef- fectuate the purpose. It may be subsequently amended by a spe- cial act. The usual course is to amend it by redrafting the stat- ute in proper form, including the amended matter, and to incorpo- rate in the enacting clause a pro- vision that the former statute be amended 'so as to read as fol- lows.' This obviates special mention of words or clauses changed, or new matter added, and avoids confusion. Where the amendment obviously super- sedes the act as originally passed, a special repealing clause is un- necessary in some States, but it is usually added. See Repeal. There is a tendency to codify existing law upon particular sub- jects in general, comprehensive statutes, as, for example, the law of real property, the law of nego- tiable instruments, etc. Both the common law and existing statu- tory law on the subject are incor- porated in such acts. The object is to cover the entire subject and settle all uncertainties, so that the statutes of Limitation KFP 415 Stead statute may be referred to as the complete law on the subject, but there are usually some omis- sions, and the common law still remains operative to supply such defects. Revisions of all the statutes of a state are now commonly made by legislatures. The work is done by committees or commis- sioners, and the result of their labors submitted to the legisla- ture for enactment. The object of a revision is to revise where necessary, and classify all the statutes relating to each branch of the law under proper head- ings, and arrange miscellaneous statutes in as systematic order as possible. The titles or head- ings are usually arranged in al- phabetical order, and a complete alphabetical index is also pre- pared, so that even a person not skilled in the law may refer to the statute on any subject. A compilation of statutes at large is merely a collection and clas- sification of all the statutes in force in a state, without revision or reenactment. Statutes con- tained in the revised or compiled statutes of a state, or of the United States, may be amended or supplemented by subsequent acts, and it is therefore neces- sary to consult the year books of volumes of statutes published since the date of the revision. These are published at least once a year in most states, and 'ad- vance sheets/ or temporary pub- lications of statutes and deci- sions, are generally sent out through private enterprise or by the public printer as often as once a week. Consult Sedgwick, Statutory Laws; Cooley, Con- stitutional Limitations. Statutes of Limitation. See Limitation, Statutes of. Statu to, the constitution granted to Piedmont and Savoy by Charles Albert in 1848; it was afterwards extended to the whole^ kingdom of Italy, and is still in force. Copied mainly from the United States Consti- tution and from the French of 1830, it has the same defects, es- pecially in the separation of the executive and legislature. Staubbach, celebrated water- fall (980 ft.), in s. of Canton Bern, Switzerland, 8 m. s.. of Interlaken. Staunton, city, Virginia, co. seat of Augusta co., 100 m. w.N.w. of Richmond, on the Ches. and O. and the B. and O. R. Rs. It is the seat of the Western State Hospital for the Insane, the Virginia School for the Deaf and the Blind, and of the Mary Baldwin Seminary, the Virginia Female Institute, Staunton Military Academy, and Corlier's Academy. Gipsy Hill Park is a noteworthy feature. Situated in the Shenandoah Val- ley, Staunton is the trade cen- ter of a rich agricultural dis- trict. The leading manufactures are structural iron, organs, wag- ons, agricultural implements, planing-mill products, flour, etc. The water-works and electric lighting plant are owned and op- erated by the municipality. It was settled in 1745, incorporated as a town in 1802, and chartered as a city in 1870. Pop. (1930) 11,900; (1940) U,?>?>7. Staunton, city, Illinois, Ma- coupin CO., 35 m. N.E. of St. Louis, on the Wabash and the Litch. and Mad. R. Rs. Coal mining is the chief industry. The water-works and electric lighting plant are owned and op- erated by the municipality. The place was settled about 1830 and incorporated in 1892. Pop. (1930) 4,618; (1940) 4,212. Staunton, Howard (1810- 74), English chess-player and Shakespearean commentator, was almost entirely self-educat- ed. He early acquired a reputa- tion as a chess-player, and in 1843 beat St. Amant, the cham- pion of Europe, and for nearly ten years was unbeaten. He uti- lized his chess knowledge to con- duct newspapers devoted to chess, and chess columns in oth- er newspapers, and to write var- ious handbooks on the game. From 1854 he devoted much at- tention to the study of Shake- speare, and in 1857—60 issued an edition with notes, showing sound scholarship and sound sense. Staurolite, an aluminium, magnesium, and ferrous silicate, which crystallizes in the rhom- bic system, usually in twinned crystals. It is brown in color, with vitreous luster, and is often filled with minute enclosures of other minerals (sp. gr. 3.4-3.8; h. = 7-7.5). It is found princi- pally in metamorphic rocks, such as gneiss and mica-schist, where it IS one of the products of re- crystallization, and fine crystals are obtained from the St. Goth- ard, Tyrol, and Brittany. Stavanger, tn., w. coast of Norway, in co. of same name, on a s. arm of Bukken Fiord. The seat of a bishopric till 1685, its cathedral (12th-13th century) is in the Norman style, restored 1866. Navigation and fishing are the chief occupations. Pop. 46,780. Stave, or Staff. See Mu- sic, section Notation. Stavesacre. See Delphin- ium. Stavropol. Former Russian gov. N. of the Caucasus, em- braces the Stavropol highlands and the valleys of the upper Kuma and Kalaus. Cossacks form the bulk of the population. Area, 23,398 sq. m. Pop. 876,- 298. Stavropol, town, Russia, 147 m. E. of Yekaterinodar, with flour mills and gardening. Pop. 70,000. Stay. In law, this term de- notes a suspension of legal pro- ceedings by order of a court. A stay may be granted for a num- ber of purposes in the interests of justice. _ If the plaintiff has lost a motion bearing upon his case and owes the defendant costs, his further proceeding may be stayed until the costs are paid ; where more than one ac- tion is brought for the same cause, all actions but one will be stayed ; and a stay will usually be granted where it becomes nec- essary to take the testimony of a foreign witness under a com- mission, and the case is about to be reached for trial ; where it is necessary to make a motion be- fore_ trial ; and where a defend- ant in an action files a petition in bankruptcy, until the bankruptcy court can pass upon his applica- tion for a discharge. In the last case proceedings in a state court may be stayed by an order of a judge of the Federal courts. The court in which an action is pending may order a stay of pro- ceedings, or it may be ordered by a superior court. Execution upon_ a judgment will be stayed pending the determination of an appeal, upon a proper bond being furnished. Stays, ropes, usually of wire, which support a mast by extend- ing from it to the ship's hull in a fore-and-aft plane, the fore stays being led to the bow and the back stays running to the stern and contributing a certain amount of side support. On these stays are rigged sails known as staysails. A ship is said to be 'in stays' when her head points to the wind, and the sails are loose while she is going about. To 'miss stays' is to fail to come up in the direction of the wind so as to get on the other tack. Stead, William Thomas (1849-1912), English journalist, born at Embleton, Northumber- land ; was appointed editor of the Northern Echo, Darlington, in 1871, and in 1880 assistant editor of the Pall Mall Gazette. Three years later he succeeded to the editorial chair. He was the first to introduce American journalism, e.g., the system of interviewing and illustrations, as well as 'extras,' into the English press, and thus founded what became known as the 'new jour- nalism.' A great sensation was created by his series of articles, 'The Maiden Tribute to Modern Babylon' (July, 1885). A sen- tence of three months' impris- onment upon Stead, and the Stealingr KFP 416 Steam Hammers passing of the Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1885, were two incidents arising out of this. In 1890 he started the Review _ of Reviews, a monthly magazine, which has achieved a great suc- cess. He also founded the American Review of Reviews (1891), the Australasian Review of Reviews (1894), and the 'Masterpiece Library of Penny Poets, Novels and Classics' (1895). He published from 1893 to 1897 Borderland, a pe- riodical devoted to the subject of psychical research ; and in January, 1904, the Daily Paper, which was, however, discontin- ued after a brief existence. His publications, either in book form or as Pall Mall Gazette 'extras,' include : The Truth about the Navy (1884) ; The Truth about Russia (1888); The Pope and the New Era (1889) ; // Christ Came to Chicago (1893); The Labor War in the United States (1894) ; Satan's Invisible World — A Study of Despairing De- mocracy (1897) ; The Ameri- canization of the World (1902) ; and, in French, The Conference at The Hague. He lost his life in the Titanic disaster (April 15, 1912). Stealing^. See Burglary, Larceny, and Robbery. Steam, the transparent, col- orless gas into which water is converted when it vaporizes. This change takes place quietly and by evaporation from the surface if the vapor pressure is below the external pressure : thus at the temperature of melt- ing ice (0° c.) the vapor pres- sure is only 4 mm. of mercury (.077 lb. per sq. in.), but it in- creases with rise of temperature, till at 100° c. (212° f.) it be- comes equal to 760 mm. of mer- cury (14.7 lbs. per sq. in.). If the external pressure is that of the atmosphere, it will be ap- proximately equal to this amount, and with the slightest excess of the vapor pressure over it the change of the water into steam occurs rapidly and with ebulli- tion. If the external pressure is greater than that of the atmos- phere, as in a steam boiler, boil- ing does not occur till the water is at a much higher tempera- ture : for example, in a boiler giving steam at 250 lbs. per sq. in. the temperature of the water is approximately 205" c. (401° F.) instead of 100° c. Steam under these conditions in the presence of water is called sat- urated steam, and is of a definite density for each pressure. This density is the greatest that steam can possess under the given pressure, and also corresponds to a particular temperature, fall of temperature producing a fall of pressure and condensation of some of the steam, while rise of temperature produces the con- verse effect, the pressure increas- ing much more rapidly than the temperature. Observations of the relation between the two were very carefully made by Regnault, and the results tabu- lated, though in the absence of the tables they may be calcu- lated from the equation given B c by Rankine : log p — a — - — — , T where p is the pressure and T the absolute temperature ; and for pounds on the square inch and degrees of the Fahrenheit size, A = 6.1007, log B = 3.43642, log c = 5.59873. If the pressure is required in inches of mercury, A = 6.4095, while for centigrade degrees log b = 3.18115 and log c = 5.08819. The absolute tem- perature in Fahrenheit degrees is found by adding 461.2 to the temperature f., and in centigrade degrees by adding 273 to the temperature c. If steam is heated away from water, it is said to be 'super- heated,' and then obeys the ordi- nary laws governing the expan- sion of gases. The quantity of heat required to bring about the change of state from water to steam changes with the tempera- ture at which evaporation takes place, about 600 calories being required to evaporate 1 gram at 0° c, 536 calories at 100° c. (1,146 B.T.u. to evaporate 1 lb. at 212° f.), thereafter diminish- ing, till at 200° c. it is reduced to about 470 calories. This fall- ing off may be calculated from the expression l = (heat required to convert water into steam at t" c.) = 606 - .7t; but this prob- ably only holds good for mod- erate temperatures, as ^ water reaches its critical point, at which the difference between liq- uid and vapor can not be distin- guished, at a temperature of 365° c. To heat the steam itself requires .481 calorie per gram per degree c. (.481 b.t.u. per lb. per degree f.) at constant pres- sure and .346 calorie at constant volume. In this way, though the total amount of heat required to generate steam increases as the temperature at which it is re- quired rises, yet owing to the falling off in the heat of vapori- zation the difference is but small, and for use in steam-engines is overbalanced by the increased economy due to the higher work- ing temperature. Steam naturally occupies a very much larger volume than the water it is obtained from : thus 1 volume of water at ordi- nary temperature produces about 1,700 volumes of steam at 100° c. The vapor is lighter than air at the same temperature, and, contrary to the common idea, i.^ invisible ; the white cloud seen issuing from a steam-pipe, and usually called 'steam,' is in real- ity a fog of minute liquid parti- cles produced by condensation. Besides its commonest use as the working substance in en- gines, steam is also largely em- ployed for heating, its large la- tent heat being restored on con- densation, for introducing mois- ture in various operations, and for disinfection ; thus saturation of clothing, etc., with steam un- der slight pressure is very effec- tive in that respect. Steam is also an excellent fire-extin- guisher if the fire is burning in an enclosed space, such as a com- partment in a ship's hold, which can be effectually filled with steam. Steam and Pneumatic Hammers. The shaping of hot metal by forging is one of civilization's oldest arts. Be- fore the advent of power, the blacksmith provided the energy ; with commercial development of the steam hammer in the 1840's there was laid the foundation for modern industrial products. The locomotive, power-plant equipment, automobiles, house- hold devices, farm machinery, and countless other items in common use require one or many forgings in their construction. As a consequence, several thou- sand steam and air-operated forging hammers were in use in the United States in 1945. The United States forging in- dustry was considerably extend- ed during the years of the Sec- ond World War. To produce the great flood of forgings re- quired for shell, gun parts, tanks, aircraft engines, ships, and many other military com- ponents, an 80 per cent expan- sion took place in installations of steam and air-operated forg- ing hammers during the five- year period 1940-45. Steam and pneumatic ham- mers shape steel, aluminum, brass, and other metals by im- pact forging. Maximum applica- tion of force occurs when an upper die, fastened to a movable ram, strikes the workpiece which is supported by a lower die. on an anvil. The forging action continues until the upper die is brought to rest by absorp- tion of kinatic energy in the plastic deformation of the metal. By manipulation of controls, the hammer driver can obtain any desired effect within the capac- ity of his machine ; that is, a single dead blow of maximum force for maximum penetration and flow of metal can be used, or he can apply a light stroke for finishing purposes. All modern forging hammers steam Hammers KFP 417 Steam Hammers are of double-acting design. average force of that blow can Through suitable valve arrange- be determined if it is known how ment, steam can be admitted to far the ram moves in giving up the upper or the lower sides of its energy. Sometimes the force the piston in the steam cylinder, involved is so great that the lay- depending upon the desired di- man would hesitate to believe the rection of ram travel. Thus, figures. forging dies are often made with several impressions, the operator manipulating the piece to them in succession for progressive shaping. Forging hammers are distin- guished from drop hammers by Fig. 1 — Steam Drop Hammer. Fig. 2 — Lower Die for Drop Hammer {Upper Die Similarly Machined). Fig. 3 — Single-Frame Forging Hammer. Fig. 4 — Parts Like Alloy- Steel Locomotive Connecting Rods Forged on Double-Frame Steam Hammers. the ram is lifted quickly to the desired height by steam pres- sure, and on the downstroke a greater velocity is possible than by gravity fall. The kinetic en- ergy of the blow at the instant of impact can be calculated by estimating the mean effective pressure in the steam cylinder, and knowing the weight of the falling mass. With the kinetic energy of the blow known, the Two forms of steam hammers are built : the steam drop ham- mer and the steam forging ham- mer. The drop hammer is so called, because it is used for making forgings in closed-im- pression dies, which form the bar of metal to the exact shape and size of the die cavity when closed. Excess material is forced out to form a flash which is later trimmed off. Drop- two circumstances: (1) flat dies are used (sometimes they have simple grooves in the face for shaping and sizing purposes), and the billet or bar is manipu- lated between these dies for re- ducing the cross-section or shap- ing purposes ; and (2) the anvil, except in small sizes of ma- chines, is mounted on a separate foundation. In the drop ham- mer it is necessary to mount the steam Hammers KFP 418 Steam-engine frame rigidly on the anvil to pre- serve accurate alignment of the upper and lower dies. With the forging hammer it is not neces- sary to have the anvil rigidly connected with the frame of the machine. Probably the drop hammer is the more important factor in American industry than the forging hammer, al- though the latter is more widely distributed. Steam hammers are rated by the weight of the reciprocating parts. In the case of forg- ing hammers this rating includes the weight of the piston, piston rod, ram, and upper die. Since dies are not furnished with drop hammers, and the die weights will vary considerably, the rat- ing of drop hammers covers only the weight of the piston, piston rod, and ram. Two frame styles are utilized in the construction of forging hammers. The first, or single frame, is C-shaped, with the ram at the front. Double-frame hammers have two columns sup- porting the piston and cylinder between them, and furnishing guides for the ram. Drop ham- mers are double-frame machines. There is a wide variation in the capacity and ratings in which the various types of ham- mers are built. Single-frame forging hammers are built with ratings from 50 lb. to 6,000 lb. or more. Double-frame forg- ing hammers may range from 1,000 lb. to 24,000 lb., the latter machine standing 25 ft. or more above the floor line. Steam drop hammers of 50,000 lb. ratings were built during the war to pro- duce large drop forgings in alu- minum, but customary ratings range downward to 1500 lb. or smaller. Some idea of the tre- mendous amount of energy con- tained in a blow is furnished by this example: In a single-frame forging hammer rated at 1100 lb., where the falling weight is 1200 lb., the cylinder bore is 10 inches, the mean effective steam pressure is 80 lb. per sq. in., and the actual stroke is 27 in., it has been calculated that the average force of the blow amounts to over 800 tons. Compressed air is frequently used for operating any of the so-called steam-drop, or steam- forging hammers. Pressures of 80 to 100 lb. per sq. in. are used. Of course, hammers de- signed especially for operation by compressed air are on the market. These are generally used for light work, although some very large drop-hammers have been operated on com- pressed air rather than stearn. Hydraulic presses are widely used for such work as cogging down ingots or for forging large shafting or similar heavy parts. These machines may be either straight hydraulic types, where- in the fluid is pumped into the cylinder, or the steam-hydraulic type in which steam is used to boost the hydraulic pressure. The former provides continuous velocity and power through a relatively long stroke ; the latter continuous velocity and greater power through a relatively short stroke. The distinction between a hydraulic press and a hammer is that the former exerts a slow squeeze, whereas the hammer has high impact velocity and ex- erts great force because of the kinetic energy stored in the ram. Some alloys are worked better by the low velocity squeeze of the hydraulic press than by the high velocity impact of the ham- mer. Where the mass of the piece being worked is large in proportion to the hammer, the press will often work the metal more uniformly. On the other hand, large flat-die hammers of the double-frame type are gener- ally used for finishing bars of tool steel or high-alloy steels, where considerable impact is required to start plastic ^ deformation. Such work requires a short stroke of very high force. Some simple drop forgings have been made on the hydraulic press, hut applications have been limited by die life and excessive press cost for a machine able to exert a tonnage equal to the average force of blow by the hammer. Steam-chest. (1.) Of an en- gine, the chamber in which the valve works which admits steam to the cylinder. ^ (2.) In textile printing, a tank in which cloths are steamed to fix their colors. Steam-engine. The steam- engine, in its many forms, is the agent by means of which part of the energy stored up in the steam, as supplied by a boiler, is converted into mechanical or useful work. It is well known that Hero of Alexandria (prob- ably of the first or second cen- tury B.C.) described in his work entitled Spiritalia seu Pneumati- ca the use of steam to drive a kind of steam-turbine ; also that the Italian engineer Branca (1629) made a wheel to rotate by means of a jet of steam which impinged on vanes set on its rim. These, however, were not much more than toys, and it was not until the time of the Marquis of Worcester (1663), Savery, Pa- pin, Newcomen, and Watt that the energy of steam was applied to any useful purpose. The earlier steam-engines were used almost entirely for pumping water from mines. Savery's en- gine (1698) was the first prac- tical steam-engine, and consisted of two egg-shaped vessels of equal size, the upper and lower ends of which could be connected alternately with a boiler and with a pipe leading to a well, respec- tively. One of the vessels hav- ing been filled with steam, com- munication with the boiler was shut off, and the steam condensed by the cooling action of a jet of water on the outside of the ves- sel. This resulted in a partial vacuum being formed, and water was forced by the pressure of the atmosphere from the well in- to the vessel. Fresh steam was then admitted, and the water forced by it from the vessel to a tank at some higher level. This action went on alternately in the two vessels ; while one was fill- ing the other was being emptied. This engine has a modern repre- sentative in the pulsometer, in which the principle of action is practically the same. The first steam-engine with cylinder and piston was no doubt the invention of Denis Papin (1690), who suggested that a vacuum could be formed under a piston by the condensation of steam previously used for rais- ing the piston. Fifteen years later Papin devised a modified form of his first engine, consist- ing of a displacement chamber or cylinder with a diaphragm or piston floating on the top of the water. When communication was made with the boiler, steam acted upon the upper surface of the diaphragm, pressing it down and forcing the water through a pipe fitted with a non-return valve into a vessel at a higher eleva- tion. At the conclusion of a working stroke (down) the steam was allowed to escape through a cock, and more water was ad- mitted from the source of sup- ply, bringing the piston to its top position again, ready for the next down stroke. Papin's sec- ond engine can hardly be looked upon as an improvement on his first, as it had many of the de- fects of Savery's engine, while the first was, without doubt, an atmospheric engine, afterwards elaborated by Newcomen and Watt. Papin also introduced a mass of hot metal into a recess in the top of the piston, with the object of keeping the steam dry. He^ also invented a boiler with an internal fire-box, a type which is now in common use. Papin did not reach a practical success in any of his inventions, but he paved the way for others. Newcomen, in conjunction with Galley (1705), made the piston engine a practical machine. New- comen's was an atmospheric en- gine ; in this type the piston is forced down by the pressure of the atmosphere, a partial vacuum having been previously formed within the cylinder. Newcomen's steam-engine 419 Steam-engine engine consisted of a vertical cylinder, open at the top and placed above the boiler. The piston was connected by a chain with one end of an overhead rocking beam, the opposite end of the beam having a long pump- rod hung from it, also a heavy weight or counterpoise to bring the piston to the top of its stroke when steam was admitted into The piston is connected to the crank D through a piston rod PR and a connecting rod cr. The reciprocating motion of the pis- ton is thus converted into a ro- tary motion' of the crank shaft. The piston is made to move to and fro in the cylinder by the action of the steam, which is ad- mitted alternately to the oppo- site ends of the cylinder through Elevation Sectional Plan the cylinder from the boiler. Steam was then shut off, and a jet of cold water allowed to enter the cylinder, condensing the steam and producing a partial vacuum. The pressure of the atmosphere acting on the upper face of the piston forced it down and lifted the pump-rod at the other end of the beam. The con- densation of the steam inside of the cylinder was Savery's inven- tion, and Savery claimed and received an interest in the New- comen engine. About 1711 New- comen's engine began to be intro- duced for pumping water out of mines. In 1763 James Watt wae en- gaged in repairing a model of Newcomen's engine belonging to Glasgow University, and from this date the true development of the steam-engine may be said to have begun. Watt saw that it was absolutely essential that the cylinder should be kept as hot as possible to prevent undue loss of steam, and that all condensation must take place in a vessel sepa- rate from the cylinder. To deal with the various inventions and improvements made in the steam-engine by James Watt is beyond the scope of this article, which is meant rather to de- scribe the construction and gen- eral design of a few of the more important and best types of the modern steam-engine. The plain slide-valve steam- engine (Fig. 1) is one of the simplest forms. It consists of a cast-iron cylinder c, here shown in section, fitted with a piston p, which is made steam-tight by means of expansible rings R. ports ss. The face of the piston, opposite to that on which the driving pressure is acting, is for the greater part of the stroke in communication with the exhaust port EP. The steam enters and leaves the cylinder through the steam ports, and is discharged into the atmosphere (non-con- densing; engine), or into a con- denser ' (condensing engine) through the exhaust port. Slide Valve. — The admission of the steam and its discharge -Slide Valve in Mid- position after it has effected its purpose is determined by a slide valve sv, which is made to travel to and fro across the port openings by the action of an eccentric E keyed to the crank shaft cs. The pres- sure of the steam acting on the permits either steam port to com- municate with the exhaust port. The amount by which the slide valve overlaps the outer and in- ner edges respectively of each steam port when in mid position (Fig. 2) is called the 'outside' or 'steam lap' o, and the 'inside' or 'exhaust lap' i. The object of the outside lap is to cut off the steam before the piston has reached the end of a stroke, so as to take advantage of the expan- sive energy of the steam, and thus to work much more econom- ically than if the steam were ad- mitted throughout the entire stroke. The inside lap acts in the same way with regard to the steam leaving the cylinder — a certain portion of the exhaust steam is retained and compressed by the piston, forming an elastic cushion, which assists in bringing the piston, etc., to rest without shock at the end of each stroke. The steam port s begins to open for the admission of steam just before the piston reaches the end of each stroke, so that at the commencement of a stroke the port is open by a small amount, which is called the 'lead.' The dotted lines show the valve in this position. Admitting steam on the exhaust side just before the end of the stroke completes the cushioning action, and en- ables the full pressure to be brought to bear on the piston at the commencement of each work- ing stroke. Towards the end of the expansion or working stroke the slide valve is in such a posi- tion that the steam can escape through tjie cavity f into the ex- haust port EP. This point is called the 'release.' The driv- ing pressure is thus relieved, and at the commencement of the re- turn stroke, owing to the further motion of the valve, there is ample opening for the exhaust steam to pass out of the cylinder without producing undue back pressure, A delayed release causes excessive back pressure, and reduces the effective driving pressure on the piston. The respective positions of the slide valve (in section) and pis- ton with reference to the steam and exhaust ports at the begin- ning of a stroke, cut-off, release, Commencement of Stroke Fig. back of the valve keeps it in steam-tight contact with the working face of the cylinder. The cavity f in the centre of the valve Release and compression, are shown in Fig, 3 and in Fig. 4. The arrows indicate the direction in which the slide valve and piston are Vol. XI.— March '29 steam-engine 419 A Steam-engine moving for each position. By these figures it will be apparent that the cut-off, release, etc., do not occur at the same points on ing the point of cut-off to any desired degree. The sUde valve is sometimes made in the form of a piston; an example of a piston Cut-off Fig. 4. Compression the forward and return strokes respectively, because the obliq- uity of the connecting rod to the line of stroke causes the piston to be more advanced in the one stroke and less advanced in the other than it should be to corre- spond exactly with the crank's position. A single slide valve is not suit- able for a cut-off earlier than half-stroke, because with it the period of expansion is equal to the period of compression, and valve is shown in Fig. 6. The action is identical with that of a the inner openings get their steam from two passages a a cast in the body of the valve. It is therefore evident that, with a given movement of the valve, the area of port opening will be twice that obtained with an or- dinary slide valve; consequently the travel of the valve can be considerably reduced. The eccentric, which gives the reciprocating motion to the slide valve, is set with its radius oe (Fig. 8) in a definite position with respect to the crank CO: thus the angle 6 is termed the 'angular advance of the eccen- tric,' and the eccentric radius is simple slide valve. The total pressures on the opposite ends of a piston valve are practically Fig. 5. — Meyer Variable Expansion Gear consequently many engines have two sets of valves, one set work- ing at the back of the other, as in Fig. 5, which shows a form known as the 'Meyer variable ex- pansion gear.' The steam admis- sion, release, and compression aye determined by a main valve MV, and the cut-off is effected by the two valves or blocks vv, which slide across the back of the main valve and are operated by a separate eccentric. The cut-off valve spindle s is usually pro- vided with a right and left hand screw working in suitable nuts equal; consequently very little force is required to operate it. Piston rings are fitted to the 90 + 6 degrees in advance of the crank, ef is perpendicular to cf, and OF is equal to lap plus lead. The travel of the valve is equal to twice the throw or radius of the eccentric; also the eccentric radius is equal to the lap of the valve plus the maximum opening of the port to steam. The valves discussed were ac- tuated by eccentrics fixed by a key or a set screw to the crank- shaft and the cut-off is constant regardless of the load. Most modern engines have the point of cut-off varied to suit the load while allowing full pressure in the steam chest. On a ma- jority of high-speed engines some form of shaft governor is used. Compression Fig. 8. valve to make it steam-tight. In large engines especially of the marine type, double-ported valves Fig. 6. — Piston Valve within each valve, and by rotat- ing this spindle the valves vv may be made to separate, or to come closer together, thus vary- VoL. XL— March '29 have been adopted. (See Fig. 7.) With this form of valve there are two openings to each steam port instead of one, and These governors usually change the valve travel and at the same time change the angle of ad- vance. On heavy load the valve travel is made greater, causing the valve to uncover the steam port a greater amount and at the same time the angle of advance is decreased, making admission, cut-off, release and compression later. The position of the gov- ernor weight arm, the eccentric- ity and angle of advance for light and heavy loads are shown in Figs. 9 and 10. If cut-off is made less than one- half it is necessary to have a valve with long steam laps and a long travel. The resultant size of the valve, being acted upon its back by the pressure in the chest will cause too much fric- tion. Consequently the valve is steam-engine 419 B Steam-engl|ie made partly or completely bal- anced to relieve this pressure. If the valve is not balanced quantity of steam which is to a large extent non-effective. To remedy these defects, and to give /ncreased angle ofacfyance Fig. 9 one-half cut-off is about the short- est that can be used. The slide valve found most often with shaft governors is the balanced double-ported type, Fig. 11. In this valve steam is admitted to the steam port through the port in the valve and at the edge of the valve. The exhaust steam in the usual de- sign flows by the exhaust edge of the valve and not through the port. Since the eccentric is fastened to the flywheel which in turn is keyed to the shaft the only valve adjustment ordinarily possible with the shaft-governor con- trolled valve is equalizing the lead by adjustment of the valve- rod length. Corliss Valve Gear. — In steam- engines fitted with a slide valve the two ports serve a double pur- pose: they conduct the exhaust steam out of the cylinder as well as admit the fresh boiler steam. This produces an alternate cool- ing and heating of the ports, and a better steam distribution, the Corliss valve gear has been intro- duced, and is much used for en- gines of moderate speed. In this system each end of the cylinder is Ptsssure P/af& fitted with Corliss valve gear is shown in Fig. 12. The valve A is a portion of a cylinder, and is made to oscillate through a small angle, on a cylindrical face in which there is a steam-port lead- ing to the cylinder. In the Cor- liss gear the steam-valves open to the full extent, and with equal rapidity, whether the cut-ofl is to be early or late; they remain open as long as required for the admission of steam, and then close almost instantaneously. A general view of the Corliss gear on a large engine is illustrated in Fig. 13. The steam-valves are opened by links connected with a wristplate which is operated from an eccentric on the crank shaft. The sudden closing of the steam-valves is effected through a 'trip' or trigger mechanism con- nected with the governor, which causes a catch to be released when the moment for cutting off the supply of steam to the Fig. 11. provided with two separate valves and ports for the admis- sion and discharge of the steam. The valves are placed as close as possible to the working barrel of ^ -ear A/ Cutoff. cylinder has arrived, and the valve instantly flies back to its normal position covering the steam-port. The exhaust valves are opened and closed through Throttle 1 Wrat Hate-, causes a loss of steam due to con- densation; the ports are also somewhat long, and contain a Fig. 12. the cylinder; consequently the ports are very short. A trans- verse section through a cylinder links connected to the wristplate. The steam-valves are connected by suitable linkwork to dash-pots Vol. XI. — March '29 steam-engine 420 Steam-engine whose function is to return the valves quickly and noiselessly when the governor releases the trip-catch. Each dash-pot is fitted with a piston, which is moved upwards by the valve centric controlled by a shaft gov- ernor. To obtain the same quick opening and closing of the valves, each designer has evolved a kine- matic system of levers; some of these, notably the Armstrong, symmetrical it does not have to leak and the engine can have the minimum of clearance. It also permits higher revolution of the engine, giving a greater output for a given cylinder. In Fig. 14 Fig. 13. — Allis-Chalmers Horizontal Corliss Engine — Valve Gear Side gear during the steam admission; a vacuum is formed under the piston, which is forced down by atmospheric pressure the instant that the trip-catch is released by the governor. Sometimes the piston of the dash-pot is moved upwards against the pressure of a spring in preference to depend- ing upon a vacuum. Non-Releasing Corliss Gear. — As soon as engine-speeds above 150 r.p.m. are used, the releasing mechanism of the Cor- liss engine does not work satis- factorily. To meet this situa- tion several designers have aban- doned the detaching gear and have connected the valve lever to the wristplate. The wrist- plate in turn is driven by an ec- VOL. XI. — March '29 closely approximates the action of the releasing Corliss gear. The exhaust valves are handled by a second and fixed eccentric. Poppet Valve Engines. — While the Corliss valve was quite suitable as long as steam tem- peratures were low, this long valve tends to warp and leak under high temperatures such as are employed in modern plants. This led to the wide adoption of the poppet valve. A poppet valve similar to those used in automobile engines was used on steam engines as early as 1800, This, however, was unbalanced, having but a single disk. The modern poppet valve is balanced by the adoption of two seating disks. As this valve is light and is a cross section of the Nordberg poppet four- valve engine. The economy of these engines is al- most as good as that of a com- pound Corliss. An Erie City Lintz poppet-valve engine is shown in Fig. 15. Governors. — Engines that are required to run at a steady speed must be provided with a gover- nor, whose function is to bring the work done by the steam in the engine cylinder into corre- spondence with the actual work being done by the engine itself in driving machinery. Even if the load on the engine be constant, variations in the steam pressure still make regu- lation necessary. In the case of the steam-engine, regulation is effected in one of two ways. The older method is that first intro- duced by Watt, and consists in varying the pressure of the steam supplied to the engine by open- ing or closing more or less a valve in the supply pipe. This method of regulation is known as 'throt- tling,' and the regulating valve as the 'throttle valve.' It is still extensively used, especially for small engines. The other method consists in varying the volume of steam supplied to the engine by altering the point of cut-off. The second method, being the more efficient of the two, is chiefly used on large sta- tionary engines. In gas and oil engines, regulation is sometimes effected by cutting off the gas or oil supply, thus causing the en- gine to miss one or more explo- sions whenever the speed rises too high. Such governors are called 'hit-and-miss' governors. Governors are usually of the centrifugal type, of which the pendulum governor of Watt, shown in Fig. 16, may be taken Fig. 14. steam-engine 421 Steam-engine as the simplest. Two heavy balls are fixed at the ends of two links, the other ends of which are pivoted to a vertical spindle, driven from the engine shaft. Owing to centrifugal force, the balls fly outwards, and in doing so raise a sleeve, which slides on the spindle, and is connected with the throttle valve. If the speed of the engine rises above its normal, the balls fly farther out and the sleeve is raised, clos- ing the throttle valve a little, and Fig. 16. — Watt's Governor A, As commonly used; b, original form. reducing the pressure of the steam supplied to the engine. When the speed falls, the balls move inwards, and the throttle valve is opened a little, increasing the pressure of steam supplied to the engine. In the figure the arms are shown jointed to the ~7 Fig. 17. spindle; but they are sometimes pivoted to a short cross-bar rigid- ly attached to the spindle, as shown diagrammatically in Fig. 17, or as in Fig. 18, where the arms are crossed, the spindle be- ing slotted out to allow them to pass through. Fig. 19 shows a modification of Watt's governor, the original form being now seldom used. It is known as the 'loaded Watt governor,' or the 'Porter gover- nor,' after its inventor. As will be seen from the figure, there is a large central weight resting on the sleeve and sliding with it on the spindle. Loading a governor in this manner gives it more power to overcome frictional re- sistances than an unloaded gov- ernor with revolving balls of the same weight. The speed of rev- olution of a loaded governor is much higher than that of an un- loaded one. In some similar forms of governor the central Fig. 18. weight is replaced by a spring. Such governors are often spoken of as 'spring controlled.' In any governor of the Watt, or pendulum type, the height h (Figs. 17 and 18) determines the number of revolutions required to maintain equilibrium. Con- sequently a governor arranged as shown in Fig. 16 can be made very sensitive, because such an arrangement allows the balls to move a considerable distance for a slight change of height h. Very sensitive governors are de- sirable only for high-speed en- gines, and for these the shaft governor is preferable to the pendulum type. In large stationary engines the governor often controls the steam-supply by operating a trip which allows the admission valve to close. This is the case in the well known CorlivSS gear, in which the valve is closed suddenly by the action of atmospheric pres- sure on a piston below which is a partial vacuum. The governor merely determines the position of the trip in this gear, and hence is composed of light parts which are easily moved. Sensibility and Isochronism. — If there were no friction, only one position of the governor balls would be possible for any partic- ular speed; and since the steam supply depends upon the posi- tion of the balls, the speed of the engine must vary for different loads. When the variation of speed allowed by the governor between no load and full load is small, the governor is said to be 'sensitive.' Fig. 19. — Porter Governor Apart from friction, it would be possible to make a governor in which only one speed was pos- sible, the slightest variation from the given speed sending the balls into the extreme up or down position. Such a governor would be called 'isochronous.' Friction prevents the attainment of iso- chronism, and also in practice a certain amount of stability is nec- essary in order to counteract the tendency to oscillate violently up and down whenever the speed changes from the normal. The governor shown diagram- matically in Fig. 17 may be made isochronous for small displace- ments by suitably proportioning the cross-bar from which the arms are hung. In practice it is made rather shorter than this in order to give the necessary stabil- ity. This arrangement is known as Farcot's governor, from its inventor. Hunting. — When an engine changes its speed there is always Vol. XI.— March '29 Fig. 15. — Erie City Lintz Engine steam-engine 421 A Steam-engine an interval of 'lag* before the governor produces its effect, due partly to the governor not re- sponding instantly to the change of speed of the engine, and partly to the response of the governor not producing an immediate effect on the engine; for the steam already in the engine will continue to do its work, and if cut-off has occurred, it is not till the next stroke that the action of the governor can begin to take effect. In compound engines in particular, the steam, after pass- ing through the high-pressure cylinder, passes into the low- pressure cylinder, continuing to do work for almost a revolution before the action of the governor can take full effect. The result is that if the governor be too sen- sitive, a sudden decrease of the load on the engine may increase the speed considerably before the action of the governor makes it- self felt; and in consequence the governor moves too far, and re- duces the steam supply below what is necessary for the dimin- ished load. This causes the speed to be diminished too much, and the same effect is produced in the opposite direction. The oscillation which thus tends to be set up is known as 'hunting.' Shaft Governors. — The gover- nors of high-speed engines are sometimes fixed directly to the crank shaft of the engine, often within the fly-wheel, the arms of which serve as centres for the revolving weights. The centrif- ugal force of the revolving weights is resisted by springs. Governors of this type often regulate by varying the cut-off, by altering the angle of advance and the throw of the eccentric. The latest development in shaft governors is the 'inertia- governor,' (Fig. 9). In this device the revolving weights, when in equilibrium, are so situated that they will move out of position by their own inertia if the speed of the engine changes. This ar- rangement makes a governor which responds very quickly even for a slight change of speed. Hydraulic or Pump Governors. — In this type of governor a small pump driven from the engine pumps water into a small cylinder with a piston held down by a spring, the piston being con- nected with the regulating mech- anism. The water escapes from the vessel by an orifice, the size of which is so regulated that at normal speed the pressure is just sufficient to support the piston against the pressure of the spring. If the speed rises, the pressure in the cylinder is in- creased and the piston is raised, reducing the steam supply. Marine Governors. — Many forms of governing apparatus have been devised to control marine engines, and so prevent their racing when the screw breaks out of the water as the vessel pitches in a heavy sea. Some of these governors have a pendulum that swings in a fore- and-aft plane, cutting off the steam as the stern of the ship rises and admitting full pressure as it falls. Others depend on the pressure of the water on a dia- phragm at the stern of the vessel. When the stern rises and the pressure becomes small, the steam is cut off. All these de- vices have been found to be poor, however, because the governing action is too tardy, occurring after the screw has broken water, while the steam should be shut off before that happens. As such governors are needed only in stormy weather, they are fitted merely as a precaution, the gov- erning in a storm being usually done by the engineer on watch, who shuts off and turns on the steam at the right instant. Condensers. — The effective driving pressure on the piston of an engine at any instant is equal to the difference between the for- ward and the back pressure act- ing on the opposite faces of the piston. In a non-condensing en- gine the exhaust steam is dis- charged against the pressure of the atmosphere and other resist- ances due to the friction of the steam in the ports, passages, etc.; consequently the back pressure is usually from 15 to 18 lbs. per sq. in. (absolute). By condensing the exhaust steam in a suitable condenser fitted with an air- pump or its equivalent, a vacuum is formed, and the back pressure reduced to 3 or 4 lbs. per sq. in. (absolute), thus very ma- terially increasing the effective pressure on the piston. A con- siderable economy is thereby ef- fected in the workmg of a steam- engine by using a condenser. See Condenser. Compound Engines. — The eco- nomical working of an engine is greatly augmented by using steam at a high initial pressure and expanding it to the lowest possible practicable terminal pressure; in a condensing engine the terminal pressure is usually about 10 lbs. per sq. in. (abso- lute), and from 18 to 40 lbs. per sq. in. in a non-condensing engine. Unfortunately, if the full expansion of the steam is carried out in one cylinder, the interior of the latter is subjected to a considerable variation in tem- perature, and in consequence a large proportion of the incoming steam is condensed during the admission part of the stroke without doing any work. The compound engine is designed to reduce the waste of steam due to cylinder condensation by divid- ing the total expansion into two or more stages, carried out in two or more cylinders, the volume of the last cylinder being several times the volume of the first. The variation in temperature in any one cylinder is thus brought within limits which are not ex- cessive. The number of cylin- ders and their relative volume proportions depend upon the ini- tial pressure of the steam and the total range of expansion. For an engine to be economical as re- gards steam and fuel consump- tion, until recently it has been felt that the compound system must be adopted. In a compound engine the total expansion of the steam usually is carried out in two stages: there will be one 'high-pressure' cylin- der, into which the steam is first Fig. 20. — Westinghouse Compound Engine Vol XL— March '29 steam-engine 421 B Steam-engine admitted, and one or two 'low- pressure' cylinders. The second or last stage in the expansion may be divided equally between two low-pressure cylinders, when one cylinder would be inconveni- ently large. In triple-expansion engines there are three stages of expansion, and the cylinders are York, consists of a pair of two- cylinder compound engines con- nected to each end of a crank- shaft supported in two Dearings. Mounted on the shaft between the bearings is the armature of a 7,500 kilowatt alternating gen- erator, which takes the place of a fly-wheel. Each engine of the Fig. 21. termed 'high pressure,' 'inter- mediate,' and 'low pressure' re- spectively. Occasionally en- gmes are built with four-stage or quadruple expansion. Marine engines are usually of the triple- expansion type, with three cylin- ders and three cranks; latterly with large engines it has been the practice to have two low-pressure cylinders, and the power dis- tributed among four cranks. The compound system, on ac- count of two or more cranks being used, conduces to smooth- ness of running. Fig. 20 represents the Westing- house compound engine. Like the Willans engine, it is single acting. Each of the connecting rods is attached at its upper end to a wrist pin within the hollow or 'trunk' piston. A single pis- ton valve, located above the two cylinders and driven by an ec- centric through a rock shaft, con- trols the admission of steam to both cylinders. In the position of the valve and cylinder shown, steam entering at the left of the valve chest has been cut off from the high-pressure cylinder, and the expanded steam is about to be discharged through the two ports from the high- to the low-pressure cylinder. This engine is largely used in sizes up to 250 h.p. For larger sizes double-acting engines are preferred. The engine had such a high steam consumption that it is no longer manufactured. A form of compound engine, built by the Allis-Chalmers Co. for the large power stations of the electric railways in New pair has a horizontal high-pres- sure cylinder and a vertical low- pressure cylinder, of 42 and 88 inches diameter respectively, the stroke being 60 inches. The con- necting rods from the two cylin- ders take hold of a single crank pin, 18 inches diameter and 18 inches long, the bearings of each connecting rod being 9 inches long. These are the last of large engines installed in American power plants, giving way to the steam turbine. Una flow Engines . — The modern steam engine is the unaflow and its development was due to the necessity facing the builders of reciprocating engines, its introduction in 1905 had been rapid both by reason of its lower manufacturing costs and its superior steam economy compar- ed to many prevailing types of reciprocating steam engines. The turbine's superior steam economy became an actuality only when condensing operation was possible. Even here its thermal superiority lay almost entirely in the fact that the re- ciprocating steam engine had large heat losses due to condensa- tion and re-evaporation of part of the steam supply. This re- quired more steam to be fed to the cylinder to deliver a horse- power than was needed in the case of the turbine. It was apparent to all that if the reciprocating steam engine was to hold its own, these losses must be eliminated. This had been attempted by four-valve construction, by live-steam jack- eting, by compound and triple expansion and by the use of superheat. Each had an in- fluence upon the economy, but the major part of the cylinder losses still remained. At this point, when engine building was at low ebb, the unaflow steam engine was introduced into the United States and Europe, with a consequent though gradual re- vival of the industry to its present state of activity. A brief outline of the reasons why the unaflow engine was able to eliminate the losses present in other engines is offered. In the usual four-valve engine, for example the Corliss shown in Fig. 21, the live, or boiler, steam enters through the steam valve and exerts a pressure against the piston, causing the latter to do work on the crank. At some point the steam valve closes and the expansive power of the steam comes into play, forcing the pis- ton to the end of its stroke. As Fig. 22. of producing an engine to meet steam turbine competition. From 1910 to 1914 those firms in the United States whose activities were centred chiefly in the building of reciprocating steam engines faced a most dis- turbing condition. The develop- ment of the steam turbine from the volume increases the pressure decreases, and since the tempera- ture of the steam depends on its pressure, the former falls rapidly. When the exhaust valve opens, the now cool steam sweeps back through the cylinder, across the cylinder head and out through the exhaust. The cylinder walls Vol. XL— March '29 steam-engine 422 Steam-engine are above the exhaust tempera- ture, and the cyHnder condensate re-evaporates and carries out a large amount of heat. When the piston again reaches the left end of the cylinder, the steam valve opens, boiler steam enters and the cycle is repeated. The cylinder walls are now at a low some 10 per cent, of its return stroke and traps a cylinderful of the steam at the exhaust pres- sure. This steam is compressed to practically boiler pressure by the action of the piston on the compression stroke, and its tem- perature is raised by the work of compression until at the end of Fig. 23. temperature, and much of the live steam immediately con- denses. The effect is such that often 50 per cent, of the steam entering is condensed immediate- ly and does little work. ^ It is obvious that this loss In the steam engine, not being present in the turbine, where the flow of steam is in one direction from the inlet to the outlet, put the former in a decidedly bad position. Although others had already patented an engine having the same general feature of a central exhaust which has given the engine its name, to Dr. J. Stumpf must be awarded the chief credit for the commercial development of the unaflow engine. The unaflow differs from other steam engines in cylinder construction. In the Stumpf engine steam enters at the cyhnder head and after doing work passes out through a row of exhaust ports uncovered by the piston at the end of its stroke. If the engine is double-acting, as is usual, the cylinder must be ap- proximately twice as long as the piston stroke and the piston must be as long as its stroke less the exhaust-port width. The row of exhaust ports is then in the middle of the cylinder, as in Fig. 22. The direction of the steam flow is always from the head toward the centre. No heat is picked up from the hot cylinder head and lost through the exhaust. The piston covers the ports when it has moved Vol. XL— March '29 this stroke it is equal to that of the incoming live steam. The head is kept hot by the live- steam jacket, and little heat is either lost or absorbed from the cylinder walls by the steam. The loss due to cylinder condensation is then almost entirely eliminated. The only loss of any consequence that remains is due to the expan- sion being incomplete; that is, when the steam is released at the end of expansion its pressure is above that of the exhaust line. The expansion and compression quired by other steam engines. The adoption of the unaflow engine was by no means im- mediate upon its introduction into the United States. In 1913 one builder engaged in its manu- facture, being followed from year to year by others, until at the present time thirteen com- panies manufacture this engine, many with considerable modi- fication of the original valve-gear designs. Basically the unaflow engine, or rather the unadirectional, steam engine, was the creation of Jacob Perkins, an American who moved to England early in 1812. Here he became interested in high pressure steam, utilizing pressures up to 1200 pounds per square inch. Since high pressures such as Jacob Perkins advocated could not be employed in the engines then in existence, Perkins dis- regarded all the traditions of engine building to produce a machine that not only is the direct progenitor of the modern unaflow engine, but incorporates certain ideas as to the condenser that offer attractions even though not yet adopted. The engine, as patented in 1827, consisted of a single-acting cylinder, Fig. 23, in which the piston overran the exhaust ports. This design was substantially that later patented by Todd and, with the addition of steam jacketing, by Stumpf. In view of the slow speed then employed, it is probable that Perkins used no compression. He actually built this engine and it was installed to put out dry docks in London, Lack of capital and the competition of James Watt's Company pre- vented the Perkins' engine from coming into general use. The unaflow engine lay dor- mant until L. J. Todd, an Eng- FiG. 24. lines are almost true adiabatic, showing that there is still little heat lost to the cylinder walls. By the elimination of the cylinder condensation losses the unaflow is able to deliver the same amount of work with a large saving in steam over that re-^ lishman, patented a double- acting unaflow engine (Fig. 24). This has the same end steam feed and central exhaust as has the modern Stumpf but the heads were not steam jacketed. Stumpf patented the combination of these three features. S team -engine 423 Steam-engine Typical Unaflow Engines. — A typical straight unaflow built by The Elliott Co., makes use of the Stumpf standardized cyl- inder design, while the frame is a cam c. Motion from the gover- nor-controlled eccentric is trans- mitted through an eccentric rod, rocker arm and reach rod A to the cam rod e. The rod E carries the same as that used for years on the four-valve engine of this make, being of the sidecrank bored-guide type. The frame is set on a sub-base which extends under and acts as a support for the cylinder. A cross-section of the cylinder is shown in Fig. 25. The barrel is a single casting with flanges at each end to which are bolted the heads and is pro- vided with an exhaust belt around the centre. The belt has its outlet at the bottom and rests on a split distance piece on the engine sub-base. The steam valves are placed in the cylinder heads, which are completely steam-jacketed. The details of the steam valve are illustrated in Fig. 26. The valve is turned out of a solid steel forging, and to compensate for any slight variation in ex- pansion of the valve and cylinder head, the upper lip of the valve is turned very thin, which makes it somewhat flexible. The lower lip seals on a casting bolted to the cylinder head, while the upper lip rests on a seat or ledge machined in the head casting. The stud holding the lower seat casting is extended to fit into the valve body and in this way serves as a guide for the valve, prevent- ing the side pressure of the steam entering the cylinder to throw the valve off' its seat when clos- ing. The valve stem passes through a guide that rests in a machine recess in the head. The upper end of the valve stem screws into the crosshead d, which is held in the valve bonnet. This crosshead is provided with a hardened-steel roller b, which, coming in contact with the cam c, lifts the cam, crosshead and valve. Closing of the valve occurs when the cam rod re- verses its travel and the roller b moves under the thin part of the cam c. The Nordberg unaflow engine design follows European prac- tice in the use of a lay shaft upon which the eccentrics are placed and which is driven by the crank shaft through bevel gears. The governor, which is of the centrifugal type, is supported on the layshaft and being con- nected to the steam eccentrics by a sleeve controls the engine speed by altering the eccentric travel and the lift of the steam valves as in case of the Nordberg poppet valve engine. Fig. 14. In Fig. 27 a cross-section of the Skinner unaflow engine with auxiliary exhaust valves is shown. The steam valve (Fig. 28) is of the double-beat poppet design. To eliminate leakage resulting from unequal expansion of the valve and cylinder head, the top portion of the valve is sepa- rate from the valve body and is held down by spring tension. Expansion rings prevent steam leakage between the two parts of the valve. Any inequality of expansion of the valve and seats is compensated for by a slight displacement of the upper part of the valve with respect to the valve body. The Skinner engine Fig. 26. Vol. XI.— March '29 steam-engine 424 Steam-engine has a second feature of merit, an expanding double-beat poppet valve. The upper part of this valve is not rigidly connected to the lower part, but allows an ex- panding and telescopic action and comes in contact with its seat shortly before the lower part, with the result that both seats make steam-tight contact ir- respective of the difference in expansion of the cylinder and extent that the power needed can be generated on a bypass prin- ciple, by running part of the steam through a turbine or engine which exhausts into the heating system. Power, in this case, is strictly a byproduct and its nominal cost is a function of fixed charges only, most of the heat going to the process. On other occasions, however, power demands exceed heating Fig. 27 valve metal. A plant containing three 750 h.p. Skinner unafiow engines is shown in Fig. 29. Since 1927 there has been a marked tendency toward ver- tical designs, using a multiplicity of cylinders. A Chuse six cylin- der unit is shown in Fig. 30. Large Unafiow Engines. — The unafiow engine has been built in sizes larger than has any other type. There has been a four-cylinder Nordberg unit in- stalled in a steel mill that has a maximum capacity of 25,000 H.p. Others of the same make Fig. 28. — Skinner Telescope in steel mills range up to 14,000 H.p. in two cylinder designs. Bleeder or Extraction Engines. — In most industrial plants heating and power demands need to be satisfied simultane- ously, and it is again due to the peculiar characteristics of steam that it can be used to fulfil both these requirements satisfactorily. In many cases heating require- ments predominate to such an Vol. XL— March '29 requirements, or in other words only part of the steam used for the generation of power is needed for heating. While it would be feasible to generate such steam in a separate boiler at heating pressure, a balance sheet will dis- close the fact that it is more economical to generate all the steam at as high pressure as is desirable and expand it down to the heating pressure in a turbine or engine, or in other words, extract the prime mOver after it has performed work in such machine. If the heating pressure is higher than the exhaust pres- sure of the engine, such process is termed 'bleeding.' The economic aspect of the bleeding process is based on the quality of water vapor which perhiits of obtaining high pressure with but little more expense of heat than is required for low pressure. It follows that bleeding is re- stricted to cases where power demands predominate over heat- ing requirements. Because only the amount of steam admitted to a prime mover can be ex- tracted and whenever the rate of steam flow required for power generation is below that of heat- ing demands, makeup steam has to be admitted through a reduc- ing valve. Two-stage, or compound, en- gines, so far, have mostly been used to effect bleeding, because the heating line can be connected to the receiver, and the necessary control is limited to the low- pressure cylinder. It was cus- tomary to operate the engine condensing and select a receiver pressure which would fit the heating requirements. This is an arrangement which works out very well; it has, however, the drawback that during periods of high heating demands the engine cannot carry full load, because the low-pressure cylinder runs practically idle. As the cylinder ratio of bleeder-type engines, however, is small, ratios down to 1 to 1 having been used, the high- pressure cylinder is capable of delivering a good deal more than half the rated power of the machine. Under this condition of maximum steam flow the lubri- cation of the low-pressure cylin- der becomes a matter of difficulty, and it is necessary to maintain a minimum cut-off in this cylinder of 5 to 6 per cent, to insure lubri- cation. This steam, being ex- hausted into the condenser, entails a certain loss. Control of the low-pressure cylinder can be eff^ected in different ways. The simplest method is to interpose a throt- tling valve in the steam inlet to the low-pressure cylinder and a similar valve in the heating line. These valves can be controlled by a single mechanism, prefer- ably an oil relay, and are con- nected so that as one opens the other closes. The low-pressure valve gear is, in this case, set for a fixed cut-off. As this method controls by throttling, it is subject to the shortcoming of all throttling devices. It has, how- ever, some practical value be- cause it can be applied to existing engines. A better way consists in providing a cut-off control for the low-pressure cylinder which regulates for constant receiver pressure. This can take the form of a spring-loaded piston moving in a cylinder which is connected to the heating line; or, as is necessary with valve gears requiring considerable force, com- prise a pilot valve with oil relay and follow up motion. This mechanism influences the low- pressure cut-off only, the high- pressure cylinder being under control of a speed governor. Naturally, during periods of fluctuation in heating steam or power demands, these two con- trols co-operate to maintain the heating pressure and engine speed at the desired values. It is also practical to reverse the method of control and influence the low-pressure cut-off by means of a speed governor and have the heating-pressure regulator act on the high-pressure cut-off. Another form of single-stage engine employs one cylinder end for bleeding, the cut-off of which is under control of a pressure regulator; while the other cylin- der end, with speed governor control, exhausts into a condenser or against other suitable back steam-engine 425 Steam-engine Fig. 29. — Three 750 h.p. Unaflows pressure. The speed governor, naturally, is interlocked with the pressure control so as to prevent overspeeding in case the load should be reduced unduly. A good deal of thought has been given to the problem of in- corporating bleeding mechanism in unaflow engines. Owing to the separation of the two cylinder ends it is possible to bleed a cer- tain amount of steam during the expansion stroke by means of check valves located a certain distance from the exhaust ports.- The amount of steam so bled is dependent upon the load the engine carries and at light loads is small. Professor Stumpf showed by theoretical analysis that with the bleeder ports located at a point in the barrel 0.35 of the stroke from the stroke end, the bleeder pressure could be from 18 to 35 lb. gauge, with 150 lb. gauge pres- sure. With the ports located at mid-stroke, the bleeder pressure could be as high as 57 lb. Fur- thermore, his calculations were based on higher release pressure and atmospheric exhaust. For obvious reasons it is desirable to run the engine condensing if possible. This method appears practical only for purposes of feed water heating. For bleeding larger quantities of steam studies have been made on combinations of auxiliary exhaust valves, check valves back of the auxiliary ex- haust valves and an additional valve in the central exhaust. This valve opens and closes for every stroke of the engine. When this valve is fully opened during the period of central exhaust, the engine operates as a regular unaflow engine. If this valve is maintained closed during this period, all steam, after having expanded, is recompressed in the cylinder up to bleeding pres- sure and is ejected through th:? auxiliary exhaust and the check valves into the bleeder line. The Skinner Engine Company Fig. 30. — Chuse Six-cylinder Unit Vol. XL— March '29 steam-engine 426 Steam-engine made some studies along similar lines for use on its unaflow engine, bleeding through the auxiliary exhaust valves and with the central ports exhausting to the condenser. With the lower release pressures and the lower expansion line in the cylinder it was found that there was a wide variation in the amounts of steam that could be bled if the bleeder ports were fixed in their position with relation to the stroke, and if the load on the engine varied greatly. The company has lately devised a method of shifting the bleeder ports by means of a grid valve A with successively widening ports registering with corresponding ports B throughout the length of the cylinder, as shown in Fig. 31. the stern of a boat driven by steam power. In 1763 William Henry, of Lancaster, Pa., who while in England in 1760 became acquainted with the invention of James Watt, built a steam en- gine and put it in a boat fitted with paddle wheels, and tried it in the Conestoga River, but the boat sank and was lost. In 1774 Comte d'Auxiron and Jouff'roy in France built a paddle-wheel steam vessel, but it sprang a leak and foundered at the wharf be- fore completion. In 1776 Jouf- froy ran a boat 14 ft. long and 6 ft. wide by means of one of Watt's engines and a chain carry- ing 'duck-foot' paddles. In 1783 Jouffroy built another boat, 150 ft. long and 16 ft. wide, with paddle wheels driven by two Fig. 31. The grid a is controlled by a back-pressure diaphragm and is shifted forward or backward lengthwise with the stroke, there- by creating the opening near the beginning of the stroke when the load on the engine is light and near the end of the stroke when the load , on the engine is heavy. Marine Engines. — In 1690 Papin proposed to use his piston- engine to drive paddle-wheels to propel vessels; and in 1707 he applied the steam-engine, which he had proposed as a pumping engine, to driving a model boat on the Fulda at Cassel. In 1736 Jonathan Hulls took out an Englivsh patent for the use of a steam-engine for ship-pro- pulsion, proposing to employ his steamboat in towing. In 1737 he published a well-written pam- phlet, describing this apparatus. In 1752 Bernoulli received a prize from the French Academy of Science for a treatise in which he suggested screw propellers in Vol. XI.— March '29 racks and a ratchet wheel. The trial appears to have been suc- cessful, but Jouffroy met with no encouragement from the French Academy or the French Government and gave up his at- tempts. In 1786 John Rumsey drove a boat at the rate of four miles an hour against the current of the Potomac at Shepherds- town, W. Va., in the presence of General Washington. He used the method of 'jet propulsion,' in which a steam pump forced a stream of water aft. In 1787 John Fitch, at Philadelphia, made a successful trial of a steamboat which had paddles worked at the sides. In a second boat, 60 ft. long and 8 ft. beam, in 1788, he used paddles at the stern. This boat made a number of excur- sions on the Delaware River, making three or four miles an hour. Another of his boats, in 1790, made seven miles an hour and was placed as a passenger boat in a line from Philadelphia to Trenton, occasionally running to Wilmington. In 1788 Wil- liam Symmington, in Scotland, successfully ran a steam vessel, 25 ft. long, 7 ft. beam, with paddle wheels, five miles an hour. A larger vessel in 1789 made seven miles an hour. Patrick Mil- ler of Dalswinton, who had em- ployed Symmington and fur- nished the money for the experi- ment, to the amount, it is said, of over £30,000, dropped the matter just when it was on the verge of success. Several years later Lord Dundas furnished funds to Symmington as engi- neer, and later to Henry Bell, to continue experiments on steam- boats. In 1802 Symmington built the Charlotte Dundas, which was successfully tried on the Forth and Clyde Canal, tow- ing two vessels of 70 tons each and making over three miles an hour. Five years later, in August, 1807, Robert Fulton ran his first steamer, the Clermont, from New York to Albany, 150 miles, in 32 hours, returning in 30 hours. The boat was 133 ft. long, 18 ft. wide, and 9 ft. deep, and was equipped with an engine built in England by Watt. The next month the boat began a regular passenger service be- tween New York and Albany. Fulton, therefore, was the first to make steam navigation an every-day commercial success. In 1812 Henry Bell constructed the Comet, the first passenger vessel built in Europe, and steam navi- gation began to be a practical success in Great Britain. In 1804 Col. John Stevens, of Hoboken, N. J., built a small steamboat, driven by twin screws, and later built a paddle-wheel steamer, using the engine shown in Fig. 31 A, which had a success- ful trial in 1807, just too late to anticipate Fulton, who had been granted a monopoly of the waters of the State of New York. The Phoenix in 1808 was taken to Philadelphia by way of the sea, and thereafter ran on the Dela- ware River. The introduction of the screw propeller in the U. S. S. Prince- ton in 1840 made important changes in marine engines. In 1853 high-pressure steam was introduced into the British navy; but it was not till 1860 that the Victoria was fitted with en- gines working with steam pres- sure of 22 lbs. With the object of reducing the consumption of coal, the Constance, steam-frigate, was in 1862 provided with six cylinders, being thus the earliest example of a warship with a compound engine. The arrange- ment, however, was not very suc- cessful, and no marked improve- ment was effected until 1865, when the Pallas was launched for the British navy, with two steam-engine 427 Steam-engine Fig. 31 a. — Stevens' Early Marine Engine cylinders instead of six, one being four times larger than the other. The steam entered the smaller one at high pressure, in this case 60 lbs., and thence passed into the larger one, which it filled by expansion. It had surface condensers, and was, on the whole, economical in fuel. The success of this ship caused the general adoption of com- pound engines throughout the fleet. Between 1875 and 1880 two improvements were brought about in engine-making — viz. hol- low compressed steel shafting which greatly increased durabil- ity, and at the same time reduced weight; and tandem engines — i.e. the placing of the two cylinders in line instead of side by side, thus effecting a great gain in space. The inverted cylinder en- gine, so called from the manner in which the cylinders are placed above the crank, was the next improvement in naval engines. In 1878 the introduction of the triple-expansion system resulted in an increase of steam pressure from 90 lbs., the limit of the compound type, to at least 150 lbs., with at the same time an economy of fuel. The Rattle- snake, torpedo-boat catcher, of 1886 (550 tons), was the first ship for the British navy to be fitted with engines of the triple- expansion vertical type. A fur- ther development was achieved in the cruisers Blake and Blen- heim (9.000 tons) of 1890-1. In these ships there are four sets of verticle triple-expansion engines, working in pairs. Some modifi- cation of this inverted vertical direct-acting engine had much earlier become general in the mercantile marine, and two, three, and four cylinders have long been common. Engines for ship propulsion are now practically all of the vertical three or four cylinder triple - expansion type, with three or four cranks. The high- pressure, and sometimes the in- termediate, cylinder is fitted with a piston valve, while the low-pressure cylinder is usually provided with a double-ported slide valve. The direction of motion of a marine engine must be capable of being reversed, and for this purpose each cylinder is fitted with some form of revers- ing gear. In the Stephenson gear or Hnk motion (shown diagram- matically in Fig. 32), the type usually adopted, there are two eccentrics, E Ei, symmetrically placed relatively to the crank c, and keyed to the shaft. One of these makes the engine run for- ward and the other makes it run backward. Each eccentric is connected by a rod r to the opposite ends of a curved slotted bar or link L, which can be moved transversely with respect to a block B fitted in the slot or on the bar. The end of the slide valve rod s is attached to the above block, and by moving the link the slide valve may be brought under the influence of either eccentric. Fig. 32. — Stephenson's Link Motion (For explanation, see text.) Vol. XL— March '29 steam-engine 428 Steam-engine The movement of the link is ef- fected through suitable levers by a handle h or (in large engines) by an auxiliary steam-engine. In the upper figure the block is in the middle of the link (mid- gear), and the valve is equally acted upon by both eccentrics; in this position the engine will not run in either direction. In the lower figure the valve is under the direct influence of the eccen- tric E, and is in the full-gear position. With this gear it is also possible to vary the point at which the steam is cut off. By placing the link in any position between mid-gear and full back or forward gear, the travel of forty-three water-tube boilers of the Belleville type, working at a pressure of 300 lbs. per sq. in. Diameter. High-pressure cylinder 43 j in. Intermediate cylinder 71 in. Low-pressure (two) cylinder 81 j in. Stroke 48 in All the cylinders are fitted with separate liners, and are steam- jacketed. The high-pressure cyl- inder is fitted with one piston valve, the intermediate cylmder with two piston valves, and the low-pressure cylinders are fitted with double-ported slide valves. There are four main surface condensers, having a collective blades of manganese bronze; a conical cap is fitted over each propeller nut. The boilers are made up as follows: — Five. boilers having ten elements, with eight element economizers; twenty- eight boilers having nine ele- ments, with seven element econo- mizers; and ten boilers having eight elements, with six element economizers. The total heating surface is 71,970 sq. ft., and the total grate area is 2,310 sq. ft. The boilers are arranged in four groups, each group being in a separate compartment. The up- takes of each group of boilers lead into a separate funnel, mak- ing in all four funnels. Each Fig. 33. — Four-cylinder Triple-expansion Marine Engines the valve is reduced, and the steam cut off at an earlier point of the stroke. All marine en- gines are provided with surface condensers. In many of the best designed marine engines vibration is greatly reduced by having four cranks arranged at certain defi- nite angles with respect to one another according to the Yar- row-Schlick-Tweedle system. In twin-screw steamers there is an engine for driving each propeller shaft. An illustration is given in Fig. 33 of one of two sets of four- cylinder triple-expansion engines for a first-class cruiser. The en- gines are together capable of developing 30,000 i.h.p. when running at 120 revolutions per minute, steam being supplied by Vol. XL— March '29 cooling surface of 32,000 sq. ft. Four 24-inch centrifugal circulat- ing pumps, each driven by inde- pendent engines, are provided for the main condensers. Two air-pumps are provided for each set of engines, worked by levers from the main engines in the usual manner. The shafting is of forged steel, and is hollow, the crank and thrust shafts having an external diameter of 21 inches; and the tunnel shafts 19 inches in diameter, each with an 11-inch hole. The propeller shafts are 21 inches in diameter, with a 12-inch hole, and are fitted with brass liners where they pass through the stern tube, the latter being lined with strips of lignum vitae. The propellers are threc-bladed, and about 19 ft. in diameter, the bosses being of gunmetal and the compartment is subdivided, mak- ing in all eight stokeholds. There are sixteen stokehold fans driven by independent engines. Four main and four auxiliary feed pumps are fitted in the boiler rooms for feeding the boilers. On a thirty-hours' coal-consumption trial at three-quarter full power, these engines developed 22,882 I.H.P. , with a coal consumption of 1.75 lbs. per i.h.p. per hour, the mean speed of the vessel being 21.96 knots per hour. There is a general assumption that the marine steam engine has given way, since the War, to the oil engine, but the facts do not bear out this contention. If it is asked whether to any degree motor tonnage has taken the place of steam tonnage, the answer must be in the negative. steam-engine 429 Steam-engine for what has actually happened is that both have gained at the expense of sail tonnage. Of the percentage decrease in sailing vessels since the beginning of the century, two-thirds has been replaced by steam and only one- third by motor shipping. It must not be forgotten that another factor has been intro- duced namely, tanker tonnage, which now accounts for 10 per cent, of the total shipping afloat, and a considerable per- centage of this type of tonnage is actually motor driven. When this century opened, 75.60 per cent, of the total gross tonnage of the world was steam driven, the balance being still propelled by sails. Five years later the steam shipping had increased to 83.24 per cent, of the total, entirely at the expense of the decrease in sail and in 1910 to 88.97 per cent. In 1911 the first Diesel engined overseas freighter, the Selandia, appeared, and by 1914, the last pre-War year, steam was driving 92.01 per cent, of the tonnage afloat and the Diesel 0.48 per cent.; the amount under sail was only 7.51 per cent, of the total as compared with 24.40 per cent, when the century opened. In 1920, steam-driven tonnage had increased to 92.38 per cent, of the total afloat, motor-driven to 1.67 per cent., and the tonnage under sail was only 5.95 per cent. Five years later, in 1925, the percentage of the steam pro- pelled tonnage to the total had decreased very slightly to 92.30 per cent., sailing tonnage had decreased to 3.50 per cent, and the difference has been made up by motor ships which was then 4.20 per cent, of the total. To- day (1929) 89.21 per cent, of the world's shipping is steam-driven, 8.11 per cent, is motor-driven, and 2.68 per cent, is under sail. What has happened then from a con- sideration of these figures is that since 1910, when the Diesel was first realized to be a sea-going proposition, the loss to sail of 8.35 per cent, of the world's total tonnage has been made good by an increase of 8.24 per cent., in motor ships, steam taking the difference of 0.14 per cent. The steam engine therefore, has not lost by reason of the advent of the Diesel engine except in so far as the Diesel has taken the percentage of sail tonnage which would otherwise have been re- placed by steam. With the advent of high steam pressures the turbine shows a high econ- omy. In addition the unaflow engine has been adapted to marine uses, Fig. 34, and is suitable for vessels under 10,000 tons dead weight. Locomotive Engines. — In 1829 George Stephenson's 'Rocket' won the prize of £500 for the best locomotive engine suitable for passenger traffic. It weighed, with its supply of water, about 4 M tons, and its greatest speed with a small load on a level track was about 30 miles an hour. The ordinary locomotive con- sists of a pair of direct-acting en- gines fixed to a rigid frame, on the top of which is the boiler. The cyHnders of the engines are placed either inside or outside the frame, and are connected in the usual way to two cranks on a single crank shaft, on which they are at right angles to one an- other. One pair of driving wheels of the engine is attached to the crank shaft and the other pairs are driven from the first pair by means of side-rods. The application of the tractive force of the locomotive depends upon the turning of the driving wheels by the engines acting on their cranks. See Locomotive. Various Steam-engines. — In some forms of portable com- pound engine the engine mechan- ism is carried on the top of the boiler, which is of locomotive type, the whole being mounted on travelling wheels, so that it can be readily transported from place to place as required. Semi- portable engines are similar to the above, except that they are without the travelling wheels. Compound traction engines are used for driving machinery and for hauling on roads. They are usually fitted with link-motion reversing gear and a quick-speed throttling governor. The driving wheels are connected by gearing to the engine crank shaft, and two speeds are provided. Steam road rollers are similar in gen- eral design to traction engines, except that the front part is ex- tended somewhat, and a heavy roller substituted for the two front wheels. The boiler for motor omnibuses and cars is usu- ally in the form of a tube made into a coil and heated with a Fig. 34. — Unaflow Marine Engine Vol. XI.— March '30 steam-gauge 429 A Steamship Lines paraffin burner of special con- struction. Ihe feed water is forced through the coil, and is practically converted into steam instantaneously. The exhaust steam is condensed in a suitable condenser. Consult Heck's The Steam-engine; J. Perry's Steam- engines; W. Ripper's Steam-en- gine — Theory and Practice; C. Hurst's Valves and Valve Gear- ing; W. F. Pettigrew's A Manual of Locomotive Engineering; Mey- er's Modern Locomotive Construc- tion; A. Jamieson's Steam and Steam-engines; Lake's The World's Locomotives (1905); Stumpf's The Unaflow Engine (1925); Croft's The Steam Engine (1926); Morri- son's Valve Setting (1926); Pe- trie's Modern trime Movers (1925) ; and the works mentioned under Locomotive. Steam-gauge. See Pressure Gauge. Steam-hammer. See Steam AND Pneumatic Hammers. Steam Heating. See Heat- ing, section Steam Heating. Steaming. See Cookery. Steam Navigation. See Ship-building; Shipping, Mer- chant; Steam-engine, section Marine Engines. Steam-plough. See Imple- ments AND Machinery, Agri- cultural. Steam-pump. See Pumps. Steamship. See the articles referred to under Steam Navi- gation. Steamship Lines. It is not within the scope of the following article to do more than briefly enumerate the various trans- oceanic lines between the United States and Europe, and to indi- cate the various types of service furnished. No attempt will be made to deal with coastwise lines to Cuba, Porto Rico, Bermuda or the Southern States nor will the many steamship lines plying be- tween European, Asian, Austra- lian or African ports be included. Steamship travel in the last twenty-five years, and particu- larly since the war, has known an era of expansion almost without precedent. During this time countries and places hitherto al- most unknown have been brought to a point of accessibility that has been amazing. In the realm of ocean travel, where a journey of fifteen to twenty days from Eu- rope to the United States was considered fast, today the usual crossing of six or seven days is commonplace. The increase in speed of trans- atlantic vessels, and the ingenu- ity of marine architects in plan- ning ships combining the greatest comfort with the utmost luxury, has been a tremendous factor to- wards making desirable and pos- sible a huge yearly exchange of visitors between the United Vol. XL— March '30 States and Europe, particularly on the part of Americans visiting European countries. The United States Line of vessels to Europe is headed by the S.S. Leviathan, formerly the German boat Vaterland, with a gross tonnage of 59,957. It makes the voyage to Southamp- ton in five and a half days and with its luxurious appointments compares favorably with the best hotels in the world. The United States Line fur- nishes other accommodations with its smaller so-called cabin steamers on which there is no distinction of classes and all passengers have the use of the entire ship. These cabin steam- ers are the George Washington, 23,000 tons; the America, 21,000 tons; the Republic, 18,000 tons; and the President Harding and the President Roosevelt, each 14,- 000 tons. They make the cross- ing in from seven and a half to eight and a half days. The American Merchant Line has a fleet of five small steamers, of cabin class and about 9,000 tonnage, sailing between New York and London. The fleet comprises the American Mer- chant, American Trader, Ameri- can Farmer, American Banker, and American Shipper. They take from nine to ten days to make the journey and furnish a very popular service at a moder- ate price. The White Star Line, a British- owned company, is headed by the S.S. Majestic, formerly the German vessel Bismarck, of 56,- 551 tons. It makes the crossing from New York to Cherbourg and Southampton in five and a half days. The Olympic of 46,439 tons crosses in six days and the Homeric, 34,356 tons, in seven days. They all offer excellent service and the utmost comfort and luxury. The accommoda- tions are of three classes, first, second and third. The White Star Line also operates a fleet of cabin steamers from New York to Liverpool, calling at Cobh (Queenstown), Belfast and Glas- gow. Some of them sail to and from Boston, calling at New York. These cabin steamers comprise the new motor ship, Brittanic, 26,000 tons, the Adri- atic, 24,000 tons, the Baltic, 23,- 000 tons, the Cedric, 21,000 tons, the Albertic, 18,940 tons, and the Doric, 16,500 tons. They make the voyage in from eight and a half to nine days and offer good service and all comforts and conveniences. Combined with the White Star Line is the Atlantic Transport Line, which offers a somewhat unique service from New York to London in the S.S. Minnewaska and the S.S. Minnetonka, each 21,000 tons, which carry first- class passengers only. They take nine days for the passage. The Atlantic Transport Line also operates two steamships for tour- ist third class passengers only, the Minnekahda, 17,000 tons and the Minnesota, 11,000 tons. This tourist third class type of accom- modation is of quite recent origin and has proved exceedingly popu- lar, particularly among the stu- dent and professional classes. It offers a good, comfortable serv- ice, much superior to the ordinary third class service, at a price lower than second class service. The Red Star Line, which is a subsidiary of the White Star Company, operates a line of steamers between New York and Antwerp, calling at Plymouth and Cherbourg. Its largest and best boat is the Belgenland, of 27,200 tons, which carries first, second, tourist third and third class passengers. The remainder of the fleet consists of the cabin steamers Lapland, 18,500 tons, Westernland, 16,500 tons, and Pennland, 16,300 tons. The Leyland Line, also a British- owned company, has tourist third class steamers of 12,000 tons run- ning between New York, Liver- pool and London. The Cunard Steamship Line, a British organization, one of the oldest and best known of the larger lines, has for its leading vessel the Mauretania, 30,000 tons, one of the fastest of the ocean liners and until 1929 hold- ing the record of a crossing in less than five and a half days. The Cunarders run between New York and Cherbourg, touching at Southampton, the usual time being six days; and between New York and Liverpool in an average of seven and a half days. The Berengaria, of 52,500 tons, and the Aquitania of 45,600 tons, are among the best and most elabo- rately equipped of all the trans- atlantic liners and make the trip between New York and Cher- bourg in six days. Sailing to Liverpool are the Cunard Line steamers Franconia. Laconia, Samari'i, Scythia and Carinthia, all of 20,000 tons, and all taking about seven and a half days for the trip. The Cunard Line also operates the cabin steamers Carmania, Caronia, Lancastria, Tuscania, Aurania, Ascania, Alaunia, Antonia, An- dania and Ausonia between New York and Boston and Liverpool and London. For the service direct to Scot- land the Anchor Line, with steamers of from 16,500 to 17,250 tons, has the Transylvania, Cam- eronia, Caledonia, and California running between Glasgow and New York. Direct to France service by the steamship Lines 429 B Steam-sliovel French Line is headed by the palatial steamship He de France, 43,000 tons. This vessel was one of the first to be decorated in the modernistic manner and is a favorite among many travellers. It makes the trip from New York to Havre in six days. Other ships of the French Line are the Paris, 36,500 tons, and the France, 24,800 tons, both of which take from six and a half to seven days for the passage. Cabin steamers of the French Line are the De Grasse, the Rou- sillon and the Rochambeau to Havre, and the La Bourdonnai to Bordeaux. German lines comprise the Hamburg - American and the North German Lloyd. The Hamburg -American Line oper- ates eleven fine steamers for its European service between New York and Hamburg, calling at Cherbourg and Southampton. The Resolute and the Reliance, sister ships, both 19,000 tons, have first, second, and third class accommodations. The Albert Ballin, Deutschland, Hamburg, and New York, all of 20,000 tons, also have first, second and third class service. Cabin steamers of the Hamburg-American line are the St. Louis, the Cleveland, the Thuringia, the Milwaukee and the Westphalia. The North German Lloyd Line at the present writing (1930) holds the record for speed, made by its new S.S. Bremen, 49,000 tons, which on its maiden trip in July, 1929, made the crossing in four days, seventeen hours, forty- two minutes. On the return trip it bettered that record by making the passage in four days, fourteen hours and thirty minutes. The Bremen's sister ship Europa is now building and is expected to equal the Bremen in speed, but nothing faster can probably be looked for at present. The North German Lloyd also has in its European service the Colum- bus, the Berlin, the Stuttgart, and the Muenchen. The Muenchen, Berlin and Stuttgart operate as cabin steamers a part of the year. They range from 33,000 to 15,000 tonnage, and occupy from nine to ten days in crossing. The Holland- American Line has a fleet of steamers sailing be- tween New York and Rotterdam, calling at Boulogne, Southamp- ton, and Halifax. The largest and newest of the fleet is the Slatendam, of 30,000 tons, a splendid example of marine archi- tecture and satisfactory service. Supplementing this are Va^Nieuw Amsterdam, 17,250 tons, the Rotterdam, 24,000 tons, theFo/ew- dam, 15,500 tons, and the Veen- dam, 15,500 tons. The Ryndam is operated as a cabin class steamer. Running to Scandanavia are the Swedish-American Line from New York to Gothenburg, the Scandanavian - American Line from New York to Copenhagen, and the Norwegian-American Line from New York to Bergen. The Scandinavian American Line's finest boat is the Frederick VIIL, the others are the United States, the Hellig Olav, and the Oscar //. All are cabin steamers and usually call at Oslo and Hali- fax. The Swedish-American fleet comprises the cabin steamer Drottningholm, 11,000 tons, and the motor ships Kungsholm, 26,700 tons, and Gripsholm, 23,- 600 tons, having first, second and third class. The Norwegian- American Line has the cabin steamers Slav anger fjord and Ber- gensfjord. To Mediterranean ports. Southern France, Italy and Northern Africa two Italian lines, the Navigazione Generale I tali- ana and the Lloyd Sabaudo fur- nish a luxurious service, allowing the traveller from New York to reach his destination in from nine to ten days and to avoid a ted- ious overland journey. The Navi- gazione Generale Italiana is head- ed by the splendid motor ship Augustus, 33,000 tons, sailing be- tween New York and Genoa, and calling at Naples and Palermo. Its sister ship is the Roma, 32,000 tons. Both carry first, second and third class passengers. The Lloyd Sabaudo Line has the Conte Biancamano and the Conte Grande, offering excellent service between Genoa and New York. In addition to these lines the Cosulich Line, with the motor ships Saturnia and Vulcania, of 24,000 tons each, furnishes the traveller with a delightful jour- ney from Trieste to New York. On the Pacific Coast the chief ports for transpacific travel are San Francisco and Vancouver. From San Francisco the Dollar Line (American) maintains a service to Honolulu, Yokohama, Kobe, Shanghai and Manila, the voyage to the last named port taking from twenty-seven to thirty-five days. They also have a Round-the- World service and their boats are known as the 'President' boats, being named for various presidents of the United States. The Canadian Pacific Railway has a splendid line of boats sailing from Vancouver to the Orient, the trip to Yokohama being made in from ten to eleven days. The fleet consists of the Empress of Asia, 17,000 tons; the Empress of Russia, 16,800 tons; the Em- press of Canada, 21,500 tons, and the Empress of Australia, 21,800 tons. Canadian Ports and Steamship Service. The chief Canadian ports are Montreal, Quebec, Hali- fax and St. John for the East and Vancouver for the West. The Canadian Pacific Railway Com- pany operates a line of steamers from Montreal to Liverpool and Glasgow touching at Quebec. The fleet comprises the Empress of Scotland, Empress of France, Monlroyal, Montcalm, Melita, Minnedosa, Montnairn, Duchess of Richmond and Duchess of York. Their tonnage is from 12,500 to 25,000, and the class of service varies with the season. The Cunard line has several of its vessels employed in the Canadian service, notably the Letitia, An- sonia, Alaunia, and Andania. The Furness Line furnishes a serv- ice from Liverpool to St. John's, N. F., and Halifax with its cabin class steamers Nova Scotia and Newfoundland, of 7,000 tons. The White Star steamers Arabic, Calgaric, Laurentic, Megantic and Doric sail to Canadian ports, while the Red Star Lapland and Pennland and also the Scandina- vian-American and the Swedish- American steamships sometimes call at Halifax. Almost all of the larger steam- ship companies offer special cruises during the winter, either around the world or to Medi- terranean ports, the West Indies, or other Southern waters. The length of time and the places visited are suited to the season of year and the prices charged vary with the type of accommodation offered. The average speed of most ocean liners is from fourteen to sixteen knots an hour (a knot is about 6,080 feet) but some at- tain a speed of twenty to twenty- five knots an hour. The follow- ing table shows the distinctive funnel marks of some of the lead- ing Atlantic steamship lines. Line Funnel Marks Anchor Black Atlantic Transport Red; black top Canadian Pacific Light buff Cunard Red, with narrow black hoops; black top Hamburg-American Buff; with red, white and black bands at top Holland-American Buff; two green bands, with white band be- tween; buff top Leyland Pink; black top North German Lloyd Buff Red Star Black, white band; black top United States Red, white and blue bands White Star Buff; black top Steam-shovel, a machine for excavating earth or any loose material. It is essentially a loco- motive crane used for operating a mammoth dipper or bucket. The bucket is made of iron or steel and is carried on a boom so arranged that the bucket can be swung in any desired direction and can be run in or out, being Vol. XL— March '30 steam-turbine 430 Stedman carried at the end of a strong beam called the 'dipper-handle.' Pointed teeth are provided at the cutting edge of the bucket to allow it to dig into hard material and to protect the edge when it is used for digging rock. The bot- tom of the bucket is hinged, be- ing kept closed by a catch which may be released by pulling a cord, thus emptying the bucket. The capacity of the dipper is from one-half to five cubic yards, the majority of the sixty-three shov- els used on the Panama Canal being of the five-yard size. Such a shovel can handle from four to five thousand cubic yards of rock or ore per day, and has made the remarkable performance of han- dling thirty-two thousand cubic yards of material in six con- secutive days of ten hours each. These shovels are usually mount- ed on cars and have a total weight varying from twenty tons to about one hundred tons. Brakes are provided for holding the wheels of the car while the machine is working and at the front end there are spuds for anchoring the car. The shovel is placed on rails at the place where it is to operate. The dipper is then swung back, pushed down to the ground, and then swept forward and upward. As it comes up full it is swung over the car or spot where it is to be dumped and the dipper emptied by pulling the latch-string. The shovel carries power for operating the car on the track, and hence it can run forward or backward and can assist in placing the cars which are to carry off the exca- vated material. See Excava- tion and Excavators. Steam-turbine. See Tur- bine, Steam. Steam Yachts. See Yachts. Stearic Acid, C17H35COOH, an acid of the fatty or acetic acid series that occurs largely in the solid fats as a glycerol ester. It is prepared by saponifying tallow with caustic potash solu- tion, setting free the impure stearic acid from the resulting soap by the action of a dilute acid, and purifying the product by recrystallization from alco- hol and fractional precipitation by magnesium acetate. On the commercial scale the fats are saponified either with a small quantity of lime under pressure, or by the action of superheated steam alone; the product, which is mixed with palmitic acid, is purified by pressure. Stearic acid when pure forms pearly crystals, which melt at 69° c, and are slightly vsoluble in cold alcohol. The commercial prod- uct, under the name of 'stearin,' is largsly used for the manufac- ture of candles, being mixed with a little paraffin wax to destroy its crystalline structure. Vol. XL— March '30 Stearin, glycerol tri-stearate, (Ci7H35COO)3C3H6. is, together with glycerol tri-palmitate, the main component of the solid fats. In a pure state it forms pearly crystals, which are tasteless, and insoluble in water, but dissolve in ether and similar solvents. It is decomposed on heating under atmospheric pressure, but can be distilled in a vacuum. It must not be confused with the impure mixture of stearic and palmitic acids used for making candles also known as 'stearin.' See Stearic Acid. Stearns, Alfred Ernest (1871- ), American educator and academy principal, was born in Orange, N. J. He was gradu- ated from Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass., in 1890, and from Amherst College in 1894. After his graduation he taught at the Hill School for Boys, Potts- town, Pa. (1894-97) and later was successively registrar (1900- 02), acting principal (1902-03) and headmaster, since 1903, at Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass. He was written many articles on educational lines for various pub- lications. Stearns, Frederic Pike (1851-1919), American engineer, was born in Calais, Me., and after receiving an elementary education in the public schools of that town, became connected with the engineering department in the city of Boston. After serving in various capacities on important engineering construc- tions, he became engineer in charge of the main drainage works in Boston, and in 1886 was appointed chief engineer of the Massachusetts State Board of Health, for which he made valu- able reports in connection with a sewerage system for the Mystic and Charles River valleys, and on the water supply for the metro- politan district. In 1895-1907 he was chief engineer of the Metro- politan Water-Board, and was in charge of the important works to supply the water to Boston and many of the adjacent cities and towns. In 1905-6 he was a member of the Board of Engi- neers of the Panama Canal and later was consulting engineer for water supply in various cities. Stearns, William Augustus (1805-76), American clergyman and educator, was born in Bed- ford, Mass. He was graduated (1827) from Harvard, and took his divinity course at Andover. He was ordained pastor of the Congregational church at Cam- bridgeport, Mass., in 1831, and in 1854 was elected president of Amherst College, which position he held until his death. Among his books are Infant Church Membership (1844), Life and Select Discourses of Rev. Samuel H. Stearns (1846), and Discourses and Addresses (1855). Steatite, a compact variety of talc, is a hydrous silicate of mag- nesia, found massive. It is gen- erally white, reddish white, or yellow, soft and greasy to the touch, and easily cut, but broken with difficulty. Agalmatolite, or figure stone, together with pyro- phyllite, belongs to steatite. It is used by glaziers for marking plates of glass, and by tailors for marking cloth. It is also used in the manufacture of porcelain. Briangon chalk, French chalk, and Venice talc, as it is called, readily absorbs oil or grease, and is the basis of rouge. Steatornis. See Guacharo. Stebbins, George Coles (1846- ), American evangelis- tic singer, was born in East Carl- ton, N. Y. He studied music in Rochester, Chicago and Boston and in 1870 became music direct- or of the First Baptist Church, Chicago. He was director of music in Tremont Temple, Bos- ton, 1875-6, and in 1876 took up evangelistic work under D. L. Moody. He is the author of The Northfield Hymnal (1901), Gospel Hymns, Male Choruses and Sacred Songs (1877-96), and the editor of Greatest Hymns, and The New Church Hymnal (1925-27). Stecchetti, ste-ket'te, Loren- zo, pseudonym of Olindo Guer- rini (1845-1916), Italian poet and scholar, was born at Sant' Al- berto, near Ravenna, and be- came librarian at Bolonga. His first volume of poems, Postuma Conzoniere di L. Stecchetti (1877), is full of fine poetry, and dis- tinguished by perfection of man- ner, but is remarkable for its unveiled sensuality. He defend- ed his standpoint in Polemica (1878) and in Nova Polemica (1879; 9th ed. (1890). Guerrini's complete poetical works were issued as Le Rime (1903) . He has also written treatises on and supervised editions of various Italian authors {e.g. Vita di Giulio Croce, 1879). Stedman, Edmund Clar- ence (1833-1908), American poet and critic, was born in Hartford Conn. He entered Yale College in 1849, but was not graduated. The college, however, restored him to his class and gave him the degree of m.a. in 1871. After editing provincial journals in Norwich and Winsted, Conn., in 1856, he went to New York City, where in 1859 he became a reporter on the Tribune, in which his 'How Old Brown took Har- per's Ferry' and other ballads appeared. In 1860 he joined the staff of the New York World, acting as its war correspondent at Washington in 1861-2. Ill health compelled him to re- sign, and he held a confiden- tial position in the office of Steedman KFP 431 Steel Attorney-General Bates in 1864. Returning to New York, he bought in 1869 a seat on the New York Stock Exchange, and continued actively as a broker until 1900. During this time he wrote much poetry of a high or- der of merit. His rank as a bal- ladist is high, and many of his lyrics are of rare beauty. After the death of Holmes he occupied the foremost place among con- temporary American poets. His better-known works, however, include his literary criticism, which is generally appreciative and scholarly, and his very valu- able compilations and antholo- gies, of which his Victorian and American anthologies are espe- cially notable. He succeeded Lowell in 1891 as president of the American Copyright League, and in 1904-1905 was president of the American Institute of Arts and Letters. Among his best-known works are : Poems, Lyric and Idyllic (1860) ; The Battle of Bull Run (1861); Alice in Monmouth : An Idyl of the Great War, and Other Poems (1864) ; The Blameless Prince, and Other Poems (1869); Po- etical Works, collective edition (1873); Victorian Poets (1875; with supplement, 1887) ; Haw- thorne, and Other Poems (1877) ; Lyrics and Idyls, with Other Poems (1879) ; Edgar Allan Poe (1880) ; Poets of America (1885); The Star Bearer, a Christmas Poem (1888) ; The Nature and Elements of Poetry (1892) ; Poems Now First Col- lected (1897) ; Mater Coronata, poem (1901) ; Hymn of the West (1904). He edited Cameos from the Poems of W. S. Landor, with T. B. Aldrich (1874); Poems of Austin Dobson (1880) ; Elizabeth Stoddard's Novels (1888-89) ; A Library of American Literature, with Ellen Mackay Hutchinson (2 vols. 1888-89); The Works of Edgar Allan Poe, with George Edward Woodberry (10 vols. 1895) ; A Victorian Anthology (1895) ; An American Anthol- ogy (1900) ; History of the New York Stock Exchange (3 vols. 1904-6). Steed'man, Charles (1811- 90), American naval officer, was born in Charleston, S. C. He entered the Navy as a midship- man in 1828, became a lieuten- ant in 1841, and served in the Mexican War, commanding the land batteries at the siege of Vera Cruz. He became com- mander in 1855 and commanded the Dolphin in the Paraguay ex- pedition. He remained loyal to the Union on the secession of South Carolina, and rendered distinguished service throughout the Civil War, notably as com- mander of the Bienville at the capture of Port Royal, and of the Paul Jones at the capture of Fort McAlister. He was made captain in 1862, commodore in 1866, and rear-admiral in 1871, and was retired in 1873. Steedman, James Barrett (1818-83), American soldier, was born in Northumberland county, Pa. He removed to Ohio in 1837, was a member of the legislature in 1843, printer to Congress in 1857-61, and in 1861 was appointed colonel of the Fourth Ohio Volunteer In- fantry. After serving in West Virginia, he commanded a bri- gade and then a division in the Army of the Cumberland, and especially distinguished himself at Perryville and Chickamauga, After the fall of Atlanta he was detached and sent to the aid of Thomas at Nashville, where he commanded a provisional divi- sion, and took a prominent part in the battle of December 15 and 16, 1864. He had been made major general of volunteers April 24, 1864. For a short time after the war he acted as provisional governor of Georgia, was afterwards collector of in- ternal revenue at New Orleans, and in 1879-81 was a member of the Ohio state senate. Steel is the name given to the malleable alloy of iron and a comparatively small proportion of carbon, generally up to 1.7 per cent. Steel also generally contains small amounts of man- ganese, sulphur, phosphorous, and sometimes silicon, either as impurities or as added elements. These elements have definite ef- fects on properties of steel, but the effects of carbon are the most important. Steel can be divided into the two broad types of car- bon steel and alloy steel. Carbon steel is defined differ- ently by the theoretical chemist and the practical metallurgist ; however, the steel of commerce can be classed as carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or guaranteed for alu- minum, boron, chromium, co- balt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vana- dium, or zirconium, or any other element added to obtain desired alloying effect ; when the speci- fied or guaranteed minimum for copper does not exceed 0.40 per cent ; or when the maximum content specified or guaranteed for any of the following ele- ments does not exceed the per- centages ^ noted : manganese, 1.65; silicon, 0.60; copper, 0.60. The broad group of steels known as alloy steels is manu- factured by adding alloying ele- ments to steel singly or in com- binations. By varying the amounts and combinations steels can be made stronger, tougher, harder, more resistant to corro- sion, more resistant to heat, and can be given other special prop- erties. Steel can be generally classed as alloy steel when the maximum of the range given for the content of alloying elements exceeds one or more of the fol- lowing limits: manganese, 1.65 per cent; silicon, 0.60 per cent; copper, 0.60 per cent ; or in which a definite range or a defi- nite minimum quantity of any of the following elements is guaranteed : aluminum, boron, chromium, cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, or zirconi- um, or any other alloying ele- ment added to obtain a desired alloying effect. In addition to classifying steels as carbon steel and alloy steel, even further subdivision can be made according to the types of furnaces used in melting such as Bessemer, openhearth, crucible, and electric steel. Another method of sub-classification is according to the chemical char- acteristics of the lining of the melting furnace, that is, 'acid' steel and 'basic' steel. Bessemer Process. — This process, patented in 1855 by Sir Henry Bessemer, consists essen- tially of blowing air through molten pig iron (see Iron : Pig Iron). The oxygen of the air combines with the carbon, man- ganese, and silicon of the pig iron, thereby generating heat and freeing the iron from the major portion of its impurities. The converter consists of a pear- shaped shell of steel plate, with its top cut off to allow molten pig iron to be charged and steel dis- charged. It is lined with heat resistant material and is mount- ed on shafts called trunnions so that the vessel can be turned through an angle of 270° or 300°. One of the trunnions is hollow to allow the air to be pumped through the converter's double bottom, thereby allowing air to pass into the body of the converter from the air chamber through small holes, of which there may be from 150 to 200. The converter is charged by tilt- ing on its side and molten pig iron is poured into its mouth. A blast of air at approximately 15— 20 psi. is automatically turned on while the vessel is being ro- tated to the vertical position. When this air blast is turned on, a shower of sparks bursts from the mouth of the converter. The three elements to be removed from the pig iron, i.e., carbon, manganese, and silicon, have dif- ferent attractions for oxygen with the result that they do not burn at the same time. Since silicon and manganese have Steel KFP 432 Steel greater attraction to oxygen than carbon, they burn first, re- sulting in a short flame, accom- panied by dense clouds of red- dish-brown fumes. After this action is completed, the carbon starts to burn to form carbon monoxide. The result of this is a white flame which is ciuite spectacular. The sudden drop- ping of the large white flame indicates the removal of carbon and at this point the air is turned off and manganese in the form of ferromanganese or Spiegeleisen is added in sufficient quantity to result in the proper amount of carbon and manga- nese in the end-product, which is steel. Manganese also results in a more solid material and allows the steel to be rolled and forged without crumbling. The steel is then run into a ladle and cast into ingot molds. In capacity, converters range from five to twenty-five tons of molten metal. The refractory lining is generally acid in char- acter and will therefore not re- move phosphorous which is in the pig iron. The basic Besse- mer process, having a lining which is a mixture of magnesite and dolomite, will allow the oxi- dation of phosphorous. There- fore, the pig iron used in the basic Bessemer process may be higher in phosphorous than that used in the acid Bessemer process. Open-hearth or Siemens-Mar- tin Process. — The fvirnace used in this process is a rectangular brick enclosed structure. The hearth which carries the bath of steel is exposed to the flame, thereby giving this process the name of 'open hearth.' This process is versatile in that it can be either basic with a magnesite and dolomite hearth, or acid with a sand hearth, can be fired by means of a large number of fuels, and can be charged with various proportions of pig iron, steel scrap, and iron ore. The fuels may be natural or artificial gas, oil or tar, or two or more of these fuels in combination. The fuel enters the furnace through one of the ports located on each end of the furnace. To obtain sufficiently high temperatures in the furnace to melt steel, previously heated air is blown through the port along with the fuel. Combustion takes place over the hearth, and the hot waste gases pass through the ports at the other end of the furnace and enter large cham- bers containing a checker board arrangement of fire brick. These hot products of combus- tion heat this checker work. At the same time the fuel and air, which are to form the flame, are entering through the other end of the furnace, and the air and gas are heated by the checker work in large corresponding checker chambers previously heated in the same manner. When cold air and gas or air alone cool the bricks to the point where they no longer give up sufficient heat, the direction and flow of gases is reversed by valves so that the chamber which had been heating the in- coming air and fuel, now be- comes reheated, and the^ brick work, which had been in the process of being heated by the waste gases, now gives up heat to the air and fuel. This re- versal generally takes place ev- ery 15 to 20 minutes. Without this system of preheating air be- fore combustion, the tempera- ture necessary to melt steel would be practically impossible to obtain. In working this process the furnace is charged with iron in some form. It can be charged with pig iron and iron ore, or pig iron and scrap steel and iron ore, pig iron and scrap steel, or merely scrap steel with sorne carbonaceous material. The pig iron can be cold or molten, the latter being conducive to greater efficiency. The amounts of var- ious materials charged are dic- tated by economy and experi- ence. In the process, silicon, manganese, and carbon are oxi- dized and may be practically re- moved in their entirety or the oxidizing action can be stopped at a given point to result in the desired quantity of carbon. Any of these elements or other alloy- ing elements can be added in the furnace or in the ladle by vari- ous means. After the steel is molten and properly refined, it is tapped through the rear of the furnace into a ladle and poured into ingot molds to form ingots. If the furnace has a basic lining, lime is used as the basis of the basic slag. In this case phos- phorous and sulphur may be re- duced to comparatively low lim- its. If the lining is acid, phos- phorous and sulphur can not be removed, and special charges are required to result in finished steels containing phosphorous and sulphur within commercial limits. Open hearth furnaces usually vary from 30 to 250 tons, and the time of each heat of steel varies from approximately 6 to 14 hours depending on varia- tions in raw materials, process and finished product. Many of the large furnaces, 200 tons and larger, are of the tilting type. The greater percentage of the world's steel is made in the basic open hearth furnace because of its economical production of high quality steels from compar- atively low quality raw mate- rials. Duplex Process (Bessemer and Open Hearth). — It is possi- ble to take advantage of certain economies by combining the Bes- semer and open hearth proc- esses. This is done when there is sufficient molten pig iron available to make steel without the use of scrap. The molten pig iron is first charged into an acid Bessemer converter and blown until the required analysis is ob- tained by removing silicon, man- ganese, and carbon. The mate- rial, which is now steel, is then transferred to a basic open hearth furnace where refining is completed, i.e., the phosphorous and sulphur are reduced to with- in specifications and the carbon is properly adjusted. This proc- ess saves time and fuel by keep- ing the metal molten from the time it is pig iron until it is poured into ingot molds as steel. Crucible Process. — Crucible steel is made by melting pure iron together with charcoal, fer- romanganese, and special alloy- ing metals in a fire clay cruci- ble. This crucible, or pot, is heated in a melting furnace of the Siemens regeneration type. The charge in each pot contains a little less than 200 pounds of steel, and each furnace usually has a capacity of 30 pots. The process produces a high grade steel because the melting opera- tion is done in the closed pot, away from the oxidizing flame. The crucible furnace has now been largely replaced by the elec- tric furnace for the melting of high grade steels. Electric Furnace Process. — The melting of steel by the use of electricity for the production of heat is done in two types of furnaces. One type is known as the arc furnace, in which case the steel in the furnace forms a common conductor for current flowing between electrodes. The melting is caused by the intense heat of the arc formed between the steel and the electrodes. The second type is known as the in- duction furnace. The operation of this furnace depends on the high frequency current passing through a primary coil and the outside of the furnace, inducing a much heavier secondary cur- rent in the charge, thus heating the charge by resistance. The electric arc furnace re- sembles a huge tea kettle in ap- pearance, mounted on rockers so that the furnace can be tilted to pour off molten metal and slag. The bottom of the furnace is lined with heat resistant material to form a bowl-shaped contain- er. The production of heat by electricity is advantageous in that oxygen is not necessary to steel KFP 433 Steel support combustion as it is in the open hearth and Bessemer processes. In this manner the atmosphere within the electric furnace may be regulated, thus materially reducing the amounts of oxides or other impurities un- desirable in high quality steels. The electric arc furnace can be either basic or acid. In the basic process raw materials high in phosphorous and sulphur can be used inasmuch as they can be oxidized and removed from the steel. However, the phos- phorous will be returned to the steel if the slag is made reducing with silicon and coke. The acid process requires careful selec- tion of raw materials, low in phosphorous and sulphur, be- cause these elements can not be removed from the steel. The steel from both processes is tapped into a ladle and can be poured into ingot molds or poured into sand molds, making steel castings. The induction furnace nor- mally yields the highest grade steel of all the commercial proc- esses used today. It is similar to the crucible process in that it is fundamentally a remelting process requiring the same type of charge. It is used extensive- ly in the making of stainless steel and special tool steels. On account of the absence of carbon pick-up and low melting loss, it is used extensively for the pro- duction of low carbon stainless steel. Because of its flexibility in operation it is valuable in the production of small alloy steel castings in the foundry. Duplex Process (Open Hearth and Electric Arc). — For eco- nomic reasons a duplexing sys- tem has been developed for the production of the electric arc furnace steels. In this process steel is melted and refined in the basic open hearth furnace. Aft- er refining, the steel is tapped into a ladle and transferred to an arc furnace. A reducing slag is developed in the electric furnace and the steel is further refined, yielding a steel of high quality without the time and ex- pense of melting in the electric furnace. Mechanical Processing of Steel. — After steel has been made by any of the above dis- cussed processes it must be so- lidified before it becomes useful. It can be poured into a sand mold, where it will solidify into a casting which is close to the finished form and size, or it can be poured into an ingot mold to solidify into an ingot which is later forged and shaped by hot forging or hot rolling. The ingot is a mass of steel which is heated to approximately 2200° F. for further processing. During this rocessing its form is changed y a series of processes to such commercial products as railroad rails, structural members, plates, sheets, and bars. These hot rolled products are the beginning of the innumerable items into which steel is finally made. The processing in the steel mill is accomplished on rolling mills or by the forging process. The equipment is generally huge in size, complicated and expen- sive. Equipment such as this in turn produces steel products in tremendous quantities as well as of great size. Properties of Steel. — Steel has manifold properties which are of inestimable value for making it a material upon which modern society has built its daily life and economy. The raw ma- terials from which steel is made are generally abundant and com- paratively cheap and its manu- facturing processes are such as to allow it to be handled in large masses on a continuous or semi- continuous basis. As a structural material, steel has a tremendous advantage in that it has a high modulus of elasticity, namely 30,000,000 psi. As a tool, it can be made suffi- ciently hard and strong to fabri- cate other steels and other ma- terials. It can be formed when hot or cold and welded. Steel has the peculiar property of be- ing capable of having its hard- ness and strength either in- creased or decreased by varying cycles of heating and cooling. It can be softened by slow cool- ing from red heat. This is known as annealing. In this condition it can be machined or formed into complex parts. Its strength and hardness can be in- creased by cooling rapidly from a red heat in liquids such as wa- ter or oil. Generally higher carbon contents result in greater hardness and strength. By the use of alloying elements the sec- tions which can be made hard and strong are increased, and steels can be given other spe- cial properties. Carbon Steel. — Carbon steel is the largest tonnage product of the world's steel industry and is used in cast, forged and rolled sections. When used as a struc- tural member, definite strength requirements are generally nec- essary. These requirements usu- ally vary from approximately 40,000 to 80,000 psi. tensile strength. High quality carbon steels are often used in the man- ufacture of tools where special requirements such as those im- parted by alloying elements are not required. The use of carbon steel is widespread throughout practically every phase of mod- ern life. It is used for railroad rails, structural steels for build- ings, plates, and sheets. It is also used for wire, tin plate, and bars of many types. Alloy Steels. — The broad clas- sification known as alloy steel can be divided into several groups such as constructional or machinery steels, tool steels, cor- rosion resistant steels, and spe- cial purpose steels. The general description as well as the ele- ments used to make alloy steels are mentioned elsewhere. Each alloying element imparts some particular property to steel when used alone or in combina- tion with other alloying ele- ments. Generally they are used when one or more of the fol- lowing properties are required : high hardness and high strength with toughness, hardness and strength at elevated or high tem- peratures, strength and tough- ness at low temperatures, corro- sion resistance, special electrical properties, and special magnetic properties. Modern science and metallurgy have made known the effects of the various alloy- ing elements when added to steel in respect to the above proper- ties. Constructional or Machinery Steel. — Besides carbon and man- ganese, constructional or ma- chinery steels depend largely on chromium, molybdenum, nickel, and vanadium for their proper- ties. These steels are generally used in a quenched and tempered condition to develop desired properties. These alloying ele- ments increase the size of sec- tion which can be treated in or- der to yield a high strength ma- terial with good ductility and toughness. This constructional steel group is made in the larg- est tonnage of all the alloy steels and is used for the making of automobiles, trucks, airplanes, and other equipment where high strength and toughness is re- quired. Tool Steels. — Tool steels are generally made in the electric furnace because of quality rea- sons and because some of the alloying elements such as tung- sten and cobalt have high melt- ing points and require the high temperatures developed in these processes. Tool steels vary from those containing small amounts of alloying elements to the_ modern high speed steels which may contain 5.50 per cent molybdenum, 6.50 per cent tung- sten, 4 per cent chromium, and 1.75 per cent vanadium. High speed steel§ are used for ma- chining where the cutting edge becomes red hot. The variety of tools where alloy steel is nec- essary is wide, covering such applications as machining, hot and cold forming metals, crush- steel KFP ing rocks and ore, and many others. Corrosion Resistant Steels. — These steels depend largely on chromium in the amount of 10- 30 per cent for their resistance to corrosion. There have been many types of corrosion resist- ant steels developed for particu- lar conditions which develop during the processing of foods, acids, • petroleum products, and innumerable other materials. One of the most common types of corrosion resistant steels is one containing 18 per cent chro- mium and 8 per cent nickel. This steel has, beside excellent corrosion resistance, the added advantage that it can be cold rolled to develop high strengths. The uses of stainless steel are many both in industry and in the home. Special Purpose Steel. — This group is very broad. It includes such materials as a steel contain- ing 0.50 per cent molybdenum vi^hich has high strength at ele- vated temperatures and is used in modern power-house con- struction. Another type of steel is used at temperatures up to ap- proximately 1600° F., making it useful in the manufacture of su- perchargers and gas turbines. One steel of this type contains 15 per cent chromium, 25 per cent nickel, 4 per cent molyb- denum, 1 per cent silicon and 2 per cent columbium, balance iron, while another type contains 16 per cent chromium, 25 per cent nickel, 6 per cent molybde- num, and 1.60 per cent silicon. Another steel containing approx- imately 36 per cent nickel has practically zero coefficient of ex- pansion when heated, making this material useful where size or length of metal must not change with varying tempera- ture. An alloy containing 3-4 per cent silicon has high mag- netic permeability and low hys- teresis and is used in the manu- facture of electric transformers and generators. A steel con- taining 12-14 per cent manga- nese has remarkable character- istics in that it has high resist- ance to wear under such condi- tions as are encountered by rail- way switches and frogs, dipper teeth and jaws for rock crush- ers. The special purpose steels are important in that they have the peculiar properties required for very special conditions. The need for this group is increasing and naturally results in a greater production. The types of this group are likewise increasing as discoveries of our modern sci- ence unfold. See Iron, and bibliography there given ; Steel and Iron Construction; Rolling Mills ; Harveyized Steel. Consult Campbell's Manufac- ture and Properties of Iron and Steel; Harbord and Hall's Met- allurgy of Steel; Stoughton's Metallurgy of Iron and Steel. Steel, Flora Annie (1847- 1929), English novelist, was born in Harrow. She married in 1867 and went to India where she was for some time in- spectress of government-aided schools in the Punjab, and mem- ber of the Educational Commit- tee. Among her novels, which mainly deal with Hindu or Mo- hammedan life and character, are Prom the Pive Rivers (1893) , The Potter's Thumb (1894) , Tales from the Punjab (1894), Red Rowans (1895), /w the Tideway (1896), On the Pace of the Waters (1896), In the Guardianship of God (1903), King Errant (1912), The Mercy of the Lord (1914), Mistress of Men (1917), The Garden of Fi- delity (1929). Steel and Iron Construc- tion. — Although it is only a lit- tle over a century since iron was first employed in an important way as a constructional material, its rise has been rapid, and dur- ing the last seventy years it has completely dominated the con- structive arts. When we refer to the modern era of civilization as the Iron Age or Age of Steel, we refer just as much to the phe- nomenally wide utilization of structural steel as to the univer- sal reign of iron and steel ma- chinery. But while the use of cast and wrought iron to build machines goes back half a dozen centuries, structural use of iron was virtually confined to a few minor elements — cramps, an- chors, and tie-rods in masonry ; nails, bolts, reinforcing plates, etc., in carpentry ; occasional columns of cast iron, etc. — until the latter part of the eighteenth century. Probably the first im- portant case where iron was the chief structural material was a cast iron arch bridge built at Colebrookdale, England, 1779. _ The fifty years following this event saw the full establishment of both cast and wrought iron in construction work, not, however, as a result of the discovery that these materials could be so used, but because of developments of industry in many fields. The rise of mining and manufactur- ing in England, and the exist- ence there and in America of a remarkably able body of engi- neers, led to persistent attempts to use cast iron for buildings, in order to secure fireproof factory structures free from the limita- tions of all-masonry buildings. The invention of the puddling process, and about the same time the art of rolling, cheapened wrought iron greatly, helped out 434 Steel and Iron Construction by the stimulus of the success- l ful production of steam power and the consequent building of i steam engines, pumps, and working machines of various kinds. The English mining in- ; dustries, which were a prime cause of this development, also brought about the birth of steam railways thirty years later, cre- ating many new demands for iron. The gradual perfection of truss bridge construction, first in wood and then in cast iron, fol- lowed later by wrought iron sup- plemented the influence of plate iron and suspension chain bridge construction in a way that soon made iron the standard mate- rial for bridges. The principles learned in bridge work reacted on the adaptation of iron to building work, as did also the development of boiler construc- tion and of the gas industry with its numerous requirements for cast- and wrought-iron work. In the middle of the nineteenth century an important event oc- curred, in the production of the rolled I-beam, which has since remained a prime factor in build- ing. Soon afterward the Besse- mer process for making ingot metal was developed, producing a strong, ductile, forgeable iron very cheaply and on a large scale, and the new metal, which took the old name 'steel' or 'soft steel,' soon crowded puddled iron into the background. Then the invention of the regenerative open-hearth furnace created the Siemens-Martin process of steel making, the principle one today. Against these advances in pro- duction there was a steady devel- opment of both principles and practice of structural steel utili- zation, continued to the present time. The reasons why mild steel is so important a construction ma- terial are: (1) Its great strength —20 times that of wood, 10 times that of stone, 4 to 5 times that of cast iron, 2 to 6 times that of bronzes or brasses ; (2) the fact that it is equally strong in tension and compression (un- like cast iron, stone, or wood) and has no weakening 'grain' like wood; (3) its toughness and resistance to abuse ; (4) its cheapness, steel being but little more costly than cast iron, pound for pound, and much cheaper than the bronzes, and (5) its ease of working and its ideal ad- aptation to use in beams and col- umns. In many uses it merely replaces stone, wood or cast iron, with very great advantage ; m others its combination of quali- ties is indispensable, e.g., in gas holders. Because of its quali- ties, steel construction enters vi- tally into every part of indus- trial production. Bridges, build- steel and Iron Construction KFP 435 Steel and Iron Construction ing frames, furnaces, cranes, and handling appliances of all kinds, cars, towers, foundations, etc., all depend more or less com- pletely on structural steel work. Material, — Cast iron is weak against tensile stresses, very- brittle and therefore unreliable, and not ductile or malleable. It is suited only for simple arches, columns and compression blocks, where it was, at one time, used quite extensively. Today it is seldom used as a structural ma- terial in new construction. For general structural use a stronger, ductile, elastic and non-fragile metal was needed, and iron con- struction could make no real be- ginning until wrought iron be- came available in quantity and at cheap price, and in the form of plates and rolled shapes instead of only in square, round and flat bars. The mild steel, or struc- tural steel of today, is little more than an improved form of wrought iron. Wrought iron has a uniform tensile strength of between 45,- 000 and 55,000 lbs. per square inch, a crushing resistance of about the same amount, and such a degree of toughness that a square bar can be doubled flat on itself and again straightened without fracture. Expressed in terms of the percentage of stretch which will be found in an 8-inch measured length of a tension test piece after fracture, the ductility is about 30 per cent. The corresponding qualities of steel depend on its percentage of carbon. In structural steel the carbon is always kept so low that heating to red heat and then quenching in water will not pro- duce any perceptible hardening (0.10 per cent to 0.25 per cent c). The tensile strength varies from 60,000 to 72,000 lbs. per square inch, depending on the precise amount of carbon con- tained ; the crushing strength is ordinarily somewhat higher ; the ductility will vary from 22 per cent to over 30 per cent. It is usually required to resist bend- ing 180° over a diameter equal to its thickness. Steel for rivets has a tensile strength of 52,000 to 62,000 lbs. per square inch and greater ability to bear cold or hot forging. After driving, the strength of structural rivet steel is fully equal to that of structural steel. In recent years the distinction between mild and medium steel has largely disap- peared, and there are only the grades of structural and rivet steel. ' Steel of extra high strength, permitting lighter parts for a given duty, is somewhat less ductile. In bridges of very long span, the impact effect of the traveling load has so little influ- ence on the main trusses that the lesser ductility is unobjection- able, and high-carbon steel some- times has been used here with considerable saving of total weight because of the greater strength of the metal (Eads Bridge, Forth Bridge). Nickel steel, in use since about 1909, has much higher strength than even high carbon steel, together with remarkable toughness. This is a .45 carbon steel alloyed with 3 to 4 per cent nickel. Nickel steel has a strength of 90,000 to 115,000 lbs. per square inch, and a minimum yield point of 55,000 lbs. per square inch. Silicon steel, in use since about 1915, containing ^ to 1 ^ per cent of silicon, has a strength of 80.000 to_9S,000 lbs. per square inch. It is comparatively cheap, the cost being about 25 per cent greater than ordinary carbon steel whereas nickel steel gener- ally runs about twice the cost of carbon steel. More recently, manganese steel with a percentage of man- ganese of about 1 % per cent has been used for structural pur- poses. It has a minimum yield point strength of 40,000 to 50,- 000 lbs. per square inch and is also cheaper than nickel steel. These special steels have come into use for large bridges in which the weight of the steel is the chief part of the total load carried, and where, therefore, the stronger metal gives a dou- ble advantage by reducing the load which it must itself carry. In buildings, the weight of steel is a relatively small item, and therefore the higher cost of nickel or manganese steel for equal strength is prohibitive al- though silicon steel has been used at times. Commercial Forms,- — Steel for structural uses is chiefly in the form of plain plates and 'shapes.' Plates are ordinarily available in thicknesses of inch to 2 inches, widths from 6 to 186 inches, and lengths vary- ing from 80 feet for the narrow- est to 21 feet for the widest sizes. The more important forms of steel shapes are the I, H, an- gle, the channel and the Tee, all shown in Fig. 1. Their impor- tance is about in the order of naming. Angles, which are used in sizes from 2-inch to 9-inch length of leg, are the means for connecting separate pieces, and by being attached along the edges, etc., of a plate, they con- vert the flexible plate into a rigid member capable of resist- ing compression, shear, and bending with good efficiency. Four angles and two plates with lacing bars connecting the two segments on the open sides will make up a stiff member, a form much used as compression mem- bers. A long plate having an- gles in pairs attached along ei- ther longitudinal edge (one pair on either edge), is a plate girder, which type of member is em- ployed as a beam to resist bend- ing stresses in all applications of steel work. The I-beam is simi- lar to the plate girder except that it is an integral section, pro- duced from the ingot by rolling, just as are railway track rails. The channel is in effect half an I-beam. Both these shapes are highly efficieht as beams when set with web vertical, since the large area of section in the flanges is then at maximum dis- tance from the neutral plane of bending. Practically all bending duty in steelwork is met by I-beams and channels, except that for loads beyond the ca- pacity of commercial sizes of I-beams, plate girders are used, these being not thus limited in depth and sectional area. The usual sizes of I-beams are 6 to 36 inches deep, weighing 8^^ to 300 lbs. per linear foot, while channels are 6 to 18 inches deep, 8 to 58 lbs. per foot. H-sections are used extensively in column construction. When the load on a column exceeds the capacity of the heaviest rolled H section (weighing 426 lbs. per linear foot) the H section is augmented by cover plates fastened in pairs to its flanges. Tees are used in a variety of ways, as for stud- ding or roof purlins. In addition to these shapes, round, square, and rectangular bars are sometimes employed as tension members. Round and square bars are thickened at the ends by forging and then thread- ed to receive nuts, clevises or turnbuckles by means of which the rods can be stressed in ten- sion. Rectangular bars used in tension (eye-bars) have their ends enlarged by forging, or by welding on auxiliary material, so that these ends may be pierced with holes to receive pins, with- out loss of strength at the hole. Until recent years eye-bars were used extensively in 'pin-con- nected' bridge trusses, but fully riveted joints have now replaced the earlier pin-connected type. Eye-bars have been made as large as 18 inches wide by 1 ^ to 2 inches thick, and in the largest bridges as many as 25 such bars have been set side by side to form a single tension member. Today the largest forged eye- bars obtainable are 6 inches wide by 1^ thick. Larger bars can be fabricated to order by welding. Steel joists, lighter than ordi- nary I-beams, are frequently spaced two feet on centers or steel and Iron Construction KFP 436 Steel and Iron Construction closer in floor and roof construc- tion with lines of steel bridging holding them securely in an up- right position and distributing any concentrated loads over sev- eral adjacent joists, much as wood joists are framed for the same purpose. These joists are formed from bars, small shapes, strip or sheet steel by welding or expanding in a number of manufacturing processes. In effect they are small trusses or light solid web beams. Build- ing construction also employs various other special forms man- ufactured from sheet and strip steel such as sheet steel roofing and siding, cellular floors, steel studs and metal lath. Processes of Working, — The toughness and malleability of steel make it possible to cut a plate or shape by shearing in- stead of sawing or planing ; to make holes by punching out with a hardened steel punch under P^reat pressure, instead of drill- mg, and to bend it by either cold or hot forging. The same quali- ties also make joining by rivets possible. Supplementing these fabricat- ing techniques, considerable cut- ting of structural steel is done today by means of an acetyline torch. Were it not for the sim- plicity of these processes of trim- ming, shaping, and joining, steelwork would be very much more costly, and probably would not have achieved more than a fractional part of its present wide application. High carbon steel, being more susceptible to injury from punching, should have its rivet holes drilled from the solid. The holes in plates whose thickness exceeds the rivet diameter are always drilled without preliminary punching, as punching is unsatisfactory and is likely to break the punch. Joining. — Connection by riv- ets is the usual practice in steel- work, but there are two other connections in common use. (1) Erection joints of many struc- tures of the lighter class are often made with bolts in place of rivets, though a bolt seat- ed in the irregularly matched holes of a group of steel parts is considered to be only as ef- fective in shear as a rivet. (2) Since about 1925, in a number of building operations, welded instead of riveted joints have been used. A metallic rod is melted away by an electric arc and deposited between the two surfaces to be connected, the two surfaces being fused and welded together in the process. This method has the advantage of be- ing noiseless as compared with riveted connections. In the section of a rivet con- nection (Fig. 2) the heads are roughly hemispherical. One is formed on the rivet rod, the rod then being cut to the exact length for passing through the assembled pieces and making the other head. The rivet, having been heated to a bright red be- fore insertion in the hole, is held to place by aid of a heavy weight or ram rested against the first head, and the other end is upset with a hammer and formed to shape with cup-like die ham- mered down over it. In the shop, rivets may be driven by hydraulic or pneumatic pressure riveters instead of by hammer- ing. Joints made in the field, during erection, are riveted by pneumatic hammers, which de- liver rapid blows against a cup die placed on the head of the rivet. The factors affecting the strength of rivets and the design of riveted connections can not here be entered upon. The ways of joining different pieces by rivets, when necessary, with the help of junction pieces of plate called gusset plates, may be gathered from the illustrations, for example the building shown in Fig. 4. Rivets of ^ and ^ inch diameter are most used in structural work ; ^ inch, ^ inch, 1 inch, 1 % inch and 1 % inch occasionally. It is desir- able that a rivet should be upset enough to fill its hole snugly, and that its head be formed with enough pressure to draw the parts strongly together as the rivet cools. Recently equipment has been developed for driving large struc- tural rivets cold. Since a force varying between 50 and 90 tons is required to drive cold rivets of H inch to inch diameter, the driving equipment is too bulky to take into the field. Hence the use of cold driven riv- ets is limited to shop fabrication and, even here, is best suited to assembled parts requiring a rela- tively large number of rivets in a single assembly. Cold-driving riverts insure gqod filling of the holes, a desirable feature in any riveted work. The material, from which rivets to be driven cold are made, is substantially the same as that for hot-driven riv- ets. The head of a cold-driven rivet, which is formed in its manufacture, before assembly into the work to be joined, has the same shape as those for hot- driven rivets. The head formed in driving is flat or slightly conical. A number of processes has been developed for joining steel parts by welding but by far the commonest one used in construc- tion is the metal-arc process. Some resistance welding is used in the manufacture of assemblies made of relatively thin parts. Here the parts to be joined are held in a machine in direct con- tact with one another until an electric current has raised the temperature of the metal at the point of contact to the fusing point. Metal-arc welding may be per- formed by automatic equipment when the work can be placed in a nearly horizontal position and when the uninterrupted length of a weld is sufficient to justify the time required to set up the equipment. In ship construc- tion these conditions frequently exist and hence automatic weld- ing has been used extensively in this kind of work. In building and bridge construction most of the welding is done by hand. Since the introduction of the heavily coated electrode around 1930 welding has been used much more extensively in con- struction than was the case with the earlier bare wire electrode. However, even now more of the work is riveted or bolted than is joined by welding. General Forms of Steel- work. — The plate girder (Fig. 6) in which the material is adapted for resisting pure bend- ing strain, and the truss, in which the material has to resist either tension only or compres- sion only, are the type forms of all structural steelwork. Many steel members, however, must resist combinations of bending and tension (or compression) ; for instance, the columns of a steel-frame building not only have to carry a large vertical load, but through a stiff connec- tion with the cross beams must resist the distorting effect of the lateral pressure of wind (Fig. 7) and similarly the cross beams of the building must carry the floor loads by bending resistance, and in addition must transfer part of the wind load to the leeward side by compressive resistance, and must still have a residue of bend- ing resistance to co-act with the columns in resisting lateral dis- tortion of the structure by wind pressure. Such combined action is more easily provided for, how- ever, because a bending member is always of such form as to be able to resist also some compres- sion or tension, while columns and tension members are nearly always stiff enough laterally to have some degree of bending strength. Solid-web Beams and Gird- ers. — The plate girder, already referred to, is illustrated by a typical example in Fig. 6, and in Fig. 3 the use of rolled I- beams for similar purpose is ex- emplified. The latter form the floor members of all steel-frame tier buildings (office buildings. STEEL AND IRON CONSTRUCTION. Singer Tower and City Investing Building, New York City, While Both were in Course of Erection. steel and Iron Construction 436 Steel and Iron Construction more recent variety of steel has much higher strength than even high-carbon steel, together with remarkable toughness; this is nickel-steel, which is ordinary steel alloyed with 3 to 4% nickel. Nickel-steel has a strength of 80,- 000 to 100,000 lbs. per sq. in., and other properties ec^ual to those of the toughest structural steel. It has come into use for large bridges in which the weight of the steel is the chief part of the total load car- ried, and where, therefore, the stronger metal gives a double ad- vantage by reducing the load which it must itself carry. In buildings, the .weight of steel is a very small item, and there- fore the higher cost of nickel- steel for equal strength is pro- hibitive. Commercial Forms. — Steel for structural uses is chiefly in the form of plain plates and 'shapes.' Plates are orclinarily required in thicknesses of ib in. to 1^ in., widths from 6 to 120 in. (or more when needed), and any length. The more important forms of shape steel are the angle, the I, the channel, the Z-bar, and the Tee, all shown in the sketch. Fig. 1. Their importance is about in the order of naming. Angles, which are used in sizes from 2-in. to 8-in. length of leg, are the means for connecting separate pieces, and by being attached along the edges, etc., of a plate, they convert the flexible plate into a rigid member capable of resist- ing both compression and bend- ing with good eflficiency. Four angles and four plates will make up a stiff tubular member, a form much used in columns. A long plate having two angles at- tached along either longitudinal edge (one on eithej face), is a plate girder, which type of mem- ber is employed as a beam to re- sist bending stresses in all appli- cations of steelwork. The I- beam is exactly similar to the plate-girder except that it is an integral section, produced from the ingot by rolling, just as are railway track rails. The channel is in effect half an I-beam. Both these shapes are highly efficient as beams when set with web ver- tical, since the large area of sec- tion in the flanges is then at maxi- mum distance from the neutral Elane of bending. Practically all ending duty in steelwork is met by I-beams and channels, except that for loads beyond the capacity of commercial sizes of I-beams, plate-girders are used, these being not thus limited in depth and sec- tional area. The usual sizes of I-beams are 7 to 24 in. deep, weighing 10 to 100 lbs. per lin. ft., while channels are 6 to 15 in. deep, 8 to 45 lbs. per ft. Z-bars make an excellent form of col- umn, four bars being arranged in a star shape. Tecs are used in a variety of ways, as for studding or roof-purlins. In addition to these shapes, round, square, and rectangular bars are often employed as tension members. Round and square bars are bent around at the ends into welded loops for attachment. Rectangular bars require the loop to be formed by widening the end by upsetting, and boring a hole for tne attachment pin in the widened part. This form of bar has special importance, being the well-known eyebar on which the whole pin-connected system of bridge building depends. Eye- bars have been made as large as 18 in. wide by H to 2 in. tnick, and in the largest oridges as many as 25 such bars have been set side by side to form a single tension member. Steelwork also employs various special forms of plate or sheet steel, such as corrugated sheet, for roofing and siding of mill buildings; buckle-plates, plate steel formed into shallow rectangular shield-like panels by pressing, which are a highly efficient under- lating for bridge floors; trough ooring, which is plate steel cor- rugated with deep and narrow waves so as to give it great carry- ing capacity as a floor-plate, and numerous like products. Processes of Working. — The toughness and malleability of steel make it possible to cut a plate or shape by shearing instead of saw- ing or planing; to make holes by punching out with a hardenea steel punch under great pressure, instead of drilling, and to bend it by either cold or hot forging. The same qualities also make joining by rivets possible, whereas cast-iron is always joinea by bolts and never by rivets because the pressure of the latter would crack the brittle metal. Were it not for the simplicity of these processes of trimming and shaping, steel- work would be very much more costly, and probably would not have achieved more than a frac- tional part of its wide application. However, shearing and punch- ing do injure the adjacent metal somewhat, by producing local hardness and often what amounts to the _ formation of haircracks. The injury, extending about ^ in. away from the tool, may be made good by planing off the face of the sheared edge, and reaming or broaching out the punched hole. In ordinary steelwork this is not considered necessary, but in work of the highest class it is usually done. Where rivets are to be |- in. in diameter, for example, the holes may be punched f or f in., and, after assembly of the parts, broached out to |b in. diame- ter (subpunching and reaming). High-carbon steel, being more susceptible to injury from punch- ing, should have its rivet-holes drilled from the solid. The holes in plates whose thickness exceeds the rivet diameter are always drilled without preliminary punch- ing as punching is unsatisfactory and is likely to break the punch. Joining. — Connection by rivets is universal in steelwork, but there are two other connections used in special circumstances. (1) The erection joints of many structures of the lighter class are often made with bolts in place of rivets, though a bolt seated in the irreg- ularly matched holes of a group of steel parts is only ^ to f as ehec- tive as a rivet. (2) Connection by a single large bolt, called a 'pin,' is much practised in bridge con- struction, because erection is cheaper and quicker by simply slipping a pin into place than by placing and heading up a number of rivets. Pins are used in Amer- ica only, and pin-connected con- struction is often called the Amer- ican type. Pin joints are also used to some extent in roof-truss and building work. In light steelwork, tension bracing rods are often joined on by simply passing them through a hole in the plate of the main member and screwing a nut on the projecting end. In the section of a rivet connec- tion (Fig. 2) the heads are roughly hemispherical. One is formed on the rivet-rod, the rod then being cut to the exact length for passing through the assembled pieces and making the other head. The rivet having been heated to a bright red before insertion in the hole, is held to place by aid of a heavy weight or ram rested against the first head, and the other end is upset with a hammer and formed to shape with cup-like die ham- mered down over it. In the shop rivets are _ driven _ by hydraulic ressure_ riveters instead of by ammering. Joints made in the field, during erection, are riveted either by hand, as described, or by pneumatic hammers, which de- liver rapid blows against a cup die placed on the head of the rivet. The factors affecting the strength of rivets and the design of riveted connections cannot here be entered upon. It is to be noted, however, that rivets are not to be placed nearer an edge than 1^ diameters or spaced nearer to- gether than 3 diameters; also that to hold the parts smoothly together without curls or buckles, they should not be further apart than about 10 diameters or 6 in., when fewer would suffice for strength. The ways_ of joining different pieces by rivets, when necessary, with the help of junction pieces of plate called gusset-plates, may be gathered from the illustrations, steel and Iron Construction KFP 437 Steel and Iron Construction warehouses, etc.. as distin- guished from mill buildings, in which the framing is chiefly in wall and roof). The connection of an I-beam to its supports, usually either a column or a main girder, is in ordinary cases made by a pair of connection an- gles, as illustrated in Fig. 3^ but this connection is too flexible to resist bending, and where the beam forms part of a wind-brac- ing system it must be differently attached, preferably by a con- nection as shown in Fig. 7. In many cases where a single I- beam is insufficient, two or more I-beams side by side, held to- gether by bolts and spacer cast- ings, may be employed. A sin- gle channel may also serve ex- cellently as a beam, though it is so narrow that it must be well braced against lateral buckling. Two channels side by side, bound together either by latticing or by a continuous plate on top and bottom (the plate adding greatly to the bending resist- ance) make an efficient beam, used occasionally. This same form of assemblage carried out with plate girders in place of the channels, gives the box gird- er, a very substantial form of bending member,, used where very great loads have to be car- ried. Cover plates are sometimes added to the top and bottom flanges of rolled beams to in- crease their strength when the required increase is not sufficient to recommend the use of a plate girder. The detailed analysis of plate girders is intricate, but the prac- tical methods of proportioning are sufficiently close to give safe and economical structures. The upper and lower flanges must re- sist compression and tension in proportion to load, span, and depth of girder, while the web plate must transfer stress be- tween flanges, supports, and load ; stiffeners, i.e., angles riv- eted vertically on the sides of the web plate, hold it against buckling under its duty. While they are economical, plate gird- ers necessarily involve excess of material, since, owing to their nature, some parts of the web do little work. But this very fact gives the structure a massive- ness and a margin of strength that are of considerable value, and plate girders are therefore deservedly popular for short- span bridges and for all uses where_ rigidity or freedom from vibration is sought. Trusses of equivalent strength are lighter, but have less solidity and are generally considered less du- rable. Tension Members, — Pieces having to resist tension only are the simplest elementary assem- blages in steelwork, as no ques- tions of buckling or bending re- sistance are involved. It is only necessary to group all the parts symmetrically about the line of pull, fasten them together light- ly with stitch-rivets, and provide end connections capable of car- rying the stress of each part to the joint-plate or other attach- ment. The latter is always the chief problem, especially in members of very large size. Eye-bars are illustrated in Fig._ 5. The simplest riveted tension members are those made of a single angle, or of two an- gles, either stitched together back to back, or spread apart and connected by diagonal lattice so as to give greater width, and thereby avoid the vibration often seen in slender members. In roof trusses and similar light framework, this type of member is extensively used because of the ease of making connections and because the two-angle mem- ber is just as well suited for compression as for tension. Larger tension members are made of four angles latticed to- gether in I-shape or square box shape, or of a pair of plates each stiffened by longitudinal angles and braced together by latticing. For extremely large tension parts, still other combinations of plates and angles are built up. I-beams and channels are some- times conveniently used as ten- sion members. Compression Members or struts need to be stiff laterally in order to resist the buckling or bending-out tendency, which the compression load produces, and should be as solid and substan- tial as possible. Many combina- tions of plates and shapes have been employed. In small bridges struts made of two channels set back to back, a short distance apart, and held together by lat- ticing, are very convenient, and to some extent this form is used also in building work. The com- pression (upper) chords of ordi- nary bridges are frequently U- shaped assemblages of plates connected by longitudinal an- gles, like a box column with one side open. Very large compres- sion members for great bridges become special, intricate prob- lems of design, the more so as knowledge of the strength of col- umns is not nearly so definite as that relating to tension members. It is recognized that the strongest strut from a given amount of material is one having tubular shape. The designers of the great Eads Bridge and the Forth Bridge (a cantilever bridge of 1,710 ft. span between piers) therefore adopted tubular members, built up of curved plates riveted together much like a double boiler shell. On account of the high cost of fab- rication, however, this type of section has not been used for many years. Bridges* — The great variety of bridge types is briefly de- scribed in the article Bridges. Structurally, a bridge consists of a floor of beams covered with steel plate (Battledeck), steel gratingj concrete or wood, which floor is held up by rolled beams, girders, a pair of trusses, an arch or suspension cables (which in turn require a truss to stiffen the structure). Steel arches represent merely a special ad- aptation of truss framework, ex- cept that they may be made with plate-girder ribs (Henry Hud- son Bridge over Harlem River, New York, 800 foot span). Steel arches are suitable for long spans, a notable example being the Kill van Kull Bridge with a span of 1,675 feet. Trusses are theoretically any de- sired side-to-side arrangement of triangles. In practice the edge members are distinguished as chords, the inner ones as web members. In simple trusses the upper chord is in compression, the lower chord in tension, while the web members are alternate ties and struts. When the web members are alternately vertical and diagonal, and the diagonals slope downward toward mid- span, and therefore are in ten- sion, we have the Pratt truss. In the Warren truss the diag- onals slope downward alternate- ly towards the end and center of the span. They are designed to carry both tension and com- pression as the case may arise. Vertical members are generally also added although sometimes these are omitted altogether in highway bridges. For deck bridges (floor at level of upper chord) these verticals are in compression and for through bridges (floor at level of lower chord) they are in tension. All the members are riveted at the joints to gusset plates. In steel truss bridges, trans- verse girders (floor beams) are riveted between the opposite ][ ] [ XX Fig. 8. — Some Common Compression Sections Ill II II II Rl II II 11 I lU ill liini Ji lliiiiJi iiliiin iiiiiiJi -•III"*""" 1 WS!!!!1 IliE [ ilil IIIU III! I H "J . « i I ■ 1 1 1 1 8 * • lililllJ lllllil^ ,11111 i, iiii>ii''i:';ii'iii i.iji; »••!: i& Ewing Galloway. iV. x. Modern Example of Steel and Iron Construction Vol. XI.— Page 438 steel and Iron Construction KFP 439 Steel and Iron Construction posts of the two trusses and carry longitudinal beams (string- ers) on which rests the flooring material (in railway bridges the cross ties). The trusses by themselves lack lateral stififness, and have to be braced by what are in effect two horizontal trusses, one in the plane of ei- ther chord (lateral systems). The sideward wind pressure is resisted by these laterals and transmitted to the abutments or piers just as the main trusses transmit the effect of the verti- cal loads. For further lateral stiffening each post is rigidly bracketed to the floor beam and (in the other chord) to the cross strut of the lateral system, so as to form a four-sided frame stiff enough to be able to resist an- gular distortion. Stiff rectangular frames of the character just described oc- cur very often in steelwork. Since nearly all steel structures are made up of parts standing at right angles to each other (for example, in a tier building, the floor beams in two directions, the columns in the third), bracing is required, and this is supplied by diagonal members where these can be used, otherwise by stiff bracketed inter-connection of the parts to constitute rigid quadri- laterals. A typical instance of this occurs in every through bridge (one in which the trusses extend above the floor and have an overhead system of lateral bracing) at the ends, where the upper lateral system terminates and its load must be transmit- ted down to the abutments or piers on which the bridge rests. Diagonals can not be used in the transverse plane of the end, as they would obstruct the road- way. At the end post a stiff truss is riveted across between the main vertical trusses in the plane of the two end posts (which usually are inclined) ; this portal bracing, by its own resistance to bending and the bending strength of the end posts, opposes any angular dis- tortion of the end face of the bridge, and thus holds the trusses upright and carries the upper wind load down to the abutment. From this detail, the rigid- quadrilateral system of bracing is often called the portal-brace system. See Bridges. Tier Buildings. — The de- mand for fireproof building con- struction (q. V.) led to the use of floor framing of steel beams resting, in the first place, on the masonry walls of the building (or on interior cast-iron col- umns) and filled in with brick or concrete floor arches. Later, as buildings grew in height, it became necessary to avoid the immense increase of weight of the walls, required to carry the floor loads, by introducing in them steel columns to support the floors, the walls then carry- ing only their own weight. Still later it was found advantageous to carry the walls also on the columns, by carrying each story height of wall on a steel beam set in the wall at the floor level, the beam being attached to the columns. This arrangement of parts became universal, and is indeed the essence of the 'sky- scraper.' The modern tier building thus consists of a rectangular assem- blage of steel-beam floor fram- ing and steel columns, and floor- and-wall filling carried on the frame ; as it is exposed to con- siderable wind pressures it must be well braced. How much bracing effect the walls contrib- ute is not clearly established, but it is customary to count on the walls being adequate for bracing in all buildings less than 150 feet high, while highef buildings are required to have the frame- work braced strongly enough to resist the entire lateral load in itself (without any help from the walls). Of course there need not be bracing between all columns, as a small number of braced bents will brace the en- tire building. It was common formerly to provide bracing of crossed diagonals from founda- tion to roof in a certain number of bays, where the bracing could be conveniently concealed in par- titions. Modern requirements in office-building architecture call for open floor areas, in which the partitions can be shifted around to suit the ten- ant, and this leaves no place for interior brace diagonals ; and there is no place in the walls, be- cause these are so fully cut up by windows. As a result of this chiefly, the portal-bracing meth- od has come into vogue, and is now almost always used. The rnain .beams of the floors are riveted to the columns by con- nections like Fig. 7 instead of by the simpler ones of Fig. 3, and sufficient additional metal is put into the beams and columns to enable them to resist the bending action set up by the wind pres- sure. Fig. 7 shows a beam-to- colurnn connection in a 25-story building, which throughout was braced by such brackets, using no diagonal ties. Special problems arise in very narrow or very tall buildings, as illustrated by the photograph on page 439. In such structures it is apt to be necessary to incor- porate, in a few of the bays, a system of diagonal bracing, knee-braces or brackets, and the over-turning moment of the wind sometimes is great enough to re- quire the columns in the lower portion to be enormously heavy. Some of the columns in the Em- pire State Building in New York City weigh more than a ton per lineal foot in their lower portion. The design in such structures is no different, however, in its principles, from that of a less extreme building. To indicate the magnitude of the steel-frame building field, it may be noted that single buildings requiring 5,000 to 10,000 tons of steel are common occurrences. The 1,250_ foot high Empire State Building required approximately 60,000 tons in its frame. Shed-Type Buildings, — Train sheds, exhibition halls, very large hangars and similar structures in which the roof is supported entirely from the sides without the assistance of any interior columns, are usual- ly designed as three-hinged arches of roughly parabolic out- line, with a tie rod in the floor connecting the opposite footings of each arch to take the thrust and produce a series of self-con- tained frames. To facilitate the erection of such structures and to achieve the best economy these arches are usually arranged in pairs with a complete system of bracing to make each pair of arches a. completely self-support- ing entity capable of resisting all horizontal forces that may be applied in any direction. In the largest of such structures, af- fording a clear floor space ex- tending upward of 300 feet be- tween the side walls, a pair of arches may be spaced 25 to 30 feet apart and the pairs may be spaced 50 to 60 feet on centers. On such structures the weight of the covering deck becomes an important proportion of the load to be carried on the frame and is kept as small as possible. Such decks are usually made of sheet steel, troughed or cold- formed with ribs, at intervals, to provide enough stiffness so that the formed sheets will span 6 to 10 feet between supporting pur- lins. Natural lighting is pro- vided by substituting ribbed glass for the sheet steel deck or by the use of skylights. The pressure created by the wind on the gable ends of this type of building requires a system of framing employing wind trusses to span the great distance be- tween available points of sup- port. As an alternate solution the ends are sometimes framed with radially disposed half- arches which provide a rounded end to the building having sub- stantially the same contour as that of a cross section taken else- where at right angles to the prin- ciple axis of the structure. Industrial Buildings, — Be- steel and Iron Construction KFP 439 A Steel and Iron Construction cause they usually require large clear floor spaces, frequently are required to carry heavy loads, and often must undergo substan- tial alterations during their life- time to accommodate changes in the manufacturing process they house, the great majority of in- dustrial buildings are framed with structural steel. Unob- structed floor bays as wide as 300 feet have been constructed, although bay widths ranging from 25 to 150 feet are far more common and account for the greater proportion of all the available industrial floor space. Recent trends in manufacturing methods have developed a strong preference for one story build- ings with all operations taking place on a single floor at or near ground level. Such buildings, covering more than sixty acres of ground, have been construct- ed with bay widths ranging from 100 to 300 feet. When the han- dling of materials in process of manufacture can be done by overhead cranes, monorails and conveyors not only are interrup- tions to operations on the work- ing floor avoided but floor space which would otherwise be re- quired for such traffic is con- served for actual manufactur- ing. Thus the steel frame is often called upon to support heavy moving loads as well as to provide a shelter. Figure 4 shows a half cross-section through the main bay of a typi- cal shed-type industrial build- ing where provision has been made for two overhead cranes spanning the bay and traveling on tracks supported on crane beams connected to the column. The roof truss in this sketch is called a Fink truss and is the popular type where it is desired to give a two-way roof enough pitch so that the lapping of the roof covering will insure weath- er tightness without particular attention to the sealing of every joint. When flat, or nearly flat roofs, are used Warren or Pratt trusses are generally used un- less the spans are small enough to permit the use of rolled beams. Depending upon special condi- tions which may result from the manufacturing processes housed, roof decks spanning between the purlins may be sheet steel as de- scribed above or they may be re- inforced stone or light-weight concrete, precast concrete or gypsum, woodj corrugated metal or asbestos, or tile. Side walls are generally masonry, pre- formed sheet steel panels sepa- rated by insulation board, cor- rugated asbestos or corrugated metal. A generous amount of steely sash, affording natural lighting and ventilation, is char- acteristic of industrial buildings since the cost is not out of line with the cost of the wall con- struction it replaces. In some recent cases, however, all win- dows have been done away with in order to maintain a uniform condition of illumination and ventilation mechanically provid- ed for and controlled from with- in. Shipbuilding* — The building of ships forms a most important field of steel construction. For the past half century or more practically all ships have been built of steel. During the First World War shipbuilding re- quired the use of very large ton- nages of steel but immediately thereafter this most important arm of national security once more became almost non-exist- ant. In the face of the impend- ing world crisis it was re-acti- vated again in 1940 and the pro- duction of the ensuing five years far outstripped all production records of the earlier war. Whereas fhe earlier period of activity was devoted almost en- tirely to the construction of riv- eted hulls, welded ships formed the great bulk of the program in the Second World War. The structural problem involved in the design of a ship's hull is not as readily resolved into a pre- cise mathematical solution as is the case of buildings and bridges where the magnitude and direc- tion of the loads to be carried can be closely predicted. There- fore the size and arrangement of ship frames are fixed by empiri- cal rules laid down by marine insurance underwriters and oth- er interested authorities. Tanks and Gas Holders, — Elevated water supply tanks are now nearly always built of steel. Towers for the support of small- er tanks usually consist of four, eight or more slightly inclined columns or legs braced together by horizontal struts and diago- nal bracing. When much larger storage capacities are required they are obtained by increasing the diameter of the tanks rather than by increasing its height which would result in greater fluctuations in the water pres- sure as the surface level rises and falls. Since the spans, across which the bottom plates can be economically sagged to carry the load of the stored wa- ter by means of tension in the plates is limited, the supports for large diameter tanks usually include more than columns lo- cated around the edge of the tank ; much of the load is car- ried on a centrally located riser, or column, or on a number of columns more or less evenly spaced over the area of the tank bottom. To satisfy with a min- imum of bending stresses the loads against the side of the tank produced by the water stored, the side plates are curved, or 'dished' to form a smooth un- broken surface where they join the roof and bottom plates. Very pleasing architectural lines are achieved in these modem designs. Tanks built on concrete foun- dations, at or near the ground level, for the storage of liquids at atmospheric pressure are usu- ally cylindrical, with a flat bot- tom and slightly conical roof. The petroleum industry has built vast numbers of these tanks for the storage of oil. Gas holders for the storage of coal gas are somewhat similar in appearance yet they are much more complex in design. Such a frame con- sists of a circle of standards con- nected by horizontal circular girders and a full set of diagonal bracing. The gas holder bell, a sectional steel drum often 150 feet in diameter by 100 feet high, is guided against the stand- ards by rollers, and transfers to them the wind pressure coming against it. The tank in which the bottom of the bell is im- mersed is usually made of steel plate, being merely a circular reservoir 15 to 30 feet high. The storage of liquids and gases at pressures considerably above atmospheric has created the need for spherical tanks, and tanks somewhat flatter than a true sphere, having a greater bulge below their mid-height than above it to conform as closely as possible with the pres- sures involved. Other Applications. — Ele- vated railways and highways are substantially bridges or via- ducts, and the use of steel for their construction is inevitable and indeed alone makes them commercially possible. Subway and tunnel construction also fre- quently employs steel framing. High tension transmission pow- er lines are .generally supported on steel towers which, in order to effect the best economy, are rather intricately framed struc- tures. The service conditions for which these towers are de- signed assumes that the conduc- tors to be supported may become heavily coated with ice ; that they may be subject to consider- able lateral wind pressure ; and that all of the lines on one side of the tower may be broken in a storm, thereby creating a very large horizontal load due to the strain from the unbroken lines on the other side of the tower. Steel also enters into nearly every other field of construction. Pneumatic foundation caissons built of steel; steel sheet-piling; and bearing piles ; large water- pipes, penstocks, etc., of stee/ (9 Ewina Galloway, Y. MODERN EXAMPLE OF STEEL AND IRON CONSTRUCTION Vol. XI —Page 439 Vol. XL— 030 steel and Iron Construction 439 A Steel and Iron Construction steel columns to carry the floor loads, the walls then carrying only their own weight. Still later it was found advantageous to car- ry the walls also on the columns, by carrying each story height of wall on a steel beam set in the wall at the floor level, the beam being attached to the columns. This arrangement of parts be- came universal, and is indeed the essence of the 'sky-scraper.' The modern tier building thus consists of a rectangular assem- blage of steel-beam floor framing and steel columns, and floor-and- wall filling carried by the beams; as it is exposed to considerable wind pressures it must be well braced. How much bracing ef- fect the walls contribute is not clearly established, but it is cus- tomary to count on the walls being adequate for bracing in all buildings less than 150 feet high, while higher buildings are re- quired to have the framework braced strongly enough to resist the entire lateral load in itself (without any help from the walls) . Of course there need not be brac- ing between all columns, as a small number of braced bents will brace the entire building. It was common formerly to provide bracing of crossed diagonals from foundation to roof in a certain number of bays, where the brac- ing could be conveniently con- cealed in partitions. Modern re- quirements in office-building ar- chitecture call for open floor areas, in which the partitions can be shifted around to suit the ten- ant, and this leaves no place for interior brace diagonals; and there is no place in the walls, be- cause these are so fully cut up by windows. As a result of this chiefly, the portal-bracing meth- od has come into vogue, and is now almost always used. The main beams of the floors are riveted to the columns by connec- tions like Fig. 7 instead of by the simpler ones of Fig. 3, and suf- ficient additional metal is put in- to the beams and columns to enable them to resist the bending action set up by the wind pres- sure. Fig. 7 shows a beam-to- column connection in a 25-story building, which throughout was braced by such brackets, using no diagonal ties. Special problems arise in very narrow or very tall buildings, as illustrated by the photograph on page 439. In such structures it is apt to be necessary to revert to diagonal bracing, and the over- turning moment of the wind sometimes is great enough to re- quire the columns in the lower portion to be enormously heavy. The design of such structures is no different, however, in its prin- ciples, from that of a less extreme building. To indicate the mag- nitude of the steel-frame build- ,ing field, it may be noted that Vol. XL— 030 many single buildings have re- quired as much as 5,000 tons of steel, while at the present time there have been cases of 15,000 to 20,000 tons of steel required for a single building. Cast iron columns are no longer used in buildings of more than 6 to 8 stories, although a 17-story hotel with cast iron columns was built as late as 1903. The serious defect of cast iron columns for this purpose is the fact that the bolted connections of the beams are unavoidably somewh'at loose, which gives the entire structure a dangerous instability. A 12- story building with cast iron col- umns collapsed during erection in 1904 in New York City. Mill and Shed Buildings com- prise a large range of most vari- ous types of structure, including machine-shop and foundry build- ings, train-sheds, etc. The typi- cal mill building consists of a truss roof of 50- to 120-foot span supported on side columns spaced 12 to 30 feet apart, with a longi- tudinal girder 20 to 40 feet above the floor, along the inside of each line of columns, to carry the track of a travelling bridge crane. Of- ten jib cranes are attached to the columns, trolley hoists travel on tracks hung from the trusses, etc., so that the load-conditions are quite variable. A cross-section through a representative mill building (Fig. 4), shows the gen- eral features. The type of roof- truss there shown, called Fink truss, is used very extensively for steel-roof framework. Diagonal rod bracing in the roof plane, rod or angle bracing in the lower chord, to hold the entire building and especially the crane-track in line, and occasional bays of brac- ing in the side walls, give ample longitudinal stiffness, while for lateral rigidity a kneebrace be- tween column and truss is usual- ly depended on (in American practice) . Train sheds, exhibition halls, etc., are most often framed with three-hinged arch trusses, of roughly parabolic outline, with a tie rod in the floor to take the thrust of each arch segment. In structures of this class economy dictates the arranging of the trusses in pairs of 12 to 20 feet width, the pairs being 35 to 50 feet apart. Each pair has a full system of bracing and is called a tower; the intermediate parts of the roof then require no bracing, but their purlins merely rest on the adjacent towers. In the gable ends of such shed roofs, a strong horizontal wind truss and trussed vertical studding must be used to hold the gable wall from being crushed in by the wind. Mill and shed buildings are rarely of such character as to re- quire substantial walls, and they are often covered both on walls and on roof with plates of corru- gated sheet steel, spanning 5 to 6 feet between purlins, or with wood planking covered with pre- pared asphalt-and-felt roof cov- Ciing, or the like. Concrete slabs have been much used recently as a more permanent and fireproof roofing, a weatherproof covering being laid over it. Steel sash has introduced a very simple and light wall design that is exten- sively used in mill building con- struction. Ships form a most important field of steel construction, and for several decades past practi- cally all ships have been built of steel. The ship-framing problem is not as exact as that of the bridge, as the forces to be resisted are not so well known. The marine in- surance interests, therefore, fix empirical rules for ship framing, which largely govern the arrange- ment and proportioning of parts. Tank Towers and Gas Holders. — Towers to carry elevated tanks for water supply are now nearly always built of steel. They con- sist of four, eight, or more in- clined columns or legs braced together by horizontal struts and crossed diagonal bracing. Gas holder frames are more complex. Such a frame consists of a circle of standards connected by hori- zontal circular girders and a full set of diagonal bracing. The gas holder bell, a sectional steel drum often 150 feet in diameter by 100 feet high, is guided against the standards by rollers, and trans- fers to them the wind pressure coming against it. The tank in which the bottom of the bell is immersed is nowadays often made of steel plate, being merely a circular reservoir 15 to 30 feet high. Other Applications. — Elevated railways are substantially bridges or viaducts, and the use of steel for their construction is inevita- ble and indeed alone makes them commercially possible. Subway and tunnel construction also fre- quently employs steel framing; though the cast iron shell for shield - driven tunnels is still standard, and in flat-roof subways reinforced-concrete construction is the most modern. Railway cars of steel are now manufactured on a very large scale. These require so many forms to which the ordi- nary rolled shapes and plates do not adapt themselves that the de- sired forms are pressed out of plate steel, being then assembled, by riveting. Steel also enters into nearly every other field of construction, though to less extent. Pneumatic foundation caissons built of steel; steel sheet-piling; large water- pipes, tanks and stand-pipes, etc., of steel, have wide use. Steel mine-strutting is a newer devel- opment. The strength, elastici- ty, and toughness of steel, the rigidity of steel framework, its steel and Iron Construction KFP 439 B Steel and Iron Construction have wide use. Steel mine- strutting is a newer develop- ment. The strength, elasticity and toughness of steel, the ri- gidity of steel framework, its permanency under suitable con- ditions, and its superior light- ness for a given duty, are factors which have made for its wide application in construction. Permissible Stresses, — The guiding principle in proportion- ing the sizes of steel structural parts is that no condition of loading may do permanent in- jury to any part of the structure. The 'elastic limit' of steel, up to which point it behaves virtually with perfect elasticity, is at about half the ultimate strength, so that by the above principle it is only necessary to keep the worst combination of stresses at the weakest point down to about 33,000 lbs. per square inch, after making due allowance for all un- favorable circumstances. There are so many elements of uncer- tainty, however, that it is cus- tomary to remain within certain maximum values of stress, de- . pending on the type of structure. For example, all parts which carry heavy moving loads, as the floor and truss members of bridges, are made heavier by a so-called impact allowance. The engineering principle of providing a factor of safety against the unexpected is not peculiar to the use of steel in construction ; similar safety fac- tors are required in the propor- tioning of structures of timber and reinforced concrete. How- ever, the significance of applying this factor to the elastic limit of steel should not be overlooked. Not only is structural steel truly elastic under stresses equal to half of its ultimate strength (a characteristic found in no other common structural material) but, in its plastic or ductile range, it possesses the ability to absorb tremendous amounts of energy loading as compared with the energy absorption represent- ed by the work done in its elas- tic range. It is this 'toughness factor' which accounts for the remarkable resistance of full- framed structures to repeated bombing attacks in wartime. In building work, tensile stresses of 20,000 lbs. and com- pressive stresses ranging upward to 20,000 lbs. per square inch are usually permissible. Tension in a member tends to hold the member in a straight line, as for example a piece of string will lose its sag when pulled taut ; compression in a member, on the other hand, tends to buckle the member out of a straight line and to the ex- tent that such buckling actually takes place, the ultimate load ca- pacity in compression is reduced. Thus the strength of a member in compression is reduced as its length, and hence its slenderness ratio, is increased. In recogni- tion of this condition the stress permitted in compression mem- bers, such as columns and com- pression elements in other mem- bers when no lateral support is provided other than the stiffness of the member itself, such as the top compression flange of beams and the webs of plate girders, is reduced by formulas which re- late the permitted stress to the degree of slenderness existing in the member or compression ele- ments thereof. In building col- umns the permissible stress per square inch, f, resulting from direct load is obtained from the formula /= 17,000 -.485 for slenderness ratios of _L up r to 120, and by the formula /= 18.000 18,000 for ratios above 120 ; L being the imbraced length of the column and r the radius of gyration of its cross-section (.3 to .4 of its least width), both taken in inches. The bending stress in beams and girders is usually limited to 20,000 lbs. per square inch and, where the com- pression flange is unbraced lat- erally this stress is reduced pro- gressively depending upon the unbraced length, the depth of the beam and the area of the com- pression flange. Custom and established stand- ards have resulted in slightly lower stresses being used in bridges. Tension and bending stresses are limited to 18,000 lbs. per square inch and col- umn compression to 15,000 — 2. In bridge design an impact factor is added to the ac- tual weight of the moving traffic to provide for the effect of vi- bration, the hammer blow re- sulting from track or pavement irregularities, and the rapid ap- plication of the loading due to the speed of the moving traffic. This added impact factor varies from 100 per cent in the case of individual transverse members on railroad bridges to 20 per cent for the main carrying mem- bers of a 125 foot span highway bridge or approximately 20 per cent for similar members of a 300 foot span railroad bridge. Rivets are proportioned for a shearing stress not over three- fourths the allowed tensile value of the connected parts. If no friction existed between the con- tact surfaces held together with rivets, the stress in one connect- ed part would be transferred to the next adjacent ply first in the bearing of the edge of the rivet hole against the shank of the rivet, then in shear over the transverse cross-section of the rivet and finally by the bearing of the rivet against the edge of the rivet hole in the second part. The clamping effect resulting from the shrinkage in the cool- ing rivet or from the tightening of the nut on a bolt, however, produces very great friction which, in turn, reduces very ma- terially the actual bearing stress of rivets and bolts against the sides of the holes in the parts they join. Therefore, bearing stresses are permitted here much higher than would otherwise be justified. These values, resulting from an analysis of considerable experimental work on actual joint specimens range up to twice the tensile and bending stress permitted in the joined parts. The earlier widespread mis- conception that the shrinkage of rivets in cooling set up internal tensile stresses which left little capacity available to care for ad- ditional tensile stress resulting from externally applied loads, disproven both experimentally and by observation of actual service conditions, has persisted until quite recently. ^ Since the total tensile stress intensity is not the sum of the internal and external stresses, but approxi- mately equal to the larger of the two, tensile stresses from ex- ternal loading up to 20,000 lbs. per square inch are now permit- ted in rivets and bolts in build- ing construction. Rusting is an eternal enemy of exposed steel and therefore painting assumes high impor- tance. Steel is not usually painted in the rolling-mill, but after the individual parts are punched and assembled in the shop they get one coat of paint. In bridge construction, immedi- ately after erection, the finished structure is painted with two coats thoroughly applied. There- after it must be repainted peri- odically. The specifications for repainting require that all old, loose paint and rust be scraped or wirebrushed off. The paints used are usually of the linseed oil class, being mixtures of vari- ous pigment powders with lin- seed oil, turpentine, and the like. The resulting hardened paint film is not highly durable. In the worst places, as where a bridge crosses a railway track, with exposure to the cutting ac- tion of the exhaust and to the corrosive action of the steam condensation charged with sul- phur acids, concrete covering has come into some favor. Blast Steele KFP 440 Steeplechasing plates of wrought iron have also been used to shield the steel di- rectly over railroad tracks. Deterioration of steel in serv- ice from continued repetition of stress was at one time seriously- feared. Experience has brought no such efifect to light, however, and several careful tests of old bridges have given strong evi- dence that it does not occur at all. It may be taken as certain that the life of a steel structure is limited only by the corrosive action of the elements, and that when steel is kept fully protect- ed against this corrosion it is imperishable. For iron and steel bridges, see Bridge. See Steel. Bibliography* — Consult Johnson, Bryan, and Turneaure, Modern Framed Structures (3 vols.) ; Kidder, Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book; Ketch- um. Steel Mill Buildings ; Mar- burg, Framed Structures and Girders; Engineering News- Record. Steele, Joel Dorman (1836- 86), American educator, was born in Lima, N. Y. In 1862-6 he was principal of the Newark (N. J.) High School, and from the latter year to 1872 was prin- cipal of the Elmira (N. Y.) Academy. His teaching was distinguished for original meth- ods, and^ won for him a high reputation. He wrote the Barnes* Brief Histories, which included ancient, medieval, and American histories. Steele, Sir Richard (1672- 1729), English essayist and play- wright, was born in Dublin. After studying at Oxford, in 1695 he received a commission in the Coldstream Guards, and subsequently became a captain in Lord Lucas' Fusiliers. In 1706 he became a gentleman-in-wait- ing to Queen Anne's consort, Prince George of Denmark ; and in the following year was ap- pointed editor of the London Gazette. On the death of Prince George, however, he lost these privileges but in 1710 he became commissioner of stamps. As 'Isaac Bickerstaff' — a pseudonym appropriated from Swift — on April 12, 1709, he issued the first number of the famous Tatler, which appeared thrice weekly till Jan. 2, 1711. This was suc- ceeded in March, 1711, by the even more famous Spectator, which appeared daily till Dec. 6, 1712. Steele's imaginary club in the initial number includes the first sketch of Sir Roger de Coverley, and of the total 555 papers in the periodical, 236 are his. Both in the Tatler and the Spectator, as well as in the Guardian (March 7 to Oct. 1, 1713), he was powerfully sup- ported by Addison (q. v.). In the Guardian Steele di- verged into politics, and in 1713 he published a pamphlet entitled The Importance of Dunkirk, Consider'd, which provoked Swift's slashing retaliation. The Importance of the 'Guardian' Consider'd. In the same year Steele became m.p. for Stock- bridge, resigning his post as commissioner of stamps. The Guardian was now dropped for the frankly political English- man, which ran to fifty-seven numbers (1714). Through his sponsorship for William Moore's work. The Crisis (1714), with reference to the Hanoverian succession, Steele not only prompted Swift's brilliant Public Spirit of the Whigs, but compassed his own expulsion from the House of Commons (March, 1714), but the death of Queen Anne pres- ently restored his fortunes, with those of his party. He wrote Mr. Steele's Apology for Him- self and His Writings, and be- came deputy-lieutenant for Mid- dlesex and surveyor of the royal stables at Hampton Court. Meanwhile the curious Ladies' Library (frequently mentioned in the Spectator) , The Lover, and The Reader, represented his zeal as projector of periodicals. In 1715 he became patentee of Drury Lane Theatre, was elect- ed M.p. for Boroughbridge, Yorkshire, and was knighted by George I. Through his political paper, the Plebeian, Steele in 1719 stirred the opposition of Addison, who assailed him in the Old Whig. In 1722 Steele pro- duced in Drury Lane The Con- scious Lovers, his most success- ful comedy. He died in Car- marthen, Wales, and was buried in St. Peter's Church. Steele's political pamphlets were honest but not effectively convincing. His fame rests al- most wholly upon his perform- ances as an essayist. He holds a distinguished place in letters as pioneer of the modern English essay. Consult Austin Dobson's Memoir in the 'English Wor- thies Series,' and Biography by Aitken. See Correspondence of Richard Steele, edited by Rae Blanchard (1942). Steel Engraving. See En- graving. Steell, Sir John (1804-91), Scottish sculptor, was born in Aberdeen. When very young he removed with his family to Edin- burgh and became apprenticed as a wood-carver. At the close of his apprenticeship he studied sculpture in Rome, and on his return to Edinburgh modeled the group of Alexander Taming Bucephalus. Most of his work is in Edinburgh — e.g., the statue of Scott in Scott's monument, the statue of Queen Victoria in the Royal Institution, the statue of Wellington before the Regis- ter House, and the Albert Me- morial. Steel'ton, borough, Pennsyl- vania, in Dauphin County, on the Susquehanna River, and on the Pennsylvania, the Reading Company and the Steelton and Highspire railroads, 3 miles southeast of Harrisburg. It is chiefly important as a center of steel manufacture. It is situated in a fine agricultural district. It was settled in 1865, and in- corporated in 1880. Pop. (1930) 13,285; (1940) 13,115. Steelyard. See Balance. Steen, stan, Jan (1626-70), Dutch genre painter, was born in Leyden. The son of a Leyden brewer, he studied under Knup- fer in Utrecht, Adrian von Os- tade, and Van Goyen in the Hague, where he lived from 1649 to 1654. Later he lived in Delft, where he was a brewer, in Haarlem, and in Leyden where he conducted a tavern. As tav- ern-keeper he had opportunities of studying life and types and gratifying intemperate habits. His best work, which is in Hol- land and_ England, is character- ized by its dramatic and intel- lectual quality and his genial, tolerant expression of life, touched with Hogarthian satire. Among his pictures are Feast of St. Nicholas, Doctor's Visit, The Rustic Wedding, The Mu- sic Master. Steenkerke, stan'kerkc, or Steenkerken, village, Belgium, province of Hainault is famous as the scene of defeat on Aug. 3, 1692, of William of Orange in command of the Dutch and Eng- lish, by the French under Mar- shal Luxembourg. Steeplechasing, originally a trial of speed and jumping pow- ers between two or more horses between one church steeple and another ; later a horserace run across the open country, over hedges, ditches, walls, and what- ever other obstacles lie in the way. There would appear to have been no regularly organized steeplechasing imtil Thomas Coleman of St. Albans arranged the first regular meeting on March 1, 1831. St. Albans steeplechases have long since died out of the calendar ; but since 1839 at Liverpool, or rath- er Aintree, a suburb of that city, the Grand National has been run about the last week in March, and is still the great English cross-country race of the year. Since 1866, steeplechasing has been greatly reformed. The Grand National, a race some- times worth more than £11,- 000 to the owner of the win- steel and Iron Construction 439 Steel and Iron Construction set back to back, a short distance apart, and held together by lat- ticing, are very convenient, and to some extent this form is used also in building work. The com- pression (upper) chords of ordi- nary bridges are frequently U- shaped assemblages of plates connected by longitudinal angles, like a box column with one side open. Very large compression members for great bridges become special, intricate problems of de- sign, the more so as knowledge of the strength of columns is not nearly so definite as that relating to tension members. This latter fact was indirectly responsible for the collapse of the ^ Quebec Bridge, in which certain com- pression members buckled at a much lower load than they were designed to carry. It is recognized that the strong- est strut is one having tubular shape. The designers of the great Eads Bridge and the Forth Bridge (a cantilever bridge of 1,710 ft. span between piers, the greatest in the world), therefore adopted tubular, members, built up of curved plates riveted to- gether much like a double boiler shell. In smaller proportions the same effect is secured by forming a column of rolled sector strips, suitably flanged for bolting to- gether; four or six plates to the full circle are used. It is even more difficult to make connec- tions with such a column than with a box column, on which account it is now little used. Bridges. — The great variety of types of bridge is briefly de- scribed in the article Bridges, which see. Structurally, a bridge consists of a floor of beams cov- ered with steel plate, concrete, or wood, which floor is held up by a pair of trusses, an arch, or sus- pension cables (which in turn re- quire a truss to stiffen the struc- ture). Steel arches represent merely a special adaptation of truss framework, except that they may be made with plate-girder ribs (Washington Bridge over Har- lem K., New York, 500-ft. span). Trusses are theoretically any de- sired side-to-side arrangement of triangles, but in practice the edge members are distinguished as chords, the inner ones as web- members. In simple trusses the upper chord is in compression, the lower chord in tension, while the web-members are alternate ties and struts. When the web-mem- bers are alternately vertical and diagonal, and the diagonals slope downward toward mid-span, and therefore are in tension, we have the Pratt truss, the most widely used of all truss types. Taking a Pratt as typical of all steel truss bridges, we find that between the opposite posts of the two trusses are riveted transverse girders (floor-beams). which in turn carry Icrgitudinal beams (stringers) on which rests the flooring material (in railway bridges • the cross-ties). The trusses by themselves lack lateral stiffness, however, and require to be braced by what are in effect two horizontal trusses, one in the plane of either chord (lateral sys- tems). The sideward wind pres- sure is resisted by these laterals and transmitted to the abutments just as the main trusses transmit the effect of the vertical loads. For further lateral stiffening each post is rigidly bracketed to the floor-beam and (in the other chord) to the cross-strut of the lateral system, so as to form a four-sided frame stiff enough to be able to resist angular distortion. Stiff rectangular frames of the character just described occur very often in steelwork; they have the same effect (but obviously by different action) as a square frame with pin ioints, but containing crossed diagonal ties. Since nearly all steel structures are made up of parts standing at right an- gles to each other (for example, in a tier building, the floor-beams in two directions, the columns in the third), bracing is required, and this is supplied by diagonal mem- bers where these can be used, otherwise by stiff bracketed inter- connection of the parts to consti- tute rigid quadrilaterals. _A typi- cal instance of this occurs in every through bridge (one in which the trusses extend above the floor and have an overhead system of lateral bracing) at the ends, where the upper lateral system terminates and its load must be transmitted down to the abutments on which the bridge rests. Diagonals can- not be used in the transverse plane of the end, as they would obstruct the roadway. At the end post a stiff girder is riveted across from truss to truss, in the plane of the two end posts (which usually are inclined); this portal bracing, by its own resistance to bending and the bending strength of the 'end posts, opposes any angular dis- tortion of the end face of the bridge, and thus holds the trusses upright and carries the upper wind load down to the abutment. From this detail, the rigid-ciuad- rilateral system of bracing is often called the portal-brace system. Tire Buildings. — The demand for fireproof building construction (q.v.) led to the use of floor-fram- ing of steel beams resting on the masonry walls of the building (or on interior cast-iron columns] and filled in with brick or concrete floor arches. The features of such framing are self-evident. Later, as buildings grew in height, it be- came necessary to avoid tne im- mense increase of weight of the walls by introducing in them steel columns to carry the floor loads, the walls then carrying only their own weight. Still later it was found advantageous to carry the walls also on the columns, hy carrying each story height of wall on a steel beam set in the wall at the floor level, the beam being attached to the columns. This arrangement of parts became uni- versal, and is indeed the essence of the 'skyscraper.' The modern tier-building thus consists of a rectangular assem- blage of steel beam floor-framing and steel columns, and floor and wall filling carried by the beams; as it is exposed to considerable wind pressures it must be well braced. How much bracing ef- fect the walls contribute is not clearly established, but it is cus- tomary to count on the walls being adequate for bracing in all build- ings less than 150 ft. high, while higher buildings are required to have the framework braced strong- ly enough to resist the entire lateral load in itself (without any help from the walls). Of course there need not be bracing between all columns, as a small number of braced bents will brace the entire building. It was common formerly _ to provide bracing of crossed diagonals from foundation to roof in a certain numl)cr of bays, where the bracing could be conveniently concealed in parti tions. Modern requirements ir. office-building architecture cab for" open floor areas, in which the partitions can be shifted around to suit the tenant, and this leaves no place for interior brnce diagonals; and there is no place in the walls, because these are so fully cut up by windows. As a re- sult of this chiefly, the portal- bracing method has come into vogue, and is now almost always used. The main beams of the floors are riveted to the columns by connections like Fig. 7 instead of by the simpler ones of Fig. 3, and sufficient additional metal is put into the beams and columns to enable them to resist the bend- ing action set up by the wind pressure. Fig. 7 shows a beam- Fig. 9. — Some Common Column Sections. steel and Iron Construction 439A Steel and Iron Construction to-column connection in a 25- story building, which throughout was braced by such brackets, us- ing no diagonal ties. Special problems arise in very narrow or very tall buildings, as illustrated by the photograph on page 435. In such structures it is apt to be necessary to re- vert to diagonal bracing, and the overturning moment of the wind sometimes is great _ enough to require the columns in the lower portion to be enormously heavy. The- design of such structures^ is no different, however, in its prin- ciples, from that of a less extreme building. To indicate the mag- nitude of the steel-frame build- ing field, it may be noted that several single buildings have re- quired as much as 5,000 tons of steel, while in one case a pair of 22-story buildings consumed as much as 11,000 tons. Cast-iron columns are no longer used in buildings of more than 6 to 8 stories, although a 17-story hotel with cast-iron columns was built as late as 1903. The serious defect of cast-iron columns for this purpose is the fact that the bolted connections of the beams are unavoidably somewhat loose, which gives the entire structure a dangerous instability. A 12-story building with cast-ircn columns collapsed during erection in 1904 in New York City. Mill and Shed Buildings com- prise a large range of most various types of structure, including ma- chnie-shop and foundry buildings, train-sheds, etc. The typical mill building consists of a truss roof of 50 to 120 ft. span supported on side columns spaced 12 to 30 ft. apart, with a longitudinal girder 20 to 40 ft. above the lioor, along the inside of each line of columns, to carry the track of a travelling bridge crane. Often jib-cranes are attached to the columns, trolley hoists travel on tracks hung from the trusses, etc., so that the load-conditions are quite various. A cross-section through a representative mill building (Fig. 9), shows the general features. The type of roof-truss there shown, called Fink truss, is used for steel-roof framework very ex- tensively. Diagonal rod bracing in the roof plane, rod or angle bracing in the lower chord, to hold the entire building and especially the crane-track in line, and occa- sional bays of bracing in the side walls, give ample longitudinal stiffness, while for lateral rigidity a kneebrace between column and truss is usually depended on (in American practice). Train-sheds, exhibition halls, etc., are most often framed with three-hinged^ ^ arch trusses, of roughly semicircular outline, with a tie-rod in the floor to take the thrust of each arch. In struc- tures of this class economy dic- tates the arranging of the trusses in pairs of 12 to 20 ft. width, the Sairs being 35 to 50 ft. apart, ach pair has a full system of bracing and is called a tower; the intermediate parts of the roof then requin no bracing, but their pur- lins merely rest on the adjacent towers. In the gable ends of such shed roofs, a strong horizontal wind truss and trussed vertical studding must be used to hold the gable wall from being crushed in by the wind. Mill and shed buildings are rarely of such character as to require substantial walls, and they are often covered both on walls and on roof with plates of corrugated sheet steel, spanning 5 to 6 ft. between purlins, or with wood planking covered with pre- Fig. 10.— Hall Section of Battle- ship "Rhode Island." pared asphalt-and-felt roof cov- ering, or the like. Concrete slabs have been much used recently as a more permanent and fireproof roofing, a weatherproof covering being laid over it. Ships form a most important field of steel construction,^ and for several decades past practif ally all ships have been built of steel. For some details of the fram- ing see Fig. 10 above and also the article Shipbuilding. The problem of ship framing is not as exact as that of the bridge, as the forces to be resisted are not so v^ell known. The marine in- surance interests, therefore, _ fix empirical rules for ship framing, which largely govern the arrange- ment and proportioning of parts. Looking at the section, the frames are curved plate-girders, covered with inner and outer plating on the bottom — the double bottom, which has done so much to in- crease the safety of vessels, is a result of steel construction. The longitudinal members act as beams, the plating braces the structure longitudinally, the trans- verse beams tie the upper ends of the frames togetner, and the bot- tom plating and deck act as the flanges of a girder when the ship is subjected to longitudinal bend^ ing bv riding on waves. Riveted and kneebraced connections are used throughout. Tank Towers and Gas-holders. — Towers to carry elevated tanks for water-supply are now always built of steel. They consist of four, eight, or more inclined col- umns or legs braced together by horizontal struts and crossed diagonal bracing. Gas-holder frames are more complex. Such a frame consists of a circle of standards connected by horizon- tal circular girders ancl a full set of diagonal bracing. The gas- holder bell, a sectional steel drum often 150 ft. in diameter by 100 ft. high is guided against the standards by rollers, and transfers to them the wind pressure coming against it. The tank in which the bottom of the bell is immersed is nowadays often made of steel jjlate, being merely a circular res- ervoir 15 to 30 ft. high. Other Applications. — Elevated railways are substantially bridges or viaducts, and the use of steel for their construction is inevitable and indeed alone makes them commercially possible. Subway and tunnel construction also em- ploys steel framing frequently; though the cast-iron shell for shield-driven tunnels is still stand- ard, and in flat-roof subways reinforced-concrete construction is the most modern. Railway cars of steel are now manufactured on a very large scale. These require so many forms to which the ordi- nary rolled shapes and plates do not adapt themselves, that the desired forms are pressed out of plate steel, being then assembled, of course, by riveting. Steel enters also into nearly every other field of construction, though to less extent. Pneumatic foundation caissons built of steel; steel sheet-piling; large water- pipes, tanks and stand-pipes, etc., of steel, have wide use. Steel mine-strutting is a newer develop- ment. The strength, elasticity, and toughness of steel, the rigidity of steel framework, its perma- nency under suitable conditions, and its superior lightness for a given duty, which qualities have brought it into use in place of wood and masonry in such a mul- titude of applications, also ensure its long-continued supremacy in construction. Permissible Stresses. — The guid- ing principle in proportioning the sizes of steel structural parts is that no condition of loading may do permanent injury to any part of the structure. The 'elastic limit' of steel, up to which point steel and Iron Construction it behaves virtually with perfect elasticity, is at a&out half the ulti- mate strength, so that by the above principle it is necessary to keep the worst combination of stresses at the weakest point down to about 25,000 to 35,000 lbs. per sq. in., after making due allow- ance for deterioration and all un- favorable circumstances. There are so many elements ol uncer- tainty, however, that it is cus- tomary to remain within certain maximum values of stress, de- S ending on the type of structure. .11 parts which carry heavj' mov- ing loads, as the floor members of bridges, are made heavier by a so- called impact allowance. In building work, tensile stresses from 18,000 to 20,000 lbs., and compressive stresses of 15,000 to 18,000 lbs. pel sq. in., are consid- ered permissible. In columns, the slight bending action of the ver- tical load is allowed for by using a reduced permissible stress per sq. in. for the direct load; a much used formula is p= 17,000— 70 L/r, L being the length of the col- umn, and r the radius of gyration of its cross-section (0.3 to 0.4 of its least width), both taken in inches. The bending stresses in beams are usually limited to 16,- 000 lbs. per sq. in., though 18,000 is sometimes allowed. Plate- girder flanges are dimensioned for 15,000 to 20,000 lbs. per sq. in. In all cases of tensile stress, net section only is counted, i.e., rivet-holes are deducted. In bridges, the stresses usually considered permissible are small- er: 15,000 Ids. in tension, 15,000 — 50 L/r for columns, 18,000 to 20,000 lbs. per sq. in. for members taking wind stresses only. The floor members of railway bridges are given an increase of section for impact of 100% ordinarily, and truss members or girders are increased by an amount varying (roughly) from 100% in spans less than .50 ft. to 10% at 500 ft. span. In mill buildings, cranes, and all other kinds of steel struc- tures, the stresses allowed are graded between tlie above limits, according to the a.nount of load- impact and vibration that will occur in the structure. The ob- ject ordinarily is to have a factor of safety of 2 between the greatest calculable stresses and the elastic limit of the material. Rivets are proportioned for a .shearing stress not over two- thirds the allowed tensile value of plate. The cru.shing press- ure of the rivet against the side of the rivet-hole is custom- arily permitted to be twice as great, per sq. in. of diametral pro- lection, as tne shearing stress al- lowed per square incn of rivet section. It is specially to be noted that rivets are_ never _ re- quired to resist endwise tension, 4«9B whenever it is possible to avoid it; mainly because the shrinkage of the rivet in cooling has already generated a large initial tension, and further tension may result in splitting the rivet head off. Expansion or Contraction un- der changes of temperature ap- pears in all steel structures, and where it may lead to harm it must be provided for by expansion joints. Thus, in a long viaduct, the steel-work will expand about 1 in. in 120 ft. (for 100° F. change between winter and summer), whereas the abutments and piers are fixed in position and cannot yield to the expansion. There- fore one end of every span (or of every second span) is left without firm connection, so that it can slide on its shoe-plate. In longer bridge spans, 150 ft. and over, rollers are usually placed under one shoe, while tne other end is bolted down to the masonry. In tall buildings the expansion is free to go on in upward direction, and since stone and concrete expand in about the same ratio as steel, their relative positions remain unchanged. Long mill buildings, u iless the heating of the interior keeps them at fairly constant tem- perature, should nave expansion joints. Since every expansion joint is virtually a complete sep- aration in the structure as concerns Strength, each section between expansion joints must have full bracing of its own. Rusting is an eternal enemy of all exposed steel, and therefore painting assumes high impor- tance. Steel is not usually paint- ed in the rolling-mill, but after the individual parts are punched and assembled in the shop they get one coat of paint. In bridge con- struction, the finished structure is painted immediately after erec- tion with two coats thoroughly applied. Thereafter it must be repainted every two or three years. The^ strictest requirements for repainting demand that all the old paint be scraped or wirebrushed off, but this is so tedious that it is rarely done. The paints used are nearly all of the linseed-oil class, being mixtures of various pigment powders with linseed oil, turpentine, etc. The resulting hardened paint film is not highly durable. In the worst places, as where a bridge crosses a rail- way track, with exposure to the cutting action of the exhaust and to the corrosive action of the steam condensation charged with sulphur acids, concrete covering has come into favor, as it seems able to protect the steel perfectly. Deterioration of steel in service from continued repetition of stress was at one time seriously feared. Experience has brought no such effect to light, however, and sev- eral careful tests of old bridges Steele have given strong evidence that it does not occur. It may be taken as certain that the life of a steel structure is limited only by the corrosive action of the elements, and that when steel is kept fully protected against this corrosion it IS imperishable. For iron and steel bridges, see Bridge. See Birkmire, Architectural Iron and Steel (1897); Skeleton Construction in Buildings (1893); Compound Riveted Girders (1893); Planning and Construction of High Office Buildings (1906); Freitag, Fire- proofing of Steel Buildings (1899); Notes on Building Construction, vol. iii. (5th ed. 1902); Wray's Instruction in Construction (1891); Baker's Beams, Columns, and Arches (1892); Rankine's Civil Engineering (1900); and articles on bridges and buildings in Engineering News. Steele, Joel Dorman (1836- 86), American educator, born at Lima, N. Y. He graduated at Genesee College in 1858, and taught school until the outbreak of the Civil War, when he enlisted, serving through the Peninsula campaign. He was wounded at the battle of Seven Pines, and was discharged, with the rank of cap- tain. In 1862-66 he was principal of the Newark (N. J.) High School, and from the latter year to 1872 was principal of the Elmira (N.Y.) Academy. His teaching was dis- tinguished for original meth- ods, and won for him a high repu- tation. In 1872 he gave up active work as a teacher, and devoted himself to the writing of text- books. His Fourteen Weeks in Chemistry (1867) was followed by similar works on physics, astron- omy, geology, zoology, botany, and physiology. He wrote also, with the collaboration of his wife, the books known as Barnes^ Brief Histories. They included ancient, mediteval, and American histo- ries, and became widely popular. He bequeathed to. Syracuse Uni- versity $50,000, which was used to found a chair of theistic science. He was a Fellow of the Geological Society of London, and received the degree of ph.d. from the regents of the University of New York. Steele, Sir Richard (1672- 1729), English essayist and play- wright, was born in Dublin. In 1695 he got a commission in the Coldstream Guards, and subsequently became a captain in Lord Lucas's Fusiliers. In 1706 he became a gentleman-in- waiting to Queen Anne's consort, Prince George of Denmark, and in 1707 he was appointed edi- tor of the London Gazette. As 'Isaac Bickerstaff' — a pseudonym appropriated from Swift — he issued, on April 12, 1709, the first number of the Taller, which appeared thrice weekly till Jan. 2, Steele 1711. In 1710 Steele became commissioner of stamps. In March, 1711, appeared the first number of the Spectator, which appeared daily till Dec. 6, 1712. Steele's imaginary club in the initial number includes the first sketch of Sir Roger de Coverley, and of the total 555 papers in the periodical, 236 are his. Both in the Tatler and the Spectator^ as well as in the Guardian (March 7 to Get. 1, 1713), he was power- fully supported by Addison (q.v.). In his character sketches, social delineations, and critical discus- sions, Steele evinces quick obser- Sir Richard Steele. vation, literary insight, and easy and virile grip of his theme; and if his form is sometimes loose even to crudeness, his treatment is at any rate invariably fresh and en- joyable. In the Guardian Steele diverged into politics, and in 1713 he published a pamphlet entitled The Importance of Dunkirk Con- sidered, which provoked Swift's slashing retaliation, The Impor- tance of the 'Guardian' Con- sidered. In the same year Steele became m.p. for Stockbridge, re- signing his post as commissioner of stamps. The Guardian was now dropped for the frankly political Englishman, which ran to fifty-seven numbers (1714). No. 26 gives the account of Alexander Selkirk which prob- ably suggested Robinson Crusoe. Through his sponsorship for Wil- liam Moore's work, The Crisis (1714), with reference to the Hano- verian succession, Steele not only prompted Swift's brilliant Public Spirit of the Whigs, but com- passed his own expulsion from the House of Commons (March, 1714). The death of Queen Anne presently restored his fortunes, with those of his party. He wrote Mr. Steele's Apology for Himself and His Writings, and he became deputy-lieutenant for Middlesex 440 and surveyor of the royal stables at Hampton Court. Meanwhile the curious Ladies' Library (fre- quently mentioned in the Spec- tator), The Lover, and The Reader, represented his zeal as projector of periodicals. In 1795 he became patentee of Drury Lane Theatre, was elected m.p. for Borough- bridge, Yorkshire, and received knighthood at the hands of George I. Through his political paper, the Plebeian, Steele in 1719 stirred the opposition of Addison, who assailed him in the Old Whig. In 1722 Steele produced in Drury Lane The Conscious Lovers, his most successful comedy. Genial, impulsive, _ improvident, Steele holds a distinguished place in letters as pioneer of the modern English essay. Austin Dob- son prepared an excellent Mono- graph for the English Worthies Series (1886); and G. A. Aitken produced an exhaustive Biog- raphy in 1889, and edited Steele's Plays in 1894. Steel Engraving. See En- graving. Steell, Sir John (1804-91), Scottish sculptor, was born at Aberdeen and apprenticed in Edinburgh as a wood-carver. Having studied sculpture in Rome, on his return he modelled the group of Alexander Taming Bucephalus. Most of his work is in Edinburgh — e.g. the statue of Scott in Scott's monument, the statue of Queen Victoria on the Royal Institution, the statue of Wellington before the Register House, and the Albert Memorial. There are colossal statues, of Sir Walter Scott and Robert Burns, by him in Central Park, New York. Steel Shapes. See Rolling Mills; Steel and Iron Con- struction. Steelton, bor,, Dauphin co.. Pa., on the Susquehanna R., 3 m. below Harrisburg, and on the main hne of the Pa. R. R. It is chiefly important as a manufac- turing centre, making steel rails, bridges, flour, beer, ice, concrete stone, coke, etc. The capital in- vested in 1906 by the Pennsyl- vania Steel Co. alone was over $5,000,000. The census of man- ufactures in 1905 returned 18 industrial establishments, with $19,642,853 capital, and products valued at $15,745,628. The capi- tal invested here was more than tripled in the five years preceding, Steelton is situated in a fine agri- cultural district. Limestone de- posits occur in the vicinity. It was settled in 1865, and incor- porated in 1880, Pop. (1900) 12,086; (1910) 14,246, Steelyard. See Balance, Steen, Jan (1626-79), Dutch painter, called the Moli^re of painting, for his dramatic and intellectual qualities. His genial, Steeplechasing tolerant expression of life is touched with Hogarthian satire; his best work is masterly in technique and harmonious color- ing. The son of a Leyden brewer, he studied under Knupfer, Adrian von Ostade, and Van Goyen. As tavern-keeper he had opportuni- ties of studying life and gratify- ing intemperate habits. His best work is in Holland and England. Steen, Johannes Vilhelm Christian (1827-1906), Norwe- gian statesman; tutor at the Latin school at Bergen (1850), rector at Stavanger (1866), In 1854 he founded the Radical paper Ber- gensposten; in 1859 he was elected a member of the Storthing, and eventually succeeded Sverdrup as Radical leader. In March, 1891, Steen was entrusted with the for- mation of a new ministry, but re- signed in 1893. His policy was antagonistic to Sweden. He was again premier from 1898 to 1902, Steeplechasing, originally a trial of speed and jumping pow- ers between two or more horses between one church steeple and another. During the reign of James i. in England there was some sort of steeplechasing at Newmarket, but details are want- ing. There is a record of an Irish steeplechase match in 1752, and to Ireland is due the popu- larity of the sport. Forty years later the first steeplechase, with more than two starters, was run in Leicestershire, over a course from Barkby Holt to Billesdon Coplow and back, a distance of about eight miles. In the same year (1792) a steeplechase match took place, also in Leicestershire, for 1,000 guineas, between a horse belonging to Loraine Hardy and the best hunter that the Hon. Mr, Willoughby (after- wards Lord Middleton) could procure. The course was from Melton Mowbray to Dalby Wood, a distance of at least nine miles. There would appear to have been no regularly organized steeplechasing until Thomas Cole- man of St. Albans arranged the first regular meeting on March 1, 1831. St. Albans steeplechases have long since died out of the calendar; but since 1839 at Liver- pool, or rather Aintree, a suburb of that city, the Grand National has been run about the last week in March, and is still the great English cross-country race of the year. The old type of steeple- chase horse {i.e. the improved hunter) is almost a creature of the past, and the cast-off from flat-racing have taken his place. Since the British National Hunt Committee took the sport in hand in 1866, steeplechasing has, however, been greatly reformed. The Grand National, a race worth annually something like £2,000 to the owner of the win- steer KR 441 Steffens ner is now the principal English event. In Ireland, however, there is quite as much interest and ex- citement in a leaping-race as ever. The nature of the soil permits chasing nearly all the year round, and a large majority of the best jumpers are still bred in that country. In America the steeplechases are generally run at the regular race meetings; one contest each racing day on the regular track and in the in- field. Steer, P. Wilson (1860- 1942), English impressionist, landscape, and figure painter, was bom in Birkenhead. He re- ceived his training from the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris, and from his teacher, Cabanel, and was strongly influenced by the work of the French artists Manet, Pizzarro, and Cezanne. Harmony of color and fine sun- light effects are characteristic of his work. His Richmond Castle, Yorkshire is in the Metropolitan Museum, N. Y. Steering is the operation of directing the course of a vessel. The actual movement of the vessel is effected by the rudder, which, if put to port, causes the stern of the ship to move to star- board — and vice versa. A rudder of ordinary type is a broad, flat structure of wood or iron, pivoted at its forward edge and supported by pintles and gudgeons from the rudder-post or stern-post. Balanced rudders are pivoted about one-third the distance from the forward edge and sup- ported by a collar at the top and a skeg at the bottom. The rudder is turned by the tiller, a horizon- tal bar or lever having one end secured to the rudder- head. In large vessels the tiller is operated by some form of steering mechan- ism. In sailing-ships and small steamers this may consist of a tackle on each side of the tiller, the two ropes going to a steering wheel around the axle or barrel of which they are wound in opposite directions. In large steamers the steering gear is actuated by a steam, electric, or hydraulic motor. The terms used in steering are chiefly derived from the days of hand tillers. Then port the helm meant that the tiller was pushed over toward the port side, caus- ing the rudder to move to star- board. Starboard the helm was the reverse of this. These and other terms which follow are still in use and imply movements of a tiller, though the actual tiller may not exist. Helm amidships means that the tiller is placed fore-and- aft. Hard-a-port and hard-a- starboard mean that the tiller is as far a-port or a-starboard as it can go. To right the helm is to put it amidships after it has been in some other position. To shift the helm is to put it from one side to the other. The helm is a-lee or a-weather accordingly as the tiller (real or imaginary) is drawn to the lee or weather side. To ease the helm is to bring the tiller nearer amidships. See Naviga- tion; Seamanship, Practical. Stee'vens, George (1736- 1800), English Shakespearean scholar, was born in Poplar, Lon- don. His first publication was a reprint from the original quartos of Twenty of the Plays of Shake- speare (1766). He made the ac- quaintance of Dr. Johnson, and the two collaborated in an edi- tion of Shakespeare s Works, with annotations (1773), almost en- tirely by Steevens. His life was embittered by his satiric habit of speech. Steevens, George Warring- ton (1869-1900), English jour- nalist, was on the staff of the Pall Mall Gazette from 1893 to 1896. He was sent by the Daily Mail as a special correspondent to the United States in 1897, and subsequently to Thessaly. Egypt, the Sudan, India, Ger- many, Rennes (the scene of the Dreyfus trial), and South Africa. The vivid letters which he wrote were published as The Land of the Dollar (1897), With the Con- quering Turk (1897), Egypt in 1898 (1898), With Kitchener to Khartoum (1898), In India (1899), The Tragedy of Dreyfus (1899), and From Capetown to Lady smith ( 1 900) . He wrote also Naval Policy (1896) and Mono- logues of the Dead (1896). He died of typhoid fever during the investment of Ladysmith. Stefan's Law, a rule connect- ing radiation with temperature, empirically deduced by J. Stefan of Vienna in 1879. It defines the gain of emissive intensity to be proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the hot body, assumed to be a perfect radiator. This law, sup- plied with a theoretical basis by Boltzmann and Planck, has proved serviceable in researches into the solar temperature. Stefansson, sta 'fans-son, Vilhjalmur (1879- ), Arctic ex- plorer, was born in Arnes, Mani- toba, Canada. He was gradu- ated from the University of Iowa in 1903 and pursued graduate study in Harvard University. In 1905 he was a member of an archaeological expedition to Ice- land under the auspices of the Peabody Museum of Harvard; and in 1906-7, a member of an expedition to the Eskimo of the Mackenzie Delta sent out by Harvard and Toronto universi- ties. In these and other later ex- peditions he made several addi- tions to the map of Canada, in- cluding the Horton River. In 1914, with two companions, he made a 600-mile sled journey from Martin Point, Alaska, to a point northwest of Banks Island. The following year he explored this latter territory, discovering new land north of Prince Patrick Island. In 1916 he found new islands west of Heiberg Island, and the next year made a line of soundings 100 miles northwest of Cape Isachsen. He wrote Life with Eskimo (1913), and Friendly Arctic (1920); Northward Course of Empire (1922); Standardiza- tion of Error (1927); Three Voy- ages of Martin Frobisher (1938); Iceland: First American Repub- lic (1939); Greenland (1942); The Arctic in Fact and Fable (1945); Not by Bread Alone (1946). Steffens, stef'enz, Henrik (1773-184.5), German philoso- pher, naturalist, and poet, was born in Stavanger, Norway. He became a disciple of Schelling, and taught at Copenhagen (1802- 4), Halle, Breslau (1811-31), and Berlin (1831-45). His lec- tures in Copenhagen mark the beginning of the romantic move- ment in Denmark. His chief works are Anthropologie (1824), Von der falschen Theologie und dem wahren Glauben (1824), and Nachgelassene Schriften (1846). Consult Peterson's Henrik Steff- ens, and Steffens' own autobiog- raphy. Was ich erlebte (1840-45), his best work, translated in Eng- lish by Gage, as The Story of my Career at Freiburg and Jena (1863), and republished as Ger- man University Life (1874). Steffens (Joseph) Lincoln (1866-1936), American writer, was born in San Francisco. He was graduated (1889) from the University of California, taking post-graduate courses in philos- ophy at Berlin, Heidelberg, Leipzig, and the Sorbonne, Paris. He was financial and police re- porter and assistant city editor on the New York Evening Post, and subsequently city editor of the New York Commercial Ad- vertiser. He gave several years to the study of corrupt political machines, and wrote a number of stories dealing with police cor- ruption and politics. From 1902 to 1906 he was managing editor of McClure's Magazine, and asso- ciate editor of the American and Everybody's Magazines (1906- 11). He served on Carranza's committee to draw up a new Mexican constitution, and when the Russian Revolution occurred went to Petrograd (1917); in 1919 he accompanied the Bullitt mission from the Peace Confer- ence at Paris to Moscow. He wrote The Shame of Our Cities (1904); The Struggle for Self- Government (1906); Upbuilders (1909); The Least of These (1910) and his autobiography (1931). stein KR 442 Stella Stein, stin, Charlotte von (1742-1827), friend and corre- spondent of Goethe, was born in Weimar. Three series of Goethe's letters to Frau von Stein were published in 1848-51, 1883-5, and 1886. Her letters to Goethe, long supposed to be destroyed, have been recovered in part. Stein, Heinrich Friedrich Karl, Baron von (1757-1831), Prussian statesman, was born in Nassau. He entered the Prussian public service in 1780, and by 1796 was president of the West- phalian Chambers. In 1804 he was called to administer the de- partment of trade and manufac- tures, where he introduced va- rious reforms; but King Frederick William iii disapproved of his re- forming zeal, and Stein resigned (1807). He was, however, re- called a year later and given a free hand to carry out his plans. He abolished some of the more glaring survivals of feudalism, promoted freedom of trade, and encouraged military reform. His energy and foresight alarmed Napoleon, who obtained his dis- missal in 1808. He went in 1812 to St. Petersburg, and devoted himself to consolidating the league against Napoleon. After the Congress of Vienna, Stein withdrew to his estates and founded the society which has published the Monumenta Ger- manice Historica. His political doctrines appear in his PolUisches Testament and in his 'Tracts.' Consult Seeley's Life and Times of Stein (3 vols.), and Max Leh- mann's Freiherr vom Stein. Stein, LoRENZ (1815-90), German economist and writer on politics, was born in Eckernforde in Schleswig. He was professor at Kiel (1846-52) and at Vienna (1855-85), and wrote on French social and political history, his other noted works being System der Staatswissenschaft (1852-7), Lehrbuch der N ationaldkonomie (1887), Verwaltungslehre (1865- 84), and Die Frau auf dem Gebiet der National okonomie (1875). Stein'bok {Nanotragus cam- pestris), a small species of ante- lope found in South and East Africa. It stands less than two feet high and is reddish brown in color; the horns of the male rarely exceed four inches. To the same genus belong a number of other African species, notably N. pyg- maeus, the royal antelope, which stands only one foot high at the shoulder, and is the smallest liv- ing ruminant. Steinen, stin'en, Karl von DEN (1855-1929), German trav- eler and ethnologist, was born in Miilheim-an-der-Ruhr. He made a voyage round the world (1879-81); was naturalist of the German expedition to South Georgia (1882), and in 1881 -5 ex- plored the province of Matto Grossc in Brazil, making the first modern descent of the river Xingu, a most important piece of exploration. In 1897-8 he ex- plored the Marquesas Islands, and in 1900 was appointed as- sistant-director of the royal museums in Berlin. Steinitz, shtln'itz, William (1837-1900), German chess-play- er, was born in Prague, and joined the staff of the Constitu- tionelle Oesterreichische Zeitung. He devoted his leisure hours to chess, in which he subsequently beat every great player (except Morphy and Staunton, whom he never met) until 1894, when in a match played at New York, Philadelphia, and Montreal, he lost the championship to Em- anuel Lasker, who also won the return match in 1896. Steinitz edited the International Chess Magazine from 1885 to 1891, and published works on Chess. Steinmetz, Charles Prote- us (1865-1923), American elec- trical engineer, was born in Bres- lau, Germany, and was educated at the universities of Breslau and Berlin and at the Polytechnic Institute in Zurich, specializing in mathematics, chemistry, and electrical engineering. Forced to flee from Germany because of his socialist convictions, he went first to Austria and Switzerland and then, in 1889, to the United States, where he eventually be- came the chief consulting en- gineer and head of the consulting engineering department of the General Electric Company, in Schenectady, N. Y. He took an active interest in economics and politics and though he remained a Socialist, with advancing years his views became greatly modi- fied. In 1912 he was president of the Board of Education of Sche- nectady and from 1916 to his death was president of the Com- mon Council. Steinmetz' prac- tical inventions cover the whole field of electrical appliances; among the most important are the induction regulator, the method of phase transformation as from two phase to three phase, and the metallic electrode arc lamp. He had marvellous insight into scientific phenomena and remarkable ability to explain in simple language the most ab- struse problems. His works in- clude Theory and Calculation of Alternating-Current Phenomena (1897); Theoretical Elements of Electrical Engineering (1902); General Lectures on Electrical En- gineer i^ig (1908); Engineering Mathematics (1911); Electric Dis- charges, Waves and Impulses (1911); America and the New Epoch (1916); Four Lectures on Relativity and Space (1923). Steinmetz, stln'mets, Karl Friedrich von (1796-1877), Prussian general, was born in Eisenach. He entered Paris with the allied armies in 1815; was in command of the Prussian army which gained victories over the Austrians at Nachod, Skalitz, and other places (1866), and was at the head of the First Army which invaded France, contribut- ing to the great victory near Metz (1870). In the same year he was deprived of his command as the result of his failure at Gravelotte, and became gover- nor-general of Posen and Silesia. Steinway, stin'wa, Heinrich Engelhard (1797-1871), Ger- man-American piano maker, was born (Steinweg) at Wolfshagen, Brunswick. He served in the army of the Duke of Brunswick, and after studying cabinet-mak- ing engaged in the manufacture of pianos at Seesen, close by the Harz mountains. In 1850 he emigrated to New York City, and three years afterwards, with three of his sons, established the well-known house of Steinway & Sons. His son, William Stein- way (1836-96), having organized the firm with his father and his brothers, became its head in 1889. He was interested in philanthrop- ic matters. In 1890 he was ap- pointed one of the New York city rapid transit commissioners. Stejneger, ste'ne-ger, Leon- hard (1851-1943), American na- turalist, was born in Bergen, Norway. He was graduated from the Royal University, Christiania, in 1875, and in 1882- 3 undertook for the Smithsonian Institution a natural history ex- pedition to the Commander Is- lands and Kamchatka. In 1884- 9 he was assistant curator in the ornithological department of the U. S. National Museum, in 1889 became curator of reptiles in the institution, and after 1911, head curator of biology. He visited the Commander Islands in 1895 on behalf of the U. S. Fish Com- mission, and in 1896-7 as a mem- ber of the International Seal Commission to study the habits of the fur seal. He was elected to the National Academy of Sci- ences and in 1923 received the Walker Grand Prize for his work in herpetology. His publications include: Results of Ornithological Excursions in the Commander Is- lands and Kamtchatka (1885) ; Re- port of the Rookeries of the Com- mander Islands (1897); The Asi- atic Fur Seal Islands (1898); The Relations of Norway and Sweden (1900); The Herpetology of Porto Rico (1904); The Her- petology of Japan and Adjacent Territory (1907); The Origin of the So-Called Atlantic Animals and Plants of Western Norway (1907); and two works in Nor- wegian dealing with the orni- thology and zoology of Norway. Stella. See Sidney, Philip; Swift, Jonathan. Stellarla 443 ^tephanotid Stellaria, Stitchgrass, Stitchwort, or Starwort, a former genus of herbaceous plants belonging to the order Caryophyl- laceas, and now included in the genus Alsine. Their flowers have five distinct sepals, five petals deeply two-cleft, ten stamens in- serted into a ring beneath the capsule, and three styles. The greater stitchwort {S. holostea) is one of the most beautiful flowers Greater Stitchwort {Stellaria holostea). 1, Androecium and pistil ; 2, dehiscent fruit. of Europe; it has long stems, and its flowers are satiny white. The lesser stitchvi/-ort {S. gra- minea), which blooms later, is much smaller and less conspicu- ous. S. media, the chickweed, is a very common annual weed, bearing its small white flowers nearly the year through. A yellow - Icaved"^ variety of the lesser stitchwort (^S". graminea aurea) is sometimes grown in gardens. Stellenbosch, cap. of dir,t. of same name, Cape Colony, British S. Africa, 21 m. by rail E. of Cape Town; centre of a wine dis- trict, and scat of Victoria Uni- versity College. Pop. (1904) of dist. 22,209; of tn. 7,573. Stellerine, or Steller's Sea- cow. See Rhytina. Stelvio Pass (9,055 ff.) is trav- ersed by the highest carriage-road in the Alps, constructed (1820-5) by the Austrian government, at a cost of some 3,000,000 florins. it leads from the Adige valley, above Meran, over to Bormio m the Adda valley, and is a favorite trip for tourists. Stem, the ascending axis of a plant, contrasted with the root or descending axis, bearing leaves and flowers, and in its highest de- velopment putting forth branches freely. Its ordinary functions are the elevation of the leaves, that they may be exposed to the action of the sun and air, and the trans- mission to them of the nutritive matters absorbed by the roots from the soil. In a transverse section of a young dicotyledonous tree the central pith, with the medullary rays diverging there- from, the surrounding wood- layers, the cambium between the wood and the bark, and between the bundles (the interfascicular cambium) and the bast or phloem may be distinguished. Stems may be herbaceous, as in most annuals, or woody, as in shrubs and trees. The former may be erect (the tech- nical name for which is 'caulis'); procumbent, or lying along the ground; creeping — that is, pro- cumbent and sending off adven- titious roots from the nodes; climbing, or clinging by tendrils, or twinging round a support in a spiral coil. Stems may also grow beneath the surface, of which the rhizome of Solomon's seal, the corm of the crocus, the bulb of the hyacinth, and the stem- tuber of the potato are well-known ex- amples. See Wood. Stenbock, Magnus, Count VON (16G4-1717), Swedish general, was born in Stockholm; accom- panied Charles xii. in his ear- lier campaigns, and contributed largely to the victory of Narva and the subjection of Poland. In 1710 he gained a brilliant victory over Frederick iv. of Denmark at Helsingborg, and in 1712 defeated the Danes at Gadebusch, for which exploit he obtained his marshal's baton. In 1713 he burned Altona, but was sur- rounded by the combined Rus- sians, Danes, and Saxons at Tonning, and compelled to sur- render with 12,000 men. He died in a Danish dungeon. See his Memoires (1745), and Life, in Swedish, by Lilliestrale (1890). Stencilling, the art of cutting out, from sheets of metal, card- board, or paper, spaces, as of or- naments or lettering, which are then laid upon a surface and painted through. It was com- mon among the Egyptians and Romans. The design is first drawn on metal or cardboard, which must be all in one piece and in one color, so as to enable a broad or spreading brush to gass at one sweep over the whole, tencilling is unsurpassed for the purpose of giving bold and effec- tive ornament in antique style on walls and ceilings. It is carried out in Italy at the present day with so much care and refinement as to resemble careful hand-painting. It is extensively used to decorate furniture and the spaces between windows, also in gardens to imi- tate foliage. A beautiful variety of stencil work is known as 'theo- rems' and 'Grecian painting.' This consists of painting flowers, fruit, etc., on a damp surface by stencil. As the colors shrink and dry in different tones, the peculiar blending seen in nature is imi- tated. Stendal, tn., Prussia, prov. Saxony, 33 m. by rail n.n.e. of Magdeburg. Its cathedral dates from 1188. Birthplace of Winck- elmann. Pop. (1905) 23,278. Stendhal. See Beyle, Marie Henri. Stennis, par., Orkney. See Maes - How and Circles of Stones. Steno, NicoLAUS (Dan. Niels Stenson) (1638-86), Danish physiologist and prelate, was born in Copenhagen. In 1657 he discovered the salivary canal called ductus Stenonianus, and shortly afterward the salivary gland. He was the first to dem- onstrate that the heart is a mus- cle. Subsequently he lectured at Paris, and at Florence went over (1667) to Catholicism. Ten years later he was appointed vicar- apostolic for Scandinavia, and led the life of a saintly ascetic. He also wrote with great shrewd- ness on geology and crystallog- raphy. His chief works were De Musculis et Glandulis Obser- vationum Specimen (1G64) and De Solido intra Solidum naturaliter Contento (1669). Stenography. See Short- hand. Stenson's Duct, the duct lead- ing from the parotid gland to the inside of the cheek, where it dis- charges the parotid saliva. Stentor, a herald of the Greeks at Troy, said by Homer to be able to shout as loud as fifty ordinary men together; hence proverbial for any one with a loud voice. Stephan, Heinrich von (1831- 97), German statesman, born at Stolp, Pomerania. He reorgan- ized the postal service in Schles- wig-Holstein (1864); became post- master-general of the North German Confederation (1870) and of the newly founded empire (1871), and secretary of state for the post-office department (1878). He was the chief promoter of the International Postal Union (1874). He wrote Geschichte der Preus- sischen Post (1859), and Das heutige Aegypten (1872). See Knickeberg's Heinrich von Ste- phan (1897). Stephanotis, a genus of tropi- cal twining shrubs, belonging to TYPES AND STRUCTURE OF STEMS. Creeping stem (moneywort). 2. Climbing stem ri)assioii flowci ). Procumbent stem (hop trefoil). 4. Dicotyledo- nous stem, cross section (mai)lo). 5. Part of same, I ruin pit h t(M •pinKitudinal section of same. 7. Monoco- tyledoMous stem, cross section (palm). 8. Vascular hniidlr l iom the s.-iiiic, cidss s<'(^tion. 9. Lonjfitudinal section of same stem. 10. ?:rect stem (loosestrife). 11. Twining stem (bindweed). VZ. Khizome (Solomon's seal). 13, Bulb (hyacinth). 14. C'orm (cj-ocus). 16. Stem tuber (potato). Stephanus the order Asclepiadaceae. The species usually grown under glass for its fragrant white flowers is S. floribunda, the clustered wax flower, a native of Madagascar. Stephanus, a family of French printers. See Stephens. Stephen, the name of nine popes, of whom the most im- portant were: — (1.) Stephen i. (d. 257), succeeded Lucius as bishop of Rome (254), and carried on a vigorous controversy with Cy- prian on the baptism of heretics. ( •.) Stephen m., sometimes called Stephen ll. (752-757), solicited the aid of Pepin, king of the Franks, against the attacks of Astolphus, kmg of the Longobards. Stephen, king of England (? 1097-1 154), the son of Stephen, Count of Blois, and of the Con- queror's daughter Adela. On Henry l.'s death (1135) Stephen took advantage of his personal popularity to claim the throne, as against his cousin Matilda, and was duly crowned. But by his acts he quickly alienated the sympathy of the people, and brought in Flemish mercenaries. David of Scotland invaded the north on behalf of his niece Ma- tilda, but -was disastrously de- feated at Northallerton (1138). Stephen made enemies of the church and the most powerful of the nobles. In 1141 he was a prisoner in Matilda's hands, and was granted his liberty in ex- change for that of Robert, Duke of G loucester. From 1142 Stephen had it all his own way; but Ma- tilda's son Henry came oyer from France in 1152 to assert his rights. Stephen was glad to make peace on the basis of acknowledging Henry as heir to the throne. Stephen, James (1758-1832), English master of chancery and abolitionist, was born at Poole, and went out to St. Kitts in the West Indies, where he practised law, there being at that time considerable legal business arising from trade regulations between the West Indies and the U. S. There he was inspired with a horror for slavery, which led him to become the friend and co- worker of Wilberforce. He re- turned to England and engaged in practice before the prize court, entered Parliament as member for Tralee, was under-secretary for the colonies, and became mas- ter of the Court of Chancery. He was the author of various pam- phlets — e.g. War in Disguise (1805), and of an exhaustive and eloquent treatise, The Slavery of the British, West Indies (1830). See Henry Adams's History of the United States, vol. iii. (1891). Stephen, Sir James (1789- 1859), English politician, born at Lambeth, London; called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn (1811), but in 183G became under-secretary for the colonies. From 183G to 1847 he 'literally ruled the colo- nial empire,' and his autocratic methofls won him the nickname of King Stephen. In 1849, after he resigned from the Colonial Office, he was appointed rcgius professor of modern history at Cambridge, and published Essays in Eccle- siastical History (1849) and Lec- tures on the History of France (1851). See 'Life' prefixed to 5th ed. of Essays. Stephen, SiR James Fitz- JAMES (1829-94), EngHsh judge, was the son of Sir James Stephen, and was born at Kensington, Lon- don. He was called to the bar at the Inner Temple (1854), and, after acting as recorder at New- ark-on-Trent (1859-69), became legal member of the Viceroy's Council (1869-72), and judge of the High Court of Justice in India (1879-91), being created a baronet on his retirement. He published Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity (1873), Digest of the Law of Evidence (1876), widely used in the U. S.; History of the Criminal Law of England (1883), and Horce SabhaticcB (1892). See L. Stephen's Life (1895). Stephen, James Kenneth (1859-92), better known as 'J. K. S.,' English writer, was the second son of Sir James Fitz- james Stephen. In 1891 he pub- lished Lapsus Calami, and Quo, Musa, Tendis ?, two little volumes of brilliant society verse and par- ody, worthy of Calverley at his best. He was tutor to the Duke of Clarence (1883). Stephen, Sir Leslie (1832- 1904), English man of letters, born at Kensington, London. He edited Cornhill Magazine from 1871 to 1882, and was editor of vols, i.-xxi., joint editor with Sidney Lee of vols, xxii.-xxvi., of the Dictionary of National Biog- raphy, to which he contributed many excellent biographies. His book. Hours in a Library (1874- 79), is a work of great value. The possessor of a clear, crisp style, Stephen had a wide knowledge of books and a fine critical taste, which give to his deliverances weight and authority. His most satisfactory work in this depart- ment is English Thought in the Eighteenth Century (1876). In 1900 an important continuation of this work appeared as The English U tilitartans . This book is a critical history of the pro- gressive and reactionary ideas of the 19th century, in so far as they bear directly on ethical, po- litical, and economic problems. To add to the value of the work, the speculative elements are set in a charming series of biograph- ical frameworks, thereby blending in a masterly fashion the per- sonal and the intellectual, the concrete and the abstract. Closely Stephens connected with the latter work is his Science of Ethics (1882), in which the utilitarian system of ethics is set forth and improved in the light of the evolutionary theory of man as expounded by Spencer and Darwin. Among his important writings are Studies of a Biographer (1898), a Life of Sir James Stephen (1895), ol Professor Fawcett (1885)- and Lives of Johnson, Pope, Swift, and Hobbes, in English Men of Letters. He was knighted in 1902. In 1904 appeared his English Literature and Society in the I8th Century. Stephen, St. See Deacon. Stephen, St., king of Hun- gary ( P969-1038), originally called Vaik, was born at Gran, was con- verted (995) to the Christian faith, and crowned first king of Hun- gary (1000). During his reigs Christianity was firmly estab lished in his dominion. Stephen Bathori. See Bathori Stephens, called also Estienne and Etienne, a family of French printers and publishers, the founder being Henri (c. 1460- 1520), who set up (1501) his press close to the University of Paris, and printed about 120 works, the first being the Ethics of Aris- totle. He left three sons, Fran- fois (1502-50); Charles (1504- 64), who published an edition of Cicero (1555); and Robert (1503-59), who was king's printer to Francis l. (1539), but migrated to Geneva (1551), where he be- came a convert to Calvinism. His great works were a French Bible revised by Calvin (1553), a Greek Testament (1546), a Hebrew Bible in 8 vols. (1539-44), a Latin Bible in folio (1528), and a. Concordance (1555). His son Henri (1528- 98) was a printer in Paris and Geneva, devoting his fortune to the purchase of Greek manu- scripts in order to restore the texts. Among his publications were Anacreon (1554), Diction- naire du Medecin (1564), and Thesaurus Gracce Linguae (1572). His son Paul (1566-1627) com- pleted his father s _ unfinished works, especially editions of the Greek classics, but was banished from Geneva for conspiracy (1602). The last great printer of the family was Antoine (1592- 1674), who became French king's printer in 1623. See Renouard's Annates de I'lmprimerie des Es- tienne (1843). Stephens, Alexander Hamil- ton (1812-83), American states- man, and vice-president of the Confederate States, was born near Crawfordville, Ga., February 11, 1812. He attended in his boyhood such schools as the neighborhood afforded, and through the assistance of a Pres- byterian society he was able to study and to graduate at Frank- lin College (the state university) « iStephens in 1832 at the age of twenty years. In 1834 he was admitted to the bar. His county sent him in 183G to the state House of Repre- sentatives, where he served until 1841, when he positively declined re-election. The next year, how- ever, he was elected state senator, and in 1843 entered the national House of Re]3resentatives. Here he served with credit to him- self and profit to his state until 1859, when he refused re-elec- tion. He had been an earnest advocate of the Compromise of 18.50, and he had partici- pated in what he thought was a settlement of the Kansas troubles. In 1860 he led the electoral ticket of Stephen A. Douglas in Georgia. He regarded the election of Lincoln on a sec- tional platform as a menace to 446 the Union, for the preservation of which he earnestly labored. Although believing in the right of a state to withdraw from the Union he did not think such action wise or expedient. He was a member of the Georgia conven- tion of 1861, and tried to prevent secession. Chosen by the convention as a delegate to the Provisional Con- gress which had been appointed to assemble at Montgomery, Ala., he was by that body unanimously chosen Vice-President of the Confederate States. Being com- missioned to treat with Virginia, he succeeded in winning over that indispensable state to the Con- federate cause before the formal ratification by its people of the ordinance of secession. Although he favored a vigorous prosecution Stephens of the war, he was always among the foremost in favor of making attempts to end the fierce struggle by negotiation, without ever in the least degree wavering in his loyalty to the Confederacy. On February 3, 1865, Mr. Stephens with Messrs. Campbell and Hunter as his associates met President Lincoln and Mr. Sew- ard at Fortress Monroe in a final effort to end the war by negotia- tion. The conference failed to accomplish any good, and Mr. Stephens, seeing nothing more that he could do, returned home and remained in retirement until his arrest on May 11, 1865. Con- fined for five months at Fort Warren, he endured his imprison- ment without yielding his con- victions, and in October, 1865, was released on parole. In Feb- ruary, 1866, the Georgia legisla- ture, after compliance with the terms proposed by President John- son, elected Mr. Stephens United States senator, but Congress, re- fusing to recognize President Johnson's reconstruction policy, denied his right to a seat. Later, when the reconstruction era was ended, he was elected to the Na- tional House of Representatives of the 43d Congress (1873) to fill the vacancy caused by the death of A. R. Wright, and served with great ability until 1882, when he was elected governor of Georgia. During his term as governor, he died at Savannah, March 4, 1883. He was the author of A Constitu- tional View of the War Between the States (1868-70), School His- tory of the United States (1872), and a larger illustrated History of the United States (1883). See Cleveland's Alexander H . Stephens, in Public and Private, with Letters and Speeches (1866), and Johnston and Browne's Life of Alexander H. Stephens (1878-83). Stephens, Charles Asbury (1847), American author, was born at Norway Lake, Me., and gradu- ated (1869) at Bowdoin. He after- wards took the course in medicine at Boston University, receiving his degree in 1887. Mr._ Stephens began writing boys' stories for the Youths' Companion in 1870; and was still so occupied in 1906. Among his books are: Camping Out (1872), The Knockabout Cltib series (3 vols. 1882-4), and several biological volumes published at 'The Laboratory,' Norway Lake. Stephens, George (1813-95), English archaeologist, was born in Liverpool. Philology early en- grossed his interest, and in his dialectical researches he formed the theory that English was a Scandinavian, not a Germanic, language. Iri 1834 he took up his residence in Stockholm, where he taught English; and in 1851 he became lector, and later pro- fessor, of English in the umver- George Stephenson. (From the portrait by H. W. Pickersgill, R.A., in National Portrait Gallery.) Stephens 447 Stereo-Chemistry sity at Copenhagen. His most important work is The Old North- ern Runic Monuments of Scan- dinavia and England (3 vols. 1866-84). He was much more successful and trustworthy as a collector than as an interpreter of such inscriptions. Stephens, HeiJry Morse (1857), British and American his- torian and educator, born in Edin- burgh. He graduated at Balliol ^ College, Oxford, in 1880, was <^ staff lecturer to the Oxford Uni- versity Extension System in 1890- 94, and Cambridge lecturer on - Indian history in 1892-94. He ^ came to America in 1894, and was professor of modern European and English history at Cornell ^from 1894 to 1902. In 1902 he ^ accepted an appointment as pro- fessor of history and director of university extension at the Uni- versity of California. Among his best known works are: History of the French Revolution (2 vols. 1886, 1892), The Story of Por- tugal (1891), and Modern Euro- pean History (1899). Stephens, James (1824-1901), Irish agitator and Fenian 'head centre,' born at Kilkenny, where he was brought up as an engineer. He acted as Smith O'Brien's lieutenant (1848), and started the Fenian organization (1853). In 1864 he was seized and lodged in Richmond prison, from which he escaped to the U. S., where he endeavored to unite the members of the branch there, but was deposed by the Fenians in 1867. He organized (1867) the attempt to seize Chester Castle, the rescue of Fenian prisoners in Manchester, and the Clerkenwell explosion. Stephens, John Lloyd (1805- 52), American archaeologist, born in Shrewsbury, N. J. He gradu- ated at Columbia University in 1827, practised law in New York in 1825-34, and in 1834-6 visited Palestine and Egypt. In 1839 he was appointed U. S. special agent to Central America, and in con- junction with Frederick Cather- wood, an English painter, studied many of the Indian ruins in that region. He was one of the first presidents of the Panama Railroad Company, and after his death a monument was erected to his memory on the highest point on the Panama railroad route. He was author of Incidents of Travel in Egypt, Arabia and the Holy Land (2 vols. 1837), Incidents of Travel in Greece, Turkey, Russia, and Poland (2 vols. 1838); Inci- dents of Travel in Central A mcrica (2 vols. 1841); and Incidents of Travel in Yucatan (2 vols. 1843). Stephens, William (1671- 1753), English colonial official, born at Bowcombe, Isle of Wight. He graduated at King's College, Cambridge in 1684, and was called to the bar. Coming to America, he settled in Ga. in 1737, was secretary to the trustees, and when Ga. was divided in 1741 he became president of the northern county, and, upon Ogle- thorpe's departure for Europe in 1743, president of the colony. He resigned in 1751. He published Journal of the Proceeding in Georgia (1742). Stephenson, George (1781- 1848), English engineer, the in- ventor of the locomotive, was born at Wylam, near Newcastle. In 1812 he became engine- wright at Killingworth colliery, and there in 1814 ran the first locomotive, which he subsequently greatly improved by the 'steam-blast.' The invention of a colliery safety lamp brought him fame (1815) and a public testimonial of £1,000. When the project of a railway be- tween Liverpool and Manchester took form, Stephenson was ap- pointed engineer, and triumphed over great obstacles to the com- pletion of the line in 1829; and in the battle of the locomotives his 'Rocket' was easily victor, devel- oping a speed of thirty-two miles an hour. See Smiles's Lives of the Engineers (new ed. 1904), and his Life of George Stephenson (5th ed. 1858). Stephenson, Isaac (1829), coAmerican legislator, born near r^Fredericton, N. B. He received _ a common school education, set- ^ tied in Maine in 1840, and in Wis- Robert Stephenson. (After a photograph by Nageli.) consin in 1841. He has spent his life in lumbering, farming, and banking and was a member of the Wis. legislature in 1866 and 1868, of Congress in 1883-89 and was elected U. S. Senator (Rep.) for the unexpired term of 1907-9. Stephenson, Robert (1803- 59), English engineer, only son of George Stephenson, was born near Newcastle, and became man- ager of his father's locomotive works at Newcastle. In 1833 he became sole engineer of the Lon- don and Birmingham line (com- pleted 1838), the first railway into London. He was thenceforth en- gaged in railway work all over the world; and his bridges at Newcastle, at Montreal (1859), and over the Menai Strait (1854) ranked as rnodern wonders of the world. See Smiles's Lives of the Ejigineers (new ed. 1904), and Jeafferson's Life of R. Stephen- son (1864). Stepney. See London. Stepniak, Sergius (1852-95), the name by which Sergei Mik- hailovitch Kravchinsky, Russian journalist and author, was known in England, was born at Gad- iatch in the province of Cherni- gov. He became engaged in a secret propaganda among the peasants, and joined the chief revolutionary organization. In 1880 he was compelled to flee. He then devoted himself to writ- ing and to lecturing, both in Eng- land and the U. S. He was a prominent worker for the Eng- lish Society of Friends of Russian Freedom, founded in 1890 by Dr. Spence Watson, and was for many years president of the Russian Free Press Fund, formed to sup- ply literature forbidden within the boundaries of Russia. His works include Underground Russia (1882); Russia under the Tsars (1885) ; The Russian Storm Cloud (1886) ; The Russian Peasantry (1888); Career of a Nihilist, a novel (1889); Nihilism as It Is (1894) ; Kitig Stork and King Log — A Study of Modern Russia (1895) ; and'Tyramticide in Russia. Steppes, a _vast_ territory of European Russia, situated in the southern provinces of Astrakhan, Don Cossacks Territory, Ekater- inoslav, Kherson, Orenburg, and Taurida. It includes the region of flat, grass-clad plain lying south of the agricultural zone, and suit- able for pastoral life. Stercorarius, a genus of skuas, including three or four spe- cies. Of these the pomatorhine skua (S. pomatorhinus) and the long-tailed skua {S. parasiticus) are visitors to Britain, while the Arctic skua {S. crepidatus), with its variety, Richardson's skua, nests in Scotland. Stere, the unit of cubic meas- urement in the metric system, otherwise called the kilolitre. Its value in Anglo-Saxon measure- ment is 35.316 cub. ft. It is equivalent to a cubic meter. Stereo-Chemistry, the science dealing with the special relations of the atoms in the molecule. It was originated independently by Slereo-Comparalor 448 Sterling Le Bel and Van't Hoff in 1874 to explain the existence of certain isomeric compounds, the differ- ences between which could not be expressed by formulae written on a plane, and it has been al- most exclusively worked out for compounds of carbon. In their case it is assurned that the 'affinities,' or points at which other atoms can be attached, are situated at the angles of a regu- lar tetrahedron, it then follows that, if a different atom or group is attached at each of these points, two different compounds can be represented according to the order in which the groups are arranged, one arrangement being the mirror image of the other. Thus, from the chemical be- havior of lactic acid, four dif- ferent groups — viz. H, CH3, OH, and COOH — are united to the CH3 OH \/ same carbon atom, C H^ cboH; and it is found that two varieties of this compound exist , one of which rotates polarized light to the left, and the other to the right. Similar results are ob- tained with all other compounds in which the carbon atom is asym- metric, or attached to four differ- ent groups; while with those that contain two such atoms, such as tartaric acid, three varieties are possible, and are found to exist— viz. a dextro-rotatory variety, in which both sets of groups tend to twist polarized light to the right; a levo-form, which rotates to the left; and an inactive or meso- form, in which the rotation to the right, set up by one asym- metric atom^ is neutralized by that of the other to the left. In a similar manner the differences between certain unsaturated com- pounds, such as fumaric and maleic acids, can be explained. See Van't Hoff's Chemistry in Space (trans. Marsh, 1891). Stereo-Comparator, an in- strument for examining celestial photographs, brought into use by Dr. Max Wolf in 1901. Two Elates of the same sky region, ut taken at different epochs, are viewed, as in a stereoscope, with the left and the right eye respect- ively. If the objects depicted have in the interim undergone change of any kind, the binocular combination of their images is disturbed, and a slight physical shock betrays the discrepancy. A large number of variables and asteroids have thus ])ccn detected by their fading or displacements between the dates of comparison. Stereoscope, a binocular in- strument constructed to view stereoscopic pictures produced by photography . Each eye sees a separate image or slightly differ- ent picture of the object, which, when viewed through the two half-lenses of a stereoscope, are blended into one, and, apart al- together from perspective or light and shade, stand out in bold relief, and the appearance of dis- tance or other background is thrown back as in reality. Wheat- stone invented the first form of stereoscope in 1838. This was improvecl upon (1843-44) by Sir David Brewster, who discarded the mirrors of the former investi- gator, and cut a double convex lens in two, used the two half- lenses, which he placed. with their thin outward edges facing inward to the centre, thus forming sides of a concave lens. The whole he placed in a box, with reflecting hood and transparent back. The f)rinciple still remains, but the orm was greatly modified in the stereoscope brought out in the United States by OHver Wendell Holmes. In stereoscopic photography the two lenses of the camera are placed in similar position and at nearly the same angle of conver- gence as that of the eyes. In printing stereo views from the glass negative, the prints must be cut separate and transposed, the right hand one to the left, and the left to the right, owing to the fact that the image is in- verted by the lens in the camera. Stereo transparencies when viewed with transmitted light arc superior to prints on paper viewed with light reflected. Many devices have been used to obtain the stereoscopic effecl from a single picture. Most of these involve the superposition of the two pictures and tne use of some device by the observer to enable each eye to see the proper one, and that alone. In a lantern picture the two may be projected with light polarized in mutually per- pendicular planes, and the ob- server may wear crystal glasses whose axes are so arranged that each eye sees only its own picture. Such a device is called the 'ana- lyticon.' _ Or the two may be printed in complementary colors and the glasses may be of corre- sponding tints. In a process sug- gested in 1908 by Lippmann, but not yet perfected, no observing device would be necessary. The object is photographed with a plate coated with minute globules of collodion each of virlaich is backed with a sensitized film. A Eicture is formed on each, and ippmann shows, by the laws of optics that while an eye sees in each glo])ule only a part of its pic- ture, these parts, juxtaposed as in a mosaic, build up the whole scene in such a way that it appears tc the eye as the actual object would if viewed from the same point. If the eye moves, the pic- ture changes, as the actual view would change; and if both eyes are used each sees its own picture, as in the reality. Hence the same stereoscopic effect is seen as if the actual object were viewed in binocular vision. Stereotyping. See Printing. Sterility, or want of repro- ductive power, may be total or partial. Darwin found that in many plants and animals very slight changes in the environment Eroduce sterility. Large num- ers of cultivated plants rarely or never seed, and numerous cap- tive animals do not breed, even if kept in an almost free condi- tion in their native country. On the other hand, the domestic ani- mals are often more prolific than those in a state of nature. Hy- bridism leads to sterility, either absolute or limited, and close in- terbreeding seems to impair the vigor and fertility of the off- spring, so that in successive gen- erations an advancing degree of sterility is produced. In the hu- man female sterility may be due to conditions of age, as the reproduc- tive period lies between puberty and tne menopause; or it may de- pend upon disturbance of nutri- tion, such as results from wasting and other diseases, while tempera- ture and climate also influence the reproductive functions. Absence, defective development, malfor- mation, displacement, or disease of any one of the reproductive organs may be the cause of steril- ity, as may also tumors or disease of neighboring parts. Cases due to absence or to imperfect develop- ment of important organs are hopeless, as also are many of those which result from morbid changes in the pelvic organs. But childlessness does not necessarily imply sterility. A woman may be childless by her first husband and bear children to her second. A male may be sterile independ- ently of impotence. Sterling, a word applied to the 'legal tender' of Great Britain. The derivation of this word is uncertain, but it is said to be de- rived from the Eastcrlings or Hanse merchants. In silver man- ufactures, sterling indicates a standard fineness of the metal. Sterling. (1.) Tn., Whiteside CO., 111., on Rock R., 110 m. w. of Chicago, on the Chi. and N.-W. and the Chi., Burl, and Quin. R. Rs. Abundant water power afforded by the river is used in the manufacture of paper, wire, machinery, agricultural imple- ments, hardware, flour, etc. It has a large public librarv- Pop. 910) 7,467. (3.) City, Rice co., Kan., 200 m. w.s.w. of Kansas City, on the A., T. and S. Fe and the Mo. Pac. R. Rs. It is the seat of Cooper College (Presb.). sterling KFN 449 Stesichorus has large salt works, and is a shipping point for grain and fruit. It was settled in 1871 and incorporated in 1877. Pep. (1930) 1,868; (1940) 2,215. SterEing, city, Colorado, county seat of Logan County, on the South Platte River, and on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, and the Union Pacific railroads ; 120 miles n.e. of Denver. Pop. (1930) 7,195; (1940) 7,411. Sterling", Antoinette (1850- 1904), American contralto singer, was born in Sterlingville, N. Y. She studied under Abella in New York and under Mme. Marchesi and Garcia in Europe. After her return to America in 1871 she sang for a while in Henry Ward Beecher's church in Brooklyn, and also in concert. In 1873 she settled in London, where her rich, deep voice and her artistic taste made her popular as an oratorio and ballad singer. Sullivan com- posed for her some of his best- known songs, such as 'The Lost Chord,' and Barnby wrote for her 'When the Tide Comes In.' In 1875 she married John Mac- Kinlay. Sterling, John (1806-44), Scottish author, was born at Kames Castle in the Island of Bute. His life was one long struggle for health. He spent most of his winters abroad, and wrote much for the Athcnmim in its early days, for Blackzvood and the Westminster. He owes his reputation largely to his genius for friendship. (larlyle, whom he met in 1835, wrote his biography (1851). Consult also Julius Hare's edition of Sterling's Es- says and Tales (1848). Sterlitamak, styer-lye-ta- mak', town and river port, Rus- sian S. F. S. R. ; 73 miles south of Ufa .town. It has tanneries, brick works, and manufactures of leather, soap, and fur garments. Pop. 16,000. Stern, Daniel. See Agoult. Sternberg, shtern'berc/i, town, Czecho-Slovakia, in Moravia, 9 miles north of Olmiitz. It is the center of the cotton and linen industries of Moravia, and man- ufactures sugar, liqueurs, and bricks. Flax and tobacco are grown in the vicinity. Pop. 15,000. Sternberg, Constantin (1852-1924), Russian- American pianist and composer, was born in St. Petersburg (Leningrad). He studied under Moscheles, Reinecke, Richter, Hauftmann, Kullak, and Dorn, and attended some of Liszt's classes. In 1869 he was an assistant conductor at the British Theatre in Leipzig, and in 1871 conductor of the opera in Mecklenburg-Strelitz. After serving for several years as director of the musical academy in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, he visited the United States in 1880 and played in concert. He taught in New York for a time, spent four years in Atlanta, Ga., and in 1890 settled in Philadelphia, where he established the Stern- berg School of Music. His com- positions, more than one hundred in number, are all for the piano. Sternberg, sturn'burg, George Miller (1838-1915), American bacteriologist, was born in Hart- wick, Otsego county, N. Y. He graduated from the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, in 1860, was appointed assistant surgeon in the U. S. army in 1861, and was assigned to the Army of the Potomac. In 1862 he was assistant medical director of the department of the Gulf, and in 1864-6 was surgeon in charge of the U. S. General Hospital, Cleveland, Ohio. He was attending surgeon at head- quarters. Department of the Columbia, in 1876, and in that year was brevetted lieutenant- colonel. After serving as sur- geon at Fort Walla Walla, he became a member of the Havana Yellow Fever Commission in 1879. In 1887-9 he investi- gated, in Brazil, Mexico, and Cuba, the etiology and prevention of yellow fever by inoculation, and in 1893 received commissions as brigadier-general and surgeon- general, U. S. army. He com- manded the U. S. army medical department in the war with Spain in 1898, and retired from active duties in 1902. He made many valuable bacteriological discov- eries, the most important of which related to the specific in- fluence of the white blood cor- puscles upon injurious bacteria. He was author of Photo Micro- graphs, and How to Make Them (1883); Malaria and Malarial Diseases (1884) ; Manual of Bacteriology (1893) ; Textbook of Bacteriology (1895) ; /m- munity, Protective Inoculations, and Serum Therapy (1897) ; In- fection and Immunity (1903). Sterne, Laurence (1713-68), English novelist and humorist, was born in Clonmel, Ireland. Having entered holy orders, he obtained the living of Sutton, near York, to which was after- ward added that of Stillington and a prebendary's stall at York Minster. In 1759 he wrote the first two volumes of the work which was destined to make him famous. The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, and this at once leaped into popularity. The Sermons of Yorick still further enhanced Sterne's reputation, and when he visited London in March, 1760, he found himself a popular idol. In the same year he was presented to the living of Coxwood. The third and fourth volumes of Tristram. Shandy ap- peared in December, followed by the fifth and sixth volumes in 1762, and by the seventh and eighth volumes in 1765, along with two more volumes of Ser- mons. The ninth volume, pub- lished in 1767, concluded this great novel, which contains some of the most piquant and incisive character studies in our language. Sterne then visited Italy, and ob- tained materials for what he in- tended to be another long work, A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy (1768). Sterne is one of the greatest of English humorists, the true secret of his power being the subtle blending of laughter and pathos. In some things he resembles Ra- belais ; in others he anticipated Jean Paul (Richter). The standard edition of his Works is that of 1780, in 10 volumes (new 1903). Consult Life by Percy Fitz- gerald (new ed. 1905), H. D. Traill, Sterne, in 'English Men of Letters' ; W. L. Cross, Life and Times of Laurence Sterne (1909). Stern'hold, Thomas (d. 1549), joint versifier of the Psalms with John Hopkins (d. 1570), was born at Southampton. In 1538 he appears as one of Cromwell's friends and dependents. In his version he adopted the simple ballad meter, now known as com- mon meter. Editions of the Psalms were published in 1549, 1551, and 1562 (complete). Ster'rett, John Robert Sit- LiNGTON (1851-1914), Ameri- can archaeologist, was born in Rockbridge Baths, Va. He studied at the University of Vir- ginia and at foreign universities, receiving his ph.d. from Munich in 1880. He was professor of Greek in Miami University from 1886 to 1891, in the University of Texas from 1888 to 1892, in Amherst from 1892 to 1901, and after 1901 in Cornell. His writ- ings include Inscriptions of Assos (1885) ; Inscriptions of Tralles (1885) ; An Epigraphical Jour- ney in Asia Minor ( 1888) ; Leaf- lets from the Notebook of a Trav- elling Archcrologist (1889) ; The Torch-Race (1902) ; A Call of Contemporary Society for Re- search in Asia Minor and Syria (1911). Sterry, Joseph Ashby-. See Ashby-Sterry. Stesichorus, ste-sik'6-rus (c. 630-550 B.C.), of Himera in Si- cily, lyric poet of ancient Greece. Legend told that he was struck blind for writing an attack on Helen, but. recovered his sight after he had published a recan- tation. His works were lyrical romances, and aided the develop- ment of tragedy from choric songs. His dialect was Dorian. stethoscope KFN 450 Stevens Only fragments are extant, for which see Bergk's Poetcs Lyrici Grcrci. Steth'oscope, a medical in- strument for conveying to the physician's ear the sounds within the chest wall. Immediate aus- cultation was described by Hip- pocrates ; but it occurred to Laennec that the respiratory and other sounds might be carried by an instrument interposed between the patient and the listener. He experimented first with a roll of paper, and later introduced a hollow wooden cylinder with a bell-shaped chest piece and a flat- tened disc for the ear. Courtesy Becton, Dickinson & Co. Stethoscopi It was the binaural stethoscope, invented by Dr. Camman of New York, that became the common type used today. It is composed of a sound-perceiving device from which branch two tubes which lead to nubbed ear pieces. This instrument, used for listen- ing to internal body sounds, aids in the diagnosis of internal dis- orders. Stetson University, a Baptist coeducational institution of learn- ing, fully accredited, consisting of a College of Liberal Arts, a College of Law, a School of Music, and a School of Business. Chartered in 1887 as Deland Uni- versity, the name was changed in 1889 to Stetson University. The College of Law is a member of the Association of American Law Schools and is on the approved list of the American Bar Asso- ciation. Stettin, city, Prussia, capital of the province of Pomerania, on both banks of the Oder ; 30 miles from the Baltic. Notable fea- tures are the castle, begun in 1503, formerly the seat of the Dukes of Pomerania and now oc- cupied by the courts of justice; the Church of St. James dating from the 13th century; the Church of St. Peter, and St. Paul's, dating from the 15th cen- tury and several fine statues, no- tably those of Frederick the Great and William i. Stettin is an important manufacturing and commercial town, and a ship- building center. In 1898 a free harbor was opened on the east bank of the Oder. Manufactures are cement, clothing, machinery, sugar, chemicals, porcelain, and paper. (Pop. 1939) 268,915. Steuben, stii'bcn ; Gcr. shtoi'- hcn, Friedrich Wilhelm von. Baron Steuben (1730-94), Ger- man-American soldier, was born in Magdeburg, Prussia. He ac- companied his father, who was an officer of engineers, to the siege of Prague in 1744 and in 1747 entered the Prussian army as a cadet. He served throughout the Seven Years' War and toward its close in 1762 was appointed aide to Frederick the Great. Visiting Paris in 1777, he was persuaded to go to America and offer his sword to the patriot forces. He joined the army at Valley Forge early in 1778 and in May was appointed major-general and in- spector-general of the army. He rendered conspicuous service in drilling and reorganizing the army, teaching the men the use of the bayonet, and organizing an efficient staff, the want of vvhich had been much felt, par- ticularly at Long Island and Brandywine. He served with distinction at Monmouth, was a member of the Andre court mar- tial, commanded for a short time in Virginia in 1780, and was ac- tive at the siege of Yorktown. After the war he retired to a tract of 16,000 acres given him by the State of New York near the present Steubenville in Onei- da county and lived there during the rest of his life. His Regula- tions for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States (1780) was used for many years. Steubenville, stu'ben-vil, city, Ohio, county seat of Jefferson county, on the Ohio River, and on the Pennsylvania, Wheeling and Lake Erie railroads ; 23 miles north of Wheeling, West Virginia. It is a commercial and manufacturing center, with iron and steel and glass works, and coal-mining interests The place was settled in 1797 and incor- porated in 1852. Pop. (1930) 35,422; (1940) 37,586. Stevens, Abel (1815-97), American Methodist Episcopal clergyman and historian, was born in Philadelphia. He en- tered the New England Confer- ence in 1834, filled pastorates in Boston and Providence, and in New York City and vicinity, and afterwards was pastor of the Union Church at Geneva, Swit- zerland. From 1840 to 1860 he held various editorships of Meth- odist journals, and from 1860 to 1874 was associate editor of The Methodist. His historical writ- ings include Memorials of the In- troduction of Methodism into New England (1847-52), His- tory of the Religious Movement of the Eighteenth Century, called Methodism (1858-61), History of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States of Am^erica (1864-7), The Centen- ary of American Methodism (1865) , The Women of Method- ism: Hs Three Foundresses (1866) , A Compendious History of American Methodism (1867), and Supplementary History (1899). Other works were Ma- dame de Sta'el (1881) and Chris- tian Work and Consolation (1885). Stevens, Alfred George (1818-75), English sculptor, was born in Blandford in Dorset. He went to Italy in 1833, acted as assistant to Thorwaldsen in Rome (1841), and on his return to England (1842), became a teacher of design in London (1845) and designer for various establishments. He is especially notable for his excellent designs for a wide variety of articles of everyday use. His great Well- ington Monument in St. Paul's, unfinished at his death, entitles him to rank as one of the fore- most of modern sculptors. A fine mantlepiece in Dorchester House, Park Lane, London, is also his work. Stevens, Benjamin Franklin (1833-1902), American bibliog- rapher, great-grandson of Phin- neas Stevens (q. v.), was born in Barnet, Vt., and studied at Mid- dlebury _ College. In 1860 he joined his brother Henry's book- selling business in London, and some years afterwards took charge of the Chiswick press. He after- wards became, and was until his death, U. S. despatch agent in London, where he acted also as purchasing agent for many Amer- ican libraries. His most impor- tant work was the indexing and reproduction in facsimile of doc- uments and manuscripts relating to American history in European archives. After years of study he published American Manuscripts in European Archives (1887), Facsimiles of Manuscripts in SteveiL^ KFN 4Si Stevens European Archives Relating to America, 1773-83 (25 vols. 1889- 98), Introduction to the Calendar of American Papers in the Earl of Dartmouth's Collection (1895). Stevens, Durham White (1852-1908), American diplomat, was born in Washington, D. C. He was educated at Oberlin College and at the Columbian Law School, and in 1873-83 was secretary ot the U. S. legation at Tokyo, Japan. He then be- came counsellor of the Japanese legation in Washington; was em- ployed in the Japanese Foreign Office in 1884-87, chiefly on the revision of treaties with foreign powers; was sent by Japan to Korea to settle difficulties be- tween Japan and China; and, after further service at the Japanese legation in Washington, returned to Japan. In 1904 he be- came diplomatic adviser to the Korean Government. While on his way to Washington on official business he was murdered in San Francisco, by a native Korean. Stevens, Ebenezer (1751- 1823), American soldier, was born in Boston. He took part in the Boston 'tea party' in 1773; and later was in command of the American artillery at Fort Ticon- deroga, the first battle of Sara- toga, and the siege at Yorktown. After the war he settled in New York City where he became prominent as a merchant. Stevens, Edward (1745-1820), American soldier, was born in Culpeper County, Va. He served in the battle of Great Bridge in 1775; commanded a regiment at Brandy wine and Germantown; participated in the battle of Camden in 1780; and assisted in the capture of Cornwallis at Yorktown. Stevens, Edwin Augustus (1795-1868), American capital- ist, was born in Hoboken, N. J. He succeeded to the railroad and shipping interests of his father John Stevens (q.v.) and in 1830 became treasurer, and later (1854), president of the Camden and Amboy Railroad Company. He invented the vStevens plough and a system of forced draught for marine boilers. He also gave much attention to armor tests and altered and equipped the Naugatuck for use in the Civil War. He bequeathed $650,000 to found the Stevens Institute of Technology (q.v.). Stevens, George Barker (1854-1906), American clergy- man, was born in Spencer, N. Y. He was graduated (1877) from the University of Rochester, and in divinity from Yale in 1880. He was pastor of Congregational and Presbyterian churches in Buffalo and Watertown, N. Y., until 1885, and was professor of New Testament criticism and in- terpretation at Yale from 1886 to 1895, and of systematic theology from 1895 until his death. His works include The Pauline Theology (1892), The Johannine Theology (1894), Doctrine and Life (1895), The Theology of the New Testament (1899), The Teaching of Jesus (1901), The Christian Doctrine of Salvation (1905). Stevens, Henry (1819-86), American bibliographer, brother of B. F. Stevens (q.v.), was the son of Henry Stevens, an an- tiquary of Barnet, Vt., where the younger Henry was born. He studied at Middlebury College, taught, and was a government clerk at Washington before entering Yale, where he was graduated in 1843. He then studied law at Harvard. He went to London in 1845, in search of Americana, becoming pur- chasing agent there for many American collectors and libraries, and from the time of his arrival until his death was agent of the British Museum for the acquire- ment of North and South Amer- ican books. His collection of doc- uments relating to Benjamin Franklin was bought by the United States government. His many bibliographical and other works include Catalogue of Amer- ican Books in the Library of the British Museum (1857), Biblio- theca Americana (1861), Who Spoils our New English Books (1885), and Recollections of James Lenox (1886). Stevens, Isaac Ingalls (1818- 62), American soldier, was born in North Andover, Mass. He was graduated from West Point in 1839, as second lieutenant of engineers, served throughout the Mexican War, and having been appointed governor of Washing- ton Territory, resigned from the army in 1852. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was appoint- ed colonel and shortly thereafter brigadier general of volunteers, becoming major general in 1862. He took an active part in the operations in Virginia during the first year of the war and while commanding a division of Burn- side's corps was killed at Chan- tilly, Sept. 1, 1862. Stevens, John (1749-1838), American inventor, was born in New York City. He was gradu- ated from King's College (now Columbia University) in 1768, in 1771 was admitted to the New York bar, and in 1776-79 was treasurer of the State of New Jersey, and a colonel of one of the infantry regiments of that State. In 1790 he was active in demanding the enactment of a patent law, and succeeded in securing the establishment of the American patent system. He secured several patents for his own inventions relating to steam engines, and in association with Nicholas I. Roosevelt and Robert R. Livingston placed a steam- boat on the Hudson River. The boat did not meet the speed requirements, and in 1801 he became associated with Robert Fulton in steamboat building, and secured a monopoly of steam propulsion on the Hudson. In 1807 he built the Phoenix, a paddle-wheel steamboat, which he successfully ran on the Dela- ware River for several years. He early recognized the efficiency of the four-threaded screw for steamship propulsion, and built a successful boat propelled by turn screws; but other considera- tions led to the general use of stern-wheel and side-wheel steamboats for many years. In 1811 he established a steam ferry between Hoboken and New York City, which is believed to have been the first of its kind. In 1815 he obtained a charter for the first American railroad to run between the Delaware and Raritan Rivers, and in 1824 one for the first part of the Pennsyl- vania Railroad system. Stevens, John Austin (1795- 1874), American banker, was born in New York City. He was graduated from Yale University in 1813, and was for many years secretary of the Chamber of Com- merce of New York City. He was also active in many financial undertakings. Stevens, John Austin (1827- 1910), American author, was born in New York City. He was graduated from Harvard Uni- versity in 1846 and from 1862 to 1868 acted as secretary to the New York Chamber of Com- merce. In 1877 he established the Magazine of American His- tory of which he was editor until 1883. His published works in- clude Colonial Records of the New York Chamber of Commerce (1867) ; Life of Albert Gallatin (1884) ; New York City in the Nineteenth Century (1901). Stevens, John Frank (1853- 1943), American civil engineer, was born in West Gardiner, Me. He was engaged in railroad engineering and management for many years and in 1905 became chief engineer of the Panama Canal. He was chairman of the Isthmian Canal Commission dur- ing a part of 1907, but resigned to become vice-president in charge of operation of the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad. In 1917-18 he was head of the American Railway Commission to Russia, and in 1919-23 president of the Inter- Allied Technical Board having supervision over the Siberian railways. Stevens, John Leavitt (1820- 95), American journalist and diplomat, was born in Mt. Vernon, Me. He studied for Stevens KFN 452 Stevens Institute the ministry but was forced by ill health to abandon that pro- fession and for many years he edited the Kennebec Journal. He was minister to Paraguay and Uruguay in 1870-73, minis- ter to Sweden and Norway in 1877-83, and minister to Hawaii in 1889-93. When the Hawaiian monarchy was overthrown by revolution in 1893, Stevens de- clared an American protectorate over the islands, but his act was disavowed and he was recalled, but was later exonerated by the Senate of any wrong doing. Stevens, Phi NEAs (1707-56), American soldier, was born in Sudbury, Mass. When sixteen years of age he and three younger brothers were ambushed by the Indians, who killed two of his brothers, took him prisoner, and were about to kill the third brother, a child of four years, when Phineas by signs made the Indians understand that if they would spare the child he would carry him on his shoulders, which he did — all the way to Canada. Both were afterwards redeemed, and in King George's War, while in command of the border post known as Fort No. 4, he suc- ceeded in repelling several at- tacks made by the French and Indians. In 1749 and again in 1752 he made trips to Canada to effect an exchange of prisoners. Stevens, Robert Livingston (1787-1856), American inven- tor, son of John Stevens (q. v.), was born in Hoboken, N. J. At the age of seventeen he entered his father's shipbuilding yards and in 1808 navigated the Phce- nix, the first American steamer to enter the ocean, on her trip from New York to Philadelphia. After the death of Fulton he became the foremost American shipbuilder, and was instrumen- tal in making great improvements in the marine engine and naval architecture. In 1830 he was elected president of the Camden and Amboy Railroad, and was sent to England to buy rails. While on the voyage he invented the Stevens rail, which is now known as the T-rail. The latter part of his life was devoted to the improvement of locomotives and armor plate. Stevens, Thaddeus (1792- 1868), American statesman, was born in Danville, Vermont. His parents were poor, and Stevens was sickly and lame, but, aided by his mother, he succeeded in preparing himself to enter Dart- mouth College, from which he was graduated in 1814. He be- gan the study of law in Vermont, but in order to get a better location he removed to York, Pa., where he taught school while preparing himself for the legal profession. He was admit- ted to the bar in Maryland in 1816, and at once returned to Pennsylvania and began to practise in Gettysburg. He entered politics in 1828 as a National Republican, a sup- porter of John Quincy Adams, and later was a prominent anti- Masonic leader, finally becoming a Whig. In 1833 he was elected to the Pennsylvania legislature and was re-elected six times before 1842. In the legislature he won local fame as a supporter of the state free school system, just then being established against great opposition. Living near the border between the free and slave states, Stevens saw and heard much of escaping slaves and became an ardent anti-slav- ery advocate and friend of the blacks. He freely gave his serv- ices to defend fugitive slaves and sometimes gave the money to redeem them. In 1836 he was a member of the state constitu- tional convention and was prom- inent chiefly as an advocate of Negro suffrage, refusing to sign the constitution because it lim- ited the franchise to whites. In 1838 he was state canal commis- sioner and successfully managed the internal improvements of the state. From the beginning he was an intense partisan in poli- tics, and in 1838 he led a Whig and anti-Masonic revolt in the legislature against the Demo- cratic majority and set up a rival body. Later the Whigs returned to the Democratic or- ganization, and Stevens was ex- pelled, but was immediately re- elected by his constituents. Having lost heavily in manu- facturing investments, he retired from politics in 1842, went to Lancaster, Pa., for a more lucrative law practice, and in a few years had paid a debt of nearly $200,000. He then forced the Whig 'machine' to nominate him to Congress, in which he served from 1849 to 1853, and to which he was returned in 1858 as a Republican, serving until his death in 1868. He opposed the South in all things, made bitter speeches against slavery, op- posed the Compromise of 1850, and all the attempts made in 1860 and 1861 to bring about a reconciliation between North and South. During the War and Reconstruction he was leader of the Radical Republicans : and he was among the first to demand the abolition of slavery, the arming of the slaves, the con- fiscation of property in the South, and the Thirteenth and Four- teenth Amendments to the Con- stitution. It was in connection with the Reconstruction that Stevens be- came best known. During the War he strongly opposed Presi- dent Lincoln's plan of restoring the Southern States to the Union, and after the War he was leader in rejecting and over- throwing the work of President Johnson. To the last he advo- cated the most stringent meas- ures against the South. To a considerable extent he shaped the report of the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, which out- lined the plan by which Congress finally reconstructed the South- ern States, and the Recon- struction Acts of 1867 were mainly his work. Stevens had few friends ; his sympathy was reserved for the weak and oppressed ; as long as he lived he hated the Southern whites, because he believed that they ill-treated Negroes as slaves and freemen ; in debate no one could stand before his savage denunciation and ridicule and he was unsparing of the members of his own party who opposed his views. Stevens, Walter Le Conte ( 1 847-1 927 ) , American physicist, was born in Gordon County, Ga. He was graduated from the University of South Carolina in 1868, and later studied in Strassburg, Zurich and Berlin. In 1870-72 he was professor of chemistry in Oglethorpe College, Atlanta, Ga., and in 1873-76 was professor of physical science in Chatham Academy, Savannah, Ga. He then removed to New York, in 1879-82 became pro- fessor of physics in the Cooper Union Institute, in 1882-90 was professor of mathematics and physics in the Packer Collegiate Institute, Brooklyn, N. Y., and in 1892-98 was professor of physics in the Rensselaer Poly- technic Institute, in the latter year becoming professor of phys- ics in the Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Va. In 1922 he became professor emeri- tus. Stevens Institute of Tech- nology, a non-sectarian college of engineering in Hoboken, New Jersey, founded in 1870 by Ed- win A. Stevens, who bequeathed for it land and sums of money aggregating $650,000. The pres- idents of the college have been Henry Morton (1870-1902); Alexander Crombie Humphreys (1902-27) ; and Harvey Nathan- iel Davis (1928- ). Only one degree, that of mechanical engi- neering, is conferred in course. Students are trained in the fun- damental studies essential to the efficient practice of the engineer- ing profession in the mechanical, electrical, civil, and chemical branches. The Institute grounds cover nearly 30 acres, including Castle Point, formerly a part of the Stevens family estate. The former home of the family is used Stevenson KFN 453 Stevenson as a student social center and dormitory. Other buildings are the Administration Building, Recitation Hall, Carnegie Labo- ratory of Engineering, Walker Gymnasium, Morton Laboratory of Chemistry, Library, and three dormitories, Palmer, Jacobus, and Bernegan. Special facilities for research include three towing tanks for testing ship and yacht hulls. The college has developed an engineering camp of 340 acres at Johnsonburg, N. J. Stevenson, Adlai Ewing (1835-1914), American public official, was born in Christian County, Ky. He attended Centre College, removed to Bloorning- ton. III., and was there admitted to the bar. He was a Democratic member of Congress in 1875-77 and 1879-81, and first assistant postmaster-general in 1885—89. He was Vice-President of the United States during Cleveland's second term (1893-97). In 1897 he was a member of the commis- sion to Europe in the interest of international bimetallism. Stevenson, John James (1841-1924), American geologist, was born in New York City. He was graduated from New York University in 1863, in 1869-71 was professor of chem- istry and natural history in West Virginia University, and in 1871 became professor of geology at his alma mater, subsequently occuping the chairs of chem- istry, physics, and biology, re- tiring as professor emeritus in 1909. In 1871-74 he was at- tached to the Ohio State Geo- logical Survey, and in 1873-80 was geologist on the U. S. Geo- graphical Survey west of the 100th meridian. In 1875-82 he was geologist in charge of the southwestern districts' second geological survey of Pennsyl- vania, and classified the upper coal measures of the northern Appalachian area, and the Lara- mie coal series of New Mexico. His publications include The Coal Measures of Pennsylvania (4 vols. 1876-82) ; The Geology of New Mexico (1882), and many geological monographs. Stevenson, Robert (1772- 1850), Scottish civil engineer, was born in Glasgow. He was educated in Edinburgh Uni- versity and succeeded his step- father as inspector of lighthouses in 1796. He constructed more than twenty lighthouses on the Scottish coasts, of which the Bell Rock was the most remarkable. He also made many improve- ments in the system of lighting, bringing the catoptric or reflect- ing system to perfection, advo- cating the adoption of the diop- tric or refracting system, and in- venting the intermittent and flashing lights. In 1814 he was accompanied on one of his voy- ages of inspection by Sir Walter Scott. Stevenson, Robert Louis Balfour (1850-94), Scottish novelist and poet, only son of Thomas Stevenson, was born in Edinburgh, Nov. 13, 1850. On the mother's side he was a cadet of the Balfours of Pilrig ; hence the name of his hero, David the same year he was at Men- tone, and wrote the essay Ordered South, which proved his eminent gifts in literature. For some seven years at least he had been studying and practising the art of expression, imitating now one famous style, now another, so that, at the age of twenty- three, his own style was the dainty, vivacious, energetic one Robert Louis Stevenson. Balfour, in Kidnapped and Cat- riona. His remoter paternal ancestors were farmers in the Covenanting west ; his nearer forefathers were eminent engi- neers and builders of lighthouses. He was educated largely by pri- vate tutors but entered Edin- burgh University with the in- tention of following his father's profession of engineer, but he soon gave it up as unsuitable and began to devote himself to liter- ary pursuits. In 1866, the Covenanter coming out in him, he wrote The Pentland Rising; and in 1871 he edited and con- tributed to the Edinburgh Uni- versity Magazine. In 1873 he met his lifelong friend, Sidney Colvin, and so came into touch with the literary world to which he was strongly attracted. In with which his readers are famil- iar — a thing alive to the finger- tips, full of unexpected and delightful turns and cadences. Meanwhile (1876-9) Steven- son produced a charming series of essays and short stories in the Cornhill Magazine and else- where, and chronicled two senti- mental journeys in An Inland Voyage and Through the Ce- vennes with a Donkey. During a holiday in the forest of Fontaine- bleau he met Mrs. Osbourne, an American lady, followed her to the United States (1879), where he spent two years in California, and married her in 1880. During this time he wrote a first draft of Prince Otto, and an account of his journey from New York to San Francisco, in The Amateur Emigrant and Across the Plains, Stevenson KFN 454 Stewart published respectively in 1894 and 1892. He tells the story of his stay in California at this time in The Silverado Squatters p883). He returned to Europe in 1880, where, partly to amuse his stepson, he began Treasure Island (1882), which was a great success. This was followed by The Black Arrow (1888, dearer to boys than to men), and by Kid- napped (1886), Catriona (1893, a sequel), and The Master of Bal- lantrae (1889), all historical ro- mances of adventure. By this time Stevenson had proved his mastery in many fields, one of which he invented. This was shown in the brilliant fantasies of Oriental adventure in modern life, The New Arabian Nights (1882). Prince Otto (1885) was a highly elaborated romance of a fancied German princely court which cost the au- thor many pangs : it is full of pas- sages of surprising beauty, but it is the most precieux of his writ- ings. His essays continued to enjoy the highest favor and his Child's Garden of Verses (1885) is full of delightful survivals of his imaginative infancy. Apart from all these varieties was the gruesome allegory. Dr. Jekvll and Mr. Hyde (1886), revealed to him in a dreain. Despite these and other writings Stevenson remained poor, for at first he was not 'popular.' And again, 'he was not always wholly serious.' He had too much of irony and of humor to reach the vast reading public. In 1887, his health failing, he went again to the United States where he spent the winter in the village of Saranac Lake, in the Adirondacks, writing in the meantime for Scrihncr's Maga- zine. In June, 1888, he sailed with his family from San Fran- cisco for a voyage in the southern Pacific. At this time, he was forced to be writing hard for a livelihood ; when unable to speak or to hold the pen, he dictated fiction with his fingers by the dumb alphabet. In Samoa, where he built a house (Vailima) and settled, he was known as Tusitala ('the Tale-teller'). There he re- covered his health (1890-4) ; but continued to work and to play at high pressure. Vailima was his Abbotsford or Monte Cristo : he kept open house and open purse. With Lloyd Osbourne, his step- son, he wrote The Ebb Tide (1894), a gloomy thing; the amusing but perplexing and ill- constructed Wrecker (1892) ; and all but the last chapters of St. Ives, published with a finish by Mr. Quiller-Couch (1897). Lastly he settled on Weir of Her- miston (1896), in which he found his powers more mature and vig- orous than ever. He died suddenly, Dec. 3, 1894, stricken down in a mo- ment, by the rupture of a blood vessel in the brain, and was buried at the summit of Mount Vaea, near Vailima. Stevenson as a man is fully revealed in his books : they are filled with his invincible and blithe stoicism, his courage, his high intellectual spirits, his boundless charity, his com- bination of the wisdom of the sage with the hallucinatory fancy of the child, and the chival- rous loyalty and adventurous heart of the boy. They who would know him most familiarly must read his Letters to his Family and Friends, edited (1894-9) by Sidney Colvin. Ste- venson's 'appeal' is to the very same passions and emotions as those which move the audiences of Homer. His heart is with man as a being that toils, loves, and fights in the open air — the hunt- er, the sailor, the warrior. To place his work beside Scott's is the act of 'a devout imagination.' He has not Scott's limitless power of dramatic creation, any more than Scott had or tried to culti- vate Stevenson's matchless ver- bal felicity. Neither novelist dealt much with the passion of love. Only in Weir of Herniis- ton does Stevenson really give his strength to varied studies of this master passion, succeeding in an almost unexampled degree. He undoubtedly could draw women — Barbara Grant, the two Kir- sties, and Catriona herself ; but he as certainly was more at home with men. He once matched himself against Scott in a story of the supernatural : 'Thrawn Janet' is his 'Wandering Willie's Tale.' The atmosphere of terror is wonderfully produced ; the manner of telling is beyond all praise. But humor and poetry are conspicuous by their absence. Somehow, somewhere, there was in the genius of Stevenson a melancholy note. The best edi- tion of his works is the Edin- burgh edition (27 vols.) edited by Sidney Colvin (1894-98). Books about Stevenson are legion ; among them may be mentioned Balfour, Life; Osbourne and Strong, Memories of Vailima; Baildon, R. L. Stevenson ; A Life Study; Watts, R. L. S.; Swin- nerton, R. L. Stevenson, A Criti- cal Study ; Hamilton, On the Trail of Stevenson (1915) ; Steu- art, Robert Louis Stevenson (2 vols. 1924). Stevenson, Sara (Yorke) (1847-1921), American archaeol- ogist, was born in Paris, France, and educated in private sem- inaries in that city. In 1870, while a resident of Philadelphia, she began the study of archaeol- ogy. In 1893 she was vice- president of the jury for eth- nology at the World's Columbian Exposition, and in 1894 became secretary of the department of archaeology in the University of Pennsylvania. In 1897 she carried out special archaeological investigations in Rome, on be- half of the University, and in 1898 did similar work in the Nile Valley for the American Ex- ploration Society. She wrote Maximilian in Mexico (1899), and various articles on archaeology. Stevenson, Thomas (1818- 87), Scottish engineer and mete- orologist, was born in Edinburgh, the youngest son of Robert Ste- venson, and father of Robert Louis Stevenson (qq. v.). His first scientific paper (1842) was in connection with meteorology, for the advance of which he and the instruments he invented were largely responsible. He constructed his first lighthouse in 1843, and in 1853, with his brother, was appointed engi- neer to the Board of Northern Lighthouses. His chief work was in the improvement of the means of lighthouse illumination, and in 1859 he published Lighthouse Illumination, which in the second edition (1871) became Light- house Construction and Illumina- tion. Consult R. L. Stevenson, Memoirs and Portraits (1887). Stevenson, William (d. 1575), probably the author of the English comedy Gammer Gur- ton's Needle, was born at Hun- wick, Durham, and was a fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge, 1551-54 and 1559-61. Dr. John Bridges, dean of Salisbury, re- puted author, was possibly a col- laborator. Stevens Point, city, Wiscon- sin, county seat of Portage coun- ty, on the Wisconsin River and on the Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste. Marie, and the Green Bay and Western railroads; 100 miles north of Madison. It is a manufacturing center, producing lumber, wall and writing papers, newspaper, furniture, flour, starch, fishing tackle, foundry and machine-shop products. The Central State Teachers College is situated here, and there is a municipal library. The place was settled in 1860, incorporated in 1879, and chartered as a city in 1904. Pop. (1930) 13,623; (1940) 15,777. Steward, Lord High, in England, the head of the ancient court called the Board of Green Cloth. With a few exceptions he has the selection of all the officers and servants of the household. Stewart, Steuart, or Stuart, a Scottish family tracing its de- scent from a Norman baron, Flaald, whose grandson Walter (d. 1177) was appointed steward of David i. From sons of Sir Stewart KFN John (killed at Falkirk in 1298), nephew of Walter (d. 1246), were descended the Stewarts, Earls of Angus; the Stewarts or Stu- arts, Earls and Dukes of Len- nox; the Stewarts, Earls of Gal- loway; the Stewarts of Lorn and Innermeath, and the Stewarts of Allanton, Coltness, and Grand- tuUy. The Stewarts of Lorn and Innermeath were ancestors of the Earls of AthoU, and the later Earls of Buchan are an offshoot of the same branch, though they have also ties of relationship with, the direct royal line. From a natural son of James, first Earl of Buchan, were descended the Earls of Traquair. The first Stewart of the royal line of Great Brit- ain was Robert, son of Walter, sixth high steward, by Marjory, daughter of Robert the Bruce, who succeeded in 1371 to the Scottish throne as Robert ll. From a natural son of Robert ll. are descended the Steuarts of Dalguise, Perthshire, and the Stewarts, Marquises of Bute; and a natural son of Robert iii. is paternal ancestor of the Shaw Stewarts of Blackball and Green- ock, Renfrewshire. From natu- ral sons of the fourth son of Robert ii. (Alexander, known as the 'Wolf of Badenoch') are de- scended the Stewarts of Atholl, who, with the Stewarts of Appin, descended from a natural son of the last Lord Lorn, are regarded as constituting the Highland clan of the Stewarts. The direct legitimate male line of the elder branch of the royal Stewarts terminated _ with the death of James v. His daughter Mary, who succeeded him on the Scottish throne, claimed that of England against Elizabeth, on account of descent from Mar- garet Tudor, queen of James iv.; and Mary's son, James vi., in ascending the English throne, be- came the progenitor of the royal line of Great Britain. By his father, Lord Darnley, son of the Earl of Lennox, James vi. was also descended from a branch of the Stewart line, which claimed against the Hamiltons, Earls of Arran (descended from the Prin- cess Mary, daughter of James ii.), to be next heirs after James himself to the Scottish throne, on account of an asserted illegiti- mate link in the Hamilton de- scent. After the flight of James VII. of Scotland and ii. of Eng- land to France in December,1688, the elder male line descended from James vi. and i. was per- manently debarred from the throne, William of Orange (son of Mary, eldest daughter of Charles i.) and his wife Mary (eldest daughter of James vii. and II.) succeeding in 1689. On the death of William (1702), Anne, younger daughter of James vn. and n., was called to the throne of Scotland and England without opposition. On her death (1714) she was succeeded by George, son of Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of Jarnes VI. and I., and wife of Frederick v.. Count Palatine of the Rhine. The last male representative of the senior Stewart royal line, descended from James vi. and I., was Henry, Cardinal York, younger brother of Charles Edward, the 'young Chevalier,' and son of James, incorrectly termed the 'Pretender;' and with the death of Henry termi- nated also the male line of the original Earls of Lennox, de- scended from Sir John Stewart of Derneley. But for the Act of Settlement of 1701, the heirs to the throne after the death of Cardinal York would have been the Sardinian line, descended from Henrietta Maria, youngest daughter of Charles i.,and Philip, Duke of Orleans, son of King Louis XIII of France, later rep- resented by Rupert, son of Prince Louis of Bavaria and Maria Theresa, archduchess of Austria. (See Lennox.) See histories of the Stewarts, by Crauford (1710), Duncan Stewart (1739), and A. Stewart (1798-9) ; Stew- art, Stewarts of Appin (1880), P. M. Thornton, Stuart Dynasty (1891), Skelton, The Royal House of Stuart (1890). Stewart, Alexander Peter (1824-1908). Amer. soldier, born at Rogersville, Tenn. He grad- uated at West Point in 1842, and was assistant professor of mathe- matics there m 1842-45, and of mental and moral philosophy in Cumberland and ^fashville Uni- versities in 1845-60. After the secession of Tenn. he drilled troops and constructed batteries at Randolph on the Mississippi, and was the first to occupy Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Mo. For his services at the battle of Belmont he was promoted brigadier-general and given com- mand of a brigade of Tenn. troops under Gen. Leonidas Polk. At Shiloh, Perryville, Murfrees- boro, Hoover's Gap, Chicka- mauga, and Missionary Ridge, Stewart and his command were conspicuous, and he was pro- moted to major-general in June, 1863. During the Atlanta cam- gaign of 1864 he defeated [ooker's corps at New Hope Church (May 26), and on June 23 was promoted, to lieutenant- general and placed in command of the corps of Gen. Leonidas Polk, who had been killed at Pine Mountain. He continued to serve with distinction in the Atlanta and Tennessee cam- paigns and in the final campaign in the Carolinas. He was ap- 455 Stewart pointed commissioner of Chick- amauga National Park in 1890. Stewart, Alexander Turkey (1803-76), American merchant, was born at Lisburn, near Bel- fast, Ireland, and was of Scottish descent. He was the son of a farmer, and studied for the min- istry at Trinity College, Dublin, but was advised to emigrate to America, and came to New York city jn 1823. _ He engaged in teaching, but inheriting a small legacy from his father, procured a supply of Belfast white goods in Ireland, and began a drapery business in Broadway, New York city. This developed rapidly, and he erected in 1848 a large marble store at Broadway and Chambers Street, which became a show place, and which, after the erection of the great iron building at Broadway and 10th Street in 1862, was used for the wholesale branch of the business. The latter embraced branch liouses in many parts of the world, and many factories. In March, 1869, he was appointed secretary of the treasury by President Grant, but his confirmation was prevented by the law which renders mercantile importers ineligible to the office. At the time of his death Stewart was completing the erection, at a cost of more than $1,000,000, of the large building in Fourth Avenue between 32d and 33d streets, intended as a home for working girls (now the Park Avenue Hotel). Stewart's body was stolen from St. Mark's church- yard. New York, a few days after its burial there, but was recov- ered and is supposed to have been reburied in the Cathedral of the Incarnation, an edifice built from funds given by him, at Garden City, L. I. Stewart, Alvan (1790-1849), American abolitionist, born at South Granville, N. Y. He attended Burhngton College; taught school; was for a time a prisoner in the hands of the British in the War of 1812; studied law, and practised at Cherry Valley and Utica. In 1835 he called an abolition convention at Utica, which was dispersed by a mob. From this time most of his atten- tion was devoted to advancing the anti-slavery cause; he was at one time the abolitionist can- didate for governor, and made many speeches in behalf of aboli- tion. A collection of these speeches, with a short memoir, was published in 1860 by his son- in-law, Luther R. Marsh. Stewart, Balfour (1828-87), Scottish physicist and meteorol- ogist, was born in Edinburgh. He became director of the Kew Observatory in 1859, and in 1870 professor of physics at Owens College, Manchester. His first important work was on 'Radi- Ste^eart KFN h56 Stieler ant Heat' in Trans. Royal Soc Edin. (1858), and from 1859 he devoted himself particularly to meteorology, especially to the phenomena of terrestrial magnet- ism. He was also one of the workers towards the discovery of spectrum analysis. He published successful text-books on Heat and General Physics, but his two best works were the Conservation of Energy (1872), and, in collabo- ration with Professor Tait The Unseen Universe (1875). Stewart, Charles (1778-1869), American naval officer, born in Philadelphia. He rose from cabin boy to captain in the mer- chant service before he was of age, and in 1798 received a com- mission as lieutenant in the newly organized navy. After serving two years on the United States, he was given command of the Experiment, and with her took several French prizes. He served in the Mediterranean squadron during the war with Tripoli, and in 1806 was made captain. Dur- ing the last two years of the War of 1812 he commanded the Constitution, and on February 20, 1815, captured the British sloops of war Cyane and Levant, of thirty-three and twenty-one guns respectively, the Constitution carrying forty-four. The Levant was retaken by a British sciuadron March 11th. Stewart had many years of active service and became a rear-admiral in 1862. Stewart, David. See Rothe- say, Duke of. Stewart, Sir Donald Mar- tin (1824-1900), British field- marshal, was born near Forres, and entered the Bengal army (1840). He took part in the sieges of Delhi and Lucknow and in the Rohilkhand campaign, and com- manded the Bengal brigade i.i the Abyssinian War (1867-;8) and the Kandahar column in the Afghan campaign (18/8), subse- quently effecting his famous march from Kandahar to Kabul (1880). He was commander-in- chief in India (1880-5), and was created a field-marshal in 1894. See Life by Elsmie (1903). Stewart, Dugald (1753-1828), Scottish philosopher, _was born at Edinburgh. For a time (1772- 85) he acted as colleague to his father, the professor of mathe- matics at Edinburgh, but in 1785 was transferred to the more con- genial chair of moral philosophy, which he held till 1820. As a lecturer he made for himself a brilliant reputation, and by his writings did much to popularize and diffuse the philosophy which he had learned from Reid at Glas- gow. But he was not himself an original thinker, and his best work was done in the field of psychologi- cal observation. His chief writ- ings are Elements of the Philos- ophy of the Human Mind (3 vols. 1792-1827); Outlines of Moral Philosophy (1793); Philosophical Essays (1810); The Philosophy of the Active and Moral Powers (2 vols. 1828). There is a collected edition of his Works by Sir Wil- liam Hamilton (1854-8). Stewart, Sir Herbert (1843- 85), British general, was born in Hampshire, and after service in India served on Wolseley's staff in the Zulu War. He took part in the Boer War, and shared in the disaster at Majuba Hill. Then he served in the Egyptian campaign against Arabi Pasha, and m 1884 commanded the desert column for Khartum, and fought the engagement at Abu Klea, but was mortally wounded at Metam- mah. Stewart, Sir John. See Len- nox. Stewart, Robert. See Cas- TLEREAGH. Stewart, Sir Thomas Grain- ger (1837-1900), Scottish physi- cian, was born irn Edinburgh. He became pathologist to the Edin- burgh Royal Infirmary (1862), and was appointed professor of the practice of physics in the univer- sity (1876), and physician to Queen Victoria (1882). His Prac- tical Treatise on Bright's Dis- ease (1869) is still the leading authority on the subject He was knighted in 1894. Stewart Island, New Zealand^ separated from South Island by Foveaux Strait, has an area of 665 sq. m., is mountainous (3,200 ft.) and forest-clad, and a tourist resort in summer; has two good harbors, and oyster-fishing. Pop. 272. Stewing. See Cookery. Steyn, Martinus Theunis (1857-1916), South African statesman, ex-president of the Orange Free State, was born at Winburg, Orange River Colony. He practised at the Bloemfontein bar from 1882 until 1889, when he was appointed state attorney, then second puisne judge. In 1893 he became first puisne judge, and this position he held till 1896, when he was elected presi- dent of the Orange Free State. On the outbreak of the Boer War (1899) he threw in his lot with the Transvaal. For more than a year he was pursued by the col- umns of the British army. He was one of the Boer representa- tives in the peace conference (1902) and thereafter removed to London, where he practised law. Steyr, town, Upper Austria, at influx of Steyr into the Enns, 90 miles w.s.w. of Vienna. There are an old castle (10th century) and a Gothic church (1443). Steyr has iron industries. Pop. (1934) 20,477. Stickleback (Gasterosfeus), a genus of small bony fish, consti- tuting a special family (the Gas- terosteidfe). They inhabit the streams of the northerly parts of both Europe and America. The popular name is given on a,ccount of the presence of spines in front of the dorsal fin, while the scien- tific name refers to the large scutes arranged along the sides of the body, which take the place of scales. Apart from these two char- acteristics, the sticklebacks may be distinguished by the elongate compressed body, the oblique mouth-cleft, anci the reduction of the pelvic fins. The various species are distinguished by the number of their spines, which are Sticklebacks. i. Gasterosteus pungitius. 2. G. spinvr losus. 3. G. ac%ileatus. respectively three, four, or nine in number. The first (G. aculeatus) is the commonest, and frequently descends also to the sea, where it is found in brackish pools near high-water mark. The marine form {G. spinachia) has fifteen spines, and differs from the other forms in the great elongation of the slender body and of the snout. All the species of stickleback are voracious, devouring large quan- tities of the fry of other fish. They are also actively pugnacious, the males fighting fiercely with one another. Nest-building is prac- tised both by the sea stickleback and by many of the fresh-water species. The nest is constructed by the male, and is made of weeds, woven together by a silken thread into a pear-shaped structure. The male then conducts a female to the nest and induces her to deposit her eggs in it, fertilizing these as they are laid. The female subse- ?[uently leaves the eggs to their ate; out the male watches over them with much care. The eggs hatch in from three weeks to a month. Stieler, Adolf (1775 - 1836), German cartographer, born and resident at Gotha, where he was KFN Stiff- neck employed (1797-1836) in the serv- ice of the government. He edited an Atlas (1817-23), which ran through a large number of edi- tions {e.g. 1904-5), and compiled a huge map of Germany in twenty- five sheets. He wrote Geograph- ische Uebersicht der . Sachsen- Erneslinischen,Schwarzburpschen, Reussischen und der anliegenden Lande (1826). Stiff-neck, a popular name lor muscular torticollis or acute wry neck, due to muscular rheuma- tism of the cervical muscles. The condition is commonest in young subjects, and is apt to recur. In the treatment rest and warmth are essential. The neck should be covered with cotton and flan- nel bandages, and the arm of the affected side should be sup- ported in a sling. Hot fomen- tations, belladonna plaster, and local applications of opium re- lieve the pain. Hot baths are useful, and purgatives should be given, as well as alkaline mix- tures, and sometimes quinine. To ward off a recurrence, warm flannel clothing should be worn next the skin, and cod-liver oil should be taken internally. Stigand {d. 1072), English prel- ate, archbishop of Canterbury, was several times appointed to and deposed from the bishopric of Elmham; but he seems to have obtained full possession in 1044, and in 1047 oecame bishop of Winchester. In 1052 he was appointed archbishop of Canter- bury; but the pope refused to accept him. In 1058 he received however, a pall from Benedict x.: but as this pope was declared uncanonical and was deposed, Stigand's position was only made worse, and in _ 1071, when the papal legates visited England at William's request, Stigand was condemned for usurpation of the see, for receiving his pall from a schismatic pope, and for hold- ing on to the see of Winchester. Stigma, that part of the pistil of a flower whose function it is to receive the pollen. The sur- face of the stigma is usually sticky from a secretion yielded by the cells which terminate it. In the case _ of wind-fertilized flowers the stigma is often cov- ered with long hairs to collect the pollen grains. Stigmaria, rootlets of the fossil genera Sigillaria and Lepi- dodendron of the Carboniferous system. Some are from 30 to 40 ft. in length, while their width varies from_ two feet down to less than an inch. Some authorities are inclined to regard Stigmaria as underground stems or rhizomes; but the majority consider that they are typical roots, compar- able in some measure to the rhi- zophores of certain living Sela- ginellas, which are not very dis- tantly related to them. They were apparently adapted to a 6 A ShgmaHa, A, stigmaria ficoides ; 3, bark of Sigillaria Davreuxii, moist habitat, and to soils richly charged with humus. Stigmatization, the marks_ ot the wounds of Jesus Christ which are said to have appeared upon the bodies of certain individuals. Probably the words of St. Paul are not to be taken literally, T bear in my body the marks of the Lord Jesus' (Gal. 6:17). St. Francis of Assisi, in 1224, thought that he saw a shining seraph between whose glowing wings hung the Crucified, approach him from heaven. The agony of rapture left him with the sense that upon his own hands and feet were the marks of the nails. These marks were seen by many, so it is said, including Pope Alex- ander _iv. It is said that St. Catherine of Siena under- ent a somewhat similar experience. St. Veronica Giuliani (canonized 1831) received the stigma of the crown of thorns, and afterward those of the nails, about 1694. Anna Emmerich (1774-1824), at Diilmen in Westphalia; Maria von Mori (1839), Louise Lateau (1866), Mrs._ Girling, 'motner' of the English Shakers (1864), and many others are said to have received the stigmata. Apart from the question whether such markings ought to be regarded, as in the Church of Rome, as a sign of God's peculiar favor, modern study of the possible effects of mental action upon the body pre- cludes wholesale denial of the facts recorded. Stikine River, rising in the N.W. part of British Columbia, flows in a generally s.w. direc- tion through a course of about 500 m., emptying on the Alaskan coast. It flows through a deep and rugged gorge, and is navigable for 150 m, Stilbite, a zeolite consisting of hydrated silicate of calcium and aluminium, usually forms diver- gent bundles of white prisms (sp. gr. 2.2, h. — 3^-), with a fine pearly lustre on certam faces, and some- times red in color. It is found in cavities of the igneous rocks 457 Still of the basalt or audesite type, especiallv the qmvedaloidal vari- eties. The mineral is found m. the Connecticut valley trap, ai: Bergen Hill, N. J., and m the Lake Superior district. Stiles, Henry Reed (1832- 1909). American physician, born in New York. He graduated m.d. at New York University in 1855 in 1856-61 practised medicine n several Illinois and New York cities, and in 1865-68 devoted his time to Hterary work. In 1868- 70 he was an assistant in the bureau of vital statistics of the MetropoHtan Board of Health, New York and he was medical in.Hpectof t" the Koard ol Hf-altli in 1870-73. In 1873-77 ne was medical superintendent of the state Homoeopathic Asylum for the Insane at Middletown N, Y, and in 1877-81 held a simila,. position in the Dundee Hoinoeo pathic dispensary. Dundee Scot land. He was one of the founders of the Long Island Historical Society in 1861, and Us librarian in 1861-65. He published: His- tories and Genealogies of Anciem Windsor^^ Conn. (1859), Bundling in America (1861), History of the City of Brooklyn, N, F. (3 vols. 1869-70), History of Kings County and City of Brooklyn. N. Y. (1884), A Handbook of Genealogy (1899), and History and Genealogies of Ancient Weth- ersfield. Conn. (1903). Stilicho, Flavius (359-408), Roman minister and general un- der the emperors Theodosius and Honorius. He was of Vandal origin, and having risen to be master of the horse (384), he conducted an embassy to Persia; was made commander-in-chief of the army, and married to the emperor's niece Serena. Later Theodosius entrusted the educa tion of his son Honorius to him and Serena, and in 394 appointed Stilicho governor at Rome. For several years Stilicho was en- gaged in war with Alaric, king of the Goths, whom he defeated in two great battles in 402 and 403. He then aimed at making himself master of the empire; in 405, however, he had to put down Radagaisus, who invaded Italy with a mixed horde of Germanic tribes. But his soldiers turning against him, he fled to Ravenna. where he was murdered. Still. See Distillation. _ Still, John (1543-1608), Eng- lish prelate, author of what, until the discovery of Royster Doyster., was considered the earliest Eng- lish comedy. Gammer Gurton''s Needle (1575). Still was pro- fessor of divinity at Cambridge in 1570, and was master of St. John's College, and afterward of Trin- ity College. In 1592 he became bishop of Bath and Wells. For comments as to the authorship Stilibirth KFN 458 Stimson of the comedy, see Modern Lan- guage Notes for June, 1892. Stillbirth and Stillborn. The term 'stillborn' may be applied to children who are born dead, or who do not breathe at birth. The most frequent causes of still- birth are protraction of the labor or immaturity of the foetus. If the child be suffering merely from apnoea, efforts should be di- rected toward the establishment of the respiratory function. See Abortion. Stilling, JoHANN Heinrich (1740-1817), or Johann Hein- rich Jung, called Jung Stilling, German Pietist, born at Grund in Hesse-Nassau, was studying medicine at Strassburg when he became acquainted with Goethe, on whose advice he wrote his autobiography, Lebensgeschichte (1777-1804; new ed. 1899). He practised as a physician at Elberfeld, and was appointed a professor at Kaiserslautern (1778), at Marburg (1787), and at Heidelberg (1804). He was a specialist in eye diseases, and a leader of the Pietists. A com- plete edition of his works was published in 12 vols. (1843-4). Stillingfleet, Edward (1635- 99), English prelate, was born at Cranborne in Dorsetshire, and appointed rector of Sutton in Bedfordshire (1657), where he wrote his Irenicum, a treatise on church government, which he re- garded as a matter left open by the apostles. Under the influ- ence of Hobbes his theory was broadly latitudinarian, though he himself departed from it in later years. The Socinians and the Roman Catholics were the especial objects of his attacks. In 1662 appeared his Origines Sacrce, in 1664 his Rational Ac- count of the Grounds of the Protestant Religion, in 1685 his Origines Britannicce, and in 1689 his Ecclesiastical Cases. He be- came rector of St. Andrew's, Holborn (1665) ; canon residen- tiary (1670) and dean (1678) of St. Paul's ; and bishop of Worcester (1689). See Life by Godwin, prefixed to his Collected Works (1710). Stillman, Samuel (1738- 1807), American clergyman, was born in Philadelphia. He pre- pared privately for the Baptist ministry. He was ordained in 1759, and after holding minor pastorates, was pastor of the First Baptist Church in Boston, Mass., from 1765 until his death. He gained considerable reputation as a preacher, and was a strong advocate of the American cause in the Revolution. Dr. Stillman was an original incorporator of Brown University (then Rhode Island College), in 1764. Among his principal sermons are A Ser- mon on the Repeal of the Stamp Act (1766) and A Sermon Oc- casioned by the Death of George Washington (1799). Stillman, William James (1828-1901), American landscape painter and journalist, born in Schenectady, N. Y. He gradu- ated at Union College ; studied painting under Frederick Church, and in 1849 went to London, where he came under the in- fluence of Turner and Ruskin. Kossuth commissioned him in 1852 to recover the crown jewels of Hungary which he (Kossuth) had hidden. His attempt failed. He returned to the U. S. and practised painting in New York city until 1861, when he was made U. S. consul at Rome, and afterwards (1869) in Crete. After 1880 he devoted himself entirely to journalism as corre- spondent of the London Times, and of the New York Evening Post, for which latter newspaper he was for several years art critic. He was a friend of Low- ell, Longfellow, Holmes, and Agassiz. His books are : The Acropolis of Athens (1870), The Cretan Insurrection (1874), Herzegovina and the late Up- rising (1877), Turkish Rule and Turkish Warfare (1877), On the Track of Ulysses (1888), The Old Rome and the New (1897), Francesco Crispi (1899), Auto- biography of a Journalist (1901). Stillwater, city, Minnesota, county seat of Washington coun- ty, on the St. Croix Lake, and on the Northern Pacific, the Chicago and Northwestern, and the Chi- cago, Milwaukee and St. Paul railroads; 15 miles n.e. by e. of St. Paul. It is a summer resort. It has important industries, in- cluding the manufacture of shoes, lumber, clothing, paper boxes, wooden boxes, boats, engines, etc. Considerable grain is shipped. The city has a Carnegie Library. Other features of in- terest are a state prison, the Fairy Falls, near by, and the bridge crossing the lake. The place was settled in 1843 and incorporated in 1854. Pop. (1930) 7,173; (1940) 7,013. Stillwater, town. New York, Saratoga county, on the Hudson River; 15 miles n. of Troy. Here were fought two battles of the Revolution, Sept. 19 and Oct. 7, 1777. See Saratoga, Battles OF. Pop. (1930) 3,942; (1940) 3,709. Stillwater, city, Oklahoma, county seat of Payne county, on the Stillwater Creek, and on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad ; 26 miles n.e. of Gu- thrie. It is the seat of an agri- cultural and mechanical college. The leading industries are oil and agricultural products. Pop. (1930) 7,016; (1940) 10,097. Stilt (Himantopus), a genus of extremely long-legged wading birds related to the avocets. The first toe is absent, and the other three are only slightly webbed. The bill is elongated, and is slightly curved up at the tip, while the slitlike nostrils are placed at its base. The six or seven species have all some black in their plumage, this being usu- ally set off by a white undersur- face. The birds haunt marshes and are favorite objects of sport during the spring and fall, when migrating to or from their north- ern breeding-places. Stilts, poles with stirrup-like or cleat projections for the feet placed at some distance from the bottom, and used for walking over rough ground. They are now mainly a means of diversion, especially among boys. In an- cient days they are said to have been employed in the scaling of castles and high walls. In the marshy tracts of the French Landes the shepherds in former times spent the day on stilts. In the upper parts of the Tweed and the Clyde in Scotland they are resorted to for crossing dry- shod from one bank to another. Tournaments have been held with the rival parties mounted on stilts. In the Fen districts of England they were formerly a good deal in use. At the New Year in the Chinese town of Newchwang it is customary for a section of the community to walk and hop along the streets on stilts, dressed in gala attire. Stimson, Frederic Jesup (1855-1943), American lawyer and author, born at Dedham, Mass. He wrote several nov- els under the pen-name 'J- S. of Dale.' His works include Rollo's Journey to Cambridge (1879), Guerndale (1882), The Crime of Henry Vane (1884) ; American Statute Law (1886) ; Labor in Its Relation to Law (1894) ; Uniform State Legislation (1896) ; Pirate Gold (1896); King Nodnctt (1896); J e thro Bacon of S andzvich (1901); Law of Constitutions, State and Federal (1907); Popular Law-Making (1910) ; Stimson KFN 459 Sting Ray American Constitution as It Pro- tects Private Rights (1923). Stimson, Henry Lewis (1867- ), American lawyer and public official, was born in New York City. He was gradu- ated from Yale (1888) and from the Harvard Law School (1890), and was admitted to the bar in 1891. In 1911-1913 he was Sec- retary of War in the cabinet of President Taft. In 1927 at the request of President Coolidge he went as special commissioner to Nicaragua, where he was instru- mental in restoring a degree of order and good government, and in December, 1927, he was made Governor General of the Philip- pines, a position he relinquished to become Secretary of State in President Hoover's cabinet. His notable services as chairman of and exercise are agencies emi- nently deserving the name. A stimulant adds nothing to the resources of the body, differing in this from a food ; it merely makes it easier to make use of the energy already represented in the tissues. Hence it is com- mon to find stimulation followed by depression. Stimulants may have their chief effect upon the nervous system, and through it exert a far-reaching influence on the body ; or they may be more or less specific, singling out certain organs in their action. Strych- nine is of the first class, and is perhaps the best illustration of a true stimulant. Among those of more localized effect may be mentioned caffeine, influencing particularly the heart and the is felt if the tentacles be touched by the more sensitive tongue. Stinging-cells are also found in some Turbellaria and in some nudibranch gasteropods. In bees, wasps, and related in- sects the sting is a modified ovi- positor. In spiders the sting is lodged in the first pair of append- ages. In the scorpion the telson, or last piece of the body, forms the sting. Stinging Cells, or Cnido- BLASTS, are the organs by means of which coelenterates paralyze their prey or protect themselves from their enemies. In the Hy- dra (q.v.), for example, each cnidoblast is a rounded cell, con- taining protoplasm and nucleus, in addition to an oval bag filled with fluid. The bag is the thread- capsule (nematocyst), and con- Marine Studios Photo the American delegations to the London Naval Conference of 1930-31 and the 1932 disarma- ment conferences did much to insure such temporary success as those conferences met with. He was active in initiating the policy of nonrecognition of conquests by violence, which contravened the provisions of the Pact of Paris and applied this policy spe- cifically in the case of the Jap- anese conquest of Manchukuo. After his retirement to his law practice upon the inauguration of a Democratic administration in 1933, he continued to defend a policy of collective security, im- plemented, when necessary, by an arms embargo, against the policy of appeasement then prac- ticed by the European democra- cies. He was appointed Secretary of War in the F. D. Roosevelt cabinet in June, 1940. Stimulants, agents which in- crease the activity or the work- ing capacity of living organs. The term should not be restricted to drugs. Fresh air, cold baths, LEOPARD RAY kidneys ; adrenalin, causing con- striction of the small blood ves- sels ; bitters and common condi- ments, which increase the flow of the digestive juices. The place of alcohol is ques- tionable. For its stimulant qual- ities, see Alcohol, Action and Uses of. See also Caffeine ; Strychnine. Stimulus. See Nervous Sys- tem ; Plants. Sting-fish. See Weever. Stinging Animals, animals which, in attacking their prey or protecting themselves from their enemies, aim to introduce a poison into the blood or body- fluid of the organism attacked. There must, therefore, be two elements in the sting — a poison- gland and an organ for piercing the superficial tissues. With the exception of the Ctenophora, all the Coelenterata possess stinging- cells of the type described below, but relatively few of them are capable of stinging man. Few anemones can sting the fingers, but a distinct stinging sensation tains a long, hollow thread which lies in the fluid. The cell has a little trigger (cnidocil) projecting from its free end. If the trigger be touched the cell contracts, and as the flvtid in the thread-capsule is incompressible, the first result is that the thread is shot out ; if the pressure be continued, the whole capsule may be also pressed out. The fluid in the bag is poisonous, and as the thread before expulsion is bathed in this fluid, when it pene- trates the skin it carries with it some of the poison. The cnido- blasts of coelenterates are usually arranged in clusters or batteries, such batteries, for instance, form- ing the blue beads seen at the base of the tentacles in the com- mon smooth sea-anemone (Ac- ti n ia m esc m bryanthcmmn) . Sting Kay, the name given to the members of the elasmo- branch fish family Trygonidae, most of which bear on the tail a strong serrated spine, capable of inflicting a dangerous wound. It may reach a length of eight or Stinkwood KFN 460 Stlth nine inches, and is renewed from time to time like the poison-fangs of a snake. The wounds which it inflicts are painful, and in- flame rapidly. There is no defi- nite poison gland connected with the spine. The pectoral fins are continued round the head region without interruption, and unite at the extremity of the snout. The tail is long and slender, A considerable number of species of sting ray exist, the majority belonging to the genus Trygon, one species of which {T. pasti- naca) extends throughout the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. As a rule, however, the sting rays are confined to warm seas. See Batfish; Devil-Fish; Ray. Stinkwoodj the wood of the South African trees Ocotea bul- lala, belonging to the order Lau- raceae, and Celtis kraussiana, be- longing to the order Ulmaceae. The former is golden brown in color, often mottled and irides- cent; it is very tough, strong, and durable. It is now rare, but is valuable for building wagons and for making gun-stocks. The lat- ter is a beautifully veined, green- ish wood, heavy and close- grained, but liable to warp. See Oreodaphne. Stint, a name applied to some species of sandpiper. The Little Stint {Tringa minuta) occurs in Great Britain as a migrant. It reaches a length of only 6 inches, and is like a miniature dunlin, save that there is no black upon the breast. The American vStint (T. minutilla), a still smaller species, is of darker color. See Sandpiper. Stipa. See Feather Grass. Stipend, Clerical, a general term indicating the provision made for the support of the clergy. Such provisions include voluntary contributions, endow- ments, tithes, state aid, and pay- ments pursuant to contract. Di- rect state aid, which developed after the Reformation, is the re- sult, in certain Roman Catholic countries, of the sequestration of church land. Such support pre- vails in Spain, Austria, Portugal, and some republics of Central and South America. Formerly it also obtained in Fiance, but in 1905 the Concordat (q.v.) was abrogated. After the revolution in Portugal, the government an- nounced, in 1911. its continuance of the stipends enjoyed by the clergy. State aid also prevails in certain non-Catholic countries. In the United States there is no state aid of the church. In the Protestant denominations stipends are usually contractual, and the funds for the payment of ministers' salaries are derived from contributions, pew rents, and, in some cases, endowments. Stipules of a plant are ap- pendages, usually in pairs, situ- ated at the base of the petiole or leaf-stalk. If they are attached along each side of the leaf-stalk, as in the rose, they are said to be adrMe. If they form a kind of sheath enclosing the stem, they are called an ochrea. If they resemble leaflets in appearance, they are said to be foliaceous. Sometimes they are modified into thorns or spines. See Leaf. Stires, Ernest Milmore (1866- ), American Episcopal clergyman, was born in Norfolk, Va. He was graduated from the Universitj^ of Virginia (1888) and from the Episcopal Theological Seminary of Virginia (1891), be- ing ordained priest the following year. He was rector of churches in Virginia and Georgia in 1892- 3, and of Grace Church, Chicago, from 1893 to 1901, when he be- came rector of St. Thomas' Church, New York City. In 1925 he was chosen Bishop Co- adjutor of the diocese of Long Island, and upon the death of Bishop Burgess he became Bish- op of Long Island. He is the author of The High Call (1917); The Price of Peace (1919). Stirling, river port and capital of county of same name, Scot- land, on the River Forth; 36 miles northwest of Edinburgh. It occupies the vslope of a basaltic knob, whose steep western ex- tremity is crowned by the ancient castle, the scene of royal births and royal deaths, and the murder of William Douglas by James ii. in 1452. As the 'key to the High- lands,' Stirling Castle was fre- quently attacked, particularly in the reigns of Edward i., Edward II., and Edward iii. It was cap- tured by General Monck in 1651, and was unsuccessfully besieged by the Jacobites in 1745. The town has manufactures of leath- er, carpets, furniture, oils, and rubber goods. Pop. (1931) 22,- 593. Stirling, James Hutchison (1820-1909), Scottish philosophi- cal writer, was born in Glasgow. His reputation was made by a work on The Secret of Hege, (1865), which marks the begin- ning of the serious study and in- fluence of German idealism in Britain. Another important work on German philosophy was his Textbook to Kant (1881) com- prising a translation and repro- duction of the Critique of Pure Reason, with a commentary and biographical sketch. Among his other writings are a pamphlet. As Regards ^Protoplasm (1869); two works, What Is Thought? (1900) and The Categories (1903), and an annotated translation of Schwegler's History of Philoso- phy. Stirling, Lord, American sol- dier. See Alexander, Wil- liam. Stirling, William Alexan- der, Earl of (1567-1640), Scot- tish poet, was born in Menstrie. He began his poetical career with a vSeries of four 'Monarchicke' tragedies — Darius (1603), Croesus (1604), The Alexandroean Trag- edy (1605), and Julius Ccesar (1607) — in direct imitation of the Greek drama. Doomsday ap- peared in 1614 and 1637. He was one of the group of Scottish poets (led by Drummond of Hawthornden) who abandoned their own vernacular and mod- elled their style on their English Elizabethan contemporaries. He was made secretary of state for Scotland in 1626, and was cre- ated Earl of Stirling and Vis- count of Canada (1633) and Earl of Do van (1639). Stirling-Maxwell. See Max- well. Stirlingshire, midland coun- ty, Scotland, covers an area of 451 square miles. The eastern portion is undulating and highly cultivated, the carses of Stirling and Falkirk occupying some 36,000 acres of the finest agri- cultural land in Scotland. Oats are the staple crop. The western portion is generally considered a part of the Highlands. Ben Lo- mond reaches 3, 192 feet. Nearly half of Loch Lomond belongs to the county. Coal-mining is the chief industry. Ironstone is also mined, and iron-founding car- ried on. Woollen manufacturers, calico-printing, and bleaching are also important. Stirling (q.v.) is the capital. The battles of Stirling Bridge (1297), Fal- kirk (1298), Bannockburn (1314), Kilsyth (1645), and the second battle of Falkirk (1746) were all fought within its borders. An- toninus' Wall is among its antiq- uities. Pop. (1940 est.) 175,400. Stitch, a sharp thoracic pain, which renders breathing difficult and distressing. It may be asso- ciated with pleurisy where there is no effusion, or with a stretching of the not uncommon adhesions between two pleural surfaces, or simply with local spasms of the respiratory muscles, perhaps even with a slight twisting of part of the intestine. When produced by running it seems to depend on fatigue spasm or localized cramp of muscular fibres. Stitch. See Knitting; Dress- making; Sewing-machine. Stitch wort. See Stellaria. Stith, William (1689-1755), American historian, was born in Virginia. He studied theology, and was ordained a minister of the Anglican Church. He was for several years master of the grammar school of William and Mary College; and during 1752-5 was president of that college. He is chiefly remembered for having written an unfinished History of Virginia from the First Settle- ment to the Dissolution of th^ stiver KSE 461 Stock London Company (1747; new ed. 1866). He also published The Nature and Extent of Christ's Re- dempiion (1753). Sti'ver (Dutch, stuiver), two small coins at one time current in Holland and the Dutch colo- nies — a silver coin, the twentieth part of a gulden; and a copper coin, current only in the Dutch colonies. The word is now used for any coin of little value. Stjernhjelm, styern'yelm, Georg (1598-1672) , Swedish poet and scholar. He served as assist- ant judge in Livonia till 1642, when he went to Sweden to par- ticipate in the forming of a code of laws, and was made keeper of the public records. From 1648 to 1656 he was vice-president of the supreme court at Dorpat. His ready wit, learning, and ver- satility made him a favorite with Queen Christina, and he was for a time one of the chief ornaments of her brilliant court. He is called the 'father of Swedish let- ters,' being the first poet to cul- tivate his mother tongue. His chief works are the didactic poem Hercules (1653), and the wedding poem, Brollopsbesvdrs Ihugkom- melse. Stoa, in Greek architecture, a covered colonnade around a mar- ket place or dwelling, or sur- rounding a temple; later, an in- dependent structure in a street or square. The most celebrated example was the Stoa Poikile in the market place of Athens, which was decorated with battle scenes by Polygnotus. Here Zeno and his successors taught, hence the name Stoicism (q. v.). Stoat, the British name for a European weasel (Mustela er- Stoat. minea), which in its winter dress is known as ermine. See Ermine; Weasel. Stobaeus, sto-be'us, Johannes, a Greek writer who lived after 500 A.D., and who formed a valuable collection of extracts from Greek literature. The Eclogues contain extracts on physics, dialectics, and ethics; and the Anthologium subjects of a moral, political, and economic character, with practi- cal maxims for conduct. Stock, or Gillyflower (Mat- thiola), a familiar garden plant of about thirty species, belonging to the Cruciferae, and cultivated es' pecially in Europe. The pods are nearly cylindrical, stigmas large and spreading, seeds winged, and the flowers vary in color from white to red. Many double varie- ties are grown. Important spe- cies are the hoary-leaved M. in- cana of Southern Europe; M. fenestralis, with smooth leaves; and M. sinuata, indigenous to the coast of Wales. Hoary-leaved varieties are rated as biennials or perennials; smooth-leaved species as annuals. Annual or 'ten-weeks' stock should be sown between February and May. Brompton and Queen stocks, planted in May and protected during the following winter, blossom in the second spring. Stock and Stockholder. The world of business discovered and used the 'share' or stock method, in principle, in ancient times, the shared ownership method not being uncommon, al- though the share-tokens were cuneiform baked clay, skin, papy- rus or even cruder ones, instead of the elaborately engraved stock certificates of modern times. The Roman Collegium was the more definite forerunner of the corporation, and trading com- pany shares were held by num- bers of people. It was not however until the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- turies that the joint-stock trad- ing company was developed to proportions in any way resem- bling modern corporations. The incentive was the organization of great overseas trading con- cerns in Holland, England, France and Spain, to exploit the wealth of the Orient and America. The same abuses and evils of over-capitalization, spec- ulation, promotion, panic and crash in stock values occurred then as in modern times. Stock is the common phrase employed for a paper certificate of ownership of a fractional share of an enterprise ; meaning in law either a share in the nomi- nal capital invested in a corpora- tion, or in general terms an in- terest in ownership. The term capital stock refers to the plan of incorporation as regards its share-structure. A wide variety of such corporation share-struc- tures are possible, subject to the differing specific laws of incor- poration of various States in the United States or the laws of nations. 'Capital' of a corpora- tion is of course distinct from its 'capital stock,' which is nomi- nal or even of 'no par value,' whereas 'capital' in the legal sense represents net asset value. The total 'par value' of the share- structure of a corporation repre- sents its capital stock. This may be fixed at $100,000, being made up of $40,000 preferred and $60,000 common ; sold for cash or value received in whole or in part ; and this represents the 'authorized' capitalization as specified in the charter granted. In England the American terms 'common' and 'preferred' stocks correspond to 'ordinary' and 'preference.' The usual 'par value' of common or preferred stock is $100.00, although there are many stocks, especially in the mining fields, which have a par value of $25.00 or ten dollars, or even one dollar or less. An in- creasingly widely used unit is 'no par value' common shares which instead of using nominal value, look to real value estab- lished by sale, or by computation of 'book value.' Shares of stock are presumed to represent tangible value, thus the balance sheets or account books of a company show at any time the share equity of the stock ('book value'). Shares of many types have been developed, such as first, second or third preferred stocks, (which have preference in divi- dends over common stocks) or common stocks A, B and C, each with precedence over the other. The preferred stock may be cumulative in interest, or non- cumulative ; may be convertible into common stock ; and both common or preferred classes may or may not have voting power. Shares of stock are transferable and negotiable, when endorsed by the person to whom officially issued. Large corporations ap- point banks as registrars and transfer agents to keep records up-to-date ; each checking the other. 'Treasury stock' refers to such corporation stock which has not yet been sold or issued. The widely used term 'watered stock' originated in the practice of a notorious Wall Street promoter of the seventies (Daniel Drew) who had also been a cattle dealer, noted for giving salt to his cattle to induce them to drink a great deal of water just before being weighed. 'Watering stock' is, technically, 'write-up,' or over- capitalization ; diluting the asset value as represented by a single share. The clamor in 1934-5, for instance, following the In- sull crash, for squeezing the 'water' out of public utilities stocks, resulted in voluntary of- fers of reduction of 32% in one large group of utilities. Preferred stock usually ap- peals to the investor looking for the specific rate of dividend re turn fixed in the charter of in- corporation ; while common stock usually appeals to the 'investor- speculator' who foregoes divi- stock KSE 462 Stock Exchange dends in formative periods in order to share in the unlimited returns possible later, either in the form of cash or additional stock. 'Stock dividends' are of- ten issued in place of cash divi- dends ; disbursing either Treas- ury stock or new issues, if assets and prospects warrant it. When preferred stock is 'cumulative,' the unpaid dividends must first be paid before dividends on com- mon stock are allowable. Voting of shares is done by- attendance at annual stock- holders meetings, and by 'proxy' (signed forms giving others the right to vote stock). In practice the great volume of proxies are sent in to the officers to_ vote as they choose, although since the 1929 depression greatly increased stockholder attendance at annual meetings, and movements for greater stockholder protection have come about. There existed in 1935 a total of 1500 'stock- holders' protective committees.' The stockholder has become more vocal and interested. The rights of a stockholder are fixed by cor- poration law. He may participate in elections or vote on broad policy questions or changes in the charter, protest against bad management, unwar- ranted executive salaries, etc. Stocks are legal personal prop- erty, arid in some States the pur- chaser of a stolen or lost certifi- cate endorsed does not legally acquire title. Stockholders in most States are liable for cor- poration debts, up to amount re- maining unpaid to the corpora- tion upon their shares of stock. The United States since the World War witnessed a huge rise in number of stockholders. Whereas the stockholder class had been around 300,000 to 500,- 000 for decades, it rose to 10,- 000,000, and even as high as 15,000,000. This included about 2,000,000 employe-stockholders, who had purchased stock on in- stallment or profit-sharing plans. The speculator is a stock- holder to a very large extent without being recorded as such ; dealing through brokers on 'Mar- gin' without actually having the stock in his possession ; the broker using 'borrowed Street Stock.' Short sellers likewise sell stock which they never see or own except on 'margin.' Dividends on such stock are credited to speculators' accounts in the period of speculative ownership. The corporation laws of vari- ous states have varying degrees of strictness, those of Delaware being the least strict, and those of New York and Massachusetts being among those most strict ; the latter state requiring corpora- tions doing business there to file financial data. 'Blue sky' laws (as to sale of stock) differ widely in States, and the Better Business Bureaus in various cities are constantly working to drive out misleading stock selling, which in earlier decades reached a na- tional estimated annual total of $3,000,000,000. After the de- pression this receded to about half a billion, and the national regulation of securities selling (1933) has still more carefully restricted stock selling repre- sentations. The regulation of manipulation of stocks by hold- ing companies is another step forward, together with publicity for stockholdings of corporation officers. Bibliography, — E. S. Mead, Corporation Finance (1930) ; S. S. Huebner, The Stock Mar- ket (1932) ; J. George Frederick, Common Stocks and the Average Man (1932) ; F. D. Bond, Stock Movements and Specula- tion (1931); I. M. Wormser, Frankenstein, Inc. (1931) ; J. H. Sears, The Nezv Place of the Stockholder (1929). Stockade, in fortification, a line of heavy timbers set upright in the earth, and close together, with loopholes for the fire of the defenders ; hence the enclosure itself. Stockbridge, town, Berkshire county, Massachusetts, on the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad; 15 miles southwest of Pittsfield. It is beautifully situated among the Berkshire Hills, and is a favorite summer resort. Features of in- terest are the Edwards Monu- ment, erected by his descendants ; the Bell Tower, Town Hall, Li- brary, Williams Academy, Me- morial Bridge, Ice Glen Park, and Indian Burial Ground. In the vicinity is Lake Mahkeenac, near which are the remains of the house in which Hawthorne wrote The House of the Seven Gables. From 1750 to 1758 Stockbridge was the home of Jonathan Ed- wards, who wrote here his trea- tise on the 'Freedom of the Will.' The place was first called Housa- tonic, after the tribe of converted Indians of that name who estab- lished themselves here in 1736. After the Revolution they re- moved several times, finally to the reservation near Fort Leaven- worth. The town was incorpo- rated in 1739. Pop. (1900) 2,- 081 ; (1910) 1,933 ; (1930) 1,762. Stock Broker. See Stock Exchange. Stock Exchange, a recog- nized private central organiza- tion of professional traders (but now increasingly under public regulation) for the buying and selling of selected corporation bonds and stock shares, as de- sired by professional traders and their clients, the investing and speculating public. The Stock Exchange is a natural outgrowth of earlier forms of exchanges, such as the Burses or Bourses of the Middle Ages (deriving their name from Medieval Latin Burse, meaning purse). To this day the Paris, Berlin and some other Stock Exchanges, includ- ing one in Philadelphia, Pa., are known as 'Bourse.' The special technique of the Stock Exchange is the direct outgrowth of the devices of the shares and bonded indebtedness certificates in fi- nance, which permit actual own- ership, in fractional units, to be represented by paper ownership certificates, and also actual in- struments of indebtedness in the shape of bonds (debt certifi- cates). The specific task of a Stock Exchange is to serve as a quick and ready market-place for those who wish to buy or sell (and also speculate) in the corporation shares and bonds of such com- panies whose stocks and bonds are 'listed' on such exchanges ; the requirements for listing vary- ing in different countries and on different types of Stock Ex- changes. There are only four Stock Ex- changes of major importance in the world, these being (in the order of importance) in New York, London, Paris, Berlin. There are other minor Stock Ex- changes in America in Philadel- phia, Boston, Chicago, Pittsburg, Cleveland, Detroit, Cincinnati, New Orleans, Baltimore, St. Louis, Salt Lake City, Denver, Buffalo, San Francisco, Los Angeles. In other countries they are in Amsterdam, Antwerp, Brussels (in each of these cities very old), and in Toronto, Vienna, Milan, Tokyo, Prague, Stockholm and Zurich. At one time St. Petersburg, Russia, had an exchange. Mining stocks in many instances are dealt in at special exchanges, as in Boston, Salt Lake City, San Francisco, Cal., U. S. A. ; Toronto and Mon- treal, Canada, London, England, and in Africa and South America. 'Curb' or secondary exchanges exist in New York, Chicago, San Francisco, Montreal and Toronto, Canada ; the New York Curb evolving from a street mar- ket, conducted with sign lan- guage from neighboring win- dows. The Securities and Exchange Commission set up in 1934 in the United States, placing for the first time all exchanges un- der public regulation, resulted swiftly in closing a number of exchanges (New York Mining, Boston Curb, California Stock Exchange and Hartford, Conn., Stock Exchange). It also re- stock Exchange . KSE 463 Stock Exchange suited in the cessation of the Stock Exchange activities of the New York Produce Exchange. Not all sales of stocks or bonds are, of course, made through Stock Exchanges. Transactions in various securities, from Treas- ury notes and bank stocks to spe- cial securities of various kinds, are called sales in 'over-the- counter' securities, through vari- ous individual investment houses. The New York Stock Exchange handles only 20% of total bond sales. More specifically, the primary function of a Stock Exchange is to establish currently an au- thoritative, actual price for the stocks and bonds listed, based upon the quotation at which the most recent sale was made. Without such a central exchange the value of shares would be in constant doubt. Such a central exchange thus sets up a presump- tion that the last sale was made in the light of the most complete information available at the moment, and represents a meet- ing point of 'bid' and 'asked' prices in a transaction which is then regarded as establishing the most reliable possible current valuation. The secondary function of a Stock Exchange is to facilitate buying and selling in both time and space. It sets up a central market-place, to be recognized as authoritative ; and it sets up elab- orate machinery for rapidity of buying, selling and reporting of prices. As perfected today an owner or buyer of securities may be on a steamer riding the high seas, thousands of miles from land, or at some distant town or village — perhaps a trading post in the wilds of Canada — and yet he is able, through use of tele- phone, radio, or telegraph to buy or sell stock on one of the great exchanges within a matter of minutes after his decision. Problems of time and space are thus reduced to a minimum in stock or bond transactions ; mod- ern devices having been mar- shalled as never before to make it easy to transfer stock or bond ownership ; the fast or 'express' ticker, the ticker which visual- izes the quotation to a roomful of people the instant it comes over the wire (as compared with the chalking up of quotations on a blackboard by the old 'board boy' method), the telephone, typewriter, direct wires, radio broadcast of stock prices and other high-speed devices, in and out of the Stock Exchange. On the very beach sands of the At- lantic Ocean in tropical Florida brokers are able to show their clients, lolling in the sun in bathing suits, the quotations of the New York Stock Exchange within a few minutes after the transactions are made in New York or London. Railway trains moving a mile a minute on land ; steamships moving 28 knots an hour on the ocean ; airplanes fly- ing 200 miles an hour 5000 feet up in the clouds can present to passengers the price of the last sale of U. S. Steel shares in New York a few minutes before. The third primary function of the Stock Exchange is to pro- vide a daily index to the business feeling, the financial expectation and the general outlook which is current both in the particular in- dustry and in the commercial world at large. The Stock Ex- changes of the world have always been extremely sensitive barome- ters — so sensitive indeed as to register not only the substantial reasoning of groups of business men, but also to register their fears, hopes and nervousnesses (in the small as well as the large). A prominent financier's scowl or bad digestion may get itself reflected in stock prices through some excited interpreta- tion placed upon it. This sensi- tivity has been so greatly in- creased by the new swift methods of inter-communication, by the great development of multiple- edition newspapers, and by the widespread participation of the public in buying and selling of securities, that the Stock Ex- change has actually lost some of its one-time forecasting accuracy. At one time it was accepted as a truism that the Stock Exchange fairly accurately forecasted fi- nancial conditions by about six months ahead. This is no longer the case because the mechanism (acting something like a compass in too great proximity to a mag- netic pole) is the prey of too many conflicting cross-currents. The Stock Exchange is still valuable as a barometer, but no longer may it be regarded as an infallible long-range forecaster. Its actions are now more nearly concurrent with events. The complexity of modern economic conditions has also helped greatly to destroy its forecasting value ; and the revelations of congressional investigations in 1933 in the United States indi- cated a high degree of artificial manipulation. The 1929-1935 depression also demonstrated the dangerous de- gree with which mass psychology interferes with any scientifi- cally accurate trend in the fluctuations of security prices. Even the orthodox conception of the place of short selling in mak- ing security prices was shattered, since the traditional 'cushioning' effect of short sales upon falling prices was_ notably absent; short selling being most enormously active mainly during a deep de- cline — not, as the theory called for, during a tall rise. At the 1929 peak when a number of short sellers would have been a boon, and would have forecasted and 'cushioned' the ghastly drop in values, they were notoriously not in evidence. In addition, practically all financial statisti- cians of the period failed to prog- nosticate the very near cata- clysm. 'Mass psychology,' it has be- come clear, creates tidal waves of both buying and selling, but both at wrong times for balance. Thus the Stock Exchange, it is now clear, reflects merely the mood of the moment, and per- haps a consensus for as much as a very few months ahead — but is far from infallible even in this. Nevertheless, the close tech- nical attention paid to commer- cial information by the brokers and their statisticians, and the intense profit-interest which traders have in the market and its underlying conditions, makes the Stock Exchange centers the world's primary business capi- tals, studied closely by all inter- ested in economic and financial activities. The fourth primary function of the Stock Exchange is to pro- vide capital for the solvent, active and proved enterprises of fair size, of the nation. It does this first by means of its selec- tion methods, admitting to list- ing the stocks or bonds of such corporations as are sound, and requiring financial data concern- ing their operations. It does this, second, by introducing such listed stocks and bonds to the large body of investors and spec- ulators whom its traders serve. It does this, third, by making it possible to sell the securities on short notice at any time, thus giving them the favorable posi- tion of being quickly liquidatable, and also eligible for borrowing upon at banks at a good ratio. Such advantages are not enjoyed by most securities not listed on Stock Exchanges. Such machin- ery makes it possible for 'fixed' capital to be changed quickly into 'liquid' capital by individual in- vestors or traders, and for shifts in ownership to take place with- out disturbing the fixed capital at its work. The owner of a share of General Electric stock who suddenly wants money in- stead of stock, need not ask the General Electric Company to take the capital out of active use and return it, but through the medium of the Stock Exchange finds quickly another person who, conversely, prefers the stock to cash. To such an extent had Stock Exchanges (prior to 1929) be- stock Exchange KSE 463 A Stock Exchange come suppliers of capital to en- terprise that many corporations, with their stocks listed, no longer needed the intermediary services of investment bankers. They had merely to announce new issues of stock, and they were promptly taken by inves- tors, trading through Stock Ex- changes. Thus between 1921— 1929 a vast unprecedented pyra- mid of nearly 20 billions of dol- lars worth of new security issues were sold and traded (much of it unsoundly manipulated). The 1929-1935 depression demonstrated the need for more public-spirited control of the flow of capital and credit ; in fact, in the United States the Stock Ex- change function of providing capital broke down altogether be- cause of destruction of public confidence. A new period then began, first with the government instead of the Stock Exchanges (in the emergency) supplying and controlling most of the capi- tal and credit ; and, second, set- ting up a Federal regulatory body to safeguard the investor, all new capital issues being most care- fully regulated, and Stock Ex- change trading broadly reformed to eliminate manipulative evils. The Stock Exchange in princi- ple now is not a private but a public service organization, tied in with the generally more cen- tralized controls of flow of capi- tal and credit. Such new cen- tralized controls in the public interest are expected to stem the ruinous tidal waves of attempted liquidation of fixed capital, or vice versa stem the opposite mood of inflated valuation and over-capitalization, neither of which the Stock Exchanges have ever been able to accomplish alone. The fifth primary function of the Stock Exchange is to pro- vide machinery for legitimate, useful speculation, this being an economic balancing function as well as a special profession for private profit. Under the new safeguards such legitimate spec- ulation by professionals, using analysis and study of conditions, is expected to resume its useful place. The oscillations between the opposites of hope and fear, according to individual tempera- ment, investigation and fore- sight, form useful balance wheels when allowed to operate with- out the fomentation of mass psychology on false premises. They checkmate each other. The sound speculator, by buying when others are selling, or vice versa, makes it possible to buy or sell when others are in the opposite mood, and this is essential to maintaining a market. By deal- ing in 'futures,' by selling short, by having confidence when others lack it, or being suspicious when others are trusting, a basis is pro- vided for negotiation, and trans- actions which set genuine valu- ations. The positions of 'investor' and 'speculator' are interchangeable, of course, for the ordinary in- vestor, even though he start with the investment idea, may end up in speculation, or vice versa. The professional speculator is not in this category ; speculation is his constant occupation and intention, and he trains for it. The term 'stock gambler' is not technically applicable to the professional speculator ; the 'stock gambler' being in actual practice usually a different type, often much more daring and chance-taking type, comparable to 'gamblers' of other types ; and often (prior to 1932) in New York being a stock manipulator, perhaps one of a 'pool' group with inside connections of a type now taboo. For an extended treatment of speculation, and its 'gambling' perversions, see the article on Speculation. Traders in shares of corpora- tions, forerunners of the stock brokers of to-day, first made a place for themselves at London nearly two hundred years ago. It is related that at the time of the South Sea Bubble, in 1720 (see South Sea Scheme), Lon- don brokers 'carried on their operations at Garraway's coffee hovise in 'Change Alley, and at other temporary meeting places,' out of which grew the London Stock Exchange, the records of which, however, do not go back of 1798. The Paris Bourse was formed in 1724, that in Vienna by imperial decree in 1761, and the New York Stock Exchange in 1792. The London Stock Exchange has always been distinguished for the wide international range of its listed securities, London being the acknowledged 'finan- cial capital' of the world. This title, yielded to New York for a time after the World War, has again gone back to London as a result of the 1929-1935 depres- sion, which was followed by a greatly decreased interest in America in foreign securities. The New York Stock Exchange has, however, steadily expanded its listings of foreign securities, especially bonds ; nearly 200 be- ing traded in in 1935. Only a few stocks are listed, however. Only at the Paris Bourse and the New York Stock Exchange are memberships, 'seats,' bought and sold for large sums. At Paris a seat of an 'agent de change' is worth $400,000, and membership is limited to seventy, without the privilege of speculating except for clients, and then only in securities listed there. As at New York also, a member of the Paris Bourse must be elected a member, in addition to buying his seat, and the election confirmed by the Minister of Finance. He must then deposit 250,000 francs with the government as security in case of default, on which he receives three per cent interest. The principal trading at the Paris Bourse is in French public and_ corporation securities, in niining shares, in Russian, Turk- ish, Spanish, Egyptian, and other government obligations, with the interest in Government issues predominant. A few American securities are listed, but the formalities are many and the expense great. The outside Paris speculative system, called the Coulisse, has an extensive mem- bership, and few of the more re- strictive conditions are attached to it, although large dealings in rentes (French government bonds) are permitted. At Paris, as at other Continental bourses, much attention is paid to lottery, loan, and mortgage company shares, of which there are no prototypes listed at New York. The London Stock Exchange has been in its present quarters since 1802. It numbers nearly 6,000 members, the only requi- sites being that the applicant for membership be a British subject and vouched for by three mem- bers who bind themselves, each, for $2,500 to indemnify his stock exchange creditors, if necessary. The entire membership has to be re-elected annually, both brokers and jobbers, the first class deal- ing exclusively for others and the second group for themselves — the latter corresponding to what at New York are termed floor or room traders, and also somewhat to the 'specialist.' The stock ticker, or exchange and telegraph news service, in the interest of brokers and the public, at London is poorer than at New York, and at Paris none exists. At Vienna this conserva- tism is increased, and the daily papers do not print the close of the stock market until the next day. But the London stock market is the mart of the world, more than 9,000 securities of al- most every kind and from every clime being listed and traded in there, as compared with less than 1,600 in New York. At Vienna, the stock exchange, like the Bourse at Paris and Ber- lin, is limited as to trading mem- bership, there being only forty licensed brokers or 'Sensale,' who are elected from among the ex- change membership at large. The position cannot be purchased, and security is given not to trade except for a customer. stock Exchange KSE 463 B Stock Exchange At Berlin, exchange methods are framed somewhat after those at Paris, dealings being largely in foreign bonds, American se- curities, and in recent years in great numbers of shares of in- dustrial companies of small capi- talization. Provincial stock ex- changes in the United Kingdom and those at other cities than New York in the United States are conducted on much the same lines as those at_ the British and American financial centres. At the London Stock Exchange of his 'option' that the quota- tion will go still higher than that at which he can have it by call- ing it and paying for it. The 'put' option is the reverse, and is based on the payment of a stipulated sum for the 'privilege' of delivering ('putting') to the principal a certain stock at a certain price below the market at the moment, within a speci- fied time, the purchaser being therefore a hear, a believer that prices are to decline lower than his 'put' price, to enable him to The New York Stock Exchange, Broad Street Facade. business transacted is grouped under these heads : first, invest- ments ; second, speculative pur- chases and sales of shares, on margins, or 'covers,' as called abroad, having to do with en- hancement of price of the prop- erty, and handled in much the same way as at New York ; third, speculation on the rise and fall of the quotation of shares, in which there is no expectation of actual delivery and payment for the purchase; and, fourth, 'option' dealing, or trading in -what in the United States are denominated 'put' and 'call,' and 'straddle' contracts, or 'privileges.' The purchaser of a 'call' may demand the delivery of a certain stock at a given price (above the market) to a given date. He is therefore a bull, a believer in higher prices, and risks the cost buy in the shares for less than the seller of the 'put' has con- tracted to take them. What the English call a 'double option' is referred to at New York as a 'straddle,' a combination of both a 'put' and a 'call.' 'Puts' and 'calls' are frowned upon by the New York Stock Exchange. Clients of brokers at the Lon- don Stock Exchange who do not settle their accounts prior to the close of the fortnight which precedes 'settlement day,' must arrange to carry over their holdings into another account for another fortnight's run, the cost of which, based on the bank rate and the supply and demand of stock involved, is called a 'contango.' The corresponding cost to the bear who desires to defer delivering the stock he has sold 'short' {i.e., before possess- ing himself of it) is known as 'backwardation.' 'Settlement day' occurs near the middle and end of each month, four days being so occupied. Deliveries of 'bearer' shares are made the day following settlement day ; those by transfer are extended for ten days. Settlements in con- sols occur once a month. Deal- ings in 'Americans' (as corporate and other securities from the United States listed at London are called) are continued, after the close at London, in Shorters' Court, adjoining the Exchange. Arbitrage dealings between Lon- don and New York concerns form no small part of a day's trading, the business being that of buying and selling by cable between the two markets accord- ing as the quotation at one cen- tre gets materially away from a parity with that at the other, the effect of which is to keep prices at both markets close to- gether. New York Stock Exchange, — The New York Exchange is a voluntary association of 1,100 members, instead of a stock company like that of London. It is not incorporated, and has a written constitution. A presi- dent, a secretary, and a govern- ing committee of forty members, with absolute power, are the chief functionaries. It is housed in an imposing structure, not one hundred yards from where twenty-four brokers met under a Cottonwood tree opposite No. 60 Wall Street on May 17, 1792, and signed an agreement as to the rates of commission to be charged. The association so formed met irregularly at the Tontine Coffee House, Wall and Water Streets, but it was not until 1817 that a stock exchange along present lines was developed, and in 1827 it located at Mer- chants' Exchange, on Wall Street, on the site of the old custom house. Thence, in 1854, after having moved to No. 43 Wall Street and back again, it found a place at William and Wall Streets ; in 1856 at Lord's Court, at William and Beaver Streets ; and in 1865 at its present site, fronting on Broad, New, and Wall Streets. In 1869 it ab- sorbed its would-be rival, the 'Open Board of Brokers,' and after the demise of the 'Gold Board,' in 1879, bought the lat- ter's premises and enlarged its own structure. As the New York Stock Ex- change memberships or 'seats' are bought and sold (but only by and to approved persons), the price such seats bring are al- ways of general interest, reflect- ing the current degree of profit in professional brokerage. In 1871 a seat was worth but $2000, stock Exchange KSE 464 Stock Exchange whereas at the peak of trading in 1929 'seats' were worth $625,- 000. Even New York Curb Ex- change seats were at a high of $254,000. The last sale in 1934 however was at $100,000 for a New York Stock Exchange seat, and $20,000 for a Curb seat. In 1933 seats had ranged from $90,- 000 to $250,000; in 1934 from $70,000 to $190,000. Measured by seat price the decline in profitableness of seats between 1929 and 1935 was 525%; the 1934 seat price being only 16% of 1929. Seat prices had risen to $22,500 by 1890; attained a peak of $94,000 in 1910, de- clined to $53,000 in 1913, reached another peak, $115,000 in 1920, declined to $100,000 in the years 1921-25, and then rose rapidly io its 1929 peak. These prices bore direct rela- tion to the transactions in shares, which dropped from an average daily turnover of about 4,000,000 shares in 1929, to about 1,000,- 000 in 1934. The annual vol- ume of share transactions in ten one-year periods was as follows : 1890 71,826,885 1900 138,312,266 1905 (peak) 263,040,993 1910 163,882,956 1916 (peak) 232,842,807 1919 (peak) 312,875,250 1920 223,931,349 1929 (peak) 1,124,990,980 1930 810,626,276 1934 (low) 323,871,840 Thus it will be seen that stock sales declined in 1934 compared with 1929 to the extent of 24% (less than half the rate of decline of 'seat' valuations). Share sales dropped to almost the level of 1919 (which was a high peak). Nevertheless the volume was still in 1934 almost five times as great as in 1890 ; more than twice as large as in 1900, and one half more than in the 1905 boom peak. The grand combined total vol- ume of share sales in 1929, the famous boom year, on the New York Stock Exchange, the New York Curb Exchange, the share sales on the New York Produce Exchange, plus the estimated minor exchange sales in the. United States, reached the giant figure of 1,659,158,377. This was equal to 14 shares for every man, woman and child in Amer- ica ; but as it is conceded that about 4,000,000 were buying and selling shares in that year, the total figure works out to 415 shares per trader. This total does not include various other sales of stock, nor does it include the sales of dubious or worth- less stock, known to have totaled almost a billion dollars in 1929. (Even in 1932 the New York Bureau of Securities enjoined 818 persons from stock sales and estimated at 23 millions the year's loss in worthless stock). Stock offerings rose from a total of half a billion in 1920 to $1,111,933,288 in 1927, soared to the huge peak of $3,025,126,- 707 in 1929, sank to the abysmal low of $7,022,000 in 1932, and in 1934 rose to only $10,141,000— to less than one-three-hundredth of the 1929 total — despite an ab- normally low rate for money. The sales of bonds on the New York Stock Exchange (although but a fifth of the total) are of course also huge, having risen from a total dollar volume of $409,325,120 in 1890 to $1,018,- 090,420 in 1905 ; not again reach- ing a billion dollars until 1916, when it went to $1,161,625,250; then passing two billion dollars in 1918 and reaching about 3 billions in 1920, and four billions in 1922; then dropping to half in 1923 and in 1929 reaching $3,020,316,700. The 1934 vol- ume of bond sales was $3,729,- 460,500; a volume greater than in 1929; thus illustrating once again an old financial axiom that bonds and stocks are always in reverse order of sale volume. The technical operations of the New York Stock Exchange are a marvel of efficiency and speed, and the standards of all major exchanges are further marvels of meticulous trading honor. The vast volume of transactions on such exchanges is made purely on standards of character trust- worthiness and personal faith and confidence, being by word-of- mouth entirely. Around the various 'trading posts' on the floor of the Exchange, the floor members gather and shout their buying and selling orders, and such a verbal authority is suffi- cient for the completion of a million-dollar transaction. Tele- graph and telephone authoriza- tion from clients to buy or sell are also honored for large trans- actions. Each seat is responsible financially for the commitments of its floor member, and there is very little friction or error. The discipline over members and traders is extraordinarily strict. Any or all may trade for them- selves or for clients. While there is no hard and fast separa- tion of functions, as in London, brokers usually choose a special activity. 'Commission brokers' act for customers not rnembers of the Exchange, charging the uniform rate of ^ of 1 per cent on the number of shares bought or sold. 'Specialists' pay atten- tion to particular stocks, charg- ing other brokers 1-50 of 1 per cent commission for executing orders. 'Two-dollar brokers' are those who execute orders in any stock for other brokers at 1-50 of 1 per cent. 'Floor traders' speculate on their own account. 'Money brokers' make loans to stock and bond brokers on be- half of the banks. The Exchange's clearing house was put into operation on the date of its hundredth anniver- sary, by which mutual debits and credits in leading active shares are offset one against the other, just as foreign stock exchanges employ the system, and as do banks at more than one hundred cities throughout the country and at all European centres. More than ninety-five per cent of the stocks and bonds traded in are delivered and paid for before quarter past two of the day fol- lowing the transaction — in con- trast to the London 'fortnightly account' and 'settling day.' On the Exchange floor are posts bearing the names of some of the more active shares, and in the groups of members about each may be found dealers in the same. The Exchange's rules are very strict against 'matching orders' or varying the rate of commission prescribed. A for- mal call of the bond list is no longer made daily, trading in bonds being continuous in a por- tion of the floor set apart for that purpose. Quotations on the stock tickers, found in brokers' offices, in banks, and elsewhere in almost all large cities of the United States, are furnished by attendants to telegraph operators stationed on the floor of the Ex- change ; and a few seconds later these may be read simultane- ously by the man around the corner and by the occupants of offices at Boston, Chicago, San Francisco, and elsewhere. Epochal changes came upon the New York Stock Exchange and all other United States ex- changes in 1934 as a result of legislation arising from public indignation at stock speculation abuses. The National Securities Exchange Act was passed in June, 1934, after revelations be- fore the Banking and Currency Committee, and after the New York Stock Exchange had al- ready made some reform con- cessions, restricting 'pools' and 'specialists.' The Exchange Act of 1934 provided for registration and regulation of all stock ex- changes and over-the-counter markets, and their control through a Securities and Ex- change Commission, 'to prevent frauds in the sale of securities.' This Act not only regulates ex- changes but also requires the filing of certain specific informa- tion as to financial set-up and status concerning new issues of securities to be sold. It specifi- cally makes it a criminal offense for sellers of securities to claim that such government registra- stock Exchange KSE 465 Stock Exchange tion constitutes government 'ap- proval.' It also imposes severe liability upon directors and cor- porate officers for violations of the Act, if a statement 'contains an untrue statement of a material fact or omits to state a material fact required to be stated therein or necessary to make the state- ments therein not misleading.' The New York Stock Ex- change itself made a number of revisions of its rules, under the lash of depression criticism and threat of regulation. First was the improvement of accounting methods of listed corporations — more adequate income accounts and balance sheets. Many cor- porations listed had always re- fused to give but a very mini- mum of information. The Ex- change in 1934 gave an ultima- tum to several large listed cor- porations and won its point. The next reform was a requirement of independent audits from listed corporations. This ended the ability of corporations to arrange their figures so as to hide or misrepresent their data._ The Exchange cooperated with the American Institute of Account- ing in the development of broad principles of accounting suitable as regulations. Corporations seeking to list securities issued for cash must now show the net proceeds of the securities of- fered. Another rule adopted in December, 1933, was full pub- licity on all options granted by the corporations on their own securities. Among the rules adopted af- fecting Exchange members was one for minimum margins for speculative accounts of custom- ers. Members were required to make weekly reports on all pool, option and joint accounts, and these were made subject to Ex- change approval. Contracts for six months' employment and minimum salaries were adopted for Exchange member custom- er's men ; together with a pro- hibition of speculative accounts for such employes. In November 1933 the Stock Exchange went under N R A code rule, setting up maximum working hours, overtime pay, etc. A 'committee of elders,' seven in number, was also set up ; now also called 'the president's cabi- net.' Following the passage of the Act a 'Council of ten outside advisers' was also set up (five men affiliated with member firms and five of no previous stock market experience) to provide critical advice from outside the Exchange membership. Another innovation was a weekly press conference. The new Securities and Exchange Commission's first act was to require the Exchange to publish (for the first time in its history) a financial statement of its status. It revealed assets of $43,846,054. Hearings also began to serve as a basis for re- vised regulations on specialists, floor traders, short selling and odd-lot trading. The new Commission's perma- nent rules for registration of securities on exchanges substan- tially duplicate existing rules of the New York Stock Exchange except that they do not require corporations to be as large or their stocks so widely held ; the New York Stock Exchange pre- ferring that listed companies have at least 4 or 5 million dol- lars of assets, and annual earn- ings of at least $750,000. Stand- ardized annual reports from cor- porations is the goal set up by the Commission. The corpora- tion balance sheet must be sup- ported by six schedules covering investments in securities and af- filiates ; property, plant and equipment ; reserves for depreci- ation, depletion and amortiza- tion ; intangible assets ; reserve for depreciation and/or amorti- zation of intangible assets, and reserves. The registration regulations of the Commission do not apply to corporations whose securities are traded in only on the 'over- the-counter' market. During 1935 the Commission expected to work out special regulations for securities on this market. The number of member firms in the New York Stock Ex- change was 616 in 1934. These member firms operate many branch offices, some in New York, others throughout the na- tion and abroad. There were 706 of these in 1925, then a high peak of 1487 was reached in 1930. By 1935 a total of_ 385 of these were dropped. Simultaneously an increase in non-members cor- respondents' offices took place — 3811 of these being in operation in 1935 throughout the world. Direct telephone quotation serv- ice from the floor of the Ex- change is enormous. In 1929 the number of such quotations furnished by phone numbered 7,600,000, but it climbed steadily until in 1934 the number was 16,500,000. The language of the New York Stock Exchange has become fa- miliar not only throughout the metropolitan financial district, but more or less so to men of affairs at the larger centres throughout the country. Thus, the stock market is 'weak' or 'strong' as demand is falling off or insistent. It is 'feverish' when it is very irregularly ac- tive ; and when demand for any stock or stocks is sufficient greatly to advance the price, that is described as a 'boom.' A 'lamb' is an inexperienced client of a stock broker. 'Margins' are the amounts (usually ten per cent of the price of a security) de- posited by speculators or invest- ors with brokers when dealing in the market. 'Bulls' are those who regard market conditions as promising higher prices, and 'bears' the converse of that. Bulls are 'long' of the market when they buy shares in antici- pation of a rise ; and bears are 'short' when they sell stocks (usually before possessing the same) in expectation of a decline in prices. They then borrow the stocks of which they are short to make a delivery, and when the prices go below the figure at which they sold short, they 'cover' by purchasing the same and returning the security bor- rowed. When stocks do not de- cline as 'shorts' expected, but, by the action of the bulls or for other reasons, rise instead, a 'bear panic' is said to be the re- sult of the bears having to 'climb to cover' at as small a loss as possible. When a sharp decline hits bull commitments, a liquida- tion or 'shake-out' often de- scribes the consequences to bull holdings. A 'slump,' 'reaction,' 'rally,' and 'recovery' in prices require no special explanation of their meanings. Brokers make 'time loans' (thirty, sixty and ninety days) from the banks to pay for securities bought on mar- gin, and also negotiate 'call' or 'demand' loans, which the bank may call in at any time. The government regulation of the New York Stock Exchange is the climax of fifty years of agitation and antagonism toward 'Wall Street' on the part of many people who were convinced of the predatory and harmful effects of stock speculation. The first official investigation was started in 1908 by Governor Hughes (later Chief Justice of the U. S. Supreme Court). In 1909 the committee appointed by him re- ported, and the net result was such reforms as the forced ac- ceptance of every 100-share unit; the abolition of the 'unlisted de- partment' ; speculation for their own account by 'specialists' ; the acceptance of speculative ac- counts from bank clerks ; and the urgence of margins over 20%. In 1913 the Pujo Congressional investigation reported on certain exchange practices, and in 1914 the Senate Banking _ and Cur- rency Committee again urged a 20% minimum margin. In 1932 the Senate Banking and Cur- rency Committee undertook, un- der the direction of Ferdinand Pecora, of New York, a most searching investigation which disclosed many abuses of the ex- change machinery and reprehen- stock Fish KSE 466 Stockton sible manipulations. Out of this background the public demand for government regulation grew. Stock Exchanges all over the world are thrown into confusion sufficient to demand closing by- two major human calamities — war and 'panic' On the famous 'Black Friday' of 1873 leading stocks in New York fell $30 and $40 a day, and the New York Stock Exchange was closed 'to save the Street from utter ruin' (N. Y. Tribune). On the occa- sion of the critical peaks of other severe panics short periods of closing have happened, as during the 'bank holiday' declared by President Roosevelt in 1933, which included exchanges and banks as well. In August 1914, at the outbreak of the World War, virtually all the stock ex- changes of the world closed until December 1914 — the New York Stock Exchange then opening with a system of fixed minimum prices, changed frequently. Bibliography^ — O. G. Vil- lard. Early History of Wall Street ; Van Antwerp, The Stock Exchange from Within (1914) ; Hearings and Report of Piijo Committee, Congress (1913) Hearings of Banking and Cur- rency Committee (1914 and 1932-33) ; J. George Frederick, Cammon Stocks and the Average Man (1930), and The Real Truth About Short Selling (1932) ; I. F. Wheeler, The Stock Ex- change (London 1913) ; William Hamilton Whyte, The Stock Ex- change (1924) ; Henry G. Steb- bins Noble, The Stock Ex- change : Its Economic Function (1933) ; J. Edward Meeter, The Work of the Stock Exchange (1933); S. S. Pratt, The Work of Wall Street (1932); Charles A. Dice, The Stock Market. J. George Frederick. Stock Fish, gadoid fish, such as cod, ling, hake, haddock, and torsk, which are cured by split- ting and drying till hard, with- out the use of salt. This is ex- tensively carried out in Norway and Greenland. Stockholder. See Stock. Stockholm, stok'holm, city, the capital of Sweden, stands on several islands and the adjacent mainland, between an arm of the Baltic and Lake Malar, in a situation that is accounted one of the most picturesque in Eu- rope. It is often called the 'Venice of the North,' and is composed of a central portion (Staden) ; Sodermalm, the south- ern suburb; Norrmalm, the northern suburb ; Kungsholm, to the west of Norrmalm ; Oster- malm, containing the barracks ; and Skeppsholm, the arsenal and headquarters of the Swedish navy, with shipbuilding yards and naval stores. Handsome bridges connect the central is- lands with the northern and southern districts. The chief public buildings and monuments include the old Church of St. Nicholas (1264), in which the Swedish sovereigns are crowned ; the Franciscan Church (Riddarholms Kyrka), the Westminster Abbey of Swe- den, in which all the later sovereigns of Sweden have been buried; the Parliament House; the Riddarhus, or house of the nobility ; the Opera House ; the Royal Palace, built by the Tes- sins in 1697-1753, and restored in 1901, a vast square in the noblest neo-Italian style ; the Palace of the Governor-General ; the Crown Prince's Palace (1783-93); the Academy of Sciences ; the Observatory (lat. 59° 20' 33" N., long. 18° 3' 30" E.) ; the National Museum (1866) ; the Royal Library; the Town Hall (1922) ; concert hall ; law courts ; and the Royal Dra- matic Theatre. The city is re- markable for its many beautiful promenades and delightful views, especially the Djurgarden, with its museum illustrative of the national life, and the Scandi- navian Northern Museum. There are botanical gardens and a conservatory of music. Stock- holm is the seat of the State faculty of medicine founded in 1815; a State university (1878) with faculties of philosophy, law, philology, and natural sciences ; an academy of commerce, and several other learned societies. The Bank of Sweden is located here. In the environs are beau- tiful royal chateaux in pictur- esque parks — e.g., Haga, Ul- riksdal, and Drottningholm. The industries of Stockholm are varied. Important are the iron and steel industries, ship- building, breweries, silk weav- ing, and manufactures of to- bacco, chemicals, porcelain, and leather. In 1925 the Hammar- by channel was completed for vessels up to 3,500 tons. Stockholm dates its origin from 1187 and 1255. In 1389 it was besieged and taken by Mar- garet of Denmark. In 1471, al- most under its walls, the ad- ministrator Sten Sture gained a brilliant victory over the Danes. Christian ii of Denriiark took the town in 1520, and in Novem- ber of the same year massacred hundreds of Swedish magnates and burgesses there in order to crush the national resistance. Pop. (Est. 1933) 519,711. Stockmar, shtok'mar. Chris- tian Friedrich, Baron von (1787-1863), German diplomat and physician, was born in Co- burg. He was appointed (1816) physician to Prince Leopold of Coburg, subsequently holding the positions of his secretary, keeper of the privy purse, and controller of the household. He also took part in the negotiations which led to Leopold's marriage with the Princess Charlotte, and to the elevation of Leopold to the throne of Belgium (1831), and was one of those who arranged the marriage of Queen Victoria to Prince Albert (1840). Stocks. See Stock ; Stock Exchange. Stocks, an appliance made of wood, and consisting of an upper and a lower section, attached to each other by a hinge at one end. In former times it was much used in England as a means of punish- ing vagrants, beggars, and dis- orderly persons ; in the American colonies scolds were frequently put in the stocks. The feet were placed through holes cut at the junction of the two sections, and the delinquent was left to sit there for a period exposed to the ridicule, and sometimes the mis- siles, of the parish loafers. The stocks seem to have been intro- duced into England in the reign of Edward iii. Stocks'bridge, town, West Riding, Yorkshire, England; 9 miles northwest of Sheffield. It has steel works and coal mines. Stock'ton, city, California, county seat of San Joaquin county, at the head of navigation on a branch of the San Joaquin River, with daily steamer con- nection to San Francisco. It is on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe, the Western Pacific, and the Southern Pacific Rail- roads ; 66 miles east of San Francisco. Stockton is an important manufacturing city, producing agricultural implements and ma- chinery, paper, and canned goods. The surrounding country is a rich agricultural and dairy farm region. The world record for potato production — 64,707 pounds from an acre — was made here and excellent records in growing celery, asparagus, sugar beets, corn and grain. The city is the distributing centre for the mines of the famous Mother Lode Dis- trict. Nearby are 2 airports. The port is an inland harbor since 1933 when the 88-mile deep channel to the Golden Gate was completed, up which 90 per cent of the boats entering San Fran- cisco harbor may pass. It was deepened to 32 feet in 1934 and port facilities were extended. Stockton was founded in 1843 by Captain Charles M. Weber, to whom the Mexican govern- ment sold a grant of land. It received its name in honor of Robert Field Stockton, who took California in the name of the U. S. Government. Pop. (1920) 40,296; (1930) 47,963. Stockton Stockton, Francip Richard (1834 - 1902), American author, was born in Philadelphia and graduated (1852) at the Central high school of that city. He became a wood - engraver and draughtsman, and followed those occupations for several years. His first published stories were accepted by John R. Thompson for the Southern Literary Messen- ger, and during the Civil War he was a contributor to Vanity Fair and other New York comic week- Hes, following this work by chil- dren's stories for the Riverside Magazine. Some of these were published as The Ting-a-Ling Stories (1870) and show at that period the nimble, elf-like fancy of this humorist, whose qualities, developing late, were all the richer for the delay. Mr. Stockton gave up engraving and designing work and joined the staff of the Phila- delphia Post, soon removing to New York city and taking a posi- tion with Hearth and Home. His contributions to Scribner's Monthly and earlier work led to an invitation from its management to become assistant editor of the newly _ established St. Nicholas magazine for children in 1873, from which editorship he retired in 1882 to devote himself alto- gether to original writing. Mean- while his Rudder Grange (1879), first contributed as a series of sketches of rural life to Scribner's Monthly, with a literary servant girl, Pomona, as the chief comic character, established his reputa- tion as a humorous writer of the first class. He probably never exceeded the natural humor of this book. Stockton was a keen observer of the feminine tempera- ment, and in none of his books is this more clearly shown than in The House of Martha (1891). His story, 'The Lady or the Tiger?' published in the Century for Nov., 1882, created a wide discussion as to its probable denouement, which was left to the reader's decision. His works of fiction include The Late Mrs. Null (1886), The Casting Away of Mrs. Leeks and Mrs. Aleshine (1886), The Hundredth Man (1887), The Great War Syn- dicate (1889), The Merry Chanter (1890), The Squirrel Inn (1891), The Adventures of Captain Horn (1895), The Great Stone of Sardis (1897) , The Girl at Cobhurst (1898) , A Bicycle of Cathay (1900), and a number of volumes of short stories and stories for children. The Captain's Toll-Gate (1903) appeared posthumously with a 'Memorial Sketch' (q.v.) by Mrs. Stockton. In 1900-4 appeared the 'Shenandoah Edition' of kii Novels and Stories, in 23 vol- umes. Mr. Stockton, a few years before his death, bought 'Clay- mont,' an old place in Jefferson 467 CO., W. Va. He died in Wash- ington, D. C. Stockton, Richard (1730-81), American politician, signer of the Declaration of Independence, born in Mercer co., N. J. He studied at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) and was admitted to the bar in 1754. He was a judge of the N. J. Supreme Court in 1774-81 and a member of the Continental Con- gress in 1776-77. Stockton, Robert Field (1795-1866), American naval offi- cer, born in Princeton, N. J. In 1811 he entered the navy as a midshipman; served in War of 1812 and in the war against the Algerine pirates; in 1821, _ as agent of the American Coloniza- tion Society, obtained the cession of what was afterward Liberia; and during the next few years saw active service against the slavers and against the West Indian pirates. He played a leading part in the construction of the Delaware and Raritan Canal; was promoted captain in 1838; and in 1844 was m command of the Princeton when a gun called the 'Peacemaker' exploded and killed two cabinet officers and other persons. In 1845 he was sent to take command of the naval forces in the Pacific, and assisted ,Gen. Fremont in the conquest of California. In recog- nition of his services the town of Stockton was named after him. In 1850 he resigned from the navy, and during 1851-53 was a member of the United States Senate. His chief service as a legislator was the introduction of a bill which abolished flogging in the navy. Consult Life and Speeches of Robert Field Stockton (1856). Stockton -on -Tecs, munic and pari. bor. and port, Durham, England, 5 m. from head of Tees es':uary. The public buildings include town hall, exchange hall, freemasons' hall, free public li- brary, and hospitals. An iron bridge (1887) connects with S. Stockton (Yorks). Ropner Park was opened in 1893. The exten- sive industries include blast fur- naces, rolling-mills, construction of marine engines, bridge-build- ing, railway material, shipbuild- ing, and glass-bottle works. The Tees navigation has been greatly improved, and vessels drawing twenty feet can reach the town. The Stockton and Darlington Ry., opened 1825, was the first constructed in the United King- dom. A castle was built here soon after the Conquest; it was taken bv the Parliamentarians in 1644. Pop (1911) munic. bor., 52,- 158 ; pari, bor., 76,619. Stoddard, Charles Augustus (1833), American clergyman and author, was born in Boston, Stoddard and graduated (1854) at Wil- liams, and at the Union Theo- logical Seminary in 1859, mean- while taking courses of study in Scotland. He was pastor of the Washington Heights Presbyterian church, New York, from 1859 to 1883. Dr. Stoddard joined the staff of The Observer as associate editor with Dr. S. I. Prime in 1869. He became a proprietor in 1873, and on the death of Dr. Prime in 1885 succeeded to the editorship, retiring in 1902. His books include Across Russia from the Baltic to the Danube (1891), Spanish Cities (1892), Beyond the Rockies (1894), and Cruising Among the Caribbees (1895). Stoddard, Charles Warren - Ji v a o a (1843), American traveller, teacher, and author, born in Rochester, N. Y., and educated at the Uni- versity of California. As a trav- elling correspondent for the San Francisco Chronicle he spent seven years in visiting almost every part of the globe. In 1885 he became professor of English literature at Notre Dame College, Ind., and in 1889 he went to the Catholic University at Washing- ton in the same capacity. His books are: Poems (1867); South Sea Idyls (1873); Marshallah, a Flight into Egypt (1881); The Lepers of Molokai (1885); Lazy Letters from Low Latitudes {1894:); The Wonder Worker of Padua (1896); A Cruise under the Cres- cent from Suez to San Marco (1898); Over the Rocky Mountains to Alaska (1899); In the Footprints of the Padres (1902); Exits and Entrances (1903); Father Da- mien, a Sketch (1903); The Island of Tranquil Delights (1904). Stoddard, Elizabeth Drew Barstow (1823-1902), American noveHst and poet, was born at Mattapoisett, Mass., and was the daughter of Wilson Barstow of that place. She studied at the Wheaton Female Seminary, at Norton, Mass., and at other schools, but obtained her educa- tion mainly by reading the English classics. Some years after her marriage to Richard Henry Stod- dard (q.v.) in 1851, she began to contribute poems to the periodi- cals, and she published three realistic novels of New England life— r/ie Morgesons (1862), Two Men (1865), and Temple House (1867) — of which a new edition, with an introduction by Edmund Clarence Stedman, was issued in 1888. Her Poems were collected and published in 1895. See Mr. Stoddard's Recollections (1903). Stoddard, Lorimer (1864- 1901), American dramatist and actor, son of Richard Henrv and Elizabeth (Barstow) Stoddard, was born in New York city, and, brought up in an atmosphere of books, letters, and art, early de- veloped an ambition to write for Stoddard 468 Stoicism the stage. To fit himself for this pursuit he became an actor, took small parts at the N. Y. Lyceum Theatre, and made his first im- portant appearance as Trelawney, the young English nobleman, in the original production of The Henrietta, in 1887. Others of his parts were Monte Jones in The Governor of Kentucky, 189G, and Adolph Klcinbacher in the melo- drama New York, 1897. Mr. Stoddard wrote several 'curtain lifters' before his play. Napoleon, groduced in New York city by .ichard Mansfield in 1895. It was followed by his dramatization of Tess o} the d' Urbervillcs (1897), produced by Mrs. Minnie Mad- dern Fiske, and In the Palace of the Kin^ (1900), with Viola Allen as leading lady. Minor plays" were The Interlopers and The Question. Stoddard, Richard Henry (1825-1903), American author and journalist, was born at Hingham, Mass., and was the son of a sea- captain of that place. At ten years of age he was taken to New York city by his mother and her second husband, and there at- tended the public schools. From his eighteenth year he worked for several years in an iron foundry on the east side, meanwhile studying the best writers, and beginning the composition of verse, his first effort in which appeared in The Rover, a periodi- cal edited by Seba Smith. The following year he published his first volume of poems, Footprints. His second volume. Poems (1852), brought him much commenda- tion; and in 1853, by Hawthorne's aid, he obtained a position in the N. Y. custom house which he held until 1870. His third vol- ume. Songs of Summer, a notable addition to the body of American verse, appeared in 1857, The King's Bell, a' narrative poem, in 1863, and his noble Abraham Lincoln: a Horatian Ode, in 1865. They were followed by The Book (j) of the East (1867), Poems (1880), - and The Lion's Cub, with Other ri Verse (1890). From 1860 to 1870 Mr. Stoddard was literary editor of the N. Y. World. During 1872-3 he edited The Aldine, a N. Y. art and literary journal, and he was literary editor of the N. Y. Mail and Mail and Express from 1880 until his death. His works in prose include: Lj/e of Alexander Humboldt (I860), Life of Wash- ington Irving (1886), Under the Evening Lamp (1892), and the posthumous Recollections, Personal and Literary, edited by Ripley Hitchcock (1903). Among the numerous works edited by Mr. Stoddard are Melodies and Mad- rigals, mostly from the Old Eng- lish Poets (1865), The Late Eng- lish Poets (1865), and English Verse, with W. J. Linton (5 vols. 1883). The year before his death he presentecl the choicest of his books, manuscripts, and letters, including a noteworthv collection of British poetry, to tne Authors' Club of New York. See his Recollections (1903) and Stedman's Poets of America (1885). Stoddard, William Osborn (1835), American journalist andfN, author, born at Homer, N. Y. l^j He graduated at the University (\i of Rochester in 1857, and en- (K gaged in newspaper work in^ Chicago, but entered the army^'^ at the outbreak of the Civil War,(\/ giving up active service in 1801 • to become private secretary toy President Lincoln. In addition^ to his many books for boys he has written: Life of Abraham^ Lincoln (1884); Lives of the Presi- dents (10 vols. 1888-89); TheX, White House in War Time (1890); Table ^ Talk of Lincoln (1892) ;>> Running the Cuban Blockade (1899); Lincoln at Work (1899); Ahead of the Army (1902); The Boy Lincoln (1905). Stoddart, James Henry (1827- 1907), Anglo-Amer. actor, was born at Barnsley, England, played in travelling companies in Great Britain for several years, and coming to the U. S. in 1854 took character parts in the elder Wal- lack's company, and supported Laura Kean and Dion Bouci- cault until 1867. He then acted with Lester Wallack's company until 1874, and from 1876 to 1896 was a member of A. M. Palmer's companv. See his Recollections of a Player (1902). Stoddert, Benjamin (1751- 1813), American soldier, born in Charles co., Md.; was secretary to the Board of War in 1779-81; ap- pointed secretary of the navy by Adams in 1798, and served dur- ing the remainder of the Presi- dent's term. Stoessel, Anatole Mikhailo- VITCH (1848), Russian military officer; was graduated at the Pav- lofl Military Academy in 1806; served through the Russo-Turkish war of 1877; was promoted to lieutenant-general and placed in command of Port Arthur in 1899 (see Russo-Japanese War). Af- ter the war an official commission decided that the surrender of the post was justifiable (1905), yet Stoessel was placed on trial (1907), found guilty, condemned to death, but recommended to ten years imprisonment in a fortress and to oe dismissed the service (1908). The Czar confirmed these findings, and in 1 909 Stoessel applied for par- don or a commutation of sentence. Stoicism, Athenian school of philosophy, founded after the death of Aristotle, derives its name from the stoa or porch in which its founder, Zeno of Citium in Cyprus (fl. c. 300 B.C.), taught. His suc- cessors were Clcanthes, whose hymn to Zeus is quoted in St. Paul's speech at Athens, and Chrysippus (280-207 B.C.). The latter's work in developing and expounding the doctrine of the school was so important that he was regarded as a second founder, A more eclectic and moderate phase of Stoic teaching was initia- ated by Panajtius of Rhodes (fi. c. 140 B.C.), one of whose writings formed the basis of Cicero's treat- ise De Offlciis. Of all the Greek schools Stoicism was that which was most congenial to the Roman temper, and in its latest period some of its most famous names were those of Romans, such a^ Seneca (3-65 A.D.), and the em- peror Marcus Aurelius (121-180). Epictetus, another famovis Stoic, comes intermediate between these in date. Like the rival system of Epi- curus, Stoicism was essentially a practical philosophy; but it had Its metapnysics as well as its ethics. This metaphysics was a pantheistic materialism. All real- ity is material, the Stoics held, but within it are to be distinguished matter proper, which is passive, and the animating or active prin- ciple, God or reason, which, though so termed, is conceived as simply a finer kind of material entity, an all-pervading breath or fire, such as Heraclitus supposed the cosmic principle to be. With this divine principle the soul of man is akin, or rather is identified, as a part with the whole to which it belongs. In this metaphysical view two important ethicaL con- sequences are involved. First, the maxim of 'living according to nature' or 'reason' comes to mean living in conformity with the divine order of the universe. And the importance of this posi- tive guidance is seen in the great Eart which Stoicism played in uilding up that conception of a law of nature by which Roman jurisprudence was so powerfully affected. (See Maine's Ancient Law, ch. iii.) And second, the doctrine that all that happens is according to the divine order, and therefore for the best, involves a thoroughgoing optimism. The real source of the Stoic ethics, however, is not any metaphysical theory, but the practical ideal already proclaimed in Cynicism — the ideal of the wise man after the pattern of Socrates, who per- ceives that the true good of man lies not in outward objects, but in the state of thje soul itself, in that knowledge or wisdom by which he is delivered from the passions and desires that perturb the life of the ordinary man. At first, indeed. Stoicism had a good deal of the Cynic harshness of view. The wise man was separated by an absolute gulf from the un- wise, and all external things were Stoke-on-Trent KR 469 Stomach utterly indifferent to the wise man. But the more rigid dual- isms of early Stoicism were grad- ually relaxed by the introduction of new distinctions. By means of such distinctions the life of Stoic virtue was able to adapt itself tolerably well to the neces- sities of its environment. And so far, indeed, was such accommo- dation carried that in later Stoic- cism a reaction set in towards a more cynical ideal. Stoicism of the latest or Roman period was characterized by its strongly practical and religious tendency, as in the Discourses and Encheiri- dion of Epictetus, and the Thoughts or Meditations of Mar- cus Aurelius. On Stoicism gen- erallv, see Capes' Stoicism (1880) and Zeller's Stoics (trans. 1892). Stoke - on - Trent, city of, England, Staffordshire, 17 m. N. of Stafford, and on the Trent and Mersey Canal. It is famous as the chief center of the porce- lain and earthenware manu- facture, with which the names of Wedgwood, Minton, and Cope- land are associated. The Minton memorial building contains free library and museum, and schools of science and art, and in the church is a monum.ent to Wedg- wood (d. 1793). The N. Stafford- shire Ry. has offices here. Pop. 1946, est. 269,890. Stoke Poges, village, Buck- inghamshire, England, 2 m. N. of Slough station (G.W.R.). The ancient church of St. Giles con- tains a canopied tomb and 14th and 15th century brasses. On the s. is the Hastings Chapel. The poet Gray is interred in the churchyard, believed to have been the scene of his Elegy. Pop. 3,175. Stokes, Anson Phelps (1838- 1913), American banker, born in New York city, began business life with the metal firm of Phelps, Dodge & Co., and afterwards organized the banking-house of Phelps, Stokes & Co. He be- came prominent in free-trade and civil-service reform movements, was the first president of the Re- form Club, and in 1900 was president of the National Asso- ciation of Anti-Imperialist Clubs. He wrote Cruising in the West In- dies (1902) and Cruising in the Caribbean with a Camera (1903). Stokes, Sir George Gabriel (1819-1903), Irish physicist, was born at Skreen, Co. Sligo. In 1837 he entered at Pembroke College, Cambridge, and in 1841 graduated as senior wrangler and Smith's prizeman, and was elec- ted a fellow of his college. Stokes devoted himself to the mathe- matical investigation of physical problems, primarily in hydro- dynamics. In 1849 he published his researches on the dynamical theory of diffraction, and was shortly afterward appointed Lu- casian professor of mathematics. His subsequent labors were chiefly in the field of optics, his most important investiga- tion being on fluorescence, and the fact that the refrangibility f)f light is in general reduced by the dispersion caused by fluorescent substances is known as Stokes' law. He became secretary of the Royal Society in 1854. He pub- lished researches on double re- fraction, the effect of wind on the propagation of sound, along with investigations in pure mathematics. Stokes was m.p. for Cambridge University, presi- dent of the Royal Society, and master of Pembroke College. See his collected Mathematical and Physical Papers (1880-1905). Stokes, Whitley (1830-1909) Anglo-Indian official and Irish philologist, born in Dublin; was a barrister of the Inner Temple (1855), and went to India (1862), where he was law member of the council of the governor-general (1877-82). His books include Irish Glasses (1860), Goidelica (2d ed. 1872), The Tripartite Life of St. Patrick (1887), The Gaelic Marco Polo (1898), The Eulogy of St. Columbo (1899), and Da Derga's Hostel (1901). Stolberg, Christian, Count Zu (1748-1821), German poet and critic, born at Hamburg; early adopted the views of Bur- ger and Voss with regard to poetic style and expression, thus enrolling himself in the Gottin- gen school of critics. As a poet he was sweet rather than strong, and as a critic appreciative rather than analytically critical. His chief works were Gedichte (1779); Gedichte aus dem Griechischen (1782); Shauspiele mit Choren (1787); V aterldndische Gedichte (1810); also a capital translation of Sophocles in verse (1787). Stolberg, Friedrich Leo- pold, Count Zu (1750-1819), German poet and translator, born at Bramstedt (Holstein), was a member of the Gottingen school of poets. Many of his poems, especially after his con- version to Roman Catholicism, were strongly tinged with re- ligion. His chief works were Geschichte der Religion Jesus Christi (15 vols. 1807-18); Ge- dichte (1780): a poetic romance. Die Insel (1788); and excellent translations, both in prose and verse, of Plato, Aeschylus, and Homer. The best edition of his Werke is that by Janssen (1878; 3d ed. 1882). Stole, a strip of silken material worn over both shoulders by priests and bishops, but over the left shoulder only by deacons, in their ministrations. Symbolically it represents the yoke of Christ. The color of the stole may be changed in harmony with the church's seasons. Stolen Goods. A thief can not give good title to the stolen property, and if the owner can take back the property without committing a breach of the peace he is entitled to do so. but other- wise he must resort to the law. An innocent purchaser is not pro- tected, and only has a right of action against his vendor or the thief for the purchase price, which of course may be worth- less. An exception is made with regard to negotiable paper pay- able to bearer before maturity, but this is under the peculiar rules of negotiable instruments. See Receiving Stolen Goods. Stolp, town, Germany, Prus- sia, province Pomerania, on the Stolpe, 65 m. w. of Danzig; manufactured amber goods, linen, and alcohol. Its port is Stolp- miinde, 12 m. distant. Pop. 45,307. Stolypin, Peter Arkazhe- vich (1863-1911), Russian states- man, graduated at the University of St. Petersburg in 1884, served for two years in the Ministry of the Interior and for the same period in the Ministry of Agricul- ture, and in 1899 was made Mar- shal of the Provincial Nobility. He was Vice-Governor of Grodno in 1902, and Governor of Sara- toff in 1903, when he became Minister of the Interior. Upon the resignation of Goremykin in 1906 he was appointed Premier. Stomach, in man the most di- lated part of the alimentary canal is situated in the upper and left part of the abdominal cavity, below the liver and diaphragm. Its form is irregularly conical and its capacity in the adult is about five pints. It has two openings — (1) an oesophageal, communicating with the gullet, known as the cardia, and (2) the pyloric orifice, opening into the duodenum, and guarded by the pyloric valve. These two orifices are supplied with sphincter mus- cles. The organ is held in posi- tion by the omenta, which, how- ever, permit of comparatively free movements and of expan- sion. The wall of the stomach consists of four coats — a serous, muscular, cellular, and mucous coat. The mucous coat of the stomach is thick, with a smooth, velvety surface, pinkish in youth . but gray or straw-colored while at rest in the adult, but red dur- ing gastric digestion. Microscop- ically mucous membrane pre- sents a honeycomb appearance, being covered with small shallow depressions or alveoli. The mu- cous membrane is covered by a single layer of narrow cylindrical epithelial cells, which secrete mucus. Numerous glands of two distinct varieties are placed ver- tically like rows of test tubes em- bedded in the mucous membrane, and open by ducts at the bottom of the alveoli: (1) The glands at the cardiac end of the stomach are variously known as peptic, stomach KR 470 Stomach cardiac, or fundus glands. (2) The pyloric glands occur only in the region of the pylorus, and have longer ducts and more patent lumina than have the fundus glands. The function of the stomach includes the mechanical and chemical digestion of ingested food, which is thus prepared for absorption in the intestine, and propelled into the latter by peris- taltic muscular contractions. Carbohydrates and fats are ex- posed to glandular secretions of hydrochloric acid and enzymes. The ingestion of food stimulates the gastric glands to secretion. But the same result may be pro- duced by other stimuli — for ex- ample, mere mechanical irrita- tion by stones or other indigest- ible substances, the application of heat, and nervous stimulation, such as may be caused by the sight, smell, or thought of food; drugs have also an influence upon the gastric glands. Alcohol in moderation increases, in excess arrests, the flow. Dilute alkalis given before food, saliva, and ether all stimulate the secretion, while tannic acid and other astringents diminish it. The gas- tric juice is a clear, colorless fluid with a strongly acid re- action, sour taste, and character- istic odor. It consists mainly of water, but its chief digestive constitutents are hydrochloric acid and pepsin. (See Digestion.) The commoner diseases of the stomach are gastritis, ulceration, dilatation, and cancer. All these may lead to the group of symp- toms known as dyspepsia. (See Dyspepsia.) Acute catarrhal gas- tritis, caused by injudicious diet, is the most fertile cause of infant- ile mortality. In adults acute gastric catarrh frequently follows alcoholic excess, but maybe a re- sult of acute infection, food poi- soning or severe chilling. Vom- iting may be persistent, but the pain is not, as a rule, severe. Chronic catarrh is associated more with the torpid type of dyspepsia, and is often accom- panied by dilatation of the stomach, great emaciation, and nervous depression. It is fre- quently due to chronic alco- holism, and may be merely part of a general venous congestion caused by portal obstruction of a cirrhosed liver. Gastric ulcer may develop from chronic irri- tation of the mucosa by food, from injuries caused by foreign bodies, food balls, hair balls, etc., from disturbances of the auto- nomic nervous system resulting in ischemic areas which undergo digestion by the gastric juice. Other possible causes of gastric ulcer include alcoholic irritation, changes due to excessive use of tobacco, or of condiments, sys- temic changes caused by exten- sive superficial burns or affec- tions of the central nervous sys- tem. Recently the importance of neurologic and psychic distur- bances as causes of gastric ulcer has been stressed. If the ulcer causes rupture of a large blood vessel, severe or fatal hemorrhage may ensue. The ulcer itself may rupture. Perforating ulcers are generally rapidly fatal, as the contents of the stomach escape into the peritoneal cavity and set up general peritonitis. Should the ulcer not penetate the whole thickness of the stomach wall, however, spontaneous healing is possible, especially if the diet be carefully regulated. Dilatation of the stomach is generally secondary to chronic gastritis, nervous disturbance, or obstruction at the pylorus. The thinned and atrophied stomach is distended by fluid and gas, and the patient suflers from eruc- tations. In spite of frequent vomiting the stomach is never thoroughly emptied, and the nutrition of the patient suffers to a marked degree. Acute dila- tation of the stomach may occur during operations under general anesthesia, in acute infections or following injury to the central nervous system. Cancer of the stomach is the The Stomach. A. Stomach (human), b. Same, anterior wall removed, c. Portion of stomach, pylorus and duodenum, d. Section through coats of stomach, e. Fundus of a cardiac gland. F. Epithelium from surface of stomach, g. Arteries and veins of mucous membrane. 1, Oesophagus; 2, duodenum; 3, pylorus; 4, cardia; 5. lesser curvature; 6, greater curvature; 7, anterior surface; 8, pyloric valve; 9, mucous membrane, with rugae; 10, inner surface of gastric mucous membrane; 11, mucous membrane of duodenum; with villi; 12, pyloric gastric glands; 13, circular or deep muscular fibers; 14, longitudinal or external muscular fibers; 15 serous covering: 16, intestinal glands; 17, mucous membrane; 18, muscularis mucosae; 19, submucous coat; 20, circular muscular layer; 21, longitudinal muscular layer; 22, serous coat; 23, orifice of gland; 24, fundus of gland. stomach KR 471 Stone most frequent type of cancer in the male and comes next in fre- quency to cancer of the uterus in the female, and represents, tnere- fore, one of the chief causes of death in the present era. Gastric carcinoma may be present for a long time without causing any symptoms or only mild symp- toms of ordinary dyspepsia and malaise. Cancer about the car- diac end of the stomach often produces the symptoms of acute gastritis; about the pylorus it is associated with aggravated torpid dyspepsia, with great dila- tation, and often with consider- able pain. In cancer there is rarely so much haemorrhage as in gastric ulcer, and there is but little tendency to perforation, except in the case of colloid car- cinoma. The tumor as it in- creases in size can often be felt on palpation through the wasted abdominal walls. It may pro- duce obstruction at the pylorus by the formation of a hard scirr- hous ring, or by the projection inwards of fungoid growths. Sar- coma and benign tumors of the stomach are exceedingly rare. Diseases of the stomach may frequently present symptoms suggesting gallbladder disease, duodenal ulcer or cirrhosis of the liver. X-rays and gastroscopic examination are of great value in differential diagnosis. Persons suffering from dyspepsia or other gastric disturbances of unknown cause should report for examina- tion, since early diagnosis of cancer may lead to earlier treat- ment and thus save many lives. Tuberculosis and syphilis of the stomach are rare, but must be considered in the differential diagnosis from cancer. In acute conditions of the stomach food should be withheld for a time, or given only in small quantities — e.g. iced milk and beef juice in minute doses, with subnitrate of bismuth or other sedative. Counter-irritation over the stomach is useful, and rest is a valuable adjuvant. In acute gastritis arising from alco- holic excess, rest and sedatives, combined with a purge and fol- lowed by light diet, usually effect speedy' cure. In all cases alcohol should be stopped. The bowels must be kept open by enemata if necessary, and tonics should be given. When dilata- tion of the stomach leads to fer- mentation of the food, washing out the contents by means of a stomach tube is of great value. After the operation a little fluid food should be introduced before the tube is removed. The treatment for gastric ulcer is a matter of some debate. The Sippy treatment, which has met with considerable success, con- sists of dietetic and medical measures to neutralize all free hydrochloric acid during the time that the food and its accompany- ing secretion are present in the stomach. Surgical measures are indicated in perforated ulcer and in some other cases. The treat- ment of cancer is also surgical, medical measures in such cases being only palliative. In so- called 'nervous dyspepsia,' efforts must be made to build up the nervous system. An abundance of nutritious food without an at- tempt at too rigorous a diet is indicated. In many of the lower animals the stomach is simple, as in man, but in some rodents it is bifid, while in ruminants it consists of four cavities. Certain plants, such as sundew or drosera, se- crete digestive fluids, and the leaves of pitcher plants are modi- fied into stomach-like organs in which insects are digested. Stomach Pump, in medical practice, is a pump or syringe used to empty the stomach, or to introduce liquids into it. The pump has two apertures near the end instead of one, which con- stitute a sucking and a forcing passage, either of which can be connected with a flexible tube passed into the stomach. Stomata 1. Open, in damp weather. 2. Closed, in dry weather. Sto'mata, openings in the the outer coat or epidermis of the green parts of plants, for the pur- pose of allowing an interchange of air and moisture between the plant and the atmosphere out- side. They are each bounded by two 'guard-cells,' joined at each end. Usually the majority of stomata exist on the under sur- face of leaves, but in the case of floating leaves they are found on the upper surface. Stomati'tis, inflammation of the mouth. Various forms of this condition are met with, including simple catarrhal stoma- titis, a common acute infection in children and adults, character- ized by fetid breath and severe pain; ulcerative stomatitis, often accompanied by severe constitu- tional symptoms; mercurial sto- matitis, due to mercurial poison- ing; ulcer o-memhraneous stoma- titis, or trench mouth; mycotic stomatitis, or thrush (q. v.) ; and noma, or cancrum oris (q. v.). Stone. See Calculus; Gall- stones; Lithotomy; Urinary Calculus. Stone, a British weight, equivalent to 14 lbs. Stone, Amasa (1818-83), American engineer and capitalist, was born in Charlton, Mass. In 1839 he joined Howe, the pat- entee of an improved truss bridge, in building a bridge over the Connecticut river at Springfield, Mass. In 1841 he formed a con- struction company to undertake railroad work and bought Howe's patent rights. He introduced many improvements in bridge- building, and, with the view of enlarging the scope of his opera- tions in 1846, formed another company, which secured the con- tract for building the Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Rail- road. He bequeathed a large part of his fortune to build and equip Adelbert College in Cleve- land, Ohio. Stone, Artificial. Many ma- terials have been proposed to replace natural stone, on the ground that they are equally durable, while they possess the advantage of being easily mould- ed to any desired shape. Of these, concrete is by far the most im- portant. Ransome's stone is made by moulding a mixture of sand, chalk, and sodium silicate, and immersing the blocks in a solution of calcium chloride; the calcium silicate thus formed binds the mass firmly together. Victoria stone, used for paving, is made by soaking slabs made of powdered granite and Portland cement in sodium silicate solu- tion. Other artificial stones are constructed with greater or less success, but cement is usually an essential constituent. Stone, Charles Pomeroy (1825-87), American soldier, was born in Greenfield, Mass. He was graduated from West Point in 1845, served meritoriously in the Mexican War, and during 1857-60 was employed by the Mexican government in making surveys and explorations in Sonora and Lower California. In 1861 he commanded the Rock- ville expedition; participated in General Patterson's operations in the Shenandoah valley, and was responsible for bringing on the disastrous battle of Ball's Bluff. In February 1862, he was ar- rested and was confined in Fort Lafayette until August, when he was released, no charges having stone KR 472 Stone Age been brought against him. He later participated in the siege of Port Hudson; was chief of staff to General Banks on the Red River expedition, and resigned from the army on Sept. 13, 1864. Dur- ing 1870-83 he served in the Egyptian army, and was much of that time chief of staff. Later he had charge of the construction of the pedestal for the statue of Liberty in New York Harbor. Stone, Ellen Maria (1846- 1927), American missionary, was born in Roxbury, Mass., and educated as a teacher. After several years' experience on the editorial staff of the Boston Congregationalist, she began mis- sionary work at Samokov, Bul- garia, in 1878, afterward settling at Salonica, Macedonia. In 1901 she was captured, with the wife of an Albanian Protestant preacher, by Macedonian brig- ands, and was released after six months upon the payment of a ransom of $65,000, most of it raised by public subscription in the United States. Stone, Harlan Fiske (1872- 1946), American public official and jurist, was born in Chester- field, N. H. He was graduated at Amherst in 1894, and after teach- ing chemistry and physics in the high school at Newburyport, Mass., attended Columbia Law School. He was admitted to the bar in 1898, and became a part- ner in the law firm of Satterlee, Canfield and Stone. In 1903 he was made adjunct professor of law at Columbia Law School, and in 1910 became Kent professor and dean. He was appointed U. S. Attorney General in 1924 and an associate justice of the U. S. Supreme Court in 1925. He was appointed Chief Justice of the United States in 1941. Stone, Lucy (1818-93), Amer- ican pioneer woman suffragist, was born in West Brookfield, Mass. After teaching in district schools, she'went to Oberlin, then the only college in the United States to admit women, and was graduated in 1847. In the same year she gave her first women's rights lecture from her brothers' pulpit in Gardner, Mass. In 1853 she married Henry G. Blackwell, a strong advocate of the cause she championed, and with him she worked and lec- tured for many years in behalf of equal rights. In 1869, with other prominent persons, includ- ing Garrison, Mary Livermore and Julia Ward Howe, she organized the American Woman Suffrage Association, and for twenty years was chairman of the executive committee. From 1872 until her death she was editor-in-chief of the Woman's Journal. Stone, Melville Elijah (1848-1929), American journal- ist, was born in Hudson, 111. Removing to Chicago in 1860, he became a reporter on the Chicago Tribune in 1864. He subse- quently engaged in business for a few years (1869-71), but re- turned to journalism, and in 1875 established the Chicago Daily News, and in 1881 the Chicago Morning News, which subsequently became the Chi- cago Record. His health having failed, he spent three years in Europe, but returned to Chicago in 1891, and organized the Globe National Bank, of which he was president until 1898. He was general manager of the Asso- ciated Press from 1893 to 1921. when he became counselor of that organization. Consult his Fifty Years a Journalist (1921). Stone, Samuel (1602-63), American clergyman, was born in Hertford, England. He studied in Emanuel College, Cambridge; emigrated to Massachusetts in 1633; and in 1636 removed with Thomas Hooker and others to the Connecticut valley, where they founded the town of Hart- ford. There he preached until his death. He published A Con- gregational Church is a Catholic Visible Church (1652). and left other religious works in manu- script. Stone, Thomas (1743-87), a signer of the Declaration of Inde- pendence, was born in Charles county, Md. He was admitted to the bar in 1764, was a member of the Continental Congress in 1775-7 and 1783-4 and president pro tern, in 1784. Stone, William Leete (1792- 1844 , American journalist and author, was born in New Paltz, N. Y. In 1821 he became editor and part owner of the New York Commercial Advertiser, retaining the connection until his death. He initiated in 1838 a movement for the collection of papers and documents relating to the history of the state of New York. He published: Tales and Sketches, aboriginal and Revolutionary (1834), Maria Monk and the Nunnery of the Hotel Dieu (1836), Life of Joseph Brant (1838), Lf/e of Red Jacket (1840), and Uncas and Miantonomeh (1842). His son, William Leete Stone (1835-1908), was the author of a number of historical works. Stone Age, the term applied by European archaeologists to that earliest period of man's existence which is chiefly charac- terized by his use of tools, imple- ments, and weapons of stone, bone, and horn. The Stone Age is divisible into two periods — the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic terms first used by Sir John Lub- bock (Lord Avebury) — a classi- fication clearly enough repre- sented throughout the European continent, but scarcely applic- able to America (see American Archaeology). 1. Palaeolithic, or Early Stone Age. — This division is itself sub- divisible into the period (1) of the river gravels, and (2) of the caves the fauna and imple- ments of which are not always identical. (1.) Cores and nuclei (livres- de-beurre) of flint are among the earliest remnants of tool making. The tools made from them are formed by chipping only, and are not ground or polished; and the materials, besides flint, are chert and quartzite. The dis- covery of implements of this earliest period was made in 1847, by Boucher de Perthes of Abbe- ville. Subsequently, similar dis- coveries were made at Chelles (Seine-et-Marne), St. Acheul, in Paris, in C6tes-du-Nord, in Poi- tou, and indeed over the greater part of France. In association with many of these implements the remains of three extinct specios of elephant were ob- tained. Implements of this period have also been reported from Belgium, Italy, Spain, Por- tugal, and Greece. They vary in shape from broad thick ovals to long, broad-based, and atten- uated forms, and in size from two and a half inches in length to massive pointed tools ten and eleven inches in length. (2.) It is in France, again, that the earliest systematized results of the investigation of caverns were brought before archaeolo- gists, the relics being chiefly ob- tained in Dordogne. Schmerling also, early in the 19th century, discovered in Belgium human bones, worked flints, and bone implements in association with the remains of extinct animals. The earliest of the cave imple- ments (Le Moustier) are ovate- lanceolate in form, large sub- triangular flakes worked at the edge, and rough sling-stones; and there is an almost entire absence of implements of bone. Next (Solutreen) come lance- heads and daggers, arrow-heads of two forms, knife-like flakes, scrapers and borers — ^all of flint. In bone or reindeer-horn, these early people made lance-heads, a very few of which are engraved with figures of animals. Thirdly (La Madelaine), well-shaped flint flakes, scrapers, pebbles used as mortars and rounded hammerstones, are all fairly abundant; a few flint saws have been found; while in bone and horn there are dart-heads, har- poon-heads, and small perforated needles. The art of the period is marked by the frequency of in- cised figures of animals (very rarely of the human figure) done upon stone, bone. horn, and ivory, and by ornaments formed of pierced bones and teeth. Fish- I PAL/EOLITMIC MEOLITMIC IMPLEMENTS OF THE STONE AGE. P«liRolithle:-1. Earliest form of flint implement. 2-4. Typical Pahwolithic flint implements. 5. Flint spear-head. 6. Flint arrow-head. 7. Bone enf^raved with fl^fure of deer. 8-10. Implements of horn and bone. Neolltlilp;— 11 Implement chipped only. 1^. Implement with working edjfe ground. 13. Implement ground and polished, .14. Hone. 15. Gouge. 16, 17. Polished axe-hends. 18. Hand-hammer. 19. Axe-hammer. 20. Spear-head. 21. Saddle (luern. 22. Saw. 23. Arrow- head. (Drawn from examples in Britiak Museum.) stone-chat 474 iStoneheng^ bones and bird-bones are abun- dant. In Great Britain, objects of human manufacture have been found in association with more than twenty extinct species, in- cluding the lemming (Mus leni- nius), the hyaena (H. crociitd), the sabre-toothed tiger (Machairodus latidens), the cave lion (Felis leo), the Irish elk, the mammoth {E. primigenius) , and the hippo- potamus. Nevertheless, as Sir John Evans insists, ' the occupa- tion of caves by man is not con- fined to any definite period, and even in the case of the discovery of objects of human workmanship in direct association with the remains of the Pleistocene extinct mammals, their contemporaneity cannot be proved without careful observation of the circumstances under which they occur, even if then.' 2. Neolithic or Later Stone Age. — The principal larger imple- ments characterizing this period are axe-heads, of an endless vari- ety of form and size, but in nearly every instance polished and ground to a perfect cutting edge; chisels, of polished flint and other very hard stones; axe-hammers, of a great variety of sizes and shapes, perforated for a wooden shaft; hammer-stones, plain and with cup-shaped depressions ; circu- larly chipped thick discs of quartz- itic stones, almost exclusively confined to the shores of the Moray Firth in Scotland; saddle- querns and hand-mills; grinding and whet stones. Smaller im- plements are spear-heads, arrow- heads, fabricators, knives, and scrapers, made of flint and chert, obsidian, quartzites, and other hard materials. Saws of flint occur in great abundance on the sands of Glenluce (Scotland) ; and quite recently a minute type of flint implement, less than one inch in length and frequently not one-twelfth in breadth, exqui- sitely worked all round the edges, has been noticed, principally by the Rev. Reginald A. Gatty in Yorkshire and by other collec- tors in France, Egypt, Belgium, India, and in Scotland. Beauti- fully trimmed curved daggers of flint are a feature in the Neo- lithic relics of Denmark. Orna- ments of jet or lignite, such as buttons and rings bearing deco- ration, necklaces, armlets, pend- ants, and beads show that early man displayed a taste for dress and personal adornment. See Sir J. Evans's Ancient Stone Im- plements oj Great Britain (1897); Lord Avebury's [Lubbock] Pre- historic Times (ed. 1900); Daw- kins's Early Man in Britain (1880). Stone-chat {Pratincola rubi- cola), one of the smaller European passerine birds. It reaches a length of about five inches, and has the head and throat black, the back'black with brown markings, the breast rufous, the sides of the neck white, and a distinct white Stone-chat. patch on the wing. The nest is placed among herbage on the ground, and the eggs number from five to six. The food consists chiefly of worms, insect larvae, and beetles, with some seeds. Stone Circles, as understood by modern archaeologists, means a circular area enclosed by free- standing, pillar-like stones. But the terrn has been applied (1) to rnany different and more or less circular arrangements of stones, whether the stones were merely contiguous (as in the boundary of a cairn) or formed the ruined portion of a wall, such as that of a broch; and (2) to numerous arrangements of small stones in India, France, and Ireland. There is now, howjever, no doubt that the stone circle properly so called has its archaeological home in Great Britain, and further, that in Scot- land we find the area of its fullest development. See Circles of Stone. Stone-crop, the popular name for plants of the genus Sedum, order Crassulaceae. See Sedum. Stone-fly, a name given by British anglers to the species of the genus Perla, which are neu- ropterous insects belonging to the family Perlidae.^ A common spe- cies is P. marginata, a yellowish- brown insect, somewhat mothlike in flight, and of sluggish habits. It is found in the vicinity of water, in which the eggs are deposited, and where the young pass the whole of their larval life. Species of stone-fly are found in America, but are not used as bait. Stone-fruit. See Fruit. Stoneham, tn., Middlesex co., Mass., 10 m. n. by w. of Boston, on the Bost. and Me. R. R. It is largely a residential place. It has manufactures of boots and shoes, automobiles, boxes, chemicals, drugs and medicines, shoe stock, cutting dies, etc. It has a public library. Stoneham adjoins Mid- dlesex Falls Reservation, a large state park. The town was settled about 1670 as a part of Charlestown, and called Cfharlesr town End. In 1725 it was sepa- rately incorporated and took the name it now bears. Pop. (1910) 7.090. Stonehenge. This unique meg- alithic structure has been the subject, for a period of seven hundred years, of the wildest theories. The earliest yet dis- covered notice of it is by Henry of Huntingdon (d. 1154). The theories regarding its origin in- clude the following: That here was the burial-place of Boadi- cea; that it was the Giants' Dance removed by Merlin from Ireland and rebuilt on Salisbury Plain; Dr. Charlton, physician to Charles ii., deemed it Danish; Inigo Jones, who made a plan of it for James i., set it down as Roman; Johrf Aubrey, the origi- nator of the Druidic theory, made plans in 1G6G, and of course claimed it as a Druid temple; Stukeley in 1740 started the the- ory that it was part of a vast ophite monument; and other the- ories were propounded by Andrew Borde (1542), John Hardyng (1543), Leland (1552), John Speed (1627), John Stow (1631), and Thomas Fuller (1656). The old- est known drawing of it occurs in a MS. of the Scala Mundi {c. 1340) in the college of Corpus Christi at Cambridge. Stonehenge consists of a triply concentric group of stones ar- ranged nearly in a circle, and within the circumference of a deep trench, the diameter of which is 333 ft. The outermost circle of megaliths has a diameter of 100 ft., the middle of 75 ft., and the innermost of 40 ft. The outermost circle consisted (when complete) of probably thirty great upright stones, each about 12 ft. high, 6 ft. broad, and over 3 ft. thick. Every couple was covered by a great oblong block, fastened on mortise-and-tenon principle, these stones being 10 ft. long. In the middle circle the stones, only seven of which now remain, are of diabase, a mineral of a very different composition from the sarsens of the outer ring. The innermost circle is composed of diabase, and, like the middle circle, of much smaller blocks. There may have been twenty-two, and opinions differ as to whether they are of the same date as the rest of the structure. The out- standing feature of Stonehenge, however, is the presence, between these two inner circles of com- paratively small stones, of a horseshoe-shaped group of sar- sen stones of transcendent magni- tude. One couple with its lintel occupies a space on the south- west (the middle of the 'horse- shoe' curve), and four others stone Indians 475 Stone ftivef complete the arrangement. Two of the uprights of these great tri- Hthons stand over 22 ft. above ground, and the other three are IG ft. and over. The lintels meas- ure about 15 ft. In front of the southwest trilithon, and well in- side the circle, lies a vast stone 18 ft. long and over 4 ft. wide, called 'the altar.' On the north- east is a great stone called 'the Friar's Heel,' standing outside of the circle. Partial excavation conducted in 1901 resulted in the discovery of a few flint imple- ments, stone hammers, and a sort of pounder- chisel, v/hich seems to have been the tool used in 'dress- ing' the stones. No pottery was discovered by which alone it would be possible to assign the date either to the new Stone Age or the Bronze Age. It may be mentioned, however, that experts in astronomy, founding on the assumption that Stonehenge was of captain. Ordered by Gen. Twiggs to surrender his post to the Confederates, he refused to do so, and managed to bring his command in safety to New York. He was appointed major in the regular army and brigadier-general of volunteers, and given command of the cavalry of the Army of the Potomac, which he led in the Peninsula campaign. He took, command of Kearny's division after the latter's death at Chantilly, and commanded the Third Corps at Fredericksburg. He had been made major-general of volunteers on Nov. 29, 1862. He again commanded the cavalry during the Chancellorsville campaign, conducting a raid upon Lee's line of supplies, commanded the Twenty-third Corps in Jan.-April, 1864, and commanded a cavalry division in the Atlanta campaign. He was captured on July 31, 1864, enough, both generals decided upon the same plan of battle- namely, to overwhelm the righ/ wing of the opposing army — but the Confederates were the lirst to attempt the execution of their plan. Early on the morning of Dec. 31 General McCook, who commanded the Union right, was attacked with great vigor by General Hardee. Before noon his division had been driven from its position with heavy loss, and it was only through the heroic ^ stand of General Thomas, who 'commanded the Union centre, the splendid fighting qualities of Gen- eral Philip Sheridan, who here first brought himself into prom- inence, and Rosecrans's skill in rearranging his lines, that a total defeat was averted. As it was, the advantage was decidedly with the Confederates, who captured 28 guns and many prisoners. New Year's Day was almost de- a sun-temple, have arrived at the date 1680 B.C. — a date pretty closely corresponding with the period of the Bronze Age in Brit- ain. See Sir H. James's Stone- henge and its Barrows (1867); Long, in Wiltshire Magazine for 1876; Archceologia, vol. Iviii. pt. 1 ; and Flinders Petrie's Stone- henge (1881). Stone Indians, or Stonies, a division of the Assiniboines now residing in a small reserva- tion in Alberta. The name was often given to the whole Assini- boine group. See Assiniboine. Also Franklin's Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar Sea. etc. (London, 1823); Maximillion's Travels in the In- terior of North America (Lon- don, 1843). Stoneman, George (1822-94), American soldier, born at Busti, N. Y. _ He graduated at West Point in 1846, served on the Pacific coast until 1857. and in 1861 was in commana at Ft. Brown,, Tex., with the rank Stonehenge. (Photo by Valentine.) while attempting a raid on Andersonville. Released in Oc- tober, he was active in East Tenn., N. C, and Va. until the close of the war. He became a colonel in the regular army in 1866 and retired in 1871. In 1883-87 he was governor of Cal. Stone River, a small river of Tennessee, rising near the centre of the state, flowing northward, and emptying into the Cumber- land river a few miles above Nashville. On its west fork was fought the battle of Stone River, or of Murfreesboro, Dec. 31, 1862, and Jan. 2, 1863. Stone River, Battle of, sometimes known as the battle of Murfreesboro, a battle of the Civil War, fought Dec. 31, 1862, and Jan. 2, 1863, near Murfrees- boro, on the west fork of Stone river, in Tennessee. The Federal army of about 41,000 men was commanded by General Rose- crans, and that of the Confeder- ates, numbering about 35,000 men, by General Bragg. Strangely void of fighting, but on the after- noon of Jan. 2 General Breckin- ridge, in an attack upon a Union position on a hill near the river, brought his men in range of the Union batteries on the other side of the river, with the result that about 2,000 Confederates fell in twenty minutes. By nightfall the Union army had advanced to a point from whence shells could be thrown into the Confederate quarters in Murfreesboro, and Bragg therefore withdrew his army during the night of the 3d. The battle had been one of the most murderous of the war, the Union loss being about 13,000, and that of the Confederates about 11,000. Though tactically a draw, strategically the battle was a Union victory. It opened Central Tennessee to them, and coming as it did after the disas- ter of Fredericksburg (q.v.), it did much to reanimate the North. See Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (1887-88); Cist, The Army of the Cumberland (1882); stones 476 Stoppage In Transitu Ropes, Story of the Civil War (1894-98); Van Home, History of the Army of the Cumberland (1875); and Official^ Records (vol. xx„ parts i. and ii.). Stones, Precious. See Gems AND Precious Stones. Stoneware, a crude kind of porcelain, of which the materials, mainly flint and feldspar, are of coarser quality, and have not been so strongly heated and nearly fused in the process of manufac- ture. Stoneware is unlike porce- lain in being opaque, and differs from earthenware in not being porous. It is, however, usually glazed by throwing salt into the furnace, the sodium of the salt forming a kind of glass with the silica of the ware. See Pottery. S onework. See Masonry. Stonington, tn., New London CO., Conn., 11 m. E. by s. of New London, on Long I. Sound, and on the N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R. The harbor is deep and commo- dious, and a thriving coast trade and fishing industry are carried on. There are railroad shops, thread mills, and manufactories of printing presses, silk, cotton, woollen goods, and velvets, silk machinery, boilers, fertilizers, and iron products. Whaling and seal- ing were formerly extensively car- ried on from this place. Settled in 1649 by William Cheesebrough, a member of Plymouth Colony, this town was originally a part of Mas- sachusetts. It was named South- ertown in 1658, and in 1662 came into the possession of Connecti- cut. In 1665 it was called Mystic, and in 1666 received the name it now bears. The British bom- barded Stonington in 1775 and again in 1814, but both attacks were unsuccessful. Pop. (1910) 9,154. Stony Creek, vil., Wentworth CO., Ont., Canada, 5 m. e.s.e. of Hamilton, on the Gr. Trunk and the Tor., Ham. and Buf. R. Rs. In 1813, a battle was fought here between American and British forces in which the former were defeated. Pop. about 650. Stonyhurst, Roman Catholic college, Lancashire, England, 5 m. N.w. of Whalley station (L. & Y. Ry.). The buildings are chiefly modern, added to an Elizabethan mansion. The li- brary (30,000 vols.) contains some rare treasures, including an uncial Latin MS. (7th century) of St. John's Gospel, found in the tomb of St. Cuthbert; an illuminated MS. of Froissart's Chronicles, vol, i. (the companion volume is in the British Museum); a Prayer Book which belonged to Mary Queen of Scots; a large number of illuminated MSS. of the 14th and 15th centuries; and a large collection of historical MSS. re- lating to Catholic affairs in the IGth, 17th, and 18th centuries. In the ornamental grounds is an astronomical observatory. There are about 300 students. Stonypoint, tn., Rockland co., N. Y., 35 m. N. of New York city, on the w. bank of the Hudson R., and on the N. Y., Ont. and W. and the W. Shore R. Rs. The storming of the British post here by Gen. Wayne in 1779 was one of the most brilliant exploits of the Revolutionary War (see below). The scene of the fighting is now occupied by a state park. Pop. (191U) 3,(;51. Sf ony Points Storming of. In the beginning of 1779 Gen. Wash- ington held the Highlands of the Hudson around West Point, and the remainder of the Continental armv was in supporting distance. With the hope of compelling Washington to offer battle, Sir Henry Clinton, on May 31, forced the small garrison of Stony Point, on the w. bank of the river, 35 miles above New York, to evacuate the post, and the next day captured the garrison at Verplanck's Point on the fi. bank of the river, thus gaining pos- session King's Ferry. Wash- ington refused to hazard a battle and did not oppose Wm. Tryon (q.v.) in his invasion of Connec- ticut. Early in June, Clinton vdthdrc^ the main body of his forces down the river, but left a strong garrison at Stony Point. Washington determined to sur- prise the fort and ordered Gen. Wayne, with the corps of Light Infantry, the picked troops of the Continental army, to make a night attack. The corps, 1,350 strong, wa|s inspected five miles below West Point on July 15, and marched 13 miles south and west directly behind the Point, which was cut off from the mainland by a marsh. The troops started at 11:30 P.M. in two columns, the right led by Wayne himself, the left, by Col. Richard Butler, to which was attached a smaller force under Maj. Hardy Murfree, who was to make a feint in front. All the troops except Murfree's were forbidden under penalty of death to load or fire their guns, but were to depend upon the bayonet. While crossing the marsh Wayne's column was dis- covered and fired upon. Maj, Murfree opened a noisy fire in the front or western side, and Lieut.-Col. Johnston, the com- mander of the post, with about half the force, hastened to the outer redoubts to repel the at- tack. Meanwhile both the right and left columns overcame the British resistance within 30 min- utes and entered the works from the north and the south at one o'clock. The fifteen captured cannon were at once turned on Verplanck's, l)Ut, owing to a mis- understanding, the troops to in- vest that post did not move until too late. The British loss was 63 killed and 543 prisoners were taken. On the American side 15 were killed and 83 were wounded. As the post was un- able to withstand a siege, it was abandoned on July 18, and im- mediately reoccupied by the British. Though of little direct practical advantage, the capture increased American confidence, and hindered the dispatch of raiding parties. See Johnston, Stony Point (1900); Stille, Wayne (1903). Stool of Repentance, a seat or pew in the parish churches of Scotland, in which those sen- tenced to expiate such sins as immorality, lying, evil-speaking, drunkenness, and the like had to appear and remain during serv- ice. The offender was clothed in a long robe of sacking, or was wrapped in a white sheet, and thus apparelled was required to stand, for minor offences, one or two Sundays, but for major ones several days. In earlier times it was customary to add a public rebuke from the pulpit; but this fell into desuetude, though the 'stool' was kept up till the early part of the 19th century, and the rebuke was given within the privacy of the session until very recent days. Stoppage in Transitu. In law, this phrase denotes the exer- cise of the right of a seller of goods to retain or retake posses- sion of them after they have been shipped, but before an actual or constructive delivery has been made to the buyer, and hold them until he receives payment of the entire purchase price, where the buyer is insolvent. It is imma- terial whether the buyer was in- solvent at the time of the sale, if this fact was unknown to the seller, or became so after the goods were shipped. It is not necessary that the buyer be judi- cially declared insolvent or adju- dicated a bankrupt, if in fact he is unable to meet his obligations as they fall due. However, the seller takes the risk, and may become liable in damages if he is mistaken. The right is not lost because, credit for a certain period was given, nor by receiving the debtor's promis- sory note, unless it was taken as actual payment, and it may be enforced to secure a balance of the purchase price where part has been paid. The goods are con- sidered in transit until they reach the destination named in the con- tract of sale, and come into the actual or constructive control of the buyer. Thus, goods may have arrived at a railroad freight house, and still be subject to the order of the seller, but if not, and the rail- road company holds them subject to the buyer's orders, there is a storage Batteries 477 Storm constructive delivery. An assign- ment or transfer of the bill of lading to an innocent purchaser or pledgee by the buyer extin- guishes the right. The fact that title has passed to the buyer does not affect the right, and while the goods are in transit the seller has a superior claim over attaching cred- itors of the buyer. The right may be exercised by taking possession of the goods in a peaceable man- ner, or by notice to the carrier and debtor of the exercise of the right; or by attachment. A carrier always has a prior hen for freight, but after this is satisfied must de- liver the goods to the seller. See Sales; consult, Mechem, Sales. Storage Batteries. See Ac- cumulators. Storax. A balsamic substance obtained from Liquidamhar orien- talis and used in medicine. It was formerly obtained from Styrax officinalis, as benzoin is taken from Styrax benzoin. This genus, Styra.x, also furnishes sev- eral ornamental shrubs for culti- vation, having white flowers, often fragrant and in pendulous racemes. S. americana is found in the Southern states. Storer, Bellamy (1847), American diplomat, born in Cincinnati. He graduated at Harvard in .1867, was admitted to the bar in 18C9, practised in Cincinnati, and served in Con- gress (1891-5). In 1897 he was appointed U. S. minister to Belgium, and in 1899 minister to Spain. In 1902 he was ap- pointed ambassador to Austria- Hungary, but resigned in March, 1906, at the request of President Roosevelt. The publication in December, 1906, of the correspon- dence, both personal and official, between the President and himself gave rise to much comment in the press, and was followed by a public reply from the President with further cjuotations from the correspondence. From this it ap- peared that his resignation was requested on the ground that he had not answered a communica- tion from the Prfcsident relating to the alleged interference of Mrs. Storcr in ecclesiastical matters at Rome. Mr. Storer contended that the course taken by Mrs. Storcr and himself had been authorized by the President. This the latter emphatically denied. ^1*^^ iVOi'.|z,,/f Storer, David Humphreys (1804 -91\ American physician, born in Portland, Me. He gradu- ated at Bowdoin College in 1822. studied medicineat Harvard anci graduated at the Harvard Medical School in 182.5. Pie began the . practice of medicine in Boston, and in 18.37 founded the Tre- mont Street Medical School in that city. In 18.38-54 he was director and lecturer on the dis- eases of women and children in that institution. In 1837 he was appointed director of the depart- ment of ichthyology and herpct- ology of the Mass. State Geologi- cal Survey, and in 1849-58, he served as attending physician to the Massachusetts General Hos- pital. In 1855-64 he was dean of the Harvard Medical School, and in 1854-68, was professor of obstetrics and medical jurispru- dence in that school. For manv years he was associated with Professor Louis Agassiz in bio- logical researches. He was author of: Report on the Ichthyology and Herpetology of Massachusetts (1839); Synopsis of the Fishes of North America (1846); and His- tory of the Fishes of Massachu- setts (1853-67). Stores, Co-operative. See Co-operation. Storey, Moorefield (1845), American lawyer, born at Rox- bury, Mass. He graduated at Harvard in 1866, and was ad- mitted to the bar in 1869. He was private secretary to Senator Sumner in 1867-69, and in 1873- 79 edited the American Law Review. He obtained a promi- nent place in his profession in Boston, and became active in various reform movements and as an Anti-Imperialist. He pub- lished a Life of .Charles Sumner (1900). Storlt, or White Stork {Ci- conia alba), a large bird which is distributed over the greater part of Europe, although it is only an occasional visitor to the British Stork. Isles. It also extends into Asia, and winters in Africa. On parts of the Continent, especially in Germany and Holland, the stork is protected and encouraged to breed. In France, where it ia much f)ersecuted, it is rare, as it is also in Italy. Particular storks return in April to the nesting- place of the previous season, the nest often being constructed on the top of a cart-wheel, placed on the roof of a building. The food consists of frogs, reptiles, small fish, small mammals, young birds, worms, and insects. Dur- ing the breeding season the birds keep up a curious clatter with their bills. They are the sub- ject of many myths and legends among the Germans. The white stork has a length of over forty inches. The plumage is white, except for the wing-coverts and quills, which are black. The beak, legs, and feet are red, the claws being brown. ^ The black stork (C nigra), which is black above and white below, is an occasional visitor to Britain. Storks, in the wide sense, are members of the family Ciconiidae, and are characterized by the long neck and long, stout beak, which is usually straight, and has nos- trils which are mere perforations of the horny sheath. The legs are long, the tibia being partly bare; the toes are short, the three front ones being partially webbed, while the wings are large and fairly long. In addition to the storks proper, the family in- cludes the adjutant, jabiru, wood- ibis, and so on. Storm, an unusual atmospheric disturbance, generally manifested by high winds, rain, snow, etc. In the teachnical nautical sense, a storm is a wind of force 11 on the Beauf9rt scale — i.e. a wind under which a man-of-war of the old type could carry only storm stay sails. Storms are either general or local. The lat- ter, often of great violence, are of brief duration and limited extent. (See Thunderstorms; Tornadoes.) General storms may endure for several days, cover an area whose diameter exceeds a thousand miles, and sweep in their course across- a continent. The centre of the storm is an area of low atmospheric pressure, toward and around which the winds blow; in the southern hemisphere in a direction agree- ing with that of the hands of a watch, in the northern hemi- sphere in the opposite, or 'anti- clockwise ' direction. The direc- tion in both cases is the result of the earth's rotation, whereby the winds, in common with all other objects moving freely on the earth's surface, are deflected to the right of their course in the northern hemisphere, to the left in the southern. As regards the cause of storms we cannot speak with certainty. A theory once generally held ascribed their origin to the rising storm of locally over - heated air, the winds forced from all sides to- ward the resulting area of lower pressure being deflected into a spiral course in consequence of the earth's rotation, as explained above. Rain or snow is formed by the condensation of vapor as the ascending air is cooled by its own expansion. The latent heat set free by this condensation as- sists in maintaining differences of temperature that lengthen the life of the storm and increase its energy. Careful and extended observa- tions show that this theory is not always sufficient to account for the phenomena observed, and it has been suggested that the great at- mospheric whirls that form our storms may be due to the flowing together of currents of air com- ing from opposite directions and having decided differences of temperature. According to this view, rain and snow arise less from the cooling of ascending air currents than from the cooling of warm currents by mixture with cold ones. It is possible that both of these theories may apply, in differing degrees under differing conditions, and there is reason to believe that the first theory offers a better explanation of tropical hurricanes than of the storms of more northern regions. The progressive movement of storms, which must not be con- fused with the movement of the winds around the storm centre, is, in temperate latitudes, from west to east. Most storms of the United States make their appear- ance near the northwestern boundary line, or on the north Pacific coast, and their usual path lies in the northern tier of states, crossing the Great Lakes to New England and the St. Lawrence valley. A respectable minority, however, make a decided loop toward the southeast, sometirnes approaching the Gulf of Mexico before they turn again eastward and move finally northeast through the Atlantic states. Storms de- veloping in more southern or eastern sections either pursue a northeast course to New Eng- land, or else pass by a more southern and roundabout route to the same general destination. It must not be inferred from the foregoing that all storms, what- ever their place of origin, pass through New England. Some die out in the interior of the con- tinent, an occurrence more com- mon in summer than in winter. Individual cases may depart widely from the general or aver- age tracks traced above. A somewhat numerous class of ex- ceptions is that of storms that reach our Atlantic coast in more southern latitudes, and pass from the field of observation without 478 turning toward the north. But only a very small proportion of our land storms ever move to- ward the westj and this retro- gression is never for any con- siderable distance. Their prac- tically universal eastward march is a part of the general eastward drift of the whole atmosphere in these latitudes. Both the direc- tion and velocity of storm move- ments are apparently modified by the areas of high pressure. A * high ' to the north of a low area, for example, may deflect the storm to the right, that isj to the south, of its usual course. Storms are most frequent, most violent, and most rapid in the winter months. Their average velocity for the whole year is not far from 26 miles per hour, which would suffice to carry them across the continent in about four days. The highest temperature in a storm area is generally found somewhat in advance of the cen- tre, and rain or snow fall most copiously to the east and south- east of the centre. Clearing and colder weather may be expected to follow the passing of the storm centre. One important class of storrns, the West Indian hurricanes, dif- fers in some characteristics from those just described. They are most common in August, Septem- ber^ and October, and are of very rare occurrence from December to June. They move toward the northwest as they approach the United States, recurve toward the northeast in the latitude of Florida, sometimes east _ and sometimes west of this peninsu- lar, and pass through the Atlantic states, where they form some of the most violent of our coast storms. It is upon the movements and other characteristics of these storm areas, and of the areas of high pressure, that the forecasts of the U. S. Weather Bureau are in great part based. (See Weather Forecasts.) One of the most remarkable storms in the United States oc- curred on January 11, 1888, in Montana, the Dakotas, and neigh- boring sections, where the loss of life was probably not less than 100. A heavy snow was drifted by winds of from 30 to 50 miles per hour. The sudden fall in temperature was unprecedented; at one place 50° in 5 hours: at another 18° in 3 minutes. Simi- lar storms occurred in the East- ern states in March of the same year, and in France and England on Jan. 18, 1881. Devastation is greatest in the coast hurricanes where the force of the storm wave supplements the force of the wind. A storm from the Gulf destroyed the greater part of Indianola, Tex., Storm on Sept. 15, 1875, and the ill-fated town was entirely destroyed in 1886. This disaster appears insig- nificant when compared with the Galveston hurricane of Septem- ber 9, 1900, in which the wind attained an extreme velocity ex- ceeding 100 miles per hour; 3,000 houses were in ruins and more than SjOOO persons perished. In September, 1906, a furious hur- ricane destroyed lives and prop- erty at New Orleans, Mobile, Pensacola, and other points on the Gulf coast. The Lincolnshire coast of England was swept in the 16th century by a storm wave that claimed thousands of victims, and the West Indies have been scourged by hurricanes equally fatal. But for the most appalling dis- asters we must look to the low- lying and thickly populated coasts of the Orient. Forty-five thou- sand lives snuffed out in a single day by a storm wave 16 feet high on the delta of the Ganges; 100,- 000 more on Oct. 31, 1876; these are two instances of the worst work of the elements. See F. H. Bigelow's Storms, Storm Tracks, and Weather Fore- casting, U. S. Weather Bureau Bulletm 20 (1897); J. Hann's Lehrbuch der Meteorologie (1906); W. Ferrel's Popular Treatise on the Winds (1898); Bigelow's Popu- lar Account of the Counter-current Theory of Storms, in Proceed- ings of the third convention of Weather Bureau Officials, at Peoria, 111. (1904); W. M. Davis's Elementary Meteorology (1899); Waldo's Elementary Meteorol- ogy; also many papers on storms, cyclones, and hurricanes in the Monthly Weather Review. Storm, GuSTAV (1845-1903), Norwegian philologist: won in 1872 the gold medal ot the Dan- ish Academy of Sciences by his treatise on Snorri Sturlason's history, and was appointed (1877) professor of history at Christiania University. He edited the works of P. A. Munch (1872-86), Monu- m,enta Historica Norvegica Q880), and, with modern translation, Snorre Sturlassdns Kongesagaer (1896), and wrote Kritiske Bid- rag til Vikingetidens Histoire (1878), and Studier over Vinlands- rejserne (1888). Storm, Theodor Waldsen (1817-88), German novelist and poet, born at Husum, Schleswig; spent the greater part of his life as a judge in his native province and in Prussia. His works, which were immensely popular in their day, include Gedichte (1852), and short stories published in book form under such titles as Im- mensee (1852), Zerstreute Kapitel (1873), Aquis Suhmersus (1877), Psyche (1877), Cars ten Curator 1878), Hans und Heinz Kirch 1883), John Riew (X886), Der .storm King Schimmelreiter (1888). Lives of Storm have been written by Schutze (1887) and Wehl (1888). Storm King, a mountain, part of the highlands of the Hudson, about 2 m. N.w. by N. of West Point, on the w. shore of the Hudson R. It was called Botter- berg (Butter Mountain) by the Dutch. The town of Cornwall is situated at its base. Its height is 1,530 ft. Storm Lake, city, la., co. seat of Buena Vista co., 64 m. e.n.e. of Sioux City, on Storm L., and on the Chi., Mil. and St. P., the 111. Cent., and the Minn, and St. L. R. Rs. Buena Vista College (Presb.j is situated here. Flour, brick, tile, butter tubs and cement products are manufactured as well as large quantities of beet- sugar. Corn, oats, wheat, flax, etc., are grown in the region. Dairying and the breeding and raising of live-stock are also indus- tries of the district. The city has a Carnegie Library and a general sanatorium. Chautauqua, Elm, West Parks, and the region about Storm Lake are of special scenic interest. The water-works are owned and operated by the municipalitv. It was first settled in 1870 and incorporated in 1873. Pop. (1910) 2,428. Storm Warnings. See Weather Forecast. Stornoway, bur. of barony, Eolice bur., and seapt., isl, of ,ewis, Ross-shire, Scotland, 180 m. N.w. of Oban- is the chief town in the Western Isles, and has the Nicolson Institute, a castle, and is a herring-fishing station. See William Bldick's Princess of Thule. Pop. (1911) 3,806 (about 10,_ 000 in the fishing season). S.torrs, Richard Salter (1821-1900), American divine, was born at Braintree, Mass., and graduated (1839) at Amherst. He, studied law with Rufus Choate, but abandoned the idea of practice, entered Andovcr Theological Seminary, and gradu- ated in 1845. He was ordained pastor of the Harvard Congrega- tional Church in BrookHnc, Mass., in 1845, and in 1846 accepted a call to the Church of the Pilgrims, in Brooklyn, N. Y., where he was pastor, and pastor emeritus until his death. Dr. Storrs was a founder of the Independent in 1848, and an editor until 1861. He gained reputation as an orator, and was in demand on public occasions. His writings include: An Oration Commemorative of President Lin- coln (1869), The Conditions of Success in Preaching without Notes (1875), John Wyckliffe and the First English Bible (1880), Manliness in the Scholar (1883), The Divine Origin of Christianity Indicated by its Historical Effects (1884), Forty Years of Pastoral 479 Life (1886), The Puritan Spirit (1890), Bernard of Clairvaux (1892), and Orations and Ad- dresses (1901). See E. A. Parks's Memorial Address (1900). Storthing, the Norwegian Par- liament, consisting of representa- tives elected triennially and hold- ing annual sessions. It is divided into an upper house (Lagthing) and a lower house (Odelsthing), one-fourth of the members being chosen to sit in the former and the remainder in the latter. Story, Emma Fames. See Eames. Story, Joseph (1779-1845), American jurist, born at Marble- head, Mass. He graduated at Harvard in 1798, and began to practise law at Salem in 1801. After an attempt at light literature which was not a success, he de- voted himself to his profession and to politics, soon taking a high rank at the bar and in 1805 being sent to the legislature as a Repub- lican. He was soon recognized as a leader of his party in the state, and in 1808 was elected to Con- gress to fill a vacancy, serving until 1809. He took a strong position against the embargo, which caused a split in the Repub- lican majority and resulted in its repeal, earning from Jefferson thereby the name of 'pseudo- Republican.' In 1811 he was speaker of the Mass. House of Representatives, and afterwards in that year was appointed by Madison associate justice of the U. S. Supreme Court. In his long term of thirty-four years on the bench of that court he assisted in the development of American con- stitutional law and in fixing the status of American adrniralty, pat- ent, and equity jurisprudence. Originally a Republican, he soon fell under the sway of Marshall's genius, and his opinions, particu- larly in 'Martin vs. Hunter's Les- see' and in the Dartmouth Col- lege case, laid down doctrines not to be distinguished from those of Federalist judges. Besides his active work on the bench he was from 1829 Dane professor of law at Harvard and acquired a great reputation as a teacher. He pub- lisned Commentaries on the Law of Bailments (1832); Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States (1833); Conflict of Laws (1834); Commentaries on Equity Jurisprudence (1835-36), besides lesser works. See W. W. Story's Life and Letters of Joseph Story (1851). Story, Robert Herbert (^(1835), Scottish theologian, born o at Rosneath, Argyllshire. He was ^ appointed minister of St. An- ^drew's Church, Montreal (1859), succeeded his father in the charge of Rosneath (1860), and was elected professor of ecclesiastical history in Glasgow University Storj* (1886) , and principal (1898). He has been one of the royal chai>- lains since 1886, and in 1894 moderator of the assembly. Among his writings are Robert Story of Rosneath (1862), Christ the Consoler (1868), Robert Lee (1868), William Car stares (1870), Creed and Conduct (1872), Health Haunts of the Riviera (1880), and The Apostolic Ministry in the Scottish Church (1897). Story, William Wetmore (1819-95), American sculptor and poet, son of Joseph Story (q.v.), was born in Salem, Mass., and graduated (1838) at Harvard, and at the law school in 1840. He continued his legal studies under his father, was admitted to the bar, and was busy at his profession until 1845, when he was interrupted by illness. During this period he prepared several volumes of re- ports and treatises, including a Treatise on the Law of Contracts not under Seal (1844). He also had contributed verse and prose to the periodicals, and had begun modelling in clay when, after the death of his father, he was com- missioned by the Mass. bar to execute a statue of the latter. He went to Rome in 1848, opened a studio there, and finished the statue, now in Mt. Auburn Ceme- tery, Cambridge, Mass. Mr. Story took up his perrnanent resi- dence in Rome, devoting himself altogether to sculpture and liter- ary work. Meanwhile he had collected his verse as Poems (1847), and he completed the Life and Letters of Joseph Story, his father (1851). His sculptures Cleopatra and the Libyan Sibyl were shown at the London exhibition of 1862. A replica of the latter is in the N. Y. Metropolitan Museum of Art. They display, like all his work, the classical tendencies of his period, of which, like Hiram Powers, who worked in Florence, he was a pioneer in sculpture. They were followed by Delilah (1866), Jerusalem in her Desola- tion (1870), Semiramis (1873), and other similar sculptures, which hardly equalled in artistic merit the best of his portrait statues. These latter include his chief effort, the statue of George Pea- body (1369) in the 'City' of Lon- don, the Edward Everett in the Boston Public Garden, Professor Henry at the Smithsonian Insti- tution, Washington, D. C, and the Francis Scott Key Monument (1887) in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, besides portrait busts of other leading men. Mr. Story was U. S. commissioner on fine arts at the Paris Exposition of 1879, and was decorated by various countries. His activity as an author was constantly main- tained, his writings including: Roba di Roma (1862), Graffiti d' Italia (1869), The Roman Law- Stothard yer in Jerusalem (1870), Nero: An Historical Play (1875), Castle St. Angelo (1877), Vallombrosa (1881), He and She; or, A Poet's Portfolio (1884), Fiammetta (1885), Conver- sations in a Studio (1890), and Excursions in Art and Letters (1891). As an author he will be remembered for liis poems Cleo- patra and Praxiteles and Phryne, and for his outgivings on art. He died at Vallombrosa, Italy. See Henry James's William Wetmore Story and his Friends (1903) and Taft's American Sculpture (1903). — His son, Julian Story, took his A.M. degree at Oxford in 1879, and studied painting under Duveneck, Lefebvre, and Boulanger in Paris. He became known as a portrait painter, and received medals at Paris and Berlin exhibitions. He married Emma Eames, the singer, in 1891. Stothard , Thomas (1755- 1834), English painter and il- lustrator, was born in London. His first work as an illustrator appeared in Bell's Poets and in the Novelist's Magazine. The number of his designs for illus- trations was enormous — Mrs. Bray puts it at 10,000, and of these 3,000 were engraved. The designs for Clarissa Harlowe and Tristram Shandy are perhaps his finest work. Shakespeare, Pilgrim's Progress, Robinson Crusoe, and Rogers's Italy con- tain his most mature designs. His paintings, though pure in color and skilful in composition, lack originality; but his Canter- bury Pilgrims (1806) has always been very popular. He was made an R.A. in 1794, and librarian to the Academy in 1812. See Mrs, Bray's Life of Thomas Stothard (1851). Stoughton. (1.) Tn., Norfolk CO., Mass., 17 m. s. by w. of Bos- ton, on the N. Y., N. H. and H. R. R. It manufactures boots and shoes, rubber goods, woollen varus, wire, cardigan jackets, boxes, etc. There are a public library and a town hall. The mu- nicipality owns and operates the water-works and electric-lighting plant. Settled as a part of Dor- chester, Stoughton was incor- porated as a separate town in 1726 and received its present name in honor of Governor WiUiam Stoughton. Pop. (1910) 6.316. (3.) City, Dane co.. Wis., 67 m. w. by s. of Milwaukee on the Yahara R., a branch of the Rock R., and on the Chi., Mil. and St. P. R. R. It manufactures wagons and carriages, cement, ploughs, flour and feed, sod irons, and shoes. The region raises tobacco, live-stock, and general farm produce. There are a pub- lic Hbrary and city hospital. The city owns and operates the water- works and electric-lighting plant. The first settlement here was 480 made in 1847 and Stoughton was incorporated as a city in 1868. Pop. (1910) 4,761. Stoughton, Israel (? — c. 1645), American colonist, born in Eng- land. He emigrated to Mass. early in 1630, and was one of the founders of Dorchester. During the Antinomian troubles he pub- lished a pamphlet which so dis- pleased the general court that he was declared incapable of holding office for three years, but this sen- tence was remitted in 1636. He commanded the Mass. contingent in the Pequot War, was several times an assistant and was a cap- tain in the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company. He served in the Parliamentary army as a lieutenant-colonel, and died at Lincoln late in 1644, or early in 1645. Stoughton, John (1807-97), English ecclesiastical historian, was an independent minister. He was ordained in 1833, and after ten years' service at Windsor was called to Hornton Street Church, Kensington, which he occupied till 1872, when he was elected to the chair of historical theology at New College. He visited the U. S. in 1873. and attended the Evangelical Alliance conferences held in New York in October of that year. His chief works were Church and State Two Hundred Years Ago (1862); Ecclesiastical History of England (1867-70); Religion in England under Queen Anne and the Georges (1878); Religion in England, 1800-1880 (1884). He also wrote W. Penn, the Founder of Pennsylvania (1882). See his Recollections of a Long Life (1894). Stoughton, William (c. 1630- 1701), colonial governor of Mass., son of Israel Stoughton. He was born probably in England about 1630; graduated at Harvard in 1650, and was ordained a minister, but soon withdrew to civil life. He graduated M. A. at New Col- lege, Oxford, in 1653, and was a fellow until the restoration, when he was ejected and returned to New England. He was an assistant during 1671 -86, and belonged to the moderate party which favored conciliating the king by making concessions. He was one of the federal commis- sioners during 1673-77 and 1680- 86; in 1677 was chosen one of two agents to represent the colony in England, and from 1692 until his death, in 1701, was lieutenant- governor of the colony. In the year of his appointment to the last -mentioned office he presided over the special court which tried the Salem witches. He published an election sermon entitled New England's True Interest Not to Lie, and A Narrative of the Pro- ceedings of Andros (1691). Stour, riv., England, rises in Stowe Cambridgeshire, flows generally s. to the border of Esisex, where it turns e., separating that county from Suffolk. It is navigable to Sudbury. Length about 50 m. Stourbridge, tn., Worcester- shire, England, on border of Staffordshire, 5 m. s. of Dudley, and on the Stour. The Church of St. Mary dates from the 14th century. (5lass manufacture was established by French and Hun- garian refugees about the middle of the 15th century. Other in- dustries include iron and chain works, and the manufacture of parchment, skin rugs, and fire- clay goods. Pop. (1911) 17,316. Stourbridge Fair. See Fair. Stout, an alcoholic beverage largely used in Great Britain ahd brewed from a grist of ordinary and burned malt, or these with the addition of caramel and malt substitutes. The many different grades are obtained by varying the grist, hops, and temperatures of mashing and sparging. As with ale and beer, the chief con- stituents of the finished product are carbohydrates, alcohol, water, organic acids, and soluble nitro- genous compounds. The alcohol varies from 4 to 7.5 per cent., the extract from 5 to 8.5 per cent., and the acidity from 0.30 to 1.29 per cent. See Brewing. Stove. See Heating. . Stow, John (r' 1525- 1605), Eng- lish chronicler and antiquary, was born in London. He was a tailor till near his death. His chief works are Summarie of Englishe Chronicles (1565), An- nates of England (1573), and the Survey of London (1598). Sev- eral editions of each, bringing the histories up to date, were issued during his lifetime. See Life by Strype prefixed to his Works (1720). Stowe, Calvin Ellis (I802- 86), American clergyman and educator, was born at Natick, Mass., and graduated (1824) at Bowdoin, and at Andover Tneo- logical Seminary in 1828. After a brief editorship of the Boston Recorder, he was professor of Greek at Dartmouth from 1830 to 183z,, and professor of sacred liter- ature at Lane Theological Semi- nary from 1832 to 1850. From 1852 to 1864 he was professor of the same subject at Andover, then resigning on account of ill health and removing to Hartford, Conn. In 1836 he took for his second wife Harriet Elizabeth, daughter of Lyman Beecher, then president of Lane. He published Introduc- tion to the Criticism and Interpre- tation of the Bible (1835), Report on Elementary Education in Europe. for the state of Ohio (1837), and The Origin and History of the Books of the Bible (1867), besides several translations. Stowe, Harriet Elizabeth Stowe 481 Strachey Beecher (1811-96), American author, was born in Litchfield, Conn., the third daughter of Dr. Lyman Beecher (q.v.). Her mother died when sfie was four years old, and she was cared for by her elder sister Catherine, and by her grandmother at Guilford, where, and at the Litchfield Academy, she received her early education. She became a great reader, and wrote an essay on 'Immortality' at the age of twelve. Like the other children of Dr. Beecher, she was inspired by his masterful personality and mental ability and also imbibed his passionate interest in the cause of anti-slavery. In 1824 she went to Hartford, and after a year's study at her sister Cather- ine's school became a pupil- teacher therein, remaining in this capacity until she accompanied her father, who had been made president of Lane Theological Seminary in 1832, to Cincinnati, O. With her sister Catherine she there taught school, and she pre- pared a school geography which was published in Cincinnati. In 1833 she won a prize of $50 of- fered by a Western magazine for the best story submitted; and in 1834 her A New England Sketch was published, in paper, at Lowell, Mass. In 1836 she was married to Prof. Calvin E. Stowe of Lane Seminary and family cares en- grossed her attention for the succeeding years, though she con- tributed several stories to the magazines, which were collected as The Mayflower; or. Sketches of Scenes and Characters among the Descendants of the Pilgrims (1843). Her husband accepted a professorship at Bowdoin College in 1850, and the family removed to Brunswick, Me., in that year. It was here that, at the sugges- tion of a sister-in-law, she em- bodied her observations of slav- ery, made while a resident of Cincinnati, in her Uncle Tom's Cabin; or, Life among the Lowly, first published as a serial in Dr. Gamaliel Brady's The National Era at Washington in 1851-2. It appeared in book form in 1852, and an amazing sale began, said to have reached 300,000 copies in the first year. Four months after publication, Mrs. Stowe received her first check of $10,000. The book was issued in twelve different editions in Eng- land during the first year, not being protected by copyright. Translations into at least nine- teen languages are known. A great controversy ensued as to the truthfulness of the repre- sentations made in Uncle Tom's Cabin, and Mrs. Stowe prepared and issued A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin (1853), containing all the facts and documents on which the story was founded, par- ticularly in the case of 'Uncle Tom' himself, whose prototype was Josiah Herndon, a negro slave known personally to Mrs. Stowe in her Cincinnati days. In 1853 she also published A Peep into Uncle Tom's Cabin, for Children. The first book was dramatized in different versions, and has been produced number- less times even down to the present day. In 1852 her husband became professor at Andover Theological Seminary, and thefamily remained there until his retirement in 1864, after which they lived at Hart- ford, Conn. Mrs. Stowe visited Europe in 1853, 1856, and 1859, and received many attentions there. With her brother Charles she published Sunny Memories of Foreign Lands (1854), and her novel Agnes of Sorrento (1862) was the fruit of her sojourn in Italy in 1859. Meanwhile her Dred: a Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp (1856) appeared, and was found to be a somewhat milder presentation of slavery condi- tions than its predecessor. It was followed by The Minister's Wooing (1859), The Pearl of Orr's Island: a Story of the Coast of Maine (1862), Religious Poems (1867), Old-Town Folks (1869), Pink and White Tyranny (1871), Sam Lawson's Fireside Stories (1871), My Wife and I (1872), We and Our Neighbors (1875), Poganuc People (1878), and A Dog's Mission (1881). Palmetto Leaves (1873) is based on the author's Florida experiences, where the family long had a winter home at Mandarin. In 1869 Mrs. Stowe published in the Atlantic Monthly and Macmil- lan's Magazine an article on 'The True Story of Lady Byron's Life,' which was followed by her book. Lady Byron Vindicated: a History of the Byron Controversy, which occasioned much comment. She wrote many stories for children, and was a staff con- tributor to Our Young Folks, where her Queer Little People, creature stories (1867), and Little Pussy Willow (1870) first appeared. She was also a staff editor of Hearth and Home from 1868. Her last years were passed in great retirement at Hartford, Conn., where she died July 1, 1896. Consult Life by her son, Charles E. Stowe; Mrs. Annie Field's Life and Letters. Stowell, Lord. See Scott, William. Strabismus, stra-biz'mus, or Squint, an ocular defect pro- duced by deviation of the visual axis of one or other eye from the normal direction for conjugate or binocular vision. Convergent strabismus is almost always as- sociated with hypermetropia; di- vergent with myopia, though oc- casionally the converse is the case. In paralytic squints the affected eye cannot follow the moving finger, but lags behind its fellow or remains fixed. Para- lytic squint is often associated with ptosis, and with double vision and ocular vertigo. To prevent squint, errors of re- fraction in children should be corrected by appropriate glasses, and all strain of the eyes should be prevented. When strabismus already exists, operation and ad- justment of the muscles may be necessary. To relieve ocular ver- tigo and double vision the false image may be eliminated by plac- ing an opaque glass over the de- fective eye. Prismatic glasses of suitable strength are also useful in some cases. Operative inter- ference in paralytic strabismus should be resorted to only after a prolonged trial of constitutional and local measures has failed. See Myopia and Vision. Strabo, stra'bo (c. 63 B.C.-20 A.D.), ancient Greek geographer, was a native of Amasia in Pontus, Asia Minor. He visited all the countries between Armenia on the east, Italy on the west, the Euxine on the north, and Ethi- opia on the south. His Geog- raphy, extant in 17 books, in- cludes a good deal of history, but shows an excessive reliance on Homer, and an inadequate use of mathematics and astronomy. Strachan, stron, John (1778- 1867), Canadian ecclesiastic, was born in Aberdeen, Scotland. He was educated at King's College, Aberdeen, and St. Andrew's University, and in 1799 emi- grated to Canada, where he founded a school for boys at Kingston. He became a clergy- man of the Church of England in 1803, and a year afterward re- ceived a mission appointment at Cornwall, which he resigned in 1812 to accept the rectorship of York (Toronto). In 1818 he was nominated to the Legislative Council, and for twenty years was one of the leaders of the Conservative party. The ambi- tions of his Hfe were the estab- lishment of the Church of Eng- land as the state church of Canada, and the introduction of an ecclesiastical form of govern- ment. His activities met with strenuous opposition on the part of the Liberals, and were re- sponsible in great part for the popular rebellion of William Lyon Mackenzie in 1837. He was appointed archdeacon of York in 1835 and bishop of Toronto in 1839. His chief monument is Trinity College, which he founded when the denominational character of King's College was changed. Strachey, John St. Loe (1860-1927), British journalist, was born in Somersetshire. He was educated at Balliol College, Vol. XL— 31-0. Strachey 482 Stralsund Oxford University, and wis called to the bar, but became a journalist in preference. He contributed articles to the Satur- day Review and the Economist and after serving as assistant editor, in 1897 became editor and proprietor of the Spectator, a position he held until 1925. His pubUshed works include The Problems and Perils of Socialism (1908); The Practical Wisdom of the Bible (1908); A New Way of Life (1909); American Soundings (1926). Strachey, Lytton (1880- under his government. He kept the friendship of the Indians, ad- justed by treaty the disputed boundary between New Nether- land and New England, and in 1655 led an expedition to the Delaware and received the sur- render of New Sweden. On the arrival of the fleet sent in 1664 by the Duke of York to take possession of the colony, which had been granted him by Charles ii in disregard of the rights of the Dutch, Stuyve- sant meditated resistance, but his force was small, and, finding that the inhabitants would not support him, he surrendered. After a short visit to Holland, he returned and resided upon his farm, the 'Bouwerij,' on Man- hattan Island, until his death. His farm gave its name to the present Bowery. Stye, or Hordeolum, an in- flammation of the sebaceous gland of a ciliary follicle at the margin of the eyelid, due to in- fection. It is usually associated with some constitutional de- rangement, resulting in lowered vitality and resistive power. A stye begins with redness, pain, and swelling. After three or four days a point of suppuration appears, generally at the base of an eyelash. Styes often appear in crops, either simultaneously or successively. Treatment style KFI 509 B Subject should be directed toward the improvement of the general health. Locally the eyes should have rest, and the pain may be relieved by hot fomentations. When suppuration appears, an incision relieves the pain and ac- celerates the cure. Style, Old and New. See Calendar. Stylites,_ sti-H'tez, St. Sim- eon, a Syrian monk of the 5th century, who spent many years of his life on the top of a pillar, seventy feet high and four feet square, which he caused to be erected near Antioch. For thirty years (429-459) he occu- pied this dizzy altitude, engaged in meditation, prayer, and preaching. He died on his pillar and was buried in Antioch. The term 'Stylites' comes from the Greek, (ttvXos , 'a pillar,' and Simeon and his imitators constitute a clan of ascetics known as 'Stylites' or 'Pillar Saints.' Styptics, stip'tiks, a term now restricted to local applications employed to arrest haemorrhage. Ice, cold water, alum, tannic acid, copper sulphate, iron chlor- ide and sulphate, and zinc chlor- ide are the styptics in most gener- al use ; but the actual cautery is sometimes applied when the site or nature of the haemorrhage renders other applications fvitile or undesirable. Styptics are ap- plicable to haemorrhages from the smaller vessels only. See HEMORRHAGE. Styrax. See Storax. Styria, stir'i-a (Ger. Stcicr- mark), a division (Gau), Aus- tria, in the southeastern part ; area, 6,323 square miles. It be- longs to the Eastern Alps re- gion, is traversed by the rivers Mur, Drave, Save, and Enns, and has many picturesque Al- pine lakes, notably the Grundel. It is exceptionally rich in miner- al springs, and has numerous health resorts. The chief prod- ucts are wheat, corn, barley, fruits, and iron ore. The princi- pal town is Graz. Styria became a duchy about 1180 and was in- corporated with Austria by Ru- dolph I. Pop. 978,845. Styx, in Greek mythology the name of the principal river of the lower world, which all must cross at death. It is described as a branch of Oceanus, flowing from its tenth source. Charon is the boatman who ferries souls across the Styx. The name is also given to a waterfall in Arcadia, Greece, above Nonacris. The water falls in two slender cascades which unite to form a river emptying into the Crathis. The wildness of the scenery and the inacces- sibility of the spot greatly im- pressed the ancient Greeks and caused them to regard it with superstitious awe. Suabia. See Swabia. Suaheli. See Swaheli. Suakin, swa'ken, or Suakim, seaport town and governorship, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, on the \\est coast of the Red Sea, occu- pies a coral islet close to the mainland. Until the opening of the port of Port Sudan, in 1906, it was the chief seaport of the Sudan. Government House, a picturesque building on the wa- ter's edge, served as headquarters for both Gordon and Kitchener. Tobacco, cotton, ivory, gvuns, and mother-of-pearl are ex- ported and Mohammedan pil- grims embark here for Jiddah, on the east side of the Red Sea. Pop. about 15,000. Suarez, swa'rath, Francisco (1548-1617), Spanish Jesuit the- ologian. He became professor of theology at Segovia ; also lec- tured at Valladolid, Coimbra, and at Rome. His system owed much to the Molinists, though on the doctrine of 'grace' he for- mulated new principles for him- self, which were afterwards adopted by the order. His chief work Tractatus de Lcgihus ac Deo Lcgislatorc , is written from the point of view of a Thomist, though on some matters he en- deavored to discover a middle course between the realism of Scotus and the nominalism of Occam. At the request of Pope Paul v he wrote (1613) Dcfcn- sio Catholiccc Fidci contra An- glicaiicc Scctcc Errorcs, which James i ordered to be burned by the common executioner. His collected works were published at Besangon (1856) and in the Migne collection. Subahdar, sdb'ba-dar, origi- nally the title of a governor of a province under the Mogul rule in India. It is now the designa- tion of a native captain in the Indian army. Subal'tern, an army officer below a captain, applicable to first lieutenants and second lieu- tenants. Subcon'sciousness, a general term covering phenomena which appear indirectly to partake of the nature of conscious events, but which are not directly ob- servable through introspection. More recent usage tends to sub- stitute the term 'unconscious' for 'subconscious.' To speak of unconscious mental events seems a contradiction of terms, but the theory of the subconscious has been developed in order to ex- plain contradictory psychologi- cal phenomena. Both the con- duct and thoughts of persons are completely explicable only when we attribute to them certain motives of which they them- selves are unaware, or of which they remain unaware until their attention is specifically directed to them. Such phenomena are contradictory if we think of all motives as mental and all men- tal events as conscious. One attempt at explanation has de- scribed subconscious ideas as 'submarginal' : just as the ob- scure ideas in the margin of con- sciousness contrast with the clear ideas in the focus of atten- tion, so there may be a lower level of obscurity for ideas be- low the margin. Another view holds that the unconscious is not mental at all and must ultimate- ly be understood entirely in terms of the physiology of the nervous system. The theory of subconscious- ness first gained scientific accept- ance in connection with the psy- chopathology of hysteria and cases of alternating personality. It has been furthered by the study of hypnotism, trance, and automatic behavior {e.g., auto- matic writing), states which ex- hibit multiple personalities. In some cases it appears that two apparently incompatible trains of thought can proceed simul- taneously ; hence it has been held that the subconscious involves not only an unconsciousness but also a co-consciousness. The application of the psychology of the unconscious to normal hu- man psychology is now associ- ated with the name of Freud and has developed rapidly with the growth of psychoanalysis. See Psychotherapy. Consult Freud, Psychopathol- ogy of Everyday Life (1917), Interpretation of Dreams (1915) , History of the Psycho- analytic Movement (1917) ; M. Prince, Dissociation of a Person- ality (1910) and The Uncon- scious (1914) ; W. White, Mech- anisms of Character Formation (1916) ; W. McDougall, Outline of Abnormal Psychology (1928). Sub-dominant, in music, the fourth tone of a scale, the next below the dominant. Subiaco, sdb-be-a'k6 (anc. Sublaqueum) , town, Italy, 40 miles east of Rome. It is a city of mediaeval aspect, containing the remains of one of Nero's villas, an 11th century castle (a former papal residence), and the early monasteries of St. Bene- dict and St. Scolastica. Pop. 8,218. Subinfeudation. See Land- lord and Tenant; Mesne Lord; Quia Emptores. Subject, Subjective, Sub- jectivity. The term subject has been used in two senses in phi- losophy : (1) in the sense of a subject of attributes ; (2) in that of the subject as contrasted with the object in the analysis of cog- nition. With these two meanings Subject, Subjectivity Kl I 510 Subliminal Self of subject may be connected the curious change which has taken place in the meaning of the antithesis of subjective and ob- jective. According to the usage which obtained in scholastic phi- losophy, and which was carried over into the early modern pe- riod, subjective meant pertaining to the existing thing or subject of attributes; objective, on the other hand, referred to the thing as a mental object or as conceived by the mind. When, however, the second meaning of the sub- ject came uppermost, the usage represent. But although the sub- jective and the objective are con- tinually being contrasted, it does not follow that there is any neces- sary opposition between the two. For what is subjective in the sense of being known, or con- tained in the mind of the in- dividual, need not be subjective in the sense of being misrep- resented or unreal. When this simple truth is lost sight of, the subjectivity of knowledge may easily be interpreted in a way which leads to phenomenalism or relativism. (See Relativity of greater vapor pressure to over- come it and need a correspond- ingly higher temperature, so that, if the external pressure is raised sufificiently, a substance that sub- limes at a lower pressure can be made to melt and boil as usual. Thus, if some iodine is heated in a vacuous tube, it subhmes with- out melting, though in a tube containing air at a pressure slightly above that of the atmos- phere the iodine melts. In some cases of apparent sublimation the action is of a different kind; thus, though ammonium chloride ap- Photo by Burton Holmes, from Ewlng Galloway The Sublime Porte of the antithesis came in the course of modern philosophy to be completely reversed. Subjective now means pertain- ing to the subject in knowl- edge, whereas objective refers to a thing (or conception) regarded as having independent existence (or validity), and therefore as much more than a mere repre- sentation in the knowing sub- ject's mind. Hence the epithet subjective is very often used to de- note the merely subjective — that which has no existence (or valid- ity) beyond the subject's mind. Errors and prejudices are sub- jective as contrasted with the truth; illusions and hallucina- tions are subjective as contrasted with the realities which they mis- Knowledge.) Kant himself, to whom we owe the general cur- rency of the antithesis, affords in his doctrine that human knowl- edge can never reach the truly objective or unphenomenal things in themselves, a con- spicuous illustration of this error. Sublima'tion. When a sub- stance on heating passes directly from the solid to the gaseous state without intermediate lique- faction it is said to sublime, and the change takes place in the re- verse direction of cooling. This behavior is due to the fact that the boiling point of the substance under the particular pressure is lower than the melting point. It thus depends on the pressure, which if increased will require a parently sublimes on heating, it really decomposes into hydrogen chloride and ammonia, recombi- nation to solid ammonium chlo- ride occurring when it cools again. Sublimation is vised com- mercially to separate and purify such substances as arsenic, cam- phor, iodine, theine, and many organic compounds. Sublime Porte, the name given to the lofty gate of the building in which the Turkish affairs of government were con- ducted under the empire. Turk- ish government is now centered in Ankara (Angora), Asia Minor. Subliminal Self, a term used by F. W. H. Myers (1843- 1901 ), who declared that the con- Sublingual Glands KFI 511 Submarine scious portion of our personal- ity is only the smaller part of the whole. He would explain most so-called 'psychic' phe- nomena — telepathy, automatic writing, etc. — as manifestations of the subconscious portion of the personality, that below the threshold (Latin limcn) of con- sciousness. Our ordinary con- sciousness was only able very imperfectly to express the great- er whole ; the 'spurts' of genius are uprushes of that which is submerged, and so are other ab- normalities. It must be added that Myers's theories are not yet by any means accepted. Consult his Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death. Sublingual Glands, salivary glands in the floor of the mouth, close under the mucous mem- brane, one on either side of the fraenum (bridle) of the tongue. They secrete saliva through nu- merous ducts of Rivini, some of which unite to form the duct of Bartholin. The secretion con- tains ptyalin and mucin, and is alkaline. See Saliva. Submarine, Historical, — The first form of submarine was the diving bell, and this was in use as early as the time of Alex- ander the Great. An ancient tapestry shows this monarch in a bell which was apparently made of glass. In 1587, Wil- liam Bourne, an English mathe- matician, in his book. Inventions and Devices, describes a form of submarine in great detail. Probably he built such a vessel. This craft was the first on rec- ord to employ water ballast to sink the vessel below the sur- face. The work of Bourne was probably known to Cornelius Van Dreble, a Dutch physician who, in 1620, operated two small oar-propelled submersible craft on the Thames. He is credited with having demon- strated one of these craft to King James i in 1624. In 1653, a Frenchman named De Son constructed a submarine 72 feet long at Rotterdam. While De Son's theory was sound, his craft failed in practice as he had employed an internal paddle wheel for propulsion. During the next hundred years many submarines were designed or built but none of them is worthy of extended notice. Borelli, who designed a boat about 1680, was apparently the first to suggest water ballast for submergence and trim. In 1747, Symons built a boat which he tried on the Thames. This oar-propelled ves- sel was fitted with leather bot- tles along the sides for admit- ting and expelling water bal- last. The illustration of this vessel, which appeared in the Gentlemen's Magazine of 1747, is the oldest extant picture of a submarine. In 1773, Day, a ship's carpenter, constructed a submarine which was successful- ly demonstrated at Yarmouth. It carried two huge rocks as de- tachable ballast. This was the foreruner of the detachable keel, a submarine safety device which was used until recent years. In 1774, Day lost his life off Ports- mouth while attempting a deep submergence in 22 fathoms ; the detachable ballast apparently failed to work. In 1776, David Bushnell, a na- tive of Connecticut and a gradu- ate of Yale in 1775, desiring to break the British blockade of New York, built the first sub- marine to be used in war. This vessel, called the Turtle, re- sembled two tortoise shells placed hollow to hollow against each other, the joints being for- ward and aft. On top of this structure was a small conning tower fitted with a lid and eye ports, just large enough for the head and shoulders of the opera- tor. At the bottom of the hull was a ballast tank which could be flooded or pumped ; 700 pounds of lead ballast were also carried, 200 pounds of which were detachable. A hand-oper- ated screw propeller projected from the forward edge of the craft, which gave a speed of 2 to 3 knots. Just forward of the conning tower a vertical screw propeller was fitted to drive the craft under water. The craft normally operated with the lid just awash. Immediately for- ward of the conning tower was a large wood screw so fitted that it could be turned from in- side the ship, and could be de- tached at the will of the opera- tor. This screw was connected by a cord to the powder maga- zine which was carried on the after-edge of the ship. This magazine was made of wood and carried 150 pounds of gun pow- der and a clockwork device for exploding the charge. It was in- tended that the operator should work his way under a vessel, screw the wood screw into her hull plating, release the maga- zine and the screw, and then make his escape submerged, the clockwork exploding the maga- zine later. This ingenious ves- sel carried a phosphorous illumi- nated compass, a water tube type of barometer for indicating the depth, automatic air vents in the conning tower for replenishing the air every half hour, force pumps for expelling water bal- last, and other new devices. After successful trials at New Rochelle, in 1776 an attempt was made by Sergeant Ezra Lee to destroy the English frigate Eagle. Lee's attempt failed only because he was unable to drive the screw through the copper sheathing of the frigate. During the War of 1812 an attempt was made on H.M.S. Ramillics, Cap- tain Thomas Hardy, by a native of Norwich, Connecticut, in a vessel of the same type as Bush- nell's, the operator failing for the same reason as Lee. Bushnell should be given credit for devel- oping the first successful mine, for first using screw propulsion, for introducing the conning tower, and for designing the first strong and stable hull. In 1797, Robert Fulton, an American, wrote the French Government proposing to build a submarine for the purpose of sinking British shipping. This proposal was accepted in princi- ple, but it was only in 1810 that Napoleon gave Fulton funds to build his first submarine, the now famous Nautilus. This vessel was 21 feet long, had a cylindri- cal copper hull 7 feet in diameter, and was screw propelled. Bush- nell's principle of the magazine was used, a spike being substi- tuted for the screw. But the French refused to permit Fulton to attack British vessels, and in general threw cold water on his plans. In 1804, Fulton was in- formed by the French that they were no longer interested, and in May of that year he went to Eng- land where he laid his plans be- fore Pitt. Pitt encouraged Ful- ton, and many experiments were carried out, in one of which Ful- ton blew up the brig Dorothy at Walmer. Pitt's interest in the submarine caused Admiral Earl St. Vincent, then First Lord of the Admiralty, to speak the pro- phetic words : 'Pitt was the greatest fool that ever existed to encourage a mode of warfare which those who commanded the seas did not want, and which, if successful, would deprive them of it.' Fulton then returned to America, where Congress granted him, in 1810, $5,000 to continue his experiments. He had an 80- foot steam propelled armored submarine called the Mute under construction when he died. Little was done in the subma- rine field after Fulton until in 1850, during the Danish-German war, a Bavarian named Bauer constructed, at Kiel, a submarine called Lc Plongcur Marin, 26 feet by 8 feet, her screw turned by hand. Fitted in the sides were watertight hatches for admitting the crew and for gloves by which an explosive charge was to be fastened to the hulls of vessels. Her hull was of metal, and bal- last tanks were fitted to admit water for submerging. _ The craft was trimmed by moving a heavy weight forward and aft. Bauer first made a feint at the Submarine KFI 511 A Submarine blockade ships, scaring them ofif. Next year Bauer's ship sank in the harbor of Kiel. By flooding the ship Bauer managed to force the hatches through which he and his two assistants escaped. The ship was raised in 1887. Scott- Russell, who had gone over Bauer's plans, brought out a sub- marine in 1854-55, which was a failure ; several men were drowned. Bauer next managed to interest Russia, where, in 1855, he launched Lc Diablo Marin, a vessel twice as large as his first ship. It was credited with 134 successful dives. This ship was subsequently lost at Ochda, and Bauer, greatly disappointed, quit Russia and experimented no more with the submarine. He was undoubtedly one of the most successful of all the early sub- marine inventors. During the American Civil War the Confederacy attempted to use the submarine to break the Union blockade. Two types were constructed ; one was steam propelled and was designed to operate awash, while the other was hand propelled, was fitted with hydroplanes and was de- signed to operate submerged. Both were fitted with spar tor- pedoes, which were attached to the bow. Although a great num- ber of men were lost in the trials of these vessels, the Confeder- ates kept on with these craft, which they called 'Davids,' until, in October, 1863, the Ironsides was damaged, and, in Febrt:ary, 1864, the Housatanic was sunk, her attacker sinking with her. The Union also had a submarine, the Alligator, designed by a Frenchman. It was unsuccess- ful. During this same period the inventors of other nations were working on the submarine. In 1860, Narcisso Monturiol, a Spanish engineer, produced a successful copy of Bauer's sub- marine. She once submerged to 18 meters, and on another occa- sion her crew of ten made a five- hour dive. In 1863, France launched a submarine designed by M. Charles Brun from the plans of Captain Bourgois. This vessel, named Lc Plongcur, was 140 feet long, displaced 420 tons, was built of iron and carried a spar torpedo. She was driven by compressed air and was the larg- est svibmarine built up to this time. This vessel was a success, but her poor depth control and the dangers attending the use of the spar torpedo induced the French to discontinue submarine experimentation. Save for some minor submarine research in Russia no further submarine work was accomplished until 1876. In that year M. Drzewiecki, a Russian, perfected a submarine which was brought to the awash condition by the use of ballast tanks, further adjustments of trim being taken care of by the movement of a piston in contact with the water. This ship had the further feature of rubber sleeves by means of which the operator could fasten mines to the hulls of ships. In 1878, an English curate named Garrett developed a submarine which also embodied these two features. By 1879, Drzewiecki built a larger type of submarine. The Russian Government ordered 50 of these vessels, some of which were later powered with elec- tricity. Drzewiecki is known for his drop collar type of tor- pedo launching. Garrett, re- ferred to above, in 1879, produced a submarine called the Rcsur- gam, which was steam-operated and used hydroplanes. This ship was lost before her value could be determined, but Garrett ap- proached Nordenfelt, who was later to produce the famous Nor- denfelt type of submarine. In 1885, Ash and Campbell built a 50-ton submarine which was driven by electric motors. This submarine is of interest be- cause it was the first to use elec- tric motors and twin-screw pro- pulsion. Water ballast was ad- mitted and expelled by means of 8 pistons which projected from the sides of the ship in the sur- face condition and which were drawn inward to decrease the buoyancy of the ship for diving. These pistons seriously reduced the speed of the ship on the sur- face, and during the trials proved to be wholly impractical. Her trials were never completed. In 1886, Waddington built a craft 37 feet long, which depended up- on a vertical screw for forcing the ship under the surface. This method was used by Bushnell and was being used by Norden- felt at this time. Waddington's ship was a success, but as it was too heavy to be carried on board ship from which it was to be launched, the type was discon- tinued. During this same period Nor- denfelt, the great Swedish in- ventor, was carrying out experi- ments along the lines of Garrett. In 1885, he launched Norden- felt I , a single screw ship 64 feet long. As in Garrett's ship, the vessel was propelled by using the latent heat of steam stored in two tanks, both on the surface and when submerged. This ship was a success, but it had the disad- vantage of all steam submarines in that it was very hot when sub- merged, and also the escaping gas from the boilers, after they had been sealed for diving, had a serious effect on the crew. This ship was sold to Greece in 1886. Thereafter, Nordenfelt had no trouble selling two submarines to Turkey in 1887. The design of these ships was similar to Nordenfelt I, as was the Russian Nordenfelt which was built for that nation in 1887. This vessel operated with some success but was lost off the coast of Jutland while under tow. This ended Nordenfelt's submarine experi- ments. During this period Claude Goubet built a small but success- ful submarine. This ship now interests us principally as it was the first to use the periscope. Goubet sold his ship to Brazil. Goubet launched, in 1889, the Goubet II which established a new length of dive record of 8 hours. She failed, however, to meet her tests and was rejected by France. In Spain, in 1888, Lt. Peral built a most successful electric-propelled submarine. He was given a title of nobility and other distinctions by the Spanish Government. By 1890 Spain's enthusiasm had petered out, and no more was heard of it. During the period from 1885 to 1900 most of the serious work on submarines was done by the French. The French have al- ways been attracted by new naval experiments and have favored the commerce-raiding and coast- defense type of naval war. For this the submarine is well fitted. Encouraged by the experiments of Goubet, the celebrated French engineer, Dupuy de Lome, de- signed a submarine. Before his ship could be laid down he died, and his work was taken over by M. Gustave Zede who launched a ship called the Gymnote in 1888. This craft was most suc- cessful and was still in use for training and experimental work in 1907. In 1891, an improved Gymnote called the Gustave Zede was launched. She was 140 feet long and embodied all the essen- tial features of modern subma- rines. In 1899, a smaller type of ship was launched by Romazotti, who had taken over the work of Goubet and Zede. Romazotti recognized that the jump from the 30-ton Gymnote to the 266- ton Gustave Zede was too rapid. Romazotti's ship was called the Morse. In 1896, a M. Laubeuf, in response to a call for plans by the Ministry, submitted a design for a ship which was to be pro- pelled by electricity submerged and steam engines on the sur- face. This ship, called the Nar- val, was launched in 1899, and was a considerable advance over the other French submarines. She relied on electricity for pro- pulsion both surface and sub- merged. The Narval was also the first to use the double hull Submarine KFI 511 B Submarine type of construction which was a feature of the American Lake submarines. In 1894, the United States be- came interested in submarine construction, and the Navy De- partment called for inventors to submit plans. Plans were sub- mitted by Baker, Holland, and Lake. Baker built a small sub- marine at Detroit, but the boat failed in trials as it was unable to keep an even depth line. The experiments of Holland and Lake are more interesting. John Holland, an Irish Ameri- can, had designed submarines since 1875. Holland was ahead of his time in that he realized that a successful submarine was dependant upon a satisfactory type of propulsion both surface and submerged. He made many experiments with very small sub- marines in the Passaic River in New Jersey. He was finally commissioned by the Fenian So- ciety to build a submarine 30 feet long. He built a vessel which was propelled on the sur- face by a gasoline engine. This ship was called the Fenian Ram by a facetious press. When Holland, the inventor, refused to turn the vessel over to the Fenians, as he wished to make more experiments, it was taken from him by stealth. Holland, disgusted, turned to the U. S. Navy. The Fenian Ram now forms a part of the Holland Me- morial at Paterson, New Jersey. Holland's designs had reached Holland No. 7, when he was able to interest the Navy. While this ship was building during 1896, the Holland Company privately built Holland No. 8. Holland No. 7 was launched as the Plung- er. Holland No. 8 was subse- quently purchased by the gov- ernment after exhaustive tests. In 1900 the U. S. Navy ordered 6 Holland submarines. As we have noted, Simon Lake was also a contestant in the competition of 1894-95. He was not successful in this, however, and the same year laid down a very small submarine in Baltimore. This was of wood and was unusual in that it was fitted with wheels for running on the bottom. The tests on this ship were sufficiently successful to encourage Lake to lay down the steel hulled Argonaut. This ship was also provided with wheels and also with a diving compartment. Lake was con- vinced from experiments with the Argonaut that, while the cir- cular cross section hull is best fitted for subsurface operation, it is much less efficient than the ship line hull for surface o])era- tion. With thi:; in mind, he re- constructed the Ar()onaut in 1899-1900 and renamed her Argonaut II. She was fitted with a superstructure. Gaso- line engines were used for sur- face propulsion and electric mo- tors for submerged operation. She was unusually successful and remained in service many years. In 1901, Lake was able to interest the Navy Department, and was able to secure a contract to construct the Protector, which was launched in 1902. This ves- sel was fitted with a diving com- partment and with retractable wheels for running on the bot- tom. The principal feature of the Lake design has been the even keel method of submerg- ence. By 1901 the experiments with the Narval and in America by Lake and Holland demonstrated to the world that the submarine had passed from the experi- mental to the practical stage. In 1901, Great Britain bought 5 submarines built by Vickers- Armstrong according to Holland patents. In Russia experimenta- tion had continued slowly. In 1901, the Piotr Koschka and Ferol were launched. They were followed in 1903 by the Delfin. Russia purchased sev- eral Lake boats which were not very successful as the Russians did not know how to operate them. In Italy submarine ex- perimentation began in 1892 with the Pullino, a vessel similar to the Gymnote. This was fol- lowed by the Dclfino, a vessel which was reconstructed so many times that by 1907 she was a modern submarine. Japan began her submarines with the pur- chase of 5 Hollands in 1904. Portugal experimented with submarines as early as 1888-89 when Lt. Pontes launched a small boat. A larger ship was built by Pontes in 1892, which was un- successful. Germany was the last of the great nations to take up the sub- marine. The German Admiralty felt that Germany did not have the money to spend on untried weapons and preferred to wait until something serviceable had been produced. As far back as 1890 two small submarines of the Nordenfelt type were built. These were not very satisfactory, however. Another ship was built in 1902 with no great suc- cess. In 1902, an engineer named d'Eciuevilley approached Krupp with plans for a subma- rine. It has never been ex- plained where d'Eciuevilley gained his practical knowledge, but the ship when finally launched in 1905 was remark- ably similar to the French Aigrette class. Krupp first de- sired to build an experimental boat at their own expense. This resulted in the Forel, a small ship similar to the Gymnote, which was sold to Russia in 1904. Krupp. in 1904, began construction of 3 submarines of the Karp class for Russia. These ships were to have a great effect on the future of subma- rines. The German Ministry were set against the use of ex- plosive gasoline. It chanced that Korting Brothers had pro- duced heavy oil engines. Six sets of these engines were or- dered for the Russian boats. In this design Krupp proposed to use a combination of internal combustion engines, dynamos and electric motors for propul- sion. This combination is said to have been first proposed by an American named Alstitt, after bottled steam, chemical boilers, compressed air, electricity, tread- mills, handmills and clockwork had all been tried and failed. The Karp class boats were suc- cessful and made the run to Libau under their own power. In 1905, Germany started sub- marine construction with the U—1, which embodied the double hull patents of d'Equevilley and the heavy oil, electric motor combination. This vessel was launched in 1906, was 101 feet long, displaced 200 tons and had a surface speed of 9 knots. In 1907, the German Admiral- ty set up a standard of desired military requirements for fu- ture submarines. As a result of this, the Diesel engine was fitted for submarine use and was adopted about 1911. Germany had placed orders for 50 sub- marines prior to the World War. Of these only 20 were available at the opening of hostilities. The submarines of the United States may be taken as a pattern of the general submarine trend. American submarines have been of three types, Holland, Lake and Government. The Holland type boats are single hull with the ballast tanks inside the pres- sure hull. Lake submarines are double hull, and are designed for even keel submergence. Gov- ernment type is a modified Lake, being single hull at the bow and stern and double hull amidships, the inner hull being the pressure hull and the space between the two hulls forming the ballast tanks and the fuel oil storage. This form gives ship lines to the vessel, at the same time permit- ting the pressure hull to be cir- cular in cross section for strength. Until 1930 Ameri- can submarines were designated by letter, after that date they were given fish names. American submarines A class to F class Mere of Holland design. The D class was the last to use the gaso- line engine. G class were Lake type, while H and K were Hoi- Submarine KFI 511 C Submarine land. The L class were part Holland and part Lake. The Holland L's were at Bantry Bay during the war and gave good service. The M class were ex- perimental Lake and were not very successful. The N class were both Holland and Lake. The O class submarines were the last to use 18" torpedoes; all later submarines are equipped propulsion, 2 directly coupled to each shaft. This arrangement gave considerable trouble, while the small size of the kingstons made the ships extremely slow in diving. One vessel of this class, the T-3, was withdrawn from commission in 1926 and was reengined with diesels of Ger- man type. With this new ar- rangement the ship made 22 built, of which 17 were in com- mission on Jan. 1, 1939. The United States embarked on a very extensive building program in 1939. All modern submarines are characterized by high speed on the surface, a maximum of 9 knots submerged, excellent handling ciualities, both surface and submerged, and very good living conditions. The cruising Fig. 1. The Plongeur (139 ft « 12 ft.) Fig. 3. The Goubet II. (20 ft. . G ft.) Fig. 2. The Nordenfelt (12.5 ft. « 12 ft» Fig. 4. The Gymnote (07 ft. » 6 ft.) 4 Fig. 5. The Gustave Zede (131 ft « 12 ft.) Conninp Tower Fig. 6. Holland— 1st type (85 ft « 11 ft.) Fig. 7. Section showing construction of earlier Holland type submarine tU3 ft 4 ill. « II ft. y iii.i with 21" tubes. 0-1 to O-IO were Holland, while 0-11 to 0-16 were Lake. These ships were very successful. The Hol- land O's continued in commis- sion until 1931, while the Lake O's, although decommissioned after the war, were considered among the best submarines pro- duced up to that time, although they were somewhat less rugged than the Holland type. One of these vessels was used by Sir Hubert Wilkins in his attempt to reach the North Pole by sub- marine. The R class were 600- ton ships and were of mixed Holland and Lake design. Six Holland R's were in use in 1939 for training purposes. The S class boats were commissioned from 1918 to 1924. These ships were of mixed Holland, Lake and Government type. They were 900-ton ships. Fifty-one of this class were built, 26 were .still in commission in 1939. Three vessels of the T class were built ju.st after the war. These ships were designed as fleet sub- marines and had 4 engines for Old Types of Submarines knots, the fastest speed made by a diesel engined submarine up to this time. In 1924-25 the United States launched its first real fleet submarines. This class, the V type, (later desig- nated B) were equipped with two main engines of 2250 hp. direct- ly connected to the shafts and 2 1000 hp. engines normally used for charging but which could be electrically connected to the main motors.' These ships were 341 feet long, were designed for 21 knots on the surface and 9 knots submerged. Their surface dis- placement was 2100 tons. These ships were followed by V—4, 5 and 6. The V-4 is a mine layer of 2680 tons, now named the Argonaut. The V—5, now named the Narzvhal and the V-6, now named the Nautilus, are some- what lighter than the V-4, and carry two six-inch guns. Follow- ing these vessels the trend of American submarines has been toward the smaller type. The Dolphin is about 1250 tons, which is about the tonnage of all submarines subseciuently radius may be said to approxi- mate that of the fleet, and all of the later ships are designed to operate with the fleet. On Jan. 1, 1939 the United States had 53 submarines in commission. Six were for training purposes, 26 were classed as coast defense vessels, 1 mine layer and 20 of the fleet class. Three subma- rines were completed between January and July 1939 and twelve submarines were under construction on July 1, 1939. In Germany submarine con- struction stopped with the end of the World War as a result of the Treaty of Versailles. In 1933, however, Hitler began submarine construction in spite of the Treaty. England in 1936 agreed to allow Germany to build submarines up to 35 per cent of the British tonnage. In 1939 Germany took advantage of the escalator clause in the treaty and advanced the limit to 45 per cent, later abrogating the treaty entirely. In July, 1939, Ger- many had 71 submarines in com- mission ; 1 5 oceangoing sub- Submarine KFI 511 D Submarine marines of 740 tons ; 24 seago- ing submarines of 500 tons; and 32 submarines of the coastal class of 250-300 tons. The speed of these submarines was reported to be low, the maximum speed being about 16 knots. The cruising radius and striking power is high for vessels of this limited tonnnage. France possessed the largest submarine in the world in 1939, the Surcouf, which has 2880 tons surface displacement, car- ries 2 8" guns and one small seaplane. France had, as of 1939 a submarine force consist- ing of 5 new ships of the Marillot class building (1605 tons, 23 knots), 30 vessels of the Re- doubtable class (1380 tons, 18 knots), 9 Rcquin class (974 tons), and 7 small minelayers. In addition 9 submarines of the Anrore class (805 tons) were building. In addition to the 9 submarines of the Anrore class, France has 33 small submarines of the second class of about 500 tons surface displacement. Italy has paralleled the sub- marine construction of the French and had, in 1939, 87 sub- marines, besides 36 building. The new Italian construction was in the 900-1000-ton class with a speed of 17 knots. Japan had, in 1939, 62 sub- marines besides 8 building. Very little is known about the new construction, but it is reported that it will be in the 2000-ton class. Japanese submarines are classified as oceangoing (2000 tons), seagoing (2000 tons), minelaying (1200 tons), coastal (500-1000 tons), and harbor de- fense. Harbor defense subma- rines are tiny craft which are still in the experimental stage. England had in 1939, 54 sub- marines built and 15 building. New construction is in the 1100- ton class. England has six 1500- ton minelayers of the Porpoise class, 3 oceangoing submarines of the Thames class (1850 tons), with the remainder of her ocean- going type in the 1475-ton class. There are 12 submarines of the seagoing type {Shark and Sword fish class, 960 tons) and 12 submarines of the Unity and H class (seagoing type, 730 tons). Submarine Accidents. — The progress of submarines has been attended with frightful losses in both life and property. Since Day lost his life in his primitive submarine in 1774, every ad- vance in submarines has been attended by a loss of life. Dur- ing the Civil War the Confed- eracy lost crew after crew while perfecting the 'Davids.' Even after 1900, when submarines had passed the experimental stage, submarine accidents con- tinued with tragic regularity. England lost her first submarine, the A-1, in collision (sub- merged) with the Bermick Castle in 1904. Russia lost the Del- phi iie with all hands at Kron- stadt the same year. France lost the Faradet in 1905, the Lntin and Anguille in 1906, and the Algerin sank at anchor in 1907. The Japanese lost No. 6 in 1910. The submarine losses during the World War, even ac- cidental sinkings, were gener- ally classed as war losses. The most serious single submarine accident occurred during the war when the British lost three sub- marines of the K class in col- lision in one night. The United States has been more fortunate than the other great powers. The sinking of the F-4 off Honolulu in 1915 was our first serious submarine accident. Another vessel of this class was lost off San Diego dur- ing the war when she was in col- lision with a sister submarine. The American submarine R-6 sank alongside the dock with the loss of two lives ; S-5 sank in 1920 but no lives were lost. This was also the experience of 0-5. S-48 sank on build- ers' trials in 1921, but no lives were lost and the boat was raised. In 1925 the submarine S-51 was lost with all but three men, when she was rammed at night on the surface by the S. S. City of Rome off Block Island. The ship was subsequently raised. This accident was followed in 1927 by the sinking of the S-4 when she was rammed (sub- merged) by the Coast Guard De- stroyer Paulding off Province- town, Massachusetts. All hands were lost. These two accidents stirred public opinion, and the Navy Department established a board to consider submarine safety devices. The submarine board received several thousand suggestions, most of which were not practical and would have seriously interfered with the military features of the subma- rines. From this investigation, however, was prodviced the now famous Momsen Lung, the sub- marine escape chamber, and im- proved methods of diving. All submarines were fitted with tele- phone buoys, escape hatches, Momsen lungs, and the latest type of safety and salvage equip- ment. In May, 1939, the newly com- missioned American Submarine Squalus sank off Portsmouth, New Hampshire, when the en- gine air induction valve failed to close. Twenty-six men in the after section of the ship were lost, but the 33 men in the for- ward unflooded part of the ship were rescued by the divers of the Submarine Rescue vessel Falcon by means of the sub- marine escape chamber, the in- vention of Commander Allen R. McCann, U. S. N. This dra- matic rescue was brought into high relief when, during June, 1939, the British submarine Thetis sank on her builders' trials with a loss of 99 men. The Thetis stuck her nose in the mud, in shallow water, in Liverpool Bay, and for more than four hours her stern was visible above the surface. Four men escaped, using a 'lung' similar to the Momsen lung. Later in June, 1939, the French submarine Phenix sank, with all hands, in deep water, off French Indo- China. The saving of the men of the Squalus from a depth of 240 feet demonstrated to the world the effectiveness of the submarine safety organization of the Ameri- can Navy. All American sub- marines have been equipped with the lung, a device which resem- bles a mine rescue mask, and which permits the wearer to breathe under the surface for about 30 minutes, long enough to slide up a rope to the surface. All submarines have been fitted with escape chambers, ascending lines, emergency oxygen systems, air purifiers, salvage systems and the lungs mentioned above. Rescue vessels have been organ- ized, pontoons are at hand at all naval stations, while the rescue chamber which can be used as a sort of submarine elevator is kept at all submarine bases. Submarine Operations in the World War. — Germany was slow to realize the poten- tialities of the submarine. The first duty of the German sub- marine service at the outbreak of the war was to form an an- chored patrol off Heligoland. On Aug. 6, 1914, ten of the 20 serviceable submarines Germany had at the outbreak of the war, made the first war cruise, with the object of locating the Brit- ish Fleet. At dawn Aug. 9, U-15 was sighted, rammed and sunk by the Birmingham. This was the first submarine sunk in the war. One other submarine, U-13 , was lost on this cruise, presumably by mines. Other patrols were sent into the North Sea during August, but no results were achieved until, on Sept. 5, Hersing in U-21 sank the Path- finder, the first vessel to be sunk by a submarine in war since the American Civil War. This was followed by the sinking of the Abourkir, Cressv and Hogue on Sept. 22 by Weddigen of the U-9. Sixty-two officers and 1073 men were lost. On Oct. 15, U-9 sank the cruiser Haivke \\\th 500 men. The first stages of the Submarine KFI 512 Submarine war were wholly military in na- ture. On Oct. 20, U-17 stopped, searched and scuttled the mer- chant vessel Glitra. This was the first sinking of a merchant vessel and opened the way for the submarine commerce-raiding war which followed this signifi- cant event. The German High Command and the German Cabinet had very little idea of how to utilize tlieir small submarine force at the beginning of the war, and no conception of the potential pow- er which it placed in their hands ; in fact they never did realize its possibilities, although, of course, many subordinates did. No effort was made to employ the submarines against the pas- sage of the British Expedition- ary Force to France, or against the line of supplies there until long after the beginning of hos- tilities. Neither was there any coordinated effort to employ the submarines in conjunction with the High Seas Fleet for an at- tack on the British Fleet until the Battle of Jutland at the end of May, 1916, and then the sub- marines were assigned to scout- ing duty and had no part in the actual battle. During the fall of 1914 a limited commerce-raiding war- fare was carried out in accord- ance with Prize Rules in which about 100,000 tons of shipping was sunk. At this time the Ger- mans established submarine bases at Ostend and Zeebrugge, on the coast of Flanders, while the British began to establish nets, mine-fields and patrol barriers for protection in the English Channel. In February, 1915, the Ger- mans proclaimed the waters sur- rounding Great Britain and Ire- land, including the English Channel, a 'war zone,' in which they announced that they would sink withovit warning all British merchantmen encountered. The total number of submarines then available was 30, of which 7 were in the Baltic, leaving only 23 for this ambitious programme, and since time ref|uired en route to and from station, overhauling, etc., depleted the number by fully three-fifths, not more than 10 operating boats could be main- tained at sea. The Germans even then had only 32 small sub- marines under construction, of which 15 were minelayers. The defensive and offensive measures then in use against the subma- rines were not a serious factor and more than 500,000 tons of merchant shipping were sunk in the first four months, to the end of June, and the small U-21 CHersing) made a remarkable trip north of the British Isles, through the Straits of Gibraltar, into the Adriatic and thence into Constantinople after sinking two British battleships off the Dar- danelles. During the summer of 1915 the first effective anti-submarine measure appeared. The British refitted certain merchant ves- sels so that they were practically non-sinkable, installed an arma- ment of guns, concealed by col- lapsible deck houses, and manned the ships with navy crews dis- guised as merchant sailors. Up- on being hailed by a submarine, the 'panic-party,' which ap- peared to be the entire crew, would abandon ship in a dramatic manner, carrying fake ship's pa- pers. The svibmarine would ap- proach on the surface and pre- pare to send bombs for sinking the ship, whereupon the 'Q-ship' would clear for action and sink the submarine by gunfire. In all twelve German submarines were destroyed in this manner, and thereafter the Germans were compelled to use their expensive torpedoes for sinkings, instead of bombs. Also, in 1915, the depth charge was introduced and became an effective weapon, especially when employed on fast vessels like destroyers. This was a bomb, filled with about 300 povmds of explosives, which could be set to explode at a de- sired depth under water. The use of submarines as a counter offensive has already been men- tioned and in this manner the Allies sank nineteen German submarines. During the last six months of 1915 the Germans destroyed about one million tons of ship- ping, and in the first four months of 1916 an additional 700,000 tons. Meanwhile, the Germans had sunk three passenger steam- ers, the Lnsitania, Arabic, and Sussex, on which many lives were lost, including a number of Americans, and the German Gov- ernment engaged in a long diplo- matic correspondence with the United States, which finally re- sulted in a German order revert- ing to submarine warfare in ac- cordance with the rules for prizes (April 24, 1916). In reali- ty all submarine activity was virtually suspended, except in the Mediterranean, for a period of about six months, — a breath- ing spell which gave the Entente an opportunity to recover from their pressing need of shipping, and permitted a period of undis- turbed development of the anti- submarine offensive, which there- after began to be effective. In May, 1916, the Germans had in active service 58 subma- rines, a number which increased steadily to 111 in February, 1917, and reached its peak at 140 in October of that year, de- clining then to 121 in October of 1918. The success of the sub- marine as a weapon, however, depended less on the number pos- sessed by the Germans than on the anti-submarine measures, and these were not really effec- tive until the latter part of 1917. With all the information now available it seems almost certain that had the Germans adopted the unrestricted submarine war- fare in the summer of 1915, or even as late as the summer of 1916, instead of February, 1917, they would have thereby forced the Entente to sue for peace. In 1916 the Germans con- structed several large commer- cial submarines and the Dcutsch- land made two voyages to the United States (Baltimore and New London, Conn.) with car- goes of chemicals and dyestuffs, and returned with crude rubber^ nickel and copper. A second boat, the Bremen, was lost at sea, and later on the Deutschland and her sister ships were con- verted to men-of-war. On Octo- ber 7, 1916, the U-53 entered Newport, R. I., made official calls, posted a letter to the Ger- man Ambassador, sailed in a few hours and returned to Germany after capturing and sinking six ships off Nantucket Lightship. In February, 1917, the Ger- mans proclaimed a new 'war- zone' and, no longer exempting nevitrals, announced that all ves- sels found therein would be sunk without warning. After pro- tests, the United States broke off diplomatic relations and on April 6, 1917, Congress declared that a state of war existed by reason of the acts of the German Imperial Government. Immediately after- ward the United States dis- patched Admiral Sims to London, to command her naval forces which were to be employed against the submarines and up- on his arrival he was informed by Admiral Jellicoe, the First Sea Lord of the Admiralty, that the Germans had sunk over 536,- 000 tons in February, 603,000 tons in March and that in April a figure of 900.000 tons would probably be reached. Actually the Germans sank 110 ships around the British Isles in the first week of April and the total tonnage loss for the month was more than one million tons. The gravity of the submarine menace was then fully realized and the .Mlied Naval Council de- cided to devote every effort to- ward meeting it. The convoy system was adopted and all mer- chant ships were required to proceed in convoy escorted by cruisers, destroyers, converted yachts or other craft. Despite the delays and congestion which this entailed it did more than Submarine KFI 513 Submarine Mines anything else to reduce the num- ber of sinkings. Aircraft scout- ing was employed along the coasts and in the enclosed waters of the Irish Sea, North Sea and English Channel. Submarine chasers were equipped with lis- tening devices, and a large group would operate with a fast de- stroyer carrying depth charges. Almost all merchantmen were armed with guns. Ships were required to steam at their best measures the world tonnage loss of shipping in 1917 amounted to about nine million tons, while the British and American shipyards turned out about two million tons of new ships. The situation remained acute throughout 1917 and the first six months of 1918, but gradually the anti-submarine measures became more effective, the Germans lost more and more boats and they suffered especially from a lack of trained personnel. See Navies ; Torpedo Boats ; Torpedo; Submarine Mines: Europe, Great War of ; Navy OF THE United States, Limi- tation of Naval Armament. Consult, Commander M. F. Svieter, R. N., The Evolution of the Submarine Boat, Mine and Torpedo ; Gibson and Prender- gast. The German Submarine War ; Jane, Fighting Ships (an- nual) ; Brassey, Naval Annual; Field, Story of the Submarine ; speed and to follow zigzag courses, and the more important convoys were required to zigzag in formation. An anti-subma- marine division had been estab- lished in the British Admiralty in December, 1916, and vigorous measures were thereafter taken in an effort to block the Straits of Dover against the passage of the U-boats. The North Sea Mine Barrage (see Submarine Mines) was agreed upon and ex- tensive mining operations along the German coast undertaken. The United States Navy had de- veloped a mine for use against submarines and with the same principle the British mines at- tached to the nets were made effective. All American destroy- ers in commission were sent abroad to Queenstown, Brest, and Gibraltar for convoy and other anti-submarine duty. Large destroyer building pro- grammes were undertaken by the United States and Great Britain, as well as huge shipbuilding projects. Despite all anti-submarine In 1918 the Germans sent several submarines across the Atlantic to operate on the Ameri- can coast. These submarines sank a number of vessels and planted mines which caused the sinking or damaging of a num- ber of others, including the ar- mored cruiser San Diego, which was, sunk, and the battleship Minnesota, which was damaged. Present Position of the Submarine. — The submarine of today is characterized by ex- cellent sea-keeping and military qualities, medium tonnage and a relatively high speed and large cruising radius. The trend of most of the major nations is toward sul^marines which can operate with the fleet for scout- ing purpf)ses and as weapons of opportunity, as it has been recog- nized that the submarine alone can effectively scout in an area which is controlled by the enemy. Only Germany among the nations has gone into the small subma- rine, possibly for the reason that she was forced to reconstruct her fleet entirely after 1933. Domville-Fife, Submarines ; U. S. Naval Institute Proceed- ings, (Monthly — see index). John B. Heffernan, Commander, U. S. Navy Submarine Mines are ex- plcjsive devices designed to be laid beneath the surface of the water for the destruction of hos- tile vessels. The earliest re- corded use of them was made by David Bushnell of Connecti- cut, the inventor of the first sub- marine boat employed in actual warfare. Bushnell made several attempts in 1777 to destroy Brit- ish war vessels with floating mines and nearly achieved suc- cess. He blew up a British sup- ply schooner and a man-of-war, but failed through accident to reach the larger vessels. In the War of 1812, Mix of Norfolk exploded a torpedo of Ful- ton's design under the bow of the British ship Plantaganct, which blew off her fore channels and destroyed a boat lying alongside. During the (Tivil War, the Confederates planted mines in great numl)ers. Submarine Mines KFI 514 Submarine Mines and destroyed 23 Federal ves- sels, of which 7 were armorclads. In the Franco-German War of 1870 the extensive use of mines by the Germans prevented the overwhelmingly superior French navy from effecting a close blockade of the German coast, or accomplishing any offensive operations of importance. In the Russo-Japanese War, contact mines were successfully used in large numbers, but many broke away from their moorings (or were never anchored), and caused disaster to merchant shipping during and after the war. This resulted in a convention of The Hague Conference of 1907 which forbade the use of unanchored mines that did not become in- nocuous in an hour, and required anchored mines to be so fitted as to become inoperative if they broke adrift. As regards location in the water, submarine mines are of two classes — (a) ground and (b) buoyant. Ground mines are placed on the bottom of channels and fairways, but are suitable only for waters of a depth slightly exceeding that necessary for the passage of large ships. Buoyant mines are commonly designed to float between 10 feet and 200 feet below the surface, and are (except 'drifters') adjustable for anchoring in considerable depths of water. They will not act efficiently in deep water where the tidal currents are strong unless secured by anchors up and down stream; and even then they must have large excess buoyancy to resist being forced too far below the surface by the drag of the current. As regards principles of firing, mines are classed as (1) observa- tion and (2) contact. Observation mines are placed in channels and other waters where vessels pass- ing over them can easily be seen from the two observing points on shore. By means of sighting vanes at each station, and suit- ably arranged contacts connected with the mine field, the other station, and the firing battery, any group of mines may be ex- ploded when a vessel passes over them. Contact mines are ar- ranged to be exploded by a pass- ing vessel. Controlled contact mines are connected to battery stations on shore. Like other contact mines, they are fitted with horns, plugs, or levers ar- ranged about the head, and so connected that if one of them is struck while the battery current is turned on, the electric circuit is completed and the charge ex- ploded. To make the mine field safe for the passage of friendly vessels the current is temporarily shut off. Uncontrolled contact mines are of many types. Drift- ing (i.e., unanchored) contact mines are supposed to become innocuous after the lapse of an hour. Anchored mines of the uncon- trolled contact type, like buoyant mines of the observation and controlled classes, are held at a fixed depth (usually between 10 feet and 200 feet) below the water surface by the pull of the anchor rope. The correct depth Pfantln^ Buoy Rim (wsWed) Up orWaeheH Cap "■Clatnp ►SlngUCopaCsbte >-Bala >- Round Seizing rBale Ring -Shackle ►Pia ^Mooring Rope Clamp ^'Mooring fiope Cyelet MultipU Cable CasamatA » Cora Cabtoa to Other MioGB Moored Submarine Mine (Observation Type, with Planting Buoy Not Yet Removed.) of immersion is effected by means of a distance weight, a pressure clutch, or an equivalent contrivance. The distance weight hangs below the anchor when ready for launching by a line whose length is the designed depth of the mine below the sur- face. When the anchor and distance weight are let go, the former tends to sink less rapidly than the latter because it has cavities which fill with water slowly, while the weight is of solid lead or iron. While the anchor is sinking the mine floats on the surface, the anchor rope unwinding from its reel until the distance weight touches bottom. When this occurs the distance line slackens, and releases a pawl which locks the anchor rope reel. The further descent of the anchor draws the mine below the surface to its designed position. In some types the distance weight unreels a cable the length of which limits the depth to which the mine case will submerge. Upon unreeling this length a tripping action takes place which releases the anchor from the case and allows the anchor and distance weight to sink to the bottom as described in the previous type. In German and Russian mines the adjustment is differently effected. When the anchor is let go it does not pay out cable, but draws the mine nearly to the bottom. The dissolving of a sal- ammoniac plug soon unlocks the reel, and the mine rises as the rope pays out. When the water pressure drops to that of the depth desired, a clutch that is automatically released grips the anchor rope and holds the mine in position; at the same time a stop is withdrawn from the anchor rope connection which permits the strain on the rope to close the main break in the firing circuit. Each contact horn con- sists of a short piece of lead pipe which projects from the head of the mine and contains a sealed glass tube filled with a chlorate of potash mixture. Until the mine is ready for launching each con- tact horn is protected by a strong brass tube that surrounds it and screws to a boss around the hole in the mine case. When a horn is struck the glass is broken. The chlorate mix- ture then drops into a battery jar containing zinc and carbon strips, a current is gene- rated, and the mine explodes. To facilitate lift- ing the mines, a tripping line ex- tends from each next anchor, and mine to a small By pulling Istrftution 8m mine to the from the last buoy or other mark, the tripping line a bight in the anchor rope is released. This permits the mine to come to the surface, and the release of ten- sion on the anchor rope opens the main break in the firing circuit so that the mine is safe to handle. The explosive charge of present- day mines is usually of trinitro- toluene (t.n.t.), and its weight varies from 200 to 500 pounds. Mining Operations in the World War.~ln the War, the enormous areas covered with mines, the large number of vessels destroyed by them, and the extent of the mine-sweeping Submarine Mines KFI 515 Submarine Mines work make the mining operations of previous wars seem trivial in comparison. With the excep- tion of a narrow strip of sea along the Dutch coast, and of channels known only to the defenders and their pilots, almost the whole southern part of the North Sea was strewn with mine fields. Similar large fields were planted in the Baltic, in the channels connecting it with the North Sea, and in parts of the Mediterrane- an. Except in the vicinity of coast fortifications that are lo- cated on channels leading to important ports, the mines were of the contact, uncontrolled type; and others of this type were laid by belligerents across channels leading to the enemy's coast. In former wars the clearing of passages and mine fields of the enemy's mines was chiefly ef- fected by counter-mining — i.e., firing heavy charges of high ex- plosives in the supposed vicinity of the mine group. This was never a very satisfactory pro- cedure, and with recent mines it is quite ineffective. Sweeping is now resorted to. Two vessels, separated by a few hundred yards, take the ends of a wire hawser and drag the bight along the sea bottom. This gathers the mines into bunches, and they are then destroyed. Mine sweeping near the enemy's coast is difficult and dangerous. Nevertheless, thousands of mines were swept up and destroyed in the Great War, and hundreds of vessels of the tug or steam trawler type were constantly engaged in the work. During the war the Germans developed the mine laying sub- marine and by employing it were able'to lay mines in the channels of distant ports, and to necessi- tate extensive mine sweeping operations. In at least one instance, however, the Germans lost a submarine which ran on one of its own mines. Harbor channels everywhere were swept for mines every morning, and submarines began to plan accord- ingly. The mine planter would drop two or three mines and then wait for the sweepers, following their course and planting mines in the channel just swept. At Waterford, Ireland, in September, 1917, the presence of a submarine mine planter was suspected and the sweepers pretended to sweep the channel but left three or four mines in place, and the submarine moving in to drop more mines struck one that it had previously planted and was blown up. The North Sea Mine Barrage. — One of the most formidable undertakings of the war was the planting of the North Sea Mine Barrage, which developed from an American idea and was largely accomplished by the U. S. Navy. It was made practicable by the invention of the 'antenna mine,' a particular form of con- tact mine, which could be planted at greater intervals than any other type. These mines had an antenna of wires which if touched by a passing submarine would explode the mine by an electrical contrivance. The plan was to lay a mine barrier across the North Sea from the Orkney Islands, off the coast of Scotland, to the 'three-mile limit' off the Norwegian coast — a distance of 270 miles. The British Navy undertook to lay 80 miles of mines, while the tj. S. Navy was to begin at the point where the British mine field ended and plant mines, in ten lines, from that point to the eastern end of the barrier (190 miles). Actual preparations were be- gun in America, in October, 1917, to manufacture 125,000 mines, the design of which had not yet been perfected, to convert 8 merchant ships into minelayers, to organize a special transporta- tion service of 24 cargo ships for getting mines and appurtenances across the Atlantic Ocean to the west coast of Scotland from whence they would be barged via the Caledonian Canal to great mine bases yet to be constructed at Inverness and Invergordon. Meantime the British made renewed efforts to render the Dover Strait impassable to sub- marines, as without this the northern project would be useless. Early in 1918, they had solved the difficult problem at Dover, where strong currents, bad weather, great rise and fall of tide, and a bottom of loose stones had previously baffled all efforts to make an effective barrier. After great preparatory efforts the operation of laying the Northern Mine Barrage was actually begun by the British and Americans in March, 1918. The British used small mine- layers and their type of mine which required a great number to cover a comparatively small area. The Americans used es- pecially designed large steamers. Mining operations were actively continued up to the date of the Armistice, at which time the barrage was almost completed. The British had then laid about 14,000 mines and the Americans 56,000. The American mines were laid in a series of thirteen expeditions in which all the U. S. Navy mine- layers participated. They usu- ally sailed from the two bases at Inverness and Invergordon on the east coast of Scotland on a dark and misty night, escorted by British destroyers from the Grand Fleet. Near the point of laying, they were met by a squadron of American or British battleships with cruisers and other destroyers to cover the whole operation against the pos- sibility of raids from the German High Seas Fleet. The mine- layers were formed into a line abreast at a standard interval of about 500 yards and while steaming in this formation at high speed, each ship dropped mines every few seconds until the whole cargo was disposed of. In this way more than 5,000 mines were laid in a single expedi- tion. The operation would be completed in three or four hours and then the whole force would return to base. Soon after the first two Ameri- can excursions had been com- pleted, two enemy submarmes were damaged in crossing that portion of the barrage. The first, U-86, was damaged on July 9 while homeward bound. The second was the U.B.-22 outward bound and apparently destroyed. Of course the enemy immediately routed his subma- rines through a different part of the North Sea, but the continual mining operations constantly extended the area which was dangerous to submarine passage. On August 10, the U-113 was damaged in the barrage while outward bound and was forced to turn back. On September 8, U-92 was sunk in the barrage and another submarine was so severely damaged that it was forced to return to base. On September 25, U-156 and on Oc- tober 18, U.B.-123 were proba- bly lost in the barrage. It is probable that between two and six submarines were de- stroyed and six severely damaged as a result of this great North Sea barrage. Considering the fact that it was never quite com- pleted and that only in March, 1918 did it begin to be even par- tially effective, these results ap- pear to more than justify the wisdom of the project. The Allies had early attempted to prevent the passage of sub- marines from the Adriatic Sea into the Mediterranean through the Strait of Otranto. Here a mobile barrage of a large number of patrol vessels was maintained, and the Italians tried laying a floating net barrage since the water was too deep for ordinary mining. The development of the American mine appeared to offer a better solution and steps were accordingly taken to lay a barrage of these mines across the vStrait of Otranto. In order to prevent a probable German move to Constantinople as a submarine base, a project was also put for- ward for the laying of a barrage of American mines from Greece to the Island of Samos, taking Submarine Telegraphy KFI 515 A Subsidies advantage of the string of islands in between. At the time of the Armistice, work upon an Ameri- can mining base at Bizerta had been actually begun, with a view to serving the minelaying op- erations for the Otranto ^gean barrages. See Submarine. Consult Belknap, Yankee Min- ing Squadron ; Barnes, Subma- rine Warfare ; Bucknill, Subma- rine Mines and Torpedoes ; Cloke, Gunner's Examiner ; Fyfe, Submarine Warfare; Noalhat, Lcs torpillcs et les mines sousmarinc ; Sleeman, Torpedoes and Torpedo War- fare. Submarine Telegraphy. See Telegraphy. Submaxillary Glands, two of the group of salivary glands, lying one on each side of the throat, immediately below the an- gle of the lower jaw. The glands are subject to various disorders of primary and secondary ori- gin, including infections and in- flammations, calculi tumors, and disorders of secretion which may be due to a number of causes. See also Saliva. Submerged Forests, forests existing below the surface of the ocean or other body of water. Such forests are found at sever- al places around the shores of the British Isles, their roots and stumps becoming exposed at low tide. They are known in Corn- wall (Mount's Bay), along the shores of the Bristol Channel, on the south coast of England (Poole, Torbay, Bournemouth, Bognor, St. Leonard's), at the mouths of the Humber, the Mersey, in the Firth of Forth, and in the Orkney Islands. They are evidently for the most part of post-glacial age, though a few may belong to interglacial peri- ods ; and weapons of stone and bronze have been occasionally found in them together with bones of elk, beaver, wild ox, and other animals which no longer inhabit Britain. Profes- sor James Geikie arrived at the conclusion that there were two forest epochs, separated by a pe- riod of greater cold, in which glaciers formed in the higher valleys, and actually reached the sea in some of the mountainous districts of the northwest of Scotland. In all probability Britain was at that time united to the Continent and to Ireland, and a great part of the North Sea was a flat plain drained by the Rhine and other rivers. Similar submerged forests oc- cur in the Mississippi Delta, and at various places along the Atlantic coast-line from Maine southward. They are found only in protected nooks or estuaries, sheltered from the waves of the sea which would otherwise have swept away the forest soil. Submerged peat bogs, which have become tidal flats, and are due to the subsidence of the earth's crust, are also found. Subor'dina'ries, charges in heraldry. See Heraldry. Sub'orna'tion of Perjury. See Perjury. Subpoena, sub-pe'na, a writ or process issued by a court, ju- dicial officer, or quasi judicial body commanding the person named therein to appear as a witness at a certain time and place, under a penalty {sub pcvua) in case of disobedience. In courts of common law, both civil and criminal, when the presence of witnesses is com- pelled in order to give testimony, the writ is called specifically subpoena ad testificandum ('sub- pcena to testify'). When the writ contains an additional clause directing the witness to bring with him certain specific documents, books, or other arti- cles which may be used as evi- dence, it is called subpoena duces tecum. In the United States, a sub- poena is enforceable only within the State in which the court issu- ing it has jurisdiction. A sub- poena may usually be served by any person of discretion, and service is effected by personally delivering a copy, showing the original, and tendering the legal fees (see Service of Process). Statutes in all the States pre- scribe certain fees and mileage to compensate the witness for railroad fare, or similar costs ; but generally there is no provi- sion under which he can demand actual expenses in excess of this. Disobedience of a subpoena is punishable as contempt of court (see Contempt of Court). Disobedience in a civil action is also visually punishable by fine. Subrogation, in law, is the succession of a person who has paid the debt of another to all the rights of the original cred- itor as against the debtor. The following are the most common applications of the general doc- trine of subrogation: (1) If a junior mortgagee pays the debt due to a prior mortgagee, he be- comes entitled to the prior mort- gage. (2) When one of several joint debtors pays the entire debt he becomes entitled to the contri- bution of the others, and ac- cjuires all the rights of the cred- itor against them. (3) When a surety pays the demand pri- marily owing by his principal debtor he is entitled to recover the contributions due from the other sureties, and the entire amount which he has advanced from his principal. (4) All con- tracts of fire and marine in- surance are contracts of indem- nity, and the underwriter, in con- sideration of the indemnity, is 'subrogated' to the insured — i.e., he is entitled to stand in the place of the insured and recover anything the latter could have recovered by enforcing rights of action against third parties. Subsidence, in geology, a sinking of the earth's crust which has been taking place for a long time, as an interrupted process and not at an even rate. Evi- dence of this subsidence is found in the existence of submerged forests (q. v.), in buildings and other structures now standing in the water, and in the increasing depth of average water-level over well known reefs and har- bors. The most impressive evi- dence, however, lies in the irreg- ular coast-lines produced by the drowning of valleys, with the accompanying production of bays and estuaries. It has been commonly observed that, where heavy deposits of sediment are being laid down by rivers in the adjacent sea, subsidence of the ocean bottom is in progress. This leads to the conclusion that subsidence and deposition of sediment occur at about the same time. Sub'sidies, a term most fre- quently used in the following ways : ( 1 ) Annual payments of money by one country to an- other, to secure its neutrality or assistance in war, or to induce it to act in accordance with the advice and in the interests of the country granting the subsidy. (2) In the history of English taxation the term has meant, in its most general sense, a grant by Parliament in aid of the or- dinary revenues of the govern- ment ; it has been applied to cer- tain export and import duties called tonnage and poundage ; and it has also meant a special tax of two shillings eight pence on movables, and four shillings on land, which was granted to the Crown in the sixteenth and sev- enteenth centuries. (3) The term is now most commonly used to designate government grants in aid of private enterprise, deemed to be in the public interest, as of merchant shipping. Shipping Subsidies. — Gov- ernment grants in aid of ship- ping usvially are made for one or more of the following purposes : (1) the development of national shipping for commercial use ; (2) the assurance that national shipping will be available to serve as transports and naval auxiliaries in time of war; (3) the provision of essential trans- portation facilities between a given country and its oversea territories, colonies or other pos- sessions, and (4) for the car- Subsidies KFI 515 B Subsidies riage of mails. These grants take various forms both as re- gards the construction and oper- ation of vessels, including (a) compensation for increased speeds and naval auxiliary fea- tures, (b) payment of differ- ences in shipbuilding and ship operating costs so as to place na- tionals on a competitive basis v>ith foreigners, (c) assumption of interest charges on loans for the purchase or construction of vessels, (d) payments of stipu- lated amounts according to the tonnage of cargo carried, (e) ex- emption from taxes, (f) provi- sion of additional insurance Vv'here the commercial market can not absorb the entire risk, (g) compensation for increased costs resulting from laws short- ening the hours of labor, (h) payments based on freight levels, to enable ship operators to tide over periods of depression and meet foreign competition. United States post-war legis- lation has taken the form svic- cessivelv of the Merchant Ma- rine Acts, 1920, 1928 and 1936. The first two of these acts pro- vided for the granting of con- tracts by the Postmaster General for the conveyance of mails and for the making of loans for the construction of vessels. Higher rates of compensation were paid under the Act of 1928; more- over, an increase was authorized in the Government's construc- tion loan fvmd, carrying it to $250,000,000. The Act of 1936 substituted for mail contracts and construction loans, direct subsidies in the form of operat- ing and construction differentials intended to place American ship operators on a parity in competi- tion with foreign operators. This act also authorized the con- struction of vessels and the char- tering of them for private opera- tion. The goal set for a ten-year pro- gram of modernizing the Ameri- can merchant marine is 500 ves- sels to be built at the rate of 50 per year and to be composed of various types, passenger and cargo (including tanker), also combination vessels. Toward the middle of 1939, the number of vessels contracted for totalled 66 of 592,000 gross tons, costing about $186,305,000. Of the 66 vessels, 20 were for the joint account of private operators and the Government, with a commit- ment of approximately $24,640,- 000 as construction differential subsidy. The other 46 vessels were wholly for the account of the Government under title VII of the Act providing for con- struction by the Government for employment under private char- ter. Operating differential sub- sidies in 1939 aggregated at the rate of about $13,000,000 a year. Great Britain has paid mail subsidies for many years. These generally have been of as much benefit to the Government as to the shipping industry since the (Government thereby has been relieved from expensive trans- port services in connection with the British naval stations and military establishments in vari- ous parts of the world. Service to the Government, rather than aid to the shipping industry, has been the object of the postal- contract system. Correspond- ingly, the Admiralty has svib- sidized certain vessels that have been vmder contract with the British post office to the extent of paying for extra equipment such as protected steering gears and engine rooms and stiffening for gun platforms. The amounts have been small and of no com- mercial value. Political and economic changes wrought by the World War have influenced the Government to aid shipping in a number of ways beyond the mail and ad- miralty contracts already men- tioned. Thus in 1921 the Gov- ernment passed the Trade Fa- cilities Act which, with a series of extensions through 1926, pro- vided for the guarantee of loans for shipbuilding in the aggregate of £27,487,745 ($133,769,100). This act also provided for loan guarantees to other industries and had relief of unemployment as its primary objective. Similar legislation was enacted by the Government of Northern Ireland and this is still in effect. Grow- ing international competition and economic depression have caused the Government to grant finan- cial aid to the Cunard-White Star Line in the form of ad- vances for the building and oper- ating of the super-liners Queen Mary and Queen Elisabeth. Three million pounds were au- thorized for the completion of the Queen Mary, £1,500,000 for working capital and a fur- ther £5,000,000 for the Queen Elizabeth. The Government also arranged to provide in- surance for these ships in so far as it can not be obtained in the commercial market. In addition, the decline in the charter market in 1935 resulted in the Government affording out- right subsidies to tramp oper- ators, predicated on the rise or fall of the level of freights. These subsidies were paid for the years 1935 and 1936 in the amount of about £2,000,000 for each year. A like amount would have been paid for 1937, but the charter market improved and authorization was automatically suspended. The act was not re- newed in 1938. A scrap-and- build scheme was adopted also, in 1935, whereby advances were made to shipowners who ar- ranged to demolish two tons of old vessels for every new ton they had built (or one ton for every ton modernized). The ag- gregate of advances was £3,- 548,124 although the statute had authorized a maximum of £10,- 000,000. The rate of interest was not to exceed 3 per cent. France has granted aid to its shipping more extensively per- haps and for a longer period than _ has any other country. Subsidies have been paid for both operation and construction. Those for operation, in the form of postal contracts, have rounded out approximately a century of application. They have varied somewhat in their particulars, but the postal-sub- sidy principle has remained un- disturbed — guaranteed sailings with specified equipment under penalty provisions in considera- tion of stipulated compensation or assumption of financial risk by the State. Further assistance has been resorted to in recent years because of economic de- pression, the need to relieve un- employment and to improve la- bor conditions. The total cost of subsidies in 1937 amounted to about a billion francs or $34,- 000,000. Italy. The subsidy system is formulated to serve Italian citi- zens in their relation to the State ; it is designed principally to insure their transportation un- der the national flag between the various ports of the peninsula, the islands and the colonies. As in the case of other countries, however, economic depression and the exigencies of interna- tional competition also have been factors influencing subsidy leg- islation. Shipping services are classed as indispensable or use- ful ; some of the former are purely local, but others extend all around Italy and to the Med- iterranean coast of Asia, Africa and Europe. More recently they include Ethiopia. The scope of financial assistance takes into account mobilization and the range of military duties ; also it provides a means of transport- ing Italian citizens for attend- ance at sessions of Parliament or for discharge of official duties as officers or employees of the Government. The 'useful' serv- ices are those which connect Italy with foreign countries on the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic oceans. In addition to operat- ing contracts, aid is provided by duty exemptions of materials for shipbuilding, maritime credit with state contributions of inter- est, navigation premiums for Subsidies KFI 516 Substitutions cargo vessels and income tax ex- emptions. Annual appropria- tions have totaled as much as 287,500,000 lire in some years. Germany. The principal State grants are those in respect of currency equalization and the cost of new construction. Cur- rency subsidies are intended to cover at least a part of the loss to which German shipowners are subjected by spending in marks and earning in depreciated cur- rencies. Construction subsidies are paid for the reason that the cost of building ships is higher in German yards than in foreign. Special assistance over and above the currency and construc- tion grants common to all Ger- man shipowners is afforded the North Atlantic service which re- ceives financial support based on the accounts of the 'Norda' con- cerns formed by the Hamburg- America Line and the North German Lloyd. This assistance, like the currency eqvialization payments, is an outright and un- conditional grant. It appears to be the German point of view that subsidies within reasonable lim- its are necessary Cin a world in which the natural channels of trade are disturbed by customs barriers, exchange dif^icvilties, nationalism, boycott, government control and other external forces. Japan. Subsidies date from 1875 when they were first granted to the Mitsvibishi Kaisya, the only large shipping company then in existence. They have since been extended greatly in scope and amount and have pro- vided the necessary stimulus to the achievement of Japan's mer- chant marine ambitions. De- pendence upon supplies from overseas both as regards food- stuffs and raw materials for'in- dustry, also the desire for mili- tary transports and naval auxil- iaries, have caused Japan to grant subsidies. Operating grants have been made to both liner companies and tramptown- ers but only in recent years to the latter. Of the liner com- panies, the Nippon Yusen Kaisya receives by far the larg- est share although the Osaka Shosen Kaisya also receives a substantial amount. Besides these operating grants, subsidies have been paid to carry out ship improvement plans whereby old vessels would be dismantled and new ones built. Thus, during the period 1931 to 1937 nearly 300,000 tons were built toward which the Government made con- tributions in the aggregate of 14,000,000 yen. Grants in addi- tion to the afore-mentioned, have been made in compensation for building fast vessels. Moreover, the Government, in participation with private banking _ interests, has furnished extensive mari- time credit. Norway. Government financ- ing of shipping is principally for the maintenance of local serv- ices. See Shipping, Merchant. Albert E. Sanderson. Chief of Shipping Section, U. S. Dept. of Commerce. Subsoil. See Soils. Substance (from the Latin substantia, 'being'), a term which, in different senses, has played an important part in philosophical and theological discussion. It may denote either the concrete individual — e.g., this or that man (its primary meaning for Aris- totle); or it may signify the general nature common to the members of a class, as humanity is to all men (the essence or Platonic idea). To this am- biguity Christian theologians owe some of their difficulties and disputes in their attempts to define the doctrine of the Trinity. The philosophical doctrine of substance took on a different as- pect, according as one or the other of these two meanings was uppermost. Thinkers of a Platonic tendency, like the scho- lastic exponents of realism, re- garded the essence or universal as having a higher or truer reality than the individual; and sim- ilarly, the wider universal was always a higher reality than the narrower. The logical outcome of this line of thinking is that God, the highest reality, is conceived as infinite being or substance; but being which, as infinite, is emptied of all positive determinations, since any posi- tive determination would seem to 'limit' it and make it finite. In the Cartesian philosophy essentially the same type of doctrine is present, coming to its full expression in Spinoza, who recognizes in God the one and only substance of which all finite things are but the transitory modes. The monadism of Leib- niz may be regarded in relation to Spinoza as an expression of the opposed view, that the individual is the true reality. But the type of doctrine opposed to realism in its scholastic form was Nominal- ism, which held so exclusively to the reality of the individual as to make the essence or general nature a mere name or a thought in the mind. (See Nominalism.) In modern philosophy, the no- tion of substance has been sub- jected to criticism in two direc- tions. On the one hand, it has been asked how we are to think the relationship involved in it. Locke raised this question point- edly enough by his naive confes- sion that he could see nothing in the conception of substance but 'a supposition, to which we accus- tom ourselves; of a support we know not what,' for the qualities we perceive. On the other hand, it has been felt that the notion of substance is a very inadequate and misleading one to apply to spiritual being or consciousness. In Logic, the converse of sub- stance is Attribute. The former is considered to be self-evident, while the latter can only be con- ceived as possessing a dependent existence. Substitutions, a branch of mathematics which considers the results of substituting certain quantities or numbers belonging to a given set for an equal num- ber of similar quantities or num- bers belonging to the same set. For example, given any function of the four quantities, xi, Xi, xs, Xi, we get a new function if we sub- stitute 2 for 1, 3 for 3, 4 for 2, and 1 for 4. Let us represent this sub- stitution by s, then by successive applications of the substitutions we find s = 2, 4, 3, 1; ss = 4, 1, 3, 2; sss=l, 2, 3, 4. Hence the sub- stitution s is such that s' = l. Now, whatever be the number of letters involved, and whatever be the substitution, it is found that a sufficient number of repetitions of s leads to the original arrange- ment, and that consequently s satisfies an equation of the form s"=l. The smallest number n which satisfies this equation is called the order of the substitu- tion. In the case just given the three quantities represented by 1, 2, 4 form what is called a cyclic sub- stitution. Any substitution must be composed of a definite number of cyclic substitutions. Thus the substitution which transforms a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j into d, j, i, e, h, c, b, a, f, g is built up of the cyclic substitu- tions (adeha) (bjgh) (cifc). Evi- dently the order of a cyclic sub- stitution is simply the number of letters involved in the cycle; and the order of any substitution is consequently equal to the least common multiple of the orders of its component cycles. This meth- od has important developments and applications in the theories of numbers, of groups, and of equa- tions. The most familiar substitu- tion is that known as the linear substitution, in which a transfor- mation is effected by putting in place of each variable or indepen- dent unit in an algebraic expres- sion linear expressions involving the other variables or units. Such a substitution leaves the order of the algebraic expression unal- tered. It has one of its most important applications in the ordinary analytical theory of curves and surfaces, and especial- ly in projective geometry. See A MODERN DOUBLE-DECKED SUBWAY. View of the New Lexington Avenue System, New York City. Before Completion. On the Lower Level. E:xpress Trains will Run, with Stations About a Mile Apart. The Upper Level Is for Local Trains, with Stations About One-third of a Mile Apart. Subway^ 517 A readily accessible. The London deep rapid-transit tunnels, 300 feet below ground level, which serve the same purposes as shal- low rapid transit subways (ex- cept that elevators are needed Water Proof incf .. high speed; therefore they are adapted for long-haul service, and are used for this to the exclu- sion of streetrcar traffic, which is essentially short-haul transporta- tion. Except for a few pieces of held to outweigh their greater cost. The first subways were planned and built in the late nineties, following a twenty-year period during which elevated rail- ways had been the main resource Waterproofing'' New York Subway.- ■ Minimum Depth of Concrete 8 ' Half Cross Section. -Halj Cross Section and Partial Longitudinal Section, Port Lorcitudinol Secticr Four-Track Portion. for passengers), have not been copied elsewhere. The Hudson Tube system at New York City, a rapid-transit system with four tunnels under the Hudson River, uses tunnel construction in its subway in Boston, practically all other city transit subways are used for the operation of rapid- transit trains, instead of forming links in the surface street-car system. in providing urban rapid transit. At the present time, little new elevated construction is going on. The largest rapid-transit sub- way system in the world is that of New York City, and the first Rods, 4"C.foC: Waterproofing a Concrete} Boston Subway. — Cross Section of a Passenger Station. land vsections only for construc- tion reasons, and wherever pos- sible the line rises to near the surface. vSubways being free from inter- secting streets and railways, cars and trains in them can be run at Subways provide the same ser- vice as elevated railways, but cost three to five times as much to build. Their advantagCvS — they do not darken or obstruct the streets or produce noise and dust — are nowadays generally line was built there. This orig- inal subway, operation of which started in 1904, includes some 16 miles of railway in subway, be- sides several miles of elevated extension. Subsequent enter- prises were begun in 1906 and Subway's 518 Subways in 1912, on a plan designed to gridiron the entire city with rapid-transit lines — all subways except in outlying districts, where elevated structures are used. The completed dual rapid-transit system of Greater New York will comprise about 630 miles. (See New York City, Transportation.) Boston and Philadelphia are the two other American cities having subway systems. The Philadelphia system consists of an east - and - west line under Market Street, continuing be- yond the Schuylkill River as an elevated extension. North-and- south subways have been pro- jected and planned for. The Boston system is an ex- =^fe Anf> FuH-on '=0= S^- Dey St., The tubes are reached from the street by elevators. Paris has an extensive subway network comprising two ring lines and a number of east-and- west and north-and-south trans- verse lines. Most of these are under the control of one com- pany, which allows of transferring at all intersections. One of the north-south lines, with several branches, is operated by an inde- pendent company. Berlin possesses the main stem of a thorough subway system, the existing stem running north- east and southwest through the entire city, with two branches, one built municipally. An inde- pendent city-built subway run- structure of a lined tunnel, but with few exceptions it is built in open excavation from the street surface, and the street subse- quently refilled over it. In most instances, cellular steel-and-con- crete construction comprises ver- tical columns along the side walls and between the tracks, spaced every 4 to 10 feet along the length of the structure, steel roof beams resting on the col- umns, and an encasing shell of concrete; in a few cases, the steel framing members (columns and beams) have been omitted, and a pure reinforced concrete cellular construction used (Fourth Ave- nue subway. New York). The accompanying view of a section Plan MAMHAT PAtsI Stee, Beam and Concr. Consf.--->f^^^^^"'^Tunn^^^^^^^ ConsfruCfJOn yyftf, UShelt- 2 if,, Const fein-f. Cone \W.S.SA Const' , BROOKl_Vts» Beinforced Concrete Cohstruefion Miles New York Subw^ay. — Profile of Manhattan-Brooklyn Extension Beneath the East River. tensive network of lines centring about a subway terminal loop of the dock-front elevated railway. A subway line westward to Brookline, another north to Cambridge and south to Dor- chester, and a street-car tunnel to East • Boston are important parts of the system. Subways for a number of oth- er American cities — e.g., Pitts- burgh, Cleveland, Detroit — have been studied and their construc- tion agitated. The great initial cost of subways, however, re- quires a very dense traffic to make them pay their carrying charge, and this condition is found only in the largest cities. The famous deep-tube system of London is the earliest under- ground rapid-transit system. It consists of cast-iron tubes, each single track, in pairs, driven by the shield method (.see Tunnels). ning north and south is the most recent addition. This subway system grew out of a cross-town elevated line with a short sub- way section, the latter being de- veloped and extended until the original elevated railway line be- came a minor appendage. There are short portions of subway in Hamburg and Budapest, and a depressed rapid transit railway in Vienna (not a true subway, as it is in open cut). Construction. — Disregarding the shield-driven deep tunnels in London, already mentioned, ex- isting subways are either con- crete arch structures of roughly elliptical section, or steel-and- concrete structures of box-shaped or cellular section. The latter is the common type; the elliptical arch section is used exclusively in the Paris system. The latter in its nature is identical with the of the newest New York subway (Lexington Avenue) exhibits the general nature of the structure as seen before most of the concrete encasement is in place. Subway construction involves many difficulties that greatly in- crease the cost. Most important is the cutting through of the sewer system of the city, which usually lies within the vertical range of the subway. This ne- cessitates extensive reconstruc- tion of the sewers, and provision for new main drainage lines and outfall. Crossings of rivers and creeks require tunnels which in most cases have formed especially difficult problems, dealt with by various methods of tunnelling and caisson sinking. (See Tun- nels.) Operalion. — Subway railways are possible only because of elec- tric traction, as the smoke and Succession 520 ^ckllng eteam from locomotives would make them untenantable. The system used employs direct cur- rent at about 600 volts potential, supplied by a third rail supported on insulators just above ground alongside the track, the return going through the track rails. The speeds range from 25 to 40 miles per hour. Succession is a term of the civil law denoting the devolution of a deceased person's legal rights and duties upon his heirs' de- scendants. The word is thus used in Louisiana and Scotland. If the heirs are appointed by will, the succession or inheritance is said to be testamentary; if they are designated by the law itself, in the absence of a will or in certain cases notwithstanding its provi- sions, the succession is legal. In the Anglo-American common law the term succession is only tech- nically applied to the transmis- sion of rights and duties to the successive members of a corpora- tion. Succession Act. See Act of Settlement. Succession, Apostolic, a term applied to the alleged uninter- rupted succession of the three apostolic orders — bishops, priests," and deacons — in the Church by an unbroken chain of ordination from the apostles, and therefore from Jesus Christ, down to the present day. Through this unin- terrupted succession of ordina- tion the ministry so ordained claims to be invested with all the powers and privileges of the apos- tles, and therefore to represent directly the Lord Himself. This view, founded on'isuch passages as Matt, xviii. 18, is maintained by the Greek, Roman Catholic, Oriental, and Anglican churches, who further hold that the unin- terrupted succession is capable of historical proof, and is essential to the transmission of valid or- ders in the Church. Other relig- ious bodies, such as the Presby- terians, hold that no such special significance attaches to the pas- sages referred to, and maintain that the rise of the sacerdotal orders did not take place until the fourth century. See Bishop; Episcopacy. Consult Hatch's Organization of the Early Chris- tian Churches; Gore's The Church and the Ministry. Succession Wars is the general name given to contests which took place in Europe during the eighteenth century on the extinc- tion of certain dynasties or ruling houses. Four such wars are usu- ally enumerated — that of the Spanish succession (17()l-i;i), of the Polish succession (17:i;}-:w), of the Austrian succession (1740- 1748), and of the Bavarian suc- cession (1777-79). See the sec- tion History in the articles Spain, Poland, Austria. Succin'ic Acid (CH2COOH)2, a dibasic acid occurring in amber and other resins, from the former of which it can be obtained by dis- tillation, though it is more easily prepared by the reduction of malic acid. In the animal king- dom it has been detected in the fluids of hydatid cysts and hydro- cele, in the parenchymatous juices of the thymus gland of the calf, as well as of the pancreas and thyroid gland of the ox. It can be obtained synthetically by the hydrolysis of ethylene cyanide, and forms monoclinic crystals with adisagreeabletaste. Itmelts r.t 180°^c., is somewhat soluble in water, and forms a series of salts, of which the insoluble, buff-col- ored ferric succinate is employed as a test for the acid. Succory. See Chicory. Succu'bae. See Demonology. Su-chau, soo'chou', Su-chow, or SoocHOW, city, capital of the province of Kiang-su, China, on Ta-hu Lake and the Grand Ca- nal ; 55 miles northwest of Shang- hai. It is in the heart of the silk district, and is one pf the wealth- iest cities of the republic. The city is partially built on a score of islands, and is threaded by canals, from which it has been called 'the Venice of China.' It is sur- rounded by a wall thirty feet high and twelve miles in circum- ference. Many of the granite bridges spanning the canals are of high architectural merit. The Great Pagoda of Su-chau, 240 feet high, has nine stories, with sixty doors opening upon balco- nies. The environs of Su-chau are covered with orchards, gardens, mulberry groves, and cultivated fields of cotton, rice, wheat, fruit, and Vegetables. The manu- factures consist of silk goods (over 7,000 looms), cotton and linen fabrics, and articles of ivory, horn, wood, glass, and lacquered ware. The city was largely destroyed during the Taiping Rebellion (I860). It was opened to foreign trade in 1896. A Chinese and European school was opened in 1900. Pop. 500,000. Suchet, sii-sha', Louis Ga- briel, Due d'Albufera (1770- 1826), French soldier, was born in Lyons. He distinguished himself in the Italian campaigns of 1796 and 1799-1800, in the latter of which he was second in command to Massena. At Marengo, and in the great engagements of 1805-7 — Austerlitz, Saalfeld, Jena, Pul- tusk, Ostrolenka — he ably assist- ed Napoleon. Named governor of Aragon, he inflicted defeats on the British under Blake (1809) and under O'Donnell (1810), and conquered Valentia (1812). He was created count (1808), mar- shal of France (1811), and after the abdication of Napoleon was made Due d'Albufera by Louis xviii., but was involved in Napo- leon's fall after Waterloo. He wrote Memoir es (1829-34). Con- sult Barault-Roullon's Le Mare- chal Suchet. ' Sucker, in botany, is (1) a shoot or branch originating on a subterranean portion of the stem; (2) a shoot or sprout arising from the root near or remote from the trunk of certain trees, as the silver-leaf poplar; and (3) an adventitious shoot or sprout from the stem or limbs, as the rapidly growing erect shoots of an apple or pear tree. Sucliing Fish, or Sucker, the Echeneididae family, many spe- cies of which are popularly called Remoras, though the name strictly Sucking Fish (Echeneis renter a). applies to only one. Their special peculiarity is that the first dorsal fin is converted into an adhesive disc, which occupies the upper side of the head and neck. The disc consists of a double series of transverse lamellae, which can be erected, and by the production of a series of vacuums enable the fish to attach itself very firmly to any flat surface. Remoras usu- ally fasten themselves to moving objects, such as ships, other fish, especially sharks, turtles, and so on; and for this reason are some- times attached to lines and used to catch other fish and turtles. The true remora occurs in warm waters; but other species of suck- ing fishes of the Echeneididae family occur in all seas. The best-known species are E. remora, growing to about eight inches, and E. naucrates, a slender form which attains three feet. In the United States, the name Sucker is given to fresh-water fish of the family Catostomidae, of which there are many species. The very common white sucker, a dull-colored, lazy fish about fif- teen inches long, is easy to catch, especially in the spring, but has little flavor to recommend its use for food. Suclding, Sir John (1609-42), English poet, was born in Whit- ton, Middlesex. After 1628 he seems to have served in the army of Gustavus Adolphus. He re- turned to England in 1632, and became famous at the court of Charles i. for his wit and prodi- gality. In 1639 he raised a force of hprse tp aid the king against Sucre KFP 521 Suctoria the Scots. Suckling became mem- ber of Parliament for Bramber in 1640; but having joined in the plot to rescue Strafford from the Tower in 1641, he had to liee to France. His chief compositions are The Goblins, Aglaura, and Brennoralt. Suckling's fame rests chiefly on his lyrics, among which are 'Why So Pale and Wan, Fond Lover?' and 'I Prithee Send Me Back My Heart.' Consult Life prefixed to the Selections by A. L Suckling. Sucre, city, Bolivia; nominally the capital, but recently the seat of government has been trans- ferred to La Paz. Sucre is situ- ated on the watershed between the basins of the Amazon (Gua- pay) and the La Plata (Pilco- mayo). It is the residence of the archbishop of La Plata and Char- cas, the primate of Bolivia. Its principal buildings are the Cathe- dral (1553), the President's Pal- ace and Halls of Congress, the cabildo or town hall, a mint, the courts of justice, and the Univer- sity of San Xavier. In 1912 an important new scheme of water supply was completed, water be- ing brought from Cajamarca, a watershed some 15 miles distant. Si'cre was founded in 1539 by a companion of Pizarro, and was called Chuquisaca. Pop. (1939) 34,600. Sucrose. See Sugar. Suction Gas Producer, one of the devices by which producer gas, suitable for use in gas engines, is obtained. The accompanying il- lustration shows the double case generator on the left, with the evaporator at the top, and on the right the gas cleaner, where the and steam passing up through the furnace bed. The steam is generated in the vaporizer by the heated gas, and the air is sup- 1908 there were in the United States over 500 producer power plants, of which 85 per cent were of the suction type. See Gas. TO GAS ENGINE Suction Gas Producer. plied at first by a blower, and afterward (as soon as gas has formed in sufficient quantity to work the engine) by the suction stroke of the cylinder. The quantity of gas developed is thus largely determined by the amount that is demanded by the engine. The common fuels for suction producers are anthracite coal, charcoal, and coke; but experi- ments are being made to adapt the apparatus for the cheaper fuels. Most suction plants are Consult Flurscheim's Working Hints for Suction Gas Producers (1909) ; C. A. M. Smith's Suction Gas Plants (1909); U. S. Bureau of Mines Bulletin No. 13 (1911). Suctoria, an order of Infusoria, including fresh-water and marine forms. In the young stage the Suctoria are uniformly covered with cilia; but in the adult con- dition they bear instead stiff, rod- like processes, often knobbed at the tip, which are called tentacles. By means of these the animals are able to suck out the contents gas is washed by a fine spray of water as it rises through a col- umn of coke. The carbon monoxide is developed by a mixture of air of 200 horse power or less, owing to the fuel cost. The device was invented in 1895, and was introduced into the United States about 1903. In of their prey, which usually con- sists of ciliate Protozoa. Sucto ria are all sedentary in habit. Ex- amples are Acineta and Dendro- soma. See Protozoa; Infusoria. Suczawa KFP 522 Sudan Suczawa, town, Austria, in Bukowina ; 48 miles southeast of Czernowitz. It manufactures beer, stoneware, and leather. Pop. 11,539. Sudan, Soudan, or Bilad- ES-SuDAN ('Land of the Blacks'), includes a large belt of Africa Abyssinia and Uganda; and on the west by the Belgian Congo and French West Africa. The area is 967,500 square miles. Topography. — The northern part of the Sudan is mostly des- ert, with small tracts of pasture land. Ranges of hills rise near Native Types of the Sudan. 1. View in Timbuktu. 2. Mandingo. 3. Tuareg. 4. Fulani. 5. Hausa. 6. Dinka. south of Egypt and the Sahara. The French Sudan is the coun- try of Upper Senegal and Niger, and the country east of the Ni- ger is often spoken of as the Central Sudan ; but the Anglo- Egyptian Sudan is the only po- litical division now properly dis- tinguished by the name. It is bounded on the north by the twenty-second parallel of north latitude ; on the east by the Red Sea and Eritrea ; on the south by the Nile to about 3,500 feet, and near Suakin are peaks fully 5,000 feet high. Kordofan is a table land rising to 2,000 feet, while the hilly Dar Nuba and Darfur attain summits of 6,000 feet. The country is drained by the Nile (q. v.) and its tribu- taries. The Bahr-el-Ghazal and its tributaries converge like a large fan from the watershed, which, running northwest from the Albert Nyanza, sinks from 6,000 feet to about 2,500 feet near Dem Ziber. Climate and Soil. — The cli- mate is healthy, though intense- ly hot in summer, increasing in humidity toward the south. The average temperature between November and March is 86° f. ; between March and November, 104° F. The average annual rain- fall at Gambela is 46 inches ; at Khartum, 6 inches ; at Mon- galla, 36 inches. Severe dust storms occur between May and July. Sleeping sickness is found in the Lado Enclave, and malaria and blackwater fever are not un- o known. Mining. — Gold, copper, iron, lead, antimony, lignite, natron, salt, and alum are found ; but only gold is produced in com- mercial quantities. _ Irrigation. — Irrigation is car- ried on in the Berber and Don- gola provinces. The Gezira irri- gation scheme, about 170 miles south of Khartum, was put in operation in 1926. By means of this plan the Sennar dam at Makwar on the Blue Nile was constructed, and over 80,000 acres of land were cultivated with Sakaharidis cotton. ^ Agriculture. — The chief crops are wheat, barley, dates, sesame, and cotton. The Tokar district is the chief cotton sec- tion ; but the Gezireh plain, is now the center of the industry. Trade in live stock is increas- ing. The chief native woods are ebony, gum (Kordofan prov- ince), acacia, bamboo, and rub- ber (Bahr-el-Ghazal). The Su- dan is the chief source of the world's supply of gum arable and ivory. Commerce. — The principal ^ imports are cotton piece goods, sugar, liquors, iron and steel, gunnies, wheat, flour, tea, and machinery. The exports are gum, cotton, sesame, ivory, hides and skins, and durra. The Sudan railways system of 1991 miles extends from Wadi Haifa to El Obeid, to Port Sudan and Sua- kin eastward, and to Sennar on the Blue Nile. There are river steamship services and a motor transport service between Juba and Nimule. There are 33 wire- less stations and 6,275 miles of telegraph and telephone routes. Population. — The northern part of the Sudan is occupied by Moslems of Negro (Nuba), Ham- itic, and Semitic (Arab) races. On the Upper Nile, Sobat, and Bahr-el-Ghazal, and the Abys- sinian frontier, dwell uncivilized Negroes — the Shiluks, Nuers, Dinkas, Baris, Boruns, Bongos, Bolandas, Jurs, Golos, etc. Pop, 6,590,996. Education. — The education system is divided into two spheres — Northern and South- Sudan KFP 523 Sudermann ern. In the former, education is mainly directed by the govern- ment. Higher education is rep- resented by the Gordon Memo- rial College at Khartum. There are two junior secondary schools, 117 boys' elementary schools, 62 girls' elementary schools, and a training college for teachers. There are techni- cal schools at Omdurman and Atbara. Eight independent inter- mediate and several elementary schools are managed by and for the natives. There are 52 non- government schools, 165 sub- grade schools, 180 state-sided indigenous Koran schools, and various mission schools. Government. — The Sudan is divided into 8 provinces with British governors, appointed by the Governor-General from the officers of the Egyptian army. The Governor-General, appoint- ed by the King with the approv- al of the British Government, and his council (created in 1910) make all the laws. The capital is Khartum (pop. 44,- 950). Other towns are Omdur- man, the old Dervish capital (pop. 116,196), North Khartum. Haifa, Merowe, Berber, Wad Medani, Suakin, and Port Sudan (founded in 1909). The currency is the same as that of Egypt, but European cur- rency has been introduced. The Sudan was able to declare its financial independence of Egypt starting from Jan. 1, 1913. Provincial and district courts have been established, and there is a judicial commissioner at Khartum. There are also Mo- hammedan courts conducted by natives. History. — The Sudan is said to be the territory known in the Bible as the land of Gush, and later as Nubia. In 750 b.c. the king, Pianchi, conquered Egypt and founded the twenty-fifth dy- nasty. Roman control in the in- terior was only partial. It was converted to Christianity in 545 A.D. The country was invaded by the Arabs in the seventh cen- tury, and became Mohammedan in the early Middle Ages. ^ Of the later mediaeval history little is known. Internal disturbances during the eighteenth century led to the reconquest of the country by Egypt (1820). Egyptian rule was gradually extended to the south, chiefly through the ef- forts of Baker, Gordon, and oth- er Europeans. In 1882 occurred the Mahdi revolt, which was not finally put down until the Bat- tle of Omdurman (1898). In the following year the Sudan was constituted a condominion of the British and Egyptian govern- ments. The Lado Enclave (17,000 square miles) was transferred to the Sudan by the Belgian Con- go in June, 1910, and is a part of the Mongalla province. Excava- tions at Merowe and elsewhere have revealed many ancient re- mains. See Egypt. Consult Budge, The Egyptian- Sudan (1907) ; Fothergill, Five Years in the 5fudan (1910); Artin, England in the Sudan (1911) ; Comyn, Service and Sport in the Sudan (1911) ; Ste- vens, My Sudan Year Book (1912) ; Cotton, Sport in the Eastern Sudan (1912); Crabites, The Winning of the Sudan (1934); Macmichael, The An- glo-Egyptian Sudan (1934) ; Boston and Maine Railroad ; 20 miles west of Boston. The Sud- bury River, an affluent of the Concord, separates part of the town from Wayland on the east. The town also contains the vil- lages of North, East, and South Sudbury. Two miles west of the last is the 'Wayside Inn,' cele- brated in Longfellow's Tales of a Wayside Inn. Pop. (est. 1945) 2,054. Sudd, a jungle growth of the upper White Nile, Sudan, which extends along the banks and over the surface of the river, obstruct- ing navigation. In 1900-02 much of it was removed, some of the blocks cut out being a mile long The Wayside Inn, at Sudbury, Mass. Hamilton, ed., The Anglo-Egyp- tian Sudan from Within (1937). Sudbury, town, Canada, Nip- issing district, Ontario, 264 miles north of Toronto. It is a commercial center and distrib- uting point. The nickel mines of the district furnish a large por- tion of the world's supply of that metal. Lumbering is carried on. Pop. (1941) 31,888. Sudbury borough, England, Suffolk, on the Stour ; 16 miles south of Bury St. Edmunds. The churches of All Saints, St. Gregory, and St. Peter are all ancient. The town was former- ly noted for its woolen manufac- tures, introduced by Flemings in the fourteenth century. Silks, velvets, and coco-fiber matting are made, and there are brewer- ies and lime works. Gainsbor- ough, the artist (1727-88), was a native. Pop. 7,007. Sudbury, town, Massachu- setts, Middlesex county, on the and twenty feet thick. The sudd area covers 35,000 square miles. In 1910 a concession of 375,000 acres was granted to an Anglo- German syndicate, formed to manufacture fuel briquettes from the dried sudd. The plant was made available for paper pulp by the discovery in Febru- ary, 1913, of a successful bleach- ing process. Sudermann, Hermann (1857-1928), German play- wright and novelist, occupying, with Gerhart Hauptmann (q. v.), the first place among the con- temporary writers of his coun- try. He was born at Matzicken in East Prussia, studied history, philosophy, and literature at Konigsberg and Berlin, and gave himself up to a literary career in the capital. For a long time Sudermann wrote without recognition, but with his social drama, Die Ehre (1889), he leaped into European Sudermann KFP 524 Suez Canal fame. Its intimate appeal to the German public lay in its power- ful delineation of the influence of caste upon ethics ; to non- Germans it was a masterly piece of dramatic construction. Then followed the social plays, So- doms Endc (1890), depicting with gloomy intensity the 'nerv- ous,' artificial civilization of the modern great city ; and Heimat (1893), repeatedly translated in- to English, and presented as Magda, by far the best known of Sudermann's plays and regarded as marking the height of his achievement. Its central theme . is the problem that runs all through the dramatist's work — the hollowness of traditional morality, the right of the indi- vidual to happiness uncondi- tioned by the prescriptions of convention, and the inevitable disaster which is the lot of the individual who dares to assert his right against accepted stand- ards. The later plays are Die Schmet- terlingsschlacht (1894); Das Gluck im. Winkel (1896) ; Mori- turi (1897 ; Eng. trans.), a group of three one-act plays of somber tone and exquisite workman- ship ; Johannes (1897; Eng. trans.), dealing with the story of the Baptist ; Die Drei Reiher- federn (1899), a dramatic alle- gory after the manner of Haupt- mann ; Johannisfeuer (1901), presented in New York in 1904 as The Fires of St. John, a play that throbs with passion and preaches submission to duty ; Es Lehe das Lehen! (1902), pre- sented in New York in 1903 with great success as The Joy of Living; Der Sturmgeselle Sok- rates (1903), a comedy of so- cialistic tendencies ; Das Blu- menboot (1905) ; Stein unter Steinen (1905); Rosen (1907; Eng. trans., 1909), four one-act plays; Strandkinder (1909); Der Bettler von Syrakus (1911). The novels are : Frau Serge (1886), the story of a woman's soul crushed within the confines of the marital life, but yearning for liberty, translated as Dame Care ; Im Zwielicht (1885) ; Geschwister, tales (1887) ; Der Katzensteg (1889), containing the profoundly moving character of the beautiful and faithful woman-animal, Regina, trans- lated under that title into Eng- lish ; lolanthes Hochzcit (1892) ; Es War (1894) ; Das Hohe Lied (1909), translated under the title The Song of Songs (1910) ; Die Indische Lilie (1911) ; Der Tolle Professor (1926); Die Frau des Steffen Tromholt (1927). Consult Duke, Modern Dram- atists ; Jung, Hermann Suder- mann (1902) ; Heller, Studies in Modern German Literature (1905) ; Axelrod, Hermann Su- dermann (1907) ; Bulthaupt, Ibsen, Wilderbruch, Sudermann, Hauptmann (1907) ; Spiero, Deutsche Geister (1910) ; Phelps, Essays on Modern Nov- elists (1910) ; Hale, Dramatists of To-day (1911). Sudetenland. See Czecho- slovakia. Sudetic Mountains connect the Carpathians with the moun- tains of Franconia, and separate the basins of the Bohemian Elbe and the Moravian March from the Oder. They consist of short, broken, and somewhat parallel ranges, with a general southeast- erly trend, intersected by nu- merous valleys. The chief divi- sions are the Isergebirge, Riesen- gebirge (the highest), Glatzer. Moravian Gesenke, and Altva- tergebirge. Minerals (iron, zinc, lead, copper, and coal) are abun- dant. Sudras, the lowest of the four great classes into which the peo- ple of India were divided on the institution of caste. It included races of mixed blood and many of the aboriginal tribes who adopted Hindu customs, and now includes artisans, field laborers, and menials. The races which continued outside the pale of Hinduism were 'out-castes,' or Pariahs. But the superiority which Sudras, in some parts of India, claim over Pariahs is quite out of keeping with the degraded position assigned to them in Manu. See Caste. Sue, Joseph Marie (1804- 59), better known by his pen- name of Eugene Sue, French novelist, was born in Paris. He practiced medicine for a time, pursuing literature in secret. At length he lighted upon the vein which has rendered him famous — novels of the mysterious and supernatural dashed with popu- lar socialism. Of this type Les Mysteres de Paris (1842), Le Juif Errant (1844-5), Les Sept Peches Capitaux (1847-9), and Les Mysteres du Peuple (1848- 9) are the most notable. His two most famous novels, translated into English as The Mysteries of Paris and The Wandering Jew, have been widely read in the United States as well as in Europe. After the French Revo- lution of 1848 he represented Paris in the National Assembly until the coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon, when, to avoid arrest, he retired to Savoy (1852). Sueca, town, Spain, province Valencia, near the Jucar ; 19 miles south of Valencia. The town has trade in fruit and grain. Pop. 17,571. Suess, Eduard (1831-1914), German geologist, born in Lon- don. He became an assistant in the Tmi>erial Mi!ic*-a]f\"-cril Mu- seum at Vienna (1852), and pro- fessor of geology (1857) in the same city. He was a prominent radical politician. His principal books are: Ueber den Loss (1866); Bau der Italienischen Halbinsel (1872) ; Die Entste- hung der Alpen (1875) ; and his most important production. Das Antlitz der Erde (1883-8; Eng. trans, as The Face of the Earth, by H. B. C. Sollas, 1904). Suet, the solid fat obtained from sheep and cattle. It con- sists principally of the palmi- tates and stearates of glycerol, with some of the oleate and more or less connective tissue. If heat- ed the fats melt, and can be run off, forming tallow. Oleomarga- rine is obtained by more careful treatment at a lower tempera- ture, followed by the removal of some of the higher melting com- ponents. Suetonius, whose full name was Gaius Suetonius Tran- QUiLLus ic. 75-160 A.D.), Roman historian and friend of Pliny. He became chief secretary to the Emperor Hadrian. He wrote Lives of the Twelve Caesars, A Book of Famous Scholars, an- other of Famous Orators, and Lives of Terence, Horace, Per- sius, Lucan, Juvenal^ and Pliny the elder. The Lives of the Twelve Caesars is chiefly a col- lection of anecdotes, largely of a scandalous nature, but it con- tains many valuable facts. His style is clear and unadorned. Suevi, Germanic people or confederation. Caesar's Suevi inhabited the modern Baden, while Tacitus places them to the north and east of that region : either they had migrated between 50 B.C. and 100 a.d., or Caesar met only a portion of the people. After 250 a.d. the name is used of the Germanic people, from whom the modern Swabians have derived their name. In later his- tory they appear in alliance with the Alemanni and Burgundians, and hold the German side of Gaul and Switzerland ; and even enter into Italy and Spain, in union with the Visigoths. Suez, town, Egypt, at the southern end of the Suez Canal. Once a flourishing emporium for Oriental trade, it fell into decay, and until the opening of the Suez Canal was a wretched village. The modern town is built on a desert peninsula. The European quarters are regularly laid out, and contain the large ware- houses of the Peninsular and Oriental Steamship Company. Pop. (1937) 49,686. Suez Canal connects the Med- iterranean and Red Seas. Its to- tal length is 103 miles, includ- ing the natural transit links of the Timsah and Great and Lit- tle Bitter lakes, and the average Suez Canal KFP 525 Suffolk time of transit is about 15 to 18 hours. The original dimensions gave a width of 150 to 300 feet at the water level and 72 feet at the bottom, and a depth of 26 feet. Between 1885 and 1889 the canal was enlarged and im- proved at a cost of $20,000,000, the result of which was to make a uniform depth of 29 feet, a width of 213 feet in the straight parts, and from 246 feet to 262 feet in the curves, and thus to enable ships of 15,000 tons to pass through. Since 1901 further extensions have been in prog- ress ; and since the close of 1913 the canal has had a depth of 36 feet, and accommodates vessels drawing 31 feet of water. With the help of electric light, navigation is carried on at night. Situated at the southern en- trance of the canal is Port Tew- fik, over 2 miles from the town of Suez. It comprises within its limits the offices and workshops of the canal company, the dwelling houses of its employees, the principal offices of the ship- ping agents, the barracks of the coast guards, and the offices of the quarantine service. At the northern end is Port Said (q. v.) on the Mediterranean. A disin- fecting station has been erected on the central quay at Port Ibrahim Docks. In 1940 the number of transits through the canal was 2,419 with a total net tonnage of 12,712,- 979, more than half of which was British with Italy second, followed in the order of shipping tonnage by The Netherlands, Norway, France, and the United States. The number of passen- gers carried in 1940 was 98,944 as compared with the maximum number of 751,592 in 1936, this sharp drop reflecting the effect of the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939. History, — The first canal was constructed by Seti i, and is pic- tured on the walls of the temple of Karnak. The first person who in modern times took up the sub- ject of making a waterway be- tween the two seas was Napo- leon I, in 1798; but Lepere, the engineer whom he employed to survey the district, made out a difference of thirty feet between the levels of the Mediterranean at low water and the Red Sea at high water, and the project was abandoned. In 1846 a commis- sion, which included Stephenson, separated without forming any definite plan. Mougel and Linant, two Frenchmen, in 1855 drew up a scheme, with M. de Lesseps as their superintendent. In 1856 the scheme was submitted to an in- ternational commission, and the work was begun ; and on Nov. 17, 1869, the canal was opened for traffic. The cost was about $80,000,000. In 1875 the Brit- ish Government, through Lord Beaconsfield, bought for $20,- 400,000 the Khedive's stock- nearly one-half of the total is- sue. The canal is owned by a French corporation in which the British government holds 295,- 026 shares of a total of 652,932. Suez Canal. Consult Voisin, Le Canal de Sues (10 vols., 1903-6); Rob- erts, Egypt and the Sues Canal (Smithsonian Institution, 1943). Suez, Gulf of, the western bifurcation of the Red Sea, ex- tends 190 miles to the northwest, and has a width of about 30 miles. It is connected with the Mediterranean Sea by the Suez Canal. Suez, Isthmus of, the nar- row neck of land which connects Asia with Africa. It has a width of about 70 miles, and across it is cut the Suez Canal. The sur- face is sandy, interspersed with salt marshes and ancient lakes. Suffern, village, New York. Rockland county, on the Erie Railroad ; 32 miles northwest of New York. It has a hospital and several churches. It manufac- tures pharmaceutical chemicals, household utensils, radio and electrical parts, and railroad supplies. The surrounding coun- try is mountainous and pictur- esque. Pop. (1930) 3,757; (1940) 3,768. Sufficient Reason, a formu- lation of the principle of causal- ity associated specially with the name of Leibniz, who recognizes the principles of contradiction and sufficient reason as the two fundamental principles of all reasoning, and defines the latter as affirming {Monadology, sec. 32) 'that there can be no fact real or existing, no statement trvie, unless there be a sufficient reason why it should be so and not otherwise,' although, he adds, these reasons usually can not be known by us. In the case of necessary truths the reason is discoverable by mere analysis, for their opposites would involve contradiction ; but in the case of truths of fact we must seek the reason in other facts, and ulti- mately in the final reason or ground of all existence, God. Suffield, town, Connecticut, Hartford county, on the Connec- ticut River, and on the New York, New Haven, and Hart- ford Railroad; 16 miles north of Hartford. It is the trade center of an agricultural district rais- ing tobacco. The Kent Memorial Library is there. The town was set off from Springfield in 1670. Pop. (1940) 4,461. Suffocation. See Asphyxia; Respiration ; Strangulation. Suffolk, city, Virginia, coun- ty seat of Nansemond county, on the Nansemond River, and on the Norfolk and Western, the Seaboard Air Line, the Atlantic Coast Line, the Southern, the Norfolk and Southern, and the Virginian railroads; 18 miles southwest of Norfolk, with which it is connected by steam- er. It is a manufacturing place, has peanut factories, also wood- working, chemical and machin- ery industries. It was settled in 1742. Pop. (1930) 10,271 ; (1940) 11,343. Suffolk, maritime county, eastern England. Its coasts are low, and much encroached on by the sea; and its surface is low and undulating, traversed in the west by a chalk ridge (highest, 352 feet). The principal rivers are Waveney (Norfolk border), Blyth, Ore with Aide. Orwell, and Stour (Essex border). All, except Blyth and Aide-Ore, have wide lower courses. In the northeast are broads (Oulton, Flixton, etc.) like those of Nor- Suffolk KFP 525 A Suffrage, Woman folk. In the northwest is the Breckland district, with heath. On the coast are bathing resorts (Lowestoft, Southwold, Alde- burgh, Felixstowe). Coprolites, chalk, and clay are worked. Agriculture is the principal in- dustry, the county being one of the most fertile districts in Eng- land. Barley, oats, and wheat are the principal cereal crops. Livestock is also important. A fine breed of horses, known as Suffolk punches, is reared. Manufactures include agricul- tural implements (Ipswich, Bury St. Edmunds, etc.), railway plant, engineering works, milling machinery (Ipswich), guncotton and cordite ( Stowmarket) , tex- tiles (Ipswich, Haverhill, etc.), gun-flints (Brandon), and artifi- cial manures (Ipswich, Stow- market, etc.). Anciently occupied by the Iceni, Suffolk afterward formed part of the Roman Flavia Cac- saricnsis and of the Saxon East Anglia, and suffered much from the Danish ravages. The Flem- ings, who settled here in the thir- teenth century, developed the woolen industry. Antiquities in- clude Burgh (3astle, an impor- tant Roman relic ; remains of Benedictine abbey at Bury St. Edmunds ; castles of Framling- ham and Orford ; tumuli in sev- eral parts ; many old mansions (Moyse's Hall, Bury, twelfth century) ; and numerous medi- eval churches of flint and stone, with elaborately carved wood- work. Area, 1,455 square miles. Pop. (1931) 401,114. Consult Victoria History of Stiff oik (2 vols., 1907-11) ; Dutt, The Nor- folk and Suffolk Coast (1910). Suffolk, Charles Brandon, Duke of (d. 1545), was created Viscount Lisle in 151 v3, and Duke of Suffolk in 1514. He was a courtier, soldier, and fa- vorite at the court of Henry viii, whose sister Mary, widow of Louis XII of France, he secretly married (1515). Suffrage. See Elections; Electorate; Citizenship. Suffrage, Woman, a world- wide movement, dating from about the middle of the nine- teenth century, having as ^ its object the political enfranchise- ment of women. Before the close of 1920 there were twenty- eight countries where women had been granted full suffrage. Great Britain, — By the pub- lication, in 1792, of Vindication of the Rights of Women, Mary Wollstonccraft became the pio- neer in the demand of women for political liberty in England. The Reform Bill of 1832 was, however, the actual beginning of the agitation for woman suf- frage. This Act, by introducing the word male before person, re- stricted the Parliamentary fran- chise to men. In 1835 John Stu- art Mill, an ardent champion of women's rights, moved an amendment to the Representa- tion of the People Bill which would leave out the word man and substitute person; this amendment was lost. An act passed in 1852 provided 'that all words importing masculine gen- der shall be deemed and taken to include females unless the contrary is expressly provided' ; on the strength of this over 5,000 women in Manchester ap- plied for registration. A test case was made of this which was decided adversely to the women but, as a result, suffrage was ex- tended in 1869 to unmarried women and widows who were householders. After that time bills and resolutions were con- stantly before the House of Commons, many passed their second reading, and finally, on Nov. 21, 1918, the long struggle for the parliamentary franchise was ended when the Woman Suffrage Bill was passed. The first women's suffrage societies were founded in Man- chester, in London and in Edin- burgh in 1867, and in Bristol and Birmingham in 1868. They united to form the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, a large and powerful body with many affiliated so- cieties and membership in all parts of Great Britain. Other societies having for their object the political enfranchisement of women are the National Wom- en's Social and Political Union, the Men's League for Women's Suffrage, the National Indus- trial and Professional Women's Suffrage Society, the New Un- ion, the League of Catholic Women, the Younger Suffra- gists, the Women Writers' Suf- frage League and many others. The Women's Social and Politi- cal Union, under the leadership of Mrs. Emmeline Pankhurst, formed the militant wing of the suffragists. Canada, — By the close of 1918 all the provinces in Canada had granted full suffrage to women. Municipal suffrage was granted in 1884 to property-owning wid- ows and spinsters in the prov- inces of Quebec and Ontario ; in 1886 in the province of New Brunswick to all property-own- ing women except those whose husbands were voters ; in Nova Scotia, in 1886, and in Prince Edward Island, in 1888, to prop- erty-owning widows and spin- sters. In 1916 full suffrage was given to women in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia. Other Countries, — To the Scandinavian countries belongs the honor of first granting the franchise to women. Finland granted full parliamentary rights to her women in 1906; Norway followed, giving the full fran- chise to tax-paying women in 1907 and to all women in 1913 ; Iceland extended full suffrage in 1915, as did Denmark, while Sweden gave the municipal franchise to women on the same terms as men in 1909 and full suffrage in 1919. New Zealand gave the full parliamentary vote to women in 1893 ; state suffrage was granted in South Australia, 1895 ; West Australia, 1900; New South Wales, 1902; Tasmania, 1903; Queensland, 1905 ; Victoria, 1908. National suffrage through- out federated Australia was granted in 1902. British South Africa has mu- nicipal suffrage for women in all four provinces ; British East Africa granted full suffrage in 1919; British India and Burma grant suffrage to women on the same terms as men. The Isle of Man has had full suffrage since 1881. The years 1918 and 1919 saw a remarkable extension of the territory in which woman suf- frage is enjoyed. During that time Great Britain, Czechoslo- vakia, Germany, Holland, Hun- gary, Austria, Luxembourg, Po- land, Rhodesia, Russia, Servia and Uruguay all gave full suf- frage rights to women. Belgium granted full suffrage to widows who have not remarried and to mothers of soldiers killed in the war, or civilians shot by Ger- mans. United States, — Votes for women had its advocates in the United States long before there was any organized movement to that end. In 1667, Margaret Brent of Maryland, heir of Lord Calvert, demanded voice in the legislature of Maryland, and in 1776 Abigail Adams in a letter to her husband, John Adams, de- manded for her sex a recognition in the new government about to be formed. Frances Wright, a Scotch woman, and Ernestine Rose, a Polish woman, were the real pioneers in the agitation for equal rights for women in America. In 1836 Ernestine Rose circulated a petition in Albany favoring a married women's property law. She ob- tained only five signatures, but thirteen years later the act giv- ing married women the right to their own property was passed, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Paulipe Wright Davis, the Grimke sis- ters, Lucretia Mott, and Lydia Maria Child were all champions of the woman-suffrage move- ment and of the anti-slavery agi- Suffrage, Woman KFP 525 B Snfiism tation. At the World's Anti- Slavery Convention in London, 1840, to which American socie- ties sent women delegates, these women were denied any recog- nition, on account of which William Lloyd Garrison refused to take his seat and withdrew with the women to the Galleries. Out of this incident grew the de- sign of holding a women's rights convention in America and at the call of Lucretia Mott and Eliza- beth Cady Stanton this first convention was held at Seneca Falls, N. Y., July 19, 1848. A declaration of sentiments mod- eled on the Declaration of In- dependence was drawn up and signed by over a hundred men and women. In 1852 a conven- tion with delegates from eight states and Canada w^as held in Syracuse. In 1850 there was a women's rights convention in Salem, O., in 1851 one in Ak- ron, O., and in 1852 the first state association was formed at Massilon, O. A convention was held in Worcester, Mass., in 1850; in Dublin, Ind., in 1851, and in Westchester, Pa., in 1852. In May, 1869, the National Woman Suffrage Association was formed under the leadership of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, and in No- vember of the same year the American Woman Suffrage As- sociation was organized under the leadership of Lucy Stone and Julia Ward Howe. The chief difference in the two asso- ciations was a matter of policy. The National Association con- sidered the Federal Amendment the chief object for which to work, and the American Associ- ation favored working for suf- frage state by state. The two as- sociations united later to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association. In 1872, in order to make a test case of the provision in the Fourteenth Amendment that 'no state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the priv- ileges or immunities of citizens of the United States,' Miss Anthony, with fifty other wom- en, registered at the polls in Rochester, N. Y., and on Nov. 5 she cast her vote. For this she was prosecuted by the U. S. Government and fined $100. A second attempt was made by Mrs. Virginia Minor and this case was carried to the Supreme Court, which decided against her. Miss Anthony then deter- mined to concentrate her ener- gies on securing a new amend- ment that should do for women what the Fourteenth had done for the Negro. This amendment, known as the Susan B. Anthony Federal Amendment, was first introduced in Congress in Jan- uary, 1878, by Senator Sargent. It was reported adversely to the Senate from committee. After that it was introduced in each succeeding Congress until its final passage. It first came to a vote in the Senate in 1887, when there were 16 votes in its favor to 34 against it. It went to the Senate again in 1913, 1914, 1916, and 1918. It was not voted on in the House until 1915. In May, 1919, the House passed the amendment by a majority of 42, and in June it passed the Senate by a majority of 2. Tennessee, the thirty-sixth state, ratified the amendment on Aug. 18, 1920, and it was proclaimed in force eight days later. Wyoming was the first state to give full suffrage to women. As a territory, in 1869, it passed a bill giving women the same right to vote and hold office as men and when the state was ad- mitted to the Union in 1890, equal suffrage was made a part of the Constitution. At the time of the ratification of the Federal Amendment fourteen states had given full suffrage to women. Colorado, in 1893 ; Idaho and Utah in 1896 ; Washington in 1910; California in 1911; Ari- zona, Kansas, and Oregon in 1912; Montana and Nevada in 1914 ; New York in 1917 ; Okla- homa, Michigan, and South Da- kota in 1918. Alaska gave the suffrage to women in 1913. Illi- nois, North Dakota, Nebraska, Tennessee, Kentucky, Rhode Is- land, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Minnesota, Missouri, Wisconsin and Ohio had presidential suf- frage ; Illinois, North Dakota, Nebraska, Kentucky, and Ten- nessee had also municipal suf- frage ; Vermont was given mu- nicipal suffrage in 1917 and presidential suffrage in 1919. Arkansas and Texas had pri- mary suffrage. Some form of school suffrage had been granted in Kentucky, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Mississippi, New Jersey, Con- necticut, Delaware, and Wis- consin. Louisiana had a tax- paying suffrage. Bibliography, — Consult His- tory of Woman Suffrage, edited by E. C. Stanton, S. B. An- thony, M. J. Gage and I. H. Harper ; Mrs. Pethick Law- rence, English Militant Meth- ods ; Harper, A Brief History of the Movement for Woman Suf- frage in United States; Peck, Woman Suffrage in the United States; Shaw, The Story of a Pioneer; Porter, A History of Suffrage in United States; Franklin, The Case for Woman Suffrage ; Crother, Meditations on Votes for Women; Eastman, Woman Suffrage and Senti- ment ; Philips, Selected Articles on Woman Suffrage ; Zimmern, Woman's Suffrage in Many Lands; Hecker, Short History of Women's Rights. Suffren, Pierre Andr^: de SuFFREN Saint-Tropes, Bailli DE (1726-88), French admiral, was born in Provence. He fought against the British fleet at Toulon (1744) and Cape Bret- on (1746), and was captured in the Bay of Biscay. On his re- lease he spent some years with the Knights Hospitallers of Malta; but having rejoined the French navy, he fought in the engagement off Minorca, was again captured in the naval bat- tle in which Admiral Boscawen annihilated the French fleet (1759), and was a prisoner in England until peace was made (1763). He next administered severe punishment to the Sallee rovers ; then helped to blockade Gibraltar. Proceeding to the East Indies, he captured Trin- comali, and fought two drawn battles with the British fleet off the coast of India. Sufiism (a word derived ei- ther from the Arabic suf, 'wool,' from_ the material worn by the dervishes, or from the Greek sophos, 'wise') is a philosophical revolt against the rigid law and ritual of Mohammedanism in Iran (Persia). Sufiism finally crystallized into a pantheistic mysticism which, tinged by the teachings of Zoroaster, adopted also something of the Buddhistic theory of life. But a wide gulf separates the Buddhist from the Sufi. While the former owns no deity and no soul, the latter ac- knowledges the existence of both. Each system has for its end the absorption of the human into the divine; but while the Bud- dhist seeks in mental abstrac- tion a complete cessation from thought and sense, the Sufi as- pires to a growing acquaintance with God, such as will culminate in ecstatic devotion to the Di- vine Being — a love which will so envelop the soul as to dispel all inferior affections and desires. This consummation is reached by five stages : ( 1 ) service — obe- dience to the law of God ; (2) love — the attraction of the soul to God; (3) seclusion — medita- tion on divine things ; (4) knowl- edge — metaphysical studies on the nature and attributes of God; and (5) ecstasy — the ex- citement produced by a full com- prehension of divine love and power. The Sufi contends that no definition can convey to the uninitiated the esoteric meanings attached to these five stages in the progress of the soul. Sufiism has inspired nearly all the best poetry of Persia, among which may be mentioned the Divan of Sugar KFP 526 Sugar Hafiz, the Gulistan oi Sadi, and the Gulshan-i-Raz of Shabistari. Consult Palmer, Oriental Mys- ticism; Browne, 'Sufiism' in Re- ligious Systems of the World, and his Literary History of Persia (1902); Ali ibn Uth- man, The Kashf Al-Mahmjub (1911). Sugar, a sweet, water-soluble, colorless, crystallizable sub- stance which occurs in virtually- all green plants and which forms an important article of human food. By extension the term is applied also to a whole class of polyhydric aldehydes and ke- tones {monosaccharides) of more or less sweet taste and re- ducing properties, which are classified further according to the number of carbon atoms as trioses (glyceric aldehyde, dihy- troxyacetone), tetroses {e.g., d- threose), pentoses {e.g., L-arabi- nose), hexoses {e.g., D-glucose or dextrose, d- fructose or levulose, i>-galactose, L-sorbose) etc., and to certain sugar-like condensa- tion products of the monosac- charides in which two or more molecules of the former are com- bined with elimination of water {oligosaccharides). The oligo- saccharides are further classified according to the number of monosaccharide units combined therein, as disaccharides {e.g., sucrose, lactose, maltose) trisac- charides {e.g., gentianose, raffi- nose, melezitose), tetrasaccha- rides, etc. The saccharides com- prise a section of the class of carbohydrates (q. v.). Sugar, sucrose, cane-sugar, beet-sugar or saccharose (ob- solescent) are disaccharides of the composition C12H22O11, _ of which the molecule is a combina- tion of one molecule each of D-glucose (dextrose) and D-fruc- tose (levulose) joined by elim- ination of one molecule of water and is designated in systematic organic chemical nomenclature as l-(o;-D-glucopyranosyl)-2-/3- D-fructofuranoside. Sucrose crystallizes in anhydrous, hemi- hedral crystals of the monocHnic system, which have a specific gravity at 17>4° c. (as compared with water at the same tempera- ture) of 1.558046, and melt (with decomposition) when pure at about 174° c, but which may show melting-points between 160° and 180° C- on account of traces of impurities. Sucrose is resistant to alkaline hydrolysis and is non-reducing unless first hydrolyzed into its constituent hexoses. It is almost insoluble in most organic solvents (benzene, ether, chloroform, etc.), and very sparingly soluble in alcohol but very soluble in water in pro- portion to the temperature. A saturated aqueous solution at 20° c. (68° F.) contains 67.09 per cent of sugar by weight (also expressed as 67.09° Brix) (203.9 parts of sugar to 100 parts of watef ) and shows a specific grav- ity of 1.32911 as compared with water at 4° c. or of 1.33146 as compared with water at 20° c. (This is equivalent to 36.095 de- grees Baume). Sucrose rotates the plane of polarized light to the right (dex- trorotation) showing a specific rotation of +66.5° for the d line of sodium at 20° c. (68° p.). In aqueous solutions, sugar under- goes inversion, i.e., hydrolysis to invert sugar, an equi-molecular mixture of D-glucose (dextrose) and D-fructose (levulose) gener- ally encountered in a syrupy state, when subjected to the cat- alytic influence of either acids or the enzyme invertase which oc- curs widely in nature but nota- bly in yeasts. Invert sugar shows a levorotation of the plane of po- larized light which accounts for the term 'inversion' as applied to the hydrolysis of dextrorototary sucrose. Although very widely distrib- uted in the plant kingdom and present in most fruits and vege- tables, the sugar of commerce is prepared chiefly from two plants, the sugar cane {Saccharum offi- cinariiim L.) of tropical regions and the sugar beet {Beta vul- garis L.) of temperate climates. Small quantities are obtained from the maple, certain palms, and, as syrup, from sorghum. In the preparation from cane or beet, sugar is merely re- moved from the plant structure without chemical alteration of any kind. The canes, as brought to the factory, contain from 10 to 17 per cent sucrose, according to season, variety and locality, canes in the tropics being richer than those in sub-tropical re- gions. Revolving knives cut the cane stalks into chips, or shred- ders tear them into shreds, be- fore passage through crushers and a train of serrated rolls ar- ranged triangularly in sets of three which press out the juice under hydraulic pressures of 100 to 500 tons. Warm water is applied to the residual fiber or bagasse (Brit. megasse) between the sets of rolls to improve sucrose extrac- tion which generally reaches 90 per cent or higher. The bagasse, representing about 25 per cent of the weight of original cane and still containing from 40 to 50 per cent of moisture, is most gener- ally burned in the furnaces as fuel for operating the mill. Some bagasse is used currently for making wallboard, litter, mulch- es, and plastics, while persistent efforts continue toward utiliza- tion for paper and alpha cellu- lose. The expressed juice, screened to remove bagasse particles, is treated with milk of lime and heated to the boiling point to neutralize acidity due to such or- ganic acids as aconitic, malic, oxalic, glycolic and ^ succinic (defecation or clarification). The clarification produces a precipi- tate, largely tricalcium phos- phate, that carries down albu- minous and gummy materials, fats and waxes, as it settles in tanks designated as clarifiers (intermittent or continuous) from which clear juice is drawn off. The precipitates (muds, scums, slops) are generally pressed in filter presses or fil- tered on rotary filters to remove additional juice (press-juice) from the press-cake (cachaza) the former being mingled with raw juice from the rolls and the latter, after washing, discarded or returned to the fields. Phos- phate is sometimes added before liming, to juices low in natural phosphate, in order to produce sufficient precipitate for efficient removal of colloid. Clarified juice containing from 10 to 15 per cent sugar, the remainder being largely water, is concentrated .under reduced pressure in a series of three or four evaporators arranged in tandem so that the vacuum is greater and the boiling-point consequently lower in each suc- cessive vessel, while for efficient operation the vapors removed from each are used to heat the next (multiple-effect evapora- tors). The concentrated syrup containing 55 to 70 per cent sol- ids (Cuba, meladura) is trans- ferred to a single-effect vacuum pan where evaporation is contin- ued under reduced pressure to a suitable point of supersaturation where spontaneous graining oc- curs, or much more generally, seed grain of sugar is added ,to initiate crystallization Syrup is then admitted judi- ciously at intervals with adjust- ment of pressure and tempera- ture as the water evaporates and the crystals grow, until the pan is filled with a dense mass of crystals of the desired size, mixed with syrup {massecuite) , in which the total proportion of water is reduced to about 8 per cent. The strike of massecuite con- tains about 75 per cent sucrose which yields 60 per cent of crys- talline sugar and 40 per cent of syrup (or molasses) when sep- arated in centrifugal machines, which are cylindrical perforated metal baskets rotating on a ver- tical spindle at speeds ranging from 1000 to 1800 revolutions per minute. Rotation for a few minutes throws most of the A molasses out through the perfo- rations leaving crystals of 'A' Sugar-Refining Vol. XI.— Page 527 Sugar KFP 528 Sugar sugar on the screen. A very light wash with water may be made. The A molasses is returned to a second vacuum pan for reboil- ing to produce a second crop of in the presence of accumulated salts and invert sugar that re- duce the rate of crystal growth. The final molasses or black- strap is that which will not eco- Beet Sugar Manufacture. Fltr. 1. Dlffiisiiiff Vessel t sliced beet enters at lid a, water at /, steam at h and e ; the ouice is drawn off at d,and the exhausted slices are removed through manhole g. Fijf. S. K eliesit er : juice enters at a, and flows upwards to c : steam enters d and escapes at c. Fic- 8. Chsireosil Filter: juice enters at a, passes down through charcoal ft, and leaves by pipe c; /, drain cock ; e, manhole. Fisr. 4. Steam Heater : sectional eleva- tion and plan ; c, steam entrance ; 6, coil ; d, steam outlet ; a, valves for emptying pan. Flff. 5. CarboiiatiiiK Tsiiik: lime is added to the juice, carbonic acid gas is forced through pipe b and perforated coil c, and steam through cock d and coil e, escaping at/; a, valve. 1 Ig. 6, l>ec:iiitin{r Vessel : a float c, with outlet b, communicates oy a flex- ible pipe with outlet a ; deposited matter is removed by valve d. Fie. 7. Vat-uiim Pan : by air pump a juice is drawn in at b, and heated by steam entering coil c at d and steam jacket /at g ; fcand I, steam traps to remove condensed water ; the sugar crystals formed are removed at m. Fic:. 8. Centrif'uifal l»ryln|>: Machine: sugar crystals are put in wire cage a, and the rapid revolution forces out the moisture through casings c to pipe d ; the dried sugar is removed by door e and spout f. Fi jr. 9. General Ar- rangement of Plant: a, water tank ; b, water pipe ; c, c, diffusers, juice passing from c to c through reheater d (only two diffusers are shown, but seven are commonly used); e, defector or carbonating tank ; /, decanting vessel (two pair of these are shown) ; g, charcoal Alter ; h, boiler or steam heater ; k, vacuum pan ; /, drying machine. crystals (B sugar) and a B mo- lasses. After a third boiling, the low- grade massecuite may be rotated slowly by internal vanes in cy- lindrical tanks (crystallizers) for several days to permit separation of a maximum quantity of sugar nomically yield more sugar by direct crystallization though it generally still contains 40 to 60 per cent of total sugars (25 to 40 per cent sucrose and 30 to 12 per cent hexoses) along with 8 to 15 per cent of inorganic salts (ash), gums, acids, 1 to 4 per cent of nitrogenous compounds and caramelization products. The ash, whose major components are sulfates, chlorides, and phos- phates of calcium, magnesium, and potassium, along with cara- melization products, gives the final molasses a bitter taste and laxative effect which cause it to be considered generally as inedi- ble. Blackstrap is used for pro- duction of rum, industrial alco- hol, acetone, butanol, yeast, and other materials by fermentation, and for feeding livestock. A modern raw sugar factory produces only one grade of raw sugar which is a mixture of the A, B^ and C sugars described. Raw sugars delivered to the con- tinental United States have grad- ually increased in purity over a period of years and in 1946 aver- aged well over 97° in polariza- tion. The ash content of raw sug- ars is in the neighborhood of 0.5 per cent, and each crystal is coated with a film of molasses. The refining of raw sugar gen- erally includes affination, melt- ing, defecation, char filtration or an alternative process for re- moving color, and crystalliza- tion, followed by drying and sieving to classify the various crystal sizes. Affination is essentially a process for removing the surface film of molasses from the raw sugar, thus raising the purity to about 99 per cent. It consists of mingling the raws with a heavy syrup, hot or cold, and purging the mixture in centrifugal ma- chines where the crystals are washed with water. The washed crystals are then dissolved (melted) in less than half their weight of water to give a solu- tion which has considerable col- or. Pumped to 'blow-up' tanks at the_ top of the refinery, the so- lution may be treated there with phosphate and lime to produce a precipitate which will carry down fibers, clay, sand, gums, pectins, and protein materials that have escaped removal pre- viously, as well as a part of the color. Alternative processes of defecation employ lime and kisel- guhr (diatomaceous earth), or lime and paper pulp, or various combinations of the listed agents. The precipitate and filter aid are removed by a filter press, a rotary filter, or by flotation (Williamson process). The clear filtrate is traditionally run to cisterns filled with bone-char and which have capacities of 1200 to 2500 cubic feet. The char, consisting largely of cal- cium phosphate with about 10 per cent of carbon and a little calcium oxide, removes colored materials as the liquor slowly filters through until exhausted, after which it may be revivified Sugar KFP 529 Sugar by heating in retorts to 1000° f. or higher in the absence of air. A given batch of sugar solution is generally passed through a se- ries of chars of various degrees of activity ending with the most active one, from which it emerges almost completely colorless. Cur- rently, activated vegetable car- bons are used in conjunction with or in place of bone char. Another refining process de- colorizes washed sugar melts of 99 per cent purity or better by treatment with calcium hypo- chlorite and calcium phosphate. Suspended matter is carried to the surface by bubbles and clear, colorless liquid is drawn from the bottom. Boiling to grain is carried out in vacuum pans at a temperature of 65° to 75° c. in a manner closely similar to that described for raw sugar. The centrifuged white sugar is washed, spun nearly dry (2 per cent moisture) and final traces of moisture are removed by drying in rotary driers through which heated air is drawn (granulators) . After cooling, the crystals are screened to remove lumps or coarse par- ticles. By adjustments of the boiling procedure, the average crystal size is regulated to pro- duce standard granulated, extra fine granulated, or still finer grades known variously as fruit granulated, fruit powdered, des- sert sugar, berry sugar or super- fine. Coarser grades are sanding sugar, manufacturers' granulat- ed, medium coarse, coarse or extra coarse. All washings and affination syrups are reworked by appro- priate methods so that final losses are extraordinarily small. A final refinery molasses (refinery syr- up, barrel syrup, refinery black- strap) is obtained; Brix 82°; sucrose, 36 per cent; reducing sugars, 20 per cent ; ash, 8 per cent; organic non-sugars, 12 per cent ; water, 24 per cent. Cube and tablet sugars are made either by moistening sugar of the desired grain with heavy white syrup, pressing or molding into cubes and drying ; or else by casting massecuite into slabs, centrifuging, drying, sawing, and breaking. Confectioners' sugar and pow- dered sugar are made by grind- ing to various degrees of fine- ness in hammer mills. Three per cent cornstarch or 1 per cent tri- calcium phosphate is generally added to prevent caking. The trade name is 4X or 6X pow- dered. Soft sugars^ known to the pub- lic as brown sugars, are formed by granulation from low purity refinery syrups. They are packed moist, containing about 4 per cent water and range in ash from 0.5 to 2.0 per cent. Clas- sification is according to color (numbered from 1 to 16), five or six grades being generally sold, such as yellow (e.g., No. 8), light brown (e.g., No. 10) and dark brown (e.g., No. 13). Liquid sugars are high test syrups of about 68° Brix made in several grades including wa- ter-white. They are produced from raw sugar by methods sim- ilar to those described without boiling to granulation. They are delivered in tank trucks and handled by pumping. Inverted refined syrups have become increasingly important in manufacturing products such as ice cream, candy and bakery goods. The degree of inversion, color and analysis vary widely. Resistance to granulation is an outstanding property. Cane syrups or table syrups are made by a variety of process- es. Whole cane juice may be concentrated without removal of granulated sugar to 73-75 per cent solids. Coagulated albumins may be removed hj skimming, or partial neutralization with lime may be employed. Treat- ment with sulfur dioxide (sul- fitation) may precede liming. If crops of sugar are removed, the residue may be marketed as edi- ble molasses. High test molasses production attained considerable magnitude in Cuba and Puerto Rico, espe- cially for supplying alcohol dis- tilleries during the Second World War. It was made by in- verting evaporator syrup (see above) with acid or yeast and concentrating to molasses den- sity (about 85 Brix). Total sug- ars varied from 70 to 80 per cent. Beet Sugar is made from sug- ar-beets containing from 10 to 18 per cent sugar. They are washed, sliced into V-shaped slices called cossettes, and the sugar is extracted by water heat- ed progressively from 60° c. to 75 or 80° c. as it passes through a battery of dififusers with a ca- pacity of five tons each, dissolv- ing the maximum quantity of sugar while coagulating the pro- toplasm of the cells. The water required is approximately one and one-half times the weight of beets. The pulp removed from the diffusers contains 95 per cent water. It is either preserved wet in silosi where it vmdergoes fer- mentation, or is dried to 10 or 20 per cent moisture. Both wet and dry pulp are very valuable cat- tle feeds. Molasses is often mixed with the dried pulp. The juice is strained and treated with lime. Passage of carbon dioxide at 80° c. to ad- just the acidity, produces a pre- cipitate that is removed by fil- tration or settling. A second car- bon dioxide treatment removes lime as calcium carbonate which adsorbs impurities as it settles. Tricalcium saccharate obtained by the Steffens process (see be- low) may be used instead of lime. On carbonation, this is de- composed into calcium carbonate and sugar. Carbonation is gener- ally followed by a treatment with sulfur dioxide (sulfitation) which adjusts the acidity. The clarified juice containing 10 to 12 per cent sugar is concen- trated by methods similar to those described in the case of cane milling. An additional sul- fitation may be used. Production of pure granulated sugar from these juices parallels the production from clarified cane juices, yielding pure white sugar and beet molasses. Beet molasses differs from cane mo- lasses in containing very little invert sugar but about 50 per cent of sucrose and 10 or 12 per cent of inorganic salts besides glutamic acid, betaine and other nitrogenous compounds. Raffi- nose may be present to the ex- tent of 1 to 3 per cent. Further sugar may be removed frorn beet molasses by adding calcium oxide at a temperature below 18° c. to produce a pre- cipitate of tricalcium saccharate. After filtration, this compound may be substituted for lime in the treatment of diffusion liq- uors, or decomposed with carbon dioxide, to regenerate sugar and precipitate calcium carbonate. This procedure is generally known as the Steffens process. Strontium or barium hydroxides may be used similarly. The for- mer is not used in the United States but one plant employs barium hydroxide. The Steffens waste is used as a source of mono sodium glutamate which is prized as a condiment and for recovery of potassium salts. Un- Steffinized beet molasses is used for cattle feeding and for pro- duction of citric acid and yeast by fermentation processes. Maple Sugar, — Methods of making maple sugar and syrup from the juices of Acer Saccha- rinum L. were learned by early settlers from the aborigines. It is a product principally of the North Atlantic states, notably Vermont, New York, and Ohio. The trees are tapped in Febru- ary, March, and April according to locality and season, during the flow which is favored by cold nights and warm days. With an auger, a half-inch hole is made in the trunk at first half an inch deep, and increased by degrees to two inches. A spout of wood or metal is inserted and the sap flows out and is collected in a Sugar KFP 530 Sugar Beet pail from which it is conveyed at intervals to a larger receiver ; from this it is carried to a boiler, after straining. The sap fer- ments easily and therefore can not be kept long. The boiling and refining are carried out by cruder methods than those em- ployed in the beet and cane in- dustries but are similar in prin- ciple. Maple sugar is never re- fined since its impurities impart a characteristic taste that is high- ly prized. A tree yields from 2 to 6 pounds. The syrup is simi- larly characteristic in flavor and sells at high prices. Statistics. — N o r mal world production of sugar is approxi- mately 33 million tons a year, di- vided almost equally between cane and beet, with cane sugar somewhat in the lead. The Unit- ed States uses approximately one-fifth of this total supply. Un- der the Sugar Act of 1937, defi- nite quotas of sugar were estab- lished for the various areas that supply the United States. Of the total, 55.59 per cent of the re- quired sugar but not less than 3,715,000 short tons, were to be obtained from United States ter- ritory and possessions. The re- maining 44.41 per cent of the total requirement was to be pro- rated among the Philippine Is- lands, Cuba, and foreign coun- tries other than Cuba. The sugar from all the areas listed was duty-free except the .89 per cent of 44.41 per cent which was allotted to 'foreign countries other than Cuba' on which full duty was paid, and Cuban sugar upon which a pref- erential tariff of 80 per cent of full duty was imposed. Leading cane-sugar producing areas outside of those referred to above are India, Java, For- mosa, Brazil, Peru, Mauritius, Australia, Santo Domingo, Na- tal, Egypt, Demerara, Fiji and the British Indies. Leading beet sugar producing areas outside of the United States are normally Russia, Ger- many, Czechoslovakia, France, Belgium, Poland, Holland, Italy, Spain, Great Britain and Ire- land, Hungary, Sweden, Den- mark, and Rumania. In the Unit- ed States, leading beet-sugar states are California, Colorado, Nebraska, Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, Utah, Michigan, and Ohio. During the Second World War, Java and the Philippines were early lost as sugar sources for the Allies, the Philippines being responsible for the main drop in supplies to the United States. Beet sugar production fell in the United States during most of the_ period. The total from Hawaiian, Puerto Rican, and mainland cane sugar sources were also somewhat reduced on the average, while the deficits were partially met by increased Cuban output after a lag due to maintenance of pre-war crop- purchase contracts. Uses of Sugar* — The use of sugar as a food far outweighs all other uses statistically. From 50 to 66 per cent of the distribu- tion goes to homes and institu- tions. The largest industrial use is in baking (11 to 12 per cent). Following this are confectionery 9 1/2 per cent, carbonated bever- ages pel" cent, canning and preserving 5% per cent, dairy products 3^4 per cent, flavoring extracts 3^4 per cent, fountain syrups 3y^ per cent, pickles and relishes 1 per cent, miscellane- ous foods such as preserved and cured meats, salad dressings, etc., 1% per cent, non-food prod- ucts y2 per cent and pharmaceu- ticals per cent. Miscellaneous non-food vises include applications in the man- ufacture of adhesives, foundry cores, explosives, drugs, weld- ing-rod coatings, varnishes, pa- per, mirrors, mortar, special charcoals, crucibles and special fuels. Though not a complete food itself, sugar is rarely used alone and promotes consumption of other foods by rendering them more palatable. Thus sugar no- tably promotes the use of citrus and other fruits, dairy products and cereals. Its action as a pre- servative provides an additional basis for use in meat-curing, pickles, jellies, jams, preserves and marmalades. Sugar is assimilated more rap- idly than any other known food and efficiently supplies food en- ergy. It exerts efficient anti- ketogenic action inhibiting keto- sis due to the over-utilization of fats ; like other carbohydrates spares protein from combustion in the body, increases resistance to over-ventilation (alkalosis) at high altitudes _ and deposits gly- cogen in the liyer which in turn functions in elimination of tox- ins, protects the liver against damage, assists in maintaining normal blood sugar levels and serves as a carbohydrate reserve. Bibliography: Sugar Manufacture: Wiley, Cane Sugar Handbook (1945) ; Lyle, Technology for Sugar Re- finery Workers (1941) ; Geer- ligs. Cane Sugar and its Man- ufacture and Practical ■ White Sugar Manufacture (1924) ; Murke, Manufacture of Beet Sugar (1921). Production of Maple Syrups and Sugar : Farmer's Bulletin No. 1366 (U. S. Dept. Agricul- ture, June 1937); Mantell, Ad- sorption (1945, with chapters on Bone Char and Related Materi- als, Ion Exchangers, and Chro- matagraphic Adsorption Anal- ysis). Molasses and By-Products : Owen, Utilization of Blackstrap Molasses (1947) ; Mcintosh, In- dustrial Alcohol (1923). Uses of Sugar: Scientific Re- ports of the Sugar Research Foundation. No. I (New York, 1944) ; Abel, Sugar as a Food (Farmer's Bulletin No. 93. U. S. Dept. Agriculture). Analysis: Brown and Wiley, Physical and Chemical Methods of Sugar Analysis (1941) ; Bates, Polarimetry, Saccharim- etry, and the Sugars (Circular of the National Bureau of Standards C. 440. U. S. Dept. of Commerce, May, 1942) ; Of- ficial and Tentative Methods of Analysis (Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. 6th ed. Washington, 1945). Organic Chemistry of Sugars : Micheel, The Chemistry of the Sugars (1947) ; Pigman and Wolfrom (ed.). Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry (Aca- demic Press, New York, 1945) ; Oilman, Advanced Organic Chemistry (1943) ; Pringsheim, The Chemistry of the Monosac- charides and of the Polysaccha- rides (1932) ; Haworth, The Constitution of Sugars (1929) ; Armstrong and Armstrong, The Simple Carbohydrates (1934). Historical: Taylor, A Saga of Sugar (1944) ; Surface, The Story of Sugar (1917); Taus- sig, Some Notes on Sugar and Molasses (1940). Economic and Legal: The World Sugar Situation {'Evire^dM of Agricultural Econoraics. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, issued an- nually) ; Willcox, Can Industry Govern Itself f ; Dalton, Sugar, A Case Study of Government Control; Sugar During World War II (War Records Mono- graph 3). Sugar Beet {Beta vulgaris), a member of the Beet family (see Beet), of the same species as the common garden and fodder beets, extensively grown in Eu- rope and to a lesser extent else- where, and forming one of the two principal sources of the world's sugar supply. The plant requires a deep, fertile, loamy soil, and thrives best in north temperate latitudes. To pro- duce beets high in sugar content, good soil preparation, proper seed selection, and careful culti- vation are required, and machin- ery and implements are exten- sively utilized. The soil is ploughed deepljr and well worked, and the seed is planted in May from 1 to U/2 inches deep, at the rate of 15 to 20 lbs. per acre. The drills are placed twenty to twenty-four inches apart, and the young plants thinned to Sngrar Bounties KFP 531 Suicide about eight inches apart in the row. The cultivation must be thorough and constant, especially during early growth. The crop matures in September, and the roots are harvested by means of a beet puller. The crowns with the leaves are removed before the beets are hauled to the fac- tory. ^ Sugar Bounties Conven- tion, an international confer- ence, held in London (1887), at which representatives from Great Britain, Germany, France, and Austria were present. At this conference the bounty system was condemned in theory. As the system, however, was profitable to sugar-growers of the continent of Europe, another conference was held at Brussels (1898), which was adjourned till 1902, when it was decided that all bounties should be abolished in September 1903. See also Brus- sels Sugar Convention. Sugar 'Cane (Saccharum of- ficinarum) , a member of the grass family grown in tropical and sub-tropical countries for the production of sugar. It is a per- ennial plant with creeping roots, and grows to a height of eight to twelve feet and more, though it usually bends or reclines at ma- turity. The cylindrical stalk, composed of numerous joints, is covered with a whitish powder called cerosin, and is two-thirds filled with the sweet, juicy pith. The leaves are alternate, ribbon shaped, and from three to five feet long. The sugar cane is usually grown on large plantations, and the largest crops are obtained from rich soils that have abun- dant moisture. The land is generally ploughed early in the fall and ridged to facilitate drainage. The crop is propa- gated from entire canes or from sections of the stalk which are covered with soil from three to four inches. During recent years it has been demonstrated that the seed is also fertile, and a num- ber of valuable seedling varieties have been originated, but as a method of general propagation the use of seed is not practical, (jood varieties are ready for cut- ting eight or ten months after planting. The plants are cut just above the ground, and fresh canes spring from the original stalks. This goes on for several years, though each crop is small- er in size. Sugar cane contains about 75 per cent of water and 15 per cent of sucrose, the rest being mostly fiber. In practically all regions the sugar cane is subject to attack by parasitic diseases and by in- sect enemies. The more impor- tant diseases are Leaf Spot {Cer- cospora longipes), Ring Spot {Lcptosphacria sacchari), and a Leaf-Splitting Disease, which at- tack the foliage; Red Rot, Gum- mosis. Smut, Pineapple Disease, Black Rot, Sereh (in Java), and Ilau (in Hawaii), which affect the stems ; and a disease of the roots due to Marasmiu sacchari. Care in seed selection, rotation of crops, and treatment of seed cane with fungicides are preven- tive measures. The chief sugar cane insects in the United States are the Sugar Cane Beetle (Ligyrus rugiceps), which attacks the stubble or the young cane, and the Sugar Cane Borer, which tunnels its way through the soft pith of the stalk. In Hawaii a weevil borer (Sphenophorus ohscurus) attacks the stalks of cane, and in the West Indies a bark-boring bee- tle (Xyleborus piceus) causes considerable damage. Consult Noel Deerr, Sugar and Sugar Cane; Jones and Scard, Manufacture of Cane Sugar (1911). Sugars, a group of carbohy- drate substances, sweet to the taste, easily soluble in water, slightly soluble in alcohol, and insoluble in ether. They are colorless, odorless, usually crys- tallizable, and optically active, their solutions rotating the plane or polarized light to the right or left. With the notable exception of cane sugar, most of them have strong reducing powers. They are in general capable of un- dergoing fermentation (q. v.) through the action of yeasts, moulds, and bacteria. In nature sugars occur chiefly in green plants, in the economy of which they play an important role. They are manufactured by the chloroplasts from carbon di- oxide and water, and are diffused to the various parts of the plant body to be utilized in the forma- tion of proteids, or are stored for future use. In addition to nat- ural sugars a number of sugars have been prepared synthetically by Emil Fischer and others. Based upon their behavior toward hydrolytic agents, sug- ars are classified as Monosaccha- rides, which can not be hydro- lyzed, having the formula (TsHioOs or CeHigOe ; Disaccha- rides, which break up into two molecules according to the formula C12H22O11 + H2O = 2C6H12O6 ; and Trisaccharides, which yield three molecules of monosaccharides, as follows, CWH32O16 + 2H2O = 3CoHioOe. The monosaccharides include the pentoses, or sugars containing five carbon atoms, and hexoses, containing six carbon atoms. The pentoses rarely occur free in plants but are found in a com- bined state as in cherry or wood gum$, The hexoses embrace glucose or dextrose (q. v.), com- monly known as grape sugar ; fructose (q. v.), levulose, or fruit sugar, which occurs in most ripe fruits and in honey ; sorbose, which is produced by the oxida- tion of sorbitol, an alcohol oc- curring in the juice of the moun- tain ash and in most plants of the order Rosaceae ; galactose, which rarely occurs in a free state, but which may be obtained by the hydrolysis of milk sugar, and of certain vegetable gums and pectic substances ; and man- nose, found free in some plants and in cane-sugar molasses, but prepared most commonly from vegetable ivory. The disaccharides include su- crose, saccharose, or cane sugar, derived principally from the sug- ar cane and sugar beet (qq. v.), but present also in the sap of many plants, as millet, pineap- ple, banana, palms, and maples (see Sugar) ; maltose (q. v.), or malt sugar, formed by the action of diastase on starch, with the intermediate production of dextrin ; lactose, or milk sugar (q. V.) ; and the less familiar isomaltose, cellobiose, mycose or trehalose, agavose, and lupeose. The trisaccharides are raffi- nose, which is found in nature in cotton seed, barley, eucalyptus, manna, and in small amounts in beet root ; melectiose ; and stach- yose. Several methods are employed for determining the sugar con- tent of solutions. A procedure based on their optical activity is especially adapted to cane sugar and other sugars in which the amount' of rotation produced is proportioned to the amount of sugar in a given volume of solu- tion (see Saccharimeter). Re- ducing sugars may be estimated by the reduction of Fehling's so- lution (q. v.). Consult Haas and Hill, Chem- istry of Plant Products (1913) ; J. E. Mackenzie, The Sugars and Their Simple Derivatives (1914). Suhl, zool, town, Germany, province Saxony, Prussia, pic- turesquely situated on the south side of the Thuringian Forest ; 13 miles northeast of Meiningen. It has long been famous for its manufacture of firearms ; other industries are iron and machine works, potteries, and tanneries. Pop. 15,481. Suicide denotes the act of taking one's own life ; also a per- son who has died by his own hand. By the common law of England suicide is a felony, which formerly involved the for- feiture of all the deceased's property to the crown, and sub- jected him to a barbarous form of burial at a cross road with a stake driven through his body. To the present day the Church Sui-fu KFP 531 A Sullivan of England will not allow sui- cides to be buried in consecrated ground, nor can the service for the dead be performed over their remains. Accordingly in every possible case the coroner's jury, instead of bringing in a verdict of felo de se (self-murder), finds that the deceased committed sui- cide while temporarily insane. In the United States, forfeiture of property is unknown, as it has also been in England since 1870. Most of the questions which are brought before the courts have relation to policies of life insurance. Such phrases in a policy as 'commit suicide' or 'die by his own hand' are generally interpreted to refer only to vol- untary acts, and not to include such as are done under the in- fluence of insane delusions. Fre- quently, however, the policy is expressly declared to be void should the insured commit sui- cide whether sane or insane. A person who kills another at the latter's own request is guilty of murder (q. v.). The law includes under suicide the case of one who in attempting to kill anoth- er kills himself by accident. Sui-fu, swe'fdb', or Hsu- CHAU-FU, town, China, on the Yangtse-kiang, at the confluence of the Min-ho ; 150 miles south- west of Chung-king. It has salt and coal mines, and a large trade with Yiin-nan. Pop. _1 25, 000. Sui Juris, su'i joo'ris (Latin 'of one's own right') is a phrase of Roman law indicating the po- sition of a free citizen who was not in the power of a family head (pater-familias) . Those in such power, and also slaves, were said to be alieni juris ('of another's right'). In modern law the phrase sui juris is popularly used with reference to one who possesses full capacity to enter into a bind- ing contract, and incur any obli- gations, or do any legal acts which an adult person, not under any legal disability, may do. Suir, sh(5br, river, Ireland, rises in Tipperary, flows south to the border of Waterford, where it bends northeast and then east, and joins the Barrow with Nore in Waterford Harbor. Length about 100 miles. Sulaiman Hills, soo-la'e- man, or Suliman, which once formed the boundary between Afghanistan and India, run from north to south, parallel to the In- dus. The following four towns mark the position of the most important passes : Attock, where the Kabul joins the Indus ; Dera Ismail Khan, close to the Khy- ber Pass ; Dera Ghazi Khan ; and Sukkur. The length of the range is 350 miles and the high- est peak is Takht-i-Sulaiman, or Throne of Solomon (11,070 ft.). Suleiman Pasha, sob'la-man pa-sha (1838-92), Turkish gen- eral, learned the art of war in Montenegro, Crete, and Yemen, and was for some time instructor in the Military Academy at Constantinople, of which he be- came director. He gained hon- ors against the Servians in 1876, and was the hero of the mag- nificent defense of Shipka Pass against the Russians in 1877. He then acted as commander in chief of the army of the Danube. Defeated near Philippopolis, he was degraded and condemned to imprisonment. The Sultan par- doned him, however, and he died at Bagdad. Sulfa Drugs. See Chemo- therapy. Sul'grave Manor, a pictur- esque hamlet in Northampton- shire, England, the ancestral home of George Washington. When Henry viii abolished all English monasteries he granted the priory of St. Andrews in Sulgrave, 1539, to Lawrence Washington, of Gray's Inn, London, who formerly lived in Northampton. Here in Sulgrave he lived with his wife and eleven children imtil his death (1585). The second son Robert and his wife lived in Sulgrave until 1610, when Robert and his son Law- rence sold it to Lawrence Make- peace of Lincoln's Inn, Robert's nephew. Robert was the ances- tor of George Washington. The church and the manor house are the places of interest. The former, dating in some parts to 1350, in others to 1650, is of early English architecture. The house is of limestone, fairly well preserved and was evidently in its day a building of size and im- portance. A shield embossed in plaster, said to have formerly borne the Washington arms, hangs over the front entrance, and in the gable above are the royal arms and the initials E.R. — Elizabeth Regina. _ In 1914 the British Commis- sion for the celebration of the Hundred Years of Peace between England and the United States bought the Sulgrave Manor house for £8,500, the ex-officio trustees being the American am- bassador in London, the British ambassador in Washington, and the regent of the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association of the Unit- ed States. The house has been restored and furnished witli fur- niture of the period. Funds for the purpose were collected by the American Society of Colonial Dames which has also estab- lished a permanent endowment of more than £20,000. Sul'la, Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 b.c), who called himself 'Felix,' Roman general and state'sman. was a scion of a patrician family belonging to the illustrious Cornelian gens. He was quaestor in 107 u.c, and distinguished himself under Ma- rius in Africa, where he captured Jugurtha ((j. v.). He served with Marius and Catulus against the Teutons and Cimbri in 102 and 101. In 93 he was praetor ; in 92 governor of Cilicia. Soon after his return to Rome the Social War broke out, and Sulla de- feated the insurgents in Cam- pania and Samnium, took Bovi- anum (89), and was elected con- sul for 88 B.C. At this time Marius and Sulpicius (qq. v.) revolted against the senate, and Sulla marched to Rome, put Sul- picius to death, outlawed Marius and others, and re-established the power of the senate. He land- ed in Epirus in the summer of 87 to prosecute the war against Mithridates (q. v.), and reduced him to submission. Sulla, early in 83, landed at Brundisium in Italy apd defeat- ed Norbanus, while the army of Scipio, deserted to him. In 82 he moved on Rome, won the de- cisive battle of the Colline Gate, and before long all Italy sub- mitted to him. Sulla then set himself to extirpate his political opponents of the democratic fac- tion by proscriptions, executions, and confiscation of their proper- ty. As dictator (81-79) he cur- tailed the legislative powers of the assembly of the tribes ; ex- cluded ex-tribunes from higher ofiices ; re-enacted old laws en- forcing an interval of two years between holding different magis- tracies, and one of ten between holding the same office twice ; increased the number of praetors and quaestors ; and ruled that magistrates should hold power in their year of office only at Rome. Consult Beesly's The Gracchi, Marius, and Sulla. Sullivan, Sir Arthur Sey- mour (1842-1900), English mu- sical composer, was born in Lon- don. He studied tmder Goss and Sterndale Bennett at the Royal Academy, and in 1858-61 at Leipzig. His first composition of importance was music to The Tempest (Crystal^ Palace, 1862). His numerous brilliant dramatic works, which made him famous, began with Cox and Box (1866) ; these, with the excep- tion of his grand opera Ivan- hoe, are all in the nature of comic operas. His long associa- tion with W. S. Gilbert (q. v.) in the production of the well-known series of operas beginning with Thespis (1871), followed among others by Trial hv Jury (1875), The Sorcerer (1877), H. M. S. Pinafore (1878), Pirates of Pen- zance (New York, 1879, London, 1880). Patience (1881), lolanthe (1882), The Mikado (1885), Rnd- digore (1887), The Yeomen of the Sulliyan 531 B SullF-Prudbomme Guard (1888), The Gondoliers (1889). Utopia Ltd. (1893), and The Grand Duke (1896), is a notable instance of successful collaboration. Other light operas are The Chieftain (1894), The Beauty Stone (1898), The Rose of Persia (1899), and The Emerald Isle (completed by E. German, 1901). Sir Arthur Sullivan also pro- duced many other compositions, including the cantata Kenilworth (1864), the overtures In Me- moriam (1866), Marmion (1867), and Di Ballo (1869), the oratorios The Prodigal Son (1868), and The Light of the World (1873), a Festi- val Te Deum for the Prince of Wales' recovery in 1872, The Martyr of Antioch (1880) and The Golden Legend (1886). To the general public, however, he is better known by his hymns and songs, and especially his tuneful light operas, his music being as much appreciated by the masses as by cultured musicians. He was principal of the National Training School for Music (1876- 81), and was knighted in 1883. Consult his Letters and Reminis- cences (ed. by A. Lawrence). Sullivan, James (1744-1808), American jurist, brother of Gen- eral John Sullivan (q.v.), was born in Boston. He began the practice of law at Biddeford; be- came a member of the Massa- chusetts Provincial Congress in 1775; in 1776-82 was a Judge of the Superior Court; and in 1784- 5 a member of the Continental Congress. He was attorney gen- eral in 1790-1807, and governor of his native State in 1807-8. A member of the American Acad- emy of Arts and Sciences, and a founder of the Massachusetts Historical Society, he wrote Ob- servations on the Government of the United States (1791); Impar- tial Review of the Causes of the French Revolution (1798); Dis- sertation on the Constitutional Liberties of the Press (1801). Sullivan, James Edward (1860-1914), American athletics official, was born in New York City. From early youth he was an enthusiast in athletic sports and in 1885 was elected president of the Pastime A. C. In 1888 he became one of the organizers of the Amateur Athletic Union, and its first secretary; and in 1893 was chairman of the A. A. U. committee which had charge of the World's Fair meet in Chicago, He was prominently identified with the revival of the Olympic Games (q.v.), and was director- general of the games at St. Louis in 1904 and U. S. commissioner to the games at Athens in 1906 and London in 1908. He organ- ized the Public Schools Athletic League of New York, founded The Athletic News, was editor of the New York Sporting Times, and published Spalding's Athletic Library. Sullivan, John (1740-95), American soldier, was born in Berwick, Me. He was appointed brigadier general by Congress in June, 1775; served in the siege of Boston; was sent in 1776 to com- mand the army in Canada; and after the defeat at Three Rivers conducted the retreat to Crown Point. He was made a major general in August, 1776, and was captured at the Battle of Long Island (August 27). After his exchange he led one of the col- umns in the attack at Trenton, and was active at Princeton, Brandywine, and Germantown, In 1779 he led an expedition against the Iroquois. He was a Member of Congress in 1780-1; governor of New Hampshire in 1786-9; and U. S. district judge from 1789 until his death. Sullivan, Thomas Russell (1849-1916), American author, was born in Boston, and was edu- cated at the Boston Latin School. After residing for a few years in Europe he returned to the United States and was clerk and cashier in the banking firm of Lee, Higgins & Co. (1873-88). After 1888 he devoted himself to literary work, in which he was conspicuously successf ul . He was a member of the National Insti- tute of Arts and Letters. Among his best known works are Roses of Shadow (1885); Day and Night Stories (1890, 1893); Tom Sylves- ter (1893); The Courage of Con- viction (1902); Boston Old and New (1912); The Hand of Pe- trarch (1913). He is also the author of a number of plays in- cluding The Catspaw (1881), and a dramatized version of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1886). Sullivan's Island, an island in Charleston Harbor, the site of Fort Moultrie. See Charleston; Moultrie, Fort. Sul'ly, James (1842- ), English psychologist, was born in Bridgewater, Somersetshire. He was educated at Regents' Park College, London, and at the Uni- versities of Gottingen and Berlin. For many years he lectured upon education in the College of Pre- ceptors; and from 1892 to 1903 was Grote professor of the philos- ophy of mind and logic in University College, London. His chief works are Sensation and Intuition (1874); Pessimism (1877); Illusions (1881); Out- lines of Psychology (1884); Teach- er's Handbook of Psychology (1886) ; The Human Mind(1892) ; Studies of Childhood (1895); Children's Ways (1897); Essay on Laughter (1902); Italian Travel Sketches (1912). Sully, Maximilien de Beth- une. Due de (1560-1641), French statesman, was born in Rosny, near Mantes, of a noble Protestant family. He attached himself to the court of Henry of Navarre in 1571; was in Paris at the time of the St. Bartholomew Massacre, and escaping with difficulty accompanied Henry in his flight from the French court. He took an active part in the war against the Catholic League, and had command of the artillery at Coutras (1587). He approved of the King's poli- tic conversion, and throughout his reign remained his most trusted counsellor. In 1594 he was made a member of the Coun- cil of State, and thereafter was first minister in all but name. Sully's chief attention was given to finance, and he succeed- ed in substituting, as far as pos- sible, direct collection of taxes by the state for the system of tax farming that had previously pre- vailed. He paid off a hundred millions of livres, and without placing additional burdens on the people raised the income of the state from seven to sixteen mil- lions. After the assassination of his master. Sully was forced to re- sign the superintendence of finance, but was allowed to retain the care of the woods and the artillery, and was even presented by Marie de' Medici with a re- ward of 300,000 livres. But his reign was at an end, and before long he retired to his estate. Sully, Thomas (1783-1872), American portrait painter, was born in Horncastle, Lincolnshire, England, and in 1792 was taken by his parents to Charles- ton, S. C. In 1809 he went to London, where he studied under Benjamin West, and returning to the United States in 1812, he settled in Philadelphia, and achieved a reputation as one of the leading portrait painters. In 1837 he made another visit to London, and painted a portrait of Queen Victoria. Among his best known portraits are those of Dr. Rush and Dr. Coates, in the Pennsylvania Hospital; Thomas Jefferson, in the Military Acad- emy, West Point; Charles Kem- ble, Rembrandt Peale, James Madison, John Marshall, and Andrew Jackson, in the Corcoran Gallery, Washington; George Frederick Cooke as Richard III. in the Philadelphia Academy; William Gynn, and portraits of himself, wife, and daughter in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Sully - Prudhomme, sii-le'- pru-dom', Rene Francois Ar- MAND (1839-1907), French poet, was born in Paris. He was edu- cated for the law but soon abandoned it for literature. His first volume, Stances et Poemes (1865), was praised by Sainte- Beuve, and achieved an un- doubted success. His work is characterized by subtlety and ele- VoL. XL— March '29 Sullys Hill National Park 532 Sulphur gance of thought, sympathy with the beautiful and noble, great rhythmical felicity, and power of happily wedding sound and sense. He was elected a member of the French Academy in 1881, and received the Nobel Prize (q.v.) in Hterature in 1901. The best of his later works are Les epreuves, Les solitudes, Les des- tins. Impressions de la guerre, La France, La justice, Le bonheur. Sullys Hill National Park. See National Parks. Sulmona. See Solmona. Sulphate of Magnesia. See Epsom Salts. Sulphates. See Sulphuric Acid. Sulphides. See Sulphur. Sulphites. See Sulphurous Acid. Sul'phocy'anates, Sulpho- CYANiDES, or Thiocyanates, are the salts of thiocyanic acid, HSCN, which can be obtained as a strongly acid aqueous solution by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on barium thiocyanate. . It is best known in its salts, of which potassium sulphocyanate, KSCN, is characteristic, and forms colorless, deliquescent, very soluble crystals. This com- pound was formerly prepared by fusing the cyanide with sulphur, but is now obtained from ammo- nium thiocyanate, a substance of similar properties contained in gas liquor, and prepared on a large scale by heating carbon di- sulphide with aqueous ammonia solution. Mercury sulphocyanate, when heated, swells enormously, and is used in toys known as 'Pharaoh's serpents.' Thiocy- anates are used as a test for ferric iron, which yields a blood red thiocyanate, as a reagent for the estimation of silver and in man- ufacturing cyanides. Sul'phonal, diethyl-sulphone, dimethyl-methane (CH.3)2C(S02- C2H5)2, is prepared by the con- densation of acetone with ethy mercaptan and the subsequent oxidation of the condensation product. It forms white, odorless prismatic crystals that are only slightly soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, and melt at 125.5° c. It has been used in medicine as a hypnotic, but has been replaced by veronal, because of the greater solubility of its sodium deriva- tive. Sulphon'ic Acid, HSO2OH, a monobasic acid known only in its derivatives, particularly those in which the hydrogen atom is replaced by an alkyl or an aryl radical. The alkyl sul- phonic acids are i)repared by the oxidation of mercaptans with nitric acid, and are strongly acid, crystalline, hygroscopic sol- ids; while the aromatic sulphonic acids are obtained by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid on the hydrocarbons and their Vol. XI. —March '29 derivatives, and are also crystal- line solids. The sulphonic acids yield sulphonchlorides, sulphon- amides, etc., and in the case of aromatic derivatives are fre- quently important in the prepa- ration of synthetic compounds, as the phenols. Surphur, or Brimstone, S, 32.06, is a non-metallic element, widely distributed in nature both in the free state and in combina- tion. Elementary sulphur is found chiefly in volcanic districts. The principal sulphur-bearing regions are Caltanisetta and Gir- genti provinces in Sicily, Ro- magna in Italy, Louisiana, Texas, and the States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, Hokkaido in Japan, the Caucasus, Upper Egypt, New Zealand, Iceland, and Hungary. In combination, sulphur occurs largely in pyrites, not only that of iron, FeS2, but also in cupreous and arsenical varieties. Sulphides of lead (galena), of zinc (blende), mer- cury (cinnabar), and antimony (stibnite) are also widely dis- tributed, but like the numerous sulphates, such as gypsum (CaSOO. celestine (SrSOO, Ep- som salt (MgSOO, and heavy spar (BaS04). are not practical sources of sulphur, although the sulphides of iron, copper, and zinc are extensively used to furnish sulphur dioxide for sul- phuric acid manufacture. The method employed in the recovery of sulphur in crude form as commonly practised in South- ern Europe is wasteful but simple. A heap of native sulphur, con- taining up to 2,000 tons, is made on sloping ground and partially walled round and covered with sulphur refuse. Some air holes or chimneys are left, and at the lower side of the slope rough moulds for the reception of the molten sulphur are provided. When the heap is set on fire a part of the sulphur burns, giving out enough heat to melt the rest, which trickles down to the moulds; as much as two-thirds of the sulphur present is obtained in a successful operation. The process of extracting sulphur by fusion by superheated steam has been used to considerable extent in Louisiana and Texas. Distilla- tion has also been carried on, though only to a comparatively small extent. Sulphur is also obtained by heating pyrite, though the product is impure and the yield very poor; most of the sulphur from sulphides goes to make sulphuric acid by com- bustion of the sulphide. A por- tion of this sulphur is sometimes recovered from the waste by the Leblanc alkali process. (See Sodium.) Crude sulphur is puri- fied by distillation from iron re- torts into brickwork chambers, in which, when cold, the sulphur vapor condenses as a fine powder known as 'flowers of sulphur' ; but as the temperature rises it is de- posited in the Hquid form. The latter is cast into thick sticks for sale as 'roll sulphur.' Common sulphur is a pale yel- low, odorless, brittle solid, which is insoluble in water but readily dissolves in solvents such as car- bon disulphide, from which it crystallizes in rhombic octahedra. It is as a brittle opaque aggre- gate of minute crystals of the octahedral variety that sulphur usually appears in the market, and it is characterized by its very poor conducting power for elec- tricity and heat. Rhombic sul- phur melts at 115° c. and mono- clinic at 119° c, the liquid when near the melting-point being mo- bile and of golden yellow color. On raising the temperature the liquid becomes dark red and in- creases in viscosity, so that at 250° c. the vessel containing it can be inverted without the sul- phur running out. On still fur- ther raising the temperature, the sulphur becomes darker and liquid again, boiling at 1445° c. to a brownish-red gas. If the sul- phur is suddenly chilled, as by pouring into cold water, it passes into a third allotropic variety known as plastic sulphur, which is soft and springy like India rubber. This form is insoluble in carbon disulphide, and changes in a few days into the brittle octahedral form. Flowers of sulphur, and 'milk of sulphur,' produced by precipitating solu- tions of polysulphides with acids, are probably not distinct forms, but only finely divided octahe- dral sulphur. Chemically, sulphur enters in- to reaction easily; thus when heated it catches fire at a com- paratively low temperature and burns in air or oxygen with a lilac flame to form sharp-smelling and suffocating fumes of sul- phur dioxide. Metals, such as iron, burn brightly when heated in sulphur vapor; while reaction with non-metals, such as iodine, carbon, and hydrogen, also readily takes place, the cor- responding sulphides being formed. Boiled with solutions of potassium or calcium hydrox- ides, complex mixtures, chiefly composed of polysulphides, are formed. Sulphur is chiefly em- ployed for the production of sulphur dioxide, for fumigation, for the manufacture of sulphuric acid, sulphites, etc., and as a com- ponent of gunpowder and pyro- technic mixtures. It is also an excellent insulator, and when applied molten is used as a cement. In medicine it is used externally as a parasiticide for the cure of scabies, and internally as a mild, though somewhat un- pleasant, aperient. Sulphur 533 Sulphur Of the simple compounds of sulphur the following are among the more important: — Hydrogen sulphide or sulphuretted hydro- gen, H2S, is a gas that occurs naturally in some mineral springs and emanations from the soil, and is formed whenever organic matter containing sulphur, such as the albumin of eggs, under- goes decay. It is commonly pre- pared by the action of dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acid on ferrous sulphide, 2HC1 -FeS = FeCl2 + H2S, numerous special forms of apparatus having been devised for the purpose, but for general use Kipp's apparatus serves quite satisfactorily. Hy- drogen sulphide is a colorless gas that smells like rotten eggs, and is poisonous. It is slightly soluble in water, liquefies at — 74°c., or at 17 atmospheres at room temperature and freezes at 91° c. to an ice-like solid. When set on fire it burns in air with a lilac flame, produc- ing water and sulphur dioxide or sulphur according to the quantity of air supplied. Hydrogen sul- phide is faintly acid to litmus paper, and forms a series of salts (the sulphides) which are useful in the laboratory as the means of detecting and estimating metallic radicals. The forrriation of lead sulphide is used as a test for hydrogen sulphide, and is the cause of blackening of paints containing lead compounds; while the formation of sulphide of calcium by the action of slaked lime on the gas is commonly em- ployed to remove hydrogen sul- phide from gases containing it. Another important property of hydrogen sulphide is its reducing action — for example, ferric salts are reduced to ferrous salts, its behavior in this way being made use of commercially to reduce nitro-derivatives to anilines. Hydrogen sulphide is also em- ployed therapeutically, the effi- cacy of certain mineral waters in the treatment of rheumatism, skin diseases, etc., being probably due to the small quantity of hydrogen sulphide dissolved in them. Sulphur dioxide, sulphurous anhydride, SO2, is a gas that is given off from some volcanoes, and is produced whenever sul- phur or its compounds are burned in air. This process, in which either sulphur itself or pyrite, FeS2, is burned, is the method by which sulphur dioxide is obtained commercially, chiefly for the manufacture of sulphuric acicf, S+02 = S02, and 4FeS2+ll02 = 2Fe203 +8S02. On a small scale sulphur dioxide can be con- veniently obtained by heating copper and concentrated sul- phuric acid, when a reaction, in the main represented by the equation Cu + 2H2SO4 = CuS04 -f2H20 -f SO2. takes place, or by acting on sodium sulphite with sulphuric acid, Na2S03 +2H2SO4 = 2NaHS04 +H2O +SO2. Sul- phur dioxide is a colorless gas, with a very sharp, suffocating smell. It is very soluble in water, one volume of the latter dissolv- ing fifty volumes of the gas at ordinary temperatures. Sulphur from which a claf?s of salts (the sulphites) is derived. vSulphur dioxide in the presence of water has powerful reducing properties, converting halogens to hydrogen halides, etc., and destroying va- rious coloring matters. This action is made use of to bleach straw and wool. The gas has also a powerful antiseptic action; one NATURAL CWiT^ BY SOLUTION OF ! OlSULPMlDE. &LC 1 . OB EVAPORATIN NC orr PAT ONHILLSIOC SICILY ^ auLPMUn ORE BUILT UP WITH AIR CHAI4NEL&A Ltf B. COATINGS OF POWDtRCD St BURNT OUT ORE C. SLOPING FLOOR D. MELT CD aULPHOB FLOWING TO POT E r. SULPHUROUS ACID FUMES PLAt,TlC SULPHUR ULPHUR SUDDENLY CHILLCD IN COLD WATER C.VAPOUR PAbSINC TO BRICK rORMlNC>LOVi/tRS OF SULPHUR' E SULPHUIV FLOWING TO POT F. The Preparation of Sulphur dioxide is easily liquefied, at a temperature of —10° c, under atmospheric pressure, and at 15° c. under a pressure of 2.7 atmos- pheres. The liquid, which is colorless, is readily obtainable commercially. Sulphur dioxide does not burn in air or with ordinary combustibles, though metals such as potassium burn brightly in it, forming their sulphides and oxides. The solu- tion of sulphur dioxide in water reddens litmus, forming the un- stable dibasic sulphurous acid of the commonest methods of dis- infection is to burn sulphur in the room and shut it up closely for some hours. Sulphur dioxide is further employed as an 'anti- chlor' to remove the last traces of chlorine from materials bleached with the latter, in the curing of hops, and the like. Sulphur trioxide, sulphuric an- hydride, SO3, is formed to a small extent when sulphur is burned in air. It is prepared either by heating certain sulphates, Fe2(S04)3 = Fe203 4-2SO3. or by Vol. XL— March '29 Sulphur Dioxide 534 Sulphuric Acid passing a mixture of sulphur dioxide and oxygen over a heated catalytic agent, such as platinized asbestos. Sulphur trioxide is a colorless, crystalline solid, that melts at 17° c, and readily vola- tilizes to a fuming, choking gas; one form of the crystals re- sembles asbestos, subliming with- out passing through the liquid state. Sulphur trioxide reacts violently with water to form sul- phuric acid, and is employed technically in the preparation of carbon compounds. Production. — Sicily has been the chief source of native sul- phur. But of recent years the extensive deposits of Louisiana and later of Texas have control- led the world production. The world's production of sulphur amounts to about 2,500,000 tons, of which the United States pro- duces about 85 per cent, and Sicily 10 per cent. Sulphur Dioxide. See Sul- phur and Sulphurous Acid. Sulphuretted Hydrogen. See Sulphur. Sulphuric Acid, Hydrogen Sulphate, or Oil of Vitriol, H2SO4, is almost exclusively pre- pared by two methods — the 'chamber' and the 'contact' pro- cesses. The foundation of the former was laid by Ward about 1740, who prepared sulphuric acid by burning small charges of sulphur and saltpetre in the pres- ence of water under a glass bell. The chemistry of the process is by no means clear, and there is much discussion as to the stages in which the reactions occur; but in effect it appears that sulphur dioxide in the presence of water is oxidized by nitrogen peroxide to sulphuric acid, NO2 -I-SO2 4- H20 = H2S04-hNO; the nitric oxide, to which the nitrogen per- oxide has been reduced, is reoxi- dized to the peroxide by atmos- pheric oxygen, 2NO +O2 = 2NO2. Thus a comparatively small quantity of nitrogen peroxide serves to oxidize an indefinitely large supply of sulphur dioxide. The details of the process vary somewhat with different makers, but are in general as follows: Sulphur or mineral sulphides in the form of pyrites are burned on the grate of a furnace, producing a gas that contains about 7 per cent, of sulphur dioxide, 10 per cent, of oxygen, and 83 per cent, of nitrogen, and leaving a residue of ferric oxide, 4FeS2 -1-1102 = 2Fe203 -f-8S02. In the flues of the furnaces are placed earthenware pots, which can be charged with sodium nitrate and sulphuric acid, thus setting free nitric acid, NaNOa -t-H2S04 = NaHS04 + HNO3. From 2 to 12 parts of sodium nitrate are used per 100 of sulphur burnt, according to the care with which the nitrous gases are preserved. The nitric acid is Vol. XL— March '29 probably at once reduced by the hot sulphur dioxide to nitric oxide, 3SO2 +2HNO3 -I-2H2O = 3H2SO4 -I-2NO, and the mixture of gases then passes up a Glover tower, in which the nitrogen oxides, which would otherwise be lost at the exit of the apparatus, are restored. The gases then enter the large leaden chambers which are the characteristic fea- ture of the process, and there, meeting water in the form of steam or very fine spray, the main reactions mentioned above take place. The chambers are usually a series of three, one opening into the next. They are built of sheet-lead supported on a wooden frame, the sheets of lead being united without solder by melting the edges together. The bottom of the chamber forms a shallow tray, in which the weak acid formed by the reaction is col- lected, and whence it overflows into suitable receivers. In order to economize space, part of the chambers are, in some plants, re- placed by plate towers, in which the gases are forced up cylinders filled with porcelain plates and meet water passing in the oppo- site direction. The gases then pass up a Gay-Lussac tower, down which concentrated sul- phuric acid trickles over per- forated plates or flints so as to 'scrub' the gases thoroughly and dissolve the nitrogen peroxide present; the residue, which is practically nitrogen, free from acid gases, escapes by the chimney. The nitrated acid from the Gay-Lussac tower is pumped to the top of the Glover tower mentioned above, where it is diluted by the addition of the weak chamber acid, and allowed to trickle down and meet the hot kiln gases. Under the influence of the dilution and the action of the sulphur dioxide the nitrogen peroxide contained in the acid is reduced to nitric oxide, and is returned to the gases to enter the chambers again. By this action, in which a considerable quantity of sulphuric acid is formed, and by the evaporative effect of the hot gases, the whole of the acid sent down the tower is concen- trated. Of the acid produced, much is utilized in manufactures in the form of the chamber acid directly obtained. This acid is about spe- cific gravity 1.5 to 1.6 and con- tains from 60 to 70 per cent, of H2SO4. Part of it can be con- centrated in the Glover tower to a specific gravity of about 1.72, corresponding to nearly 80 per cent, of H2SO4; a similar strength is obtained by evaporation in leaden pans. If required more concentrated, it must be evapo- rated in glass, or preferably plat- inum, stills. By these methods an acid of specific gravity 1.84, corresponding to 98 per cent, of H2SO4, is obtained; but, as a rule, the concentration is not carried further than from 93 to 95 per cent. Besides water and traces of oxides of nitro- gen, oil of vitriol is liable to contain lead sulphate and ar- senic as its principal impurities. The former is precipitated by diluting the acid, while the latter can be removed by hydrogen sulphide, or its presence can be avoided by using sulphur dioxide from brimstone or from the hydrogen sulphide of the alkali waste recovery process. The con- centrated acid may also be puri- fied by distillation. Anhydrous sulphuric acid may be obtained by freezing the concentrated acid and separating the crystals, but is better prepared by the contact process, by which fuming acid containing an excess of sulphur trioxide can also be obtained. In the contact process sulphur dioxide is prepared by burning pyrite as before, and is then very carefully purified, particularly from dust and arsenic, which are fatal to the success of the pro- cess. The gases containing sul- phur dioxide along with ex- cess of atmospheric oxygen are then heated to a carefully regu- lated temperature, and brought in contact with the catalytic agent, such as asbestos or cal- cined magnesium sulphate im- pregnated with finely divided platinum when the oxygen and sulphur dioxide unite to form sul- phur trioxide, 2SO2 +02 = 2S03. Heat is given out in the process, and is got rid of by making it warm the incoming gases, or dis- sociation of the product would take place. The sulphur trioxide formed is then absorbed in water, or better, dilute sulphuric acid, H2O +S03 = H2S04. when acids containing any desired percent- age of sulphur trioxide can be obtained; this is the outstanding advantage of the contact process. More recently vanadium pent- oxide, V2O5, has been developed as a catalytic agent. Fuming sulphuric acid is also called Nordhausen sulphuric acid, from its having been originally prepared at Nordhausen in Cen- tral Germany by heating partial- ly oxidized ferrous sulphate, from which mixtures of sulphur diox- ide, sulphur trioxide, and steam from the water of crystallization present are given ofi", the last two condensing as fuming sulphuric acid, while colcothar or ferric oxide is left, 2FeS04 = Fe203 -t- SO2 -I-SO3, and Fe2(S04)3 = Fe203 + 3SO3. Pure sulphuric acid is a heavy, colorless, oily liquid, which is without odor and does not fume. It is often of more or less brown color, from having taken up dust and organic matter. Sulphuric A. S>ULPHUR DIOXIDE. B. WATER ON SODIUM PEROXIDE FORMINC OXYQCN C NITRIC OXIDt D STEAM CA^HEFUUYREOULATEO E. DRAU&MT TUBt CAV-LU&b A^ CA«>t.!> PASSING THnOUC COXiE MET BY FLOW OF JCEKITRATED CHA GUOVERb TOWER CASE1& PASSING THHOUGM FLINTS METBVFLOWOF- ATEPfcSUL PHURig ACID A. KILNS BURNINC^ PyniTES b.flutto glove.r& toweh CGlover"& tower D. nitre: POT& t.MAIIM PIPE, carrying oxygen NITROGEN, SULPHUR DIOXIDE NITRIC FUME&Ci^ATER VAPOUH TaUE-AD CHAMDtR&.1.2..5 PLAM O ARRANGtMElNT OF PLANT r.STEAM JETS CONVERTING CHAMBER CRVSTALSl TO SULPHURIC ACIO G.SHAFTSj to CARRY GASES TO 2."°B»a"° CHAMBERS H.EXIT PIPE TO GAY-LUb&AC TOWER I .CAY-UU^&AC TOWCR J.PLAN UNDER CHAMBER N? 2. K.TANK. FOR ACID FROM GLOVERS TOWER I CONCENTRATING PANS TO FORM ST RO N C ER AC I D M.NITRATED ACIO F RO M G AY-L U&S AC TOWER FLOWS TO BOILERS M.TOBEPUMPEO DACtSTO TOP OF Clovers towef\. THE PREPARATION OF SULPHURIC ACID. Vol. XI. — Page 535 Vol. XI.— March '29 Sulphuric Acid 536 Sulpicius acid unites with water with great avidity, much heat being evolved in the process, so that the acid should always be diluted by add- ing it in a thin stream to water, and not conversely, or explosive ebullition may take place. The affinity of sulphuric acid for water is so great that many sub- stances are decomposed by it with loss of water; thus, sugar is converted into a black carbon- aceous mass and formic acid into carbon monoxide. It is owing to this property that the concen- trated acid is used to dry gases, and that it has so great a corro- sive power in destroying the skin, clothes, etc.; while the dilute acid, besides staining woollen fabrics red, rapidly rots textiles of any description. Concentrated sulphuric acid is without action on iron, and can safely be transported in iron tanks. When heated to boiling, sulphuric acid dissociates into sulphur trioxide and water. Sulphates. — Sulphuric acid is intensely sour, and is dibasic, forming both normal and acid salts, called sulphates, by inter- action with metals, hydroxides, etc. With metals it behaves in two ways: if diluted and put with iron, zinc, etc., hydrogen is set free and a sulphate formed; while when concentrated and heated with copper, mercury, etc., a sulphate and sulphur di- oxide is obtained. The sulphates, whether occur- ring naturally or derived from the acid, are a class of salts of great importance. Heavy Spar, BaS04, Gypsum, CaS042H20, Celestine, SrS04, and Epsom Salts, MgS047H20, are among the most important natural sul- phates. The metallic sulphates are pre- pared artificially by the action of the metal, its oxide, hydroxide, or salt on sulphuric acid; the details in the individual cases depending on the solubility or otherwise, volatility, etc., of the products. As a class, the normal sulphates are characterized by being well crystallized, stable salts, which, with the exception of those of lead and barium, are soluble in water. The insolubil- ity of the latter is utilized as a test for sulphuric acid or any sol- uble sulphate, a white precipitate being obtained when barium chloride is added to the solution. The acid sulphates or bisul- phates, of which sodium hydro- gen sulphate, NaHS04, may be taken as typical, are in general similar to the normal sulphates, but have, in addition, a strongly acid reaction. The alums are an important class of double sul- phates, in which, in general, an alkali-metal sulphate, such as of potassium, is crystallized with water and the sulphate of either Vol. XL— March '29 aluminum, chromium, ferric iron, etc., and forms a compound of the type K2S04Al2(S04)324H20. Sulphuric acid is probably used for a greater variety of purposes in the chemical arts than any other substance. The heaviest uses are, in percentage of total production, approximately as follows: fertilizer industry, 30 per cent.; petroleum industry, 20 per cent.; chemical industry (including coal products), 20 per cent.; iron and steel and other metallurgical industries, 20 per cent. The sulphuric acid production in the United States for the years 1925-1927 (including all grades) averaged 7,000,000 long tons. The acid is marketed in several forms: 50° Baume acid, containing about 51.04 per cent, of SO3; 60 per cent. Baume acid, containing about 63.7 per cent, of SO3; and 66° Baume acid (commercial oil of vitriol), containing 79 per cent, of SO3. Higher strengths usually consist of free SO3 dissolved in the acid, as in pyro-sulphuric acid, and the fuming or Nordhausen acid. Oleum is a grade containing 30 per cent, of free SO3, in a total of 87.14 per cent, of both free and combined SO3. Nearly the whole of the world's output of pyrite (q.v.), about 15,000,000 tons annually, is used in the manu- facture of sulphuric acid. The world's production totals about 14,000,000 tons, of which the United States produces about 50 per cent., France and Ger- many each 13 per cent.. Great Britain 9 per cent., and Italy 8 per cent.; other producing coun- tries are Belgium, Poland, Spain, Denmark, Holland and Sweden. Consult Lunge's Sulphuric Acid and Alkali (new ed. 1911); U. S. Geological Survey's Mineral Re- sources of the United States. Sulphuric Anhydride, SO3, is obtained by distilling fuming Nordhausen sulphuric acid, a fibrous mass of silky crystals being deposited in the receiver. It is a tough solid, melting at 65° F. (183° c), and possessing none of the properties of an acid, not even affecting the skin. It attracts moisture with great avidity, thereby being converted into sulphuric acid. Sulphuric Ether is a mislead- ing name sometimes given to ordinary or ethyl ether (C2H2)20, for, though usually prepared by the aid of sulphuric acid, it con- tains no sulphur. See Ether. Sulphurous Acid, H2SO3, is unknown in the pure state, a solution of sulphur dioxide in water acting as this acid. This solution is colorless and smells strongly of sulphur dioxide, which is driven off again by heating or by passing air through it. It is acid to litmus and behaves as di- basic, giving rise to a series of both normal and acid salts — the sulphites — which are obtained by the action of the gas or its solu- tion on hydroxides or carbonates of the metals. The normal salts, of which sodium sulphite, Na2S037H20, is characteristic, are crystalline and without odor of sulphur dioxide, which is, however, readily set free from them by the action of acids. The acid salts, of which sodium bisulphite, NaHSOs, is typical, smell of sulphur dioxide — a feature which is also charac- teristic of salts, such as potas- sium meta-bisulphite, K2S2O5, in which sulphur dioxide is united with the normal sulphite. The sulphites are employed, be- cause of the sulphur dioxide they evolve, as reducing agents and preservatives. Sodium sulphite is largely used in this way in pho- tography, and calcium bisulphite in brewing. The bisulphites are also valuable in the purification of acetone and aldehyoes, as they form crystalline compounds with them. Sulphurous Springs. See Springs. Sulphur Springs, town, Tex- as, county seat of Hopkins County, on the Louisiana Rail- way and Navigation Company of Texas and the St. Louis South- western Railroad; 75 miles northeast of Dallas. It has foundries and cottonseed-oil mills and cotton gins. There are mines of lignite in the vicinity. Pop. (1910) 5,151; (1920) 5,558. Sulpicians, a society of Ro- man Catholic priests, devoted to the education of candidates for the priesthood. It was founded in 1641 by Jean Jacques Olier, priest of the parish of Saint- Sulpice (Paris), from which the order takes its name. The So- ciety now has charge of many of the clerical seminaries in France. In 1642 the Sulpicians came to Canada, where they played an important part in the found- ing of the city of Montreal. In October, 1791, St. Mary's Sem- inary, the first in the United States, was opened at Baltimore by a party of French Sulpicians; Mount St. Mary's College was established at Emmitsburg, Md., in 1808; and in 1831, St. Charles College, near Ellicott City, Md., was opened. The order has charge of the seminaries of the dioceses of Baltimore and San Francisco, and of St, Austin's College, Washington. Sulpicius, PUBLIUS RUFUS (124-88 B.C.), Roman orator, be- gan his career as a supporter of the Senatorial party. In 95 B.C. he accused the demagogic tribune Norbanus of treason; in 93 he was quaestor, in 89 he served under Pompeius Strabo in the Sultan 537 Sulzer Social War, and in 88 he was elected tribune. But before long he joined the party of Marius, who probably bought his support. He then brought forward and carried some democratic laws, and also passed a decree trans- ferring the command in the Mithridatic War from Sulla to Marius. He was slain in the Sullan proscriptions which fol- lowed. Sultan, a Mohammedan title, signifying a ruling prince or monarch, as the sultan of Mo- rocco; especially used of the sul- tan of Turkey, who calls himself Sultan of Sultans, or Padishah. The name of Sultana is given to the mother, wife, or daughter of a sultan. The old English form of the word was Soldan or Sow dan. Sultan pur, town, capital of Sultanpur district. United Prov- inces, India, on the River Gumti; 58 miles northeast of Allahabad. Pop. 10,000. The district has an area of 1,707 square miles, and a population of 1,000,000. Sultan- pur is a purely agricultural dis- trict, producing large quantities of rice, pulses, wheat, barley, and sugar cane. Sultanpur, town, Kapurthala state, Punjab, India; 59 miles southeast of Lahore. Pop. 9,000. Suite, Benjamin (1841), Cana- dian poet and historian, was born in Three Rivers, Quebec, He was educated there, and served as a volunteer on the frontier (1865), for which he received a medal. He was editor of Le Canada (Ottawa) in 1866-7, when he became translator to the Ca- nadian House of Commons, and was private secretary to the minister of militia and defence (1870-73). and chief clerk and acting deputy 'minister (1889), retiring in 1903. He was one of the founders of the Royal So- ciety of Canada, and its presi- dent in 1904. His works include: Les Chants Nouveaux (1880); La Poesie Francaise au Canada (1881); Hisloire des Canadiens- FranQais (1882-4); La Langue Francaise en Canada (1898); La Bataille de Chdleaugay (1899); History of Quebec (1908); Pages d'Hisloire du Canada (1891). Sulu, or JoLO, island, Philip- pines, in the middle of the Sulu Archipelago, of which it is the second in area, following Basilan. It extends about 37 miles east and west, and 14 miles north and south, covering about 380 square miles. It is traversed from north- east to southwest by three al- most parallel mountain chains. In structure it is volcanic, sur- rounded with coral reef forma- tions. There are twelve impor- tant summits, the highest of which, Mount Tumangtangis, is 2,894 feet. They are covered to the top with fine forests. The west coast abounds in cocoanut Vol. XI.— 36. and fruit groves. Small streams are numerous, and considerable areas are under cultivation. The inhabitants are mainly agricultural, and raise large num- bers of cattle and carabao, and some horses. The staples are tapioca, rice, corn, ubi, taro, copra, hemp, and small quanti- ties of sugar cane and tobacco. There is k great variety of trop- ical fruit; the fisheries are im- portant. Pop. 50,000, mostly wild. Sulu, or JOLO, pueblo, Philip- pines, capital of the island and archipelago of Sulu; 595 miles from Manila. The town has brick walls and redoubts, built by the Spaniards, who cleared away much of the old town in 1878. There are some fine streets, and many gardens and fountains. Macadamized roads lead to the neighboring towns. A stone pier extends 1,080 feet into deep water, with a light- house at the extremity. Sulu is the centre of the pearl industry, and is in direct com- munication by steamer with Manila and Singapore. Formerly the commercial centre of the islands, it has been surpassed by Manila and Cebu, but is still of trade importance. The exports are principally mother-of-pearl, copra, and fish. Sulu was the seat of the sultans of Sulu up to the time of its capture by the Spaniards in 1876. Pop. 10,000. Sulu Archipelago (Spanish Jol6), Moro province, Philippine Islands, extends from the penin- sula of Zamboanga, Mindanao, southwest to the coast line of Borneo, for a distance of 180 miles. The archipelago consists of a chain of 245 islands, which separate the Celebes Sea on the southeast from the Mindoro on the north and the Sulu Sea on the northwest. The larger isl-. ands are of volcanic origin, and are mountainous. The smaller ones are mainly coral, and rise but little above the surface of the ocean. The extreme verdure and semblance of cultivation make them particularly charming. They fall into six groups, from northeast to southwest, Basilan, Balangingi, Sulu, Pangutaran, Siasi, and Tawi-Tawi. The staples of the Sulu Isl- ands are rice, tapioca, sweet po- tatoes, wild fruits, coffee, choc- olate, corn, hemp, saffron, in- digo, sesame, and cotton. Rub- ber and gutta percha are found on some of the islands. The Chinese intermediaries of com- merce bring merchandise, opium, and tobacco, in exchange for pearl shell, sharks' fins, beche de mer, and native cordage. Shell fishery affords the most impor- tant occupation. The dominant race are the Mores (see Moro), who were never completely subjugated by the Spaniards. Piracy was long one of their chief occupations, and their depredations were feared not only in the rest of the archipelago and Borneo, but from New Guinea to Singapore, and even in Polynesia. The Sulu language resembles more the Fijian than other Malay tongues. Pop. (1912) 75,000. Consult Saleeby's History of Sulu (1908): Arnold's Philippines (1912). Sulu Sea, an inland body of water of the Philippine Archi- pelago. Panay and Negros lie on the northeast; Mindanao and the Sulu Islands on the south- east; Borneo on the southwest; and Palawan on the northwest. It is 350 miles from north to south, and 410 from east to west. Sulzbach, commune, Rhenish Prussia; 7 miles northeast of Saarbriicken. It has coal and iron mining and glass works. Pop. (1910) 22,433. Sulzbach, town, Bavaria, Ger- many; 30 miles east of Niirnberg. It has iron mines and blast fur- naces. Pop. (1910) 5,480. Sulzer, JOHANN Georg (1720- 79), German-Swiss philosopher, was born in Winterthur. In 1747 he was professor of mathematics at the Joachimsthal College at Berlin, and in 1763 Frederick ii. appointed him professor of phi- losophy at the Military Academy. His best known work is Allge- meine Theorie der Schdnen Kiinste (1771-4), in which he sought for the moral origin of the fine arts. Sulzer, William (1863), Amer- D^^'i ^ov-^j'^ ican executive, was born in Eliz- abeth, N. J. He studied at Co- lumbia, was admitted to the New York bar (1884), and practised law in New York City. He was a member of the New York legis- lature (1890-94), becoming Dem- ocratic floor leader, and speaker of the assembly (1893). He was elected to Congress in 1894, and served continuously until 1911. He was a candidate for the Dem- ocratic nomination for governor of New York State in 1896 and 1906. In 1912 he received the nomination for governor, and was elected, assuming office on Jan. 1, 1913. Under his administration im- portant social reform legislation was enacted, although his direct primary bill was rejected. He then appealed to the people, touring the State in behalf of the measure, and called the legis- lature in special session to pass the bill, which was again de- feated. In the meantime, a committee of the legislature ap- pointed to investigate the prisons and charities of the State began an inquiry as to charges made against the Governor; and fol- lowing their preliminary report, a resolution to impeach him was passed on Aug. 14, 1913- The Sumach Sumatra Court of Impeachment convened on Sept. 18. On Oct. 16 Sulzer was found guilty on three of the eight articles of impeach- ment — i.e., filing a false state- ment of campaign contributions, making affidavit that this state- ment was true (perjury), and suppressing testimony before the legislative investigating com- mittee (misdemeanor). On Oct. 17 the Court, by a vote of 43 to 12, ordered his removal from office. Sumach, Sumac, or Shumac (Rhus), a genus of small trees and shrubs of the natural order Anacardiaceae, with small, incon- spicuous flowers in panicles or in corymbs, and the fruit a small, nearly dry drupe. The species are numerous, and are found in almost all parts of the world, except the coldest regions and Australia. Some of them are useful in the arts and in medi- cine, and some are remarkable for their poisonous properties. Of the acrid and poisonous species the most important is the Poison Ivy (R. toxicodendron or R. radicans) of North America, a shrub from 1 to 3 feet high (when it is also called Poison Oak), or a climber, with leaves of three leaflets, and a milky juice, which becomes black on exposure to air. The leaves have been used in medicine as a stim- ulant of the nervous system. Similar to this in properties is the Poison Sumach (R. venenata or R. vernix), with from 7 to 13 leaflets, also known as Poison Alder and Swamp Dogwood, an- other North American species, the juice of which is very acrid. Even the emanations are injuri- ous to some persons, who, from standing close to these plants, or from handling them, experience a cutaneous eruption with vio- lent itching. A saturated alco- holic solution of lead acetate, used as a lotion, is the best rem- edy. (See Poisonous Plants.) Species of sumach of commer- cial and medicinal importance include the following: The Vene- tian Sumach (R. cotinus), known also as Wig Sumach, Wig Tree, and Smoke Plant, is a native of Southern Europe and Western Asia, and is also grown in gar- dens as an ornamental shrub. It has simple leaves, and hairy corymbs of fruit, which resemble periwigs. The wood furnishes a yellow dye (see Fustic), and the leaves a red dye; wood, leaves, and root are used in tanning; the bark has been employed as a substitute for Peruvian Bark; and the seed resembles the almond in flavor. The very acid fruit of the Sicilian or Elm- Leaved Sumach (R. coriaria), a native of the countries around the Mediterranean, with pinnate leaves, has been used as a condi- ment, and the seeds and the leaves medicinally as tonic and cooling. This species is also used for tanning and dyeing. The sumach of commerce consists of its finely ground leaves. Similar in its properties is the Virginian Sumach, or Stag's- Horn Sumach (R. typhina or R. hirta), a native of North America and common in British gardens, which has the branches curiously crooked, and covered when young with a soft, velvety down. The milky juice affords a varnish, and the flowers supply abun- dance of honey. The Smooth- Leaved Sumach (R. glabra), a similar species, has acid leaves, which are used for domestic pur- poses. This species is sometimes troublesome as a weed. The Sweet-scented Sumac (R. aromat- ica), a low shrub with aromatic leaves, is well known as a honey producer for bees. The Varnish Sumach (R. ver- nicifera), a native of Japan and Nepal, yields a varnish much used in Japan for lacquer work. R. metopiurn yields in great abundance a gummy resin, which in a pure state is yellow in color, and of a hard, brittle consistence. R. pumila is re- garded as one of the most poison- ous of the genus. R. succedanea, a native of Japan, has fleshy fruit containing a nut, which yields an oil that is made into candles. Sumarokov, Alexander Pet- ROviTCH (1718-77), Russian dramatist and founder of the modern Russian theatre, was born in Wilmannstrand, Finland. While a student at St. Peters- burg he attracted attention with the tragedy of Horev. His col- lected works appeared in 1787. Sumatra, island, the western- most of the Sunda group in the East Indian Archipelago, be- tween lat. 5° 40' n. and 5° 59' s., and long. 95° 16' e. and 106° 3' 45" E. Greatest length, 1,115 miles; greatest breadth, 275 miles; area, 161,612 square miles. It is separated from the Malay Peninsula by the Strait of Ma- lacca, and from Java by the Strait of Sunda. The Bukit Barisan Mountains, a series of parallel groups of vol- canic formation, extend the length of the island, close to the western coast, which is precipi- tous. The range culminates in Korintji (or Indrapura), an active volcano of 12,400 feet. Toward the east the land slopes gently in broad plains to a wide alluvial district which is being extended eastward by the silt- laden rivers. Sumatra KFP 537 B Summers The mountain lakes, which are characteristic of the island, are largely of volcanic, and more es- pecially of craterial origin ; the most important are the Sing- karah, the Korintji, the Ranau, and the Toba, the last with an area of 785 square miles. To- wards the west the rivers of Su- matra are of necessity short and rapid, but several of the east- ward streams, the Rokan, Siak, Indragiri, Jambi, and Palem- bang or Musi, grow to imposing rivers in their passage through the plains. They are fed by an abundant rainfall ; the average precipitation at Deli, for exam- ple, is 83 inches per annum. The temperature is high but equable, with an annual average of 80° F. The alluvial lowlands are regarded as unhealthful, but above the level of 3,000 feet the climate is delightful. The wet season extends from November to March. Violent storms are common. Most of the island is heavily forested with teak, ebony, san- dalwood, pine, camphor, ben- zoin, and other tropical gum- bearing trees, and palms in wide variety, from the cocoanut to the sago. The eastern coast of Atjen is ^ planted with Areca palms, yielding the valuable Areca nut. Agricultural products are to- bacco (western coast), coffee (eastern coast), rubber, gutta percha, rattan, pepper, nutmegs, mace, cinnamon, and other spices, and rice. The cultivation of tea was begun in 1911. Tropi- cal fruits flourish, and corn, sweet potatoes, and yams are cultivated. Wild animals are the elephant, two-horned rhinoceros, tapir, tiger, panther, antelope, Malay deer, several varieties of apes, flying lemur and flying fox, Malay bear, wild dog, hares, and other small animals. Gold and silver are found in several localities ; tin on the is- lands of Banka and Billiton ; lead, copper, iron (magnetite), sulphur, saltpeter, and alum in the mountain section. There are deposits of marble and coal fields (at Ombilin), besides scattered beds of lignite. Petroleum oc- curs in abundance — the field, which includes Borneo and Java, being one of the most productive in the world. Commerce. — T h e principal exports of Sumatra are tobacco, petroleum, rubber, lumber, cof- fee, coconuts and copra, gutta percha, pepper, nutmegs, and other spices. The imports are chiefl;^ foodstuffs, cloth, build- ing material, and machinery. In 1940 there were 1,233 miles of railway and tramway in the is- land. Population.^ln 1930 the population of Sumatra num- bered 7,677,826. The largest cities are Padang, Palembang, Medan, and Belewan. The population shows great diversity — with admixtures of Arabs, Klings, Chinese, and Bengalese on the coast, and of Hindus in the interior. The principal tribes are the Lam- pongs, in the extreme south ; the Redjongs, on the Upper Musi ; the Lebongs on the Up- per Ketucan ; the Gayos, on the western coast ; the Malays, on the west coast and inland (Men- angkaban) ; the Bataks, Malay in origin, on the east coast ; and the Chinese in the northwest. Malay is generally used as the language of commerce. The pre- vailing religion is Mohamme- danism. Government, — Sumatra is nominally under the control of a Dutch governor, resident at Pa- dang, who is responsible to the Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies. The island is di- vided into six administrative dis- tricts, known as residencies. The native tribes, however, acknowl- edge the supremacy of their princes, and in a large part of the interior there is no other government. History, — The first European to visit Sumatra was Ludovico de Varthema, in 1505 ; and he was followed in 1509 by the Portuguese Lopez de Figuera. The Dutch began making settle- ments in 1599. Several times they were temporarily dislodged by successful rebellions, and did not complete the occupation of the coast until 1881. From 1811 to 1825 the island was virtually in control of the English, and the last English claims were not relinquished tmtil 1870. Su- matra, like the other portions of the Dutch East Indies realm, fell under the temporary domi- nation of Japan in the Second World War during the period 1942-45. Consult Loeb, Stimatra : Its History and People (1935) ; Satake, Camera Pictures of Su- matra, Java, and Bali (1936) ; Schnitger, Forgotten Kingdoms in Sumatra (1939) ; Daniel, Is- lands of the East Indies (1944). Sumba, island of the Little Sunda group, Dutch East Indies. See Sandalwood. Sumbawa, sum-ba'wa, island of Little Sunda group, Dutch East Indies, between Lombok and Flores. It is almost divided by the deep bay of Sale or Sum- bawa in the north, and rises in Tamboro volcano to over 9,000 feet. Sulphur, arsenic, asphalt, and petroleum are found. Ex- ports include rice, tobacco, wax, teak, and edible bird's nests. The town of Sumbawa, on the north- ern coast, has a good harbor. Area 4,300 square miles. Pop. 315,512. Sum'bul, a herbaceous plant belonging to the order Umbel- li-ferae. It is a native of Turke- stan, growing from eight to ten feet high, and having a graceful habit and beautiful foliage. The root is used in medicine as a stimulant, by reason of the aro- matic oil which it contains. For pharmaceutical purposes, the dried root is imported from Rus- sia and Iran. Sumerian, su-me'ri-an, the name given to the language be- lieved by many scholars to have been spoken by the non- Semitic Shumeri of Southern Babylonia (see Babylonia), and therefore to be regarded as the most an- cient language of the world. It has been preserved in the con- temporaneous inscriptions of kings (in cuneiform characters), and in an extensive collection of bilingual incantations and hymns, in which the Sumerian text is accompanied by its Se- mitic (Babylonian or Assyrian) translation or pronunciation. The large admixture of Semitic words and phrases has been the basis of a controversy still un- settled, some eminent Assyriolo- gists contending that what is called Sumerian is no more than an earlier cryptographic form of Babylonian- Assyrian. Consult Prince, Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon (4 vols.) ; Langdon, Sumerian and Baby- lonian Psalms, and Sumerian Grammar and Chrestomathy (1911) ; Myhrman, Sumerian Administrative Documents, and Babylonian Hymns and Prayers (1911); Radan, Sumerian Hymns and Prayers to the God Nin-ib (1911); Halevy, Precis d'A llogra ph ie Assyro-Babylo ni- enne (1912). Summary Proceedings, a form of court proceeding in the nature of a trial, held before a judge or justice of the peace, but without a jury. Originally employed for cases of contempt of court, it is now applied, under special statutes, to offenses aris- ing under police regulations, which are dealt with peremp- torily. Summer, the warmest season of the year, begins astronomical- ly in northern latitudes when the Sim enters the zodiacal sign of Cancer, about June 22, and terminates at the autumnal equi- nox, about Sept. 21. The sum- mer of southern latitudes com- prises the time of the year which constitutes the winter of the northern hemisphere. See Seasons. Summers, Thomas Osmond (1812-82), American clergyman, was born in Corfe Castle, Isle of ^nmmer Schools KFf 538 Summerslde Purbeck, Dorsetshire, England, and in 1830 went to Baltimore. He studied for the ministry, and joined the Baltimore M. E. Con- ference (1835) , and was one of the nine preachers who formed the Texas Conference. He was gen- eral book editor of the M. E. Church South from its organiza- tion until his death. He founded The Sunday School Visitor, of which he was editor for four years, subsequently editing The Quarterly Review. On election to the chair of systematic theology at Vanderbilt University, where he was dean of the theological faculty, he devoted himself wholly to literature. Among his numerous writings are: Commen- tary on the Gospels, Acts, and Romans; Biographical Sketches of Eminent Ministers; Systematic Theology. Consult Fitzgerald's Life. Summer Schools, institutions conducted for educational pur- poses during the summer season alone, sometimes entirely inde- pendent but more often carried on in connection with an established college or university. In the United States summer schools are a comparatively recent devel- opment, the outgrowth of the long summer vacation, the in- creasing desire of people to utilize their leisure time to the best ad- vantage, and the economic de- sirability that the great educa- tional plants should not lie idle a quarter of the year. As early as 1840 Ralph Waldo Emerson and A. Bronson Alcott proposed a summer school which some forty years later was actu- ally established as the Concord Summer School of Philosophy. In 1869 summer courses in geol- ogy were offered by Harvard University; during the next few years professors and instructors at Yale and at Vassar, with a number of their students, made trips to various points of scientific interest for the purpose of study; and in 1873 Professor Louis Agassiz of Harvard established on Buzzards Bay what may be called the first American Summer School. Professor Asa Gray soon followed his example with a sum- mer school of botany, and al- though both of these schools were short-lived they were shortly re- placed by others of a more per- manent character. In 1888, the Marine Biological Laboratory, which since its inception has been the leading summer biological workshop of the country, was es- tablished at Woods Hole, Mass. The summer schools conducted by the Chautauqua Assembly date from 1874. (See Chautau- qua.) Summer schools may be classi- fied as follows: (1) Schools that teach only a single branch of learning, such as religion, phi- losophy, science, library work, etc.; examples of which are the above mentioned Marine Labora- tory at Woods Hole, the North- field Summer Conference, the Lake Geneva conference and the Sauveur Summer College of Lan- guages; (2) schools of the arts, such as drawing, music, oratory; examples of which are the Lexing- ton (Mass.) Normal Music School and the Boston School of Ora- tory; (3) schools of pedagogy, among which the Martha's Vine- yard Summer Institute, estab- lished in 1878, takes high rank; (4) general summer schools, at which all or nearly all subjects are treated and the idea of study is combined with that of rest and recreation, as exemplified partic- ularly by the Chautauqua; and (5) summer schools at colleges and universities, which class has increased so rapidly as to include a large proportion of all American universities, particularly State in- stitutions. While the instruction offered at the summer sessions of universi- ties was at first rather popular in character, it has developed to such a degree that at present courses are provided at a number of insti- tutions not only in the regular subjects of the college curriculum, but also in law, medicine, en- gineering, education, etc., as well as in the graduate schools. The result is that the standards of the university summer sessions are coming to be regarded as identical with those of the regular academic year; and students have thus been enabled to shorten their time of residence — reducing the time required for securing the bach- elor's degree, for example, from four years to three and a half or three years. Furthermore, stu- dents who are deficient in a por- tion of their work during the reg- ular term are able to make up this deficiency during the summer; and those who are entering an in- stitution on advanced standing have frequently been able co ar- rive at a more satisfactory adjust- ment of their schedule as the re- sult of educational opportunities provided during the summer months. The University of Chi- cago recognized the economic waste involved in shutting down an educational plant for a third or a quarter of a year, as early as 1891, when it announced its pol- icy of conducting courses during four quarters of three months each, an arrangement which has been in full force since 1894 (see Chicago, University of). Summer sessions have also been an important factor in en- couraging student migration, as well as in bringing students of a particular institution in contact with teachers from other colleges and universities — thus often en- abling them to enjoy the privi- lege of study under some famous foreigner. The serious student or teacher is rarely inclined to spend in comparative idleness three or four months of each year, and the remarkable growth of the sum- mer schools during the past quar- ter century bears eloquent testi- mony to his desire to avail him- self of the opportunities which are being provided in bountiful measure. Registration in the university summer schools in 1921 was 59,- 378. Of this number Columbia's enrollment was the largest, being reported as 11,809; other univer- sities reported as follows: Chi- cago, 6,458; California, 6,176; Wisconsin, 4,547; Cornell, 2,739; Michigan, 2,769; New York Uni- versity, 2,096; Harvard, 2,022; Iowa State, 2,019; and Illinois, 1,973. The 1912 figures for Columbia were 3,602; tor Chicago, 3,531; for California, 2,275. Summer schools or vacational courses for teachers or for foreign- ers are also conducted by a num- ber of European universities — not on the university basis; but these summer schools or vacational courses are not to be confused with the summer semesters, which constitute part of the regular uni- versity work. Vacational courses are carried on in Great Britain at Edinburgh, London, Oxford, and Ramsgate; in France at Bayeux and Granville, Grenoble, Besangon, Boulogne-sur-Mer, Caen, Dijon, Le Havre, Honfieur, Lisieux, Nancy, Paris, Rouen, Saint Malo, Saint Servais, Saint- Valery-en-Caux, Tours, and Ver- sailles; in Germany at Berlin, Freiburg, Greifswald, Hamburg, Gottingen, Jena, Kaiserslautern, Lubeck, Marburg and Wies- baden; in Switzerland at Gen- eva, Lausanne, and Neufchatel; in Belgium at Liege; in Italy- at Florence; and in Spain at Ma- drid and Santander. See University Extension. Consult the Bibliography on summer schools in Dr. Adams' monograph (No. 16), in the series prepared under the auspices of the State of New York for the U. S. Commission to the Paris Ex- position of 1900; G. E. Vincent's Summer Schools and University Extension; E. G. Dexter's History of Education in the United States; U. S. Bureau of Education, Bulle- tin No. 31 (1922). Summerside, seaport, Can- ada, Prince Edward Island, county seat of Prince county, on the Canadian National Rail- road ; 40 miles northwest of Charlottetown. The harbor ac- commodates large vessels. Man- ufactures include lumber, flour, and agricultural implements. Pop. (1941) 4,983. Summerville KFP 539 Sumner Summerville, town, South Carolina, Dorchester county, on the Southern Railroad; 21 miles northwest of Charleston. It is in the midst of fine mountain and woodland scenery, and is a fa- vorite summer and health resort. Pop. (1930) 2,579 ; (1940) 3,023. Summit, city, New Jersey, Union county, on the Lackawan- na Railroad ;_ 10 miles west of Newark. It is charmingly situ- ated on the summit and slopes of Second Mountain, and com- mands a view extending to New York Bay on one side and up the Passaic Valley on the other. It is a residential suburb of New York, and is a popular summer resort. Throughout the vicinity are numerous picturesque drives over well-kept roads. A pharma- ceutical plant and research labo- ratories are situated here ; there are extensive nurseries ; and the city is well known for the culti- vation of roses. It contains the Overlook Hospital, A monument on Hobart Hill marks the site of a beacon light and signal gun of the Revolutionary period. Pop. (1930) 14,556; (1940) 16,- 165. Summit Hill, borough, Penn- sylvania, Carbon county, on the Lehigh and New England Rail- road ; 7 miles west of Mauch Chunk. It is in a coal-mining district. Pop. (1930) 5,567 ; (1940) 5,406. Summons. A writ or notice served upon a defendant in a civil action, commanding him to appear therein within a certain time and answer the complaint, under penalty of having judg- ment entered against him by de- fault. It may be served with or without a copy of the complaint. It should contain the name of the court, the title of the action, and the signature and address of the plaintiff or his attorneys. See Service of Process. Summum Bonum. See Eth- ics. Sumner, Charles (1811- 74), American statesman, was born in Boston, Mass., on Jan. 6, 1811, the descendant of William Sumner, who emigrated from England to Dorchester, Mass., about 1635. He was gradu- ated^ from Harvard (1830), studied at the Harvard Law School (1831-3), and was ad- mitted to the Boston bar in 1834. In 1835-6 he was an instructor in the Harvard Law School. In December, 1837, he went to Eu- rope, where he remained till May, 1840, pursuing the study of jurisprudence at the _ Sor- bonne and elsewhere. On his re- turn to Boston he first came into prominence by a civic oration, on July 4, 1845, under the title of 'The True Grandeur of the Nations.' A member of the Whig Party by descent and associations, Sumner took little interest in politics until the threatened ex- tensions of Negro slavery over newly acquired territory awak- ened a spirit of resistance in the free states. He was at one with the Abolitionists in asserting the inherent and total sinfulness of slavery ; but unlike them he maintained that the Constitution did not recognize property in man, and that slavery, a purely sectional institution, could be combated in the political arena, and so crippled by legislation that it would necessarily dwindle and become extinct. In 1848 he joined with others holding sim- ilar views in the formation of the Free Soil Party (q. v.). Nominated for Congress in 1848, he was easily defeated by the Whig candidate, R. C. Win- throp; but in April, 1851, after a protracted contest, he was elected to the U. S. Senate as the successor of Daniel Webster, by the combined Free Soil and Democratic votes of the Massa- chusetts legislature. The post thus gained he continued to hold during the remainder of his life, being re-elected in 1857, 1863, and 1869. At the outset Sumner stood almost alone in the Senate as the uncompromising opponent of slavery. He urged the repeal of the Fugitive Slave Law ; refused to recognize the finality of the Compromise Measure of 1850; and opposed the Kansas-Nebras- ka Bill of 1854; while his elabo- rately prepared speeches in- flamed hostility in his opponents. On May 22,_ 1856, while sitting at his desk in the Senate cham- ber after an adjournment, he was suddenly assaulted by Pres- ton S, Brooks (q. v.), a member Charles Sumner. Sumner KFP 540 Sumter, Fort of Congress from South Caro- lina, and by repeated blows on the head with a heavy cane pros- trated on the floor in a state of insensibility. His injuries were so severe as to incapacitate him for public life during nearly four years. He resumed his seat at the close of 1859, and in June, 1860, delivered a speech on the question of the admission of Kansas as a free state, which he published under the title of Tlie Barbarism of Slavery. The secession of the Southern States left the Republican Party in control of both Houses of Congress, and in March, 1861, Sumner was elected chairman of the Senate Committee on For- eign Affairs. He was urgent for the emancipation of the slaves, and after this had been secured, in obtaining for the colored race full civil and political equarity. He supported the impeachment of President Johnson, and was foremost in opposing President Grant's project for the acquisi- tion of San Domingo. His con- duct on this occasion led to his exclusion in 1871 from the chair- manship of the committee on foreign relations ; and his con- tinuous and acrimonious cen- sures on Grant's administration brought about a rupture with the leaders of the Republican Party, which was rendered complete by his support of Greeley as candi- date for the Presidency in 1872. His death at Washington, how- ever, obliterated all asperities, and left only the remembrance of his great services and distin- guished career. Sumner's position in the field of politics was in some respects unique. From first to last he was an independent rather than a partisan. His position was a commanding one, owing to his unimpeachable integrity, his un- flinching courage, his singleness of purpose and consistency of action, his freedom from every suspicion of intrigue or self- seeking, and his identification both as a victim and a victor with the cause to which he had devoted all his energy and tal- ents. His nature was too open to admit of misconstruction, and the poet Longfellow, with whom he lived in intimacy, described him as the whitest soul he had ever known. Consult his Works; Pierce's Memoirs and Letters; Lives by Lester, Chaplin, and Anna L. Dawes. Sumner, Charles Richard f 1790-1874), English prelate. George iv made him his private chaplain at Windsor in 1821. In 1826 he became bishop of Lan- daff, and in 1827 bishop of Winchester. He published Ministerial Character of Christ Practicallv Considered (1824). Sumner, Edwin Vose (1797- 1863), American soldier, was born in Boston. He entered the army as second lieutenant in 1819, and served in the Black Hawk and the Mexican Wars, distinguishing himself at Cerro Gordo and Molino del Rey. He was governor of New Mexico (1851-3), and at the outbreak of the Civil War was in command of the Department of the Pacific with the rank of brigadier gen- eral. He became commander of the second Army Corps in the Army of the Potomac early in 1862, and led it during the Pen- insula and Antietam campaigns — particularly distinguishing himself at Fair Oaks. He com- manded the right grand division at Fredericksburg, and was later commander of the Department of Missouri. Sumner, Increase (1746- 99), American jurist, was born in Roxbury, Mass., and was graduated from Harvard in 1767. He was admitted to the bar (1770), and was a member of the State Constitutional Con- vention of 1779. From 1782 to 1797 he was an associate justice of the U: S. Supreme Court ; in 1789 he was a member of the convention which adopted the Constitution of the United States; and from 1797 till his death he was governor of Mas- sachusetts. Sumner, John Bird (1780- 1862), archbishop of Canter- bury, brother of C. R. Sumner, was born in Kenilworth. He be- came bishop of Chester (1828), and archbishop of Canterbury (1848). He published Apostoli- cal Preaching (1815) ; Moral Attributes of the Creator (1816), Evidences of Christianity (1824). Sumner, William Graham (1840-1910), American educa- tor, was born in Paterson. N. J. He graduated from Yale (1863), and studied at Geneva and Got- tingen. In 1866-9 he was a tutor at Yale, and was then ordained in the Protestant Church. From 1872 to 1909, he was professor of political and social science at Yale. He wrote : History of American Currency ; Lectures on the History of Protection in the United States ; What Social Classes Owe to Each Other; The Financier and Finances of the American Revolution; A Flistory of Banking in the Unit- ed States ; Folkways. Sumter, city, South Carolina, capital of Sumter county, on the Seaboard Airline and Atlan- tic Coast Line railroads ; 42 miles s.E. of Columbia. It has manufactures of furniture, ve- neers, cotton, and lumber. Pop. (1930) 11,180; (1940) 15,874. Sumter, Thomas (1734- 1832), was born in Hanover county, Va., and served in the Virginia militia during the French and Indian War. He is best known for his exploits dur- ing the War of Independence, but saw little active service un- til after the fall of Charleston (May, 1780). In July, 1780, he was appointed brigadier general of the state troops, and during the remainder of the war car- ried on a partisan campaign. He failed in an attack upon Rocky Mount in August, 1780; but a few days later defeated 500 Loy- alists and regulars at Hanging Rock; and on July 15 intercept- ed and defeated a convoy with stores between Charleston and Camden. His own regiment, however, was almost annihilated by Lieut. -Col. Bannastre Tarle- ton at Fishing Creek ; but a new force was soon recruited, with which he defeated Major James Wemyss at Fishdam, and re- pulsed Tarleton's attack at Blackstock in 1780. In 1781 Congress thanked him for his services. He was a member of the state convention which rati- fied the Federal constitution for South Carolina in 1788, he him- self opposing that instrument. In 1789-93, and in 1797-1801, he was a member of the House of Representatives, and of the U. S. Senate in 1801-10. Sumter, Fort (named after Gen. Thomas Sumter), an Amer- ican fort associated with both the beginning and the end of the Civil War, was built of brick, in the form of a truncated penta- gon 38 feet high, on a shoal, partly artificial, in Charleston Harbor, 314 miles from the city. On the secession of South Caro- lina, in December, 1860, Major Anderson, in command of the de- fenses of the harbor, abandoned the other forts, and occupied Fort Sumter, mounting 62 guns, with a garrison of some 80 men. The attack on the fort was opened by Gen. Beauregard on April 12, 1861, and it_ surren- dered on the 14th — this event marking the beginning of the war. The Confederates strength- ened the fort and added 10 guns. Though the harbor was soon blockaded by a Federal fleet, no serious attempt to retake the fort was made xintW April 7 1863, w^ien Admiral Dupont sent nine ironclads to attack at close range. Little damage was done the fort ; while the Keokuk was sunk. On July 10 Gen. Q. A. Gillmore (q. v.) effected a landing at Morris Island, and on July 11 and 18 made unsuc- cessful attempts to take Fort Wagner, on the opposite side of the island. Attacks on Fort Wagner were suspended, and the guns were trained upon Sumptuary Laws Sumter. Fire was opened on Aug. 17, and within a week the fort was almost a ruin through the combined fire of the batteries and the monitors. The commander refused to surrender, however, and further bombardments on Aug. 30 and Sept. 2 dismounted every gun. Fort W agner was abandoned by the Confederates on Sept. 6, but the infantry which held Sumter still refused to surrender, and a Federal assault during the night of Sept. 8 was repulsed with a loss of 125 killed, wounded, and cap- tured. The captured guns of Fort Wagner were also turned upon the fort Oct. 26 and it was soon reduced to a shapeless heap, but the men in the bombproofs defied capture. Not until the approach of Gen. Sherman was the post finally abandoned, Feb. 17, 1865, and the same flag which had been lowered four years before was again raised. See Johnson and Bue\, eds., Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (1888); Crawford, Genesis of the Civil War (1887); Doubleday, Remi- niscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie (1876); Gillmore, En- gineer and Military Operations around Charleston in 1863 (1865). Sumptuary Laws are intended to maintain class distinctions, to repress luxury and discourage extravagance especially among the lower classes, by means of regulations regarding ostenta- tious expenditure on food, dress, furniture, and ornament. Oc- casionally legislation of an en- tirely different character, such as Queen Elizabeth's political Lent to encourage the North Sea fisheries, the regulations regard- ing the wearing of linen in Scot- land and of woollens in England, is called sumptuary; but this is really protective legislation. In the United States the term is some- times applied to laws restricting the sale of alcoholic beverages, cigarettes, etc. English sumptuary legislation ranges from the 14th to the mid- dle of the 16th century, and is directed chiefly against extrava- gance in dress, although Edward III. tried to limit the number of courses of food that his subjects might partake of {De Cibariis Utendis, 1336). This remained on the statute book till 1856, but it was not, even at first, enforced. In 1363 an act was passed to re- strain 'the outrageous and ex- cessive apparel of divers people against their estate and degree.' About 1463 the desire to promote English industry becomes the motive of the legislation, and acts were passed in that year and in 1482. There was further legisla- tion in 1515. Most of the Eng- lish laws of this character were repealed in 1603. Sumy,^ tn.,. Kharkov gov., S 541 Russia, 84 m. N.w. of Kharkov city, with breweries, distilleries, tanneries, brick fields, tallow foundries, and candle manufac- tories. Pop. (1900) 28,519. Sun, the chief luminary and the ruling body of the planetary sys- tem, is a radiant globe 866,400 m. in diameter, at a mean distance of 92,900,000 m., and subtending an angle, as viewed by us, of 32'. It has a superficial area 11,900 times, a volume 1,300,000 times, those of the earth, but is only 331,000 times more massive. Its mean density is, accordingly, 0.255 the terrestrial, or 1.4 taking water as the unit, while gravity at its surface is of 27.6 times its ter- restrial power. The sun rotates on an axis inclined 7° 15' to the ecliptic in a period lengthening systematically with increase of solar latitude, from about 25 days at the equator to 27^ days in lat. 45°, as determined by ob- servations of sun-spots; and spec- troscopic measures of velocity show that the retardation con- tinues at least up to lat. 75°. This vorticose movement evi- dently excludes a solid consistence in the body _ affected by it, and probably indicates virtual gaseity to the core. Besides, the enor- mous output of light and heat from the photosphere can only be maintained by a rapid inter- change of material between the surface and the interior. The illuminative efficacy of sunlight on the earth surpasses thirty times that of an arc light of 2,000 candle-power at a distance of one meter (Young). The accompany- ing heat-emissions would suffice to melt every minute a shell of ice 64 ft. thick enclosing the sun; they represent the energy of 130,000 horse-power in continu- ous action on each square meter of the solar surface. The earth intercepts only ^^(jtytjsnOTs of this copious flood. The photospheric temperature derived by Stefan's law from the solar constant is 7,000° to 7,500° C, and has not been proved to vary. Its per- petuation from age to age is ex- Elained on dynamical principles y the slow advance oi^ contrac- tion. An annual shrinkage of 300 ft. in the sun's diameter would, it is estimated, supply the thermal expenditure, but not for an unlimited time. In five mil- lion years the sun would, by a continuance of the indicated pro- cess, have become eight times denser than it is now, and would then almost certainly be incapaci- tated for vivid radiation. Its extinction may, however, be in definitely postponed by unknown or barely suspected modes of action, such as the disintegration within its substance of elements akin to radium. The chemical constitution of Sun Bear the sun is disclosed by the nature of its spectrum. About forty- one substances have been recog- nized as solar ingredients by their spectral lines. Five among them — carbon, silicon, oxygen, helium, and hydrogen — are non- The Sun. The diagram shows the earth (e), moon (M), and tne moon's orbit (mo) against the disc of the sun (s), the prominences at s being sliown on the same scale. metallic; the thirty-six metals are iron, nickel, titanium, man- ganese, chromium, cobalt, vana- dium, zirconium, cerium, cal- cium, scandium, neodymium, lanthanum, yttrium, ytterbium, niobium, molybdenum, palla- dium, magnesium, sodium, stron- tium, bariurn, aluminium, cad- mium, rhodium, erbium, zinc, copper, silver, glucinum, ger- manium, tin, lead, potassium, gallium, and lithium. The sun moves as a star among the stars, but with only about half their average velocity. To- gether with its entire system, it is transported at the rate of twelve miles a second toward a point on the sphere located by the best authorities in R.A. 277°, dec. -f 35°. The nature of the orbit described is unknown. See Ball's Story of the Sun (1893), and Lockyer's Chemistry of the Sun (1887) and The Sun's Place in Nature (1897); also Sunspots. Sunart, Loch, sea loch, Argyll- shire, Scotland, extends 19^ m. E. between Ardnamurchan and Sunart on the N. and Morven on the s. from the N. end of the Sound of Mull. Sun-bath. See Baths and Bathing. Sun Bear, or Malayan Bear Sun Bear. (Ursus malayanus), a small spe- cies found in forest regions, and Siin-blrds 542 Sundarband extending from the Malay Penin- sula and Archipelago into N.E, India. Sun-birds {N ectarim'idcE) are beautiful passerine birds, often confused with the American hum- ming-birds. They occur through- out Africa, So Asia, extending Siin-hirds. 1. Metallic sun-bird. 2. Malachite sun-bird. southward to N. Australia, and are all small birds, with long slender bills and an exensile tongue. They frequent woods and gardens, and feed upon in- sects, insect larvae, spiders, and upon honey. They are of some importance as agents in the pro- cess of pollination. The nests are built of grass, moss, etc., to- gether with cobwebs, and are geous, and having extra tufts of feathers like the humming-birds. Examples of sun-birds are the malachite sun-bird {Nectarinia famosa) of S. Africa, and Cinnyris osea of Palestine. See Shelley's N ectariniidce (1876-80). Sun-bittern {Eurypyga helias), a curious S. American bird, which, like the kagu, is regarded as an aberrant crane. It is about sixteen inches in length, and has a long, pointed beak and a long thin neck, while the body shows curi- ous transverse stripes in white, brown, and black. In flight the bird has been compared to a broad-winged butterfly. It haunts the banks of rivers, especially the Orinoco, and feeds on insects and fish. There is no relationship to the true bittern. Besides the common sun-bittern there is another larger form {E. major) of more uniform coloration. Sunbury, bor., Pa., co. seat of Northumberland co., 30 m. s.s.E. of WiUiamsport, on the E. bank of the Susquehanna R., just below the junction of the N. and the W. branches, and on the Pa., the N. Cent., and the Phila. and Read. R. Rs. The principal buildings are the court house, county peni- tentiary, parish house, and the Mary M. Packer Hospital. It is an important manufacturing cen- tre, producing structural iron, nails, furniture, coffins, woollen goods, silk goods, carpets, flour, machinery, etc. An Indian village formerly occupied the site of the town, and here Fort Augusta was built during the French and Sun-Lodge^ in which the Sun-Dance is held. decorated with pieces of paper, cloth, bark, etc. There is great difference in the coloration of the sexes, the males being often gor- Indian War, in 1756 ough was settled incorporated in (1910J 13,770. The bor- in 1772, and 1797. Pop. Sunda Islands, in the Malay Archipelago, generally include Greater Sunda Is. (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Moluccas, etc.) and Lesser Sunda Is. (Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Sandalwood, Flores, and on to Timorlaut). Sun-dance, an annual cere- mony among most of the Indians of the Plains, extending over a period of five to fourteen days and characterized by prayers and sac- rifices to the sun. The ceremony is usually initiated by the vow of some individual, usually a woman, who in , time of great trial calls upon the sun for aid. This woman and her husband are the chief participants in the prelimi- nary ceremonies, consisting of fasting and the opening of a medi- cine bundle. During this prelim- inary ceremony a circular struc- ture of poles is erected in which the sun-dance takes place. This structure is supported by a centre pole, selected^ by warriors and drawn into camp with military demonstration. When this struc- ture, or lodge to the sun, is com- pleted, the various military and religious societies in the tribe take turns dancing in the sun lodge, rendering dramatic presentations of their own or mythical exploits. In former times an important feature of this ceremony was the torture of men by complete or partial suspension from cords passed under the skin of the breast or back. In most cases a cord from the top of the centre pole was fastened to each breast, the dancers pulling upon them until the strip of skin to which they were fastened was torn out. The idea of the dancers was that be- cause of their self-inflicted torture the supernatural power in the sun would take pity on them, and in a vision confer upon them some power that would aid them in the affairs of life. The sun-dance as a whole is very tomplcx and is probably one of the most spec- tacular ever practised by the Indians of North Arnerica. In recent years il has received careful attention from ethnologists, espe- cially Dr. George A. Dorsey of the Field Museum of Natural His- tory, Chicago. The following tribes still practise the sun-dance: Dakota, Assinibc»ine, Ponca, Chey- enne, Arapaho, Crow, Black- foot, Plains Cree and Sarcee. The time is the first week in July. See Dorsey in publications of the Field Museum of Natural His- tory (Chicago) ; Catlin's Okiepa, a Religious Ceremony (1807); and Kroeber's The Arapaho (1906). Sundarbans, the waste land estimated at some 5,500 sq. m., in the Ganges delta, India, between the mouth of the Hugh and the mouth of the Meghna. It derives its name from the abun- dant sundri {Heritiera littoralis\ Sunda Sea 543 Suuday Schools which yield useful timber. Rice is cultivated in the upper por- tions; the lower is jungle, the haunt of tigers, leopards, and crocodiles. Sunda Sea, in the Eastern Archi- pelago, the name given to the east extension of the Java Sea, separating Celebes from Flores. Sunda Strait, a passage vary- ing from 15 to 80 miles in breadth, lying between Sumatra and Java, and connecting the Indian Ocean with the Sunda Sea. Several islands stud its waters, among which are Kraka- toa. Princes Island, Steers, and Calmeijer. Sunday. See Sabbath. Sunday, Will I AM Ashley (1863-^^1^, American evangelist, popularly known as Billy Sun- day, was born in Ames, la., and was educated in the public schools of Nevada, la., and at Northwestern University. From 1883 to 1890 he was a well known professional baseball player. In 1891 he became assistant secre- tary of the Chicago Y. M. C. A., and since 1896 he has been a prominent evangelist, holding revival meetings throughout the United States. His conversions are said to number more than 100,000. He was ordained in the Presbyterian ministry in 1903. Sunday Laws. In law, Sunday is the first day of the week, a day set apart for rest and cesvsation from ordinary work. All the States of the United States have statutes relating to the Sabbath; in most of them it extends from midnight on Saturday to mid- night on Sunday. The State does not recognize the religious character of the day as such, but enforces its observance, on the theory that one day of rest in seven is necessary for the physical and moral well being of its citi- zens. This is constitutional as a valid exercise of the police power. The statutes of the various vStates differ in their provisions, and decisions vary in their inter- pretation. Generally, however, ordinary business transactions are prohibited. For public con- venience, exceptions are usually made as to certain lines of busi- ness and works of necessity, as .he transportation of passengers and freight, drug stores, physi- cians, and occupations which cannot be suspended without harm or great inconvenience to the general public. In some vStates contracts en- tered into on vSunday are void, but this rule is not universal, and is not often resorted to as a de- fence. Negotiable paper falling due on Sunday is by statute gen- erally made payable on the next succeeding business day. Persons who regularly observe any other day of the week as a religious holiday are usually exempted from the observance of Sunday, and may therefore carry on their ordinary occupations on that day. Scotland and Wales have Sun- day closing acts; England and Ireland have limited closure. See Public Holidays. Sunday Letter, or Dominical Letter, is one of the seven let- ters A, B, C, D, E, F, G, used in almanacs, and similar publica- tions, to mark the Sundays throughout the year. The first seven days of the year being marked in their order by the above letters in their order, then the following seven, and all con- secutive sets of seven days to the end of the year, are similarly marked; so that the 1st, 8th, 15th, 22d, etc., days of the year are all marked by A; and the 2d, 9th, 16th, 23d, etc., by B; and so on. The days being thus marked, it is evident that on whatever day the first Sunday of the year falls, the letter which marks it will mark all the other Sundays in the year, as the number of the letters and of the days in the week is the same. See Calendar. Sunday Schools, institutions devoted to religious and moral instruction, maintained for the most part by the Christian churches, but sometimes by phil- anthropic and religious organiza- tions. The ultimate aim of the Sunday school is the inculcation of the knowledge of the Word of God, thus developing the relig- ious and moral life of the pupil, and increasing his usefulness as a member of society. Although systematic and wide- spread attention to the religious training of children is of com- paratively modern date, some attention was bestowed upon it in earlier times. The father acted as teacher and priest toward the children in patriarchal times; and there was provision for the training of children in the knowledge of the law in the Jewish economy. Ezra read and had the law explained 'before the congregation both of men and women, and all that could hear with understanding' (Neh. viii.). There were religious schools in connection with the synagogues in New Testament times. The Mishna .;ays, 'at five years of age let children begin the Scriptures, at ten the Mishna, and at thirteen let them be sub- jects of the Law.' In the apos- tolic age teachers were set over the young and ignorant. Clem- ent of Alexandria and Origen did duty as catechists. The classes of Catechumens (q.v.) were in- tended for the instruction of can- didates for church fellowship; instruction was given on Sundays just previous to public worship, and the scholars were mostly adults. At the Reformation, Luther (1,529) opened schools for catechizing children, Knox (1560) did the same in Scotland. St. Charles Borromeo (q.v.), arch- bishop of Milan, founded Sun- day schools in his diocese, which still exist, but these were chiefly secular. Sunday schools are noticed in an ordinance of Albert and Isabel in 1608 as then existing in the Catholic Nether- lands. Both Richard Baxter and the Rev. Joseph Alleine (1634- 68) were in the habit of gathering young people together for in- struction; and there were many irregular and isolated attempts in the same direction in different parts of Great Britain. The modern system of Sunday school instruction dates from the time of Robert Raikes (q.v.), a newspaper publisher of Glouces- ter, England, who founded and consolidated the system, and gave the subject publicity through his journal and other organs of pub- lic opinion. There is no doubt that his philanthropic work in Gloucester jails had impressed him with the direct connection between ignorance and crime. One day, in 1780, he had gone to hire a gardener in a low suburb of the town near the Severn, where the people were mostly employed in a pin factory. He was grieved at seeing the groups of wretched, ragged children at play in the streets, and on inquiry was in- formed that on Sunday 'the street was filled with a multitude of wretches, who, having no em- ployment on that day, spent theii time in noise and riot, and curs- ing and swearing.' To check this deplorable profanation of the Lord's Day he engaged four women, who kept dame schools, to instruct as many children as he should send them on Sunday in reading and the church cate- chism, for which they were to receive one shilling each for their day's service. In this work he was assisted by the Rev. Thomas Stock, of St. John's parish. The children gathered into the first Sunday schools ranged from six to twelve or fourteen years of age. Personal cleanliness was the only requirement. Owing to the total ignorance of the pupils the teaching was of an educational nature at first; the little folks learned their let- ters, and to spell and read. The schools opened at 8 a,m., and by 8:30 lessons were begun; after- ward the children went home, or to forenoon service; and in the afternoon to school again at the close of the church service till 5:30 p.m. Boys and girls werts taught separately, and once a month they were publiclv cate- Vol. XL— 32-M. Sunday Schools 543 A Sunday Schools chized in church as to their re- ligious knowledge. In a short period a visible improvement was effected in both the manners and morals of the children. In 1784 the first Sunday school was established in London by the Rev. Rowland Hill. Numerous schools spraing up in all the prin- cipal towns; a society under high patronage was formed in London in 1785 for the establishment and support of Sunday schools; and by 1789 there were 300,000 schol- ars throughout the kingdom. Hannah More (q.v.) started a school in 1789, and Sydney Smith one at Netheravon. Adam Smith wrote that *no plan has promised to effect a change of manners with equal ease and simplicity since the days of the apostles'; Cowper and John Wesley like- wise approved of the system. Originally organized to reach the poor and degraded, the Sun- day school movement spread to all classes. Paid supervisors were supplanted by voluntary work- ers; secular teaching was discon- tinued; the Bible came to hold the dominant place in the curric- ulum; and the Sunday schools and the churches became affili- ated. The growth of Sunday school work in Great Britain has been remarkable. In 1851 there were 27,048 schools, with 325,450 teachers, and 2,987,980 scholars. In 1880 — one hundred years after the establishment of Raikes' first school — the number of scholars was 6,060,677, and of teachers 674,704. In 1924 the number of schools had reached 51,000; of teachers 690,000; and of scholars 6,667,000. Sunday schools developed more slowly on the Continent; church control of education in some countries, and compulsory relig- ious education in day schools in others, making their need less urgent. They have now been established throughout Europe, largely through the efforts of the London Sunday School Union and the American Foreign Sun- day School Society. There are also schools in Asia, Africa, Aus- tralia, and South America. The figures for the different divisions are as follows: The first World's Convention of Sunday Schools met in Lon- don in 1889, and subsequent con- ventions in St. Louis ( 1 893 ) , Lon- don (1898), Jerusalem (1904), Rome (1907) , Washington (1910), Zurich (1913), Tokyo (1920), Glasgow (1924), Los Angeles (1928), Rio de Janeiro (1932). Statistics gathered for the Los Angeles convention of 1928, at which fifty-one countries were represented, show the world's total of Sunday schools (exclu- sive of those of the Roman Cath- olic Church) to be 320,620, with 3,323,020 teachers, and 33,751,- 623 scholars. United States and Canada. — The Sunday school idea has reached its fullest development in America. Even before Raikes' time a number of schools had been established in connection with various churches in the colonies. Some of the earliest were those at Roxbury, Mass. (1674), Norwich, Conn. (1676), Plymouth, Mass. (1680), New- town, Long Island (1683), and Ephratah, Pa. (1740). The Raikes plan was at once. adopted by American churches; and the Methodists organized their first school on that plan in 1786, ♦^he Universalists in 1790, and the Friends and Baptists in 1791. As in Great Britain, the work was largely fostered by special organizations. The earliest of these was the First-Day or Sun- day School Society, formed in Philadelphia, in 1790, by repre- sentatives of various denomina- tions, for the purpose of estab- lishing Sunday schools for the re- ligious instruction of the poor and destitute children of that city. In 1816 the New York Sunday School Union was organized ; and in 1817 the various local unions in Philadelphia united to form the Sunday and Adult School Union, which in 1824 had over 700 affiliated schools and auxil- iaries. In 1820 the New York Union proposed the formation of a national society; and with the Sunday and Adult School Union as a nucleus, and the other unions throughout the country as auxiliaries, the American Sunday School Union was organized in 1824, its stated purpose being the publication of suitable Sunday school literature, the selection and preparation of lessons, and the organization and mainte- nance of Sunday schools. (See Sunday School Union, Ameri- can.) Various denominational unions were also organized. In 1827 the Protestant Episcopal Church founded its Sunday School Union; in 1832 the Congrega- tionalists organized what is now the Congregational Sunday School and Publishing Society; and in 1833 the Methodist Episcopal Church formed its Sunday School Union. Many local conventions and several that were national in scope had already been held prior to the First National Convention of the American Sunday School Union, which met in 1832. A second convention met in 1833, a third in 1859, and in 1869 was begun the series of triennial con- ventions. In 1875 delegates from Canada were admitted, and the meetings became known as the International Sunday School Conventions. In 1905 the name was changed to International Sunday School Association. Del- egates to the Association are ap- pointed by State and provincial organizations. The headquar- ters are in Chicago, where a corps of paid workers and volunteer helpers is maintained. The an- nual income is about $60,000. One of the most important duties of the Association is the prepara- tion, through its Lesson Com- mittee, of the International Sun- day School Lessons. Most of the States have inter- denominational State organiza- tions, and numerous counties and townships are organized, espe- cially in the North. Many States also hold annual conventions for the discussion of themes perti- nent to their Sunday school work, and in some States each county has its regular annual conven- tion. Between 1825 and 1829 the number of schools in the Ameri- can Sunday School Union in- creased from 1,150 to 5,901. In 1829 branch headquarters were established at Cincinnati, and in two years 2,867 Sunday schools had been organized in the Missis- sippi Valley alone. For more than 80 years the Union estab- lished schools on an average of 3K per day, and was largely in- strumental in the formation of State and local unions — a work of extension still carried on. The denominational agencies are also important factors in Sunday school extension. At the First International Convention of 1875 the United States and Canada re- ported 69,272 Sunday schools, Divisions Schools Teachers Scholars -n- iinrol Jmer North America 159,817 2,179,312 21,851,027 24,030,339 Central America 381 1,832 19,098 29,930 South America 2,976 11,695 159,160 170,855 West Indies 1,930 17,364 171,330 188.694 Europe 90,621 854,905 8,462,845 9,371,750 Asia 37,427 96,564 1,470,818 1,567,382 Africa 13,148 63,477 726,181 789,658 Malaysia 1,422 8,161 100,463 108,624 Oceania 12,898 89,720 790,710 880,430 Totals 320,620 3,323,030 33,751,623 37,074,662 Vol. XL— 32-M. Sunday Schools 543B Sunderland with 788,805 teachers, and 6,- 062,064 scholars. At a conven- tion held recently there were re- ported 159,817 schools, with 2,179,312 teachers and 21,851,- 027 scholars. These statistics do not include Roman Catholic Sunday schools, which have about 1,000,000 pu- pils in the United States. Sun- day schools are an essential part of Roman Catholic churches. In recent years it has been ob- served that the schools are at- tended with a greater degree of regularity if an orchestra were present or if a system of special awards and prizes were given as inducements. Sunday schools in the rural districts gain members considerably faster than those in the city. The rate of growth is small in the type of community in which the population and the life of the nation are concentrat- ing more and more ; and it has been noted that the peculiar problems of the city — counter at- tractions, paucity of contacts during the week, and loss of neighborhood consciousness — re- tard the growth of its Sunday schools. After a survey made by research workers in religious institutions it was noted that an elaborate programme of super- ficial activities greatly aids the membership growth of the schools, and that the outstanding means for accomplishing the pur- pose of the Sunday school are Bible study and worship, with teachers well trained for their work. Lesson System, — At the out- set of the Sunday school move- ment, and while it aimed chiefly at the ignorant class of children, little was taught beyond reading, the Bible being used largely as the textbook. In time, however, regular lessons were selected from the Scriptures and taught to the scholars. In the early days of American Sunday schools much stress was laid on memorizing verses and selections from the various catechisms. This gave way, in time, to regu- lar Scripture lessons, and both scholar and teacher were pro- vided with adequate lesson helps. As this plan increased in popu- larity, numerous systems of les- sons and textbooks were issued, some by individuals, some by the denominational presses, so that there was little uniformity among the different schools. Dr. Vincent, one of the found- ers of Chautauqua (q. v.), which sprang from a Sunday school convention, deserves mention for the excellence of his Sunday school lessons. Together with Mr. Jacobs of Chicago he took the initiatory steps which led to the publication of the Inter- national Series of Lessons. At the National Sunday School Con- vention of 1872 a committee appointed for that purpose se- lected a series of lessons from the Old and New Testaments, covering not more than seven years, and their adoption was recommended to all the schools in the coimtry. Later, other countries adopted the lessons, the name of the organization was changed to the International Sunday School Association, and for more than thirty years the uniform international lessons have been in use throughout the world. In 1902, in response to a de- mand from the International Primary Union, the Lesson Com- mittee issued a series of special lessons for beginners; in 1905 a course for adults on the ethical teachings of Jesus was author- ized; and in 1908 the Inter- national Association instructed its committee to prepare a thor- oughly graded series of lessons for all classes, for use in such schools as desired it. The series of lessons thus prepared is aimed to meet the spiritual needs of the pupil at each stage of his devel- opment. The entire course cov- ers seventeen years, as follows : Beginners' Department, two years; Primary Department, three years ; Junior, Intermedi- ate, and Senior Departments, four years each. While these lessons are based on the Bible, they also include Christian biography and the consideration of the religious and ethical problems of modern life. Lessons have also been pre- pared by other organizations. The Bible Study Union has a graded series arranged on a slightly different plan, and the Protestant Episcopal and certain Lutheran schools have systems conforming with the church year. The Sunday school movement has given rise to an extensive literature, of which the most im- portant factors are the periodical publications of the different de- nominations, with their wide cir- culation and influence. Each of the larger denominations also issues many volumes for the use of scholars ; while many works on paidology, pedagogy, and Sun- day school methods have been published to aid teachers and workers. During the present century in- creased emphasis has been placed upon the Sunday school as an educational agency ; and better buildings and equipment, and improved educational methods, have come into use. The Reli- gious Education Association (q. v.), formed in 1903, is a result of this new emphasis. Other re- cent developments are the Sun- day School Editorial Association and the Sunday School Council. See Religious Education ; Young Men's Christian As- sociation ; Young Women's Christian Association. Bibliography, — Consult Vin- cent's The Modern Sunday School; Trumbull's Yale Lec- tures on the Sunday Schools- Meyer's The Graded Sunday School in Principle and Practice (1910) ; Shepherd's Religious Pedagogy in the Modern Sun- day School (1911); Cope's The Evolution of the Sunday School (1911) and Efficiency in the Sunday School (1912) ; Report of the W orld's Sunday School Convention at Glasgow (1924) ; Encyclopccdia of Sunday Schools (1914); Archibald's Modern Sunday School (1926). Sunday School Union, American, an organization formed in 1824 as the successor of the Philadelphia Sunday and Adult School Union, founded in 1817. Its work, directed by lay- men, is interdenominational, and consists in the establishment and maintenance of Sunday schools, and the publication of religious and moral literature. Among the latter are periodicals and lesson helps for Sunday schools, books of reference, commentaries and other Biblical works, books for home and other libraries, maps, charts, and general Sunday school supplies. It distributes a vast amount of religious litera- ture and maintains a large num- ber of permanent missionaries. Sunderland, seaport, and mu- nicipal, parliamentary, and coun- ty borough, England, in Dur- ham, at the mouth of the Wear ; 12 miles southeast of Newcastle. It comprises the parishes of Monkwearmouth, Bishopwear- mouth, and Sunderland. The first district lies north of the Wear, and the others south, the three being connected by a cast- iron bridge, completed 1796, and widened by Stephenson in 1858, and a railway bridge. The parish Church of St. Peter, Monkwearmouth, was founded in the seventh century by Biscop, in connection with the monastery where Bede became a student. St. Michael's, Bishopwearmouth (originally tenth century), con- tains some thirteenth century work. The Town Hall is a hand- some modern structure. Among other public buildings are the Public Library, Museum and Art Gallery, People's Palace, and Victoria Hall. The port at the river mouth is enclosed by two long piers. Great improvements have been made, forming a fine harbor of refuge of 150 acres. Sunderland is one of the fore- Voi,. XI — 32-M. Sunderland 544 Sunfish most steel shipbuilding centres in the United Kingdom ; and there are engineering, anchor, and chain-cable works, roperies (hemp and wire), glass works, forges, and other industries. There is trade in coal (more than 5,000,000 tons annually). About one mile north of the town is the residential and sea-bathing dis- trict of Roker. Pop. (1931) 185,870. Sunderland, Jabez Thomas (1842-\^;ite)), American clergy- man, was born in'England, gradu- ated from the University of Chi- cago and the Baptist Theological Seminary. He was ordained a Baptist minister but later became a Unitarian. After holding various pastorates in Massachu- setts, Illinois, California, Con- necticut, England and New York, he became Billings lecturer of the American Unitarian Associ- v ation in Japan, China, Ceylon"^, and the Philippines. He pub- "i^ lished numerous works on theo-]^ logical and Oriental subjects. Sunderland, Robert Spen- cer, SECOND Earl of (1640- 1702), British statesman, was born in Paris. He was educated at Oxford, served as ambassador to Spain in 1671, and on his final return to England (1679) be- came a Secretary of State. At the Revolution, the trusted coun- sellor of Charles ii. and James II., yet he apparently had no dif- ficulty in becoming the equally trusted adviser of William iii. It was on his advice that the king came to rely on a homo- geneous administration chosen from one party — a constitutional change of enormous importance in England. Sundew, the popular name of certain plants belonging to the genus Drosera. See Insectiv- orous Plants. Sun Dial, an instrument for measuring time by means of the motion of the sun's shadow cast by a rod on its surface. It is an instrument of great antiquity and, before clocks and watches became common, was in general use as a time keeper. Dial mak- ing was then an important branch of mathematical study ; now a sun dial is more an object of curiosity than of utility. A dial consists of two parts — the stile or gnomon, usually the edge of a plate of metal, always made parallel to the earth's axis, and pointing toward the North Pole ; and the dial plane, on which are marked the directions of the shadow for the several hours of the day, their halves, and quarters. The most common is the hori- zontal dial, placed flat or paral- lel to the horizon ; another form is the vertical dial, fastened, for Vol. XL— 32-M. example, against an upright wall ; the least common is the inclined dial. The horizontal dial fre- (luently consists of a flat table, firmly placed on a solid pedestal, and having the stile rising from its centre, inclined to the merid- ian line of the dial at an angle equal to the latitude of the place. The shadow of the stile moves round the northern part of the dial from morning to afternoon, and thus supplies a rough meas- urement of the hour of the day. The vertical dial, if perpendicu- lar to the meridian, faces the south or north. If not in that position, the dial is said to be declined. The hour lines of a south vertical dial are shown in Fig. 9. Of inclined dials the simplest is the Polar Dial, where the plane is parallel to the earth's axis, and therefore also parallel to the stile, making the hour lines also parallel. Dialing. — The stile of a dial being parallel to the earth's axis, the problem of constructing a dial resolves itself into that of the graduation of a dial plane. Suppose a hollow and trans- parent sphere, to represent the earth ; and suppose its equator divided into 24 equal parts by meridians, one of them passing through a given place, say Washington^ D. C. If the hour of twelve be marked at the Equator, both on the latter me- ridian and that opposite it, and all the rest of the hours in or- der on the other meridians, those meridians will be the hour circles of Washington, because the sun will pass from one meridian to another in one hour. Then, if the sphere has an opacjue axis, the shadow of this axis would fall, in the course of the day, on every particular meridian and hour, as the sun came to the plane of the opposite meridian, and would thus show the time at Washington. If the sphere were cut through the middle by a plane, in the rational horizon of Washington, and if straight lines were drawn from the cen- tre of the plane to the points where its circumference is cut by the hour circles of the sphere, those lines would be the hour lines of a horizontal dial for Washington. Nocturnal Sun Dial, — Work began in 1932 at Guayaquil, Re- public of Ecuador, on a noc- turnal sun dial using light in- stead of shadow to tell the time and expanded to relatively gi- gantic proportions. The light source would be an electric searchlight — a large airport bea- con mounted on a Moori.sh tower — composed of a 24-inch unit with a 1,000-watt lamp (from the International General Elec- tric Co.). The beacon, revolving once in 12 hours, would indicate the time by illuminating sur- rounding landmarks at the same time each night. The U nivetsal Dialing Cyl- inder is a glass cylindrical tube, closed at both ends with brass plates, on the centres of which a wire or axis is fixed. The tube is either fixed to a horizontal board at an angle equal to the latitude of the place, or moves on a joint, so that it may be ele- vated till its axis is parallel to the earth's at any latitude. The 24 hour lines are drawn on the outside of the glass, equidistant from one another, and parallel to the axis. When the axis is ad- justed for the latitude, and the board levelled, with the end to- ward the north, the axis, when the sun shines, will serve as stile, and cast a shadow on the hour of the day among the parallel hour lines. A horizontal plate put into the tube, with lines drawn from the centre to the several parallels cutting its edge, will be a horizontal dial for the given latitude. Consult Daw- barn's The Sun Dial; Gatty's Book of Sun Dials. Sundsvall, soons'val, town, Sweden, in Vasternorrland gov- ernment, at the mouth of the River Insdal ; 117 miles north of Gefle. It has iron industries, sawmills, shipbuilding yards, and exports timber and iron. The chief trade is with Great Britain, Germany, and Finland. The harbor is well sheltered from the east winds by a group of islands but it is usually ice-bound from December to May. Pop. 18,014. Sunfish, a popular name ap- plied to at least three different kinds of bony fish. (1) The true sunfishes are spe- cies of Orthagoriscus, and are closely allied to the globe fishes, from which they differ chiefly in their short compressed bodies, which cannot be inflated, the ex- tremely short and truncated tail, and the confluent ventral fins. The common sunfish (O. mola) may be from seven to eight feet long, and is bulky out of all pro- portion to its length. It is widely distributed, and not infrequently is found off the eastern coast of the United States. (2) Lampris liina, a beautiful form allied to the so-called 'dol- phin' {Coryphana) . Its body is compressed and elevated, and covered with small scales. The fish reaches a length of about four feet, and is bluish, spotted with silver, with scarlet fins. It is an edible form, and occurs in the Atlantic and Mediterrane- an. The names opah and king- fish are also applied to it, and it is regarded as excellent eating. Ui o 3 C to (U 3 M w 8 S 5 c/2 ffi * Q •a ' It " ~ ■ I . _— . ' SOME TYPICAL SUNDIALS. 50 bV^^v AndrrMkr.^nTil-'!^.lv,.^- ^^.^f^ek (British Museum). 3. Greek (from the 'Tower of theWinds,» Athens), execute.! aDouc 8t M?rh^l'a W?nPh* ^t2r Ff.^^I^ i'"*"? wall under frieze. 4. Roman : portable, 300 a.d. 5. Early English: 10 FteSfLnVe • ITntnn =■ <^uthbert's, Darlington. 7, 8. Renaissance (Dover Museum). 9. Bolton Abbey. 'iS^^'^o^Sl^Ti'l^^^^^^^^ aarden, Rochester. IL Wx4. % gunflower , (3.) Three genera of small fresh- water percoid fishes, found in the waters of N, America. They rarely exceed six inches in length, belong to the genera Centrarchus, Bryttus, and Pomotis, are beauti- ful in color, and favorite game for boys' fishing and for keeping in aquaria. Sunflower, the name of a spe- cies of herbaceous plants belong- ing to the genus Helianthus, a subdivision of the order Compos- hx. The common annual sun- flower is H. annuus, which re- (juires to be raised from seed sown in the _ spring. It should be grown _ in deep and strong soil. The vigorous perennial autumn- blooming sunflowers are rampant growers, and care must be taken to keep them away from tender and easily choked plants. See U. S. Dept. Agric, Div. of Chem., Bull. 60 (Wiley's 'The Sunflower Plant'). Sungari, riv., Manchuria,^ a trib. of the Amur, which it joins from the right 220 m. above Kha- barovka. It rises in the Long White Mts., flows N.w. to Kirin, thence due N. to the junction of the Nonni, and thence N.E. to the Amur. In some parts of its course of 850 m. the Sungari is only a few feet deep, and spreads out to a width of more tnan a mile, while ^ in other mountain- ous parts its channel is nar- rowed to 300 or 400 ft. It is navigable by light steam craft as high as Kirin. It teems with fish, including sturgeon, trout, and salmon. In winter the river is frozen for five months, when it is used as a highway. Sungei Ujong, British pro- tected native state of the Malay Peninsula, in the confederacy of Negri Sembilan, lies on the Strait of Malacca, immediately N. of the British colony of Ma- lacca. The country is low and swampy on the seaboard, hilly inland, and produces rice, rub- 546 Sunn, a fibre obtained from the sunn hemp, Crotolaria jun- cea, largely cultivated in India. It is m.uch' used for rope-making and for gunny bags, canvas, paper, and fishing-nets. Sunnites, more correctly SuN- Nis. The death of Mohammed, the founder of Islam, ^ without male heirs, and his omission to appoint a successor, led to the division of Islam into two sacer- dotal and political factions, the Shiites and the ^ Sunnites. The latter sect took its name from a collection of books on traditional law, called the Sunnat, which are received as having authority con- current with and supplementary to the Koran. This sect also claims the right of nominating the Prophet's successors. The Shiites became the poets, the Sunnites 'the warriors, of Islam. The bulk of the population of Turkey are Sunnites. Sun Pillar. See Halo. Sunshine Recorder, an in- strument for measuring the dura- tion of sunshine. The thermomet- ric recorder, used by the U. S. Weather Bureau, consists essen- tially of a glass tube of srnall diameter, carrying a cylindrical bulb at each end, the whole en- closed in a vacuum. The lower bulb is coated with lampblack and partly filled with mercury. The connecting tube projects into the lower of the two bulbs and passes below the surface of the mercury. While in shadow, both bulbs remain at the same temperature. In^ sunshine the blackened bulb is heated more than the other, and the expan- sion of the air forces the mercury to rise in the tube until it com- pletes an electric circuit by con- tact with two platinum wires soldered into ^ the glass. The same circuit is interrupted at another point by clock - work, which allows the current to pass 4 Sun-spot approaching the Edge o- the Sun's Disc. ber, sugar, coffee, tapioca, and tin. Area, 1,800 sq. m. Pop., largely Chinese, about 30,000. Suniiim, the ancient name of the rocky promontory (200 ft.) which forms the S. extremity of Attica in Greece. On the highest point was a temple of Athena, dating probably 450-400 B.c- at intervals of one minute through an electro-magnet whose arma- ture is connected with a pen that traces a line on a revolving cylin- der. So long as the sun is shin- ing this line will be interrupted by lateral strokes once a minute, but will be a continuous straight line when the sun is obscured. 0 Sunspots The burning recorder consists of a glass sphere which focusses the sun's rays upon a paper or cardboard. In the photographic recorder, the sunlight passes through a small aperture and traces a line upon a piece of sensitized paper. See C. F. Marvin's 'Instruc- tions for the Care and Manage- ment of Sunshine Recorders,' U. S. Weather Bureau Circular G (1901). Sun-spots, dark markings fre- quently visible on the solar sur- face, discovered by Fabricius in 1610. They appear to be breaks in the photosphcric clouds, and vary in dimensions from 'pores' some hundreds of miles across to enormous chasms from 40,000 to 50,000 m. in diameter. The largest on record measured (Feb. 2, 1905) 109,000 by 63,000 m., and covered of the sun's disc. A 'normal' spot consists of a central 'umbra,' which looks black by contrast with its sur- roundings, but is really (accord- ing to Langley) 500 times brighter than the full moon. It includes darker 'holes,' and is surrounded by the 'penumbra,' a semi-ob- scure fringe of filaments, which frequently overhang the umbra like a thatch or span it with lus- trous 'bridges.' The belief has lately come to prevail that spots differ widely in structure and level. ^ They indeed show mani- fold irregularities. Some are mere formless openings; others appear as congeries of fragmen- tary umbrae and penumbral shreds ; most form groups or trains, the average duration of which is fifty- six days (Cortie). Individual large spots commonly persist through several solar rotations. One in 1840-41 lasted eighteen months. Spots drift with the sun's surface, and have, besides, small 'proper' motions depending upon their phases of development. During active growth they sometimes ad- vance 6,000 to 8,000 m. a day, dropping behind in their decline. They occasionally give evidence of internal gyrations, but not with sufficient regularity to lend sup- port to Faye's cyclonic theory of their origin. The spectra of sun- spots prove their obscurity to arise from increased absorption. The temperature in spots is prob- ably very high. They frequent two zones on the sun's surface, in b° to 35° N. and s. lat. Scarce near the equator, they seldom if ever occur beyond lat. 45°. The periodicity of their outbursts was detected by Schwabe in 1851. The average length of the cycle is 11.13 years, divided into periods of increasing and decreasing activ- ity, which last respectively 4.62 and 6.51 years. The 2ast epoch of calm was about June, 1901. The distribution of spots varies with Sunstroke KSH 547 Superior the progress of the cycle. A steady diminution of mean lati- tude accompanies the develop- ment of each fresh wave of dis- turbance — the first members of the series appearing just after minimum in high latitudes, the final ones closing down towards the equator. This 'law of zones' was noted both by Carrington and by Sporer. The periodicity of sun-spots is closely followed by terrestrial, magnetic, and au- roral phenomena. The cause of sun-spots remains obscure. Sunstroke, Insolation, or Heat Stroke, general terms ap- plied to morbid conditions due to exposure to excessive heat. Properly speaking, Heat stroke and Sunstroke are to be differ- entiated, though both may be included under the term Insola- tion, as may a third form known as Heat Exhaustion. Heat stroke is characterized by intense fever or hyperpyrexia, a hot skin, and unconsciousness, with pulmonary and venovis congestion. Alcoholism, physical weakness, poor health and at- mospheric moisture predispose to it, while prolonged residence in tropical climates establishes some degree of tolerance. A fatal termination may occur within twenty-four to thirty-six hours, or recovery may be complete, but usually there remains a sensitive- ness to heat and inability to bear high temperature or exposure to the sun. In treatment, rubbing with ice or the ice-pack or bath may be employed. Copious ice water enemata are also useful ; or the patient may be laid in a bath of cold water with his head resting on a sling containing ice. When the temperature falls to 102° F., he should be put to bed, and warmth applied to the feet, and an ice bag to the head. Heart stimulants such as cam- phor, caffein, strophanthus, or digitalin, should be administered. In heat exhaustion the symp- toms are giddiness, staggering gait, faintness and nausea, a pale, moist and cool skin, small and soft pulse, shallow breathing, and a normal, sub-normal, or slightly raised temperature. Removal to the shade or a cool room, the recumbent position, application of cold to the head, and smelling salts to the nose, are usually suf- ficient to revive the patient. Mild cases of sunstroke show the same symptoms as heat exhaustion. The more severe form is characterized by sudden collapse with unconsciousness, cold and wet skin, pallor, feeble and rapid pulse, normal or sub- normal temperature, and labored or suspended respiration. In some cases instantaneous death may occur owing to heart or respiratory paralysis. In this form there are all the symptoms of shock as produced by a sudden and violent injury to the nerve centers. In addition to the sim- ple treatment already mentioned for heat exhaustion, cardiac stim- ulants are required, and if the respiration is weak, artificial res- piration should be resorted to. Warm bottles should be applied to the feet and legs. Sun Worship. The concep- tion of the sun as the author of all things, the bringer of light, warmth, and life to mankind, would seem to be an idea common to all races. Sun worship was the main worship of the old pastoral Aryans, as may still be seen in Brahman rites, and it appears in the Persian Mithras (q. v.), the Greek Helios (q. v.), and the Egyptian Ra (see Egypt). In Japan the sun-goddess has been worshipped from the earliest times. Ancient Mexico and Peru had their temples of the sun ; and in modern time the Indians of the North American plains have celebrated their 'sun-dance' with many solemn rites. Among these Indians the sacred wheel, symbolizing the sun, is held in reverence ; the same symbol fig- ures in the solar worship of the Old World, where it sometimes assumes the shape of the sun- cross. See Sun Dance. Sun Yat-Sen (1866-1925), Chinese political leader, born in Fatshan, near Canton. He was educated in Hawaii and studied medicine at the Alice Memorial Hospital, Hongkong, practicing his profession for a year in Ma- cao. He then devoted himself to organizing the Young China party. In 1895 he attempted an unsuccessful revolt in Canton and was forced to flee to Japan, and later to the United States. He organized his countrymen at home and abroad for revolt against the Manchu government, and after the Revolution of 1911 was made provisional president of the Chinese Republic, a posi- tion which he resigned in 1912 in favor of Yuan-Shih-kai. He advocated an extensive system of railroad construction and was appointed by the President to draft plans for a national system of railways. Not being in ac- cord wath the policy pursued by Yuan-Shih-kai however he later opposed him and took up his resi- dence in Japan. He went to Can- ton in 1921 when the Kwangsi officials were ejected by General Chen Chiung-ming and was elected president of China by the so-called parliament of 1921, but was expelled in 1922 and re- turned to Shanghai. Consult P. Linebarger, Sun Yat Sen and the Chinese Republic (1925). Sup. {supra), above. Super-cooling, a term ap- plied to the cooling of a liquid under certain conditions. If a liquid is cautiously cooled down in a perfectly clean vessel, its temperature can often be reduced considerably below its proper freezing point without solidifica- tion taking place. If, however, a fragment of the solid is intro- duced, freezing instantly occurs. The moment the liquid com- mences to solidify the latent heat of fusion is set free, and the temperature at once rises to that of the true freezing-point, and remains at that point till com- plete solidification takes place. Water may be slowly cooled in this way in an air-free vessel as far as — 15° c. Compare Super- saturation. Supererogation, Works of, voluntary acts of piety not strictly commanded of God and not essential to salvation. The teaching that it is meritorious to perform such acts is condemned by Article xiv of the English Book of Common Prayer. Superfoetation, a term ap- plied during the pregnancy of a mammalian female to the fertili- zation of a second ovum at a con- siderably later date than the first. It is possible in females posses- sing a double or bicornuate uterus. It is said to be common in the hare. Superior, city, Nebraska, Nucholls county, on the Repub- lican River; 135 miles southwest of Omaha, on the Goldenrod Highway and the Sunflower Trail. It has grain and lumber interests and a large cement fac- tory. Pop. (1930) 3,044. Superior, city, Wisconsin, county seat of Douglas county, at the west end of Lake Superior, on St. Louis Bay, opposite Du- luth, at the mouths of the Ne- madji and St. Louis Rii^ers, and on the Chicago, St. Paul, Min- neapolis and Omaha, the Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic, the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific, the Minneapolis, St. Paul and Saulte Ste. Marie, and other Railroads ; 8 miles south- east of Duluth, Minnesota. Noteworthy institutions are a Carnegie Library, a State Teach- ers College, St. Mary's Hospital and a fine Court House. The excellence of the harbor adds materially to the commer- cial importance of the city. There are 13 large coal docks, 4 merchandise docks. 17 grain ele- vators, with a combined capacity of 18,000.000 bushels, and ship- yards. Additional industries in- clude the manufacture of motors, lumber, iron products, bricks, flour, machinery, windmills, and planing-mill products. The city is an important shipping point for Supedor KSH 548 Superphosphate wheat, lumber, flour, cement, iron and steel, and lard. It is believed that, in 1661, the head- quarters of Radisson and Gros- seilliers were situated here. In 1681 Du L'hut established a trading station in this locality. The place was laid out in 1855 Pop. (1920) 39,671; (1930) 36,113. Superior, Lake. The largest and most westerly of the great lakes of the St. Lawrence basin, and the largest body of fresh water in the world. It forms a great crescent in main outline with both eastern and western extremities contracted and point- ing southward. Its mean length on this curve is 420 miles, and its greatest breadth 167 miles; total shore line, 1,750 miles; elevation Shipping is carried past this ob- struction in two canals, one Canadian and one American. The southern shore is formed by Michigan and Wisconsin. One of the most striking geographic features is the great projection of land that extends from the southern shore into the central body of the lake. This is known as Keweenaw Point, forming a part of the upper peninsula of Michigan. ♦ The largest affluent is the St. Louis, flowing into the western extremity of the lake between Duluth, Minn., and Superior, Wis. There are thirty other good-sized streams and about two hundred smaller ones. The waters of the lake are extremely cold and exceptionally trans- portant places. There is an im- mense lake traffic, which is sus- pended in the winter season. The Lake Superior region is famous for its extraordinary wealth in iron and copper. The Mesabi and Vermilion iron ranges of Minnesota, and the Penokee- Gogebic, the Marquette, the Menominee and others of Michi- gan and Wisconsin, are the great- est iron producers of the world. The annual product is measured on each range in millions of tons. Keweenaw Point is equally fa- mous for its great mines of native copper. The deepest mine shafts in the v/orld are there, reaching down more than 5,000 feet, and the lodes are found profitable at that depth. The region is a very old one above the sea, 602 feet; approxi- mate mean depth, 900 feet; esti- mated area, 31,200 square miles; total drainage area, including its own basin, 80,400 square miles. The shore line is irregu- lar, and islands are numerous. The northern shore is rugged and often precipitous, with basaltic ridges and sheer cliffs rising to heights of 600 to 1,000 feet above the lake. The southern shore is in part more gentle in profile, but the Pictured Rocks of Michigan are precipitous. Minnesota forms the western and northern shore to the Pigeon river, and Canadian territory extends thence to the outlet of the lake at Sault Ste. Marie, where a descent of 22 feet in three quarters of a mile forms the falls bearing that name and pours the waters to Lake Huron. parent. A regular current is es- tablished within the lake by the influence of winds and tidal ten- dencies. Storms of great vio- lence are frequent and those of the late fall are often especially dangerous. During late glacial time Lake Superior stood at a much higher elevation and several abandoned beaches are preserved from 100 to 600 feet above the present level. The basin has been tilted a little to the westward since that time, with the effect of drowning some of the rivers such as the lower course of the vSt. Louis. There are good harbors atDuluth and Fort William, Ont. The principal cities on the vshores of the lake are Duluth and Su- perior. Port Arthur, Ont., and Marquette. Mich., are other im- geologically, pre-Cambrian, and its structure is exceedingly com- plicated. Because of the great economic demands, much of this has been worked out with care by geologists, and it has added more to our knowledge of the old Archaean, or the revolutions of geologic history before the pres- ervation of life forms, than any other region in America. Superphosphate, the mixture of calcium hydrogen phosphate, CaH4(P04)2, and gypsum, CaS04 2H2O, obtained by treating finely ground bone ash or the crude mineral phosphate, Ca3(P04)2, with dilute sulphuric acid of spe- cific gravity 1.57. The mixture sets solid, and is ground for use as a fertilizer, its value depending on the amount of soluble phos- phate present. This may vary Supersaturation KFP 549 Supreme Court from as low as 20 per cent with some of the mineral superphos- phates up to 75 per cent if a bone ash is used alone. Supersaturation. If a solu- tion of a crystalline solid is evaporated or cooled, a point is eventually reached at which there is present in the liquid as much of the solid as it can dis- solve ; and on continuing the process the solid separates in crystals, if there are crystals of the same kind present. Compare Super-cooling. Superstitious Uses, in Eng- lish law, are trusts designed to propagate religion not tolerated by law. Formerly Roman Catho- lic and Jewish trusts were void as superstitious ; but now edu- cational or religious trusts among Roman Catholics or Jews are valid, but not a trust to say masses for the dead, except in Ireland. ^ Suppe, Franz von (1820- 95), Austrian musical composer, born at Spalato, Dalmatia. He was musical director at Vienna, and wrote operas, many of which are popular in Germany ; but his only compositions known in Eng- land, and those by which he is best known in the U. S., are the operas Fatinitza and Boccaccio, and the overture to Dichtcr und Bauer (Eng. trans. Poet and Peasant^. Supplementary Proceed- ings. Under modern codes of procedure, certain proceedings to discover property belonging to a judgment debtor against whom an execution has issued and been returned vinsatisfied. The prac- tice is to obtain an order of the court requiring the judgment debtor to appear before the court at a certain time and submit to examination concerning his property. Such an^ order also contains an injunction restrain- ing the defendant from disposing of any of his property between the time of service and the time of the examination. The judg- ment creditor's attorney may ask any questions which may reason- ably lead to the discovery of property, and may cover a period of several years prior to the ex- amination, and trace the dis- position of property owned at any time, or to which the debtor may be entitled in remainder or reversion. The examination is reduced to writing, and must be signed and sworn to by the judg- ment debtor. If property is dis- covered, a receiver may be ap- pointed to reduce it to posses- sion, convert it into cash, and apply the proceeds to the satis- faction of the judgment. See Execution ; consult Bradner's Supplementary Proceedings. Supply. (1.) A grant of money provided by a national assembly to meet the expenses of govern- ment. The right of initiating legislation carrying appropria- tions is reserved to the House of Representatives ; in Great Brit- ain it is vested in the House of Commons. (2.) A term used to express the system by which an army is provided with all mate- rial wants, both stores and sup- plies. Supplies are usually ob- tained by contracts. Contracts are entered into for a specified period for each locality, after advertisement for tenders. Ra- tions are conveyed daily to the quarters of the several units sta- tioned in the command by con- tractors, while other supplies are furnished periodically at longer intervals, or as demanded. Supply and Demand, in eco- nomics. The equilibrium of de- mand and supply is reached when at a given price the de- mand is just great enough to ab- sorb or carry off the supply ; but the phrase 'at a given price' is essentialj for supply and demand are both relative to price. The analysis of supply involves a consideration of human efforts and their conditions ; and the analysis of demand involves a consideration of the psychology of human desires and of the ex- isting distribution of wealth and education. See A. Marshall, Principles of Economics. Suppuration is the forma- tion of pus in inflamed tissues. It may be caused by chemical irritants, such as silver nitrate, turpentine, and croton oil, but it is most usually due to the irri- tation of the tissues by pyoge- netic or pus-producing bacteria, chiefly staphylococci, streptococ- ci, and pneumococci. See Pus. Suprarenal Glands, two small, ductless glands, which lie one over each kidney. They are asymmetrical and unequal in size, the left being the larger. They have extreme arterial and nerve supplies. Their functions are imperfectly known, but they are believed to furnish a fluid that is absorbed by the body, modifying the blood pressure and determining the plasticity and clot-formation of the blood. To tubercular changes in these glands physicians have long at- tributed Addison's disease. In more recent years the adminis- tration of the gland substance and of adrenalin has been of service in some cases of Addi- son's disease ; but the chief val- ue of moth substance and extract lies in their powerful local as- tringent and laemostatic action. Solutions applied locally produce blanching and shrinkage of nor- mal and of inflamed tissues, without having a caustic effect ; and this property renders them of considerable use in the treat- ment of hay fever and coryza, as well as in other inflammatory and haemorrhagic conditions. Supremacy, Royal. The ar tide in the 'oath of allegiance' taken by subjects to the English sovereign formerly contained a reservation of the king's author- ity as being uninfluenced by any power claimed by the pope as 'God's vicar on earth.' At the Reformation, Henry viii assert- ed his own personal supremacy in the most unmistakable way, and to such an extent that Sir Thomas More and others pre- ferred death or imprisonment to the admission of it. Elizabeth on her accession preferred to keep in abeyance the title of 'only supreme head on earth of the Church of England,' though the oath of supremacy was ordered to be exacted from all those holding the higher public offices in the country, along with the oaths of allegiance and abjura- tion. In 1858 the three oaths were unified. At present the oath of allegiance is held to cover recognition of royal supremacy, and it is not demanded from members of Parliament, though it still exists in a modified form in the episcopal writs of appoint- ment. Supreme Court of the United States. The highest ju- dicial tribunal of the United States. It was established by the Constitution, Art. iii. Sect. 1, which reads as follows : 'The ju- dicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as Congress may from time to time ordain and estab- lish.' The organization of the Supreme Court was left to Con- gress, and was effected bv the act of Sept. 24, 1789, commonly known as the 'Judiciary Act,' under the following provision : 'That the Supreme Court of the United States shall consist of a chief justice and five associate justices, any four of whom shall be a quorum, and shall hold an- nually at the seat of government, two sessions, the one commenc- ing the first Monday of Febru- ary, and the other the first Mon- day of August.' The Constitu- tion thus defines its jurisdiction : 'In all cases affecting arnbassa- dors, or other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the Su- preme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate juris- diction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make.' The 'cases before mentioned' refer to the general powers of the Federal judiciary granted in Section 2, Art. iii of Supreme Court KFP 550 Supreme Court the Constitution : 'The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity, arising under this constitution and laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, or other public ministers, and con- suls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; _ to controveries to which the United States shall be a party ; to con- troversies between two or more states ; between a state and citi- zens of another state ; between citizens of different states ; be- tween citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states ; and between a state, or the citizens thereof and foreign states, citizens, or sub- jects.' By an amendment, Arti- cle XI, the jurisdiction original- ly granted was thus limited : 'The judicial power of the Unit- ed States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another state, or citizens or subjects of any for- eign state.' Actions may be com- menced only in a court having 'original jurisdiction,' and the power of the Supreme Court in this regard is limited to the classes of cases expressly men- tioned in the Constitution. There has not been much occasion to exercise this original jurisdic- tion, but the appellate business of the court increased so enormous- ly that it was impossible for the court to keep up with it, and, as it was getting further behind in the disposition of cases each year, Congress passed what is known as the Evarts Act, or Cir- cuit Court of Appeals Act, March 3, 1891, 26 Statutes at Large, 826. By this act a Circuit Court of Appeals was established in each judicial circuit of the United States. It is provided that the chief justice and associate justices of the Supreme Court assigned to each circuit, and the circuit justices, and the several district judges within each cir- cuit, shall be competent to sit as judges of this Circuit Court of Appeals. It is not necessary for a justice of the Supreme Court to be present, but when one at- tends, he shall preside. The Fed- eral statutes provide that the chief justice and associate jus- tices of the Supreme Court shall be allotted among the circuits by order of the court, and it shall be the duty of each to attend at least one term of the Circuit Court in each district to which he is allotted during every pe- riod of two years. There are nine circuits in the United States. The Circuit Court of Appeals has no original jurisdiction. The Evarts Act provides that appeals or writs of error may be taken from the district courts, or from the existing circuit courts, direct to the Supreme Court in the fol- lowing cases : In any case in which the jurisdiction of the court is in issue ; final sentences and decrees in prize cases ; cases of conviction of a capital crime ; cases involving the construction or application of the Constitu- tion of the United States ; any case in which the constitutional- ity of any law of the United States, or the validity or con- struction of any treaty made un- der its authority is drawn in question ; and in any case in which the constitution or law of a state is claimed to be in con- travention of the Constitution of the United States. It is further provided : 'Nothing in this act shall affect the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in cases ap- pealed from the highest court of a state, nor the construction of the statute providing for a re- view in such cases.' This latter provision refers to cases where the decision of the highest court of the state is adverse to a Fed- eral right or authority sought to be enforced. The determination of an appeal by the Circuit Court of Appeals is final as to the rights of litigants in many cases which come within its ju- risdiction. Where it is not final, the case may be appealed to the Supreme Court where the amount in controversy exceeds $1,000, exclusive of costs. In or- der that the Supreme Court may not be deprived of jurisdiction in important cases, it is given the power to require by certiorari any case, of which the jurisdic- tion of the Circuit Court of Ap- peals is otherwise final, to be certified to it, and in such cases may exercise the same power and authority as if sent there regularly. The Circuit Court of Appeals may of its own motion certify a question of law to the Supreme Court for instruction, and in such cases the Supreme Court may declare the law appli- cable, or require the case to be sent up for its determination. The Supreme Court is relieved of^ a vast amount of business by this act. The Supreme Court is given certain general powers, such as to take bail in capital cases ; prescribe rules, forms, mode of proof, and proceeding in equity and admiralty cases ; rules for trial of patent cases ; rules and forms in bankruptcy cases, etc. The statutes provide that 'the trial of issues of fact in the Supreme Court, in all actions at law against citizens of the United States, shall be by jury. An appeal is taken to the Su- preme Court by filing with it an authenticated transcript of the record in the court below, an as- signment or statement of errors, and a prayer for reversal, with a citation to the adverse party, which serves as notification to him. An appeal must be taken within two years after the entry of judgment or of an order un- less the party is under a dis- ability. The President is empowered by the Constitution, Art. ii. Sec. 2, to nominate and by and with the advise and consent of the Senate appoint judges of the Su- preme Court, The term of office is for life, or during good be- havior. Congress has several times changed the number of justices. At present the court consists of a chief justice and eight associate justices. Six jus- tices constitute a quorum. It holds one term annually at Washington, commencing the second Monday of October, and continuing usually until May, It holds sessions each day of the week, excepting Saturdays and Sundays, from twelve noon until 4.30 P.M. Oral arguments by counsel are permitted, and print- ed briefs are also submitted on behalf of each party. The mem- bers of the court meet on Satur- day for discussion and decision of cases argued during the week, and the chief justice assigns the cases, after decision, to the dif- ferent justices to prepare writ- ten opinions, which are usually later read to the entire court for its approval or criticism. The important part which the Supreme Court was to assume in national affairs was apparently not fully realized by statesmen during the early period of the history of the republic. The first chief ^ justice, John Jay, served as minister to England without resigning from the bench, but later resigned to become gover- nor of New York ; and Oliver Ellsworth went on a diplomatic mission, at the same time retain- ing his position as chief justice. John Marshall continued as sec- retary of state in the cabinet of President Adams for some months after his elevation to the Supreme Bench. Since the times of these great men, this court has shown itself to be the great- est judicial tribunal in the world ; has shaped our national affairs in many important crises by its interpretations of the Con- stitution ; its power to compel obedience to the Constitution by state and national legislatures, courts, and officers has been set- tled ; and an appointment to be one of its Justices is universally recognized as among the highest honors which the Republic may confer. See Courts ; Supreme Cou^l 1^ 5 R ^ PL, ^ W . ^ _u 05 3 > PQ m CO =^ 3 _ c/} c/2 .S © Press Association, Inc. FREDERICK MOORE VINSON Chief Justice of the United States Vol. XL— Page 550 A Supreme Court KFP 550 B Supreme Court Decisions Justices of the U nited States Supreme Court (Names of the Chief Justices in Itahcs) Name Term Born Died John Jay, N. Y 1789-1795 1745 1829 1789-1791 1739 1800 William Gushing, Mass 1789-1810 1732 1810 James Wilson, Pa 1789-1798 1742 1798 John Blair, Va 1789-1796 1732 1800 James Iredell, N. C 1790-1799 1751 1709 Thomas Johnson, Md 1791-1793 1732 1819 William Paterson, N. J 1793-1806 1744 1806 1795-1795 1739 1800 Samuel Chase, Md 1796-1811 1741 1811 Oliver Ellsworth, Conn 1796-1800 1745 1807 1798-1829 1762 1829 Alfred Moore, N. C 1799-1804 1755 1810 1801-1835 1755 1835 1804-1834 1771 1834 1806-1823 1757 1823 Thomas Todd, Ky 1807-1826 1765 1826 Gabriel Duval, Md 1811-1835 1752 1844 Joseph Story, Mass 1811-1845 1779 1845 1823-1843 1768 1843 1826-1828 1777 1828 1829-1861 1785 1861 1830-1844 1780 1844 James M. Wayne, Ga 1835-1867 1790 1867 1836-1864 1777 1864 Philip P. Barbour, Va 1836-1841 1783 1841 1837-1865 1786 1865 John McKinley, Ala 1837-1852 1780 1852 Peter V. Daniel, Va 1841-1860 1784 1860 Samuel Nelson, N. Y 1845-1872 1792 1873 Levi Woodbury, N. H 1845-1851 1789 1851 Robert C. Grier, Pa 1846-1870 1794 1870 Benj. R. Curtis, Mass 1851-1857 1809 1874 John A. Campbell, Ala 1853-1861 1811 1889 Nathan Clifford, Me 1858-1881 1803 1881 Noah H. Swayne, Ohio 1862-1881 1804 1884 Samuel F. Miller, Iowa 1862-1890 1816 1890 1862-1877 1815 1886 1863-1897 1816 1899 Salmon P. Chase, Ohio 1864-1873 1808 1873 William Strong, Pa 1870-1880 1808 1895 Joseph P. Bradley, N. J 1870-1892 1813 1892 Ward Hunt, N. Y 1872-1882 1810 1886 Morrison R. Waite, Ohio 1874-1888 1816 1888 John M. Harlan, Ky 1877-1911 1833 1911 WiUiam B. Woods, Ga 1880-1887 1824 1887 1881-1889 1824 1889 Horace Gray, Mass 1881-1902 1828 1902 Samuel Blatchford, N. Y 1882-1893 1820 1893 Lucius Q. C. Lamar, Miss 1888-1893 1825 1893 Melville W. Fuller, 111 1888-1910 1833 1910 David J. Brewer, Kan 1889-1910 1837 1910 1890-1906 1836 1913 George Shiras, Jr., Pa 1892-1903 1832 1924 Howell E. Jackson, Tenn 1893-1895 1832 1895 Edward D. White, La 1894-1910 1845 1921 Edward D. White, La 1910-1921 1845 1921 Rufus W. Peckham, N. Y 1895-1909 1838 1909 Joseph McKenna, Cal 1898-1925 1843 1926 OHveT W. Holmes, Mass 1902-1932 1841 1935 William R. Day, Ohio 1903-1922 1849 1923 1906-1910 1853 1917 1909-1914 1844 1914 Charles E. Hughes, N. Y 1910-1916 1862 Willis Van Devanter, Wyo 1910-1937 1859 1941 1910-1916 1857 1916 Mahlon Pitney, N. J 1912-1922 1858 1924 James C. McReynolds, Tenn 1914-1941 1862 1941 1916-1939 1856 1939 John H. Clarke, Ohio 1916-1922 1857 1945 William H. Taft, Conn 1921-1930 1857 1930 1922-1938 1862 1942 1922-1939 1866 1939 Edward Terry Sanford, Tenn 1923-1930 1865 1930 Harlan Fiske Stone, N. Y 1925-1941 1872 1946 Charles E. Hughes, N. Y 1930-1941 1862 Owen J. Roberts, Pa 1930-1945 1875 1932-1938 1870 i938 Hugo L. Black, Ala 1937- 1886 Stanley F. Reed, Ky 1938- . . . . 1884 Felix Frankfurter, Mass 1939-. . . . 1882 1939- . . . . 1898 Frank Murphy, Mich 1940- . . . . 1890 James V. Byrnes, S. C 1941-1942 1879 Robert H. Jackson, N. Y 1941-. . . . 1892 Harlan Fiske Stone, N. Y 1941-1946 1872 1946 Wiley Blount Rutledge, Jr., Ky 1943- . . . . 1894 Harold H. Burton, Ohio 1945-. . . . 1888 Frederick Moore Vinson, Ky 1946- . . . . 1890 Famous Decisions. Consult Carson's History of the Supreme Court. Supreme Court, Famous Decisions of. The most impor- tant decisions are those which by construction of the Constitution have platted the lines between the vast areas of state and national power, or between the three great divisions, legislative, executive, and judicial, of the national power, or between all governmental power, Federal or state, and those rights of indi- viduals which are guaranteed by the Constitution as sacred and inviolable. State Rights were involved in the first great constitutional de- cision, Chisholm v. Georgia (1793), 2 Dallas 419. The opinion, by Chief Justice Jay, construed that provision of the Constitution which gives the Su- preme Court original jurisdic- tion over controversies between a state and citizens of another state, as enabling an individual to sue a state without that state's consent. The plaintiffs, as executors, thus got a judg- ment against Georgia on a debt owed the estate of an English- man. As immunity from suit is a_ prime prerogative of sover- eignty, the decision was not gen- erally expected and caused much indignation, not unmixed with gloomy foreboding over the prospect of innumerable war claims of Tories and others be- ing enforced against the states. The_ Eleventh Amendment, de- claring that the judicial power shall not be construed as includ- ing suits against a state by citi- zens of another state, or foreign subjects, was promptly proposed and adopted. The Court decided in Monaco v. Mississippi (1934), 292 U. S. 313, that a foreign state could not bring suit in the United States Supreme Court against an American state with- out the latter's consent. But although (without permis- sion) an individual can not sue a state, or the United States, in any court, there have been many instances, some of them notori- ous, in which private persons have been protected from gov- ernmental aggression in suits be- gun in the law courts against public officials. Thus, in Osborn V. Bank (1824), 9 Wheaton 738, officers of Ohio were enjoined from collecting a tax unconstitu- tionally imposed on the bank under an Ohio law. In Poin- dexter v. Greenhow (1885), 114 U. S. 270 — one of the Virginia Coupon cases, growing out of acts passed by Virginia, like other states, repudiating bonded indebtedness — it was decided that, while individuals could not compel state officers to honor her agreement to accept coupons for taxes, yet, where an officer refused a due tender of coupons TEMPORARY PAGES FOR NELSON'S L. L. ENCYCLOPEDIA Insert in Volume XI, following page 550B New Deal Decisions. — Com- parable in scope with the Su- preme Court's invalidation of the New Deal's major act for industrial recovery, the NRA, was the death-blow delivered to the AAA, which embodied the administration's program for farm relief. The Agricultural Adjustment Act was upset in the Hoosac Mills case on Jan. 6, 1936, by a 6-3 vote of the court. The majority opinion, read by Justice Roberts, held that the act constituted an invasion of the right of the States to regulate their local activities. The use of processing taxes, which were the means employed to regulate crop production, was specifically invalidated. In the opinion of the minority (Brandeis, Stone, Cardozo) the decision rested on a 'tortured interpretation of the Constitution.' A decision favorable to the New Deal was forthcoming on Feb. 17, 1936, when the court, with Justice McReynolds alone dissenting, ruled that the con- struction of Wilson Dam at Muscle Shoals was constitu- tional, and also upheld the Ten- nessee Valley Authority's con- tract to purchase transmission lines from the Alabama Power Company. The decision, how- ever, did not constitute a com- plete endoi^ement of the TVA. On May 18, 1936, the court, ruling on the appeals of Tway and others, producers of coal, in- validated the Guffey bituminous coal act. The act's provision for the regulation of hours and wages was overthrown by a 6-3 vote. Chief Justice Hughes sid- ing with the majority. The price- fixing provision was upset by a 5—4 vote, Hughes voting with the minority. According to the ma- jority opinion, read by Justice Roberts, the tax on coal sales by nonconforming producers was a penalty, and the attempted reg- ulation of mining exceeded the power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce. On May 25, 1936. the court by a 5-4 vote held the Munici- pal Bankruptcy Act of 1934 unconstitutional. The majority opinion, read by Justice McRey- nolds, was that the act repre- sented an invasion of the rights of the states. The court also pointed out that the Constitution prohibits the States from passing any law impairing the obligations of contracts. On June 1, 1936, the court, 5-4, declared the New York State Minimum Wage Law for Women and Children unconsti- tutional, as violating the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The majority opin- ion, written by Justice Butler, declared that neither New York State nor the federal government had authority to fix wages for women workers. President Roosevelt was reported as com- menting that according to this view there would be a 'no-man's land' between the national and State legislatures in which nei- ther could act. Chief Justice Hughes joined the 'liberal' mi- nority in opposing the decision, which was regarded as a blow to the administration. Supreme Court Issue of 1937. — In 1937 the constant difficulty of societies of coping with cur- rent problems according to rules earlier agreed on was drama- tized, for the people of the United States, in the form of a contest in which the protagonists were two of the three major branches of government : the execvitive and the judicial. The Supreme Court, as the watch-dog of the nation's fundamental law, the Constitution, had invalidated many of the New Deal's major legislative items, notably the NRA, the AAA, the Guffey Coal Act, the Railroad Retirement Act, the Municipal Bankruptcy Act, the New York State Minimum Wage Law, and the Frazier- Lemke Farm Mortgage Act (which President Roosevelt had approved although it was not part of his program). After the NRA decision President Roosevelt had declared that the court had in- terpreted the interstate com- merce clause of the Constitution in the light of the 'horse-and- buggy days of 1789.' The ad- visability was considered of introducing a Constitutional amendment extending the powers of Congress to enable it to carry out New Deal economic and so- cial objectives, but nothing came of the project at the time. In the 1936 election campaign. Democratic leaders seemed to think that these aims might be realized within the framework of the Constitution as it stands. President Roosevelt too, on Jan. 6, 1937, in his address to Con- gress on the state of the Union, implied that an amendment was not necessary — if the Supreme Court would take a 'more en- lightened' view towards the Con- stitution, and if it could be made to harmonize with the legislative and executive branches of the government. On February 5, consequently, the President startled the nation when he proposed a broad reor- ganization of the whole federal court system with the purpose of speeding its processes and mak- ing it function 'in accord with modern necessities.' Speaking of the need for infusing 'new blood,' doubtless of a liberal hue, into the high tribunal, Roosevelt asked for power to appoint one new justice for each member w'ho did not resign at the age of 70 >4 years, until the court member- ship reached fifteen. Other as- pects of the plan were lost sight of as this feature immediately precipitated the major parlia- mentary battle of the year. As the President pointed out, the Supreme Court did not al- ways consist of nine members. Originally, in 1789, it had six members, which number dropped to five in 1801, rose to seven in 1807, and to nine in 1837. At the outbreak of the Civil War, since one justice w^as a Confed- erate and was not sitting, the number was increased to ten. Later reduced to seven, the num- ber was again raised to nine by Grant, who was accused of 'packing' the court with two new justices who he knew would re- verse the 4-3 Legal Tender de- cision. Roosevelt's proposal was likewise immediately pounced on by former President Hoover and others as an attempt to pack the court. Since it seemed also that increasing the membership would weaken the court, the scheme was denounced as paving the way, in characteristic fash- ion, towards the establishment of a dictatorship. Six of the sitting justices were past the age mentioned bv the President. In the event of' their refusing to retire, and had the proposal been adopted at that time, it would have been possible for the court membership imme- diately to reach the maximum of fifteen. Of these six, more- over — Hughes, Van Devanter, McReynolds, Brandeis, Suther- land, and Butler — all but Justice Brandeis were classed as 'con- servatives,' although Chief Jus- tice Hughes had in some deci- sions joined the 'liberal' minority of Brandeis, Stone, and Cardozo. Approval of the plan would have enabled Roosevelt to change the complexion of the court by the addition of members doubtless more friendly to New Deal legis- lation. At first sentiment towards the proposal was divided along parti- san lines, with Republicans and anti-New Deal Democrats op- posed, but soon a major split, or, New Deal Decisions KSH this issue at least, was apparent throughout the ranks of the Democrats. In the ensuing months the plan was stoutly de- fended and vigorously attacked in legislative chambers, in the press, and over the air. Presi- dent Roosevelt, invariably alert to the tide of popular opinion, believed that a majority of the people agreed with him that the court reform was immediately necessary if the New Deal pro- gram were to be realized. In Congress, however, no such pre- ponderance of support was ap- parent. Lawyers, moreover, as might be expected, and as re- vealed by bar association polls, opposed the proposal by a huge majority. A wide range of compromise plans were brought forward, such as advancing the proposed age of retirement from 70^ years to 75 years, and the sug- gestion of Senator Burton K. Wheeler, who led the fight against the President's plan, that Congress be enabled to override a court decision just as it can override a presidential veto. During the controversy it was pointed out that the Constitution nowhere explicitly authorizes the Supreme Court to pass on acts of Congress (see Marbury vs. Madison; Supreme Court De- cisions). Early in March the Senate Ju- diciary Committee began to listen to the arguments, favorable and opposed, of a large number of eminent witnesses. What was taken to reflect the attitude of the court itself was found in a letter to the committee by Chief Justice Hughes, _ stating : 'The Supreme Court is fully abreast of its work. There is no conges- tion of cases upon our calendar . . . The present number of jus- tices is thought to be large enough so far as the prompt, ade- quate and efficient conduct of the work of the court is concerned . . . An increase . . . would not promote the efficiency of the court. It is believed that it would impair that efficiency so long as the court acts as a unit.' The committee finally, on June 14, reported the measure to the Senate, denouncing the Presi- dent's proposal as 'a needless, fu- tile and utterly dangerous aban- donment of con.stitutional prin- ciple.' The Senate administra- tion forces knew that they had a fight on their hands. Meanwhile in a series of nota- ble decisions the Supreme Court itself was according New Deal laws a warmer reception. On March 29 the court upheld the Minimum Wages for Women Act of the State of Washington, thus reversing its position as shown in the New York State Minimum Wage Act decision. The reversal was made possible by Justice Roberts' shift to the side of the liberals, including Hughes. Unanimous votes up- held the Railway Labor Act of 1934, requiring the roads to bar- gain collectively with representa- tives of a majority of their em- ployees, and the Frazier-Lemke Farm Mortgage Moratorium Law, a redrawn version of a measure held invalid in 1935. A signal New Deal triumph were decisions of April 12 upholding the National Labor Relations Act (the Wagner Act). With Jus- tice Roberts again on the liberal side, the court virtually reversed its earlier stand on labor rela- tions in interstate commerce. On May 24 the court validated the Social Security Act of 1935, invoking the 'general welfare' clause of the Constitution (see National Security Act; United States: History). This seeming change either of heart or of judicial reasoning on the part of the court weakened the arguments of those who championed the reorganization plan. Two other events did like- vyise. One of these was the re- tirement of Justice Willis Van Devanter, effective June 2, which made it possible for a liberal to be appointed to the tribunal. Van Devanter's step was taken under the Sumners Supreme Court Retirement Act, approved the previous March 1 , which per- mits Supreme Court justices to retire (not resign) at the age of 70 on full pay. The other event was the death of Senator Joseph T. Robinson on July 14. The veteran Democratic leader (who was, incidentally, the Senate's 'choice' to succeed Van Devan- ter) had led the administration's fight for the court plan. Shortly afterwards the administration ac- cepted defeat and gave up its proposal concerning the Supreme Court. Nevertheless part of the Pres- ident's original proposal of Feb- ruary 5 was salvaged in the form of a compromise bill accepted by both Congress and the chief ex- ecutive. This provided for cer- tain changes in the lower federal courts, notably : the attorney gen- eral was empowered to intervene in suits involving the constitu- tionality of acts of Congress ; such suits could be appealed di- rectly to the Supreme Court ; and certain curbs were placed on the issuance of injunctions by the lower courts against acts of Con- gress. On August 12 President Roose- velt unexpectedly nominated Senator Hugo L. Black of Ala- bama to the court vacancy. In spite of certain opposition with- in the Senate to Black, a stanch New Dealer with a liberal rec- ord, his appointment was con- firmed and he was sworn into office. A storm of disapproba- tion was quickly aroused by the rumor that the new justice had at one time been a member of the Ku Klux Klan. In a raido ad- dress to the nation on October 1, Justice Black stated that he had resigned from the Klan and pro- claimed his belief in the princi- ple of racial and religious toler- ance. Two motions challenging Black's right to a court seat were dismissed by the Supreme Court on October 11. Two arguments were advanced (but not ruled on) : there was no vacancy to which Black could be appointed, since Van Devanter had retired, not resigned ; if there was a va- cancy. Black, as a member of Congress, could not legally be appointed to an office the emolu- ments of which had been in- creased during his term. On December 6 the Supreme Court handed down two 5-4 decisions legalizing levies by West Virginia and Washington on the gross incomes of contrac- tors on certain government dams. These decisions were interpreted as a reversal of the principle that taxation by states of income de- rived from federal contracts is unconstitutional, for which the precedent was the case of Mc- Culloch vs. Maryland in 1819 (see Supreme Court Deci- sions). It appeared possible that the entire theory of tax im- munity might be revised. In 1937 also the court in two decisions extended its previous affirmation (in February, 1935) of the abrogation of the gold clause. On March 1 it held in a 5-4 vote that payment might be made in devalued dollars even in the case of a contract specifi- cally requiring settlement in gold, and again in December by a 6-3 vote, in a case involving the government's promise to re- deem Liberty bonds in gold, the court upheld the government's right to devalue the dollar. By a court ruling of Decem- ber 20 the use of testimony based on wire-tapping was forbidden. Associate Justice Sutherland, on Jan. 5, 1938, gave notice of his intention to retire from the Supreme Court on Jan. 18, thus availing himself of the law un- der which Justice Van Devanter had retired. This left only two members definitely conservative — Justices Butler and McRey- nolds. On January 15 President Roosevelt nominated to the latest vacancy Stanley F. Reed, since 1935 Solicitor General of the United States, known as a lib- eral. Irving Fryer. Supreme Court Decisions KFE 551 Supreme Court Decisions and distrained personal property to satisfy a tax, he could be sued as a wrongdoer and compelled to return the property. Similarly, in United States v. Lee (1882), 106 U. S. 196, a case of vast importance, the rightful owner of land was allowed to maintain an action to recover the posses- sion of it from officers of the United States who were holding it as national property. That suit was brought by the son of Gen- eral Robert E. Lee, to recover the Arlington estate, on the Potomac, opposite Washington, which had been bid in by the government at a Civil War tax sale and devoted to use as a national cemetery. The court held the sale void, and the de- fendants, who were military offi- cers in charge, as trespassers. Afterwards the United States ac- quired lawful title to the land. Another outstanding case of this sort is Ex parte Young (1908), 209 U. S. 123, in which the At- torney General of Minnesota was found guilty of contempt be- cause he disobeyed a decree of a Federal court enjoining him from bringing proceedings in the State courts to enforce the State railroad rate law, which the Northern Pacific Railroad al- leged to be unconstitutional. Suits between States. — A most interesting series of cases are those in which one State has sued another directly in the Supreme Court. In this way the Court has peacefully and effec- tually disposed of many serious controversies, which, if between independent sovereignties, would have been settled by diplomacy or war. (See the two- volume collection 'Judicial Settlement of Controversies between States of the American Union,' edited by James Brown Scott, published by Carnegie Endowment for In- ternational Peace.) The major- ity of these cases have related to the location of State bound- aries, the leading case being Rhode Island v. Massachusetts (1838), 12 Peters 657, and (1846), 4 Howard 591, in which the jurisdiction was definitely es- tablished. A number have had to do with disputes brought about by natural changes in the courses of great boundary rivers, like the Mississippi — the so-called 'avul- sions' and 'accretions,' — e.g. Mis- souri V. Kentucky (1870), 11 Wallace 395 ; Iowa v. Illinois (1893), 147 U. S. 1 ; Arkansas v. Tennessee (1918), 246 U. S. 158. The most interesting of all boundary cases is that of Okla- homa V. Texas, in which the United States intervened and in which many opinions and de- crees are reported, running from 256 U. S. 70 (1921) through subsequent volumes. It involved primarily the location of the Texas boundary on the Red River, the main question being whether, under a treaty of 1819 between the United States and Spain, it should be the thread of the stream or on the south bank, and, if the latter, what was the south bank of that peculiar river. Incidentally, an area of enormously valuable oil land, occupied by a motley popula- tion, including some disreputable and dangerous characters, had to be taken possession of and not only operated but, practi- cally, policed by the Court, through a receivership, until the State jurisdiction to which it belonged could be determined and innumerable private claims be heard. Another, later, phase of the case, involves the location of the boundary running north from Red River, following the 100th meridian. Special mention should be made also of the suit by Missouri against Illinois (1901-1906), 180 U. S. 208 ; 202 U. S. 496, to enjoin the pollu- tion of the Mississippi by sewage emanating from the notorious Chicago drainage canal, and the one brought by New York against New Jersey (1921), 256 U. S. 296, to protect New York Bay from a similar invasion. Two suits were brought against Colorado, one by Kansas (1907), 188 U. S. 125 ; 206 U. S. 46, the other by Wyoming (1922), 259 U. S. 419, to enjoin the defendant from allowing waters to be diverted within her boundaries for irrigation purposes to the damage of vested rights on the same streams, lower down, in the plaintiff States. In the Kan- sas case the evidence of injury was fovmd inconclusive and the bill dismissed without preju- dice, hut in_ the other full in- junctive relief was granted to Wyoming. Another remarkable litigation was that in which Virginia obtained a large money judgment against West Virginia on the compact of the latter, at the time of her admission, to share the Virginia public debt existing before West Virginia was carved out of her territory. The judgment not being paid, the Court, upon Virginia's ap- plication, required the members of the West Virginia legislature to show cause why they should not be commanded to levy a tax for that purpose. After the hear- ing, it was decided (See Virginia V. IVest Virginia (1918), 246 U. S. 565) that Congress, with whose consent the compact had been made, had power to enforce it, and that the Court was authorized to execute the judg- ment by any means available or which Congress might pro- vide. The determination of the means, however, was left open for a future hearing, which be- came unnecessary, as West Vir- ginia satisfied the judgment. One State cannot sue another in the Supreme Court merely to collect private debts for her citizens. But in South Dakota v. North Carolina (1904), 192 U. S. 286, it was held that bonds issued by North Carolina in 1866 in aid of a railroad and secured by a mortgage of railroad stock belonging to the State, could be enforced at the suit of Seuth Dakota, to which they had been given by their private owners. In recent suits of great importance the States of Ohio and Pennsylvania established their right to enjoin West Virginia from enforcing legislation which would have diverted to local uses the flow of natural gas already established as a current of interstate com- merce from West Virginia to places of consumption in the other two States. Pennsylvania V. West Virginia (1923), 262 U. S. 553. The United States can sue a State in the Supreme Court ; Utiited States v. Texas (1891), 143 U. S. 621 ; but, being the superior sovereignty, it cannot be sued without its consent, by a State, Kansas v. United States (1907), 204 U. S. 33. A celebrated case in which a decree of the Court was resisted by a State, but vindicated by the power of the government, is United States v. Judge Peters (1809), 5 Cranch 115. The Court issued a writ of mandamus to Peters, Judge of the Federal court in Pennsylvania, command- ing him to carry out a former decree, which had awarded to a private party a fund of money also claimed by the State. When, in obedience to the man- damus. Judge Peters issued proc- ess against the persons in pos- session of the money, the United States Marshal was op- posed by State troops, and sum- moned a posse of 2,000 men. Thus was engendered an in- cipient rebellion, which was happily terminated by the firm- ness of President Madison and the yielding of the State aiithor- ities. In United States v. Shipp (1909), 214 U. S. 386; 215 id. 580, a colored man, who had been sentenced to death in a State court, applied to the Federal court for release by habeas corpus, and, this application being de- nied, was consigned by the Federal court to the custody of the county officials, pending his appeal from the denial to the Supreme Court. In this situa- tion, he was taken from the jail by a mob and lynched. Whereupon, the Attorney Gen- Supreme Court Decisions KFE 551 A Supreme Court Decisions eral of the United States charged that the sheriff, and his assistants, through negligently failing to guard the prisoner, were guilty of contempt of the Supreme Court. They were found guilty, and sentenced to terms of imprisonment in the District of Columbia. In re N eagle, 135 U. S. 1, was a pro- ceeding in habeas corpus which grew out of the sensational as- sault committed by Judge Terry, of California, upon Justice Field of the Supreme Court, and the killing of Terry by Neagle, a deputy U. S. Marshal, who had been duly assigned to defend the Justice against anticipated vio- lence from Terry, It was decided that Neagle acted in discharge of his Federal duty, and could not be held to answer a charge of murder in the State court. Marbury v. Madison (1803), 1 Cranch 137, was the first of John Marshall's great Constitu- tional decisions — one 'not sur- passed in the ability it displays, nor equalled in its utility by any case in the multitudinous records of English and American Juris- prudence.' The power and duty of the judiciary to disregard an unconstitutional Act of Congress, or of the State legislature were declared 'in an argument ap- proaching the precision and cer- tainty of a mathematical demon- stration.' It was a mandamus proceeding instituted directly in the Supreme Court by Mar- bury to enforce delivery of his commission as a justice of the peace in the District of Columbia, which had been fully executed before the retirement from office of President John Adams, but which Madison, the incoming Secretary of State, acting on orders from President Jefferson, declined to deliver. Such a case, the Court held, was not within its original jurisdiction as de- fined by the Constitution ; and, as Congress had no power to add to that jurisdiction, an Act pur- porting to do so was necessarily void : it could furnish no excuse for the exercise by the Court of a jurisdiction denied by the Con- stitution. The main interest of the case in its own day lay in the arguments found in the opinion to the effect that Marbury was entitled to the commission and would have been awarded a mandamus if the Court had had jurisdiction. These gave much offence to Jefferson and his ad- herents, and the more so because, as they have since been adjudged (Myers v. United States, 272 U. S.), they were no more than dicta, — observations on the merits of a case which the Court had no power to decide. But, as an enunciation of the principle that an Act of Congress (or of a State legislature) in conflict with the Constitution, is void and must be so treated by the courts in passing on the rights of litigants, the decision was funda- mental to the preservation of our system of government. A doctrine complementary to the one just considered and hard- ly less vital, — namely, that review of judgments of State courts involving questions aris- ing under the Federal Constitu- tion and laws is within the judicial power of the United States and may be had in the Supreme Court when the appel- late jurisdiction is so regulated by Congress — was laid down in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee (1816), 1 Wheaton 304, and Cohens v. Virginia (1821), 6 id. 264, the former a civil suit in- volving land, the latter a criminal conviction for selling in Virginia a ticket in a lottery held in the District of Columbia under au- thority from Congress. If, in these cases, the Court had yield- ed to the powerful opposition then massed against its jurisdic- tion, each State through its courts and legislatures would have placed its own interpreta- tion on the Constitution and laws of the United States, without re- gard to the interpretations in other States, or in the Federal courts, and governmental chaos would have resulted. The Contract Clause. Fletch- er V. Peck (1810), 6 Cranch 87, known as the Yazoo Lands Case (see Yazoo Frauds) ; Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819), 4 Wheaton 518 (see Dartmouth College Case) ; and Sturges v. Crowninshield (1819), 4 Wheaton 122, are three celebrated decisions, through Marshall, enforcing the con- stitutional provision inhibiting the States from passing laws im- pairing the obligations of con- tracts. The Fletcher case in- volved private titles under a grant made by the Georgia legislature, which a subsequent legislature sought to revoke as having been obtained by fraud and bribery of the legislators. The Court decided that an exe- cuted grant is a contract, within the 'contract clause' ; that the clause applies to contracts of a State as well as to those between individuals ; and that the revok- ing act was unconstitutional. It denied the existence of judicial power, in such a case, to inquire whether the legislature had acted corruptly. This is said to be the first instance in which the Supreme Court itself was called upon to declare an act of a State legislature unconstitutional, though there had been a number of instances in the lower Federal and the State courts. The Dartmouth College case was of special interest in that the charter of a corporation was held to be a contract of the State, protected by this 'contract clause' of the Constitution from subsequent amendments by the State legislature. It led to State legislation reserving the power to alter, amend, or repeal the charters of corporations granted under general acts. In Sturges v. Crowninshield, supra, a State bankruptcy law was adjudged invalid in so far as it would discharge debts con- tracted before its passage. The decision came at a time of financial stringency when there was no Federal bankruptcy law and when many debtors had been discharged by State courts. Stone V. Mississippi (1880), 101 U. S. 814, held that the Dartmouth College decision did not prevent a State which had incorporated a lottery company from afterwards forbidding lot- teries, since the legislature can- not_ by contract surrender the police power. In Illinois Central v. Illinois (1892), 146 U. S. 385, a grant made by the legislature in 1869 to a railroad company of 1,000 acres of submerged land along the harbor front of Chicago was held void and re- pealable by a later legislature. In the leading case of Gelpcke v. Dubuque (1864), 1 Wallace 175, involving municipal bonds issued to aid a railroad, it was estab- lished that the validity of a contract is determined by the State law as it was when the contract was made, including the State court's decisions, re- gardless of its later decisions reversing them. There are many other interesting decisions under this 'contract clause.' In 1816, Congress chartered the second United States Bank, with authority to establish branches in different States, and the power to issue circulating notes. States' rights sentiment was aroused by this competition with State banks, and Maryland attempted a stamp tax on the bank's notes to drive out the branch established there. In proceedings by the State, Mc- Culloch, cashier of the bank, was penalized for violating this law. The judgment was reversed in McCulloch V. Maryland (1819), 4 Wheaton 316, in a decision of enormous importance, announced in one of the most luminous of Marshall's opinions. The bank, he said, if lawful, was an in- strument of the national govern- ment — a government supreme within its appointed sphere. A State could not tax the instru- ments of this supreme govern- ment ; for the power to tax involves the power to destroy. Supreme Court Decisions KFE 551 B Supreme Court Decisions Although the power to create a corporation to act as a national fiscal agency is not a power ex- pressly granted by the Constitu- tion, it is to be fairly implied from those that are so granted, including the express power to make all laws that shall be 'necessary and proper' for carry- ing into execution the powers enumerated and vested by the Constitution. The Court was much criticized for this decision, not for holding an Act of Con- gress unconstitutional, but for declining to do so. Among other decisions con- cerning the powers of taxation and over the currency, the following are notable : Veazie Bank V. Fenno (1869), 8 Wal- lace 533, held that Congress has power to restrain by taxation the circulation of State bank notes for the purpose of securing a sound and uniform national currency. In the Legal Tender Case (1871), 12 Wallace 457, the Court overruling a previous decision, upheld the Civil War legal tender acts, as a valid exercise of the war power ; and this as applied to debts con- tracted after their enactment. See Juillard v. Greenman ( 1 884 ) , 110 U. S. 421, as to the exist- ence of the same power in time of peace. Dobbins v. Erie County (1842), 16 Peters 435, held invalid a State tax on a Federal office; Collector v. Day (1870), 11 Wallace 113, held invalid a Federal tax on the salary of a State judge, and Evans v. Gore (1920), 253 U. S. 245, denied the power to subject to Federal income taxes the salaries of Federal judges. Smith v. Kansas City Title Co. (1920), 255 U. S. 180, sustained the new Federal Land Banks, and the exemption of their secu- rities from taxation, as constitu- tional fiscal agencies, although intended for the purpose of facilitating loans to farmers. In McCray v. United States (1904), 195 U. S. 27, a discrimi- nating Federal tax on colored oleomargarine, imposed with the evident purpose of protecting the dairy industry, was held constitutional. The doctrine of this case has been affirmed in Miller v. Standard Nut Marga- rine Compafiy (1932), 284 U. S. 498, and in Magnano Company V. Hamilton (1934), 292 U. S. 40. And in the extreme case of United States v. Doremus (1919), 249 U. S. 86, the elabo- rate regulations and drastic pun- ishments of the Anti-Narcotic Act, designed for the suppres- sion of indulgence in narcotic drugs, were deemed valid means of exercising the taxing power. (The correctness of this decision was questioned in United States V. Daugherty (1926), 269 U. S. 360.) But in the Child Labor Tax Case (1922), 259 U. S. 20, an attempt of Congress to regu- late child labor in the States by taking things made by child labor in violation of regulations laid down in the act was found un- constitutional. Following this decision, an amendment to the Constitution was proposed to the States to give Congress power over the subject. State taxes on chain stores have been upheld in State Board V. Jackson (1931), 283 U. S. 527, and in the West Virginia Chain Store Tax Case (decided Jan. 14, 1935). In Puget Sound Power and Light Company v. Seattle (1934), 291 U. S. 619, the Court vipheld Seattle's right to impose a 3 per cent privilege tax upon the gross income of a light and power company com- peting with the city's munici- pally owned plant. In the 'Income Tax Case,' Pollock V. Farmers Loan and Trust Co. (1895), 158 U. S. 601, the Court held, on rehearing, that income derived from prop- erty, personal or real, is in effect a tax on the property, and therefore a direct tax which, under the Constitution, must be apportioned among the several States according to their popula- tions. This led to the 16th Amendment empowering Con- gress to lay such taxes without apportionment. Among numer- ous later decisions concerning such taxes, are Evans v. Gore (1920), 253 U. S. 245 (the Judge's salary case), and Eisner v. Macomber (1920), 252 U. S. 189, holding stock dividends not taxable, because not income. The Commerce Clause. — Gibbons v. Ogdcn (1824), 9 Wheaton 1 — the Steamboat Mo- nopoly Case — brought the first constrviction, in any important particular, of the clause of the Constitution granting Congress the power to 'regulate' commerce, among the several States and with foreign countries. Laws of New York granting, for a term of years, to Livingston and Ful- ton, the exclusive right to navi- gate the waters within the State's jurisdiction, with vessels pro- pelled by steam, were held inop- erative to prevent a steamship, licensed under the coasting trade laws of the United States, from operating between New York City and a New Jersey port. Marshall's opinion rejected the contention that the 'commerce' to be regulated was confined to the mere traffic of buying and selling, or interchange of com- modities ; commerce is commer- cial intercourse , and includes navigation. To 'regulate' this commerce is to prescribe the rules by which it shall be gov- erned, and this power in Con- gress, when exercised, is not only supreme but exclusive. This case excited wide public interest at the time, for political as well as commercial reasons. Release from competitive restrictions im- posed by the States gave imme- diate impetus to the development of commerce by steam. The de- cision is of the utmost impor- tance as a foundation of national unity and prosperity. Had the Court accepted the narrow con- struction adopted by the New York judiciary, including the eminent Chancellor Kent, which was seriously supported at the time by strong advocates of State rights, the general com- mercial intercourse of the coun- try would have lain at the mercy of State selfishness and rapacity, as it was when the Constitution was adopted, and the Union, for want of a real national power over this subject, would prob- ably have fallen apart. Among the great list of later cases involving the Commerce Clause may be mentioned the fol- lowing : Brozvn v. Maryland (1827), 12 Wheaton 419, held that a Mary- land license tax on importers was void under this clause and under the prohibition against State import duties. In The Passenger Cases (1849), 7 How- ard, 283, laws of New York and Massachusetts, taxing immi- grants and requiring shipmasters to give bonds, which were enact- ed for the purpose of con- trolling the influx of paupers and criminals from abroad, were held in conflict with this clause and regulations of Congress. The importance of the decision was accentuated by its relation to laws of Southern States deny- ing entry to free negroes and forbidding the taking out of slaves, on vessels. In Gilman v. Philadelphia (1865), 3 Wallace 724, the control of Congress was declared to extend to all navi- gable waters in a State accessible from other States. Tests of navigability were laid down in The Daniel Ball (1870), 10 Wallace 557, and The Montello (1824), 20 id. 430. Among the many instances upholding the Federal power to protect and de- velop such waters none is more interesting than the recent case of Sanitary District v. United States (1924), 266 U. S. 405, in which Chicago was enjoined from diverting water from Lake Michigan in excess of the quan- tity prescribed by the Secretary of War. Here (though not resting on the commerce power) may be mentioned. The Genesee Chief (1852), 12 Howard 443, Supreme Court Decisions KFE 551 C Supreme Court Decisions extending the admiralty juris- diction of the Federal courts over non-tidal navigable waters. Paul V. Virginia (1869), 8 Wallace 168, held that the business of insurance, though conducted from other States by foreign corporations, is subject to local State regulation, as it is not 'commerce' ; Robbins v. Taxing District (1887), 120 U. S. 487, that a State cannot tax traveling salesmen engaged in soliciting interstate business ; Bozvman v. Chicago & N. IV. E. Co. (1888), 125 U. S. 465, that a State can- not forbid introduction of in- toxicating liquors from other States by common carriers. Lcisy V. Hardin (1890), 135 U. S. 100, is the familiar Original Package case, deciding that one who imported beer into one State from another had a right to sell it in the original package, notwithstanding a State pro- hibitory statute. Wabash R. R. Co. V. Illinois (1886), 118 U. S. 557 — a decision of vast importance — denied any power in a State to regvilate charges for railroad transportation within the State when it is part of an interstate transaction. The power to regulate intrastate rates, however, was frequently si:s- tained — notably in the great Minnesota Rate Cases (1913), 230 U. S. 352 (and many others following in the same volume), where the history and law of the subject were elaborately re- viewed. Rates, however, which did not allow of a fair return to the railroad were there held confiscatory and void under the Fourteenth Amendment ; and it was shown that even local regu- lations may be displaced by Con- gress if they interfere with in- terstate commerce. During the World War, the government took complete con- trol of nearly all the railroad and certain telegraph and telephone lines, and fixed their charges, both intrastate and interstate. This was sustained as within the war power of Congress in N or them Pacific Ry. Co. v. North Dakota (1919), 250 U. S. 135, and Dakota Central Telephone Co. V. South Dakota, id. 163. Since the War, under the Trans- portation Act, which aims to insure an adequate transporta- tion service throughout the country, the Interstate Com- merce Commission is authorized to require railroads to increase intrastate rates which are so low as to discriminate against inter- state commerce. This extreme exertion of the power to regulate interstate commerce was sus- tained in Railroad Commission of Wisconsin v. Chicago, Burling- ton, and Quincy Railroad Com- pany (1922), 257 U. S. 263. And in Dayton-Goose Creek Railway Co. v. United States (1924), 263 U. S. 456, the Court upheld the 'recapture' provision of the same act, whereby the ex- cess profits of prosperous rail- roads are controlled by the United States and used in part, through loans, and in other ways, to help out weaker rail- roads. Modern extraordinary applica- tions of this commerce power may relate back to the famous Lottery Case, Champion v. Ames (1903), 188 U. S. 321, holding that Congress can exclude such harmful things as lottery tickets, not onlv from the mails {Ex parte Rapier, 143 U. S. 110), but also from interstate com- merce. The White Slave Act, construed in Hoke v. United States, 227 U._ S. 308, and Caniinetti v. United States, 242 U. S. 470, was sustained on this power of exclusion ; and upon it also Congress attempted to base its first Child Labor Act ; but that was declared unconstitutional in Hammer v. Dagcnhart (1918), 247 U. S. 251, because the power to regulate commerce does not include the power to regulate manufacture. The Second Child Labor Act, based on the tax power, was also declared void in Child Labor Tax Case (1922), 259 U. S. 20, as already mentioned. The First Federal Employers' Liability Act, was held invalid in Employers' Liability Cases (1908), 207 U. S. 463, because it went beyond the commerce power by including railway employees engaged wholly in intrastate commerce, but the second act, which was limited to accidents in interstate commerce, was sustained in Second Em- ployers' Liability Cases (1912), 223 U. S. 1. In Adair v. United States (1908), 208 U. S. 161, an Act of Congress forbidding dis- crimination against union labor by railroads engaged in inter- state commerce was found not properly a regulation of such commerce, and therefore void. The great Debs strike of 1894, called to enforce a boycott on Pullman cars, had tied up rail- roads over a large part of the coimtry, when it was brought to an end through the combined efforts of the military power, employed by President Cleve- land, and the power of the ju- diciary, invoked by a bill for an injunction filed by the Attor- ney (General in the circuit court at Chicago, for the protection of interstate commerce and the mails. Debs and others dis- obeyed the injunction and were imprisoned for contempt. The decision of the Supreme Court affirming this action is one of the Classics — In re Debs, 158 U. S. 564. Another conspicuous case involving the settlement of labor trouble, but by very different means, was Wilson v. New (1917), 243 U. S. 332. To avert a threatened strike of railway hands. Congress enacted a stat- ute temporarily fixing both hours and minimum wages. It was decided that the establish- ment of an eight-hour day was clearly within the power to regu- late commerce, but to sustain the wage regulation the court felt constrained to resort to the doctrine of 'emergency power,' which was afterwards the basis of decision in the Rent Cases, mentioned below. Whether the commerce power extends over migratory birds was a problem raised by a protective Act of Congress, the validity of which was not determined by the Supreme Court, because before a decision was necessary the Migratory Bird Treaty had been made with Great Britain. In Missouri v. Holland (1920), 252 U. S. 416, it was decided that the treaty, and the Act of Congress made to enforce it, were valid, and rose superior to the rights of any State respecting migratory birds within her bound- aries. This case is most im- portant, both as averting the disaster which would result from extermination of insectiv- orous birds, and because of the liberal construction placed on the treaty-making power. It is a leading case on that subject. One of the great developments of the commerce power was the Sherman Anti-Trust Law, passed to prevent or curb combinations in restraint of interstate com- merce, and many of the decisions concerning such alleged combina- tions or 'trusts' have attracted wide public notice. Mention may be made here of the 'Sugar Trust Case,' United States v. E. C. Knight Co. (1895), 156 U. S. 1, deciding that the combination was in the manufacture alone and therefore not in interstate commerce ; United States y. Trans-Missouri Freight Associ- ation (1897), 193 U. S. 197, con- demning railroad freight pools ; Northern Securities Co. v. United States (1904), 193 U. S. 197, adjudging unlawful a cor- poration found to acquire and hold the stock of two competing railroads; Szvift & Co. v. United States (1905), 196 U. S. 375, the 'Meat Trust Case,' in which the court found unlawful an alleged combination of meat packers ; The Standard Oil and Tobacco Company cases (1911), 221 U. S. 1, 106, in which those notori- ous trusts were convicted of il- legality and decreed to be dis- solved, the Court making the dis- Supreme Court Decisions KFE 551 D Supreme Court Decisions tinction between restraints of trade which are 'reasonable' (such as the union of two com- peting merchants in a partner- ship), and those that are not; the Union Pacific-Southern Pa- cific Merger Case (1912), 226 U. S. 61, 470 ; the Shoe Machin- ery Case (1922), 258 U. S. 451, in which the restrictions im- posed by the combination were found to be within the rights as a patentee of inventions, and the 'Steel Trust Case,' in which the combination did not offend the statute merely because of its past misdeeds or its size and present capacity for wrongdoing. After a series of decisions on slavery and the Fugitive Slave Law came Dred Scott v. Sanford (1857), 19 Howard 393. A slave had been taken by his master from a slave State, Missouri, to a free State, Illinois, and thence to the part of Louisiana Terri- tory north of parallel 36°_ 30', in which slavery was forbidden by the Missouri Compromise Act ; thence to Missouri again where he resided. He brought suit to recover his freedom, in the Federal circuit court, claim- ing to be a citizen of Missouri, against Sanford, to whom he had been transferred, and who was a citizen of New York. The juris- diction depended on the parties being citizens of different States. A majority of the Supreme Court decided that no Negro whose ancestors had been brought here as slaves — admittedly Scott's case — could become a citizen ; hence, that there was no jurisdiction. But the principal opinion went fur- ther and declared that Congress had no power to forbid slavery in the territories. This greatly disturbed and aroused the Abo- litionists and was virulently denounced as an attempt of Southern sympathizers on the Supreme bench to aid the cause of slavery. In Abelman v. Booth (1859), 21 Howard 506, a State court undertook, by habeas corpus, to release Booth, who was held by a Federal court for violating the Fugitive Slave Act, and it refused to recognize the writ of error from the Federal Supreme Court. In a striking opinion Chief Justice Taney upheld the supremacy of the Federal judicial power and government. Questions arising out of Civil War from the Civil War Amend- ments to the Constitution and the acts passed by Congress during the reconstruction period have led to many notable de- cisions. In Ex parte Milligan (1866), 4 Wallace 2, Milligan, \yho had not resided in a rebel- lious State, and was not a pris- oner of war nor connected with the military or naval service, was arrested in Indiana, where he resided, on charges of sedition, tried (1864) before a military commission convened by the military commander of the dis- trict, and sentenced to be hanged. He was released and discharged through the writ of habeas corpus, upon the grounds that a military tribunal had no juris- diction to try such a case outside of the theatre of war and where the Federal courts were open, and that the constitutional guaranty of trial by jury had been violated. Another source of excitement and denunciation at that time was the ruling made in the fealty-oath cases, Cummings v. Missouri and Ex parte Garland, 4 Wallace 277, 333. The first of these decided that a clause of the Missouri Constitution re- quiring clergymen, in order to continue exercising their pro- fession, to take an oath that they had not participated in or aided the Rebellion, was in con- travention of the provision of the national Constitution for- bidding bills of attainder and ex post facto laws. Texas v. White (1868), 7 Wal- lace 700. Texas sued in the Supreme Court, asserting her right to certain bonds which had belonged to her and which were negotiated by her secessionist government during the war. It was held, among other things, that the political continuity of the State was not broken by the war ; that acts of the insurgent government authorizing the transfer of the bonds were void and that the provisional govern- ment set up by the Reconstruc- tion Act had power to authorize the suit. In the majority opinion by Chief Justice Chase occur the much quoted words : 'The Constitution, in all of its pro- visions, looks to an indestruct- ible Union, composed of inde- structible States.' In the famous Slaughterhouse Cases (1873), 16 Wallace 36, the Court found its first occasion to construe the Fourteenth Amendment. The 'carpet-bag' legislature of Louisiana had granted to a corporation a monopoly of the slaughterhouse business, thereby depriving many persons of their right to engage in it. The main question was whether the Amendment had made national and State citizen- ship in effect one, so that privileges and immunities which before were purely State affairs had become endowed with a Federal character and were to be protected and enforced by Con- gress and the Supreme Court. If the Court had adopted this construction, which was strongly held by the reconstructionists and quite likely was intended by those who brought about the Amendment, the structure of the government would have been radically altered, and the au- tonomy of the States would have been largely destroyed. A majority of the Justices, however, decided that the right claimed by the plaintiff, to be free of the monopoly, if it existed, came from the State, and was not one of the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, which are only such as come from the Federal government, its character. Constitution and laws. Again, in the Civil Rights Cases (1883), 109 U. S. 3, it was decided that the 14th Amend- ment, in the privileges and im- munities clauses above quoted, and in the clauses forbidding 'any State' to deprive any person of life, liberty or property with- out due process of law, or deny- ing the equal protection of the laws, refers only to State action of some sort. It empowers Con- gress to legislate against such action, but not to legislate against conduct by mere individuals. In Ex parte Yarborough (1884), 110 U. S. 651, the Court held constitutional under the 15th Amendment, that the Civil Rights provision which punished conspiracies to injure, oppress, etc., any citizen in the exercise, or because of having exercised, any right guaranteed by the Federal Constitution or laws — in that case the right of a Negro to vote. In Giiinn v. United States (1915), 238 U. S. 347, the 'Grandfather Clause' of the Oklahoma constitution, was held void as a violation of the rights of Negroes under the 15th Amendment. This clause under- took to limit the right to vote to persons able to read or write any section of the State consti- tution, exempting, however, all persons who, on January 1, 1866, or before, were entitled to vote under any form of government, or then resided in some foreign nation, and their lineal descend- ants. In Nixoti V. Hcrndon (1927), 273 U. S. 536, a Texas statute holding Negroes ineligible to vote in a Democratic primary was held invalid as a denial of equal protection of the laws. In Nixon V. Condon (1932), 286 U. S. 73, the same Negro sought damages for exclusion from the 1928 Texas primary election under a rule made by authoriza- tion of a State statute giving the executive committee of a party power to determine voting quali- fications in primary elections. This also was held a denial of equal protection of the laws be- cause the exclusion power came from the State by virtue of the Supreme Court Decisions KFE 552 Supreme Court Decisions authorizing law. In Grovey v. Townsend (decided Apr. 1, 1935), the Court held the Demo- cratic Party in Texas justified in excluding Negroes from the pri- maries on the ground that it was a 'voluntary organization and was competent to decide its mem- bership.' In Potvcll V. Alabama (1932), 287 U. S. 45, the Court held that seven Negroes in the famous Scottsboro Case had been denied due process of law be- cause during a trial in which they were convicted of a capital crime they were deprived of as- sistance of covmsel. In Norris v. State of Alabama (decided April 1, 1935), the Court re- versed the conviction of Norris on the ground that the exclusion of Negroes from the trial jury constituted a deprivation of equal protection of the laws. The Fourteenth Amendment has been involved in a vast number of cases in which the validity of State laws or other forms of State action has been passed upon. A few of the lead- ing cases are as follows : Loan Association v. Topeka (1875), 20 Wallace 655, though the decision was based, not on the Amendment, but the natural rights of individuals and limita- tions of government, was a case of this kind. A tax for the benefit of a private enterprise was there held void. In Muglcr v. Kansas (1887), 123 U. S. 123, it was held that property in a lawfully operated brewery was not protected by the Amend- ment from a subsequent exer- cise of the State's police power to declare the making of beer un- lawful. A group of very im- portant cases, known as the Granger Cases, which grew out of a widespread movement to control by State legislation the rates and practices of railroads and other public service con- cerns, was decided in 1877, in favor of the State power. The Court said that when one devotes his property to a use in which the public has an interest, e. g., a grain elevator or a railroad, he in efifect grants the public an interest in that use — it becomes 'clothed with a public interest' — and may be controlled for the common good. It is, however, settled that regulation by the States or by Congress must be reasonable and not confiscatory • — and many State regulations which were not so have been declared invalid. A similar limitation is imposed on the United States by the Fifth Amendment. The Kansas law punishing employers who exact promises of their employees not to join labor unions, was held an in- vasion of the liberty of contract, in Coppage v. Kansas (1914), 236 U. S, 1, and subsequently the much talked of Industrial Court Law of the same State, which attempted to compel adjustment through an adminis- trative tribunal, of disputes over wages and hours in certain industries, and to forbid strikes and to require employer and employee to go on, willy-nilly, with the business, was held an unconstitutional invasion of the property rights of the employer, and of the liberty of both em- ployer and employee — as ap- plied to the meat packing and coal mining businesses. Wolff Packing Co. v. Industrial Court (1923) , 262 U. S. 522; (1924) 267 U. S. 552 ; Dorchy v. Kansas (1924) , 264 U. S. 286. The minimum wage law en- acted by Congress for the protec- tion of female and minor workers in the District of Columbia was found to be in contravention of the due process clause of the Fifth Amendment, in Adkins v. Children's Hospital (1923), 261 U. S. 525. The Espionage Act, during the World War, brought out a number of cases involving free- dom of speech and liberty of the press, of which the most con- spicuous were those of Emma Goldman (1918), 245 U. S. 474, and Eugene V. Debs (1919), 249 U. S. 211. The convictions were upheld under the war power. In Stromherg v. People of California (1931), 283 U. S. 359, the Court declared uncon- stitutional under the 14th Amend- ment California's celebrated 'Red Flag Law' making it illegal to display 'any sign, symbol or em- blem of opposition to organized government.' The same consti- tutional provision was the basis for the invalidation, in Near v. Minnesota (1931), 283 U. S. 697, of a State law under which 'a malicious, scandalous, and de- famatory newspaper' might be declared a nuisance. Of many decisions affecting aliens, mention should be made of the Chinese Exclusion Cases (1889), 130 U. S. 581, and (1893), 149 U. S. 698, declaring the power of Congress to exclude aliens, even in violation of a treaty, and to deport them when found unlawfully in the United States. United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898), 169 U. S. 649, laid down the important propo- sition that any alien born of alien parents, permanently re- siding in the United States, be- comes from the time of his birth a citizen of the United States, in virtue of the Fourteenth Amendment. Osazva v. United States (1922), 260 U. S. 178, and Toyota v. United States (1925), 268 U. S. 402, have recently decided that Japanese and Hin- dus are not 'white persons' within the peculiar meaning of the naturalization laws and therefore cannot be naturalized thereunder. The Alien Land Laws of California and Oregon, forbidding aliens who cannot be naturalized to own or lease land for agricultural and other pur- poses, were adjudged valid, and not in conflict with the Japanese Treaty, in Terrace v. Thompson (1923), 263 U. S. 179, and later cases. In United States v. Schzvimmer (1929), 279 U. S. 644, 649, and in United States v. Macintosh (1931), 283 U. S. 605, the right of lower courts to deny citizenship to persons ex- pressing unwillingness to bear arms was upheld. The status of the Indians and the lands they occupied has been the subject of many adjudi- cations, among which the most notable are Johnson v. Mcin- tosh (1823), 8 Wheaton 543, settling that they did not own the fee, but only a right of occupancy ; Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), 5 Peters 1, holding that an Indian tribe is not a foreign nation, but a 'do- mestic dependent nation' under the guardianship of the United States ; and Worcester v. Georgia (1832), 6 Peters 515, known as the 'Missionary Case,' in which a law of Georgia requiring resi- dents in the Cherokee region to procure licenses from the State and to swear allegiance, was de- clared invalid. The right of the nation to acquire and govern new territory was sustained in Insurance Com- pany V. Canter (1828), 1 Peters 511, involving the Louisiana Purchase. The 'Insular Cases' (1901), see DeLima v. Bidwell, 182 U. S. 1. and the Dooley and Downes cases in the same vol- ume, followed by Hawaii v. Man- kichi (1903), 190 U. S. 197; Dorr V. United States (1904), 195 U. S. 138, and Rasmussen V. United States (1905), 197 U. S. 516, involved the status of acquired territory with respect to tariff duties, uniformity of taxation, and constitutional guar- anties, such as trial by jury. There were several notable re- cent decisions regarding the powers of the executive and legislative branches of the Gov- ernment. In the Humphrey Case (decided May 27, 1935) the Court decided that while, accord- ing to the Myers Case, supra, the President might discharge at will postmasters and some other employees whose duties were re- stricted to the performance of executive functions, he did not possess the power to remove an official of an agency of the ju- Supreme Court Decisions KFE 553 Supreme Court Decisions diciary or legislature, e.g., the Federal Trade Commission, ex- cept for statutory reasons. In McGrain v. Daughcrty (1927), 273 U. S. 135, the Court upheld the Senate's power to compel a witness to appear before one of its committees in order that it might obtain information to aid in legislation. In Jurney v. MacCrackcn (decided Feb. 5, 1935) the Court held that the Senate had full power to punish for contempt. _ The economic crisis which be- gan in 1929 gave rise to a num- ber of important decisions con- cerning both private and public efforts to meet the emergency by attempts to control disastrous competition and by endeavors to ease the debt burden by mora- toria on mortgage foreclosures. An effort on the part of men engaged in a business threat- ened by destructive competition to bring stabilization by cooper- ative action was upheld in Ap- palachian Coals Inc. v. United States (1932), 287 U. S. 229. Public efforts to stabilize in- dustry brought forth important decisions. In an opinion which caused much discussion at the time, New State Ice Company V. Liebmann (1932), 285 U. S. 262, the Court invalidated a stat- ute passed in 1925 in Oklahoma declaring the manufacture, sale and distribution of ice to be a public business, requiring a State license for the privilege of en- gaging in it, and providing that such license might be refused in communities where existing service was deemed adequate. In two subsequent cases in- volving New York's efforts to stabilize its milk industry, the- Court modified its definition of a business affected with a public interest as set forth in the Okla- homa Ice Case. In the case of Nebbia v. New York (1934), 291 U. S. 502, a Rochester store- keeper who sold a five-cent loaf of bread with two quarts of milk at a price fixed for the milk alone challenged the validity of the New York Milk Control Act on the ground that price-fixing was unconstitutional. In a 5-4 decision the statute was upheld, the Court declaring, 'Price con- trol, like any other form of regu- lation, is unconstitutional only if arbitrary, discriminatory or demonstrably irrelevant to the policy the Legislature is free to adopt and hence an unnecessary and unwarranted interference with individual liberty.' The Act was again upheld in Hege- man Farms Corporation v. New York Milk Control Board (de- cided Nov. 6, 1934). Effort by public authorities to stabilize an industry beyond State lines (e.g., milk control in an entire milk shed) received a severe set-back in the Court's de- cision in Baldwin v. Seelig (de- cided Mar. 5, 1935). In a unanimous decision the Court invalidated the provision of the New York Milk Control Act which forbade the sale within the State of milk bought outside at a price lower than that which could be paid legally to New York producers. Attempts by emergency legis- lation to aid victims of the eco- nomic crisis against wholesale mortgage foreclosures gave rise to two notable decisions. The first involved a State law estab- lishing a moratorium on fore- closures. In Home Building & Loan Association v. Blaisdell (1934), 290 U. S. 398, the Court, in a 5-4 decision, declared that the Minnesota law did not vio- late the 14th Amendment by im- pairing a contract, holding that 'the question is no longer merely that of one party to a contract as against another, but of the use of reasonable means to safeguard the economic structure upon which the good of all depends.' Pointing out that a State has the power 'to safeguard the vital in- terests of its people,' the Court declared, 'While emergency does not create power, emer- gency may furnish the occasion for the exercise of power.' In a later decision, Louisville Joint Stock Land Bank v. William R. Bradford (decided May 27, 1935), the Court unanimously declared a national statute, the Frazier-Lemke Farm Mortgage Moratorium Law, unconstitu- tional on the ground that it was contrary to the provision in the 5th Amendment forbidding the taking of private property for public use without just compen- sation. The law provided that for a period of five years a mort- gagor could not foreclose upon a farmer's property if the owner paid a 'reasonable rental.' The act also made it possible to ob- tain full title by paying the ap- praised value of the property re- gardless of the amount stated in the mortgage. New Deal Decisions, — In 1935 the Supreme Court gave out the first of its long-awaited decisions with respect to various aspects of President Roosevelt's 'New Deal.' These opinions easily rank with the most mo- mentous in the Court's history. The first of these cases to come before the Court, the Ama- zon Petroleum Case (decided Jan. 7, 1935) involved Section 9 (c) of the National Industrial Recovery Act, which authorized the President to prohibit inter- state transportation of oil pro- duced in excess of State quotas. The case was decided on a nar- row point of law and did not in- volve any serious set-back to the President's program, since it ex- pressed no opinion as to the oil code itself. Calling attention to the fact that the issue was 'not of the intrinsic importance' of the oil law but of the 'constitutional process of government,' the Court held the section invalid on the ground that Congress had dele- gated excessive power to the President without laying down adequate rules to guide him. The next issue raised by the 'New Deal' to reach the Supreme Court was the validity of the Government's abandonment of the gold standard. Few cases in American history have aroused more general public interest. The cases of Norman v. Balti- more & Ohio Railroad and Unit- ed States V. Bankers Trust Com- pany (both decided Feb. 18, 1935) involved the validity of the action of Congress in the Joint Resolution of June 5, 1935, in setting aside the clauses in private obligations guaranteeing payments of interest and princi- pal in gold as 'against public policy' and unreasonable. The Court upheld the decisions of the lower Federal courts that 'Con- gress had power to adopt the Joint Resolution with respect to these obligations of the railroad companies and hence that gold clauses could not be enforced and the bonds were payable in legal-tender currency.' A third case, Nortz v. United States (de- cided Feb. 18, 1935), involved a suit in the Court of Claims for the sum which the plaintiff con- tended was due him for gold cer- tificates of the United States Treasury in his possession on the basis of their alleged gold value. The Supreme Court held that the Court of Claims could not enter- tain this suit because plaintiff had shown no actual damage. The final gold case. Perry v. United States (decided Feb. 18, 1935) involved a suit in the Court of Claims for the right to collect the alleged gold value of a United States Fourth Liberty Bond. The Court held the Joint Resolution of June 5, 1935, in- valid 'so far as it attempted to override the obligation of the United States created by the bond in suit.' The Court con- tinued, 'It went beyond the con- stitutional authority of Congress. But we hold that the action is for breach of contract and that plain- tiff has failed to show cause of action for actual damages' and 'plaintiff has not shown, or at- tempted to show, that in rela- tion to buying power he has sus- tained any loss whatever.' There- fore the Court concluded that the Court of Claims could not enter- tain the suit. Supreme Court Decisions KFE 553 A Supreme Court Decisions In the next case considered, Railroad Retirement Board v. Alton Railroad Company (decid- ed May 6, 1935), the Court not only invalidated an important piece of 'New Deal' legislation, the Railroad Retirement Act of June, 1934, but also raised seri- ous doubt at the time as to the legality of pending and future Federal social legislation. In a 5_4 decision, the Court declared the Act unconstitutional as a di- rect violation of the due process clause in the 5th Amendment of the Constitution on the ground that it took property from one group (the railroads) and gave it to another (the ernployees) M'ithout just compensation. The next case, Schechter Poultry Corporation v. United States (decided May 27, 1935), involved a major part of the 'New Deal' recovery program, the National Industrial Recovery Act. Pointing out that 'extraor- dinary conditions do not create or enlarge constitutional power' and that the economic crisis 'cannot justify action which lies without the sphere of constitu- tional authority,' the Court in- validated the 'code-making au- thority' conferred by Section 3 of the Act on the ground that it represented an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power not only to the President but to persons who have no relation at all to the legislative powers of the Government. In the opinion of the Covirt, Congress had not adequately defined 'unfair meth- ods of competition' or set up any standards or limitations on the exercise of the delegated power. Regarding the regulation under codes of hours and wages, the Court declared that the constitu- tional powers of Congress over commerce were limited to that having an interstate character or to such transactions as could be proved directly to affect inter- state commerce. The Court held 'that the attempt through the provisions of the code to fix the hours and wages of employees of defendants in their intrastate business was not a valid exercise of Federal power.' In a concur- ring opinion Justice Cardozo pointed out that the decision made the disintegration of the NRA inevitable, since hours and wages of labor were the 'very bone and sinew' of this plan for recovery and without these pro- visions a code 'collapses utterly.' President Roosevelt, after a care- ful study of the decision, said that the Supreme Court's inter- pretation of the interstate com- merce clause by implication de- prived the Federal Government of all control over economic and social conditions. See also Prohibition ; Con- stitution ; U. S. A., History. Consult L. B. Evans, Leading Cases on American Constitu- tional Law (2nd ed. 1925) ; A. J. Beveridge, Life of John Mar- shall (4 v., 1919) ; C. Warren, Supreme Court in U. S. His- tory (4 v., 1922) ;_F. Frankfurt- er and J. M. Landis, Business of the Supreme Court (1927) ; E. S. Corwin, Twilight of the Supreme Court (1934). Sur, the Phoenician name of Tyre, Syria, one of the most famous cities of antiquity. See Tyre. Surabaya, soo-ra-ba'ya, or SoERABAYA, town, Capital of Surabaya residency, Java, Dutch East Indies, on the north coast of Madura Strait, at the mouth of the Kali River. The city is divided into two sections, the European section lying along the western bank and the Chinese and native district on the eastern bank. It has a good harbor, and is the naval and military head- quarters of the Dutch East Indies. Sugar, coffee, hides, cot- ton, and tobacco are exported. Pop. 15,000, of whom about 9,000 are Europeans. Surakarta, sob'ra-kar'ta or Solo, town, capital of Surakarta residency, Java, Dutch East Indies ; 33 miles northeast of Jokjokarta. It contains the palace of the native ruler, and is of commercial importance. Pop. 125,000, of whom about 2,000 are Europeans. Surat, sob-rat', town, Bombay, India, capital of Surat district, Gujaret division on the Tapti River; 14 miles above its de- cayed port, Savali, and 160 miles north of Bombay. It is surrounded by a wall about 5^ miles in circumference, with twelve gates. Features of inter- est are the castle and three or four handsome mosques. Indus- tries include the manufacture of cotton, silk, brocade, and em- broidery. The district covers an area of 1,600 square miles, and has a population of 635,000. Sur'biton, sur'bi-tun, town, England, in Surrey, 1 mile sovtth of Kingston-on-Thames. It is the headquarters of the Kingston Rowing Club and the Thames Sailing Club. Pop. (1931) 29,- 396. Surcouf, Robert (1773- 1827), French privateer, was born in St. Malo. His principal exploits were in the Indian seas ; his capture of the Triton in 1785, and of the Kent in 1800, caused a sensation. Surds, or Irrational Num- bers, in algebra, and especially in the theory of numbers, may be defined as the incommensurable root of a commensurable num- ber. The Mth root of any number is that quantity which when mul- tiplied by itself (n — 1) times in succession gives the number. Thus the square of the square root of 2 is 2, and the cube of the cube root of 7 is 7. V 2 and 7 are incommensurable, and are therefore surds. V 4 and \^ 27 are not surds, because they are respectively the commensurable numbers 2 and 3. A quantity of the form can be expressed as a surd of the form But the expression v/ (g +Vp) is not a surd i( V p is itself a surd ; for then q + V p is not a commen- surable number. When surds can be expressed in terms of the same surd, they are said to be similar. Thus, V 1 2 being equal to 2 V 3 is similar to V 3. The square root or quadratic surd is by far the most important surd with which mathematicians have to deal ; but similar prop- erties hold for surds of higher name. A very important theorem in quadratic surds is that if A' + V y = a V b, where a, b, X, y are commensurable numbers and \/ y ^ b incommensurable — i.e., true surds — then x — a and y b. Another interesting prob- lem is to find the condition that V (/? + V q) may be expressible in the form of the sum of two surds ■—viz., V X V y. The condi- tions are that p2 — q must be a positive perfect square, and that p must be positive. Surette, su - ret', Thomas Whitney (1862- ), American musician, was born in Concord, Mass. He was educated pri- vately, was a special student at Harvard in 1894 and studied music under Arthur Foote and J. K. Paine. From 1883 to 1893 he was organist at Concord Church, and in 1894-6 at Christ Church, Baltimore. He com- posed an operetta, PrwctV/a, which has been frequently performed ; Cascobel, a romantic opera ; Eve of St. Agnes, a dramatic ballad; Let God Arise, a thanksgiving anthem for the close of the Span- ish-American War. With D. G. Mason he wrote The Apprecia- tion of Music and has also pub- lished The Development of Sym- phonic Music (1915) ; Music and Life (1917) ; edited the Concord series of music and books on the teaching of music ; and has con- tributed many articles on musical subjects to various reviews and magazines. Surety. See Suretyship. Surety Bond Insurance. See Insurance, Casualty. Suretyship, an agreement by one person, known as the surety, to become legally responsible for the debt, default, or miscarriage of another, who is called the principal debtor or principal. Suretyship 553 B Surface Tension The third person with whom the contract is made is usually desig- nated the creditor. The law of suretyship in the United States is in general accord with the law in England. Where an infant enters into a contract of suretyship, beneficial to him, the contract is not void, but merely voidable. Upon arriving at full age, if the infant, with knowledge that he has a defence to the con- tract by reason of his infancy, ratifies it, he will be bound. Suretyship is created by agree- ment, express or implied, and all the elements of a valid contract must be present. If the con- tract is entered into at the time the principal obligation is created, the one consideration given by the creditor is sufficient, or an ex- tension of time of payment by the creditor is consideration for a contract of suretyship entered into at that time. The relation of principal and surety is implied from certain contractual relations. For exam- ple, joint obligors are co-sureties as to each other, and a retiring partner is surety for the surviving partners who assume the firm's indebtedness. A partner may not bind his firm as surety; but if he does enter into such a con- tract on behalf of the firm, and the firm ratifies the contract, the firm is liable. Corporations may not gener- ally bind themselves on contracts of suretyship. But there are ex- ceptions to this rule. For in- stance, a railroad company may guarantee the bonds of cities and counties issued in aid of the con- struction of the road; and banks may guarantee the payment of securities which they transfer in the ordinary course of their business. Persons non compos mentis, who enter into contracts of suretyship, are not bound there- on, even though the persons with whom they contracted were un- aware of their mental incapacity. A contract of suretyship executed under duress does not bind the surety. The cases conflict as to whether the surety is relieved by reason of the fact that the principal acted under duress. Statutes frequently provide that a non-resident of the State shall not be accepted as surety upon an official bond. But under such a statute, where a non-resident has executed a bond as surety, he cannot claim that the statute relieves him from liability. If the creditor enters intp a new agreement with the debtor, or changes or impairs the obli- gation without the consent of the surety, the latter is dis- charged. If the creditor surren- VoL. XL— Oct. '17. ders securities to the debtor, the surety is discharged to the amount of their value. If one is surety for the fidelity of an em- ployee, he is not bound for defal- cations after the employer learns of dishonesty on part of the employee; and if the surety learns of dishonesty he may noti- fy the employer and be relieved from subsequent defalcations if the employer retains the em- ployee in his service. The power of married women to become sureties is generally regulated by statute. In some of the States the common-law rule prevails, and married wo- men cannot make valid contracts of suretyship. In a few States married women are, by statute, given an unlimited right to con- tract. In others they are ex- pressly forbidden to contract as sureties. In still others a married woman cannot enter into a con- tract as surety for her husband. Sureties are protected in law in various ways. In some States when the debt becomes due the surety may call upon the creditor to sue the debtor, and if he re- fuses the surety is discharged; and in other States the surety is subrogated to all rights of the creditor against the debtor, and may enforce them in his own name. He is entitled to the benefit of any securities which the creditor may have. If com- pelled to pay the debt, he may sue the principal for reimburse- ment; but if he has compromised the claim he can only recover what he paid the creditor. A surety is entitled to 'contribu- tion' from co-sureties, if any, if he is compelled by the creditor to pay the debt alone. A surety and the principal debtor may be sued together or separately, at the election of the creditor. The peculiar rules of negotiable paper applicable to indorsers do not apply to sureties, and the obligations must not be confused. A surety is discharged by the extinguishment of the principal obligation by payment or per- formance; by tender of payment by principal and refusal to re- ceive it by creditor; by release of the principal unless he has se- curities of debtor, and then he is only liable to the amount of their value. Discharge of a co- surety discharges a surety to the amount to which he would have been entitled to contribu- tion from the former. In recent years a number of surety companies have been or- ganized, the principal function of which is to furnish bail bonds, appeal bonds, bonds for adminis- trators, executors, receivers, and the like. The validity of these companies has been judicially recognized. It has been held that, even where a statute re- quires two sureties, one of these companies is sufficient. Surety companies have now become so numerous that the statutes usual- ly provide for the acceptance of the bond of such a company where two individual sureties would be required. See Con- tract; Trust Company; Title Guaranty Companies. Surface is the exterior part of anything that has length, breadth and surface. Mathematically, every body appears to be limited by a surface which determines its exterior form and separates it from surrounding space. In geometry surface is con- sidered independently of matter, and is defined as the locus of the positions of a curve which moves in space according to a given law. Every finite region of ordinary space is necessarily bounded by a surface, and any two con- tiguous regions are separated by a surface. In the former case the surface is closed; in the latter, it is usually limited by a rim, which is of the nature of a line — straight, curved, or made up of straight and curved parts. Surfaces are classified in vari- ous ways, according to their properties, the most thorough- going classification being that which depends on the order of the Cartesian equation. Thus the equation + + = 1, where X, y, z are rectangular coordinates, represents a surface of the fourth order, or a quartic surface. Every surface of the wth order is cut by every right line in n points, real or imaginary, and every plane section of such a surface is a curve of the wth order. But there are other important descriptive properties which may be used as bases for classification. Thus cones, which are generated by the motion of a straight line passing through a fixed point, may be of any order; and similar- ly cylinders, which are generated by a right line moving parallel to itself in any manner. These are special cases of the general case of what are known as rule surfaces, which are generated by the motion of a right line constrained to move in some as- signed manner. The theory of plane surfaces, quadric and cubic surfaces, have been fairly well worked out; but a complete discussion of quartics and surfaces of higher order has not yet been given. The more important surfaces are treated under separate headings. See Sphere; Ellipsoid; Cone. Surface Tension, a molecular Surf Bird 564 Surgery phenomenon which appears at the boundary of two different substances, especially if one of these is a liquid. Over such sur- faces effects occur which suggest that the surface is in a stretched condition. For example, a soap bubble adhering to the rim of the pipe or funnel by which it is blown tends to contract, and, if the connected tube is not closed, will contract until it forms a film across the narrowest part. The surface tension of clean water is greater than the surface tension of dirty water; consequently, when a small portion of the sur- face becomes contaminated, the greater tension over the neigh- boring cleaner parts draws the contaminated surface outward, until the whole is equally dirty. This explains the difficulty of keeping a surface of water or of any other liquid perfectly clean. Surface tension phenomena also exist at the boundary of two liquids, whether these liquids do or do not mix together. In the latter case the phenomena grad- ually disappear as the liquids mix. The so-called cohesion fig- ures are produced when a drop of a colored liquid slightly heav- ier than water is gently dropped into the water. See Capillar- ity. Surf Bird (Aphriza virgata), a bird akin to the turnstone and sandpiper (qq.v.), widely distrib- uted along the coasts of America. It is brownish in color, with white on the wings, rump, and abdo- men. Surf Duck. See Scoter. Surgeon Fish. See Sea Sur- geon. Surgeons, Military. See Med- ical Department, U. S. Army. Surgeons, Naval. See Medi- cal Department, U. S. Navy. Surgery. Historical. — Surgery dealing with those diseases and injuries which are external and visible naturally received the earliest attention of man, and had already made some progress even in palaeolithic times, thou- sands of years before the days of Homer and at a time when no medical knowledge existed. Pa- laeolithic art has preserved the earliest evidences of surgical craft in the caves of Europe, where drawings representing hands that have been mutilated either acci- dentally or surgically still exist. Some of these drawings represent hands from which one or more of the phalanges have been re- moved, suggesting injuries re- ceived in the handling of the rude flint implements then in use, or amputations as a consequence of such injury. For long ages man, in his prim- itive state, was subject to injuries received in the chase or inflicted Vol. XL— Oct. '17 in battle, and hence surgery had made substantial progress before medicine proper was even a phase of superstition. Civilization first appeared in tropical climates for the reason that in such surround- ings the needs and wants of the body are easily satisfied, and lei- sure was enjoyed in which men began to meditate and study their relationship to environ- ment. Accordingly, we find in such civilizations the first evi- dences of some advancement in surgical knowledge and art. Egyptologists have discovered the evidences in papyri that sur- gery had made considerable ad- vancement in Egypt as early as 5000 or 6000 B.C. Instruments had been devised for special oper- ations, practitioners had begun to limit their work to certain specialties, the actual cautery was in use. also massage, oint- ments, steam inhalations, and plasters. Dentistry and veterin- ary surgery had likewise received some attention. That surgical knowledge and skill was by no means confined to those who might be called professionals is shown by ancient writings which have come down to us. Thus Homer relates that Ulysses while boar hunting was gored in the knee by the wild beast, and that the wound thus produced was closed and successfully treated by his companions. In Greece surgery had attained high development before Hippo- crates put medicine on a rational basis, and in the Hippocratic books we find a rich collection of surgical doctrine and practice drawn from centuries of experi- ence. Medical scholarship has proved that many of the rarest forms of dislocation had not es- caped Hippocrates. Even mod- ern appliances were in great part anticipated by him: splints, for example, and bandages of vari- ous kinds. As in the case of medical lore, primitive surgical knowledge and skill were confined chiefly to the priesthood; and in the ancient Greek school of Kos, whose great- est surgeon was Praxagoras, no distinction was drawn between surgery a;id other branches of the healing art. The Alexan- drian physicians linked surgical methods and practice with those of medicine, and left a distinct mark on every branch of healing. No sketch of the history of surgery would be complete with- out a reference to Galen (q.v.), who died about the year a.d. 200. He was for a long time surgeon to the gladiators, and did more surgical work than has common- ly been supposed. His experi- ence in the circus taught him that the arteries carried blood, and that hemorrhage from arter- ies could be arrested by the ap- plication of the ligature. His knowledge of anatomy enabled him to perform operations which would otherwise have been im- possible, among which may be instanced one whereby he re- moved a large part of the ster- num and costal cartilages, to- gether with the underlying peri- cardium, in the case of a boy who had been injured in the cir- cus. Though the heart itself was thus exposed the patient re- covered. Celsus (q.v.), the patrician dil- ettante in medicine, is really the highest name in Roman surgery, though it is doubtful whether he ever operated. Of the eight books of his admirably written work, the last two treat of sur- gery, including plastic replace- ment of defects in the outer ear, the nose, and the lips; lithotomy as practised on boys (a cele- brated chapter) ; amputation, previously described by no other author; diseases of the bones, with the operation of trephining, fractures simple and compound, and dislocations. The Arabs borrowed their sur- gery from the Greeks, chiefly from Paulus ^Egineta, even more slavishly than their medicine. Their neglect of anatomy and their Oriental repugnance to op- erations involving the effusion of blood serve to explain the fact that except Abulkasim or Albu- casis (d. 1122) they contribute no memorable name to this branch of the healing art. ^ During this period the prac- tice of medicine was largely mon- opolized by th(^ priests, but by a canon of the church they were forbidden to draw blood, on pain of excommunication, and hence they abandoned surgery to the uneducated and ignorant. Ow- ing largely to this circumstance surgery retrograded rather than advanced during many centuries, notwithstanding the fact that here and there efforts were made to improve the situation, so that this branch of the healing art was almost wholly in the hands of ignorant barbers, bathers, and bone setters. In order that we may understand just what this meant to surgery it may be stated that no mechanic or arti- san might take as an apprentice any youth from a family in which there were either barbers, bath keepers, shepherds, or butchers. Thus low had surgery sunk by the close of the thirteenth cen- tury. Throughout the Middle Ages surgical literature seems to have shared the fortunes of medical literature. First the Greeks were in the ascendant, then their ser- Surgery KFP 555 Surgery vile imitators, the Arabs, The earliest mediaeval writers in sur- gery were Italians, followed in the fourteenth century by the French, while the same period witnessed the first English, Dutch, and German books on the subject. Guy de Chauliac, the highest name in that cen- tury, labored to bridge the chasm between surgery and other branches of medicine. For all that, the mediaeval surgeon in eastern Europe remained far be- hind his predecessors of the Ro- man and Byzantine Empires. With the opening of the six- teenth century occurred a won- derful awakening in every de- partment of human knowledge, communicated by the Renais- sance. Anatomy began to be studied systematically and in rather minute detail. This was the century of Da Vinci, Vesa- lius, Fallopius, Sylvius, Eusta- chius, Arantius, Varolius, Pic- colhominus, Fabricius ad Aqua- pendente, Servetus, and Matteo Realdo Columbo, all of whom made substantial additions to anatomic knowledge. Practical men appeared* who attempted to improve surgical technique and widen its field of usefulness. A number of new operations were performed for the first time dur- ing this century, and procedures long lost sight of were either^ re- discovered or reintroduced into practice. Ambrose Pare (q. v.), for example, rediscovered the use of the ligature in the control of hemorrhage, performed the first excision of the elbow joint, and ligated bleeding vessels when amputating extremities. At the same time more or less success- ful efforts were made to improve the social and professional status of surgeons. In this the way had been led by Paris with her College of Surgeons (College de St. Come, 1279), which in spite of the uni- versity faculty gained the right to create licentiates in surgery. Other qualifying corporations arose gradually on similar lines. With the diffusion of juster and more comprehensive notions of structure and function, surgery took bolder and more effective flights, reaching her highest point of the seventeenth century under Richard Wiseman, 'the father of English surgery,' from whose Seven Chiriirgical Trea- tises may be gathered the great accessions he made to sound practice, particularly in tumors, wounds, fractures, and disloca- tions. To the distinguished anat- omists Mascagni, Brcschet, the brothers John and Charles Bell, Tiedemann, and C. M. Langen- beck, seconded by physiologists like Panizzo, Bell, Marshall Hall, Magendie, Flourens, and Bernard, the Brothers Weber, and Joannes Miiller, surgery owes the mighty advances she made in the first decades of the nineteenth century. Until well into the nineteenth century the most important qual- ification of the surgeon was ra- pidity of action. The terrible suffering incident to any opera- tion was such that no one would submit to surgery except as a last resort. Attempts to mitigate or abolish such agony are as old as medicine itself, and Homer refers to a remedy used by Helen to relieve pain and produce for- getfulness. The Greeks, Romans, and Arabs made attempts in this direction, as well as the Assyri- ans and Chinese. Herodotus says that the Scythians made use of inhalations of some kind of hemp for this purpose. But it remained for the nineteenth century to de- velop a practical and compara- tively safe method of producing that condition to which Oliver Wendell Holmes . applied the term anaesthesia. The introduction of anaesthet- ics broadened the field of sur- gery, and greatly increased the number of operations performed, thus conserving human life, but the mortality after operations maintained a high level. This was partly due to the shock in- cident to the operation itself, the anaesthetic, the accompanying loss of blood, and the septic in- fection ar ising at the time of the operation. When the prevention of hemorrhage during an opera- tion is observed at the present time to be so simple a thing it seems strange that the artery forceps was not invented until recent years. This one invention has been the means of saving an enormous number of those who would otherwise have suc- cumbed. At the present time many operations of an extensive nature are performed with the loss of an insignificant amount of blood, so that death from shock due to this cause is a rare event. Before the introduction of an- aesthetics in 1846 by Dr. W. T. G. Morton (q. v.) of Boston, the great desideratum was speed, and much was necessarily sacri- ficed to that. An amputation or a lithotomy was a matter of sec- onds, but the seconds held the compressed agony of hours, for the knife was an instrument of torture and the operating room a shambles. Now, however, the surgeon no longer works against time upon tortured tissues, but upon a placid, sleeping patient, and accurate and careful dissec- tion is the rule. Only after Joseph Lister (q. v.) of England, inspired by the work of Louis Pasteur (q. v.), had in- dicated bacteria as the cause and antisepsis as the remedy of sep- tic conditions could surgeons op- erate with confidence upon tlie thoracic and abdominal organs, and attack the brain and the heart itself. Unfavorable results still occur, because individual idiosyncrasies must ever exist, but the element of chance is eliminated from the equation. Since the introduction of an- aesthesia and the enunciation of anitseptic doctrines, further progress has been mainly in elab- oration and practical application of the principles involved. New anaesthetics have been intro- duced, as well as spinal, rectal and_ intravenous modes of ad- niinistration, each with its spe- cial indications. Advances and improvements in surgery have been many and great during the past two or three decades, but they have been mostly along the lines of improved technique : the inven- tion of mechanical devices calcu- lated to shorten the time con- sumed in an operation ; the elab- oration of improved methods of securing asepsis, and in effecting disinfection of operative fields ; the adoption of procedures cal- culated to lessen shock ; and re- finements in diagnostic acumen. Operative Procedure, — Sur- gical treatment of an operative nature may be necessary for (1) congenital defects, such as hare lip or club foot; (2) acquired defects, such as broken limbs or lacerated tissues; (3) the re- moval of foreign substances, such as bullets or calculi, from within the body; (4) the remov- al of diseased or injured struc> tures, which may constitute a danger or cause discomfort to the patient, such as gangrenous tissues, malignant tumors, ne- crosed bones, or carious teeth ; (5) the relief of conditions which threaten a patient with in- evitable death, such as arterial hemorrhage, laryngeal, intesti- nal, or urethral obstruction, strangulated hernia, or the pres- sure of intrathoracic effusions ; (6) the substitution of new for lost tissues, by transplantation of skin, bone, tendons or nerves, or by introduction of mechanical prostheses. Major surgical operations are usually performed in operating rooms of hospitals. These rooms are well lighted, both artificially and naturally, and are lined with tile or other material to make them easily cleaned and free frorn dust. New methods of ven- tilation, air-conditioning and heat regulation as well as ultra- violet irradiation of the air in operating roorns has greatly di- minished the incidence of post- operative infection. When rooms Surgery KFP 555 A Surgery in a private house are used, they must be either stripped and thor- oughly wiped out, or all furnish- ings must be covered with ster- ile sheets. The operating room should contain a minimum amount of furniture only of such a nature as can be washed and scrubbed. Preoperative measures direct- ed toward increasing resistance include attention to diet, rest and elimination with cardiotonics and blood transfusions if indicated, and saline and glucose infusions to restore fluid and chloride bal- ance. Great advances have been made in blood transfusion, the blood type required by the pa- tient being deterrnined, and suit- able blood supplied by special donors or from blood banks where blood is stored. Also blood plasma and various other blood substitutes may be used for transfusion, all of which have contributed their part to lower- ing the mortality rates of sur- gical operations. Also foods can be administered intravenovisly to patients unable to take nourish- ment by mouth. Anaesthetization must likewise be preceded by proper prelimi- nary treatment to prevent toxic and psychic reactions as well as postoperative complications. Some major operations are done under local anaesthesia by injecting various solutions un- der the skin or into the spine to deaden pain. Instruments are boiled 15 min- utes in a dilute solution of soda to avoid rust, and all dressings, towels, sheets, gauze and gloves needed for operative purposes are prepared by sterilization un- der heavy steam pressure which penetrates every fiber and kills all microbes. The surgeon, assistants, and nurse, who handle instruments and other surgical materials, must prepare by vigorous scrub- bings of their hands and arms in running sterile water with brush and soap. Nails are thor- oughly cleansed and kept short, and after a ten-minute scrubbing the arms are soaked in various antiseptic solutions which kill any remaining germs. All at- tendants who are to come into contact with the operative field are supplied with muslin caps and masks which cover the head, nose and mouth, to avoid germs or other material dropping from the head, or being ejected in spray when talking, onto the operative field. Sterile muslin gowns are donned by all, and sterile rubber gloves are worn on the hands, with the gown sleeves tucked in so that no part of the operator's skin can come into contact with the patient's wound. The patient is brought in on the operating table, asleep ; his shaven skin over and around the site selected for operation is scrubbed with soap and water and antiseptic chemicals ; or is daubed, while dry, with various solutions which destroy germs lying on it. Sterile towels are pinned about the operative site, and over all an operative sheet, with a suitable hole in its center, is placed. This covers the pa- tient and makes the field sterile, so that the operators can ap- proach it and not contaminate their own surgical cleanliness. Technical operative procedure follows : The skin is cut, in this sterile field, in the location, di- rection, and extent that the op- erator thinks necessary. Tiny and large bleeding points are stopped by clamping on steel instruments called hemostats (blood stoppers), and the sur- geon continues his way, separat- ing or cutting deeper structures according to the demands of tlie disease being attacked until he has made proper exposure. New methods for combatting hemor- rhage include application of fi- brin foam, a combination of sol- uble cellulose and human throm- bin, and administration of chem- icals controlling coagulation. Vitamin K has also been found useful for this purpose. Flat- bjaded steel instruments with right-angled handles are slipped between the lips of the wound, and an assistant gently but firm- ly retracts the opening. The sur- geon then proceeds to locate the seat of trouble and attempts its removal or repair. Minimum handling of tissues, stoppage of oozing blood and the avoidance of spreading pus when encountered are imperative. In abdominal operations gauze 'sponges' are used to hold intes- tines out of the way while work is being performed on a certain part. They are all counted be- fore and after use by the nurse and assistant. An instrument table of adjust- able height, covered by a thick sterile sac and _ an additional towel, holds the instruments the surgeon will need, including knife, scissors, forceps for pick- ing up-bleeding points, tissue for- ceps, and a counted number of small gauze 'sponges' used for wiping away oozing hemorrhage that might obscure the field. Blood for transfusion, electro- lyte and protein solutions for parenteral administration as well as oxygen, CO2 and apparatus for artificial respiration are all kept in readiness for instant use should occasion demand. As the operating surgeon per- forms the progressive steps of the procedure, his first assistant. or senior interne, has ready the instruments he may require, or wipes out the wound to give clear vision. A well-trained as- sistant can anticipate each desire of the surgeon, and be of the greatest help without requiring spoken commands. One assistant ties bleeding points, cuts off knotted stitches and ligatures, and hands the operator needles and thread. A second assistant watches carefully against blood leakage, holds retracting instru- ments, and requests from the op- erating nurse, as much in ad- vance as he can foresee, all in- struments and supplies that will be needed. The operating nurse has a sep- arate table a few feet distant from the operating table, on which are placed, in carefully arranged order, all instruments, sutures, ligatures, needles, dress- ings, and other supplies required for the special operation under- taken. It is her duty to quietly and rapidly pass instruments, to cut off suitable lengths of threads and ligatures for sewing, mak- ing sure that none are missing when the operation is finished. She must then thoroughly wash all instruments, r^dles, and gloves, and re-sterilize them be-, fore they are put away. As an illustrative operation, simple appendectomy one of the most frequent operations under- taken, for removal of an in- flamed appendix that has not ruptured and is not surrounded by an abscess may be briefly de- scribed. Following diagnosis and consent for operative removal the site of the inflamed appendix can frequently be determined by palpation of the abdomen in. the anaesthetized patient. Rapidly but carefully the incision is made and each step is passed through until the deeper muscles are separated or cut exposing the last lining membrane or sack which encloses the abdominal organs. Following incision of the lin- ing membrane a finger is in- serted, the opening enlarged to the size of the skin wound with scissors, and the appendix is lo- cated. Once it is located, it is lifted gently into the wound, the intestine being held back by a soft gauze sponge. The appen- dix is tied off at its base, its blood supply is controlled by ty- ing the artery which feeds it, and its raw base is neatly tucked in beneath a purse string suture of the bowel wall about it. Great progress has been made in the management of appendicitis by education of the public regard- ing the danger of indiscriminate use of cathartics, by the advent of the sulfonamides and penicil- lin to combat infection and the Surgery KFP 555 B Surgery routine use of gastrointestinal decompression by means of the Miller-Abbott tube in cases with threatening dynamic ileus. Closure of the wound depends on the character of the disease found. Clean wounds, without pus, are generally closed tightly, each layer of the tissues being sewn together by stitches with a curved needle. In deep layers of the human body absorbable su- tures of sterilized animal gut disappear after a fevy weeks when the parts have united. Ex- ceptionally, as in the intestines, silk or fine linen sutures are used. Skin is closed very accu- rately by sewing with different materials as linen, silk, silk- worm gut, or by small metal clasps which are sprung togeth- er, holding the cut skin edge in exact approximation. These ma- terials are usually non-absorb- able and are removed later by the surgeon when the skin has united. Newer suture materials, including plasma clot, living fascia and nylon, have yielded good results. Drainage is sometimes used to carry off blocfdy or other secre- tions or pus. It may be a rub- ber tube with holes cut in it or gauze rolled up in gutta-percha sheets to form the cigarette drain. Various materials are used. While the skin is being closed the anaesthetic is generally stopped. The minimum amount of anaesthesia needed for the particular condition is desirable. Dressings are placed over the closed wound, held by adhesive tape or pinned binders and bandages, and the patient is care- fully lifted onto a blanketed cart for removal to bed. He is care- fully covered from drafts and the surgeon makes sure that his condition is satisfactory before he leaves. In the postoperative care of the patient emphasis is likewise placed on restoring as rapidly as possible the disturbed physio- chemical balance by adrnmistra- tion of fluids and chlorides, on relief of pain and stimulating the cardiovascular system to pre- vent surgical shock. After oper- ation as before it may be neces- sary to feed the patient paren- terally. New measures to pre- vent postoperative complications include vein ligation, and ad- ministration of heparin or di- coumarin to prevent thrombosis and embolism. Early exercises for the legs as well as earlier rising after operation have also been found useful in this re- spect. More attention is_ given to the position of the patient than formerly, both as a means of im- proving circulation and afford- ing natural drainage. There is no doubt that the discovery of drugs such as sulfonamides and penicillin will greatly change the indications and technic of_ sur- gery, as some conditions hither- to considered as amenable only to surgical treatment will re- spond to medical measures, and many operations hitherto consid- ered too risky owing to the dan- ger of infection and fatal results will now be possible. Also ad- vances in the roentgenographic and radium treatment of cancer will limit the scope of surgery in some cases and extend it in others. Education of the public as to the great importance of early diagnosis and early consul- tation for minor lesions will do much toward reducing the mor- tality rates of cancer, which in its earliest stages will almost in- variably respond to complete surgical removal. Surgery of the Central, Pe- ripheral and Sympathetic Nerv- ous Systems. — Great strides have been made in recent years in the diagnosis and treatment of cere- bral tumors. Now about ten per cent of intracranial tumors are amenable to surgical treatment. At a medical meeting a large number of patients carried on a plate the tumors which had been removed from their brains some time previously. All of these pa- tients had made a complete re- covery. Their cases at one time would have been regarded as in- curable and shortly fatal. Diagnosis of the situation and nature of the growth can be ac- complished by a study of the lo- calizing symptoms. Localization may also be aided by injection of air or opaque fluids for en- cephalography, ventriculography, cerebral arteriography, and ra- diology. Disturbance of sensa- tion or loss of power in the hand, arm, or leg, for instance, sug- gests a lesion in the center of the brain cortex subservijig these functions. In cases which are doubtfully operable an exploratory opera- tion is justifiable. Exposure of the tumor may not only reveal a condition more favorable than was indicated by the symptoms, but removal of intracranial pres- sure may relieve pain, prolong life, and in a few cases bring about the absorption of the tu- mor. Medical treatment of cere- bral tumors,^ except in the case of syphilis, is practically of no avail. Recently encoviraging re- sults have been reported in relief of certain forms of mental dis- ease by operations on the frontal lobes of the brain. Surgery of the spinal cord has likewise made remarkable prog- ress in recent years. Removal of intraspinal pres- sure serves as valuable a pur- pose as does the removal of in- tracranial pressure in inoperable intracranial tumors. The most important advance in the surgery of the peripheral nerves has been the demonstra- tion that a divided or severed nerve will regenerate much more certainly if the site of union of the divided ends be wrapped around with a cuff of fat, fascia, or tantalum foil. Also plasma clot has been used instead of su- tures to unite severed nerves. Great progress has been made in the alleviation of pain by al- cohol injection of nerves, opera- tions on the spinal cord and by sympathectomy. Among diseases responding to the latter surgical procedure may be mentioned ar- thritis, scleroderma, Raynaud's disease, Buerger's disease, con- genital dilatation of the colon, spastic paraplegias and dysmen- orrhea. Patients suffering the cruel agonies of tabes dorsalis or inoperable cancer can be relieved of their pain by chordotomy. Abdominal Surgery, — Ad- vances in abdominal surgery have been quite remarkable, the most conspicuous being in rela- tion to diseases of the stomach, gall bladder, and pancreas. Cases of simple ulcer in the stomach or duodenum, and of malignant dis- ease of the stomach or bowel, are successfvilly operated on every day. An exploratory operation (laparotomy) is now resorted to in a large number of cases in which ordinary diagnostic meth- ods or peritoneoscopy fail. It consists of a simple exploratory incision, the risks of the opera- tion in the hands of a capable surgeon being insignificant, and the advantages to the patient very great, especially if the con- dition is early malignant disease. (See Laparotomy). The stom- ach may be removed in whole or in part. The former operation, however, being a much more se- rious one is used only in cases of advanced malignancy. Many feet of the small intestine can be successfully removed for acute intestinal obstruction or other conditions, and practically the whole of the large intestine has been removed for relief of intractable chronic constipation. These operations have been made possible by improved tech- nique in anastomosing different portions of the digestive tract. Thus in disease of the pyloric end of the stomach, relief or cure is frequently effected by the op- eration of gastro-enterostomy — i.e., stitching the stomach to a portion of small intestine lower down, whereby the food passes directly into the bowel, and does not come in contact with the dis- eased area. Gastro-enterostomy has become one of the common- Surgery KFP 555 C Surgery places in surgery. It is, as a rule, an easy and safe operation — so much so, indeed, that it has sometimes been performed in cases in which it was hardly suitable. At present surgeons are resorting less frequently to this operation in cases of disease oth- er than malignant growths. In abdominal surgery mortality has been greatly reduced by the use of parenteral and jejunal feed- ing, and application of the newer drugs to combat infection. The use of such apparatus as the Wangenstein suction apparatus and the Miller-Abbott tube has proved lifesaving in many cases. Early ambulation following ab- dominal operation is advocated by many surgeons. Equally conspicuous has been the advance in the surgery of the gall bladder and bile ducts, and operations are now frequently performed for the relief or cure of diseases which previously were left to take their course. The chief operation, apart from excision for malignant disease, is drainage of the gall bladder — either externally through the ab- dominal wall, or internally by anastomosing the gall bladder with the intestine lower down (cholecystenterostomy). Vitalli- um tubes have been used with good results to re-establish con- tinuity of injured bile ducts. In operations on the gall bladder, as well as in many other operations impaired hepatic function should be restored before operation by administration of a diet rich in carbohydrates and proteins and ample amounts of vitamins, _ in particular vitamin B and vita- min K. That comparatively inac- cessible organ, the pancreas, is likewise now handled with com- parative impunity by the sur- geon. More especially the condi- tion of pancreatitis — acute, sub- acute, and chronic varieties — has yielded brilliant results in the hands of many surgeons. By means of laboratory tests such as the serum lipase and se- rum amylase tests surgeons are now able to distinguish between operable and inoperable forms of pancreatitis, and the biochemists have contributed organic prepa- rations such as lipocaic for ad- ministration following pancre- atectomy. (See Pancreatitis). Genito-Urinary Surgery. — The most noteworthy feature in this department in recent years has been the development of the sur- gery of the prostate gland. Large tumors of this gland, weighing many pounds, are now success- fully removed, leaving the pa- tient permanently recovered. Cancer of the prostate in early stages can be cured by operation. In more advanced stages tem- porary regression and relief can be obtained by bilateral orchi- dectomy or estrogentherapy. De- capsulation of the kidneys has yielded good results in some cases of toxic nephritis and ne- phrectomy is also recommended in certain types of hypertension. In obstetric surgery, Cesarean section has proved the means of materially reducing the infant and maternity mortality rates. Careful evaluation of results has clarified the indications for this procedure. By its use in properly selected cases of pelvic dystocia the lives of mothers and babies to whom the natural route of delivery could prove fatal have been saved. Surgery of the Heart and Blood Vessels. — Cases have re- cently been recorded in which the heart has been successfully stitched up for penetrating wounds of that organ. The prognosis of suppurative pericarditis has been markedly improved by the interventions of pericardiotomy and pericardec- tomy. In many instances the surgeon can now remove an em- bolus and suture the affected vessel thus saving the lives of patients hitherto considered as doomed to certain death. Opera- tions on the blood vessels include ligation of the patent ductus ar- teriosus, a congenital condition hitherto regarded as inoperable, aortectomy for aneurysms and ligation of the femoral vein for varicose veins. Thoracic Surgery* — Prog- ress in this field has greatly re- duced the mortality in tumors and other diseases of the lungs and other thoracic organs, _ and has definitely extended the indi- cations for surgical treatment of tuberculosis. In lung abscess em- phasis is placed on early drain- age and accurate localization of the bronchopulmonary segment involved. The latter is rendered possible by lipiodol bronchogra- ,phy and cancer can be excluded by bronchoscopy. Total lobec- tomy is recommended in some cases. Lobectomy and^ pneumo- nectomy are indicated in certain forms of pulmonary tuberculosis in which ordinary measures fail. Many tuberculous patients have recovered and returned to work following the operation on the chest wall known as thoraco- plasty which permits collapse of the diseased lung. Careful aspi- ration of secretions and adminis- tration of oxygen or CO2 as re- quired have greatly reduced the mortality of these operations. Interesting phases of surgery of the endocrine glands include the preoperative use of thioura- cil in surgery of the thyroid, re- moval of the thymus gland in myasthenia gravis, of the adre- nal in tumors of that gland lead- ing to premature puberty and masculinization. Many new and promising interventions have been developed such as the fe- nestration operation for inner ear deafness, surgical removal of ruptured intervertebral discs to relieve low back pain, the re- moval of testicles in carcinoma of the prostate and surgical or roentgen castration of the ova- ries in cancer of the female breast. Only time can prove the final worth of these operations. Attempts have also been made to supply deficient glandular func- tion by_ implantation of animal glands into human subjects, as in the famous monkey-gland op- erations of Voronof that had re- juvenating properties. The recent interest in geriat- rics is manifested also by nu- merous studies on the effects of surgery in the aged. Old people do not react to surgical inter- ventions in the same manner as younger patients, and the sur- geon must adapt his technic ac- cordingly. This is important con- sidering the fact that for years to come the higher age groups will constitute an increasing proportion of the population. The danger of emergency opera- tions in old persons is stressed and for this reason preventive surgery is especially important in this group of patients. They need special preoperative care and postoperative attention to combat the weaknesses to which age is subject. War Surgery, — The First World War exerted marked in- fluence on surgery, though chief- ly in surgery devoted to the treatment of wounds and infec- tions, and to the performance of plastic operations. Military surgery differs from the surgery of civil life princi- pally in the added difficulties en- countered, the extensively lacer- ated, contused wounds with shat- tered and comminuted bones that are met with, the almost _ inevi- table and practically universal primary infection of wounds of war, the lack of hospital facili- ties, and the great number of cases brought for treatment in a very short time. The general surgical principles _ remain the same — the general lines of treat- ment are identical — but the character of the wounds seen in military operations is entirely different from those ordinarily seen in civil practice, and the conditions under which they must be treated are entirely un- like those of civil life. Probably the nearest approximation to wounds of war seen in civil life is encountered in machinery or railroad accidents, but even here surgical assistance, under good hospital conditions, is much Surgery KFP 555 D Surgery more quickly given, and primary- infection not liable to be so viru- lent and extensive. The work of the military sur- geon in campaign is divided into three zones — the zone of the ad- vance, the lines of communica- tion, and the home territory. The regimental surgeons are the first professional men to see the wounded, but at the front, under fire, little can be done. The first- aid packet issued to officers and soldiers is of value in preventing secondary infection from out- side, but is of no use in over- coming the primary, deep infec- tion of the tissues. On the firing line the surgeon can do very little. He oversees the collection of the wounded, checks hemorrhage, if necessary, puts on a light dressing, and does what he can to immobilize frac- tured bones with such crude means as he has at hand. He makes his patients ready for transfer to the rear, first by lit- ter squads to the dressing sta- tion, where anti-tetanic _serum_ is given each patient provided with a 'diagnosis tag.' Then ambu- lance companies load them on motor ambulances and remove them to the field hospital. Here something may be done in the way of surgery, but not very much, as the surgeons must keep the establishments ready to be moved forward at a moment's notice if the command advances, or to retreat if it falls back. Sur- gery here must be confined to cleaning up, renewing splints, putting on fresh dressings, giv- mg anti-tetanic serum (and this is now given to every wounded man), if it has not already been given at the dressing station, and doing only such emergency op- erating as is absolutely neces- sary to save life, check hemor- rhage, and prepare the patients for transport. With each successive war the missiles and weapons invented by man have become more dead- ly, the initial mortality on the battle field higher, and the wounds of the surviving more extensive and mutilating. To restore and rehabilitate the wounded has in each instance furnished a new impetus to the surgeon for invention of new op- erations, instruments and meth- ods of treatment. Hitherto our surgeons and medical men have been able to keep pace with the new demands made on their skill and ingenuity. Now that the new zenith in destructive force has been reached with the advent of the atomic bomb and its mysteri- ous and ill understood effects, the problem of restoration will become immeasurably more com- plicated, if not indeed insoluble. Fortunately it was used for the first time at the very end of the Second World War, and there seems reason to hope that its use will be abandoned as a matter of self preservation of the human race. As in all previous wars, so in the Second World War, innu- merable devices, methods and operations were developed to meet the emergencies encoun- tered. War is a great school for surgeons, in that their technic can be tested on vast numbers, and the advantages of this or that method can be statistically demonstrated. As indicated above, the wounds in this war were more severe and extensive than those encountered in previ- ous wars. Certain types of war wounds, such as burns and blast injuries, received special atten- tion. The most severe wounds were penetrating abdominal wounds, thoracic injuries and head injuries. Patients with such injuries are given priority in transportation to the hospital un- less immediate operation is indi- cated. Improved results in the treatment of penetrating abdom- inal wounds were obtained by the use of blood transfusions be- fore, during and after operation. Wounds of the large bowel and rectum were exteriorized. The serious problem of man- agement of large sucking wounds of the chest was solved by packing those which could not be closed immediately with ster- ile vaselinized gauze fixed by adhesive plaster. Thoracoplasty could then be performed at a later date. Aspiration of blood and replacement by air may be necessary in some cases. These patients require a prolonged con- valescence. Early operation is indicated for massive clotting of blood in the pleural cavity, em- ploying penicillin to combat in- fection. In the treatment of frac- tures, immobilization is neces- sary, but casts should be split, fenestrated or bivalved so as to prevent circulatory disturbances and to permit frequent observa- tion of the wound. The greatest advance in the treatment of cra- nial injuries is the use of tanta- lum plate to^ replace defects. The use of refrigeration anaesthesia for amputation has greatly di- minished the number of deaths from gangrene, not only in dia- betics but also in traumatic in- juries. Shock, hemorrhage and infection are less common fol- lowing this form of anaesthesia. With the limb frozen a lower amputation is possible and the stump is less likely to become necrotic. Although experience in war surgery is a great asset, it must be kept in mind that the training of large numbers of young sur- geons was cut short by their in- duction into military service, and that unless some provision is made for completion of this interrupted training, there will be a definite shortage of well trained surgeons for the next few years. It is hoped that pro- vision for graduate training with refresher courses and an in- creased number of residencies will help to overcome this situ- ation, A great contribution to re- ducing mortality among wound- ed soldiers was made by the Rus- sians in transfusion of blood from the dead to the living and perfecting means for the storage and transportation of blood. A great forward step in the Sec- ond World War was the ad- vancement of surgical service nearer to the front lines. Not only new drugs and blood were transported by plane to the scene of battle, but evacuation of the wounded to base hospitals and burn centers was greatly facili- tated and accelerated by the more modern means of trans- portation. In some instances where hospitals had been de- stroyed by enemy fire or other- wise, whole hospitals were trans- ported including beds, instru- ments and apparatus from thou- sands of miles_ away within^ a few days. In this manner the in- terval between the time of injury and definitive surgery could be greatly reduced with demonstra- ble improvement in the final re- sults of wound treatment. An- other detail contributing to these results was the routine adminis- tration of 'booster' doses of tet- anus toxoid at the first dressing station or at the field hospital even though soldiers had re- ceived anti-tetanus inoculation on induction. In the combat zone, wound treatment included meas- ures to combat shock and blood loss, debridement, application of sulfonamides and occlusive dressing to prepare the soldier for evacuation. In cases in which whole blood was not available, blood plasma or other blood sub- stitutes were used to tide the pa- tient over to such time when whole blood could be produced. Penicillin contributed greatly to the reduced incidence of gas gangrene in the wounded and was utilized to prevent early in- fection of the wound, to control infection during the first weeks following injury and to combat sepsis in later stages. Transportation from the firing line to the base hospital is ac- complished first by litter squads, then by ambulances, then by hos- pital trains, boats, ships, and planes. In addition to these, sup- ply wagons, ammunition trains, returning troopships, and cargo Surgery KFP 555 E Surgery planes are utilized, when going back empty to the base of opera- tions, to carry wounded. Motor and air transportation, exten- sively used in the present war, has been of great value in reduc- ing the time between the receipt of the injury and the admission of the patient to the hospital. Motor hospital units are now brought very close to the firing line, which provide in mobile form operating facilities assem- bled in a number of automobile trucks. These units have resulted in the saving of many lives. At the base hospital, not ex- posed to fire, more careful defi- nite surgical procedures are pos- sible ; and this is the point where experienced surgeons can save life and limb, under conditions that give time and opportunity for the careful study of the cases and for deliberate surgery. It is here that infected wounds may be systematically sterilized, preferably by the Carrel-Dakin method, which has done much to expedite healing, but which re- quires great care, patience, and skill to secure good results. (See Antiseptics). While it may occasionally happen that a flesh wound in- flicted by rifle projectile escapes primary infection, and heals promptly if protected from sec- ondary infection by a first-aid packet, any wound inflicted by a rifle bullet, complicated by frac- ture of bone, and any wound in- flicted by shell fragment or shrapnel bullet, is practically certain to be deeply, primarily, and extensively infected, and must be treated from the start with that idea in view. What to do for abdominal wounds in war has been much discussed, and the final conclu- sion seems to be as follows : If the patient is seen within twelve hours after being wounded, and the track of the bullet is such as to make it almost impossible for the hollow viscera to have es- caped injury, exploratory lapar- otomy is to be done without delay and without waiting for symptoms of peritonitis to de- velop — always provided that the patient can be brought to a place where there are facilities for clean and deliberate operating, with plenty of time and trained assistants. Under such condi- tions good results are obtainable. If the location of the bullet track is such as to make it probable that no hollow viscus has been injured, the case may wait, for wounds of the solid viscera, un- less immediately fatal from hem- orrhage, offer a much better prognosis than wounds of the hollow viscera. Plastic surgery is a compara- tively modern branch of surgery which has attained enormous importance. The number of op- erations performed for the relief of mere disability or disfigure- ment has greatly increased. Thus a patient undergoes an operation for hernia to avoid the incon- venience of wearing a truss. An- other has a limb fractured and reset to overcome a deformity, and cleft palates, lop ears, and unshapely noses are promptly submitted to the surgeon for cor- rection. The treatment of de- formities has become a specialty, orthopaedic surgery. Operations to improve scars and unsightly features constitute plastic sur- gery. To this science the First World War experience contrib- uted a great deal. Not only have important ad- vances been made in the science of wound healing, including the use of many new drugs and or- ganic substances such as allan- toin, cod liver oil and the dried red blood cells salvaged from plasma fabrication, but new methods of skin grafting, bone grafting and nerve grafting have been evolved. The use of frozen skin grafts renders it possible that before long we shall have skin banks as well as blood banks. One of the most sensa- tional advances in plastic sur- gery has been transplantation of the cornea from the cadaver to restore vision. In this connec- tion, too, we begin to hear of eye banks. Synthetic resins are be- ing employed for the fabrication of protheses to replace missing eyeballs and other facial parts. Recently a method of attaching the eye prosthesis to the ocular muscles has made it possible to produce even a moving eyeball. The race to perfect prostheses for limbs in order to reduce to a minimum the disability of our returned soldiers is on. New cen- ters for group re-education and rehabilitation have been formed. Industries have been canvassed to locate jobs in which the pe- culiar disabilities of_ the war wounded and war blinded will not be disqualifying. In this manner also the victims of in- juries in civil life will be bene- fited. Industrial surgery likewise is becoming better organized, as employers and workers alike realize the advantages of early and adequate treatment of minor injuries. Accidents are carefully recorded to meet the demands of insurance companies and com- pensation boards. Surgical Instruments^ — One of the chief factors in the devel- opment of surgery during the past century, ranking in impor- tance with the discoveries of an- aesthesia and antisepsis, has been the improvement in operative technique, largely made possible by the constantly increasing skill brought to the invention and manufacture of surgical instru- ments. Modern surgical equip- ment includes a great variety of instruments adapted to an al- rnost equal variety of special con- ditions. In any discussion of a general character, such as the present article, however, only those instruments in more com- mon use can be described. In general, surgical instru- ments are made entirely of good steel, well tempered, and heavily nickel plated, handles and other parts of wood, bone, ivory, and similar materials having been discarded as unfit for modern methods of heat sterilization. The pattern should be as simple as possible, with a minimum number of deep recesses and grooves to retain dirt, grease, dried blood, and thus add to the difficulty of sterilization. Com- posite instruments, such as those having a spoon at one end and a scalpel at the other, are to be avoided. The instrument should be fairly heavy, and so shaped as to permit a firm grasp by the surgeon. Cutting instruments include knives or scalpels, chisels, gouges, bone saws, scissors, and curettes. Knives or scalpels are of various types. For cutaneous incisions the best is the scalpel with a straight handle and a gen- erous convex curve on the cut- ting edge. Short strong bistou- ries are used for resection, and special knives of small size for the removal of cataracts, iridec- tomy, operations for vesico-vagi- nal fistula, and other special de- partments of surgery. The teno- tome, a narrow-bladed knife de- signed for the division of ten- dons, is employed in cases re- quiring minute punctures. For amputation of the soft parts a scalpel of medivim size, provided with a strong blade, is to be pre- ferred. For the division of bones, ex- cept in very young children, the knife is supplemented by other instruments — notably the oste- otomy _ chisel of varying width and thickness ; the gouge, which is in reality a specially designed chisel having a thick, rounded blade, the extremity of which is bevelled on one face and mould- ed to form a spoon-like cavity ; shears with bent blades, such as are used for the resection of ribs ; the gouge forceps, the bone curette, and straight-edged and circular saws, the latter operated either by hand or by electric mo- tor. The trephine (q. v.) is a spe- cial form of crown saw for re- moving a circular disc of bone, usually from the skull. Scissors are of special value in Surgery KFP 555 F Surgery cases in which it is desired to ob- tain a clean section in a position where it is impossible to give the tissues sufficient tension for cut- ting with the scalpel, as well as for dividing muscles. The most useful type for ordinary surgical purposes are fairly heavy, blunt tipped, with short blades (about 2 inches) curved on the flat, and long handles. Curettes are sharp, spoon-like instruments for re- moving growths and for scrap- ing away diseased tissues. Forceps include a large num- ber of instruments with two blades and handles, used for a variety of purposes. Thumb for- ceps are of two types : flat- bladed dissecting forceps, which depend on the pressure exerted in pressing the blades together to maintain their grasp on the structures on which they are used ; and mouse-toothed for- ceps, with tips terminating in sharp interlocking teeth which maintain their hold by punctur- ing the tissues. Among the vari- ous forms for special uses are : haemostatic or pressure forceps, for grasping bleeding points or vessels for the control of hemor- rhage during operation ; fixation forceps, for holding a part in place during operation, obstetric forceps, for making traction on the foetus in cases of difficult la- bor ; dressing forceps, for grasp- ing lint, drainage tubes, etc., in dressing wounds ; lithotomy for- ceps, for removing stone from the bladder ; alveolar forceps, for removing portions of the al- veolar structure ; and dental for- ceps, for the extraction of teeth. Retractors are flat pieces of metal bent at right angles, some- times terminating in sharp prongs, and provided with a han- dle. They are employed for mak- ing traction on tissues and with- drawing them from the operative field. Probes are slender flexible in- struments for the exploration of wounds and cavities. They in- clude the usual fine silver probe with a bulbous tip, supplemented by larger probes for exploring crooked sinuses ; drum probes, provided with an attachment which emits a sound when in contact with a foreign body ; uterine probes for uterine ex- ploration; besides other types adapted to special surgical prac- tice. Bougies or dilators are intro- duced into the various orifices and canals of the body for the purpose of stretching or enlarg- mg them, as in stricture, and also as guides in operative procedure. Rectal bougies are of flexible gum elastic, vulcanite, or wax, cylindrical or conical in shape, and are arranged for use in grad- uated sizes. They are warmed and oiled before introduction. Urethral bougies are made of both metal and gum elastic. Lis- ter's urethral bougie differs from the usual type in that the end is several sizes larger than the shaft. Oesophageal bougies have bulbous tips — known as olive tips — and are used for dilation of strictures and for diagnostic purposes. Sounds are similar to bougies, but their use is confined strictly to diagnosis. Catheters are tubular instru- ments of various sizes for with- drawing fluids from the body cavities, especially for the emp- tying of the bladder. They are of silver or other metal, or of some elastic material ; they may be of uniform cylindrical shape, or may terminate in some special shape to meet special require- ments. (See Catheter). The speculum is an appliance for widening the natural open- ings of the body so as to bring their interior into the range of vision. Silver or plated metal is generally employed because of its reflective power. The cysto- scope, also used for visual ex- amination, is a hollow metal cyl- inder for examining the interior of the bladder. It has an electric lamp and prism at one end and a lens at the other. The urethro- scopc^ is designed for urethral examination by means of a strong light _ projected along a metal tube introduced into the urethral canal. The oesophagoscope, la- ryngoscope, gastroscope, and sig- moidoscope are constructed along similar lines for the examination of the oesophagus, larynx, stom- ach, and sigmoid flexure. The aspirator is an apparatus for the removal of fluids or gases from a cavity, as for emptying abscesses. Dieulafoy's aspirator, which is typical, consists of a glass cylinder with a piston, and with two openings — one for a trocar and cannula, and one for a discharge tube. The trocar is a perforating rod or stylet, and the cannula a hollow tube through which the fluid may be drawn out (see Trocar). Dur- ing operation more elaborate as- pirating devices are used for continuous suction to remove from the operative field saliva, mucus, blood, pus, urine, cy.stic fluid, or irrigating fluids. (See Aspirator) . Various types of needles are necessary to reunite severed tis- sues. The most convenient form for general use is the fully curved needle with a double cut- ting edge toward the point. Mounted needles find their chief application where sutures are to be deeply placed, while needle holders of the forceps type are utilized in other cases. Metal clips are sometimes employed for the approximation of the edges of skin, but are generally con- sidered less _ satisfactory than careful suturing. For re-uniting severed bone, perforators oper- ated by hand or electric motor are usually required. The application of cinematic methods to surgery with moving X-ray pictures of organic proc- esses and of operations has proved of great service in the teaching of medicine and surgery as well as in diagnosis. In connection with the subject of Surgery, see the articles in this work on Anatomy and Medi- cine, with the cross references there cited ; also names of or- gans and regions of the body, names of tumors, anomalies, surgical diseases and conditions as well as names of instruments and special operations, some of which are listed below : Abortion. Abscess. Acupuncture. Adenitis. Amputation. Aneurism. Anthrax. Antiseptics. Appendix Asepsis. Autoplasty. Bubo. Bursa Caries. Castration. Cataract. Catheter. Cautery. Cicatrization. Circumcision. Cleft Palate. Club Foot. Colectomy. CoUes' Fracture. Dissection. Electricity i Medicine Surgery. Fistula. Gangrene. and Gastrostomy. Goiter. Harelip. Hernia. Hip Joint. Intussusception. Laparotomy. Ligature. Lithotomy. Mastoiditis. Necrosis. Obstetrics. Puerperal Infec- tion. Pyaemia. Rhinoplastic Operations. Rodent Ulcer. Septicaemia. Serum Therapy. Shock. Splints. Suppuration. Sutures. Tonsils. Trephine. Urinary lus. Varicose Veins. Venesection. Calcu- Bibliography* — Whitman, Orthopedic Surgery (1930) ; Kirschner, Operative Surgery (1931); Slaughter, The New Science of Surgery (1946) ; Boyd, Surgical Pathology (1933) ; Eliason, and Others, Surgical Nursing (1934) ; Bab- cock, A Textbook of Surgery (1935); Speed. Textbook 6 f Fractures and Dislocations (1935) ; Blair, et al., Essentials of Oral Surgery (1936) ; Bur- rows, Surgical Instruments and Appliances (1936) ; Christopher, Minor Surgery (1936) ; Davis, Neurological Surgery (1936) ; Homans (comp.), A Textbook of Surgery (1936) ; SarnoflP, Sarnoff Surgical Motion Picture Library Index (1936) ; Gask and Ross, The Surgery of the Sympathetic Nervous System (1937) ; Hoppe and Halverson, A Manual of Operative Proce- dure (1937) ; Horsley, et at.. Op- Surgical Association KFP 556 Surveying erative Surgery (1937) ; G. Mas- sie, Surgical Anatomy (1937) ; R. L. Mason, Preoperative and Postoperative Treatment (1937) ; J. P. Warbasse and E. M. Smyth, Jr., Surgical Treatment (1937). Surgical Association, American. A scientific body formed in 1880 for the advance- ment of surgical science. It holds annual meetings in different cities, and publishes annual Transactions. Suricate. See Meerkat. Surigao, province, Philip- pines. Northeast Mindanao. It is separated from Leyte by Suri- gao Strait, and has many deep inlets. It is mountainous in the N. and s.w. ; chief rivers are the Agusan and Tubay. It has rich forests and gold is washed. Area, 12,539 sq. m. Pop. (with islands) 110,000. Surigao is the capital with population of 15,- 772. Surinam. See Dutch Guiana. Surinam, river, Dutch Guiana, flows north through the colony to enter the Atlantic near Para- maribo. Length about 400 miles. Surinam Toad, a large toad (Pipa americana), found in Gui- ana. It is included in the Aglossa, or tongueless toads, and is purely aquatic in its habits. The head is depressed and triangular in shape; the skin is covered with email tubercles; the digits on the fore limb are slender, free from one another, and furnished with star-shaped processes at the tip, while those on the hind limbs are broadly webbed. The special pe- culiarity, however, is the habit which the female possesses of carrying the eggs until they hatch in little pockets in the skin of the back. As the eggs are protruded they are spread out over the back, the male as- sisting in the process and fertiliz- ing the eggs simultaneously. Each egg then sinks into a pouch of the epidermis, which subse- quently becomes closed by a lid. From these skin pockets the young toads emerge after about three months, and then resemble the parent except in size, the gilled tadpole stage being omitted from the life history. Surmullet. See Mullet. Surnames. See Names, Surplice, the white garment which ecclesiastics and choir singers wear when taking part in divine service. It originally reached to the feet, but was gradually shortened. Surrender. See Capitulation. Surrender, in law, the act of yielding up an estate in land, either for life or years, to the person entitled to the reversion or remainder. Surrey, inland county, Eng- land, south of the Thames. It is traversed east and west by the North Downs (Leith Hill, 965 feet), with many gentle emi- nences, vales, well-wooded parks, and large commons. The prin- cipal rivers are the Wey and Mole, both flowing north to the Thames. Manufactures are car- ried on extensively in the vicin- ity of London; market gardening and the cultivation of medicinal herbs and of flowers are wide- spread; hops are grown in the Farnham district; of grain crops, oats is the chief; and a consider- able area is under pasture. Ful- ler's earth is found at Reigate and Nutfield. Several lines of railway radiating from London traverse the county. Magna Carta was signed at Runny- mede, near Egham, in 1215. The Castles of Guildford and Farnham and ruins of Waverley Abbey are of archaeological in- terest. Area, 758 square miles. Pop. (1921) 930,086; (1931) 1,180,878. Surrey, Henry Howard, Earl OF (c. 1517-47), English poet, was influenced by the Italian sonneteers and by Sir Thomas Wyatt, and introduced blank verse into English literature. In 1543 he took part in the French wars, being wounded at Mont- reuil in 1544, and placed in com- mand at Guisnes and Boulogne; but in 1546 he was defeated at St. Etienne. In 1547 a charge of plotting for the crown was brought against him, and he was beheaded. Surrey, Thomas Howard, Earl of, afterward third Duke OF Norfolk (1473-1554), was lord admiral in 1513, when he took part in the Battle of Flod- den, and was created Earl of Surrey. In 1520 he was lord deputy of Ireland. He distin- guished himself in the French and Scottish wars (1522). Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard were his nieces. He was con- demned to death in 1546, but the death of Henry viii prevented the execution, and Queen Mary restored to him his titles and estates. Surrogate. Specifically, in English law, a person appointed by a bishop or his chancellor, or by an ecclesiastical judge, to act in his place, as in granting licenses to marry without banns, or when such matters belonged to the ecclesiastical courts, in probating wills and granting administration and guardianship. In some parts of the United States the word signifies an officer having jurisdiction of the probate of wills, administration of estates, and guardianship; the judge of an orphans' court; pro- bate judge. Surveying may be defined as the location of points on the sur- face of the earth with respect to other points for the purpose of determining the length of lines, area of surfaces, and volume of solids, and of furnishing the data from which to construct maps, profiles, and other similar records. The subject may be divided into two parts, field work and office work — the former concerning it- self with the actual operations in the field, and the latter with the computations, record, and plot- ting of the same. To make a survey, therefore, is to take such measurements, linear and angular, as are necessary to prepare a plan, drawn to scale, which will show as far as possible all objects within the area in- cluded. Plotting is the prepara- tion of the drawings from the measurements and notes taken on the ground. Measurements are made in feet and inches with a 100-foot tape or chain; but Gunter's chain is frequently used, where the area alone is required. Where works have to be con- structed, however, and quanti- ties calculated in cubic feet and cubic yards, it is usual to employ feet entirely. For vertical heights feet only are used, and they are divided decimally into tenths and hundredths; although hori- zontal distances are measured in feet and inches, or in feet, tenths, and hundredths. A point from which a line or an angle is measured is called a 'station.' The spot on the ground is fre- quently marked by a peg or a stone slab with a metal plug sunk into it. Instruments. — The instru- ments commonly used in survey- ing are chains, tapes, and base bars, for measuring horizontal, vertical, or inclined distances; the hand level, engineer's level, clinometer, and barometer for determining differences in eleva- tion; and the compass, transit, and sextant for angular measure- ments. Chaining, while more accu- rate than pacing, which is some- times employed for rough approx- imations, is of little use where the allowable error is less than one in one thousand. In the United States, the chain is sel- dom employed except on pre- liminary location of railroad lines, in laying out U. S. public lands, and in farm surveys. There are two kinds of chains, the Guriter's and the engineer's. The Gunter's chain is 66 feet long, and composed of 100 links. A link consists of a bar of iron or steel with a ring at each Surveying end. Handles made of brass form part of the end links, so that one chain length is from the out- side of one handle to the outside of the other. The chain is divided into 10 equal parts by brass tags placed at every tenth link. The advantages of this chain are its ability to withstand rough usage such as a tape could notj and the convenience with which it is used in measuring land areas, of which it is a unit, 10 square chains equalling an acre. The engineer's chain is similar to the Gunter's but is 100 feet long instead of only G6. It is only occasionally used, as tapes have been found equally satisfactory where the chain may be employed. Tapes are narrow ribbons of iron or steel with distances etched upon them to much smaller divisions than in the chain. They are better than the latter under almost all condi- tions as they permit of a greater degree of accuracy and are easier to handle. They vary in length from a few feet to over 1,500 feet. In Geodetic surveying where ex- treme accuracy is required, tapes have been used very successfully in the measurement of base lines. A tape is always attached to a reel for tne purpose of winding it up, and keeping it in a compact form when carrying. A base bar is a rod of metal varying in length, and used in the measurement of base lines in Geodetic work. Bars of wood, glass, and various metals have been employed with the view of maintaining the length constant or to have some means of determining its change of length, so that very accurate measurements may be made. Measurements are taken by plac- ing the bars end for end as in measuring a distance with a foot rule. The bars are not nearly so much used at present as they nave been, as steel tapes seem to give equally accurate results, and are simpler in manipulation. The hand level is an instrument for quick work when extreme accu- racy is not required. It consists of a bubble placed over a hole in a brass tube about G inches long. Below the hole and bubble, and within the tube, occupying one half of it, is a prism, and a wire stretched across the hole. Look- ing through one end of the tube, the eye will see the object at which it is directed, and the bubble pla3'ing on the prism. When the bubble is bisected by the wire, the lino of sight is hori- zontal. In general we might de- scribe the level, such as used by engineers, as a telescopic line of sight to which a bubble is at- tached for the purpose of deter- mining horizontal lines, and therefore differences in vertical heights. The telescope is mounted on a vertical axis, which 557 Surveying cqn be adjusted exactly as in the case of a theodolite. When so adjusted that, on turning the telescope round on its axis, the spirit-level bubble keeps in the centre of its run, all points viewed through the centre oi^ the telescope are on the same horizontal plane. A diaphragm near the eye-piece, as in the theodolite, shows the line of collimation. The rod, used in connection with the level. graduated circle, the bubbles and sights. The needle is a magnetized piece of steel bal- anced on a pivot in the center of the compass box. This latter is a metal case with glass cover having the outer edge of the plate graduated from north and south to the east and west points from zero to 90 degrees; thus dividing it into four quadrants. The sights consist of two ver- Engineer*s Level. is the graduated scale which is sighted through the instrument, and is marked in feet and deci- mals. The method of levelling is as follows: The instrument is set up and adjusted by means of the levelling screws. The rod is held on the point taken as datum, and the reading on it seen through the telescope gives the height above datum of the collimation of the telescope. If the rod be then held successively on various points whose levels are required, the reading seen through the tele- scope will in each case give the distance of that point below the collimation; and hence its height above datum is known. By sending the rod forward and taking the forward reading, or 'fore sight,' so as to^ determine the reduced level of this 'turning- point,' and then carrying the level beyond the rod and taking a 'backsight' on the rod, stUl held on the turning-point, so as to determine the new collimation level, and repeating this series of operations, levels may be carried any distance. With this system of levelling, horizontal distances do not come into the calculations. The compass while not gen- erally used for accurate surveys, is frequently employed where directions and bearings are de- sired. It depends upon the fact that a magnetized piece of steel if suspended so as to be free to assume any position will seek the north pole, due to the electric currents on the surface of the earth. The principal parts of the compass are the needle. tical standards with slits in them attached perpendicularly to the compass box opposite the zeros of the scale, for the purpose of sighting an object. The needle gives the direction of the north and south points when the line of sight is directed at any object, and thus the angle which the line makes with the needle may be determined. The bubbles serve the purpose of keeping the plate horizontal. The bearing of any line is read, north or south so many degrees east or west, thus N. 20° w., s. 30° E. The prismatic compass is a mod- ification of the former. The in- strument is set up over a station (A), and pointed along the line whose bearing has to be taken. When viewed through the prism. Prismatic Compass. the sighting vane is seen in line with the station flag, and at the same time the portion of the com- pass card immediately beneath the prism can be seen in reflection, so Surveying 558 Surveying that the bearing of the direction in which the instrument is pointing can be read. Prismatic com- passes of small size are used with- out a stand, being merely held in the observer's hand. The transit^ a much more complicated instrument than the compass, but ^ depending upon the same principles, is capable of reading angles, and therefore bearings, very much more ac- curately than the compass. It Engineer s Transit. consists of a telescope mounted on supports which rest upon the horizontal plate. This plate car- ries a graduated circle, a compass box and needle, and a vernier. Beneath the telescope is a bubble tube similar to that in the level by means of which levelling may be done. Besides the horizon- tal plate or arc, there is a ver- tical circle by which angles in a vertical plane may be measured. The complete engineer's transit therefore enables one to deter- mine horizontal and vertical angles, read the magnetic bearing of a line, and calculate dilference in elevation. A B The principle of the sextant is shown in the accompanying figure, where a is a fixed glass, the lower half of which is transparent, whilst the upper half is reflect- ing; and 6 is a mirror which can be turned to any angle by means of a rn'lled head. To use the in- strument, ^ is turned so that the reflected image of a flag at B is seen in the mirror portion of a so as to be in line with a flag at A as seen through the clear glass of a. A vernier in connection with b moves along a scale of degrees, so that the angle between a and B can be read off. The sextant is not so much the surveyor's instrument as the navigator's, by whom it is regularly used to ob- serve the altitude of the sun for determining latitude and longitude when at sea. See Sextant. Plane or Land Surveying. — A plane or land survey, is one of a comparatively small tract of land, usually never exceeding 100 square miles in extent, where in consequences, curvature of the earth may be neglected, and which embraces merely the data regarding the dimensions and location of property and building lines, roads, streams, etc., all referred to a meridian, and for the purpose of determining the area of the plot surveyed. In small surveys the work is plotted by projecting on to a horizontal plane. This means that the di.s- tances between points at differ- ent levels, if measured on the slope, must be reduced so as to give only the horizontal distance, and the angles between two stations must be the azimuth— i.e. the angle between the verti- cal planes passing through the observing station and each of the observed stations. Plane survey- ing requires the use of the cham and tape for linear measurements and the compass or transit for angular measurements, while the level will be used for the determi- nation of differences in elevation. To measure lengths with the chain requires two men — the 'head chamman' and the 'rear chainman.* The former taking one handle of the chain and eleven pins, goes forward towards a pole set up at the station to be chained to. The rear chainman keeps his handle of the chain at the starting- station, and directs the^ head chainman so that the chain lies in the straight line between the two stations. The chain is then drawn tight, and the head chain- man puts a pin into the ground to mark the point to which his handle reaches. He then ad- vances with the chain another length towards the station, and the rear chainman comes forward to the pin in the ground and holds his end of the chain there, whilst the head chainman puts his second pin at his -end of the chain when it is in line and drawn tight. When the head chainman has put in his last (eleventh) pin, the rear chainman gives him the ten he has picked up, so that the head chainman can proceed once more. Where the ground is uneven, the chain must be held out horizontally, and a plumb-line used to find the point to put in the pin. Where accurate work is re- quired, a steel tape should always be used in place of a chain. A traverse is a survey of a series of stations, each one of which is fixed from the last by (1) the dis- tance from the last, and (2) the angle which that measured line makes with the last measured hne. It is a case of surveying by polar co-ordinates, the pole being each of the stations successively. If from the last of the stations so fixed the first of the series can be similarly sighted upon and meas- ured to, then a 'closed traverse' has been made, and the accuracy of the work can be checked. This can be done either by testing, if the work can be plotted, or, pref- erably, by calculating the co- ordinates — viz. x = r cos 0 and y = r sin 6, from the lengths and bearings of the lines. If the bear- ings of the lines are taken with reference to a fixed direction (sav north), instead of measuring each included angle independently, it is simple to find the co-ordinates, or 'northing and easting,' or platitude and departure,' or merid- ian and perpendicular, with a table of logarithms or with a slide rule. In a closed traverse the sum of the northings should equal the sum of the southings, and simi- larly with the eastings and west- ings. But errors are as likely to occur in plotting as in surveying. Moreover, paper expands and contracts to such an extent with change of humidity that, unless the work is all plotted at one time, it is hard to get lengths to check. Under by no means extraordinary conditions, paper will alter .2 per cent. The method of tabulating the co-ordinates of a closed trav- erse is shown in the accompanying figure. In many cases a closed traverse cannot be made, as in the survey of the route ot a railway line, or aqueduct, or road. In this case the only check on the dis- tances must be by a repetition of Surreylnsr the chaining. The angles can be checked by taking an astrononii- cal observation to determine the meridian (true north or true south) at one end of the Hne, and work- ing through the survey with the 559 intersection of these b'nes with those drawn from A determine new stations and objects. The plane- table is most frequently used for rough preliminary work where ra- pidity is of greater importance Surveying the spot-levels is most accurately done oy calculation. To make a topographic survey with transit and stadia rods, the transit must be specially adapted to the work and is then sometimes Closed Traverse, with Co-ordinates worked out {}rom Actual Survey). Line. Al- Al07 107— 108 108- 109— 106— 105- 102— 101— 109 106 105 102 101 1 Stations. A 1 107 108 109 106 105 102 101 1 Length of traverse Bearing. 209° 25' 0" 251° 31' 0" 291° 23' 30" 80° 51' 0" 17° 24' 20" 55° 32' 0" 338° 51' 0" 131° 48' 20" Angle beyond Right Angle. Length. N. S. E. 29° 25' 0" 752' 0" 655.1 71° 31' 0" 833' 6" 264.3 21° 23' 30" 619' 3" 225.8 80° 51' 0" 593' 6" 94.4 585.9 17° 24' 20" 582' 0'^ 555.4 174.1 55° 32' 0" 471' 6" 266.8 388.7 68° 51' 0" 496' 6" 463.0 41° 48' 20" 1028' 9" 685.8 766.8 5377' 0" 1605.4 1605.2 1915.5 369.3 790.5 576.6 179.1 Totals. N. s. E. w. 0 0 0 655.1 369.3 919.4 1159.8 693.6 1736.4 599.2 1150.5 43.8 976.4 587.7 766.8 0.0 bearings so found to the other end of the line, and there making a second observation of the me- ridian. . Topographic Surveying. — A to- pographic survey is one under- taken for the purpose ^of repre- senting the natural and artificial features of the country, such as roads, railroads, hills, valleys, rivers, lakes, houses, cultivated fields, outcrops, etc., etc., upon a map. There are two general methods of making such surveys, one by means of the plane-table, and the other by means of the transit and stadia roads. P/ane-/a6/e.— With the plane- table the work is plotted m the field, and a survey is made in which the angles, instead of being read in degrees, are sighted directly on to the paper, and the lengths between the stations are scaled and plotted as soon as they are measured. A board with the paper stretched ori it is set on a tripod, fitted with levelling screws as in a theodolite. It is set up over a station (A) A and levelled up, and a point is marked on the paper to represent the point occu- pied. The directions of various stations and prominent objects from A are sighted, and lines drawn on the paper radiating in these directions from the point A. The distance from A A to B is then chained, and the distance scaled on the paper along the direction line AB and B so fixed. The table is moved to B, and set so that the line BA points to A, and from the point B on the Eaper direction lines are drawn as eiore to the other stations. The than accuracy of detail. It can be used with great success along with a telescope having stadia webs. The distances to objects are read with the telescope, and the directions to them signted on the plane-table and their posi- tions plotted at once. Theodo- lite angles are read, booked, and plotted; while plane-table angles are plotted direct, thus escaping two sources of error. Plane- table work should be plotted to a large scale, and if necessary reduced, but never enlarged. In plane - table work it is some- times customary to locate lines of equal elevation, called contours, before beginning the actual work of location. A contour line on a plan is a line every point on which IS at the same level. From a plan with contour lines drawn at equal vertical heights apart, a very good idea of the form of the coun- try can be grasped. A contour plan is of great value for prelimi- nary work— for example, for fixing the line of a road or railway, or for choosing a site for laying out works or buildings. By means of a level and rod, a series of points on a contour may be pegged off, and the positions of these pegs surveyed by any of the ordinary methods. A scries of cross-sec- tions of the ground may be taken, and when these are plotted the positions on plan where a par- ticular level occurs on each sec- tion give a series of points on a contour. Spot-levels niay be taken at points of prominent change of form on the ground, and the positions of these sur- veyed and marked on the plan, with their levels written against them. Between any two such spot-levels the intervening contour points are interpolated. ^ This method entails least work in the field, and, especially in irregular ground, is much the quickest. With a tachometer the levels and positions of the spots can be taken at one observation. The interpolation of the lines between called a tachometer. A tachom- eter has all the parts of a theo- dolite or transit for measuring angles, and in addition the tele- scope has a stadia diaphragm. In measuring distances, a rod graduated in feet and decimals is held vertically at the_ poyit whose _ distance from the instru- ment is required. The telescope is directed to the rod, and by means of the slow-motion screw on the vertical arc one of the stadia lines is made to coincide with any exact foot on the rod. The amount of rod then included be- tween the stadia lines multiplied by a constant, usually 100, is the distance in feet to the rod. If the telescope is inclined considerably from the horizontal while taking a stadia reading on hilly ground, the vertical angle must be read, that the true horizontal distance may be deduced. In arranging the positions of stations, it should be seen that the triangles formed are 'well- conditioned' — that is to say, one side should not be either very long or very short, compared with the others. The lines to be measured between the stations should be conveniently situated for includ- ing the objects to be surveyed. Check measurements, either of lines or of angles, should be taken. A Hydrographic Survey is one made in connection with any body of water whether still or running, for the purpose of determining the depth, area of cross-section, con- formation of the bottom, velocity in various sections, slope of water surface, location of natural fea- tures on or near the shore, such as rocks, lighthouses, buoys, signals, the location of channels, etc. , etc. In making such a survey it is cus- tomary at least in connection with the more extended ones to estab- lish stations on the adjoining shores to form a system of trian- gulation, and from these to locate the desired objects. If we take the specific example of a hydro- graphic survey of a lake for reser- Surveying 560 Surveying voir purposes, it will involve the following work: The location of the triaiigulation system as a basis from which to locate other points in, the future work; the topography on the shores for a dis- tance ofSOO ft. or more back from the shore, together with sound- ings taken at a sufficient number of points in the lake to furnish the data whereby the volume of the water contained may be deter- mined or the amount that would be added by an increase in the sur- face elevation. Such soundings may be made by any one of the following methods, depending upon the conditions most favor- able: location of the soundings with reference to known points, first, by two angles read at fixed points on shore; second, by two angles read in the boat; third, by taking soundings on a given line and reading one angle from the boat or shore; fourth, by sounding along a given line at given inter- vals of time and rowing at a uni- form speed; fifth, by taking sound- ings at the intersections of fixed range lines; sixth, by wires or cords stretched between fixed stations and taking soundings at given points along the cord. Mine Surveying, and by this is meant the surveying required of the mine surveyor, includes in its most general aspect not only all of those forms employed on the sur- face, but also such modifications of the same as must be adopted underground to secure similar data. We might, therefore, divide mine surveying into two parts: surface and subsurface opera- tions, the former including both a land and topographic survey of the properties, and the latter the work of bringing the survey from the surface into the mine and the method of procedure there. Ref- erence monuments should be established near the shaft or tun- nel of the mine so that the two surveys may be easily tied in one with the other. It is claimed that underground surveys are never so accurate as those made above ground; but this is not so. It is a fact, however, that with the gener- ally cramped conditions of the set- up, the somewhat unstable condi- tion of the tripod, and the use of artificial light, it becomes more difficult to secure accuracy, but care and practice should result in a degree of precision not less than that required for surface work. Candles are used to illuminate the cross hairs of the telescope and also the backsight and foresight. To make backsight and fore- sight visible, special forms of lamps are sometimes employed, the flame of which, vertically below the station from whicn the lamp hangs, is bisected in sighting. Where lamps are not employed the plumb bob is hung from the station and the string made visible by holding a light behind it. It is usually customary to run the 'drifts' ana 'headings' on the 'levels' in advance of the stoping as a means of prospecting the ground, and hence the loca- tion of these workings must be plotted from the survey notes to mtelligently indicate the relation of the ore bodies to each other. The surveys also form a basis from which to continue further work and to check the progress made in the stopes. Generally such surveys are made once a month as least, so that the maps may be plotted and kept up to date. The stations used in subsurface work differ from those on the sur- face in the fact that they are gen- erally placed in the roof rather than the floor. Where the mine is pretty generally timbered nails will be used, or a brass tag, num- bered, will be driven in so that a plumb bob may be attached to one of the nails which fasten it to the timber. Where no timbers exist a hole must be drilled into the roof, the centre of which will act as the station. All stations are numbered or marked for reference. With the stations in the roof it becomes necessary to centre under the point rather than over it, as in surface work, and for this purpose the telescope of the instrument carries a centring mark on the top, so that when it is in adjust- ment, and the long bubble is in the centre of the tube, the point will be in the vertical axis of the transit. In measuring the angles, it is always better to double them; i.e., read them twice, and then take the magnetic bearing as a check on the observation. Considering the intermediate step, that of con- necting the surface surveys with those in the mine, we find that all mines are entered either by a tun- nel or shaft. In the former case no difficulties arise, but in the latter, whether the shaft is in- clined or vertical, extreme care is required to bring the surface surveys under ground. With ver- tical shafts two cases arise: first, that where there are two shafts, and second, where there is but one. Under the former conditions, at each shaft a single steel wire is suspended, and their co-ordinates or position determined from the surface. The instrument is then taken below, and by sighting on one of the wires and running a traverse through the mine till the other one may be located, the data is collected, by which all the points of the underground survey may be established with refer- ence to th£ lines and points on the surface. With only one vertical shaft^ two wires are suspended, and in a somewhat similar man- ner the points below ground are established. If the shaft is in- clined points are located by sight- ing directly with the transit. Special forms of transit may be required in this work, such as one with a top or side telescope, with which it IS possible to get a more nearly vertical line than with ordinary instruments. Geodetic Surveying. — When the extent of the survey is such that, owing to the curvature of the earth, the surface of mean sea- level would differ appreciably from a plane surface, vertical projection cannot be used. The triangles are no longer plane tri- angles, and the lines measured are no longer straight lines, but arcs. Since the plan has to be drawn on a plane surface of paper, some system of projection has to be chosen to allow of this. For most engineering purposes, however, it is sufficiently near the truth to regard the surface of the earth as a plane. Plane geometry and trigonometry are then used.. For more accurate work, the sur- face of the earth is taken as that of a sphere, and spherical trigo- nometry is used. On still more accurate observation the earth is found to be nearer an oblate spheroid than a sphere. The 'geoid' is the name given to the figure which has the form of the surface of the great oceans. It further has the property that at every point the surface is perpen- dicular to the direction of the force of gravity at that point, as indicated by the plumb-line. A survey which takes into account the true form of the earth's sur- face is called a 'geodetic survey.' On account of the irregularity of the earth's surface, angles can be more easily measured than lines. Hence in geodesy it is usual to measure one base-line, from the ends of which, by angular instru- ments, new stations are deter- mined. From these new ones are located and so, by a system of triangulation, stations established throughout the area. Base-lines can be measured with great accuracy with a steel tape of considerable length, or with Jaderin wires of Guillaume nickel - steel, as used on the geodetic survey of S. Africa. The distance measured at one reading is about 400 ft., and the tape is supported at short intervals on the tops of pegs driven into the ground, so as to be in line and at one gradient, but not necessarily at one level. The difference of level between the extreme ends is found by levelling from one to the other. The expansion of steel with heat is considerable; but when the coefficient for the tape has been determined, the necessary correction can easily be made. The chief difficulty is in observing the temperature of Survivorship KFP 561 Sutherlandshire the steel, and cloudy weather should be chosen for doing the work, as then few variations are likely to occur. Survi'vorship. It was for- merly held that there was a pre- sumption under the common law, that of two or more persons who lost their lives by the same disaster, the stronger survived the others by some period of time. This was of great impor- tance in determining the heirs of, or persons entitled to an es- tate, where two persons, one of whom would succeed the other if he survived him, perished in the same disaster, and there was no proof as to which expired first. The courts of most states have repudiated this doctrine, and now require proof if possible ; other- wise the jury may find that they perished at the same moment. Surya, sobr'ya, one of the two names by which, in Hindu my- thology, the sun is known. In the Rigveda he is generally rep- resented as a car-drawn deity, wedded to Ushas, or the Dawn. He is also the source of life, and watches closely the actions of men. Suryasiddhanta, sobr'ya- sed-han'ta, a Sanskrit work on astronomy. An English transla- tion by E. Burgess and W. D. Whitney was published in 1860 in the Journal of the American Oriental Society; another in 1861, at Calcutta, by Bapu Deva Sastrin. Biot held that the Hin- dus derived their system of as- tronomy from the Chinese, while Professor Weber was of opinion that the Hindu system is of a much earlier date than the Chi- nese. Sus, sobs, or SusA, seaport. North Africa, Tunisia, on the Gulf of Hammamet, Mediterra- nean Sea ; 32 miles northeast of Kairwan. The leading industry is the production and export of olive oil. Sus occupied the site of the ancient Roman city of Hadrumetum, which was the base of Hannibal's operations in the second Punic war. Pop. 21,000. Susa, soo'za, or Shushan (of Daniel), chief city of the prov- ince of Susiana in ancient Per- sia. It was situated in a plain between the Choaspes (now Kherkha) and the Shaur. From cuneiform inscriptions discov- ered in the middle of the nine- teenth century, it is believed that Darius, son of Hystapes, was the founder of the city. A little to the south of the great mound of Susa, discovered by excava- tion, is the reputed tomb of Dan- iel. Susa is said to have been the winter residence of the Achaemenian rulers. After the Macedonian era it fell into ruins, but was rebuilt by Shapur ii. When the Arab invasion oc- curred, its fortifications were dismantled, but it continued to exist and in the Middle Ages was a center of sugar cultivation. Susan'na, History of, a short book of the Apocrypha, forming, with Bel and the Dra- gon and the Song of the Three Holy Children, what are known as the apocryphal additions to Daniel in the Septuagint. It tells of one Susanna, the wife of Joakim, resident at Babylon dur- ing the exile, as having been so- licited to unchastity by two el- ders, who, having been repelled, conspire to accuse her of the same sin, they having been wit- nesses. Susanna is condemned to death, but is saved by Daniel, who, cross-questioning the elders separately, shows their evidence to be contradictory, whereupon they are put to death. It is un- likely that the original was in Hebrew, but scholars differ as to whether it was in Greek or in Aramaic. Consult commentaries cited under Apocrypha; also Hastings, Dictionary of the Bi- ble (vol. i). Suspension Bridge. See Bridge. Susquehanna, sus-kwe- han'o, borough, Pennsylvania, in Susquehanna county, on the Sus- quehanna River, and on the Erie Railroad ; 36 miles north of Scranton. Noteworthy features are the public library. Laurel Hill Academy (parochial), the Simon H. Barnes Memorial Hos- pital, and the famous railroad bridge which spans the Susque- hanna River at this point. Plan- ing-mill products, machinery, and chemicals are manufactured ; shops of the Erie Railroad are situated here, and the district contains coal mines and blue- stone quarries. Pop. (1930) 3,203; (1940) 2,740. Susquehanna River, river of the eastern United States, rises in two main branches — the North Branch, which issues from Lakes Otsego and Schuy- ler, Otsego county, N. Y., and the West Branch, which has its source in northwestern Pennsyl- vania. These streams unite at Sunbury, Pa., below which the river flows south and southeast to its mouth at Havre de Grace, at the head of Chesapeake Bay. Its principal tributaries are the Chemung and Juaniata rivers. The most important cities on the banks of the Susquehanna are Williamsport, Lockhaven. and Clearfield on the West Branch, and, on the North Branch, Bing- hamton, N. Y., Harrisburg and Wilkes-Barre, Pa., and Port De- posit, Md. The length, follow- ing the North Branch, is 422 miles ; the entire drainage basin is 27,655 square miles. The Susquehanna is navigable only as far as Port Deposit, Md., and is used mainly to float lumber. The middle and southern parts of its course are followed by a canal. Sus'sex, maritime county, England, on the English Chan- nel, with an area of 1,459 square miles. The coast is generally low and uniform. The South Downs traverse the southern part of the county, terminating in the high cliff of Beachy Head, while the center and northern part are occupied by the Weald, a wide undulating tract formerly covered with forest. The princi- pal rivers are the Rother, Ouse, and Arun, with the West Rother, flowing to the English Channel. Chalk and clay are quarried, and natural gas is obtained at Heathfield. Nearly two-thirds of the cultivated area is under pasture, the county being the home of the famous Southdown breed of sheep. The area under woods and plantations is greater than in any other English coun- ty, except Hants. The Romans had many stations in the dis- trict, which later formed the kingdom of the South Saxons. Within its borders were fought the battles of Senlac (1066) and Lewes (1264). Pop. (1931) 769,859. Sussex Skull. See Pilt- DOWN Skull. Sus'ten Pass, a Swiss Alpine pass (7,422 ft.), which leads from Meiringen in the Hasli or Upper Aar valley to Wassen, on the St. Gothard Railway. Suth'erland, George (1862- 1942), American legislator and jurist, was born in Buckingham- shire, Eng., and was brought to the United States as a small child. He received an academic educatio», studied law at the University of Michigan, and was admitted to the bar in 1883. He subsequently practiced at Salt Lake City, was a member of the Senate in the first state legisla- ture of Utah (1896-1900) and was sent to Congress in 1901— 03. He served as U. S. Senator (Rep.) for the terms of 1905-11 and 1911-17,_ and_ (1922-1938) was an associate justice of the U. S. Supreme Court. He was president of the American Bar Association (1916-17) and was considered one of the ablest law- yers in the United States. His Constitutional Power and World Affairs (1919) is one of the great works on the Constitution. Sutherland Falls, celebrated waterfall (1,904 ft.), near Mil- ford Sound, New Zealand. Sutherlandshire, maritime county, in the north of Scotland, bounded on the southeast by Moray Firth and on the north and west by the Atlantic. It is Sutlej KFP 562 Suwanee River the wildest and least densely populated ,county in Scotland. The surface is generally moun- tainous, with wide moorlands and some fertile valleys. Ben More Assynt and Ben Clibrigg reach elevations of 3,273 feet and 3,154 feet respectively. The salmon and herring fisheries are important. Dornoch is the coun- ty town. Dunrobin Castle, on the coast near Golspie, is the seat of the Duke of Sutherland. Brochs and towers indicate Pic- tish occupation, but early in the 11th century the covuity became Scandinavian, and remained Norse till its annexation to the Scottish kingdom. Prior to 1810 all the available cultivable land in the county was held by small crofters, who led a most precarious existence ; between 1810 and 1820 many of the crofts were converted into sheep- walks, and the crofters were re- moved to the coast or assisted to emigrate to Canada. Between 1873 and 1878 large tracts of land were cleared and reclaimed, especially at Lairg and Kildonan, at the expense of the Duke of Sutherland. Pop. (1931) 16,- 100. Sut'Iej, one of the five rivers of the Punjab, India, from which the province derives its name. It rises in Lakes Manasarowar and Rakastal in western Tibet, 15,200 feet above the sea, and enters the Pinijab at its eastern border. Flowing almost due west, it receives the Beas and, farther on, the Chenab. After a course of about 900 miles it joins the Indus at Mithankot, south of Multan. It is naviga- ble for steamers as far as Firoz- pur. Sutras, sob'tras, in Sanskrit literature, collections of rules which form the basis of teaching in religious ritual, grammar, and ceremonial customs ; and also in the various systems of philoso- phy. In the sutras each system of philosophy is complete, and elaborated to its smallest detail, giving an exposition which leaves nothing obscure. Sutro, Adolph Heinrich Joseph (1830-98), American mining engineer, was born in Aix-la-Chapelle, Prussia. He was graduated as a mining engi- neer from the polytechnic school in that city, and in 1853 went to California and engaged in gold mining. Shortly after the open- ing of the Comstock mines in Nevada, he went to Virginia City, and planned the long Sutro tunnel for draining and ventilat- ing the mines. This tunnel is more than 20,000 feet long, and its construction occupied a large force of men for more than eight years. Sutro accumulated a great fortune in dealing in min- ing shares while managing the tunnel operations, and soon after their completion settled in San Francisco and became a dealer in real estate. He was a gener- ous benefactor to the city, and bequeathed large sums to the University of California, Vassar College, and other educational institutions, for the founding of scholarships and the encourage- ment of scientific research. As Populist candidate, he was elect- ed mayor of San Francisco in 1894. Sutro, Alfred (1863-1933), British dramatist, was educated in London and in Brussels. Among his many plays are Arethusa (1903) ; The Walls of Jericho (1904); The Perfect Lover (1905); The Barrier (1907); The Perplexed Hus- band (1911) ; The Two Virtues (1914) ; The Laughing Lady (1922); The Great Well (1922); Desperate Lovers (1927); and Living Together (1929). Suttee. See Sati. Sut'ter, John Augustus (1803-80), American pioneer, was born in Kandern, Baden. After graduating from the mili- tary college at Berne in 1823, he entered the French service, but in 1834 emigrated to the United States. In 1838 he visited Ore- gon, the Hawaiian Islands, and Alaska, and in 1839 established the first settlement at Sacra- mento, Calif. There he built a fort named Helvetia, and was for a time Mexican governor of the region. At the time of the conquest of California by the United States he was in prosper- ous circvimstances, but gold was discovered upon land claimed by him, and as a result he was de- prived of his estate, though ulti- mately he received an annual pension of $3,000 from the Cali- fornia legislature. He settled in Litiz, Pa., in 1873. Consult Zollinger, Sutter: The Man and His Empire (1939). Sutton Coldfield, municipal borough, England, in Warwick- shire, 7 miles northeast of Bir- mingham. New Hall, a moated mansion of the thirteenth cen- tury, and the parish church are the chief points of interest. In the vicinity is a picturesque park, the gift of Henry viii, se- cured by Bishop Vesey, and much frequented by the people of Birmingham. Pop. 29,924. Sutton-in-Ashfield, town, England, in Nottinghamshire, 3 miles southwest of Mansfield. The church of St. Mary Magda- lene dates from the fourteenth century, and includes part of a twelfth century building. The leading industries are coal min- ing and the manufacture of ho- siery. Pop. 25,151. Su'tures, in anatomy, are the seams between connected skull or face bones. They are of vari- ous kinds, and include harmonia or the apposition of one bone against another ; schindycsis, the reception of one bone into a fis- sure of another ; as well as squa- mous, or overlapped bevelled edges ; serrate, the interlocking of teeth-like edges, etc. Sutures, or stitches in surgery, are used to close wounds and to unite divided tissues. In some positions the material used must be capable of absorption after it has kept the parts in apposition sufficiently long to allow of un- ion. Catgut and other animal textures fulfil this condition. In other cases the stitch may con- sist of silk, horsehair, or wire, which must be removed subse- quently. Suva, capital of the Fiji Is- lands (q. v.). Suvla Bay. See Darda- nelles ; Europe, Great War OF. Suvoroff, su-va'rof, or Suva- roff, Alexander Vasilie- viTCH, Count (1729-1800), Russian general, who rose from the ranks, and never was defeat- ed, not even by Napoleon. He was born at Moscow. Having distinguished himself in the Seven Years' War, he was as- signed high command in the Pol- ish campaign of 1768-71. He then defeated the Turks in the First Turkish War (1773); crushed the revolt (1775) of Pugatchev and of the Caucasian tribes (1780) ; drove the Turks back in the Second Turkish War (1789), from Fokshani, the river Rymnik, and the stronghold of Ismail ; stormed Praga in the second Polish campaign, and in- duced the surrender of Warsaw (1794). He was then sent to help the Austrians against the French in Italy, and gained a series of brilliant victories over Moreau, Joubert, and Macdonald. He crossed the Alps, with ter- rible sacrifice of men, and met Massena at Schwyz, but was too weak to accept battle, and re- treated into Austria. He was given the title Prince Italski and in 1800 was made commander in chief of the Russian armies. Consult Life by Spalding. Suwalki, sob-val'ke, or Su- VALKY, formerly a province of Russian Poland, now divided be- tween Poland and Lithuania. The chief industries are agricul- ture and forestry. Pop. 718,- 000. Suwalki, town, Lithuania, 60 miles southwest of Kovno. It is a center of timber and grain trade. During the early part of the First World War, it was the scene of severe fighting. Pop, 31,600. Suwanee River, su-wii'ne, Suzdal KFP 563 Swallow Florida, rises in Okefinokee Swamp, in southern Georgia, and flows 240 miles in a general southerly direction, to empty into the Gulf of Mexico, about 15 miles northwest of Cedar Keys. It is navigable as far as White Springs. Suz'dal, town, central Russia, in the government of Vladimir, 22 miles north of Vladimir. The Cathedral of the Nativity, founded by St. Vladimir in the tenth century, partly recon- structed in 1528, ranks among the most famous Russian churches. Pop. 10,000. Suzerain, a feudal overlord. The modern use of the work sig- nifies the overlordship of one power over another, as that of the Porte over its tributary states. S.V., Sancta Virgo, Holy Vir- gin ; also siih voce, 'under the heading.' Svalbard. See Spitzbergen. Svas'tika, a symbol of un- known origin, and early intro- duced into India, apparently in connection with sun-worship. It appears either as a cross in a cir- cle — thus, ® — or as a cross with the arms bent at right angles — thus, . The latter syrfibol is found in heraldic and ecclesiasti- cal work in Christian countries, as well as in the catacombs, and is known as the fylfot. Mediae- val mystic writers derived it from the Greek gamma, which they thought suggestive of Christ as the cornerstone ; but it is seen on objects exhumed at Troy by Dr. Schliemann, and in early In- dian and Chinese art ; also in Mexico and Peru. The svastika in its latter form with arms crossed and bent at right angles became the emblem of the National Socialist move- ment in Germany under the no- torious dictator Adolf Hitler (q. V.) and thus became associ- ated throughout the world with the brutality and chicanery of the Germans in the Second World War (1939-45) and the subsequent ruin of Germany as a great power. Sveaborg:, tn., fortress, and seapt., Finland, Nyland prov., 4 m. s.E. of Helsingfors city, on islands in the Gulf of Finland. Constructed in 1748-70 as a Swedish Gibraltar, it was taken by the Russians in 1808, and un- successfully bombarded by the Anglo-French fleet in 1855. Svearike, or Svealand, a di- vision of Sweden, comprising the city of Stockholm and the counties of Stockholm, Upsala, Sodermanland, Westmanland, Orebro, Vermland, and Koppar- berg. Svendborgr, tn., Denmark, Funen, 29 m. by rail s.E. of Odense, on Svendborg Sound. Its two churches date from the 13th century. It is a shipbuild- ing center. Pop. (1930) 14,392. Svendsen, Johan Severin (1840-1911), Norwegian musi- cal composer, was born at Chris- tiania (Oslo) ; became conduc- tor of the musical association in Christiania, and in 1883 was made court conductor at Copen- hagen. His compositions include a symphony and other orchestral works, chamber music, concertos for violin and for 'cello, and songs. One of his best-known works is his beautiful Romance for the violin. Sverdlovsk. See Ekaterin- BERG. Sverdrup, Johan (1816-92), Norwegian politician, was born at Jarlsberg ; elected to the Stor- thing in 1851 as a Radical mem- ber, and eventually became (1871-72) leader of the peasant separatist party. As president of the Storthing he played a very prominent part in securing the presence of ministers in the Storthing, and in overriding the king's claim to an absolute veto upon its proceedings. In 1883 he became prime minister, but resigned in 1889. Sverdrup, Otto (1855-1930), Norwegian Arctic explorer, born at Haarstad in Helgoland ; joined Nansen's expedition over the Greenland ice-fields in 1888, and was chosen by Nansen as captain of the Fram for his North Pole expedition. When Nansen, on March 14, 1895, quitted the Fram in order to make his way to the Arctic Cir- cle by sledge, Sverdrup under- took the leadership of the expe- dition. In 1898-1901 he led a second expedition in the Fram, and discoveaed several islands (Ringnes, Axel Heiberg, King Oscar Land) between Greenland and the Parry Isles and Melville I. The expedition is described in his New Land (Eng. trans. 1904). Svetchine, Madame. See Swetchine. Swabia, duchy of Germany, existed from the beginning of the 10th to beyond the middle of the 13th century, and corresponded generally to Wiirtemberg, Ba- den, and S. W. Bavaria. Swaheli, a mixed Arab-Ban- tu people of Zanzibar and the opposite mainland between Mom- basa and the Rufiji R. All are Mohammedans, with a measure of culture due to Arab influ- ences. The language, which, thanks to their enterprising spir- it as traders, caravan-leaders, and carriers, has become the chief medium of intercourse throughout E. Central Africa, is of Bantu structure, but is full of Arabic words and expressions. It is written both with the Arabic and the Roman alphabet, and has been carefully cultivated and largely used by Protestant and Roman Catholic missionaries. See J. L. Krapf, Elements of the Kisudheli Language (1850), and A Dictionary of the Suahili Language (1882) ; Bishop E. Steere, Swahili Exercises (1882) . Swain, George Fillmore (1857-1931), American civil en- gineer, born in San Francisco, and graduated at the Massachu- setts Institute of Technology in 1877. He visited Europe in 1877-80, and studied at the Royal Engineering School at Berlin. In 1887 he became pro- fessor of civil engineering in the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology and engineer to the Mas- sachusetts Railroad Commission. In 1894 he was elected a member of the Boston Transit Commis- sion. He is the author of Re- port on the Water Power of the Atlantic Watershed (vol. xvii of Tenth U. S. Census). Swain, Joseph (1857-1927), American educator, was born at Pendleton, Ind., and graduated (1883) at Indiana University, where he was successively in- structor, assistant professor, and professor of . mathematics from 1886 to 1891. He held the same chair at Leland Stanford, Jr., University during 1891-3, and in 1893 was elected president of his alma mater, which position he resigned in 1902 to become president of Swarthmore Col- lege. Swallow, or Chimney Swal- low, a passerine bird, belonging to the family Hirundinidae, which includes the swallows and martins, birds which are not re- lated to the swifts, in spite of the Swallows. superficial resemblance. Both swallows and martins are char- acterized by the short and wide bill, which is deeply cleft, with a very wide gape, and a mouth which opens to about the line of eye, the narrow elongated wings, the small, weak feet, and the forked tail. They are cosmopol- itan in distribution, and feed upon insects, which are taken on the wing. The family is repre- Swallowing KFP 564 Swanton sented in all the temperate parts of the world, and one species, the bank swallow (Clivicola ri- paria), is nearly cosmopolitan, making its nest in companies in holes in sandy cliffs right around the world. The North American swallows include besides the bank swal- low, and its relative the rough- wing, the large purple martins which nest so abundantly in bird- boxes ; the white-bellied and vio- let-green swallows, less com- mon ; and the two barn swallows. These last are the familiar birds which each summer take up their residence about our barns and outhouses, having totally aban- doned in the eastern half of the country their wild methods of nidification. The barn-swallow proper is distinguished by its chestnut breast and deeply forked tail from the eave or cliff swallows, which have a short squarish tail. The former con- struct, cup-like nests of mud, straw and feathers plastered against the wall or laid on the upper surface of a beam inside the barn, as formerly it sought to do under the shelter of rocky ledges and cave-roofs. The lat- ter makes a globular nest of pel- lets of mud, entered by a bottle- like neck, and places it always on the outside of the building close up under the eaves ; orig- inally its nests were built in closely packed communities against the face of some cliff, as still may be seen in the remote West. Several swallows of sim- ilar appearance, and with the same habit of seeking association with civilized man, occur in South America. Swallowing, or Degluti- tion, is a complicated action whereby food or liquid is car- ried from the mouth to the stom- ach. Within the oesophagus the bolus is involuntarily carried downwards by peristaltic move- ments of the muscular fibers. Deglutition is voluntary only so long as the food is in the mouth. When the bolus has passed the palatine arch the act becomes re- flex, and is controlled by a nerve center in the medulla oblongata. Swallowing can thus be per- formed during unconsciousness. The stimulus for the reflex part of the act is the presence of food or liquid in the pharynx, or at the root of the tongue. Swallowwort, a name given to plants of the genus Asclepias, more usually known as 'milk- weeds.' They bear umbels of flowers, and are for the most part plants with milky juice. Among the species are A. sti- pitacca and A. Cornuti (the common milkweed), the young shoots of which are sometimes eaten like asparagus. A. incar- nate, A. tuberosa (the butterfly weed), and A. curassavica (the wild ipecacuanha) are among the species valued for their me- dicinal properties. Swami, a title originally used to indicate the Supreme Being ; subsequently it was applied to idols, leaders of religious thought, priests or men of rank. It is now used, among ' Tamil and Telugu Hindus, as a re- spectful form of address, equiv- alent to 'teacher' ; sometimes it is part of a name — e.g. Rama Swami. Swammerdam, Jan (1637- 80), Dutch naturalist and ento- mologist, was born at Amster- dam. He devoted himself to natural history, especially to the dissection of insects. He was author of a General History of Insects (1792) and a History of the Day Fly {\ 6^1). He was a disciple in religion of the mystic Antoinette Bourignon, whom he followed to Holstein. Swampscott, tn., Massachu- setts, Essex CO., adjoining Lynn on the E., 11m. n.e. of Boston, on Massachusetts Bay, and on the Bost. and Me. R. R. It is a residential community and a fashionable summer resort. A fishing industry is carried on from this place. The first set- tlement here was made in 1629, and the town was incorporated in 1852 ; previously it was a part of Lynn. Pop. (1930) 10,346 ; (1940) 10,761. Swan {Cygmis), a genus of birds belonging to the family Anatidae, whose members are characterized by their long necks ; the naked patch between the eye and the beak (lores) ; the fact that the sexes are alike in plumage ; and the predomi- nance of white tints, except in the Australian swan. The tame or mute swan (C. olor) has the front part of the bill orange, while the lores and the large basal tubercle are black. There is a variety known as the Polish swan. The bird is distributed throughout Europe and extends into Asia, but through much of the area it is not truly wild. Swans are all birds of powerful flight, and are more or les.s gre- garious in habits. Though fre- quenting fresh water in summer, they are often found at the sea in winter. They seem to pair for life, and place their large, untidy nests upon the ground near water. The food consists largely of water plants, but also of insects and mollusks. The note is loud and trumpet-like, the windpipe in many species being curiously folded. Even the so-called mute swan trum- pets in the wild state. North America possesses two species, both uncommon except m the northwestern interior, of which the trumpeter (Cygnus buc- cinator) is best known, and in autumn is frequently shot along the Great Lakes and westward. It is a near relative of the whooper or whistling swan of Mute Swan. the Arctic regions of the Old World. Australia has a species which is black throughout. Swan, John Macallan (1847-1910). English sculptor and painter, born at Old Brent- ford ; studied painting under Ge- rome and sculpture under Fre- miet. In 1880 his Prodigal Son was bought for the Chantrey col- lection (Tate Gallery, London). In 1894 he was elected a.r.a., and in 1899 member of the Roy- al Watercolor Society. He was the finest English sculptor of an- imals in his suggestion of their essential character, structure, and movement. See Baldry's Drawings of John M. Swan (1905). Swan, Sir Joseph Wilson (1828-1914), English inventor, born at Sunderland. He patent- ed the carbon or autotype process of obtaining permanent photo- graphic prints, and invented bro- mide paper. Swan's name is best known in connection with the invention of the incandescent electric lamp, which he first ex- hibited in 1879. He was knight- ed in 1904. Swansea, seapt. tn., munic, CO., and pari. bor.. Wales, Gla- morganshire, at the mouth of the Tawe, 60 m. w.n.w. of Bris- tol ; is the chief seat of the tin- plate manufacture, and one of the most important copper smelt- ing and refining towns in the world, and has extensive coal mines. Its docks cover over 120 acres. Pop. 114,673. Swanton, tn., Vermont, Franklin co., 9 m. n.n.w. of St. • Albans, on the Missisquoi R., about 2 m. from the n. end of Lake Champlain, and on the Cent. Vt., the Gr. Trunk, and the Bost. and Me. R. Rs. It manufactures smokeless powder and explosives, shotgun am- munition, suspenders, lime, and finished marble. Limestone and variegated marble are found in the district. The town owns and operates the water-works and Swarthmore College 565 Sweating System electric-lighting plant. The place was incorporated in 1790. Pop. (1920) 3,343; (1930) 3,433. Swarthmore College, swarth'mor, a co-educational in- stitution at Swarthmore, Pa., 11 miles southwest of Philadelphia, founded 1864 by the Society of Friends and named from Swarth- more Hall in England, the home of George Fox, founder of the Society. Enrollment was limited to 500 students. Courses of study in arts, science and en- gineering lead to the degrees of Bachelor of Arts and B. of Science. In 1921 honors courses were introduced, planned some- what after the fashion of those in English universities. Students who have done exceptional work in their first two years are per- mitted to read for honors in a definitely outlined field of study. They are relieved from required attendance at regular class, but meet twice a week in seminars for discussion and reading pa- pers. The final test is a series of examinations, written and oral, given by a committee of professors from other institu- tions. The college offers gradu- ate fellowships and a number of undergraduate scholarships. The college buildings occupy a site of 200 acres. The endowment is more than six million dollars. The library contains about 80,- 000 volumes. Swastika. See Svastika. Swatow, swa'tou, seaport, China, in Kwanktung province, is situated on the left bank of the Han, 5 miles from its mouth, and 189 miles northeast of Hongkong. It has been open for foreign trade since 1869, though for_ long it had a reputation for anti-foreign feeling. Sugar is exported, and considerable trade is done in tea, paper, tobacco, beans, and bean-cake. Pop. (1930) 142,000. Swaziland, swa'zi-land, a ter- ritory of the Transvaal, British South Africa, occupying an area of 6,678 square miles in the southeastern corner. The Le- bombo mountains lie on the east ; the western part is a grass-cov- ered plateau, and the central part fertile rolling country. There is considerable mineral wealth, chiefly tin, gold, and coal. Agri- cultural products include tobacco, maize, beans, millet, and sweet potatoes, and cattle and sheep are raised. The Swazis are a warlike people akin to the Zulus. In 1930 the population numbered about 130,000 (2,200 Euro- peans). In 1894 Swaziland was placed under the adminis- tration of the South African republic and in J 906 under the High Commissioner for South Africa. The official seat is M'babane. Swearing is the making affir- mation of a statement or fact by an appeal to a supernatural power (see Oath). Profane swearing is the appeal to, or mention of, sacred things, in an irreverent manner. The variety of oaths that have been invented is infinite and curious. The Romans swore by Hercules ('Mehercule') , by Castor and Pollux ('Edepol,' 'Ecastor'), and other divinities. In modern times profane oaths have become disguised in form so that their original significa- tion is no longer thought of. Thus the French exclamations 'Parbleu' and 'Corbleu' are merely corruptions of 'par Dieu' (by God) and 'corps de Dieu' (God's body). The old English oaths 'Sdeath,' 'Zounds,' and the like were originally 'God's death,' 'God's wounds,' etc. The Church has always de- nounced profane swearing as a heinous offence and the laws of practically all the States of the United States impose penalties on profane swearers. Sweat. See Perspiration ; Skin. Sweating Sickness, or Mil- iary Fever, a disease of un- known cause, characterized by pyrexia, profuse sweats, and an eruption of miliary vesicles or sudamina. At one time it was epidemic over a large part of Europe, and very fatal in Britain in the 15th and 16th centuries, being known as 'the English sweat.' It appeared in 1485, and afterward in Holland, Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Poland, and other coun- tries. An epidemic occurred in France in 1907. The disease has never been seen in the United States. More rarely sweating sickness is of a malignant type, and is accompanied by high temperature, with delirium, ex- treme prostration, and hemor- rhage. In such cases death may occur within an hour or two. Sweating System, a term of uncertain^ origin, employed to characterize the manufacture of goods for the market in tene- ments and dwelling-houses in the cities. Under this system the 'manufacturer' provides the ma- terials of industry, and lets the working up of such materials to a contractor for a specified price. The contractor may, in turn, let the work, at a lower price, to a sub-contractor, who finds work- ers to take the material to their homes and there perform the labor contracted for. The manu- facturer may, however, deal directly with the laborer, elimi- nating contractor and sub-con- tractor. The essential feature in the system is the performance of work on materials belonging to the employer on the premises of the worker. The sweating system is char- acterized by minute subdivision of labor, irregular employment, extremely low wages, and bad sanitary conditions. Modern ap- pliances and power machinery cannot be installed in the work- er's tenement ; accordingly, in order to compete with factories, wages are necessarily low. Classes of labor which are not fitted for factory employment — newly arrived immigrants, women with small children, aged workmen, and invalids — are the reliance of the system. Since such workers are without other resources for their living, a re- duction in the rate of pay for sweated work merely results in forcing them to work longer hours and to crowd together in greater number in cheaper quar- ters. The evils of the system are by no means confined to the workers exploited under it. The con- sumer of sweatshop goods runs serious risk of disease in conse- quence of the insanitary condi- tions prevailing in such shops. The manufacture of ready- made clothing has been the prin- cipal branch of the sweated trades. It was at one time esti- mated that half the ready-made clothing manufactured in the United States was made under this system. The manufacture of cigars is in many sections of the country carried on in sweat- shops ; as is also the making of candy, bread, and other food products. In all, some thirty- five branches of industry are in part conducted under the sweat- ing system. Thirteen States enacted laws designed to subject the sweated trades to public control. The earliest of these was a New York law of 1884, prohibiting the manufacture of tobacco prod- ucts in tenements. The law was declared unconstitutional in the same year as transcending the police powers of the State. The principal provisions of existing State laws relate to inspection of home shops. The laws of some states require a license for the manufacture of specified articles in tenements and dwelling places. The laws of other States leave such manufacture unregulated in a tenement or dwelling where only members of the family residing there are employed, but require licenses if persons not members of the family are em- ployed. Sanitary provisions pro- hibiting work in rooms where persons suffering from infectious or contagious diseases are pres- ent, and making certain require- ments as to air space and venti- lation are features common to 113-D-3 Sweating System 566 Sweden most of the State legislation. The number of tenements and dwell- ings in which work is carried on is, however, so great that ade- quate inspection is almost impos- sible. The organized labor move- ment has made a vigorous and efifective fight for the abolition of the sweating system, and was especially successful in the cigar making and clothing industries. The trade union label is a guar- antee that goods have not been produced under sweatshop con- ditions. Within recent years an or- ganized effort to combat the sweating system has also been made by associations of con- sumers who bind themselves, wherever possible, to buy only goods produced under conditions involving fair treatment to the worker and satisfactory assur- ance to the purchaser respecting sanitary conditions. The lead- ing organization of this type, the National Consumers' League, had in 1933 aboiit 3.000 mem- bers and 17 branch leagues in the industrial States. Their work runs along two main lines of endeavor, (1) to obtain mini- mum wage laws, and (2) failing legislation, to publish lists of business houses operating up to a certain standard. Beginning in 1899, they found that stitched white underwear was being made under insanitary conditions of labor. After investigation, they affixed a 'white label' to all goods produced under approved conditions. This was stopped later; but in 1928 they published a candy 'white list,' discontinued in 1933. See Minimum Wage. In England the sweating sys- tem was widespread as early as 1850. An attempt to replace the sweatshop by the co-operative shop was made by the Christian Socialists, under the leadership of Maurice and Kingsley, but without lasting results. Several attempts have been made to miti- gate by legislation the evils of the system, but the result has been almost negligible. Sweat- shops are subject to inspection, like factories ; and the manufac- turer is responsible. Drastic legislation on the subject was enacted in Austra- lia in 1896, under which wage boards were created, consisting of an equal number of repre- sentatives of employers and employed, to fix wages, hours of labor, etc. Applicable laws embrace practically all trades peculiarly susceptible to sweat- ing. Minimum wages have been fixed by _ law to afford the least efficient workers reason- able hours and the necessi- ties of life. This made the 113-D-3 sweating system of industry un- profitable in some trades where it formerly thrived. An inciden- tal effect of the law has been to make persons not fitted for fac- tory employment dependent up- on public relief. Consult Adams and Sumner's Labor Problems; Commons' Trade Unionism and Labor Prob- lems; Kelley's Some Ethical Gains through Legislation; Annual Re- ports of the National Consumers' League; Proceedings of the American Federation of Labor; first and second Reports of the N. Y. Factory Investigating Commission (1913). Swe'den, a European country occupying the eastern and larger part of the Scandinavian penin- sula. It extends from 55° 20' to 69° 4' N. lat. and from 10° 58' to 24° 10' E. long. It is 975 miles long, has a breadth varying from 310 to 145 miles, exclusive of the northern and southern extremi- ties, and an area of 173,035 square miles. It is bounded on the west by Norway; on the northeast by Finland; on the east by the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea, which also washes its southern shore. On the southwest are the Kattegat, which separates Sweden and Denmark, and the Skager Rack. Topography. — Sweden may be divided into three parts: North- ern Sweden, or Norrland; Cen- tral Sweden, or Svealand; and Southern Sweden, or Gotaland. Northern Sweden, which com- prises by far the greater part of the country, consists of broad river valleys with mountain and forest lands lying between. The northern border is mountainous, the highest peaks being Kebne- kaisse (7,005 feet) and Sarjett- jokko (6,970 feet), but the north- ern coastal regions consist of plains, only slightly above sea level, traversed by slow, winding rivers, with here and there soli- tary hills rising to a few hundred feet. These plains are covered with moraine deposits and con- tain large areas of marsh-land and peat-moss. Central Sweden is characterized by lowlands scarcely more than 300 feet above sea level, often traversed by eskars or ridges of coarse moraine matter; these ridges attain con- siderable length and height, are usually wooded, and afford a plentiful water supply. South Sweden comprises the Smaland highlands in the heart of Gota- land, similar in character to the northern highlands and the planes of Skane, formed of rocks of Cretaceous, Jurassic and Silurian age, and having many lakes. The islands of Oland and Gotland are sometimes regarded as detached portions of the planes of Skane, although they more resemble the central low- lands. The coast of Sweden is much less indented than that of Norway and is fringed by num- berless islands which afford valu- able protection to navigation. The country is exceedingly well watered. The principal rivers are the Thornea, Kalix, Lulea, Pitea, Umea, Angerman, Ljusna, and Mottala, falling into the Baltic; and the Gota and Klar, flowing into the Kattegat. Of the numerous canals, con- necting the rivers and lakes, by far the most important is the Gota Canal, which, by means of the Gota River and the lakes Wener and Wetter, unites the North Sea with the Baltic. A characteristic feature of Swedish scenery is the great number of lakes, covering 8.3 per cent, of the total area. In the northern part they are elongated and in many cases merge so impercepti- bly into the rivers as to be in- distinguishable. Lake Wener, 144 feet above sea level, with an area of 2,150 square miles is the third largest lake in Europe. Climate and Soil. — Generally speaking, the climate of Sweden lies midway between the conti- nental and the maritime type. In the northern part it resembles the former, in the southern, the latter. The summ_ers are short and the winters long and cold, with snow in all parts. The mean temperature at Stockholm is 25° F. in February, the coldest month, and 62° f. in August, the hottest month. Fogs are fre- quent on the coasts in summer but rare in winter. In Eastern Sweden the rainfall is about 20 inches, decreasing to 18 inches in the northern part. The soil in the highland region is barren and unproductive, but in the central lowlands and the plains of Skane the land is fairly fertile. Geology. — Sweden is a land of ancient origin. Archaean rocks predominate, but in the north- west Silurian and Cambrian for- mations occur, and tracts of Triassic, Cretaceous and Tertian age are found in Skane. Deposits of gravel, sand, and clay form a more or less complete surface cov- ering. Glaciation, although un- important today, is accountable for the surface of the land, the characteristic contours of the fjords and rounded mountain summits, the eskars, conspicuous in the central lowlands, and the level terraces and raised beaches. Flora and Fauna. — Sweden ex- tends such a distance from north to south that there are several different zones of vegetation. In the northwest and highest part of the country, along the Nor- wegian border, is the alpine re- gion with heather, juniper, dwarf birch, lichens, and reindeer moss. Below the alpine region, form- ing a narrow belt, most freely Sweden 567 Sweden developed in the northern part of the country, is the birch forest region with a few aspens and rowans, as well as whortleberries, wild strawberries, and raspber- ries. Still lower down is the re- gion of coniferous trees, which cover by far the greater part of the country. Pine and spruce predominate, but mingled with them are the aspen, bird-cherry, oak, ash, hazel, alder, elm, and maple. In Skane, Southern Oland, and on the shores of the Kattegat are great forests of beech and oak. The fauna of Sweden closely resembles that of Central and Western Europe. Bears, for- merly common, are becoming rare ; the lynx, wolf, glutton, lemming, weasel, and arctic fox are found. Elk, roedeer, and tame reindeer are fairly com- mon. Seals abound on the coasts. Salmon, trout, pike, perch, and herring occur in the rivers and along the coasts. Bird-life is abundant in summer and is simi- lar to that of Europe. Charac- teristic forms are the snow-owl, ptarmigan, capercailzie, willow- grouse, golden eagle, and wild swan. Mining, — Sweden is rich in minerals, and mining has long been a leading industry. Iron is the most important deposit, large quantities being mined annually. Silver, lead, copper, manganese, sulphur pyrites, and gold occur, and small amounts of coal are produced in the southern part. Forestry, — Nearly sixty per cent of the land is under forests. Timber is one of the leading ex- ports, and wood-working fac- tories, saw and planing mills fur- nish employment to about 100,000 workers. Exploitation of the forests for a long time caused wholesale destruction, but pro- tective legislation has been en- acted, and a State Forest Service is maintained. Agriculture, Stock Raising, and Fisheries, — Sweden is an agricultural country, about one half of the people being engaged in farming and stock raising. Most of the farms are small, and only about 10 per cent, of the entire land area is under cultiva- tion. The leading crops are oats, wheat, rye, barley, potatoes, sugar-beets, and hay. Stock rais- ing and dairy farming are im- portant. Large quantities of but- ter are produced and exported, particularly to Great Britain. Co-operative methods are em- ployed in the dairy industry and are steadily gaining adherents. Cattle are raised chiefly for milk production ; thoroughbred horses are raised, chiefly for the use of the army, and farm and draught horses for general use. Reindeer are bred and used by the Lapps. Poultry farming is carried on in the south, and bee-keeping is a thriving industry. Of the fish taken in Swedish waters, the herring is of the greatest commercial importance ; others of economic value are the mackerel, eel, and sardine. Salmon, pike, perch, bass,_ trout and grayling are found in the lakes and rivers. Manufactures. — The most important manufactured products are those connected with the iron industry, such as electrical ma- chinery, motors, telephone sup- plies, and lighthouse apparatus ; timber products, such as wood pulp, furniture, matches, and paper ; and porcelain and glass wares. Textile and chemical in- dustries are flourishing, and leather and rubber goods are produced. Transportation, — I n 19 3 2 there were 10,505 miles of rail- road in Sweden, 4,164 of which were state-owned. Electrifica- tion of State lines south of Stock- holm is approaching completion. About 50,000 miles of highway are utilised by over 150,000 motor vehicles. Civil aviation is increasing steadily, Malmo being the principal airport served by the German Luft Hansa services. Water Power and Elec- tricity, — The country has im- portant water power resources, and industrial machinery is largely driven by hydroelectric energy. The potential capacity, developed and undeveloped, of water power resources at mean flow is estimated at 15,300,000 horsepower. About 45% of the farms are electrically equipped, and in the iron-mining center of Porjus, in Lapland, the State has installed an hydroelectric plant with a capacity of nearly 60,000 kilowatts. Finance, — The National Bank, or Riksbank, belongs to the state, and it alone can issue notes. The krona is the unit of value, and is worth at par $0.2680 U. S. currency. The restrictions on the import of gold were abol- ished in April, 1931, and five months later gold payments were suspended when Great Britain went off the gold standard. The note circulation was 556 million kronor on Aug. 31, 1932, with a gold reserve of 206 million and foreign assets of 171 million. Population, — Sweden's popu- lation in 1930 was 6,141,671, as compared with 5,904,489 in 1920. With the exception of about 40,000 Lapps and Finns and a few others, it is made up of Scandinavians. The population of the largest cities in 1930 was as follows : Stockholm, the capi- tal, 502,207; Goteberg. 245,690: Malmo, 127,875. Emigration has steadily declined since 1923, and in 1930 a flow commenced in the reverse direction. Religion and Education, — The great majority of the Swed- ish people are adherents of the Lutheran Protestant Church, and that is the recognized state church, although all sects are tolerated. Education is free and compulsory between the ages of seven and fourteen. There are also normal, technical, military, veterinary and agricultural schools, universities at Upsala, founded in 1477, and at Lund, founded in 1688, and private uni- versities in Stockholm and Goteberg. Army and Navy, — The pres- ent army organization is based on the principle of general con- scription, the period of service being from twenty to forty-three. The men serve for eleven years in the Bevaring or first 'uppbad' ; for four years in the second [uppbad' ; and for eight years in the Landstorm. The total peace strength of the army is about 25,000 which can be in- creased to about 600,000 on mo- bilization. The navy is main- tained solely for coast defence and consisted in 1932 of 12 light cruisers, 10 destroyers, 4 torpedo gunboats, 40 torpedo boats and 4 submarines. Treaties to out- law war have been concluded with Norway, Denmark and Finland. Government, — Sweden is a constitutional hereditary monar- chy. The king is advised by a cabinet (Statsradet) of 12 mem- bers. Legislative authority is ex- ercised by the king and the Riks- dag, which is divided into two chambers. The First consists of 150 members, who must be above thirty-five years of age and possess a certain amount of real property or an annual income of at least 3,000 kronor, and who are elected for eight years ; the Second consists of 230 members elected by universal suffrage. The Riksdag must assemble each 10th of January and may be sum- moned in extraordinary session by the king. History, — Sweden proper was inhabited in ancient times by two closely related races (Sver and Goter), from whose conjunction the Swedish nation ultimately arose, and whose early kings, of the Ynglingar family, reigned at Upsala. Christianity was first preached in Svealand by St. Ans- gar in the middle of the 9th cen- tury ; but the old heathen re- ligion obstinately persisted for more than two centuries and a half later. Alternate Swedish and Gothic dynasties ruled the land till 1250. During this period Finland was conquered and Christianized. Under the Fol- kunger dynasty (1250-1397) n3-D-3 Sweden 568 Sweden both the nobility and the clergy extorted considerable privileges from the impecunious monarchs ; and finally Margaret of Denmark united the three Scandinavian kingdoms beneath her sceptre by the union of Kalmar (1397). This union with Denmark and Norway, under kings of German extraction and arbitrary inclina- tion, became intolerable and led to a general rising under Gus- tavus I. of the Vasa family, who, in 1521-3, shook off the Danish yoke, and was elected king at the Strengnas Riksdag (June 7, 1523). Gustavus devoted him- self during the latter part of his reign to the rehabilitation of his impoverished country, and a stable government was ensured by a compact at Vesteras (1544), which made the throne hereditary in Gustavus' family. Gustavus' two sons, Eric xiv. (1560-8) and John in. (1568- 92), succeeded him consecu- tively. Both were weak rulers with Roman Catholic tendencies and vague ambitions, which in- volved them in abortive wars with Denmark and Russia. John's son and successor, Sigis- mund (1592-9), who was brought up a Roman Catholic, and had become king of Poland five years before his accession to the Swedish throne, was ulti- mately expelled from the king- dom by his uncle, Charles ix., the youngest son of Gustavus i., and a bigoted upholder of Protestant- ism, a capable if cruel prince, who reigned from 1599 to 1611. It was through his instrumen- tality that the Synod of Upsala (1593) confirmed and completed the Reformation in Sweden. At his death he bequeathed to his son, Gustavus Adolphus (1611- 32), three pending wars, with Denmark, Poland, and Russia respectively. The Danish War was termi- nated by the peace of Knared ( Jan. , 1613), and peace was made with Russia (Feb. 27, 1617) which ceded Kexholm and Ingria. The war with Poland dragged on, however, till 1629, when, by a six years' truce, Livonia and East Prussia were provisionally sur- rendered to Sweden. It was then that Gustavus espoused the cause of the Protestants in Germany, only to fall victorious on the field of Liitzen (November 1632). The minority of Gustavus' daughter and successor, Chris- tina (1632-54), was made fa- mous by the masterly statesman- ship of the great chancellor Axel Oxenstjerna, and the victories of the Swedish generals Baner, Torstensson, and Wrangel. Sweden reaped her reward at the peace of Westphalia in 1648, when Upper Pomerania, with the adjacent island, Wismar, and 113-D-3 the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden practically gave her the control of all the great German waterways, except the Vistula. In 1654 Christina resigned the crown to her cousin, Carl Gustaf, a grandson of Charles ix., who reigned as Charles x. (1654-60). He finally expelled the Danes from the Swedish mainland, and concluded a war with Poland by the treaty of Oliva (May 3, 1660), which definitively ceded Esthonia and Livonia to Sweden. During the long minority of Charles xi. (1660-72) the coun- try was dominated by France, but Charles left a prosperous land to his heroic son Charles xii. (1697-1718) whose wars with Denmark, Russia and Poland, at first successful, at length brought disaster. His sudden and violent death in 1718 saved Sweden from utter ruin, though not from dis- memberment. Bremen and Ver- den were ceded to Hanover in 1719; Hither Pomerania, as far as the Peene, to Prussia, by the peace of Stockholm (Feb., 1720) ; and Ingria, Esthonia, Livonia, Karelia, and part of Kexholm to Russia by the peace of Nystad (Sept. 10, 1721). The period between 1719 and 1772 is called by Swedish his- torians the 'period of freedom,' because it was a violent rebound from the absolutism of Charles XI. and Charles xii. to a strictly constitutional regime, the su- preme authority being vested in the Riksdag, or Parliament, com- posed of four estates — nobility, clergy, burgesses, and peasants — sitting in separate chambers. Sweden fell at length into an- archy, from which she was res- cued by Gustavus in. (1771-92) who did much for literature and the arts, and by successful w^ars with Denmark and Russia did much to raise the prestige of Sweden in the eyes of Europe. During the reign of his semi- imbecile son, Gustavus iv. (1792- 1809), Sweden embarked in a ruinous war with Russia. Gus- tavus was forced to abdicate in 1809, and his uncle, the duke regent, became Charles xiii. He was compelled to end the Russian war by ceding to Russia all Fin- land and the Aland Islands. Farther Pomerania, Sweden's last continental possession, was ceded to Prussia five years later, but by the peace of Kiel (Jan. 14, 1814) she was compensated therefor by the union with Nor- way under one king. On the death (February 1818) of Charles xiii., the throne passed to Charles John (formerly the French Marshal Bernadotte), who had been elected heir to the throne by the Orebro Riksdag (Aug. 25, 1810). The crown is now hereditary in his family. From 1815 to 1905 Sweden's relations with Norway are mainly important. Briefly, these rela- tions have turned upon the efforts of Norway to break away from the union. The secession was peacefully accomplished in 1905. (See Norway.) The principal domestic event during this period was the reform of the constitu- tion on June 22, 1866, when the representation by estates was abolished, and the existing consti- tution was established. In 1907 King Oscar ii. died and was succeeded by his eldest son Gustavus v. At the begin- ning of his reign the question of national defence was in the fore- front of Swedish politics, and in spite of determined opposition on the part of the Socialists and Liberals, a programme for the strengthening of the army and navy was carried out. On the outbreak of the World War, Sweden, in company with the other Scandinavian countries, de- clared neutrality, which it main- tained throughout the war. In 1918 Sweden recognized the new state of Finland, and in 1921 the question as to the sovereignty over the Aland Islands, which had arisen previously between Sweden and Finland, was settled by the League of Nations in favor of Finland. The ministry which came into office under Hjalmar Branting in 1920 was the first socialist government in Swed- en's history ; it reached power through a peaceable and orderly expression of the people's will. Branting was defeated in 1923 by failure to cope with unem- ployment ; he was succeeded by Ernest Trygger, who effected a commercial agreement with So- viet Russia. In 1924 Branting again formed a government, but ill-health soon compelled him to relinquish active leadership. The Goteborg system of liquor control, M'hich restricted the hours of sale and abolished sa- loons, was extended by Dr. Ivar Bratt, whose proposals were first put into effect in 1914. State- controlled stores (which derive no profit from sales beyond a normal rate of interest on the capital invested) retail all spirits and wines with a greater alco- holic content than 3.6 per cent. Booklets of tickets issued to the heads of families (and adult sons over 25 years of age) permit a maximum consumption of about four quarts of spirits per person monthly ; in the event o{ abuse the privilege may be withdrawn. Beer, with a maximum strength of 3.2 per cent, by weight, may be purchased in unrestricted quantities for consumption at home or at meals in hotels. The quantity of spirits purchasable with meals in hotels is dependent Sweden KFP 569 Sweden upon the amount of food con- sumed. The desirability of com- plete prohibition of the liquor trade was referred to a national plebiscite in 1922, and a decision was given against prohibition by a majority of 37,890 votes out of a total of 1,808,354. No diffi- culty in law enforcement has been experienced, and illegal transportation and sale are un- known. The international reputation of Ivar Kreuger as a brilliant fin- ancier was shattered by the dis- closures made after his death by suicide in Paris on March 12, 1932. He had manipulated the finances of the Swedish Match Company and its associates (of which the greatest was the Kreu- ger and Toll Company) by means of forgery and the assistance of dishonest colleagues, to an ex- tent involving direct liabilities of $74,800,000, in addition to in- curring personal debts of $93,- 500,000. Although only two- thirds of 1 per cent of the na- tional income was affected by the crash, and not more than 2^ per cent of the workers were em- ployed in his industries, the shock to the nation was severe. In the course of unraveling Kreuger's tangled affairs it came to light that he was a liberal contributor to the funds of all the major political parties. Large sums were traced to the coffers of the Conservative and Independent Communist Parties, and in August, 1932, it was dis- closed that he had made secret payments to Carl Gustav Ekman, leader of the People's Party, who was at that time premier. The preceding month Ekman had re- turned to the receivers of Kreu- ger and Toll 50,000 kronor re- ceived from the financier, but he failed to acknowledge receipt of a second sum of a like amount from Kreuger immediately prior to his suicide. Ekman resigned his premiership, and the cabinet was reformed under the leader- ship of Finance Minister T. Hamrin. A month later, as the result of a general election, the Socialists were returned to pow- er, and a ministry was consti- tuted under the premiership of Per Albin Hansson, long a lead- er of the Social Democrats. _ Sweden encountered numerous difficulties in her strictly main- tained neutrality during the Sec- ond World War (1939-45), not the least being her constant ef- forts to ameliorate the sufferings of the peoples of other Scandi- navian countries. A national coalition ministry under the pre- miership of Per Albin Hansson was formed in December 1939 and reconstituted in 1944 and 1945. To the end of the war the government succeeded in steer- ing a political course that avoid- ed conflict with the Axis powers and at the same time created the impression of sympathy with the struggles of the democratic na- tions. Diplomatic relations with Germany were severed in May, 1945. Sweden was admitted to the United Nations Nov. 9, 1946. Crown Prince Gustaf Adolf (b. 1882) married, in 1905, Princess Margaret (daughter of Prince Arthur, Duke of Con- naught) who bore him four sons and one daughter. Following her death in 1920, the Prince married, in 1923, Lady Louise Mountbatten, daughter of the former Prince Louis of Batten- berg, First Marquess of Milford Haven. Prince Gustaf Adolf (1906-47), eldest son of the Crown Prince, married, in 1932, Princess Sybille of Saxe-Co- burg-Gotha, who bore him four daughters and one son. Sweden maintains an impor- tant place in the scientific and artistic world, modern notabili- ties including the architects Ferdinand Boberg (1860-1946), Gustaf Clason (1856-1930) and Ragnar Ostberg (1866-1945), while Carl Milles (1875- ) is one of the world's outstanding sculptors. Svante Arrhenius (1859-1927) originated the the- ory of electrolytic dissociation, and made numerous other addi- tions to scientific knowledge. Allvar Gullstrand (1862-1930) was famous for his work in op- tics, Gerard de Geer (1868-1943) known as a brilliant geologist, and the work at Upsala Univer- sity of Svedberg (1884- ^ ), the chemist, and Manne Sieg- bahn (1886- ), the physicist, is internationally known. Bibliography * — Consult Montelius, Civilisation of Swe- den in Ancient Times ; Thomas, Sweden and the Swedes ; Baker, Pictures of Swedish Life ; Bain, Scandinavia : A Political His- tory of Denmark, Norway and Sweden; Kennedy, Thirty Sea- sons in Scandinavia ; Swedish Year Book ; Heidenstam, Swed- ish Life in Town and Country; V. von Heidenstam, Swedes and Their Chieftains (1925) ; Ben- son, Sweden and the American Revolution (1926); Hallendorf and Schiick, History of Sweden (1929); Stomberg, History of Sweden (1932) ; Bonow, Swe- den: Its Economic and Social Life (1937) ; Cole and Smith, Democratic Sweden (1938) ; Joesten, Stalwart Sweden (1943); Bonnier, Sweden: A Wartime Survey (1944). Swedish Literature. — It is not till the middle of the 17th century that we meet with any- thing that can be seriously re- garded as literature, for the ru- nic verses found on ancient monuments are of purely ar- chaeological interest, while the literary activity which centered round St. Bridget (1303-72) and the monastery of Vadstena is of a purely religious charac- ter. After the Reformation, the University of Upsala was suf- fered to decay, and the Swedish gentry flocked to Wittenberg and Rostock for an education denied to them at home. Nev- ertheless, the reformers, by their translation of the Scrip- tures, fixed, once for all, the form and character of the Swedish language. It was George Stjern- hjelm (1598-1672) who first 'taught the muses how to play and sing in the Swedish tongue.' His ballets, or operatic sketches, such as Then Fangne Cupido, amused Queen Christina's court. Brdllopsbesvdrs Hiugkommelse, the work of his old age, displays many of the qualities of a power- ful humorist. The path opened up by Stjernhjelm was pursued by his friend and biographer, Samuel Columbus (1642-79), and by Peter Lagerlof (1648-- 99), accounted the best religious poet of his day. Then followed a period of decline, during which Swedish literature fell beneath the^ pernicious influence of Ma- rini and his German imitators. The vagaries of this school flour- ish most luxuriantly in the bombastic odes of Dahlstjerna (1658-1709). Amid the jarring babel only one faint but sweetly pathetic note strikes the ear — Jacob Frese's lyrics. A salutary change was effected by the rude and vigorous Satir mot vara dumma poetcr, by Sam- uel von Triewald (1688-1743), the earliest Swedish satirist, and the dramas of Count Carl Gy\- lenborg, Johan Stagnell, and R. G. Modee (1698-1750), the two former being largely influenced by Swift, Addison, and Wycher- ley, and the latter by Moliere. It was, however, in Dalin (1708- 63) that the English influence produced its best fruits. Dalin's Svenska Argus is a close and clever, though inferior, imita- tion of Addison's Spectator. As a poetic satirist, too, notably in Aprilverk and the masterly Saga om, Hdste^v, obviously suggested by Swift's Tale of a Tub, Dalin also did excellent work ; but his plays are inferior to Gyllen- borg's. On the other hand, his Svea Rikes Historia was the first serious attempt at a critical history of Sweden in popular form. The chief pioneer of the French school in Sweden was Hedwig Carlotta Nordenflycht, the di- rectress of the 'Society for the Promotion of the Poetic Art in Sweden.' whose little house at Stockholm became the favorite Sweden KFP 570 Swedenborg resort of the elite of Swedish so- ciety — a sort of anticipation in miniature of Madame Geoffrin's salon at Paris with a more ro- mantic coloring. Conspicuous among its frequenters were two poetical young noblemen, Count Philip Creutz (1729-85) and Count Gustaf Fredrik Gyllen- borg (1731-1808). Creutz speedily won renown by his ex- quisite pastoral poem, Atis och Camilla; while Gyllenborg's beautiful descriptive idylls — Vinteravadct and Varqvadet — are still read and admired. With the accession of Gustavus III. (1771), himself a playwright and orator, begins the classical period of Swedish literature. Nota"ble Gustavians were the poets Kellgren (1751-95), Leo- pold (1756-1829) and Oxen- stjerna (1750-1818), a gay and graceful society poet, and the au- thor of the descriptive idylls Dagens Stunder and Skordarne, and the playfully mock-heroic legend Disa. Kellgren, as editor of the Stockholm Post, exercised for fourteen years an indisputa- ble dictatorship over the national literature, while Leopold was ex- travagantly belauded by his con- temporaries and as unduly dis- paraged by a later age. Oxen- stjerna, Kellgren, and Leopold were the chief representatives of the classical school which looked to France for its models. But along with, though independent of, the classical school, a purely national school of literature was springing up, whose chief expo- nents were Bellman, Lidner, Hallman, and Kexel. Bellman (1740-95), not merely the great- est of the Gustavan poets, but one of the few great lyric poets of modern times, was of a genius closely akin to that of Robert Burns, though it is difficult for any one but a Swede to appre- ciate, still less to define, his peculiar genius. Lidner's (1759- 93) was a vagabond talent of great force and pathos. Hallman (1732-1800) enjoys the distinc- tion of founding a purely national comic drama in Sweden. Kexel (1748-96) was a more graceful but far less original dramatist than his friend Hallman, and his historical tale, Zamaleski, is re- markable as being the first Swed- ish novel. More difficult to class- ify is that child of revolt, the eccentric Thorild (1759-1808). The formalism introduced into Swedish literature by the classi- cal school was at last successfully combated by the protagonists of the rising romantic school, Askelof (1787-1848) and Atter- bom (1790-1855), the latter the author of Fagcl Bid and Lyck- salifjhctrns 6, in their respective journals Polyfcm and Fosfor. These so-called Phosphorists in- cluded in their ranks the critic Hammerskjold, the romance writer W. F. Palmblad, and the poet and novelist, K. F. Dahl- gren. Two independent poets of the same period are the lyrist F. M. Franzen (1772-1847), and J. O. Wallin, Sweden's best hymn-writer. Another illustrious group of writers and thinkers formed about this time the Gothic Union, whose chief aim it was to culti- vate and idealize old Scandina- vian literature and heroic tradi- tion, and which numbered in its ranks the poet and historian Geijer (1783-1847), the poet Esaias Tegner (1782-1846), au- thor of Frithjofs Saga; Beskow, the chivalrous apologist of Gus- tavus III ; and Lindeblad. Quite apart from these contending coteries we find E. J. Stagnelius (1793-1823), a mystical nature, who achieved excellence in almost every branch of poetry ; the new romantic, J. L. Almqvist (1793- 1866), who yet, in his novel Det gar an anticipated the realism of a later day ; Bottiger ; and many others. Epoch-making were the works of Runeberg (1804-77), notably Fdnrik Stdls Sdgncr, un- doubtedly the finest poet of the younger generation. In the forties appeared a group of romance writers reminiscent of Jane Austen, foremost among whom were two women, Fred- erika Bremer and EmilieFlygare- Carlen, while the historical ro- mance was successfully culti- vated by Starback and Crusen- stolpe, though by far the best work in this department is Tope- lius' Fdltskdrens Berdttelscr, still the most popular of all Swedish story-books. In the fifties we meet with a group of writers who founded the poetic society 'N.S.' — Nyblom. Snoilsky, Bjorck, Wirsen, Wikner, and Backstrom all of them neo- romanticists. Wirsen was the leading critic of the party, and Snoilsky incomparably its finest poet — indeed, his patriotic cycle of poems, Svcnska Bilder, is one of the masterpieces of the litera- ture. The realistic school, which arose almost simultaneously, owed much of its impetus to the Danish critic Georg Brandes. August Strindberg (1849-1912), the shining light of the Swedish realists, outraged every conven- tion, but his later works took a mystical turn and bore a resem- blance to those of Huysmans. Other notable realists are Fru Leffler-Edgren, Gustaf af Geier- stam, and Ola Hansson. The banner of idealism was, however, speedily unfurled again by Victor Rydberg, whose Singoalla would alone suffice to immortalize his name. Two independent writers of great ability are Von Heidenstam and Levertin, both remarkable for the gorgeous beauty and vividness of their style. Heiden- stam restored the historical novel to favor by his brilliant cycle of tales Karolinerna, whose hero is Charles xii ; while Levertin is equally famous as a novelist, a poet, and a critic. More recent- ly a writer of the first rank emerged in Selma Lagerlof (1858-1940), who invented an entirely new genre of an ideal- istic religious tendency. Other names of note are Lundegard, Henning, Lungqvist, Schroder, Hallstrom, Elkan, Wickstrom, D. Fjallstrom, and Eroding. The scientific and philosophi- cal literature of Sweden is also considerable, and includes such names, as Hoijer, Bostrom, RilD- bing, and Nyblaeus among the philosophers ; Geijer, Fryxell, Carlson, Malmstrom, Odhner, E. Tegner, Alin, and Hildebrand among the historians ; geog- raphers, such as Nordenskjold ; chemists, such as Berzelius ; bot- anists, such as Linnaeus, Agardh, and Fries ; philologists, such as Rydqvist and Soderwall. Notable moderns include Hjal- mar Soderberg (1869-1941), Bo Bergman (1869- ) and Hen- ning Berger (1872-1922), all portrayers of modern life, and Hjalmar Bergman (1883-1931), who writes with imaginative force. HenrikSchuck(1855- ) has produced a great history of Swedish literature, and Carl Grimberg (1875-1941) a schol- arly history of Sweden. Birger Sjoberg (1885-1929) stands in a class by himself, his best- known works being Fridas hok (1922), Kvartetten som sprdng- des (1924) and Kriser och kran- sar (1926). Consult Horn's His- tory of Scat! din avian Literature ; Hammerskj old's Svcnska Vitter- heten ; Linstrom's Svcnska Poe- siens Histort-a ; Dietrichsen's In- dledning i studiet af Svcriges Literatur ; Wieselgren's Sveriges Skona Literatur ; Schiick and Warburg's Illustrcrad Svcnsk Literatur- Historic ; Ljunggren's Svenska Dramat ; Schweitzer's Geschichtc dcr Skandinavischcn Literatur; Gunnar Jorn's Svcn- ska diktarportrdtt (1924). Swedenborg, swe'den-borg ; or also sva'den-bory, Emanuel (1688-1772), Swedish scien- tist, philosopher and^ religious reformer, was born in Stock- holm, the third child and sec- ond son of Bishop Jesper Sved- berg, former chaplain of Charles XI. Educated at the Univer- sity of Upsala, he spent several years abroad as a student and scientific observer, studying un- der Newton, Flamsteed and Halley. At the same time, lodg- 2° A 0° B 2° "7 1 r SWEDEN GOVERNMENTS 1 Blekiiigre J a 8 Christianstad.H 8 SElfsborp- H7 4 Gefleborg' K6 5 Gotland L8 6 Gottenborgoch Bohus G7 7Halland H8 8 Jenitland J 5 9 Joiikoping J 8 -10 Kalmar K 11 Kopparberg . . . J 6 12 Ki onoberg J 8 ISMalmohus ....H 9 14Noribotten....L3 loOi ebi o J 7 Oster Gotland .J 7 17 SkaraboiR.,..H7 1 SodermanlandK 7 • 19 Stockholm.... L 7 20 Stockholm (City) L7 '1\ Upsala K VI Wermland .... K 7 23 Westei-botten . K 4 24 Westernon laud K5 25 Westmanland K 7 DISTRICTS 1 Akershu.s G6 2 Bereren D6 3 Bratsbei g F 7 4 Buskeriid F 6 5 Chi'istiania ....(it 6 (.'hristians F6 7 Fintnarken .. P 8 Hedemai kcn . . G 6 9 Jarlsberg og Laivik' G7 10 Lister og Mandal E7 11 Nedenes 7 12 Nordland J 3 13Noidi-e Bfigenhus ..E6 14 Nordi'e Tiondlijem. H4 15 Roiiisdal R5 It) Sniaiilenene...G 7 17 Son d re Beigenhu.'; . .EC 18 Sondre Trondhiem. G .T lOStavaiigei . ... K7 20Troin«) M2 E 8° F 10° G 12° H 14° J 16° K L 20° M 22° N 24" O 20" p SliVEDK^r, :nOR WAT AND DENMARK SCALE OF !° Q 0 20 40 60 80 100120 RailrOnrls. . Canals Size of type indicates -df^ relative importance], % ,|'V of places JK ^/ci 12''LongH Uudel4 East J frouil6°Greeii « wichis" Swedenborg 571 Swedenborgian Church ing with various craftsmen, he acquired the arts of instrurnent- making, book-binding, cabinet- making, glass-grinding and lens- making. On his return to Swed- en he astonished the scientific world by his prophetic vision with plans for some amazing in- ventions which included a glider- type airplane, a submarine, a mechanical piano, ear trumpet, mercury pump, self-propelling carriage and a tank for ship models. In 1716 he founded Sweden's first scientific peri- odical. Daedalus Hypcrhoreiis. In the same year Charles xii. appointed him assessor or coun- sellor in the Royal College of Mines and he rendered impor- tant services to that monarch as military engineer. After the death of Charles Swedenborg was elevated by Queen _ Ulrica Eleanora to the Equestrian Or- der of the House of Nobles. He held a seat in the Diet almost to the end of his life, being consid- ered a liberal and advancing^ a number of notable pieces of legis- lation, dealing chiefly with finance, commerce and temper- ance. His early scientific and philosophical _ productions in- cluded a treatise on the tin-plate industry, Sweden's first textbook on Algebra, a small work on The Motion and Position of the Earth and several essays on sea levels, tides, docks and salt works. In 1721, after an extensive tour of scientific centres, he published parts of a work on the principles of natural philosophy ; observa- tions respecting iron and fire ; new methods of finding longitude by lunar observations, and mis- cellaneous observations in physi- cal science. In this year was be- gun a more ambitious work, his Principia or principle of natu- ral things, being an attempt to furnish a philosophical explana- tion of the elementary world. Other works appeared treat- ing of methods of mining and preparing iron. copper and other ores. In 1735 he was made a corresponding member of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences. Later he turned his attention to physiology and anatomy with the special object of discovering the human soul, his works — Eeonomia Regni Ani- malis (1740-41), Regnum Ani- male (1744—5), De Cerchro, and Psychologia Rationalis — deal with man, not the brute creation, and contain striking anticipations of later scientific development. The Worship and Love of God, the last of his philosophical w^orks, appeared in 1745. His career took a fresh trend during 1743-45. In the latter year he says the spiritual world was fully revealed to him. He claimed to have been called by the Lord to unfold the true, be- cause interior, teachings of the divine Word on all Christian doctrines. Swedenborg died and was buried in London, 1772; at the request of the Swedish Govern- ment his remains were removed to Sweden in 1908. His chief theological works are Heavenly Secrets (1749-56) ; Heaven arid Its Wonders and Hell (1758); Divine Love and Wisdom (1763) ; True Christian Religion (1771), a complete statement of his doctrinal system ; Apocalypse Revealed. The spread of Swedenborg's teachings was at first largely due to a Church of England clergy- man. Rev. John Clowes, who translated many of the theologi- cal writings. A society for pub- lishing Swedenborg's works has existed since 1810, while the first organization of Swedenborgians was formed in London, England, in 1783. Complete editions of the theological works in English, with some of his works in Latin, and others in Latin-English, are issued by the Swedenborg So- ciety in London and the Sweden- borg Foundation, New York. Consult R. L. Tafel, Docu- ments Concerning Swedenborg (1875-7); Hyde, Bibliography of the Works of Swedenborg (2,000 entries, 1870); Stroh, Szvcdenborg Archives (1918) ; Very's Epitome of Swedenborg's Science (1927) ; Lives by Wil- kinson (1849) ; Paxton Hood (1854); White (ed. 1868); Worcester (1883); Trobridge (1923) ; Warren's Compendium of the Theological Writings of Swedenborg (1885). See Swed- ENBORGIAN ChuRCH. Swedenborgian Church, properly the Church of the New Jerusalem, whose doctrines are set forth in the theological writ- ings of Emanuel Swedenborg (q. V.) recognized by the church as a divinely called and illumined seer and revelator. The Nevy Jerusalem or the New Church, as it is referred to throughout Swedenborg's writings, is so named from Revelation xxi., and the establishment of this uni- versal church in heaven and on earth is believed bv Swedenbor- gians to be the fulfillment of that and^ all other prophecy in the Scriptures respecting the second coming of the Lord and His in- stitution then of a kingdom or church which should endure to eternity (Dan. vii. 13, 14). ^The faith of the New Church is as follows : The Lord Jesus Christ is the one only God. In the Old Testa- ment His name is most com- monly Jehovah (The Lord in A. v.). God in the New Testa- ment is called Lord, Jesus Christ, Father, Son, Holy Spirit, besides Other names. Since the Word is God's revelation and expression of Himself, the different names by which He is called therein dis- tinguish and define His essence and existence. His love, wisdom, and power, His ends. His meth- ods and His acts. By the Father, therefore, is not meant a divine being or person separate and apart from other divine per- sons called the Son and the Holy Spirit, but the Father signifies the divine inmost, the divine es- sence, the divine love ; the Son signifies the divine existence, the divine appearing, divine revela- tion, divine truth, the divine Word, the Divine Human. The Holy Spirit is the divine proceed- ing, the divine operation, divine influx adapting the appropriating to man the divine gifts of life, love and truth. Thus the Trinity is not of God in three persons or of three persons in God, but of Divine Love, Divine Wisdom, and Divine Proceeding, in our Lord Jesus Christ, who, there- fore, is the one only God. Man, as an image and likeness of God, is constituted of the trinity of soul, body and operation. Since the Lord, when upon earth, glorified and made divine his human nature, therefore His second corning is the revelation of His Divine Human. In order that this revelation of the Lord God in His Divine Human might be known and perceived in the world to eternity and 'since the Lord cannot manifest Himself in person, and yet has foretold that He would come and establish a new church, which is the New Jerusalem, it follows that he is to do it by means of a man, who is able not only to receive the doctrines of this church with his understanding, but also to pub- lish them by the press. That the Lord has manifested Himself be- fore me, His servant, and sent me on this office, and that, after this,^ He opened the sight of my spirit and thus let me into the spiritual world, and gave me to see the heavens and the hells, and also to speak with angels and spirits, and this now for many years I testify in truth ; and also that from the first day of that call I have not received anything that pertains to the doctrines of that church from any angel, but from the Lord alone while I was reading the Word.' {True Christian Religion, 779). In America there are two gen- eral organizations of those who receive the testimony of Sweden- borg. One, 'The (General Con- vention of the New Jerusalem,' dating from 1817 ; the other 'The General Church of the New Jeru- salem,' held its first General As- sembly in 1897. The British or- 113-D-3 Sweeny 572 Sweet Potato ganization dates officially from 1807, though meetings were held in London as early as 1783. There are other New Church organizations, schools and pub- lishing houses throughout the world. At Bryn Athyn, Pa., is a set- tlement of New Church families devoted especially to the work of education in accordance with the philosophy, psychology, instruc- tion, and the formation of char- acter as set forth in the new reve- lation. 'The Academy of the New Church,' established in 1876, is a corporation instituted and chartered for the purpose of conducting a universal system of schools, wherein shall be taught the doctrine and religion of the church, as well as every useful science and art. The end and aim of the Academy is to educate its pupils, not only for a life of efficiency in this world, but pre- eminently to prepare them for usefulness in the spiritual world to eternity. The influence of this organization has been incal- culable and far-reaching, extend- ing to the remotest borders of the church. By its profound study and learning in the doctrines of the church it has created a stand- ard of interpretation of the writ- ings of Swedenborg. and by its attitude of loyalty and faithful- ness has exalted them within the church to a position of supreme authority and power. Sweeny, Thomas William (1820-92), American soldier, born in Cork, Ireland. He emigrated to the U. S. in 1832; served in the Mexican War as a second lieu- tenant and lost an arm at Churu- busco, and afterwards had active service on the frontier. At the outbreak of the Civil War he commanded the St._ Louis ar- senal. He assisted in the cap- ture of Camp Jackson, and re- ceived a severe wound at the battle of Wilson's Creek. After- wards he became colonel of the 52d Illinois, took part in the operations against Fort Donel- son; distinguished himself at Shiloh; and was commissioned brigadier-general in November, 1862. He commanded a division in the Atlanta campaign, and was mustered out of the service in 1865. In the following year he took part in the Fenian raid into Canada. He re-entered the army soon after, and was retired in 1870. Sweepstakes, a way of gam- bling by which a number of per- sons stake their money in a com- mon pool, the whole of which falls to the winner. When a horse race is the subject of the stakes, each one who is concerned draws 113-D-3 the name of a horse entered for the event, and either the holder of the winning horse takes the entire stakes, or those who hold the names of 'placed' horses re- ceive a certain proportion. Sweet, Benjamin Jeffrey (1832-74), American soldier, born in Kirkland, Oneida co., N. Y., whence at the age of sixteen he removed to Stockbridge, Wis. He was for a time a member of the state senate; became a major in the 6th Wisconsin regiment of volunteers, and soon afterwards colonel of the 21st, and was dangerously wounded at the bat- tle of Perryville. In 1864, as commander of Camp Douglas, he frustrated a plot on the part of Confederate emissaries and Knights of the Golden Circle to liberate the Confederate prison- ers confined there. He was after- wards commissioned brigadier- general of volunteers. Sweet Bay. See Laurel; Mag- nolia. Sweetbread, the pancreas — i.e. a gland of the body which lies between the bottom of the stomach and the vertebrae of the loins. This organ, when taken from cattle and properly treated, forms a delicate article of food. Sweet Brier. See Rose. Sweet Flag {Acorus calamus), a rush-like plant, natural order Araceas, with sword-shaped leaves and two-edged, leaf-like scapes, from one edge of which emerges a cyUndrical spadix. It has pun- gent and aromatic properties, and its root-stock, the officinal Calamus aromatics, is sparingly used as a stomachic, and in con- fectionery. It reaches from three to six feet, and is common in marshy ground. Sweet Gale, or Bog Myrtle Sweet Gale. 1, Male catkin ; 2, male flower ; 3, female flower 4, fi jit. (Myrica gale), of the order Myri- caceae; looks like a dwarf willow, and forms low slender bushes on boggy ground throughout the northern hemisphere. It pro- duces a fragrant resin, and on this account is used by European country people for packing among clothes, to perfume them and to keep off insects. Sweet Grass {Savastana odorata) is used by the north- eastern Indians for basketry. The sweet-scented vernal-grass is Anthoxanthum odoratum. Sweet Gum. See Liquid- AMBAR. Sweet Pea, the popular name of Lathyrus odoratus, an annual plant. It is of the easiest cul- ture, but will repay in larger and better blooms for a little care in the preparation of the soil. A rich, deeply dug soil is desirable, and the seed may be sown in pots or boxes in a frame in January or February for planting out in April, or it may be sown in the open, from March to April, about two inches being allowed from seed to seed. Mr. Eckford has done more than any one to im- prove these flowers. It is always wise to red lead the seed in order to protect them from birds and mice. Support the growing plants with brush or chicken- wire ; small twigs should be given as soon as the plants are well through the ground, as these will afford shelter and help the plants up on the larger stakes. Be- fore the hot weather sets in sweet peas should be given a thick mulch of long litter or grass or straw. Sweet Potato. A trailing vine- like plant {Ipomcea batatas) native to the tropics and producing tuberous roots which are exten- sively_ used as a table vegetable, for pies, canning, and food for stock. The plant is widely grown in all temperate and tropical climates, the United States pro- ducing about 50,000,000 busTiels annually. The states of largest production are Texas, Alabama, Georgia, Mississii)pi, and the Carolinas. New Jersey is the northernmost state where the crop is grown on a commercial scale. The plant is propagated from the sets or shoots which spring from mature tubers planted in a hot bed or propagating house fur- nishing bottom heat or from cut- tings taken from the tips of grow- ing vines. The sets or cuttings are set out about 18 inches apart in ridged rows 3 ft. apart after danger from frost is over. The crop matures in 90 to 110 days^ and the yield varies from 150 to 400 bushels per acre. In storage they keep best in a dry room maintained at a temperature of 50° to 60° E. and handled as little as possible. The crop thrives best on fertile, warm, sandy loam soils. There are a large number of varieties in cultivation. In the Sweet Sultan KFI 573 Swift South a soft sugary potato is most in demand, while in the North a more mealy potato is desired. The more popular southern varieties are Sugar Yam, Spanish, Barbadoes, etc. Farther north Jersey, Nanse- mond, and Early Carolina are most popular. The term yam as commonly used refers to varieties of sweet potatoes. The true yam (Dioscaren) is seldom grown in this country. Sweet potatoes contain on the average from 4 to 6 per cent, of sugar and 16 to 18 per cent, of starch, and are therefore richer in food constituents than the com- mon or Irish potato. See Farm- ers' Bulletin and other publica- tions of the United States De- partment of Agriculture, also Szvcct Potato Culture by James Fitz and by R. H. Price. Sweet Sultan. See Cen- TAUREA. Sweet-william (Dianthus bar- batus), an ornamental perennial plant of the Pink family. It has large lanceolate leaves and round- topped cymes of flowers with toothed petals in a variety of colors. The Spotted Phlox (P. maculata), with a purple spotted stem and pink-purple flowers, found in rich woods and on the banks of streams from New Jersey southward, is known as Wild Sweet-william. Swetchine, Madame Anne Sophie Soymanoff (1782-1857), Russian-French author, was born in Moscow. She was brought up in the Orthodox Greek Church, but in 1815 joined the Roman Catholic Church, and shortly afterwards settled in Paris. There her mingled spirituality and intellectual force charmed a large circle of friends, for whom her famous salon became a rendezvous. Her writings, chiefly religious, were edited by Falloux (1860). Consult also her Letters (Eng. trans, by Preston) . Swete, Henry Barclay (1835- 1917), English theologian, was born in Bristol, was educated at Cambridge, and was ordained priest in 1859. He was examining chaplain to the Bishop of St. Albans (1881-90) and was pro- fessor of pastoral theology at King's College, London (1882- 90), and regius professor of divinity at Cambridge (1890- 1915). The most important of his many works is The Old Testament in Greek according to the Septuagint (1887-94), a mas- terpiece of sound scholarship. Sweyn, Svein, or Swegen (d. 1014), king of Denmark, son of Harold Bluetooth, succeeded his father in 986. In the early years of his reign he was de- feated and imprisoned by the Swedes. In 994 he began his raids against fengland, and com- pelled Ethelred the Unready to pay him tribute. After recover- ing his lost Danish possessions from Sweden, he formed an alliance with the Swedish king Olaf against Olaf Tryggvason, king of Norway, whom the allies defeated at the battle of Svoldr (1000), conquering at the same time Southern Norway. The massacre of the Danes by Ethelred drew Sweyn once more to England, and by the end of 1013 he had conquered nearly the whole of that kingdom. He died at Gainsborough. As Swens he is mentioned by Shakespeare in Macbeth. Swift, a general name applied to the members of the family Cypselidae, which includes forms allied to humming-birds, but pre- senting some superficial resem- blances to the passerine swallows and martins (Hirundinidae), with which they were formerly con- fused. Swifts are to be differ- entiated from humming-birds by their broad fiat skulls, short, curved bills, and extremely wide gape, as well as by their sober coloration. They are distributed over the entire world, except the extreme north and south and New Zealand. There are about eighty species. Swifts are among the most aerial of birds, seldom alighting on the ground, and rarely perch- ing save at night. The flight is exceedingly swift and powerful, and during it the birds not only feed and mate, but often collect materials for their nests, in the construction of which the secre- Swifts tion of the salivary glands plays an important role. In the genus Collocalia this secretion is espe- cially abundant (see Edible Birds' Nests). The eggs usu- ally number from two to four, or exceptionally only one. The note is a harsh scream, and the food consists of insects, whose indigestible portions are ejected as pellets. Swifts are divided into three sub-families: (1) the Cypselinae, including the true swifts, of which the European swift is an example; (2) Chaeturinae, includ- ing the genus Collocalia; and (3) Macropteryginae, the tree- swifts of the Indian region, with but one genus. The common American sooty brown Chimney vSwift {Chcetura pelagica) is popu- larly called the chimney swallow, and is familiar in all parts of the country, breeding in chimneys, though it originally resorted in flocks to hollow trees for the purpose. It spends its winters in Central America. In the tree swifts (Macropteryx) a single egg is laid in a small nest glued to the side of a branch. Swift, Edwin Charles (?- 1906), American merchant, was born in Sandwich, Cape Cod, Mass. He went in 1875 to Chicago with his elder brother, Gustavus F. Swift, and there engaged in the butchering busi- ness, afterward entering into partnership with his brother, and founding with him the packing firm of Swift & Co., of which he was subsequently vice- president and chairman of the board of directors. Swift, Gustavus Franklin (1839-1903), American merchant, was born in Sandwich, Cape Cod, Mass. He left home at an early age, worked on a farm, became a cattle-driver, and eventually settled in Chicago (1875), where for several years he was en- gaged in the butchering busi- ness. Recognizing the value of refrigerator cars for conveying meat, he endeavored to interest the leading railroad companies in fitting some out and running them into Chicago, but without success. He thereupon under- took the construction of a num- ber of cars of this type, arrang- ing for their transport over the various railroads. They were immediately successful, and the business thus begun grew so rapidly that in 1885 it was found advisable to convert it into a corporation. The firm not only revolutionized the pack- ing industry, but introduced a new factor in economic develop- ment — the private freight car. Swift, Jonathan (1667-1745), Irish satirist, was born in Dublin, was educated at Trinity College in that city, and in 1689 became confidential secretary to Sir William Temple at Moor Park, Surrey. He took orders in 1694, and was presented to the living of Kilroot, near Belfast, but about two years afterwards re- turned to Sir William. iVfter the letter's death, in 1699, Swift returned to Ireland as chaplain to the deputy, Lord Berkeley, and was given the small living of Lara- cor and a prebend in St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin. In 1704 he published anonymously his first book, containing The Battle oj the Books and The Tale of a Tub. Swift KFI 574 Swimming While in England, Swift had been the friend and associate of the Whigs Somers and Halifax, Addison, and Steele. He was, however, far more of a church- man than a politician, and the Whig attitude toward his favor- ite scheme for the remission of the Irish first-fruits ultimately- led to the transfer of his alle- giance to the Tory party, whose cause he pleaded in the Examiner, and in a series of powerful pam- phlets. For this he was pre- ferred to the deanery of St. Patrick's. In 1724 he greatly enhanced his popularity among his own countrymen by a series of pamphlets entitled Drapiey's Let- ters, protesting furiously against what all Ireland considered the Jonathan Swift scandalous terms on which a patent was granted to an English merchant, named Wood, to insti- tute a copper coinage in Ireland. Gulliver s Travels, a keen satire, which (with certain omissions) has gained lasting popularity as a children's book, was published in 1726. His Modest Proposal, in which he sardonically pro- posed to alleviate the misery of the Irish people by utilizing their children as food, appeared in 1729. In 1736, while writing the Legion Club, Swift's mind first showed symptoms of giving way. The last five years of his life were years of almost unrelieved misery. He was buried in the Cathedral of St. Patrick. Swift was a master of the art of satire. The grave irony with which, in professing to plead his opponents' cause, he pours ridi- cule upon it, is as unmatched as the simplicity and the lack of ornament of the medium through which it is expressed. In virtue of so wide-reaching and philo- vsophical a creation as the tale of Gulliver's Travels, we may class him as the greatest satirist of modern times. Three women figure in the unhappy story of Swift's life. In early years he had a passing courtship with a Miss Waring ('Varina'). The real affection of his life was for Esther Johnson — the 'Stella' of his verse — whom he first met at Sir William Temple's. For her he wrote the Journal to Stella, descriptive of his life in London, but never intended for publication; and there is a strong probability that he was privately married to her. A third woman, Esther Van- homrigh ('Vanessa'), loved Swift, and received from him in return an ardent friendship. But when jealousy moved her to ask for an explanation of his relations with Stella, Swift was so enraged that he abruptly broke with her. Vanessa was so overcome that she died shortly after (1723). By her will she left directions for the publishing of Swift's metrical version of their romance, which appeared as Cadenus and Va- nessa in 1726. Sir Walter Scott's edition of 1814 is still the most complete collection of Swift's Works; it was reissued by Saintsbury in 1891. Selections have been edited by Traill (1884-5), Lewin (1886), H. Morley (1889-90), and Craik (1892). Consult Lives by Craik, Sir Leslie Stephen, Moriarty, and Churton Collins ; M. M. Rossi and J. M. Hone, Szvift, or tlic Egotist (1934) ; B. Newman, Jonatiian Sxvift (1937). Switt, Joseph Gardner (1783-1865), American soldier, was born on Nantucket Island. He was the first graduate of West Point (1802), and was as- signed to the engineer corps of the army. He rose rapidly in rank and on the outbreak of war with England was made chief en- gineer of the army, with the rank of colonel. He saw active serv- ice under Wilkinson in the lat- ter's abortive Northern cam- paign of 1813, and afterwards took part in fortifying New York. He resigned in 1818 and devoted himself to civil engineering. Swift, Lewis (1820-1913), American astronomer, was born in Clarkson, N. Y., and educated in the Clarkson Academy. In 1862 he discovered an important comet, and demonstrated its influence on star showers which were witnessed at the time of its appearance. In 1882 the citi- zens of Rochester, N. Y., and H. H. Warner, built and equipped a large observatory for Dr. Swift, from which he discovered more than 1,000 new nebulae and many comets. Failing sight com- pelled him to discontinue his observations, and he eventually disposed of his astronomical in- struments to the trustees of the Lowe Observatory in California. Swift, Lindsay (1856-1921), American librarian and author, was born in Boston. He was graduated from Harvard in 1877, and soon afterward joined the staff of the Boston Public Library, for which he compiled and edited many important bibli- ographical works. He contrib- uted to many journals and edited several historical works. His Brook Farm in the 'National Studies in American Letters Series' (1900), is probably the most satisfactory account yet given of that famous com- munity, and its connection with the 'Transcendental' movement. Other works include Massachu- setts Election Sermons (1897); Literary Landmarks of Boston (1903); Benjamin Franklin (1910) ; William Lloyd Garrison (1911) . Swilly, Lough, Ireland, a fine inlet between Donegal and Lon- donderry, about 30 miles long. It is well adapted for a harbor of refuge, and fortifications have been erected. The largest battle- ships can anchor in Buncrana Bay. Swimming. The power of swimming, or sustaining and pro- pelling the body in water, is a natural faculty with quadrupeds, but has to be acquired by man It is practised by all races of the globe, but is brought to the greatest perfection by those in tropical climates, as the pearl- divers of the Persian Gulf, Cey- lon, and the Eastern Archipel- ago, the 'diving boys' of Aden and kindred seaports, the is- landers of the Pacific, and the seafaring and fishing population of tropical seaboards. The specific gravity of the hum.an body is slightly less than that of water, and provided the whole body is immersed and the chest inflated, it will not sink. Every portion of the body obtruded above the water, how- ever, adds to the weight of the submerged part, and soon re- verses the narrow margin of buoyancy. The arms and head are the portions which the strug- gling non-swimmer instinctively elevates, with the result that the trunk and legs, encumbered with the additional weight, drag him down. There are several methods or styles of swimming. In the breast stroke the action is very similar to that of a frog swim- ming. The body is horizontal, the chest breasts the water, the chin is just clear of its surface, the arms are submerged about three, and the legs about eight, inches. The latter are the prin- cipal propelling power, and their action is circular and sideways to Swimming 575 Swimming the body, achieved by drawing the heels up, with the knees mov- ing outwards, then kicking out wide to either side, and slowly completing a circle until the original starting posture is gam- ed, with the legs extended and the heels together. The arms should be bent and flexed m starting, the elbows within six inches of the sides, and the hands, thumbs together and palms downward, under the chin. The stroke consists in shooting out the hands to the Umit of the arms, and then, with a steady pull, sweeping the arms round until they are on a line with the shoulders, when re- covery to the starting-point is made. The movement of arms and legs should be slow, deliber- ate, and in unison. Swimming on the back is the reverse of the breast stroke, except that the arms are moved like oars in rowing. In the side stroke, the swim- mer is on his side, the upper leg is flexed, and the lower almost straight in line with the body; the knees are then straightened vigorously, with the position of the thighs unchanged, and the legs snapped together like a pair of scissors. At the same time the lower arm is pushed forward and upward, while the upper arm is brought from a dipped posi- tion near the head to the hip. The scissors kick, employed in the side stroke, is also used in the trudgeon, but the arms are carried out of the water, turning the body and submerging the face. In the crawl the move- ment of the arms is similar to that in the trudgeon, but the thrash kick, straight from the hip, is employed. The body is kept flat on the surface with the face submerged, the head is raised at intervals for breath; the air is exhaled under the water. A variety of dives have been developed. These include the plain front dive, with the arms extended over the head, thumbs locked; the swan dive, in which the arms are thrown horizontally sidewards while the body is in the air, and then brought rapidly back to the original position over the head, as the diver enters the water; the back dive; the jack- knife (front and back), in which the body is doubled in mid air, so that the hands may touch the toes; somersault dive; whirl dive, and others. Swimming Records. — In Au- gust 1875 Captain Matthew Webb swam across the British Channel from Dover to Calais, in 21 hours, 45 minutes, covering an esti- mated distance of 46 miles. An even greater exhibition of en- durance was that of Montague Holbein, who in August 1902 swam from Cape Grisnez to within three-quarters of a mile of Dover Parade in 22 hours, 21 minutes, traversing a distance stated to be 53 miles. Captain Webb's feat was not repeated until 1921, when William Bur- gess, another Englishman, swam the channel in 22 hours, 35 minutes. In 1923 three swim- mers successfully performed this difficult feat: Henry P. Sullivan, of Lowell, Mass. in about 28 hours; Enrico Tiraboschi, of Argentina, in 16 hours, 33 min- utes; Charles Toth, of Boston, Mass., in 16 hours, 40 minutes. The first woman to swim the channel was a nineteen-year old American, Gertrude Ederle, who also made a record for speed, covering the distance in 14 hours, 25 minutes, Aug. 6, 1926. This record was beaten by Ernst Vierkoetter, a German, who crossed in 12 hours, 43 minutes, Aug. 30, 1926, and by Georges M ichel , a French man, who crossed in 11 hours 5 minutes, Sept. 10, The Movements of Swimming 1. Breast stroke, seen from above. 2. Treading water. 3. The plunge. 4. The high dive. 5. Life-saving-a good 6. Overhand side-stroke. Swinburne KFI 576 Swinburne 1926. On Aug. 28, 1926, Mille Gade Corson, of New York City, swam the Channel in 15>4 hours, and on Sept. 17, Norman L. Derham, an Englishman, swam it in 13 hours, 57 minutes. (For later records, see English Channel.) The world's record for 100 yards is held by J. Weismuller, of the United States, who made that distance, in 1927, in 51 sec- onds. The woman's record for the sam.e distance is 59.8 sec- onds, made by W. Den Ouden of Holland in 1934. The world's record for a mile was made in 1934 by J. Medica of U. S. A. — 20 minutes, 57.8 seconds ; the woman's world record was made in 1930 by H. Madison, U. S. A., whose time was 24 minutes, 34.6 seconds. Consult Dalton on Swimming. Swinburne, Algernon Charles (1837-1909), English poet, was born in London, and even as a child began to compose lyrics and ballads which show the influence of the scenery, tra- ditions, and legendary romance of Northumberland and the Border lands. In 1857 he en- tered Balliol College, Oxford, and there won the friendship of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, William Morris, and Edward Burne- Jones. After Oxford he went to East Dene, near Bonchurch, in the Isle of Wight, and the influ- ence of his surroundings there is as directly traceable in his early poetry, as is that of his North- umbrian home. By this time he had written (though not then published) his first poetic drania, Chaslelard, which, for all its crudity in certain respects, is unmistakably a work of genius. In 1865 he went to Italy, visited Walter Savage Landor at Fiesole, and to him he dedicated his first masterpiece, Alalanta in Calydon (1865). From this period Swin- iDurne's home was London, though it was not till after the publication of Bolhwell (1874), Erechtheus (1876), and the second series of Poems and Ballads (1878) that he took up residence on Putney Hill, where, with his intimate friend, Theodore Watts- Dunton, he passed the rest of his life. Swinburne published his first book, comprising the two dramas The Queen Mother and Rosa- mund, in 1860, the first of these being practically a prelude to the great dramatic cycle of Mary Stuart, to which he gave the best years of his early and middle manhood. In 1865, by the pub- lication of that superb lyrical drama in the Greek mould, Atalanla in Calydon, he estab- lished his reputation as one of the foremost poets of his time. Chaslelard, also published in 1865, should be considered as the first section of the Mary Stuart trilogy, its companion dramas being Both-well (1874) and Mary Stuart (1881). In 1866, by the publication of Poems and Ballads, appearing in America, under the title Laus Veneris, Swinburne aroused a violent storm of criti- cism. Apart from their great and enduring beauty, these poems read now as the work of a young and unbalanced mind aflame with the delight of life and the magic of beauty, and intoxicated by the joy of revolt — by the sheer pleasure of throwing off restraint. Songs before Sun- rise (1871) and Erechtheus (1876) convinced even the most unsym- pathetic judges that Swinburne was the greatest master of metri- cal music since Shelley, but with the exception of Tristram of Lyonesse (1882), it is doubtful whether his later works have the same poetic value as the earlier, as they certainly have not a like poetic influence. In Swinburne we have a poetic dramatist of great power and beauty, and a rhapsodist of emotional life of unequalled en- thusiasm and intensity. He was supremely the laureate of the sea. Of his work in prose the matter is generally admirable and aU ways interesting, but in manner it is often efflorescent and re- dundant. Among his works not already mentioned are: Songs of Two Nations (1875); Songs of the Springtides (1880); Studies in Song (1880); A Century of Roun- dels (1882); A Midsummer Holi- day (1884); Marino Faliero (1885); Locrine (1887); Poems and Ballads (3d series, 1889); The Sisters (1892); Astrophel (1894) ; The Tale of Balen (1896) ; Rosamund, Queen of the Lom- bards (1899); A Channel Pas- sage, and Other Poems (1904); Love's Cross Currents: a Year's Letters (1905); a critical Essay with Prefatory Note (1906). A collected edition of Swinburne's works was published in 1904-05. Consult the biography by Will- iam Sharp in the Tauchnitz edi- tion of Atalanta in Calydon and Selected Lyrical Poems; also Sted- man's Victorian Poets (rev. ed.. Algernon Charles Swinburne (Photo by Eliot & Fry.) Swindling KFI 577 1887), and Woodberry, Swm- bunic (1905). . , Swindling is cheating or de- frauding by artifice for obtain- ing money. It may or may not be punishable as a crime, but in most cases amounts to legal fraud, and would avoid a con- tract obtained by its means, lo render swindling punishable it must come under the head of lar- ceny bv a trick, or the obtaining of monev or credit by false pre- tenses — i.e., by a false rep- resentation as to an existing fact Swindling is not a technical legal term in all jurisdictions. bee Fraud; Larceny. Swin'don, municipal borough, England, in Wiltshire, on the Wilts and Berks Canal ; 77 mi es west of London. Public build- ings include the town hall, mar- ket, corn exchange, and Railway Mechanics' Institution. The chief industrial establishment is the locomotive and carriage works of the Great Western Railway. Pop. (1931) 62,401. Swine. See Pig. Swinemiinde, sve'nc-mun dc, town, in the Prussian Province of Pomerania, on the island of Usedom, 68 miles n.w. of Stet- tin. It is situated at the mouth of the Swine and is strongly fortified. Near by is Swmde- miinde-Bad, a popular watering place with a fine sandy beach. Pop. about 18,200. Swing, David (1830-94), American clergyman, was born in Cincinnati, O. He was grad- uated (1852) from Miami Uni- versity where he was for twelve vears '(1852-65) professor of languages. In 1866 he was called to the pastorate of the Fourth Presbyterian Church in Chicago, and there gained a reputation as a preacher of force and deep spirituality. He was charged with heresy by Dr. Francis L. Patton (1874), and, though acquitted by the Chicago Presbytery, he eventually re- signed his pastorate. He con- tinued to hold meetings and preached, until his death, to large congregations. . Swin'ton, town, England, in West Riding, Yorkshire; 10 miles N.E. of Sheffield. It has railway works, and manufactures bottles, glass, pottery, and iron goods. Pop. (1931) 13,820. Swinton, William (1833- 92), American journalist and author, was born in Salton, Scot- land. He was educated in Knox College (Toronto) and Amherst College. After some experience as a preacher and teacher, he joined the staff of the New York Times in 1858. As war corre- spondent for that newspaper, he brought upon himself the dis- pleasure of General Burnside, and afterwards of General Grant, by his frank criticism of military movements. After the close of the war he travelled m the South, studying conditions there, and in 1867 returned to the New York Times, as literary critic. From 1869 to 1874 he was pro- fessor of belles-lettres _ in the University of California. He wrote textbooks of history, geography, and language, which were standard for many years. Among his other writings were : Campaigns of the Army of the Potomac (1866); Twelve Deci- sive Battles of the War (1867) ; Condensed History of the United States (1870) ; Outlines of the World's History (1875). He edited Masterpieces of Enghsh Literature (1880) and A Treas- iirv of Tales (1885). Swiss Guards, a famous reg- iment of Swiss soldiers who, by a decree of 1616, were constituted French royal bodyguards. Their loyalty and devotion were un- swerving, and at the time of the French Revolution (1792) the greater part were massacred in defending the Palace of the Tuil- leries against the fury of the mob. Thorwaldsen's famous Lion of Lucerne was designed as a memorial to them. The Papal bodyguard is also known as the Swiss Guards. It consists of unmarried Swiss Catholics, who must be at least five feet eight inches in height, healthy, and free from bodily disfigurement. Switch. See Railroads. Switch, an instrument for opening or closing an electric circuit. See Electric Light- ing. . Switchback, a mountain rail- way in which a series of tracks run zigzag, to and fro, along the slope, the train switching from one to another and running al- ternately forward and backward. The name is also given to a rail- way in which the momentum se- cured by running swiftly down a declivity enables the cars to mount a steep ascent, sometimes, however, with the assistance of a stationary engine and cable rope. The switchback system is ap- plied to a popular method of amusement, in which cars are made to descend steep inclines, and the momentum thus acquired enables them to ascend to a point equal in height to the original starting point. Swithin, swith m. Saint (d. 862), bishop of Winchester, was in high favor with Egbert, king of the West Saxons, whose son Ethelwulf made him bishop in 852. He was one of Ethel- wulf's chief counsellors, and was active as a builder of bridges and churches. His day is July 15, and an old English supersti- tion declares that it will rain or Switzerland be fair for the next forty days, according as St. Swithin's day is rainy or clear. Swit'zerland, a country of Central Europe lying south of Germany, with Austria and the principality of Liechtenstein on the east, Italy on the south and southeast, and France on the west and southwest. In form it is an irregular (|uadrilateral ; the greatest width from east to west is 227 miles, the greatest length from north to south, 137 miles, and the area, 15,944 square miles. It lies entirely inland, having no direct access to the sea. Topography, — Switzerland is the most mountainous coun- try of Europe. The lowest point is about 650 feet above sea level ; only 2 per cent of the surface is below 1,000 feet; 34 per cent is more than 4,000 feet, and many peaks attain altitudes of over 10,000 feet. The country falls naturally into three great divisions : the region of the Alps in the central, southern, and east- ern sections ; the region of the Jura in the western and northern part ; and the plateau lying be- tween the two great mountainous divisions. The Alps with their giant peaks and narrow river valleys occupy nearly three-fifths of the entire country. The cen- tral mountain mass is pierced by the Rhine in the east and the Rhone in the west. Between these two are the Reuss, the Aar, and several smaller streams, while in the south are the Ticino and the Toce. Among the foot- hills of the northern Alps are many beautiful and picturesque lakes, chief among which are Neuchatel, Thun, Brienz, Lu- cerne, Zug, and Zurich ; to the south are Maggiore and Lugano, each partly in Italy. The north- ern Alps are divided into four great groups : the Bernese Alps (Oberland), which include the mighty snow-clad peaks of the Jungfrau, the Wetterhorn, Monch, Eiger, and the Finsteraar- horn ; the Titlis Alps, east of the Bernese Oberland; the Alps of Glarus, Todi, and the Rigi, the last one of the most picturesque spots in Europe ; and the lower Alps between Lake Constance and Zurich. The southern Alps comprise the Pennine Alps, with the splendid peaks of Monte Rosa, the Matterhorn, the Breit- horn and the Weisshorn, stretch- ing eastward to the Simplon Pass ; the Lepontine Alps, ex- tending from the Simplon Pass to St. Gotthard ; the Ticino Alps to the south, and the Bernina group in the southeast. The chain of the Jura moun- tains extends along the French border from southwest to north- east, occupying about a tenth of Switzerland KFI 578 Switzerland the area of Switzerland. It con- sists of parallel folds between which lie narrow valleys trav- ersed by picturesqvie river gorges. The loftiest summits reach about 5,000 feet. The plateau region, which is the most favorable agriculturally and industrially, extends in a belt, 15 to 30 miles wide, from Lake Geneva to Lake Constance, occupying nearly three-tenths of the country's area. The plateau is from 1,100 to 6.500 feet high. On the whole, the climate of the greater part of the country is healthful and invigorating. The soil is generally rather poor, more than a quarter of it being unproductive. Of the produc- tive area, about a third is de- voted to grass and pasture land, and another third to forests. Geology and Mining. — Four geologic zones cross Switzerland from northeast to southwest : the limestone region of the Jura ; the tertiary deposits, chiefly flowering plants, notable among M'hich is the edelweiss. Among wild animals are the wolf, bear, ibex, chamois, fox, and badger, all of which are becoming scarce owing to the increase of hunting. Industries. — In the main, Switzerland is an agricultural and pastoral country, although only a few of the cantons pro- duce nearly enough for their own consumption. Agriculture is followed chiefly in the valleys, where oats, wheat, maize, barley. ©Publishers Photo Service Switzerland: Lucerne, showing the Chapel Bridge and Water Tower with an average elevation of about 1,400 feet. Switzerland is watered by the Rhine, the Rhone, the Ticino and the Inn with their tributaries, but none of these is suitable for navigation. Presides the lakes mentioned alxne, the largest are Geneva, at the southwestern corner, partly in France, and ("onstance, at the northeastern C(;rner, i)artly in Germany. Climate and Soil. — Switzer- land's wide variation in cleNation produces a corrfsiKUulin.L,'^ varie- ty of climate. Sliclt crcd regions in the south ha\c a soft warm climate similar to that of North- ern Italy, while the crests of the Alpine ranges are bitterly cold. Miocene, of the central plain ; the limestone of the northern Alps ; and the gneiss, granite, and crys- talline masses of the southern Alps. Mineral resources are ex- tremely limited ; some coal, iron and manganese are mined, and building stone, cement, and salt are produced. Mineral springs are fairly abundant. Flora and Fauna. — In the lowlands olives, vines, and fruits flourish ; in the valleys at the base of the mountains are chest- nut, walnut, beech, and maple trees, barley, wheat, rye, and oats ; still higher up are firs, 1)1 nes and larches ; while in the regions of i)erpetual snow grow many species of typical Alpine hemp, flax, tobacco, and vegeta- bles and fruits are produced. Orchards and vineyards are planted in every possible place. Stock raising, particularly the raising of cattle, is of the first importance ; pasturage con- ditions are excellent, and Swiss dairy products have a peculiar richness. Swiss cheese, con- densed milk, and milk chocolate are world-famous. Forests cover about one-fifth of the country's area. The lakes and rivers are well stocked with fish, and beekeeping and silk- worm culture are important. Owing to its excellent water power, and in spite of limited coal and iron, Switzerland is a Switzerland KFI 579 Switzerland great manufactviring country. The chief manufactures are silks, artificial silks and silk ribbons, linen, embroideries, wool, cot- ton and cotton ribbons, straw- plaiting, machines, watches and clocks, paper, chemicals, choco- late, condensed milk, dyestuffs and tobacco products ; metal- lurgical, electrical and pharma- ceutical industries are also ex- tensive. An industry peculiar to Swit- zerland, and one which has added materially to her revenues, is known as the 'industry of for- eigners' ; it includes thousands of hotels and pensions devoted to tourists and their interests. Commerce. — The leading im- ports are grain and other food- stuffs, cotton, coal, iron, and pe- troleum. The exports are ma- chinery, watches, cheese, choco- late, and silk and cotton goods. Transportation. — The Swiss railroads are mostly State-owned and comprise about 3,218 miles. They are rapidly being electri- fied. Motor roads are excellent, and there is considerable traffic by lake steamers. It also has a very complete system of tele- graphs and telephones, con- sisting of about 1,565,524 miles of wire. Education and Religion. — Primary education is free and compulsory, and is rigidly en- forced in the Protestant cantons, less so in the Roman Catholic. For secondary education there are middle schools and commer- cial, technical, domestic science, and agricultural schools. There are seven universities, and a Federal Polytechnic School at Zurich. Switzerland has com- plete liberty of creed and con- science. About 57 per cent of the population is Protestant, 41 per cent Roman Catholic, and 0.4 per cent Jewish. Army. — Strictly speaking, Switzerland has no standing army, but depends for defense on a national militia service which is universal and compulsory, with practically no exemption except for physical disability. Those exempted pay taxes in lieu of service. Liability to service extends from the eighteenth to the sixtieth year, the first twelve years being in the 'Auszug' (first line), the next eight in the Land- wehr, and the last eight in the Landsturm. The entire organ- ized military force consists of a possible 260,000. The frontiers of the country are well fortified. Population. — The popula- tion of Switzerland in 1930 was 4,066,400. In 1938 it was esti- mated at 4,200,000. The popu- lation is composed of German, French, Italian and Romansch Tin the Orisons) speaking peo- ples. In 19 of the 25 cantons the German language is spoken by the majority of the inhabitants, French in five cantons, and Italian in one. The principal cities with 1930 population fig- ures are: Zurich (249,820); Bale (Basel) (148,063) ; Geneva (124,121); Bern, the capital (111,783); Lausanne (75,915); St. Gallen (63,947) ; Winterthur (53,925) ; Luzern (Lucerne) (47,066) ; Biel (37,726) ; La Chaux-de-Fonds (35,252) ; Neu- chatel (22,668). Government. — Of Switzer- land Bryce says : 'It has pushed democratic doctrines farther, and worked them out more consist- ently, than any other European State.' It is a confederation of 25 cantons and half cantons gov- erned by a constitution. The supreme legislative and execu- tive authority is vested in the Federal Assembly, consisting of two chambers, a 'Standerat' or State Council, and a 'National- rat' or National Council. The State Council is composed of 44 members, chosen and paid by the cantons, two for each canton and one for each half canton. The National Council consists of 187 representatives, chosen in direct election, one for every 20,000 persons. The chief executive au- thority is delegated to a Federal Council of 7 members elected for four years by the Federal Assem- bly. The president of the Con- federation and the vice-president of the Federal Council, both elected for one year by the Fed- eral Assembly in joint session, are the chief officers of the Con- federation. Members of the Federal Council act as heads of the departments of foreign af- fairs, interior, justice and po- lice, military, finance and cus- toms, agriculture and industry, and posts and railways. Each canton has its own local and in- dependent government, based on the sovereignty of the people. The popular initiative and refer- endum hold an important place in Swiss government. History. — At the time the Roman writers first mention the land now known as Switzerland, it was inhabited by Celtic tribes known as Rhietians and Helve- tians. In 58 B.C. Caesar began the confjuest of the Helvetians and for the four centuries fol- lowing Roman civilization was imposed on the native tribes. In the 4th and 5th centuries a.d. Germanic and P>iirgundian tribes pushed their way into Switzer- land, and from these two basic stocks the Swiss of today are largely derived. In the 6th cen- tury the German tribes were con- quered by the Franks, and their territory became a part of the Merovingian and later of the Carolingian realm. In the 7tli century a party of Irish monks converted the people to Christi- anity and founded many churches and monasteries. In the 9th century Switzerland became a part of the German Empire and took its full share in the fight- ing and suffering caused by the conflict between imperial and papal powers. The house of Habsburg (q. v.) early acquired extensive posses- sions in Swabia, as well as in the county of the Ziirichgau, and when in 1273 Rudolf of Habs- burg became einperor, he had practically control of what is now German Switzerland. The ex- tension of his power was viewed with alarm by the small com- munities settled in the valleys round the Lake of Lucerne, and in August, 1291, a few days after his death, the three forest can- tons of Uri, Schwyz and Unter- walden bound themselves to- gether in a defensive alliance, which came to be known as the Perpetual Leagvie. This formed the nucleus of the Swiss confed- eration. In 1315 Leopold of Austria led an army against Schwyz, the leader of the league, but was de- feated with great loss (Nov. 15, 1315) at Morgarten. Three weeks later the victors renewed in greater detail the league of 1291, and it was subseciuently joined by other districts — in 1332 by Lucerne; in 1351 by the free imperial city of Zurich; in 1352 by the Austrian districts of Zug (won definitely in 1364) and Glarus (won definitely at the Battle of Nafels in 1388), and finally in 1353 by the free im- perial city of Bern, which in 1339, at Laupen, had broken the power of the neighboring Burgundian nobles. In 1386 Leopold III of Austria attempted to crush the power of the league, but met with defeat and death at Sempach (July 9, 1386). The league now took the ag- gressive,- protecting the men of Appenzell (1411) against their lord, the abbot of St. Gall, and making alliances with the town of St. Gall (1412) and with the sister confederation in Valais (1416), or the upper valley of the Rhone. In 1415, after the excommunication of Frederick of Austria by the Council of Con- stance, the league made its first conquests — the Habsburg domin- ions in the Aargau, henceforth ruled as subjects. In 1436 civil war broke out with regard to the inheritance of the last count of Toggenburg, Zurich allying itself with Aus- tria and holding out against the rest of the league, but finally suffering defeat in 1450. In 1452 the league made its first treaty of alliance with France, Switzerland KFI 580 Switzerland and in 1460 Thurgau was taken from Sigismund of Austria. Soon another enemy appeared on the scene — Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, Bern being in the forefront against him and his ally, Savoy. Several por- tions of Savoy were seized (1474-5) by Bern and her allies, who twice inflicted severe de- feats on Charles' army — 'at Grandson on March 2, 1476, and at Morat on June 22, 1476 — while they aided in his final de- feat at Nancy in January, 1477. Five other members were now added to the confederation — in 1481 Fribourg and Soleure (sat- ellites of Bern), in 1501 the free imperial cities of Basel and Schaffhausen, and in 1513 Ap- penzell, while various towns be- came allied with the league. In 1487-8 two of the three leagues of Rhsetia (Grisons) became al- lies, and in 1499 the confeder- ates helped them defeat the Aus- trians in the battle in the Calven gorge, after which the confeder- ation became practically free from the empire, though its in- dependence was not formally recognized until the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) 150 years later. At the beginning of the 15th century the Swiss had attempted to wrest from the Milanese the Val Levantina and the Val d'Ossola, both south of the Alps. Early in the 16th century invasions of Northern Italy were renewed. In 1500 Bellin- zona was taken by the three for- est cantons, and in 1512 most of the rest of Tessin by the confed- erates and Chiavenna and the Valtellina by the Rhaetian leagues. The struggle for Mi- lan itself was finally settled by the French victory of Mari- gnano in 1515. In 1516 and 1521 close treaties of alliance w^ere made with France. Under the eloquent preaching of Zwingli (q. v.), the Reforma- tion made rapid progress in Switzerland and led eventually to civil war, the five Catholic cantons — Uri, Schwyz, Unter- walden, Lucerne and Zug — ally- ing themselves against the forces of Protestantism. In the hostilities that ensued the Catho- lic troops were victorious, Zwingli was slain (1531), and a truce was arranged whereby each canton was left free to de- termine its own religion. In 1536, some five years after Zwingli's death, John Calvin (q. V.) took up his residence at Geneva, which became the cen- ter of Protestantism in Europe. During the 16th and 17th cen- turies in Switzerland the spirit of aristocracy gradually gained the ascendancy, especially in the cities and in the territories ac- quired by conquest by the vari- ous cantons. A serious revolt — known as the Peasants' War — broke out in 1656, but the rebels, poorly equipped and unprepared, suffered a severe defeat. The French alliance mean- while involved the confederation in numerous conflicts and drained it of its men, who as mercenary troops took a large part in the wars of Louis xiv. Popular ris- ings were of frecjuent occurrence from the early part of the 18th century, and in 1798 the old po- litical and social state of affairs came to an end, when the French armies (as protectors of liberty) entered Switzerland, overturned the old confederation, and es- tablished the Helvetic Republic, a highly centralized state made up of twenty-three cantons. Five years of warfare followed, in which Switzerland found her- self the battleground for the op- posing forces of Napoleon and the Allies. In 1802 the Helvetic Republic came to an end. By the Act of Mediation, Napoleon revived the thirteen old can- tons, adding to them six others — St. Gall, Grisons, Aargau, Thurgau, Tessin and Vaud ; the old Diet was supplemented by a central government held in turn (for one year) by each of the six great cantons. With the fall of Napoleon there came a strong movement on the part of some of the can- tons to return to the cantonal form of government and the old league, while others supported the new constitution. Civil War seemed imminent, but was avoided by the intervention of the allies. A new Federal Pact was agreed upon and was rati- fied by the great Powers, who by the Congress of Vienna (1815), added three more cantons (Valais, Neuchatel, and Ge- neva), and guaranteed the coun- try's neutrality. Under the new system the cantons remained sovereign, only diplomatic and military affairs and intercanton- al disputes coming under the Confederation. The cantonal constitutions varied, but except in the mountain cantons the prin- ciple of political equality was largely disregarded. Little by little, however, especially after 1830, more liberal ideas became prevalent ; some of the cantons revived their constitutions, and a movement was instituted for amending the federal pact of 1815. The crisis came on the occasion of the suppression (1840—3) of various monasteries in Aargau, which caused the seven Roman Catholic cantons to form a separate league or Son- derbund (1845). When at last, in May, 1847, the Liberals ol)- tained a majority of cantonal votes in the Diet and carried an order dissolving the Sonder- bund, civil war was inevitable. It lasted but three weeks (No- vember 1847), and ended in a liberal victory. The result was the federal constitution of 1848, by which Switzerland attained political unity. It set up a central feder- al government, a central federal legislature — no longer a diet of envoys — and a central federal judicial tribunal. Various rights were secured to every citizen, and Bern was recognized as the capital. This is the basis of the revised federal constitu- tion of 1874, which introduced the facultative referendum. In 1891 a constitutional amendment provided for the adoption of the popular initiative, whereby any 50,000 voters have the right to propose amendments to the con- stitution. In 1857 the king of Prussia renounced his heredi- tary rights to the principality of Neuchatel. During the World War Swit- zerland maintained her neutral- ity. Many interned soldiers and prisoners were cared for in the country and the Swiss Red Cross did valiant service. The Swiss army was mobilized to guard the frontiers, entailing great expense which, added to the heavy and inevitable loss to the 'industry of foreigners,' caused a tremendous financial burden to fall on the Swiss. In 1920 the first meeting of the League of Nations, of which Switzerland became a member in May, 1920, was held in Ge- neva. About this time arose the dis- pute between Switzerland and France over the free zones of Upper Savoy and the district of Gex, which was not finally de- cided until 1932 when the Per- manent Court of International Justice delivered a 6-to-5 verdict in favor of Switzerland. The court decided that the free zones, created in 1815-16 and abol- ished by France in 1923, should be maintained, effective Jan. 1, 1934. In 1938 efforts were success- ful in establishing Romansch (Ladin) as the fourth legal na- tional language. Bibliography, — G. Baker, The Model Republic (1895); R. C. Brooks, Govcriinient and Politics in Switaerland (1920) ; W. D. McCracken, The Rise of the Szinss Republic (1921); W. Oechsli, History of Switzer- land (1922); A. Hill, Szvitzer- land: Past and Present (1924) ; I. Williams, The Swiss Civil Code (1925) ; A. Lunn, Szmtzer- land (1928) ; W. E. Rappard, The Government of Swit::erland (1937). Switzerland: Langugage and Literature 581 Sword Switzerland: Language and Literature. At least four lan- guages are current in Switzerland. Nearly two-thirds of the popula- tion are German-speaking; most of the remaining third speak French, but some Italian is used and some Romansch or Ladin. Swiss literature proper dates from the 16th century, and is written in many tongues. In that age its chief glories were Conrad Gesner, philologist and naturalist; ^gidius Tschudi, the founder of Swiss history and of the Tell legend; Josias Simler and Ulrich Campbell, both his- torians and topographers; the chroniclers Stumpf, Valerius An- shelm, and Cysat; Nicholas Man- uel and Johann v. Travers rep- resenting drama and poetry as well as (in the Suisse Romande) Beza the theologian and Viret. In the 17th century the most prominent names are those of the historians and topographers, Stettler, Merian, Plantin; while the brothers Cysat represented the natural sciences, and Agrippa d'Aubigne and Diodati the de- partment of belles-lettres. The great Swiss literary revival took place in the 18th century. Bourguet founded in 1732 the Journal Helvetique or Mercure Suisse, while Ruchat and Crousaz devoted themselves to different branches of literature; the 'So- ciete Helvetique' came into exist- ence in 1760. At Zurich the chief figures were Bodmer and Breit- inger, who sought to free German literature from its ancient shack- les; Solomon Gessner, the pastoral poet; Lavater, now best remem- bered by his writings on physiog- nomy; and J. J. Scheuchzer, emi- nent in the physical sciences and a member of the English Royal Society. Bern boasted of Albert Haller, poet and much else be- sides, and Wyttenbach the nat- uralist; while at Basel was the philosopher Isaac Iselin, as well as the mathematicians Euler and the Bernoullis. In the later 18th century the literary centre of Switzerland was Geneva, rendered illustrious by the Genevese Rousseau and the stranger Voltaire, and boasting also of the Alpine naturalists and explorers, Saussure, Bourrit, and the De Lues, besides Necker and Mallet du Pan, both mainly publicists. Madame de Stael and Benjamin Constant were both of Swiss origin, but belong to Euro- pean literature. In the early 19th century we have the philosophers P. A. Stapfer, A Vinet, and Ch. Sec- retan; Bridel, who popularized the works of others; Pestalozzi the educator; the historians J. von Muller, Zschokke, Vulliemin, and Kopp; and F. Keller, the discoverer of the lake dwellings. In German-speaking Switzerland, Jeremais Gotthelf (Bitzius), the describer of peasant life, with the novelists and poets, Gottfried Keller and C. F. Meyer, are par- ticularly prominent. Other well- known men were Amiel, the mor- alizer; J. R. von Wyss and Juste Olivier, poets; Topffer, Ram- bert, and Javelle, describers of the Alps; the scientists Agassiz and Desor; the novelists Cher- buliez, 'T. Combe'; E. Rod; the literary critic J. V. Widmann; Scartazzini, the expounder of Dante; and many historians, such as G. von Wyss, Dandliker, CEschli, Dierauer, Meyer v. Kno- nau, Daguet, Vaucher, J. Gre- maud, and Motta. In Romansch literature there are Ballioppi the philologist, and the poets Caderas and Flugi; but this revival is purely literary. For a general view of past Swiss literature, consult the His- tories of Dandliker and Van Muyden, and for that of the 19th century, ch. iv. of vol. ii. of La Suisse au 18^^ Siecle. De- tails are given in Bachtold's Ge- schichte of German-Swiss litera- ture, in those of Godet and Ros- sel, relating to French Switzer- land, and in the work of Rausch as to Romansch literature. Sword, a blade of metal, flat Swords 1. Sword blade from Mycenae. -2. Persian. 3. Egyptian. 4, 5. Leaf-shaped swords, Bronze Age. 6. Hilt of a Bronze Age sword. 7. Greek. 8. Ancient Irish wooden sword. 9. Roman. 10. 13th century. 11. 14th to 15th century. 12. 16th century. 13. Sword of James iv. of Scotland. 14. Two-handed sword. 15-17. Basket-hilted rapiers, 17th cen- tury. 18. Claymore. 19, 20. Scimitars. 21. Hilt of rapier, 18th century. 22. Jewelled hilt of Indian sword. 23. Hilt of French sword, 17th century. Vol. XL— Oct. '24 Sword 582 Sycamore and sharp-edged, used both in striking and in thrusting, and set in a hilt. The earliest swords were probably made of bronze. Beautiful bronze leaf-shaped swords have been found occasion- ally in barrows in Scandinavia, and frequently (but not with in- terments) in the British area. These leaf-shaped swords range in length from sixteen inches to over thirty inches, a few speci- mens having large rounded pom- mels. Swords of bronze with portions of cetacean bone handles still in situ have been found in Ireland, and in one or two speci- mens gold ornamentation can be traced. Double-edged bronze swords, with gold-decorated hilts and scabbards, were found at Mycenae. The bronze sword form was perpetuated into the late Celtic period in blades of iron, a large number of these hav- ing been recovered in Britain and in France and Belgium. The Roman sword was straight, two-edged, and of nearly equal width throughout, occasionally measuring about three feet in length. The Greeks, prior to about 400 B.C., used a very short sword, slighter in make than the Roman. The Britons outdid even the Rornans in the size and weight of their swords. The vi- king sword was of iron, long, straight, broad, and weighty. The hilts were but rarely of bronze, and then decorated very richly with silver. Iron swords with bronze sheaths have been found in England, and the Swiss lake dwellings have also yielded a considerable number. The type, therefore, is widely dis- tributed; its period has been computed to be from about 300 B.C. to 100 A.D. The swords belonging to the middle ages, and to more recent times, may be grouped under sev- eral heads: (1) the scimitar, a highly tempered curved blade, with the cutting edge on the con- vex side. It is one of the chief weapons used by Eastern nations. (2) The sabre, the heavy sword of the dragoons, thick at the back, and meant for thrusting as well as for a cutting stroke. (3) The rapier, in its recent form a light, highly tempered thrust- ing weapon — the weapon of the duellist; it is now worn only in court ceremonies. (4) The cut- lass, a broad and straight-edged sword, about three feet in length, used by sailors when boarding an enemy's ship. (5) Broadswords, now obsolete. The Highland claymore, which may be grouped here, frequently measured in length of blade alone over 3 ft. 6 in., the grip being 12 in., usually having a globular pommel, and the quillons of the guard ornamented in various ways. (6) Basket- hilted swords with long tapering Vol. XI. — Oct. '24 blades, often slightly ribbed and fluted, with the famous name of Andrea Ferrara inscribed on the broadest portion, sometimes ac- companied by the figure of a run- ning fox. The blades are occa- sionally thirty-five inches in length, and the hilt-work dis- plays richly designed openwork. The fact that a blade is inscribed Ferrara is not a proof that the sword dates from the time of that maker, as the name was doubtless long used to designate any well-tempered blade of this type. Modern military swords are constructed so as to combine the advantages of cutting and thrust- ing. While thrusting is undoubt- edly the most effective attack, it demands more skill and coolness than can be counted upon from the average soldier recently re- cruited from civil life whose nat- ural tendency is to use the cut. For this reason modern service swords are made on a compro- mise combination plan. In the United States army the straight sword is no longer in use, a single form of slightly curved sabre being carried by all officers. The sabre carried by mounted en- listed men is somewhat heavier than that used by officers. Consult Sir R. Burton's Book of the Sword. Swordflsh, a pelagic bony fish, constituting a special family (xiphiidae), characterized by the prolongation of the upper jaw into a long sword-like weapon. This is formed by the united maxillary and intermaxillary bones, and is rough on its under surface owing to the presence of minute teeth. The lateral saw- like teeth seen in the sawfish are entirely absent in the swordfish. Swordfish attain a length of from twelve to fifteen feet, and are ex- ceedingly powerful and savage. They prey upon other large fish, as cod and tunny, transfixing them with the sword, and even attack boats and canoes. The body of the swordfish is elong- ated and compressed, the eyes lateral, the mouth deeply cleft. The dorsal fin is either single or divided, and is frequently much elongated, so that when erected it projects above the water as the fish swims near the surface. The common swordfish, Xi- phias gladius, occurs in the Medi- terranean and the Atlantic, and is constantly taken along the Ameri- can coasts in midsummer, as far north as New England. An average specimen measures about 7 feet and weighs 250 lbs. The flesh is valued for food. Swynnerton, Annie L. (1845- /fi3), British artist, was born in Manchester. She studied art in her native city and in Rome and for many years exhibited at the Royal Academy. She was elected an Associate of the British Royal Society, the first woman for over a hundred years to be so honored, but it was later found that she had passed the age limit per- mitted to members and after a few days the honor was of neces- sity withdrawn. Among her best-known paintings are The Dryads, Cupid and Psyche, and St. Marten's Summer. Sybaris, sib'ar-is, ancient Greek colony in Southern Italy, on the west side of the Gulf of Tarentum. It was founded by emigrants from Achaea and Troezen about 720 B.C., and be- came proverbial for its wealth and luxury. The people of the neighboring Croton destroyed it thoroughly in 510 B.C. Sybel, ze'hel, Heinrich von (1817-95), German historian, was born in Diisseldorf . He was suc- cessively professor of- history at Bonn (1844), Marburg (1846), Munich (1856), and again at Bonn (1861), where he remained till 1875, when he was appointed director of the state archives at Berlin. He was a keen politician, occupying seats in succession in the Hessian Diet, the Erfurt Par- liament, the Constituent Assem- bly, and the Prussian Lower House. His principal works are Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzugs (1841-58; Eng. trans. 1861); Die Entstehung des deutschen Konig- stums (1844) ; Geschichte der Revo- lutionszeit von 1789 bis 1795 (1855-77); Die Begriindung des deutschen Reichs (1889-94; Eng. trans, by Perrin, 1890-97). His minor works have appeared as Kleine historische Schriften (1863- 80), also Vortrdge und Ahhand- lungen (1897). He also initiated the issue of Puhlikationen aus den preussischen Staatsarchiven and Politische Korrespondenz Fried- richs des Grossen, helped to edit Monumenta Germanics Historica, and founded and edited Die His- torische Zeitschrift. Sycamore, a European tree, Acer pseudo-platanus, with a straight, erect, smooth trunk. Swordfish Sycamore KR 583 Syenite brge. spreading, symmetrical branches, and large, five-lobed leaves. In early spring the greenish flowers appear in long, drooping clusters, and are fol- lowed by winged seeds of a red- dish-green color. The timber is highly esteemed by turners, cabinet-makers, carvers, and toy- makers, the figured wood being used for violins. Large wood is Sycamore L Flower. 2. Pistil. 3. Fruit. sought after for calico-printing rollers, and when quartered for those of washing-machines. It is superior to beech both as fuel and for charcoal. The American sycamore is a large deciduous tree belonging to the family Plantanaceae. It is characterized by smooth brittle bark, broad-lobed leaves ar.d hanging seed balls. Among the commonest species are Plantanus occidentalis, known as the Syca- more, Buttonwood or Plane-tree, a tall stately tree, 75 to 150 feet in height, with light reddish- brown bark. It is much used as an ornamental and shade tree, and the wood is useful for furni- ture and interior woodwork; the California Sycamore (P. race- mosa), similar in habit and ap- pearance but exhibiting a some- what different leaf and fruit; and the Arizona Sycamore (P. wrightii), a strikingly beautiful tree growing on canyon sides and on the borders of streams. The original sycamore was the fig tree of the ancients {Ficus sykomorus,) occurring in Egypt. Syca more, city , Illinois.county seat of De Kalb county, on a branch of the Kishwaukee River and on the Chicago Great West- ern and the Chicago and North Western railroads; 57 miles N.vv. of Chicago. It has can- neries and manufactures of brass, hardware specialties, insulated wire, and electrical equipment. Pop. (1930) 4,021; (1940) 4,702. Sycophant, sik'o-fant, in ancient Greece, primarily an informer who gave notice of non-payment of dues owed to the state, in the hope of being rewarded by the state or bought off by his victims; hence, in a secondary sense, a 'blackmailer.' By the Attic orators it was used as a general term of abuse, the main idea being that of dishonest truckling to the people; hence its modern use as a base flat- terer. Syco'sis, an inflammatory disease of the hair follicles, espe- cially of the beard, characterized by pustule formation. It is due to general debility and constitu- tional disturbances. Sydenham, sid'm-am, resi- dential district, England, in Sur- rey, 63^ miles south of London. It is famous as the site of the Crystal Palace, which, after its use during the first International Exhibition (1851) held in Hyde Park, was removed to Syden- ham in 1854. Sydenham, Thomas (1624- 89), English physician, was born in Wynford Eagle, Dorset. He entered Oxford in 1642, but on the outbreak of the Civil War, a few months later, he served with the parliamentary forces. After the war he finished his education at Oxford and in France, and about 1660 com- menced the practice of mediicne in London, early gaining a repu- tation as one of the foremost physicians of the day. His chief contributions to medicine are his observations on epidemic dis- eases; his differentiation of cer- tain special diseases such as chorea and hysteria, and scarla- tina and measles; his use of cinchona in the treatment of agues, and his cooling method of treating smallpox. His Opera Omnia Medica appeared in 1685 and were republished in 1846 (in Latin) and 1848 (in English) by the Sydenham Society, which bears his name. Sydney, city, Australia, capi- tal and chief port of New South Wales, is beautifully situated in the eastern part, on the south share of Port Jackson, about 5 miles from the sea. The waters of Port Jackson form a mag- nificent and picturesque har- bor aff"ording anchorage for the largest vessels. Many bays, amoi\g them Watson's. Taylor's, Elizabeth, Rushcutters, Rose, Vauctise, and Double indent the skores, and several islands are found within its limits. Cockatoo Island, at the mouth of PaJamatta River, has two government dry docks, and there are nearly 25 miles of quays and wharves for the accommodation of the immense sea-going traffic. (See illustration on page 584). The climate is exceptionally fine, bright sunshine and clear blue sky prevailing throughout the year. There are a number of fine parks, notable among which are the Botanic Gardens, the Public Domain, Hyde Park, Cen- tennial Park, and Toronga Park Zoo, and several attractive sub- urbs along the northern side of the harbor. The city itself has broad, well paved streets and fine buildings, though in the older parts some of the streets are narrow and tortuous. Feat- ures of interest are the Univer- sity, the National Art Gallery, Government House, St. Andrew's Cathedral, St. Mary's Cathedral (R.C.), the public library, the town hall, and the post-office. The chief industries are cloth making, brewing, distilling, foundry works, and tobacco and leather manufactures. The ex- port and import trade is of great volume and importance. Sydney was founded in 1788 and in- corporated in 1842. Pop. (1943), with suburbs, 1,398,170. Sydney, city, Canada, in Nova Scotia, the county seat of Cape Breton county, on the northeastern coast of Cape Bre- ton Island and on the Canadian National and the Sydney and Louisburg railways; 19 miles northwest of Louisburg. It has an excellent harbor and there are rich coal mines in the vicinity. Features of interest are Holy Angels' Convent, St. Anthony's Home for Orphans, several hos- pitals, a public library, city hall, and county court house. It is the home of the Dominion Iron and Steel Company, which pro- duces steel products from rails to nails. The mines produce nearly 20,000 tons of coal per day. Tar, pitch, and creosote are also produced. The country about is well adapted to farming. The town was settled in 1785 and incorporated in 1886, and grant- ed a city charter in 1904. Pop. (1941) 28,081. Sydney, Algernon. See Sid- ney, Algernon. Sydney Mines, town, Cana- da, Nova Scotia, in Cape Breton county, on the northern shore of Sydney harbor and on the Cana- dian National Railway; 7 miles northwest of Sydney. It is in a rich coal mining district and has large collieries and blast furnaces and an important export trade in coal. Pop. (1941) 8,157. Syene, si-e'ng. ancient name for Assouan, Egypt. Sy'enlte, a granitoid, crystal- line, igneous rock, consisting of orthoclase feldspar, with horn- blende, augite, or mica, differing Sykes 585 Sylvius from granite chiefly in the lack of quartz. The name is derived from Syene in Egypt. Typical repre- sentatives of this group are of con- siderable importance in Saxony, Norway, Sutherlandshire (Scot- land), the W. Alps, and Canada. The Norwegian augite syenites (known as Laurvikites) are used as ornamental building stones and for monumental purposes. The augite syenites of Tyrol are known as Monzonites. In Norway, Fin- land, Portugal, Canada, Arkansas, Brazil, Madagascar, S. India, and Greenland, nepheline syenites occur. S y k e s , George (1822-80), American soldier, born in Dover, Del. He graduated at West Point in 1842; served in the Mexican War and was brevetted captain for 'gallant and meritorious con- duct' in the battle of Cerro Gordo; and afterwards had much service on the frontier. He fought in the battle of Bull Run; was commis- sioned brigadier-general of vol- unteers to date from September 28, 1861 ; served with distinction in the Peninsula campaign and at Manassas and Antietam; and was promoted major-general of volunteers to date from November 29, 1862. He afterwards fought at Fredericksburg, Chancellors- ville, Gettysburg, and Rappa- hannock Station, but in April, 1864, was transferred to the de- Eartment of Kansas. In 1868 e was appointed colonel of the 20th infantry. Sylhet, chief tn. of Sylhet dist., in the Surma valley, Assam, India, 50 m. s. of Shillong. Pop. (1901) about 15,000. Sylla. See Sulla. Syllabus Errorum ('List of Errors'), a document appended to the encyclical Quanta Cura, is- sued by Pope Pius ix. on Dec. 8, 1864. It contains a list of eighty heresies and religious errors, and the corresponding truths as their antidote. It is divided into ten sections, which condemn (1) ra- tionalism, pantheism, and natur- alism; (2) free thought of any kind; (3) latitudinarianism; (4) secret societies, such as freemasonry, together with communism and socialism; (5) opposition to the rights of the church; (6) errors on the condition of society; (7) on ethics; (8) on the law of mar- riage; (9) errors as to the tem- poral power of the pope; (10) the errors of liberalism. The infallibility of the pope is as- sumed, as is also the inalienable right of the church to control education, the issue of literature from the press, and the conclu- sions of the scientific. There has been some discussion among Roman Catholics as to whether the syllabus is to be considered as uttered ex cathedrd, and to be regarded as de fide. See Schaff's Creeds of Christendom, vol. ii. (1877), pp. 213-233; W. E. Gladstone's Vatican Decrees in their Bearing on Civil Allegiance (1874), and Vaticanism (1875); John Henry Newman's Letters to the Duke oJ Norfolk (1875). Syllogism, the type or general form, which Aristotle was the first to analyze, of those elernentary processes of ^ reasoning into a series of which more complex reasonings can be resolved. Each such unit-process or syllogism must consist of two premises, to- gether with the conclusion which they prove. For, to prove a pred- icate of a subject, we must have some connecting notion or 'mid- dle term' within which both are re- lated: for example, we may argue that a man is responsible for his actions on the ground that he is a free agent. Here the premises are 'Free agents are responsible for their actions,' and 'Man is a free agent,' and the conclusion follows, 'Man is responsible,' etc. Free agency is our middle term for connecting man's action with responsibility. Sylph, in old poetic mythol- ogy, an elemental spirit of the air, holding an intermediate place between material and immaterial beings, according to the system of Paracelsus. Sylphs are of both sexes, with many human characteristics, and are mortal, but do not possess a soul. Sylt, largest isl. of N. Frisian group, belonging to Prussian prov. chleswig - Holstein; visited in summer (May to September) for sea-bathing, the principal resort being Westerland, on w. coast. Area, 38 sq. m. Pop. 3,000. Sylva, Carmen. See Eliza- beth (Queen of Roumania). Sylvester T., bishop of Rome, 314-335, the principal event of whose pontificate was the Coun- cil of Nicaea (325), which defined the articles of the Christian faith, and also determined the order of the hierarchy in the various provinces of the empire. The epistles and decretals attributed to Sylvester are now considered apocryphal. See DoUinger's Fable Respecting the Popes in the Middle Ages {^ng. trans., 1872). — ■ Sylvester ii., pope, 999-1003, whose original name was Gerbert, was born at Aurillac in Auvergne about 950; became the head of the abbey of Bobbio (970), and after- wards archbishop of Ravenna. He is said to nave introduced Arabic numerals, and to have in- vented clocks. — Sylvester hi., antipope, 1044, bishop of Sabina, was proclaimed pope in opposi- tion to Benedict ix. He reigned only about three months. S'ylvester, James Joseph (1814-97), one of the most emi- nent of English mathematicians, was born in London, September 3, 1814. As a Jew he was unable to take his baccalaureate degree in the University of Cambridge, where he won high honors as an undergraduate student of St. Tohns College. In later life honors were awarded him by many universities and learned societies of Great Britain and the Continent. He had also the dis- tinction of becoming, in 1883, Savilian Professor of Mathemat- ics in the University of Oxford in succession to Professor Henry Smith. Twice he held academic posts in the U. S., first in 1841, as professor in the University of Virginia, where his stay was brief but memorable; and next, from 1876 onward, as professor in the Johns Hopkins University of Baltimore, where for seven years he was a fertile contributor to mathematical science. Here he established the American Jour- nal o} Mathematics, which at once became the leading repository of American contributions to mathe- matical science. Only one inde- pendent volume bears his name as author. The Laws of Verse, in which, with learning and wit, he considers the mathematics of poetical forms. For the Balti- more period of his life, see Gil- man's Launching of a University. The summary in the Diction- ary of National Biography is especially commendable. Sylvester, Joshua (1563-1618), English translator, was born in Kent, and became known by his translations from the French of Du Bartas and others, and Prince Henry made him (c. 1606) a groom of his chamber. In 1613 he be- came secretary to the Merchant Adventurers. See Du Bartas, his Divine Weekes and Works (1598; 1641, with Posthumi), a work very popular with the New England Puritans as well as those of Old England. Collected Works, ed. A. B. Grosart (1878). Sylviculture. See Fores- try. Sylviidae, a family erected for the warblers, now frequently in- cluded with the thrushes in the Turdidae. Sylvin, or Sylvite, a naturally occurring form of potassium chloride, KCl, found at Stassfurt in Prussia, and forming one of the principal sources of potassium compounds. It crystallizes in cubes (h.'= 2, sp. gr. 1.9), is brittle, soluble in water, and has a bitter, saline taste. Sylvius, ^NEAS. See Pius ii. Sylvius, or Jacques Dubois (1478-1555), French physician, born at Amiens; lectured till his death on medicine at the College Royal, Paris. His Opera Medica were published in 1630. His name has been given to the Sylvian fissure, the Sylvian aque- duct and the Sylvian artery. See Symbiosis 586 Symbols Rene Moreau's Vita Sylvii pre- fixed to the Opera. Symbiosis, a term first em- ployed by De Bary for the very intimate and mutually beneficial partnerships which often occur between organisms, especially between plants and animals, or between two kinds of plants. In commensalism the union is much less intimate. The historic case of symbiosis is that of the lichens, but quite as well defined is the partnership between radiolarians and the so-called 'yellow cells,' which are really symbiotic algae. Here the host gains starch from the algae, which in their turn receive carbon dioxide, and ni- trogenous waste products. Among plants one of the most interesting cases of symbiosis discovered in recent years is that of the bacteria which form nodules or tubercles on the roots of leguminous plants and enable these to utilize the free nitrogen of the soil. Symbolism. A symbol is a sign, and differs from an antctype, which is a prefigurement of some- thing or some one to come after- wards;^ and from an allegory, which is a figurative description. The symbol is always an object, and suggests something higher than appears to the eye. The American-Indian totem-pole is an example of the symbolic treatment of tribal and family descent. All writing is symbolic. Symbolism is the language of heraldry; but it has had its widest range in con- nection with religion. It is to be found in its rudest form in Africa and the islands of the Australian archipelago. Elaborate symbolic designs are carved on the monu- ments of Central America. The phallus as a symbol of reproduc- tive powers has wide use, while the swastika is found in all quarters of the world as a religious symbol, though its meaning is as yet unde- termined, and it is often regarded as one form of the cross. Sym- bolism played a great part in the worship of the Old Testament and in the structure of the Jewish temple. The early Christians no doubt used symbolic designs on rings and seals, as the fish, the dove, the palm branch, the anchor, and were thus enabled to know one another without betraying themselves to their persecutors. From the 3d to the 8th century the carvings and frescoes of the cate- combs supply abundant examples of early Christian imagery. Nearly every dejail in Christian archi- tecture, and every article of church furniture and ecclesiastical vest- ment is symbolically significant. Christ is depicted as the Good Shepherd, and a unicorn stands for purity and strength, or from its solitary habits it is the symbol of monastic life. The Virgin has no symbol in early monuments; nor is the crucifix to be found until the 5th century. Until the 1 1th cen- tury any representation of Christ on the cross was wholly symbolic, be- ing always clothed, and probably robed and crowned as high priest and king. Later still the robe was removed, but the kingly crown remained. The present realistic form of the crucifix is of quite late date. The Holy Spirit was sometimes depicted in human form, from the 10th century till the 17th, when Urban viii. for- bade the practice, and the dove has since been used as the appro- priate symbol. The First Person in the Trinity, often treated as a man by the later painters, has no symbol, though the triangle often represents the trinity and the circle deity. See Clement's Hand- book of Legendary and Mytholog- ical Art (1881); Knight's Symbolic Language of Ancient Art and Mythology {\S76); Evans's Animal Symbolism in Ecclesiastical Archi- tecture (1896); H. D. M. Spence, White Robe of Churches (1900); and W. Durandus, Symbolism of Churches (1906). Symbols. (1.) Chemical sym- bols, as a means of expressing briefly the facts of chemical composition and action, were introduced by Dalton. The atoms of each element were rep- resented by a circle, with some distinguishing mark, such as a cross, dot, or letter, while com- pounds were denoted by a cluster of these circles representing the atoms present: thus hydrogen was 0 ; carbon, ; sulphur di- oxide, O © O. These devices were soon superseded by a simpler method initiated by Berzelius, which has remained practically unchanged till to-day. Accord- ing to this system the atoms of the elements are symbolized by the initial letter or letters of the English or Latin name, these being combined to make the formulae for the compounds, and provided with suffixes to show the number of atoms pres- ent. Thus N represents 1 atom of nitrogen, Ag (argentum) 1 atom of silver, AgCl the composition of silver chloride, and A!2(S04)3 that of aluminium sulphate. (See Elements for a full list.) AgCl states not only that sil- ver chloride contains silver and chlorine, but that they are united in the proportion of 107.9 parts by weight of silver to 35.45 Earts of chlorine, and so on. Sym- ols for molecules also express the volume relations of the sub- stances when in the state of gas, as, in accordance with Avogadro's hypothesis, equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of mole- cules, whatever their kind. For example, if the relative weights are expressed in gram propor- tions, each gram molecule occu- pies 22.22 liters when at standard temperature and pressure: thus N2, HCl, NH3, if taken in grams — i.e. 28 grams of nitrogen, 36.45 grams of hydrogen chloride, and 17 grams of ammonia — all occupy 22.22 liters. To express chemical actions, symbols are combined into equations in which the sym- bols of the substances taken are written on the left-hand side and the symbols of the products on the right. Thus, Zn -f H2SO4 =ZnS04 + H2 represents the fact that on putting zinc with sul- phuric acid they react in the proportion of 65.4 parts by weight of the former to 98 of the latter, yielding 161.4 parts of zinc sul- phate and 2 parts by weight of hydrogen, and that for every 65.4 grams of zinc a volume of 22.22 liters of hydrogen is obtained. In any case it must be remem- bered that symbols may only be arranged to represent facts, and that compounds must not be ex- pected to exist or actions to happen in accordance with the infinite number of arrangements into which chemical symbols may be manipulated. (3.) Arithmetical and Alge- braic. + plus, addition; positive, of direction, rotation, electricity, magnetism, etc., or of quantity in general; compressive, of stresses. -|-^« positive. — minus, subtrac- tion; negative of direction, rota- tion, electricity, magnetism, or of quantity in general; tensile of stresses. — negative. = equal- ity; a = a is equal to b. = is identically equal to. X mult., multiplied by. ~ div., divided by; a a/b or ^ means a divided by b. .'.therefore, '.'because. : is to. :: as. li a:b:: c: d, or a/b = c/d, then ad = be. -\J square root, cube root, '^a («"> root of a) = a]_a~^ =—'y a<'= 1. « varies n. a" as; .'. y « i means 'therefore y X varies inversely as x.^ In such a case y= m/x, where m i s a con- stant. ( ) I } [ ] brackets. vin- culum, denoting that the included quantities are to be taken to- gether, a > b, a IS greater than b. a b, a is not greater than b. a <^ b, a is not less than b. a ^ b, the differ- ence between a and b. a 6, a is similar to b. a — b, a is equal and similar to b. |^ or «! = (fac- torial n) n{n - 1) (« - 2) . . . 1. ^Pr, permutations • of n things r at a time. "^Cr, combinations of n things r at a time. J"dl, ehmi- nant or. determinant = {ad - be). □ , square; as □ cm., square cen- timeters, c.c, cubic centimeters. Syiumachu^ cm., centimeters, mm., millime- ters, gni., grams. 2 7 X 1 / , of dimensions, means two teet seven inches by one foot four inches, oo, infinity; a quantity greater than any assignable quan- tity. 0, zero; a quantity less than any assignable positive quantity, however small. 2, algebraic sum oi—i.e., taking account of signs, log, logarithm, a, b, c, etc., let- ters at beginning of alphabet, usually denote constants, x, y, z, letters at end of alphabet, usually denote variables. %, per cent. (3.) Geometrical. L ABC or ABC, the angle ABC. \Jl, right angle; at at right angles to. 1', perpendicular to. 1|, parallel. not parallel, H"", parallelo- gram. llP^P"'', parallelepiped. |"«*, or □, rectangle. A. tri- angle, circle. Q'^ semicircle. PN, quadrant. arc. n",- parab- ola. 0''. ellipse. hyper- bola. R.H., rectangular hyper- bola. □ , square— as □ square inches; □ ', square feet. L, length. A, a, area. V, volume. R, r, radius or radius vector. D, d, diameter, p, radius of curv- ature. P {x, y), the co-ordinates of the point P are (x, y) . (4.) Trigonometrical. 60° 27' 13" means sixty degrees twenty- seven minutes and thirteen sec- onds, sin, cos, tan, etc., abbre- viations of the circular functions sine, cosine, tangent, etc. (See Trigonometry.) tt, ratio of cir- cumference of a circle to the diameter, or the value of two right angles in radians or circular measure, equals S' 14159 approxi- mately. It has been computed to 707 places of decimals. Sin ^x, the inverse sine of x. This is an angle d such that 6 = sin -^x or sin d = X — i.e., the angle whose sine is X. Thus 0 = cos ^/l The other circular functions may be treated similarly. If ABC denote the angles of a triangle, then the sides opposite each angle respectively are a, I, c. ^, 0, 'A, a, ^, used to denote angles. X, latitude, e, the base of the Na- pierian or hyperbolic logarithms. Symmachus, sim'a-kus, Quin- TUS AURELIUS {C. .34.5-40.5 A.D.), ancient Roman statesman and orator, was a native of Gaul. He held the offices of proconsul of Africa, prefect of Rome (384 a.d.) , and consul (391). He was an ar- dent advocate of the ancient pagan religion. His extant writ- ings consist of ten books of Let- ters, three panegyrics on Valen- tinian i. and Gratian, and frag- ments of six senatorial orations. Symmes, simz, John Cleves (1780-1829), was born in New Jersey. Entering the United States army as an ensign, he rose to the rank of captain (1812), and distinguished himself at Niagara and Fort Erie, Settling at New- 587 port, Ky., he devoted himself to the exposition of his theory that the earth was hollow and con- sisted of six or seven concentric hollow spheres, which might be reached at the North Pole — jocu- larly termed 'Symmes' Hole.' He published Theory of Concen- tric Spheres (1826). Symmetry, in Zoology. A primitive organism, floating free- ly in a uniform medium, would tend to display the symmetry of a sphere, for each part of the sur- face would have the same relation to the uniform environment, and therefore no one region would tend to develop more than an- other. Such a primitive type of symmetry is displayed, for exam- ple, by the protozoon Volvox, and by certain of the cells of higher organisms: ova, for example, are typically spherical. If we contrast with Volvox such a sedentary organism as a sea anemone, it is obvious that the fixed base has here a different relation to the environment from the free disc, and has a cor- respondingly different structure. But if we consider the disc alone with its circle of tentacles, then we find that each portion of its margin has the same f-elation to the surrounding sea water, and has the same structure. There- fore the disc could be divided into approximately equal halves along many lines of division. This is radial symmetry, and is characteristic of the Coelentera generally, as well as of Echino- dermata. Radially symmetrical animals are frequently sedentary, and when they possess the power of locomotion, as in jellyfish and starfish, the direction of move- ment is not fixed— that is, there is no one region of the body which is always directed forward. On the other hand, most swift- ly moving organisms have a dis- tinction between head and pos- terior portion. The head region is specially rich in nerve cells and sense organs, and is typically directed forward during loco- motion. At the same time there is a distinction between right and left halves of the body, which is symmetrical only about a median line. This is bilateral symmetry, and is the most frequent type among animals. Finally , in some modified forms, especially those which, though descended from rapidly moving ancestors, have become stationary or sluggish in their movements, bilateral symmetry may be al- together lost. The snail, for in- stance, is an asymmetrical animal. Symmetry, in Mathematics. In complicated mathematical equations or operations it is often possible to put the quantities dealt with in a symmetrical form. They are thus most easily treated, Sympathy and errors may be detected by lack of symmetry. Other results may often then be written down by analogy. Symonds, sim'unz, John Ad- DiNGTON (1840-93), English man of letters, was born in Bristol, and at Oxford came under the influence of Conington and Jow- ett. He won in 1862 a fellowship at Magdalen. Symptoms of con- sumption and a nervous break- down sent him to Switzerland and Italy, and in 1878 he settled at Davos Platz. His first book, Introduction to the Study of Dante (1872), was a sort of commentary on the great Italian's poem; it was followed by Studies of the Greek Poets (187.3-7<3). His most notable achievement is The Re- naissance in Italy (1875-86), which embraces four parts and a couple of supplementary volumes — The Age of the Despots, The Re- vival of Learning, The Fine Arts, Italian Literature, and The Cath- olic Reaction. Shakespeare's Pred- ecessors in the English Drama, published in 1884, contains the results of thoughtful study in English literature. Symonds wrote numerous other books, in- cluding: Wine, Women, and Song; Life of Shelley (1878); Life of Sidney (1886) ; Life of Ben Jonson (1886); Autobiography of Benve- nuto Cellini; Life of Michael Angelo (1892); Walt Whitman (1893) . Consult his Miscellanies; Brown's Life. Symons, sim'unz, Arthur (1865), English essayist and poet, was born in Wales. His literary criticism is graceful in style, and marked by insight and sym- pathy; his later poems show the influence of Baudelaire and Ver- laine. Among his works are: An Introduction to the Study of Browning (1886); London Nights (1895); Studies in Two Litera- tures (1897) ; The Symbolist Move- ment in Literature (1899); Col- lected Poems (1901); Studies in Prose and Verse (1904); Spiritual Adventures (1905) ; The Fool of the World, and Other Poems (1906); Cities of Italy (1907) ; The Roman- tic Movement in English Poetry (1909). ^ ^ Sympathetic Inks. See Inks AND Stains. Sympathetic Strikes. See Strikes and Lockouts. Sympatlietic System. See Nervous System. Sympathy, or Fellow Feel- ing, as commonly understood, is the emotional state, painful or pleasant, induced by the sight or thought of pain or pleasure in others. The essential fact is that suffering or pleasure be somehow suggested, and this may occur with fictitious persons or objects as readily as with real. Bain regards sympathy as of the nature of a fixed idea, a primi- Symphon}^ 588 tive emotional endowment, the basis of altruistic conduct, of social emotions generally. It is thus presupposed in society it- self, and is the condition of eth- ical growth. On this psychologi- cal ground, egoism and altruism are ultimate, and not directly rec- oncilable; hence one of the pri- mary problems of individualistic ethics, utilitarian or Kantian. Baldwin, Stout, and Sorley, however, suggest that sympathy is rather an 'ejection' of our feel- ings into the self-form of another, and thus egoism and altruism are reconciled, as it were, in a larger egoism. Adam Smith made sym- pathy the basis of his Theory of the Moral Sentiments. In esthet- ics, sympathy is extended to in- clude the artist's or spectator's acceptance of form and color as the expressed essence of beautiful things. From the evolution standpoint, sympathy is an evi- dence of human sociality, actual or potential. It is the emotion of social unity. See Emotions. Symphony, in Music, the high- est form of orchestral composi- tion. The name was originally applied to the purely instrumen- tal portions of works primarily vocal, under it being included overtures to operas and oratorios, as well as ritornelli and the intro- ductions to choruses and arias. With the liberation of the sym- phony from its operatic surround- ings its development as an ab- stract form of art may be said to have begun. It was not, how- ever, until 1788, the year in which Mozart wrote his greatest ex- amples, that the symphony at- tained the rank of an important work of art. In these three works, the E fiat, G minor, and C major symphonies, an extraor- dinary advance is visible both in expression and in richness of instrumental effect. Haydn, though born nearly twenty years before Mozart, wrote his most important symphonies during the eighteen years he survived his younger contemporary. The symphony was brought to its most perfect stage of develop- ment by Beethoven (q.v.). Not only did he determine the consti- tution of the orchestra, and ex- pand and elaborate the existing features of the different move- ments, but to all this he added in his subject matter a depth of human emotion such as hitherto had never come within the scope of musical expression. The essen- tial qualities of his music are nobility of thought allied to per- fection of detail, and a true bal- ance between material and form. His Eroica, C minor, and A major stand as the most perfect ex- amples of the classical symphony, and also mark the close of the classical period. Succeeding writers have most- ly aimed at a compromise be- tween their poetical instincts and their regard for conventional rule. Among such may be men- tioned Schubert, Spohr, Berlioz, Raff, and Schumann, the work of the last being the most impor- tant. Mendelssohn was content with the true classical form. The same may be said of Brahms, who, however, has enriched it with so many interesting and characteristic features as to con- stitute an important departure. Among other important modern writers in symphonic form are Dvorak, Elgar, and Tschaikow- sky. The form of the symphony is analogous to that of the sonata (q.v.), and usually consists of four movements, frequently ar- ranged as follows: allegro; largo or adagio or andante; scherzo, or minuet and trio; allegro. Sym'phoricar'pus, a genus of shrubs of the honeysuckle family (Caprifoliacece) having oval, short petioled, downy leaves, and short clusters of white or rose-colored flowers followed by fleshy white or red berries. The best known are the Coralberry {Symphori- carpus vulgaris), the Wolf berry {S. occidentalis), and the widely cultivated Snowberry {S. race- tnosus) . Symplegades, sim-pleg'a-dez. See Cyane^ Rupes. Symposium was with the ancient Greeks a drinking to- gether, a conversational feast or banquet, characterized by the drinking of wine mixed with water, by intellectual or enter- taining conversation, and by music, dancing, and other amuse- ments. Since both Plato and Xenophon used the word as the title of a work describing the conversation of Socrates and others, it has come to mean a social discussion of philosophical and other topics. Symptoms. See Diagnosis. Synagogue, the Jewish place of religious worship. The origin of this institution is veiled in obscurity, but is probably to be traced to the Babylonian cap- tivity, when the need for a com- mon place of prayer and instruc- tion became urgent. From the time of the Maccabees syna- gogues are found even in the villages; and Josephus, Philo, the New Testament, the Mishna, and the Talmud constantly allude to them. Synagogues appear to have been originally erected in the fields, usually near waters, for the sake of ablution; but they were soon introduced into the towns, where they were built on the most elevated spots, rising above the surrounding structures. Architecturally, the synagogue, rectangular or octagonal in shape, has iisuaily conformed to the type of structure prevailing in the country in which it has been built. In Europe and America the entrance is generally toward the west, and the congregation worship with their faces toward the east, in the general direction of Jerusalem. Directly opposite the entrance, at the eastern end of the synagogue, upon a slightly raised platform reached by three or more steps, stands the Ark, a box or chest containing the scrolls of the Pentateuch. Before the Ark hang a heavy curtain and the perpetually burning lamp, the symbol of immortality. In the older type of synagogue there is a raised platform in the centre of the building from which the reading of the Scripture is con- ducted — the almemar. In the later synagogues this is often placed directly before the Ark, and in many instances is com- bined with the pulpit. In either case it is approached by steps, and is surrounded by a railing. In the orthodox congregations the women sit in a separate room or latticed gallery, and the men keep their heads covered. In the United States there is a strong reform movement that dispenses with these and many other ancient usages. The synagogue service con- sisted originally of the recitation of the Shema (Deut. vi. 4-9, xi. 13-21; Num. xv. 37-41), the reading of the Law and the Prophets, with translations into Aramaic, and the priestly blessing. , To this was added the exposition of the laws, and, later, various prayers and benedictions. In the reform synagogues of the United States the tendency has been to curtail the ritual and to lay spe- cial emphasis upon the sermon. The administration of the syn- agogue formerly rested with a body of elders appointed for the purpose, these ofhcers being a ruler who directed the worship and an attendant who exercised functions similar to those of a beadle. The service was read by a chosen member of the congre- gation. To-day there is usually a regularly • employed reader {hazzan) and a sexton {sham- mash). The temporal adminis- tration of affairs rests with the parnas, or president and board of trustees. Consult Schiirer's History of the Jewish People (vol. ii.) ; Dem- bitz's Jewish Services in Syna- gogue and Home; The Jewish Encyclopedia (1905). Synaptase. See Emulsin. Syncline. The strata of the earth's crust generally lie in folds or undulations, and when the dip is toward a common cen- tral line or plane, forming a trough-like structure, the strata Syncope 589 SynoTlal Membrane are said lo lie in a syncline. See Anticline. Syncope. (1) The elision of a letter or syllable in a word, as 'ne'er' for never, 'fo'c'sle' for forecastle. (2) See Fainting; Death. Syncretism, a tendency to reconcile and unite various sys- tems of philosophy or religious opinions on the basis of tenets common to all. In church his- tory the term is applied to a movement in the 17th century, promoted by Calixtus, which ad- vocated the union of the various churches — Protestants and Ro- man Catholics, Lutherans and the Reformed or Calvinistic sects — and the reconcilement of both .with the Tridentine doctrine. See Eclecticism. Syndic is an old term for a civil magistrate or officer repre- senting a government or a com- munity, with various powers in different countries. The term was also used collectively for a body of officers or a council — e.g., the syndics of Cambridge Uni- versity, England, where the term is still used. In the Middle Ages it frequently denoted the accents appointed by municipalities to watch over their interest at law. Sindaco is Italian for mayor. Syndicalism, a revolutionary working-class movement having for its aim the ownership and control by industrial organiza- tions of the means of production and distribution, thus making the workingman his own em- ployer, and securing to him the entire product of his labor. Syn- dicalism differs from socialism (q. V.) in its uncompromising de- nunciation of the theory of the collectivist state, in its rejection of every form of political organi- zation, and in its attitude toward all measures of social reform as merely palliative. It advocates uncompromising hostility be- tween capitalist and workman, and seeks the absolute supremacy of labor. In order to effect its ends Syn- dicalism pursues a policy of 'di- rect action,' the principal forms of which are the General Strike and Sabotage. The general strike is the culminating feature of the campaign of direct action, and aims at the complete overthrow of the existing order by the simul- taneous cessation of all activity on the part of workingmen. Sabotage includes a variety of measures directed against em- ployers, with the object of ren- dering industry unprofitable (see Sabotage). The Syndicalist movement had its origin in France. The Con- federation Generate du Travail, the instrument of Syndicalism in that country, was organized in 189.5 by various trade unions which had declared in favor of the general strike as a revolutionary measure. The Federation ex- tended and elaborated its pro- gramme at successive confer- ences, and in 1902 was joined by the federation of Bourses du Travail, or Labor Exchanges. The chief intellectual leaders were G. Sorel and E. Berth, both of whom have written largely on the subject. The movement ap- peared next in Italy, where it spread rapidly among the anar- chistic portion of the population. In Great Britain and the United States, where Syndicalism has also become prominent, spe- cial emphasis is placed upon the organization of labor by indus- tries rather than by crafts. The movement first made its appear- ance in Great Britain in 1910 and 1911, with the publication of the Industrial Syndicalist conducted by Tom Mann, and the forma- tion of the 'Industrial Syndicalist Education League' at Manches- ter. One evidence of its activity is the Transport Workefs' Fed- eration, which, however, failed completely in the London trans- port and coal strikes of 1911 and 1912. In the United States, Syndical- ism appeared as early as 1896 in a revolt against the old trade union movement. Its principal exponent is the Industrial Work- ers of the World (I. W. W.), or- ganized in 1905 under the leader- ship of Eugene V. Debs and W. D. Haywood. The movement did not become generally known till 1912 and 1913, however, when its strength was evidenced in the strikes of the textile work- ers at Lawrence, Mass., and of the silk mill operatives at Pater- son, N. J. See Labor Organi- zations. Consult Clay's Syndicalism and Labor (1911); Levine's The Labor Movement in France (1912) ; Harley's Syndicalism (1912); Boyle's Minimum Wage and Syn- dicalism (1913); Brooke's Amer- ican Syndicalism: The I. W. W. (1913); Hunter's Violence and the Labor Movement (1914); J. Ram- say MacDonald's Syndicalism (1913); P. Snowden's Socialism and Syndicalism (1913); Bris- senden's History of the I. W. W. (2ded., 1920); J. A. R. Marriott's Syndicalism (1921). Syndicate is a general com- mercial term denoting a com- pany or association of companies organized on an extensive scale for the promotion of some im- portant scheme, or for the pur- pose of establishing a monopoly. In the United States associations of this kind are also formed of newspapers to 'syndicate' arti- cles and illustrations. See Trust. Synergism, the co-operation of human effort with divine grace in the salvation of the soul, the term being specifically used to describe a type of semi-Pelagian- ism (see Pelagius) in Germany in the sixteenth century. Its chief supporters were Erasmus and Melanchthon. Synesius, si-ne'shi-us (c. 370- c. 414), bishop of Ptolemais in Cyrenaica, North Africa, was the pupil and friend of Hypatia at Alexandria. He came upon the public stage by leading an em- bassy (c. 398) from Cyrenaica to the emperor at Constanti- nople, where he remained three years, and wrote Concerning Providence {Peri Pronoias) . After his return he wrote on Dreams, The Praise of Baldness, Self- discipline (a supplement to Peri Pronoias), and several hymns, redolent of the spirit of neo- Platonism. Having become a Christian, he was called to the see of Ptolemais. Some one hundred and fifty-six of his letters have been preserved. Some have attributed to him the writings of (pseudo-) Dionysius the Areop- agite. Consult Lives by Gard- ner, Crawford, and Griitzmacher. Synge, John Millington (1871-1909), Irish dramatist, was born near Dublin, Ireland, and became one of the leaders in the movement for the revival of the ancient language and legends of Ireland. He was chiefly identi- fied with the national drama of the Abbey Theatre, Dublin, and wrote Riders to the Sea, The Shadow of the Glen, and The Well of the Saints (1905), The Playboy of the Western World (1906), and The Tinkers Wedding (1908); Poems and Translations (1909). Deirdre of the Sorrows (1910) was left unfinished. He was regarded as the most promising poet of the Irish Celtic school. Consult M. Bourgeois, John Millington Synge and the Irish Theatre (1912); J. Masefield, John M. Synge: A Few Personal Recollections (1915) ; W. B. Yeats, Synge and the Ireland of His Time (1911); P. P. Howe, M. Synge, A Critical Study (1912) ; J, Thorning, J. M. Synge (1921). Synod. See Councils, Eccle- siastical; Presbyterianism. Synod of Elvira, an ecclesias- tical synod held somewhere be- tween 300 and 314 a.d. at Elvira, in Spain, near the modern Gra- nada. Bishops from all parts of Spain assembled, and adopted eighty-one canons regulating ex- ternal and internal affairs. Mar- riage with Jews, pagans, and heretics was forbidden, and vice of all kinds was sternly de- nounced. Synoptic, name applied to the first three of the four Gospels of the New Testament, because they contain parts which may be examined side by side, being vir- tually identical. They present a general and harmonized view of the life of the Saviour. Synovial Membrane, a thin, delicate membrane, secreting a thick, viscid, and glairy fluid like Vol. XL— 31-0. Syntax 589 A Syphilis white of egg. Synovial mem- branes are arranged in the form of short, wide tubes around joints, as the Hnings of synovial bursae, and as sheaths for ten- dons. For inflammation of the syno- vial membrane, or Synovitis, see Joints. Syntax is that part ofgrammar which treats of the rules for the formation of the sentence. It considers the collocation of words and sentences in connected speech, treating of their arrange- ment and relative positions as re- quired by grammatical connec- tion, euphony, and clearness and energy of expression. Syn'thesis, the combination of separate elements or thoughts into a whole; also a process of reasoning from propositions al- ready proved to the conclusion — the opposite of analysis (see Analysis) . In Chemistry, in its most gen- eral sense, synthesis is the process of building up complex com- pounds from their elements or simpler compounds, but is s®me- times restricted to the prepara- tion by laboratory methods, and from unorganized material, of the compounds naturally formed in the life processes of animals and plants. Syntheses of new organic compounds are frequent- ly the result of chance discoveries of new reactions, but a very large number of such reactions of more » or less general applicability have been studied and classified. See Chemistry; Analysis, Chem- ical. Synthetic Rubber. See India Rubber. Syn'tonin, or Acid Albumin, is an intermediate product of the gastric digestion of albuminates or proteids, which are eventually transformed into peptones. vSyn- tonin may be produced outside the body by the prolonged action of dilute hydrochloric acid upon minced muscle. It is precipi- tated by sodium chloride and many other salts, as well as by neutralization with alkalis, but not by heat. See Albumin. Syphax, si'faks, king of the Massylians, a Numidian tribe. He first appears at war with Car- thage, in 213 B.C., but was com- pletely defeated, and apparently made peace. Hasdrubal Gisco attached him to the side of Car- thage by marrying him to his daughter Sophonisba. Soon af- terward he expelled Masinissa from the Massylian kingdom. Later he joined Hasdrubal in fighting against Scipio; but he was three times defeated (203 B.C.), and finally captured by the Romans. He adorned Scipio's triumph, and died in imprison- ment. Syphilis, a specific, highly contagious disease, communi- cated by contact or transmitted hereditarily. In the hereditary form of the disease a distinction is sometimes drawn between con- genital syphilis, in which the ovum or spermatozoon is syphi- litic, and inherited syphilis, in which the fcetus acquires the dis- ease through the mother con- tracting it during her pregnancy. The origin of syphilis is unknown, but many believe that the com- panions of Columbus on his first voyage to Haiti introduced the disease into Europe on their re- turn in 1493. By the close of the fifteenth century it had spread in severe and epidemic form through the greater part of the civilized world; and although no longer so violent as at that time, the dis- ease has never been eradicated. While no human being is im- mune from the disease unless pro- tected by a previous attack, no animal, with the exception of the higher primates, has been shown to be susceptible to it. In the majority of cases the abrasion by which the virus enters the system is situated on the genital organs, but numerous instances are re- corded in which scratches or sores on the lips, the hands, and elsewhere have admitted the infection. The Parasite. — The germ of syphilis is the Treponema palli- dum, a parasite belonging to the group of the spirochaeta, first cultivated , in pure culture by Noguchi in 1911. The presence of this parasite, and hence of the disease, may be established by the detection of the spirochaete under the microscope, by the skin immunity reaction, the luetin test, or by a complex im- munity reaction known as the complement-fixation (or Wasser- mann) test. Course of the Disease. — ■ According to recent conceptions, the course of acquired syphilis may be divided into four stages. Following infection, there ensues a period of incubation, the aver- age length of which is about twenty days. Then appears the first symptom of the disease, a sore known as a chancre, located at the site of contagion, usually the lip, tongue or genitals. This lesion is hard or indurated and, as a rule, painless. Spirochaetes are present. The chancre persists for approximately five weeks. The secondary stage, which begins about six weeks after the appearance of the chancre, is characterized by general rather than local symptoms, such as anemia, fatigue, headache, men- tal depression, swelling of the lymph glands, pains in bones and joints, fever, and skin eruptions — any or all of these may be present. The most characteristic symptoms are the swollen lymph glands and the skin eruptions, centred chiefly on the face, the soles of the feet, the palms of the hands, and in the genital region. The eruptions, usually bright red in color, sel- dom cause pain or itching. The secondary stage persists for a variable period, usually three to five years, often many years longer. In tertiary syphilis skin ulcera- tions known as gummata are generally found, occurring most- ly on the legs, although the scalp, sternum, and other parts of the body may be affected. The gumma is usually painless; in- fection may pass from it to the underlying bones. The fourth stage of the disease ushers in the parasyphilitic in- vasions of the nervous system. The commonest of these are gen-- eral paresis and tabes dorsalis (locomotor ataxia). The first symptom of general paresis may be an epileptiform or apoplecti- form attack. A change in per- sonality soon becomes manifest. The paretic becomes careless in conduct and dress; apathy or memory defects rriay be shown, as well as delusions and quick loss of temper. Tabes dorsalis is a relatively common organic disease of the spinal cord, characterized by lancinating pains or localized ab- sence of sensation. Ataxia, or incoordination of movement, the chief motor symptom, usually develops slowly. Treatment. — Though in some cases syphiUs runs a rapid, malig- nant, intractable, and fatal course, the disease is generally amenable to treatment, which, however, must be begun early and per- sisted in for two years or more. General measures are the main- tenance of the general health, special diet, and the cautious but continued administration of mer- cury salts, which have a definite specific effect upon the course of the disease. After the discovery of the spirochaete of syphilis, the Ger- man chemist and pathologist Ehrlich set on foot one of the most elaborate scientific cam- paigns ever planned with a view to the discovery of a specific drug which would exert a strong- er poisonous effect than mercury upon the parasite of syphilis, while at the same time being no more toxic to the tissues of the human body. Starting with atoxyl, which had been found by Uhlenhuth to be a promising possibility, Ehrlich and his asso- ciates systematically studied one after the other of its possible modifications, and at last dis- covered Salvarsan, or No. 606 (di-chlor-di-amido-di-oxy-arseno- benzol), and later Neosalvar- san, or 914. These compounds, known in the United States as arsphenamine and neoarsphena- mine, contain arsenic in a form which is not highly toxic to the Vol. XI.— 31-0. Syphilis 589 B Syracuse body, but which unites readily with the protoplasm of the spiro- chaetes. The hopes, at first entertained, that a single injection of sal- varsan would produce a perma- nent cure of syphilis have not been realized. On the other hand, it has been amply demon- strated that a therapeutic course of intravenous injections of sal- varsan simultaneously with, or followed by intensive treatment with mercury, are highly success- ful in a large proportion of cases, including many which are un- affected by mercury alone. In most cases, insufficient injections of salvarsan may cause a tem- Public Control of Syphilis. — Too much stress cannot be laid on the contagious nature of a syphilitic patient. His blood, secretions, and discharges may communicate the disease to those around him. Razors, pipes, tum- blers, spoons, handkerchiefs, and clothes are contaminated by his use of them, and his kiss is more dangerous than a leper's. Syphilis contracted during pregnancy of- ten leads to miscarriage. Should the labor be a full time, the in- fant is generally pury, mal- formed, and the victim of specific affections, such as 'snuffles,' and of diverse diseases of the bones and skin. trates the magnitude of the prob- lem involved. Consult Engman's Syphilis in Nelson Loose Leaf Living Medi- cine (Vol. ii) ; also Churchman's Prevention of Venereal Disease in the same work (Vol. vii). Sy'ra (Greek Syros), the most important, though not the larg- est, of that group of islands in the^gean Sea known as the Cyc- lades. It is about 10 miles long by 5 broad, has an area of 50 square miles, and is bare, rocky, and not very fertile. Pop. (1928), 33,700. The capital, Syra, or Hermoupolis (pop. 21,156), is situated on a bay on the east side of the island. It exports sponges, Syracuse. — General View, and Greek Theatre porary disappearance of the spirochaetes followed by a sub- sequent relapse, and the exact dosage necessary to prevent such recurrence has not yet been ac- curately determined. There is no doubt, however, that salvar- san is an exceedingly valuable weapon in combating syphilis. (See Salvarsan.) Several new preparations of arsphenamine have recently been employed in the treatment of syphilis, such as bismuth arsphenamine sulphonate (bis- marsen), sulpharsphenamine, and others, with successful results. Bismuth alone has also proved valuable. Tellurium is effective, though its application is still ex- perimental; the same is true of sodium thiosulphate. From the standpoint of public health, syphilis must be consid- ered and treated as a communi- cable disease. The action of the New York City Department "of Health in 1912 in requiring of hospitals and other institutions, and in requesting of private phy- sicians, the reporting of cases of venereal disease, and in offering the services of its laboratories in the diagnosis of such disease, marks a long move forward in the acquisition of the knowledge necessary for a wise handling of syphilis and gonorrhoea. The fact that even in the first year of operation of the new law 11,573 cases of venereal disease were re- ported, and that a circular letter to physicians elicited a report of 42,665 case.5 during 1912, illus- tobacco, citrons in brine, and emery. During 1910 the dock- yard at Syra arsenal was equipped with modern British machinery. Syr'acuse, the most important of the ancient Greek colonies in Sicily, situated on the southeast coast of the island, was founded about 734 B.C. by emigrants from Corinth. The original settlement was on a small island, Ortygia, at the north of the Great Harbor, and was later connected with the mainland by a bridge. On the north side of the island, between it and the mainland, was a deep inlet, called the Lesser Harbor. Beyond it the mainland rises rapidly into the tableland of Achradina, from 200 to 400 feet above sea level. The city soon spread from Ortygia to the level Vol. XI.— 31-0. Syracuse 590 Syracuse ground south of Achradina, and by the fifth century it covered practically the whole of Achra- dina; both the island and Achra- dina were separately fortified. During the following century two new quarters were added on the triangular plateau of Epipolae, which stretched west of Achra- dina — viz., the suburb of Tycha on the north, and that of Neap- olis on the south. The complete circuit of the walls at their great- est extent was 14 miles. Syracuse herself founded the colonies of Acrae in 664 B.C., Cas- menae in 644 B.C., and Camarina in 599 B.C. Up to this time and down to 486 B.C. the government of the city was oligarchic; but in that year the people e.xpelled the governing class, called Gamori. They appealed to Gelon, the tyrant of Gela, to restore them. He did so, but made himself mas- ter of the city, and removed to it half of the inhabitants of Gela, all those of Camarina, and others from Megara and Euboea. Thus he made Syracuse the first city in Sicily. In 480 B.C. he de- feated a Carthaginian army at Himera. He was succeeded by his brother Hiero, who defeated the Etruscans at sea in 474 B.C. and he by Thrasybulus; but in 467 B.C. the citizens of Syracuse rose against him and expelled him. After some civil strife a de- mocracy was established, and it overcame the Athenian expedi- tion which besieged the city be- tween 415 B.C. and 413 B.C.; but in 405 B.C. Dionysius made him- self tyrant of the city. In his reign, which lasted until 367 B.C., there were wars with Carthage; but Dionysius extended the power of Syracuse over all East- ern Sicily and much of Southern Italy. He was succeeded by his son Dionysius ii, who was ex- pelled by Dion in 356 B.C.; but Dion was murdered in 354 B.C. Dionysius ii recovered his power in 346 B.C., but was driven out again in 344 B.C. by Timoleon, who freed the Syracusans from tyranny, destroyed the tyrant's great fortress in Ortygia, liber- ated other Sicilian towns, and decisively defeated the Cartha- ginians at the Crimisus in 339 B.C. In 317 B.C. another tyrant, Agathocles, arose, who ruled un- til 289 B.C. The city was then held by a succession of military adven- turers, until 275 B.C., when Hiero gained supreme powe;;. He ruled until 216 B.C., and was allied with the Romans; but his grandson Hieronymus, who succeeded him, took the side of Carthage in the Second Punic War, and Syracuse was taken by the Romans after a two years' siege (214-212 B.C.), famous for the inventions in mili- tary engines of Archimedes. To- ward the end of the fifth century Vol. XL— 31-0. A.D. the Goths conquered it; but in A.D. 535 it was restored by Belisarius to the Eastern empire. It was captured by the Saracens in A.D. 878 and then by the Nor- mans some two centuries later. See Sicily. Modern Syracuse is practically confined to the old island of Or- tygia, now joined to the mainland. The columns of the Temple of Athena are built into the walls of the Cathedral, and the foun- tain of Arethusa still exists on the sea front. In Neapolis the Greek theatre remains in fairly perfect preservation; near it are the base of a colossal altar, built by King Hiero, and the Roman amphitheatre. At the extreme end of Epipolae the ancient forti- fications still remain to some ex- tent; the subterranean galleries are in perfect condition. The local museum contains valuable antiquities. A remarkable fea- ture of the place are the huge quarries in Achradina and Neap- olis, which were used as prisons. There is also a vast extent of catacombs at the south end of Achradina; they were largely used for Christian burials. Chem- icals, salt, wine, and pottery are produced. Olive oil, almonds, lemons, oranges, and asphalt are exported. Pop. (1928) est. 55,780. Consult E. A. Freeman, His- tory of Sicily (1894); B. Lupus, Die Sladt Syrakus im Alter Ihum (1887); Gregorovius, Wander- jahre in Italien, Siciliana (1872); E. Mauceri, Siracusa (1904); G. E. Rizzo, II Teatro Greco di Siracusa (1923). Syracuse, city. New York, county seat of Onondaga county, is situated in the beautiful Onon- daga Valley, on the Erie Canal, at the terminus of the Oswego Canal, and on the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western, the New York Central, and the West Shore Railroads; 76 miles east of Rochester, and 148 miles west of Albany. It is the starting point for an extensive system of elec- tric railways that reach the sur- rounding towns and district. The mean temperature varies from 67° F. in July to 25° F. in January, and the city is one of the most healthful in the United States. Syracuse covers an area of 25 square miles and is situated at an altitude of 397 feet. There are more than 35,000 dwellings, and 37 per cent of the inhabitants own their homes. The city has over 100 apartment houses, 14 hotels, 35 theatres, and more than a hundred churches of vari- ous denominations; here are the See of a Roman Catholic diocese, the business offices of the Episco- pal diocese, the Methodist Epis- copal area, and the State head- quarters of the Baptists and Congregationalists; also nine hos- pitals. The main thoroughfares radi- ate from a common centre, and at their intersection with the cross streets are numerous small parks. Altogether there are 76 city parks, two public golf courses, and eight country clubs. The total street mileage is about 400, with 100 miles of electric street railway. The city has numerous fine buildings; the grounds of Syracuse University (q. V.) occupy a hill commanding a splendid view of the city and the lake, and its buildings are among the chief architectural attractions. The University Stadium is one of the finest in the world, seating 25,000. The school system of Syracuse includes 48 public schools, of which four are senior high, a normal school, and 17 parochial schools. In 1931 there were 34,- 200 pupils and 1,247 teachers. Value of public school property exceeded $10,000,000. In addi- tion, there are several nationally known private schools. In 1929 Syracuse had 441 in- dustrial establishments with 26,- 413 wage earners, receiving $39,076,091 in wages, with an annual production valued at $181,103,115. The leading indus- try is the manufacture of motor vehicle bodies and parts. The city enjoys a world-wide renown as a leading centre in the manu- facture of steel tools, soda ash and by-products, fine wax can- dles, agricultural implements, china ware, mince meat and powdered milk, quality shoes, typewriters, electrical appliances, washing machines, steam clothes pressing machines, cash carrying and conveying instruments, foun- dry and machine shop products, boilers and radiators. Transportation facilities are extremely favorable; the Erie and Oswego Canals and the chain of railroads of the New York Central system provide di- rect connection with the bitu- minous coal fields of Pennsylvania and West Virginia and insure unlimited supply of cheap fuel. Niagara Falls and the Salmon River provide most of the elec- trical power. As a loading and distributing centre for cities within trucking distance, Syra- cuse lies but a night's run from Chicago, Philadelphia, Pitts- burgh, New York, Washington, Montreal and Boston. No fewer than 200 nationally- known concerns maintain branch offices in the city; wholesale dis- tributors' net sales reached $175,186,406 in 1929. The num- ber of retail stores (1929) num- bered 3,128, and net sales amounted to $28,105,600. The population of Syracuse in 1930 was 209,326, an increase of 37,609 over 1920. In 1850 it was 22,271; in 1900, 198,374. The city ranks fourth in the JAN 1 4 '^^2 Syphilis KFK 589 B Syracuse body, but which unites readily with the protoplasm of the spiro- chetes. It is the most ideal of all the parasiticidal remedies and has a most rapid and fulminating effect upon all the lesions of syphilis. It will render an ini- tial lesion more rapidly noninfec- tious than any other remedy, pro- ducing a great alteration in its spirochetical content in 24 hours. It is a most valuable agent in rendering an infectious person noninfectious in the shortest possible time. Its use is indi- cated in nearly all forms of syph- ilis, and it has relatively few contraindications except in the matter of careful regulation of the dosage and care in injection. N eoarsphenamine, the later product, has proved less effec- tive than the older form, al- though its use is similar to that of arsphenamine. It is largely used on account of the ease with which it can be administered. The discomfort following its in- jection is less, and it causes less immediate reaction. But these advantages are more than offset by its lower spirochetical effect. The use of these arsenic com- pounds is accompanied by a mercury or bismuth treatment. Since bismuth was introduced into syphilis therapy in 1921 by Sazerac and Levaditi it has gen- erally replaced the use of mer- cury. It has been shown that it possesses a higher spirocheti- cidal activity than mercury, and the relative toxicity is low, ex- cept when given by the intra- venous route, which now is not used. The standard treatment of syphilis less than four years old consists of thirty injections of an arsenic compound in the arm, overlapped with forty injections of bismuth or mercury in the hip. They are given at the rate of one a week for seventy weeks, with no break permitted in the regularity of treatment. In 1939 a new treatment in- volving the use of mapharsen was evolved. Mapharsen was one of the earlier of the more than 900 arsenic compounds with which Dr. Ehrlich experimented. It is less toxic than arsphena- mine, and a technique of injec- tion has been worked out to les- sen the shock of injection, and yet to shorten radically the time of treatment from seventy weeks to five days. Mapharsen is in- jected into the vein by use of the Murphy drip system whereby the solution is allowed to seep very slowly into the vein of the pa- tient for a period of eight hours. With mapharsen applied in this way a complete and effective treatment may be possible in five continuous days of hospitaliza- tion at a cost much lower than for any other effective treatment. Its chief drawback as a standard treatment for use in a Public Health program is that it cannot be effectively administered in the ordinary doctor's office, but re- quires hospitalization. Public Control of Syphilis, — Syphilis is perhaps the most dangerous of all diseases in America today. It is highly con- tagious. It is spread from one person to another during sexual intercourse ; but it may be caught in rare cases by kissing, using infected drinking cups, towels, and similar personal articles. Over 100,000 persons die in the United States each year from syphilis ; over one million per- sons are newly infected by it each year. In 1940 it was esti- mated that ten million persons in the United States have or have had syphilis. One of the greatest hindrances in the intelligent attempts to con- trol this disease has been the prevalent social attitude which demanded that syphilis must not be talked about ; that secrecy and shame must shroud the pa- tient's condition. Up to nearly the mid-thirties, the word 'syphi- lis' was taboo in general conver- sation and in popular periodicals and newspapers. It was not known who and how many had the disease, and consequently efforts to control the spread of infection could not succeed. As early as 1912 the New York City Department of Health took steps to try to obtain knowledge which would help them control the disease locally. All hospitals and similar institu- tions were required by law, and all private physicians requested, to report cases of venereal dis- ease. But although some other centers also adopted this prac- tice, it was not until the late twenties that scientists, social workers, and public-spirited per- sons undertook a vast country- wide educational and clinical program. The campaign di- rected itself towards creating adequate facilities for diagnosing and treating syphilis ; by seeing that the facilities were used ; by advocating that all persons take blood tests as a matter of course ; by bringing to treatment those who were infected ; and by keeping infected persons under treatment until cured. Clinics were set up in a great many places, and gave their services free or at a nominal charge. The location and use of such clinics was widely advertised in public places. A number of States instituted laws requiring that persons satisfactorily pass blood tests before they be granted marriage certificates. Federal and State governments appropriated large sums of money to further and direct their Federal and State organizations for control of venereal diseases. Consult pamphlets of the U. S. Public Health Service, including 'Progress in Venereal Disease Control in the States.' Sy'ra, (Greek Syros), the most important, though not the largest, of that group of islands in the Aegean Sea known as the Cyclades. It is about 10 miles long by 5 broad, has an area of 50 square miles, and is bare, rocky, and not very fertile. Pop. (1928), about 34,000. The cap- ital, Syra, or Hcrmonpolis, is situated on a bay on the east side of the island. It exports sponges, tobacco, citrons in brine, and emery. During 1910 the dockyard at Syra arsenal was equipped with modern British machinery. Syr'acuse, the most impor- tant of the ancient Greek colo- nies in Sicily, situated on the southeast coast of the island, was founded about 734 B.C. by emigrants from Corinth. The original settlement was on a small island, Ortygia, at the north of the Great Harbor, and was later connected with the mainland by a bridge. On the north side of the island, between it and the mainland, was a deep inlet, called the Lesser Harbor. Beyond it the mainland rises rapidly into the tableland of Achradina, from 200 to 400 feet above sea level. The city soon spread from Ortygia to the level ground south of Achradina, and by the fifth century it covered practically the whole of Achra- dina ; both the island and Achra- dina were separately fortified. During the following century two new quarters were added on the triangular plateau of Epip- olse, which stretched west of Achradina — vis., the suburb of Tycha on the north, and that of Neapolis on the south. The complete circuit of the walls at their greatest extent was ^4 miles. Syracuse herself founded the colonies of Acrse in 664 B.C., Casmenae in 644 B.C., and Cama- rina in 599 b.c. Up to this time and down to 486 B.C. the govern- ment of the city was oligarchic ; but in that year the people ex- pelled the governing class, called Gamori. They appealed to Ge- lon, the tyrant of Gela, to restore them. He did so, but made him- self master of the city, and re- moved to it half of the inhabit- ants of Gela, all those of Cama- rina, and others from Megara and Euboea. Thus he made Syracuse the first city in Sicily. In 480 B.C. he defeated a Cartha- ginian army at Himera. He was succeeded by his brother Syracuse KFK 590 Syracuse University Hiero, who defeated the Etrus- cans at sea in 474 B.C., and he by Thrasybulus ; but in 467 b.c. the citizens of Syracuse rose against him and expelled him. After some civil strife a de- mocracy was established, and it overcame the Athenian expedi- tion which besieged the city be- tween 415 B.C. and 413 B.C.; but in 405 B.C. Dionysius made him- self tyrant of the city. In his reign, which lasted until 367 B.c.^ there were wars with Car- thage ; but Dionysius extended the power of Syracuse over all Eastern Sicily and much of Southern Italy. He was suc- ceeded by his son Dionysius ii, who was expelled by Dion in 356 B.C. ; but Dion was murdered in 354 B.C. Dionysius ii recovered his power in 346 B.C., but was driven out again in 344 B.C. by Timoleon, who freed the Syra- cusans from tyranny, destroyed the tyrant's great fortress in Ortygia, liberated other Sicilian towns, and decisively defeated the Carthaginians at the Crimi- sus in 339 b.c. In 317 b.c. an- other tyrant, Agathocles, arose, who ruled until 289 B.C. The city was then held by a succession of military adven- turers, until 275 B.C., when Hiero gained supreme power. He ruled until 216 B.C., and was allied with the Romans ; but his grandson Hieronymus, who suc- ceeded him, took the side of Carthage in the Second Punic War, and Syracuse was taken by the Romans after a two years' siege (214-212 B.C.), famous for the inventions in military en- gines of Archimedes. Toward the end of the fifth century a.d. the Goths conquered it ; but in A.D. 535 it was restored by Beli- sarius to the Eastern empire. It was captured by the Saracens in A.D. 878 and then by the Nor- mans some two centuries later. See Sicily. Modern Syracuse is practi- cally confined to the old island of, Ortygia, now joined to the mainland. The columns of the Temple of Athena are built into the walls of the Cathedral, and the fountain of Arethusa still exists on the sea front. In Neapolis the Greek theatre re- mains in fairly perfect preserva- tion ; near it are the base of a colossal altar, built by King Hiero, and the Roman amphi- theatre. At the extreme end of Epipolae the ancient fortifica- tions still remain to some ex- tent ; the subterranean galleries are in perfect condition. The local museum contains valuable antiquities. A remarkable fea- ture of the place are the huge quarries in Achradina and Neap- olis, which were used as prisons. There is also a vast extent of catacombs at the south end of Achradina ; they were largely used for Christian burials. Chemicals, salt, wine, and pot- tery are produced. Olive oil, almonds, lemons, oranges, and asphalt are exported. Pop. (1936) 53,166. Syracuse, city. New York, county seat of Onondaga coun- ty, is situated in the beautiful (Dnondaga Valley, on the Erie Canal, at the terminus of the Oswego Canal, and on the Dela- ware, Lackawanna, and West- ern, the New York Central, and the West Shore Railroads ; 76 miles east of Rochester, and 148 miles west of Albany. It is the starting point for an extensive system of interurban bus lines that reach the surrounding towns and district. The mean tempera- ture varies from 67° f. in July to 25° F. in January, and the city is one of the most healthful in the United States. Syracuse covers an area of 25 square miles and is situated at an altitude of 397 feet. There are more than 35,000 dwellings, and 37 per cent of the inhabit- ants own their homes. The city has over 100 apartment houses, 14 hotels, 35 theatres, and more than a hundred churches of vari- ous denominations ; here are the See of a Roman Catholic diocese, the business offices of the Episco- pal diocese, the Methodist Epis- copal area, and the State head- quarters of the Baptists and Congregationalists ; also nine hospitals. The main thoroughfares radi- ate from a common center, and at their intersection with the cross streets are numerous small parks. Altogether there are 76 city parks, four public golf courses, and eight country clubs. The total street mileage is about 400, with 100 miles of bus lines. The city has numer- ous fine buildings ; the grounds of Syracuse University (q. v.) occupy a hill commanding a splendid view of the city and the lake, and its buildings are among the chief architectural at- tractions. The University Sta- dium is one of the finest in the world, seating 27,000. The school system of Syracuse includes 48 public schools, of which four are senior high, a normal school, and 17 parochial schools. In 1940 there were 40,- 075 pupils and 1,700 teachers. In addition, there are several nationally known private schools. The leading industry is the manufacture of motor vehicle bodies and parts. The city en- joys a world-wide renown as a leading center in the manufac- ture of steel tools, soda ash and by-products, fine wax candles, agricultural implements, china ware, mince meat and powdered milk, quality shoes, typewriters, electrical appliances, washing machines, steam clothes pressing machines, cash carrying and conveying instruments, foundry and machine shop products, boil- ers, radiators and air condition- ing apparatus. Transportation facilities are extremely favorable ; the Erie and Oswego Canals and the chain of railroads of the New York Central system provide di- rect connection with the bitu- minous coal fields of Pennsyl- vania and West Virginia and in- sure unlimited supply of cheap fuel. Niagara Falls and the Salmon River provide most of the electrical power. As a load- ing and distributing center for cities within trucking distance, Syracuse lies but a night's run from Chicago, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, New York, Wash- ington, Montreal and Boston. The population of Syracuse in 1940 was 205,637, a decrease of 3,689 from 1930. In 1850 it was 22,271 ; in 1900, 198,374. The city ranks fourth in the State — after New York, Buffalo and Rochester. History* — The site of Syra- cuse was originally occupied by a village of Onondaga Indians. In 1654 Father Le Moyne, a Jesuit missionary, discovered ex- tensive salt deposits in the vi- cinity, and in 1778 and 1795 the State purchased the tract of land containing these deposits, and formed the Onondaga Salt Springs Reservation. The origi- nal hollowed-log salt-pipe line, now over 100 years old, is still being used. Certain sections were also purchased by individu- als, and settlement began in 1800. The name of the place was changed successively to Mi- lan, South Salina, Cossitt's Cor- ners, and Corinth, and in 1819 became Syracuse. After the completion of the Erie Canal its growth was rapid. The village was incorporated in 1825. Sa- lina was annexed in 1847, and Geddes and Danforth in 1887. Parts of DeWitt town, Eastwood village, Geddes town, Onondaga town, and Salina town were an- nexed between 1920 and 1928. Consult Bruce's Memorial His- tory of Syracuse. Syracuse University, a non- sectarian co-educational institu- tion, founded in 1870 at Syra- cuse, N. Y., as a continuation of Genesee College, founded in 1849. Its College of Medicine is the successor of the Geneva Medical College, founded in 1834. It consists of eight col- leges and nine schools including the College of Applied Science, College of Business Administra- tion, Maxwell Graduate School 4 '9^2 Syr Daria KFK 591 Syria of Citizenship and Public Af- fairs, School of Education, School of Extension Teaching and Adult Education, College of Fine Arts, New York State Col- lege of Forestry, Graduate School, College of Home Eco- nomics, School of Journalism, College of Law, College of Lib- eral Arts, School of Library Science, College of Medicine, School of Nursing, School of Public Speech and Dramatic Art, and the Summer Sessions. The latter division draws an en- rolment of some 2,000 each sum- mer from all parts of the nation. western slope of the Tian Shan Mountains, at 14,530 feet above sea level. Its total length is about 1,200 miles as it flows northwest and enters the Aral Sea. The area of its drain- age basin is 320,000 square miles. Syria, a republic in Western Asia, formerly under a French mandate, was proclaimed inde- pendent on Sept. 16, 1941. It stretches north to Turkey, east to Iraq, south to Palestine and west to the Mediterranean. The population in 1939 was 3,630,- 000, mostly Moslems, the rest be- are the most important manufac- tured products. History, — The earliest his- torical records that treat of Syria are those which relate the histories of the Hittites, the Phoenicians, and the Hebrews (see Jews). Syria was con- quered during the eighth century B.C. by the kings of Assyria; the Jewish kingdoms experienced the same fate at the hands of the Babylonian kings in the seventh and sixth centuries. Toward the end of the sixth century B.C. Syria fell under the dominion of the Persian empire ; and two cen- Courtesy The Art Institute of Chicago MOSQUE IN DAMASCUS, SYRIA The College of Fine Arts and the Maxwell School of Citizen- ship were the first institutions of their respective types to be es- tablished in the United States. Syr Daria, a district in the southwest part of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics in Asia. It consists of 194,850 square miles, the greater portion of which is made up of sand and wasteland. Most of the popula- tion is found at the foot of the Tian Shan Mountains in the southeastern region where streams are used for irrigation, and wheat, silk, and cotton are the main products. Extensive herds of cattle and sheep are kept by the nomads who produce large quantities of wool for Rus- sia. Russians make up about four per cent of the population with Kirghiz and Sarts the prin- cipal residents. Pop. 1,174,800. Syr Darya, Jaxartes, or Si- HUN, a large river of Russian Central Asia, called the 'Nile of Turkestan,' beginning on the ing Christians and Druses. The area is 57,900 square miles; the chief language is Arabic. Along the Mediterranean in the west there is a range of mountains which splits into two parallel chains, the Lebanon and the Anti-Lebanon ; they run north and south, and range in height from 6,000 feet in the north to 10,000 feet in the cen- tral parts. East of these moun- tains is a tableland which merges into the Euphrates Valley and the Syrian Desert. The princi- pal towns of Syria are Damas- cus, Aleppo, Beirut, Homs, Hama, Tripolis, and Antioch. Beirut is the main port. Most of Syria's population is engaged in agriculture. The principal products are wheat, barley, maize, sorghum, tobacco, hemp, and cotton. Fruits, in- cluding apricots, grapes and oranges are also raised. Iron and lignite are found, but are not mined very extensively. Flour, oil, soap, and silk thread turies later it was conquered by Alexander of Macedon. When his empire broke to pieces the Seleucidae made Antioch the capital of their empire of Syria. From the Seleucidae it passed, through the hands of Tigranes of Armenia, to the Romans, for whom it was won by Pompey in 64 B.C. On the division of the Roman world Syria became part of the Byzantine empire, and it remained a province until its conquest by the Mohammedan Arabs in 636. It still continued to be prosperous under the Arabs and their successors, the Egyp- tian sovereigns, in spite of the unsettled period of the Crusades. The first severe blow it suffered came from the Mongols in 1260, and its ruin was completed when in 1516 it passed from the Egyp- tians to the Ottoman Turks, in whose possession it was at the outbreak of the Great War (q. v.). In 1915, when Ger- man-Turkish forces threatened Egypt, England succeeded in se- Syria KFK 592 Syriac curing the co-operation of the Syrian Arabs on condition that she favor the constitution of an Arab State or confederation of States in the interior of Syria, with certain reservations in fa- vor of France and Great Britain. The following year an agreement was reached between Great Brit- ain and France, whereby Pales- tine came under British, and the rest of Syria — i.e., Syria proper — under French protection. In 1930 the French created the Syrian Republic, which was to have a legislature of 69 mem- country was seething with re- volt ; several cabinet shake-ups failed to allay the turmoil and dissatisfaction. There was no government in office when France ceded the Hatay Republic to Turkey. This was the former vilayet of Alexandretta, an inte- gral part of Syria. The cession included the city of Antioch, a famous Syrian city. Public dis- pleasure loudly proclaimed itself. In July, 1939, the native President resigned, which prompted the French High Com- missioner, Gabriel Puaux, to sus- Consult Gertrude Bell, Syria (1919) ; B. H. Springett, Secret Sects of Syria and the Lebanon (1922) ; Sir H. Luke, Prophets, Priests and Patriarchs (1927) ; H. Armstrong, Turkey and Syria Reborn (1929); B. A. Faris, Electric Power in Syria and Palestine (1936); C. P. Grant, The Syrian Desert (1937) ; Sa'id B. Himadeh (edi- tor). Economic Organi::ation of Syria (1936); H. C. Gordon, Syria As It Is (1939). Syriac Language and Lit- erature. The Aramaic branch Courtesy The Art Institute of Chicago THE EAST GATE OF DAMASCUS, SYRIA bers, serving four years, and was to elect a president for five years. A treaty of friendship and alliance was made between France and Syria in 1936, which was to substitute Syrian au- tonomy for the French mandate. The agreement specified that in- dependence would be reached in 1939, when France would move before the League of Nations and ask that Syria be given rec- ognition as a sovereign state. In 1939 it had been announced that France proposed to create Syria a kingdom, with the Emir Abdullah, ruler of Transjordan, to ascend the throne. The idea behind this plan was to ensure stability together with independ- ence. Ibn Saud, of Saudi Ara- bia, expressed his strong oppo- sition to the proposal, which was subsequently abandoned. Dur- ing the summer of 1939 the pend the Syrian Constitution and place the administration of the country in the hands of a group of councillors. The war which began in Europe in 1939, and the defeat of France in 1940, fur- ther halted Syrian independence ambitions. Tragedy developed in Syria on June 8, 1941, when a British army and De Gaulle's ('Free French') troops invaded the country to safeguard it from German occupation. The invad- ers came by land, sea and air. The French defenders, by order of Marshal Petain, put up a gal- lant fight. Nazis were reported at the time enlarging the port of Latakia to receive troops. The Allies forged ahead against stub- born resistance and reached Da- mascus, which fell to them on June 21, 1941, when the French garrison withdrew. See Tur- key ; Phoenicia. of the Semitic linguistic family, which comprises two distinct di- visions — East Aramaic and West Aramaic, to the former of which the Syriac belongs — holds an intermediate position between the Assyrian of the cuneiform writings and the Canaanitish (Hebrew and Phoenician) of Palestine. It was spoken by the nomads who ranged the great Arabian desert, and by the set- tlers on its edge. The western branch included the Biblical and Talmudic Aramaic, Samaritan, Palmyrene, and Nabataean. The eastern branch included Syriac and Mandaean. The Syriac language was spoken in Mesopotamia above Bagdad, and extended to about Damascus. Western Aramaic presents a more Semitic vocabulary ; Syriac betrays greater Hellenic influ- ence, yet they use the same Syrlae Language KR 593 Syssltla alphabet of twenty-two letters as the Hebrew, but the forms differ, Aramaic presenting several varieties, such as the graceful Palmyrene, the monumental Es- trangelo, and the more cursive later Syriac, with a great poverty of vocalic marks, or else signs modified from the Greek vowels. From the literary standpoint Aramaic forms three separate groups — (1) Aramaic proper, which is essentially a Biblical literature, all its extant remains being either actual Scriptural texts (much of Daniel and Ezra) or paraphrases and explanations of the texts (the Targums) and commentaries on the texts (the Talmud, parts of which are as old as the Targums, but none was committed to writing till about 400-430 A.D.). This traditional Aramaic literature was super- seded early in the new era by (2) Syriac, a Christian literature in a pre-eminent sense, all original documents dealing exclusively with Christian subjects. The earliest and most important is the Peshito ('pure' or 'simple') a Syriac version of the Bible made about 200 a.d., nearly the whole of the Old Testament from the Hebrew, and all the New Testament, except the 2d and .3d Epistles of John, the 2d of Peter, Jude, and Revelation, from the Greek texts. Then was devel- oped an extensive Syriac litera- ture, which flourished from the 4th to the 10th century, and is associated with the names of Bardesanes, Isaiah of Arzun, Jacob of Nisibis, and. above all, Ephraem the Syrian, besides Narses of Edessa, Jacob of Serug, Xenaias, Philoxenus, Thomas of Harkel, Jacob of Edessa, Moses Bar Cepha, Bar Hebraeus, and others mentioned and often carelessly edited by Assemani in his Bihliotheca Orientalis. This literature consisted largely of early translations of the Greek fathers and of some classic au- thors, and from these Syriac translations, and not from the original texts, most of the Arabic versions of the Greek works were made by Syrian writers, the Syriac literature thus merging in the Arabic, by which it was replaced about the 10th century. After the Council of Ephesus (431 A.D.) the Syrian mission- aries, who adhered to the heresy of Nestorius, carried their teach- ings and their language into the Kurdistan highlands, into south- ern India (Malabar) — where the Nestorian ritual still survives — and into the heart of China, as attested by the bilingual (Syro- Chinese) inscription (781 a.d.), preserved in a Buddhist temple at Si-ngan-fu, former capital of the Middle Kingdom. Syriac survives among the Catholic Maronites of the Lebanon, not as the vernacular, for all speak Arabic, but as the liturgical lan- guage in which, by papal dispen- sation, they are permitted to cele- brate mass according to the Latin rite. There are or were three variants, as specified by Gregory Bar Hebraeus — the standard Syriac of Edessa and Mesopotamia, that of Damascus and the Lebanon, and the cor- rupt variety of the Kurdistan and Lake Urmia districts, the last written in a locally modified form of the Estrangelo script. More distinct and more debased are the dialects of group (3), which may be described as pagan or semi- pagan literature. There are two marked varieties — Nabatean, which inclines more to Western Aramaic, and is represented by a treatise on agriculture of un- known date with an Arabic ver- sion of the 10th century; and Mandaic, in which is written the post- Islamic Book of Adam. Mandaic confuses the character- istic Semitic gutturals, which are often elided, interchanges surds and sonants, and shows numer- ous contracted forms. See Brockelmann's Lexicon Syriacum (1895); J. Payne Smith, Com- pendious Syriac Dictionary (1903) Duval, Traite de grammaire syria- que (1881); Nestle, Syriac Gram- mar (1889); Maclean, Grammar of the Dialects of Vernacular Sy- riac (1898); and Dictionary of the Dialects of Vernacular Syriac (1901); W. Wright, Short History of Syriac Literature (1894); E. Renan, Hist, des Langues Semitiques (3d ed. 1863) ; Noeldeke, Semitische Sprachen (1887). Syrian Protestant College. An undenominational institution at Beirut, Syria, opened in 1866 and incorporated in 1869, for the higher education of young men of Syria and other countries. It has seven departments: preparatory, collegiate, commerce, medicine and pharmacy, biblical archae- ology and philology, and a train- ing school for nurses in connec- tion with the Maria De Witt Jesup Hospitals. The degrees conferred are bachelor of arts, bachelor of commerce, doctor of medicine and master of phar- macy. The college is controlled by a board of twelve trustees in New York, by which state it is chartered. AH instruction is given in the English language, except in the departments of Arabic, Turkish, and French, The students in 1943 numbered 800, mainly Syrians, but includ- ing 100 Egyptians, 84 Armen- ians, and 75 Greeks. The college had 60 officers of administration and instruction, a library of 15,000 volumes, buildings and grounds valued at $500,000, an endowment of $600,000. and an income of $720,000. Syringa, a genus of hardy deciduous shrubs belonging to the order Oleaceae. They bear terminal panicles of flowers with cylindrical corollas, often of much beauty. They are of very easy cultivation. Among the species is 5. vulgaris, the com- mon lilac. The mock-orange (Philadelphus), is also commonly called 'syringa.' Syringe, an instrument of the pump kind, consists of a cylindrical tube, with a per- forated nozzle at one end, and a piston, to the rod of which a handle is attached. When the nozzle is immersed in water and the piston drawn to the upper end of the tube, the pressure of the atmosphere upon the surface of the water causes it to follow the piston, and so fill the syringe; then, by pushing the piston back toward the nozzle, its contents may be ejected. Syrinx, in ancient Greek legend, a nymph of Arcadia, whom Pan pursued. She took refuge in the River Ladon and prayed to be changed into a reed, of which Pan made his pipe. Syrlin, Jorg, German wood- carver of the 15th century. He is known as the Elder, to dis- tinguish him from his son of the same name, who also attained eminence as a carver. He exe- cuted the fine carvings on the stalls of Ulm Cathedral (1469-74) , and the antiquarian society of that city possesses a singing-chair made by him (1458). He also exe- cuted the carving on the fountain in the market-place at Ulm. Syros. See Syra. Syrtes, two deep and broad gulfs on the N. coast of Africa, famous in antiquity for their dangerous shallows and sunken rocks. The E. or greater Syrtis is now called the Gulf of Sidra (e. of Tripoli), the w. or smaller the Gulf of Cabes (e. of Tunis). Syrup, a term applied to con- centrated sugar solutions of a more or less viscous character, and by analogy to other liquids of a similar consistency. In pharmacy the name is given to watery solutions of drugs flav- ored with sugar. See Sugar. Syrus. See Publilius Syrus. Syrus, Ephraem. See Eph- raem Syrus. Syssitia, at ancient Sparta, the common meal at which every citizen had to attend. Each man had to pay his own share of the expenses; those who could not do so lost the full privileges of citizenship. The company was divided into tables of fifteen persons, election to which was by ballot; one adverse vote ex- cluded. The principal dish was black broth. A similar system Syzlgy KR 594 Szolnok obtained in Crete, where the meals were called andreia. Syzlgy, the position of the moon at conjunction or opposi- tion. The line of the syzigies is the diameter of the lunar orbit connecting these points. At new and at full moon the sun, earth, and moon are approximately ranged along it. Syzran, town and episcopal see, Russia, Simbirsk gov., on the Volga, 78 m. s. of Simbirsk. The cathedral dates from the 18th century. There are tanner- ies, iron and tallow foundries, distilleries, breweries, dye works, brick works, and agricultural machinery. Pop. (1939) 77,679. Szabadka, Ger. Maria- Theresiopel, or simply There- SIOPEL, tn., Hungary, Bacs- Bodrog CO., 109 m. by rail s.s.E. of Budapest. Great numbers of live-stock are raised in the dis- trict. The place has consider- able trade and is noted for the breeding of turkeys. Lake Pal- ics, in the vicinity, is a popular summer resort. Pop. 82,122. Szalay, Laszlo, or Ladislas (1813-64), Hungarian historian, was born at Budapest. His par- ticipation in the revolution of 1848-9 compelled him to take refuge in Switzerland, where he wrote History of Hungary (6 vols. 1850-60) ; The Book of Statesmen (1847-52), containing studies of Pitt, Fox, Mirabeau, and others; and a Life of Count Nicholas Esterhazy (1862-6). See memoir, in German, by Flegler (1866). Szarvas, commune, Hungary, Bekas county, on the Koros, 13 m. by rail s. of Mezotur. It is famed for its horse fairs. Pop. 27,000. Szatmar-Nemetl, town in Hungary, co. Szatmar, on the Szamos, 38 m. by rail w.n.w. of Nagybanya; is a Roman Catholic bishopric, manufactures pottery, and has weaving. Pop. (1900) 26,881. Sze-chuen, prov., W. China, lying N. of the Yang-tse-kiang. The eastern portion is one of the richest and most productive in China; from the color of its soil it has been named by Richt- hofen the Red Basin. The capi- tal, Ching-tu, is the center of a vast scheme of irrigation formed about 250 B.C. Distribution of produce is facilitated by numer- ous navigable rivers. Rice, wheat, pulse, tobacco, Indian corn, and sugar are the chief crops. Opium, silk, white wax, wood oil, saf- fiower, rhubarb, and musk are the principal exports. Iron and coal are widely distributed; salt wells in some places are bored to a depth of over 2,000 ft. Gold washings in the w. are numerous. Except in cotton, the province is self-sufficing. Access to it is only obtained up the Yang-tse-kiang rapids or through the Min Mts. by a road cut from Shen-si (on the N.). The Lolo people are al- most entirely independent, and the Man-nya-ka, Solos, and others are little interfered with. Area, 144,996 sq. m. Pop.(1947) 45,846,000. Szegedin, town, Hungary, capital of co. Csongrad, at the in- flux of the Maros into the Theiss, 74 m. by rail s.s.E. of Budapest. Since the disastrous floods of 1879, when 2,000 people lost their lives, the rebuilt town has been protected by a circular dam. Sze- gedin manufactures soap and cloth and builds ships. Pop. (1941) 136,752. Szentes, town, Hungary, co. Csongrad, on a branch of the Theiss, 30 m. n.e. of Szegedin. Pop. 33,000. Szold, Henrietta (1860- 1945), Zionist leader, was born in Baltimore, Md. and was edu- cated in the public schools of that city. After teaching in a private school in Baltimore, she became editorial secretary of the publication committee of the Jewish Publishing Society of America (1892-1916), and after 1916 she became actively asso- ciated with the Zionist move- ment both in the United States and in Palestine. In 1912 she founded Hadassah (Women's Zionist Organization in the Uni- ted States), and from that year to 1926 was its president. From 1927 she was a member of the Palestine Zionist Executive (to 1930) and a member of the Jew- ish General Council (1931-33). At the time of her death she was head of the Youth Immigration Bureau of the Jewish Agency for Palestine. For many years she made her home in Jerusalem and maintained an office there. Szolnok, town, Hungary, co. Szolnok, on the Theiss, 58 miles E.s.E. of Budapest. It manu- factures linen thread and ma- chinery. It was the scene of a victory by the Hungarians over the Austrians on March 5, 1849. Pop. 39,000. T T is the voiceless point stop : the breath is stopped by the point of the tongue. The tongue may occupy a whole series of positions — e.g. interdental (French), post- dental (English), or still higher up (Semitic t) ; a whole series of t sounds is in this way possible. The early Semitic alphabet dis- tinguished two of the series ; the Greeks took one to represent their t, and transferred the other, 6, to denote th. Th in English is commonly used to denote two different sounds — spirant t ('think,' 'thigh') and spirant d ('thee,' 'thy'). As a phonetic symbol th should rep- resent spirant t only ; dh may be employed for spirant d. Dh is a voiced th, as J is a voiced t, and the sound th often passes into dh ('path,' 'paths'). T combined with i shows a gen- eral tendency to become a sibi- lant ; tion in English has become shon ('motion'). In such words as 'nature,' m is a diphthong com- mencing with i, and t is apt to pass into tsh. Semitic taw, Greek tau, means 'mark.' The early form X, a cross, is apparently connected with the name ; T is a simple modification of it ; the modern written forms provide the student of writing with instructive varia- tions, n retains the lower part of X. The early form of Semitic teth is a cross surrounded by a circle, hence d. It is probably a modification of taw; the mean- ing of the name is unknown. Taaffe, Eduard Franz Jo- seph, Count (1833-95), Aus- trian statesman, was born at Prague. In 1867 he became min- ister of the interior and the mouthpiece of the court party. He was president of the cabinet (1868-70). Afterward Taaffe was repeatedly in and out of pow- er ; he steadily aimed at gaining the confidence of the Slav na- tionalities, and succeeded during several years in holding_ together for his purposes a majority of the Austrian parliament. He showed great tact in dealing with men, and a geniality of manner pos- sibly inherited from his Irish ancestry. In 1893 he resigned. See Memoirs of the Family of Taaffe (1856). Taal, pueblo, Batangas prov- ince, Luzon, Philippines, 13 miles N.w. of Batangas. There are ex- tensive sulphur deposits in the district. Pop. 21,155. Taal, volcano. Central Luzon, Philippines, situated in lake of same name, on Bombon I. It is composed of volcanic rock and lava, has an oval crater, greatest diameter 7,667 ft., height 1,067 ft. above the lake. Six eruptions occurring in the 18th century are recorded. The last two were in 1808 and 1873. Taal, the name given to the patois spoken by the Dutch in South Africa ; it may be de- scribed as a degenerate form of the language of the first settlers from Holland. The alphabet pos- sesses only twenty letters, and there are few grammatical rules ; the vocabulary also is small. A purer form of Dutch, often also called Taal, is spoken by the edu- cated classes, and an attempt is being made to have it generally taught in the schools. Tabaco, pueblo, Albay prov- ince, Luzon, Philippines, on Ta- baco Bay, E. coast. An important trade with Manila is carried on. Pop. 24,812. Tabard, a garment of rough material formerly worn by the poorest persons. The name was also applied to an outer garment, loose and sleeveless, worn by knights above their armor. Tab- ard is now a coat worn only by heralds. The Tabard inn was a famous hostelry in old London, situated in High Street, South- wark. Its sign was a tabard. It was from this inn that Chaucer describes his pilgrims as setting out for the shrine of Thomas a Becket at Canterbury. Tabari, Abu Ja'far Moham- med BEN Jarir at-Tabari (838- 922), Persian historian, author of a most valuable chronicle, An- nales qtios scripsit at-Tabari (ed. De Goeje, 1879-92). A German translation of that part of the chronicle which affects the Sas- sanian period of Persian history has been published by Noldeke (1879) as Geschichte der Pcrser und Araher zur Zeit der Sas- saniden. Tabari also wrote a commentary on the Koran. His chronicle was continued by Arib ben Sa'd of Cordova. Tabasco, state, Mex., on the s. side of the Gulf of Mexico, bounded on the e., s., and w. by Campeche, Chiapas, and Santa Cruz. Area 9,782 sq. m. It is a low, flat region subject to floods, and considerable tracts are cov- ered with forests. The staples are coffee, cacao, rice, maize, sugar cane, and vanilla. The capital is San Juan de Bautista. Frontera is also an important town. Pop. (1940) 285,659. Tabashir, or Tabasheer, a white, siliceous secretion found in the joints of certain bamboos and grasses. It is used in the E. Indies as a tonic and astringent medicine. By fusion it is con- vertible into a transparent glass. Tabb, John Banister (1845- 1909), American clergyman and poet, was born in Amelia co., Va., was educated privately, and took service on a blockade runner dur- ing the Civil War. He was cap- tured, and made the acquaintance of Sidney Lanier, while a pris- oner, gaining from him his in- clination for metrical composi- tion. After the war he became a Roman Catholic, graduated (1875) at St. Charles College, Ellicott City, Md., and after sev- eral years of teaching was or- dained priest in 1884, remaining on the teaching staff of the col- lege. His lyrical verse has been collected as Poems (1884), An Octave to Mary (1893), Lyrics (1897), Poems Grave and Gay (1899), and Later Lyrics (1906). Tabernacle, the movable sanc- tuary of the Israelites in the wil- derness, according to the 'priest- ly' source of the Hexateuch ; it was made according to a divine pattern given to Moses (Exod. 25 ff.). It was an oblong tent, thirty cubits long, ten in breadth and height, having a wooden framework and a covering of tap- estry and skins, and was divided into the Holy of Holies, a cube of ten cubits, containing the ark, and the Holy Place, in which stood the table of shewbread, the golden candlestick, and the altar of incense. Round the whole was the court of the tabernacle, a hundred cubits by fifty, contain- ing the altar of burnt offering and the laver. The purely ideal char- acter of this structure has been fully proved (1) from the fact that the materials could not have been obtained or transported under the circumstances ; (2) the other earlier Hexateuchal sources, E and J, know no such structure; (3) the historians be- fore the chronicler knew nothing of it. The tabernacle of Roman Catholic churches is a receptacle used for the reservation of the eucharistic elements. See Well- hausen. Prolegomena, pp. 405 sq. (1885) ; I. Benzinger in Has- ting's Dictionary of the Bible, Caldecott, The Tabernacle, its History and Structure (1904). For feast of tabernacles, see Feast. Tabes Dorsalis. See Loco- motor Ataxia. Tablature, the system of mu- sical notation used for the lute. In the usual method the six high- er strings of the instrument were represented by six horizontal Tableaux Vlvants KFN 596 Tabriz lines, each named after the note to which the corresponding string was tuned. Letters or Arabic numerals placed on the lines in- dicated the frets to be used in the production of the notes, .the the gods. So strong, indeed, is this Delief that there are many- instances of Maoris dying from sheer fright on realizing that they had touched a tabooed ar- ticle or had eaten food from a is golden locks rime hath to filuer turpd^ r I r rp r p.p p a a a. ^-a— q — ..a. i T_ _T.^ ♦ ^ ^ ^ Music with Voice Part and Tablature for the Lute. duration of the latter being shown by minims, crotchets, etc., placed over the signs. Tableaux Vivants ('living pictures'), the representation by means of living persons of scenes from history or fiction, and of works of painting and sculpture. Their invention is ascribed to Madame de Genlis. Table-land. See Plateau. Table Mountain, or Tafel- BfRG (3,550 ft.), rises to the S. of Cape Town, Cape Colony, with an abrupt ascent from the S. side of Table Bay, and sloping to- ward the s. The level nature of the strata gives it its table-Uke appearance, fancifully increased wTien the dense white clouds (the 'tablecloth') hang over it, espe- cially in summer. Table-turning, the turning of a table under the finger-tips, ranged round its edge, of persons surrounding it, the movement being formerly ascribed to the agency of spirits. The name is used also to cover the kindred phenomena of spirit-rapping — i.e. the rapping by alleged spirits on furniture, walls, ceiling. Begin- ning in the U. S. about 1848, table- turning was often practised as a social pastime. By Faraday, in England, and other scientific in- vestigators, the phenomenon has been accounted for by the in- voluntary mechanical muscular action of the performers. See Spiritualism. Tabley, Baron. See De Tab- ley. Taboo, Tabu, Tambu, or Tapu (the last being the most correct spelling), a complicated Polyne- sian system of prohibitions, for- mulated by the priesthood. In many instances the dominant motive is purification; in others the taboo is nothing more than an enactment for preyenting the extinction of a certain animal. Among the Maoris any infringe- ment of the laws of taboo is be- lieved to be followed by the death of the transgressor at the hands of tabooed place. Naturally and logically, such deaths are held by the Maoris to substantiate their belief. The custom of taboo is, however, world-wide. It was fully recognized by the ancient Greeks. Thus, in the Eleusinian mysteries the pomegranate was tabooed; and in the banquet which concluded the haloa, or festival of the threshing-floor, the following articles of food were strictly prohibited — pomegran- ates, apples, domestic fowls, eggs, red mullet, crayfish, blacktail, and shark. Taboo results also from a feel- ing of reverence for the dead. The Zulus, for example, always use descriptive names in speaking of their dead kings. The actual name is tabooed (hlonipa). 'Then there is the Gypsy system of tabu,' remarks F. H. Groome (Gypsy Folk-Tales, p. Ixxiii.), 'by which wife and child renounce forever the favorite food or drink of the dead husband or father, or the name of the deceased is dropped clean out of use, any survivors who happen to bear it adopting another.' The many forms of taboo recognized by the Jews are given in detail in the Mosaic law. There, again, the reasons were various. The tem- porary taboo laid by the priest upon a man suspected of incipient leprosy (Lev. 13) was a purely medical precaution. On the other hand, the taboo laid upon a woman who had just borne a child, the particulars of which varied according to the sex of the child (Lev. 12), was based upon the belief, common to many races, that childbirth rendered a woman 'unclean.' The 'network of pro- hibitions and observances' with which kings frequently used to be surrounded owes its origin to the fact that kings were believed to be supernatural beings, whose every action affected the lives and wel- fare of their people. This ques- tion of 'royal taboos' is examined by Dr. J. G. Frazer in his Golden Bough (ed. 1900), vol. i., at the end of which volume there is a long and instructive note on 'Taboos on Common Words.' See Van Gennep's Tabou et Totemisme a Madagascar (1904). Tabor, a small drum, usually played with one stick, in accom- Tabor and Pipe. paniment to the pipe, both in- struments being often played by the same performer. Tabor, town, Czecho-Slovakia, 65 miles by rail s. of Prague, the former stronghold of the Hus- sites. It is still in part sur- rounded by the walls which Zizka built in 1420. Tobacco, beer, and flour are produced. Pop. 13,000. Tabor, mountain in Galilee (1,800 ft.), the traditional scene of the transfiguration of Christ, and an object of pious pilgrimage. Tabora, town, East Africa, Tanganyika Territory in the heart of Unyamwezi, 220 miles E. of Ujiji (Lake Tanganyika), an ivory emporium. Pop. about 25,000. Tabor College. A non-sec- tarian men's college at Ta- bor, Iowa, first opened as an academy in 1857 and incorpo- rated as a college in 1866. En- rolment is limited to 200. It was modelled on Oberlin Col- lege, and was founded by a company of missionaries who moved to western Iowa in 1852. The college courses are arranged in classical, modern language, Latin, mathematics, preparatory legal, and preparatory medical groups, all leading to the b.a. de- gree. There are in addition an academy, a conservatory of mu- sic, and an art department. Taborites. See Hussites. Tabriz, town, province Azer- baijan, N.w. Iran, 40 miles e. of Lake Urmia. It was built (791) by the wife of Haroun-al- Raschid, and is the most impor- tant commercial center of n.w. Persia. Exports are dry fruit, raisins, cotton, carpets. Two im- portant features are the blue mosque and a famous tower built by Greeks. Pop. 214,000. Tabulating Machines KFN 597 Tacna-Arica Question Tabulating Machines. See Calculating Machines. Tac'amahac', or Tacama- HACA, a fragrant, bitter resin chiefly obtained from various tropical trees, especially Calo- phyllum inophyllum (East Indies), C. calaba (West Indies), and Elapharium tomentosum (South America). It is employed as in- cense and as an ingredient in ointments. The name is also given to the American Balsam Poplar (see Poplar). _ Taccaceae, ta-ka'si-e, an order of monocotyledonous plants, the Taccad family, having large tu- berous roots, large radical pet- ioled leaves, and greenish flowers borne in a dense umbel at the top of a leafless scape. Tacca is a typical genus which furnishes starch and arrowroot. See Starch. Tache, ta-sha', Alexandre Antonin (1823-94), Canadian ecclesiastic, was born in Riviere- du-Loup, Quebec. Becoming a monk of the Oblate order, he vol- unteered for service in the Red River district, and was the pio- neer missionary in that region (1846). His unexampled exer- tions secured his appointment as coadjutor bishop of St. Boniface (1850). After his consecration, he labored to attain his ideal of a French-Canadian Northwest, founding colleges, chapels, and schools, and securing such con- trol over the Indians that on a threatened insurrection of the Metis (1870) he was deputed to act as imperial commissioner to allay the discontent. He became bishop (1853) and archbishop of St. Boniface (1871). He wrote Vingl annees des missions dans le nord-ouesl de I'Amcrique (1866) and Esquisse sur le nord-ouest de I'Amerique (1869). Tache, Sir Etienne Paschal (1795-1865), Canadian states- man, was born in St. Thomas, Lower Canada. He served in the War of 1812, and at its ces- sation began the study of medi- cine, a profession he continued to practise until 1841, when he entered active political life. After filling several lesser po- sitions, in 1856 he became premier, retiring in 1857, but forming another government in 1864. _ Ta-chien-lu, ta'chen'loo', or Ta-tsien-lu, town, China, in Sze-chuen province; 65 miles southwest of Tshing-tu, on the route to Tibet. Tachina, ta-ki'na, a fly be- longing to the family Tachinidae. It resembles the common house fly (q.v.), is usually gray in color, and occasionally striped. It is parasitic on caterpillars, and the maggots sometimes penetrate the body of their host. Tachom'eter, or Speed Indi- cator, a device for measuring velocity. Various forms are em- ployed, as for measuring the swiftness of a river current, and for ascertaining the speed and variations in the rotation of a wheel or shaft. Tachylite, tak'i-lit, a black, opaque natural glass which re- sults from the rapid cooling of molten basalt. It occurs as a thin selvage to dikes and veins of intrusive basalt— the latter having cooled rapidly from con- tact with the adjacent rock. It occurs abundantly in the west of Scotland. See Basalt. Tacitus, tas'i-tus, Marcus Claudius (c. 205-276 a.d.), Roman ruler was born in Umbria and was chosen Emperor at Rome (275) after the murder of Aurelianus (q.v.). He was famous for his great wealth, de- votion to literature, and upright character. His short reign was marked by laws for the improve- ment of public morals, and by the expulsion from Asia Minor of a body of Goths. Tacitus, PuBLius (Gaius) Cornelius (c. 55-120 a.d.), Roman historian about whose Hfe comparatively little is known. He was quaestor (79), praetor (88), and consul (97). In 78 he married the daughter of the great Agricola. He was famous as an orator, a fact learned from the letters of his friend, the Younger Pliny. After his consulship he was chiefly oc- cupied with his literary works. These are Dialogue on Orators; Agricola, a biography of his father-in-law, published in 98 A.D.; Germania, based partly on Caesar and other authorities, partly perhaps on the writer's own knowledge (it also was writ- ten about 98 A.D.) ; Histories, a narrative of the reigns of the Emperors from Galba to Do- mitian inclusive, now incomplete; Annals, a history of the empire from the death of Augustus to that of Nero (14 to 68 a.d.). Of the sixteen books of the Annals, only eight have come down to us entire, four are fragmentary, and the others lost. Tacitus' style is the most strongly marked of antiquity; it is sometimes obscure from sheer condensation, a single word often conveying the chief effect of a sentence. As a delineator of character he is unequalled. Tack, a nautical term meaning to change the course of a sailing vessel so as to bring the wind round, by the head, to the other side of the vessel, as opposed to wear (q.v.). As a noun tack has many meanings, including (1) a rope or purchase for hauling down and fastening the corners of certain sails; (2) the corner of a sail to which such a rope is fastened; (3) the direction in which a vessel sails, considered m relation to the position of her sails; and (4) the distance run at one time in such direction. Tackle. See Block. Tacloban, tak'lo-ban, town, Philippine Islands, capital of Leyte province, on San Juanico Strait, between Leyte and Samar; 370 miles southeast of Manila. Pop. 15,787. Tacna, tac'na, province, Peru, situated in the south near the Chilean border. Area 4,930 square miles. Much of the in- terior is arid and unfruitful and the climate is hot and unhealth- ful. Nitrate and some copper and silver are mined. Pop. (1940) 36,349. Tacna, city, Peru, capital of Tacna province, on the River Tacna ; 40 miles north of its port, Arica (q. v.), Chile. It has greatly declined since Bo- livian trade has been diverted through Antofagasta. Pop. 15,- 000. Tacna-Arica Question. Fol- lowing the war between Chile and Peru (1879-83), which was terminated by the Treaty of Ancon, the province of Tacna- Arica was ceded to Chile by Peru for ten years, after which a plebiscite was to be taken to determine the ultimate owner- ship of the provinces of Arica and Tacna. But at the end of that time disagreement as to the manner of taking this plebis- cite prevented its being carried out, and after many attempts at a settlement, a protocol was signed at Washington, on July 21, 1922, by which the solution of the question was placed in the hands of the United States for arbitration. A plebiscitary com- mission consisting of three mem- bers, one each from Chile and Peru and the third from the United States, was appointed to regulate and supervise the pleb- iscite. This commission met in 1925 and drew up rules of procedure but so much objection was raised and so many questions arose that the commission de- cided that a fair and free plebiscite could not be held and it therefore terminated its work. In 1928 the U. S. Secretary of State suggested to the Govern- ments of Chile and Peru that they resume diplomatic rela- tions, which was done in October of that year. Negotiations for a settlement of the question were soon begun and in May, 1929, the President of the United States offered to the two countries a basis of solution which provided that Tacna should be assigned to Peru and Arica to Chile. Chile should construct for Peru a station, wharf, and customhouse for the railway from Tacna to Arica, and should pay to Peru six million dollars and deliver all public works and all government Tacoma KFN 598 Taft owned property in the depart- ment of Tacna. Private property legally acquired should be re- spected by both governments, Peruvian children born in Arica should be considered Peruvians until they are 21 when they may choose their own nationality and Chilean children born in Tacna should have the same right. Chile agreed to this proposal on May 15, and Peru on May 16, 1929. Tacoma, ta-ko'ma, city, Washington, county seat of Pierce county, is situated on Commencement Bay, an arm of Puget Sound, and on the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul, the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific, and the Union Pacific railroads ; 32 miles south of Se- attle, with which it has bus and train connection. Its fine deep- water harbor and extensive, area of -tide-level lands, extending in- land for miles along the valley of the Puyallup River, and afford- ing advantageous site for docks, warehouses, and factories, re- quiring both water and rail facilities, have made it one of the leading ports of the Pacific Coast. The Northern Pacific and the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul have their chief freight terminals here, while the Great Northern and Union Pacific also have extensive terminal facilities. Steamship connection is main- tained with other points on Puget Sound and the Pacific Coast, Hawaii, and Oriental, European^ Atlantic Coast, Australian and South American ports. Tacoma is built upon a series of terraces rising from the south- ern shore of Commencement Bay, and commanding a splendid view of the Sound, the Cascade Mountains, including Mount Rainier (q. v.), and the Olympic Mountains. The industrial dis- trict is situated on the tidal flats, extending inland along the east of the Puyallup River^ while the business and residential sections occupy the higher land. The park system includes 23 parks covering an area of 1,134 acres, the most notable being Point Defiance (638 acres), a beautiful tract fronting on the Sound, largely covered with virgin forests of giant fir, and containing a fine zoological gar- den and aquarium. Notable edifices are the Coun- ty Court House, City Hall, Public Library, Federal Build- ing, Tacoma Building, Union Station, new Masonic Temple, Scottish Rite Cathedral and a number of fine churches. The public school system comprises 46 buildings, and two finely equipped high schools, adjoining one of which is the splendid stadium completed in 1910 and seating 30,000. Other educational insti- tutions are the College of Puget Sound (Methodist-Episcopal), Annie Wright Seminary, Pacific Lutheran College and Bellarmine College. The State Historical Museum containing an interest- ing Indian and early pioneer col- lection, is located here. Hospi- tals are the Tacoma General, St. Joseph's, Pierce County, U. S. Indian, U. S. Veterans, Western State (insane), and Northern Pa- cific Railroad, and the Lakeview (county) Tuberculosis Sanitar- ium. Industries. — Exceptional wa- ter and rail facilities, cheap elec- tric power, and an abundance of inexpensive fuel from the coal mines of the region and the waste of the lumber mills have com- bined to make Tacoma an im- portant industrial center. Taco- ma is situated in the heart of the Douglas fir belt between the Cas- cade Mountains and the sea, and adjacent to a rich agricultural territory ; and the leading indus- tries are forest products, ship- building, electro-chemicals, light metals, copper smelting, flour milling, foundry and machine shop products ; bread and other bakery products ; furniture ; con- fectionery. Coastwise and foreign com- merce is extensive. The chief articles of shipment are lumber products, wheat and other ce- reals, canned and boxed fruits and vegetables, and ores of cop- per, silver, and gold. Since 1909 Tacoma has had the commission form of govern- ment with a mayor and five com- missioners. The first settlement at Commencement Bay dates from the establishment of a saw- mill in 1868. In 1873 the site was selected for the terminal of the Northern Pacific Railroad, and in 1887 the main trans- continental line entered Tacoma. The city was chartered in 1874. Pop. (1930) 106,837; (1940) 109,408. Tacon'ic Mountains, or Tag- HANic Mountains, a range of hills lying on the borders of New York and Massachusetts, and extending into the southwest corner of Vermont. It is com- posed of greatly metamorphosed sedimentary rocks, and gave the name to the Taconic System in geology. Tactics, Military and Naval. See Strategy and Tactics. Tacuarembo, ta-kwa-rem-bo', department, northern Uruguay, bounded on the south by the Rio Negro; area, 8,112 square miles. The capital is San Fructuoso. The chief occupation is stock raising. Pop. (1926) 80,192. Tacubaya, ta-ko6-ba'ya, town, Mexico ; 5 miles southwest of Mexico City. A national ob- servatory is situated here. Pop. 18,350. Tadema. See Alma-Tadema. Tadmor. See Palmyra. Tadorna. See Sheldrake. Tadpole. See Frogs. Tael, tal, a unit of value in China, representing a Hang of silver bullion. Its value varies at different places. A haikwan {i.e., customs) tael was one tael weight of pure silver ; it was abolished in 1933. Taenia. See Tapeworms. Taffeta, a name once applied to plain woven silks, and more recently to a light, thin silk of a high degree of luster or gloss, and to various mixtures of silk and wool. Tafilalt, ta-fi-lelt', or Tafilet, oasis (500 square miles in area) in northwest Sahara, on the south side of the Atlas Mountains ; 220 miles south of Fez. It is a cara- van center, and noted for its dates, and leather. It is under the government of Morocco, Pop. 150,000. Taft, Lorado (1860-1936), American sculptor, was born in Elmwood, 111. He was graduated from the University of Illinois (1879) and studied at the Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris (1880-3). In 1886 he became instructor at the Chicago Art Institute, lectur- ing there, at the University of Chicago, and elsewhere in the United States. In 1919 he be- came non-resident professor of art at the University of Illinois. He was a member of the Na- tional Academy of Design and of the National Academy of Arts and Letters. Among his works are Washington (Seattle) ; Grant (Fort Leavenworth, Kans.) ; the sculpture of the Columbus Me- morial Fountain (Washington, D. C.) ; Blackhawk (Oregon, 111.) ; The Solitude of the Soul and The Blind (Art Institute, Chicago) ; The Eternal Silence ; Fountain of the Great Lakes and The Fountain of Time (Chicago). He was the author of an authori- tative History of American Sculpture (1903, new ed. 1924) and of Modern Tendencies in Sculpture (1921). Taft, William Howard (1 85 7-1 9 3 0), twenty-seventh President of the United States, was born in Cincinnati, O. He received his preparatory educa- tion in the public schools of Cincinnati ; entered Yale Uni- versity at seventeen ; and was graduated in 1878, second in a class of 121. After a two-years course in the law department of Cincinnati College, he was grad- uated with honors in 1880, was admitted to the bar, and took up work as a legal reporter on local papers. He was assistant prosecuting attorney of Hamilton County, VIEWS OF TACOMA, WASH. 1. The City, with Mount Tacoma (Rainier) in the Background 2. Stadium and Stadium High School. Vol. XL— Mar '17 Vol. XI.— at Page 598 TACOMA. WASHIN(JTON, WITH MT. RAINIER IX THE BACKGROUND Photos Courtesy Tacoma Chamber of Commerce TACOMA IS A LUMBER EXPORT CENTER FOR NORTHWEST FORESTS Vol. XL— Page 598 A Taft KFN 599 Tagbilaran Ohio, in 1881-2, and collector of internal revenue for the first Ohio customs district in 1882-3, when he resigned to practice law. In 1885 he became assistant county solicitor for Hamilton County, and in 1887 was appointed to fill an unexpired term as judge of the superior court of Ohio. He was re-elected by popular vote for a period of five years in 1888, but resigned in 1890 to become Solic- itor General of the United States. From 1892 to 1900 he served as U. S. circuit judge for the Sixth Judicial Circuit, and from 1896 to 1900 he was dean and profes- sor of law at the University of Cincinnati. In March, 1900, President Mc- Kinley appointed W. H. Taft president of the U. S. Philippine Commission, and in July, 1901, he assumed the additional duties of the first civil governor of the Philippine Archipelago. In this office he reorganized the govern- ment, introducing much-needed sanitary reforms, establishing a system of schools, and by his tact winning the good will of the na- tives and gaining a wide reputa- tion as an able and just adminis- trator. In 1902 he visited Rome and conferred with the Vatican concerning the appraisal of lands in the Philippines belonging to the Roman Catholic orders, sub- sequently arranging for the pur- chase of these lands by the U. S. Government and their sale to the inhabitants on easy terms. In 1903 Governor Taft was called by President Roosevelt to become Secretary of War. He was assigned to the duty of su- pervising the construction of the Panama Canal ; was sent to Cuba in 1906, where he served temporarily as civil governor ; in 1907 he investigated conditions in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Canal Zone ; revisited the Phil- ippines to assist in opening the first Filipino legislative assem- bly ; delivered a speech in Tokyo that did much to allay Japanese jingoism ; conducted important negotiations in China regarding the boycott of American goods in that country ; returning to the United States by way of the Trans-Siberian Railway. He also personally promoted the reorgan- ization of the Red Cross Associa- tion, and was its president from 1906 to 1913. Long before the National Con- vention of 1908 it was evident that Secretary Taft would be the choice of a majority of the Re- publican delegates for the Presi- dential nomination to succeed Theodore Roosevelt, his staunch supporter. He was nominated on the first ballot, and was elected in November by an electoral vote of 321 to 162 and a popular ma- jority of 1,370,000. Immediately after his inaugu- ration (March 4, 1909), President Taft called Congress in extra ses- sion to revise the tariff ; and his signature to the Payne-Aldrich bill made it a law on Aug. 5, 1909. In September he started on a speech-making tour which included the Pacific Coast, and the Southwest. The failure of the Republicans to carry out their pledge of sub- stantial tariff revision led to wide dissatisfaction ; and the Congres- sional elections of 1910 placed the House of Representatives in control of the Democrats. With the balance of power in the Sen- ate wielded by a dissatisfied wing of his own party, the President, unable to agree with Congress on the tariff, furthered chiefly non- partisan measures. Among these were a treaty with Japan (1911) ; employers' liability measures ; the establishment of a parcels post and postal savings banks ; the creation of the Bureau of Mines, the Commerce Court, the Court of Customs Appeals, the Federal Children's Bureau, and the Federal Industrial Commis- sion ; and laws requiring the publication of campaign funds and regulating Panama Canal tolls. In the handling of foreign re- lations. President Taft's record included the settlement of the Atlantic Fisheries Arbitration (q. v.), the Mexican boundary dispute (see Texas), and the Bering Sea Controversy (q. v.). He was unsuccessful, however, in securing the ratification of gen- eral arbitration treaties with Great Britain and France by the Senate, as well as of a reciprocity treaty with Canada by the Do- minion Government. (See Unit- ed States, History). In 1912, after stormy conven- tion proceedings which resulted in the withdrawal of a large num- ber of the delegates and the for- mation of the Progressive Party (q. v.), the President was re- nominated by the Republicans. Opposed by Theodore Roosevelt, the leader of the new party, and by Woodrow Wilson (q. v.), Taft was badly defeated. In 1913 Taft became Kent professor of law at Yale Univer- sity, a position which he con- tinued to fill until 1921, when he was nominated by President Harding (June 30) as Chief Jus- tice of the United States, to suc- ceed Edward Douglass White, deceased. His nomination was confirmed by the Senate on the same day and he took the oath of office on July 11. Early in the year 1930 owing to serious ill health Taft resigned his position as Chief Justice of the United States and after several weeks of illness he died on March 15, 1930, and was buried in Arling- ton Cemetery. Taft enjoyed to an unusual degree not only the respect and esteem of the American people but their real affection. Genial, witty, warm hearted and honest he held a place in the hearts of his countrymen perhaps unlike that of any other man in public life. He was the only man in the history of the United States to hold both the office of President and of Chief Justice of the Su- preme Court. He was president of the American Bar Association in 1913, first president of the American Academy of Jurispru- dence in 1914, and one of the chairmen of the National War Labor Conference Board in 1918. He published Four Aspects of Civic Duty (1906) ; Prcscnt-Day Problems (1908); Political Is- sues and Outlooks (1909); The Anti-Trust Act and the Supreme Court (1914) ; The United States and Peace (1914) ; Popular Gov- ernment (1915) ; Ethics in Serv- ice (1915) ; The Presidency : Its Duties, Opportunities, and Limi- tations (1916). Tagabili, ta-ga-be'le, or Ta- GABELiES, an uncivilized tribe in southern Mindanao, Philippine Islands. Tagals, ta-gals', Tagalas, or Tagalogs, one of the most nu- merous and important of the native tribes of the Philippines, found chiefly in central Luzon. Like other Philippine tribes, they were originally of Malay stock, and they offer today the purest type to be found in the islands. They are of a brownish-yellow color and moderate stature, and are characterized by prominent cheek bones, narrow eyes, straight black hair, and rather large mouths with full lips. They had attained a considerable degree of civilization even in pre-Spanish days, devoting themselves to ag- riculture, and to commerce in the Far Eastern seas. Their reli- gion was a nature worship which gave way to Christianity taught by Spanish missionaries. Taganrog-, tag-an-rdx', town and port. North Caucasian area, southern Russia, on the Sea of Azov ; 35 miles west of Rostov- on-Don. It is an episcopal see and is the site of the famous Chekhov museum. There are tanneries, macaroni and tobacco factories, tallow factories, fisher- ies, and salting industries. The principal article of export is grain. Pop. (1939) 188,808. Tagbanuas, tag-bii'noo-as, an uncivilized hill people of the in- terior of Palawan, and the Cala- mianes Islands included in the Philippine group. Tagbilaran, tag-be-la-riin' pueblo, Philippine Islands, capi- tal of Bohol province, on the Taffgart KFN 600 Tailor Bird s.w. coast of Bohol Island ; 400 miles southeast of Manila. Its chief industries are agricul- ture and turtle fishing. Pop. 10,000. Taggart, Thomas (1856- 1929), American political leader and legislator, was born in Coun- ty Monyhan, Ireland. In 1861 he was taken to the United States, his family settling at Garrett, In- diana. He removed to Indianap- olis in 1877, and became prom- inent in state and national poli- tics. He was mayor of Indian- apolis in 1895-1901 ; and in 1904, as chairman of the Democratic National Committee, managed the presidential campaign of Alton B. Parker. In 1916 he was appointed U. S. Senator to fill the vacancy caused by the death of B. F. Shively. Tagliacozzo, tal'ya-kot'so, commvme, Italy, in Abruzzi e Molise, Aquila province ; 22 miles s.w. of Aquila. It has several old churches and a palace of the Orsini. Pop. (1936) 10,- 327. Tagliamento, river, Udine, Italy, rises 14 miles west of Am- pezzo, flows eastward to Ven- zone, thence southwest and south- east, entering the Adriatic after a course of 100 miles. During the First World War the Ital- ians retreated to the line of the Tagliamento after the disaster of Caporetto (October, 1917), and there fought a rearguard action before resuming their withdrawal to the Piave (see Europe, Great War of. Battles for Trieste and Venice). Italian cavalry reached the Tagliamento shortly before the Austrian collapse (Oct. 30, 1918). Taglioni, tal-yo'ne, Maria (1804--84), Italian dancer, was born in Stockholm. She was trained by her father, a ballet master, and made her debut in Vienna (1822). Her appearance in Paris in 1827 created a great sensation ; and wherever she ap- peared she was recognized as past mistress of the ballet. Tagore, ta-gor'. Sir Rabin- dranath (1861-1941), Hindu poet and dramatist, was born in Calcutta of a family noted for generations for its learning and culture. He began his literary career while still a boy, and be- fore the age of twenty-three had produced a novel and two series of romantic poems in Bengali. He took a leading part in the nationalist movement in Bengal, writing national songs and nu- merous political treatises, but retired from political activity about 1907. He then undertook successfully to work out his own educational ideals at a school for boys at Bolpur (opened 1902). The songs of Tagore are char- acterized by deep insight and rare lyric beauty ; and in later years by a spiritual and idealistic tone. They had won a wide vogue among all classes in India long before their introduction in- to England and America, where their popularity dates from 1913, when Tagore was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. He was knighted by the king of Eng- land in 1913. He several times visited America. The following works were translated into English by the author : Tlic Crescent Moon (1913) ; The Gardener (1913); Gitanj ali {Song Offerings, 1913) ; Sadhana (essays, 1913); The King of the Dark Chamber (1914) ; The Post Office (1914) ; Short Stories (1915) ; The Hun- gry Stones, and Other Stories (1916) ; Fruit Gathering (1916); The Lover's Gift and Crossing (1917) ; Lectures on Personality (1917) ; The Parrot's Training (1918) ; The Home and the World (1919); Red Oleander (a play) (1924); Broken Ties (1925); Fire-Flies (1928); and The Religion of Man (1931). Taguan, ta'gwan, a large fly- ing squirrel of the genus Ptero- mys, found in Asia and the East Indies. See Flying Squirrel. Ta'gus (Spanish Tajo), chief river of the Iberian Peninsula, rises in Sierra Albarracin, south- west of Teruel province, Spain, and flows 566 miles mainly south- west, at first rapidly, and then more quietly and with a more southwesterly course throvigh Portugal. At Villafranca it be- gins to widen out into a magnifi- cent estuary, which passes Lis- bon to the Atlantic. Navigation is possible for large vessels to Santarem, and for small ones to Abrentes ; rapids impede naviga- tion through Spain. Tahiti, ta'he-te, or Otaheite, the largest of the Society Islands (q. v.), eastern Pacific Ocean, in 17° 35' s. and 149° 30' w. ; about 3,400 miles southwest of San Francisco ; area, 600 square miles. The center is movmtain- ous, of volcanic origin, and cov- ered with luxuriant vegetation ; the coast lands are extremely fer- tile. The highest point is Mount Orohena, 7,345 feet. Tahiti is always pleasantly warm, but be- ing mountainous, with no swamp lands, and lying in the mid- Pacific, it has few of the tropical disadvantages and dangers. The rainy season, occurring between October and April, with its tor- rential downpour and cyclonic winds, often works great havoc. The Isthmus of Taravas divides it into Great and Little Tahiti. Cocoanuts, oranges, bananas, sugar cane and vanilla are raised ; sugar, and rum are manufac- tured ; and copra, mother-of- pearl, and vanilla are exported. Trade is chiefly with the United States. Tahiti has been a French possession since 1888. The capi- tal is Papeete. Pop. 8,456. Tahiti Apple. See Hog Plum. Tahlequah, ta-le-kwa', city, Oklahoma, county seat of Chero- kee county, on the Illinois River, 75 miles_ n.w. of Fort Smith, Ark. It is a trade center and the site of Northeastern State Teach- ers College. Pop. (1930) 2,495: (1940) 3,027. Tahoe, Lake, ta'ho or ta'ho, a large lake of the Sierra Nevada beautifully situated on the bound- aries of Placer and Eldorado counties, California, and Ormsby and Douglas counties, Nevada. It is 22 miles long by 10 miles wide and its waters are remark- ably clear. Taichu, town, Formosa, Ja- pan ; 81 miles s.w. of Tai-peh-fu. It has a large and beautiful park and the leading industries are the production of camphor, rice, and sugar. Pop. 11,000. Taignaufu, or Tai-ngan, town, China, in Shantung prov- ince, at the foot of the sacred mountain Taishan ; 200 miles south of Tientsin. It is the re- sort of thousands of pilgrims an- nually. Pop. 75,000. Taihoku, or Tai-peh-fu, town, capital of Formosa, Japan, situated in the northern part of the island, 10 miles from its port of Tamsui. Pop. (1935) 274,- 157. Tail. See Entail; Estates. Taillandier, ta-yan-dya', Saint-Rene (1817-79), French man of letters, whose real name was Rene Gaspard Ernest, was born in Paris. He studied law but gave it up for literature and philosophy. He was professor of literature at Strassburg (1841), Montpellier ( 1843), and the Sor- bonne, Paris (1863), becoming an Academician in 1873. His works include Histoire de la jeune Alleniagne (1849) ; Etudes sur la revolution en Allenvagnc (1853); Alleniagne et Russie (1856) ; Scot Erigenc et la phi- losophic scholastiqiie (1843) ; Histoire et la philosoph : reli- gieuse (1860) ; Dramas et ro- mans dc la vie littcraire (1870); Etudes litteraircs (1881). Taille, tl'y', in pre-revolution- ary France, a sort of income tax levied upon the land and houses of the unprivileged classes, but especially the peasant farmers. Taillefer, ta-y'-far', a Nor- man minstrel, who at the Battle of Hastings is said to have rid- den forth singing of Roland and Charlemagne. Tailless Hare. See Pika. Tailor Bird (Orthotomus su- torius), a small Asiatic thru.sh or warbler, belonging to the Sylviinse. To make its nest, two or three WILLIAM H. TAFT. Tainan KR 601 Tajiks leaves are stitched together with silk, wool, or vegetable fiber and within the space so formed the nest is properly constructed of Tailor-bird. cotton, grass, and hair. The bird is colored in greenish-brown, and the two central feathers of the tail are greatlj^ elongated. Tainan, formerly Taiv^an- FU, town, Formosa, 3 m. e.s.e. of Anping. It has rice and suear mills. Pop. 90,000. Taine, Hippolyte Adolphe (1828-93), French literary and political historian and critic, born at Vouziers department, Ardennes. He was appointed to the chair of philosophy at Nevers (18.51). After the coup d'etat he resigned his chair and devoted himself to literature (18.52). His Histoire de la Lit- ter ature Anglaise appeared in 1863, being preceded (1857) by a volume on the French philoso- phers, in which he adversely crit- icized Victor Cousin. He was ap- pointed (1864) professor of the history of art and aesthetics at the ficole des Beaux-Arts. He lectured at Oxford in 1871, and was elected a member of the Academy in 1878. The last thirty-two years of his life were devoted to Les Origines de la France Contemporaine, of which he lived to complete only a part. Most important of his other books are: Essais de Critique et d' Histoire (1858); La Fontaine et ses Fables (I860); La Philosophie de I' Art (1865); Nouveaux Essais de Critique et d' Histoire (186.5); La Vie Parisienne (1863-5); L' I deal dans I' Art (1867) ; Theorie de V Intelligence (1870); Philoso- phie de I'Art (in Italy, Greece, and the Netherlands) (1868-70); L'Ancien Regime (1875); La Revolution (1878-85); Le Regime Moderne (1890); Dernier s Essais de Critique et d' Histoire (1894). His Litter ature A nglaise was trans- lated into English by H. Van Laun (1871), and has had great vogue both in Britain and in the U. S. See G. Monod, Renan, Taine et Michelet (1898); A. de Margerie, H. Taine (1894); E. Boutmy, H. Taine (1897); and Giraud, Essai sur Taine (1901). Talnter, Charles Sumner (1854-1940), American inventor, was born in Watertown, Mass. and received a public school edu- cation there. He was the inven- tor of the graphophone as well as the dictaphone, and an associate inventor of the radiophone, an instrument for transmitting sounds to a distance through the agency of light. He was a mem- ber of the United States expedi- tion sent to the South Pacific in 1874 to observe the transit of Venus. In 1881 he was awarded a gold medal at the Electrical Exhibition in Paris for his inven- tions in connection with the radiophone. In 1915 he was awarded a gold medal at the Panama Pacific Exposition for his work in connection with the development of the talking machine. Taiping Rebellion, an up- rising in China, started in 1851 to expel the Manchus from China. From 1853 China's fair- est provinces passed beneath the sway of the rebels. In 1862 the Taipings advanced upon Shang- hai in overwhelming force. It was then that Major (afterward GeneraD Charles Gordon ('Chi- nese' Gordon) of the British army took command of the Chi- nese army, remodelled the force, and led it through a series of vic- tories to the gates of Nanking, which was wrested from the rebels on July 19, 1864, and a final blow dealt to the rebellion. See Brine, The Tai-Ping Rebel- lion in China (1862); Wilson, Cordon s Chinese Campaign and the Tai-Ping Rebellion (1868), and Hake, Events of the Tai- Ping Rebellion (1892). Talt, Archibald Campbell (1811-82), archbishop of Canter- bury, born in Edinburgh. He was elected a fellow of Balliol College, Oxford, in 1834, and succeeded Arnold at Rugby in 1842. He became dean of Car- lisle in 1849, and bishop of Lon- don in 1856. He was made arch- bishop of Canterbury in 1869. See Life by Davidson and Ben- ham (1891). Talt, John Robinson (1834- 1909), American painter and author, born in Cincinnati. He graduated at Bethany College, Va., in 1852, studied art in Flor- ence, Italy, and in Diisseldorf and Munich, Germany, and returned to the United States in 1875. His pictures are chiefly scenes in the Bavarian Tyrol. For several years he was the art critic of the New York Mail and Express. Besides several magazine articles, he was the author of European Life, Legend, and Landscape (1859), and Dolce far Niente (poems, 1859). Talt, Sir Melbourne Mc- Taggart (1842-1917), Canadian jurist, born at Melbourne, Aus- tralia, and educated privately and at McGill University. He was admitted to the bar in 1863, created a Q.c. in 1882, and raised to the bench as a puisne judge of the superior court in 1887. In 1894 he was appointed acting chief justice of Quebec. Talt, Peter Guthrie (1831- 1901), Scottish physicist and ma- thematician, was born at Dal- keith. He graduated as senior wrangler and first Smith's prize- man at Cambridge in 1852, and in 18.54 became professor of mathematics in Belfast. In 1860 he was appointed pro- fessor of natural philosophy in the University of Edinburgh, and there remained till his death. Besides experimental re- searches on thermal conductivity thermo-electricity, the effect of pressure on the readings of ther- mometers, on the maximum density of water, and on the flight of golf balls, Tait's prin- cipal work was in the domain of pure mathematics and mathe- matical physics, and includes memoirs on quaternions, the kinetic theory of gases, theory of knots, and other subjects, his papers having been collected and reprinted by the University of Cambridge (1898). He also pub- lished treatises on Light (1884), Heal (1884), Properties of Mat- ter (1885), Dynamics (1895), and, in collaboration with Lord Kel- vin, wrote the first volume of Treatise on Natural Philosophy (1867). With W. J. Steele he pub- lished The Dynamics of a Particle (1856); and with Balfour Stew- art, The Unseen Universe (1875). Tait was secretary of the Edin- burgh Royal Society from 1879. Tait, Robert Lawson (1845- 99), vScottish surgeon, was born in Edinburgh. He was asso- ciated with Sir James Y. Simp- son as assistant, and early man- ifested great powers of observa- tion and great surgical skill. In 1870 he settled in Birmingham, where he became a professor of gynaecology and one of the fore- most exponents of abdominal surgery. He was the first to in- sist on the importance of the 'toilet of the peritoneum,' and was a pioneer of asepticism as a corollary of Listerism. Tai-yuen-fu, China, capital of province, Shan-si. On July 9, 1900, all the resident mission- aries, with their wives and chil- dren, were put to death in the governor's yamen. Tajiks, the settled Persian- speaking populations of central Asia. They represent the domi- nant cultured element under the Persian empire before its over- throw by the Mongolo-Turki hordes, and are still numerous in the towns and settled districts. Taj-Mahal KR 602 Taliaferro Taj-Mahal, a magnificent mausoleum, regarded as the most beautiful monument of Moham- medan art, rising from a marble platform on the bank of the Jumna, at Agra in India. It is built entirely of white marble, and the interior is adorned with mosaics of camelian, lapis lazuli, and jasper, arabesques, and Koran texts in black marble on columns and ceilings. It was erected (1629-49) by the em- peror Shah-Jehan as a memorial to his favorite queen. Takla-makan Desert, west- ern section of the Gobi desert, occupying the interior of E. Turkestan, with an extreme length (e. to w.) of about 600 m., an extreme breadth (n. to s.) of about 250 m., and an area of about 100,000 sq. m. It is bor- dered on the w,. n., and n.e. by the Tarim; on the E. by the Lob Nor depression and the prolon- gation of the desert into the Central Gobi; on the s. by the Kuenlun and Altyn-tagh. Sven Hedin's explorations show that two thousand years ago it was a fertile region, center of a great Buddhist civilization. See Keane's Asia (1906). Takow, treaty port, Japan, in s.s.w. of Formosa, 20 miles by rail s. of Tainan; exports rice and sugar. Pop. 7,000. Taku Forts, Chi-li, China, at mouth of Pei-ho. Taken by an Anglo-French force. May 1858; unsuccessfully attacked, June 1859; captured, August 1860; taken by European allied forces June 1900. The water on the bar is 14 feet at spring tides. Talamancans, Central Amer- ican Indians, formerly domi- nant in Costa Rica and the Pan- ama peninsula. Nearly all are still in the tribal state. Physi- cally they closely resemble the Mayas of Yucatan, and, like them, are a guileless, peaceable people. Their language seems to belong to the Chibcha stock. See Chibchas. Talayera de la Relna, city, Spain, province Toledo, 40 m. w.N.w. of Toledo; site of the bat- tle in which Wellington defeated Joseph Bonaparte (July 28, 1809). There are silk-weaving and pot- tery industries. Pop. 14,876. Talbot, Catherine (1721- 70), English author, was the granddaughter of the bishop of Durham. She wrote Reflections on the Seven Days of the Week (1770); Essays on Various Sub- jects (1772) ; Dialogues, Pastorals and Poems. See Elwood's Liter- ary Ladies, 127-43 (1843). Talbot, Charles. See Shrewsbury, Duke of. Talbot. Ethelbert (1848- 1928), American bishop, was born at Fayette, Mo., and grad- uated (1870) at Dartmouth, and at the N. Y. General Theological Seminary in 1873. He was or- dered deacon in 1873 and or- dained priest the same year, and was from that time rector of St. James' Church at Macon, Mo., until his consecration as mission- ary bishop of Wyoming and Idaho in 1887. In 1897 he be- came bishop of Central Penn- sylvania. Talbot, John. See Shrews- bury, Earl of. Talbot, Richard. See Tyr- coNNEL, Duke of. Talbot, Silas (1751-1813), American naval officer, born at Dighton, Mass. He was ap- pointed a lieutenant in the Mass. line in 1775, became captain in 1776, major in 1777, and lieuten- ant colonel in 1778, and rendered gallant service at Fort Mifflin and in the Rhode Island campaign of 1778. One of his exploits was the capture of a British schooner off Newport. This and his previous acquaintance with the sea led to his appointment as a captain in the navy in 1779. He was as- signed to duty in Long Island Sound and did good service in annoying the enemy and captur- ing several of their smaller ves- sels. He was becalmed and cap- tured while in command of the privateer George Washington in 1780, and imprisoned for a year, being treated with great harsh- ness. After the war he settled in the Mohawk valley, was a member of Congress in 1793-94, in 1798 again received a commis- sion as captain in the navy, and served throughout the hostilities with France. He resigned in 1801. See Tucker man's r^e Li/e of Silas Talbot (1850). Talbot, William Henry Fox (1800-77), English pioneer of photography, born in Chippen- ham, Wiltshire. In 1833 he dis- covered the process of photog- raphy, but did not announce it till 1839. Daguerre announced a similar discovery in January, 1839, but the Talbotype even- tually took the lead. Talbot's writings include The Pencil of Nature (1844-46); Legendary Tales (1830). Talc, a magnesium silicate, H2M3(Si03)4, is a silvery white, very soft mineral (h. = l, sp. gr. 2.7). It is easily cut, has a greasy feel, and is also known as steatite, or 'soapstone,' and when pow- dered yields French chalk. It is used as a lubricant, as a filler for paper, and for tailor's chalk. It is heat-resisting, non-conducting, and resists disintegration by violent temperature changes or chemical reagents with great success. See Soapstone. Talca, province Chile. Area, 3.721 sq. m. It extends from the Pacific to Argentina, and is situated just below lat. 35° s. It is fertile, and raises wheat and cattle. Pop. (1940) 157,141. Talca, town, Civile, capital of Talca province, 140 m. s.s.w. of Santiago. It is an important trade center. Pop. (1940) 56,- 735. Talcahuano. See Concep- cion. Talegalla (Talegallus), a gen- us of mound-birds. The name is sometimes applied to the brush- turkey of Australia (Catheturus Lathami), which is now referred to a different genus. Talent, a definite weight, and then a certain sum of money, the value of the given weight in silver or gold; probably adopted by the Greeks from the Babylonians or Assyrians. In the 6th century B.C. two talents were in use — the Babylonian or Aeginetan, and the Euboic; the former for weigh- ing silver, the latter for gold. The former silver talent was used by most Greek states; Solon, how- ever, reduced the Attic weights and coinage by making the standard a silver talent equal in weight to the one previously used for gold, the Euboic. The Attic talent weighed about 57.- 75 lbs. avoirdupois; its value is equal to about 1 1,200. See Ridgeway's Origin of Metallic Currency and Weight Standards (1892). Tale -Sap, or Tonle-Sap, lake, Indo-China, partly in Cambodia, partly in Siam. In the dry season its area shrinks to 100 sq. m., and its depth from 6 to 2 ft. During the annual overflow of the river the lake expands to 800 sq. m., and a depth of 50 ft. Tale-Sap supports a fishing population of about 30,000. Talfourd, Sir Thomas Noon (1795-1854), English judge and author, born at Reading. He was called to the bar in 1821. Among his works are Memorials of Charles Lamb (1848); Ion, a tragedy (1836); and dramas. See the Tragedies (Routledge's Pock- et Library, 1889), and Critical and Miscellaneous Writings (1842). Talgarth, town, Wales, Bre- conshire, in the northwest sec- tion of the Black mountains, on the Great Western Railway. The region has associations with the nonconformity movement. How- el Harris, one of the founders of Welsh Methodism, was born near here and in 1752 established a religious 'family' at Talgarth. Taliaferro, William Booth (1822-98), American soldier, born at Belleville, Va. He graduated at William and Mv.ry College in 1841, was admitted to the bar and practiced until the beginning of the Civil War. He entered the Confederate army with the rank of colonel in 1861, and became major general in 1865. He com- manded a division in the Penin- sula, Manassas, and Fredericks- burg campaigns. Talienwan KR 603 Talleyrand Talienwan, bay on E. side of the Liao-tung peninsula, Man- churia, China; leased, along with Port Arthur, by Russia from China, in 1898, for twenty-five years, but acquired by Japan after the Russo-Japanese War. It is roomy, well protected, and free from ice. See also Dalny. Tallesin (fi. 560), bard of the Cymri, is held by many scholars, including Professor Rhys, to be a purely mythic personage. Most of the poems included in the 'Book of Taliesin' (printed by Skene in the Four Ancient Books of Wales, 1868) are of much later date than the 6th century. The poems are of the prophetic and occult class. See Lady Charlotte Guest, Mahinogion (1849) and Stephens, Literature of the Kymry (1849). Tall-fu, city, China, province Yiin-nan, between Lake Erh-hai and the snow-capped Tsang-shan (alt. 6,670 ft.). On the surrender of the Mohammedan rebels in 1873, the population was almost exterminated by Chinese troops. Pop. 25,000. Talisay, pueblo, Philippines, Cebu, 5 m. s.w. of Cebu. Pop. 15,000. Talisman. See Amulet. Talking Machines. See Pho- nograph. Talladega, city, Alabama, co. seat of Talladega co., 60 m. e, of Birmingham, on the Louisville and Nashville, Southern, and Atlantic Coastline railroads. The leading manufactures are cot- ton, flour, cottonseed oil, fer- tilizers, furniture, ice, brick, marble products, etc. The dis- trict contains depOvSits of marble, limestone, and coal. The state institutions for the deaf, dumb, and blind are situated here. Other institutions are the Car- negie Library, the state Presby- terian School for Girls, and the Mothers' American Missionary Negro School. Features of inter- est of the neighborhood are the springs, including Jenkins, Clair- mont. Chandlers, Chambers, Shocco, and Talladega. The place was settled in 1833 and first incorporated in 1835. Pop. (1930) 7,596; (1940) 9,208. Talladega, Battle of. A bat- tle fought November 9, 1813, on the site of the present town of Talladega, Ala., between Creek Indians and a force of Americans under General An- drew Jackson. On the 7th of November General Jackson, who was then engaged in constructing Fort Strother on the Talladega river, received news that a party of 154 friendly Indians were be- sieged by more than a thousand of the hostiles in a small fort at Talladega, thirty miles distant. With a force of about 1,200 men he hastened to the relief of the place, and managed to surprise the enemy on the early mornmg of the 9th. Two hundred and ninety of the hostiles were left dead, and other bodies were probably carried off or concealed. The whites lost fifteen killed and eighty-five wounded, of whom a few afterward died. See James Parton's Life of Andrew Jackson (3 vols. 1860). Talladega College. A coedu- cational college of arts and sciences under the auspices of the Congregational Church, opened as an elementary school in 1867 by the American Mission- ary Association, and chartered as a college in 1869. It has prepara- tory, collegiate, normal, music, and theological departments, courses for the training of nurses, and a night school. The college has an endowment of $3,499,577 and an income of about $332,800 and owns property to the value of $1,659,649. The library con- tains 32,000 volumes. Tallage, a tax imposed on the towns and demesne lands of the crown under the Norman kings of England. Last levied in 1332, the impost was abolished in 1340. Tallahassee, city, Florida, capital of the state and co. seat of Leon CO., 165 m. w. of Jackson- ville, and 20 m. s. of the Georgia boundary, on the Seaboard Air Line R. R. It is a winter resort. It ships cotton, cottonseed and cottonseed oil, tobacco, fruit, etc. It has 3 hospitals, and the Florida State University and the Florida Agricultural and Mechanical Col- lege are situated here. Features of interest include the state capitol, the court house, and the tomb of Prince and Princess Murat. Tallahassee was settled in 1824. Pop. (1930) 10,700; (1940) 16,240. Tallapoosa, city, Georgia, Haralson co., 50 m. w^. of Atlanta, on the Southern R. R. Lumber, glass, graphite, and iron are manufactured, and gold is found in the district. It is important as a cotton center and a shipping point for fruit. Mineral springs are found in the vicinity. Pop. (1930) 2,417; (1940) 2,338. Tallapoosa River, one of the two main headstreams of the Ala- bama R. It rises in Paulding co., Ga., and flows in a s.w. direction to its junction with the Coosa near Montgomery. Length, 250 m. Tallemant des Reaux, Gedeon (1619-1701), French man of letters, was born at La Rochelle. His principal work, the Historiettes (c. 1659; ed. by Mon- merque, 1840), gives a valuable picture of contemporary society, his biting satire sparing nobody. He was admitted to the academy in 1666. Talleyrand de Perigord, Charles Maurice, Prince de Benevento (1754-1838), French statesman and diplomat, was born in Paris. He was made an abbe when twenty-one, agent- general (financial) to the French clergy five years later, and bishop of Autun in 1789. Becoming a member of the States-general in that year, he was accepted as a leader of the advanced party, pronounced for amalgamation with the Third Estate, helped to draw up the Declaration of Rights, and proposed the con- fiscation of the landed property of the church. Being in reality either a political sceptic or a be- liever in a constitutional mon- archy, he went all the way with the revolutionists, suffered ex- communication by the papacy, and unfrocked himself. But he rendered notable service to France by his criticisms of the finance of the reformed state, and particularly by a report on public instruction which was epoch-making. In 1792 he was Prince Talleyrand de Perigord. sent to London to win over Pitt and his master to the revolution; but the September massacres came between, and the mission was a failure. The ambassador came under Robespierre's sus- picion and was proscribed. He came to the U. S. in 1793, and after the fall of the Tncorrrp- tible' (1794), he returned to France in 1796. Then he at- tached himself to Barras, and attained the dignity of foreign minister under the Directory in the fall of 1796. His contribu- tions to the defence of France and the consolidation of the Napoleonic power were of the first importance. He conducted the negotiations for the peace of Luneville and the peace of Amiens, and brought about the Concordat, in return for which the pope removed his ban from the ex-bishop. He practically broke with the emperor, however, after the Peace of Tilsit (1807) Talllen KR 604 Talma and came by degrees to be the leader of the opposition. It was he who dictated Napoleon's depo- sition to the senate, and brought back Louis xviii, whose foreign minister he became. He negoti- ated the treaties which .saved the territorial integrity of France. The 'hundred days' forced him to retire into private life. The revolution of 1830, however, brought him again to the front, and Louis Philippe sent him to London as ambassador. Carlyle said of Talleyrand that he was 'a man living in falsehood and on falsehood, yet not what you call a false man.' His most notable crime was compassing the death of the Due d'Enghien. See The Talleyrand Memoires (1891-2), Pullain's Correspon- dance entre Talleyrand et Louis XVIII (1881), 'Correspondance Diplomatique de Talleyra.nd (1889-90), Lady Blennerhasset's Talleyrand (1894). Tallien, Jean Lambert (1769-1820), French revolution- ist, was born at Paris. In 1791 he became editor of the Jacobin L'Ami des Citoyens, and was secretary to the municipal coun- cil of Paris. The Seine-et-Oise department elected him to the Convention. He voted for the execution of Louis xvi. He was also a member of the Committee of General Security, and assisted in the downfall of the Girondists (June 2). At Bordeaux he earned a reputation for pitiless severity, till a love affair with the Com- tesse de Fontenay apparently effected a change in his nature. On March 22, 1794, he was president of the Convention at Paris. He was for a while second to none in influence, but his power ended with the Conven- tion. He accompanied Bona- parte to Egypt (1798), and edited the official Decade Egyptienne at Cairo. Captured on the way back by an English man-of-war, he spent some time in England, where the Whigs used him for political purposes. Tallis, Thomas (1510P-85), English musician, first appears as organist at Waltham Abbey at the time of its dissolution (1540). Some of his compositions appear in Day's Psalter (1560), and in 1576 he and a William Byrd were granted by Queen Elizabeth a monopoly of music-printing for twenty-one years, and in the same year was published the Cantiones Sacrae. His 'First Ser- vice' appeared in Barnard's Se- lected Church Musick (1641), and the Oxford movement led to the publication of many of his works. His gigantic motet for forty voices was edited by Dr. Mann in 1888. Tallmadge, Benjamin (1754- 1835), American soldier, born in Brookhaven, N. Y. He gradu- ated at Yale in 1773; served in the Revolutionary War and at- tained the rank of colonel. He fought at Brandywine, German- town, Monmouth, and elsewhere. In September, 1779, he captured 500 Tories at Lloyd's Neck, Long Island, and in the following year captured Oyster Bay and de- stroyed great quantities of Brit- ish stores. He had charge of Major Andre up to the time of his execution. During 1801-17 he served in the House of Repre- sentatives as a Federalist. Tallmadge, Nathaniel Pitcher (1795-1864), American politician, born at Chatham, N. Y. He graduated at Union College in 1815, studied law, and was admitted to the bar. He represented Dutchess county in the assembly in 1828, was a state senator in 1830-33, and United States senator in 1833-44. He was governor of the territory of Wisconsin in 1844-46. Tallow is composed of the glycerol esters of stearic and oleic, as well as some palmitic, acids, along with more or less of the free acids themselves. It is separated from the connective tissue, principally of beef and mutton, by melting or 'render- ing,' either by fire heat in open vessels, or by steam under pres- sure in closed iron cylinders. The latter gives the greater yield. Tallow is in general a white to yellow stiff grease, which is al- most odorless when fresh, but acquires a disagreeable smell when exposed to the air. It melts at about 45° c, and is hydrolyzed when acted on by either superheated steam or boil- ing solutions of acids or alkalis, fatty acids and glycerol being formed. Tallow is used as a lubricant and in the preparation of soap, and is largely converted into fatty acids from which stea- rine candles are manufactured. It is often adulterated with the fatty acids from cotton seed and wool grease, and with mineral substances, such as clay, whiting. Tallow Tree (Pentadesma hutyracea), a native of tropical Africa, whence it was introduced in 1822. It belongs to the order Guttiferae and bears large, bril- liant red flovN^ers, followed by edible berries. It is occasionally cultivated in the stovehouse, re- quiring a peaty soil and a strong heat. The Chinese tallow tree is Sapium sehiferum, belonging to the order Euphorbiaceae. The Chinese use its wood for en- graving-blocks. A kind of tallow is obtained from the seeds. Tally, a method of recording numbers adopted in all countries, used for centuries in the Court of Exchequer of England, and still in use, it is said, among fisher- men. Let a hazel stick have cut transversely into it as many notches as there are figures to be recorded. To distinguish Id., Is., £l, or any multiple thereof, the notches are cut of different breadths. Let the stick be then split down the middle through all the notches. One half of the stick is then held by one party to ExCHt<5UEF\ TALLY A LEN0t:R.5 HALf'^TOCk' b.CXCHLQUCB. HAcF. COUNTER-STOCK Examples of Tallies from the British Museum. the transaction, the correspond- ing half by the other. After the disuse of wooden tallies, tickets, checks, and other documents came to be cut or torn by an ir- regular line of separation, and the fact of the cut edges tallying was evidence of the validity of the claim. An act (1783) abolished tallies in the English Exchequer, but their use lingered till about 1820. 'Teller' of the Exchequer was originally 'tall- ier.' The conflagration of the houses of Parliament in 1834 was caused by the combustion of tallies accumulated for centuries. Talma, Franqois Joseph (1763-1826), French tragic actor, born at Paris, made his debut on the stage in 1787. Later, in the role of Proculus in Voltaire's Brutus, he created a sensation by appearing in a Roman toga. He also corrected the bombastic style of delivery then conven- tional for the tragic actor. Sec- retary of the Theatre Frangais (1789), he won a brilliant triumph as Charles ix in Chen- ier's play. Having founded the Theatre de la Nation, Talma continued playing throughout the reign of terror. To the end his career was an uninterrupted series of triumphs. See Mem- oires by Dumas (1849-50). Talmage KSH 605 Tamaqua Talmage, Thomas De Witt (1832-1902), American clergy- man, was born in Bound Brook, N. J., and graduated at the New Brunswick, N. J., Theological Seminary. In 1869 he became pastor of the Central Presbyte- rian Church in Brooklyn. N. Y., where his eloquence and sensa- tionalism attracted huge audi- ences. From 1895 to 1899 he was associate pastor of the First Presbyterian Church in Wash- ington, D. C. Toward the end of his life his sermons were pub- lished in about 3,500 papers in the U. S. and abroad. From 1873 to 1902 he edited Christian at IVork, Advance, Frank Les- lie's Sunday Magazine , and the Christian Herald. He wrote Crumbs Szvcpt Up (1870), Ser- mons (4 vs., 1872-5), Old Wells Dug Out (1874), The Brooklyn Tabernacle, 400 sermons (1884), and The Pathway of Life (1895). Consult Lives by C. F. Adams (1902), C. E. Banks (1902), and J. Rusk (1902). Talmud, a collection of works which comprise the traditional law of the Jews as distinguished from the law of Moses (the Torah) and extensive commen- taries on the same. The law con- stitutes the Mishna ; the commen- taries the Gemara. The begin- ning of the collection was prob- ably in the exile, when the law became the center of Jewish re- ligion. Then the synagogue arose and sought to interpret the word of God, their national in- heritance. Such interpretation is called Midrash, and is of two kinds. The Midrash, which af- fects conduct, is a Halakha — i.e., a practical rule or a legal de- cision. All other interpretation is Haggada — i.e., a homily or tale, with varied elements from scraps of history, legends, lives of post-biblical Jewish saints, disquisitions on magic, and the like. The following schools were active in this task : — (1.) The Sopherim or scribes, from Ezra to the Maccabees, 450-100 B.C., including the men of the 'great synagogue.' The character of the great synagogue is uncertain, if it ever existed, which is improbable. The work of these men has been so overlaid with tradition that it is impos- sible to determine with certainty rules which date from this time. The description, for example, 'words of the scribes,' is fre- quently attached to Halakhoth, but the Halakhoth so described date from different and often from later generations. The phrase implies, not that the de- cisions so descril)ed were written by the Sopherim, but that they were supposed to have their au- thority. (2.) The five Zugoth or pairs, during the Maccabean and Hero- dian periods, 150-30 b.c. Ac- cording to tradition, each 'pair' represents the president and vice- president of the Sandhedrin in their generation. The most im- portant were Hillel and Sham- mai, who became the founders of two schools. Hillel, in particu- lar, sought to guide the process of interpretation. (3.) The Tannaim or teachers, 10-200 A.D., ending with Rabbi Jehuda, the Prince, a descendant of Hillel. One of these founded the Academy of Jamnia, a cen- ter of Jewish thought after the temple had been destroyed. With the close of this period a definite stage in the growth of tradition was reached, for Rabbi Jehuda edited the Mishna as we have it. There are a few later elements added, but in general the preserved text sums up the outcome of the activity of the Sopherim, Zugoth, Tannaim. This became the canonical book of the traditional law, as the Pentateuch had become the ca- nonical book of the written law. And round it in its turn gathered the comments of later scribes. (4.) The Amoraim or debat- ers, A.D. 220-500. These ex- pounded the Mishna. Their la- bors form the Gemara ; the united Mishna and Gemara form the Talmud. By this time and even earlier the teachers of Juda- ism were working in the schools of Babylonia. Hence the Tal- mud exists in two forms — the Palestinian Talmud or Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Babylonian Talmud. The Gemara thus de- velops the Mishna, and its ex- pansions are mostly concerned with civil law. But the book is much more than a law book ; it is rather an encyclopedia, into which have been poured all the gathered knowledge and crudi- ties of generations. Often the text is no subject for exposition in any strict sense, but a peg on which to hang every kind of leg- endary and historical material. In this respect the Babylonian Tahnud is peculiarly rich. Bibliography. — Editions — Mishna ( 1492) ; The Mishna, by W. H. Lowe (1883); Babylon- ian Tahnud (1520). The best and last is the Vilna edition (25 vs., 1880-86). Translations— M. L. Rodkinson, Babylonian Talmud (abridged English tr. 7 vs., 1896-1904) ; I. Epstein, ed., Babylonian Talmud (English tr. 32 vs., 1935- ). M. Miel- ziner. Introduction to the Talmud (1894); Rodkinson, History of the Talmud (1903); A. Cohen, Everyman's Talmud (1932). Talon, Jean Baptiste (1625- 91), French colonial official. He held offices at Bordeaux and Ly- ons and was intendant of Hai- nault 1661-63, in the latter year being appointed intendant of Canada and Newfoundland. While in Canada he effected a reconciliation between the ec- clesiastical and official parties ; fostered agriculture; created many industries, including the manufacture of seal oil ; pro- moted immigration, and intro- duced many internal reforms. One of his great ambitions was the subjugation of British Amer- ica. In 1668 he warned the gov- ernment against the West India Co., which he said was carrying on business in a manner not cal- culated to benefit the province. His action in this regard and his stated intention of limiting the civil powers of the Jesuits created great opposition to him, and in the same year he asked for his recall. At the request of his government he returned again in 1669, but remained only three years. Subsequently he was created Count d'Orsainville. Talos, in Greek mythology, a man of brass, wrought by He- phcTstus, and given by him to Minos to guard the island of Crete ; he killed strangers by embracing them after he had made himself red hot in the fire. When the Argonauts in their wanderings came to Crete, and he resisted their landing, Medea killed him. Talpidae, the mole family. See Mole. Taltal, town, Antofagasta prov., Chile, a seaport and ship- ping point for silver ores and nitrates. Pop. (1930) 7,835. Talus, the accumulation of detached and broken rock frag- ments which gathers at the base of cliffs with precipices, forming a gentle slope below the perpen- dicular rock walls. Tam, Jacob Ben Meir (1100- 71), a grandson of Rashi (q. v.), was the most famous French glossator of the text of the Tal- mud. Of great influence were many of his practical ordinances (Takkanoth) concerned with marriage and divorce, trade, synagogue ritual, proselytism, and Jewish social relations with Christians. Tama, city, Tama co., la., 50 m. w. of Cedar Rapids, on the Iowa River, and on the Chicago and North Western, and the Chi- cago, Milwaukee, St. Paul and Pacific RRs. It has paper mills which make egg case fillers on an extensive scale, and a large ma- chine shop. An Indian reserva- tion is in the vicinity. Tama was settled about 1859. Pop. (1930) 2,626. Tamaqua, town, Schuylkill CO., Pa., 32 m. n. of Reading, on the Little Schuylkill River, and on the Lehigh and New England, Reading, and the Central of New Tamar KSH 606 Tammany Hall Jersey RRs. The leading manu- factures are shirts, hosiery, foundry products, machinery, etc. Anthracite coal is mined in the district. The place was set- tled in 1799 and incorporated in 1832. Its name is an Indian word meaning 'running water.' Pop. (1930) 12,936. Tamarind. 1, Gynoecium ; 2, pod ; 3, seed. Tamar, river, Cornwall and Devon (England), rises in n.e. Cornwall, and flows s. between the two counties to Plymouth Sound. Length, 60 miles (navi- gable to Launceston). Tamarack. See Larch. Tamarind, the fruit of a tropical tree, Tamarindus indica, belonging to the order Legu- minosae. It grows in the E. and W. Indies. The flowers, which are borne in loose racemes, are yellow, with red markings. Tamarisk, or Tamarix, a genus of shrubs and small trees belonging to the order Tamaris- cinacese. The common tamarisk is T. gallica, a hardy shrub which which is a useful seaside plant. From a variety of this plant the saccharine substance manna is produced. It is easily propa- gated by cuttings. Tamatave, chief port of Mad- agascar, on E. coast, 145 m. n.e. of Tananarive. It is built on a sandy peninsula. Pop. (1932) 22,221. Tamaulipas, maritime state of Mexico, on Gulf of Mexico, and bounded on n. by Texas, with an area of 30,731 sq. m. The chief industry is agricul- ture ; copper is mined and exten- sive deposits of petroleum and asphalt are exploited. The capi- tal is Ciudad Victoria. Pop. (1930) 344,039. Tambobong, or Malabon, pueb., Rizal prov., Luzon, Philip- pines, 11m. N.'w. of Pasig, near the shore of Manila Bay. It is connected with Manila by steam railroad. Sugar, cigars, and cloth are manufactured, and the fishing interests are important. Pop. 21,695. Tambourine, a form of per- cussion instrument. It consists of a wooden hoop covered on one side by a vellum head, and in the hoop are several perforations containing small brass plates or bells, so adjusted that they jingle when the instrument is held in one hand and struck by the other. The tambourine was used in mili- tary bands at one time, and is occasionally employed in the or- chestra. Tambov. A province of the Russian S.F.S.R., with an area of about 18,000 sq. m. and a pop. (1926) of 2,721,173. It is much smaller than the pre-1917 prov- ince of same name, part of which is now included in the Central Black Earth Area. The surface is flat, in part undulating, and belongs to the Don and Volga (Oka) basins. Lakes are numer- ous and extensive ; marshes cover a still greater part. The Tamarisk. 1, Leaves ; 2, flowers ; 3, stamens and pistil. chief mineral deposits are coal, gypsum, potter's clay, and peat. Corn, flax, hemp, beet-root, to- bacco, and potatoes are grown. The industries include distiller- ies, tanneries, sugar refineries, iron and tallow works, and man- ufactures of cloth, paper, to- bacco, and cordage. Tambov, chief town of above province, lies on the unnavigable Tsna river. It has flour mills, distilleries, smelting works, brickyards and a railway repair shop ; woolen goods are made at home. The town was founded in 1636 for protection against Tatar and Kalmuck raids. Pop. (1933) 101,700. Tamerlane. See Timur Beg. Tamil, a Dravidian language spoken by over eighteen million people. Yerukala or Korava, Kasuwa, and Irula, which are rude dialects of Tamil, are spoken by about 40,000 people. The region in which Tamil is spoken extends from the north of Ceylon to a little north of Madras. Malayalam is another Dravidian speech allied to Tamil. See G. U. Pope, Handbook of the Tamil Language (1883) ; P. S. Pillai, Some Milestones in the History of Tamil Literature (1895). Tammany Hall. A power- ful political organization which, with rare intermissions, has ruled New York City from about 1800. It was an outgrowth of the Society of St. Tammany or Columbian Order, founded May 12, 1789, by William Mooney, an upholsterer of Irish extrac- tion. During the Revolution var- ious patriotic societies, one of which was the Sons of Liberty, existed as counterbalances to Tory activity, especially in New York City, which was a hotbed of the Tory element. Mooney was a ' Liberty Boy.' He con- ceived the idea of forming a so- ciety which would oppose the de- signs and encroachments of the old aristocratic families and their party led by Alexander Hamilton, who wished to create a strong centralized government for the benefit of the propertied classes. In order to emphasize its complete departure from Euro- pean social distinctions the new Society adopted aboriginal forms and usages. The head or presi- dent, chosen from thirteen Sa- chems, corresponding to trustees and elected annually, was styled the Grand Sachem ; the master of ceremonies was called the Saga- more, the secretary the Scribe, and the doorkeeper the Wiskin- skie. The membership was di- vided into tribes, and on special occasions paraded the streets in Indian garb ; 'long talks' and 'short talks' were features of the public meetings, and the name Wigwam was applied to the head- quarters in Barden's Tavern. Originally made up of both Republicans and Federalists, the Society gradvially drifted into the position of being the chief sup- porter of the principles of Jeffer- son. Toward the end of Wash- ington's administration it was disrupted by violent party dis- sensions, the majority of the Federalist members withdrew, and for a brief period it seemed on the verge of extinction. In Tammany Hall KSH 607 Tammany Hall 1798, however, Aaron Burr (q. V.) assumed control, and un- der his leadership a period of rapid development along purely partisan lines ensued. Up to this time the Tammany Soci/sty \vas a private political club which sought to influence elections through speeches, pamphlets, and social means ; but under Burr's guidance it carried New York for Jefferson in 1800, and was transformed into a militant po- litical body. It increased rapidly in numbers and strength, in spite of the powerful opposition for many years of DeWitt Clinton (q. V.) and his followers, and even of the disrepute brought upon it by Burr's killing of Al- exander Hamilton (1804). The Tammany Hall political organization, as apparently dis- tinct from the Society, dates from 1805, when there was ob- tained from the State legislature a charter, still in force, incor- porating the Tammany Society as a benevolent and charitable body for the purpose of affording relief to indigent and distressed members, their widows and or- phans, and other proper objects of charity. Thenceforth, to all outward appearance, the society retired to the background po- litically, though actually it con- tinued to be the rallying center for what was then known as the Republican (afterward the Dem- ocratic) party in New York City and State. The first step in the reorganization that followed was the formation of the Tammany Hall General Committee, consist- ing of three delegates chosen at primary meetings in each of the wards of the city. A nominating committee of ward delegates was also created, other committees were subsequently provided for, and the whole city was thor- oughly organized. In 1811 the Society erected a new Wigwam — later the home of the New York Sun — which both the So- ciety and the Tammany political organization occupied until the erection of its building on Four- teenth Street in 1868. By this simple means the Society has always controlled the political organization ; for as owner of the building it could eject any fac- tion which it opposed, and the latter, having no headquarters in Tammany Hall, would cease to be identified with the organiza- tion. By the end of the first decade of the nineteenth century Tam- many men had come to occupy important national. State, and municipal positions, and in spite of the fact that many of its leaders had been declared guilty of embezzlement, fraud, and other crimes, the Society con- tinued to increase in power. The establishment in 1821 of man- hood suffrage, by which property qualification in voting was abol- ished, brought into its ranks a new and steadfast addition, while its shrewd policy from that time on of conciliating and fathering the vast number of immigrants which poured into the country, especially after 1846, provided a feature of strength which made it practically invincible for many decades. Through the State leg- islature and the common council of the city it was instrumental in securing large numbers of bank charters and franchises with but slight compensation to either State or city ; while in national politics it was a powerful factor in presidential contests, playing an especially important part in the election of Andrew Jackson in the campaigns of 1828 and 1832. Its activities at the polls were characterized by numerous frauds, though its opponents were not free from a similar taint. The first of the great Tam- many leaders after Burr was Fernando Wood, a tactician and organizer of unusual ability, who secured control of the party in 1850, and who was three times elected mayor of New York. During his administration the party was openly identified with the city's more vicious elements. The feasibility of the boss sys- tem having been demonstrated by Wood, its greatest develop- ment was brought about by Wil- liam H. Tweed (q. v.), the most notorious of the Tammany bosses and leader of the famous 'Tweed ring,' under whose operations the city treasury was looted of more than $80,000,000. These gigantic thefts were exposed in 1871 ; Tweed was convicted and imprisoned ; and the power of Tammany was greatly curtailed. Under the sagacious leadership of John Kelly, Tweed's succes- sor, the Society adopted a reform platform, won over some of the very men who had been instru- mental in bringing about the downfall of its former leader, and by these and other skilful tactics, aided by partisan issues, gradually recovered its power. Kelly was succeeded in 1886 by Richard Croker (q. v.), and by 1894 political abuses had again become so serious as to bring about _ State interference. The investigation of the Lexow Com- mittee in that year showed wide- spread corruption in the police and municipal government, and in the ensuing election Tammany was overwhelmingly defeated. The organization returned to power in 1897, and was again ousted in 1900, following a State investigation in 1899. Croker retired from the leadership in 1902. He selected as his suc- cessor Lewis Nixon (q. v.), who resigned after a few months, and was succeeded by Charles F. Murphy (q. v.). Under the lat- ter the organization elected (jeorge B. McClellan and Wil- liam Gaynor ((|. v.) to the office of mayor, and the party remained in power until 1913, though with serious curtailment of its pres- tige. In the latter year a fusion ticket headed by John Purroy Mitchel ((J. V.) was elected. In 1917, however, MitcTiel failed of re-election, and the Tammany ticket, headed by John F. Hylan, carried the city by decisive ma- jorities. In 1921 Hylan was re- elected by a substantial majority. Following the death of Murphy in 1924, a new type of boss and district leader came into power with the accession of Judge W. Olvany, a lawyer and university graduate. The controlling force behind the 'new Tammany' was Gov. Alfred E. Smith (q. v.). With Tammany backing, James J. Walker was elected mayor in 1925. After Smith's defeat in the 1928 presidential election (in many parts of the country his Tammany affiliations were a handicap), Olvany resigned, in March, 1929, and was succeeded by John F. Curry, a former ward leader of the old type. In 1932 Mayor Walker resigned during removal proceedings conducted by Gov. F. D. Roosevelt, based on charges of graft brought by Samuel Seabury, counsel for the Hofstadter investigating com- mittee. Unwilling to adopt the moderate reforms of Joseph V. McKee, acting mayor, the Tam- many leaders chose John P. O'Brien, of the old political school, to fill out the unexpired term. The city revolted and in 1933 elected Fiorello La Guardia mayor on a fusion ticket founded under Seabury's direction. Curry, discredited, was replaced by James J. Dooling in July, 1934. After a notable reform administration, La Guardia was re-elected in 1937, the first re- form mayor in the city's history chosen to succeed himself. A further heavy blow to Tammany was the election as district at- torney in Manhattan, also with fusion support, of Thomas E. Dewey, who had made a brilliant record as special prosecutor in racket cases. Tammany Hall is the typical example of a perfectly organized political machine. The General Committee, which ostensibly holds the power, is composed of more than five thousand dele- gates elected annually from the assembly districts of the city. The men elected from each dis- trict form the committee for the district, with the district leader Tammerfors KSH 607 A Tancred as chairman. Each election dis- trict also has its leader chosen by the assembly district leader, and each voting precinct its captain. The various district leaders make up the executive committee. Over all is the boss of the organi- zation, who attains and holds his position by sheer force of his ability to rule. Consult G. M. Myers, History of Tammany Hall (1917); M. R. Werner, Tammany Hall (1928); W. B. and J. B. Northrop, Insolence of Office (193^); N. M. Thomas and P. Blanshard, What's the Matter with Neiv York? (1932) ; J. E. Finnegan, Tammany at Bay (1933). Tammerfors. See Tampejje. Tammuz, ta'mdbz, or Tham- Muz, the sun god, husband of Ish- tar, both alike worshiped by the Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyri- ans, and Phoenicians. Called Adoni ('lord'), Tammuz became the Adonis of the Greeks. At the festival of his winter decline female devotees abandoned them- selves to licentious frenzy. Tam'pa, city, Florida, county seat of Hillsboro co., at the head of Tampa Bay and the movith of the Hillsboro R., on the Atlan- tic Coast Line and the Seaboard Air Line RRs. ; 212 m. s.w. of Jacksonville and 30 m. from the Gulf of Mexico. Steamship lines operate to the American coasts and foreign ports ; there are two airports. Tampa is a well known winter resort, noted for its fine beaches and hotels, fruit groves, and tarpon fishing. Features of interest are the Federal Build- ing, County Court House, Public Library, Sacred Heart Church, Elks' Home, De Soto, Tampa Bay, and Ballast Point Parks, and Sulphur Springs. The city is a port of entry and a shipping point for citrus fruits, vegetables, lumber, fish, fuller's earth, and is the world's largest phosphate shipping port. The manufacture of clear Havana cigars is the leading industry, and there are manufactures of foundry prod- ucts and machinery, steel and wooden shipbuilding, wagons and motor car tops, fertilizers, jew- elry, furniture, locks and safes, brick and tile, brooms, mattress- es, paints and varnishes, monu- ments, showcases, and awnings. Pop. (1920) 51,608; (1930, aft- er annex, of territ. inc. West Tampa) 101,161. Tampa Bay, an inlet of the Gulf of Mexico on the west coast of Florida, 40 miles long. It di- vides in its upper part into two arms, the eastern of which is Tampa Bay proper, and the western Hillsboro Bay. Tam'pan, a poisonous tick found in Sotith Africa, which usually bites its victims between the fingers or toes. Tampere, tam'pa-ra, Swed. Tammerfors, city, Hame co., s.w. Finland, 125 m. N.w. of Helsingfors, on the rapids con- necting lakes Nasijarvi and Pyhajarvi, which supply power to industry. The chief manu- facturing city of Finland, it has large textile mills, paper mills, tanneries, shoe factories, loco- motive and iron works, and is a railroad center. It was incorpo- rated in 1779. Pop. (1935) 59,832. Tampico, tam-pe'ko, seaport, Mexico, Tamaulipas State, on the Panuco River, 9 miles from its mouth in the Gulf of Mexico and 210 miles n.e. of Mexico City. Features of interest are the pa- rochial church, the fish market, and the Plaza de la Constitucion. The city's importance arose from the development of oil fields in the vicinity. The harbor and harbor facilities are excellent, and the town is a regular port of call for sea-going vessels. Ex- ports include rubber, ixtle fiber, asphalt, guayule and chicle, and for some years the city ranked as the greatest oil port in the world. Tarpon abound in the river, and the city is a favorite resort of fishermen from the first of De- cember until the end of May. _ Tampico, an ancient Aztec city, was destroyed in 1683, and rebuilt in 1834. Pop. (1930) 70,183. Tamsui, tam'soTj'e, treaty port, Japan, on the north coast of Formosa. Tea, rice, sugar, cam- phor, and coal are exported. Pop. (1934) 25,666. Ta'mus. See Bryony. Tarn worth, market town, England, Staffordshire and War- wickshire, on the Tame River ; 13 miles n.e. of Birmingham. It contains the church of St. Editha and a castle. Manufactures are bricks, dyeing, tape, paper, and small wares. Pop. (1931) 7,510. Tana, ta'na, river, British East Africa, rises near Mount Kenia, flows east and then s.e. to the Indian Ocean, which it en- ters 110 miles n.e. of Mombasa. Length, over 500 miles. Tanager, ta.n'a-]er (Tanagri- dce) , a family of American pas- serine birds, closely allied to the finches. The bill is visually con- ical, sometimes depressed or at- tenuated, more or less triangular at the base, with the cutting edges not much inflected, and frequently notched near the tip of the upper mandible. Tana- gers are usually beautifully col- ored, the female being duller in tint than her mate. They are of small size, 4 to 8 inches long. The diet consists largely of in- sects and fruits. The song is sweet. The Scarlet Tanagcr, or Red Bird (Pyranga rubra), winters in tropical America, and is found in the northern and eastern United States and Southern Can- ada in spring and summer. The male is bright scarlet, with black wings apd tail. In the Southern States is found the Summer Tan- ager {P. crstiva), closely resem- bling the Scarlet Tanager, and west of the Rocky Mountains the Louisiana or Western Tanager (P. ludoviciana) , yellow and black, with the head red. Tan'agra, a city of Boeotia in ancient Greece, on the River Asopus, not far from the Attic frontier. In history it is famous chiefly for a victory gained near it in 457 B.C. by the Spartans over the Athenians. It belonged to the Boeotian League, and shared the fortunes of Thebes. Excavations were begun on the site in 1874; and the ancient walls, towers, and gates can be recognized ; also the theatre. Numbers of Tanagra figurines in painted terra cotta were found in the necropolis. These grace- ful little statues, representing goddesses, muses, nymphs, cupids and mortals throw much light on the costumes of the period. Tanais, tan'a-is, ancient Greek name of the River Don (q. v.). Tanana River, ta-na-na', Alaska, rises in the northwest extremity of the St. Elias range, and follows a northwesterly course to the Yukon, of which it is the chief southern tributary. It is open to navigation from May to October as far as Fair- banks, a distance of 200 miles. Tananarive, ta-na'na-rev', or Antananarivo, capital of Mad- agascar, 145 miles s.w. of Ta- matave and 90 miles from the e. coast. It stands on a rocky ridge, from 500 to 600 feet above the adjacent valleys, in the interior of the island. Pop. (1932) 98,580. Tanauan, ta-nou-an', town, Batangas province, Luzon, Phil- ippines ; 27 miles north of Batan- gas. The town was founded in 1584, and destroyed in 1754 by a volcanic eruption. Pop. 22,470. Tanauan, town, Leyte prov- ince, Philippines, on the east coast of Levte Island; 10 miles south of Tacloban. Pop. 19,074. Tan Bark, or Tanner's Ooze, is the spent bark of oak, larch, and other trees, from which the tannin (q. v.) has been largely removed in the process of tanning leather. It is used as a manure and as a fermenting material in hotbeds. It decays very slowly, and should not be employed alone if much heat is required. Tan'cred (1078-1112). one of the chiefs of the first crusade, was a son of the Palgrave Otho the Good, and Emma, sister of Robert (iuiscard. He joined his Tandy KSH 607 P. Tanjore cousin, Bohemund of Tarentum, Guiscard's son, in the first cru- sade, and- distinguished himself in the sieges of Nicsea, Antioch, and Jerusalem. His reward was the principality of Tiberias. Tancred figures in the contem- porary chronicles as the bean- ideal of the crusading chivalry. He is the hero of Tasso's epic. Tan'dy, James Napper (1740-1803), Irish agitator, was born in Dublin, and became first secretary to the Dublin United Irishmen. At the time of the American Revolution his sym- pathies were with the colonies, and in 1779 he exerted himself to prevent Irishmen from using English goods. On account of a pamphlet distributed against the Beresfords in 1793 he fled to the United States, where he lived for five years ; then he went to France, and took part in the in- vasion of Ireland. At Hamburg he was handed over to the Brit- ish government. He was tried, and was sentenced to death, but was permitted to escape to France. Taneiev, ta'na-yef, Sergei IvANOviTCH (1856-1915), Rus- sian composer. He was taken at an early age to Moscow, where he studied at the Conservatory under Langer, Nicholas Rubin- stein, Hubert, and Tschaikovsky. He visited Paris in 1877-8, went on a concert tour of the Baltic provinces, and subsequently re- turned to Moscow, where he suc- ceeded Tschaikovsky as profes- sor of instrumentation. After the death of Rubinstein he be- came chief professor of piano- forte, and was director (1885— 9). Besides his opera Orestes, a trilogy in eight acts, first pro- duced at St. Petersburg in 1895, he composed the sacred cantatas John of Damascus and On Read- ing a Fsalm, besides numerous choruses, symphonies and quar- tets. Taney, to'ni, Roger Brooke (1777-1864), American jurist, Chief Justice of the U. S. Su- preme Court, was born in Cal- vert county. Md. He was grad- uated from Dickinson College, was admitted to the bar in 1799, and practised at Annapolis and Frederick until 1823, when he removed to Baltimore, and grad- ually won his way to the leader- ship in his profession in the State. In 1816 he was elected to the State senate, and he was attorney-general of Maryland 1827-31. Originally a Federal- ist, he became a Democrat and a follower of Andrew Jackson (q. v.), and in 1831 was appoint- ed attorney-general in President Jackson's Cabinet. He was one of the two Cabinet officers who approved of the removal of the Ciovernment deposits from the U. S. Bank, and on the refusal of William J. Duane, Secretary of the Treasury, to take such ac- tion, Taney was appointed Sec- retary of the Treasury in his stead. Taney promptly removed the deposits, although his nomi- nation had not been confirmed by the Senate. A subsequent nom- ination as Associate Justice of the U. S. Supreme Court was also rejected, but in 1836 he was nominated and confirmed as Chief Justice, in succession to John Marshall. In this high office Taney sus- tained his reputation for legal ability, although the strong sec- tional feeling between the North and the South led to criticism of some of his decisions, notably in the famous Dred Scott Case. (See Dred Scott Case.) He was a firm upholder of the doc- trine of State Rights (q. v.). During the Civil War he took a strong position against arbitrary executive acts, and denied the right of the President to suspend the writ of habeas corpus. Con- sult C. B. Swisher, Roger B. Taney (1935). Tanganyika, tan'gan-ye'ka, a lake in Eastern Central Africa, southwest of Victoria Nyanza, extending from lat. 3° 16' to 8° 48' s., and from long. 29° 20' to 31° 20' E., over 400 miles long by 30 to 45 miles broad. Estimated area, nearly 13,000 square miles. The shores belong politically, the » eastern to Germany, the southern to Great Britain, and the western to the Belgian Congo. The lake (alt. 2,700 feet) is enclosed by steep mountain chains rising to 7,000 feet. The only outlet is the Lukuja, which, flowing out on the west side at 6° s., makes its way to the Congo. Floating islands of vegetation occasionally cover large areas. The lake at- tains a depth of over 2,000 feet in certain portions. The largest town on its shores is Ujiji (c|. v.). Tanganyika was discovered by Burton and Speke in 1858, and was later explored by Living- stone, Stanley, and others. Tanganyika Territory. See German East Africa. Tangelo, tan-je'l6, a hybrid fruit derived from the tangerine and the pomelo, in which the bit- ter acid flavor of the pomelo is pleasantly modified. Tangent, a line which cuts a curve at coincident points. See Trigonometry. Tan'ghin, a tree (Cerbera Tanghin) of Madagascar, where its supposedly poisonous fruit kernels were used in ordeals to determine the guilt of a supposed criminal. Tangier, tiin-jer', or Tan- GiERS (Latin Tingis, Arabian Tanja), fortified seaport, Moroc- co, on the Bay of Tangier, an in- let of the Strait of Gibraltar; 35 miles southwest of Gibraltar. It is the chief seaport of Morocco, an important commercial center, and the diplomatic head(|uarters. The city rises gradually from the shore in the form of an amphi- theatre, has (juaint Oriental streets and houses, and its pleas- ant, healthful climate attracts thousands of visitors annually. Buildings of interest are the Great Mo-stiue, the Kasba or castle, the Sultan's Palace, and the Governor's Residence. Mod- ern hotels and shops have been erected for the accommodation of tourists. Tangier was taken by the Portuguese in 1471 ; was ceded to England in 1662 as part of the dowry of Catherine of Braganza, wife of Charles ii ; and was given back to Morocco in 1684. The treaty concluded between France and Spain in 1912 provided that Tangier and its district (about 225 square miles) should become a special international zone, and that a railway should be con- structed between Tangier and Fez. Pop. (1934) about 60,000 of whom 36,500 were native Mos- lems, 16,500 Europeans and 7,000 native Jews. Consult G. H. Stuart, The International City of Tangier (1932). Tangle Seaweed, a name commonly applied in Europe to an edible seaweed. See Carra- geen ; Laminaria. Tango. See Dancing. Tanguts, tan-gobs', a people of Tibetan stock, inhabiting a great part of Kan-su province in China and the Koko-nor and Kham districts of Tibet. They are pastoral nomads, who pay tribute to China. Tanis, ta'nis, or Zoan, an- cient Egyptian city in the Nile delta ; 32 miles southwest of Port Said. It was probably the capi- tal of the Hyksos kings (fif- teenth and sixteenth dynasties), and capital of Egypt during the nineteenth dynasty. It was the residence of Rameses ii, who greatly beautified it. Prior to the silting up of the Tanitic Nile and the founding of Alexandria, Tanis was the chief commercial city of Egypt, but was gradu- ally reduced to ruins. It was founded seven years after He- bron (Num. xiii. 22), and is be- lieved to have been the city of Ramases mentioned in Exod. i. 11. The explorations of Flin- ders Petrie have brought to light much of its history. Consult Works by Petrie and by E. A. Budge. Tanjay, tiin-hi', or Tanay, town, Negros Oriental province, Philippines; 15 miles northwest of Dumaguete. Pop. 12,000. Tanjore, tan-jor', municipal town, capital of Tanjore district, Tankage KSH 608 Tank, Military Madras Presidency, British In- dia; 31 miles southeast of Trichinopoli. It has a Hindu temple, a dismantled fort, and a palace. The manufactures in- clude silks, carpets, jewelry, cop- per, and inlaid metal work. Pop. (1931) 59,913. Area of district, 3,727 scjuare miles; pop. 2,326,- 265. .Tankage, the residue from the offal of abattoirs after treat- ment, used principally as a fer- tilizer. See Fertilizers. Tank, Military. A self-pro- pelled, armored vehicle of the track-laying type, combining the powers of mobility, fire power, shock action, and crew protec- tion. Tanks are the basic ele- ment in a modern mechanized fighting force. The modern light, fast tank is the most effec- tive existing weapon against light machine guns, but a direct hit by an artillery shell, the pene- tration of a vital portion of the tank by heavy machine gun fire, unfavorable terrain, or severe damage by an antitank mine may put it out of action. Tanks find their principal em- ployment in offensive combat. Their normal use in defensive battle is as an element in the counterattack. They are essen- tially an infantry weapon and their basic mission is to give close support to the advance of that arm by breaking down obstacles in its path and by overcoming or neutralizing resistance to its progress. The protective armor of the modern tank permits it to close quickly with entrenched defen- sive groups protected against the effects of ordinary infantry and artillery fire. Its mobility en- ables it to enter combat in criti- cal areas at a decisive phase of the action. All tanks are, how- ever, limited by the nature of the ground over which they must advance, and their use may be prevented by thick woods, steep slopes, deep mud, water deep enough to affect the carburetor, and by effective tank traps. They require constant automo- tive maintenance in order to in- sure continuity of operation. The tank is distinctly a prod- uct of the World War, in which, for the first time, the conditions of trench warfare best suited to its effective use existed. Ar- mored automobiles had been test- ed by most European countries prior to 1914, and had been used with some success by the British in Egypt. These armored cars were, however, restricted in op- eration to hard-surfaced roads, and principally to distant cav- alry reconnaissance. The idea of a self-propelled, cross country vehicle to support the infantry was conceived late in 1914, and its distinctive feature, the long belt, was derived from the Holt agricultural tractor, built in the United States. This belt had steel lugs or spurs projecting from its outer surface that were forced into the earth as the weight of the machine passed over them. The belt, therefore, acted as a non-skid track on which the bearing wheels of the car travelled. As adapted to the tank the shape of the tractor was considerably changed and its power much increased. The modification of the tractor to a military weapon was evolved independently by the French and British armies during 1915 and 1916. The first British vehicles were suggested by Lieut. Col. Ernest Swinton, Royal Engi- neers, who after unsuccessful presentations of his project to the British Prime Minister and to Lord Kitchener, finally inter- ested Winston S. Churchill, a member of the Committee of Im- perial Defense, in his machine. Experimental models were test- ed between September 1915 and February 1916, and in the latter month a satisfactory car was completed and production begun under extreme secrecy. On Sep- tember 15, 1916, fifty of these tanks went into action at the Battle of the Somme, and their efficiency as a new weapon of war was fully demonstrated. Not only did they make a pas- sage for the infantry through the enemy wire, but they pene- trated the German front lines, crossed trenches, and de- molished concrete machine gun shelters. The tanks used by the British in that battle were known as the Mark I tank. They weighed about 28 tons, were 26 feet long, and carried two six-pounder guns in the 'male' tank and four ma- chine guns in the 'female' tank. Each tank was manned by a crew of eight. It could cross a trench ten feet wide and had a cruising speed of four miles an hour. The German defense against the new tank, the armor-piercing bullet, forced the modification of the Mark I tank by the addition of heavier armor with a resultant increase made necessary in mo- tor power. By the end of the war the newest tanks in use, the Mark V type, were considerably heavier, though not much faster or more powerful than the first models. It was not until the last few months of the war that Brit- ish production was sufficient to permit the employment of tanks in mass formations, and in the Amiens battle, in August 1918, when 400 tanks were used in a surprise attack without the cus- tomary preparation of artillery fire, tank mass tactics reached the peak of effectiveness. Gen- eral Ludendorff characterized the results of this great tank sur- prise as 'the black day of the German Army in the history of the war' ; and General von Zwehl declared that it was 'General Tank' and not the genius of Marshal Foch that defeated the Germans. Early tank experiments in the French Army proceeded simul- taneously with those of the Brit- ish during 1915 and 1916, and resulted in the development of three tank types ; the light tank, typified by the 6^/^ ton Renault; the medium St. Chamond, and Schneider type of between 10 and 30 tons ; and the heavy tanks, of over 30 tons. The Renault type proved to be the most satis- factory, and by the end of the war this type was being pro- duced in large quantities. As finally developed it was about four meters long, had a crew of two men, and was armed either with two machine guns or with one light cannon. It was consid- erably faster than the British Mark y tank but, in general, mechanically inferior to it. The French used tanks for the first time in the Aisne-Marne battle, April 1917. Their attack lacked the surprise that had characterized the initial British attack and the support that they gave was unimportant. In May 1918, and again, in the great of- fensive of July 1918, the work of the French tanks contributed greatly to the Allied victory. By the end of the war the develop- ment of the French tank approx- imated that of the British. The tanks used by the Ameri- can Expeditionary Forces in France were furnished entirely by the French and the British. No heavy tanks and only 64 light tanks were produced in the United States. The French fur- nished the American Army with 227 Renault tanks and the Brit- ish furnished 64 heavy tanks of various types during 1918. The Germans began the con- struction of tanks late in 1917, patterning their models after some British tanks captured at Cambrai. These tanks were re- conditioned and a small number of German tanks built, but lack of materials prevented their im- portant use in battle prior to the end of the war. The Treaty of Versailles forbade Germany the manufacture of tanks, and until the rearmament of the German Army under the Nazi regime that army had no tanks and conducted experiments in tank construction outside of Germany, principally in Sweden and Russia. Since the World War the tank has held the center of the mili- tary stage. Increasing use has Tank, Military KSH 609 Tannenberg been made of it in most major military operations since 1918 under a variety of circumstances, in the French campaigns in Mo- rocco and Syria, by Bolivia in the Chaco war, by Japan in China and Manchukuo, by the Italians in Ethiopia, and by both sides in the Spanish Civil War. In the United States, at the Tank School, an adjunct of the Army Infantry School, at Fort Benning, Ga., selected officers and enlisted men of the Uni- ted States Army are given in- struction in tank maintenance and tactics, and service tests are given new tank equipment. Both France and Britain have numerous other tanks of all types that combine features of French, British, and American design. Great development has been made since the World War in producing armor plate which gives additional protection with little increase in weight ; in en- gineering design, and in radio equipment. Visibility during combat, protection against gas and against armor piercing am- munition are problems that have not yet been completely solved in tank construction. Carlisle Allan, Captain, U.S.A. Tannu-Tuva, or Tanu- TuvA, an independent republic ians (a Turki race), some 13,- 000 Russians, and the remainder Chinese and Mongols. Tannenberg, Battle of (Aug. 27-30, 1914), sometimes called Ostcrodc, but named by the victors after the village near which the Teutonic Knights were defeated by Poles and Lith- uanians in 1410. Less than a month after the World War broke over Europe the Russian Army of the Niemen under Ren- nenkampf, after the defeat of the Germans at Gumbinnen, East Prussia, proceeded to in- vest the fortress of Konigsberg, while the army of the Narev (about 200,000 strong) under Samsonov (q. v.), marched con- Light, fast tank by U. S. War Dept. Courtesy of Signal Corps, U. S. Army. -35-50 MPH. amphibian tanks and tankettes, small machine gun carriers. Russian and Polish tank doc- trine follows British rather than French thought. The tanks that the Italian Army found most successful in Ethiopia were light and fast, patterned after British vehicles. Japan's tanks are more varied as to types and mostly foreign - built. A three-ton tank which cruised at over thirty miles an hour was used with great success in Manchukvio and in the Yang- tze campaigns. Germany patterns her tanks after the Swedish Landsverk models which they resemble in appearance, but has, in addition, of Eastern Siberia, under Soviet protection. This territory, area about 64,000 S(|. miles, and known as Uryankhai, was con- sidered, if not actually, part of Outer Mongolia until the JMon- golian insurrection of 1911, when it was claimed by Imperial Russia on account of a large Russian pioneer population. It was proclaimed a Russian pro- tectorate in 1914 ; came again under Chinese rule for a time, then declared its independence and finally became a Soviet re- public under its new name. It has a modern constitution and universal suffrage. The entire population is about 65,000, of whom some 50,000 are Tuvin- fidently on Allenstein. This brief and ill-fated invasion of East Prussia was the only oc- casion during the war that Al- lied troops trod German soil in Europe. Hindenburg and Ludendorff decided that the separation of the two Russian armies offered an opportunity of surrounding and destroying Samsonov, who, evi- dently thinking that the Ger- mans were incapable of further resistance, attempted to drive them back across the Vistula. Rennenkampf was held up by the Konigsberg defences, and the Germans were able quickly to withdraw troops from that front and, with other reinforcements. Tanner KSH 610 Tantalum made up a force almost equal to Samsonov's. The region abounded in lakes (Masurian) and forests and was unknown to the Russians. More- over, the advancing Russian col- umns were necessarily separated by more or less impassable ter- rain. They were strung out in a bow from the frontier west of Soldau to the north of Allen- stein. On the 26th Samsonov found himself suddenly checked, and realized that the Germans had decided to stand and fight. After some local attacks by the Russians, Hindenburg, who had studied and conducted maneuvers over this whole region during many years in anticipation of ex- actly what confronted him, began to put his plan in operation. The battle proper opened on the 27th with a German thrust in a s.E. direction towards Usdau, which compelled the Russian 1st Corps to withdraw sovxthwards. Then the thrust was directed east towards Neidenburg, and after confused fighting the Russian front broke and Hindenburg ef- fected a turning movement. In the next two days the attack spread northwards and over- lapped Samsonov's right flank. The bulk of the Russian army was thus encircled and cut off from any assistance from Ren- nenkampf. They were com- pelled to surrender or perish ; barely a corps escaped by forced marching. Between 80,000 and 90,000 prisoners fell to the Germans and thousands were drowned. The 28 days' invasion of East Prussia cost the Rus- sians 300,000 of their best troops, and they lost 100,000 more dur- ing the ensuing winter campaign until February, 1915. See Eu- rope, Great War of. Consult Ludendorff, My War Memories (1922); Sir W. E. Ironside, Tannenherg : The First Thirty Days in East Prussia (1925). Tanner, Henry Ossawa (1859-1937), American painter. He devoted himself chiefly to Scriptural subjects with Oriental surroundings, depicted with much religious feeling. In 1909 he was elected an associate of the National Academy. Examples of his pictures are : The Rais- ing of Lazarus (Luxembourg, Paris) ; Nicodemiis Coming to Christ (Penn. Academy) ; The Annunciation (Wilstach (Collec- tion, Philadelphia) ; Christ at the Home of Mary and Martha (Car- negie Institute, Pittsburgh), Christ in the Temple ; The Jews' Wailing Place. Tannhauser, tan'hoi-z^'r, a legendary knight, who, after be- ing enticed into the Venusberg, or the abode of earthly love, at length repents, and sets off on a pilgrimage to Rome to confess his sins to Pope Urban iv. But the Pope, when he hears his story, tells him that he can as lit- tle obtain God's mercy as the rod in his hand can become green again. Thereupon Tannhauser departs in despair, and returns to the Lady Venus in the moun- tain. Three days after he has gone the dry rod begins to sprout and bear green leaves ; and the Pope immediately sends out mes- sengers to every country, but the knight can nowhere be found. The Venusberg is localized as Horselberg, near Eisenach, seat of the old German goddess Hulda (modern German, Holle). The legend has been used in Wagner's opera, which identifies Tann- hauser with Heinrich von Ofter- dingen. The historic Tannhauser was a Minnesinger of the thir- teenth century. Tannin, a name applied to a number of astringent substances of somewhat diverse constitution that are formed in many plants, being produced there naturally or as the result of injuries in- flicted by insects. Tannins are soluble in water, yield black, blue or green precipitates with ferric salts, and possess the property of converting substances containing gelatin — as animal hides — into leather. They occur most abun- dantly in galls on various species of oak (see Galls ; Oak) ; in the bark or wood of oaks, acacias, chestnuts, and the eucalyptus ; and in the bark of mangroves, the roots of the canaigre, and the leaves of the sumach. They are found in lesser quantities in other woods and leaves, in unripe frtiits, and in some buds and flowers. They have also been prepared synthetically. The tannins have been vari- ously classified. The three groups usually recognized are the Gallotannins, which yield gallic acid upon treatment with boiling dilute sulfuric acid ; the Ellagi- tannins, which on similar treat- ment yield ellagic acid ; and the Catecholtannins or Phlobatan- nins, which yield a reddish pre- cipitate known as a phlobaphene. The principal gallotannin, and the typical tannin, is that occur- ring in oak galls, known as Tan- nic, Digallic, or Gallotannic Acid, or simply as Gallotannin or Tannin, and having the formula C14H10O9+2H0O. It is derived chiefly from Turkish or Aleppo galls, produced by the insect Cynips gallcc on a variety of oak, and from Chinese galls, due to the activities of Aphis chinensis on an Oriental tree of the same family as the sumach. Gallotan- nin prepared from the water ex- tract consists of 70 to 90 per cent gallotannic acid, together with some gallic acid, glucose, water and other impurities. which may be removed by vari- ous methods. It is a colorless or faint yellow amorphous powder, soluble in water, and possessing a sharp astringent taste. It is acid to litmus, gives a blue black color with ferric salts, precipi- tates gelatin, and yields pyrogal- lol on sublimation. Ellagitannin, or Ellagitannic Acid, is commonly found with gallotannic acid, and is of im- portance as the mother substance of ellagic acid. It occurs most abundantly in divi-divi. The Catecholtannins include Catechu Tannic Acid, obtained from gambier and Bombay catechu or cutch (see Catechu ; Gambier), Quercitannic Acid or the tannin of oak bark, and the tannins of the bark of hemlock, the acacias, mimosas, cassia, and mangroves. Industrially, tannin is of great importance in the tanning of leather (q. v.). It is also em- ployed as a mordant in calico printing, and in the manufacture of inks (see Inks and Stains). In medicine, it is used in the treatment of eruptions, hemor- rhage, diarrhea, and for coagu- lating an albuminous or mucous discharge. Consult Dumesny and Noyer, Wood Products, Distillates and Extracts (1921) ; Harvey, Tan- ning Materials (1921) ; Nieren- stein. The Natural Organic Tan- nins (1934). Tanning. See Leather. Tansillo, tan-sel'lo, Luigi (1510-68), Italian poet. Among his Poemetti the Balia and Po- dere are specially admired, and have been translated into Eng- lish. The youthful and erotic Vendcmmiatore was put on the index by Paul iv. Tansy, tan'zi or Tanacetum, a genus of mostly hardy herba- ceous plants belonging to the order Compositae. They bear usually small, corymbose, yellow flower heads, and are all of the easiest culture. Much the most interesting is the naturalized tansy or Buttons {Tanacetum vulgarc), whose feathery leaves and yellow flower heads are con- spicuous in autumn. The most desirable species for decoration is the silvery-leaved T. lenco- phyllum, from Turkestan. Tantah, tan'ta, or Tanta, town, capital of Gharbiyeh prov- ince. Lower Egypt, between the Rosetta and Damietta branches of the Nile: 76 miles s.e. of Al- exandria. Pop. 90,016. Tan'talum, Ta, (atomic num- ber 73, atomic weight 180.88) is a rare metallic element, oc- curring principally in the min- eral Tantalite, ferrous tantalate, FeTa-Od. It is prepared by the reduction of potassium fluorotan- talate, K-TapT, by hydrogen, fol- lowed by fusion in a vacuum, Tantalus 611 Tapeworms and is a white metal of specific gravity 16.8, that can be drawn into wire of great tenacity and very high fusing-point (225° c). This wire has been used for the con- struction of the filaments of certain new incandescent electric lamps. The chief compounds of tantalum are its acidic oxide, Ta205, and its compound with potassium and fluorine, K2TaF7. See Electrical Review, vol. Ivi. (1905), p. 157. Tantalus, in Greek mythology, a son of Zeus, and father of Pe- lops, Broteas, and Niobe. Tradi- tion places his kingdom in Lydia, in Phrygia, at Argos, or at Corinth. He was punished in Hades, standing in the midst of a lake, whose waters ever receded when he tried to drink, while fruit- laden trees, hanging over his head, withdrew their branches if he tried to pluck their fruit; in addition, a huge rock, threaten- ing to crush him, was suspended over his head. From his name and fate the English word 'tan- talize' is derived. Tantaliis, or Wood-ibis, a genus of birds of the stork family, which connects the storks with the true ibises. Their habits are stork-like, but the birds are more gregarious, and build smaller nests. In the warmer parts of America is found Tantalus locii- lator, the American wood-ibis, a white bird with greenish-black wings and tail, the head and upper part of the neck being naked and dark-colored. Tantras, 'rules, rituals,' the sacred books of the Sakta sect of Hindus. Tantrik words are full of doubtful symbolisms — for the rnost part impure — and myste- rious rites and utterances for the invocation and expulsion of evil spirits. Their acceptance as sacred literature marks the in- fluence on Hinduism of the later emphasis upon the female principle in deity. The Panchatantra is a celebrated Sanskrit book of fables, from which have come manv of the fables known throughout Europe as those of Pilpay or Bidpai. Consult Frazer's Z,«7emrjy History of India (1898). Tantum Ergo. See Pange Lingua. Taoism. See Lao-tse. Tap, an instrument used for cutting a female screw in a drilled hole. It consists of a male screw of hard steel with a square head, which is gripped and turned by a wrench. Tapajos River, Brazil, forms near the Bolivian frontier, and flows in a general n.n.e. direction, through a course of 1,100 m., to its confluence with the Amazon near Santerem. Little of it is navigable. Tapestry has been defined as 'painting by the weaving of col- ored threads, intertwined on lines stretched vertically {haute lisse = high warp) or horizontally (basse lisse = low warp), which become one substance or web combining lines and tones.' The skilled 'tapissier,' himself an artist, inter- prets and embodies designs, called cartoons, the very soul of the work. Much is left to his taste and workmanship, and servile copying is fatal to success. The low-warp loom is one-third quicker than the high-warp, which pro- duces the most perfect cloths. A Gobelins (high- warp) workman turns out on an average rather less than a square yard in three hundred workmg days, which cost the state, for wages only, from 2,000 to 2,100 francs. The great- est technical difficulty is to avoid mosaic work in passing from tone to tone and from light to shade; and this is done by 'hatching,' or graduating the tints, now over fourteen thousand in number, though in the best age of tapestry (1450-1550) there were but from twenty to sixty. 'Painted tapes- try from Egypt' figures in Prov- erbs. Penelope's web, the .warp vertical with weighted ends, is seen on the vase of Chiusi (400 B.C.). Tapestry terms are found in Homer (//. iii. 125), Herodotus, and Euripides. In Ovid the loose ends of the warp are attached as at present, and the flowered border of the 15th century {ver- dures) anticipated. From Egypt the art was reintroduced into W. Europe by the Saracens and made at St. Florent (Saumur Abbey) in 985. It continued to flourish in France till the Hundred Years' War, when it passed to Flanders, and became known as arras till Spanish per- secution drove it back again to France, to thrive in the manu- factories of the Gobehns (1667), Beauvais, and Aubusson. William Sheldon wove maps of Yorkshire at Burcheston (Warwick) in 1570. A factory, established by James I. at Mortlake, under Sir Francis Crane, existed from 1619-88 at least. Low-warp looms existed at Windsor (1876-87), followed by the present high-warp looms at Merton Abbey. Surrey, es- tablished (1880) by William Morris, for whom Sir Edward Burne-Jones supplied cartoons for The Star of Bethlehem and The Legend of Arthur. The Acts of the Apostles, woven (1515- 19) for Leo x., for the Sistine chapel, cost 1,000 for each of the ten cartoons to Raphael and $150,000 to the manufacturer. In 1893 the late WiUiam .Baum- garten persuaded M. Foussadier, the former master workman of the Royal Windsor Tapestrv Works, to come to New York and set up a small loom in the Baumgarten decorative shop in Fifth Avenue. The first com- pleted work from the loom was a chair seat, 'the first piece of tapestry produced in America,' accordmg to Mr. Baumgarten. The second piece, exactly the same, is now in the Field Museum in Chicago. Other weavers soon followed M. Foussadier across the Atlantic, and the tapestry atelier was moved to Williams- bridge on the Bronx. Later an apprentice system was adopted, and there are now employed from 40 to 60 weavers, besides the employees who attend to the rentraiture (sewing up the slits left by the method of»' -Raving) and to repairing injured and antique tapestries. At the St. Louis Exposition in 1903 the exhibit of Baumgarten tapestries received a Grand Prize. At the Paris Exposition in 1900 were exhibited modern tapestries from nearly every country in Europe, as well as a remarkable selection from the incomparable collection of the ancient Flemish tapestries belonging to the Spanish crown. Tapestries woven by Scandina- vian residents in the United States were exhibited in New York city at the National Arts Club in 1904. Of particular in- terest also to Americans are the ancient Peruvian tapestries now in the National Museum in Wash- ington and in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. See Muntz's Tapes- try (1885); Baumgarten's Tapes- try (1897); South Kensington catalogues. For bibliography see South Kensington List of Books and Pamphlets Illustrating Tex- tile Fabrics (1888); and Jules Guiffrey's La Tapisseries (1904), containing 1,083 titles. Tapeworms, or Cestoda, a class of flatworms, which includes some important parasites. A tapeworm consists of a head or scolex, furnished with suckers and hooks, and a chain of pro- glottides. The head is embedded in the intestinal wall of the host, and the chain of proglot- tides floats freely in the lumen of the intestine. Each pro- glottis contains a complete set of reproductive organs, male and female, and the ova of each are self-fertilized. Ultimately the proglottis becomes a mere bag of eggs, each of which is invested in a firm shell. Such ripe pro- glottides break off from the chain, and pass out with the fieces of the host. The formation of fresh pro- glottides is continually taking place in the anterior region of the worm to replace those which are being lost. Some of the sim- pler forms are very small, while the Tcenia solium of man may reach a length of nine _ feet. T. echinococci.s is specially inter- esting becau.se its larval stages occur in man, and are known as Tapioca hydrated cysts. The life-history of tapeworms is discussed in the article Bladder - worms. The most frequent tapeworms of man are Tama solium, whose bladder- worm stage is found in the pig; Tapeworm. A. Tapeworm {Tcenia solium\ B. Head, c. A proglottis. D. Egg. E. Bladder-worm stage. 1, liead ; 2, proglottides from various sections of body ; 3, hooks ; 4, suckers ; 5, reproductive organs. and T. saginata, whose bladder- worm is found in the ox. Tape- worm is likely to be acquired only where meat is habitually eaten raw, or in an imperfectly cooked state. See Parasites. Tapioca. See Cassava. Tapir (Tapirus), a genus of perissodactyle ungulates. In all the species the cheek teeth are short-crowned, and bear two simple ridges, while there are four toes on the fore limb and three on the hind. The body is bulky and clumsy, the legs are short, the nose and upper lip are prolonged into a short and flexible probos- cis, bearing the nostrils at its ex- tremity; the ears are not large, and are ovate and erect, the tail is .short and the thick skin is scantily covered with hair. The Tapir. animals are alwaj^s found in forest region.s, in the vicinity of water, are nocturnal in habit, and shy 612 and inoffensive. The lood con- sists of buds, leaves, and shoots. Except in the Malayan tapir {T. indicus), the adults are uniformly dark brown, but the young forms are marked with spots and stripes of pale color on a darker ground. Four species occur in America, the best known being T. americanus, the common tapir of Brazil and Paraguay; another species (7". Rouhni) is found in the high Andes, while the remaining two occur in Central America. The American tapirs are hunted both for their skin and their flesh. The tapirs afford an example of a primitive type of perissodactyle structure, as cornpared, for ex- ample, with the highly specialized horse. The evidence goes to show that they originated in Europe, whence they spread to America and S. Asia. Tappan Bay, or Tappan Zee, an expansion of the Hudson R., 10 m. long and 3 m. wide. Rock- land CO., N. Y., lies on the w. and Westchester co. on the E. The chief places on its shores are Nyack, Tarrytown, and Ossining. Tappan, Arthur (1786-1865), American merchant, born at Northampton, Mass. In 1814 he entered the importing business in New York city, and thereafter amassed a fortune. He was widely known as a philanthropist and abolitionist; assisted in found- ing the American Tract Society and Oberlin College; established The Emancipator in 1833; was presi- dent of the American Anti-Slavery Society- and was active in many other directions in fighting the slave power. See The Life of Arthur Tappan (1871) by his brother Lewis. Tappan, Lewis (1788-1873), American merchant and journal- ist, born in Northampton, Mass. After engaging in cotton manufac- ture in Boston, he went to New York (1827), where, with his brother Arthur (q.v.) he estab- lished (1828) the Journal of Com- merce, which remains one of the ablest of American newspapers devoted to financial questions. He was an organizer of the New York Anti-Slavery Society, and in 1834 his house was damaged, and he and his brother injured by a mob of slavery sympa- thizers. Tappen, Frederick D. (1829- 1902), American financier, born in New York cit)'. He grad- uated at New York University in 1849; became a clerk in the National Bank of New York in the following year; and was made president of that institu- tion in 1868. In this position he was connected with the floating of numerous government loans, and with many other great financial undertakings. Tappet, in engineering, a pin Taral projecting from a moving shaft, which strikes or taps some mov- ing piece at regular intervals. The valves of some slow-moving engines, such as beam engines, are worked in this way. Tapping, in surgery, the opera- tion resorted to for giving vent to fluid which has collected in some space, as that of the pleura or peritoneum. It is sometimes per- formed by introducing one end of a small tube into the cavity and withdrawing the fluid by suction. This is termed a.spira- tion. Tapti, riv., W. India, rises in Central provinces, flows w., and falls into the Gulf of Cambay. Length, 450 m. Drainage area, 26,163 sq. m. Tar is the complex mixture of hydrocarbons ana hydrocarbon derivatives, obtained when wood, shale, or coal is destructively dis- tilled. It is in general a black or very dark brown viscous liquid with a distinctive smell. The principal kind of tar is described under Coal Tar. The wood tar collected in cavities below the heaps in which charcoal is burned is very thick, with a strong empy- reumatic odor. It is acid, from the presence of acetic acid, and contains paraffins, resins, and particularly the higher phenols and aromatic ethers. Retort wood tar is thinner, and contains a greater proportion of paraffins. Wood tar is distilled to obtain creosote. Paraffin and pitch are also produced. Wood tar is used for preserving wood, rope, and felt, in the preparation of an ointment for skin diseases, and is used internally for bronchitis. Blast-furnace tar yields anilines, phenols, hydrocarbon oils, and some paraffin wax. The oils ob- tained are, however, of little value for burning or lubrication. Coke-oven tar varies, according to the temperature of the process and kind of coal used, from a product resembling blast-furnace tar to one very similar to and as valu- able as coal tar. Tara. See Taro. Tara, hill, Co. Meath, Ireland, 6 m. s.E. of Navan ; site of the capital and palace of the early Irish kings, and a noted seat of learning. Tara Fern, the name given to the common bracken in New Zea- land, where the rootstock used to be a staple article of food. Tarai, a dist. in the Kumaun division of the United Provinces, India, having an area of 938 sq. m. It consists of a narrow strip of country, running for about 90 m. east and west along the base of the Himalayas, and covered with dense jungle and pestilential swamps — the haunt of elephants, tigers, bears, and wolves. Chief town, Kasipur. Taranakl 613 Tarde Taranaki, ta'ra-na'ke, district of New Zealand, on the west coast of North Island. Butter and cheese are its principal prod- ucts. New Plymouth is practi- cally its only port. Pop. (1926) 65,569. Tarantella, ta'ran-tel'a, a pic- turesque Neapolitan dance writ- ten in Vs time, continually in- creasing in speed, with alternat- ing major and minor modes. It was formerly regarded as a cure for the bite of the tarantula (q. V.) and for the hysterical affec- tion known as tarantism (q.v.). The tarantellas of modern com- posers are popular as solos. Tar'antism, or Tarantulism, an epidemic dancing mania which prevailed in Italy during the six- teenth and seventeenth centuries, and which originated in exagger- ated dread of the tarantula (q.v.), whose bite was supposed to cause spasmodic movements of the limbs. It gradually died out in the beginning of the eighteenth century, but modern epidemics are not unknown. Taranto, ta-ran't5 (ancient Tarentum), fortified seaport', It- aly, in the province of Lecce, at the northern end of the Gulf of Taranto. It has a naval arsenal and two harbors. The cathedral, the episcopal palace and the an- cient citadel now in ruins are among the principal buildings. Oysters and mussel fisheries are the chief industries, with manu- factures of superphosphates, car- bonic acid, barrels, soap, oil, vel- vets, and cottons. Pop. 55,000. See Tarentum. Taran'tula, a species of ven- omous spider. The true taran- tula {Lycosa tarantula), a native of the south of Europe, is one of the largest of spiders, an inch or more in length, and a swift hunt- er. Its bite is much dreaded, and was long supposed to cause tar- antism (q.v.) but as a matter of fact the bite is painful but not dangerous. The American tar- antula is Eurypelma hentzi, a large hairy mygaloid spider, much dreaded in the Southwestern United States. See Bird-Catch- ing Spider. Tarapaca, ta'ra-pa-ka', mari- time province of Northern Chile, south of Tacna. Much of it is in a rainless, desert region and the only habitable portions are along the rivers, which are few in num- ber and scant in volume. It has large deposits of nitrate of soda; silver, copper, nickel, and gold are mined. The capital is Iqui- que. The province was taken from Peru in 1879, and ceded to Chile in 1884. Pop. (1920) 100,- 553. Tarapoto, town, Peru, depart- ment Loreto; 53 miles southeast of Moyobamba. Pop. 9,000. Tarare, ta-riir', town, France, in the department Rhone, at the base of Mount Tarare; 20 miles northwest of Lyons. It is a centre for the manufacture of muslins, velvets and silk plush. Pop. (1926) 11,206. Taras'cans, or Tarasco, a middle- American linguistic stock, who, like the Aztecs, seem to have migrated from the north. Their kingdom was in the prov- ince of Michoacan, and their cap- ital Tzintzuntzan. Their civiliza- tion in some respects excelled that of the Aztecs, to which the ruins of their buildings, still large- ly unexplored, their work in gold and silver, and their beautiful armor work bear witness. They now form the bulk of the popula- tion of the province of Michoacan, Mexico, and were the first of the tribes to revolt against Span- ish rule (1810). Tarascon, ta-ra-skon' (ancient Tarasco), commune, France, de- partment of Bouches-du-Rhone, on the Rhone; 10 miles north of Aries. It has silk spinning and hat manufactures. The Church of St. Martha dates from the twelfth century. Pop. 5,000. Tarashcha, ta-rash'cha, town, Russia, in Kiev government, 58 miles south of Kiev city. There are breweries. Pop. 15,000. Tarawera, Mount, tii'ra-wa'- ra, volcanic mountain peak in the Hot Lake District of North Is- land of New Zealand, which burst into violent eruption on June 10, 1886. Tarax'acum. See Dandelion. Tarazona, ta-ra-tho'na, city and episcopal see, Spain, in the province of Saragossa; 46 miles northwest of Saragossa. It is an ancient Roman city (Turiaso), and has an interesting Gothic cathedral. Pop. 9,000. T^r'bell, Edmund C. (1862- /f3i)< American figure painter, was born in West Groton, Mass. He studied at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts and under Boulanger and Lefebvre in Paris and after 1889 for twenty-three years was instructor of drawing and painting at the Boston Art Museum. He was awarded the first Hallgarten Prize of the National Academy (1894) , the Temple gold medal (1895) , a bronze medal at the Paris Exposition (1900), the gold medal of the Pennsylvania Acad- emy- (1895, 1908), and of the Na- tional Academy of Design (1908, 1929), and many others. He is a member of the National Acad- emy, of the National Institute of Arts and Letters, and other simi- lar organizations. He has made a specialty of outdoor sunlight scenes, notable for their grace and vigor. Among his paintings are Josephine and Mercie (Cor- coran Art Gallery) ; Girl Reading (Cincinnati Museum); The Gold- en Screen (Pennsylvania Acad- emy) ; My Children in the Woods (Boston Museum).^-^^'^^^''/ Tarbell, Ida Minerva (1857- j |, American author, was born in Erie County, Pa. She was graduated from Allegheny College, and devoting herself to literary work, was associate edi- tor of The Chautauquan in 1883- 91. She was associate editor of McClure's Magazine from 1894 to 1906 and in 1906-15 was on the staff of The American Magazine. In her historical and investiga- tional writings she adopted a system of seeking her material, as far as possible, from first-hand sources, and gathering personal reminiscences and explanations from men still living. Among her published works are A Short Life of Napoleon Bonaparte (1895) ; Life of Abraham Lincoln (2 vols. 1900) ; History of the Standard Oil Company (2 vols. 1904), a strong indictment of the business meth- ods of that concern; He Knew Lincoln (1907); Father Abraham (1909); The Tariff in Our Own Times (1911); The Business of Being a Woman (1912) ; The Ways of Women (1915); New Ideals in Business (1916); The Rising of the Tide (1919); In the Footsteps of Lincoln (1924); Life of Judge Gary (1925); A Reporter fqr Lincoln (1927). ^ . j _ ■ Tarbes, tarb, town, France, capital of department Hautes- Pyrenees, on the Adour; 22 miles southeast of Pau. It has tan- neries, potteries, paper mills and sawmills, and the district is noted tor its fine horses. The Cathedral dates from the twelfth century and has an interesting rose win- dow. Pop. (1921) 26,745. Tarboro, town, North Caro- lina, county seat of Edgecombe County, on the Tar River, and the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad ; 65 miles east of Raleigh. Pitt- man Hospital and Tarboro Acad- emy are situated here. It has cotton and knitting mills, saw and planing mills, cottonseed-oil mills, fertilizer factories, and municipal light and water plants. Pop. (1920) 4,568; (1930) 6,381. Tarde, tiird, Gabriel (1843- 1904), French sociologist and criminologist, was born in Sarlat, and entered the legal profession. He early contributed to the Revue Philosophique, and in 1890 pub- lished his great work Lois de I' imitation (Eng. trans., 1908), in which he set forth his psycho- logical theory of society as a round of invention — i.e., a new thought or act of any kind — and imitation. This idea he elabo- rated five years later in his Log- ique Sociale. Other works are La criminalite comparee (1886); La philosophic penale (1890, Eng. trans. 1912); Etudes penales et sociale s (1892); Les transforma- tions du droit (1893); Essais et melanges sociologiques (1895); L' opposition universelle (1897); Etudes de psychologie sociale Vol. XL— 030 Tardieu 614 Targum (1898); Les transformations du pouvoir (1899); L' opinion et la foule (1901); Psychologic econ- omique (2 vols., 1901); Under- ground Man (1905). Tardieu, Andre (1876- ), French public official, was born in Paris. He was educated at the Ecole Normale Superieure and as a young man was Attache at the Berlin Embassy. Later he was one of the editors of Le Temps and in 1917-18 was French Special Commissioner to the United States. He was a member of the Peace Conference where he was closely associated with M. Clemenceau, whose policy he ardently defended then and later. He was Minister of Public Works of the Liberated Regions in 1926, Minister of the Interior in the Briand cabinet, and in 1929 was chosen Premier of France. Tardigra'da, Bear Animal- cules, or Sloth Animalcules, an obscure order of arachnids, in- cluding microscopic forms found in standing water. The animah, or in some instances the eggs only, are capable of being completely dried without injury. Tare. See Vetch. Tarentum, ta-ren'tum (Greek Tar as), ancient Greek colony in Southern Italy, at the extreme northern point of the Gulf of Tarentum, the only colony ever founded (707 B.C.) by Spartans. It became very prosperous, chiefly owing to its trade in woollen fabrics. It was taken by Rome in 272 B.C. In the Second Punic War it revolted in 212, and was recaptured in 207 and severe- ly punished; thenceforward it was an ally of Rome, and afterward a Roman colony. It lost its com- mercial prosperity, but retained its reputation for luxury. See Taranto. Tarentum, borough, Penn- sylvania, in Allegheny County, on the Allegheny River, and the Pennsylvania Railroad; 21 miles northeast of Pittsburgh. It has plate glass factories, glass and bottle works, steel mills, and manufactures paper, tableware, tools, brick, and foundry prod- ucts. Pop. (1920) 8,925; (193J) 9,534. Target, any object at which a gun or other weapon may be aimed, fired, or discharged. In actual war, the target may be a man, troops, a fortification (or part of one), a ship, or a boat. For the training of men in marks- manship, either with small ar ns or heavy guns, targets of man/ kinds are used. For small-arm firing the recruit is tested in aim- ing at a point, and then in firing at a target which consists of paper or cloth stretched over a framework, and having a central bull's eye and surrounding circles or ellipses. For further instruc- tion, special targets shaped to represent the silhouettes of men lying down, kneeling, or standing are used; also moving targets. Targets for field artillery are of cloth stretched on frames, either rectangular or in the shape of sil- houettes of men in various posi- tions or groups. Naval heavy gun targets consist of large rect- angles of cloth (stretched by ropes to small masts), slat frame- work, and wire mesh, mounted on rafts towed at a rate of speed which is known where individual training is in progress, but un- known for battle target practice. For certain experimental work, special targets are used. For testing armor, the target is made to represent a portion of a ship's side. In investigating the effect of gun fire, old vessels are some- times used. Torpedo targets may consist of submerged nets, but for ordinary practice they consist of two boats or rafts between which the torpedo must pass to score a hit. Target Practice is the culmina- tion of the training of gun point- ers. This begins with instruction in handling the piece, heavy gun or small arm. In preparing for target practice with the heavy guns of naval vessels or fortifica- tions using direct fire, the gun pointer is trained at pointing at a miniature target. This target is connected to a boom or struc- ture supported on the gun mount, and is susceptible of motion in any direction across the line of sight. On a second small target, by means of mechanism, a hinged pencil makes a dot which shows the direction of the line of sight at the moment of firing, and reveals any errors of aim. This variety of aiming instrument was devised by Captain Scott of the British navy, and is called a 'dotter' on account of the pencil dot it makes on the target. When exer- cising with the dotter, the gun pointer uses the regular sights of the gun, training and elevating it to bring the cross fires of the tele- scope sight on the miniature tar- get in the same manner as when firing at a distant target. The next step in the training is sub-calibre practice. A rifle or small rapid-fire gun is clamped to the big gun, with the axes of both pieces parallel. The training and elevating gear and sights of the big gun are used, but the small one alone is fired. The target is placed at various distances, de- pending upon the character of the sub-calibre piece. In the final parts of sub-calibre practice the target is towed at a fair rate of speed, and the ship which fires is also under way. Coast artillery- target practice is somewhat simi- lar to the navy practice. The details of naval target practice are not published, and change from year to year in near- ly all navies. The main target^ are usually large — 10 to 30 feet high and 20 to 90 feet long, de- pending upon the calibre of the gun, the character of the practice, and the particular navy using it. Most of the targets are of light canvas, but netting and lattice work are used. The ranges are fairly long, 3,000 to 10,000 yards, with special practices at greater ranges. Certain practices are de- signed to simulate battle condi- tions, and are called battle prac- tices. Small-arm practice is first giv- en with short-range target am- munition, and this is followed by firing at regular ranges with full- power ammunition — first at tar- gets with bull's eyes and concen- tric circles or ellipses, and after- ward at targets in the field which are in the form of silhouettes of men lying down, kneeling, stand- ing, and mounted; finally at moving targets. As artillery is used chiefly against troops, many of its tar- gets are similar to those for small arms and machine guns, while others resemble those for heavy guns. Torpedoes are fired from ves- sels at high speed. The target consists of the space between two boats or rafts at anchor or towed by another ship. The torpedoes carry the 'exercise' head, which has no explosive charge, and are fitted to float for some time after discharge, in order to facilitate recovery. See Shooting. Targoviste, or Tergovishte, chief town of Dimbovitsa Coun- ty, Roumania, at the foot of the Carpathians; 47 miles northwest of Bucharest. It has an ancient cathedral (founded 1515), ruins of a fourteenth-century palace, and an arsenal. In the vicinity there are rich deposits of coal, salt, and petroleum. Pop. 16,800. Tar'gura, the Aramaic trans- lation, or rather paraphrase, of the Old Testament. When He- brew, in post-exilic times, had become disused, translations into the current Aramaic became nec- essary. These versions were com- mitted to writing (by the first century a.d.), but those now ex- tant are probably revisions dat- ing from the fourth or fifth cen- tury A.D. The most important of the three Pentateuch Targums is that which is named after Onkelos, probably a corruption of Akylas (Aquila, a proselyte, one of Ga- maliel's pupils) . Two other Tar- gums on the Pentateuch are known as Targum Jonathan ben Uzziel and Targum Jerushalmi. Joseph the Blind, to whom the foregoing Targum is ascribed, is the reputed author of Targums on the Hagiographa. Their date is approximately between 800 and 1000 A.D, The Targums on Vol. XL— 030 Tarifa KFF 615 Tariff Psalms, Job, and Proverbs were probably contemporaneous com- positions due to private enter- prise in Syria. The Targum on the Book of Chronicles was prob- ably composed in Palestine. By 900 in Africa and Spain the Tar- gum had begun to be disused in public, Arabic or the national language being substituted. Tarifa, ta-re'fa, seaport, Spain, province of Cadiz, at the extreme south point of the penin- sula ; 21 miles southwest of Gi- braltar. There is an ancient castle, besides a strong fortress on an adjacent island. It carries on tunny fishing, and trades in oranges, wine, and cereals. Pop. 13,000. Tariff.— In general tariff means a scale of charges, but in the United States it usually sig- nifies the schedule of duties charged on the importation of merchandise into a country. These duties are also called cus- toms duties and sometimes simply the customs. A tariff on foreign goods may be levied for three chief purposes: (1) to furnish revenue for the government, when it becomes simply a form of taxation (see Taxation ; Free Trade) ; (2) to retaliate on other governments for similar restrictions, when it becomes an instrument of commercial war- fare (see Commercial Trea- ties ; Reciprocity) ; (3) to foster home industries by pro- tecting them from foreign com- petition (see Protection). Tariffs of the first type, levied on both imports and exports, were customary in the independ- ent political divisions of ancient Greece, and in Rome and its provinces. Under the feudal system of the Middle Ages the imposts levied by each lord at the frontiers of his domains became exceedingly burdensome. The monarchical government that succeeded feudalism reduced the number of customs lines ; but on the Continent goods were still subject to duty, not only at na- tional, but at provincial and sometimes at municipal frontiers. In France these local customs, with the hardships entailed by their imposition upon the neces- sities of life, formed a part of the economic and social regime that brought about and was de- stroyed by the Revolution. The tariff history of England begins in the tenth century, when King Ethelred^ ordered the col- lection of duties on both mer- chandise and ships. Ordinary duties, granted by Parliament, and certain hereditary duties of the Crown, with some protective duties, were levied by Edward i. Duties were thereafter granted to the king by Parliament for a stated period or for life. This function of Parliament was dis- puted by Charles i ; but the practice was continued, and in the reign of William and Mary the grant was made perpetual. The special tariffs known as Ton- nage and Poundage (q. v.) were introduced in 1347. The assign- ment of the duties collected to numerous separate funds was not done away with until the passage of the Customs Consoli- dation Act of 1787. United States. — The Consti- tution of the United States (q. V.) was adopted at the Conven- tion of 1787, resulting from the Annapolis Convention (q. v.) of 1786, which was called to con- sider questions of trade at a time when the separate States levied import duties ; and the Constitu- tion granted to the Federal Con- gress the right to levy uniform duties and taxes, and to regulate commerce with foreign nations. European practice and Hamil- ton's theory made the first tariff (1789; the first bill passed by the new Congress) protective in intent, though duties were low in comparison with modern protec- tive measures. It was amended in 1790, when the 5-per-cent rate was increased in many cases to 7^ per cent, or on manufactured articles to 10 per cent, and rates on some raw materials were re- duced. Supplementary acts, to increase revenue, were passed in 1792 and 1794; and twenty-two more before 1816, when the first period of American tariff history may be said to end. It is to be noted that protection had begun, at least in theory, and that in the years immediately before the War of 1812 the Embargo Act, the Non-Intercourse Act, and other measures called out by British and French 'orders' mark the adoption of a policy of re- taliation. The close of the War of 1812 drove American capital from commerce to manufactures ; and the Act of 1816, of which the main purpose was to secure rev- enue, seems to have had a pro- tective intention also. A supple- mentary bill of 1818 was frankly protective. The crisis of 1819, and the increased representation in Congress of the Middle States after 1820, resulted in the adop- tion in 1824 of a new law, rais- ing rates — notably on raw wool, which was to be taxed 25 per cent for one year, 30 per cent for the next, 40 per cent in 1826-27, and then 50 per cent. The law protected iron, wool, hemp, and sugar, and it marked the begin- ning of Henry Gay's 'American system.' After the crisis of 1825 the protectionists urged the increase of duties on wool to encourage the woollen industry. In July, 1827, wool growers and woollen and other manufacturers met in Harrisburg, Pa., to promote pro- tection. New England was com- ing to favor protection, the South to object to it. The par- tial vote of New England with the entire vote of the Middle States and of the West secured in 1828 the passage of the 'Tariff of Abominations' drawn up by Silas Wright of New York, which increased duties on iron, hemp, flax, and wool (the first mixed duty : 4 cents per lb. with additional 40 per cent in 1828, 45 per cent in 1829, and then 50 per cent), and which had no real economic basis, but was dis- tinctly sectional. The tariff of 1828 was super- seded by the Act of 1832, when the minimum system was abol- ished and many rates were re- stored to the basis of the law of 1824. The change did not placate the South, however, and South Carolina attempted to remedy the 'unconstitutional' ac- tion of Congress by 'nullifica- tion.' The outcome was the Compromise Tariff of 1833, which provided for a general re- duction of all duties more than 20 per cent, so that they should be only 20 per cent in 1842, and for the abolition of some duties. But immediately after this mini- mum was reached the Whigs, who were in power, passed a new protective act (Aug. 30, 1842) with a scale of duties compara- ble to that of 1832 ; the average duty rate was 33 per cent. Walker Act. — When the Dem- ocrats came into ofiice in 1845, Robert J. Walker, Secretary of the Treasury, prepared an able tariff report, arguing : for the collection of no more taxes than were required for government expenses ; for no duties above such rate as would yield the highest revenue ; that below this rate there be discrimination, or, 'for imperative reasons,' no duty ; for a maximum revenue duty on luxuries ; for the abolition of minima and specific duties, and for the substitution of ad valorem duties ; and for duties discriminating against no class or section. The Walker Tariff of 1846 provided for eight sched- ules ranging from one hundred per cent (brandy, other spirits, and cordials) through 30 per cent (manufactures of iron, cot- ton, wool, worsted, etc.) and 25 per cent (wool, woollen, and worsted yarn, etc.), down to 5 per cent (raw materials), after first allowing a warehouse priv- ilege. This was a real revenue measure, producing $46,000,000 annually, whereas the Act of 1842 produced only about $26.- 000,000 with very incidental protection. With two slight Tariff KFF 616 Tariff modifications the Walker Act remained in force until 1857, when it was superseded by a measure lowering duties to re- duce the revenue. In 1861, with the ascendency of the Republican Party, the Morrill Act attempted to restore the duties of 1846; but by sub- stituting specific for ad valorem duties, and by increasing duties on iron and wool, it was a higher tariff than that of 1846. The Civil War forced the adoption for purposes of revenue of con- tinually higher import duties ; and tariff increases were also made to offset increases in the internal revenue, and in part to protect manufactures. Even before the close of the Civil War, Congress planned to reduce the war tariff, and in March, 1865, authorized the ap- pointment of three commission- ers to report on a revision of the tax scheme. Instead of reduc- ing duties, Congress, heeding the popular dislike for the direct tax, abolished (between 1866 and 1872) all the internal revenue taxes which in theory had so burdened the manufacturer as to make protective duties necessary to compensate. There were some redvictions in the Act of 1870, principally in raw materials (some were put on the free list), and in foods — tea, coffee, and sugar being reduced from 40 per cent ; but it raised the rates on marble and on steel rails by sub- stituting ad valorem for specific duties. The only protective duty reduced was that on pig iron. The panic of 1873 furnished the excuse of rapidly decreasing revenues for a new tariff in 1875, which repealed the 10-per- cent reduction of 1872, and added 25 per cent to the duty on mo- lasses, sugar, etc., and which may be said to mark the close of the fifteen-year period (1860-75) in which the Republican Party held complete control, and pre- served with slight change the tariffs of the actual war period. The unsuccessful Liberal Re- publican movement of 1872 had its origin largely in tariff re- form, and the Democratic Partv from time to time made tariff reform a party cry. In 1877 the Democrats in the lower House voted for a resolution instruct- ing the Committee on Ways and Means to make the tariff 'purely and solely for revenue, and not for protecting one class of citi- zens by plundering another* ; and in 1880 the Democratic platform declared for a tariff for revenue only. Largely because tariff revenue enormously increased between 1878 and 1880, a special tariff commission was created in 1882 by a Republican Congress, all of the commission's members being protectionists. On its report (December, 1882) was based the general revision of 1883, which did not change the rates on most agricultural products. The cam- paign of 1888 resulted in a vic- tory for the Republicans, who in 1890 passed the act called, from the chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, the McKinley Act, but more truly the work of Nelson W. Aldrich, Senator from Rhode Island. This tariff no- tably reduced the revenue. The Republicans who had passed it suffered a severe defeat in the Congressional elections of 1890, and again in the Presidential campaign of 1892, in which the tariff was a paramount issue. In 1894 the Democrats passed the Wilson Act, which put wool on the free list, but not other raw materials, as the House and the President had planned ; re- duced rates on nearly all textiles, leaving only the ad valorem du- ties, but not reducing these greatly in the case of more ex- pensive goods ; reduced the rates on pig iron and steel ; and to raise sufficient revenue put sugar on the dutiable list. The Republican victory in 1896, though not on the tariff issue, brought about the passage (July, 1897) of the Dingley Act. This reimposed duties on wool, and for woollen goods re-enacted in general the rates of 1890 ; put a duty on hides, free since 1872 ; lowered that on cotton goods be- low what it had been in 1890 ; protected silks and linens by high duties ; increased the duty on sugar, and made it specific ; did not greatly change the metal schedules ; and made provision for Reciprocity (q. v.). The Dingley Tariff remained in force for twelve years, through a period of complete Republican control. Bvxt in the campaign of 1908 the Republican Party was driven to promise tariff revision — principally by the popular no- tion that the high tariff minis- tered to the great corporations, trusts, and monopolies — and the Republican platform adopted a new theory of protection : for 'the imposition of such duties as will equal the difference between the cost of production at home and abroad, together with a rea- sonable profit to American indus- tries.' Payne- Aldrich Tariff. — T h e Act passed by Congress in Au- gust. 1909, was distinctly a high tariff and a protective measure. Hides were again put on the free list ; but this was not done with other raw materials, though duties on many were reduced, as they were on leather, shoes, har- ness, and saddlery, petroleum and mechanically ground wood pulp. The rates were increased on the lower-priced silks, on mercerized cotton (by a surtax for mercerization) and other cot- tons, on silk, on hemp, oats, and hops ; and they were reduced on many chemicals, window glass, fire brick, lumber, coal, fresh meat, cheap carpets and rugs, oilcloth and linoleum. All Phil- ippine products except rice, sugar, and tobacco were admit- ted free. Sugar not in excess of 300,000 tons per annum, and to- bacco not in excess of 300,000 pounds of wrapper, 1,000,000 pounds of filler, and 150,000,000 cigars, coming from the Philip- pines, were also admitted free. For countries showing undue dis- crimination, 25 per cent ad va- lorem was to be added to the stated rates. Previous commer- cial and reciprocity treaties were terminated. The U nderzvood-Simmons Tar- iff Law of iPi 5. —With the in- auguration of President Wood- row Wilson in 1913, the Demo- crats came into full control for the second time since the Civil War, and on Oct. 3, 1913, a new Tariff Act was signed — the first in fifty-six years to give gen- erally and substantially lower tariff duties. The average duty on dutiable goods was lowered from 40.05 per cent in 1913 to 33.43 per cent in 1915. Revenue Act of 1916. — Fur- ther revenue pressure, particu- larly in connection with pre- paredness arising from the World War, led to the passage on Sept. 8, 1916, of an 'Act to increase the revenue.' The tariff provisions of this Act included : (1) Special dyestuffs items were classified into three groups : Group I, entering without duty ; Group II, a duty of 15 per cent; Group III, a duty of 30 per cent. (2) Assessing a duty of 12 per cent on printing paper above 5 cents per pound in value, and ad- ditional countervailing duties if a foreign government taxed ex- portation of raw materials for making such paper. (3) Establishing the United States Tariff Commission, to con- sist of six members appointed by the President (not more than three to be of the same political party) to investigate and report upon tariff matters to Congress annually, and to the President of the United States or to the Tariff Committees of the House and Senate whenever requested. (4) Legislation against unfair competition : (a) Making unlaw- ful importation and sale at prices substantially less than those charged in the country of origin plus transport expense; {b) for- bidding factors' agreements in the sale of imported articles. (5) The enactment of retalia- Tariff KFF 617 Tariff tory tariff powers empowering the President (a) to prohibit im- portations of goods of any coun- try which prohibits the import of a like product of the soil or industry of the United States ; and {b) in case, during a war in which the United States is not engaged, any other country pre- vents import, of United States goods into its own or other terri- tory, to make proclamation pro- hibiting or restricting import into the United States of similar or other articles. Other retali- atory measures were also pro- vided for. In the Act of May 27, 1921, the Emergency Tariff was passed. This act imposed tem- porary duties upon certain agri- cultural products _ to meet the existing emergencies. Fordncy-McCumber Tariff. — This tariff law was passed Sept. 21, 1922. Its advocates looked upon it as a measure to 'raise revenue and to reduce unemploy- ment,' while its opponents called it 'a bill to raise the cost of liv- ing, to hamper foreign trade, and to retard the return of pros- perity.' Among the special provisions of the Act were the following : (1) The President was given dis- cretionary power to impose addi- tional duties or prohibition upon imports from any country dis- criminating against the foreign commerce of the United States. (2) The duties of the Tariff Commission were extended so as to better enable it to assist the President and Congress. (3) The 'flexible tariff' plan gave the President authority to raise or lower any rate, not to exceed 50 per cent. (4) The President might substitute American for foreign valuation whenever nec- essary to equalize differences in cost of production at home and abroad. Hawley-Smoot Tariff. — This law was enacted June 18, 1930, after a bitter struggle lasting for eighteen months. It was passed in the Senate by the narrow margin of two votes. Its op- ponents characterized it as the most vicious bit of tariff legis- lation ever enacted and its ad- vocates hailed it as the beginning of renewed prosperity. Featvires of the bill were the flexible pro- vision, somewhat broader in scope than in the Act of 1922, the unprecedented high level of agricultural _ rates, industrial rates which in some instances were at a higher figure than usual, and increased authority for the Tariff Commission. Some of the notable changes in items from the rates of 1922 were increases in rates on sugar, boots and shoes, pig iron, silk clothes, rag rugs, leather, hides. corn, eggs, butter, brick and wool ; and decreases in auto- mobiles, logs, precious stones and carillons. Revenue Acts of 1932 and 1934, — The advent of a Demo- cratic administration in 1932 did not once again start a reversal of • the traditional Republican high tariff policy. The depres- sion made such a move unpopu- lar. Section 3c of the National Industrial Recovery Act was a protective measure for industries operating under codes of fair practice, giving the President power to regulate imports if they rendered ineffective or threat- ened the maintenance of the NIRA codes. The Revenue Acts of 1932 and 1934 imposed taxes on importation of certain items which were on the free list of the Hawley-Smoot tariff of 1930. A special provision states that such taxes are not to be con- sidered a duty for the purposes of Sec. 336 of the Hawley-Smoot Tariff Act of 1930 (the so-called 'flexible tariff provision'), and therefore could not be changed. Reciprocal Trade Agree- ments of 1934-35 gen- eral new foreign trade policy was developed by President F. D. Roosevelt and Secretary of State Cordell Hull ; a policy of de- veloping individual reciprocal trade agreements. President Roosevelt in his message to Con- gress March, 1934 pointed out the startling drop in world trade. Exports in 1933 were only 52% of the 1929 volume, and only 32% of value. He strongly ad- vocated a policy of reciprocal negotiation. In June, 1934, an amendment to the Tariff Act of 1930 was passed authorizing the president to enter into trade agreements and proclaim modi- fications of existing duties, but not more than 50% increase or decrease, or transfer of items be- tween dutiable and free list. The trade agreements authorized were to be subject to termina- tion in three years if so desired ; at which time also the president's authority to negotiate would cease. Canadian Trade Agree- ment, 1935, — The largest of the new negotiated trade agree- ments was with Canada. It re- duced duties on over 700 items. The agreement bound the United States to keep on the free list pulpwood, wood pulp, newsprint paper, logs, laths, posts, etc., tm- manufactured asbestos, certain fisheries products including lob- sters ; certain furs, crude arti- ficial abrasives, nickel ore, cer- tain fertilizers. Reductions in duty for speci- fied quantities of cattle, calves, dairy cattle, cream, seed pota- toes, Douglas fir or Western hemlock. Imports in excess of specified quantities to pay old rates. Reductions in duty on other timber and lumber, Cheddar cheese, turnips, apples, hay, maple sugar, live poultry, hali- but and some other fish, patent leather, harness leather, fire brick, lime, talc, ferro man- ganese, ferro silicon, whiskey, pulpboard, and a number of other items. Canadian concessions can be classified under three headings : (1) By virtue of the inclusion in the agreement of the un- conditional most-favored-nation clause, the United States will re- ceive the benefit of lower duties on several hundred commodities. There is no obligation to main- tain this lower rate on any of these commodities. The promise is merely that the United States will receive as low a rate of duty as is accorded to any country outside of the British Empire. (2) Canada has 'bound' for the life of the agreement the rates on approximately 180 items or sub-items. About half of these bound duties are at new rates lower than any Canada currently accords to any cotmtry outside the British Empire. (3) A promise to introduce at the next session of Parliament measures designed to modify the adminis- trative provisions of the Cana- dian tariff act in relation to valu- ation in such a manner as to limit arbitrary valuations. Swedish Trade Agreement, effective Jan. 1, 1936, provided for general most-favored-nation treatment ; no discrimination in quotas or through control of ex- change ; no discrimination after importation in way of taxes, fees, etc. ; no additional duties, charges, etc., or change in basis of assessment on articles covered by agreement. Belgian Trade Agreement, 1935, reduced 47 duties on goods entering the United States, chief items being glass sand, plate glass, cement, low-price iron and steel, linen fabrics, hand-made lace. The United States concessions involve 25% of imports ; Belgian concessions involve 38% of exports. Latin- American Pacts went into effect or were pending in 1936. Prior to the one with Cuba (1934) that republic en- joyed preferential tariff rates. The new agreement was of four varieties: (1) reduction in duty, with margin of preference un- changed, as for example lard, re- duced from 21.16 pesos to 5; (2) reduction in duty with in- creased margin of preference, as for example sugar cured hams, 24 pesos to 21, preferences in- creased 20 to 30% ; (3) duty Tariff KFF 618 Tariff bound at former level with in- creased margin of preference, as for example auto bulbs, 1.5 pesos, preferences increased 25 to 60% ; (4) duty and preference bound, as for example tractors, 4% ad valorem, preference 20%. Agreem'ent with Colombia covered 80% of imports, only 3 reductions. Concessions by Colombia cover 165 items, half of which are reduced 16 to 90% ; on the remainder the duty is bound. Duties are reduced on balsam, ipecac and castor bean imports. Agreement with Brazil (1935) reduced duties on balsam, ipecac, mate, manganese ore, brazil nuts, castor beans. On the free list were put crude ipecac and mate, cocoa and cacao beans, coffee, balata, cabinet woods in the log and other small items. Brazil reduced duties on 23% of im- ports into United States, cover- ing a wide variety of manufac- tured goods ; the reductions rang- ing from 10 to 59%. _ Agreement with Haiti (1935) provided for thirteen duty re- ductions by Haiti and the bind- ing against increase of nineteen items ; including both manufac- tured and agricultural articles. The United States granted re- ductions on molasses and sugar, rum, pineapples, etc. Cocoa beans, coffee, logwood, etc. were bound on the free list. Agreement with Nicaragua (1936) set up a new schedule of rates on numerous articles, many of them reductions ; ma- chinery and electrical equipment going on the free list. The United States set up a 5% ad valorem rate on balsam, and pvit all other items of import into the United States on the free list — bananas, ipecac, coffee, dye- ing woods, skins and cabinet logs, etc. In the trade agreement with Switzerland (1936) the most important item was Swiss watches. It set up a system of regulation of export of watches and watch movements, using ex- port permits which are viseed by Swiss customs authorities, in an effort to suppress widespread smuggling into the United States. By such carefully audited system this long-standing evil is to be eradicated. The rate on watches and watch movements imported into the United States is reduced to 90^ to 1.80 each. Reductions on various manufactured and agricultural articles are granted by Switzerland. The policy of negotiated trade agreements has been continuously developed, with negotiations pending in 1936 with several Eu- ropean and Latin American countries. The concessions granted in the agreement with Cuba apply only to imports, from Cuba, whereas in every other trade agreement the concessions granted are extended to all coun- tries of the world except Ger- many. Foreign Trade Zones, — After years of discussion, and a favorable report made by the United States Tariff Commis- sion in 1919, a foreign trade zone plan was authorized by Con- gress in June, 1934. The plan calls for setting up designated zones on United States soil to which foreign goods may be brought for manipulation, but not for manufacture or exhibi- tion, and for shipment to foreign countries, without payment of duties — or for consumption in the United States upon payment of duties. The Secretaries of War, Treasury and Commerce constitute a board to carry out this act. The first foreign trade zone was authorized in 1936 on Staten Island, New York. Great Britain, — At the close of the Napoleonic wars heavy duties existed on raw materials, most articles of general consump- tion, and especially on food prod- ucts. From that time, however, dates the beginning of the change from protectionism to free trade in England ; and it was the ex- ample of England which brought about the lowering of interna- tional tariffs in the period 1840-60. While reduction of duties in- creased consumption and restored the revenues, the bulk of the duties hampering commerce still remained. Of 1,150 different dutiable items in 1840, 9 items yielded six-sevenths of the total receipts, while 349 items yielded only $40,000. Such facts led to the reform of 1842, by which Sir Robert Peel lowered the duties on 750 articles, independent of later changes in the Corn Laws. The result was an improvement of trade and a recovery of rev- enues. In 1845 a more radical act removed 450 items, chiefly raw materials, from the tariff list. The law of 1846 brought about a simple registration duty of 1^. per quarter on wheat, at the end of three years. In 1849 foreign vessels were allowed equal rights with British ships in the foreign trade, and in 1854 foreign ships in the coasting trade of Great Britain. After the final defeat of the protectionists in 1852, Gladstone completed the reforms begun in 1827 by establishing a full free- trade system of tariffs. It was his policy: (1) to abolish all un- productive duties ; (2) to abolish duties on half-manufactured ar- ticles; (3) to reduce duties on fully manufactured goods to 10 per cent; (4) to change ad valo- rem to specific duties; (5) to abolish differential duties ; and (6) to lower duties on food. In 1860 differential duties and protective tariffs on manufac- tured goods were abolished, only the productive duties on about fifty important articles of con- sumption being retained for pur- poses of revenue. Since that time the number of dutiable ar- ticles was reduced. On Aug. 19, 1921, a new tariff was voted for the defense of es- sential industries providing a tax of 33>^ per cent ad valorem on goods imported from any country whose currency was de- preciated to a specified degree below the English level. Some of the duties were repealed in 1924 but reenacted in 1925 and the provisions of the safeguard- ing of essential industries were given wider scope. In 1932 Great Britain made an historic change in policy, abandoning its traditional free- trade or limited tariff, position, in effect since the equally his- toric repeal of the 'Corn Laws' in 1846. Prior to the World War British revenues were ob- tained from about 25 noncom- petitive commodities, chiefly tea, coffee, sugar, tobacco and spirits on a revenue basis ; but in March 1932 a temporary general tariff of 10% ad valorem was imposed on all articles not already duti- able, except certain staples and raw materials. In April 1932 an elaborated tariff permanent schedule on manufacturers rang- ing from 10 to 33^3 per cent of value was adopted, but not to apply to products coming from British colonies. The Imperial Economic Conference at Ottawa in August 1932 resulted in 12 bilateral trade agreements to run until 1937, aimed to increase purchases between the British commonwealths. These govern- ments and the United Kingdom (except the Irish Free State) at once proceeded to give the in- creased tariff preferences called for. The Irish Free State set up a new series of tariff duties and increases, in some cases re- fusing to grant preference to British Empire goods. Contro- versial tariffs were set up by the United Kingdom and the Irish Free State. The quota restric- tions on imports of meat rep- resented the first Empire use of this device, which was fairly general on the Continent. The Irish Free State introduced a system of licenses on imports of wheat flour. The British 'wheat quota act' was a measure for im- proving returns to English wheat growers. With the new tariff protection the United Kingdom began a bargaining process with other countries. TEMPORARY PAGES FOR NELSON'S L. L. ENCYCLOPiEDIA To replace the 13 Sheets on 1922 Tariff between pages 618 and 619, Volume XI. United States Tariff Act of 1930 The United States Tariff Act of 1930. The Hawley-Smoot tariff bill was passed on June 14, 1930, signed by President Hoover on the 17th and came into effect on the following day. This new Act reached the highest protec- tive level of any tariff law ever passed, with an average rate of about twenty per cent higher than its predecessor, the Ford- ney-McCumber bill of 1922. The average rate on agricultural raw materials was raised from 38.10 to 48.92 per cent, while changes were made in 1,122 rates — 34 per cent of the total. More than thirty foreign countries protested against the severity of the tariff and threats of retaliation were freely made. President Hoover insisted that the 'flexible' pro- vision of the Fordney-McCumber Tariff be retained; the President's power to proclaim higher and lower rates was somewhat re- stricted, and the Tariff Commis- sion was reorganized. Part II. — United States Tariff Commission: Sec. 330. Organization of the Commission: (a) Membership. — The United States Tariff Commission (re- ferred to in this title as the 'commission') shall be composed of six commissioners to be here- after appointed by the President by and with the advice and con- sent of the Senate, but each member now in office shall con- tinue to serve until his successor (as designated by the President at the time of nomination) takes office, but in no event for longer than ninety days after the effec- tive date of this Act. No person shall be eligible for appointment as a commissioner unless he is a citizen of the United States, and, in the judgment of the President, is possessed of qualifications requisite for developing expert knowledge of tariff problems and efficiency in administering the provisions of Part U of this title. Not more than three of the com- missioners shall be members of the same political party, and in making appointments members of different political parties shall be appointed alternately as near- ly as may be practicable. (b) Terms of Office. — Terms of office of the commissioners first taking office after the date of the enactment of this Act, shall ex- pire, as designated by the Presi- dent at the time of nomination, one at the end of each of the first six years after the date of the enactment of this Act. The term of office of a successor to any such commissioner shall expire six years from the date of the ex- piration of the term for which his predecessor was appointed, ex- cept that any commissioner ap- pointed to fill a vacancy occur- ring prior to the expiration of the term for which his predecessor was appointed, shall be appoint- ed for the remainder of such term. (c) Chairman, Vice Chairman, and Salary. — The President shall annually designate one of the commissioners as chairman and one as vice chairman of the com- mission. The vice chairman shall act as chairman in case of the absence or disability of the chairman. A majority of the commissioners in office shall con- stitute a quorum, but the com- mission may function notwith- standing vacancies. Each com- missioner (including members in office on the date of the enact- ment of this Act) shall receive a salary of $11,000 a year. No commissioner shall actively en- gage in any other business, voca- tion, or employment than that of serving as a commissioner. Sec. 331. General Powers. (a) Personnel. — The commis- sion shall appoint a secretary, who shall receive a salary of $7,500 per year, and the com- mission shall have authority to employ and fix the compensa- tions of such special experts, ex- aminers, clerks, and other em- ployees as the commission may from time to time find necessary for the proper performance of its duties. (b) A pplication of Civil Service Law. — With the exception of the secretary, a clerk to each com- missioner, and such special ex- perts as the commisvsion may from time to time find necessary for the conduct of its work, all employees of the commission shall be appointed from lists of eligibles to be supplied by the Civil Service Commission and in accordance with the civil service law. (c) Expenses. — All of the ex- penses of the commission, in- cluding all necessary expenses for transportation incurred by the commissioners or by their employees under their orders in making any investigation or upon official business in any other places than at their respective headquarters, shall be allowed and paid on the presentation of itemized vouchers therefor ap- proved by the commission. (d) Offices and Supplies. — Un- less otherwise provided by law, the commission may rent suitable offices for its use, and purchase such furniture, equipment, and supplies as may be necessary. (e) Principal Office at Wash- ington. — The principal oflfice of the commission shall be in the city of Washington, but it may meet and exercise all its powers at any other place. The commis- sion may, by one or more of its members, or by such agents as it may designate, prosecute any in- quiry necessary to its duties in any part of the United States or in any foreign country. (f) Office at New York. — The commission is authorized to establish and maintain an office at the port of New York for the purpose of directing or carrying on any investigation, receiving and compiling statistics, select- ing, describing, and filing samples of articles, and performing any of the duties or exercising any of the powers imposed upon it by law. (g) Official Seal. — The com- mission is authorized to adopt an ofificial seal, which shall be judi- cially noticed. Section 332. Investigations. (a) Investigations and Reports. — It shall be the duty of the commission to investigate the administration and fiscal and in- dustrial effects of the customs laws of this country now in force or which may be hereafter enacted, the relations between the rates of duty on raw mate- rials and finished or partly finished products, the effects of ad valorem and specific duties and of compound specific and ad valorem duties, all questions rela- tive to the arrangement of schedules and classification of articles in the several schedules of the customs law, and, in general, to investigate the operation of .customs laws, including their re- lation to the Federal revenues, their effect upon the industries and labor of the country, and to submit reports of its investiga- tions as hereafter provided. (b) Investigations of Tariff Re- lations. — The commission shall have power to investigate the tariff relations between the Unit- ed States and foreign countries, commercial treaties, preferential provisions, economic alliances, the effect of export bounties and preferential transportation rates, the volume of importations com- pared with domestic production and consumption, and conditions, causes, and effects relating to competition of foreign industries with those of the United States, including dumping and cost of production. (c) Investigation of Paris Econ- omy Pact. — The commission shall have power to investigate the Paris Economy Pact and similar Tariff 2 Tariff organizations and arrangements in Europe. (d) Information for President and Congress. — In order that the President and the Congress may secure information and assist- ance, it shall be the duty of the commission to — (1) Ascertain conversion costs and costs of production in the principal growing, producing, or manufacturing centres of the United States of articles of the United States, whenever in the opinion of the commission it is practicable; (2) Ascertain conversion costs and costs of production in the principal growing, producing, or manufacturing centres of foreign countries of articles im- ported into the United States, whenever in the opinion of the commission such conversion costs or costs of production are necessary for comparison with conversion costs or costs of pro- duction in the United States and can be reasonably ascertained ; (3) Select and describe articles which are representative of the classes or kinds of articles im- ported into the United States and which are similar to or comparable with articles of the United States; select and de- scribe articles of the United States similar to or comparable with such imported articles; and obtain and file samples of articles so selected, whenever the commission deems it ad- visable; (4) Ascertain import costs of such representative articles so selected ; (5) Ascertain the grower's, producer's, or manufacturer's selling prices in the principal growing, producing, or manu- facturing centres of the United States of the articles of the United States so selected; and (6) Ascertain all other facts which will show the differences in or which affect competition between articles of the United States and imported articles in the principal markets of the United States. (e) Definitions. — When used in this subdivision and in subdivi- sion (d) — (1) The term 'article' includes any commodity, whether grown, produced, fabricated, manipulated, or manufactured; (2) The term 'import cost' means the price at which an article is freely offered for vsale in the ordinary course of trade in the usual wholesale quan- tities for exportation to the United States plus, when not included in such price, all necessary expenses, exclusive of customs duties, of bringing such imported article to the United States. (f) The Tariff Commission is hereby directed, within eight Vol. XI.— 31-M months from the passage of this Act, to ascertain the approxi- mate average cost per barrel to the oil refineries located on the Atlantic seaboard of crude petro- leum delivered to them from the oil fields of the United States during the three years preceding 1930, and the present approxi- mate average cost per barrel of crude petroleum from Lake Mar- acaibo, Venezuela, delivered to the same points. Such relative costs shall be immediately certi- fied to the Speaker of the House of Representatives and to the President of the Senate for the information of the Congress. (g) Reports to President and Congress.— Tho: commission shall put at the disposal of the Presi- dent of the United States, the Committee on Ways and Means of the House of Representatives, and the Committee on Finance of the Senate, whenever requested, all information at its command, and shall make such investiga- tions and reports as may be re- quested by the President or by either of said committees or by either branch of the Congress, and shall report to Congress on the first Monday of December of each year hereafter a statement of the methods adopted and all expenses incurred, and a sum- mary of all reports made during the year. See. 333. Testimony and Pro- duction of Papers. (a) Authority to Obtain In- formation. — For the purposes of carrying Part II of this title into effect the commission or its duly authorized agent or agents, shall have access to and the right to copy any document, paper, or record, pertinent to the subject matter under investigation, in the possession of any person, firm, copartnership, corporation, or as- sociation engaged in the produc- tion, importation, or distribution of any article under investiga- tion, and shall have power to summon witnesses, take testi- mony, administer oaths, and to require any person, firm, copart- nership, corporation, or associa- tion to produce books or papers relating to any matter pertaining to such investigation. Any mem- ber of the commission may sign subpoenas, and members and agents of the commission, when authorized by the commission, may administer oaths and affir- mations, examine witnesses, take testimony, and receive evidence. Sec. 336. Equalization of Costs of Production. (a) Change of Classification or Duties. — In order to put into force and effect the policy of Congress by this Act intended, the commission (1) upon requesc of the President, or (2) upon resolution of either or both Houses of Congress, or (3) upon its own motion, or (4) when in the judgment of the commission there is good and sufficient reason therefor, upon application of any interested party, shall investigate the differences in the costs of pro- duction of any domestic article and of any like or similar foreign article. In the course of the in- vestigation the commission shall hold hearings and give reasonable public notice thereof, and shall afford reasonable opportunity for parties interested to be present, to produce evidence, and to be heard at such hearings. The commission is authorized to adopt such reasonable procedure and rules and regulations as it deems necessary to execute its functions under this section. The commission shall report to the President the results of the in- vestigation and its findings with respect to such differences in costs of production. If the com- mission finds it shown by the investigation that the duties ex- pressly fixed by statute do not equalize the differences in the costs of production of the domes- tic article and the like or similar foreign article when produced in the principal competing country, the commission shall specify in its report such increases or de- creases in rates of. duty expressly fixed by statute (including any necessary change in classifica- tion) as it finds shown by the in- vestigation to be necessary to equahze such differences. In no case shall the total increase or de- crease of such rates of duty ex- ceed 50 per centum of the rates expressly fixed by statute. (b) Change to American Selling Price. — If the commission finds upon any such investigation that such differences can not be equal- ized by proceeding as hereinbe- fore provided, it shall so state in its report to the President and shall specify therein such ad valorem rates of duty based upon the American selling price (as defined in section 402 (g) ) of the domestic article, as it finds shown by the investigation to be neces- sary to equalize such differences. In no case shall the total decrease of such rates of duty exceed 50 per centum of the rates expressly fixed by statute, and no such rate shall be increased. (c) Proclamation by the Presi- dent. — The President shall by proclamation approve the rates of duty and changes in classifica- tion and in basis of value specified in any report of the commission under this section, if in his judg- ment such rates of duty and changes are shown by such in- vestigation of the commission to be necevssary to equalize such differences in costs of production. (d) Effective Dale of Rates and Changes. — Commencing thirty days after the date of any presi- Tariff 3 Tariff dential proclamation of approval the increased or decreased rates of duty and changes in classifica- tion or in basis of value specified in the report of the commission shall take effect. (e) Ascertainment of Differ- ences in Costs of Production. — In ascertaining under this section the differences in costs of produc- tion, the commission shall take into consideration, in so far as it finds it practicable: (1) In the Case of a Domestic Article. — (A) The cost of pro- duction as hereinafter in this section defined; (B) transpor- tation costs and other costs incident to delivery to the principal market or markets of the United States for the ar- ticle; and (C) other relevant factors that constitute an ad- vantage or disadvantage in competition. (2) In the Case of a Foreign Article. — (A) The cost of pro- duction as hereinafter in this section defined, or, if the com- mission finds that such cost is not readily ascertainable, the commission may accept as evidence thereof, or as supple- mental thereto, the weighted average of the invoice prices or values for a representative period and/or the average wholesale selling price for a representative period (which price shall be that at which the article is freely offered for sale to all purchasers in the princi- pal market or markets of the principal competing country or countries in the ordinary course of trade and in the usual wholesale quantities in such market or markets) ; ('B) transportation costs and other costs incident to delivery to the principal market or mar- kets of the United States for the article; (C) other relevant factors that constitute an ad- vantage or disadvantage in competition, including advan- tages granted to the foreign pro- ducers by a government, person, partnership, corporation, or association in a foreign country. (f) Modification of Changes in Duly. — Any increased or de- creased rate of duty or change in classification or in basis of value which has taken effect as above provided may be modified or terminated in the same manner and subject to the same condi- tions and limitations (including time of taking effect) as is pro- vided in this section in the case of original increases, decreases, or changes. (g) Prohibition Against Trans- fers from the Free List to the Dutiable List or from the Dutiable List to the Free List. — Nothing in this section shall be construed to authorize a transfer of an article from the dutiable list to the free list or from the free list to the dutiable list, nor a change in form of duty. Whenever it is provided in any paragraph of Title I of this Act, or in any amendatory Act, that the duty or duties shall not exceed a specified ad valorem rate upon the articles provided for in such paragraph, no rate de- termined under the provisions of this section upon such articles shall exceed the maximum ad valorem rate so specified. (h) Definitions. — For the pur- pose of this section — (1) The term 'domestic article' means an article wholly or in part the growth or product of the United States; and the term 'foreign article' means an article wholly or in part the growth or product of a foreign country. (2) The term 'United States' includes the several States and Territories and the District of Columbia. (3) The term 'foreign country' means any empire, country, dominion, colony, or protecto- rate, or any subdivision or sub- divisions thereof (other than the United States and its pos- sessions) . (4) The term 'cost of produc- tion,' when applied with re- spect to either a domestic article or a foreign article, in- cludes, for a period which is representative of conditions in production of the article: (A) The price or cost of materials, labor costs, and other direct charges incurred in the produc- tion of the article and in the processes or methods employed in its production; (B) the usual general expenses, includ- ing charges for depreciation or depletion which are repre- sentative of the equipment and property employed in the pro- duction of the article and charges for rent or interest which are representative of the cost of obtaining capital or in- struments of production; and (C) the cost of containers and coverings of whatever nature, and other costs, charges, and expenses incident to placing the article in condition packed ready for delivery. (i) Rules and Regulations of President. — The President is au- thorized to make all needful rules and regulations for carrying out his functions under the provi- sions of this section. (j) Rules and Regulations of Secretary of Treasury. — The Sec- retary of the Treasury is author- ized to make such rules and regu- lations as he may deem necessary for the entry and declaration of foreign articles of the class or kind of articles with respect to which a change in basis of value has been made under the provi- sions of subdivision (b) of this section, and for the form of in- voice required at time of entry. (k) Investigations Prior to En- actment of Act. — All uncompleted investigations instituted prior to the approval of this Act under the provisions of section 315 of the Tariff Act of 1922, including investigations in which the Presi- dent has not proclaimed changes in classification or in basis of value or increases or decreases in rates of duty, shall be dismissed without prejudice; but the infor- mation and evidence secured by the commission in any such in- vestigation may be given due con- sideration in any investigation instituted under the provisions of this section. Sec. 337. Unfair Practices in Import Trade. (a) Unfair Methods of Compe- tition Declared Unlawful. — Un- fair methods of competition and unfair acts in the importation of articles into the United States, or in their sale by the owner, im- porter, consignee, or agent of either, the effect or tendency of which is to destroy or substantial- ly injure an industry, efficiently and economically operated, in the United States, or to prevent the establishment of such an industry or to restrain or monopolize trade and commerce in the United States, are hereby declar- ed unlawful, and when found by the President to exist shall be dealt with, in addition to any other provisions of law, as here- inafter provided. (b) Investigations of Violations by Commission. — To assist the President in making any decisions under this section the commission is hereby authorized to investi- gate any alleged violation hereof on complaint under oath or upon its initiative. (c) Hearings and Review. — The commission shall make such investigation under and in ac- cordance with such rules as it may promulgate and give such notice and afford such hearing, and when deemed proper by the commission such rehearing, with opportunity to offer evidence, oral or written, as it may deem sufficient for a full presentation of the facts involved in such in- vestigation. The testimony in every such investigation shall be reduced to writing, and a trans- cript thereof with the findings and recommendation of the com- mission shall be the official record of the proceedings and findings in the case, and in any case where the findings in such investigation show a violation of this section, a copy of the findings shall be promptly mailed or delivered to the importer or consignee of such articles. Such findings, if sup- ported by evidence, shall be con- clusive, except that a rehearing may be granted by the commis- sion and except that, within such time after said findings are made and in such manner as appeals Vol. XI.— 31-M Tariff 4 Tariff may be taken from decisions of the United States Customs Court, an appeal may be taken from said findings upon a question or ques- tions of law only to the United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals by the importer or consignee of such articles. If it shall be shown to the satisfac- tion of said court that further evidence should be taken, and that there were reasonable grounds for the failure to adduce such evidence in the proceedings before the commission, said court may order such additional evi- dence to be taken before the com- mission in such manner and upon such terms and conditions as to the court may seem proper. The commission may modify its findings as to the facts or make new findings by reason of addi- tional evidence, which, if sup- ported by evidence, shall be con- clusive as to the facts except that within such time and in such manner an appeal may be taken as aforesaid upon a question or questions of law only. The judgment of said court shall be final. (d) Transmission of Findings to President. — The final findings of the commission shall be trans- mitted with the record to the President. (e) Exclusion of Articles from Entry. — Whenever the existence of any such unfair method or act shall be established to the satisfac tion of the President he shall di- rect that the articles concerned in such unfair methods or acts, im- ported by any person violating the provisions of this Act, shall be excluded from entry into the United States, and upon informa- tion of such action by the Presi- dent, the Secretary of the Treas- ury shall, through the proper officers, refuse such entry. The decision of the President shall be conclusive. (f) Entry Under Bond. — When- ever the President has reason to believe that any article is offered or sought to be offered for entry into the United States in viola- tion of this section but has not in- formation sufficient to satisfy him thereof, the Secretary of the Treasury shall, upon his request in writing, forbid entry thereof until such investigation as the President may deem necessary shall be completed; except that such articles shall be entitled to entry under bond prescribed by the Secretary of the Treasury. (g) Continuance of Exclusion. — Any refusal of entry under this section shall continue in effect until the President shall find and instruct the Secretary of the Treasury that the conditions which led to such refusal of entry no longer exist. (h) Definition. — When used in this section and in sections 338 and 340, the term 'United Vol. XI —31 M States' includes the several State i and Territories, the District of Columbia, and all possessions of the United States except the Philippine Islands, the Virgin Islands, American Samoa, and the island of Guam. Sec. 338. Discrimination by Foreign Countries. (a) Additional Duties. — The President when he finds that the public interest will be served thereby shall by proclamation specify and declare new or ad- ditional duties as hereinafter pro- vided upon articles wholly or in part the growth or product of, or imported in a vessel of, any foreign country whenever he shall find as a fact that such country — (1) Imposes, directly or in- directly, upon the disposition in or transportation in transit through or reexportation from such country of any article wholly or in part the growth or product of the United States any unreasonable charge, ex- action, regulation, or limita- tion which is not equally en- forced upon the like articles of every foreign country; or (2) Discriminates in fact against the commerce of the United States, directly or in- directly, by law or administra- tive regulation or practice, by or in respect to any customs, tonnage, or port duty, fee, charge, exaction, classification, regulation, condition, restric- tion, or prohibition, in such manner as to place the com- merce of the United States at a disadvantage compared with the commerce of any foreign country. (b) Exclusion from Importa- tion. — If at any time the Presi- dent shall find it to be a fact that any foreign country has not only discriminated against the commerce of the United States, as aforesaid, but has, after the issuance of a proclamation as authorized in subdivision (a) of this sec^on, maintained or in- creased its said discriminations against the commerce of the United States, the President is hereby authorized, if he deems it consistent with the interests of the United States, to issue a further proclamation directing that such products of said country or such articles imported in its vessels as he shall deem consistent with the public inter- ests shall be excluded from im- portation into the United States. (c) Application of Proclama- tion. — Any proclamation issued by the President under the au- thority of this section shall, if he deems it consistent with the in- terests of the United States, ex- tend to the whole of any foreign country or may be confined to any subdivision or subdivisions thereof; and the President shall, whenever he deems the public in- terests require, suspend, revoke, supplement, or amend any such proclamation. (d) Duties to Offset Commer- cial Disadvantages. — Whenever the President shall find as a fact that any foreign country places any burden or disadvantage upon the commerce of theUnitedStates by any of the unequal imposi- tions or discriminations afore- said, he shall, when he finds that the public interest will be served thereby, by proclamadon specify and declare such new or addi- tional rate or rates of duty as he shall determine will offset such burden or disadvantage, not to exceed 50 per centum ad valorem or its equivalent, on any prod- ucts of, or on articles imported in a vessel of, such foreign country; and thirty days after the date of such proclamation there shall be levied, collected, and paid upon the articles enumerated in such proclamation when imported into the United States from such foreign country such new or ad- ditional rate or rates of duty; or. in case of articles declared sub- ject to exclusion from importa- tion into the United States under the provisions of subdivision (b) of this section, such articles shall be excluded from importation. (e) Duties to Offset Benefits to Third Country. — -Whenever the President shall find as a fact that any foreign country imposes any unequal imposition or discrimina- tion as aforesaid upon the com- merce of the United States, or that any benefits accrue or are likely to accrue to any industry in any foreign country by reason of any such imposition or dis- crimination imposed by any foreign country other than the foreign country in which such in- dustry is located, and whenever the President shall determine that any new or additional rate or rates of duty or any prohibi- tion hereinbefore provided for do not effectively remove such im- position or discrimination and that any benefits from any such imposition or discrimination ac- crue or are likely to accrue to any industry in any foreign country, he shall, when he finds that the public interest will be served thereby, by proclamation specify and declare such new or addi- tional rate or rates of duty upon the articles wholly or in part the growth or product of any such industry as he shall determine will offset such benefits, not to exceed 50 per centum ad valorem or its equivalent, upon importa- tion from any foreign country into the United States of such articles; and on and after thirty days after the date of any such proclamation such new or ad- ditional rate or rates of duty so specified and declared in such proclamation shall be levied, col- Tariff 5 Tariff lected, and paid upon such articles. (f) Forfeiture of Articles. — 'All articles imported contrary to the provisions of this section shall be forfeited to the United States and shall be liable to be seized, prose- cuted, and condemned in like manner and under the same regu- lations, restrictions, and provi- sions as may from time to time be established for the recovery, col- lection, distribution, and re- mission of forfeitures to the United States by the several revenue laws. Whenever the provisions of this Act shall be applicable to importations into the United States of articles wholly or in part the gro\vth or product of any foreign country, they shall be applicable thereto whether such articles are im- ported directly or indirectly. (g) Ascertainment by Commis- sion of Discriminations . — It shall be the duty of the commission to ascertain and at all times to be informed whether any of the dis- criminations against the com- merce of the United States enumerated in subdivisions (a), (b), and (e) of this section are practised by any country; and if and when such discriminatory acts are disclosed, it shall be the duty of the commission to bring the matter to the attention of the President, together with recom- mendations. (h) Rules and Regulations of Secretary of Treasury. — The Sec- retary of the Treasury with the approval of the President shall make such rules and regulations as are necessary for the execution of such proclamations as the President may issue in accord- ance with the provisions of this section. (i) Definition. — When used in this section the term 'foreign country' means any empire, country, dominion, colony or pro- tectorate, or any subdivision or subdivisions thereof (other than the United States and its posses- sions), within which separate tariff rates or separate regula- tions of commerce are enforced. Sec. 339. Effect of Re-enact- ment of Existing Law. Notwithstanding the repeal by section 651 of the laws relating to the United States Tariff Com- mission and their re-enactment in sections 330 to 338, inclusive, with modifications, the unex- pended balances of appropria- tions available for the commis- sion at the time this section takes effect shall remain available for the commission in the adminis- tration of its functions under this Act; and such repeal and re-en- actment shall not operate to change the status of the officers and employees under the juris- diction of the commission at the time this section takes effect. No investigation or other proceeding pending before the commission at such time (other than pro- ceedings under section 315 of the Tariff Act of 1922) shall abate by reason of such repeal and re- enactment, but shall continue under the provisions of this Act. Sec. 340. Domestic Value — Conversion of Rates. (a) Conversion of Rates by Commission. — The commission shall ascertain, with respect to each of the ad valorem rates of duty, and each of the rates of duty regulated by the value of the article, specified in this Act, an ad valorem rate (or a rate regulated by the value of the article, as the case may be) which if applied upon the basis of do- mestic value would have resulted as nearly as possible in the im- position, during the period from July 1, 1927, to June 30, 1929, both dates inclusive, of amounts of duty neither greater nor less than would have been collectible at the rate specified in this Act applied upon the basis of value defined in section 402 of the Tariff Act of 1922. (b) Report to Congress by Com- mission. — The commission shall, as soon as practicable, but in no event later than July 1, 1932, submit a report to the Congress setting forth the classes of arti- cles with respect to which the conversion ot rates has been made, together with the convert- ed rates applicable thereto. (c) Data to Be Furnished by Secretary of Treasury and Sec- retary of Commerce. — To assist the commission in carrying out the provisions of this section, the Secretary of the Treasury and the Secretary of Commerce are authorized and directed to fur- nish to the commivssion, upon request, any data or information in the possession or control of their respective departments re- lating to the importation, entry, appraisement, and classification of merchandise and the collection of duties thereon. (d) Definitions. — When used in this section — • (1) The term 'domestic value,' applied with respect to im- ported merchandise, means (A) the price at which such or similar imported merchandise is freely offered for sale, at the time of exportation of the im- ported merchandise, packed ready for delivery, in the prin- cipal market of the United States to all purchasers, in the usual wholesale quantities and in the ordinary course of trade, or (B) if such or similar im- ported merchandise is not so offered for sale in the United States, then an estimated value, based on the price at which merchandise, whether imported or domestic, com- parable in construction or use with the imported merchan- dise, is so offered for sale, with such adjustments as may be necessary owing to differences in size, material, construction, texture, and other differences. (2) The term 'rate of duty regulated by the value of the article' means a rate of duty regulated in any manner by the value of the article, and in- cludes the value classification by which such rate is regulated. Sec. 341. Interference with Functions of Commission. (a) Interfering With or In- fluencing the Commission or Its Employees. — It shall be unlawful for any person (1) to prevent or attempt to prevent, by force, in- timidation, threat, or in any other manner, any member or employee of the commission from exercising the functions imposed upon the commission by this title, or (2) to induce, or attempt to induce, by like means any such member or employee to make any decision or order, or to take any action, with respect to any matter within the authority of the commission. (b) Penalty. — Any person who violates any of the provisions of this section shall, upon conviction thereof, be fined not more than $1,000 or imprisonment for not more than one year, or both. (c) Definition. — As used in this section the term 'person' in- cludes an individual, corpora- tion, association, partnership, or any other organization or group of individuals. Sec. 307. Convict Made Goods — Importation Prohibited. All goods, wares, articles, and merchandise mined, produced or manufactured wholly or in part in any foreign country by convict labor or/and forced labor or /and indentured labor under penal sanctions shall not be entitled to entry at any of the ports of the United States, and the importa- tion thereof is hereby prohibited and the Secretary of the Treasury is authorized and directed to pre- scribe such regulations as may be necessary for the enforcement of this provision. The provisions of this section relating to goods, wares, articles, and merchandise mined, produced, or manufactur- ed by forced labor or /and in- dentured labor, shall take effect on January 1, 1932; but in no case shall such provisions be ap- plicable to goods, wares, articles, or merchandise so mined, pro- duced, or manufactured which are not mined, produced, or manufactured in such quantities in the United States as to meet the consumptive demands of the United States. 'Forced labor,' as herein used, shall mean all work or service which is exacted from any person under the menace of any penalty Vol. XL— 31-M Tariff 6 Tarlll for its nonperformance and for which the worker does not offer himself voluntarily. Sec. 516. Appeal or Protest by American Producers. (a) Value. — Whenever an American manufacturer, pro- ducer, or wholesaler believes that the appraised value of any im- ported merchandise of a class or kind manufactured, produced, or sold at wholesale by him is too low, he may file with the Secre- tary of the Treasury a complaint setting forth the value at which he believes the merchandise should be appraised and the facts upon which he bases his belief. The Secretary shall there- upon transmit a copy of such complaint to the appraiser at each port of entry where the merchandise is usually imported. Until otherwise directed by the Secretary, the appraiser shall re- port each subsequent importa- tion of the merchandise giving the entry number, the name of the importer, the appraised value, and his reasons for the ap- praisement. If the Secretary does not agree with the action of the appraiser, he shall instruct the collector to file an appeal for a reappraisement as provided in section 501 of this Act, and such manufacturer, producer, or whole- saler shall have the right to appear and to be heard as a party in interest under such rules as the United States Customs Court may prescribe. The Secretary shall notify such manufacturer, producer, or wholesaler of the action taken by such appraiser, giving the port of entry, the entry number, and the appraised value of such merchandise and the ac- tion he has taken thereon. If the appraiser advances the entered value of merchandise upon the information furnished by the American manufacturer, produc- er, or wholesaler, and an appeal is taken by the consignee, such manufacturer, producer, or whole- saler shall have the right to appear and to be heard as a party in interest, under such rules as the United States Customs Court may prescribe. If the American manufacturer, produc- er, or wholesaler is not satisfied with the action of the Secretary, or the action of the appraiser thereon, he may file, within thirty days after the date of the mailing of the Secretary's notice, an ap- peal for a reappraisement in the same manner and with the same effect as an appeal by a con- signee under the ' provisions of section 501 of this Act. (b) Classification. — The Secre- tary of the Treasury shall, upon written request by an American manufacturer, producer, or whole- saler, furnish the clavSsification of and the rate of duty, if any, im- VOL. XI.— 31 M posed upon designated imported merchandise of a class or kind manufactured, produced, or sold at wholesale by him. If such manufacturer, producer, or whole- saler believes that the proper rate of duty is not being assessed, he may file a complaint with the Secretary of the Treasury setting forth a description of the mer- chandise, the classification, and the rate or rates of duty he be- lieves proper, and the reasons for his belief. If the Secretary de- cides that the classification of or rate of duty assessed upon the merchandise is not correct, he shall notify the collectors as to the proper classification and rate of duty and shall so inform such manufacturer, producer, or wholesaler, and such rate of duty shall be assessed upon all such merchandise imported or with- drawn from warehouse after thirty days after the date of such notice to the collectors. If the Secretary decides that the classi- fication and rate of duty are cor- rect, he shall so inform such manufacturer, producer, or whole- saler, and shall, under such regu- lations as he may prescribe, cause publication to be made of his decision, together with notice that the classification of and the rate of duty on all such merchan- dise imported or withdrawn from warehouse after the expiration of thirty days after such publica- tion will be subject to the deci- sion of the United States Cus- toms Court in the event that a protest is filed under the provi- sions of this subdivision. If dissatisfied with the decision of the Secretary, such manufactur- er, producer, or wholesaler may file with him a notice that he de- rires to protest the classification so the rate of duty imposed upon the merchandise, and upon re- ceipt of such notice the Secretary shall furnish him with such in- formation as to the entries and consignees of such merchandise, entered after the expiration of thirty days after the publication of the decision of the Secretary, at the port of entry designated by the manufacturer, producer, or wholesaler in his notice of desire to protest, as will enable him to protest the classification of or the rate of duty imposed upon such merchandise when liquidat- ed at such port. The Secretary shall direct the collector at such port to notify such manufacturer, producer, or wholesaler imme- diately upon the liquidation of the first of such entries to be liquidated. Such manufacturer, producer, or wholesaler may file, within thirty days after the date of such liquidation, with the col- lector of such port a protest in writing setting forth a descrip- tion of the merchandise and the classification and the rate of duty he believes proper. Upon the fil- ing of any such protest the collec- tor shall notify the Secretary of the Treasury who shall order the suspension, pending the decision of the United States Customs Court upon such protest, of the Hquidation, at all ports, of all unliquidated entries of such merchandise imported or with- drawn from warehouse after the expiration of thirty days aftet the publication of the Secretary's decision. All entries of such mer- chandise so imported or with- drawn shall be liquidated, or if already liquidated, shall, if neces- sary, be reliquidated, in conform- ity with such decision of the United States Customs Court. If, upon appeal to the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals, the decision of the United States Customs Court is reversed, the classification of the merchandise and the rate of duty imposed thereon shall be in accordance with the decision of the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals, and any necessary reliquidation shall be made. The provisions of this subdivision shall apply only in the case of complaints filed after the effective date of this Act. (c) Hearing and Determination. — A copy of every appeal and every protest filed by an Ameri- can manufacturer, producer, or wholesaler under the provisions of this section shall be mailed by the collector to the consignee or his agent within five days after the filing thereof, and such con- signee or his agent shall have the right to appear and to be heard as a party in interest before the United vStates Customs Court. The collector shall transmit the entry and all papers and exhibits accompanying or connected there- with to the United States Cus- toms Court for due assignment and determination of the proper value or of the proper classifica- tion and rate of duty. The deci- sion of the United States Cus- toms Court upon any such appeal or protest shall be final and con- clusive upon all parties unless an appeal is taken by either party to the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals, as provided in sections 501 and 515 of this Act. (d) Inspection of Documents. — In proceedings instituted under the provisions of this section an American manufacturer, pro- ducer, or wholesaler shall not have the right to inspect any documents or papers of the con- signee or importer disclosing any information which the United States Customs Court or any judge or division thereof shall deem unnecessary or improper tc be disclosed to him. Sec. 517. Frivolous Protest oi Appeal. The United States Custom? Court shall, upon motion ol counsel for the Government, an(j Tariff 7 Tariff may. upon its own motion, de- cide whether any appeal for re- appraisement or protest filed under the provisions of section 501. 514, 515, or 516 of this Act is frivolous, and, if said court shall decide that such appeal or protest is frivolous, a penalty of not less than $5 nor more than $250 shall be assessed against the person filing such appeal or pro- test: Provided, That all appeals for reappraisement or protests filed by the same person and raising the same issue shall, if held frivolous by said court, be consolidated and deemed one proceeding for the purpose of im- posing the penalty provided in this section: Provided further. That the person against whom such penalty is assessed may have a review by the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals of the decision of the United States Customs Court by filing an ap- peal within the time and in the manner provided by section 198 of the Judicial Code, as amended. Sec. 518. United States Cus- toms Court. The United States Customs Court shall continue as now con- stituted, except that the chief justice and the associate justices of such court now in office and their successors shall hereafter be known as the judges of such court. All vacancies in such court shall be filled by appoint- ment by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. Not more than five of the judges of such court shall be appointed from the same political party and each of such judges shall receive a salary of $10,000 a year. They shall not engage in any other business, vo- cation, or employment, and shall hold their office during good be- havior. The offices of such court shall be at the port of New York. The court and each judge thereof shall have and possess all the powers of a district court of the United States for preserving order, compelling the attendance of witnesses and the production of evidence, and in punishing for contempt. The court shall have power to establish from time to time such rules of evidence, practice, and procedure, not in- consistent with law, as may be deemed necessary for the conduct of its proceedings, in securing uni- formity in its decisions and in the proceedings and decisions of the judges thereof, and for the pro- duction, care, and custody of samples and of the records of such court. Under such rules as the United States Customs Court may prescribe, and in its dis- cretion, the court may permit the amendment of a protest, appeal, or application for review. One of the judges of such court, desig- nated for that purpose by the President of the United vStates, shall act as presiding judge, and in his absence the judge then present who is senior as to the date of his commission shall act as presiding judge; and until any such designation is made the chief justice of the United States Customs Court now in office shall act as presiding judge. The pre- siding judge, or the acting pre- siding judge in his absence, shall have control of the fiscal affairs and of the clerical force of the court, making all recommenda- tions for appointment, promo- tions, or otherwise affecting such clerical force; he may at an}'- time before trial, under the rules of the court, assign or reassign any case for hearing or determi- nation, or both, and shall desig- nate a judge or division of three judges and such clerical assist- ants as may be necessary to pro- ceed to any port within the juris- diction of the United States for the purpose of hearing or of hear- ing and determining cases as- signed for hearing at such "port, and shall cause to be prepared and promulgated dockets therefor. Judges of the court, stenographic clerks, and Government counsel shall each be allowed and paid his necessary expenses of travel and his reasonable expenses, not to ex- ceed $10 per day in the case of the judges of the court and Govern- ment counsel, and $8 per day in the case of stenographic clerks, actually incurred for mainte- nance while absent from New York on official business. The judges of said court shall be divided into three divisions of three judges each for the purpose of hearing and deciding appeals for the review of reappraise- ments of merchandise, and of hearing and deciding protests against decisions of collectors. A division of three judges or a single judge shall have power to order an analysis of imported merchandise and reports thereon by laboratories or bureaus of the United States. The presiding judge shall assign three judges to each of said divisions and shall designate one of such three judges to preside. The presiding judge of the court shall be competent to sit as a judge of any division or to assign one or two other judges to any of such divisions in the absence or disability of any one or two judges of such division. A majority of the judges of any division shall have full power to hear and decide all cases and questions arising therein or as- signed thereto. A division of the court deciding a case or a single judge deciding an appeal for a reappraisement may, upon the motion of either party made within thirty days next after such decision, grant a rehearing or retrial of such case when in the opinion of such division or single judge the ends of justice so require. The judges of the United States Customs Court are hereby exempted from so much of vSec- tion 1790 of the Revised Statutes as relates to their salaries. When any judge of the United States Customs Court resigns his office after having held a com- mission as judge or justice of such court or member of the Board of General Appraisers at least ten years continuously, or otherwise, and having attained the age of seventy years, he shall, during the residue of his natural life, receive the salary which is payable to a judge of such court at the time of his resignation. Any such judge, who is qualified to resign under the foregoing pro- visions, may retire, upon the salary of which he is then in re- ceipt, from regular active service as a judge of such court and upon such retirement the President may appoint a successor; but such retired judge may, with his consent, be assigned by the pre- siding judge of such court to serve upon such court and while so serving shall have all the powers of a judge of such court. All functions of the Secretary of the Treasury with respect to the appointment and fixing of the compensation of the clerks and other employees of the United States Customs Court, and with respect to the official records, papers, office equipment, and other property of such court, are hereby transferred to the Attor- ney General. All unexpended amounts allotted from any ap- propriation for collecting the revenue from customs, available for expenditure by the Secretary of the Treasury for the payment of the salaries of the judges of the United States Customs Court, including judges retired under the provisions of section 518 of the Tariff Act of 1922, and for the expenses of operation of the United States Customs Court, are hereby transferred to the De- partment of Justice, to be avail- able for expenditure by the De- partment of Justice for the same purposes for which such allot- ments were made. Sec. 519. Publication of De- cisions of Customs Court. All decisions of the United States Customs Court shall be preserved and filed and shall be open to inspection, and it shall be the duty of the court to forward a copy of each decision to the collector of customs for the dis- trict in which the merchandise affected thereby was imported and to forward an additional copy to the Secretary of the Treasury, who shall cause such decisions as he or the court shall deem sufficiently important to be published in full, or, if neither the Secretary of the Treasury nor the court deems a full publication thereof necessary, then the court Vol. XI.— ,31-M Tariff 8 Tariff shall cause abstracts of such de- cisions to be made for pubUca- tion, and such decisions and ab- stracts thereof shall be published from time to time and at least once each week for the informa- tion of customs officers and the public. Sec. 520. Refunds by Secre- tary of Treasury. (a) A uthorized. — The Secre- tary of the Treasury is hereby authorized to refund duties and correct errors in liquidation of entries in the following cases: (1) Excess deposit. — Whenever it is ascertained on final liquid- ation or reliquidation of an entry that more money has been deposited or paid than was required by law to be so deposited or paid; (2) Erroneous charges. — When- ever it is determined in the manner required by law that any fees, charges, or exactions, other than duties, have been erroneously collected; (3) Clerical error. — Whenever a clerical error is discovered in any entry or liquidation within one year after the date of entry, or within sixty days after liquidation when liquida- tion is made more than ten months after the date of entry; and (4) Household goods. — When- ever duties have been paid on household or personal effects which by law were not sub- ject to duty, notwithstanding a protest was not filed within the time and in the manner pre- scribed by law. (b) Appropriation. — The neces- sary moneys to make such re- funds are hereby appropriated, and this appropriation shall be deemed a permanent and in- definite appropriation. Sec. 521. Reliquidation on Ac- count of Fraud. If the collector finds probable cause to believe there is fraud in the case, he may reliquidate an entry within two years (ex- clusive of the time during which a protest is pending) after the date of liquidation or last re- liquidation. Sec. 522. Conversion of Cur- rency. (a) Value of Foreign Coin Pro- claimed by Secretary of Treasury. — Section 25 of the Act of August 27, 1894, entitled 'An Act to re- duce taxation, to provide revenue for the Government, and for other purposes,' as amended, is re-enacted without change as fol- lows : 'Sec. 25. That the value of foreign coin as expressed in the money of account of the United States shall be that of the pure metal of such coin of vStandard value; and the values of the standard coins in circulation of the various nations of the world shall be estimated quarterly by the Director of the Mint and be proclaimed by the Secretary of the Treasury quarterly on the 1st day of January, April, July, and October in each year.' (b) Proclaimed Value Basis of Conversion. — For the purpose of the assessment and collection of duties upon merchandise im- ported into the United States on or after the day of the enactment of this Act, wherever it is neces- sary to convert foreign currency into currency of the United States, such conversion, except as provided in subdivision (c), shall be made at the values pro- claimed by the Secretary of the Treasury under the provisions of section 25 of such Act of August 27, 1894, as amended, for the quarter in which the merchan- dise was exported. (c) Market Rate When no Proclamation. — If no such value has been proclaimed, or if the value so proclaimed varies by 5 per centum or more from a value measured by the buying rate in the New York market at noon on the day of exportation, conver- sion shall be made at a value measured by such buying rate. If the date of exportation falls upon a Sunday or holiday, then the buying rate at noon on the last preceding business day shall be used. For the purposes of this subdivision such buying rate shall be the 'buying rate for cable transfers payable in the foreign currency so to be converted; and shall be determined by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York and certified daily to the Secretary of the Treasury, who shall make it public at such times and to such extent as he deems necessary. In ascertaining such buying rate such Federal reserve bank may in its discretion (1) take into consideration the last ascertainable transactions and quotations, whether direct or through exchange of other currencies, and (2) if there is no market buying rate for such cable transfers, calculate such rate from actual transactions and quotations in demand or time bills of exchange. Sec. 527. Importation of Wild Mammals and Birds in Violation of Foreign Law. (a) Importation Prohibited. — If the laws or regulations of any country, dependency, province, or other subdivision of govern- ment restrict the taking, killing, possession, or exportation to the United States, of any wild mam- mal or bird, alive or dead, or re- strict the exportation to the United States of any part or product of any wild mammal or bird, whether raw or manufac- tured, no such mammal or bird, or part or product thereof, shall, after the expiration of ninety days after the enactment of this Act, be imported into the United States from such country, de- pendency, province, or other sub- division of governmemt, directly or indirectly, unless accompanied by a certification of the United States consul, for the consular district in which is located the port or place from which such mammal or bird, or part or prod- uct thereof, was exported from such country, dependency, prov- ince, or other subdivision of government, that such mammal or bird, or part or product there- of, has not been acquired or exported in violation of the laws or regulations of such country, dependency, province, or other subdivision of government. (b) Forfeiture. — Any mammal or bird, alive or dead, or any part or product thereof, whether raw or manufactured, imported into the United States in violation of the provisions of the preceding subdivision shall be subject to seizure and forfeiture under the customs laws. Any such article so forfeited may, in the discretion of the Secretary of the Treasury and under such regulations as he may prescribe, be placed with the departments or bureaus of the Federal or State Governments, or with societies or museums, for exhibition or scientific or educa- tional purposes, or destroyed, or (except in the case of heads or horns of wild animals) sold in the manner provided by law. (c) Section Not to Apply in Certain Cases. — The provisions of this section shall not apply in the case of — (1) Prohibited importations. — Articles the importation of which is prohibited under the provisions of this Act, or of section 241 of the Criminal Code, or of any other law; (2) Scientific or educational purposes. — Wild mammals or birds, alive or dead, or parts or products thereof, whether raw or manufactured, imported for scientific or educational pur- poses ; (3) Certain migratory game birds. — Migratory game birds (for which an open season is provided by the laws of the United States and any foreign country which is a party to a treaty with the United States, in effect on the date of im- portation, relating to the pro- tection of such migratory game birds) brought into the United States by bona fide sportsmen returning from hunting trips in such country, if at the time of importation the possession of such birds is not prohibited by the laws of such country or of the United States. A number of important duties were modified as shown on p. 9. Vol. XL— 31-M Tariff 9 Tariff The first item excludes motor trucks and busses, which remain 25%. Fordney- Smoot- McCumber Hawley Bill Bill. Automobiles 25% 10% Aluminum, crude (lb.) 5c 4c Cattle (lb.) 2c 2Hc Cement Free 6c Cream (gal.) 20c* 56.6c Timber (1,000ft.).... Free $1.00 Milk (gal.) 2Hc** mc Sugar cane (ton) $1 $2.50 Sugar, Cuban (lb.) .... 1.76c 2c Sugar, world (lb.) .... 2.20c 2.50c Wool rags (lb.) 7Hc 18c *Raised by Presidential proclamation in 1929 to 30c. **Raised by Presidential proclamation in 1929 to 3Mc. THE FREE LIST SCHEDULE 16 Acids and acid anhydrides: Hydrofluoric acid, hydrochloric (muriatic) acid, nit- ric acid, sulphuric acid and mixtures of nitric and sulphuric acids, valer- ianic acid Aconite, aloes, asafetida, buchu leaves, coc- culus indicas, ipecac, jalap, licorice root, manna; marshmallow, mate, and pyrethrum or insect flowers, all natural and uncompounded. No article con- taining alcohol shall be admitted free of duty under this paragraph Agates, unmanufactured Agricultural implements: Plows, tooth or disk harrows, headers, harvesters, reapers, agricultural drills and plan- ters, mowers, horserakes, cultivators, thrashing machines, cotton gins, ma- chinery for use in the manufacture of sugar, wagons and carts, cream sepa- rators valued at not more than $50 each, and all others, except articles specified in dutiable list Albumen, not specially provided for Animals for breeding purposes, if pure bred and duly registered in record books of recognized breeds, if certified by the De- partment of Agriculture, and imported by a citizen of the United States domestic animals, strayed or temporarily pastured on foreign territory, with their offspring exhibition animals, for competition for prizes offered by any agricultural, polo, or racing association team animals of immigrants wild animals, for scientific or educational purposes Antimony ore Annatto, archil, cochineal, cudbear, gam- bier, litmus, not containing alcohol Antitoxins, vaccines, viruses, serums, and bacterins Argols, tartar, and wine lees, crude or partly refined, calcium tartrate, crude Arrowroot, crude or manufactured Sulphide of arsenic Arsenious acid or white arsenic Articles grown, produced or made in in United States, when returned after having been exported, without having been advanced in value or improved in condition Asbastos, unmanufactured, asbestos crudes, fibers, stucco Waste bagging, and waste sugar sack cloth Bananas and plantains Barks, cinchona or other, for extracting quinine Bells, broken, and bell metal Bibles, bound or unbound All binding twine made from New Zealand hemp, henequen, manila, istle or Tam- pico fiber, si-sal grass, or sunn, not ex- ceeding 750 ft. to the pound Bread: Not free unless leavened with yeast P'ish sounds Blood, dried Bolting cloths of silk, expressly for milling purposes Bones and animal carbon only for fertilizers Books, engravings, photographs, etchings, maps and charts imported for Gov- ernment use or the Library of Congress Hydrographic charts and publications for subscribers or exchanges by scientific or literary associations and publica- tions for gratuitous private circula- tion, and public documents by foreign Governments; books, maps, music, en- gravings, photographs, etchings, litho- •graphic prints, bound or unbound, and charts, more than 20 years old, unless rebound in leather Books and pamphlets in languages other than English; books, pamphlets, and music, in raised print, used for the blind, and printing apparatus there- for Institutions established solely for religious, philosophical, educational, scientific, or literary purposes, or educational in- stitutions in the United States, or any public library, may import free any book, map, music, engraving, photo- graph, etching, lithographic print, or chart, for its own use or for the en- couragement of the fine arts Books, libraries, furniture, and household effects of persons from foreign coun- tries if actually used abroad by them not less than one year Borax, crude or unmanufactured, borate of lime, borate of soda, and other borates Brass, old brass, or Dutch metal, fit only for remanufacture Brazilian or pichurim beans Brazilian pebble, unmanufactured Bristles, crude, not sorted, bunched, or prepared Bullion, gold or silver Burgundy pitch Burrstones, manufactured or bound up into millstones Calcium: Chloride, crude; nitrate, and cyanamid or lime nitrogen Calcium arsenate Linotype and all typesetting machines, shoe machinery, sand-blast machines, sludge machines, and tar and oil spreading machines, including repair parts Cerite or cerium ore Chalk, crude, not manufactured Chestnuts (including marrons), crude, dried, or baked Chromite or chrome ore Chip and chip roping Citrons and citron peel, crude, dried, or in brine Coal, anthracite and bituminous; coke; compositions in which coal or coal dust is used Coal-tar products which on distillation yield less than 5 per cent of the original distillate Cobalt and cobalt ore Cocoa or cacao beans, and shells thereof Coffee, except coffee imported into Porto Rico, where the Legislature is author- ized to impose duties upon coffee Coins of gold, silver, copper, or other metal Coir, and coir yarn Composition metal containing copper Copper ore; regulus of, and black or coarse copper, cement copper; old copper, fit only for remanufacture, and copper in plates, bars, ingots, or pigs, not manufactured Copper sulphate or blue vitriol; copper acetate and subacetate or verdigris Coral, marine, uncut, unmanufactured Cork wood, or cork bark, unmanufactured, and cork refuse of all kinds Cotton, not specially provided for, and cotton waste Cryolite, or kryolith Metallic mineral substances in crude state Curling stones Cuttlefish bone Cyanide: All cyanide salts and cyanide mixtures (not including sulphocyanides or thiocyanides, thiocyanates, nitro- prussides, ferrocyanidcs, ferricyanides, and cyanates) Diamonds and other precious stones, rough or uncut Drugs such as barks, beans, berries, buds, bulbs, bulbous roots, excrescences, fruits, flowers, dried fibers, dried in- sects, grains, herbs, leaves, lichens, mosses, logs, roots, stems, vegetables, seeds (aromatic, not garden seeds), seeds of morbid growth, weeds, and all other drugs of vegetable or animal origin; all the foregoing which are natural and uncompounded drugs and not edible, and not specially provided for, and are in a crude state. No article containing alcohol shall be admitted free of duty under this paragraph Dyeing or tanning materials: Fustic wood, hemlock bark, logwood, mangrove bark, oak bark, quebracho wood, wattle bark, divi-divi, myrobalans fruit, sumac, calonia, nutgalls or gall nuts, and all articles of vegetable origin used for dyeing, coloring, stain- ing, or tanning not containing alcohol Eggs of birds, fish, and insects (except fish roe for food purposes), and specimens imported for scientific collections Emery ore and corundum ore Enfleurage greases, floral essences and floral concretes Fans, common pahn-leaf, plain and not ornamented or manufactured Ferrous sulphate or copperas Fibrin, in all forms Fish imported not for human food Fishskins, raw or salted Natural flint and natural flint stones, un- ground Furs and fur skins, undressed Live game anima s and birds, for stocking purposes, and game animals and birds killed abroad by residents of the United States and imported for non commercial purposes Goldbeaters' molds and goldbeaters' skins Grasses and fibers: Henequen, sisal, manila, jute, jute butts, kapok, istle or Tam- pico fiber, etc., not manufactured Guano, basic slag (ground or unground), manures; and fertilizers Gums and resins: Damar, kauri, copal, chicle, and other natural gums and Gunpowder, sporting powder, and all other explosive substances, not specially provided for Hair of horse, cattle, and other animals, unmanufactured Hide cuttings, raw, and all other glue stock Rope made of rawhide Hides and skins of the Indian water buffalo Hones, whetstones, and grindstones Hoofs, unmanufactured Horns and parts of, unmanufactured Horses or mules for immediate slaughter Ice India rubber and gutta-percha, crude or refuse, fit only for remanufacture Iodine, crude, and copper iodide, crude Iridium, osmium, palladium, rhodium, and ruthenium, and native combinations thereof or with platinum Iron ore, including manganiferpus iron ore, and the dross or residuum from burnt pyrites Ivory tusks in their natural state or cut vertically across the grain only, with the bark left intact Jet, unmanufactured Joss stick or joss light Waste rope Kelp Kieserite Lac: Crude, seed, button, stick, or shell Lava, unmanufactured Leeches Limestone-rock asphalt; asphaltum and bitumen Lifeboats and life-saving apparatus spe- cially imported by institutions esta- lished to encourage life saving Vol. XI.— 31-M Tariff Lithographic stones, not engraved Loadstones Manuscripts, not specially provided for Marrow, crude Mechanically ground wood pulp, chemical wood pulp Medals of gold, silver, or copper, and other metallic articles actually received and accepted as honorary distinctions Mineral salts obtained by evaporation from mineral waters Minerals, crude, or not advanced in value by manufacture Models of inventions incapable of any other use Monazite sand and other thorium ores Moss, seaweeds, and vegetable substances, crude Muzzle-loading muskets, shotguns, rifles, and parts Needles, hand sewing or darning Nets or finished sections of nets for use in otter trawl fishing, if composed in chief value of manila Newspapers, undeveloped negative mov- ing-picture film of American manufac- ture exposed abroad for silent or sound news reel, and periodicals, only un- bound or paper-covered publications devoted to current literature Oil-bearing seeds and nuts when the oils derived therefrom are free of duty Nux vomica, gentian, sarsaparilla root, belladonna, henbane, stramonium, and ergot Oakum (a) All products of American fisheries (ex- cept cod, haddock, hake, pollock, cusk, mackeral, and swordfish) landed in a foreign country and there not further advanced than beheaded, evis- cerated, packed in ice, frozen and with, fins removed; products of American fisheries, prepared or preserved by an American fishery, on the treaty coasts of Newfoundland, Magdalen Islands, and Labrador, as defined in the Con- vention of 1818 between the United States and Great Britain (b) Eula- chon oil, cod oil, and cod-liver oil Oils, distilled or essential not containing alcohol Oils, expressed or extracted, rendered unfit for use as food or for any but mechani- cal or manufacturing purposes Oils, mineral: Petroleum, crude, fuel, or refined, and all distillates obtained from petroleum Ores of gold, silver, or nickel; nickel matte; nickel oxide; ores of the platinum metals; sweepings of gold and silver Duplex decalcomania paper not printed Parchment and vellum Paris green and London purple Pearl, mother of, and shells, not manufac- tured Personal effects, not merchandise, of citi- zens of the United States dying in for- eign countries Phosphates, crude, and apatite Pigeons, fancy or racing Plants, trees, shrubs, roots, and other material for planting, imported by the Department of Agriculture or the United States Botanic Garden Plaster rock or gypsum, crude Platinum, unmanufactured or in ingots, bars, sheets, or plates not less than one-eighth of one inch in thickness Potassium chloride, potassium sulphate, kainate, wood a^hes and beet-root ashes, and all crude potash salts Potassium nitrate or saltpeter, crude Professional books, implements, instru- ments, and tools of trade, occupation, or employment in the actual possession of persons emigrating to the United States owned and used by them abroad; excluding machinery or other articles imported for use in any manu- facturing establishment, or for any other persons, or for sale, excluding also theatrical scenery, properties, and apparel; but such articles brought by Vol. XI — 31-M 10 theatrical exhibitions from abroad, for temporary use and not for sale, shall enter free of duty; but bonds shall be given for the payment to the United States of such duties as may be im- posed upon such articles as shall not be exported within six months after importation: Provided, That the Secre- tary of the Treasury may extend such period for a further term of six months in case application shall be made therefor Quinine sulphate and all alkaloids and salts of alkaloids derived from cinchona bark Radium, and salts of, and radioactive sub- stitutes Rag pulp; paper stock, crude, of every descrfption, including all grasses, fibers, rags, waste Rennet, raw or prepared Patna rice cleaned for use in canned soups Sago, crude, and sago flour Santonin, and salts of Sausage casings, weasands, intestines, blad- ders, etc. Sea herring, smelts, and tuna fish, fresh or frozen Cowpeas and sugar beet seed Selenium, and salts of Sheep dip Shingles of wood Shrimps, lobsters, and other shellfish, fresh or frozen Silk cocoons and silk waste Silk, raw, in skeins reeled from the cocoon, or rereeled, but not manufactured in any way Skeletons and other preparations of ana- tomy Skins of all kinds, raw, and hides Sodium: Nitrate, crude or refined; sul- phate, crude, or crude salt cake, and niter cake; bicarbonate or baking soda Specimens of natural history, botany, and mineralogy, when imported for scien- tific public collections, and not for sale Spices and spice seeds: (1) Cassia, cassia buds, and cassia vera; cloves; clove stems; cinnamon and cinnamon chips; ginger root, not preserved or candied; mace; nutmegs; black or white pepper; and pimento (allspice); all the fore- going, if unground; (2) anise; cara- way; cardamom; coriander; cummin; and fennel Spunk Spurs and stilts used in the manufacture of earthenware, stoneware, or porce- lain Stamps: Postage or revenue stamps, can- celed or uncanceled, and government stamped envelopes or post cards bear- ing no other printing than the official imprint thereon Standard newsprint paper Statuary and casts of sculpture for use as models or for art educational purposes only; regalia and gems, where specially imported in good faith for the use and by order of any society established solely for regligious, philosophical, edu- cational, scientific, or literary purposes or for the encouragement of the fine arts, or for the use and by order of any educational institution, or public hospital in the United States, or any State or public library, and not for sale Altars, pulpits, communion tables, baptis- mal fonts, shrines, and statuary (ex- cept casts of plaster of Paris, or of papier-mache), imported for presenta- tion (without charge) to, and for the use of, any corporation or association organized exclusively for religious pur- poses Stone and sand; Burrstone in blocks, rough or unmanufactured; quartzite; trap- rock; rottenstone, tripoli, and sand, crude or manufactured; silica; cliff stone, freestone, granite, and sand- stone, unmanufactured and not sui- Tariff table for monumental, paving, or building stone Strontianite and celestite Sulphur in any form, and sulphur ore Tagua nuts Tamarinds Tankage, fish scrap, fish meal, cod-liver oil cake, and cod-liver oil cake meal, all unfit for human food Tapioca, tapioca flour, and cassava Locust or carob beans, and pods and seeds Tea not specially provided for, and tea plants: Provided, That all cans, boxes, and other wrappings of tea in pack- ages of less than five pounds each, shall be dutiable at the rate charge- able thereon if imported empty Teeth, natural, or unmanufactured Tin ore or cassiterite, and black oxide of tin: Provided, That there shall be im- posed and paid upon cassiterite, or black oxide of tin, a duty of 4 cents per pound, and upon bar, block, pig tin and grain or granulated, a duty of 6 cents per pound when it is made to appear to the satisfaction of the President of the United States that the mines of the United States are pro- ducing one thousand five hundred tons of cassiterite and bar, block, and pig tin per year. The President shall make known this fact by proclamma- tion, and thereafter said duties shall go into effect tin in bars, blocks or pigs, alloys in chief . value of tin not specially provided for, and grain or granulated and scrap tin, including scrap tin plate Tobacco stems not cut, ground, or pulver- ized; Truffles, prepared or preserved; Turmeric; Turtles; Typewriters; Ura- nium, oxide and salts of; Urea; Vege- table tallow; Wafers, not edible; Wax: Animal, vegetable, or mmeral. Disks of soft wax, commonly known as mas- ter records, or metal matrices obtained therefrom, for use in the manufacture of sound records for export purposes Wearing apparel, articles of personal adorn- ment, toilet articles, and similar per- sonal effects of persons arriving in the United States; but this exemption shall include only such articles as were actually owned by them and in their possession abroad at the time of or prior to their departure from a foreign country, and as are necessary and appropriate for the wear and use of such persons and are intended for such wear and use, and shall not be held to apply to merchandise or ar- ticles intended for other persons or for sale: Provided, That all jewelry and similar articles of personal adorn- ment having a value of $300 or more, brought in by a nonresident of the United States, shall, if sold within three years after the date of the arrival of such person in 'the United States, be liable to duty at the rate or rates in force at the time of such sale, to be paid by such person: Pro- vided further, That in case of residents of the United States returning from abroad all wearing apparel, personal and household effects, and in the case of individuals returning from abroad, all professional books, implements, in- struments, and tools of trade, occu- pation, or employment, taken by them out of the United States to for- eign countries shall be admitted free of duty, without regard to their value, upon their identity being established under appropriate rules and regula- tions to be prescribed by the Secre- tary of the Treasury: Provided further. That up to but not exceedmg $100 in value of articles acquired abroad by such residents of the United States for personal or household use or as souvenirs or curios, but not bought on commission or intended for sale, shall be admitted free of duty: Pro- Tariff 11 Tariff tided further, That a resident of the United States shall not take advan- tage of the exemption herein granted within a period of thirty days from the last exemption claimed Whalebone, unmanufactured; All barbed wire, whether plain or galvanized; Witherite, crude, unground; Wood charcoal; Wood: (1) Timber hewn, sided, or squared, otherwise than by sawing, and round timber used for spars or in building wharves; sawed lumber and timber, not further manufactured than planed, and ton- gued and grooved; all the foregoing not specially provided for. (2) Logs; timber, round, unmanufactured; pulp woods; firewood, handle bolts, single bolts; gun blocks for gunstocks, rough hewn or sawed or plained on one side and laths Posts, railroad ties, and telephone, trolley, electric-light, and telegraph poles Pickets, palings, hoops, and staves of wood of all kinds Woods: Sticks of partridge, hair wood, pimento, orange, mjTtle, bamboo, rattan, india malacca ioints, and other woods not specially provided for, in the rough, or not further advanced than cut into lengths suitable for sticks for umbrellas, parasols, sunshades, whips, fishing rods.'or walking canes Original paintings in oil, mineraJ, water, or other colors, pastels, original draw- ings and sketches in pen, ink, pencil, or water colors, artists' proof etchings unbound, and engravings and wood- cuts unbound, original sculptures or statuary, including not more than two replicas or reproductions of the same Works of art, drawings, engravings, photo- graphic pictures, and philosophical and scientific apparatus brought by pro- fessional artists, lecturers, or scientists arriving from abroad for use by them temporarily for exhibition and in illus- tration, promotion, and encourage- ment of art, science, or industry in the United States, and not for sale Works of art, collections in illustration of the progress of the arts, sciences, agri- culture, or manufactures, photographs, works in terra cotta, parian, pottery, or porcelain, antiquities and artistic copies thereof in metal or other mater- ial, imported in good faith for exhibi- tion at a fixed place by any State or by any society or institution esta- blished for the encouragement of the arts, science, agriculture, or educa- tion, or for a municipal corporation Works of art, productions of American artists residing temporarily abroad, or other works of art, including pictorial paintings on glass, imported expressly for presentation to a national insti- tution or to any State or municipal corporation or incorporated religious society, college, or other public insti- tution, including stained or painted window glass or stained or painted glass windows which are works of art when imported to be used in houses of worship, valued at $15 or more per square foot Works of art (except rugs and carpets made after the year 1700), collections in illustration of the progress of the arts, works in bronze, marble, terra cotta, parian, pottery, or porcelain, artistic antiquities, and objects of art of ornamental character or educational value which shall have been produced prior to the year 1830. Violins, violas, violoncellos, and double basses, of all sizes, made in the year 1800 or prior year Gobelin tapestries; Worm gut, unmanufac- tured; Zaffer THE DUTIABLE LIST With Comparison of Duties Under the Fordney-McCumber Act of 1922 ('Old Tariff') (All ad valorem percentages are based on dutiable values. Ton 2,240 pounds.) All weights avoirdupois standard. SCHEDULE I Chemicals, Oils and Paints New Tariff Old Tariff Acetic acid Ifclb fc lb Alcohol, — amyl 6c lb wood 18c gal 12c gal Baking soda free jc lb Cocoanut oil 2c lb 2c lb Camphor, crude, natural Ic lb Ic lb refined, natural and synthetic gC lb Jc lb Cottonseed oil 3c lb 3c lb Citric acid 17c lb 17c lb Dyes, medicinal synthetic products of coal tar 7c lb & 45% 7c lb & 40% ad valorem ad valorem Ink and ink powders 10% ad val 20% ad val Linseed oil 4|c lb 3i''(sC lb Intermediate coal-tar products 7c lb & 40% 7c lb & 40% ad valorem ad valorem Perfumery 40c lb & 75%, 40c lb & 75%, ad valorem ad valorem Peanut oil 4c lb 4c lb Menthol 50c lb 50c lb Olive oil 9iclb 7^c lb Soap, castile 15% 15% perfume toilet 30% 30% all other soap and powder 15% 15% Spirit varnishes $2.20 gal $2.20 gal 25%, ad val 2h% ad val Soya bean oil 3|c lb 2^c lb Starch, potato 2§c lb Ifclb SCHEDULE II Earths, Earthenware and Glassware New Tariff Old Tariff Brick, enameled $1.25 per M free China, porcelain, etc., plain 60% & 10c 50% or 60% per doz ad valorem decorated 70% & 10c 55% or 70% per doz ad valorem Common, earthenware 15% ad val 15% ad val Incandescent electric light bulbs 20% to 30% 20% Illuminating articles of glass 55% to 70% 60% Plain glass bottles. Ic lb Ic lb Roman, Portland cement 6c per 100 lbs free Spectacles, etc 20c doz & 20c doz & 15% to 40% 15% to 40%, »d valorem ad valorem New Tariff Old Tariff White granite and semi-precious earthen- ware 45% & 10c 45%, per doz pes decorated 50%, & 10c 50% per doz pes Table and kitchen articles and utensils of glass 50% to 60% 50% to 60% SCHEDULE III Metals and Manufactures of New Tariff Old Tariff Table, kitchen, butchers and hunting knives with shell or ivory, horn or silver 1 6c ea&45%) 1 6c ea&45% hard rubber, bone or celluloid 8c ea&45% 8c ea&45% Zinc, blocks or pigs Ifc lb Ijc lb Pocket and other knives IJc ea&,50% Ic ea & 50% to 35c&55%, to 35c&55% Pistols $2 00 ea& $1.25 ea & 55% to 55% to $3.50 ea & $3.50 ea & 55% 55% Safety razors 10c ea&30% 10c ea&30% straight razors 18c ea&30%, 18c ea&45% Screws 25%, 25% Scissors and Shears 3ic ea&45% Z\c ea&45% Sewing machines 15% or 30%, 15% or 30% Shovels, scythes, sickles 30% 30% Shotguns and rifles $1.50 & 45% $1.25 & 55% to 65%, to $3.50 & 55%, Steel rails I'oC lb ic lb Steel wire fc to lie lb f to Uc lb or 25% ad val or 25% ad val Steel wool 10c lb&30% 10c lb&30%, Table, household and hospital utensils. . . 5c lb&30% 5c lb&30% aluminum 8ic lb&40%, 11c lb&55%, brass 40%, 40%, Airplanes, hydroplanes, motor boats, and parts 30% 30% Aluminum, crude 4c lb 5c lb Automobiles and motorcycles and parts. 10% or 25% 25% or duty or duty up up to 50% to 50% Bicycles 30%, or duty 30% or duty up to 50%, up to 50%, Cash registers 25% 25% Cream separators 25% 25% valued not over $50 free free Tariff 12 Tariff New Tariff Hair, safety, hat and other pins 35% Horseshoes J to Ic lb Lead bullion 2^0 lb Magnesite, crude Jic lb caustic i §c lb burned and grain ti>c lb Nails I'oc lb Pig iron $1.12non SCHEDULE IV Wood and Manufactures of Old Tart, 35% i to Ic lb 2iclb Ac lb |c lb 2— c lb i*oC lb 75c ton New Tariff Old Tariff Furniture Furniture of wood Logs, of fir, spruce, cedar or western hemlock Toothpicks 25% 40% free 25% 25% 33J% $1 a 1,000 bd. ft. 25% New Tariff Milled rice 25c lb Marmalades 35% ad val Oats 16c bu Oatmeal 80c 100 Ib^ Onions 25c lb Olives 20 or 30c gal Peanuts i^c lb shelled 7c lb Peas 3clb Peaches and pears §c lb Poultry 8clb dead 10c lb Pineapples 50c crate Rye 15c bu Raisins 2c lb Tomatoes 3c lb Turnips 25cl00 lbs Wheat 42c bu Wheat flour $1.04 100 lbs SCHEDULE VHI Old TarijS 2c lb 35% ad val 15c bu 80c 100 lbs Ic lb 20c gal 3c lb 4c lb Ic lb lb 3c lb 6c lb 22k crate 15c bu 2c lb h lb 12c 100 lbs 30c bu 78c 100 lbs SCHEDULE V Sugars and Manufactures of New Tariff Old Tariff Maple syrup 5jC lb 4c lb Maple sugar 8c lb 4c !b Sugar, raw 2^c\h 2.206c lb Cuban, raw 2c lb 1.7648c lb Sugar, candy, confectionery 40% 40% SCHEDULE VI Tobacco and Manufactures of New Tariff Old Tariff Cigars and cigarettes $4.50 lb $4.50 lb & 25% & 25% Fillers tobacco 35clb 35c lb stemmed 50c lb 50c lb Wrapper tobacco $2.27^ lb $2.10 lb stemmed $2.92J lb $2.75 lb SCHEDULE VLI Agricultural Products and Provisions New Tariff Old Tariff Almonds 5ic lb 4|c lb shelled 16ic lb 14c lb Apples 25c bu 25c bu Apricots ic lb ^c lb dried 2c lb §clb Barley 20c bu 2c lb Brazil nuts IJc lb Ic lb shelled 45c lb Ic lb Bacon and hams 3jc lb 2c lb Butter and oleomargarine 14c lb 8c lb Cattle 2§ or 3c lb U or 2c lb Cheese 7c lb 5c lb Cherries 5|c lb O^c lb Corn 25c bu 15c bu cornmeal 50c bu 30c bu Cider 5c gal 5c gal Chocolate and cocoa 3c lb 17^% ad val Cocoanut meat 3|c lb 3ic lb Eggs 10c doz 8c doz Figs 5c lb 2c lb Flaxseed 65c bu 40c bu Fresh Iamb 7c lb 4c lb Fresh or frozen salmon, mackerel and halibut 2c lb 2c lb Hay $5.00 ton $4.00 ton Honey 3clb 3c lb Herring and mackerel, pickled or salted Ic lb Ic lb Horses and mules $30.00 ea $30.00 ea value over $150 20% ad val 20% ad val Hogs 2c lb ic lb Irish potatoes 75c 100 lbs 50c 100 lbs Lard , 3c lb Ic lb Lemons 2^c lb 2c lb Limes 2c lb Ic lb Oranges Ic lb Ic lb Grapefruit l§c lb Ic lb Macaroni and noodles 2c lb 2c lb Milk 6ic gal 2lc gal Cream 56,'v,c gal 20c gal Condensed lioclb IJclb Spirits, Wines and Other Ale, porter and beer Brandy Champagne Grapejuice 70c gal Ginger ale 15c gal Still wines $1.25 gal Beverages Old Tariff $1 gal New Tariff $1 gal $5 gal $6 gal $5 ga $6 gal 70c 15c gal $1.25 gal SCHEDULE IX Cotton Manufactures New Tariff Old Tariff Cotton sewing thread 5c 100 yds fc 100 yds Countable cotton cloth 10 to 60% 10^ to 45% ad val ad val Hose and half hose 30 to 50% 30 to 50% ad val ad val Knit gloves 50 to 60%, 40 to 75% ad val ad val Knit underwear and outerwear 45% ad val 45% ad val Lace curtains 60% ad val 60% ad val Quilts or bedspreads 25 to 40% 25 to 40% ad val ad val Table and bureau covers 30% ad val 30% ad val Table damask 30% ad val 30% ad val Wearing apparel 37^% ad val 35% ad val SCHEDULE X Flax, Hemp, Jute, and Manufactures of New Tariff Old Tariff Jute bagging /oc sq yd I'bc sq yd Jute burlap Ic lb Ic lb Linen cloth 35% to 55% 35% to 55%, ad val ad val Linen handkerchiefs 35% ad val 35% ad val Table damask 45% ad val 40% ad val Tailors' paddings 55% ad val 55% ad val Towels and napkins 40% to 55% 40% to 55% ad val ad val Wearing apparel 35% ad val 35% ad val SCHEDULE XI Wool and Manufactures of New Tariff Old Tariff Blankets 30c lb & 36% 18c lb & 30% ad val ad val Chenille Axminster carpets and rugs. . . . 60% ad val 55% ad val Hose, half hose and gloves 40c lb & 35% 36c lb&35% ad val ad val Knit underwear 40c lb & 30% 36 lbs & 30% ad val ad val sweaters 44c lb & 45% 36c lb & 40% ad val ad val Oriental carpets, rugs 50c sq ft 55% ad val Raw wool 34c lb 31c lb Spool Axminster, Wilton, Brussels, velvet and tapestry carpets and rugs 40% or 60% 40% ad val ad val Wearing apparel 33c lb & 24c lb & 40% 45% ad val ad val Tariff 13 Tariff Woven fabrics womens .... Neiv Tariff Old Tariff . 50c lb & 36c lb 50% ad val 50% ad vai . 50c lb & 24c lb & 50% ad val 40% ad val SCHEDULE XII Silk Manufactures New Tariff Old Tariff Broad silks 55 to 60% 55% ad val Handkerchiefs and mufflers 55% ad val 55% ad val Knit goods 60% ad val 60% ad val Sewing silk 40% ad val Velvet 60% ad val 60% ad val SCHEDULE XIII Manufactures of Rayon or Other Synthetic Textile New Tariff Old Tariff Clothing and wearing apparel 45c lb & 45c lb & 65% ad val 60% ad val Knit articles 45c lb & 45c lb. & 65% ad val 60% ad val Rayon yarns 45 to 50% 45c lb ad val Spun yarns 12|c lb & 25c lb & 45% ad val 45% ad val Woven fabrics 45c lb & 45c lb & 60% ad val 60% ad val SCHEDULE XIV Papers and Books New Tariff Old Tariff Books 15% ad val 15% ad val Paper envelopes 5% ad val & 5% ad val & paper rate paper rate Playing cards 10c pack & 10c pack & 20% ad val 20% ad val Printing paper ic lb & 10% ic lb & 10% ad val ad val Writing, letter and note paper 3c lb & 15% 3c lb & ad val 15% ad val SCHEDULE XV Sundries New Tariff Old Tariff Bags, satchels and pocketbooks 35% ad val 30% ad va' Boxing gloves and athletic goods 30% ad val 30% ad val Brooms 25% ad val 15% ad val Clocks 55c ea. & $1 ea & 45% 65% ad val ad val to to $4.50 ea& $4ea&45% 65% ad val ad val Diamonds free 10% ad val precious stones free 10% ad val Dice, chips, billiard balls 50% ad val 50% ad val Dolls and toys 70% ad val 70% ad val to Ic ea & 60% ad val Embroideries 90% ad val 75% ad val Furs 25% ad val 25% ad val dyed 30% ad val Hats, bonnets, etc $3.50 doz & 50% ad val 50% ad val Ice and roller skates 20% ad val 20% ad val Lace and lace curtains 90% ad val 90% ad val Leather gloves: Men's, not over 12 ins $6 doz $5 doz Women's and children's $5.50 doz $4 doz For each inch or fraction thereof in excess of 12 ins 50c doz 50c doz Manufactures of furs 35% ad val 40% ad val dyed 40% ad val Men's straw hats $4 doz & 60% ad val 60% ad val Musical instruments 40% ad val 40% ad val Pearls 10% ad val 20% ad val Pencils 25 to 50c gross 45c gross & & 30% ad val 25% ad val Photographic cameras 20% ad val 20% ad val Photographic films A of Ic linear 25% ad val foot not developed 2c linear ft 2c linear ft Rosaries 15 or 30% 15 or ^0%, ad val ad va! Shoes, leather 20% ad val free Uppers of wool 35% ad val 35% ad val Silver and black fox skins 50% ad val 50% ad val Thermostatic bottles 15c & 45% 15c & 45% ad val ad val Toothbrushes Ic ea & 45% or 60% 50% ad val ad val Umbrellas 40% ad val 40% ad val Watch movements 75c ea to 75c ea to $10.75 ea $10.75 ea cases 20c ea & 45% ad val 45% ad val Wearing apparel 50% ad val 50% ad val Tariff KFF 619 Tariff Canada, — Power over duties was granted in 1840 to the united provinces of Quebec and On- tario. The tariff of 1859 im- posed duties on manufactures, chiefly for revenue, to average 20 per cent, lowered in 1868 to 15 per cent. After the forma- tion of the Dominion, the effect of American competition and other causes led to a larger in- crease of duties by 1879. There- after almost yearly increases were made in the tariff ; but the Liberals, who came into power in 1896, gave differential duties of SSVs per cent (afterward low- ered in the case of textiles) to Great Britain. The preference granted to British goods started in 1903 a tariff war with Germany, which demanded an equal reduction. It was brought to an end in 1910, when Germany agreed to admit practically all Canadian goods under conventional tariff duties, while Canada agreed to repeal the 3314 per cent surtax on Ger- man goods. Conventions with France (1907-10) and with Italy (1910) grant to those countries a part of the intermediate tariff schedule. The United States failed in an attempt to obtain the same terms as France, but se- cured other concessions (1910). In 1911 a reciprocity agreement was passed by the United States, but was rejected by Canada (see Reciprocity). In 1912 a reci- procity agreement was concluded with the British West Indies. On Jan. 29, 1921, a reciprocity agreement was signed with France. Since 1917 strong agitation has occurred for lowering of tariffs. A commission held hear- ings in 1920 but decided to wait upon the United States. In 1923-4 preferences accorded im- ports of British origin were in- creased, and a few reductions made on United States agricul- tural and industrial machinery items. The 1923 act provided for reciprocal reductions if the United States reduced duties on cattle, wheat, flour, oats, barley, potatoes, hay, fish. As a result of the Ottawa Conference, re- visions were made by reducing or removing existing British preferential duties on 57 items, 76 were made free, while on about an equal number of others advantages to British goods were increased. Sales, excise and anti-dumping taxes were also im- posed. In 1935 the negotiated trade agreement with the United States took effect and a new era in United States-Canadian tariffs was begun (see details under United States tariff). Germany, — Before the for- mation of the Empire, the vari- ous German States organized a Zollverein, or Customs Union (1824-34), which, on the basis of the Prussian tariff of 1818, lim- ited duties on manufactured ar- ticles to 10 per cent, and placed a uniform duty on all goods. A treaty with Austria (in force 1853-62) extended practical freedom of commerce to all Ger- man-speaking lands. In 1861 both export and transit duties were abolished. Treaties with France and England were con- cluded in 1865, and were fol- lowed by a large reduction of duties. With the depression of 1873-9 Germany felt the general reac- tion to protection ; and the pro- tective tariff of 1879 was suc- ceeded by various increases until 1891, when the single tariff sys- tem was abolished. The tariff of 1879 was then retained as the general tariff, serving as the basis for the negotiation of special treaties granting reciprocal con- cessions. The aggregate of such concessions, enjoyed by all coun- tries entitled to most-favored- nation treatment, formed the 'conventional' tariff. The tariff effective in 1906 greatly increased the protective duties, especially those on agri- cultural products ; and the finance law of 1909 advanced the inter- nal revenue taxes and the duties on tea, coffee, alcoholic liquors, tobacco, and matches. With the United States Ger- many had several treaties, made with individual states before the Empire was founded, but still valid. The most important was the conditional most-favored- nation agreement with Prussia. Special agreements between the two countries were made in 1900, 1907, and 1910. (See Ger- many). On June 28, 1919, Germany and the Allied and Associated Powers signed commercial trea- ties, to be effective from Jan. 10, 1920. Germany pledged most- favored-nation treatment to the Allied and Associated Powers. It was also agreed that until Jan. 10, 1925, products originating in and coming from Alsace and Lorraine be exempt from cus- toms duties to an amount equal to the average amounts of prod- ucts sent annually in the years 1911-13. The League of Na- tions was given the power to de- cide whether this exemption should be extended beyond 1925. Until Jan. 10, 1923, products originating in the coming from Polish territories which before the war were part of Germany are exempt from customs duties. Germany unconditionally pledged national and most-favored-nation treatment to all the Allied and Associated Powers in regard to ports, waterways, and railways, international waterways, use of railways, and the Kiel Canal. On Sept. 1, 1920, Germany and Austria signed a commercial treaty. In April 1922 the Reichstag increased import dutieS on a large number of commodities, as a rule doubling previous duties. In May 1923 a system of export price control, export duties and licensing were abolished, and a proviso adopted that export prices be quoted in high exchange cur- rency, surrendering at least 40% of the credit of the Reichsbank, which then reimbursed exporters with paper marks at the current rate. An active policy of agra- rian protection led Germany in 1929-30 to denounce some com- mercial treaties and expand her import certificate system, also to set up a corn monopoly. The March, 1933, enabling act made it possible for the cabinet to enact any kind of law. A President's decree enables it to change import or export duties and to put into effect provisional bilateral commercial agreements. During 1931-33 a quantitative limitation of import trade, through rigid foreign exchange transactions control, was in effect; but late in 1933 import quotas were adopted, restric- tions being placed on imports from countries maintaining non- negotiated restrictions against German products. All foreign exchange transactions continue vmder rigid control ; import houses being limited to about one quarter the imports of 1930— 31. In 1935 the long-standing tariff war between Germany and Poland was ended by granting each other most-favored-nation terms plus reciprocal advantages of interest to each. The Franco- German commercial treaty of 1927 was terminated in 1935, both abolishing the duty reduc- tions therein provided for. France, — Although the con- stituent Assembly in 1791 granted a liberal tariff, the wars of 1792-1815 necessitated heavy taxation, and the prohibitions on commerce enormously stimulated contraband trade. With the Restoration of the Royalists came a strong protectionist feeling, which appeared in the Acts of 1819, 1821, and 1822, caused by the industrial depression. This was further manifested in 1826, when duties on wool were raised to 30 per cent, and on steel to 100 per cent. Under the Orleanist family, although some duties were reduced^ a system of high protection, with even some instances of prohibition, was maintained. From 1840 to 1850 duties were increased ; but the next decade saw the initiation of Tariff KFF 620 Tariff the free trade tendency which in 1860 brought about the famous treaty between France and Eng- land negotiated by Cobden, Chevalier, Rouher, and Napo- leon III. It was extensively used by other countries as a basis for commercial agreements. Be- tween 1860 and 1867 France con- cluded fourteen liberal treaties with other states. After the Franco-Prvissian War (1870-71), the fall of Na- poleon III, and the depression following 1873, came the protec- tionist reaction. The commercial treaties were denounced ; but they were retained until 1877, and until then raw materials were secured. In 1872, differ- ential duties were imposed on goods imported in foreign ships. In 1881 bounties were estab- lished. In 1882 general revision of the tariff went into effect. The tariff of 1892 introduced the principle of general and minimum tariffs, both fixed by the Legislature. The tariff adopted in 1910 repre- sented a thorough revision. The changes made were for the most part advances, especially in the duties on manufactured goods ; the difference between the gen- eral and the minimum tariff was increased from 25 to 50 per cent ; while the government was au- thorized; at its discretion, to ex- tend the general rates previously in force, as an intermediate tariff. In 1920 France announced the termination of the commercial treaties with Spain and Italy, the latter to take effect Feb. 1. 1921. Since the World War France, as one of the Allied and Asso- ciated Powers, made new agree- ments with Germany, Austria, and Hungary. The French colonial tariff of 1928 is controlled by the Gov- ernment by decree. A presiden- tial decree in 1931 established the principle of customs surtaxes to compensate for advantages accruing to foreign countries whose exchange rates have de- preciated. Executive decrees to set up import quotas have been issued freely since 1931 ; France being the first to use the import quota device. During 1934-35 a great many changes in quotas exchange allocations, etc., were made, and many agreements with other countries made and un- made. Like other Continental countries France had no set policy, the impulse being strong to increase import restrictions by various devices. Import license taxes, monopolies and similar surtaxes exceeding in amount the regular duties have been set up in France, and some reduced or abolished, such as an import turnover tax of 4 and 6%, now reduced to 2%. A technical committee was set up in 1935 to study the advisability of re- placing quotas with regular duties, at higher rates. Italy, — When the kingdom of Italy was established, the liberal policy previously followed by Sardinia was generally contin- ued. The tariff of 1861 and the commercial treaties of 1863 to 1875 disclosed the influence of the downward tendency inaugurated by France ; but the year follow- ing involved the country in the general protectionist revival after the panic of 1873. The tariff of 1877 imposed a higher range of duties on the principal arti- cles of import. Later the pro- tectionist party, strengthened by the continued depression, abol- ished the commercial treaties, and in 1887 passed a still higher schedule. During the war with Turkey, in 1911-12, a special schedule of high duties was im- posed against imports of Turk- ish origin. In 1921 Italy and Soviet Rus- sia signed a commercial treaty, which provided among other things : free import and export by both powers and use of ports ; renewal of trade with the excep- tion of prohibition of alcoholic liquors into Russia ; termination of all forms of blockade and boy- cott. The first important tariff law since the war was put in effect July 1921. Higher protection to motor vehicles and tractors was granted, and depreciation of the lira was met by arbitrary sur- taxes at rates proclaimed from time to time. The new tariff contained twice as many dutiable items, and the tariff was divided into basic, or minimum rates, and the 'coefficients of increase.' In 1923 a number of modifications were made. In 1922 general in- creases were put into effect by decree on commodities from coun- tries which do not have most- favored-nation arrangements with Italy. In 1931 a striking tariff advance of an additional 15% ad valorem sujrtax on most commod- ities, whether dutiable or free, was imposed, in all instances ex- cept when bound by agreement. This was for the declared pur- pose of raising more government revenue. Russia, — This country has long been a type of extreme pro- tection. The old mercantilist point of view was closely allied with protectionism, as shown in the act of 1823. The liberalizing forces of about 1850 produced a relatively slight impression upon the tariff system of Russia. Some concessions were made in 1851 and 1855 to the needs of foreign trade, and the tariffs of 1857 and 1868 were comparatively mod- erate. In the war with Turkey, when the Russian inconvertible paper was greatly depreciated, the decree making customs duties payable in gold (1877) was equiv- alent to an increase of duties varying from 30 to 50 per cent. In _ 1880, 1882, and 1885 the duties were successively raised. In 1890 there was a general tariff increase of 20 per cent. The tariff of 1891 extended protec- tion, before restricted to manu- factures, to include partly manu- factured goods and raw materials. The general (maximum) and minimum tariff system was adopted in 1893 ; but a tariff war with Germany forced the reduc- tion of the minimum rates. In 1903 a new general tariff (effec- tive in 1906) was made the basis for the negotiation of commer- cial treaties to fix conventional rates. Due to the unsettled state of Russia, it was not until recently that other nations negotiated commercial treaties with her. In 1921, however. Great Britain, Germany, Canada, and Norway entered into negotiations. The trade agreement between Soviet Russia and Great Britain was signed March 16, 1921. It is effective until it is replaced by a general peace treaty, but is ter- minable after one year by either party on six months' notice. The Soviet tariff of 1922 fol- lowed fairly closely the Russian tariff of 1906, but increased duties were imposed, only a few articles being on the free list. The tariff applied only to coun- tries having commercial agree- ments. An export schedule of duties was also set up in 1922 and revised in 1923, imposed largely for revenue, on 78 items, including hides, skins and furs. Complete prohibition of export on some items was set up. Import and export are state monopolies under the Soviet system. In October 1930 a decree was issued to retaliate against coun- tries which impede normal im- portation of Soviet goods, hy means of suspension of limita- tion of export, discontinuance of use of commercial vessels, re- striction of transport through country, or use of ports, etc. In April 1932 maximum and mini- mum rates were set up for a specified list of items. Special provisions were also made for imports consigned to foreigners working in Russia by arrange- ment. In 1935 import rules were modified to permit certain Soviet industries to buy abroad. In 1935 was negotiated a one- year trade agreement by which the United States extended the most-favored-nation treatment to the Soviet Union, which agreed to double its purchases in the United States in a year. Ger- Tariff KFF 620 A Tariff many, England and Italy also made similar trade agreements, also some with long-term credits guaranteed by the governments. Spain, — A system of tariffs that was practically prohibitive was slightly reduced in 1849 ; but the liberal movement was unable to affect Spain until 1868. Once started, the liberal tendency held on longer in Spain than else- where, and in 1882 further re- ductions were made. However, the strong protectionist feeling of the country, together with the need of revenue, forced the in- auguration of the general and minimum tariff system, later adopted by France and other countries. In practice the sys- tem is modified by treaties grant- ing rates lower than the mini- mum, as those with the Nether- lands (1892), Norway (1904), and Portugal (1893 ; abrogated 1912). By the treaty of 1894 Great Britain gets a minimum tariff. The tariff of 1906 prac- tically raised the rates by re- quiring that duties be collected in gold. In August 1906 Spain con- cluded a commercial agreement with the United States, to be revised every five years. It was revised in 1912, continuing a minimum and a maximum tariff ; but some treaties with European states, for lower rates, remained in force, even until 1921, most- favored-nation agreements also enjoying these rates. The next revision was February 1922, set- ting up two scales of tariffs, a 'first' which is three times as high as a 'second,' and doubling the number of classifications. All duties were specific and pay- able in paper pesetas, plus a sur- tax. 'Second' tariffs apply to countries having no reciprocal agreements. Agreements were made with Switzerland, France, Norway, Great Britain. Italy, with concessions below the 'sec- ond' tariff. A conventional schedule of 400 items was es- tablished. In 1923 existing ad valorem rates were converted into specific rates. The new Republican govern- ment accepted this tariff, but various decrees have been issued, changing duty rates. In 1931 import quotas were set up by de- cree, with an additional pro- viso against most-favored-nation clauses, except for certain speci- fied articles. A 1933 decree au- thorized a preferential rebate system as a measure of recipro- cal tariff adjustment with coun- tries having trade balances favor- able to Spain and who buy quar- terly at least 35% of any basic Spanish farm export product. Another 1933 decree set up a new quota program, especially for countries buying less from Spain than Spain does from them. An official registry of im- porters and exporters was set up. A 1934 decree authorized anti- dumping measures. Japan, — When the country was opened to foreign trade the duties imposed were prescribed by treaty, and were adminis- tered under foreign supervision. The first wholly Japanese tariff, in effect 1899, established the general and conventional system. Increases imposed as war duties in 1904 were incorporated in the general tariff in 1906; and fur- ther advances, averaging 50 per cent, were made in the new pro- tective tariff of 1 9 1 1 . The higher rates were levied chiefly on the products of industries which are either established or projected in Japan. Commercial treaties on the basis of the new tariff have been concluded with the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany and France (1911), Austria-Hungary and Italy (1913), and other countries. In response to pressing de- mands, July, 1920, Japan revised her tariff so as to protect the younger industries during the economic depression and the primary industries against dump- ing of low-priced Western goods. Agitation for higher protective tariffs has proceeded for years. A tariff law with higher duties was passed in 1926. A trade- control law April 1934 empow- ered the administration to in- crease or decrease duties or restrict importation. The anti- dumping features were continued and reinforced. Tariff investi- gation committees have been at work for a period of years, the depreciation of the yen and the Chinese-Manchukuan situation delaying action. China, — The customs tariff of China originated in the Treaty of Nanking, 1842. This pro- vided for a 5 per cent duty. Re- visions were subsequently made. Japan, in 1896, and Great Brit- ain and the United States, in 1902, promised China a tariff revision every ten years. In 1918 the Allied Powers and the Neutral Powers had a conference at Shanghai to revise the tariff. Just preceding the conference the foreign Ministers at Peking at- tempted to reach an agreement with China as to the basis of val- uation. It was finally agreed that a tariff be prepared on the basis of an effective 5 per cent of the average values of mer- chandise during the years 1912- 1916, the determination of these values being left to the Confer- ence. Here, after much discus- sion, it was finally decided to accept China's compromise pro- viding for a surtax of 40 per cent for piece goods and metals and 30 per cent for sundries, with the option that merchants might pay 5 per cent ad valorem duty on the current market value. All the delegations voted for the proposal but Japan. At the Peace Conference of 1918, China presented a claim for tariff autonomy, claiming that the existing tariff was unfair and unscientific. The reasons given were : no reciprocity, no differ- entiation, insufficiency of rev- enue, no real revision for more than half a century. ^ As one of Allied and Asso- ciated Powers China signed a commercial agreement with Aus- tria in 1919, and a treaty to re- store relations of friendship and commerce was signed May 20, 1921, with Germany, effective in- definitely after July 1, 1921. In 1921 the Washington Limi- tation of Arms Conference pro- vided for a commission to revise custom rates to make them an effective 5%, and for a confer- ence to abolish 'likin,' giving also the conference power to apply a surtax of 23^ to 5%. After various delays and slight changes the new tariff went into effect in 1923. In 1931 a new tariff was drafted, for the first time serving the purpose of fostering industry as well as producing revenue. The new tariff made a number of reductions, but most changes were vipward, especially on luxuries. A flood-relief sur- tax was also added in 1931. A beginning was also made at aboli- tion of 'likin,' (taxes levied at internal points), by enforcement of special excise taxes on a limited list. In 1931 also an anti-dumping measure was de- creed, a tax being levied on goods whose wholesale price in China is lower than in the exporting country, or when price is below cost of production, or when com- modity receives a bounty. Ap- plication of this law has been lax. China's treaty with Japan limits duties that China may im- pose on cotton goods, flour, sugar and other commodities. Boycott of Japanese goods in recent years has had serious repercussions. Other Countries, — Australia in 1935 set up a policy that duties should not exceed what is reasonable and adequate under existing conditions of exchange, protection being limited to goods economically manufactured in Australia. This resulted in downward revisions. A lower 'intermediate' schedule was au- thorized _ for tariff bargaining. The Union of South Africa es- tablished in 1935 a three-column tariff, with maximum rates for non-treaty countries. Subsidies were reduced. Multiple tariff systems were adopted in 1934 by Tariff KFF 620 B Tarim River Cuba, Guatemala, Haiti and Ecuador. Differential alloca- tion of foreign exchange was adopted by Argentina and Uruguay. Import restrictions or quantitative controls have be- come almost universal through- out the world as a result of in- tense nationalism and depression. Tariff Theories, — In the United States there are two radically opposed schools of thought on the problem of tar- iffs. In 1934 the Foreign Policy Association of New York City sent out two brochures, one en- titled Recommendations of the Committee on Commercial Pol- icy, and the other Memorandum on America Self -Contained, sub- mitted by the Committee for 'America Self-Contained/ also of New York City. In the first-mentioned publica- tion, tariff revision is emphasized as an essential contribution to domestic recovery. 'In many instances the present tariff con- stitutes a tax upon the American people as a whole for the protec- tion of specially favored groups. Dr. Mordecai Ezekiel, economic adviser to the Department of Agriculture, recently stated that only eight million out of the fifty million gainfully occupied work- ers in 1929 had been employed in industries which received any direct benefit from the existing tariff. 'Ostensibly the tariff is to "protect" American industries. But a form of protection which requires the exclusion of foreign goods needed to pay for our ex- ports defeats its own end by penalizing efficient industries in order to maintain inefficient tmits. As a consequence the American people have been forced to reduce their standard of living to protect groups which should be more profitably oc- cupied elsewhere. The present Administration has made a de- termined effort to correct those aspects of our economic and fi- nancial system under which cer- tain groups have profited at the expense of the American public. This task will not be completed until the tariff is revised so as to make it a truly national instru- ment for the general welfare rather than for sectional or spe- cial privilege. 'The Committee cannot rec- ommend the adoption of free trade or even a wholesale and indiscriminate slash in American tariff schedules. The economic structure of the United States has been developed under an in- creasingly protective system, and there is great danger that the immediate and general removal of such protection would pro- duce industrial chaos. Neither can the Committee recommend the continuance of the compara- tive cost-of-production princi- ple. . . . This principle is un- sound for four reasons: (1) It erects no standard of protection as to what industries should be protected from the standpoint of the national interest. (2) It results in protecting the pro- ducer no matter how inefficient he may be. ... It is a striking fact that today some of our most highly protected industries, such as the production of sugar beets, pay the lowest wages and have the poorest working conditions. (3) The literal application of the principle as between Ameri- can and foreign producers would mean the virtual cessation of all international trade. (4) It is impossible in practice accurately to determine differences in costs of production. ... A tariff rate, moreover, which is based on the so-called average cost of production enables the low cost tmits to make an excessive profit. . . . 'The country must frankly face the fact that its foreign loans cannot be paid except by goods and services, and that, if the United States does not wish to accept such goods and serv- ices, it must be prepared to wipe out its foreign investments.' America Self -Contained, — 'The Committee . . . does not propose that imports and ex- ports should be completely elimi- nated. Nor does it propose that we inconvenience ourselves by striving too rapidly for self-con- tainment. It is proposed that we import only commodities which at present we cannot or that it does not pay us to manu- facture or grow, or that our chemistry cannot produce. It is proposed that we buy from na- tions who buy from us, and in that connection, that dealings with every nation be perfectly balanced on a bookkeeping basis, passing through and controlled by the Federal Reserve Banks. Also it is proposed that we reserve for American labor the manu- facture of our raw materials. 'Had we kept bookkeeping ac- counts of these [foreign loan] transactions, we might have asked ourselves if our debtors had the capacity to pay these thirty-six billions — and if they were to be repaid in goods, how this could be done without de- stroying certain home industries, creating unemployment, throwing our economic machine out of balance and lowering our- stand- ard of living. , . . The net re- sult is that if our debtors pay in goods we shall have to lower our tariffs, which will kill certain home industries and create un- employment. The more we ex- port, the more we must import ; and every product we import which America can produce, de- prives our labor of so much work. ... On the other hand, if our debtors default, or debts are cancelled, Americans will have to meet these obligations in some form or other. For it is the public in the end who pays. . . . Such is the situation which confronts us. But let us profit from our costly lessons and — it cannot be said too often —place our international deal- ings on a sound bookkeeping basis. . . . 'Within our nearly three mil- lion square miles, we possess materials, skill and machinery to make America fully self-con- tained. , . See Taxation ; Free Trade ; Protection; Reciprocity; Public Revenue. Consult C. F. Bastable, Com- merce of Nations (1904-1923); W. Cunningham, Rise and De- cline of Free Trade Movement (1912); T. E. Gregory, Tariffs, A Study in Method (1921); G. M. Fisk, International Commer- cial Policies (1923) ; G. Cromp- ton. The Tariff, An Interpreta- tion (1927); O. Delle-Donne, European Tariff Policies Since the World War (1928); Toan- nou and Wakefield, Export Duties of World (League of Na- tions 1927) ; W. Grotkopp, Breaking Down the Tariff Walls (1930) ; Sir C. M. Bell, Tariff Walls, A European Crusade (1930) ; F. W. Taussig, Tariff History of U. 5. (1931) ; C. Brook, This Tariff Question (1931) ; M. R. Eiselen, Rise of Protectionism (1932); R. A. Hodgson, Introduction to Inter- national Trade and Tariffs (1932) ; Sir W. H. Beveridge, Tariffs (by committee of econo- mists, London 1932) ; Tariffs and Trade Barriers (Academy Political Sciences, 1933) ; U. S. Tariff Commission, The Tariff and Its History, and The Tariff — a Bibliography (1934), also Colonial Tariff Policies (1932) and Reciprocity and Commercial Treaties (1922); C. A. Beard, The National Interest (1935) ; F. B. Say re, America Must Act (1936). J. George Frederick. Tarija, ta-re'ha, department, Bolivia, occupying the southeast corner of the country, contiguous to Brazil, Paraguay, and Ar- gentina. Area, 31,567 square miles. The west portion is mountainous, but is fertile and populous. Stock raising is the chief industry. Pop. 165,000. Tarik. See Gibraltar. Tarim River, ta-rem', in East- ern Turkestan, Asia, rises as the Yarkand-Daria in the glaciers of the Karakoram Mountains, in the north of Kashmir. It flows Tarkington KFN 621 Taro north through the Kuenlun Moun- tains, then skirts the northern edge of the Turkestan desert and finally turns toward the Lob Nor region, which it reaches after a 1,000-mile course. Tarkington, tar'king-t'n, (Newton) Booth (1869- ), American author, was born in Indianapolis, Ind. He was grad- uated (1893) from Princeton University and after a few years of commercial life he began writ- ing, and won considerable success with his first novel, The Gentle- man from Indiana (1899), a realistic story of the Middle West. His second book, a novel- ette. Monsieur Beaucairc (1900), won admiration for its romantic qualities, and was produced as a play by Richard Mansfield. His other published works, all of which are characterized by a keen sense of humor and several of which display a clever knowledge of youth and adolescence, include The Two Vanrevels, Cherry, In the Arena : Stories of Political Life, The Beautiful Lady, Pen- rod, Seventeen, The Turmoil, Growth, Alice Adams, The Pluto- crat, Penrod Jashber, Presenting Lily Mars, Little Orvie, Mr. White, The Lorenzo Bunch, Rumbin Galleries, Some Old Por- traits, The Heritage of Hatcher Ide, The Fighting Littles ; and the plays Beauty and the Jacobin, Mister Antonio, The Man from Home, Up from Nowhere, Clar- ence, The Intimate Strangers, and Colonel Satan. Tarkio College, a United Presbyterian coeducational insti- tution at Tarkio, Missouri, or- ganized in 1883 at the Tarkio Valley College and Normal In- stitute and chartered under its present title in 1885. In addition to the usual liberal arts curricu- lum, courses are offered in music, commerce, and teacher training. Tarlac, tar'lak, province of Luzon, Philippine Islands, in the central part of the island. It is rich in timber. The chief crops are rice and sugar cane. Pop. 135,000. The capital is Tarlac, 70 miles N.w. of Manila. Pop. 23,888. Tarleton, tarl'tun, Sir Ban- ASTRE (1754-1833), British sol- dier, was born in Liverpool. He went to America in 1776 and served under Howe, Clinton, Cornwallis, and other British commanders throughout the American Revolutionary War. He took part in the capture of New York in 1776, ahso in the battle of White Plains ; and the next year, under Howe, fought at the Brandywine, and at German- town. In 1779, when he became lieutenant colonel of the 'British Legion,' he was sent to the Caro- linas, and in the campaigns of the South during the remaining years of the war acted with such bru- tality that 'Tarleton's quarter' was but another name for whole- sale butchery. He served at Camden : defeated General Sum- ter at Catawba Fords in 1780, was in turn defeated by him the same year, and in January, 1781, was defeated by General Morgan at the battle of Cowpens. He was with Cornwallis when he surrendered at Yorktown. On his return to England he entered Parliament as member for Liver- pool (1790), acting with the Whig opposition. He published a His- tory of the Campaigns of 1780 Tarn-et-Garonne, tarn'a-ga- ron', department of southern France. Cereals, fruits, and grapes are the chief agricultural products. Manufactures include coarse woolens, leather, silk, and beet sugar. It remained in the unoccupied section of France, after the German invasion of 1940. Montauban is the capital. Pop. (1936) 164,629. Tarnopol, tar-n6'p6l-y', town, Poland, on the Sereth, 75 miles s.E. of Lemberg. The chief in- dustries are brewing, spirit- refining, and corn-milling. Fol- lowing the Russo-German inva- BOOTH TARKINGTON and 1781 in the Southern Prov- inces of North America (1787). Tarlton, Richard (d. 1588), English actor, was born in Shrop- shire. He was a wit and a come- dian and was a favorite of Queen Elizabeth. He was the contriver and arranger of the play The Seven Deadly Sins. He is said to have been Shakespeare's Yorick in Hamlet. Tarn (part of ancient Langue- doc), department of southern France, south of Aveyron, with an area of 2,231 square miles. It has deposits of iron, coal, and copper. Wheat and grapes are grown. There are manufactures of coarse woolens, steel and iron goods, hosiery, silks, and glass. After the German invasion of France in 1940, it remained part of unoccupied France. Pop. (1936) 297,871. sion of Poland, and the treaty of Sept. 29, 1939, it was ceded to Russia. Pop. (1931 ) 35.831. Tarnow, tar'nof, town, Po- land ; 46 miles east of Cracow. It has manufactures of agricul- tural implements, and glass. It was taken by the Germans after the invasion of Poland in 1939. Pop. (1931) 45,235. Taro, ta'ro, Tara, or Kalo, a name sometimes given to certain herbs belonging to the genus Colocasia, belonging to the family Araceae. They are grown in the Pacific tropics for their large, starchy roots, which are edible and nutritious. The poi of Hawaii is made from the tubers of the taro (kalo) which are boiled and mashed with water into a paste which is sometimes fermented. The young leaves are used like spinach. Tarots KFN 622 Tarsus Tarots. See Cards. Tarpaulin, tar-p6'lin, canvas rendered waterproof with a coat- ing of tar, or any waterproof cloth used for protection against damp, as for covering hatchways or goods in a burning building likely to be damaged by water. Tarpeia, tar-pe'ya, in ancient Roman legend, a daughter of the governor of the Capitol, who, when the Sabines were besieging the fortress, was bribed by 'what they wore on their left arms,' meaning their bracelets, to open one of the gates to them ; but on entering, they cast their shields, which they also wore on their left arms, on her, and killed her. Her name was given to the Tar- peian rock, a cliff on the Capitol, over which malefactors were thrown. Tarpon (Megalops atlanticiis), a fish related to the herring, found off the southeastern coasts of North America and the West Indies and southward to Brazil. It is of some food value but is chiefly noted as furnishing ex- cellent sport for fishermen. It is caught with rod and line and it requires no little skill to land one, as they have great power in swimming and leaping. The best tarpon fishing is along the west coast of Florida, around Key West, and near Galveston, Texas. The tarpon, which is also known as silver king, reaches a length of 6 feet and a weight of over 100 pounds. Its most notable pe- culiarities are the large scales, which are more than two inches in diameter, and the curious pro- longation of the last ray of the dorsal fin. Another species oc- curs in Indian waters. Tarquinii, tarkwin'i-T, an ancient Etrurian city, on the west coast of Italy ; 62 miles N.w. of Rome. It was one of the league of twelve Etrurian cities, and was probably the head of the confederacy. Afterwards the city became a Roman colony ; but about A.D. 800 its inhabitants founded a new town on the oppo- site hill — the modern Corneto. It has mediaeval fortifications, an old castle and several Roman- esque churches. The necropolis, situated to the sotitheast of the town, cfmtains tombs of great archaeological interest. Tarquins, tar'kwinz. The, an ancient Roman family, two members of which were included among the early kings of Rome. — (1) Lucius Tarquinius Pris- cus (616-578 B.C.), succeeded Ancus Martius. His reign was marked by victories over the Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans, and by the construction of the sewers, the Circus Maximus, the Forum, and the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol. Finally he was murdered at the instigation of the sons of Ancus Martius. — (2) Lucius Tarouinius Superbus (534-510 B.C.), the last king of Rome, oppressed both the people and nobles. Abroad he made Rome head of the Latin confed- eracy ; conquered the Volscians and people of Gabii ; but his son Sextus' rape of Lucretia (q. v.) roused the Romans, led by Brutus and Valerius, to expel the king and his family. Tarr, Ralph Stockman (1864-1912), American geophys- icist and geologist, was born in Gloucester, Mass. He was grad- uated (1891) from the Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard Uni- versity, and from 1882 to 1891 he was associated for varying peri- ods with the U. S. Fish Commis- sion, Smithsonian Institution, Texas Geological Survey, U. S. Geological Survey, and Harvard University. He was assistant professor of geology at Cornell from 1892 to 1897, when he be- came professor of dynamic geol- ogy and physical geography at the same institution. He pub- lished elementary textbooks in geology and physiography, and Economic Geology of the United States (1893), Physical Geogra- phy of New York State (1902), New Physical Geography (1904), Geography of Science (1905). Tar'ragon, a perennial herba- ceous plant (Artemisia dracnn- cnhis), native of the countries bordering on the Caspian Sea. In western Europe it has long been cultivated as a flavoring herb, especially for vinegar, pickles and salads. It is easily propagated by cuttings or root division in the spring. Tarragona, tar-ra-g5'na, prov- ince of northeastern Spain. It forms a mountainous district on the Mediterranean and has a fine climate ; area, 2,505 square miles. The slopes produce vast quanti- ties of fruit, wine, grain, and oil, and the higher altitudes, timber and cereals. The leading in- dustries are the manufacture of various fabrics and leather goods, paper mills, potteries, and distil- leries. Pop. (1940) 346,433. Tarragona, city, Spain, cap- ital of Tarragona province, on the Mediterranean Sea at the mouth of the Francoli River ; 50 miles s.w. of Barcelona. It is one of the best ports on the Medi- terranean, with large exports of wine and fruit. Its manufac- tures include soap, liqueurs, salt- ed fish, chocolate and flour. It is an ancient Graeco-Roman city, capital of Roman Eastern Spain (Tarraco) and there are impor- tant remains — Cyclopean walls, palace of Augustus, and a fine aqueduct. Pop. 30,747. Tarrasa, tar-ra'sa, city, Spain, in the province of Barcelona; 15 miles N.w. of the city of Barce- lona. Features of interest are the churches of San Pedro and San Miguel, and the royal col- lege. It is famous for its fine cloth, serges, tweeds, flannels. Pop. 39,975. Tarrytown, village. New York, in Westchester county, on the east bank of the Hudson River, and on the New York Cen- tral Railroad; 25 miles north of New York City. It is connected with White Plains by bus. It is picturesquely situated on the shore of Tappan Bay, an expan- sion of the river, 3 miles wide. Many fine residences are in the vicinity, among which is John D. Rockefeller's estate, with 5,000 acres, and 30 miles of driveways. The old Dutch Church built of bricks brought from Holland was erected prior to 1699. Sleepy Hollow cemetery is the burial place of Washington Irving, Carl Schurz, Samuel Gompers, Whitelaw Reid, and Robert G. Ingersoll. Other fea- tures of historic interest are the Philipse Manor House (1683); Sunnyside, the home of Irving ; the monument to the captors of Major Andre, erected on the spot where he was taken, Sept. 23, 1780; and the Battle Monu- ment surmounting the Revolu- tionary redoubt. Among the institutions are the Tarrytown Hospital, the Lyceum, Warner library, and the Tarrytown Historical Society library (now housed in Philipse Castle). The name of the place is a modifica- tion of tcrwen (wheat town), its original appellation. Tarrytown was settled in 1645, and was in- corporated in 1870. Pop. (1930) 6,841 ; (1940) 6,874. Tar'shish, an Old Testament region, perhaps to be identified with the Phoenician town and district of Tartessus, round the mouth of the river Guadal- quivir. It was an entrepot for metals and marine products. Consult_Ezek. xxvii. 12. Tarsipes, tar'se-pez (Tarsipes rostratus), known as the long- snouted phalanger, a small Aus- tralian mammal about the size of a mouse, arboreal in habit, and feeding upon honey and insects. It has a long, pointed muzzle, the female has a pouch for its young, and the tail is prehensile. The animal belongs to a subfam- ily of the phalangers. Tar'sus, the chief city of Cili- cia in Asia Minor, on the river Cydnus, about 12 miles above its mouth. Its position made it strategically important as it commanded the route to Syria and Asia Minor. It was included in the Persian empire down to the time of Alexander's conquests (333 B.C.) ; afterwards it was an important city in the Syrian kingdom, and in 66 B.C. Pompey -fartan KFN 623 Tartaric Acid made it the capital of the Roman province of Cilicia. About the sixteenth century it passed under Turkish control. It was the birthplace of the apostle Paul. Tar'tan, a woollen fabric of checkered pattern, generally- many colored, worn in the High- lands of Scotland as kilt or shawl. Each clan wears a particularly colored pattern as its distinctive dress. In the Scottish Lowlands, a black and white checkered plaid, known as the 'shepherd's tartan,' is worn. or Krim Tartars, Osmanli Turks, and many others). Ethnically they hold a somewhat interme- diate position between the true Mongols and the Europeans, the types showing everywhere grad- ual transitions from the yellow, lank-haired, flat-featured, ob- lique-eyed, round-headed, under- sized Tunguses, Kalmucks, Man- chus, Gilyaks, of the Far East, to the normal physical char- acters of the Western peoples. All speak dialects of the Turki tongue, which differs greatly from poison if taken in greater than medicinal doses. Tartaric Acid, tar-tar'ik, is dihydroxysuccinic acid [CH(OH) COOH]2, which, on account of its containing two asymmetric carbon atoms, exists in four stereo-isomeric forms — viz. dex- tro- or ordinary tartaric acid, levo-tartaric acid, meso- or in- active tartaric acid, and racemic acid, the latter being a mixture of the two first-named varieties. Ordinary tartaric acid occurs in many plants, particularly the I'holo. by The Horlon Studio Old Dutch Chi4rch {Sleepy Hollow), Tarrytown, N. Y. Tar'tar, or more correctly, Tatar, a term collectively ap- plied by European writers to all the Mongolo-Turki peoples. The original Tartar tribe occu- pied the valleys of the In-shan range. In Europe the form Tar- tar, due to a confusion with the Tartarus of classic mythology, occurs in John de Piano Carpini. The Tartar (properly Turki) peo- ples range from the Lena basin (Yakutsk) through Siberia west- wards to Central Russia (Kasan Tartars, Chuvashes) , and through Central Asia (Turkomans, Uz- begs, Kipchaks, Kirghiz) south- westward to Asia Minor, Cau- casia, and the Balkan Peninsula (Aderbaijans, Alans, and Avfars — i.e. the present Kabards, Nogai the Mongol branch of the com- mon stock language; and while the Mongols are all either nomi- nal Buddhists or Shamanists, the Tartars are exclusively Moham- medans. Consult Keane's Man Past and Present. Tar'tar Emet'ic, potassium antimonyl tartrate, K(SbO)- C4H4O6MH2O, is obtained by boiling antimony oxide with solution of cream of tartar. It forms rhombic efflorescent crys- tals, is fairly soluble in water, and has an unpleasant taste. In doses up to one-eighth of a grain it causes profuse sweating, while in greater amounts it acts as an emetic. On account of its great irritant effect on the stomach and intestines, it acts as a violent grape; from the tartar or argol, which is the deposit obtained on the fermentation of wine, it is principally obtained. The prep- aration is carried out by crystal- lizing the tartar, which is then neutralized and precipitated as calcium tartrate, from which the tartaric acid is set free by dilute sulphuric acid, and purified by recrystallization. It occurs in large monoclinic crystals, which easily dissolve in water, and have a clean, sour taste. It is decom- posed on heating, and behaves as a dibasic acid, the principal salts of which are the acid potassium tartrate, or cream of tartar; po- tassium sodium tartrate, or Ro- chelle salt; and tartar emetic. Its solution rotates polarized Tartarus KFN 624 Tasman light to the right. Ordinary tar- taric acid is used in the prepara- tion of effervescing mixtures and baking powder, and in dyeing. Tartarus, tar'ta-rus, in an- cient Greek mythology, a son of ^ther and Ge, the father of the giants. In Homer and later poets Tartarus is the place of torment for the wicked, as dis- tinguished from Hades, the abode of the dead in general. Tarte, Joseph Israel (1848- 1907), Canadian statesman, was in Sir Wilfrid Laurier's cabinet, a position he resigned in 1902. Tartini, tar-te'ne, Giuseppe (1692-1770), Italian vioHnist and musical composer, was born in Pirano, near Trieste. He did not adopt music as a profession until 1721, when he settled in Padua, becoming solo violinist at Sant' Antonio. In 1728 he founded a violin school and acquired a great reputation as a performer and teacher, doing more to develop the art of violin playing than Black Star Photo by Van De Poll SCOTCH HIGHLANDER born in Lornarie, Que. He was educated at L'Assumption Col- lege, and in 1873 became editor of L' Evenement, Quebec, and sub- sequently editor of La Patrie, at Montreal. He was elected to the Quebec Assembly for Bonaven- ture as a Conservative in 1877 and 1881, and to the Federal Parliament in 1891, for Mont- morency. A year afterwards he was unseated on petition, but was returned almost immediately for L' Islet. Upon his re-election he began a vigorous campaign against his party, charging it with corruption, and was un- questionably responsible for its downfall in 1896. In the last- named year, on the return of the Liberal party to power, he was chosen Minister of Public Works IN TARTAN PLAIDS any man of his time. Perhaps his best known composition is his // Trillo del Diavolo. He is the author of several important treatises on musical acoustics, and the discoverer of 'resultant or differential tones.' Tarudant, ta-rdo-dant', wall- ed town, Morocco, capital of the province of Sus, 120 miles south- west of Morocco. It has manu- factures of copper goods, and leather. Pop. 8,500. Tar Wood. See Tar. Taschereau, tash-ro', Elzear Alexandre (1820-98), Canadian ecclesiastic, was born in Ste. Marie de la Beauce, Que. He was educated at the Quebec Seminary, was ordained priest in 1842, and subsequently was ap- pointed to the faculty where he remained as professor and di- rector for twenty-nine years. In 1847 he especially distin- guished himself by his heroic services during the historic out- break of ship-fever among the Irish immigrants at Grosse Isle, and was himself seriously pros- trated by the disease. In 1860 he was appointed superintendent of the Montreal Seminary, and ex- officio dean of Laval University. He was appointed archbishop of Quebec in 1870, and was created cardinal-priest in 1886. He is best remembered as the founder of the Hotel Dieu du Sacre Cceur, one of the best hospitals in the province, and as the re- constructor of the shrine at Ste. Anne de Beaupre. He was a vigorous opponent of the Mani- toba School Act in 1896. Taschereau, Sir Henri El- zear (1836-1911), Canadian jur- ist, was born in Ste. Marie de La Beauce, Que. He was educated at the Quebec Seminary and was admitted to the bar in 1857, being created a Q.c. in 1867. In 1861-67 he represented Beauce County in the Quebec Legislative Assembly. In 1871 he was raised to the bench as puisne judge of the Quebec Superior Court, and seven years after- ward was made a Supreme Court judge. He was chief justice of Canada from 1902-6, and in 1902 was knighted. T a s g a o n , tas-goun', town, India, in Satara district, Bombay Presidency, 74 miles northwest of Bijapur. Pop. 12,000. Tashi Lama, ta'she-la'ma, or Teshu Lama, the second in dignity of the great Lamas. (See Lamaism, Lhassa, and Tibet.) Tashkend, tash-kent', town, Asiatic Russia, in the Soviet Republic of Uzbek; 170 miles northeast of Samarkand. There are two cities, the old native city, now almost deserted, and the new Russian city with fine broad streets and modern buildings. The vicinity produces excellent fruit and vegetables and the town has flourishing industries of tobacco, silk, cotton, leather and metal goods. Pop. 585,005. Tasma, the pseudonym of Jessie H. Couvreur (1850-97), Australasian writer, was born in London. Her father emigrated to Tasmania when she was quite young. She went to Europe (1879), and delivered lectures on Australian subjects for the Geo- graphical Society of Paris (1880- 2). In 1885 she married M. Auguste Couvreur. Her pub- lished works include Uncle Piper of Piper s Hill, In her Earliest Youth (1889), A Sydney Sovereign, a collection of short stories. Tasman, tas'man, Abel Jans- zooN (1602-59), Dutch explorer, was born in Lutgegast. In 1642 he was sent on a voyage of dis- covery by Van Diemen, governor Tasman Glacier KFN 625 Tasso general of the Dutch East Indies, and discovered the island of Tasmania which he called Van Diemen's Land, New Zealand, which he named Staaten Land, the Friendly Islands, and the Fijis. He made a second expedi- tion, in 1644, for the purpose of charting the coasts of Australia. Tasman Glacier, a glacier in the Southern Alps of South Island, New Zealand, nearly 18 miles long and 2 miles wide. Mount Cook and the highest mountains of the range tower above it. Sir Julius von Haast discovered it in 1862. Tasmania, taz-ma'ni-a, for- merly Van Diemen's Land, a large island off the southern coast of Australia, from which it is separated by Bass Strait; area, 26,215 square miles. The island is irregularly heart shaped, about 200 miles from north to south, and 250 miles from east to west. The west coast is bold, rocky, and inhospitable, but there are three accessible harbors — Port Davey, Pieman River, and Macquarie Harbor. The other coasts of the island contain many safe bays and anchorages. Tasmania is covered by a network of ridges, locally termed tiers, which en- close a multitude of small plains and valleys. In two or three places an altitude of 5,000 feet is reached. Volcanic action in vari- ous parts of the island is strongly marked. The island abounds in rivers, rivulets, and creeks, the principal being the Derwent, navigable to about twenty miles above Hobart, the capital; the Huon, about 100 miles in length, navigable, and running through a fertile, fruit-growing country; the Gordon, falling into Mac- quarie Harbor; the Pieman far- ther up the west coast; and the Tamar, formed by the confluence of the North and South Esk at Launceton, navigable for 40 miles for vessels drawing 16 feet. Brown trout are abundant in many of the rivers and lakes, and salmon have been introduced. The lakes are numerous and ex- tensive, the largest being the Great Lake, in the centre (area, 44 square miles). The climate is fine and salubri- ous. The average temperature of January, the hottest month, is 63°, and of July, midwinter, 45°; mean for the year, 55° 1', The rainfall varies from 25 inches in the east to 40 inches in the west and sometimes even 100 inches in the northwest. Snow rarely falls, except in the mountains. All the grains, fruit, and vegetables which grow in Great Britain flourish here. The native animals are for the most part of the same genera as those of the Australian mainland, with the addition of the Tasmanian wolf and the Tasmanian devil. The forest trees include those found in Victoria, with the ad- dition of the Huon and King William pines. The people are for the most part of British descent. The principal industries are agriculture, mining, and stock- raising, special attention being given to the raising of stud sheep for the Australian market. There are also smelting works, brew- eries, jam factories, flour mills, sawmills, soap and candle works, and manufactures of cloth. The principal ports are Hobart (the capital), Launceston, Strahan, Burnie (Emu Bay), Devonport (Mersey), Georgetown, Stanley, Swansea, and Ulverstone. The exports are wool, timber, gold, silver, tin, copper, jam, and fresh fruits, principally apples. Tasmania is a state in the Commonwealth of Australia. It has a governor appointed by the Crown, aided by a cabinet of five responsible ministers. The Ro- man Catholics have an arch- bishop and the Anglicans a bishop. Primary education is free, compulsory and non-sec- tarian. The defensive forces con- sist of about 1,700 volunteers and a small militia staff. Tasmania was discovered on December 1, 1642, by the Dutch navigator Tasman (q.v.). In 1798 Dr. Bass explored the island, discovered the strait which bears his name, and proved that Tasmania was an island. It was colonized in 1803 by Lieutenant Bowen and a party of soldiers and convicts. At the date of the first British occupation the natives numbered 5,000. The last pure- blooded Tasmanian died in 1876. The abolition of the importation of convict labor took place in 1853. In the same year repre- sentative institutions were in- troduced, and these were followed in 1856 by responsible govern- ment. In 1901 the colony be- came a part of the Common- wealth of Australia. Parliament consists of a Legislative Council, which has 18 members who sit for six years, and a House of Assembly, composed of 30 mem- bers who are elected for five years. There is proportional rep- resentation and woman sufTrage. In 1939 the population of Hobart, the capital, was estimated at 64,- 950, while Launceston, the next largest city, had 33,100 inhabit- ants. Pop. (est. 1941) 241,171. See R. W. Giblin, The Early History of Tasmania ; Statistics of Tasmania (annual). Tasmanian Devil {Sarcoph- ilus ursinus) , a strongly built nocturnal mammal, closely re- lated to the thylacine, and like it confined to the island of Tas- mania. The head is dispropor- tionately large, and the planti- grade feet and general build give the animal a resemblance to a small bear. It is black, with a white collar around the throat and white patches on the neck and rump. Carnivorous in habit, the Tasmanian devil will attack any kind of animal, and can easily overpower a sheep. Tasmanian Wolf. See Thy- lacine. Tasman Sea, the name adopted in 1891 by the British admiralty for that part of the Pacific Ocean separating New Zealand and its northwest out- liers from Australia and Tas- mania. Tassie, James (1735-99), Scottish gem engraver, was born in Pollokshaws. He settled in London in 1766, and soon dis- tinguished himself by the beauty and finish of his reproductions of antique gems. He also executed medallion portraits, chiefly from life. Among his sitters were Dugald Stewart, Sir Henry Raeburn, Adam Smith, and David Hume. In 1775 he pub- lished a Catalogue of Impres- sions of Antique and Modern Gems, which was followed by a second in 1791. Tassie, William (1777-1860), nephew of James Tassie (q.v.), succeeded to his uncle's business and added to it. Some 150 of his medallions are now in the Scottish National Portrait Gal- lery, which also possesses J. Tassie's portrait by J. Paxton. Tasso, tas'so, Bernardo (1493-1569), ItaHan poet, father of Torquato Tasso (q.v.), was born in Venice. He spent his life in the service of Count Guido Rangone, Duchess Renata d'Este, Sanseverino, Prince of Salerno (whose secretary he be- came in 1532, and whose for- tunes he shared), and Duke Wil- liam of Mantua (1563). In 1560 he published his huge romantic epic, L'Amadigi, a poor and bombastic imitation of Ariosto. His Lettere are valuable for the history of the time. Tasso, Torquato (1544-95), Italian poet, was born in Sor- rento. He was educated by the Jesuits and studied law but soon gave it up to devote himself to poetry and philosophy. In 1562 he published at Siena his youth- ful epic of Rinaldo, combining the classical traditions of an- tiquity with the romantic ele- ments of the Renaissance. In 1565 he proceeded to the court of Ferrara, and was at first at- tached to Count Luigi of Este (whom he accompanied to France in 1570), and then to Duke Alfonso II., with whom he went to Rome and Florence (1573-4). About this time Tasso first showed signs of that insanity, due to religious scruples and aesthetic sensitiveness, from which there- after he was never entirely free. In 1576 it was necessary to put him under restraint, but he fled to Sorrento and to Piemonte, re- irasso KFN 626 Tatta turning to Ferrara in 1579. He was next placed in the hospital of St. Anna, whence he was re- leased at the intercession of the Gonzaga in 1586. The unhappy poet was now a wanderer from place to place — Mantua, Rome, and Naples — but found a final refuge with the Aldobrandini at Rome, where he died. Tasso's lyrics, plays, dialogues, and letters are full of beauty; but the poet owes his immortality to two works alone — the epic Torquato Tasso Gerusalemme Liberata and the pastoral play Aminta. On his masterpiece, Gerusalemme Liber- ata he was engaged between 1563 and 1575. The central theme of the work is the first crusade under Godfrey of Bouillon. Tasso's models were Virgil and Ariosto, and the fusion of the classical and romantic elements is managed with far more skill than in Rin- aldo. The style is on the whole dignified, though not free from certain affectations and exaggera- tions. A heated controversy sprang up around this great poem, both its manner and mat- ter being subjected to severe criticism. The Gerusalemme Con- quistata, which Tasso wrote to meet these views, was not suc- cessful. The plot of the Aminta (1573) is so simple, and the poe- try so exquisite, that it excited rivalry, but no opposition. The prose works were edited by Guasti (1853-75). All the edi- tions of the Gerusalemme were supplanted by that of Solerti and his co-operators and all the biographies by Solerti's monu- mental work (3 vols.), which contains a bibliography. The Gerusalemme was translated by Fairfax, Hoole, with Life; Doyne, with Life by Layng; Hunt, with Life; Wiffen, Broadhead, Smith, Robertson, Bent, and James. There are versions of the Aminta by Leigh Hunt and Whitmore. Tassoni, tas-so'ne, Alessan- DRO (1565-1635), Italian writer, was born in Modena, and in 1597 went to Rome. He spent much of his life in the service of various cardinals (Ascanio Colonna, Mau- rice of Savoy, and Ludovisi). Tassoni's chief title to fame is the mock-heroic poem La seccia rapita (written in 1614), dealing with an incident that occurred between Modena and Bologna; by reason of its unflagging spirit and humor and of its style, it ranks with the Lutrin and Rape of the Lock. The Filippiche (1615) are as passionate as the title implies, and form a valuable historical document. The Con- sider azioni on Petrarch (1609) mark an epoch in criticism, and forestall much that has been urged against that poet in recent times. Taste, one of the five senses of man. The taste organs are located chiefly in the tip and root of the tongue, in the lateral part of the soft palate, and in the glosso-palatine arch. Four dis- tinct gustatory qualities are ap- preciated by the sense of taste — sweetness, bitterness, acidity, and salinity. The intensity of the sensation of taste varies with (1) the area of the surface stimulated, (2) the concentration of the stim- ulant, (3) the length of the period of application, and (4) the tem- perature of the substance tasted. The most favorable temperature is between 50° and 95° F. Taste is greatly aided by the sense of smell, with which it is often con- founded. Many tactile impres- sions, such as harshness, coolness, and astringency, are erroneously attributed to taste. Derange- ments of taste may be due to hysteria, to alterations in the mucous membranes of the gusta- tory surfaces, and to lesions of nerve trunks, filaments, and end organs. Local measures may be adopted for affections of the mucous membrane; electrical stimulation of the lingual nerves sometimes restores the functions after paralysis. Tatar-Bazardjik, ta-tar'-ba- zar-jek', town, Bulgaria, in East Roumelia, on the upper Maritza, 22 miles west of Philippopolis. Pop. 19,450. Tate, Sir Henry (1819-99), English art patron, donor of the Tate collection and picture gallery to the British nation, was born in Chorley, Lancashire. He was a sugar refiner of Liver- pool and Mincing Lane, London, by which he amassed a large fortune. He devoted his lei- sure to the fine arts and in addition to the National Gal- lery of British Art he was the chief patron of Liverpool Uni- versity. Tate, Nahum (1652-1715), Irish poet and dramatist, was born in Dublin. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in 1692 succeeded Shad well as poet laureate. He composed several plays and adapted one or two of Shakespeare and other Eliza- bethan dramatists, among them King Lear and Richard II, wrote the poem Panacea (1700), and the New Version of the Psalms, in conjunction with Nicholas Brady (1696-98). Tatian, ta'shan. Christian apologist, was born in Meso- potamia early in the 2d cent, a.d., probably of Syrian parents. For the first half of his life he travelled widely, learning and teaching in the schools of heathen philosophy; but, going to Rome, he attached himself to Justin, and, having embraced Christian- ity, commenced his own apolo- getic labors. His first work was the Discourse to the Greeks, in which he justifies his acceptance of Christianity. He takes up a position of strict asceticism (re- jection of marriage, and of the use of flesh and wine), and set? forth a theory of dualism, which inclines to Gnosticism. His Book of Problems, dealing with difficult passages of Scripture, likewise shows strong traces of Gnosti- cism; while his views on marriage are fully developed in a treatise on Christian perfection. The work, however, to which Tatian owes his permanent place in church history is his Diatessaron, a kind of amalgamation of the four gospels, founded on the old Syriac version. It is in no sense a 'harmony,' being quite un- critical, its ruling principle being the rejection of all that seemed to connect our Lord with human nature (birth, genealogy, etc.). It is disputed whether the Dia- tessaron was first written in Greek (Harnack), and then trans- lated into Syriac, or originally in the latter tongue (Zahn and most scholars), in which it had certainly a great vogue among the Syrian churches at an early date. A commentary, also in Syriac, was composed by Ephra- em Syrus. Consult Hill's The Earliest Life of Christ; The Dia- tessaron of Tatian (translation and notes); the summary of the history of the Diatessaron and all the facts relating to it by Professor Samuel Hemphill. Tatius, ta'shi-us, Achilles (called Achilles Statins by Sui- das), Greek romance writer, was a rhetorician of Alexandria, and flourished about a.d. 500. His romance, entitled The Adventures of Clitophon and Leucippe, abounds in digressions, and the style is disfigured by imitations of classical writers, and an ex- cessive use of rhetorical embel- lishment. There is an English translation by R. Smith. Tatta, town, Karachi district, Tattersall KFN 627 Taunton Sindh, Bombay Presidency, In- dia, near the Indus; 58 miles southeast of Karachi; once the capital of Sindh. It manufac- tures silk and cotton shawls. Pop. 8,500. Tat'tersall, Richard (1724- 95), founder of Tattersall's horse market, was born in Lancashire, and entered the service of the duke of Kingston. In 1766 he set up as a horse auctioneer at Hyde Park Corner, London. In 1779 he bought from Lord Bol- ingbroke the famous racer 'High- flyer' for SI 2, 500, and set up a stud farm, out of which he made a fortune. In 1788 he became proprietor of the Morning Post, in which the Prince of Wales was associated with him. Tattoo'ing, the practice of dec- orating the human body by punc- turing or cutting the skin accord- ing to certain designs, and rub- FORMS OF TATTOOING bing or injecting coloring matter into the incisions to render the designs permanent. The origin of tattooing is lost in obscurity, but its early use seems to have been chiefly for self-adornment, after which it came to be em- ployed for religious or other cere- monial purposes, tribal distinc- tion, and as a mark of prestige or rank. The custom was formerly wide- spread, especially among primi- tive peoples. It is still practised to a greater or less extent by the Polynesians, the Japanese, Chi- nese, Burmese, and Filipinos, the Indians of North and South America, the Fijians, Eskimos, and certain Australian and Afri- can tribes. Under the influence of civilization the custom tends to disappear. Tattooing as an art probably attains its highest development among the Polynesians. With them the practice is usually at- tended with a certain amount of ceremony, and the figures repre- sented are often of religious sig- nificance or symbolic of rank, such as the totem (q. v.) or the special tribal badge. The Mao- ris have been especially noted for their elaborate tattooing of the face; but the custom is dying out among them. In Japan the practice is found among the lower classes only; seldom among women; and the head, neck, hands, and feet are never marked. Among the Ainu the practice is confined to the women, and to the exposed parts of the body. The Igorotes of Luzon, Philippines, tattoo elabo- rately in lines and curves. The American Indians consider tattooing of both religious and tribal significance, the young In- dian being marked with the per- sonal or tribal totem at puberty. The Fijians and Eskimos believe the practice to be essential to their happiness in the future life. The Kaffirs look upon it as a mark of courage, and limit its use to successful warriors. The rudest form of tattooing is the scarification employed by cer- tain Australian and negro tribes, who cut deep gashes in the skin, and fill them with clay to produce raised scars. Consult H. G. Robley's Moko, or Maori Tattooing; C. Partridge's Cross River Natives (1905) ; J. F. Eraser's Quaint Subjects of the King (1909) ; Customs of the World (2 vols., 1913). Taubate, tou-ba'ta, town, state of Sao Paulo, Brazil; 150 miles southwest of Rio de Janeiro. It is the centre of an important rice-producing district. Pop. (dis- trict) 15,000. Tau Beta Pi Association, tou ba'ta pi, an honorary Greek- letter fraternity founded at Lehigh University in 1885, and confined to technical and scien- tific schools. Its aim is to mark in a fitting manner those who have conferred honor upon their alma mater by a high grade of scholarship as under-graduates, or by their professional attain- ments as alumni. The badge is a watch key of gold shaped like the bent of a trestle; the frater- nity colors are seal brown and white. Each chapter has con- trol of its own affairs; and the as- sociation as a whole is governed by a convention that meets an- nually, and is composed of dele- gates from the various chapters. The Bent of Tau Beta Pi is issued quarterly. Taucha, tou'Ko, town. Saxony, Germany, on the River Parthe; 5 miles northeast of Leipzig. Pop. 6,000. Tauchnitz, touK'nits, the name of a well-known publishing house in Leipzig, Germany. (1.) Karl Christoph Tauch- nitz (1761-1834), was born near Grimma, Saxony. In 1796 he set up in business at Leipzig as a printer, and became also a pub- lisher and type founder. He was the first to introduce stereotyping into Germany; and he made a reputation for the accuracy and cheapness of his editions of the Bible, Greek and Roman classics, and musical compositions. (3.) Christian Bernhard, Baron von Tauchnitz (1816- 95), nephew of the above, also founded in 1837 a printing and publishing house in Leipzig. In 1841 he began his well-known collection of British and Ameri- can authors, of which about 4,500 volumes have appeared. Taulche, river. See Cubango. Taung-ngu, toung'n'gob', can- tonment town in Taung-ngu dis- trict. Lower Burma, 74 miles northeast of Prome. It was for- merly the seat of an independent king. It was taken by the Brit- ish in 1852. Pop. about 20,000. Taunton, city, Massachusetts, county seat of Bristol county, at the head of navigation on the Taunton River, and on the New York, New Haven, and Hart- ford Railroad, and several inter- urban electric lines; 35 miles south of Boston. Important buildings and institutions in- clude, besides many handsome churches and schools, the City Hall, County Court House, Post Office, Morton Hospital, Histori- cal Hall, Public Library, Young Men's Christian Association, the Boy's Club, Taunton Boat Club, and Taunton Yacht Club. Parks include the Green, in the centre of the city ; Church Green, at the junction of Summer and Dean Streets ; Woodward Springs, and the Davol playgrounds. Thou- sands of people visit the city to see the widely known 'herring run,' which occurs every spring. Leading products are silver- ware, cotton yarn and cotton goods, stoves and heating appa- ratus, cotton, printing, and other machinery, aluminum and cop- per articles, oilcloth, twist drill, wire nails, shoe buttons, carriages, nickel plate, and brick. Taunton was settled as Co- hannet in 1638, and the present name was adopted in 1639. It was incorporated as a town in 1746; chartered as a city, 1864. It was one of the first cities in the United States to operate its own electric lighting plant, which it acquired in 1897. Pop. (1930) 37,355; (1940) 37,395. Taunton, tan'ton, municipal borough, Somersetshire, Eng- land. The fifteenth century Church of St. Mary Magdalene has a beautiful tower, rebuilt in the nineteenth century. There are Taunus Mountains KFN 628 Tavistock remains of a Norman and later castle (which replaced a Saxon fortress of wood) and a large Museum ; the Grammar School was founded in the sixteenth cen- tury ; St. Margaret's Hospital represents a twelfth-century leper house ; and there are Church of England, Wesleyan Methodist, and Congregational colleges. The town is noted for its apples and cider. Collars and cuffs, gloves, silk, and agricultural implements are manufactured. Taunton was occupied by Perkin Warbeck in 1497; during the Civil Wars it was bravely held by Blake for the Parliament; in 1685 Mon- mouth was here proclaimed king ; and thereafter it was the scene of barbarities by Colonel Kirke's 'Lambs" and of Jeffreys' 'Bloody Assize.' A. W. Kinglake, his- torian of the Crimean War, and Samuel Daniel, poet laureate (b. 1562), were natives. Pop. (1931) 25,177. Taunus Mountains, tou' noos, a well-wooded mountain range of Germany, stretching 55 miles northeast from the Rhine, near the confluence of the Main. The average elevation is 1,500 feet, the highest summits being the Grosser Feldberg (2,890 feet) . Kleiner Feldberg (2,715 feet), and Altkonig (2,620 feet). The lower slopes are occupied by vineyards, which yield wines that have a world-wide fame, such as Johannisberger, Riidesheimer, and Hochheimer. The mineral springs of Homburg, Wiesbaden, Ems, and Nauheim areas famous. Among the conspicuous features are the ancient Saalburg, con- verted into a national museum in 1901 ; and the national monu- ment, commemorative of the War of 1870-71 — the statue of Germania. Taupo, tou'po, the largest lake in New Zealand, in the centre of North Island, with an area of 230 square miles. The Waikato flows through it. A large area adja- cent to the lake is at present worthless pumice country. There are numerous geysers, mud vol- canoes, and hot springs in the district. Taurida, former government, Southern Russia, including the Crimea (q. v.), and bounded on the east, south, and southwest by the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea, and on the north and north- west by the River Dnieper. The surface belongs mainly to the steppe zone ; the soil is the 'black earth.' In the south of the Crimea the Yaila Mountains, a western continuation of the Cau- casus, offer some of the finest hill scenery of European Russia. Cereals, potatoes, fruit and to- bacco are grown. The chief m.in- eral deposit is salt. The princi- pal industries are flour mills, tan- neries, brick and tile works, agricultural machinery, tallow and tobacco. Old capital, Sim- feropol. Area, 24,500 square miles. The territory is now in- cluded in the Ukrainian and Crimean Soviet Republics. Taurus, to'rus, or the Bull, the second sign of the zodiac (symbol 8 ), entered by the sun about April 22. In the earliest calen- dars it marked the opening of the year. Aldebaran is its chief star, with which are grouped the Hyades. Boss has shown that 39 of the bright stars in this region form a globular cluster 15° in diameter at a distance from the sun of 140 light-years. These stars are moving in paral- lel lines with a common velocity. The Pleiades are situated in the neck of Taurus. At the tips of the horns are /3, of 1.8 magni- tude (Arabic El Nath, the 'But- ting One'), and f Tauri, a spec- troscopic binary, with a period of 138 days, showing a helium spectrum. R and S Tauri are variables of the Mira type ; X Tauri is an eclipsing star with a period of 3.9 days. The 'Crab' nebula was discovered near f Tauri by Bevis in 1731. Adja- cent to it are the two variable nebulae, N.G.O. 1554 and 1555. Taurus, Ala-dagh, or Bul- GHARDAGH, mountain range on the southern border of Asia Mi- nor, stretching along the Medi- terranean from the Euphrates to the Aegean Sea. The great high- way between Asia Minor and Syria crosses at the pass of the Cilician Gates. General altitude, 9 000 to 10,000 feet. The Anti- Taunis is a northern extension from near the eastern end. See Asia Minor. TaussifiT, to'sig, Frank Wil- liam (1859-1940), American educator, was born in St. Louis, Mo. He was graduated from Harvard University and was associated with the university as instructor, assistant professor, professor (1892-1901), and Hen- ry Lee, professor of political economy. In 1917—19 he was chairman of the United States Tariff Commission, and in 1919 was attached as economic ad- viser to the American Delegation in the negotiation of the Treaty of Versailles. He edited the Quarterly Journal of Economics many years. His works entitle him to high rank among Ameri- can economists. They include : The Tariff History of the United States (1888 ; 7th ed., 1922) ; The Silver Situation in the United States (1892); Wages and Capital (1896); Principles of Economics (1911; 3d ed., 1922); Inventors and Money Makers (1915); Some Aspects of the Tariff Question (1915); Free Trade, the Tariff and Reci- procity (1919); International Trade (1927). Tautog, to'tog, or Blackfisii (Tautoga onitis), a member of the family of Wrasses (q. v.) or Labridae, abundant on the North Atlantic Coast from Maine to South Carolina. It is a desir- able food fish, varying in weight from 10 to 20 lbs. Its color is black on the back and sides ; the belly is whitish ; each jaw has a double row of strong conical teeth. Tavastehus, ta-vas't£?-hus, town, capital of Tavastehus gov- ernjnent, Finland ; 70 miles norlhwest of Helsingfors. Tt contains Kronoborg Castle (thir- teenth century ) , now used as a prison. Pop. town 5,545, gov- ernment (1929) 385,952. Ta vernier, ta-var-nya', Jean Baptiste, Baron d'Aubonne (1605-89), celebrated French traveller, was born in Paris. His first journey to the East lasted from about the beginning of 1631 to the summer of 1633, by Con- stantinople to Persia, thence by Aleppo and Malta to Italy. The second journey (1638-43) was from Marseilles to Alexandretta, across Syria to Ispahan, thence to Dacca. Agra, Surat, Goa, and Golconda; the third (1643-9), through Ispahan, much of Hin- dustan. Batavia, and Bantam., whence to Holland by the Cape and St. Helena. In the fourth (1651-5). fifth (1657-62), and sixth (1663—8) many districts of Persia and India were visited, the outward route being generally by way of Syria and the Arabian Desert, and the return one by Asia Minor. Tavernier invari- ably travelled as a dealer in precious stones. His Six Voy- ages was published in 1676 \ the comnlementary Recucil in 1679. Tavira, ta-ve'ra, seaport town. Faro district, Portugal ; 37 miles southwest of Huelva. It has fisheries and trade in white wine, fruit, locust beans, and mineral waters. Pop. 13,000. Tav'istock,town, Devonshire, England, on the Tavy ; 15 miles north of Plymouth. The prin- cipal buildings are the Parish Church (restored 1846). with in- teresting monuments. Guild Hall (1848). Market (1858). New Hall. Kelly College, and statue of Sir Francis Drake (born here in 1540). A tenth century Bene- dictine abbey, subsequently re- built, was granted by Henry viii. to Lord John Russell, his wife Ann, and their heirs male, from whom it has descended to the present duke of Bedford. Some remains still exist. The chief in- dustries are copper, lead, and tin Tavoy KSF 629 Taxation mining, and the extraction of ar- senic. Pop. (1931) 4,453. Tavoy, ta-voi', seaport, capital of Tavoy district, in Tenasserim, Lower Burma ; 30 miles from the mouth of the Tavoy River. The town lies low, and is subject to floods. Pop. about 28,000. Tavoy District has an area of 5,308 square miles, and a popula- tion of 156.786. The chief prod- ucts are silk, rice, and timber. Taw, river, Devonshire, Eng- land, rises on Dartmoor, flows 50 miles northeast and northwest, passing Barnstaple, and forming as its estuary Biddeford Bay. Tawakoni, ta- wa'ko-ni , a tribe of North American Indians of the Wichita group. Tawing-. See Leather. Tawny, or Tenne, in herald- ry, the term for orange color, represented by lines in bend sin- ister crossed by other bar ways. See Heraldry. Taxaceae, a family of ever- green trees and shrubs commonly known as Yew (q. v.). Taxation. Taxation has had a long history and the meaning of taxation has undergone shifts as taxation itself has changed. Taxation meant one thing in the latter part of the eighteenth cen- tury when the French econo- mists, called the Physiocrats, and Adam Smith gathered together scattered ideas from many sources and rounded them out into a separate branch of knowl- edge then called Political Econo- my and later, Economics. Taxa- tion, during the entire history of the United States and especially during the past generation, has undergone a constant evolution and means something different from what it signified in 1860 just before the Civil War, and in 1914 before the World War which gave us a new economic world and a new taxation. In brief one cannot go into the revenues that supported early systems in which taxation, as we know it, played a subordinate role. Tribute in Greece and Rome was an exaction laid by the conqueror upon the defeated and was one of the chief sources of supporting both Greece and Rome. Cicero in one of his writings spoke of taxation with horror as something that might take place in Rome if things kept on going from bad to worse. But tribute in one form or another lingered on until in the modern state it gradually made way for taxation of free peoples imposed upon themselves to carry on public activities of various sorts. Careful study of taxation shows gradual evolution through the centuries from the idea of trib- ute into the modern idea of taxation. Eighteenth century writers and even the Classic economists of England in the 19th century regarded taxation merely as a cost which had to be deducted from gross national income be- fore the actual net national in- come could be ascertained. Tax- ation, as a cost, reflects the ac- tual economic situation in France in the latter part of the 18th cen- tury. The revenues largely went to the support of the favored few of whom the chief was the royal court ; they were exempt very largely from taxation but re- ceived the benefits of it. Taxa- tion to-day is a means of segre- gating out an ever increasing proportion of the national in- come for the support of services in the public interest. Illuminating is the dictum of the French philosopher, Montes- quieu, from whom the founders of our republic learned so much. In his Spirit of the Laws he says that taxation increases with lib- erty and that this is a universal law and knows no exception. If one studies the history of taxa- tion from his time up to the pres- ent, it might be difficult to find exceptions to this law. To this the present writer would add another law which at first seems equally paradoxical : Good administration inevitably in the long run increases public expenditures and consequently increases taxes. This also is universal law. Naturally, it is not good administration in itself that increases public expenditure and taxes. The first effect of improvement in public adminis- tration is a reduction in taxes. But there are always things of a public nature to be done and for which there is constant pressure. Good administration increases the pressure for widening the scope of public activities. Cor- rupt, inefficient administration is, in the minds of good citizens, a deterrent to public activity ; good government an encourage- ment. Public services constantly ex- tend as society evolves. It was a great step forward in the 19th century when education was made a public function supported by taxation. At first the idea was that tax-supported education should be confined to elementary schools, but gradually extended to the support of universities and then to adult education outside of schools and universities. Pub- lic services gradually extended to public health and recreation. If the revenues of taxation are used to benefit a few for their own selfish interests and if in any way they help to keep a venal group in power, then it is to that extent a cost — not a seg- regation of part of the national income for the services of all. Taxation in a modern state is an exaction of sovereign au- thority ; it takes from the reve- nues of individuals a certain portion of their income for com- mon purposes. It is not a price paid for something that is pur- chased, as there is an absence of agreement between buyer and seller. It is a one-sided transfer of wealth taken from individuals, but the individual cannot deter- mine himself whether he gets a fair return in services. He can- not avoid the payment by argu- ing that he gets less for what he pays than somebody else gets. Taxation in itself knows no limit and the late Justice Cooley, one of the great authorities of the last century, said, as the courts have also said : Taxation involves the power to destroy. This power has been exercised in many cases and is now being exercised for the express pur- pose of destruction, for example, Federal taxation in the United States upon the issue of paper currency by State banks. As taxation continually grows, so does the amount of all the wealth taken by taxation in- crease. This is a statement of fact and sounds dangerous. It is, in fact, dangerous. The situ- ation suggests what Thucydides, the Greek historian, said, name- ly : That citizen is most danger- ous who gives no attention to politics. It can now safely be said that that citizen is danger- ous who gives no attention to the principles and practice of taxa- tion. Many attempts have been made to guard against the dangers in- volved in taxation. Various States have constitutional limits upon State indebtedness and taxa- tion and they have imposed strict debt limits upon local taxing jurisdictions. The 1930's have witnessed a broad movement in favor of an over-all limitation for taxes levied upon real estate. The actual situation, however, again suggests that tax and debt limitation is a two-edged, dan- gerous tool. Such limitations are evaded by creation of new tax- ing and debt incurring units which lay taxes upon the same citizens and render almost inef- fective constitutional limitations. In the same direction real estate tax limitations may be vitiated by taxing jurisdictions resorting to the practice of appraising val- ues high enough to support in- flated budgets. Canons of Taxation, — Writers on taxation and the framers of American Constitu- tions have laid down certain canons to help us reach sound Taxation KSF 629 A Taxation decisions in regard to taxation. Possibly no passages from Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations have been more widely quoted during the past hundred and fifty years than those in which he lays down certain general guiding princi- ples, The Four Maxims of Taxa- tion, briefly, as follows : 'I. The subjects of every state ought to contribute towards the support of the government as nearly as possible in proportion to their respective abilities ; that is, in "proportion to the revenue which they respectively enjoy un- der the protection of the state. [Ability is only one of the guid- ing principles in taxation as it exists today. To this day ovir courts do not recognize ability as a basis for payment of taxes ; the concept is one which has been developed by economists.] 'II. The tax each individual is bound to pay ought to be cer- tain and not arbitrary. The time of payment and the manner of payment and the quantity to be paid ought all to be clear and plain. TII. Every tax ought to be levied at the time, or in the man- ner, in which it is most likely to be convenient for the contributor to pay it. TV. Every tax ought to be so contrived as both to take out and keep out of the pockets of the people as little as possible over and above what it brings into the public treasury of the state.' No one can question the sound- ness of the last three canons, yet we depart widely from them, both in the United States and other countries. We may also add two more canons, stability and productivity. Stability in taxation is closely related to cer- tainty as to payment, referred to above. A new tax disturbs eco- nomic relations and for the time being is likely to work harm, even if in the end a good tax. Moreover, every new tax meets with strong resistance from in- terested groups, for example, in- creases in taxes on gasoline, mo- tor cars, tobacco, etc. Further- more, the arguments against new taxes have force from the point of view of public welfare at the time when businesses are totter- ing on the brink of bankruptcy and when a little additional Ijur- den will often push them over. In the case of an old tax, as a general rule, adjustments have been made in prices between buyer and seller. An old tax, however, may be one which can- not be adjusted in price relations and to continue it means to per- petuate injustice. Such is the case with the general property tax in the United States, as it applies to real estate. Having already confiscated real estate in hundreds of thousands of cases, the longer the present system of taxation of real estate continues, the more harm it works. The importance of productiv- ity is especially emphasized in time of war when it is often the chief test applied. The very ob- ject for which the revenue sys- tem exists, says Gladstone, is to provide for the maintenance of the State, and therefore the min- ister in charge of finances natu- rally estimates the merits of a tax by the amount of its yield. No better canon on taxation has ever been formulated as a guide than is found in the Con- stitution of Pennsylvania of 1776. It reads: 'Sec. 41 : No public tax, custom or contribu- tion shall be imposed upon, or paid by, the people of this state, except by a law for that pur- pose : And before any law be made for raising it, the purpose for which any tax is to be raised ought to appear clearly to the legislature to be of more service to the community than the money would be, if not collected ; which being well observed, taxes can never be burthens.' This simply means that no tax should be levied unless the money raised thereby can be better employed by public authorities than by_ in- dividuals. This sets a true liiriit to taxes and should be a guid- ing principle. Justice in Taxation,— Tayi- ation must be just. The idea of justice is basic and fundamen- tal in all free societies. Legis- lation first determines what js justice in taxation and then, in the United States, the final word remains with the various courts at the head of which stands the Supreme Court. Nothing is more striking in the financial history of all modern states, the United States included, than the changes in the idea of justice in taxation. It is a slow and continuous growth, but in recent years it has been relatively rap- id. One idea of justice in taxa- tion regularly found in Ameri- can State constitutions is that it must be equal and uniform. But what is equal and uniform f A typical instance is provided in the Constitution of West Virginia : 'Taxation shall be equal and uni- form throughout this State, and all property, real and personal, shall be taxed in proportion to its value, to be ascertained as di- rected by law.' The interpreta- tion of this requirement very often means simply that taxation shall not be arbitrary, capricious, or violate the ideas existing at the particular time of what is reasonable.^ For a long time in our States it was thought justice demanded that all property, real and personal, should be assessed at its selling value and that taxes should be a certain percentage of this selling value. Recognized authorities agree that this meth- od of taxation, called the general property tax, as it now exists in the United States, does not give us even an approximation of jus- tice. It is in the case of personal property that we find the most serious defects in the general property tax. Personal property very largely escapes taxation and particularly the intangible kinds of personal property. It is not rnerely that personal property is difficult to discover, but a large proportion of it is so mobile that it can move from a place where taxation is relatively high to one where it is relatively low. Com- petition reduces the returns upon securities to such an extent that if they are taxed like real estate, taxation will very frequently ab- sorb the entire income and, in- deed, at times something more than the income. Income yield- ed by real property, however, even when it is as heavy as it is in the United States, may still leave an income on well located and well improved real estate. Personal property is under this situation generally not put on a tax roll, or tax duplicate, as it is sometimes called. When tax- payers are legally required to make a list of all kinds of per- sonal property to the full value, they seldom do this. However, it happens at times that when an estate is probated, all the items of personal property become known and all is taxed at its full value. Instances could be cited when the tax absorbed the entire income and more. A widely accepted idea of jus- tice in taxation is that taxes should be in proportion to bene- fits derived from the government. It has been argued that property- owners receive special benefits from the government in propor- tion to the value of property they own, and that equity is secured by a tax in proportion to the cap- ital or income value of property. On the other hand, it has also been argued that poor people particularly need the services of government in order that they may have the benefits of rnodern civilization. If this view is cor- rect, taxes cannot be levied in proportion to benefits received if justice is to be done. Because the benefits of good government are so widely diffused in modern times, it is increasingly recog- nized that all those who are not paupers should make some con- tribution to public expenses. In the case of exactions of a particular kind called special as- sessments, the aim is to secure proportionality between benefit and payment. Improvement of Taxation KSF 629 B Taxation a highway by special assessments affords illustration. It is as- sumed that the new or improved highway will add at least as much value to the property pay- ing for it as the cost of the new or improved highway. Special assessments yield large sums, but with evolution of modern eco- nomic society, they become in- creasingly unsatisfactory. At times the improvement made is even a disadvantage to the prop- erty which pays for it. The idea of special assessments has value, but the practice has to be changed a great deal before it secures justice. Another widely accepted idea of justice is ability to pay and this is interpreted by many lead- ers of economic thought like John Stuart Mill as proportion- ality of sacrifice. A rich man must pay more than a poor man if payment is to be determined by sacrifice. Taxation might take from the poor man the ne- cessities, while with the rich man it would simply take expen- ditures for things beyond neces- sities in the order of comforts, conveniences and luxuries. As interpreted in our day by nearly if not all governments, ability to pay means that in some of its features taxation must be pro- gressive as, for example, in the modern income tax. Increase in Taxation, — The study of taxation reveals such enormous increases, especially during the present century, that the general public is truly alarmed at the distress of the present and the menace for the future. In the United States, Federal, State and local taxes have increased from 875 millions of dollars in 1890 to over 10 bil- lions in the 1930's, or from approximately $14 to $84 per capita. While it is obvious from the study of budgets both in the United States and other coun- tries, that expenditures have in- creased tremendously over this period, a comparison of budgets by size alone may lead into many fallacies. In the first place, the purchasing power of the dollar has changed considerably and population and wealth have in- creased. We are impressed with the increasing burden of taxa- tion, however, when we consider that Federal, State and local tax- es absorbed 7.2 per cent of the national income in 1890, 14.4 per cent in 1930, and about 22 per cent in 1934-35. Causes of the Growth in Taxation. — All statistical data in regard to national budgets covering the last two hundred years show on examination that war, and all that goes with war, plays a major role in all national budgets. Professor E. R. A. Seligman referred to the influ- ence of war on national budgets as follows : 'The influence of war is obvious. The expenses of war and of the aftermath of war are looming continually larger in the history of society. In the United States where there have been six wars in the cen- tury and a half of the country's national life, there has scarcely been a single year when a large part of the expenditures has not been ascribable either to prepa- ration for the next war, or to pensions, or to interest on the debt for the preceding war.' (A^. Y. Times, Feh. 1, 1932.) A few striking figures on the cost of war follow : 'Fiscal out- lays for the World War during the period 1917-21, inclusive, come to perhaps 35^ billions, with some 4 billions more spent for general war purposes not traceable to this particular war. And ultimate probable fiscal out- lays traceable to the World War, on the assumption of full pay- ment of foreign debt settlements, may amount to nearly 48 bil- lions ; while they are fairly cer- tain to exceed 53 billions by 1947 or 1950, before the foreign debt settlements begin to exceed our own post-war outlays and afford a postponed rebate. The ulti- mate net social cost may be esti- mated at anything from the orig- inal 32 billions up to 50 billions or more, according as one does or does not believe that the for- eign debt settlements will consti- tute a real net addition to our available national income of ultimate goods and services.' — T. M. Clark, Costs of the World War to the American People (1931). President Coolidge in his Armistice Day Speech of 1928 suggested that: It is prob- able that the final cost will run well toward 100 billions. After the World War, we ex- perienced a new kind of war — the war on depression. The gross increase in the total Fed- eral debt during the fiscal years of 1934 and 1935 was $6,200,- 000,000. An all-time high for the Federal debt was broken dur- ing 1935, the debt having mounted to more than $30,000,- 000,000. The State debt totalled $512,- 192,000 in 1915 and $2,534,296.- 555 for 1931 which is an in- crease of 395 per cent. State indebtedness has not increased with the depression like the Fed- eral debt. This type of indebt- edness is incurred principally for long-time public improve- ments. In 1915 40.4 per cent of the total State debt was for high- ways, which increased to 56.3 per cent in 1931. All local units of government in the United States in 1912 had a net debt of $3,476,000,000, which increased to $15,223,000,- 000 in 1932. Disregarding war and other emergencies as causes of taxa- tion and inquiring into other main causes for its increase in modern times, we find those causes due to increasing social- ization of economic life : 'We are living in a period of increas- ing public cooperation. We think we find it more advanta- geous to satisfy certain wants, growing in number and signifi- cance, through public coopera- tion than through individual effort or private cooperation. This is the chief significance of the increasing governmental budgets throughout the civilized world. Expenditures for educa- tion, police protection, public lighting and sanitation are things which, so far as outlays of mag- nitude are concerned, belong to the 19th and 20th centuries. The scope of the police power is expanding in the United States, and this means expansion both of public revenues and public ex- penditures. 'The discussion of public ex- penditures reveals, as few other subjects do, the nature of our civilization. Educational expen- ditures afford perhaps the best illustration of the general tend- ency. They run up into hun- dreds of millions in the modern nation, whereas previous to the 19th century they w^ere insignifi- cant.' — Richard T. Ely, Outlines of Economics (1930). We may add other causes: 1. Technological changes in our economic life due to inventions of all sorts and to discoveries. 2. Increasing humanitarianism of the age. 3. Growing interde- pendence in economic life, in other words, the growth of eco- nomic relations. Let us consider simply the automobile and what it has brought about in the way of necessary increases in public ex- penditures. The cost of control- ling traffic is only one of the items and a minor item in the growth of expenditures. Better pavements and far more expen- sive ones were necessitated by the change from carriages and horses to motor cars. In many places the streets have had to be widened by taking part of the sidewalk for the street and often taking part of what was former- ly little yards or open spaces in front of the houses. If one thinks about other agencies of transport like the railway and aviation, one finds enormous growth of public expenditures that by no possibil- ity could be obviated without a loss far exceeding the growth in public expenditures due to these causes. Taxation KSF 629 C Taxation The humanitarianism of the age could be illustrated by num- berless examples. In addition to the democratic ideas of edu- cation, we have increasing ex- penditures for public health and for relief to those who suffer accidents and disabilities of va- rious sorts on account of their participation in our economic life ; for example, workmen's compensation ; aid of various sorts to needy mothers ; widows' pensions ; care of infants at pub- lic expense, including pure milk and other items giving us pure foods and drugs, and relief of the distress on account of drought or depression. Now we have un- employment insurance of one kind or another, especially in England and Germany, and strong pressure for such meas- ures in the United States that in August, 1935 following a few State enactments, the President signed the Federal Social Secur- ity Act, which in addition to pro- visions for old-age security, im- posed a tax upon employers to finance job insurance. As ac- celerating the growth of expen- ditures due to humanitarianism, great emphasis must be placed on the growing influence of woman upon our civic life. The third reason for growing expenditures and taxation is our growing interdependence. This is closely related to the other two causes. As our life becomes more and more one of relations in growing interdependence, it becomes necessary to regulate these relations increasingly in order to coordinate our activities as well as to repress wrongdoing. It is on accovmt of the evolution of economic society with the re- sulting increasing proportion of our national wealth devoted to public and common purposes that makes taxation now, and that will make it still more in the future, the battleground of con- flicting social forces. If taxa- tion absorbs a sufficiently large proportion of our national reve- nues, it means socialism. If capitalism is to be maintained, then there must be some kind of an adjustment between private and public expenditures which makes this possible. Progressive Taxation , — Proportional taxation means tax- ation in direct proportion to income or value of property. If the rate increases as the amount of income or property increases, then we have progressive taxa- tion. Regressive taxation means a rate decreasing more rapidly than the income or property taxed. Degressive taxation means progression up to a cer- tain point at which the progres- sion stops. If the rate of taxa- tion on incomes goes on increas- ing up to, say, a million dollars, then the progression stops — this is degressive taxation. But if we have progressive taxation, what are the rates upon various incomes to be ? Because it is impossible to determine any fixed limit of progression, many are opposed to the idea of progres- sion at all, fearing that in the conflict of social forces it may not stop until confiscation is reached. Taxation in the United States, — The United States is a federation of sovereign States, each controlling the policies of the subordinate local units in the State, such as counties, cities, villages, school districts, etc., etc. Germany was also a federation of states ; for example, Prussia, the largest of all the German States, Bavaria, Baden, etc., un- til the Unification Act of 1933 abolished the independent juris- diction of these several states. England and France, on the other hand, are unitary States, one central government having sovereign control over all par- ticular units in the nation. It is obviovxs that taxation in a federa- tion must be much more compli- cated than in unitary States, but of all countries the United States, on account of its written Con- stitudon and the written Consti- tutions of its separate States, presents the most intricate and difficult problems in taxation. The original Constitution of the United States enumerates cer- tain powers which belong to it, either expressly or by necessary implication, and all other rights belong to the separate States which are sovereign in their own sphere. Then, in the United States there is the complexity due to the courts which under the written Constitution have the ultimate and final authority in taxation as in other matters. The aim of the Constitution, as interpreted by the courts, is to secure justice in taxation and there are general provisions which determine what justice is at a particvilar time and place. Due process of lazv holds throughout the United States. It means that the taxpayer must have his day in court. He must have a chance to be heard and taxation must not be arbitrary and oppressive. A tax levied by any authority in the United States upon an individual, say, Mr. John D. Rockefeller, Jr., which would order Mr. Rocke- feller to pay so many millions of dollars in taxes would unques- tionably be regarded as unconsti- tutional. On the other hand, there might be a system of classi- fication whereby it would be possible to have in one class only one person, and in some cases this might possibly be held con- stitutional, but that would be doubtful. Of special significance in United States history is the pro- vision about direct taxes levied by the Federal government. A Federal tax on land is unques- tionably a direct tax, and must be apportioned among the States according to their respective numbers. The value of land and of property does not vary with numbers. Some States have ac- quired far greater wealth in pro- portion to numbers than others. At the present time the distribu- tion of Federal taxes in propor- tion to numbers, especially with reference to a Federal land tax, is so glaringly unjust that no tax of this kind is now under serious consideration. The Supreme Court held at the time of the Civil War that an income tax was not a direct tax within the meaning of the Constitution. The decision was reversed, however, in 1895, and income taxation was declared un- constitutional. The sixteenth amendment to the federal consti- tution adopted in 1913 made the income tax constitutional, and now the income tax (personal and corporation) is the mainstay of the Federal tax system. In 1915, which was the first full year of levying these taxes, this source supplied 11.4 per cent of the total. In 1919 and 1920 the two years of extraordinarily heavy collections, the figures were 58.6 and 59.1 per cent re- spectively. In 1932 the source of revenue next in importance for the Federal Government was the excise tax upon tobacco, yielding 21 per cent of the total. The next important source was the inheritance tax, which yield- ed only 2.5 per cent of the total. In 1931, of the complete total of tax collections for Federal, State and local governments, the general property tax yielded 54.8 per cent of the more than 9 bil- lions total ; income taxes of all sorts, 21.7 per cent. Federal and State inheritance taxes to- gether amounted to but 2.5 per cent of the total. The 48 State governments collected revenue amounting to $458,000,000 in 1915, compared to their collections in 1931 of $2,235,000,000. In 1915 the general property tax was the principal source of revenue, yielding 40.6 per cent of the total. Business and license taxes yielded 20.4 per cent. In_ 1931 the general property tax yielded but 16 per cent of the total. The gasoline tax and the automobile tax were large sources of rev- Taxation KSF 629 D Taxation enue, yielding 18 per cent and 12 per cent respectively. The idea of segregation of sources of revenue is one that suggests itself and one that, in a rough way, was carried out for a long time between States and Federal government and in some cases between the States and local political units. For a long time our Federal Gov- ernment derived its chief income from customs duties (See Cus- toms Duties) levied upon arti- cles brought in from abroad and from indirect taxes, often called excise (see Excise) upon a few articles of consumption, chief among them being tobacco and alcoholic beverages manufactured or sold in the United States. But as governmental expendi- tures have increased, the segre- gation of sources of revenue has become increasingly difficult and has been largely abandoned. The Federal Government, as just stated, derives a large percent- age of its revenues from the in- come tax, but more than half of the States had either or both a personal and corporation income tax in 1935. Formerly, taxes on luxuries and other articles included under excise were almost entirely re- served to the Federal Govern- ment, but now the separate States are using taxes of this kind which involve a double bur- den upon those who are affected thereby. The national govern- ment, for example, derives large revenue from the taxation of to- bacco in various forms, but the States are more and more taxing tobacco for State purposes. Dur- ing 1934 there were 19 States using the general sales tax and there were 13 other States levy- ing selected sales taxes in addi- tion to the universal gasoline tax and the quite general liquor taxes. This use of the same sources to raise necessary rev- enue is not only inevitable, but may be, as it often is, entirely wholesome. What the Ameri- can citizen has to consider is not his Federal taxes alone, but whether or not the total amount of his Federal, State and local taxes is fair and eqviitable. In 1931 State and local taxes ac- counted for about 80 per cent of all taxes so that only 20 per cent of the nation's tax bill was Fed- eral. The local units of govern- ment were accountable for about one-half of the tax increase from 1913 to 1930, and their tax re- ceipts in 1931 were 45 per cent of the total for the nation. A comparison of the revenue collections in cities having a population over 30,000 shows that in 1915 the per capita rev- enue collections of such units of government amounted to $30.17, while in 1930 the revenue collec- tions amounted to $72.07 per capita for a greatly increased population base. In the United States the sepa- rate States and cities have relied mainly upon the taxation of property for revenue, and in the past as a general rule upon one uniform tax on property of every kind, real and personal. 'The Financial Statistics of States for the year 1928 show that taxes yielded 77.9 per cent of the revenue receipts of all the states, while the general prop- erty tax yielded 25 per cent of the taxes collected, or 19.7 per cent of the total revenue. Real property represented 77 per cent of the general property tax base, so that this form of property supplied approximately 15 per cent of the taxes levied, or 17 per cent of the total revenue re- ceived by the states. In general, the burden of taxes levied for state purposes upon property in these cities is completely over- shadowed by the burden of the taxes levied for local purposes. . . . In 1928 the general prop- erty tax yielded 64 per cent of the total revenue receipts of American cities over 30,000 population.' — Financial Statistics of Cities (1928). 'Taxes, as usually considered, yielded 69.5 per cent of the total revenue, and the general property tax amount- ed to 92 per cent of the total taxes. The base for the general property tax was made up of 83 per cent of real property, 16 per cent of personal property, and 1 per cent of property that was not classified which means that 53 per cent of the total reve- nue, or 72 per cent of the total taxes of these cities came from real property.' — The President's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership Commit- tee on Taxation, Appendix I. The General Property Tax as a Real Estate Tax, by John E. Burton. Tn 1915, 78.9 per cent of the assessment base of the general property tax was real estate, the general property tax produced 62 per cent of the total revenue, so 48.9 per cent of all revenue came from real estate. In 1930 the real estate part of the general property tax had increased to 82.2 per cent, the general prop- erty tax was 63.8 per cent of the total revenue, so real estate had to pay an average of 52.4 per cent of all the revenue — 7 per cent higher in 1930 than in 1915. The latest figures, for 1932, indi- cate that in those cities with a population in excess of 100,000, the general property tax pro- duced 66.2 per cent of the total revenue. . . . The States are generally retreating from the di- rect tax upon real estate ; they are taking on services that they can administer better than the local imits of government ; but in few cases is there a direct re- turn to the local governments of a part of the centrally collected taxes. The implication that the States should take over more services, collect more revenue and return a greater share to the local government, seems to be in order.' — Modifying and Supple- menting the General Property Tax, by John E. Burton, Pro- ceedings of the National Tax As- sociation, 1934. Taxation and Uses of Property, — Taxation must be treated in respect to the uses of land and be so shaped as not to interfere with desirable uses of land. Take up the case of forest lands. Taxes have been based upon selling value of the land, although the forest crop may not be ready to be harvested for thirty, forty or even a hundred years. It is the forest crop out of which income is derived and out of which taxes should be paid. One concrete case may make this clear : In a single year on one forty acres of forest land a tax of $800 was laid. The owner had to cut down trees al- though they should have stood for a considerable number of years in order to reach maturity. This land then became cut-over land and when the stumps were at last pulled out, it naturally be- came agricultural land in a re- gion not fitted particularly for agriculture, adding to an exist- ing and troublesome surplus of farm products. Moreover, the result in cases of this kind is to diminish the timber supply of the country, although the con- sumption of lumber is taking place far more rapidly than the production. The consequence is that we increase supply where it is desirable to diminish it, and zve decrease supply where additional supply is needed. In and about the cities land that is not needed for residences is taxed as residential land and not as farm land. Consequently, the owner is tempted to cut it up into building lots where the existing supply of lots could not possibly be used up by the growth of the city in fifty years' time. The result is enormous waste and loss to purchasers of lots mounting up into hundreds of millions of dollars. Another result of the present taxation of land upon its selling value is a tendency to congestion in our cities. The land surrounding the houses and giving desirable open spaces is taxed, not upon the use of the land as open spaces, but upon the potential use of the land for buildings. Taxation KSF 630 Taxation, Ad Valorem If taxation were in harmony with desirable uses of land, and which at the same time did not become confiscatory, the tax would correspond with the an- nual use value of the land as it does in many other countries. It is desirable, for example, that land should be used for recrea- tional purposes. This applies to privately owned land as well as to municipally owned land. Now there is a tendency to tax the land, not at its recreational value, but at its potential value for residences. Thus, the recrea- tional vises of land are impaired and we again have a wasteful promoting of suburban land be- yond all possible needs. It is now recommended by many thoughtful people that land be taxed upon its annual use value and not upon its selling value. If the method were used it would tend to shift the unfair burden on real estate to other sources of revenue. In the United States it is customary to tax property upon its capital value instead of its annual value. If this practice is continued, then the capital value should be a multiplication or capitalization of its annual value over a series of years. Tax Reform. — Reduction _ of public expenditures to bring about lower taxes has generally been proposed as the first of all remedies in tax reform. Never before was such prominence given to the slogan : Reduce pub- lic expeiiditiires and lozver taxes ! Something has been accom- plished here and there in elimi- nating expenditures and cutting down taxes. On the whole, the results thus far achieved, both in this and other countries, are relatively so small as to be dis- couraging. The possibilities of lowering public expenditures and lessening the tax burden are, generally speaking, not nearly so great as one is inclined to think. When John Sherman, once Secretary of the Treasury, was in the United States Senate, he discussed the possibilities of lowering Federal expenditures and showed that most of the items could not be reduced sub- stantially on account of past commitments. Interest on the public debt had to be paid and the debt itself gradually reduced. Pensions had to be paid and also salaries. See Speech on Income Tax in U. S. Senate, Jan. 25, 1871, printed in Speeches & Re- ports on Finance and Taxation by John Sherman, N. Y., 1879; pp. 317-336, esp. pp. 321-22. The difficulties surrounding the reduction of Federal expen- ditures are further emphasized when we consider the actual budget for the United States for the fiscal year 1935. The cost of veterans' pensions and benefits, aggregating $605,573,274, pay- ment of interest and principal of the public debt in amounts of $820,926,353 and $573,558,250 respectively, comprise approxi- mately 64 per cent of the total ordinary expenditures which are exclusive of the expenditures for recovery and relief. The latter extraordinary items aggregated $4,262,257,209, or 58 per cent of the total budget for the year end- ing June 30, 1935. Out of the ordinary expendi- tures of $3,114,000,000, 17 per cent went for national defense, 17 per cent for civil departments and 2 per cent for other items. The three former items above may be regarded as fixed ex- penditures and for practical pur- poses beyond the control of Con- gress. The other items of ex- penditure may be regarded as movable and comparatively flex- ible. The difference, however, between these two classes is very largely theoretical. Among these flexible or movable items we may mention national defense, recovery and relief, which in- cludes public works, and law en- forcement. When we examine the total income of the United States, it is found large enough so that after all our taxes are paid, the larger proportion of the income is still enjoyed personally and individu- ally. If taxation is even twenty per cent of our national income, there remains eighty per cent for private use. The essential problem is that of distribution of the burden. Among the proposals to cor- rect the tax situation in the sev- eral States, is an income tax large enough to relieve real es- tate and to correct other injus- tices in the distribution of the burden of taxation. Another widely discussed proposal is an enlargement of the taxes upon articles of consumption, espe- cially those which are not neces- sities. The gasoline tax which has now been adopted in all the States yields enormotis revenues. There is also a general search, now (1936) that the nation is facing substantial deficits in its Federal Budget and generally in the State budgets, for other ar- ticles of very wide use that will yield large revenues. There are those who advocate not only a sales tax upon selected articles like those mentioned but upon all sales. The general sales tax does not arouse the enthusi- asm on the part of tax students as it does on the part of tax ad- ministrators. One serious ob- jection held by the former is the maladjustments which arise through the lack of uniform laws as between States. This one criti- cism might be cared for by a Federal system imposed over all States. Proposals have also been made for a tax on manufactured prod- ucts. 'The American Petroleum Institute has proposed a levy of 1% and by estimating the value of manufactures at $60,000,000,- 000, has predicted that it would yield $600,000,000' (ibid.). Dif- ficulties surrounding the admin- istration of the sales tax and its possible effect on the cost of liv- ing led to considerable contro- versy regarding the advisability of adopting it. Advocates of the tax on manufactures claim less difficulty would be met in ad- ministering this tax than in the case of the sales tax. The whole subject bristles with difficulties but a solution must be found for some of the injustices and inequalities of ex- isting taxation. The necessity of raising additional revenue to meet growing deficits further complicates the matter. Waste and inefficiency in public admin- istration are serious hindrances. Local budget problems become increasingly difficult due to the multiplicity of administrative units. There are too many little villages, cities, taxing districts, etc. A great economy could be effected in many places if the small villages and cities were consolidated into larger units. Far greater efiiciency could be secured and the number of office holders could be reduced. Consult Report by the Com- mittee on Taxation of The Presi- dent's Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership (1931) ; the Tax Research Foun- dation, Tax Systems of the World (1935); U. S. Census Bureau. Financial Statistics of States and Financial Statistics of Cities (1932) ; H. C. Adams, Public Debts (1887) ; idem, Science of Finance (1924) ; C. J. Bullock, Selected Readings in Public Fi- nance (1920) ; R. T. Ely, Out- lines of Economics (Bk. IV), and Public Finance (1931) ; E. R. A. Seligman, Essays in Taxation (1923), and The Shift- ing and Incidence of Taxation (1927) ; H. L. Lutz, Public Fi- nance ^ (1930); _W. ;. Schultz, American Public Finance and Taxation (1931); Sir J. C. Stamp, Fundamental Principles of Taxation (1921); National Industrial Conference Board, State and Local Taxation of Property (1930). Richard T. Ely, Ph.D. Taxation, Ad valorem, the imposition of a duty on com- modities in proportion to their value. Its weakness lies in the fact that the actual value is difficult to fix. Taxation, Incidence of KSF 631 Taxidermy Taxation, Incidence of, is where the tax ultimately falls. To discover the 'incidence' of a tax the final payer must be found. Thus, duty is paid by the importer ; this is the 'im- pact' of the tax, but the amount is added to the price by him and by each successive dealer until the consumer purchases the article at retail. See also Taxation, Taxation of Land Values. See Single Tax. Taxicab, a motor cab equipped with a Taximeter (q.v.) . Tax'idermy, the art of pre- paring and preserving the skins of birds and animals, and of stuff- ing and mounting them so as to reproduce, as closely as possible, the living forms. It is prac- tically limited to back-boned an- imals, the invertebrate animals being dried or preserved in liquid, as a rule, and insects being mounted by a separate process (see Entomology). The art of taxidermy is of com- paratively recent development, though birds were mounted in Amsterdam as early as 1517, and there is a stuffed rhinoceros in the Royal Museum of Vertebrates at Florence dating from the six- teenth century. It was first prac- tised in England in the seven- teenth century, when the Sloane collection, the nucleus of the British Museum collection, was built up. The art has attained a high standard in the United States, where the most notable examples are to be seen at the National Museum in Washing- ton, the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, and the Field Museum in Chicago, in all of which places groups of birds and animals, won- derfully reproduced in their native habitat, are to be found. In skinning a specimen for taxidermic treatment, great pains should be taken not to stretch the skin, and to disturb the fur, hair, and feathers as little as possible. The skin is then care- fully cleaned, and treated with a preservative preparation. Be- coeur's arsenical soap (camphor, 5 oz. ; white arsenic, 2 lbs. ; white soap, 2 lbs.; salts of tartar, 2 oz.; chalk, 4 oz.), or some modifica tion thereof, is most commonly used for birds and small mam- mals. Another preserving mix- ture is composed of 1 pound of white curd soap, 3 pounds of whiting, 1 ounces of chloride of lime, and 1 ounce of tincture of musk. The best dry preserva- tive is said to be a pound of burned alum and a quarter of a pound of saltpetre, well rubbed into the skin; or arsenical soap followed by a mixture of fine salt and powdered alum may be used. Feathers and furs are cleaned by lightly applying benzine; then dusting on plaster of Paris, which is afterward shaken out. In preparing birds, the skull and larger wing and leg bones are left in place. When the skins are to be put away in cabinets, the head, neck, and body are filled with tow, the skin is sewn up, and after being allowed to dry, the specimen is stored away with in- sect powder. If the bird is to be mounted, its body measurements should be taken before skinning. On a piece of wire not quite twice the length of the body and neck an artificial body of tow is con- structed, resembling the bird's body in shape and size. The protruding portion of the wire serves as a foundation for the neck. After the inside of the skin has been painted with the pre- serving preparation, the false or tow body is enveloped within it, and more tow or cotton is thrust down the neck and throat so as to entirely fill the cavities there. With the finest forceps the eyelid skins are pulled into position, the feathers arranged, and cotton pulled up into the orbits, so as to plump out the depressions. A wire is next thrust into the ball of the foot and up alongside the The Processes and Apparatus of Taxidermy K. Removing skin from tiger, b. Casting body of tiger, c. Mannikin for tiger, show- ing structure, d. Mannikin for tiger, complete, e. Pigeon being skinned through opening under wing. f. The false body. g. Completing the removal of the skin. h. Set up to dry, plumage bound down. Tools: a. Skinning knives; 6, scalpel; c, brain and eye scoop; d, skin scraper; e, steel comb for furs, etc.; /, shears; g, blunt-tipped scissors; h, bone drill; j, pincers; k, long-nosed pliers; /, calipers; m, stuffers; n, brush for plumage, etc.; o, tri- angular needle; p, piercers; q. modellers; r, triangular file; s, awl; t, gouges. Taximeter 632 Taylor thigh bone, the skin being turned back; cotton is wound round the wire and bone to fill out the leg; and the skin is then returned. The protruding lower ends of the wire may be wound round the perch the bird is to stand on; the upper ends are pushed through the body and clinched on the top, to hold the structure together. The feathers of the tail are spread upon a wire which goes through each feather; and the wings are also held in position by wires, one from each side being pushed from above diagonally down and through the skin of the second joint. A touch of glue to the eye- lids prepares them for the eyes, which in small birds may be black beads. Before mounting, the specimen should be left for a day or two to dry, with thread wound loosely over the whole body. In mounting small mammals, much the same method is used. In the case of larger mammals, modelling instead of stuffing is now frequently employed; and it is regarded as the only proper method for mounting large ani- mals in the life-like attitudes suit- able for museum illustration of their habits and haunts. A model or mannikin of the animal is made, posed as in life, and this is covered with the damp skin, and furnished with jaws, palate, tongue, and lips, exactly repro- duced in plastic materials. This method may also be employed for fish and smaller animals. See Anatomical Prepara- tions. Consult W. T. Horna- day's Taxidermy; L. L. Pray's Taxidermy; Rowley's Taxidermy and Museum Exhibition (1925). Tax'! meter, an instrument which mechanically indicates and registers the fare to be paid by persons using public motor cabs. It is secured to the vehicle in such a manner that the passenger can at all times plainly see the amount of the fare; and it also adds up the number and amount of fares received by the driver in the course of a day, thus serv- ing as a form of cash register. The registering mechanism of the taximeter is made to corre- spond with the ordinances in ef- fect in the large cities, fixing the rates of taxicab hire. Generally, there is an initial charge varying in amount according to local ordinances which entitles the passenger to a ride of a quarter or half a mile. Attached to the instrument is a sign bearing the words 'For Hire' or 'Vacant,' which stands upright when the cab is not engaged, but which is moved out of sight as soon as the cab is engaged. This movement both records the initial charge and sets the mechanism so it will begin to register automatically when the first amount of distance has been completed. At that Vol. XI.— 32-M. point a driving mechanism con- nected with one of the front wheels comes into action, and moves the register at a rate cor- responding to the tariff fixed. When the cab is engaged but standing idle, the registering drums of the taximeter are moved by clockwork. This clockwork is running all the time, and operates the drums through a pawl and ratchet; but when the cab is un- der way the driving mechanism turns the drums faster than the clockwork and the latter is there- fore ineffective. The charge for waiting time varies in different cities. In New York City, taximeters are officially inspected by the Bureau of Taximeter Inspection. As a rule, taximeters are not sold, but are leased by the manufac- turers to operating companies. Taxodium, tak-so'di-um, a genus of veluable American trees of the Coniferae (q.v.), or pine family, embracing two principal species, the Red or Bald Cypress (T. distichum), the timber of which is used for building pur- poses, and the Mexican Cypress {T. mucronatum). T. helero- phyllum, the Chinese Embossed Cypress, grows to a height of only ten or twelve feet. Tax' us, a genus of evergreen trees of the Coniferae (q.v.), or pine family. They bear dioecious flowers, the female catkins being followed by solitary, one-seeded fruit. The principal species is T. haccata, the common Yew. T. minor is the American Yew or Ground Hemlock; T. cuspidata, the Japanese Yew; T. glohosa, the Mexican Yew. See Yew. Tay, river and firth of Scot- land, flowing into the North Sea, rises in Ben Lui (3,708 feet) at the Argyllshire extremity of the Grampians, flows through Perth- shire, and as a firth between For- farshire and Fifeshire. Its tribu- taries on the left bank are the Tummel and the Isla, and on the right bank the Braan, Almond, and Earn. Its course is distin- guished by expansive lochs — Do- chart, Tay, Lydoch, Rannoch, and Tummel. The total length is 118 miles, of which the last 25 miles form the firth. At Dundee it is crossed by the Tay Bridge. The basin covers 2,400 square miles. The river is navigable to Perth but navigation to Dundee, the chief port, is much hindered by sandbanks. The Tay is fa- mous for its salmon fishing. Tayabas, ta-ya'bas, province, Luzon, Philippine Islands, oc- cupying a peninsula on the south, which is separated from the great southeastern peninsula by the Gulf of Ragay; area 2,250 square miles; dependent islands, 84 square miles. The province is mountainous, with many small streams. The cocoanut is grown over large areas. Forest products, which include pitch, tar, resin, cabo negro, and wax, are shipped in large quantities to foreign countries and the valleys pro- duce cereals, rice, sugar-cane, and coffee. The sapote, papa- gat, mangosteen, and mango grow luxuriantly. Lucena, the capital, is 64 miles southeast of Manila. Pop. (1918) 212,017. Tayabas, pueblo, Luzon, Philippine Islands, in Tayabas province, 65 miles south of Manila. It is an important centre for inland and coastwise trade. Native vessels of good size are built here. It was for- merly the capital. Pop. (1918) 14,983. Tayler, John James (1797- 1869), English Unitarian divine, was born in Newington Butts, Surrey. He was minister of Mosley Street Chapel, Manches- ter (1821-53); and in 1840 was appointed professor of ecclesias- tical history in Manchester Col- lege, becoming its principal on its removal to London (1853). His publications include A Re- trospect of the Religious Life of England (1845), Christian As- pects of Faith and Duty (1851); and many magazine articles. Taylor, borough, Pennsylvania in Lackawanna County, on a branch of the Lackawanna River and on the Central of New Jer - sey, the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western and the Delaware and Hudson Railroads; 3 miles southwest of Scranton. It is engaged chiefly in the mining of anthracite coal and the making of silk. The Taylor Hospital is a feature of the place. The place was first settled about 1810. The borough was incorporated in 1893. Pop. (1910) 9,060; (1920) 9,876; (1930) 10,428. Taylor, town, Texas, in Wil- liamson County, on the Inter- national and Great Northern and the Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroads; 30 miles north- east of Austin. Railroad repair shops of the International and Great Northern Railroad are situated here. The leading in- dustries are the raising of live- stock, cotton-growing, and the manufacture of cottonseed oil and ice. A new city hall, an opera house, and the Fair Associ- ation buildings and grounds are features of the place. The first settlement here was made about 1880. Pop. (1910)5,314; (1920) 5,965; (1930) 7,463. Taylor, Alfred Swaine (1806- 80), English medical jurist, was born in Northfleet, Kent. In 1831 he became professor of medical jurisprudence at Guy's Hospital, holding the chair till 1877. His services were much in demand in criminal cases, of which the chief was the Palmer poisoning case. He published TEMPORARY PAGES FOR NELSON'S L. L. ENCYCLOPAEDIA Insert in Volume XI, at page 630 REVENUE ACT OF 1926 The following is a summary of the main features of the Revenue Act of 1926, enacted by Congress and approved by the President Feb. 26, 1926. Individual Income Tax. — In lieu of the tax imposed by the Revenue Act of 1924, there shall be levied, collected, and paid, for each taxable year, upon the net income of every individual, a normal tax of 5 per cent, of the amount of the net income, except that in the case of a citizen or resident of the United States the rate upon the first $4,000 shall be per cent, and upon the next $4,000 3 per cent. In addition to the normal tax there shall be paid for each tax- able year a surtax of 1 per cent, of the amount by which the net income exceeds .$10,000 and does not exceed $14,000; $40 upon net incomes of $14,000 and upon net incomes in excess of $14,000 and not in excess of $16,000 2 per cent, in addition of such excess; $80 upon net incomes of $16,000 and upon net incomes in excess of $16,000 and not in excess of $18,000 3 per cent, in addition of such excess; and so on up to $11,660 upon net incomes of $100,000 and upon net incomes in excess of $100,000, in addition 20 per cent, of such excess. A personal exemption of $1,500 is allowed in the case of a single person, $3,500 in the case of the head of the family or a married person living with husband or wife, and $400 for each additional dependent (under 18 years of age or incapable of self support). In the case of an individual the tax shall, in addition to such other credits as are provided by the Act,- be credited with 25 per cent, of the amount of tax which would be payable if this earned net income constituted his entire net income; but in no case shall the credit allowed exceed 25 per cent, of his normal tax plus 25 per cent, of the tax which would be payable under the surtax pro- visions if his earned net income constituted his entire net income. The term 'earned net income' means the excess of the amount of the earned income over the sum of the earned income deduc- tions. If the taxpayer's net in- come is not more than $5,000 his entire net income shall be considered to be earned net in- come, and if his net income is more than $5,000, his earned net income shall not be considered to be less than .$5,000. In no case shall the earned net income be considered more than $20,000. Individuals carrying on busi- ness in partnership are liable to taxation only in their individual capacity. The accompanying table shows the total tax (normal and sur- taxes) payable on incomes from $1,600 to $1,000,000. mestic building and loan associa- tions and co-operative banks; cemetery companies; education- al, religious or charitable corpo- rations; business leagues, cham- bers of commerce, or boards of trade; civic leagues or organiza- tions for social welfare; recrea- Tax Due on Individual Incomes Amount of net income before Single person or married and not living together, exemption $1,500 Married, living together, or head of family, exemption $3,500 deducting exemptions On earned income On unearned income Total on earned income Total on unearned income $1,600 2,000 2,500 3 000 31500 $1.13 5.63 11.25 16.88 22.50 $1.13 5.63 11.25 16.88 22.50 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 7,500 28.13 39.38 56.25 78.75 90.00 28.13 " 39.38 61.88 91.88 106.88 $5.63 16.88 28.13 39.38 45.00 S5.63 16.88 31.88 46.88 54.38 8,000 9,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 101.25 123.75 153.75 243.75 333.75 121.88 151.88 191.88 311.88 431.88 56.25 78.75 101.25 168.75 258.75 69.38 99.38 129.38 219.38- 339.88 16,000 18.000 20,000 30,000 40,000 438.75 558.75 693.75 1,853.75 3,273.75 571.88 731.88 911.88 2,071.88 3,491.88 363.75 483.75 618.75 1,778.75 3,198.75 479.38 639.38 819.38 1,979.38 3,399.38 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 100,000 4,953.75 6,873.75 9,033.75 11,333.75 16,133.75 5,171.88 7,091.88 9,251.88 11,551.88 16,351.88 4,878.75 6,798.75 8,958.75 11,258.75 16,058.75 5,079.38 6,999.38 9,159.38 11,459.38 16,259.38 200,000 300,000 500,000 1,000,000 41,133.75 66,133.75 116,133.75 241,133.75 41,351.88 66,351.88 116,351.88 241,351.88 41.058.75 66,058.75 116,058.75 241,058.75 41,259.38 66,259.38 116,259.38 241,259.38 Corporation Tax. — There shall be levied on the net income of every corporation a tax of 13 per cent, for the calendar year 1925, and 133^ per cent, for each cal- endar year thereafter. An ex- emption of $2,000 is allowed in case of domestic corporations having a net income of $25,000 or less, but if the net income is more than $25,000 the tax shall not exceed the tax which would be payable if the $2,000 credit were allowed, plus the amount of the net income in excess of $25,- 000. The following organiza- tions are exempt from this tax, most of them with provision that they are not operated for profit: labor, agricultural, or horticul- tural organizations; mutual sav- ings banks, not having a capital stock represented by shares; fra- ternal beneficiary societies; do- tion clubs; local benevolent life insurance associations; mutual ditch or irrigation companies; mutual or co-operative telephone companies, and similar organiza- tions; mutual hail, cyclone, casualty, and fire insurance com- panies; co-operative marketing and purchasing associations; holding corporations for exempt organizations; federal land banks, farm-loan associations, and Fed- eral intermediate credit banks. There shall be levied, collected, and paid for each taxable year up- on the net income of every life in- surance company a tax as follows: (1) In the case of a domestic insurance company, 123^ per cent, of its net income. (2) In the case of a foreign life insurance company, 1214 per cent, of its net income from sources within the United States. Vol. XL— Mar. '26 Revenue Act, 1936 2 Revenue Act, 1936 An exemption of $2,000 is al- lowed in the case of domestic in- surance companies having a net income of $25,000 or less. Estate Tax. — In lieu of the tax imposed by the Revenue Act of 1924, a tax equal to the sum of the following percentages of the value of the net estate is imposed upon the transfer of the net es- tate of every decedent dying after passage of this act, whether a resident or non-resident of the United States: One per cent, of the amount of the net estate not in excess of $50,000; 2 per cent, of the amount by which the net estate exceeds $50,000 and does not exceed $100,000; 3 per cent, of the amount by which the net estate exceeds $100,000 and does not exceed $200,000; 4 per cent, of the amount by which the net es- tate exceeds $200,000 and does not exceed $400,000; 5 per cent, of the amount by which the net estate exceeds $400,000 and does not exceed $600,000; 6 per cent, of the amount by which the net estate exceeds $600,000 and does not exceed $800,000; 7 per cent, of the amount by which the net estate exceeds $800,000 and does not exceed $1,000,000; 8 per cent, of the amount by which the net estate exceeds $1,000,000 and does not exceed $1,500,000; 9 per cent, of the amount by which the net estate exceeds $1,500,000 and does not exceed $2,000,000; 10 per cent, of the amount by which the net estate exceeds $2,000,000 and does not exceed $2,500,000; 11 per cent, of the amount by which the net estate exceeds $2,500,000 and does not exceed $3,000,000; 12 per cent, of the amount by which the net estate exceeds $3,000,000 and does not exceed $3,500,000; 13 per cent, of the amount by which the net es- tate exceeds $3,500,000 and does not exceed $4,000,000; 14 per cent, of the amount by which the net estate exceeds $4,000,000 and does not exceed $5,000,000; 15 per cent, of the amount by which the net estate exceeds $5,000,000 and does not exceed $6,000,000; 16 per cent, of the amount by which the net estate exceeds $6,000,000 and does not exceed $7,000,000; 17 per cent, of the amount by which the net estate exceeds .157,000,000 and does not exceed $8,000,000; 18 per cent, of the amount by which the net estate exceeds $8,000,000 and does not exceed $9,000,000; 19 per cent, of the amount by which the net estate exceeds $9,000,000 and does not exceed $10,000,000; 20 per cent, of the amount by which the net estate exceeds $10,- 000,000. The net estate is determined, in the case of residents, by cer- tain deductions from the gross estate, including expenses and Vol. XL— Mar. '26 losses, property on which an es- tate tax was paid within five prior years, public, charitable, or educational bequests, and an ex- emption of $100,000. The tax imposed is credited with the amount of any estate, inheritance, legacy, or succession taxes actually paid to any State or Territory or the District of Columbia, in respect of any prop- erty included in the gross estate; but this credit may not exceed 80 per cent, of the tax imposed and shall include only such taxes as were actually paid and credit therefor claimed within three years after the filing of the return. Provision is further made whereby on all estates ordinarily taxable under the 1924 law, 1921 rates (with a maximum of 25 per cent.) are substituted for the 1924 rates (which carry a maxi- mum of 40 per cent.) ; this clause applying to all estates taxable between June 2, 1924, and the date of the new bill. These rates range from 1 per cent, on $50,- 000 to 22 per cent, on $10,000,000 and 25 per cent, on estates in excess of $10,000,000. A similar retro-active provision is made in the case of gifts of $50,000 and more, but no gift tax is imposed by the new law. Tax on Cigars, Tobacco and Manufactures Thereof. — Upon cigars and cigarettes manufac- tured in or imported into the United States and hereafter sold by the manufacturer or importer, or removed for consumption or sale, there shall be levied, col- lected, and paid under the pro- visions of existing law, in lieu of the internal-revenue taxes now imposed thereon by the Revenue Act of 1924, the following taxes, to be paid by the manufacturer or importer thereof: On cigars of all descriptions made of tobacco, or any substi- tute therefor, and weighing not more than three pounds per thousand, 75 cents per thousand. On cigars made of tobacco, or any substitute therefor, and weighing more than three pounds per thousand, if manufactured or imported to retail at not more than 5 cents each, $2.00 per thou- sand; if manufactured or im- ported to retail at more than 5 cents each and not more than 8 cents each, $3.00 per thousand; if manufactured or imported to re- tail at more than 8 cents and not more than 15 cents each, $5.00 per thousand; if manufactured or imported to retail at more than 15 cents each and not more than 20 cents each, $10.50 per thou- sand; if manufactured or im- ported to retail at more than 20 cents each, $13.50 per thousand. On cigarettes made of tobacco, or any substitute therefor, and weighing not more than three pounds per thousand, $3 per thousand; weighing more than three pounds per thousand, $7.20 per thousand. There are also levied : Upon all tobacco and snuflf manufactured in or imported into the United States, and hereafter sold by the manufacturer or importer, or re- moved for consumption or sale, a tax of 18 cents per pound, to be paid by the manufacturer or importer thereof. Upon cigarette paper made up in or imported into the United States and hereafter sold by the manufacturer or importer to any person (other than to a manu- facturer of cigarettes for use in their manufacture) the following taxes, to be paid by the manu- facturer or importer: On each package, book, or set, containing more than twenty-five but not more than fifty papers, ^ cent; containing more than fifty but not more than one hundred pa- pers, 1 cent; containing more than one hundred papers, 3^ cent for each fifty papers or fractional part thereof; and upon tubes, 1 cent for each fifty tubes or frac- tional part thereof. Tax on Admission and Dues. — There shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid, in lieu of the taxes imposed by the Revenue Act of 1924: (1) A tax of 1 cent for each 10' cents or fraction thereof of the amount paid for admission to any place on or after such date, in- cluding admission by season ticket or subscription, to be paid by the person paying for such admission; but where the amount paid for admission is 75 cents or less, no tax shall be imposed. (2) Upon tickets or cards of admission to theatres, operas, and other places of amusement, sold at news stands, hotels, and places other than the ticket of- fices of such theatres, operas, or other places of amusement, at not to exceed 50 cents in excess of the sum of the established price therefor at such ticket offices plus the amount of any tax imposed under paragraph (1), a tax equiv- alent to 5 per cent, of the amount of such excess; and if sold for more than 50 cents in excess of the sum of such established price plus the amount of any tax im- posed under paragraph (1), a tax equivalent to 50 per cent, of the whole amount of such excess. (3) A tax equivalent to 50 per cent, of the amount for which the proprietors, managers, or em- ployees of any opera house, theatre, or other place of amuse- ment sell or dispose of tickets or cards of admission in excess of the regular or established price or charge therefor. (4) In the case of persons hav- ing the permanent use of boxes or seats in an opera house, or any place of amusement 6r a lease for l&evenue Act, 1936 3 Revenue Act, 19:36 the use of such box or seat in such opera house or place of amuse- ment, in heu of the tax imposed by paragraph (1), a tax equiva- lent to 10 per cent, of the amount for which a similar box or seat is sold for each performance or ex- hibition at which the box or seat is used or reserved by or for the lessee or holder, sucla tax to be paid by the lessee or holder. (5) A tax of Ij^ cents for each 10 cents or fraction thereof of the amount paid for admission to any public performance for profit at any roof garden, cabaret, or other similar entertainment, to which the charge for admission is wholly or in part included in the price paid for refreshment, service, or merchandise; the amount paid for such admission to be deemed to be 20 per cent, of the amount paid for refreshment, service, and merchandise; such tax to be paid by the person paying for such re- freshment, service, or merchan- dise. Where the amount paid for admission is 50 cents or less, no tax shall be imposed. Exemptions from this tax in- clude: (1) Any admissions, all the proceeds of which inure (A) ex- clusively to the benefit of re- ligious, educational, or charitable institutions, societies, or organ- izations, societies for the preven- tion of cruelty to children or ani- mals, or societies or organizations conducted for the sole purpose of maintaining symphony orches- tras and receiving substantial support from voluntary contribu- tions, or of improving any city, town, village, or other munici- pality, or of maintaining a co- operative or community centre moving-picture theatre — if no part of the net earnings thereof inures to the benefit of any pri- vate stockholder or individual; or (B) exclusively to the benefit of persons in the military or naval forces of the United States; or (C) exclusively to the benefit o^ persons who have served in such forces, and are in need; or (D) exclusively to the benefit of National Guard organizations, Reserve Officers' associations or organizations, posts or organiza- tions of war veterans, or auxil- iary units or societies of any such posts or organizations, if such posts, organizations, units or societies are organized in the United States or any of its pos- sessions, and if no part of their net earnings inures to the benefit of any private stockholder or in- dividual; or (E) exclusively to the benefit of members of the police or fire department of any city, town, village, or other mu- nicipality, or the dependents or heirs of such members. (2) Any admissions to agri- cultural fairs if no part of the net earnings thereof inures to the benefit of any stockholders or members of the association con- ducting the same, or admissions to any exhibit, entertainment, or other pay feature conducted by such association as part of any such fair — if the proceeds there- from are used exclusively for the improvement, maintenance, and operation of such agricultural fairs. There shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid, in lieu of the taxes imposed by the Revenue Act of 1924, a tax equivalent to 10 per cent, of any amount paid, (a) as dues or membership fees (where the dues or fees of an active resident annual member are in excess of $10 per year) to any social, athletic, or sporting club or organization; or (b) as initiation fees to such a club or organization, if such fees amount to more than $10, or if the dues or membership fees (not includ- ing initiation fees) of an active resident annual member are in excess of $10 per year; such taxes to be paid by the person paying such dues or fees: Provided, that there shall be exempted from the provisions of this section all amounts paid as dues or fees to a fraternal society, order, or as- sociation operating under the lodge system or to any local fra- ternal organization among the students of a college or univer- sity. Excise Taxes. — There shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid upon the following articles sold or leased by the manufac- turer, producer, or importer, a tax equivalent to the following percentage of the price for which so sold or leased: (1) Automobile chasses and bodies and motor cycles (includ- ing tires, inner tubes, parts, and accessories therefor sold on or in connection therewith or with the sale thereof), except automobile truck chasses and bodies, auto- mob le wagon chasses and bodies, and tractors, 3 per cent. A sale or lease of an automobile shall, for the purposes of this subdivi- sion, be considered to be a sale of the chassis and of the body. (2) Pistols and revolvers, ex- cept those sold for the use of the United States, any State, Terri- tory, or possession of the United States, any political subdivision thereof, or the District of Colum- bia, 10 per cent. If any manufacturer, producer, or importer of any of the articles enumerated in this section cus- tomarily sells such articles both at wholesale and at retail, the tax in the case of any article sold by him at retail shall be computed on the price for which like articles are sold by him at wholesale. Special Taxes. -^On and after July 1. 1926, there shall be levied, collected, and paid in lieu of the tax imposed by the Revenue Act of 1924, a special excise tax of $1,000, in the case of every per- son carrying on the business of a brewer, distiller, wholesale liquor dealer, retail liquor dealer, whole- sale dealer in malt liquor, retail dealer in malt liquor, or manu- facturer of stills, as defined in section 3244 as amended and section 3247 of the Revised Statutes, in any State, Territory, or District of the United States, contrary to the laws of such State, Territory, or District, or any place therein in which carry- ing on such business is prohib- ited by local or municipal law. The payment of the tax imposed by this section shall not be held to exempt any person from any penalty or punishment provided for by the laws of any State, Territory, or District for carry- ing on such business in such State, Territory, or District, or in any manner to authorize the commencement or continuance of such business contrary to the laws of such State, Territory, or District, or in places prohibited by local or municipal law. Any person who carries on any business or occupation for which a special tax is imposed by this section, without having paid such special tax. shall, besides being liable for the payment of such special tax, be subject to the penalty of not more than $1,000 or to imprisonment for not more than one year, or both. On and after July 1, 1926, and thereafter on July 1 in each year, and also at the time of the orig- inal purchase of a new yacht or other boat by a user, if on any other date than July 1, there shall be levied, assessed, col- lected, and paid, in lieu of the tax imposed by the Revenue Act of 1924, upon the use of yachts, pleasure boats, power boats, sail- ing boats, and motor boats with fixed engines, if foreign built and if of over 5 net tons and over 32 feet in length, not used exclu- sively for trade, fishing, or na- tional defence, a special excise tax to be based on each such yacht or other boat, at rates as follows: Yachts, pleasure boats, power boats, motor boats with fixed engines, and sailing boats, of over 5 net tons, length over 32 feet and not over 50 feet, $2 for each foot; length over 50 feet, and not over 100 feet, $4 for each foot; length over 100 feet, $8 for each foot. The capital stock tax levied by previous revenue acts was re- pealed. On or before July 1 of each year every person who imports, manu^ctures, produces, com- pounds, sells, deals in, dispenses, or gives away opium or coca leaves, or any compound, manu- facture, salt, derivative, or prep- VOL. XL— Mar. '26 BeTenue Act, 1936 4 BeTenue Act, 1936 aration thereof, shall register with the collector of internal revenue of the district and pay the special taxes hereinafter pro- vided: Importers, manufacturers, pro- ducers, or compounders, $24 per annum; wholesale dealers, $12 per annum; retail dealers, $6 per annum; physicians, dentists, vet- erinary surgeons, and other prac- titioners lawfully entitled to dis- tribute, dispense, give away, or administer any of the aforesaid drugs to patients upon whom they in the course of their profes- sional practice are in attendance, $1 per annum. There shall be levied, assessed, collected, and paid upon opium, coca leaves, or any compound, salt, derivative, or preparation thereof, produced in or imported into the United States, and sold, or removed for consumption or sale, an internal-revenue tax at the rate of 1 cent per ounce, and any fraction of an ounce in a package shall be taxed as an ounce, such tax to be paid by the importer, manufacturer, producer, or com- pounder. Stamp Taxes. — There shall be levied, collected, and paid the several taxes as specified: (1) On bonds, debentures, or certificates of indebtedness issued by any corporation, and all in- struments issued by any corpora- tion with interest coupons or in registered form, known generally as corporate securities, for each $100 of face value or fraction thereof 5 cents, every renewal being taxed as a new issue. (2) On each original issue, whether on organization or re- organization, of certificates of stock, or of profits, or of interest in property or accumulations, by any corporation, on each $100 of face value or fraction thereof, a tax of 5 cents, provided that where a certificate is issued with- out face value, the tax shall be 5 cents per share, unless the actual value is in excess of $100 per share, in which case the tax shall be 5 cents on each $100 of actual value or fraction thereof, or un- less the actual value is less than $100 per share, in which case the tax shall be 1 cent on each $20 of actual value, or fraction thereof. (3) On sales or agreements to sell, or memoranda of sales or deliveries of, or transfers of legal title to shares or certificates of stock, profits, interest in prop- erty, or accumulations in any corporation, or to rights to sub- scribe or receive such shares or certificates, on each $100 of face value or fraction thereof, a tax of 2 cents; and where such shares of stock are without par value, 2 cents on the transfer or sale or agreement to sell on each share. (4) On sales of produce on ex- change for future delivery, for each $100 in value of the mer- chandise covered by the sale a tax of 1 cent, and for each addi- tional $100 or fractional part thereof in excess of $100, 1 cent. (5) On passage ticket, one way or round trip, for each passenger, sold or issued in the United States for passage by any vessel to a port or place not in the United States, Canada, or Mexico, if costing not exceeding $30, $1; costing more than $30 and not exceeding $60, $3; costing more than $60, $5. This subdivision does not apply to passage tickets costing $10 or less. (6) On every pack of playing cards containing not more than fifty-four cards, manufactured or imported, and sold, or removed for consumption or sale, a tax of 10 cents per pack. (7) On each policy of insur- ance, or certificate, binder, cover- ing note, memorandum, cable- gram, letter, or other instrument by whatever name called where- by insurance is made or renewed upon property within the United States against peril by sea or on inland waters or in transit on land or by fire, lightning, tor- nado, windstorm, bombardment, invasion, insurrection, or riot, is- sued to or for or in the name of a domestic corporation or partner- ship or an individual resident of the United States by any foreign corporation or partnership or any individual not a resident of the United States, when such policy or other instrument is not signed or countersigned by an officer or agent of the insurer in a State, Territory, or District of the United States within which such insurer is authorized to do busi- ness, a tax of 3 cents on each dollar or fractional part thereof of the premium charged; policies of re-insurance shall be exempt. Tax on Distilled Spirits and Cereal Beverages. — There shall be levied and collected on all dis- tilled spirits now in bond or that have been or that may be here- after produced in or imported into the United States, in lieu of the internal revenue taxes now imposed thereon by law, an in- ternal revenue tax at the follow- ing rates, to be paid by the dis- tiller or importer when with- drawn, and collected under the provisions of existing law. (1) Until Jan. 1, 1927, $2.20 on each proof gallon or wine gal- lon when below proof and a pro- portionate tax at a like rate on all fractional parts of such proof or wine gallon: (2) On and after Jan. 1, 1927, and until Jan. 1, 1928, $1.65 on each proof gallon or wine gallon when below proof and a propor- tionate tax at a like rate on all fractional parts of such proof or wine gallon. (3) On and after Jan. 1, 1928, $1.10 on each proof gallon or wine gallon when below proof and a proportionate tax at a like rate on all fractional parts of such proof or wine gallon. (4) On and after the enact- ment of the Revenue Act of 1926, on all distilled spirits which are diverted to beverage pur- poses or for use in the manufac- ture or production of any article used or intended for use as a beverage there shall be levied and collected a tax of $6.40 on each proof gallon or wine gallon when below proof, and a proportionate tax at a like rate on all fractional parts of such proof or wine gal- lon, to be paid by the person re- sponsible for such diversion. If a tax at the rate of $2.20, $1.65, or $1.10 per proof or wine gallon has been paid upon such distilled spirits, a credit of the tax so paid shall be allowed in computing the tax imposed by this paragraph. There shall be levied, assessed^ collected, and paid upon all bev- erages derived wholly or in part from cereals or substitutes there- for, and containing less than one- half of 1 per cent, of alcohol by volume, sold by the manufac- turer, producer, or importer, a tax of one-tenth of 1 cent per gallon or fraction thereof. Board of Tax Appeals— The Board of Tax Appeals, composed of 16 members, appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate, is author- ized to hear and decide cases arising under the law. Its de- cisions are in general subject to review by a Circuit Court of Appeals or by the Court of Ap- peals of the District of Columbia. Publicity — The provision of the Act of 1924 authorizing pub- licity of tax returns is repealed. Such returns, however, constitute public records, open to inspection only upon order of the President and under rules and regulations prescribed by the Secretary of the Treasury and approved by the President. Copyright, 1926, by Thomas Nelson & Sons Printed in the United States of America Vol. XI.— Mar. '26 Taxation of Land Talues 631 Taxidermy Seligman, Essays in Taxation (1923), and The Shifting and Incidence of Taxation (1927) ; H. L. Lutz, Public Finance (1930) ; W. J. Schultz, Ameri- can Public Finance and Taxation (1931) ; Sir J. C. Stamp, Ftm- daniental Principles of Taxation (1921); National Industrial Conference Board, State and Local Taxation of Property (1930). Taxation of Land Values. See Single Tax. Taxicab, a motor cab equipped with a Taximeter (q.v.). Tax'idermy, the art of pre- paring and preserving the skins of birds and animals, and of stuff- ing and mounting them so as to reproduce, as closely as possible, the living forms. It is prac- tically limited to back-boned an- imals, the invertebrate animals being dried or preserved in liquid, as a rule, and insects being mounted by a separate process (see Entomology). The art of taxidermy is of com- paratively recent development, though birds were mounted in Amsterdam as early as 1517, and there is a stuffed rhinoceros in the Royal Museum of Vertebrates at Florence dating from the six- teenth century. It was first prac- tised in England in the seven- teenth century, when the Sloane collection, the nucleus of the British Museum collection, was built up. The art has attained a high standard in the United States, where the most notable examples are to be seen at the National Museum in Washing- ton, the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, and the Field Museum in Chicago, in all of which places groups of birds and animals, won- derfully reproduced in their native habitat, are to be found. In skinning a specimen for taxidermic treatment, great pains should be taken not to stretch the skin, and to disturb the fur, hair, and feathers as little as possible. The skin is then care- fully cleaned, and treated with a preservative preparation. Be- coeur's arsenical soap (camphor, 5 oz.; white arsenic, 2 lbs.; white soap, 2 lbs.; salts of tartar, 2 oz.; chalk, 4 oz.), or some modifica tion thereof, is most commonly used for birds and small mam- mals. Another preserving mix- ture is composed of 1 pound of white curd soap, 3 pounds of whiting, iK ounces of chloride of lime, and 1 ounce of tincture of musk. The best dry preserva- tive is said to be a pound of burned alum and a quarter of a pound of saltpetre, well rubbed into the skin; or arsenical soap followed by a mixture of fine salt and powdered alum may be used. Feathers and furs are cleaned by lightly applying benzine; then dusting on plaster of Paris, which is afterward shaken out. In preparing birds, the skull and larger wing and leg bones are left in place. When the skins are to be put away in cabinets, the head, neck, and body are filled with tow, the skin is sewn up, and after being allowed to dry, the specimen is stored away with in- sect powder. If the bird is to be mounted, its body measurements should be taken before skinning. On a piece of wire not quite twice the length of the body and neck an artificial body of tow is con- structed, resembling the bird's body in shape and size. The protruding portion of the wire serves as a foundation for the neck. After the inside of the skin has been painted with the pre- serving preparation, the false or tow body is enveloped within it, and more tow or cotton is thrust down the neck and throat so as to entirely fill the cavities there. With the finest forceps the eyelid skins are pulled into position, the feathers arranged, and cotton pulled up into the orbits, so as to plump out the depressions. A wire is next thrust into the ball of the foot and up alongside the Vol. XL— 32-M. The Processes and Apparatus of Taxidermy A. Removing skin from tiger, b. Casting body of tiger, c. Mannikin for tiger, show- ing structure, d. Mannikin for tiger, complete, e. Pigeon being skinned through opening under wing. f. The false body. g. Completing the removal of the skin. h. Set up to dry, plumage bound down. Tools: o, Skinning knives; 6, scalpel; c, brain and eye scoop; d, skin scraper; e, steel comb for furs, etc.; /, shears; g, blunt-tipped scissors; h, bone drill; j, pincers; k, long-nosed pliers; /, calipe'-s; m, stuffers; n, brush for plumage, etc.; o, tri- angular needle; p, piercers; q. modellers; r, triangular file; s, awl; t, gouges. Taximeter 632 Taylor thigh bone, the skin being turned back; cotton is wound round the wire and bone to fill out the leg; and the skin is then returned. The protruding lower ends of the wire may be wound round the perch the bird is to stand on; the upper ends are pushed through the body and clinched on the top, to hold the structure together. The feathers of the tail are spread upon a wire which goes through each feather; and the wings are also held in position by wires, one from each side being pushed from above diagonally down and through the skin of the second joint. A touch of glue to the eye- lids prepares them for the eyes, which in small birds may be black beads. Before mounting, the specimen should be left for a day or two to dry, with thread wound loosely over the whole body. In mounting small mammals, much the same method is used. In the case of larger mammals, modelling instead of stuffing is now frequently employed; and it is regarded as the only proper method for mounting large ani- mals in the life-like attitudes suit- able for museum illustration of their habits and haunts. A model or mannikin of the animal is made, posed as in life, and this is covered with the damp skin, and furnished with jaws, palate, tongue, and lips, exactly repro- duced in plastic materials. This method may also be employed for fish and smaller animals. See Anatomical Prepara- tions. Consult W. T. Horna- day's Taxidermy; L. L. Pray's Taxidermy; Rowley's Taxidermy and Museum Exhibition (1925). Tax'i meter, an instrument which mechanically indicates and registers the fare to be paid by persons using public motor cabs. It is secured to the vehicle in such a manner that the passenger can at all times plainly see the amount of the fare; and it also adds up the number and amount of fares received by the driver in the course of a day, thus serv- ing as a form of cash register. The registering mechanism of the taximeter is made to corre- spond with the ordinances in ef- fect in the large cities, fixing the rates of taxicab hire. Generally, there is an initial charge varying in amount according to local ordinances which entitles the passenger to a ride of a quarter or half a mile. Attached to the instrument is a sign bearing the words 'For Hire' or 'Vacant,' which stands upright when the cab is not engaged , but which is moved out of sight as soon as the cab is engaged. This movement both records the initial charge and sets the mechanism so it will begin to register automatically when the first amount of distance has been completed. At that Vol. XI.— 32-M. point a driving mechanism con- nected with one of the front wheels comes into action, and moves the register at a rate cor- responding to the tariff fixed. When the cab is engaged but standing idle, the registering drums of the taximeter are moved by clockwork. This clockwork is running all the time, and operates the drums through a pawl and ratchet; but when the cab is un- der way the driving mechanism turns the drums faster than the clockwork and the latter is there- fore inefi"ective. The charge for waiting time varies in different cities. In New York City, taximeters are officially inspected by the Bureau of Taximeter Inspection. As a rule, taximeters are not sold, but are leased by the manufac- turers to operating companies, Taxodium, tak-so'di-um, a genus of valuable American trees of the Coniferae (q.v.), or pine family, embracing two principal species, the Red or Bald Cypress (T. distichum), the timber of which is used for building pur- poses, and the Mexican Cypress (T. mucronatum). T. hetero- phyllum, the Chinese Embossed Cypress, grows to a height of only ten or twelve feet. Tax' us, a genus of evergreen trees of the Coniferae (q.v.), or pine family. They bear dioecious flowers, the female catkins being followed by solitary, one-seeded fruit. The principal species is T. baccata, the common Yew. T. minor is the American Yew or Ground Hemlock; T. cuspidata, the Japanese Yew; T. globosa, the Mexican Yew. See Yew. Tay, river and firth of Scot- land, flowing into the North Sea, rises in Ben Lui (3,708 feet) at the Argyllshire extremity of the Grampians, flows through Perth- shire, and as a firth between For- farshire and Fifeshire. Its tribu- taries on the left bank are the Tummel and the Isla, and on the right bank the Braan, Almond, and Earn. Its course is distin- guished by expansive lochs — Do- chart, Tay, Lydoch, Rannoch, and Tummel. The total length is 118 miles, of which the last 25 miles form the firth. At Dundee it is crossed by the Tay Bridge. The basin covers 2,400 square miles. The river is navigable to Perth but navigation to Dundee, the chief port, is much hindered by sandbanks. The Tay is fa- mous for its salmon fishing. Tayabas, ta-ya'bas, province, Luzon, Philippine Islands, oc- cupying a peninsula on the south, which is separated from the great southeastern peninsula by the Gulf of Ragay; area 2,250 square miles; dependent islands, 84 square miles. The province is mountainous, with many small streams. The cocoanut is grown. over large areas. Forest products, which include pitch, tar, resin, cabo negro, and wax, are shipped in large quantities to foreign countries and the valleys pro- duce cereals, rice, sugar-cane, and coffee. The sapote, papa- gat, mangos teen, and mango grow luxuriantly. Lucena, the capital, is 64 miles southeast of Manila. Pop. (1918) 212,017. Tayabas, pueblo, Luzon, Philippine Islands, in Tayabas province, 65 miles south of Manila. It is an important centre for inland and coastwise trade. Native vessels of good size are built here. It was for- merly the capital. Pop. (1918) 14,983. Tayler, John James (1797- 1869), English Unitarian divine, was born in Newington Butts, Surrey. He was minister of Mosley Street Chapel, Manches- ter (1821-53); and in 1840 was appointed professor of ecclesias- tical history in Manchester Col- lege, becoming its principal on its removal to London (1853). His publications include A Re- trospect of the Religious Life of England (1845), Christian As- pects of Faith and Duty (1851); and many magazine articles. Taylor, borough, Pennsylvania, in Lackawanna County, on a branch of the Lackawanna River and on the Central of New Jer- sey, the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western and the Delaware and Hudson Railroads; 3 miles southwest of Scranton. It is engaged chiefly in the mining of anthracite coal and the making of silk. The Taylor Hospital is a feature of the place. The place was first settled about 1810. The borough was incorporated in 1893. Pop. (1910)9,060; (1920) 9,876; (1930) 10,428. Taylor, town, Texas, in Wil- liamson County, on the Inter- national and Great Northern and the Missouri, Kansas and Texas Railroads; 30 miles north- east of Austin. Railroad repair shops of the International and Great Northern Railroad are situated here. The leading in- dustries are the raising of live- stock, cotton-growing, and the manufacture of cottonseed oil and ice. A new city hall, an opera house, and the Fair Associ- ation buildings and grounds are features of the place. The first settlement here was made about 1880. Pop. (1910) 5,314; (1920) 5,965; (1930) 7,463. Taylor, Alfred Swaine (1806- 80), English medical jurist, was born in Northfleet, Kent. In 1831 he became professor of medical jurisprudence at Guy's Hospital, holding the chair till 1877. His servicec were much in demand in criminal cases, of which the chief was the Palmer poisoning case. He published JAN 1 4 m2 Taylor KFK 634 Taylor A Manual of Medical jurispru- dence (1844), The Principles and Practice of Medical Jurispru- dence (1865), both of which went through many editions; Poisons in Relation to Medical Jurispru- dence and Medicine (1848), On Chemistry (1863). Taylor, ( James) , Bayard (1825- 78), American author and jour- nahst, was born in Kennett Square, Chester County, Pa., a direct descendant of Robert Taylor, one of WilHam Penn's company. He was brought up in Quaker behefs and was edu- cated at local, common, and high schools. He was a great reader from childhood, had a remark- able faculty for memorizing, and began to write at the age of fourteen. Two years afterwards his first printed poem appeared in the Philadelphia Saturday Evening Post, and in 1842 he was apprenticed to a printer in West Chester. Meanwhile, he had acquired a knowledge of Latin, French, and Spanish, to which he now added German. His contributions to the Post at- tracted the attention of Rufus W. Griswold, who befriended the young poet, and advised him as to the publication of his first book, Ximena; or. The Battle of the Sierra Morena, and Other Poems (1844). In 1844-5 he took a walking tour through England, Germany, Italy, and France, which he described and published in book form as Views Afoot; or, Europe Seen with Knapsack and Staff (1846). He next published Rhymes of Travel (1848), having meanwhile se- cured a position on the New York Tribune, which paper commis- sioned him to describe the gold- rush to California in 1849. His letters were collected as Eldorado; or, A dventures in the Path of Em- pire (1850). From 1851 to 1853 he was occupied in travelling around the world as correspon- dent, accompanying Commodore Perry's expedition to Japan, and in 1855 published A Visit to India, China, and Japan. In 1862-3 he was secretary of lega- tion, and for a time, charge d'affaires at St. Petersburg, and was instrumental in securing Russian sympathy for the Fed- eral government in the Civil War. In April, 1878, he was appointed minister to Germany. Taylor was a voluminous and versatile writer. His books of travel include The Lands of the Saracen (1854), Northern Travel (1857), Byways of Europe (1869), and Egypt and Iceland in the Year 187 Jf. Among his books of verse not previously mentioned are Poems of Home and Travel (1855), The Poet's Journal (1862), The Picture of St. John (1866), The Masque of the Gods (1872), Lars: a Pastoral of Norway (1873) , The Prophet: a Tragedy (1874) , Home Pastorals (1875), and Prince Deukalion; A Lyrical Drama (1878). His Home Pas- torals contains a number of his favorite idyls of southern Penn- sylvania life among the Quakers. He also published four novels, Hannah Thurston (1863), John Godfrey's Fortunes (1864), The Story of Kennett (1866), and Joseph and His Friend (1870). (Consult the following : Life Courtesy Columbia Bioiulcasting S-ystem DEEMS TAYLOR and Letters of Bayard Taylor, edited by Marie Hansen-Taylor and Horace E. Scudder, Albert H. Smyth's Bayard Taylor, On Two Continents: Memories of Half a Century, by M. H. Taylor and Lilian B. Taylor Kiliani; Stedman's Poets of America. Taylor, Benjamin Franklin (1819-87), American journalist and author, was born in Low- ville, N. Y. He removed to Chicago in 1845, where for 20 years he was a member of the staflf of the Evening Journal for which during the Civil War he wrote a series of letters from the front. In later years he was a popular lecturer. He published a novel, Theophilus Trent (1887), and many popular poems. Taylor, Brook (1685-1731), English mathematician, was born in Edmonton, Middlesex. He was educated at Cambridge and in 1712 was admitted a Fellow of the Royal Society, serving as its first secretary (1714-8). His publications include Methodus In- crementorum Directa et Inversa (1715), the first treatise to deal definitely with the calculus of finite differences; Linear Per- spective (1715); Contemplatio Phi- losophica (1793), published by his grandson, Sir William Young, with a biographical preface. Taylor, Charles Fayette (1827-99), American surgeon, was born in Williston, Vt. He was graduated m.d. from the Univer- sity of Vermont in 1856, visited London to become acquainted with the surgical methods known as the 'Swedish movement' and in 1857 began to practise surgery in New York City. He special- ized in the treatment of the crippled and deformed by means of the Swedish system, and meet- ing with great success founded the New York Orthopedic Dis- pensary. For many years he acted as managing surgeon of that institution, and improved surgical methods for the treat- ment of deformities. His splint method in treating spinal dis- eases has had many beneficial results. His works include The Theory and Practice of the Movement Cure (1861) ; The Mechanical Treatment of Pott's Disease (1865) ; and On the Me- chanical Treatment of Diseases of the Hip Joint (1873). Taylor, Charles Jay (1855- 1929), American artist and il- lustrator, was born in New York City, and was a pupil of the Na- tional Academy and of the Art Students' League. After two years in Paris, he settled in New York and devoted himself chiefly to illustrations, doing the work for The Tailor-made Girl (1884), Runner's Short Sixes, and Poems with Music, and other books. For many years he was head of the Painting and Illustration Department of the Carnegie Institute of Technol- ogy, and received various medals for his services in the arts. He was a prolific contributor to Puck, Life, Judge, and London Punch. Taylor, (Joseph) Deems (1885- ), American compos- er, was born in New York City. He was graduated from New York University, studied har- mony under Oscar Coon and aft- er various editorial positions be- came associate editor of Collier's Weekly (1917-9). Since 1936 he has been consultant on music of the Columbia Broadcasting System. His Siren Song won the National Federation of Mu- sic Clubs prize in 1912 and his cantata The Chambered Nautilus was produced by the Schola Cantorum in 1916. In 1928 he received a gift of $5,000 from the Julliard School of Music in recognition of his work as a composer and his efforts towards the encouragement of American music. Other works include The Highwaymen, a cantata ; incidental music for Liliom, Will Shakespeare, Beggar on Horseback and Casanova; Through the Looking Glass, The King's Henchman, an opera for which Edna St. Vincent Mil- lay wrote the libretto, and Peter Ibbctson, an opera based on Du Maurier's novel. Taylor, Edward Thompson Taylor KFK Taylor ( 1793-1 871), American itinerant preacher, was born in Richmond, Va., and becoming an orphan in infancy, he was led off from those in charge of him by a sea- captain, when seven years old, and became a sailor. He was converted to the M. E. faith in 1811, while ashore at Boston, Mass., by Bishop Elijah Red- ding, then in charge of a small chapel in that city. The same year he took service in the Black Hawk, a privateer, was captured by the British, and con- fined at Halifax and afterward in Dartmoor prison as a prisoner of war. While in prison he was invited by his shipmates to act as their chaplain, and began his preaching, in this way, before he was able to read. After his return he was licensed to preach by the quarterly conference at Boston in 1814, and, after some time passed as a tin peddler, be- gan regular work as a preacher at Saugus, Mass., in 1815, work- ing a farm there, and holding meetings in the house belonging to it. Meanwhile he was educat- ing himself, and he attracted much attention in nearby towns, his oratorical effects being star- tling, even for a shouting Method- ist, and all the more appreci- ated for the nautical similes he was accustomed to use. In 1817 he was sent to Newmarket Semi- nary for a few weeks, but he found the discipline irksome, re- turned to Saugus and resumed his preaching. In 1819 he was put in charge of the chapel at Marblehead, joined the New England Conference, and la- bored in the Scituate and other Mass. and R. I. circuits until 1829, when he was placed in charge of a chapel assigned for work among the sailors in Bos- ton. The Methodists, not being able to afford the expense of this Bethel Mission, Father Taylor, as he was called, raised money in the South for the purchase of the chapel, and when the increas- ing fame of its services required a larger edifice, funds were sub- scribed by Unitarian merchants of Boston, and the Bethel in North Square was built in 1833. The organizations in control of the work, the Boston Port and Seamen's Aid Societies, also erected a home for seamen called the Mariners' House, in 1847. Father Taylor remained in charge until he resigned in 1868. He visited Europe in 1832 and Palestine in 1842. Father Tay- lor was a friend of Emerson from his early days, and stopped at his house when preaching in Concord. See Life of Father Taylor, including Bishop Haven and Judge Russell's Life, and essays by Bartol and Walt Whit- man (Boston, 1904) and R. W. Emerson in Atlantic Monthly (Aug., 1906). Taylor, George (1716-81), American manufacturer, signer of the Declaration of Independ- ence, born in Ireland. Although of good family, he emigrated to America as a redemptioner in 1736, was bound out to a manu- facturer at Durham, Pa., whose widow he subsequently married. He became a successful iron manufacturer, was a member of the provincial assembly in 1764- 70 and member of the Continen- tal Congress in 1776-77. Taylor,HANNis (1851-1922), American lawyer, born at New- bern, N. C. He attended the University of North Carolina. In 1892 he became professor of constitutional and international law at Columbia University, and from 1893 to 1897 was min- ister to Spain. Among his pub- lications are : Origin and Grozuth of the English Constitution (2 vols. 1889^98), and Interna- tional Public Law. Taylor, Sir Henry (1800- 86), English dramatist and es- sayist, was born at Bishop Mid- dleham, Durham, and appointed in 1824 to a clerkship in the Co- lonial Office, from which he re- tired in 1872. In 1869 he was created k.c.m.g. Taylor wrote four tragedies — Isaac Comnenus (1827); Philip van Artevelde (1834), an admirable closet drama; Edwin the Fair (1842) ; St. demerit's Eve (1862). A comedy. The Virgin Widow, or a Sicilian Slimmer, appeared in 1850. Lyrical Poems were pub- lished in 1845, and The Eve of the Conquest and Other Poems in 1847. His Notes from Books (1849) contains skilful disserta- tions on the poetry of Words- worth and Aubrey de Vere. An edition of Taylor's works ap- peared in five volumes (1878). Taylor's Autobiography (2 vols. 1885) is charming. See also his Correspondence (1888), edited by Dowden. Taylor, Henry Clay (1845- 1904), American naval officer, born in Washington, D. C. He graduated at Annapolis in 1863, and had active service in the Civil War, taking part in the battle of Mobile Bay. He be- came lieutenant-commander in 1868, commander in 1879, cap- tain in 1894, and in 1898 com- manded the Indiana during the war with Spain, taking an active part in the bombardment of San Juan and the battle of Santiago. Taylor, Hobart C. Chat- field- (1865- ), author, was born in Chicago, and was gradu- ated from Cornell University in 1886. He travelled extensively and was widely known in cul- tural circles in Europe. In 1892-94 he served Spain as Con- sul at Chicago. He received numerous European orders, such as the Legion of Honor and L'Instruction Publique, France ; Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus and Order of the Crown, Italy ; and Order of Isa- bella the Catholic, Spain. Mr. Chatfield-Taylor was also elected a Fellow of the Royal Geograph- ical Society, London. His pub- lications include An American Peeress (1893) ; Two Women and a Fool (1895) ; The Land of the Castanet (1896) ; The Vice of Fools (1898); The Crimson Wing (1902) ; Moliere, A Biography (1906) ; Fame's Pathway (1909) ; Goldoni, A Biography (1913) ; Cities of Many Men (1925) ; Tawny Spain (1927) ; and Charmed Circles — A Pageant of the Ages from Aspasia's Day to Ours (1935). Taylor, Isaac (1759-1829), of Ongar, English engraver and author, was born in London. He worked as an engraver until 1796, when he became an Inde- pendent minister at Colchester, and at Ongar (1810). The As- sassination of Rizzio, after Opie, is among his best engravings. His writings include Self-Culti- vation Recommended (1817), Scenes in England, in America, etc., Beginnings of British Bi- ography (1824). See I. Tay- lor's Memorials of the Taylor Family of Ongar (1867). Taylor, Isaac (1787-1865), English artist, author, and in- ventor, was born at Labenham, Suffolk. He became an engrav- er, and designed many plates for his father and the books of his sister. His chief writings are The Taylors of Ongar (1867); Natural History of Enthusiasm (1829, published in the U. S. in 1830; 10th ed., London, 1845); Saturday Evening (1832), a devotional work that went through many editions in the U. S. and England ; Hame Education (1838). He received the degree of ll.d. from the University of the City of New York in 1862. See Taylor's Personal Recollections (1864). Taylor, _ Isaac (1829-1901), English divine, was born at Stanford Rivers, Essex, and was a son of the author of His- tory of Enthusiasm. He became rector of Settrington (1875) and canon of York (1885). Among his best known works are Leaves from an Egyptian Note Book (1888), Domesday Survivals (1888), The Plough Land and the Plough (1888), Wapentakes and Hundreds (1888), The Ori- gin of the Aryans (1890), Names and Their Histories (1896). Canon Taylor's name was much spoken of in connec- tion with his controversy in the Taylor KFK 636 Taylor Times with Canon Maccoll and Professor Freeman. Taylor, Isaac Ebenezer (1812-89), American gynecolo- gist, born in Philadelphia. He graduated m.d. at the University of Pennsylvania in 1834, began practice in New York in 1839, and in 1841 began to specialize in the diseases of women, and became attending physician to several New York hospitals de- voted to that branch of medici- nal treatment. In 1851 he was appointed physician to Bellevue Hospital, in 1861 was instru- mental in organizing the Belle- vue Hospital Medical School, and became the first professor of obstetrics in the school. He founded the New York Medical Journal in 1868, and for many years was its editor and general manager. In conjunction with James A. Washington he intro- duced the hypodermic method of treatment by morphia and strychnia, and was the first American physician to use the speculum in diseases of women. Taylor, Jane (1783-1824), English writer for the young, was born in London. In con- junction with her sister Ann she composed Original Poems (1804), reprinted in the United States, and Hymns for Infant Minds (1810), also very popular in the U. S. The best edition of the joint works is that of 1877. Other works are : Display, a Talc (1815) ; Essays in Rhyme (1816). See I. Taylor's Mem- oirs and Correspondence of Jane Taylor (1825). Taylor, Jeremy (1613-67), Anglican divine, born at Cam- bridge. Laud appointed him fel- low of All Souls College, Ox- ford, and in 1638 he was pre- sented to the rectory of Upping- ham, Rutland. In 1642 he pub- lished Episcopacy Asserted. In 1644 the Presbyterians, then dominant, deprived him of his living. He is doubtfully identi- fied with a Dr. Taylor, made prisoner Feb. 4, 1644, at the de- feat of the royalists before Car- digan Castle. It is certain that he was a prisoner in Wales, and, at length released, became a schoolmaster in Carmarthen- shire. In 1647, three years aft- er Milton's Areopagitica, the An- glican divine published his Lib- erty of Prophesying. In 1649 appeared The Life of Christ ; or, The Great Exemplar, which is rather an eloquent devotional commentary than a systematized history. Holy Living appeared in 1650, and Holy Dying in 1651. The Golden Grove, a de- votional book, published under the Protectorate, would seem to have landed Taylor in prison, probably on account of an inju- dicious preface. He was again imprisoned in Chepstow Castle ; on what account is uncertain. He suffered a third imprison- ment (1657-8) through the in- discretion of his publisher. In 1655 his Unum Necessarium, a discourse on repentance, brought him under the suspicion of Pela- gianism. He had long been ma- turing his Ductor Dubitantinm, a famous work of casuistry, but it did not appear until 1660. At the Restoration he was ap- pointed to the see of Down and Connor, to which was added that of Dromore. Perhaps of all English prose writers he is the most poetic. His immense and broad learning is employed rather to illustrate than to con- vince ; his quick imagination sometimes carries him away. The best Life of him is that by Heber (1822), prefixed to the collected edition of his IV orks. A Life, by Gosse, was published in 1904. Taylor, John (1580-1653), English writer, the 'Water-poet,' was born at Gloucester. He be- came a London waterman, but was pressed into the navy, and was present at the siege of Cadiz (1596). He kept a pub- lic house at Oxford from the beginning of the Civil War un- til 1645, when he gave it up for another in London. Among his works are The Pennyles Pilgrim- age (1618), describing a jour- ney on foot from London to Edinburgh ; Travels in Germanic (1617), The Praise of Hemp- seed (1620). See Spenser So- ciety's ed. of his Works (1868- 9). Taylor, John (1750-1824), American legislator, born in Or- ange CO., Va. He graduated at William and Mary College in 1770, and was a member of the United States Senate in 1792- 94, for two months in 1803, and from 1822 until his death. In politics he w-as a strict constrvic- tionist and Jeffersonian Republi- can, and in 1797 introduced the celebrated 'Virginia Resolu- tions.' Among his published works are : An Inquiry into the Principles and Policy of the Government of the United States (1814) ; Arator, being a Series of Agricultural Essays, Practi- cal and Political (6th ed. 1818) ; Construction Construed and the Constitution Vindicated (1820); and New Views of the Constitu- tion of the United States (1823). Taylor, John (1808-87), third president of the Mormon Church, born at Milnthorp, Eng- land. In 1832 he emigrated to Upper Canada ; in 1836 was con- verted to Mormonism by Parley Pratt ; was ordained a high priest in 1837 and an apostle in 1838, and in 1840 went on a mis- sionary journey to England and Scotland. In 1844 he was shot three times by the mob which killed Joseph Smith in the Car- thage jail. In 1847 he again made a visit to England. In 1849 he was chosen associate judge of Deseret, and in the same year went on a missionary journey to France and Germany. He was a delegate to the constitutional convention in 1856 ; was a mem- ber of the legislature during 1857-76, and was speaker of the house during five successive ses- sions ; and in 1880 became presi- dent of the church. He practised polygamy and had seven wives and thirty-four children, and when the Edmunds Law of 1882 was passed, counselled the Mor- mons not to obey it. In 1885, to escape arrest, he went into hid- ing and remained there until his death, although he continued se- cretly to direct the affairs of the church. Taylor, John Lewis (1769- 1829), American jurist, born in London, England. When twelve years of age he came to the United States ; studied for a time at William and Mary College ; was admitted to the bar, and set- tled at Fayetteville, N. C. In 1798 he became a judge of the superior court, in 1808 was se- lected to preside over the ses- sions of the Supreme Court, and when the Supreme Court was reorganized, became chief jus- tice, and held that position until his death. During 1817-21 he assisted in revising the laws of the State. Among his publica- tions are : Cases in the Superior Courts of Law and Equity of the State of North Carolina (1802) ; The North Carolina Repository (2 vols. 1814-16) ; and Term Reports (1818). Taylor, Nathaniel Wil- liam (1786-1858), American clergyman, born at New Milford, Conn. He graduated at Yale College in 1807, and for several years acted as secretary to Presi- dent Dwight, with whom he studied theology. He was pastor of the First Church of New Haven, continuing in 1812-22, when he was chosen Dwight pro- fessor of didactic theology at Yale. He was the originator and head of the 'New Haven The- ology,' which sought to modify many of the essential doctrines of Calvinism, and insisted espe- cially on the freedom of the will. His views were published in the Christian Spectator (1819- 1839), and they were opposed by many of the leading theologians of the day. He was a strong, logical, and eloquent preacher. His works were edited by his son-in-law. Dr. Noah Porter (1858). Taylor, Philip Meadows (1808-76), Anglo-Indian admin- dm 1 4 mi Taylor KFK 637 Taylor istrator and novelist, was born in Liverpool, and in 1826 en- tered the Nizam of Hyderabad's service. His first novel was The Confessions of a Thug (1839), and he acted as Times corre- spondent from 1840 to 1853. He administered the native state of Sherapur from 1841 to 1853. He returned to England (1860), and wrote Tara: a Mahratta Tale (1863), Ralph Darnell (1865), Secta (1873), Tippoo SultauH (1840), and The Story of My Life (ed. 1881). Taylor, Richard (Dick) (1826-79), American Confeder- ate soldier, only son of Zachary Taylor, was born near Louis- ville, Ky. After attending schools in Edinburgh, Scotland, and in France, he graduated at Yale in 1845 and served a while as secretary for his father, then commanding the army near the Rio Grande. He was state sena- tor in La. from 1856 to 1861, and was a delegate to the Charleston and Baltimore Demo- cratic conventions of 1860. Aft- er the secession of Louisiana he went to Richmond in command of the Ninth Louisiana regiment of infantry, was promoted to brigadier-general, and served with distinction in the battles of the Shenandoah campaign under 'Stonewall' Jackson, at whose suggestion he was promoted to major-general and placed in com- mand of the district of Louisi- ana, west of the Mississippi. Here he organized an efficient army, which under his leadership gained victory after victory, the crowning one being that gained in conjunction with Kirby Smith at Sabine Cross Roads, April 8, 1864, which achieved the defeat of Banks's formidable Red River expedition. Taylor was next placed in command of the De- partment of Alabama and Mis- sissippi with the rank of lieuten- ant-general. The Civil War had virtually come to a close when Taylor capitulated to General Canby, at Citronelle, Ala., on May 4, 1865. During the Re- construction period he was of much assistance to the South. He published Destruction and Reconstruction (1879). Taylor, Robert (1911- ), film actor, was born at Filley, Neb., and received his education at Doane College, Crete, Neb., and at Pomono College, Clare- mont, Calif. He began his the- atrical career in 1933 by play- ing in stock companies and en- tered the motion picture field with Metro-Goldwin-Mayer in 1934. He married Barbara Stanwyck in 1939. Among his pictures are 'A Yank at Oxford' and 'Waterloo Bridge.' Taylor, Rowland (d. 1 555), English martyr, born at Roth- bury, Northumberland ; was rec- tor of Hadleigh, Suffolk (1544), archdeacon of Exeter (1552), and canon of Rochester (1547) ; was imprisoned as a heretic, and burned at the stake. Taylor, Samuel Coleridge. See Coleridge-Taylor. Taylor, Thomas (1758- 1835), English classical scholar, called 'the Platonist,' was born in London. He held a bank clerkship, but after 1806 devoted all his time to study and trans- lations. The latter include parts of the works of Plato, Aristotle, Porphyry, and the hymns of Orpheus. Consult Life by Axon. Taylor, Tom (1817-80), English dramatist, was born at Bishop Wearmouth. He was professor of English at Univer- sity College, London, in 1845-6, when he was called to the bar. From 1850 to 1872 he was as- sistant secretary and secretary to the Board of Health. He be- came editor of Punch in 1874. His best-known plays are : To Parents and Guardians (1845) ; Masks and Faces (with Charles Reade, 1852) ; Our American Cousin (1858, produced in New York with Laura Keene, Soth- ern, and Jefferson) ; Still Wat- ers Run Deep (1855); The Overland Route (1860) ; 'Twixt Axe and Cro^vn (1870); The Ticket-of-Lcave Man (1863) ; Joan of Arc (1871); Anne Boleyn (1875). Taylor, William (1821- 1902), American bishop, was born in Rockbridge county, Virginia. He became an itiner- ant preacher in 1843, and after 1849 was a missionary in Cali- fornia, Canada, England and Ire- land, Palestine, Australia, and South Africa. From 1866 to 1896 he was a powerful evange- lizing force in Ceylon, India, South America, and Central Africa. His most important publications are : Seven Years' Street Preaching in San Fran- cisco ; The Model Africa; Chris- tian Adventures in South Af- rica; Four Years' Campaign in India; Flaming Torch in Dark- est Africa ; Story of My Life. Taylor, Zachary (1784- 1850), American soldier and statesman, the twelfth President of the United States, was born in Orange county, Virginia, on Nov. 24, 1784, son of Col. Rich- ard Taylor, who served as an army officer in the American Revolution. Before Zachary was a year old his father re- moved to Kentucky, where he be- came one of the early settlers of Louisville. The boy's childhood and youth were passed amid the rough surroundings of frontier life, and his school privileges were necessarily limited. An elder brother in the army hav- ing died in 1808, Zachary was appointed to the vacant commis- sion of first lieutenant of the Seventh Infantry, and served in New Orleans until attacked by yellow fever. In 1810 he be- came a captain, and early in 1812 successfully defended Fort Harrison, on the Wabash River, against a band of hostile Indians. Taylor was rewarded with a major's commission, and during the War of 1812 he had several battles with the Indians on the Western frontier. In 1822 he built Fort Jesup, on the borders of Louisiana; in 1832 he was promoted to colonel, and partici- pated with credit in the Black Hawk War. He was sent to Florida in 1836, where he in- flicted a severe defeat on the Seminole Indians near Lake Okeechobee. For this service he was promoted to brigadier-gen- eral, becoming commander of the Department of Florida ; and was subsequently transferred to the Western Department, with head- quarters at Baton Rouge. When Texas was annexed in 1845 its western boundary was not defined, and Mexico still claimed the uninhabited district between the Rio Grande and the Nueces. Taylor, being ordered to defend Texas from invasion, sailed from New Orleans to Cor- pus Christi, where he gathered a force of 4,000 regulars. In March, 1846, orders came from President Polk to cross the Nue- ces, and he marched to the Rio Grande and erected Fort Brown, opposite the Mexican town of Matamoros. The Mexicans or- dered him to retire, and upon his refusal crossed the Rio Grande to drive him out. The Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma (qq. v.) on May 8 and 9, 1846, drove the Mexicans back, and Taylor followed them across the Rio Grande, seizing Mata- moros. Congress declared a state of war to exist ; 50,000 volunteers were publicly called for ; and Taylor was promoted to major-general, and ordered as soon as reinforced to invade the territory of Mexico. In September, 1846, General Taylor with about 6,500 men at- tacked the city of Monterey, which was strongly fortified and defended by 8,000 Mexican reg- ulars and 3,000 militia under General Ampudia. After a siege of ten days and three days' hard fighting the city surrendered on Sept. 24. Most of Taylor's reg- ulars were then transferred to the new Vera Cruz expedition under Gen. W. S. Scott, and Taylor was left with about 500 regulars and 5,000 volunteers to face an army of 21,000 men under the Mexican general Santa Anna. Taylor fell back Taylor University KFK 638 Tchikhatchev from Monterey until he reached a favorable position near the mountain pass of Buena Vista (q. v.). Availing himself of its natural advantages, on Feb. 22, 1847, he completely repulsed the Mexicans with a loss thrice as great as his own. (See Mexi- can War.) In June, 1848, the victorious and popular General was nomi- nated for President by the Whig Party, and he was successful in the ensuing election, receiving 163 electoral votes to 127 votes for Lewis Cass, the Democratic Party candidate. Taylor took the Presidential chair at a criti- cal period in American history, for the momentous struggle over the extension of slavery (q. v.) had already set in. The balance of power in Congress was held by a small but active group of Free Soilers, and to avert the threatened danger to the Union Henry Clay introduced his fa- mous Compromise, which called forth a stormy discussion. Tay- lor remained firm and impartial, though his son-in-law, Jefferson Davis, was the leader of the ex- treme pro-slavery faction. Be- fore a decision was reached in Congress, however, President Taylor died suddenly of bilious fever on July 9, 1850, sixteen months after his inauguration. Taylor's qualities as a man were firmness and thorough honesty ; he was a father rather than a martinet in governing and commanding his soldiers ; his personal courage was remark- able. Consult Wilcox's History of the Mexican War; O. O. Howard's General Zachary Tay- lor ('Great Commander Se- ries') ; J. G. Wilson's Presidents of the United States (Vol. ii, 1914). Taylor University, co-edu- cational and interdenomina- tional institution at Upland, Indiana, was founded in 1846 at Fort Wayne as the Fort Wayne Female College. In 1851 the Fort Wayne Collegiate Institute for male students was organized. In 1855 the two schools were united and known as Fort Wayne College until 1890 when the name was changed in honor of Bishop William Taylor (q. v.), the Methodist missionary. The University was moved to Up- land in 1893. In 1933 the Wil- liam Taylor Foundation pur- chased the University and took over its operation. The Uni- versity offers a curriculum lead- ing to the degrees of Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science in Education, also pre-nursing and pre-medical courses. Taylorville, city, Illinois, county seat of Christian county, on the Sangamon River, and the Baltimore and Ohio Southwest- ern, the Wabash, and the Chi- cago and Illinois Midland Rail- roads ; 26 miles s.e. of Spring- field. It has large coal mines, iron foundry, meat canning es- tablishments, paper and flour mills, and manufacturers of chemicals, and farm implements. The first settlement here was made about 1839. Pop. (1930) 7,316; (1940) 8,313. Tayra, ti'ra, or Taira (Galic- tis harhara) , a weasel-like mam- mal of Central and South Amer- ica, allied to the grison (q. v.). It is three feet in length, with long bushy tail, and in color is dark brown with yellowish tinge. Taytay, ti-ti', pueblo, chief town of Paragua province, Phil- ippines, on the northeast coast of Palawan Island. It has a fort with walls 30 feet high and quarters for 700 soldiers. Pop. 5,500. Tayug, ta-yoog', or Tayud, pueblo, Pangasiman province, Luzon, Philippines ; 30 miles east of Lingayen. Pop. 11,000. Taze'well, Littleton Wal- ler (1774-1860), American public official, was born in Wil- liamsburg, Va. He was gradu- ated from William and Mary (1792), was admitted to the bar, and practised at Richmond and Norfolk. He was a member of the State legislature in 1796- 1800 ; a member of Congress in 1800-03 ; U. S. Senator in 1824- 33 ; and governor of Virginia in 1834-6. Tazewell opposed both Jefferson and Jackson in impor- tant measures of their adminis- trations. He favored tariff re- duction, denounced nullification, and was a strong opponent of Jackson's Bank of the United States policy. Tchad, Lake. See Chad. Tchelyuskin. See Chelyus- kin. Tcheremisses, a Finnish people of Eastern Russia, con- sisting of about 375,000 mem- bers, that live along the River Volga in Vyatka and Kazan provinces. Tcherkassy, town, Russia. See Cherkasi. Tcherkesses, or Cherkes- SES. See Circassia. Tchernaiev, cher-na'yef, or TCHERNAYEV, MiCHAEL GrEG- orovitch (1828-98), Russian general, who first gained distinc- tion in the Crimean War. In 1864 he was made a major-gen- eral and sent to Turkestan, where he stormed Chimkend, and next year reduced Tashkend. Retiring in 1874, he edited in the Panslavist interest the journal Riiski Mir. He became com- mander-in-chief of the Serbian army in 1876, and was defeated by the Turks at Alexinatz. In 1879 he attempted to bring about a rising of the Bulgarians, but was arrested and sent back to Russia. He was governor-gen- eral of Turkestan (1882-4). Tcherniffov. See Cherni- gov. Tchernyshevsky, cher-ni- shef'ski, or Chernyshevsky, Nikolai Gavrilovitch (1828- 89) , Russian author, born at Saratov. He became the editor of a military paper, and was one of the most active writers on the Sovremennik. In prison (1862— 4) as a revolutionist, he wrote his novel, What Is to he Done? (Eng. trans, by Tucker, 1893). Condemned to exile in Siberia in 1864, he was partly pardoned in 1883. He translated into Rus- sian Weber's History of the World and Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations (1864). His Works were published in 4 vols. (1868-70). Tchertkov, chert'kof, or Tchertkoff, Vladimir (1854- ), Russian author, was born in Moscow. He served as an officer in the Russian army (1874-81), and later managed the family estates. He founded the enterprise known as Posred- nik for the publication and dis- tribution of high class literature among the people; and in 1897 was exiled for circulating a de- fense of the Doukhobors. He settled in England, where he edited the publications of the Free Age Press. He has pub- lished : Christian Martyrdom in Russia (2d ed. 1900) ; Short Bi- ography of William Lloyd Gar- rison (with Florence Holah, 1904). Tchigorin, chig'o-rin, Mi- chael (1850-1908), Russian chess expert, was born in Lenin- grad. He came into prominence at the Berlin tournament of 1881, when he finished third (with Winawer) to Zukertort and Blackburne. In 1889 ana 1892 he challenged Steinitz (q. v.) for the world's chess champion- ship, but was defeated on both occasions. He tied for first prize at the New York tourna- ment of 1889, was second in the Hastings tournament of 1895, first at Budapest in 1896, tied for first prize at the National Russian tournament of 1900, and tied for third at Monte Carlo in 1901. Tchikhatchev, che-ka'chef, Peter Alexandrovitch (1812- 90) , Russian scientist, was born in Gatchina. While attache to the Russian embassy in Constan- tinople in 1842-4 he travelled through Asia Minor to Egypt. In the Tsar's service he explored the Altai ; and in the study of its geology he made six journeys in Asia Minor (1847-58). His later travels, geological and bo- tanical, included Algeria and Tunis. He wrote : Voyage Sci- TEA: CULTIVATION AND PREPARATION IN THE DARJILING DISTRICT, INDIA. 1. A tea garden. 2. Group of pluckers. 3. Leaf spread to wither. 4. Leaf-rolling room. 5. Spreading leaf for fermentation. 6. Down-draught Sirocco tea dryer. 7. Packing tea. Vol. XL— Mar. '18 Vol. XL— at Page 638 1 Tchistopol KFK 639 Tea entifique dans I' Altai Oriental (1845) ; Asie Mincure (8 vols., 1853-68) ; Lettres siir la Tur- quie (1859) ; Etudes dc Geogra- phic et d'Histoire Naturclle (1890). Tchistopol, town, Russia. See Chistopol. Tchta, town, Siberia. See Chita. Tchorlu, or Chorlu, town, Turkey in Europe ; 20 miles northeast of Rodosto. Carpets and woolens are manufactured, and wine, fruit and cereal are exported. An engagement be- tween the Bulgars and Turks took place here in November, 1912, during the Balkan War (q. v.). Pop. 12,000. Tchuktches. See Chuk- CHES. Tchust, town, Russia. See Chust. Tchuvashes. See Chuv- ASHES. Tea, a name given to the dried leaves and young shoots of an {Tea Plant Thea sinensis). 1. Section of flower; 2, fruit; 3, seed. Eastern tree or shrub, Thea si- nensis {Camellia theifcra), be- longing to the order Ternstroe- miacese. The only part of the world where tea is really known to grow wild is in the forests of Assam, where it is a tree of vigorous growth, attaining a height of 30 to 40 feet, with a leaf from 8 to 10 inches in length. The tea plant is culti- vated on an extensive scale in China, Japan, India, and Ceylon. The China variety is a compara- tively stunted shrub, though har- dier than the Assam variety, growing to a height of 12 to 15 feet, with a rounder leaf about 3^ inches in length. A hybrid of these two varieties is largely cultivated in India and Ceylon. Cultivation. — The tea plant requires a tropical or subtropical climate with heavy rainfall (80- 200 inches). At low elevations the growth is more rapid, but in time the plants grown at higher elevations seem to produce near- ly as much leaf, while the tea is of more delicate flavor. The plants are propagated from seeds in shaded nursery beds ; after a year or two are transferred to the fields ; and after three years from planting begin to yield, continuing for fifty years or more. Whenever the yield falls off, pruning is resorted to. The tea plant succeeds best on new forest land containing plenty of humus. As is the case with cacao, coffee, and other economic plants, tea grown on rich alluvial soil is stronger than tea grown on poorer land, though the latter is often of more deli- cate flavor. Tea is planted in rows from 3^^ to 5 feet apart, with a similar distance between the plants. On the rich, deep soils of Assam manuring is not practised. In Ceylon the favor- ite manures are cattle dung, castor cake, bones, nitrogenous manures, and those which con- tain potash. In China the plants are grown in small fields and on hillsides. When the plants have been in the ground about fifteen to eighteen months they are cut down to ten or twelve inches ; this makes them spread, and strengthens the growth of the branches. In about two months the more vigorous shoots are nipped back below the second leaf ; and at about three years the bush is again cut down to some fifteen inches flat across. The plucking of the leaves is done with the thumb nail, and the leaf must on no account be torn off. Only the youngest and most tender leaves are picked ; and the younger the leaf, the finer the tea. The largest leaves used are never more than 2>4 inches long. The leaves are gathered in Ceylon every ten or twelve days all the year round ; in China, from the latter part of April to the end of October. The pickings are 'fine' when the top bud and the two young leaves next below it are taken ; 'medium' when three leaves are taken ; 'coarse' when four leaves are included with the bud. From the first, the 'pekoe' teas are made — 'flowery pekoe' from the youngest leaf, 'orange pekoe' from the next, 'pekoe' from the third leaf. 'Souchongs' and 'congous' are made from the coarser leaves. The finest pick- ings are described as first chop, the next as second chop, and so on. Manufacture. — The leaves are spread out on trays to wither, which takes from 12 to 40 hours in good weather. The withering is assisted by fans, and if the weather is damp, artificial heat is used. The leaves then go to the rolling machines, where they are twisted and crushed. The old Chinese system of rolling was done by hand, sometimes assisted by treading. The rolled leaves are piled in drawers or on tables or mats, covered, and allowed to ferment until they give off a pe- culiar odor, and assume a bright copper color. After the fermentation proc- ess the leaves go directly to the drying machines to be fired, where they are subjected to a strong current of hot air until thoroughly dry and brittle. The tea is then taken to the sifting machine and sifted into grades, the larger leaves which do not pass being broken up and again sifted. These are known as 'broken teas.' The dust is also preserved and sold. In the man- ufacture of green teas the fer- menting process is omitted, and after being rolled the leaves go directly to the drying machines. The grades of green tea resulting from the sifting are 'Young Hyson,' 'Hyson,' 'Hyson No. 2/ 'Gunpowder,' and 'Dust.' Teas are usually packed in lead-lined chests or boxes for shipment. The hrick tea pre- pared at Hankow for overland exportation to Russia is made of tea dust steamed and pressed into cakes, which occupy only one-sixth of the bulk of loose tea. Historical. — De Candolle states that tea was known to the Chinese before 519 a.d. ; a Chi- nese legend says tea was intro- duced into China by Djarma, a native of India, about 500 a.d. Tea first became known to Euro- peans about the end of the six- teenth century. Small quanti- ties were brought to England early in the seventeenth century, but it was not till about the year 1657 that it began to be used as a beverage. The price then was from $25 to $50 per pound. About 1820 the plant was dis- covered wild in Assam, British India, and in 1835 the first gar- den in Assam was opened at Luckimpore. Tea was intro- duced into Ceylon in 1839, but it was not till 1874 that the cul- tivation became common. A tea of fair quality is also grown in Natal, South Africa. Java ships tea of taking appearance but often of weak liquor. Black tea for the markets of Russia and Turkey is grown in Formosa, Japan. In the United States, tea has been grown with success in South Carolina, and experimen- tally elsewhere. At Pinehurst, Summerville, S. C.. excellent grades of Assam hybrid, Dar- jeeling, and Chinese are pro- duced, which find a ready mar- ket in the United States. Chemistry. — As a beverage, Tea Caddy KFK 640 Teak the refreshing qualities of tea are well known. It exhilarates the system, relieves fatigue and sleepiness, and stimulates the mental activities. These prop- erties are generally believed to be due chiefly to the active prin- ciple caffeine (thcine). (See Caffeine.) If tea is used to excess it produces flatulent indi- gestion, increased pulsations of the heart, and nervousness ; the imagination is excited, and sleep- lessness follows. Tannin is an important constituent of tea, which gives the astringent properties and dark color to the infusion. Tannin precipitates both albumen and peptone, and in this way doubtless hinders di- gestion. It also stops secretion from the mucous membrane, and so retards the pouring out of the digestive products ; otherwise it probably has no effect, when given in small doses as in infu- sions of tea, on normal persons. When tea is allowed to stew a long time, a much larger per- centage of tannin is extracted. (See Tannin.) In 1911 the Federal Government forbade the further importation of artifi- cially colored teas. In the process of making tea the following are the chief points to observe : keep the stock of tea in an air-tight tin canister. Al- low from half to one teaspoonful of leaves to each half pint of water. Have ready two warm, dry earthenware teapots, and place the tea leaves in one of them. Directly the water boils pour it on to the leaves, allow to stand thereon for from three to five minutes, and then decant the clear infusion into the second teapot. Bibliography, — Consult A. J. Wallis-Taylor, Tea Machinery and Tea Factories ; J. M. Walsh, Tea: Its History and Mystery; Ibbetson, Tea (1910) ; E. A. Browne, Tea (1912); G. F. Mitchell, Home Grown Tea (U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 301, 1907), and The Cultivation and Manu- facture of Tea in the United States (U. S. Plant Industry Bureau, Bulletin 234, 1912) ; Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, Agnes Repplier, To Think of Tea (1932). Tea Caddy, a receptacle for dry tea in the form of box, jar, or canister, the word caddy be- ing derived probably from catty, the Chinese pound which is equal to about a pound and a third avoirdupois. The early exam- ples of the caddy available in Europe were of porcelain in the .shape of the ginger jar. They were usually blue and white and had stoppers or lids of porce- lain. These were imitated at first by the English kilns but it w^as not long before various forms were being made, and in a variety of materials as well. Tea Ceremony, a time-hon- ored institution in Japan rooted in the principles of Zen (a Bud- dhist sect) and based upon the cult of beauty exemplified in the daily routine of living in the preparation of meals, furbishing the house and garden, etc. The Japanese word for the ceremony is Cha-no-yu, literally the hot water of tea, and has come to mean the aesthetics of enter- taining with thick and weak tea of the pulverized leaf stirred in hot water. Etiquette calls for the serving of a meal in advance of the tea ceremony proper. The guests are few in number, usu- ally not more than five. The scene is the cliaseki (tea-room), and the guests, as a gesture of humility, crawl in through an opening about three feet square. The tea ceremony is an ancient custom started in the fifteenth century, and it is the embodi- ment of the old spirit of Japan which still continues to influence the life and the art of the Japa- nese people. Teach (Thach, Thatch), Edward, a Welsh pirate who es- tablished himself in the Bahamas in 1716, and for a time ruled Nassau until dislodged by an English fleet. With four ships he went to the coast of Georgia and South Carolina, making cap- tures even at the entrance to the harbor of Charleston. The gov- ernor of South Carolina sent two expeditions against him, and two of his ships were destroyed and the crews executed. Teach then retired to Pamlico Sound, where, having resumed his piracies, the governor of Virginia (in 1718) sent Lieutenant Maynard to cap- ture him. In the ensuing fight he was killed, along with most of his men. Teachers College, an educa- tional institution founded in New York City in 1888 and chartered in 1889 as the New York College for the Training of Teachers, became in 1898 part of the educational system of Columbia University (q. v.). The president of the University is, cx-officio, president of Teach- ers College which is recognized as a faculty of the University under the administrative charge of the dean. Both University and College courses are open to students in either institution. The College courses lead to the degrees of Bachelor of Sci- ence, Master of Arts, Master of Science, Doctor of Education, and Doctor of Philosophy, and to Teachers College professional diplomas. The courses offer to advanced students professional and scientific training in Foun- dations of Education, Organiza- tion and Administration of Edu- cation, Guidance, Curriculum and Principles of Teaching, methods of teaching and super- vision in social science, natural sciences, mathematics, English and foreign languages, speech, fine and industrial arts, music and music education, household arts, business education, etc., and Nursing Education. The Advanced School of Edu- cation, established in 1935, fixes the requirements for admission and conditions of graduation for candidates for the degree of Doctor of Education and, in cooperation with the University, administers in the College the requirements for the ph.d. de- gree. The Institute of Educational Research was established in 1921 to promote scientific study of education in cooperation with other institutions. Teachers' Pensions. See Pensions. Teachers' Training. See Normal Schools. Teaching of the Apostles. See Didache. Teagle, Walter Clark (1878- ), oil industrialist and leader, was born in Cleve- land, O. and received special training in the oil business after graduating from Cornell Uni- versity in 1900. He served at various times in various capaci- ties with the Republic, Standard, Imperial, and International Pe- troleum companies, and in 1937 became Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey. He also served as a director of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York from 1933. Teague, teg, city. Freestone county, on the Burlington-Rock Island Railroad ; 125 miles north of Houston. Industries include cotton seed mills, railway repair shoos, chair factories, steam laundry, and cotton gins. Pop. (1940) 3,157. Tea Insects, the insects of several injurious varieties which attack the tea plant. The pests include the fagot worm (Eumeta carmcrii), one of the bagworms whose larva carries a case made up of fragments of twigs and feeds upon the plant. The tea borer (Zencera coffece) is the larva of the cossid moth which bores into the stems of both cof- fee and tea plants. Species of bark lice also appear upon tea and are a serious enemy of the growing plant. Teak, a tree of the genus Tectona, growing in dry, tropical climates. Next to mahogany it is the most valuable timber, and is used for furniture, carving, shipbuilding, and house building. Teal 641 Technical Education It has a straight grain, is easily- worked, and takes a high poUsh. Teak trees are found in isolated clusters in forests of other woods. They reach a height of 150 feet and a girth of 25 feet and the leaves yield a purple-red dye. The chief commercial supply comes from Burma. Teal, one of the smallest of the fresh-water ducks, 12 to 15 inches in length — scarcely larger than a pigeon. The Green- Winged Teal (Querquedula caro- linensis) has a head and neck of Teal rich brown, with a green patch from the eye backward. Its 'speculum' is a bright metallic green. The Blue-Winged Teal {Q. discors) has a head and neck of deep purplish gray, black on top, and a distinct white crescent between the eye and the bill. The shoulders are dull sky-blue. The females are much alike and dull in color. These two species breed principally north of the United States, though some nests are found south of the boundary from Maine to Oregon. They winter in the Gulf States, Mex- ico, and the West Indies, and are abundant in the Mississippi val- ley during the migrations. A third variety, the Cinnamon Teal {Q. cyanoptera) , is found in large numbers on the Pacific Coast, Its under-plumage is a deep cinnamon-brown. The common teal of Europe {Q. crec- ca) is occasionally seen in Amer- ica. Teano, ta-a'no, city, Italy, in the province Caserta; 13 miles northwest of Capua. It has a beautiful cathedral and interest- ing ruins of a theatre, baths and tombs. Pop. 6,000. Tears. See Eye. Tea Tree. See Cajeput. Teasdale, Sara (1884- 'f33), American poet, was born in St, Louis, Mo, She was educated in the private schools of St. Louis and in 1914 was married to Ernst B. Filsinger. Her pub- lished works include Sonnets to Duse, and Other Poems (1907); Helen of Troy and Other Poems (1911); Rivers to the Sea (1915); Love Songs (1917); Flame and Shadow (1920) ; Dark of the Moon (1926). She is also the editor of The Answering Voice': One Hun- dred Love Lyrics by Women (1917) ; Rainbow Gold (1922). Tea'zel, or Teasel, a genus of Old-World plants. They are stout, prickly biennials one of which the so-called fuller's teazel, is employed in dressing broad- cloth. The flowers are borne in large heads, the receptacles brist- ling with prickly awns. The common wild teazel (Dipsacus sylvestris) is a weed, growing abundantly in the Ohio valley, some four or five feet in height, and bearing purple flowers in July and August. Its bristles are straight, not hooked, as are those of the fuller's teazel. Teb, El, group of wells, Nubia, Egypt, 44 miles southeast of Suakin. It was the scene of the defeat of the Mahdists under Osman Digna by General Graham (Feb. 29, 1884), Teche, tesh, bayou, Louis- iana, rises in St. Landry parish and flows in a general southeast course for about 180 miles to empty into Atchafalaya bayou, about 3 miles northwest of Mor- gan City. It is navigable as far as St. Martinsville, 100 miles from its mouth. The district along its banks is rich in agricul- tural produce. Technical Education. The term technical education, prop- erly speaking, includes the field of all instruction relating to the arts, sciences, professions, and trades; but in common use it is restricted to the field of the in- dustrial arts, and more particu- larly to that instruction in which theory rather than practice bears a prominent or preponderating part. In this restricted sense the field of technical education embraces, first, institutions of a college or university grade de- voted to advanced instruction in the various branches of engi- neering and applied science; and, second, schools of a secondary grade in which the instruction in practical methods receives greater emphasis. Schools of industrial art may well be included in this second category, as well as evening schools which afford instruction in art, science, mathematics, and technical methods underlying industrial practice. In a broad sense, trade schools also come in this field, but the tendency in the United States is rather to classify such schools under In- dustrial Education (q.v.). Engineering Schools, Schools of Applied Science, Institutes of Technology. — Such schools nat- urally did not appear until the physical sciences obtained a con- siderable development, and their application to the arts and in- dustries became general. In Eu- rope, where these institutions first came into being, they have often evolved from simple be- ginnings through successive adaptations to the changing state of scientific knowledge and engi- neering practice. The earliest schools appeared in France and Germany, In France, the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees, opened in 1747 as a draughting school, was re- organized in 1760 for the train- ing of engineers for the govern- ment service. In 1794, the Ecole Polytechnique was founded to fit men for the engineer and ar- tillery service of the French army. The standards of this school have always been of the highest, and some of the most prominent engineers in private practice, as well as in the govern- ment service, have received their training in its classes. In 1829 the Ecole Centrale was founded as a private institution, and has continued to be independent of government aid up to the pres- ent time. In this institution a majority of the French engineers not employed in the government service have been educated. A number of high-grade technical schools partly supported by the government exist in important centres outside of Paris, such as the Ecole Centrale at Lyons, Ecole des M incurs at St, Eti- enne, and the Institut du Nord at Lille. In Germany, the beginning of the first technical high schools (as the higher technical schools are now called) was made in Ber- lin in 1799, in the establishment of an academy for builders (Bau- Akademie). In 1821 a trade school (Gewerbeschule) was also organized; and by the union of these two in 1879 was created the present technical high school. By 1835 a number of other trade and technical schools, with little uniformity of organization, were established at different places. These schools could only exact low entrance requirements and perform comparatively elemen- tary work, as no schools existed in which a sound preparation in science could be obtained. After the incorporation of the 'real' or scientific school in the German system, the standards of certain of these early technical schools were gradually advanced, and the principle of specialization was introduced; until, after a century of development, a series of tech- nical schools has evolved, tak- ing equal rank with university departments and requiring equal, preparation for admission. To- day, Germany possesses nine of these splendid institutions — lo- cated at Aix la Chapelle, Berlin, Brunswick, Darmstadt, Dresden, Hanover, Karlsruhe, Munich, and Stuttgart — in which the most advanced instruction in engineer- VOL. XL— March '28 Technical Education 641 A Technical Education ing, architecture, industrial chemistry, and agriculture is presented. It is safe to say that the influ- ence of these schools, together with university instruction in pure science, has been one of the strongest single factors in the re- markable industrial develop- ment which has been going on in Germany since the middle of the last century, and which has brought her to the front rank among the commercial nations of the world. The governments of Austria, Belgium, Holland, Italy, Russia, Sweden, and Switzerland also maintain either independent en- gineering schools of advanced rank, or university departments in which such instruction is pro- vided. In Great Britain, technical ed- ucation was slow in gaining rec- ognition; but roused by the evidence of industrial backward- ness at the various international expositions, and by the grow- ing encroachment of Continental manufactures in both the home and foreign markets, public opin- ion was gradually stirred to ac- tion; and at last, in 1881, a Royal Commission on Technical In- struction was appointed to inves- tigate the whole subject, and to report upon measures for advanc- ing such instruction in the United Kingdom. One of the results of this report was the foundation of the City and Guilds of London Institute, composed of many of the surviving old guilds of Lon- don, for the advancement of technical education throughout the kingdom. The Institute not only established and maintains three schools in the city of Lon- don, but also directs a system of examinations relating to the work of technical classes throughout England and Wales. Of the three schools of the Institute in London, the Central Technical College is organized for advanced work in the field of engineering. The Institute donated a large sum of money toward buildings and equipment, and annually contributes to its support. Courses are provided in civil, mechanical and electrical engi- neering, and chemistry. This institution was in 1907 co-ordi- nated by charter with the Royal School of Mines and the Royal College of Science as the Engi- neering Section of the Imperial College of Science and Technol- ogy. Among other institutions of- fering advanced instruction in engineering and applied science are the Victoria University of Manchester (formerly Owens College), the University College of Liverpool, the University of Leeds (formerly the Yorkshire Vol. XL— March '28 College of Science), the universi- ties of Birmingham, Sheffield, and Cambridge, the Glasgow Technical College, and the Brad- ford Technical College. In the United States, the insti- tute of technology has received far more attention and attained a much larger development than any other form of technical or industrial school. This devel- opment has resulted in a type of institution equal in practical value to the most advanced schools of European countries. The Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (q.v.), the first of such schools established, was founded in 1824 at Troy, N. Y., by Steph- en Van Rensselaer, the last of the patroons, as a school of applied science. This institution soon took the form of a school of civil engineering, in which field it has retained a foremost rank to the present time, and its long list of graduates includes many of the most prominent and successful workers in this profession. The Rensselaer Institute re- mained the only example of a school of applied science until nearly the middle of the nine- teenth century, when, in response to the growing demand for scien- tific instruction, the Sheffield Scientific School (1847) and the Lawrence Scientific School (1848) were founded in connection re- spectively with Yale and Har- vard Universities. The instruc- tion in these schools was at first in pure rather than applied sci- ence; but later, courses of a true engineering type were developed. It was the period of the Civil War, and the years immediately following, however, that wit- nessed a general movement toward the establishment of schools of technology. The en- ergy turned back at this time into industrial life, the increased knowledge of the country's re- sources, and the growth of rail- roads all tended to set in motion a powerful current of industrial expansion. Technical training was needed to fit men to cope with the new problems presented. In 1861, through the efforts of William Barton Rogers, the charter of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (q.v.) was granted, and in 1865 the first classes were organized. The his- tory of this institution is illus- trative of the development of higher technical education in the United States. From a school of 15 students and 10 instructors in 1865, it had grown in 1927 to an institution with an enrolment of 1,900 students and a teaching force, including lecturers, of 300. Twenty-one distinct courses of study are represented, including civil engineering, mechanical en- gineering, mining engineering and metallurgy, architecture, chemistry, physics, electrical en- gineering, biology and public health, chemical engineering, san- itary engineering, naval archi- tecture, geology and geodesy, electro-chemistry, and general science. The Worcester Polytechnic In- stitute (q.v.) was founded by John Boynton, a successful Mas- sachusetts merchant, in 1864, and was opened in 1867. Shop work has been one of the prominent features of the educational work of this institution since its foun- dation. In 1864 the School of Mines of Columbia University was created, out of which have grown the several schools under the faculty of Applied Science in that institution. In 1865 Lehigh University was founded by the Hon. Asa Packer of Mauch Chunk, and in 1866 courses in several branches of engineering were organized. In 1871 the Stevens Institute of Technology opened its classes. The Sibley College of Mechanical Engineer- ing and the Mechanic Arts was organized at Cornell University in 1872, and other courses in engineering were soon added. In the next twenty years a large number of schools of ad- vanced rank were founded either as separate institutions or de- partments of universities. The earlier schools were mainly on private foundations, but the pas- sage of the Morrill Act by Con- gress in 1862, under which large land grants were made to the States for the support of instruc- tion in the agricultural and me- chanical arts, resulted shortly in the inclusion of engineering departments in most of the Western State colleges and uni- versities. Among those of the first group are Purdue University, Lafay- ette, Ind.; the Rose Polytechnic, Terre Haute, Ind.; the Case Schools of Applied Science, Cleveland, O.; the University of Pennsylvania; Washington Uni- versity, St. Louis, Mo.; and the Leland Stanford Jr. University of California. Of later estab- lishments are the Armour Insti- tute of Chicago, the Carnegie Technical Schools of Pittsburgh and others. Prominent State institutions are the Ohio State University, Michigan College of Mines, Col- orado State School of Mines, the Universities of Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Wisconsin, and California, Penn- sylvania State College, and the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts. The progress of these schools has been marked by the develop- ment of a number of significant features of instruction. To be- TECHNICAL SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED STATES 1 . General View of the Grounds and Bu'ldings of the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N.J. 2. Buildings of the School of Applied Industries, Carnegie Technical Schools, Schenley Park, Pittsburg, Pa. Vol. XL— Page 641 B Vol. XL— March '28 Technical Education 642 Teeoma gin with, emphasis has from the first been placed upon the lab- oratory method of instruction, whether in the study of pure science, technical problems, or constructive processes, as op- posed to sole reliance upon text books. This led very early in the progress of the schools to the development of methods of lab- oratory instruction for large classes in physics and chemistry. Following the organization of instruction in pure science came that in applied science. Mining and metallurgical laboratories for the treatment of ores in large quantities; laboratories of indus- trial chemistry; architectural and mechanical draughting rooms; steam, hydraulic, and electrical laboratories, equipped with com- mercial apparatus; laboratories for testing the strength of mate- rials, and for many other pur- poses; and, finally, workshops or laboratories for tool instruction, where knowledge of tools, mate- rials, and constructive methods is gained by practical manipula- tion — were successively devel- oped as instruments of instruc- tion. Another feature that has char- acterized the instruction in many of these institutions is the degree of specialization in the instruct- ing staff made possible by the large numbers of students. In these larger schools professors are found not only at the head of the several departments, but also in charge of specialized subdi- visions of engineering and ap- plied science, to which they give their entire attention. The courses of study of the American schools of technology almost universally extend through four years, and the requirements of admission are similar, as a rule, to those of the classical college, with the exception that modern languages are usually required in place of Latin or Greek, and the requirements in science and mathematics are more severe. All of these technical schools, with the exception of those of a State character, are supported by the income of endowment funds, by annual gifts from indi- viduals or other agencies inter- ested in their welfare, and by the tuition of students. In several cases, institutions upon a private foundation receive a certain amount of support from the States in which they are located, in consequence of which a num- ber of free scholarships are main- tained for the benefit of residents. In the State universities, the strikingly liberal support which has been accorded the engi- neering and agricultural depart- ments of late years by certain States of the Middle West has permitted a remarkable exten- VOL. XL— March '28 sion of buildings and equipment, and has allowed these institu- tions to come in direct competi- tion with the most advanced schools of the East. Practically all American en- gineering schools of high grade require the completion of a sec- ondary school for admission to their courses. Considerable dis- cussion has been had as to the advisability of requiring a gen- eral college course precedent to admission to such schools; but the actual conditions of demand and supply indicate that for many years the general practice will remain as at present; while in a few instances, under favora- ble conditions, it is probable that distinctly graduate schools of engineering will arise, after the example of the Graduate School of Applied Science organized at Harvard University in 1906. Students who successfully pur- sue courses of study in American technical schools receive either the degree of bachelor of science or some one of the professional engineering degrees. Some prom- inent technical schools give the degree of bachelor of science only; while others, like the Shef- field Scientific School or the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, grant the same degree at the end of three or four years of study, but require additional work of one or two years or more before conferring the professional engi- neering degrees. According to the report of the U. S. Commissioner of Educa- tion for 1924, there were 137 uni- versities, colleges, or schools of technology in the United States giving courses in engineering. There was reported a total of about 58,000 students engaged in engineering studies, among which were the following: civil engineering, 10,024; chemical engineering, 4,141 ; electrical engi- neering, 14,002; mechanical en- gineering, 10,637; mining engi- neering, 2,771. Technical Schools of Secondary Grade. — The European devel- opment of such schools is noted under Industrial Education (q.v.). Prominent among such institutions in Germany, France, and England are special schools for the textile industry. In cer- tain of these schools instruction of a very high grade is offered. Among such are the famous school at Crefeld, Germany, and the Advanced School of Weaving at Lyons, France. Great Brit- ain also has a number of such schools in its textile centres, as at Bradford, Manchester, Hud- dersfield, Halifax, Bolton, and Glasgow. Until recent years, schools of this character have formed the only example of true secondary technical schools in the United States. The Textile School of the Pennsylvania Museum at Philadelphia, established in 1884, has long been noted for the high grade of its instruction. Massa- chusetts has a number of State- aided schools. That at Lowell has the advantage of particularly extensive buildings and compre- hensive equipment. In the South the Textile Department of the Georgia School of Technology at Atlanta is an example of an effi- cient and well-equipped school. Of late years other secondary technical schools have appeared, such as the day courses in Ma- chine Design and Applied Elec- tricity of Pratt Institute, Brook- lyn, the Technological High School of the Ohio Mechanics Institute at Cincinnati, and cer- tain courses in the Drexel In- stitute, Philadelphia, and in the Lewis Institute of Chicago. A movement has also gained con- siderable prominence in the last few years toward the establish- ment of technical high schools as part of the public school sys- tem. Examples of such schools are the Technical High School of Cleveland, O., and the Poly- technic of Baltimore, Md. Strong arguments have been advanced toward the conversion of the manual training high schools into this type of school. See separate articles on the technical schools mentioned; Industrial Educa- tion; Manual Training; Schools of Engineering. Con- sult Cooley's Vocational ^ Edu- cation in Europe (1912) ; Roman's The Industrial and Commercial Schools of the United States and Germany (1915); Proceedings of the International Congresses for Technical Commercial and In- dustrial Education. Teck, ancient duchy, named after a now ruined castle in Swabia ( Wiirtemberg) . The ducal title was first assumed by Adalbert, Duke of Zahringen, in 1152, and granted by Maximilian I. (1495) to the Duke of Wurtem- berg. In 1863 the children of Alexander of Wiirtemberg (1804- 85) were raised to the dignity. His son Francis (1837-1900) married (1866) the Princess Mary of Cambridge (died 1897). Their daughter. Queen Mary of Eng- land (q.v.), was married (1893) to George, then Prince of Wales. Queen Mary's brother succeeded to the title on the death of his father, in 1900, but renounced it during the Great War and was created Marquis of Cambridge. Tecoma, te-ko'ma, Trumpet Flower, or Trumpet Creeper, a genus of shrubs belonging to the order Bignoniaceae. The red or orange flowers are more or less tubular, and are generally borne in racemes or panicles at the ends TEMPORARY PAGES FOR NELSON'S L. L. ENCYCLOPEDIA Insert in Volume XI at page 642 TECHNOCRACY This article has been prepared by the Editorial Staff and is based largely upon material sup- plied by Mr. William H. Smyth, an engineer of Berkeley, Cali- fornia, who coined the word 'Technocracy' about 1912 — seven years earlier than the birthday generally attributed to the age of that word. Our gratitude is due to Mr. Smyth for permis- sion, readily granted, to repro- duce his own words. THE PUBLISHERS. 'Technocracy might be defined as a theory of social organiza- tion and a system of national in- dustrial management. It implies scientific reorganization of na- tional energy and resources, co- ordinating industrial democracy to effect the will of the people. That is about as short a defini- tion of Technocracy as I can give. The history of its incep- tion, which I published in book form under the title Concerning Irascible Strong, was written in 1912, but was not published until 1926. In this book I traced the biological history of the human race . . . Origins of Society ; Social Forces ; Modern Civiliza- tion ; Man and Society ; Man and the Universe ; Social Mechanics and Natural Social Laws.' Mr. Smyth's ideal of Technoc- racy is 'the ultimate control of all the factors of production and distribution for the benefit of the entire people and through the employment of technicians and scientists, [that] the people can through democracy state their objective, or what they desire the State or society to do for them. Technocracy is not to be confused with Communism, to which I am unequivocally op- posed, since it is counter to all that is either base or good in human nature and which totally ignores the biologic factors which I have stressed in my book on the theory of Technoc- racy. 'The idea embodied in Tech- nocracy proved an important factor during the World War, when the War Industries Board controlled all the factors of pro- duction. It contains the germ of an idea which should prove to be the solution of our present economic ills, our present un- balanced production and con- sumption. . . . The lessons we learned [during the War] might be adapted to the uses of peace instead of war. 'Technocracy starts with the proposition that the United States has adopted democracy as its basic idea. The people of the United States [are] thoroughly convinced of the fundamental rightness of : (A) Private property; (B) equality of opportunity and equal rights ; (C) personal liberty extending to the boundaries of the equal rights of others. 'Technocracy proposes a new organization of society which shall include democracy and which includes the above ele- mentary factors. It presupposes an economic system appropriate to a democracy and which is the will of the entire people, ex- pressed through a census. The will of the people is to be the na- tional objective, i.e., that which is the general summation of their wants. Technocracy assumes that no organization of society would be possible until the na- tional objective was named . . . but it should be based on demo- cratic principles or the rule of the majority. Unless that is done, then the entire system of democracy should be abandoned. If this is impossible, that we reach some true national objec- tive, then democracy is a failure. If it is possible to sum up the various wants of the citizens of the United States, then the scien- tists and technicians could set up the necessary machinery to con- trol production and distribution of goods so that the entire wants of the Nation could be sat- isfied. . . . 'It is time that certain eco- nomic theories accepted as law be scrutinized in the face of the present starvation and unem- ployment in the United States, which gives us the weird picture of 10,000,000 unemployed, with crops rotting in the fields and the banks bulging with money. . . . The Government can control the currency. It can guarantee the people that its money need not be lessened in buying power when they draw it from the bank in their old age to support themselves. By this constant shrinking and expansion of the currency, much of it done with complete knowledge of the bank- ers, countless millions have been made by insiders. But that shrinkage actually represents cold cash to a multitude of small people whose savings have prac- tically disappeared. . . . 'Through the extension of credit, the interest bill of the United States has grown so enormously that it now amounts to about $2 per day per family. The payment of that interest is hidden. . . . We have not the ethical right to mortgage the future and say to our unborn offspring, 'That's all right, you can pay the bill.' We are now paying the interest bills which our gullible forefathers left for us in Government bonds and which is rolling up in the fashion of a snowball. The time has now arrived when there is actually not enough cash in the world to meet the interest payments, and hence they must be met from the commodities produced by others. . . . Our whole eco- nomic and financial system is so incredibly unscientific, so irra- tional and so utterly puerile that were it not for custom, its glar- ing absurdities would long ago have sufficed to shock our moral sense and intelligence into ef- fective action. The 'Wizard of Finance,' with his magic wand, 'Credit,' filches the imagined products of imagined future toil of unborn generations of work- ers — a doubly thievish process. 'Our economic system is essen- tially autocratic in means, meth- od and objective. Being a leftover from an age of preda- tory autocracy, its major instinct is self-centered 'greed and grab.' We have no choice but to choose freedom to pioneer a new trail and establish a course uncharted in history or by the dead hand of the past. The scientist and the technician have solved harder riddles than the one for which we are now seeking a solution. Is there no solution for this eco- nomic problem under which in a country richest in raw products of mine, farm and forest, and the cheapest and fastest mass ma- chine production, there is still the picture of men able and will- ing to work, begging for enough 113-D-3 Technocracy 2 Technocracy to sustain life ? With 10,000,000 unemployed in the midst of all this plenty, there should be in- centive enough to cause the best intellects of the world to bend their efforts to a solution. • . . _ 'Let us now consider the gi- gantic 'credit' debt. Of a gross income of seventy billion dollars each year, the workers have re- ceived but twenty billions, the other fifty having been retained by the financial interests as their share in profits and interest. In addition there has been placed a mortgage on the future amount- ing to about $10,000 for each family.' The author recommends for the scrap-heap : ( 1 ) Usages founded on the autocratic the- ories of 'The State;' (2) con- ventions resting upon the para- sitic idea that possession is equivalent to production ; (3) institutions legalizing 'chance' as a controlling factor for the distribution of goods; (4) 'finan- cial magic' practices resting upon the fallacy that inanimate ob- jects can be endowed with re- productive faculties, such as interest on money; (5) the mysteries of finance, the private sale of public optimism for gain — selling 'credit ;' (6) insti- tutions resting upon the erron- eous notion that conventional symbols, such as 'bonds,' 'credit,' 'Capital,' are equal to and can perform the functions which they represent; (7) customs based upon mystic symbolism and the fallacy that 'money' can perform the functions of life energy or the products they represent; (8) business practices based upon the antisocial dictum that 'one man's misfortune is another's opportunity;' (9) all institutions and conventions fa- cilitating the functioning of antisocial predatory and para- sitic instincts; (10) the strike- inducing institutions of group industries, based upon the hunger-slavery idea of employer and employee organized for the greatest human efficiency in out- put of products for purely pri- vate profit. To replace these undesirable factors in our civili- zation, the author substitutes a healthier and more philanthropic conception for each one. . . . 'In other words. Technocracy.' It may easily be seen that he is no friend of a financial system whereby a privileged few are enabled to 'clean up' huge sums without rendering any return for such undeserved gains. Above all the propositions of natural social law, Mr. Smyth stresses the importance of the family as 'the basis of any so- ciety.' He claims that 'to deny that we can control our social and economic environment is to deny that man, in his social re- lations, has a will of his own,' and that 'the social problem does not offer a tithe of the real diffi- culties that presented themselves to pioneers in a dozen fields, from steam to radio.' He is satisfied that 'at the foundation of our economic and monetary system there exists some serious basic fallacy ; that the sudden rise of commercialism is bringing to the surface the effects of this fal- lacy. The defects of the system are becoming daily more appar- ent. Faced with bankruptcy, we will ultimately, through neces- sity, take the needed steps to correct these defects. Why shouldn't we tackle the job now,' he asks, 'rather than to wait until the entire structure tumbles about our ears ?' The originator of Technocracy suggested no definite plan for putting its philosophy into prac- tice ; nor did he propose the sub- stitution of ergs, joules or cal- ories for pay-checks and nego- tiable currency. He contented himself with pointing out the weaknesses of the existing sys- tem — haphazard and precarious in operation — and proposed to replace it by a more scientific arrangement, consciously di- rected towards the attainment of a 'national objective' consonant with the tenets of democracy. 'An army is officered by military specialists,' he says ; 'business organization is officered by busi- ness specialists ; an industrial democracy — a democracy of technical industries — should be officered by technical specialists . . . not a mechanistic scheme of production engineering, but a vital principle and a philosophy of social organization which would permit free citizens of a free land to self-consciously order their own lives and con- trol the destiny of their nation.' In short, it is a plea that those vv^ho direct the complex opera- tions of government, of produc- tion and distril)ution, should be trained specialists, instead of ambitious politicians. In August, 1932 it was an- nounced that a group of scien- tists and engineers had been working at Columbia University since 1920 on an 'Energy Survey of North America,' under the direction of Mr. Howard Scott. It was asserted in the press that the theories underlying this sur- vey were largely based upon the writings of the late Thorstein Veblen of New York and Dr. Soddy of England. Critics speedily attacked this revised version of Technocracy and dis- puted the figures and graphs when some were published in November, 1932. A heated de- bate arose in the newspaper and periodical press ; books and pamphlets appeared, also re- views devoted to Technocracy. Statistics flew back and forth ; visions were painted of a na- tion governed by 'robots' and monster machinery ; every indi- vidual was reduced to a cog in the great dynamo of Techno- cratic government. The scheme was described as 'Communism' or 'Socialism,' while Edward Bellamy's Looking Backward of the 'eighties was regarded as the harbinger of 'The Machine Age.' After three months of hectic life the word Technocracy almost disappeared from the jour- nals. The simple propositions of Smyth became so involved and expanded that they were as diffi- cult to grasp as the theory of relativity. 'In appropriating the word 'Technocracy' as the name for their association,' Smyth wrote, 'they have so confused its mean- ing that the people in the Eastern States are getting an entirely er- roneous impression regarding its true meaning. This error is emphasized by the fact that they dub themselves 'Technocrats.' I carefully avoided using the word Technocrat, for this word would carry the connotation that we were to be ruled by a group of scientists, economists, engineers and industrialists. . . . They have taken the name, but not the democratic spirit of Technocracy. Hence they have developed a mechanistic system adapted to mechanical robots and expect to apply this system to the social affairs of free men. ... A technograph is most notable for what it cannot show. ... It was not robots I had in mind ; it was men, free men of whom I was thinking when I coined the word Technocracy.' Tecumseh of the branches. Moderately rich soil and plenty of water in sum- mer are required. The common trumpet flower {T. radicans)^ is a hardy North American species. It reaches a height of over twenty feet, bearing terminal corymbs of scarlet flowers. The Australian wonga-wonga vine {T. australis) also belongs to this genus. Tecumseh. (1.) Vil., Lenawee CO., Mich., 52 m. w.s.w. of De- troit, on the Raisin R., and on the Det., Tol. and Iron., the Det., Tol. and Mil., and the L. Shore and Mich. S. R. Rs. Shops of the Detroit, Toledo and Iron- ton R. R. are situated here and there are manufactories of wire fence, iron products, clay-work- ing machinery, mail boxes, stoves, lumber, flour, macaroni, paper, doors, engines, etc. Grain, cel- ery, and fruit, especially peaches, are grown in the district, and horses _ and cattle are raised. There is a public library. The old Peninsular Building, erected in 1827, is a feature of the place. Tecumseh was settled and mcor- porated as a village in 1824. Pop. (1910) 2,332. (3.) City, Neb., CO. seat of Johnson co., 41 m. s.E. by s. of Lincoln, on the Nemaha R., and on the Chi., Burl, and Quin. R. R. It manu- factures flour and is situated in a productive agricultural region. Pop. (1910) 1,748. Tecumseh (Tecumthe, or Te- CUMTHA) {c. 1775-1813). Cele- brated Indian chief, born near the site of what is now Springfield, O. His father was a Shawnee and his mother a Creek or Cherokee, who had been adopted into the Shaw- nee tribe. In common with most Indians he felt a bitter disUke toward the whites, and when about thirty years old, with his brother, Ellskwatawa, better known as ' the Prophet, ' he evolved a plan for an Indian con- federation against the whites. In this work he was assisted by English agents; and, thanks to his splendid talents for leadership and to the hostility felt by the Indians toward the whites, he succeeded in gaining many con- verts to his views. About 1808 he established a village near where Tippecanoe creek empties into the Wabash, and there proceeded to carry into practice his theory that the Indians should return to their early primitive condition and abstain from whiskey and other practices introduced by the whites. About 1811 he made a visit to the southern Indians, and while there kindled sparks that in 1813 were to burst into a flame. In his ab- sence his followers were defeated on November 7, 1811, by Gen. W. H. Harrison in the battle of Tippecanoe. When the War of 1812 came, he joined the British forces, assisted in the capture of 643 Detroit, in the siege of Fort Meigs, and in various other opera- tions, and was killed at the battle of the Thames while op- posing the mounted Kentuckians under Col. Richard M. Johnson. Of all the Indian chiefs concerning whom we have any reliable ac- counts, Tecumseh was certainly one of the ablest, if not the ablest. The importance of the part he played m assisting the British could scarcely be overestimated. In fact, some historians are of the opinion that if it had not been for him the Americans would have been able to conquer Canada. He also appears to have been more humane than most Indians. His Life has been written by Drake (1841) and by Eggleston (1778). Te Deum Laudamus ('We praise Thee, O God'). The author of this very beautiful hymn is unknown, though an ancient tra- dition ascribes it to St. Ambrose and St. Augustine. An old Galil- ean psalter ascribes it to Nicetius of Treves; also Hilary of Poitiers has been mentioned, and many others. It is probably of later origin than all these traditions claim. The earliest allusions to the hymn are in the rule of Cae- sarius, bishop of Aries (c. 527). In morning prayer in the Pro- testant Episcopal Church and Church of England the Te Deum occurs after the lesson from the Old Testament, with the Bene- dicite as an alternative. In the Roman Catholic office it is used on Sundays and certain festivals, and forms part of the daily matins of the breviary. Teddington, vil. and residen- tial dist. on the Thames, Middle- sex, England, at head of tidal flow, 3 m. s.w. of Richmond. Bushey Park, with the national physical laboratory (1902), is ad- jacent. Pop. (1911) 17,840. Tees, riv., England, rises on Crossfell, Cumberland, and flows mainly east, separating Durham from York. In its upper course are the waterfalls or Caldron Snout and High Force, and below Middlesbrough it forms a wide estuary. Length, 75 m. Teeth are calicified structures arising from the mucous mem- brane of the mouth in verte- brates, and are strictly homolo- gous with the so-called skin-teeth or dermal dent'"les of elasmo- branch fishes. _ By extension the term 'tooth' is also applied to hard structures found in inverte- brates, as the grinding organs in the gizzard of the crayfish and the hard processes on the radula of molluscs. Teeth arise from papillae of the mouth epi- thelium, and are primitively more or less conical structures. A typical tooth consists of the fol- lowing parts: Externally there is a layer of enamel, which arises Teeth from the outer layer of the em- bryo, and is an exceedingly hard substance, containing but little organic matter. Beneath the enamel lies the dentine or ivory of the tooth, which arises from the middle layer of the embryo, and is not so hard as the enamel. Dentine is a substance analo- gous to bone, and is penetrated throughout by a series of fine canals, which open into the cen- tral cavity of the tooth — the pulp cavity. Within the pulp cavity lies the pulp, consisting of fine blood-vessels and nerve fibrils. In some teeth the pulp cavity is widely open below, while in other cases the fully formed tooth be- comes narrowed below, so that the pulp is constricted. Such a tooth is said to be rooted, the nar- rowed- region being the root or fang,, which penetrates into the gum. The otner type of tooth is rootless, and teeth of this type continue to grow throughout life. Teeth frequently display also a third layer, known as cement. This, when present, is the most external layer of the tooth, and is frequently confined to the basal region. Teeth are absent in cyclostomes, but are typically present in fishes. In fishes, as in most vertebrates except mammals, the teeth are usually only used for seizing and biting the food, not for purposes of mastication. They are fre- quently very numerous, and are not confined to the jaws, but occur over many of the bones of the mouth. They are usually all alike — a condition described as homodont. There is, however, no vertical replacement as in the familiar case of mammals. For example, in the shark, as the teeth are worn away in front their place is taken by fresh teeth, which grow forward from behind. In fish the teeth do not lose their primitive position as epidermal papillae, and have no intimate connection with the bones upon which they are placed. In living amphibia the chief difference from fish as regards the teeth is shown in the reduc- tion in number. In certain fossil forms, however, the teeth attain a great complexity owing to the way in which the enamel layer is infolded. In reptiles the teeth are also relatively few in number. The most noticeable advance is, how- ever, the method of insertion. In reptiles generally the teeth are firmly fused to the bones of the jaw; but in the higher forms they are placed in sockets, after a fashion similar to that which pre- vails in mammals. (For the pe- culiar fangs of snakes, see that article.) In certain fossil reptiles the beginnings of the conditions peculiar to the mammals have Teeth 644 Teeth been observed. In all living birds teeth are absent, but some fossil birds had teeth of a reptilian type. It is in mammals that the teeth invariably show a more or less perfect adaptation to the animal's in the young ornithorhynchus, and are there simple. In the marsupials the teeth show a gen- eral resemblance to those - of the placentals; but the number and the succession are different, and (incisors) are adapted for biting — i.e. cutting— the food; the next tooth to the incisors at each side is the canine or dog tooth, and is usually a weapon, as in the car- nivores, or a sexual ornament and weapon combined, as in some un- gulates {e.g. pig). Finally, there IS a series of cheek teeth, whose function is the mastication of the food. Generally speaking, they have broad crushmg sur- faces in herbivorous mammals, and cutting edges in carnivorous ones, for these bolt their meat in relatively large pieces. The cheek teeth are the most com- plex. The second peculiarity is the reduction in number. The teeth in mammals are entirely confined to the bones of the jaw — i.e. there are no teeth on the roof of the mouth, and the number is always fixed for the species. Further, in placentals in general the maximum number is forty-four, though there are some placental mammals in which this number is greatly exceeded. The third notable peculiarity of the mammalian dentition is that there are two sets of teeth, known respectively as the milk and adult dentition. The members of the adult dentition vertically replace the members of the milk dentition; but *he adult set always contains mor^, teeth than the milk set. Some mammals show traces of more than two sets. The different kinds of teeth in a mammal are defined as fol- lows. The teeth borne on the premaxillary bone are incisors, as are also the corresponding teeth of the lower jaw. The maximum number of incisors in a placental is three at each side above and below. The tooth immediately behind the suture between the maxillary and premaxillary bones is the canine, and the lower canine bites in front of the upper. There is never more than one canine at each side in each jaw. The pre- molars are those cheek teeth which replace the milk molars of the young animal. These teeth are called 'bicuspids' in human anatomy. Though only two bicuspids are present in man, yet four at each side, above and below, is the typical number for a placental. Behind the pre- molars lie the molars, which have no milk predecessors; the typical number of these is three. It is convenient to sum up the number of teeth in a mammal in what is known as a dental formula. The following is the dental formula of the pigr-g f^i c, pm., m. = 44. The upper row of figures indicates the teeth of the upper jaw, and the lower those of the lower jaw. Man^ like his near allies, has a relatively unspecialized type of UPPER JAW n mm , LOWER JAW V Teeth. 1. Dentition of man. 2. Of hyena. 3. Of pip. 4. Of Patagonian cavy. 5. Section of skull of Indian elephant, showing dentition of right side. 6. Crown of upper molar of horse, showing enamel folds. 7. Grinding surface of molar of African elephant, with enamel folds. 8. Single tooth of blue shark. 9. Longitudinal section of human tooth. I, Incisors ; c, canines ; p, premolars : M, molai's. a, enamel ; b, dentine ; c, cement Icrusta petrosa) ; d, pulp cavity. diet and mode of life. Mammals are largely classified by the char- acters of their teeth. All general statements regarding the teeth of mammals must, however, be regarded as referring primarily to the placental mammals. In monotremes mammalian teeth are present, so far as is known, only cannot be readily referred to the same type. The first notable peculiarity of the teeth of marnmals is their want of uniformity: they are heterodont instead of homodont. With the difference of shape comes a well-marked difference of function. The anterior teeth Teething 645 Tegner dentition, adapted for a mixed diet. Owing to the shortening of the jaw which has taken place in all civilized races, the teeth are crowded together, especially in the lower jaw. In conse- quence there is little room for the third molar, the so-called wisdom tooth, which should cut the gum at maturity; and this tooth often remains rudimentary, and does not cut the gum at all. In many other cases its develop- ment produces discomfort of such a nature that its removal becomes imperative. See Den- tistry. Consult Hyatt's The Teeth and Their Care (1906); Bell's Our Teeth: How to Take Care of Them (1907), and Popular Essays on the Care of the Teeth (1911); The Teeth and Their Care (On- tario Agricultural College Bulle- tin i8i, 1910). Teething, of children. While the period of cutting the teeth is frequently associated with some disturbance of health, a great many ailments, from thrush to convulsions, are wrongly attrib- uted to teething, and therefore fail to receive proper treatment. The eruption of the teeth, how- ever, is often accompanied by slight feverishness which may induce respiratory and aliment- ary catarrhs, neglect of which may lead to more serious trouble. But in healthy chil- dren some irritation of the gums, slight fretfulness, and transient sleeplessness are the principal disturbing symptoms of teething; and teething powders and mix- tures are unnecessary, and often positively harmful. Equally unreasonable is indiscriminate gujn lancing. The following table shows the order in which the milk teeth (20 in number) usually appear, with the average age of the child at the time of their appearance through the gums (the earlier periods may vary by two or three months) : r>^ + 1 T^„:<,«,= J 2 lower . 6 months Central Incisors j 2 upper. 7 ;; Lateral Inciaors ] | j^^^^^/ ; !! First Molars (4) 12 Canines (4) 18 Second Molars (4) . . . .24 " See Child. Teetotalism. See Temper- ance. Tefft, Benjamin Franklin (1813-8.5), American clergyman, was born in Floyd, N. Y., and was graduated (1835) at Wes- leyan. He was professor of Greek and Hebrew in the present De Pauw University from 1843 to 1846, and in 1846 became editor of the Cincinnati Metho- VOL. XL— 45. dist Book Concern. He edited the Ladies' Repository (1846-52); was president of Genesee College, Lima, N. Y. (1851-4); and was U. S. consul and acting minister at Stockholm, Sweden (1861-4). From 1873 to 1878 he edited the Northern Border, at Bangor. Some of his books are The Shoulder - Knot (1850); Method- ism Successful (1860); The Pres- ent Crisis (1861). Tegea, an ancient city of Ar- cadia, Greece. Its foundation was traditionally ascribed to King Aleus; while another king, Echemus, figures prominently in the legends relating to the Hera- clid invasion. Sparta had long striven to conquer it, and in 550 B.C. succeeded. The Tegeans took an active part in the war against the Persians, and at the Battle of Plataea were the first to enter the enemy's camp. In 473 B.C. Argos and Arcadian cities entered into an alliance with Tegea against Sparta; but the former met defeat, and after a time Tegea also submitted. After the defeat of the Spartans at the Battle of Leuctra, in 371 B.C., Tegea joined the rest of Arcadia in becoming independ- ent. In 222 B.C. it entered the Achaean League, and with the others of that confederacy was conquered by Rome in 146 B.C. The subsequent history of the city is for the most part obscure. It ceased to exist as a Greek city after the Gothic invasion of 395 A. D., and later the Franks built the fortress of Nikli on its site. The foundations of the city wall have been discovered, and many bronze and terra-cotta objects re- covered in recent excavations. Here was a magnificent temple of Athene, built by Scopas in 394 B. C. Tegernsee, charming mountain lake resort, between the Isar and the Inn, Upper Bavaria, at an altitude of 2,400 feet; 27 miles (Gmund station) southeast of Munich. The lake is about 4 miles in length and 1 mile in breadth, and is surrounded by handsome villas of summer resi- dents. Its waters discharge through the Mangfall into the Inn. The village of Tegernsee, sit- uated on the east side of the lake, has a ducal castle, which was formerly a Benedictine monas- tery, an ophthalmic hospital, and a church dating from the fifteenth century. Te getme I er, William B. (1816^l'>\*:nglish naturalist and journalist, was born in Coin- brook, Buckinghamshire. H e was educated at the University College, London, and afterward studied medicine. Becoming interested in Darwin's work, he devoted himself to the study of variation in animals, and made many important observations, in part embodied in Darwin's Origin and Variation. He was for some time lecturer to the Zoological Society, and was on the staff of the Field for over forty-five years. In addition to a series of books on practical poultry raising, his publications include: The Homing Pigeon (1872); Cranes (1881); Horses, Zebras, and Mule Breeding (with C. L. Sutherland, 189.5); The House Sparrow (1899); Pheas- ants (revised edition, 1910). Tegetthoff, Wilhelm Baron VON (1827-71), Austrian admiral, was born in Marburg, Styria. He took part (1848) in the block- ade of Venice. In command of the Austrian squadron, he gave battle successfully to the Danes at Helgoland in 1864. In the War of 1866, at the head of the Austrian fleet, he defeated the larger Italian fleet off Lissa. He was sent to Mexico to obtain the body of Maximilian from the government (1867). Tegner, Esaias (1782-1846), Swedish poet, was born in Kyr- kerud, Vermland. In 1802 he became lecturer in philosophy at Lund University. In 1811 he wrote the fervidly patriotic ode Svea, which was crowned by the Academy, and marked a turning point in Swedish literature. In 1812, after becoming professor of Greek, he was ordained. Hith- erto he had remained neutral dur- ing the contest between the classi- cal and the romantic school in Sweden; but the violence of the latter now moved him energeti- cally to protest against their intol- erant obscurantism, and his new poems powerfully contributed to the dissolution of 'Phosphorism' in Sweden. In 1820 appeared his religious idyll, Nattvardsbarnen; in 1822 the poetical romance. Axel (Eng. trans.); and in 1825, Frithiof s Saga (Eng. trans.), which established his reputation as one of the greatest of Sweden's poets. In 1824 he was made tishop of Vexio. In his declin- ing years he suffered from mel- ancholia, and was for a time un- der restraint. In all his writings Tegner took a way of his own, equally remote from French classicism and Ger- man romanticism. His lively wit, glowing fancy, and genuine humor, well controlled by a severe self-criticism, which aimed at and attained absolute formal perfection, made him one of the most commanding figures in Scandinavian literature. As a Tegucigalpa 645 A Teheran critic, also, he did excellent work. The best translation of the Frithiofs Saga is by Longfellow, who also translated Natlvards- barnen {The Children of the Lord's Supper) . Consult his Col- lected Works; Bottiger's Tegner's Lefnad; B r a n d e s' E. Tegner; Erdman's Esaias Tegner. Tegucigalpa, city, capital of Honduras and of Tegucigalpa province, about 95 miles north- east of San Salvador, on the Choluteca River. It is situated on a table land at an elevation of about 3,225 feet. Silver mining is the chief industry of the neigh- borhood, some of the mines being Nicaraguan invaders. Pop. (1911) 22,137. Tehama. See Arabia. Teheran (Tehran), city, cap- ital of Persia, and of the province of the same name, is situated on a fertile table land, at an eleva- tion of about 4,000 feet; 65 miles south of the Caspian Sea, the snow-capped range of the El- burg Mountains lying between. The city is surrounded by a castellated wall 11 miles long, and encircled by a moat. In 1869 it was enlarged and partially rebuilt by Nasiru'ddin. There are a dozen gateways into the city, some of them ornamented chief object of interest is the Palace, which is situated in the centre of the city, and which, with its gardens, has an area of about a quarter of a mile, en- closed by high walls. It con- tains a museum in which is ex- hibited a collection of priceless jewels, among them the famous gold globe with the several coun- tries inset with jewels, valued at $4,000,000; the great diamond, Darya-i-Nur (Sea of Light) ; and the celebrated jika, or diamond aigrette, worn by the Shah on state occasions. A magnificent throne, made partly from the broken remains of the ' Peacock ' Teheran very old. The soil is fertile, and sugar cane is grown on a large scale. Noteworthy features of the city are the Cathedral, the finest edifice in the country. Na- tional University, and a semi- nary for women. There are two flouring mills, a sugar refinery, rum distillery, two breweries, and a soap and candle works. Most of the houses are in bungalow style, and built round a central court; the windows, for the most part, are without glass. The city is connected by a bridge with its chief suburb, Con- cepcion. In 1910 the govern- ment instituted a course of in- struction for school children in the art of weaving Panama hats. Amapala is the port of Teguci- galpa, and the exports are chiefly mineral products. In the eigh- teenth century Tegucigalpa was an Aztec city. In 1880 it was made the capital of Honduras. In 1907 it was occupied by the , — Cannon Square. in colors. These gates are closed at night. A large part of the city consists of mud houses, and even the better houses of the wealthy class are surrounded with high mud walls. Most of the streets are narrow, and many are unpaved. In contrast are the few avenues which have been recently laid out, these being broad and straight. The finest is the Boulevard des Ambassa- deurs, lined with poplars, on which are located the various foreign legations. There are some fine parks and squares, many mosques of recent date, bazaars, and caravansaries. The principal mosque is that called Masjed i Sipabsalar, which was built by Mirza Husain, at that time grand vizier, in the new part of the city. There is a large circular theatre, covered with an awning, for the representation of the ' Passion Play ' during the festival of Muharram. The throne, formerly at Delhi, stands in the same room. Among the principal institutions are King's College and the Polytechnic In- stitute. Within and without the city are beautiful gardens main- tained by irrigation; and the only railway in Persia runs out through them (5K miles) to the royal mosque of Shah- Abdul-Azim, wherein Nasr-ed- Din Shah was assassinated in 1896. Teheran has no industrial im- portance, but is a centre for a large caravan trade. The population in winter is about 275,000, but during the hot summer nearly one-third of the people go to the mountains. The water supply of the city is ample, amounting to 921,000 gallons per hour all the year round; but the distribu- tion is unequal. There are only a few European residents. Although an ancient city, Teheran was of small importance Tehii 645B Telautograph until 1788, when Agha Moham- med Khan made it his capital. Tehri (or Garhwal), native state, India, a political depend- ency of the United Provinces. It borders on Tibet, and lies amid the Himalayas, and is an elevated and rugged region. Rice, millet, wheat, and some tea are pro- duced. The forests, leased by the British government, contain many valuable woods. Tehri was created by the British after the Nepal War (1815). Area, 4,180 square miles. Pop. (1921) 318,414. Tehuantepec, an isthmus of Mexico, between the Gulf of Tehuantepec, an arm of the Pa- cific Ocean, and the Gulf of Campeche, an arm of the Gulf of Mexico.' It is 125 miles in breadth at its narrowest part, and is traversed by the Sierra Madre, which here subsides to a plateau only 730 feet above sea level. The narrowest part of the Isthmus lies partly in the state of Vera Cruz (on the north) and partly in Oaxaca (on the south). The soil produces extensive and varied crops. The forests con- tain valuable hardwoods. The cHmate is hot, except upon the heights. Interest in the Isthmus centres mainly in the Tehuantepec Na- tional Railway, which has be- come one of the important com- mercial routes of the world. The main line of this road runs from Puerto Mexico (Coatzacoalcos) on the Atlantic to Salina Cruz on the Pacific, a distance of 189 miles, and there are branches to San Juan Evangelista, to the north, and to Minatitlan to the south. At Santa Lucrecia con- nection is made with the Vera Cruz and Isthmus Railway for Cordoba and Mexico City and for Tierra Blanca and Vera Cruz. At Gamboa connection is made with the Pan-American Railway running through the State of Chiapas south to the Guatemalan border. The port of Puerto Mexico is the Atlantic terminus of the rail- road. The Coatzacoalcos River forms a natural harbor of un- limited capacity, with an aver- age depth to the town of 50 feet. After years of fruitless planning by private companies, the Mexi- can Government took up the work of building the railway, which was completed in 1907, with extensive harbor improve- ments. Vessels of 30 feet draught may dock and have their cargoes unloaded by electric machinery upon a train, and the cargo may be transported to the other side of the Isthmus and reloaded — all in 96 hours, a saving of four days over the Panama route for freight. The Pan-American Railway was completed in 1909, and its main length (1930) was 284 miles, from Gamboa on the Tehuan- tepec National to the Guate- malan Railway system. South and east of the Isthmus on the Gulf side are the States of Ta- basco, Campeche, and Yucatan. Tehuantepec, river port, Oax- aca, Mexico, on the Tehuantepec River; about 15 miles from its mouth, and 19 miles northwest of Salina Cruz. There is trade in indigo and cochineal, and tex- tiles of silk and cotton. The population, mostly Indians, num- bers about 10,000." Tehuantepec Winds are strong winds, analogous to the mistral and bora (qq.v.), experienced on the Pacific side of Central Amer- ica. They blow from the north- east and north-northeast on the coasts of Nicaragua and Guate- mala. They are also known as Papagayo winds. The name Tehuantepec is derived from the districts where the winds orig- inate. Tehuelches, the aborigines of Patagonia, whose range extended originally from the Rio Negro into the eastern parts of Tierra del Fuego. They were noted for their tall stature, which, how- ever, appears to have been ex- aggerated by the early writers. The Tehuelches, who are now re- duced to a few nomad groups scattered along the eastern foot of the Cordilleras, speak a stock language entirely distinct from those of the neighboring Puelches and Araucanians (qq. v.). All are true nomads, subsisting on fruits, herbs, and game, chiefly the guanaco and rhea, which are captured with the bola and lasso. Teignmouth, seaport and bathing resort, on the southern coast of Devonshire, England, and on the English Channel, at the mouth of the Teign; 12 miles southeast of Exeter. There are some fine churches, portions of which are Norman. St. Mi- chael's Church dates back to 1044. The Den is a promenade fronting the sea, and a long bridge connects with Shaldon, across the Teign. There is a good harbor. Yacht building is carried on; and there are fisheries of herring, salmon, and mackerel. Pop. (1921) 10,970. Teignmouth, John Shore, Lord (1751-1834), governor- general of India, entered the ser- vice of the East India Company in 1769 as a cadet. He was a member of the general committee of revenue, and of the Supreme Council, and was associated with Lord Cornwallis in many schemes of reform. From 1793 to 1797 he was governor-general of India, receiving on his retirement the title of Lord Teignmouth. Teinds, in Scotland, are tithes. A tenth part of the produce of lands was early claimed by the clergy as their right, and grad- ually came to be, by law, appro- priated to their maintenance. Under arrangements made in the reign of Charles i., and ratified by Acts of 1633 and 1690, teinds which were formerly levied in kind came to be regarded as a fixed burden on land, subject to be redeemed or purchased by the owner of the land, and when un- redeemed to be payable accord- ing to a fixed valuation. After the Reformation, the reformed clergy only obtained a small por- tion of the teinds; but the sti- pends of the parochial clergy of the Church of Scotland are still payable out of them, and unex- hausted teinds afford a fund from which ministers' stipends may be augmented. Teiresias. See Tiresias. Tejada. See Lerdo de Te- jada. Tejon Series. The Eocene of the Pacific Coast is represented by a series of mostly marine clostic strata, best known in the southern part of the great valley of California. In the middle part of the Coast range the Tejon series is more than 4,000 feet thick. The series is separated from the Cretaceous Chico beds below by an interval marked by an unconformity at most places. Teliax, town, state of Yucatan, Mexico, 50 miles by rail south- east of Merida. Pop. 25,000. Telceli, Count of. See To- KOLY. Telcir-dagh. See Rodosto. Telamon, in ancient Greek legend, a son of ^acus and brother of Peleus. He and Pe- leus slew their half-brother Phocus, and Telamon had to flee from ^gina to Salamis, where he married the daughter of the king, and afterward became king of the island. He took part in the Calydonian Hunt and the Argonautic Expedition, and with Hercules took Troy from Laome- don. He was father of Ajax, and of Teucer and Trambelus. Telautograph, or automatic reproducing telegraph, an appa- ratus by which a message written or a sketch made with a stylus in the hand of the transmitting operator is reproduced identi- cally and automatically on a local or 'pilot' receiver and simulta- neously on a distant receiver or a number of such receivers con- nected to the transmitter in multiple. The transmitter is connected to the receivers by two line wires, either direct or through a central switching station, each telautograph station being equip- ped with a 'set' of transmitter and receiver associated together to form a complete sending and receiving unit. Incoming mes- sages are received on the pilot receiver, using the same paper message strip upon which the outgoing messages are recorded. The operator writes with a stylus upon a metal platen, guiding the Vol. XL— 31-0. Telautograph 646 Telagraphone formation of the written char- acters by watching the repro- duced motions on the pilot re- ceiver. The motion of the stylus is resolved by a system of levers into component rotary motions which are used to control and vary the currents in two distinct electrical circuits. The receivers each contain two light coils of copper wire, movable against the action of springs, in a strong electromagnetic field. These are RECEIVER in large multi-station intercom- municating systems, as, for in- stance, to provide interdepart- mental communication in an hotel or banking office. It is also used for communication between cities and between different points in one city. Among the hundreds of industries using the telautograph are banks, hotels, railroads, automobile factories and centralized credit organiza- tions. See Telegraphy. To Distant Sta. Paper Shifter — oo Res. PenlifterQ Q Vib. Relay = a Underplaten^3=a 5wiTch i Courtesy of Telautograph Corp. Telautograph acted upon by the two line cur- rents from the transmitter, and move linearly against their springs in accordance with the variation in current strength, actuating at the same time a series of levers to communicate a resultant motion to the recording pen, which is an exact duplica- tion of the motion of the transmitting stylus. A separate interrupted current is superim- posed on the writing lines to con- trol the contacting of the receiv- ing pens with their respective paper strips in unison with the pressure of the stylus on the transmitting platen. The telautograph is now UvSed Vol. XI.— 31-0. Telav, town, Transcaucasian S. F. S. R.., Russia; 106 miles from Tifiis. It was the capital of the kingdom of Kakhetia until 1797. It was founded in 893, and was destroyed in the six- teenth century by the Persians. It stands upon a height (2,400 feet) whose base is washed by the river Thourdos-Kevi. Telegonus, a son of Circe by Odysseus. He was sent by her to find his father, and, landing in Ithaca, was attacked as a pirate by Odysseus and Telemachus. He slew Odysseus, not knowing who he was. Then, at the com- mand of Athena, he, with Telem- achus and Penelope, took Odysseus' body to be buried in Circe's land, /Easa.; afterward he married Penelope. He was said to have founded Tusculum and Praeneste in Italy. Telegony. See Heredity. Telegraph. See Telegraphy. Telegrapher's Cramp. See Writer's Cramp. Telegraph, Military. The military telegraph follows an army in the field, and is used at the front in order to keep up communication with more per- manent points in the rear. It is often the sole means of commu- nication, but is sometimes used to supplement existing lines. In the United States service the military telegraph line is constructed and operated by the Signal Corps troops, one com- pany of which is attached to each army division. As at present organized, the company has 100 men, 32 of whom are expert telegraphers. They are all mounted, or ride on the light wagons carrying the material. This consists of 84 miles of wire, 54 of which is eleven-strand cable, heavily insulated; 16 buz- zers and telephones combined; and 2 wireless 'pack' sets. In operation, the cable is run out upon the ground, with buzzers 'cut in' wherever desired. The buzzer will often work over a con- nection so poor that the tele- phone is silent. The 30 miles of light buzzer wire carried is used for extensions or branches, ele- vated from the ground. A wire- less set is usually carried on three mules. It can be unpacked and set up in twenty minutes. The electric current used may be fur- nished by a storage battery, or oftener by a hand dynamo oper- ated by two men. Telegraph lines constructed in the field are necessarily of a tem- porary nature, the wires being strung along on trees, bushes, or improvised poles such as lances. See Signal Corps. Telegraphone. This device is, in principle, a development of Alexander Graham Bell's elec- tromagnetic telephone. By it speech is magnetically recorded on a hard steel wire. It was patented by Valdemar Poulson, a Danish physicist, who has made important advances in wireless telegraphy and teleph- ony. The telegraphone consists es- sentially of (1) a fine- wire mag- net, the counterpart of the mag- net in Bell's telephone receiver, and (2) an arrangement for pass- ing a long, small, hard steel wire past the pole pieces of the mag- net. This magnet winding re- ceives the oscillatory currents from a small hand telephone set, corresponding to the vibrations of the transmitter diaphragm in response to the sound waves im- pressed. These currents, trav- Telegraph Plant 647 Telegraphy ersing the recording coil, vary the magnetization of the coil therein, and also of the steel wire moving past. The alterations of magnetic condition persist in the wire until removed by the im- position of other magnetic forces, etc. If, after receiving a record, the wire is wound back on the first reel, and moved forward again past the recording-coil pole pieces, the peculiar mag- netic arrangements, forming the record, will change the magnetic field in the recording coil; and, by passing through a telephone receiver the currents induced in the winding of the recording coil, the original sounds may be re- produced. The machine developed in America and intended for office- dictation service, to compete with the correspondence phonograph, has been kept as automatic as possible. The wire is wound from one reel to another, the reels be- ing on electric-motor-driven spin- dles with push-button control cir- cuits for stop, start, reverse, and listening. A rheostat regulates the speed to the needs of various recording or repeating work in hand, and a governor holds the speed constant at any setting, compensating for variations in voltage, etc. The wire records may be pre- served, as they are proof against loss of the message except by strong outside magnetism, high temperature, or continued severe mechanical shocks. If it is de- sired to use the same wire over again, it is only necessary to pass it first through a steady magnetic field, to equalize its magnetic con- dition before receiving the new impression of the recording coil. This little auxiliary or clearing coil is mounted alongside the re- cording coil, and is furnished with current from a small battery, without attention from the oper- ator other than his pressing a switch after the machine has been set for recording. Telegraph Plant, a common name for Desmodium gyrans, an Asiatic herb belonging to the or- der Leguminosae. It bears pan- icles of purplish flowers, but it is chiefly curious by reason of the property possessed by its small lateral leaflets of moving in vari- ous directions when the sun is shining. This property is dis- cussed in Darwin's Power of Move- ment in Plants. Telegraphy. This word is derived from the Greek and means 'to write far off.' In its earliest and broadest sense teleg- raphy is the art of transmitting intelligence to a distant point by means of visual, audible, or electrical signals made in accord- ance with a prearranged code. In its modern sense the art of telegraphy is usually limited to the electrical transmission of in- telligence in which the letters forming a message are translated into electrical impulses in ac- cordance with a prearranged code of which impulses are then sent to the distant receiving station where they are retrans- lated to obtain the message. Perhaps the first form of elec- tric telegraph was suggested by an anonymous writer in Scots Maga- zine, in 1753, following a few years after the announcement by Stephen Gray and Granville Wheeler that the charge of a Ley- den jar would follow along an in- sulated wire and indicate its presence by an electroscope at the far end. From that time each step forward in the science of electricity was marked by cor- responding progress in the de- velopment of the electric tele- graph. Application of frictional elec- tricity to the sending of signals was suggested by both Franklin and Lesage, but the first actual telegraph of record appears to be that of Lesage at Geneva in 1774, using 24 wires each connected to a pith ball electroscope. The earliest suggestions required as many wires as there are letters in the alphabet. Lomond in 1787 proposed an arrangement using a single brass wire and a pith ball electroscope, each letter being designated by a certain number of divergencies. Ronalds in 1816, following the earlier unsuccessful attempts of Chappe in 1790, devised a single wire telegraph using synchro- nously rotating dials operated by clock mechanism and a spark discharge of a Leyden jar to in- dicate the desired letter. The second stage in telegraph development followed the dis- coveries of Galvani and Volta of the generation and detection of electricity by chemical means. Soemmering in 1809 developed a device to signal by decomposing water; Coxe, an American, sug-- gested the decomposition of salt solutions; and Robert Smith, Bain, Edward Davy and Morse had various arrangements for re- cording messages on chemically prepared tape. The third stage, and that which finally led to the present success- ful type of electromagnetic tele- graph, had its beginning in the discovery by Oersted, in 1820, that an ordinary magnetic needle, suspended so that it is free to swing, will be deflected from its usual position whenever it is in the vicinity of a closed electric circuit, a fact previously discov- ered by Romagnosi in 1802, but not widely known. The second fact essential to electromagnetic telegraphy, discovered by Arago and by Davy independently in 1820, was that while there is a current in copper wire it attracts iron filings and is capable of de- veloping magnetism in soft iron. In the same year Ampere, after experimenting at Laplace's sug- gestion, confirmed the possibil- ity of deflecting a magnetic needle at a great distance from the bat- tery. Schilling developed what appears to be the first practical magnetic telegraph by using five galvanometers, each provided with an independent galvanic circuit. He gave each needle a positive and a negative motion by means of reversed currents and then combined two or more of these signals to produce the let- ters of the alphabet. Schilling was the first to devise an alarm signal which was sent at the be- ginning of the message. Signalling at any great distance by means of electricity was un- successful until the formulation of the laws of electromagnetism about 1830, which was done in- dependently by Faraday in Eng- land and Joseph Henry in Amer- ica. Henry, who was a professor of mathematics at Albany Acad- emy and later professor of natural philosophy at Princeton, by using an electromagnet with a great many turns of silk-covered wire wound approximately at right angles to the core, and a battery of 12 to 24 cells, produced an electromagnetic instrument of sufficient power to overcome the difficulty of signalling to great distances. Then Samuel F. B. Morse, pro- fessor of fine arts in the New York University, designed an ink recording machine to take down the current impulses, worked out the American Morse alphabet, and with the assistance of Alfred Vail arranged a complete work- ing system and reduced the eff'ort and time necessary to send and receive a telegraph message. It 'was only after several years' ef- fort that he was able to get the necessary financial support for his ideas, but in 1844, following assistance from Congress, a tele- graph line was successfully open- ed between Washington and Baltimore, a distance of about 40 miles. The ink recorder was later replaced by a sounder, and this type of instrument, together with its auxiliary relays and apparatus, handles a large proportion of the telegraph messages of today. At about the same time that these developments were taking place in America, Gauss and Weber were experimenting in Eu- rope. Steinheil claims that it was Gauss who first used an induced current for signalling (following the fundamental discoveries of Faraday and Henry), and it was Weber who first found that in- sulation was necessary only at the points of support of the wire. Steinheil continued the experi- ments of Gauss and Weber at their request and added the fur- ther information, in 1838, that Vol. XL— 31-0. Telegraphy 647 A Telegraphy the earth could be used to form the return circuit. Joseph Henry in America had, however, antici- pated him in this discovery in ex- periments at Princeton in 1835. In England, Sir William Cooke and Sir Charles Wheatstone had made considerable progress with the needle system and introduced a new type of instrument in the ABC or step-by-step indicator, in which a needle is caused to move over the dial having the letters of the alphabet and to stop at the desired character. Breguet in France carried the de- velopment of this type still fur- ther. Wheatstone tried to evolve a printer with partial success. Royal E. House of Vermont, in 1846, changed the mechanical de- sign and produced a printer which, in modified form, is still in use as the stock ticker. In 1855 David E. Hughes of Kentucky developed a printing telegraph machine which is still used to some extent in Europe. The Wheatstone automatic system in its final form consists of a per- forator, an automatic transmit- ter, and a tape recorder. In this system the original Morse inker was modified to record at speeds of 100 or more words a minute. Not content with having a sin- gle telegraph working on the sin- gle wire with the earth as the re- turn, inventors next turned their attention to the problem of send- ing and receiving a message at the same time on one wire, or 'duplexing.' J. W. Gintl of Vi- enna attempted this in 1853, but it was an American, J. B. Stearns of Boston, who produced the first commercially successful duplex telegraph system, about 1871. Another scientist of Vienna, Dr. J. B. Stark, tried to solve the problem of the 'quadruplex,' whereby two messages might be sent and two received on the same wire at the same time, but it remained for Edison, about 1874, to produce a really work- able system, which, with modifi- cations, is still in use. In 1874 Emile Baudot, in France, worked out a five-unit code upon which he based his study and development of a multiplex printing system, which has been the foundation of most modern printing systems. Systems in use at the present time, which have been developed from the Wheatstone and the Baudot, are the Creed, the Siemens- Halske, the Murray, and, most widely used in the United States, the start-stop and the multiplex printing sys- tems manufactured by the Tele- type Corporation. Submarine telegraphy was first suggested by a Spaniard in 1795, but the first working cable was that of Morse (1842) between Castle Garden - and Governor's Island, New York. Owing to Vol. XL— 31-0. difficulties in anchoring, this suc- cumbed in less than a day. Ezra Cornell, founder of Cornell Uni- versity, one of Morse's assistants, then laid a more successful cable from New York to Fort Lee, a distance of about 12 miles. The discovery of gutta percha in 1842 and Siemens' machine to apply it to wire gave cable engineers much better facilities. Morse Code Continental Code K B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V w X Y z & 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Fig. 1. — The American and Conti- nental Morse Alphabets As a means of shortening the time of news travel between America and Europe, F. N. Gis- borne in 1852 obtained conces- sions to construct a combined cable and overland system from New York to Newfoundland, but was obliged to give up the project for want of funds. Cyrus West Field, a retired merchant of means, then entered upon the work, and by his efforts made possible the completion (1856) of the New York-Newfoundland line, 1,000 miles on the way to- ward England. Field became in- terested, also, in the laying of a transatlantic cable, and on Aug. 17, 1858, the first message was vsent over the completed line. (See Atlantic Cable.) Telegraph Codes. — The princi- pal codes or systems of telegraph signals now in use are the Ameri- can and Continental Morse for manual operation and the five- unit 'Baudot' code for use with printing telegraphs. The Morse codes are made up of 'dots,' 'dashes' and 'spaces,' as shown in Fig. 1, the dash being normally equal in duration to three dots. The American Morse code is used in the United States and Canada, while the Conti- nental code is used in other coun- tries. The chief distinction is that in the American Morse code spaced letters are used. It is shorter and faster than the Con- tinental code, but is also more liable to errors in transmission. In the five-unit printing tele- graph code, each letter signal is made up of five time intervals or units. There are thirty-two pos- sible signals in this code. By using two of these to shift the printing mechanism for 'upper case' and 'lower case' characters, a complete alphabet, ten num- bers, and all necessary punctua- tion marks may be transmitted. The code arrangement most commonly employed in the United States is shown in Fig. 2. As all letter signals are of equal duration, and as mechanical methods are used for sending and receiving, no spaces are required between letters. This code has an advantage over the Morse codes in that its signals are shorter. Direct Current Telegraph Sys- tems for Open- Wire Lines. — -The Closed Circuit Morse System is shown in Fig. 3. The electric current is supplied by battery (or direct current generator) at either or both terminal stations. It flows through a key and relay at each station, returning through the ground from one terminal station to the other. The relay is an electromagnet, wound with many turns of fine wire and pro- vided with a light armature, which will respond to the com- paratively weak line current. Current leakage during wet weather will cause changes in the amount of current in the line, but the relay is readily adjust- able to operate under these con- ditions. A contact on the relay armature controls the operation of a sounder, the energy for which is furnished by a local battery. The sounder has a comparatively heavy armature, which produces audible clicks at the beginning and end of each current impulse. On short lines the relay may be omitted, a 'main line' sounder capable of being operated by the line current being used instead. The circuit may be interrupted Telegraphy 647 B Telegraphy by means of the Morse key at any station to send signals to operate the relays and sounders at all stations. Each key has a switch lever which closes the circuit when the key is not in use. A number of stations may be con- nected in series with the line, and any station may obtain control of the circuit by opening the key 1 2 3 4 5 A D D o / c D $ E 3 F • G & H £ 1 8 J □ell K ( L ) M • N 0 9 P 0 0 1 R 4 S > T 5 U 7 V t w 2 X / Y 6 z M Idle Spa ce Car. Ret. Line Feed Fig. 2. — The Five-Unit Printing Telegraph Code switch lever to 'break' or inter- rupt the station that may be sending. The Open Circuit Morse Sys- tem is shown in Fig. 4. This system is used in England but the closed circuit system is pre ferred in the United States. Duplexing a line makes it pos- sible to send mes.sages simul- taneously in both directions. This is accomplished by arrang- ing the circuit so that the receiv- ing relay at each station is not affected by outgoing signals from that station, although it can be actuated by signals from a distant station. Two methods are in general use, known as the 'Differential Duplex' and 'Bridge Duplex' systems. The Differential Duplex Sys- tem is illustrated in Fig. 5. The 'differential polar relay' used in this system is polarized by means of a permanent magnet, so that relay at station B, operating the relay (and sounder) at that point. In a similar manner, signal cur- rents from the batteries at station B will have no effect on the dif- ferential relay at that point, but will operate the relay and sounder at station A. It is evident, there- fore, that as signals sent out from each station operate the sounder only at the other station, mes- sages may be sent in both direc- tions at the same time. In the Bridge Duplex System the polar relay is connected Fig. 3. — Closed Circuit Morse System its armature will operate in re- sponse to the direction of current through its windings. It has two equal windings connected to op- pose each other, so that equal currents transmitted in parallel through both windings will pro- duce no magnetic effect on the core or armature. One winding is connected over the line wire to the distant station, and the other is connected to ground through an 'artificial line' composed of resistance coils and condensers so proportioned that it may be made electrically equivalent to across a 'bridge coil,' forming a circuit similar to a Wheatstone bridge. The outgoing signals di- vide equally between the two windings of the bridge coil and have no effect on the polar relay. On the other hand, part of the incoming signals pass through the relay winding and operate the relay and sounder. Both the bridge and differential duplex sys- tems are used extensively. The Quadruplex System pro- vides for simultaneously sending two messages in each direction. One set of signals is transmitted Ground Fig. 4. — Open Circuit Morse System the line circuit. Signals are transmitted by switching from a positive to a negative battery by means of a 'pole changer' relay controlled by a Morse key. If the artificial line is properly adjusted or 'balanced,' the sig- nalling currents from the batter- ies at station A will divide equally between the two windings of the differential relay at the same sta- tion and will have no effect on its armature. The current through the line winding will, however, pass over the line circuit and through the line winding of the by reversing the polarity of the line battery, and the second set by varying the strength of the current. For receiving, a polar rfelay which responds only to changes in the direction of the current is used for one set of sig- nals and a 'neutral' relay, which responds only to currents of in- creased strength (irrespective of their direction), is used for re- ceiving the second set of signals. By duplexing the line, two mes- sages may be transmitted in each direction at the same time, or four in all. This system is difii- VOL. XL— 31-0. Telegraphy 647 C Telegraphy cult to operate under bad weather conditions, and its use is, there- fore, becoming somewhat re- stricted. Repeaters. — In passing over long lines, telegraph signals are weakened and distorted by the re- sistance and capacity of the line indicate the line circuit, while the light lines show the locking circuit. This is a 'direct-point' repeater in which the signals are repeated by the armature con- tact points of the line relays with- out the use of auxiliary trans- mitters or repeating sounders. OifrerenLial Rolar Relay Pole Changer Line Battery "II iificial Artificial S — J I | | "■■ne Line s^^^^ider Differential Duplex System wires and by current leakage, particularly in wet weather. Fur- ther distortion may also be caused by currents induced from neighboring telegraph and power circuits. Very long lines, there- fore, are divided into shorter sec- tions and telegraph repeaters are provided for repeating the signals from one section to the next. A telegraph repeater consists essentially of two relays, each re- sponding to incoming signals from one line section and repeat- ing these signals directly or indi- rectly with renewed strength to the opposite line section. The arrangement must be such that each side of the repeater is unaf- fected by the outgoing signals as repeated through the other side. This latter requirement may be taken care of in various ways, and as a result a number of re- peaters have been invented and used. Among these may be men- tioned the Toye, Milliken, Niel- son, Weiny, Atkinson, Ghegan, Horton, d'Humy, Maver-Gar- danier, and Clark. The general principles of single line repeaters for closed circuit operation are illustrated in the Athearn Repealer, shown in Fig. 6. In this figure the heavy lines Each relay has a line winding and a locking winding; and when op- erated, closes two pairs of con- tacts. One relay is arranged with its line winding in series with the 'west' line, while its main con- tacts are arranged to open and close with 'east' line; the line windings of the other relay are in series with the east line and peat signals from the east line into the west line. The line con- tacts of the west relay are held closed by the holding magnet, the shunt on this magnet having been opened when the east repeating relay opened its auxiliary con- tacts. When the east line is closed, the armature of the east relay will be actuated, closing both pairs of contacts of this re- lay. The line contacts cause cur- rent flow through the line magnet of the west relay, and the auxili- ary contacts shunt out the hold- ing magnet of the west relay. The contacts of the west relay are, therefore, kept closed when the contacts of the east relay are either open or closed, provided the distant key of the west line remains closed. This sequence of operations applies as well to the west relay when signals are being repeated from the west line into the east line. The Duplex Repeater is used for joining sections of a duplexed line. A differential duplex 'di- rect point' repeater is shown in Fig. 7. This repeater meets the requirements for a telegraph re- peater as stated above, and in Fig. 7. — Duplex Repeater •West" Line its contacts open and close the west line. The auxiliary contacts of each relay serve to shunt the holding magnet of the other relay. In Fig. 6, the armature of the east relay is shown to be released, as the key at the distant end of the east line is assumed to be open. This relay is ready to re- ■ East" Line xz: OWVWrO i Lockinq — Battery ] fhm Auxil Conli •East* Relay Fig. 6. — Athearn Repealer addition will repeat signals simul- taneously in both directions. It consists essentially of two differ- ential polar relays and two arti- ficial lines. The armature of each relay is connected to the 'apex' of the windings of the other. Sig- nals from the west line will actu- ate the west relay, which will re- peat them through both windings of the east relay to the east line and artificial line. The differen- tial connection and duplex bal- ance will prevent the east relay from responding to these signals. The east relay will function in a similar manner for repeating sig- nals from east to west. The regenerative repeater is frequently employed on printing telegraph circuits. This type of repeater not only amplifies the signal but also reshapes and re- times the signals which have been increased or decreased in dura- tion by the effect of the line cir- cuit, interfering currents or other causes. One type of regenerative re- peater has a receiving and a transmitting distributor arm both revolving synchronously with the Vol. XL— 31-0. Telegraphy 647 D Telegraphy transmitting distributor arm at the transmitting station. The receiving distributor of the re- peater selects only that portion of the received signal which is most likely to be of full strength. This fractional part of the signal is used to set relays which are in turn connected at the proper time to the outgoing side of the line by the transmitting dis- group of inductance coils and condensers connected as shown in Fig. 9, and forms in effect two electrical 'filters.' The lower half of the composite set, as shown in the illustration, is designed to pass the low-frequency telegraph signals while offering a high im- pedance to telephone currents, whereas the upper half of the composite set offers a high imped- To 5 I Telephone -r Line Wires L To r Telephone To Telegraph To Telegraph Fig. 8. — Simplexed Telephone Circuit tributor arm. This ensures per- fect signals of the proper length, magnitude and time relationship being sent into the line regardless of distortion in the received sig- nal. Thus, a New York-Chicago circuit might be operated with three repeaters, of which one would be a regenerative repeater, with a general improvement of as much as 15 per cent, over a cir- cuit lacking the regenerative re- peater. Telegraphing over Open Wire Telephone Lines. — Direct current telegraph systems may be oper- ated on open wire lines simul- taneously used for telephone purposes by either simplexing or compositing these lines. In the Simplex System, shown in Fig. 8, a repeating coil or transformer is connected in each end of the tele- phone circuit. A connection from the centre point between the two line windings of each repeating coil is used for the telegraph circuit. If the repeating coil windings and the line wires are electrically balanced, the tele- graph currents will divide equally between the windings and will have no effect on the telephone circuit. The telegraph channel obtained in this way may be used for either single or duplex opera- tion. It has the disadvantage, however, that only one telegraph circuit is obtained from two line wires, and it prevents the use of these wires for forming a phan- tom telephonecircuit (seeTELEPH- ONV). The Composite System is shown in Fig. 9. Manual telegraph sys- tems and low-speed printing tele- graph systems usually operate at speeds of from 10 to 25 dots or cycles per second. Telephone frequencies range from about 200 to 3000 cycles per second. The composite system uses this dif- ference in frequency range to separate the telegraph and tele- phone currents. It consists of a ance to telegraph signals but will freely pass the higher frequency voice currents. The two line wires used with this system may form half of a phantom telephone circuit which should be connected as shown in the dotted lines. With this arrangement two tele- graph circuits are obtained from two line wires, without interfer- ing with their use to form a phan- tom telephone circuit. More than 600,000 miles of telegraph circuits in the United States are derived from open wire telephone circuits by this method. systems that led to his invention of the telephone. It was not until after the development of the vacuum tube into a reliable and stable instrument for generating, amplifying, and rectifying high- frequency alternating currents, however, that a commercially operative carrier system of teleg- raphy was developed. The companies of the Bell System have at present approxi- mately 400,000 miles of two-way carrier telegraph channels in commercial service upon their long toll lines. The open wire carrier current system provides from each pair of wires ten additional two-way or twenty one-way telegraph cir- cuits which are superimposed upon the regular telephone and the direct current telegraph cir- cuits. The facilities obtainable from one pair of wires are, there- fore, ten two-way or twenty one- way carrier telegraph circuits, two two-way or four one-way direct current telegraph circuits, and one and one-half telephone circuits, including the phantom. The carrier telegraph messages are superimposed simultaneously on a single electrical circuit by employing a separate alternating current, called a 'carrier' current, for each of the messages. This carrier current is made to vary in accordance with the variations of current representing the tele- graph message. In order to separate the carrier To Phantom Telephone Circuit To Telegraph Set Na2 Fig. 9. — Composited Telephone Circuit open Wire Carrier Current Telegraph System. — By using, for the telegraph, alternating cur- rents of frequencies higher than 3000 cycles per second, additional telegraph channels may be ob- tained from each open-wire tele- phone line. Such a carrier telegraph system, developed by the Bell Telephone System, is de- scribed below. The principles underlying such a system have long been known, dating back, in fact, to the in- vention of the telephone itself, for it was some of Bell's experi- ments with the vibrating reed type of multiplex telegraph currents from the ordinary tele- phone and direct current tele- graph currents, a device some- times called a high-frequency composite set is used. The car- rier currents vary in frequency from about 3,000 to 10,000 cycles per second, while the direct cur- rent telegraph and the voice cur- rents from the telephone seldom exceed 3000 cycles. This high- frequency filter set separates these frequency bands and allows the currents in each to flow to the apparatus it is desired to operate. The different frequencies of alternating currents are gener- ated by individual vacuum tube Vol. XL— 31-0. Telegraphy 647 E Telegraphy oscillators. The signalling cur- rent representing the message to be transmitted over the line operates a 'sending relay' which causes successive interruptions in the flow of high-frequency cur- rent to the hne. At the receiving end the cur- rents of different frequencies are separated from each other by selective or tuned circuits. Each individual alternating current is then passed through an amplifier to increase its magnitude and thence to a vacuum tube rectifier where it is changed to a steady direct current which operates a sensitive receiving relay. This receiving relay controls the cur- rent in the receiving loop. consisting of twenty different frequencies, is amplified by the use of a single vacuum tube repeater. Since there are no moving parts in this type of re- peater, the signals are repeated with little or no distortion and with practically instantaneous speed. In this way very long and 'fast' telegraph circuits are ob- tained. A diagram of the open wire carrier telegraph circuit is shown in Fig. 10. Telegraphing over Telephone Cables. — The smaller conductors (19 B. & S. gauge) used in toll telephone cables and their rela- tively greater mutual interfering effects due to their closer prox- (1) Instead of using a line cir- cuit having a grounded return and obtaining one telegraph channel per line conductor, it uses a metallic return and re- quires one pair of line conductors per telegraph channel. (2) The line voltages are very much lower (usually +34 volts instead of + 130 volts) than those used on open-wire circuits, the change being made in order to reduce interference from tele- graph circuits into telephone circuits and other telegraph cir- cuits. (3) Due to the reduction of the operating voltages and the use of small gauge cable conductors which inherently have a higher To DiredCurrenlTeleqraph Sets Sending Tuned Circuit Amplifier Oscillator Receiving Tuned Circuit Amplifier Amplifier Rectifier Receiving Relay Toother receiving Circuits Standard Composite Set Phantom Coil Telephone Circuit Half of Phantom Telephone Circuit Fig. 10. — Carrier Current Telegraph System The terminal apparatus is ar- ranged to connect to other tele- graph systems of the same or different kind. The local cir- cuits are arranged so that they may be used for 'duplex' or 'single' operation as desired. The speed and quality of signal trans- mission with a carrier system are very satisfactory even on ex- tremely long circuits. A decided advantage of the carrier system is to be found in the manner in which the signals may be repeated on long circuits. At an intermediate repeater point where no telegraph sets are to be connected, the composite wave, Vol. XL— 31-0. imity as compared with the con- ductors used in open wire tele- phone lines, has made the opera- tion over telephone cables of any of the previously described tele- graph systems unsatisfactory ex- cept for very short distances. A new direct current telegraph system was therefore developed to permit satisfactory telegraph operation over cable circuits simultaneously used for teleph- ony. This system, in common with the previously described direct current telegraph systems for open wire telephone lines, uses composite channels but dif- fers in the following respects. resistance, the line currents are very small. This necessitates a very sensitive receiving device and a new polar relay has been developed for this purpose. The terminal equipment con- sists of two parts, the line com- posite set, and the telegraph re- peater proper. The composite set, somewhat similar to the open wire composite set, is essentially a filter for separating the telephone or higher frequency channel from the direct current telegraph chan- nel. Two types of telegraph re- peaters are provided : one a termi- nal type repeater, used particu- larly in making connection to the Telegraphy 647 F Telegraphy terminal telegraph set, and the other a 'through' type repeater, for repeating directly between two line sections. A photograph of the terminal type is shown in Fig. 11, and the schematic cir- cuit including the line composite set is shown in Fig. 12. The proper functioning of this cable system depends primarily upon the sensitive receiving re- lay which has been developed to operate on very small line cur- rents. The theory of this relay is illustrated in Fig. 13. Features of this relay are as follows : (1) All windings are on a single spool. (2) The armature forms the core of the electromagnet. (3) The armature is mounted rigidly at one end, forming a cantilever beam and thereby eliminating frictional bearings. (4) The restoring force of the armature when displaced from its neutral position is opposed by the pull caused by the permanent magnet, thereby producing an almost balanced armature for any position between its two limits of travel. (5) By the magnetic bridge principle, a magnetic circuit of low reluctance is provided for the operating winding. One of the chief factors in gain- ing greater sensitivity of the re- ceiving relay has been the use of a local circuit invented by a Dan- ish engineer, Gulstad, and used first in connection with sub- marine cable working. The fun- damental idea is to provide a lo- cal circuit which will assist in moving the armature from one contact to the other at the time the line current is reversing its direction of flow. Electricity stored in a condenser is caused to flow through relay windings at the proper instant to quicken the armature movement and shorten the time interval required for moving from one contact to the other. Voice-Frequency Carrier Tele- graph System for Use on Tele- phone Circuits. — The previously described carrier telegraph sys- tems employing frequencies above the voice range for use on open wire telephone lines are not suit- able for long toll cable operation. In order to permit the operation of a carrier telegraph system on long telephone cable circuits, the voice-frequency carrier telegraph system has been developed. While this system does not per- mit the simultaneous use of the circuit for telephone and tele- graph operation, it does provide 12 telegraph channels occupying a frequency range of approxi- mately 300 to 2500 cycles in place of a single telephone chan- nel. The principles of operation are basically the same as those of the open wire carrier telegraph Am. Tel. & Tel. Co. Fig. 11.— D. C. Telegraph Equip- ment for Use with Composited Cable Circuits system. At present there are 600,000 miles of this type of car- rier system in use in the United States. Fig. 14 shows part of the voice-frequency carrier telegraph installation at New York. Submarine Cables. — For tele- graphing across large bodies of water, submarine cables are used. These consist of a stranded copper conductor, insulated with gutta-percha and protected by wrappings of jute and steel ar- mor wires. The high electrical resistance and capacity of long cables make it very difficult to signal over them at high speeds. In passing through such cables, the signals are greatly weakened and distorted, so that special methods of operation become necessary. The code employed is usually the Continental Morse Code, shown in Fig. 1, except that the dashes are of the same duration as the dots, positive im- pulses being used for dots and negative for dashes. Submarine telegraph cables, being laid on the ocean bottom, are well protected against the effect of storms and other terres- trial phenomena. An almost un- precedented occurrence took place on November 18, 1929, when a severe earthquake, which was registered on most of the seismographs of the world, was the cause of 10 submarine tele- graph cables off the east coast of North America being severed. Nearly all were broken at more than one point. Indicative of the provision which is made for the rapid repair of cables is the fact that the cable companies were able to dispatch eight cable re- pair ships immediately to make the necessary repairs. Also, the duplicate cables and alternate routes of the cable companies were sufficient so that international communications were not affect- ed to any great extent even by such a major calamity as this. The original method of opera- tion over long submarine cables employed a hand key for sending, and a mirror galvanometer for receiving. The signals were read by watching the motions of a spot of light reflected by the gal- vanometer mirror. The Kelvin siphon recorder (Fig. 15) is gener- ally used for this purpose. It has a coil suspended in a strong magnetic field. The incoming signals pass through this coil, causing it to oscillate to one side or the other, dependent upon the direction of the current. The motion of the coil is transmitted by means of two fibres to the siphon, which consists of a fine glass tube. To overcome the friction which would take place if the siphon rubbed on the paper tape, the siphon is kept in con- stant vibration by means of a small electric vibrator. The mes- sage is thus recorded as a wavy Vol. XL— 3I-0. Telegraphy 647 G Telegraphy T Artificial Line To Telephone Composite Set Receiving Relay 1 i Fig. 12. — Metallic Telegraph System line, consisting of a close row of ink dots on the moving paper tape. Cables are usually operated duplex by the bridge method. Two large condensers of 40 or 50 microfarads capacity are em- ployed for each arm of the bridge, while the siphon recorder is con- nected across the bridge arms. The condensers prevent flow of direct current due to earth po- tentials. Great accuracy is re- quired in making up and balanc- ing the artificial line. An induc- tance coil is sometimes connected across the winding of the siphon recorder to improve the wave shape of the signals. For sending, a perforator and tape transmitter are now gener- ally used, similar to those em- ployed in the Wheatstone system, except that they are modified to transmit cable code. To increase the speed of operation, amplifiers or magnifiers are sometimes em- ployed. The Heurtley amplifier is an arrangement connected to a siphon recorder by means of which one or the other of two very fine platinum wires, which are normally heated by local cur- rent, may be moved into the in- fluence of a blast of cool air. The cooling effect causes a change of resistance. These wires form the two arms of a bridge, across which is connected a siphon re- corder. Selenium amplifiers or magni- fiers consisting generally of two pairs of selenium cells connected to form the four arms of a Wheat- stone bridge, across which is con- nected the siphon recorder, are also used. The selenium cells are acted upon by means of light re- flected from a mirror galva- nometer connected to the cable circuit. Various forms of relays have been devised and used to a con- siderable extent in the operation of submarine cables. Among these may be mentioned the Brown drum relay, the Orling jet relay, the Muirhead and the Bruce relays. manent Magnet Windinqs Armature Pole- Piece Yoke Contacts , Fig. 13. — Theory of Sensitive Polar Relay CONTINUOUSLY LOADED SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH CABLES Date Length Speed Method of Terminal Points Laid n. m. letters/min Operation Owner New York — Horta (Azores) 1924 2329 1600 Simplex Western Union Telegraph Co. New York — Bay Roberts (New- 1926 1344 2500 Simplex Western Union Telegraph Co. Bay Roberts (Newfoundland) — Penzance (England) 1926 2023 2500 Simplex Western Union Telegraph Co. Horta (Azores) — Emden (Germany) 1926 1880 1800 Simplex German Atlantic Telegraph Co. Bamfield (Brit. Col.) — Fanning Is. 1926 3467 1000 Simplex Imperial and International Communications, Ltd. Fanning Island — Suva (Fiji Islands) 1926 2039 1000+ Simplex Imperial and International Communications, Ltd. Cocos Island — Perth (Australia) 1926 1750 2100 Simplex Eastern Extension, Austra- lasia & China Telegraph Co. Bay Roberts (Newfoundland) — 1600 Western Union Telegraph Co. 1928 1341 (each way) Duplex La Panne (Belgium) — Lisbon (Por- Italian Cable Co. 1930 1425 Vol. XL— 31-0. Telegraphy 647 H Telegraphy Loaded Submarine Telegraph Cables. — The first commercial application of a revolutionary- development in submarine cable telegraphy was made in 1924, when the 2300-mile New York- per cent over that of the corre- sponding cables of the previous art. A thin tape of highly mag- netic material called permalloy is spirally wound around the cop- per conductor of this new cable, cent nickel and 20 per cent iron. In addition to its utility in load- ing telegraph cables, permalloy has many applications in the communication art. The table on the preceding page shows the Am. Telephone & Telegraph Co. Fig. 14. — Voice Frequency Carrier Telegraph Equipment Azores permalloy loaded cable of the Western Union Telegraph Company was placed in service. On this cable an operating speed of over 1500 letters per minute was obtained, an increase in traffic carrying capacity of 300 thereby increasing its inductance and, consequently, its ability to transmit telegraph signals more rapidly. Permalloy is a develop- ment of the Bell Telephone Laboratories and is an alloy con- sisting of approximately 80 per continuously loaded cables of the world using permalloy or similar loading material. A later development in con- nection with loaded cables has been the successful duplex opera- tion by the Western Union Vol. XL— 31-0. Telegraphy 648 Telegraphy Telegraph Company of its New- foundland-Azores cable at speeds of 1600 letters per minute in each direction. One of the problems to be solved in duplexing a loaded cable is the provision of an arti- ficial line which, in addition to the customary matching of ca- pacity and resistance, must also match the inductive loading of the cable. Transmitters Sending Rings Transnnitters Siphon Recorder The higher signalling speeds obtainable with the new loaded cables permit the use of multi- plex printing telegraph equip- ment. Vacuum tube amplifiers in conjunction with 'wave-shapers' are also being used at the ter- minals on the newer cables in place of the old mechanically operated 'magnifiers.' Automatic and Printing Tele- graphs. — Automatic and printing telegraph systems may be divided into three classes, as follows: 1. Multiplex Systems. 2. Start-Stop Systems. 3. Other Automatic Systems. Any of these systems may be operated over any of the open- wire or cable telegraph circuits previously described except that, in general, the signals are trans- mitted at higher speeds than in the ordinary manual or Morse telegraph system, and the char- To Line Printers Printers Fig. 16. — Multiplex Printing Telegraph System acter of the line and the type of relays used must be such as to be capable of transmitting and receiving high speed signals in a satisfactory manner. In multiplex printing telegraph systems means are provided for automatically switching the line circuit to several sets of printing Printinq Relay Fig. 17. — Synchronizing Circuit for Multiplex System Vol. XL— 31-0. telegraph apparatus in rapid suc- cession, thus dividing the use of the line and providing a number of independent channels of com- munication. From two to six channels in each direction are usually obtained. Modern mul- tiplex printing telegraph systems all employ a five-unit code similar to that shown in Fig. 2. The fundamental principle of the multiplex is shown in Fig. 16. A 'distributor' is provided at each end of the line, consisting essentially of two metal rings, one of which is divided into seg- ments. Contact brushes are arranged to rotate in synchro- nism over these rings. Transmis- sion is effected by means of a group of five contacts for each 'channel;' these being controlled by a keyboard or by a perforated paper tape. Each contact, when actuated, reverses the polarity of the battery connected to the cor- responding distributor segment. When the brush passes over this segment, an impulse will be transmitted over the line to oper- ate the corresponding magnet of the receiving printer at the dis- tant end. By duplexing the line, messages may be sent simultane- ously in both directions. As shown in Fig. 16, the re- ceiving segments are shorter than the sending segments, so that Telegraphy 649 Telegraphy only the centre portion of each impulse or 'unit' is used for oper- ating the corresponding printer magnet. As a result, normal vari- ations in synchronism, or moder- ate amounts of distortion in the signals will not cause printed er- rors. Means are provided for ad- justing or orienting either the receiving segments or brushes to center the signals. The Baudot was the first of the modern multiplex systems. It is widely used in France and other European countries. A small keyboard having five keys similar to piano keys is pro- vided for each sending channel. Each key operates a contact con- nected to one distributor seg- ment. The code is memorized by the operator, and the letter com- binations are set up on the key- board by using three fingers of the right hand and two of the left. When the keys are de- pressed, they are automatically locked while the brush passes over the corresponding five seg- ments. An electromagnet mount- ed in the keyboard is then energized from a segment on an additional pair of rings to release the keyboard. This magnet also produces an audible click or 'cadence' signal, which notifies the operator that the keys may be depressed for setting up the next character combination. The Baudot printer is entirely mechanical except for the initial operation of the five selecting magnets. It has a continuously rotating type wheel and prints on a paper tape. A mechanism con- trolled by the selecting magnets presses the tape against the type wheel at the proper time to print the selected character. The tape is cut and pasted on telegram blanks for delivery. Two extra sending segments are provided for maintaining synchronism. At one end of the line, these are connected to posi- tive and negative batteries, re- spectively. At the other end of the line is a special movable seg- ment connected to a correcting magnet. If the orushes are in synchronism, this magnet will not be operated. The normal speed at the correcting station is adjusted, however, so that the brush at that station will gradu- ally gain. When this brush gains sufficiently so that it makes con- tact with the correcting segment while the brush at the other sta- tion is on the first or positive cor- recting segment, the correcting magnet will be actuated, and this will cause the brush at the correct- ing station to be slightly retarded. If the line is not duplexed, part of the distributor may be used for sending in each direction. For example, with a quadruple distributor, the first two channels (10 segments) can be used for sending in one direction and the last two for sending in the oppo- site direction, providing two channels each way. In such cases, in addition to the two cor- recting segments, other segments must be added to allow for the propagation time or 'lag' in the signals, so that signals sent in op- posite directions will not overlap. By duplexing the line, the carry- ing capacity is doubled. A quad- ruple-duplex would give four channels in each direction and eliminate the 'propagation seg- ments.' The Baudot distributor is usu- ally run at 180 revolutions per minute. Assuming 6 characters per word (5 letters and 1 space), this equals 30 words per minute per channel. A quadruple-duplex Baudot will transmit 120 words per minute in each direction or 240 total words per minute; it requires eight operators at each end of the line. The American multiplex sys- tem, manufactured by the Tele- type Corp., was developed in the research laboratories of the Bell Telephone System in collabora- tion with the engineers of the Western Union Telegraph Com- pany. It is based on the funda- mental principles proposed by Donald Murray, but differs from his system in detail. This sys- tem is used by the Western Union Telegraph Company for handling most of its trunk line business. It was also used to ad- vantage by the American Ex- peditionary Forces for handling a large volume of traffic in France and England during the World War. In this system messages are first prepared as perforations in a paper tape by means of a key- board perforator, with three rows of keys arranged somewhat according to standard typewriter practice, the perforations for each character being made across the tape and spaced 10 characters to the inch. From the perforator the tape passes directly into an auto- matic transmitter which has five contact levers controlled by five selecting pins. The positions of the contact pins are determined by the perforations in the tape, and each lever is connected to a segment on the sending ring of the distributor. The tape is stepped ahead at regular inter- vals by an impulse from an addi- tional segment on the distributor. The characters in the message, which are thus stored temporarily in the tape, are sent out over the line at a uniform speed. In this way the line can be kept working continually, even though the operator stops occasionally. The printers used with this system may print on either an 8K" wide page or on a wide tape. An additional feature of the system is the 'auto control,' a de- vice connected in the circuit be- tween the transmitter and the sending ring of the distributor. It is provided with a sector with five finger holes and is so ar- ranged that when operated it stops the transmission of the message and sends over the line the necessary signals to ring a bell at the distant station. Pro- vision is made for sending from one to five rings in succession. The auto control is used by the receiving operator as a direct means of signalling to the cor- responding sender operator at the Fig. 18. — Multiplex Distributor Set Vol. XI.— 31-0. Telegraphy 649 A Telegraphy distant station in case it becomes necessary to have a message re- run or re-punched on account of errors, or as a signal to stop send- ing in case of trouble. An im- portant function of this device is that it may be operated at any time during the transmission of the message without interfering with the printing of the mes- sage. This system uses a method of synchronizing or correcting from the actual working signals in- stead of employing special cor- recting signals, such as are used in the Baudot and Murray sys- tems, with a resulting saving of line time and increase of output. One method of correcting is illus- trated in Fig. 17. The distrib- utor brushes are driven by a special type of synchronous mo- tor, known as a phonic wheel motor, which is operated by im- pulses from a special tuning fork. The impulse relay is so arranged that brief current impulses are sent to the common correcting ring whenever the line relay ar- mature moves from one contact to the other. These impulses come at intervals determined by the signals transmitted from the distant station. The correcting segments are connected so as to operate the correcting relay in one direction if the correcting brush is ahead of the received signals and in the opposite direc- tion if it lags behind. As shown, the correcting relay causes a slight change in the speed of the driving fork by varying the cur- rent through the fork magnet. Another method commonly used for making correction is to mechanically retard the distrib- utor brushes of one of the dis- tributors which is normally run- ning slightly faster than the other. The distributor and driv- ing fork are shown in Fig. 18. This multiplex system has greatly increased the amount of traffic per operator, as well as the number of channels which can be obtained from each line circuit. Speeds as high as 60 to 70 six- character words per minute per channel are obtained. Arrange- ments have been developed for extending or 'forking" the chan- nels from a multiplex circuit to any distance by the use of ap- paratus of the 'start-stop' type described later. The Siemens-Halske high-speed automatic printing telegraph sys- tem is really a single channel modified Baudot system. It employs the 5-unit code which is sent by a perforated tape travel- ling through the transmitter. The receiver is synchronized by the received pulses and prints the letters directly on a tape at a speed of about 170 words per minute. The Teletype start-stop sys- tem embodies practically the Vol. XL— 31-0. same features as the multiplex system, but uses a distributor arm driven by an electric motor whose speed is regulated by a centrifugal type governor in- stead of the phonic wheel motor- driven arm of the multiplex. It operates ordinarily at a speed of 60 words per minute. The brushes of this distributor rotate once per letter transmitted and are momentarily stopped at the end of each revolution. The stopping and starting of the brush arms automatically syn- chronize the machine so that no other correcting equipment is required. The five-unit code is used for controlling the letter selections, with two additional 'units' for controlling the starting and stopping of the brush arms. These machines are made in compact units for receiving only, or for receiving and transmitting. The transmitters may be ar- ranged for either perforated tape or keyboard operation. The receivers of the 'page' type usually print on an 8K" wide page, while the receivers of the 'tape' type print on a wide tape. A Teletype Corporation start-stop set arranged for page reception and keyboard sending is shown in Fig. 19. This type of machine may be operated either 'single' or 'du- plex,' and any number of stations may be connected to the same line circuit. What is sent from one station will be recorded at all other stations. An important feature of this system is the method by which any station can interrupt the sending station and obtain control of the circuit. This is accomplished by operat- ing a 'break key,' which opens the line circuit, automatically stops the sending machine, and oper- ates a signal at the sending sta- tion. The Teletype start-stop sys- tem is widely used in the United States by the Western Union, the Bell System, the Postal Tele- graph and others. Telegraph service in the Unit- ed States may be divided into two major classes, public message service and private wire service. In the former class, the sender files his message with the tele- graph company, which tele- graphs it to its city of destina- tion, at which point delivery of the message is made by the com- pany to the addressee. In private wire service, the customer leases the telegraph station and line facilities to one or more points to which he desires this service and he usually supplies his own oper- ators. In the Bell System's private wire service, approxi- mately 40 per cent of the stations are of the manually operated Morse type, while 60 per cent are teletypewriters, as the Tele- type start-stop printers are called. Private wire service is usual- ly employed by organizations handling a relatively large amount of telegraph business where direct communication is desirable, such as brokers, press associations, airways, police de- partments, etc. Switching net- works have been designed so that any one of a group of stations may 'teletypewrite' to any or to Am. Tel. & Tel. Co. Fig. 19. — Page Keyboard Sending and Receiving Teletypewriter Telegraphy 649 B Telegraphy INSTATE HEADQUARTERS • ZONE HEADQUARTERS O STATE AND MUNICIPAL POLICE STATIONS: 1 NEWTON 2 NETCONG 3 MORRISTOWN A WASHINGTON 5 POMPTON LAKE 6 RAMSEY 7 ALPINE 8 PROSECUTOR'S OFFICE 9 BELLEVILLE 10 NUTLEY 11 CEDAR GROVE 12 NORTH CALDWELL 13 CALDWELL 14 ESSEX FELLS 15 WEST CALDWELL 16 EAST ORANGE 17 ORANGE 18 WEST ORANGE 19 LIVINGSTON 20 IRVINGTON 21 SOUTH ORANGE 22 MAPLEWOOO 23 MILBURN 24 METUCHEN 25 SOMERVILLE 26 FLEMINGTON 27 LAMBERTVILLE 28 PENNS NECK 29 HIGHTSTOWN 30 COLUMBUS 31 DELANCO 32 NEW EGYPT 33 KEYPORT 34 EATONTOWN 35 TOMS RIVER 36 POINT PLEASANT 37 BERLIN 38 VINELAND 39 SWEDESBORO 40 MALAGA 4 1 DEERFIELD 42 PORT NORRIS 43 CAPE MAY CH 44 MAYS LANDING 45 AB5EC0N 46 TUCKERTON NEW YORK CITY POLICE MtoOTRi PHILADELPHIA OrriCE PENN. STAl-E FOLIC Fig. 20. — New Jersey Stale Police Telelypewriler System Vol. XL— 31-0. Telegraphy 649 C Teleology all of the other stations. The re- ceiving stations may be so ar- ranged that it is not necessary to have an attendant present during the reception of a message. A representative police tele- typewriter network is shown in Fig. 20. This shows the location of about half of the 96 stations and associated wires used to con- nect the various units of the State and municipal police systems of New Jersey. In 1930 the Bell System alone had approximately 10,000 tele- typewriters in service. Statistics. — The accompanying table shows the mileage of tele- graph wire involved in handling public message service and the annual number of public message telegrams in some of the principal countries of the world. The Bell System in 1930 had over 2,000,- 000 telegraph channel miles for the handling of private wire tele- graph service which is not in- cluded in the following table: By the end of 1930 there was a total of about 400,000 statute miles of submarine cable in serv- ice in the world. Bibliography. — Consult the Journal of the A. I. E. E.; for the early history of telegraphy con- sult: J. J. Fahie, A History of Electric Telegraphy to the Year 1837; Submarine Telegraphy: H. D. Wilkinson, Submarine Cable Laying and Repairing; F. J. Brown, The Cable and Wireless Communications of the World; H. W. Malcolm, The Theory of the Submarine Tele- graph; I. R. E. Proceedings, Dec, 1930, by Hobart Mason, Advances in Transoceanic Cable Technique; for general telegraph problems, consult A. E. Stone's Textbook of Telegraphy; E. Haus- mann, Telegraph Engineering; T. E. Herbert, Telegraphy; H. H. Vol. XL— 31-0. Harrison, Printing Telegraph Systems and Mechanisms. Telegraphy, Wireless. See Wireless Telegraphy. Tel-el- A marna. See Tell- El-Amarna. Tel-el-Kebir. See Tell-el- Kebir. Telemachus, te-lem'a-kus, in ancient Greek legend, son of Ulysses and Penelope, was an infant when his father left home to join in the war against Troy, but during the latter's twenty years' absence grew into man- hood. Under the guidance of Athene, who had assumed the appearance of Mentor, Telem- achus set out in search of his long-lost sire, after having vainly endeavored to eject his mother's troublesome suitors from the house. Having visited Pylos and Sparta, Telemachus re- turned home to Ithaca, where he found his father in the guise of a beggar, and with him proceeded to slay the suitors. He succeeded Odysseus as king of Ithaca. Con- sult Homer's Odyssey; Fenelon's Les A ventures de Telemaque. Telem'eter. See Range Finders. Teleology, te-li-ol'o-ji or tel-i-, signifies by derivation 'a doc- trine of ends,' and as a philo- sophical term is used in connec- tion with two special problems: (1) Is the conception of end re- quired for the explanation of organic life or is the organism simply a very complex mecha- nism? (2) Is it permissible to in- terpret the world as a whole in terms of end as a purposive sys- tem? For the modern form of these problems, which are not of mod- ern date, we may refer to Kant's Critique of Judgment. His an- swer to the first is rather compli- cated and difficult. On the one hand, he is convinced that living things will never be explained on merely mechanical principles. The organization which makes all the parts of a living thing the expression of the single life of the whole is incapable of such expla- nation. On the other hand, he had already shown, in his anal- ysis of the principles of science, in his Critique of Pure Reason, that all that happens, every event in nature, must come under the me- chanical law of cause and effect, and it is impossible to except living beings from the range of this absolutely universal law of experience. His somewhat un- satisfactory solution is to main- tain the teleological point of view as indispensable for our judg- ment, while denying to it any ul- timate scientific necessity as re- gards the objects themselves. That is to say, we cannot help looking upon living things as if they were other than mere mech- anisms; but we cannot affirm as a proposition of science that they are not mechanisms, nor can we withdraw them from the scope of mechanical law. The answer Kant gives to the second problem is similar in method, but turns on the differ- ence between the scientific and the ethical point of view. We cannot help thinking of the world as a whole, as governed by the highest end we know — viz., the moral end. On the other hand, this teleological, or more defi- nitely theological, conception of the world remains a practical postulate which conveys no sci- entific knowledge of the actual structure of the world; and the attempted argument from the actual structure of the world to a designing mind as its cause — the teleological proof of the existence of God — is condemned by Kant as invalid. For this rather tentative recog- nition of purpose in the world, as indicated by the facts of organic life and by the demands of our moral consciousness, Kant's idealistic successors, and espe- cially Hegel, sought to substitute a conception of the world as through and through the expres- sion of mind or reason. But the problems of teleology may be said to stand pretty much where Kant left them. Henri Bergson wrote: 'The future appears as ex- panding the present: it was not therefore contained in the pres- ent in the form of a represented end. And yet, once realized, it will explain the present as much as the present explains it, and even more.' See Materialism; Theism. Consult P. Janet, Final Causes (1883); Martineau, Study of Re- ligion (1888); Hobhouse, L. T., Development and Purpose (1913); Lotze, Metaphysic (1884). See also Kant, Immanuel. PUBLIC MESSAGE TELEGRAPH STATISTICS OF THE WORLD Thousands of Thousands of Miles of Telegrams Telegraph Wire Sent in Year Jan. 1, 1930 1929 208 13.350t 110* 17,154 47 3,206 109 5,707t 361 15,680 44 5,376 France 520 37,545 Germany 304 30,200 Great Britain and No. Ireland 364** 54,267 Hungary 51 3.804 Italy 232 31,561t Japan 206** 58.721 59# 6.000: 84 6,000 Poland 56 5,823 85 # 19,483t 51 4.035 Union of South Africa 40** 5,984 United States 2,300 235,000 t Year 1928 ** March 31, 1930 * June 30, 1929 # Partly estimated t Year 1927 Teleosaurus 649 D Telephony Teleosaurus, te-le-o-s6'rus or tel-e-o-, a genus of fossil croco- diles, the remains of which occur in the Lower Jurassic rocks. Both surfaces of the vertebrae were slightly concave, the hind legs were large and strong, and the anterior portion of the body grad- ually tapered into the long and slender jaws. The jaws were armed with numerous equal and slender teeth, slightly recurved. Teleos'teans, or Teleostei. See Bony Fishes. Telep'athy, a term first em- ployed by the members of the Society for Psychical Research (q. v.), in 1882, to designate 'the communication of impressions of any kind from one mind to an- other, independently of the rec- ognized channels of sense.' There are several theories advanced to explain the phenomenon of telep- athy. One is that it is due to ethereal wave action: thought causes motion in the brain cells of one participant, and this mo- Telephone Bells. See Elec-, TRIG Bells. Telephony, a term covering the entire art of speech trans- mission by means of the electric speaking telephone and the multitude of devices, instru- mentalities, and methods which have been devised and developed for use in connection therewith. The electric speaking telephone was invented by Alexander Gra- ham Bell (q. V.) in 1875. The principle as conceived by Bell at that time was embodied in a pair of crude telephone instruments connected by about 100 feet of wire, by means of which speech sounds were transmitted from one room to another in a building in Boston, hearing being accom- plished only with the greatest difficulty. In contrast to this primitive state of the art in 1875, it is now possible (1931), in the United States alone, to establish not only telephonic communications as de- break' electrical currents, they failed to transmit intelligible speech. The work of a German, named Philipp Reis, one of the early experimenters with a 'make- and-break' current, was subse- quently brought forward in an attack upon the validity of Bell's patent, but in this connection the U. S. Circuit Court said: 'A century of Reis would never have produced a speaking telephone by mere improvement in con- struction. . . . Bell discovered a new art — that of transmitting speech by electricity.' In 1874 Bell and Elisha Gray were striving independently to invent a musical or harmonic telegraph which would enable several telegraph messages to be transmitted simultaneously over a single wire, and it was during the course of this work that Bell made his invention of the tele- phone. Subsequently Gray vig- orously contested priority with Bell in the courts, but the deci- FiG. 1. — Photograph of Electrical Undulations in a Telephone Circuit tion is imparted to the surround- ing ether in the form of waves which, impinging on the brain cells of the other participant, give rise to a thought corresponding to the original. Another theory is that the thought is not really transmitted but is read clairvoy- antly by the receiver; still an- other is that telepathy takes place in the subconscious mind, which is in communication with another subconscious mind by means of the universal mind underlying all things, of which individual subconscious minds form part. The spiritualistic theory is that an external spirit conveys the thoughts from one mind to an- other. The Society for Psychical Research has made many experi- ments to establish the fact of the existence of telepathy and is con- vinced that it does exist but that much remains to be done before it can be satisfactorily explained. Consult Baggaly's Telepathy Genuine and Fraudulent (1918) . sired between practically any two of the more than twenty million telephone stations, scat- tered from Maine to California, but also to connect by wire lines with telephones in Canada, Cuba and Mexico. By means of transoceanic telephone circuits connection can be had to all of Europe except Russia, to a large part of South America, to Aus- tralia and Northern Africa. In all, practically any telephone in the United States can be con- nected with any one of 32,200,000 out of 35,300,000 telephones of the world. In the United States an average of over eighty million telephone conversations take place daily. BelVs Invention. — For many years previous to Bell's inven- tion, numerous scientists and in- ventors had been striving to transmit speech electrically. They succeeded in transmitting musical sounds, but because they were dealing with 'make-and- sion was against him as was also the case with other claimants, who appeared in large numbers. The last sentence of Bell's pat- ent describes concisely the prin- ciple underlying the successful operation of the telephone: 'The method of, and apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically, by caus- ing electrical undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sounds.' When words are spoken into a telephone transmitter, the acous- tic waves that are set up in the air by the voice of the speaker are transformed by the transmit- ting instrument into electrical waves of the same shape and form as the acoustic waves. These electrical waves traverse the cir- cuit extending from the trans- mitting station to the receiving station, where they are re-trans- formed, by means of the receiv- ing instrument, into acoustic Vol. XL— 31-0. Telephony 649 E Telephony Fig. 2. — BelVs First Telephone Due to its structure this instrument was termed the 'Gallows' type. waves which convey the words to the ear of the hstener. Since Bell's original invention, it has become possible to photograph the electrical undulations in a telephone circuit. Such a photo- graph is shown in Fig. 1, which reproduces the electrical undula- tions set up by the words 'Bell Telephone.' Professor Bell's first concep- tion of the speaking telephone came to him while experimenting with the musical or harmonic telegraph. While holding one of his harmonic telegraph receivers to his ear he was astonished to hear the twang of a snapped spring. Recognizing the unusual nature of this phenomenon, he investigated the matter immedi- ately and found that his as- sistant, Thos. A. Watson, in an- other room, had snapped the spring of one of the telegraph transmitting instruments (which had ceased to operate) in order to set it in vibration again. Pro- fessor Bell recognized that the sound of the snapped spring had been transmitted electrically by means of the minute alternating current generated by its motion and thus was the principle of the telephone revealed to him. Bell's first telephone instrument is shown in Fig. 2. Over a short piece of wire equipped with two of these instruments he talked to Watson who heard the first speech vSounds transmitted and received by telephone. Immediately the task of improving the instrument began; and several forms were devised and constructed before the opportunity came to demon- strate the invention at the Cen- tennial Exposition, held at Phila- delphia in 1876. Figs. .3 and 4 show the types of instruments displayed at the Exposition. While the fame of the telephone spread rapidly, it was regarded for a considerable time merely as a scientific toy and its possibili- ties in the service of the public were quite unsuspected. Telephone Receiver. — Sev- eral typical early forms of tele- phone receiver are shown in Fig. 5. In some of these the external covering or case was made of wood. After these early forms, the so-called 'hand telephone' came into use, and was the type most widely used prior to the year 1900. This consisted of a straight permanent magnet of steel, provided at one end with a soft iron pole piece bearing, con- centrically, a wooden spool wound with many turns of fine insulated copper wire through which the telephone current passed, and, by its electromagnetic action, alter- nately reenforced or opposed the attraction of the permanent mag- net which was exerted upon the circular iron diaphragm placed opposite the pole piece and sepa- rated from it by a tiny air gap. These parts were contained in a shell or case of hard rubber, the diaphragm being retained in place by a cap, also of hard rubber, adapted to screw upon one end of the case. An orifice in the cap enabled the air waves set up by the movement of the diaphragm to reach the ear of the listener. This receiver was of the single pole type. About 1900, experiments ex- tending over a period of years culminated in the development of an improved form of receiver having the permanent magnet bent into a U shape, thus en- abling two pole pieces and their windings (the latter connected in series) to be used. This receiver, in distinction to the single pole hand telephone, was known as the bi-polar type. A still further improved type of receiver was placed in com- mercial service about 1912 — the type now widely used in the Belt System throughout the United States. Its structure is illus- trated in Fig. 6, on which the various parts are so marked that they can readily be identified. In addition to this type of re- ceiver which is principally used at subscribers' stations with a desk stand as shown in Fig. 15, a modi- fied form is used in conjunction with the hand telephone set illus- trated in Fig. 16A. There are also other types of receivers for special purposes such as those adapted to be worn upon the head by switchboard operators while on duty. Telephone Transmitter. — In 1876, Bell transmitted articu- late telephone messages by means of his liquid transmitter. With Vol. XL— 31-0. Telephony 649 F Telephony Fig. 4. — Iron Box Receiver Professor Bell exhibited this instrument before the judges at the Centennial Exposition, 1876. It was used as a receiver, the transmitter being the instru- ment shown in Fig. 3. this transmitter a variation in the electrical resistance of a cir- cuit, corresponding to the air waves set up by the speaking voice, was produced by attaching to a horizontal diaphragm a verti- cal metallic rod dipping into a conducting liquid, the rod and the liquid being introduced into a circuit containing a battery. The resistance of the circuit was changed as the movement of the diaphragm caused the length of the rod below the surface of the conducting liquid to be varied. This type of transmitter was, however, not adapted for practi- cal use, and for several years after Bell's invention there was no separate type of telephone transmitter, but it was necessary to use the receiver for talking as well as listening, the instrument being put to the mouth and to the ear alternately. An important forward step was taken when the box tele- phone was designed for use as a transmitter, a separate receiver being used for listening, and the necessity for shifting one instru- ment from the mouth to the ear was overcome. With these early transmitters, operating without a battery on the magneto princi- ple, it was possible to talk for distances of only a few miles. No electrical current was employed except the minute alternating current generated by the motion of the diaphragm in response to the speaker's voice. It was by means of the principle of the microphone, employing variable resistance contacts in a battery Fig. 5. — Types of Telephone Receiver A. "Butter Stamp" receiver, the first commercial form of Bell hand telephone, with wooden case. This instrument was used both as a transmitter and receiver. B. Later commercial form of wooden case receiver, employing binding posts for connecting the cord, c. First commercial form of rubber case receiver. D. Hand telephone with hard rubber case. Vol. XL— 31-0. Telephony 649 G Telephony circuit, that there came the possi- bility of important improvements in transmitters. In 1877, Berliner and Edison, working independently, devised variable resistance transmitters. Berliner used metallic contacts, while Edison employed a carbon disk so placed between two metal plates that the contact resistance was varied by the movement of the diaphragm actuated by the The next step forward was the invention of Henry Runnings, an English clergyman. He employed a multitude of small grains of pul- verized carbon, contained in a shallow chamber, contact being established with them by means of a metal plate at one end and a thin platinum diaphragm, actu- ated by the voice, at the other. The use of granular carbon had the effect of providing many vari- FiG. 6. — Bi-polar Receiver Later form; cross-section. voice. The invention of an im- proved form of microphone trans- mitter, by Francis Blake, in 1878, marked an important step for- ward. The essential parts of this transmitter, as shown in Fig. 7, are, wooden box. A, with orifice B to permit acoustic waves to reach iron diaphragm C, the per- iphery of which is enclosed within a rubber ring D, which rests against an iron mounting frame E. At the back of the diaphragm, and pressing upon it, is a damp- ing spring F, to reduce the vibra- tion of the diaphragm at its nat- ural period. A light, flexible spring G, resting against the diaphragm C, bears a platinum point H, which makes micro- phonic contact with a disk I of hard carbon, set in a metal back- ing J, borne by a substantial spring K. The parts marked L provide means for adjusting the pressure upon the microphonic contact between the carbon disk I and the platinum point H. This variable resistance contact formed part of the transmitting circuit which contained a bat- tery. As the contact resistance varied with the movement of the diaphragm, the voice waves were thus enabled to produce similar electrical waves in the transmit- ting circuit. For many years this transmitter remained the best type known. It could be used successfully with the lips of the speaker several inches distant from the instrument, and the transmission of speech was clear, but it proved difficult to main- tain the platinum-carbon contact in satisfactory adjustment. Vol. XI.— 31-0. able resistance contacts in multi- ple instead of the single variable resistance contact of the Blake transmitter, and thereby increas- ing its power. Various improvements were made in Hunnings' transmitter by Bell engineers, but it was found that, owing to the carbon granules gradually becoming packed together, the effectiveness of the instrument diminished to a considerable extent in the course of an extended conversa- tion. In 1890, A. C. White, a Bell System research specialist, over- came this objection by his inven- tion of the solid back transmit- ter, which possessed all the ad- vantages arising from the use of granular carbon but did away with many of the defects of the instruments then in use. White's discovery consisted in the use of a relatively small amount of granular carbon placed in a cham- ber so contrived that the motion of a plate or electrode, controlled by the diaphragm, kept the gran- ules continually stirred to a suffi- cient extent to prevent them from forming a compact mass. In this solid back transmitter, as shown in Fig. 8, granular carbon A is contained in a chamber between two disks or electrodes of hard carbon, B and C. Back electrode B is held firmly in place. Front electrode C is rigidly attached at its centre to diaphragm D, and follows it back and forth in re- sponse to the acoustic waves set up by the voice, due to the fact that it is so suspended at its periphery as to be capable of moving freely through a limited distance. This freedom of mo- tion is attained, and at the same time the granular carbon re- tained in the button, by making use of a thin ring of mica, E, to close the space between the front electrode and the walls of the chamber or button. At the back of the diaphragm, pressing upon it at definite points, are two damping springs (not shown in the figure). The mica ring is made from a special grade of mica obtained in India, and must be between 0.0015 and 0.0017 inch in thickness in order to at- tain the highest standard of transmission. Since the development of the solid back transmitter, it has been adapted to work on common battery circuits and almost every detail has been improved as the result of a continuous exhaustive investigation. Among these im- provements is an arrangement for damping the diaphragm at its centre, shown in Fig. 9, which ob- Fig. 7. — Blake Transmitter Cross-section of working parts. Telephony 649 H Telephony viates the necessity for maintain- ing the button and diaphragm in accurate ahgnment and renders the instrument less Hkely to get out of adjustment. The trans- mitter used with the hand tele- phone set illustrated in Fig. 16A is similar in principle to that shown in Fig. 9, but differs con- siderably in its construction. cost of wires in the cables used so effectively in cities and towns. The improvement in long dis- tance communication to a point where practically any distance necessary can be covered is mainly due to increases in the efficiency of the lines themselves including improvements due to loading and to the use of amplify- ing devices, as described later. Induction Coil. — With the ad- vent of the microphone trans- mitter came the use of batteries. Fig. 8. — Solid Back Transmitter — Original Form Diagrammatic cross-section of granular button. In addition to the types of transmitters employed at sub- scribers' telephones, there are special forms for switchboard operators, for linemen and for radio broadcasting. It is interesting to note that while the modern transmitter de- livers much more acoustic fre- quency power to the line than did the earlier carbon types this added power has been used pri- marily in decreasing the size and Fig. 10. — Induction Coil Drawing illustrating structure. at the subscribers' stations, to provide the current required for operating the transmitter. This, in turn, brought about the use of an induction coil in order to en- able each transmitter to operate in a local circuit. The structure of a typical induction coil is shown in Fig. 10. Around a core A, consisting of a group of small, soft iron wires, is wound a pri- mary winding B and, separate from it, a secondary winding C. Both windings are of insulated copper wire. As long as batteries continued to be used at all subscribers' sta- tions, the primary winding con- sisted of comparatively few con- volutions of relatively large wire, while the secondary winding con- sisted of many more turns of con- siderably finer wire. The pri- mary winding of the induction t Oam^'na, Giving S*mp*lcH)r As^mbly and P«rm«n«nc{! Mj' with Hiflh Effieipncy Rigtd G»UanUe(} Sto«l &r1dg« coil was placed in series with the transmitter and battery. This local circuit, being of low resist- ance, permitted much larger fluc- tuations of current, due to varia- tions in the resistance of the transmitter, than would have been possible had the induction coil not been used, and the trans- mitter current compelled to tra- verse the entire line circuit ex- tending between the talking and listening stations. As the sec- ondary winding of the induction coil was connected in series with the line and the receivers, the coil acted as a transformer, rais- ing the voltage and diminishing the current in the line and there- by operating to minimize energy losses. When the common bat- tery system of transmitter cur- rent supply made local batteries at subscribers' stations in the larger exchanges no longer neces- sary, it remained advantageous to retain the induction coils, but their design was radically changed. On farm lines and in Fig. 9. — Solid Back Transmitter — Modern Form Cross-section showing central damping features. Fig. 11. — Diagrammatic Sketch illustrating the Principle of the Call Bell or Ringer subscribers' stations in the smaller exchanges where it is still advan- tageous to use local batteries, the original induction coil principle with improvements in design is still employed. Station Signalling Apparatus. — The equipment placed at a subscriber's station must provide means whereby, when he desires to talk with another subscriber, he may signal the central office and, conversely, when some other subscriber desires to talk with him, he may be signalled from the central office. Originally none of the appliances now used for telephonic signalling was known, but it was necessary to use telegraphic signals operated by batteries. Later the signal was made by tapping upon the transmitter diaphragm, at first by hand, and then by a hammer signal, or 'thumper' devised by Watson. The first form of tele- phone equipped with a calling de- vice, was the box telephone of 1877. A fundamental improve- ment, devised by Watson in 1878, was a signalling system consisting of a small magneto generator, equipped with a crank to be turned by hand, the alternating Vol. XL— 31-0. Telephony 650 Telephony current thus produced setting in motion the armature of a polar- ized electromagnet to which was attached a hammer so placed be- tween a pair of tongs as to strike them alternately in rapid succes- sion, when operated. Fig. 12. — Early Form of Wall Telephone Set, Equipped with Automatic Hook Switch The operation of the call bell or ringer can be seen by reference to Fig. 11. The polarizing effect of the permanent magnet on the armature and cores of the coils is indicated by the letters in the sketch. When alternating cur- rent is passed through the wind- ings, however, it will be seen that the magnetism in one core is in- creased and in the other is de- creased during one half of a cycle, this effect being reversed during the other half of a cycle tending to attract the pivoted armature first to one core and then to the other. The magneto generator, im- proved from time to time, con- FiG. 13— Wall Telephone Set, Modern Form tinned to be used as the means of signalling the central office from the subscriber's station until the introduction of the common bat- tery system made its use no longer necessary in the larger ex- changes. In improved form, it Vol. XL— 31-0. still finds application on farm lines and in small exchanges. Power-driven alternating cur- rent generators are still used at central offices to enable subscrib- ers to be called. Modified and improved forms of the polarized call-bell or ringer are still used at subscribers' stations. Fig. 11. One modification used on many types of ringers is shown by the dotted portion of Fig. 11, where- by it is possible to pole the ringer so that it will not respond to pulses of a certain polarity re- gardless of their magnitude, and to bias it so that it will not re- spond to pulses of the opposite polarity which are less than a certain magnitude. This feature is utilized extensively in modern telephone systems for several purposes: to prevent false opera- tion of the ringer due to currents such as those caused by removing the receiver from the hook to call the central office or by dialing, and to provide selectivity with party lines rung with assymetri- cal currents of the superimposed ringing type for four party selec- tive service. Telephone Station Sets. — The first commercial wall telephone (August, 1877), used both as a transmitter and receiver, was of the box telephone type. With the introduction of signalling systems it became necessary to provide means whereby, when talking was not going on, the sig- nalling circuit would be connec- ted to the line and the talking circuit disconnected, and also so that, when talking was going on, the talking circuit would be con- nected with the line and the sig- nalling circuit disconnected. To accomplish this, H. L. Roosevelt invented a mechanism consisting of a rod, or bar, hinged at one end, so as to admit of its movement in a vertical plane, and shaped at the other end into a fork or hook from which the re- ceiver could be suspended. When the receiver was hung upon the end of this hook-switch, its weight caused the switch to oc- cupy its lowest position, but when the receiver was removed (in order to talk) a spring caused the switch automatically to rise to its highest position. Suitable electrical contacts, opened or closed according to the position occupied by the switch, provided the means whereby the desired circuit changes could be made. Fig. 12 shows an early form of wall telephone set equipped with an automatic hook-switch, and Fig. 13 shows a modern form of wall set. Desk stands for use at sub- scribers' stations were devised as early as 1886 and have been con- tinuously improved. In these stands an improved form of auto- matic hook-switch holds the re- ceiver. The remaining telephone station apparatus (induction coil, call bell and condenser) is con- tained in a separate box, usually mounted inconspicuously be- neath the desk. Fig. 14 shows an early form of desk stand, and Fig. 15 a modern form. The Fig. 14. — Desk Stand, Early Form circuit diagram for a common battery telephone station set is shown in Fig. 16. The hand telephone set intro- duced several years ago appears to be popular with the telephone- using public and hence appears to meet its ideas of a convenient form of telephone. On July 1, 1931, there were in the Bell Sys- tem approximately 2,250,000 handsets, which is over 14 per cent, of the total number of sub- scribers' stations. Fig. 15. — Desk Stand, Modern Form — Equipped with Dial Party Lines. — For many years after the telephone began to be used in commercial service, great difficulty was experienced in talk- Telephony 651 Telephony ing when several stations were connected on one circuit, consti- tuting what is known as a party- line. This difficulty was due to the fact that the wire coils of the call-bells were, following the pre- vailing state of the art, connected into the circuit in series. Even when wound with the minimum number of turns consistent with successful ringing, their imped- ance to voice currents was so high as greatly to impair the trans- Induction Coil carried on over an outdoor line, this line being a privately owned telegraph wire, about two miles in length, extending from Boston to Cambridgeport, Mass. The earliest telephone lines were sin- gle iron wires making use of an earth return, i.e., 'grounded.' Existing telegraph practice was copied and, in the cities, the wires were largely run on house-tops or carried by pole lines in the streets. Switch Hook Fig. 16. — Circuit Used at Common Battery Telephone Stations Illus- trating the Apparatus and Connections mission of speech. Not only this, but the presence of these call- bell windings in the line unbal- anced the metallic circuit and caused to be heard such loud noises that from this cause alone, speech transmission was fre- quently rendered difficult or even impossible. John J. Carty, of the technical staff of the Bell System, dis- covered, as early as 1889, that by bridging these call-bell windings across the circuit instead of con- necting them in series, interfer- ence with the transmission of speech from this source was done away with and disturbances on the line were prevented. Arrangements have since been developed whereby, on party lines having two, and in some cases four stations, the bell of any desired station may be run without operating the bells at the other stations. Various schemes have also been devised for extending selective signalling to a greater number of party line stations, but these schemes, while theoretically possible, have been found to possess certain practical disadvantages that limit their usefulness. Telephone Lines. — Telephone lines fall into three principal classes according to the use made of them. These classes are: (a) Subscribers' lines, which connect telephone stations with a central office. (b) Exchange trunk lines, which connect different central offices in the same exchange area. (c) Toll and long distance lines, which connect exchange areas in different cities and towns, a special toll charge being made for the connection. It was in October 1876 that the first sustained conversation was Hard-Drawn Copper Wire. — In the use of overhead wires, it was found that the iron wires, which had proved satisfactory in telegraph working, were not so well fitted for voice transmission, so that, unless something better were discovered, the range of the telephone would be seriously lim- ited. Copper possessed the req- uisite electrical properties, but, when made into wire by the man- ufacturing methods then prac- tised, it had only about half the tensile strength of iron, and was too weak to be used in ordinary spans. It remained for Thomas B. Doolittle, in 1877, to carry on a series of experiments in the plants of the wire manufacturers which led to the production of hard-drawn copper wire. This wire, without appreciable sacri- fice in electrical conductivity, possessed tensile strength nearly double that of the copper wire which had previously been pro- duced and equivalent to that of iron. Metallic Circuits. — Another important step which profoundly affected the development of the telephone art was the discovery by Carty, in 1883, of the balanced metallic circuit. By abandoning the ground return in favor of a second wire closely parallelling the first, troubles from overhearing conversations on adjacent lines and disturbing noises from near- by electric wires were greatly re- duced. The success of the metal- lic circuit depended upon the in- terchange in position of the wires of the circuit at certain definite intervals, each point at which the interchange occurred being called a 'transposition.' A proper co- ordination between the location of transposition points in circuits on the same pole line was found to be essential to successful working. Fig. 17 shows the method of transposing a pair of line wires. Fig. 17A is a trans- position diagram for 5 circuits on one crossarm. The extension of this principle to cable con- struction, by the use of pairs of insulated wires, suitably twisted together, laid the foundation for the great advances that have taken place in this branch of the art. Cable Development. — As early as 1880, some short experimental Fig. 16 a.— Hand Set with Dial Vol. XL— 31-0. Telephony 651 A Telephony- cables having wires covered with rubber or gutta-percha were laid in a trench alongside a railroad track in Massachusetts, and in 1882-3 several cables were laid in Boston, the longest about a quar- ter of a mile, using rubber insu- lated copper wires. The greatest number of wires in a single cable was fifty. Over these cables con- versation was successful within short limits, but where they were used in connection with lines reaching the suburbs, the voice became indistinct. Experiments followed with different sizes of wire and thicknesses of rubber but the sound was muffled and it was easy to overhear on one wire, by induction, conversations car- ried on over other wires. The conclusion was clear that rubber or gutta percha — the best insu- lating materials then known — • were unsuited for telephone use. Cotton impregnated with various moisture-proofing compounds, was then used as an insulating material, the finished wires being drawn into short lengths of lead pipe. Still later dry paper, her- metically sealed in a lead sheath, was used, and this has remained the best type of insulating ma- terial for telephone cables. After a brief use of No. 18 A. W. G. soft copper wires, a change was made to No. 19 gauge (0.0359 inch diameter), which continued to be used for several years. Subsequent improve- ments have enabled still smaller wires to be used and cables have been developed containing an in- creasingly larger number of pairs of these small wires. The follow- ing table gives the state of the art of cable manufacture at various dates with respect to the size of wires employed and the number of pairs which it was possible to enclose in a full size sheath (about 2^ inches in out- side diameter) . Progress in Cable Design and Manufacture Size of Wire Number Date A. W. G. of Pairs 1892... #19 (0.0359 inch) 100 1895... 19 120-150 1896... 19 180-200 1900-1. 22 (0.0253 inch) 19 300-400 1901... 300 1902... 22 600 1912... 22 900 1914... 24 (0.0201 inch) 1200 1916... 19 450 1928... 26 (0.0159 inch) 1800 Vol. XL— 31-0. Cable Manufacture. — The in- sulating paper is manufactured from materials especially selected for their mechanical, chemical, and electrical properties, and is wrapped in the form of a narrow tape spirally about each wire. The wires, thus insulated, are twisted together in pairs, which are then, by means of a stranding machine, assembled into a core consisting of several layers of twisted pairs spiralled in reverse directions, or of an assembly of units each consisting of 51 or 101 pairs. Long distance and other coarse gauge cables are stranded by the reversed layer method, whereas fine gauge cables are stranded by the 'unit' method, an example being 1,818 pair 26 gauge cable which contains eighteen 101 pair units. The completed core, after having been kept for many hours in a partial vacuum, in an oven maintained at a definite high temperature to remove moisture, is finally en- closed in a metallic sheath ap- plied continuously by a lead press. Fig. 18 (inset) shows in a general way the structure of a completed cable. Cable Sheath. — Cables must possess some degree of flexibihty, so that they may be coiled on reels for transportation and drawn in ducts. Pure lead is unsuitable for cable sheaths for several reasons, among which is its tendency to crystallize and crack, particularly in the case of cables suspended aerially and hence subject to protracted vi- bration. The most satisfactory sheath material is an alloy, con- sisting of about 99 per cent, lead and 1 per cent, antimony. The manufacturing plant of the Bell System (Western Electric Com- pany) in 1930 used, in cable man- ufacture, enough lead to fill up- wards of 2,500 railroad cars of 40- tons' capacity each, and enough cable was made in that year (over 80,000 miles) to reach from San Francisco to London, via New York approximately three times. Use of Cable in Telephone Plant. — Underground cables are drawn into the ducts of a conduit system. For installing the cables and to permit of splicing them, manholes are provided at inter- vals averaging, as a rule, from 300 to 400 feet. The principal material used for ducts is terra- cotta, although creosoted wood is employed to some extent. Where underground conduit construction is not employed, cables are suspended aerially from suspension strand supported upon poles, the cables being drawn through metal rings which are attached to the strand at in- tervals of from 16 to 20 inches, and which form virtually an aerial conduit. At frequent in- tervals, so as to permit of con- nection to the wires leading to subscribers' stations, the cable conductors are brought out to binding posts in cable terminal boxes which are hermetically sealed to the cable sheath, as moisture would ruin the paper- insulated cable. In thickly-built up localities, cables are often attached inconspicuously to the walls of buildings. Under certain conditions ar- mored cable is buried in the earth without employing conduit. Interurban and Toll Entrance Cables. — Where conditions are such as to warrant placing wires extending from one city to an- other in cable,^ and also where cable is employed in connection rfc Indicates a transposition to be cut in when the circuit is phanlomed . The figure at each phantom trans- position indicates the type . Fig. 17A. — Transposition Diagram for Five Circuits on One Crossarm Phantoms on pins 1-4 and 7-10. Fig. 18. — -Underground Manhole (view from the centre looking toward one end), Showing the Method of Running the Cables along the Walls of the Manhole, and the Racks and Hooks Provided to Support Them. The designation of each cable is indicated by a metal tag. The inset shows an 1,800 pair cable of the 'multiple unit' type. The eighteen units of 100 pairs each are shown. Vol. XI.— Page 651 B Vol. XL— 31-0. Telephony 651 C Telephony with toll and long distance wires entering urban areas, cable con- ductors as large as No. 16 and No.. 13 A. W. G. (and in some cases even No. 10) have been used. Modern development, however, has been successfully directed toward using smaller cable conductors and improving the efficiency of transmission by the use of loading coils which may be supplemented by repeaters. The extent to which these devices Loading is a practical method for increasing the efficiency of telephone lines by the addition of a suitable amount of series in- ductance which makes it possible to transmit the energy corre- sponding to the speech sounds at a higher line potential and with a lower value of line current than would be possible without the added line inductance. Ordi- narily, except in deep sea cables, the loading of lines is accom- FiG. 19. — Iron Cases, each Containing 200 Loading Coils. Left, Perm- alloy Core Coils, Weight 726 Lbs. Right, Iron Core Coils. Weight 1750 Lbs. have permitted the range of tel- ephonic transmission through cables to be increased will be discussed after the devices them- selves have been described. Un- der many circumstances, particu- larly through country districts, it is economical to install inter- urban cables aerially on poles. Improvements in Transmission E fficiency. — Within the last thirty years two important means for improving the transmission effi- ciency of telephone circuits have been developed and introduced into practice. One of these im- provements, termed 'loading.' reduces losses in the line by mak- ing the circuit a better conductor for telephone currents; the other, consisting in the use of 'ampli- fiers,' works like a relay by bring- ing in, at intervals, a new supply of energy. , Vol. XL— 31-0. plished by inserting at periodic intervals in the circuit, special types of inductance coils having very low energy losses. Coil loading, as now commer- cially applied to wires in tele- phone tables, so increases the transmission efficiency that the loaded circuit can be used up to approximately four times the length of the non-loaded circuit. Prior to the development of the telephone repeater to its present state of perfection, loading was applied to both open wire and cable, but now the application to open wires is practically aban- doned. To accomplish, without loading, the results which load- ing made possible, would require cable wires ranging up to eight times as heavy as those used in the loaded cables. The French telephone engineer Vaschy was the first to point out explicitly the possibility of re- ducing the losses in a telephone line by increasing the series in- ductance of the circuit, and he was also the first to suggest the use of inductance coils. Mean- while, Heaviside developed his classical theory of electric wave propagation, leading to his sug- gested use of low-loss inductance coils in 1893. However, the early workers did not develop their ideas of using inductance coils far enough for practical results, largely because they failed to recognize the necessity for spac- ing the inductance coils in proper relation to the speed of propa- gation of the electric waves. In 1899, the solution of this funda- mental spacing problem was worked out independently, and almost simultaneously, by Prof. M. L Pupin and Dr. G. A. Campbell, and basic United States patents on this discovery were issued to Prof. Pupin in June, 1900. Their work demon- strated that a coil-loaded line should have several coils per wave length in order to be equiv- alent to a line having the same total amount of inductance uni- formly distributed, and estab- lished a firm foundation on which the highly developed commercial art of coil loading is based. To make coil loading commer- cially practicable, it was neces- sary to develop improved types of inductance coils having suffi- ciently low energy losses and capable of being manufactured at low costs. These requirements in the earlier form of art were met by using toroidal (ring-shaped) cores composed of extremely low permeability iron wire, 0.004 inch in diameter, thoroughly insulated by a suitable film coating to re- duce eddy current losses. The first commercial loading coils had two windings of insu- lated copper wire, one for inser- tion in each side of the line circuit. In 1910, the practice was commenced of phantoming loaded circuits and loading the superposed phantom circuits. This involved the development of improved types of coils having four line windings, one for inser- tion in each line wire of the phantom circuit, improved two- winding coils being used on the side circuits. In order to avoid objectionable speech overhearing effects between the phantom cir- cuits and their side circuits it was necessary to obtain a very high degree of electrical balance in the new types of loading coils and in the phantomed lines and cable circuits. This required the solu- tion of many difficult problems in the design, manufacture, and installation of the loading coils and the lines. The loading coils for cable cir- cuits are spaced at intervals Telephony 651 D Telephony ranging from about 700 to 9,000 feet, the inductance and spacing depending upon the type and grade of service involved. The loading coils are generally assem- bled in lots ranging up to 300, (900 maximum) and were for- merly 'potted' in cast-iron cases, the terminals of the coils being brought out from the cases in lead-covered stub cables adapted for splicing to the cable which is to be loaded. The modern prac- tice, however, is to use sheet-steel cases. About 1916, there was devised an improved type of loading coil core which consists of several flat rings, each of which is made by compressing, under a pressure of about 200,000 pounds per inch, finely powdered iron particles mixed with a suitable insulating- binding material. Besides being as good as, or better than, the earlier types of iron-wire cores from the standpoint of electrical efficiency, these compressed powdered iron cores have advan- tages with respect to magnetic stability which make them spe- cially valuable for use in loading circuits operated in conjunction with telephone repeaters. A recent step in the improve- ment and reduction in cost of the loading coil is the direct result of a fundamental scientific discov- ery on the part of the Bell Tele- phone Laboratories, Inc., of a material, 'permalloy,' with new and unusual magnetic properties which are peculiarly suited to the requirements of telephony. The permalloy used in loading coils is an alloy of four-fifths nickel and one-fifth iron, specially heat- treated. After continuous experi- mental work extending over sev- eral years, the laboratory and manufacturing experts succeeded in making a core of permalloy dust which permits a great re- duction in size of coils for both local and toll use. Not only has there been a substantial reduc- tion in the cost of the coil but the reduction in size permits econo- mies of potting and space econo- mies in manholes which are ex- tremely important, particularly in thickly settled areas. It is interesting to note that, while coils of this new type are used in new construction, they do not make necessary the replacement of the older types already in the plant or render them obsolete. The use of telephone repeaters on loaded circuits introduced new requirements on the loading sys- tems as well as the coils; to meet the circuit requirements the ve- locity of transmission has been greatly increased, also the num- ber of coils per wave length. The combined use of repeaters and loading on small gauge toll cables for long distance service has very substantially increased the ex- tent of the application of coil loading. Illustrative of this trend, a toll cable between New York and Chicago involves the use of 400,000 loading coils with all circuits fully loaded. At the end of 1930 there were over 5,- 000,000 loading coils installed on inter-city toll cables. This use of coil loading on repeatered cable circuits makes it possible to pro- vide a high standard of trans- mission at a much lower total service cost than if the loading coils were not used. In the case of open wires, however, the use of improved types of repeaters made it possible to secure better transmission results on non- loaded lines than could be ob- tained for the same total cost on repeatered loaded lines. For this reason, the use of loading on open-wire lines was abandoned in favor of a wider use of repeaters. Fig. 20. — Vacuum Tube Repeater Bulb Mounted in Socket On the other hand, on account of its lower costs in such service, loading has a very extensive field of application on the trunk cables connecting the various central offices in the large metropolitan areas and in non-repeatered cables reaching from city to sub- urban points. In the United States, approximately 1,900,000 loading coils were in use in this y type of service at the beginning of 'l931. Repeaters (Amplifiers). — The first repeaters used were of a me- chanical type, the working parts of a receiver and transmitter be- ing so combined in one instru- ment that the receiving part actu- ated the transmitting part, thus enabling an incoming telephone current to be sent forward with renewed energy supplied from the repeater battery. It was found, however, that the most delicate apparatus that could be contrived ( had so much inertia in its mov- ing parts that distortion of the transmitted speech occurred, be- coming particularly noticeable as the number of repeaters in a cir- cuit was increased. The three-electrode vacuum tube, invented by De Forest for wireless telegraphy purposes, con- tained a principle which, applied to telephony, offered the oppor- tunity of utilizing the control of a stream of electrons to obtain a substantially distortionless re- peater; and after a great amount of development work a satisfac- tory repeater was produced which would receive the minute attenu- ated telephone currents and send out currents of substantially the same form but greatly enlarged in size. The vacuum tube re- peater element, with its elec- trodes, is shown in Fig. 20. The manner in which it operates may be understood from the circuit drawing. Fig. 21. The salient parts are a fila- ment, heated by battery A to a point where it glows, like an electric lamp filament, but is not so hot; two flat pieces of metal parallel to and a short distance away from the filament, termed 'plates'; and a grid, or screen, of fine wires, parallel to the plates and placed between the plates and the filament. The bulb, which contains these elements, is exhausted to an extremely high vacuum. The heated filament gives off electrons, which are negatively charged. Battery B is so connected, between the fila- ment and the plates, as to make the plates electro positive to the filament. The electrons are acted on by this field and attracted to the plates. This transfer of elec- tric charges represents a continu- ous current flow, the circuit be- ing completed through the bat- tery, coils and wires. The stream of electrons passes from the fila- ment to the plates through the grid. The grid enables the flow of electrons to be controlled in the same way that one can con- trol the flow of water through a rubber tube by compressing the latter more or less between the fingers. This control is exercised by the incoming telephone cur- rent which passes through trans- former M in the receiving cir- cuit (which includes the filament and the grid) and causes the grid to vary in potential with respect to the filament. This varying potential affects the electrostatic field and, like a valve, controls the passage of the electrons from the filanient to the plates. In this way the current flowing from the filament to the plates is va- ried in accordance with the in- coming telephonic waves. These variations pass out over the line through transformer N. in the transmitting circuit. They have the same shape as the current in \he receiving circuit but they Vol. XL— 31-0. Telephony 652 Telephony have greater energy coming from battery B. It is characteristic of re- peaters, as well as loading and other subjects, that a vast amount of work, extending into every detail, is required in reduc- ing the first ideas to practise. The successful use of repeaters has involved the careful design of much auxiliary apparatus, and difficult problems of balanc- ing the repeater in the circuit have necessitated careful con- sideration of the complete lines and all their associated appa- ratus. On open wire lines, repeaters are employed at intervals of from 150 to 350 miles. On cable lines, the distance between repeater stations averages from 40 to 50 miles. Repeaters have, as noted in the previous section, displaced load- ing as a means for improving the transmission efficiency of long open wire circuits. Long cables, however, if not properly loaded, will cause unequal attenuation at the different frequencies within the voice range so that, without loading, the higher frequency currents would be greatly attenu- ated in proportion to the lower, and conversation would become difficult, if not impossible, even with sufficient amplification to give suitable volume. In the case of long cables, therefore, loading coils and repeaters are used in conjunction. It is interesting to note that telephone circuits have become so long, both geographically and electrically, that echoes which are • set up may interfere with the con- versation unless suppressed. The efTects produced are very similar to those with sound waves. Whenever a voice wave meets an electrical irregularity in a cir- cuit, some part of the wave is re- flected, just as sound waves are reflected from a building or the side of a mountain. This re- flected wave then becomes an echo. In telephone circuits of such lengths as to require a num- ber of repeaters, particularly in the long cable circuits later de- scribed, the effects may become so serious as to justify the use of so-called echo suppressors in which the speech current oper- ates relays which block the echoes without stopping the main trans- mission. Extension of Transmission Limits: Open Wire. — New York and Boston were first placed in telephonic communication in 1884. By 1893 New York and Boston were talking to Chicago, and one-half of the people in the United States were within talk- ing distance of each other. Sev- eral years later Omaha and St. Louis were reached, and remained the extreme western limits until, in 1911, by means of loading coils applied to the heaviest copper wires in use (No. 8 B. W. G. 0.165 inch in diameter), tele- phone service became possible between New York City and Denver. In January, 1915, the transcontinental line of the Bell System, from New York to San Francisco, 3,400 miles in length, was placed in commercial service. The original line employed both loading and repeaters. In 1920 the loading coils were removed and additional telephone re- peaters introduced, this change greatly increasing the width of the 'band' of frequencies trans- mitted. Cable. — In 1906, a loaded cable was placed in operation between New York and Philadelphia, a distance of about 90 miles, and in 1912, cable connection between New York and Washington was established. In 1914, repeater developments in connection with improvements in balancing and loading cable circuits enabled sat- isfactory telephone talks to be held between Boston and Wash- ington, a distance of 455 miles. During 1921, the toll cable system was extended from Phila- delphia to Pittsburgh and in 1925 the first New York-Chicago cable, having a length of 861 miles, was completed. Since that time, the introduc- tion of toll telephone cables has gone forward rapidly. Improvements render it tech- nically possible to talk over wires in cables more than 3,000 miles in length, employing wires no larger than those which, forty years ago, caused serious interference with transmission when used in lengths of only about one quarter of a mile. Comparative freedom from storm damage is one of the great advantages of toll cable over open wires. It should be borne in mind, however, that it is only in the more thickly populated sections of the country that the number of circuits along a given route is sufficient to justify this development of toll cable facili- ties. For routes with a smaller number of circuits, open wires to which carrier telephone circuits may be applied to increase the total circuit capacity are em- ployed. On January 1, 1931 there were in the United States more than 25,000 miles of toll cable including the long loaded intercity cables provided with telephone repeaters together with cable used for short-haul toll purposes. Submarine Cable. — In 1921 the United States was connected with Cuba by means of three telephone cables joining Key West with Havana. These cables are about 115 miles long and depths of more than a mile are reached in some places. Each of these cables is composed of a copper wire wrapped with several small copper tapes, and is continuously loaded by means of a fine iron wire wrapping. Over this comes a covering of gutta percha, out- side of which is wrapped the copper tape which constitutes the return-to-ground conductor. Over each of these cables one telephone and two telegraph messages can be handled simul- taneously. In 1931, to take care of the growing telephone traffic between United States and Cuba, there was installed a new cable to supplement those already re- ferred to. The new cable is non- loaded in comparison with the continuous loading of the older type. It is insulated with the new 'paragutta,' developed after extensive research in the Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. The new cable transmits a range of frequencies up to about 30,000 cycles and employs telephone carrier current methods which provide three telephone circuits on the single conductor cable, the same number as is divided be- tween three cables of the older type. Radio. For telephone com- munication by radio see article Wireless Telephony. Vol. XL— 31-0. Telephony 653 Telephony Loud Speaking Telephones. — By means of specially designed transmitters and receivers (the latter provided with huge pro- jectors) operating in conjunction with amphfying devices of high power, it has been made possible to magnify the energy of the voice currents billions of times, thus affording a means whereby public speakers can address vastly larger audiences than was previously possible. On Armistice Day, Nov. 11, 1921, with the aid of this apparatus, the words spoken by President Harding and others at the burial of the Un- known Soldier, at Arlington, Va., were heard by 30,000 people in New York City, and 20,000 in San Francisco. In its time, that was an achievement which has been vastly exceeded since. Increasing the Number of Mes- sages over a Pair of Wires: The Phantom Circuit — Open Wire. — ■ By connecting together two pairs of open wires, making use of suitably balanced terminal coils and specially devised transposi- tions in the line itself, it is possi- ble to carry on simultaneously and without mutual interference, three conversations; one over each pairs of wires in the ordinary manner and the third over all four wires, the two wires of each pair, in multiple, forming one conductor of the third or 'phan- tom' circuit. First proposed in the United States by Carty, in 1884, the phantom principle, although yielding some results under fa- vorable conditions, remained for many years scarcely more than an interesting scientific curiosity. It was not until about 1904 that advances in the art enabled the phantom principle to be exten- sively applied. Phantoming is used chiefly for toll and long dis- tance lines. It is not applicable to common battery subscribers' circuits. Fig. 22 shows the use of phantom repeating coils. The Phantom Circuit — Cable. — For a number of years after the phantoming of open wires be- came practicable, the phantom principle could not be applied to wires in cables owing to the ex- tent of the mutual interference between each phantom and its side circuits. It was only by specially twisting together two pairs to form a quad, and by re- fining every part of the manu- facturing process, that a cable was produced sufficiently well balanced to permit good phan- tom operation. Quadded cables are now in extensive use in the United States, principally for in- terurban cables and for bringing phantomed open wire toll lines into large centres of population. For a time it was neither possible to phantom loaded lines nor to load phantom circuits. It was only after further refinements had been made in the electrical bal- ancing of the coils that the ad- vantages of loading could be ap- plied to phantoms (both open wire and cable) not only by load- ing the physical circuits consti- tuting the phantom but also the phantom circuit itself. Multiplex Telephony. — Since the beginning of the arts of teleph- ony and telegraphy, numerous inventors have striven to devise methods and apparatus for trans- mitting a plurality of messages over a single circuit at the same time; but it was not until 1918 that research engineers of the Bell System finally put into commercial service, between Bal- timore and Pittsburgh, a multi- plex system whereby four tele- phone conversations in addition to the one normally had (five in all) could be carried on over one circuit at the same time. By dropping out one of these tele- phone conversations, as many as 10 simultaneous telegraph mes- sages might be substituted for it. The successful operation of this system depended on the ability ilar to the type employed as an amplifier. It is primarily an ac- tion whereby the amplitude of the carrier current is caused to vary in response to the amplitude of the voice current. An action of frequency change also takes place so that the net result of the operation of a four channel carrier system using the frequencies mentioned above is to cause to be transmitted on the line simul- taneously four separate bands of frequencies, within limits of 8,000 to 10,000 cycles, 13,000 to 15,000 cycles, 18,000 to 20,000 cy- cles, and 23,000 to 25,000 cycles respectively. Another piece of electrical ap- paratus, the invention of which was essential to the success of this multiplex system, is the band-pass electrical filter of G. A. Campbell. This filter, by suit- able combinations of inductance and capacity, is so made that it will be electrically transparent to currents within certain definite bands of frequencies and electri- cally opaque to currents of all frequencies outside that range. Fig. 22. — Phantom Circuit Method of connecting phantom repeating coils into phantomed lines. to impart to the undulations of each added telephone conversa- tion certain characteristics which permit each set of waves, at the receiving end of the line, to be directed into a particular chan- nel, from which the other sets of waves are excluded. This was accomplished by superimposing the characteris- tics of each of the added sets of telephone waves (the frequency of which may vary from 200 to 2,000 alternations per second) upon a separate high-frequency current which is called a carrier current. In a particular type of system, there may be used four carrier currents of 10,000, 15,000, 20,000 and 25,000 alternations per second. These carrier cur- rents are generated by means of well known forms of vacuum tube oscillators. The action by which the voice characteristics are moulded on a carrier current is known as modulation and is brought about by the use of a three-electrode vacuum tube sim- At the receiving end of the line are placed filters designed to pass, respectively, frequency bands of 8,000 to 10,000; 13,000 to 15,000, and so on as given above. In this way each combi- nation of telephone current with a definite high-frequency current is admitted by its own filter, into a separate channel, from which other frequency bands are ex- cluded. The next step is to annul or cancel the high-frequency or car- rier currents, which have now served their purpose, leaving each telephone current in its own sep- arate channel where, connected with an ordinary telephone set, the conversation can be heard without interference from or with other conversations. This action is known as demodulation. Following the initial type de- scribed, improved systems per- mitting three carrier and one voice frequency conversation have been developed and are in wide use. These systems were Vol. XL— 31-0. Telephony 654 Telephony not practically advantageous on lines of less than about 150 miles in length. In 1928 there was in- troduced a system of carrier telephony which is applicable to lines well below 100 miles. viously limited the number of carrier channels which could be superposed on one open wire lead. Recently, to overcome this diffi- culty, a new form of open-wire construction was introduced in to eight inches, and widening the space between wires of adjacent pairs to 16 inches. Switchboards: Early Forms. — Closely following the invention of the telephone came the de- By CouTtesv of the American Telephone & Telegraph Co. Fig. 23. — Bank of Vacuum Tube Repeaters {2-wire). There are 40 Repeaters in this Group In 1930 about 160,000 channel miles of carrier telephone facili- ties were added to those already in operation in the United States, making a total of approx- imately 505,000 channel miles operating at the end of 1930. Cross-talk between carrier sys- tems on the same pole lead pre- VOL. XL— 31-0. the plant of the Bell System which permits using a larger num- ber of long-haul carrier telephone circuits. This new method in- volves abandoning the phantoms on the open-wire pairs on which carrier facilities are to be super- posed, reducing the spacing be- tween these pairs from 12 inches mand for connecting the lines of subscribers desiring to talk with one another. The first arrange- ment for accomplishing these connections was set up in Boston, in 1877, to be used with some burglar-alarm wires. Switching facilities for six lines were pro- vided. Fig. 23. — Vacuum Tube Repeater. Front view of repeater sets and testing equipment for six 2-\vire circuits of open wire line. Fig. 24.— a portio7i of the Interior of a Central Office Equipped with Panel Machine Switching Apparatus, Telephony 654 Telephony Numerous systems of this kind are now in operation, although, until further development shall have been made, the system is not practically advantageous on lines less than about 250 miles in length. Switchboards: Early Forms. — Closely following the invention of the telephone came the de- mand for connecting the lines of subscribers desiring to talk with one another. The first arrange- ment for accomplishing these connections was set up in Boston, in 1877, to be used with some burglar-alarm wires. Switching fa- cilities for six lines were provided. An improved form of switch- the operator that a connection was desired. The spring-jack, so termed from its resemblance to a jack-knife, was a piece of mechanism con- nected to the subscriber's line and adapted to receive a plug which, upon its insertion Into the spring-jack, established connec- tion between the plug and the subscribers' line. There were also flexible conducting cords, each cord connected at each end to a plug. By inserting one plug of a cord in the spring- jack of the call- ing line and the other plug in the spring-jack of the called line, con- nection between the lines was es- tablished. conversation, the magneto gen- erator at one or the other sub- scribers' stations was again oper- ated, thus conveying to the oper- ator information that the plugs of the connecting cord should be withdrawn from the spring- jacks into which they had been in- serted. Transfer Type. — As the tele- phone business grew, and more and more lines had to be served in one central office, the ability of a single operator to handle all the connections was soon exceeded. Separate sections of switchboard, with an operator before each, were then lined up side by side. When a call originated at one Fig. 25. — First Telephone Switchboard. This switchboard provided facilities for eight subscribers. It was installed for commercial service at New Haven, Conn., in January 1878. board, installed for commercial service at New Haven, Conn., in January 1878, is shown in Fig. 25. This board was operated by ro- tating metal arms into contact with metal buttons arranged around the circumferences of cir- cles, at the centres of which the movable arms were pivoted. An important improvement came with the termination of each subscriber's line at the switch- board in an electro-magnetic an- nunciator and spring-jack. When a subscriber operated the mag- neto generator at his station, by turning the crank, it caused the shutter of the annunciator, con- nected with his line at the switch- board, to fall, thus indicating to Vol. XL— Oct. '22. Further improvements con- sisted in providing each connect- ing cord circuit with listening and ringing keys and with a discon- nect signal. When the operator pressed, with a finger, the plunger of a listening key, her head tele- phone set was placed in connec- tion with the calling subscriber so that the latter was able to instruct the operator as to the designation of the party with whom he de- sired to talk. By means of a ringing key, alternating current could be sent out over the line of the called party to put his call- bell in operation. The disconnect signal, also of the electro magnetic type, gave indication when, at the end of a section for a subscriber whose line was terminated at another sec- tion, the operator would com- plete the connection by reaching across, from one section to the next, with one of the connecting cords. Soon, however, so many sections were required that in many cases the ability of the op- erators to complete the connec- tions by reaching across was ex- ceeded. This required the pro- vision of connecting or trunking circuits, forming part of the switchboard. When a connection was desired with a subscriber whose line terminated at a sec- tion of the switchboard which could not be reached directly, the operator would connect the call- Telephony 655 Telephony An improved form of switch- board, installed for commercial service at New Haven, Conn., in January 1878, is shown in Fig. 25. This board was operated by ro- tating metal arms into contact with metal buttons arranged around the circumferences of cir- cles, at the centres of which the movable arms were pivoted. An important improvement came with the termination of each subscriber's Hne at the switchboard in an electromag- netic annunciator and spring- jack. When a subscriber oper- ated the magneto generator at his station, by turning the crank, it caused the shutter of the annun- ciator, connected with his line at the switchboard to fall, thus in- dicating to the operator that a connection was desired. The spring- jack, so termed from its resemblance to a jack-knife, was a piece of mechanism con- nected to the subscriber's line and adapted to receive a plug which, upon its invsertion into the spring-jack, established connec- tion between the plug and the subscriber's line. There were also flexible conducting cords, each cord connected at each end to a plug. By inserting one plug of a cord in the spring-jack of the calling line and the other plug in the spring-jack of the called line, connection between the lines was established. Further improvements con- sisted in providing each connect- ing cord circuit with listening and ringing keys and with a discon- nect signal. When the operator pressed, with a finger, the plunger of a listening key, her head tele- phone set was placed in connec- tion with the calling subscriber so that the latter was able to in- struct the operator as to the designation of the party with whom he desired to talk. By means of a ringing key, alterna- ting current could be sent out over the line of the called party to put his call-bell in operation. The disconnect signal, also of the electromagnetic type, gave indication when, at the end of a conversation, the magneto gen- erator at one or the other sub- scribers' stations was again oper- ated, thus conveying to the operator information that the plugs of the connecting cord should be withdrawn from the spring-jacks into which they had been inserted. Transfer Type. — As the tele- phone business grew, and more and more lines had to be served in one central office, the ability of a single operator to handle all the connections was soon exceeded. Separate sections of switchboard, with an operator before each, were then lined up side by side. When a call originated at one section for a subscriber whose line was terminated at another sec- tion, the operator would com- plete the connection by reaching across, from one section to the next, with one of the connecting cords. Soon, however, so many sections were required that in many cases the ability of the operators to complete the connec- tions by reaching across was ex- ceeded. This required the pro- vision of connecting or trunking circuits, forming part of the switchboard. When a connection was desired with a subscriber whose line terminated at a sec- tion of the sv itchboard which could not be reached directly, the operator would connect the call- ing line to one of these switch- board trunk circuits, and would request the operator, before whom the called line terminated, to con- nect that line to the same trunk circuit. At first the request was made by word of mouth but, as the switchboard and the number of trunked calls grew, this led to confusion and other means for conveying the information were devised and used. In the early days all subscribers were called by name. Multiple Type. — When about 2,000 lines were reached, it was found that the transfer type of switchboard, described above, was inadequate. The 'multiple' principle, invented by Firman, was the means whereby further Vol. XL— 31-0. By CouTtesy of the American Telephone & Telegraph Co. ■ Fig. 24. — Portion of an Interior of a Central Office Equipped with Panel Dial Apparatus Telephony 656 Telephony growth became possible. With the multiple plan, each sub- scriber's line, instead of being terminated at only one section of the switchboard, was carried through the entire switchboard and was provided so liberally with spring-jacks that every operator had access to every sub- scriber's line. While this prin- ciple removed the limitation on growth, it introduced a new trouble in that there was no means of preventing an operator from connecting a third party with two others who were al- ready engaged in conversation. To prevent this, C E. Scribner, who was foremost in the develop- associated with a given line through the board were con- nected in series. This was a prolific source of trouble, as dirt and dust, getting into any spring- jack contact, might cause the electrical circuit to be broken and throw the line out of use. This difficulty was overcome by con- necting the spring-jacks across the two sides of the circuit through the switchboard in mul- tiple (bridged) instead of in series, as formerly. The switch- board was also improved by sub- stituting, for the electromagnetic annunciator, the shutter of which had to be restored by the oper- ator by hand, an improved form the operator at the central office could be signalled merely by closing the line circuit at the subscriber's station by removing the receiver from the hook- switch. This necessitated the connection of the subscribers' call bells or ringers in series with a condenser to avoid having a d-c. circuit through the ringer and still permit alternating current to operate the ringer when the re- ceiver is on the hook. Closing the line circuit in this manner caused a relay at the switchboard to be operated which, in turn, caused a tiny electric lamp to glow. This signal took the place of the former electromagnetic Fig. 25. — First Telephone Switchboard This switchboard provided facilities for eight subscribers. It was installed for commercial service at New Haven, Conn., in January 1878. ment of the multiple board, de- vised a 'busy test' to indicate to an operator whether or not a line with which a connection was de- sired was already in use. Cir- cuits were so arranged that, if the line were busy, the operator, by touching the tip of a plug to the sleeve of the spring-jack be- fore inserting the plug into the jack, heard, in her head tele- phone, a click, which was the sig- nal that the desired line was al- ready connected to another. These two principles, the multiple and the busy test, in one form or another, have persisted in all types of switchboard up to the present time. In the early forms of multiple switchboard all the spring-jacks Vol. XL— 31-0. in which the shutter was auto- matically restored by electrical means, as soon as the operator inserted an answering plug in a jack of the calling line. Common Battery Type. — One of the landmarks in switchboard progress was the common battery system, originated by Carty. Scribner, Hayes, Stone and others contributed to its development. With this system, batteries were no longer required at ea,ch sub- scriber's station to actuate the transmitter, the current being sent out to each station, over the line wires, from a storage battery at the central office. The mag- neto generators at the subscrib- ers' stations were also done away with, since, with the new system, annunciator, or 'drop,' as it was called. Fig. 27 shows a circuit diagram of a common battery switchboard. Lamp signals were also em- ployed as disconnect signals in the cord circuits. This permitted the operators to work more rapid- ly and effectively, without the necessity for 'listening in' to as- certain if the conversation was ended, as was frequently re- quired in the old system, due to subscribers neglecting to 'ring off.' Trunking Systems. — In the early days, connections between different central offices in the same exchange area were accomplished over trunk lines operated in a manner similar to subscribers' Telephony 657 Telephony lines. When an operator re- ceived a call from a subscriber for a subscriber connected to another office, she made connection with a trunk line extending to that office, over which she sent ringing current which operated a signal at the distant office. This was answered by an operator at the latter office as though it were a call from a subscriber, and the connection was then completed. porarily places her head tele- phone set in connection with an order-wire circuit extending to the head telephone of a 'B' opera- tor in the distant office. Over this order-wire or call circuit, the 'A' operator gives the 'B' operator the number of the called party, and the 'B' operator gives back to the 'A' operator the number of a trunk circuit which, by vis- ual inspection, she finds is not in Fig. 26. — Simplified Diagram of Modern Common- Battery System When Subscriber B removes his receiver from the hook, current flows through the circuit from battery J,* operating line relay A and closing the cir- cuit through C. The lighting of line lamp C in front of the operator, notifies her that the subscriber desires to make a call, and she inserts plug E in jack F. This completes the sleeve circuit through N and operates cut-off relay D, opening the circuit through A and putting out C. At the same time, the talk- ing circuit (indicated by heavy lines) is completed and supervisory relay G is operated, shunting supervisory lamp H before it has time to light. The oper- ator then connects subscriber B with the desired party by means of the other side of the cord circuit, first making a busy test to determine whether or not the line is in use. M shows the operator's set in position to be connected for the busy test. For the sake of clearness the ringing keys usually employed to call the subscriber are omitted from the diagram, also details of subscriber station set and operator's telephone set including tolling key in cord are omitted. When B has finished his conversation, he restores his receiver to the hook, opening the talking circuit and releasing the armature of G, which removes the shunt around supervisory lamp H. H lights and notifies the operator that B has completed his conversation. * The several batteries marked J are actually one common storage battery. Improved trunking methods have led to a specialization of the operating forces into 'A' oper- ators, who answer and complete calls from subscribers, and 'B' operators, whose only function is to receive and complete calls trunked from other offices. With the 'call circuit' method of opera- tion, in almost universal use un- til about 1926, the operation was as follows: An 'A' operator re- ceiving, from a subscriber, a call for a subscriber in another office, by means of a push button tem- use. Simultaneously, the 'A' operator plugs the line of the calling subscriber into a jack of the trunk line thus designated by the 'B' operator, and the 'B' operator, picking up a flexible cord in which the trunk line ter- minates before her, after making the usual busy test inserts its plug in a multiple jack of the called line if the line is free and signals the called party. In many modern equipments the signalling of the called party is performed automatically when the trunk plug is inserted in the jack of the called party's line, thus reducing the labor of the 'B' operator. With this system of trunking, the supervision of the call and the initiation of the disconnect rest with the 'A' operator in the same manner as though the connection were be- tween subscribers' lines both con- nected with her own office. When the 'A' operator withdraws the plug from the trunk jack, the dis- connect signal is automatically conveyed by the operation of a lamp to the 'B' operator. The call circuit method be- came increasingly difficult to operate as the number of offices from.which a 'B' operator received calls was increased. Trunking operation was materially im- proved by the use of the 'straight- forward' operating method. With this plan the 'A' operator, when she receives a call, tests the trunks to the desired office in the multiple before her as she would in the case of subscribers' lines. An idle trunk being found, she plugs in and at the 'B' position this trunk is connected to the 'B' operator's headset. The 'A' operator passes her call over the trunk and the 'B' operator com- pletes it by plugging the trunk cord into the subscriber's jack Dial Systems. — Throughout the development of the manually operated switchboard, briefly de- scribed above, the tendency was continually in the direction of performing fewer and fewer of the essential operations by hand, and more and more of them by improved mechanical devices, electromagnetically controlled. In the type of common battery switchboard shown in Fig. 26, a large proportion of the operating functions are performed auto- matically. This increase in auto- matically performed operations has been carried to the point, in certain types of switchboard, where manual operation is done away with, except in the case of certain special classes of calls, such as information, toll, and long distance calls. With these types of switch- board, originating calls, instead of being transmitted verbally by the subscriber to an operator, are transmitted electromechani- cally to the central office switch- ing apparatus by means of cur- rent impulses, controlled by a dial attached to the sub-station set and operated by the sub- scriber. The dial, when operated, sets in motion the switchboard selectors and other apparatus, and so controls them, in accor- dance with the combinations of letters and digits set up on the dial by the subscriber, that con- nection w^ith the desired party is automatically accomplished. The latest form of dial (Fig. 27) is mounted in the base of the desk Vol. XL— 31-0. TelephoDF 657 A Telephony stand or hand telephone set. Two principal types of dial sys- tems have been developed, the 'step-by-step' type and the 'panel' type. The step-by-step type of equip- ment is used at automatic pri- vate branch exchanges and for switchboards in the smaller cities. The panel type of equipment is in general use in the larger cities of the United States. The type of selector used with the step-by-step equipment con- sists essentially of a series of terminals, arranged in horizontal layers around a circular arc, and a central arm, adapted to be raised to the level of any one of the layers and rotated, at that level, so as to make contact with the proper terminals. The panel type derives its name from the fact that the mul- tiple of the selectors is built in panels. When a subscriber places a call, a device known as a 'line finder' connects itself with the line of the calling subscriber, thus playing a part corresponding to the 'A' operator's answering cord in the manual switchboard. This 'line finder' works in con- nection with a district selector. By means of a connecting 'link circuit' it selects one out of a group of idle 'senders,' and con- nects it with the calling sub- scriber's line. This 'sender' mechanism takes the place of the 'A' operator at the manual board. It receives and tempo- rarily stores up the electrical im- pulses sent over the line by the operation of the dial at the sub- scriber's station. It governs the mechanism which sets up the connection, after which it is re- leased and becomes ready to take up another call. While it is at work it causes a 'district selector' to pick out a trunk to the de- sired group of lines which may be in the same office or in another office. This district selector es- tablishes connection with an 'incoming selector,' which, still under the control of the 'sender,' picks out an idle 'final selector' capable of reaching the group of 500 lines in which is the line of the called party. The final selec- tion of the desired line is then accomplished by means of a set of brushes adapted to be moved vertically in front of a multiple of subscribers' lines built up ver- tically out of horizontal strips of metal placed one on top of the other with insulating material between. Five sets of brushes are attached to a tube adapted to move them vertically in close proximity to the bank of multiple strips. The proper sot of brushes for the hundred line group con- taining the desired line is first selected, and by means of a fric- tion clutch so arranged as to en- gage a shaft that rotates contin- ually the tube is then raised to Vol. XL— 31-0. the proper position to bring these brushes into engagement with the desired line. The bell of the called subscriber is rung automatically, or if the called subscriber's line is already in use, an audible busy tone is conveyed back to the calling subscriber. The other selectors of the switch- ing train and their banks are similar in construction and oper- ation to the final selector. To indicate the wide use of dial telephone systems in the United States, on December 31, 1930 there were well over 5,000,- 000 telephones operating on a dial basis. Of these 678,721 were in New York City, operated from a total of 61 central offices. For the Bell Companies it was expected that the conversion to dial in all places for which it is suitable would be completed within eight or ten years. Private Branch Exchanges. — The term 'private branch ex- change' is applied to switchboard, Fig. 27. — Dial Used at Sub- scriber's Set. This Form is adapted for Use in the largest Cities. usually of small size, located on the subscriber's premises. A sufficient number of trunk lines to handle the traffic are used to connect the private branch ex- change with the central office switchboard. Statistics of telephones and telephone mileage are given in the accompanying tables. The Bell System in the United States includes over 20,000,000 telephone stations, of which 15,- 600,000 are owned by the asso- Table I. Telephone Wire Mileage OF the World, Jan. 1, 1930. United States 76,710,000 4,476,213 Mexico, Central America, W. Indies 725,138 1,666,049 Great Britain 8,390,000 3,570,000 12,845,000 Rest of Europe 11,421,829 4,025,562 773,380 3,176,084 Total World 127,779,255 ciated operating companies com- prising the System and over 4,400,000 byindependently owned companies for which the System provides long-distance connec- tions. Of the total world percentage. United States leads with 60.03; Canada, 3.50; Great Britain, 6.57; France, 2.79; Germany, 10.05. Mileage for the whole of Europe in 1930 was 36,226,829, or 28.35 per cent of the world total. The 15,600,000 Bell owned sta- tions (1930) are connected to over 6,500 Bell central offices by means of 8,800,000 exchange cir- cuits. The average of nearly two stations per exchange cir- cuit is due to party lines, ex- tension stations and private branch exchanges. The principal central offices have trunk lines which connect such offices with each of the other central offices in the city. Table II Number of Telephones IN THE World, Jan. 1, 1930. Number of Country 1 elephones United States 20,068,023 1,399,986 Great Briuin 1,886,726 1.056,034 3,182 305 865 516 All other countries 6,068,039 Total 34,526,629 The above total includes ap- proximately 9,060,000 automatic or dial telephones, of which more than 50 per cent were in the United States (Jan. 1, 1930). Bibliography. — J. £. Kings- bury, The Telephone and Tele- phone Exchanges, Their Inven- tion and Development (1915); C. M. Jansky and D. C. Faber, Principles of the Telephone (1917) ; H. N. Casson, History of the Telephone (1917); H. H. Harri- son, Elements of Telephone Trans- mission (1927) ; F. L. Rhodes, Be- ginnings of Telephony; H. J. Van der Bijl, Thermionic Vacuum Tube and its Applications (1920); J. A. Fleming, Propagation of Electric Currents in Telephone and Telegraph Conductors (1927); A. B. Smith, Telephony, Includ- ing Automatic Switching (1924); J. G. Mitchell, Principles and Practice of Telephony (1923); American Telephone and Tele- graph Company, Things Worth Knowing About the Telephone (1928); Bell System Technical Journal; Bell Telephone Quar- terly; Electrical Communication; Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Text and illustrations by cour- tesy of the American Telephone and Telegraph Company. Telephony,WireIess. 657 B Telephotography Telephony, Wireless. See Wireless Telephony. Telephotography is the elec- trical transmission of pictures over telephone and telegraph lines, or by radio. Attempts at electrical picture transmission were begun ninety years ago, al- most immediately after Morse's success in telegraphy. From the beginning all efforts were directed towards developing the process along exactly the same lines as we know it today; that is, to obtain an electric current by means of a tracer responding suc- cessively to small areas of the original picture, to send this The first known investigator in telephotography was Alex- ander Bain, a Scotsman, who received patents on his work in 1841 and 1842. In his system, the original picture was copied with shellac ink on tinfoil, and was then brushed over on each stroke of a pendulum to which an electrical contact point was at- tached. At the receiving end a similar pendulum brushed a sheet of chemically treated paper, dis- coloring it when current flowed. Between strokes, original and copy were moved forward a line until the entire area had been covered. The received picture photo-engraver's plate, was tra- versed by a moving contact brush or by a stylus attached to a special form of telephone trans- mitter. The work of Amstutz in the United States and of Belin in France was notable in this field. In instruments using the seleni- um cell, on the other hand, the original picture was copied on a photographic film and scanned by a beam of light, which after passing through the film was focused on a selenium cell which emitted a current varying in response to the intensity of the light received. Shelford Bidwell and Professor Arthur Korn de- f?1 F ISSew York Sending and Receiving Station for Telephotography fluctuating electric current with- out distortion over the communi- cation system, and to employ it at the receiving station to put down the point representations in their proper places on the record- ing sheet and thus reconstruct the picture. Yet, although the broad principles were recognized so long ago, and although several early devices embodied design features of permanent value, commercial application has come only within the last ten years. First there had to be perfection of methods for the faithful trans- mission of electrical signals to long distances; and that in turn awaited the development of special apparatus in the com- munication art, which has been so intensively developed within recent time. was made up of white lines, cor- responding to the shellac lines of the original, on a dark back- ground. Five years later Bake- well improved Bain's process by mounting the tinfoil-shellac origi- nal and the treated recording sheet on revolving cylinders at their respective ends of the cir- cuit, replacing Bain's pendulums by styli moving down the length of the cylinders, tracing identical spiral paths on original and copy. Later investigators followed two general lines of development: The use of relief pictures for transmission, and the use of the selenium cell as a translating element. Using the first method, instruments were developed wherein the picture or message to be transmitted, copied in relief on a sheet or tablet resembling a veloped the most successful sys- tems employing this principle. Begun by the work of Elster and Geitel, the modern photo- electric cell (see Vacuum Tubes) was developed, and has now re- placed both the selenium cell and the relief picture method. By its immediate and accurate response to the light received it advanced the photoelectric method of send- ing until that has supplanted all other procedures. The names of the workers in the telephoto- graphic field during the present century are legion. T. Thome Baker and Captain O. Fulton have separately worked towards the development of the art for the amateur; C. Francis Jeninsk has applied the lens disc to pic- ture transmission; H. E. Ives and his assistants in the Bell Vol. XL— 31-0. Telephotography 657 C Telephotography telephone system have achieved outstanding perfection in the transmission of pictures over telephone channels; H. G. Bar- tholomew and M. L. D. MacFar- lane have solved the problem of cable telephotography by their 'Bartlane' code system; and the radio facsimile art has been developed by Dr. Schroeder and Professor Karolus of the Tele- funken Co. in Germany, C. W. Wright of the British Marconi Co., and R. H. Ranger and C. J. Young of the R.C.A. group in the United States. Each of these ing to the successive changes in light intensity. In the telephone system this 'modulated' current is amplified and transmitted over the line, actuating at the receiv- ing end a specially designed form of string galvanometer called a 'light valve,' which controls the intensity of a beam of light fall- ing on a moving photographic film. The received picture thus consists of a great number of very fine lines, so thin in the lightest portions of the picture as to be virtually invisible, and so thick in the darkest portions as to over- ^^^^^ Photograph of President Coolidge, Transmitted by Wireless in IQ24 Better results are now being obtained. investigators has had his special problems inherent in the type of picture service he wished to develop, and thus each has de- veloped a different type of appa- ratus, while retaining the same basic principles of operation. As an instance of such parallel but dissimilar development the American Telephone and Tele- graph system may be compared with that used by R.C.A. Com- munications, Inc. Both of these sy.stems scan the picture to be transmitted with a fine beam of light which is then impressed upon a photoelectric cell, thus obtaining an electric current whose intensity is varied accord- VOL. XL— 31-0. lap. (In the later development of this system the light valve works parallel to the lines scan- ned across the picture, thus changing the amount rather than the intensity of the light striking any given portion.) In radio communication, on the other hand, such a modulated current cannot be transmitted with any great hope of success, due to the interfering effect of static and fading. Accordingly, an integrating method of trans- mission has been developed. The current from the photoelectric cell is amplified and then flows through a 'dribbler' circuit, where it is translated into a series of dots of varying length and spacing. In this 'dribbler' cir- cuit the photocell current, fluc- tuating in accordance with the picture values, controls the mark- ing and spacing lengths of an electronic relay. For medium gray portions of the picture this relay operates so that a series of short current pulses or dots are produced, separated by time in- tervals equivalent to the length of the pulses. As the picture grows lighter, the current pulses remain the same short length, but are separated by greater time intervals, giving light dots widely spaced on the paper. As the picture becomes darker than a medium gray, the current pulses grow longer, the spacing intervals remaining constant. Only full value current pulses are thus put on the air, and accidental varia- tions in the intensity of these pulses are immaterial, as it is only their length and spacing which develops the picture. At the receiving end of the circuit these pulses key a gaseous dis- charge tube, which records them on photographic film. The re- ceived picture is thus a collection of miscellaneous dots, somewhat resembling the screened halftone pictures used in newspapers. Innumerable variations in scanning methods for telepho- tography have been designed and tested. By far the most popular methods have been modifications of Bakewell's machine; that is, some sort of cylinder mounted in the manner of a lathe and carry- ing the picture to be sent, the while a point of light travels down the length of the cylinder so that at the end of a certain time the entire picture will have been traced. It is immaterial whether the cylinder or the point of light rotates. Thus in one interesting system the picture (a photo- graphic negative film in this case) is advanced slowly by means of a canvas belt down the length of a stationary cylinder around which it is wrapped. A slit is cut across the center of the cylinder and a beam of light rotates inside the cylinder and comes out this slit to analyze the passing picture. In contradistinction to this 'drum' scanning, various reciprocating methods have been developed, wherein the scanning beams or points move back and forth hori- zontally across the picture, which is advanced forward for each successive line. All these meth- ods are descendants of Bain's original machine, and have the advantage of working for con- tinuous paper feed, but the dis- advantage of a tendency towards greater error in registering the received pictures. The most suc- cessful of the reciprocating scan- ning mechanisms makes use of a spiral rotating on one side of the paper and a bar, energized by the Telephotography 657 D Telephus picture signal, moving to and from the other side of the paper. The point at which the spiral and the bar pinch the paper between them moves from one side of the sheet to the other, and then starts over again from the original side. This scanning method is used in the carbon paper and electrochemical types of photo- telegraphic recorders (see below) . It is of course most important that the scanning mechanisms at the transmitting and receiving ends of the phototelegraphic sys- tem be in perfect mutual syn- chronism. Two general methods are used to accomplish this: The receiver and transmitter may be advanced simultaneously for suc- cessive scanning lines by means of signals sent from transmitter to receiver, or receiver and trans- mitter may be controlled inde- pendently at the same speed within rigorous limits of accu- racy. Here again special operat- ing conditions determine the method to be used. In telephone work, where a great number of different communication chan- nels are available, the signal method of synchronizing may be used, to save the cost and care of the elaborate standard frequency apparatus necessary for inde- pendent synchronization. In radio work, on the other hand, since ether space is at a premium, the latter method is generally used. Tuning forks accurate to within a few parts in a million (0.00010%), carefully protected from temperature and line volt- age variations, are set up and used to control various modified types of synchronous motors, which in turn drive the scanning mechanism. When independent synchronizing is used it is neces- sary to 'frame' the receiver with the transmitter occasionally, and also to adjust the tuning forks with respect to each other from time to time. Perhaps the most difficult part of the telephotographic problem has been the achievement of sat- isfactory recording means. Photographic methods, that is, those in which elementary areas of photographic paper are ex- posed to light in varying amounts corresponding to the signals transmitted by the photoelectric cells at the sending station, have the great advantage of requiring no mechanical moving parts, and are therefore most generally used in commercial installations. Be- sides the gaseous glow tube and 'light valve' systems already mentioned, various successful systems have made use of the Kerr cell and of the corona dis- charge from a Tesla coil in their recording apparatus. The dis- advantage of photographic re- cording methods is that they require dark room or box opera- tion, with no knowledge of the actual performance until the ex- posure of the completed picture is accomplished and it has been developed. Consequently a great amount of research work has been done on various visible methods of recording. Both hot air streams marking chemically treated heat sensitive paper and ink vapor streams marking plain paper have been used on com- mercial radio facsimile circuits with some success, the marking stream in each case being keyed by a small electrically deflected vane operated by the incoming picture signal. Good results have also been achieved with carbon paper, a moving stylus or bar being used to record through the carbon sheet into the white paper beneath, and with chemi- cally treated papers of various sorts. It is expedient in some classes of telephotographic service to use an intermediary process instead of building up the finished pic- ture directly from the current values obtained by scanning the original picture. The picture densities are recorded in some predetermined manner on punched tapes or other records, and the record is duplicated at the receiving end by means of the usual telegraphic printer pro- cedure, and finally retranslated into light variations and so re- corded. This photo system is used over telegraph lines or cables, since, as with the radio 'dribbler' system, it sends only full value current pulses, and any distortion produced by the line is greatly minimized in effect. Furthermore, pictures transmit- ted in this manner may be sandwiched in with regular tele- graph traffic and may even be handled in sections. Many other problems besides those discussed above have had to be overcome before telepho- tography became commercially practicable. Undistorted ampli- fication of the minute electric currents developed in the photo- cells, for instance, presented almost insuperable difficulties. The development of balanced or 'push-pull' amplifiers, noise-elim- inating devices such as the 'C bias light, and electrical methods of retouching the picture values while in transit from transmitter to receiver, have been of inesti- mable value, as have been also those developments tending to improve the circuit or transmis- sion channel between sending and receiving stations. Of this latter group improvements in electric wave-filters, in side-band trans- mission, in echo-suppressors, phase-correctors, and shielding devices have contributed the most to the success of tele- photography. There is a wide network of picture transmission circuits throughout Europe, England, the United States, and Japan, all over telephone lines, and radio telephotographic circuits have been operated from London to New York since May 1, 1926, and since at San Francisco and Honolulu, and by the Telefunken Co. between Buenos Aires and Berlin. The average time re- quired to transmit a picture, including preparation and devel- opment at each end, varies from 30 minutes to one hour, depend- ing on the size and difficulty of the subject. The manifold uses to which this commercial picture service is being put constitute a complete justification of the many years of concentrated effort on the part of thousands of investigators which were re- quired to bring the art to its present practical state. News syndicates transmit photographs of important current events; style pictures are sent from de- signers and importers to dealers and manufacturers in distant parts of the country; advertise- ments are sent, giving text and typography to permit simulta- neous publication throughout the country. Material in foreign languages, especially the oriental tongues for which corresponding English characters are not avail- able, is sent quickly and unerr- ingly, without the delay, loss of exact meaning, and chance of error inevitable with translation into any other form for telegraph transmission and retranslation at the receiving end. Data such as technical formulae, financial statements, signed documents, fingerprints, and written matter needed for legal evidence can be sent and received in its original form, photographically freed from the possibility of error. New uses for telephotography are constantly coming up. The transmission of daily weather maps to airplanes, dirigibles, and ships in passage is an instance in point. It is not even beyond the bounds of probability that tele- photographic methods may eventually be used for all wire and radio telegraph messages, thus eliminating the human ele- ment in recording incoming sig- nals without recourse to tele- graphic printer methods. Bibliography. — T. Thorne Baker, Wireless Pictures and Television (London, 1926); D. von Mihaly, Das Electrische Fernsehen und das Telehor (Ber- lin, 1926); H. E. Ives. Transmis- sion of Pictures over Telephone Wires (Bell System Technical Journal, April, 1925); R, H. Ranger, Photoradio Developments Proc. I. R. E. (June. 1929). Telephus, tel'i-fus. son of Her- cules and Auge. Not knowing his parentage, he consulted the Delphic oracle, which sent him to Mysia, where he found his Vol. XL— 31-0. Telescope 658 Telescope mother and succeeded the king, Teuthras, on the throne. When the Greeks came to besiege Troy, he resisted their landing, and was wounded by Achilles. An oracle told him that his wound could only be cured by his assailant; so he went as a beggar to the Greek camp, and was cured by Achilles with the rust of his spear. He then showed the Greeks the road to Troy. Telescope, an optical instru- ment by which remote objects are brought apparently nearer. There are two kinds of telescope: in one, the rays from the object are made to converge by refrac- tion; in the other, by reflection. The refracting telescope, in- vented in 1608 by Hans Lipper- shey, a spectacle- maker in Mid- dleburg, Holland, was em- ployed from 1609 in celestial observations by Galileo, Simon Marius, and Thomas Harriot. As originally devised it was a monocular opera-glass, composed of a convex and a concave lens fitted at opposite ends of a tube. In its modern form the dioptric telescope, described by Kepler in 1611, was first constructed by Father Scheiner. It consists essentially of a large convex lens of long focus, and a smaller con- vex lens or eye-piece of short focus, with which the real image formed in the focal plane of the 'objective' is magnified. The two are fixed at a distance apart equal (approximately) to the sum of their focal lengths, the ratio between which gives the magnifying power of the com- bination. The images are seen inverted, and they are also rendered indistinct by the effects of spherical and chromatic aber- ration. For these last defects a partial remedy was provided by the use of 'aerial telescopes' of inordinately long focus and desti- tute of tubes. Huygens pre- sented one of 123 feet to the Royal Society of London, and Bradley measured the diameter of Venus, Dec. 27, 1722, with a tubeless instrument 212 feet long. The invention of achromatic lenses, anticipated without being divulged by Chester Moor Hall of Essex, in 1733, was effectively realized by John Dolland in 1758. Owing to their unequal refrangibilities, the colored rays forming white light come each to a separate focus when trans- mitted through a simple convex lens. They yield, accordingly, a blurred and tinged image. Dol- land, however, discovered that one kind of glass can be made to neutralize the dispersion of an- other kind, while leaving a balance of refraction, and he constructed object-glasses of a convex crown fitted to a concave flint lens, by which the main part of the incident light was brought to a common focus. Moreover, by skilfully compensating the opposite errors due to the curva- tures of the glass surfaces, he succeeded in correcting spherical aberration as well, and thus, in principle, created the modern refractor. The labors of Guinand (1745-1824) first made it pos- sible to procure perfect discs of flint glass more than 3K inches in diameter, and through his co- operation Fraunhofer was en- abled to built the 9K-inch Dor- pat equatorial (mounted 1824). The size of refractors was now continuously augmented. Two of 15 inches were sent by Merz and Mahler, Fraunhofer's suc- cessors, to Pulkova and Harvard College, in 1840 and 1847 re- spectively. With an 18 inch, by Alvan Clark of Cambridge, the satellite of Sirius was discovered in 1862; Cooke of York con- structed a 25-inch equatorial for Mr. Newell in 1870; Clark, one of 26 inches for the Naval Obser- vatory, Washington, in 1873; Grubb of Dublin completed the Vienna 27-inch refractor in 1881; and those mounted at Pulkova and Nice in 1885-6 had each an aperture of 30 inches. The superb Lick, 36-inch, was finished by Clark in 1888; that of 40 inches for the Yerkes Observa- tory, in 1897. The achromatism of refractors is imperfect, and the outstand- ing color or 'secondary spectrum' becomes more troublesome as aperture is increased. Its source is the chromatic 'irrationality' of flint and crown glass. The various colors are disproportion- ately deviated by the two media; consequently, only certain se- lected rays can be united by the compound lenses formed with them, the remainder showing as an obnoxious halo round the image. Experiments are being carried out with a view to overcoming this difficulty. Again, atmospheric disturbances impede the performance of large much more than of small refractors, while the percentage of incident light absorbed in them grows with the added thickness neces- sarily given to colossal lenses. Great telescopes, on the other hand, when employed under good conditions, possess immense advantages in the brilliant lu- minosity of the images afforded by them, and in their enhanced powers of penetrating space and resolving close objects like double stars. This last faculty depends upon the circumstance that the size of stellar diffraction discs bears an inverse relation to aperture. A photographic re- fractor has the object-glass so corrected as to unite the rays chemically most efficient. It is hence useless for eye observa- tions. The eighteen telescopes with which the international survey of the heavens is being executed are of this type. The largest photographic refractor, so far constructed, is the Pots- dam, 32 inches. This is followed by the 30 inch of the Allegheny Observatory and the 26 inch of the Yale University Observa- tory, temporarily located, for the measurement of parallaxes of southern stars, at Johannesburg. Others of 26 inch and 24 inch are mounted at Greenwich, the Cape of Good Hope, Meudon, and Arequipa (in Peru). Visual telescopes can also be adapted for photographic employment by placing a convex crown lens in front of the ordinary objective. The reflecting telescope is of four varieties — the Gregorian, Cassegrainian, Newtonian, and Herschelian. James Gregory de- scribed the first in his Optica Promola (1663). It consists of two concave mirrors set face to face on the axis of an enclosing tube. The rays from the object, brought to a focus by the princi- pal speculum, are thrown back by the small mirror through a cen- tral perforation in the large one into an eye-piece fixed in the aperture. As a result, objects are viewed erect, and in the natural direction. To obtain theoretically perfect images, the primary and secondary mirrors should be, the one a paraboloid, the other an ellipsoid of revolu- tion; but these arduous condi- tions are scarcely realizable. The famous reflectors made, 1732-68, by James Short of Edinburgh were of the Gregorian form. It is now virtually obsolete. The Cassegrainian was a modification of it introduced by Cassegrain in 1672. The second reflection takes place here from a convex hyper- bolic surface, whereby the ef- fective focal length of the in- strument is likewise materially lengthened. This construction was em- ployed by Thomas Grubb in the 4- foot Mel borne telescope (1870). The Newtonian reflector, in- vented and exemplified by Isaac Newton in 1668, is still in general use. A small plane mir- ror, set at an angle of 45° to the axis of the principal speculum, reflects the rays focussed by the latter into an eye- piece placed at right angles to and near the top of the tube. The line of vision is, accordingly, perpendicular to the true direction of the object. The first specimen of the Her- schelian or 'front view' reflector was the 4-foot telescope built by William Herschel at Slough in 1789. He devised it for the pur- pose of economizing the light wasted by a second reflection. One speculum only is employed, and it is slightly tilted so as to form images, not at the centre You XI.-^ Telescope 659 Television but at the upper margin of the tube, where the eye-piece is in- serted. The observer thus stands looking down into the tube with his back to the object. Good definition is scarcely compatible with this arrangement. The bor- ing of a hole through the centre of a large mirror for the passage of the rays to the Cassegrain focus is a nerve-racking process. Mir- rors sometimes fly in pieces by the releasing of strains in the glass. The 72-inch mirror of the Dominion Astrophysical Ob- servatory at Victoria, B. C. was successfully bored and functions perfectly. The 60-inch and the 100-inch mirrors of the Mount Wilson Observatory are not bored. Instead, the light is re- flected to the side of the tube by a plane mirror mounted near the large mirror. This combination of the Cassegrain and Newtonian principles is effected, in the 100- inch with a variety of mirrors, providing a large range in mag- nification at focal lengths rang- ing from 45 to 250 feet. In the last arrangement the light finally passes down through the polar axis and into a room in the south pier. The image of the sun, at the 250-foot focus is 28 inches in diameter. The Rosse reflector, mounted as a Newtonian at Parsonstown in 1845, long held the premier- ship for size. The mirror, which is 6 feet in diameter, is of specu- lum metal, an alloy of copper and tin. This material has, however, been superseded since about 1870 by silvered glass, suggested as a substitute by Steinheil and Fou- cault in 1856-7. A glass disk, worked to figure, is coated by a chemical process with a film of metallic silver, which is extreme- ly brilliant while fresh, and can easily be renewed when tarnished. The improvement was finely il- lustrated in Dr. Common's 36- inch Newtonian, completed in 1879, and transferred in 1895 to the Lick Observatory. A 5-foot reflector, constructed by him on a similar plan, was purchased for the Harvard College Observa- tory in 1904. For the uses of exact astron- omy, the refractor is unrivalled. It is recommended by its supe- rior stability, definition, and adaptability to all forms of meas- uring apparatus. Moreover, in certain branches of photographic investigation requiring an exten- sive field of view, such as the picturing of the Milky Way, the combination of lenses known as a 'photographic doublet' is alone available. But in most depart- ments of astrophysical research the reflector has undeniable pre- rogatives. It is, to begin with, perfectly achromatic. Light of all wave-lengths is concentrated by mirrors at a single focus. This is of peculiar importance in spectroscopy. With a refrac- tor, each prismatic section needs a fresh adjustment of the focus. Glass lenses, too, strongly absorb short wave-lengths, so that ultra- viol et spectra can be photo- graphed only by the aid of re- flectors, in some cases, with the replacement by a suitable alloy for silver, which exercises an in- convenient selective absorption in very high spectral ranges. For observations of colored objects, and in thermal measurements of every kind, reflectors are unmis- takably preferable. They can, besides, owing to their achroma- tism, be constructed of relatively short focal length. The ratio of aperture to focus or 'angular aperture' is an element of pri- mary importance in celestial pho- tography. It rarely exceeds X2 for ordinary objectives, whereas it may be raised to J4 for mir- rors. There results a stronger concentration of light, and brighter though smaller images readily impressed upon sensitive plates. The attendant disadvan- tage of distortion at compara- tively short distances from the centre of the field is not seriously prejudicial to certain kinds of work. Again, reflectors are cheaper to build and to mount than refractors. Further, the natural limit set to the size of refractors by the continually growing percentage of incident light lost in transmission through their lenses does not apply to re- flectors. Reflective power per unit of area is the same for large as for small specula. Finally, the practical possibilities of develop- ment are in their favor. Profes- sor Hale considers that the con- struction of an objective 5 feet in diameter would strain the ut- most resources of the glassmak- er's and optician's art, while a mirror over 8 feet in diameter is already in sviccessful operation. Lenses, or mirrors of long fo- cus, fitted with slight tubes, and kept in a fixed horizontal or ver- tical position, have important ad- vantages in many departments of solar investigation ; and they are necessarily supplied with light by means of a coelostat or some in- strument of its type, as in the 'Snow' telescope on Mount Wil- son, California. Telescopium, tel-i-sko'pi-um, a small southern constellation, in- serted by Lacaille in 1752 be- tween Ara and Sagittarius. Television, the vision of dis- tant objects accomplished by the intermediary of electricity. Nothing in the field of applied science is receiving as much con- centrated attention these days as television. Actual transmission is a daily matter, but as yet there has been no great 'televisor' in- terest, such as characterized even the earliest days of sound broad- casting. The reasons are all in- volved in the as yet much greater complications. How to see at a distance, has long been planned along the ex- act lines by means of which it is now gradually unfolding. Nipkow, in 1884, brought out the original scanning disk which causes the view to be scanned by a rapid series of lines traced across its width. A continuous repetition of this line-by-line analysis is made at such a rapid rate as to match the persistence of vision of the eye. Twenty complete pictures (or frames in the phraseology of motion pic- tures) have come to be the ac- cepted rate of such repetition to reduce flickering sufficiently. The number of lines traced across the view determines the fineness of the detail in trans- mission. Present compromise has standardized on sixty such lines in the depth of the picture. But all realize that this is far too few to give sufficient detail for anything beyond the trans- mission of a face. The present limitations are in practically every link in the transmission, but with the intensive effort be- ing expended on each such fea- ture, this number of lines is as- suredly going to increase. De- velopment work is being done with twice this number. The Bell Laboratories are using sev- enty-two lines for their two way 'person to person' transmission. Some discouragement is ex- pressed in the slow development of television in the light of the rapidity with which other arts advance ; but when it is realized that it has been on its way almost fifty years, one or two or even ten years more or less is not to be despised, particularly in view of the great difficulties. Television Transmission.— At the television transmitter, it is necessary to set up a means of analysing the picture, line by line. A Nipkow disk is the sim- plest means of accomplishing this which is yet developed. It con- sists of a spiral of holes drilled in a metal plate. These holes are accurately drilled a distance apart, corresponding to the width of the view to be scanned. Each hole is drilled slightly nearer the center of the disk by an amount equal to the depth of the line scanned. Sixty holes give sixty lines to be scanned in one revo- lution of the disk. The holes themselves are preferably square, and of a size equal to the width of the scanning line. Only one Vol. XL— 32-M. Television 660 Television hole at a time is crossing the frame opening. In this frame opening, the view to be trans- mitted is projected by a lens as in a camera. A regular motion picture set-up of high quality lenses and focussing arrange- ments may be used for this pur- pose of projecting the view on the disk. such television are at least six times more severe. Furthermore, this only gives an amount of de- tail corresponding to what would be obtained in one square inch of rather coarse newspaper en- graving. It hardly does for much more than two faces. Everyone realizes this, and the standard is extant, not because Fig. 1 A sensitive photocell is placed behind the scanning disk, and the light and dark parts of the view will cause more or less light to pass through the particular hole crossing the view, and this light will then strike the photocell. The photocell therefore has the most active job of responding to all the quick changes in shade as each individual hole crosses the frame. This means that it must respond to changes of a width equal to the size of the hole in the disk. The maximum change from one such unit ele- ment to the next would be if one were white and the next were black. Therefore, two such units represent a complete cycle of change, so the maximum rapidity of change is one-half the rate at which unit elements of the line are traversed. This gives a measure of the rate at which the entire picture is cov- ered. ^ A growing standard in tele- vision is as stated before, sixty lines in depth and seventy-two hole widths to make the width of the frame. That is, the height of the frame is to the width as five is to six, or as more often stated 1 is to 1.2. The total number of such picture elements is therefore the product of 60 and 72, or 4,320 elements. One- half this number would give the rate at which the picture ele- ments may change in one frame, i.e., 2,160. And as there are twenty frames per second, there will be 20 times 2,160 or 43,200 possible cycles per second in such television transmission. When it is realized that or- dinary broadcast transmission only uses up to seven thousand cycles a second, it is seen at once that the requirements for Vol. XL— 32-M. it is the most to be hoped for, but because the art most decided- ly must walk or even crawl first. Strenuous efforts are now being made to give four times this defi- nition but some of the difiiculties go up sixteenfold when this is tried. •One factor decidedly in tele- vision's favor is that movement of objects adds complementary detail from one picture to the next. What is seen in one frame is carried over into the next where it may be entirely missing. Another favorable factor is in- troduced by simultaneous sound and television transmission. The very complete sound transmis- sion builds up a more complete picture in the mind than tele- grams. But a reverse of this process is perhaps the present day compromise that simplifies amplification problems somewhat. This is the so-called 'flying spot' method of transmission. In this case the transmission is done in a darkened room, with large photocells set up to receive light from the actual subjects in the room. But the light for these subjects comes from just such a disk as has just been described, and a strong electric light be- hind the disk sends out a spot of light which flashes across the view in the room, line after line, down the subjects, returning to the top and completing an analy- sis of the view in one twentieth of a second. Wherever this fly- ing spot hits a light part of the subject, considerable light will be reflected to the photocells placed near the subjects. Where the spot hits dark portions, only a small amount of light will be returned to the photocells. This then gives the interpretive values to the view in terms of light on the photocells. Motion Picture Transmis- sion, — Another present-day com- promise is the use of motion pic- ture for television transmission. In this work, the holes of the Nipkow disk are all the same dis- tance from the center of the disk ; so, on rotation, one hole follows directly behind the previous at a spacing equal to the width of the motion picture film projection. The analysis of line-on-line down the picture is then readily ac- complished by moving the film downward at the necessary rate to finish an individual frame of the film and get onto the next in sixty lines. Very strong light vision alone could ever do. It indicates to the eye what to ex- pect. Flying Spot, — The method of picture analysis here described is what is generally conceded to be the ultimate method, where transmission of ordinary scenes of every description will be pos- sible, such as horse racing, games, and other outdoor pro- FiG. 2 may be used behind the film in this process, which simplifies subsequent amplification of the photocell current. Some sug- gest that this may even be the ultimate form of television broadcast in which picture and sound in film are rushed in a matter of minutes from the source to the television sta- tion. Television 660 A Television Fig. 3. — Scanning with 'Flying Spot' of light. 1. Concentrated filament lamp. 2. Condensing lens. 3. Disk revolving right to left. 4. Start of spiral row of holes frame width apart and each slightly nearer edge of disk. 5. Lens projecting beam of light on to face in semi-darkness. Spot of light moves left to right and downward, due to movement of disk with holes. 6. Photo-cells picking up variable intensity of light reflecting from light and dark parts of face. Amplification. — In either method of transmission, the next factor is the amplification of the very small energies delivered electrically by the photocells as measuring the light intensities which fall on them. Fortunately, amplification and the develop- ment of photocells have pro- gressed tremendously under the impetus, first, of radio gener- ally, and second, for the talking picture work. The most inter- esting recent development in the photocell line is the flashing of a very thin layer of caesium, a coating supposedly but one to four molecules thick, on top of the silver oxide coating, which is the sensitive element in the photocell. A slight amount of argon gas increases the sensi- tivity of such cells many times ; but likewise renders them a little less stable than the straight vacuum type cell. But progress in this direction is steady and sure. The remarkable thing about these photocells is that they respond so instantaneously to light changes, 43,200 times a second in the example given above, and this is not the liniit. It, however, becomes increasing- ly difficult to go above this point, liot so much in the photocell, per- haps, as in the amplification which has to follow the photo- cell. This indicates one of the reasons why television is still walking. After the amplification, the current variations control the output of a radio transmitter in much the same manner as voice currents do the broadcast trans- mitter, with again the great dif- ference of the enhanced rate at which it must do it. Finally, the signals get out on the air. To transmit such a rapid frequency change takes a wide band in the radio spectrum, at least six times that normally used. In order to get such band width, it is necessary to go to high radio frer|uencies as the means for carrying these rapid changes. It is perfectly possible for ordinary broadcast wave lengths to carry such a frequency rate, but the band width would wipe out too many present sound channels. It is therefore neces- sary to go to the lower wave lengths — or higher kilocycle waves — both to get more space, and to get an even better chance to handle such rapid changes. Very recent tests are now car- rying this investigation to the unusually high radio frequen- cies of forty-five million cycles a second. The difficulty with such extremely short and rapid radio waves is that they become most erratic at any distance. But if the transmitter can virtually be seen by the receiving antenna, they work much more reliably. This explains the present rush to take up space on the tops of the world's tallest buildings. Al- ready a most complete transmit- ter is being set up on the Empire State Building. Assuming the visual range theory to be correct, this will give effective transmis- sion some twenty-five miles from the Metropolitan center. Television Reception. — Tel- evising consists in translating the electric impulses as received over a radio back into light impulses. First comes the tuning, detec- tion and amplification in much the same manner as with usual broadcast reception except that it is on the shorter wave lengths and must cover a much wider band, uniformly. It is harder to amplify the extremely high and extremely low frequencies than the middle range of fre- quencies. Television requires everything from twenty cycles Vol. XL— 32-M. Television 660 B Television Fig. 4. — Looking down on inverted cone of glass Cathode Ray Televisor. 1. Tube socket. 2. Deflecting vanes to move electron beam. 3. Elec- tron beam, invisible. 4. Fluorescent screen, inside glass top, giving luminous green glow where struck by invisible electrons. 5. Heated filament at base of tube, source of electrons. Strength of electron beam and therefore brightness of luminous trace at top, is controlled by incoming radio signals. Deflecting vanes make spot sweep across top, line after line, left to right and downward, complete single picture in 3^0 second. up to 43,200 cycles at least. Various arrangements to com- pensate for the falling off at very high frequencies are usual. In any event, a good strong electric signal is provided to actuate the light source. Many forms of light source have been tried, but they all seem to be coming down to the electric arc either in a gas or even burning right out in the open, as in the old type of street light. The Neon tube is the simplest form of gas lamp, and the glow of this pink light is readily controlled by the am- plified television signals. A plate form of Neon lamp gives a fiat field of light. If this fiat field is viewed through a Nipkow disk of exactly the same type as the transmitting disk, spots of light will be seen to flash across the field, and if the radio signals are rising and falling, following the transmitted impulses, the eye will see a replica of the original picture produced, as the tracing dot appears to be light or dark. Unfortunately, this flat plate Neon is not at all brilliant, so increasing use is being made of a 'hot cathode' Neon tube which Vol. XL— 32-M. gives a very intense spot of light. Then the Nipkow disk is used to project this spot of light on a screen. For this purpose, lenses are used instead of the individual holes in the disk. These lenses project much more light from the crater of the Neon tube. A picture, ten feet by ten feet, has been produced by this process, although still lacking somewhat in brilliance. It is a marked step in the development of the art. The disk equipment approaches a ton in weight and has forty-five lenses, each two inches in diameter. As may well be supposed, such equipment is not exactly suitable for the home. Cathode Ray, — Strenuous ef- forts are being expended to get a more compact and less me- chanical method of building up the picture elements to a com- pleted view at the receiving end. A most promising lead in this direction is by means of the cathode ray tube. This tube has a fluorescent screen at its far end about eight inches across. A bright green spot is traced on this screen by the projected beam of electrons which is driven to- wards this screen from the small filament in the back end of the tube. This beam of electrons is deflected vertically, and cross- wise, and at the same time is controlled in intensity electrical- ly. So it constitutes a scanning system all in itself, with its con- trols. The difficulties arise in getting all the controls in per- manent shape. Vacuum tubes have the unfortunate tendency to change somewhat with use. This change is quite unnoticeable in general use of such tubes, but when it comes to the niceties requisite in television, such changes have to be completely compensated and controlled. The advance which has already been made in these directions is a great tribute to the skill of the engineers concentrating on the problem. Synchronizing, — A remain- ing most important link in tele- vision lies in maintaining lock-step between transmitting and receiv- ing scanning systems to insure that identical parts of the frame are being covered at each end. Otherwise, the 'televisionist' will see a distorted or drifting pic- ture. The simplest form of syn- chronizing this action is to use a synchronous motor driven from the alternating current supply. Such a motor stays absolutely in step with the alternations of the supply current ; but unfortunate- ly, the power supply is not uni- versal. So outside the confines of a particular power network, such locking fails. Tuning forks generating alternating current are a favorite form of producing a stable alternating current fre- quency power to drive a small synchronous motor. And now steps are progressing nicely to provide a black (or white) sig- nal at the end of each frame transmission, which will be re- ceived on each televisor and automatically bring the receiver into step. Such synchronizing signals would obviously be twenty per second, corresponding to the number of frames per sec- ond. But it is necessary to have a drive which is relatively quite stable to start with, so that the receiver will not have to jump into step each frame ; otherwise it is quite as apt to jump out as in. These developments follow closely along the lines of tele- photography and radio facsimile picture transmission. Other Methods, — There are many other plans suggested for accomplishing the work, but they have not had general acceptance as yet. One favorite thought is the transmission of two or more sections of the picture at the same time. For such a purpose it is necessary to set up two or Television 661 Teller more complete systems of course, with certain common articles of equipment such as the scanning disk. But one great drawback to such methods has been main- taining anything like constancy between the different systems so used, such that there will not be resultant streaks in the picture. Separate radio channels are like- wise necessary for such methods, and here again the problem of maintaining uniformity is tre- mendous. The use of galva- nometer mirrors has been sug- gested and used most successful- ly by Mihalay, in Budapest. But it seems to be even more of a tour dc force than these other means. Another favorite is the revolving mirror scanner of Weiller. It is used both for transmission and reception and delivers much more light than the Nipkow disk. It is made up of a lot of individual small flat mirrors placed on a drum. Its disadvantage lies in much great- er necessary weight to provide necessary rigidity to the mirror mountings. Scenes. — One very interesting possibility that may give great impetus to television is the trans- mission of more suitable sub- jects. While the hope is in everyone's mind that television may some day bring the motion picture into the home or at least theatre from a central transmis- sion point, there is more imme- diate possibility of making use of what television is even now able to do, by providing it with subject matter that gets the pic- ture across with much less of a rigorous detail requirement than the usual scene requires. A shorthand, it might be termed, for pictures. A flash, for ex- ample, is certainly all that any- one would need together with the audio sound of a pistol to give extreme realism. The lighted cigar which William Gillette made famous in the Sherlock Holmes gas house scene carries plenty of illusion. Unit elements 4,320 would certainly provide the means for getting a large amount of information across, particularly when it may be changed every twentieth of a sec- ond. It may require an organ- ization even more complete than those which build up the ani- mated cartoons to make up such special television broadcast ma- terial. But it may well be worth it. When it is accomplished it will mean that there will be a meeting between what science and engineering are able to pro- vide, and what art and ingenuity are able to capitalize. Bibliography. — C. Crawley, From Telegraphy to Television (London, 1931); E. H. Felix, Television, its Methods and Uses (N. Y., 1931) ; H. B. Franklin, Sound Motion Pictures (1930) ; J. A. Moyer and J. F. Wostrel, Radio Handbook (1931). Peri- odicals : Television (London, 1928 to date) ; Projection En- gineering, Television, Sound and Liglu_ Projection, Theatrical En- gineering (New York, 1929 to date). Tel'ford, Thomas ( 1 75 7- 1834), Scottish civil engineer, was born in Eskdale. In 1787 he was appointed county surveyor of public works for Shropshire, and afterwards engineer for the Ellesmere Canal, connecting the Severn with the Mersey. His next work was the laying out of a system of main roads in the Highlands of Scotland, over 900 miles in all ; the improvement of harbors at Wick, Aberdeen, Pe- terhead, Dundee, and Leith ; and the construction of the Caledo- nian Canal. Other undertakings of his are the Gota Canal in Sweden, the Menai Suspension Bridge, and the Clyde Bridge in Glasgow. He is especially known in the United States as the inventor of the Telford pave- ment. Tell. See Algeria; Tunis. Tell, William, hero in Swiss legend, the earliest written ver- sion of which dates from 1470; the next is in a chronicle of 1482, by Melchior Russ, and a con- temporary Tellenlied. Thereaf- ter it is sanctioned by Tschudi, Stettler, Huldrich and Miiller. In brief, the myth relates that, refusing reverence to the ducal hat of Austria, set up (1407) in Altorf market-place. Tell was sentenced to death unless he shot an apple placed on his son's head. This feat he accomplished, but confessing that a second arrow was kept in reserve for the Austrian bailiff, if he had killed his son. Tell was seized and car- ried to the tyrant's boat, but a storm arising, was released that he might act as pilot. On reach- ing shore he shot his enemy and escaped. This shooting of the tyrant was the signal for a rising, resulting in Swiss confederation. The apple story is of wide dif- fusion, appearing in an earlier Danish version, and figuring in 'Adam Bell and Clym of the Clough' in Percy's Reliques. The legend forms the subject of Schiller's drama Wilhehn Tell, and Rossini's opera Guglielmo Tell. Tell City, city, Indiana, in Perry County, on the Ohio River and on the Southern Railroad ; 45 miles southwest of Evans- ville. Industries include the manufacture of furniture, wood hames, desks, spokes and hubs, staves, woollens, iron products, flour, and tobacco. Within five miles of the city is the place on the river where Abraham Lin- coln conducted his ferry. The home of Robert Fulton was in the immediate vicinity. Tell City was founded and incorpo- rated as a town in 1858. A city charter was granted in 1887. Pop. (1920) 4,086; ( 1 930) 4,873. Tell-el-Amarna, tel'el-a-mar'- na, ruined city on the right bank of the Nile, Middle Egypt, be- tween Memphis and Thebes. Ex- tensive excavations have been undertaken by the German Orient Society and by Flinders Petrie and ruins of the temple and pal- ace, founded by Amenophis iv., some three hundred clay tablets with cuneiform inscriptions con- taining Egyptian correspondence with Babylonia, Assyria, and other Eastern nations, and sev- eral groups of rock tombs have been discovered. Tell-el-Kebir, teKel-ka-ber'. village, Egypt, on Freshwater Canal, 78 miles southwest of Port Said. It was the scene of Sir Garnet Wolseley's victory over Arabi Pasha, Sept. 13. 1882. Teller, Henry Moore (1830- 1914), American public official, was born in Granger. N. Y. He was educated at Alfred Uni- versity, and in 1856 was admitted to the bar. He settled in Colora- do in 1861. was a major general of militia during the Civil War, United States senator in 1876- VoL. XL— 32-M. Fig. 5. 1. Scanning disk revolving 20 times a second left to right. 2. 'Frame* adjustable. 3. Flat-plate neon lamp, worked by radio signals. Tellez 662 Temperance 82, and secretary of the interior in President Arthur's cabinet in 1882-85. He was again elected to the Senate as a Republican in 1885 and re-elected in 1891, but left the Republican party because of the money issue in 1896. He was re-elected to the Senate in 1897 as a Silver Republican and in 1903 as a Democrat. He is the author of the 'Teller' resolu- tion, which pledged the independ- ence of Cuba. Tellez, Gabriel. See Tirso DE Molina. Tellicherry, tel-i-cher'i, sea- port town, India, in Malabar dis- trict, Madras Presidency ; 43 miles northwest of Calicut. The town is beautifully situated in a group of wooded hills and has an old fort. Exports include coffee, cardamoms, and sandalwood. Pop. (1921) 27,576. Tel-loh. See Babylonia. Telluride, tel-u-rid, town, Colorado, county seat of San Miguel County, on the Rio Grande Southern Railroad ; 47 miles northeast of Durango. The region is good grazing land, and gold, silver, and lead are found in the neighborhood. Mining is the leading industry. The place was first settled in 1881 and in- corporated in 1883. The present charter was granted in 1902. Pop. (1910) 1,756; ( 1 920) 1,618; (1930) 512. Tellurium, Te, 127.5, is a rare semi-metallic element of the sulphur group, and is chiefly found as a gold telluride, and in some copper ores. It is of gray- ish-white metallic appearance, of specific gravity 6.2 ; melts at 450° c. and boils at 1,390° c. It forms tellurides with hydrogen and the metals similar to the sul- phides ; but the tellurous and telluric acids, HoTeOs and H2Te04, differ from the corre- sponding sulphur compounds in being only very feebly acid. Tellus. See G^a. Telpherage, a system of trac- tion by aerial rope or wire way used for the conveyance of minerals over rough country, in which a stout steel cable sup- ported on poles forms the track. On this are suspended little trol- leys with the wheels running on the cable. A second cable con- veys current to the trolley, and the lower cable acts as the return conductor. A small motor drives the trolley. The arrangement may be automatic, but sometimes the train is large enough to carry a driver. In the World War the Italian army developed a tel- pherage system to carry guns, munitions and men up the steep mountain faces of their battle front. See also Electric Trac- tion. Telugu, tel'do-goo, a language Vol. XL— 32-M. of South India, spoken by about 23,600,000 people, who are spread from Orissa almost down to the city of Madras. It is also extensively used in the nizam's dominions and in the Central Provinces. Telugu, like all other languages of the Dravidian fam- ily, is an agglutinative language, particles being 'glued on' or pre- fixed, suffixed, or infixed, to words or roots in order to express grammatical relation. It is simi- lar in many respects to Tamil, but peculiarities in inflection and dialectic changes have made va- rious differences. Consult Brown, Telugu-English Diction- ary ; Morris, Simplified Gram- mar of Telugu; Arden, Progres- sive Grammar of the Telugu Language ; Thurston, Castes and Tribes of Southern India; Cald- well, Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South Indian Family of Languages (1913). Temax, te-mash', town, Mex- ico, in the state of Yucatan, 55 miles northeast of Meridia. Pop. 18,000. Tembuland, tem'boo-land, province. Cape of Good Hope Province, South Africa ; area, 3.339 square miles. Coal mining is the chief industry. The capital is Umtata. Pop. (1921) 234,988; whites (1926) 4,693. Tem'enos, a Greek word meaning an enclosed plot of land, and in its particular use the sacred precinct devoted to a god, which in earlier times contained nothing more than a sacred grove or an image, but in later days usually a temple. Temesvar, now Timisioara, city, Roumania in Temes County ; 240 miles northwest of Bucharest. It is the see of a Roman Catholic and a Greek Orthodox bishop. Features of interest are the castle founded by Hunyady in 1443, the Roman Catholic cathedral, founded by Maria Theresa in 1736-57, and a memorial column to its de- fenders of 1849. Industries include cloth, paper, tobacco and leather manufactures, and oil refineries. From 1552 to 1716 it was held by the Turks but was retaken by Prince Eu- gene. It successfully resisted the Hungarian insurgents in 1849 and at the close of the Great War became a part of Roumania. Pop. (1928) 91.000. Tem'pe, a beautiful valley in northern Thessaly, Greece, between Mount Olympos and Mount Ossa, through which the river Peneus flows into the Gulf of Saloniki. From earliest times, because of its scenic beauty, the name has been proverbial for a picturesque valley. Tem'pera, in art, a method of painting in which the pigments are mixed with chalk or clay and diluted with weak glue or size. It is used chiefly for mural deco- ration and scene painting. An- cient tempera painting was probably done with a vehicle in which essential oils and wax were the ingredients or were used in some way as a varnish. See Fresco; Mural Decora- tion. Temperament, in music, is a term applied to the system of compromise adopted in the tuning of keyboard instruments. In natural or just intonation, intervals of tones are not all of equal size, and certain notes when sounded simultaneously must be slightly altered from their original pitch in rejation to the tonic in order to produce perfect concords. Therefore, were an in.strument of fixed pitch tuned to just intonation in any one key, it would not be absolutely in tune in all chords in that key, and would be much less in tune in any other key ; but by tempering all the inter- vals of a scale — with the excep- tion of the octave — so as to deviate slightly from just intona- tion, a keyboard instrument can be made approximately in tune in all keys. By this method — termed 'equal temperament' — the octave is divided into twelve semitones of practically equal size, and this system of tuning has been universally adopted for all instruments with fixed tones. Previous to this the meantone system, limited to a few keys, was used. Consult Helmholtz, Sensation of Tone, and Engel, Das Mathe- matische Harmonium. Temperament, the predomi- nant mental and physical cast or disposition that distinguishes one person from another. Each person is a compromise of char- acteristics ; but the artistic may prevail in one, the scientific in another, the philosophic in a third. The problem of tempera- ment forms a vital part of the problem of the original nature of man. It deals with the question of common human inheritances, and the capacities and impulses upon which environment directs a formative effect, and is becom- ing an increasingly important study among psychologists and students in social science. Temperance and the Tem- perance Movement. A move- ment to control the use of intoxicating liquor. In modern times the development of the temperance movement is best illustrated in English-speaking countries, especially in the United States, where the results have been more noteworthy than in many other countries. Temperance 663 Temperi«nce In England in 1802 Dr. Erasmus Darwin and Dr. Thomas Beddoes and others joined in the move- ment against spirits; and in the United States in 1808 Dr. Lyman Beecher and Dr. B. J. Clark vigor- ously denounced the growing evils of intemperance and began to plan for their suppression. In the first quarter of the 19th century temperance societies began to be formed in New York, Pennsyl- vania, and in the New England states. The American Temper- ance Society was founded in 1826, and within four years similar societies were organized in Ire- land, England, and Scotland. In 1832 began the general advocacy, among temperance workers, of total abstinence from all kinds of alcoholic beverages. In Great Britain and Ireland its pioneers were Professor Edgar of Belfast, John Dunlop of Greenock, Joseph Livesey of Preston, and William Collins of Glasgow. On May 24, 1833, the first national temperance convention in the United States was opened in Independence Hall, Philadelphia. It was a remark- able gathering in its personnel and results. There were in attendance 400 delegates from 21 states, and a national society was formed called 'The United States Tem- perance Union.' A resolution was passed declaring that the success of the temperance cause demanded the recommendation of only pure water as a substitute for alcoholic drinks. The uncompromising character of the movement was indicated thus early, and in 1836 another national convention was held at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., where a pledge of total abstinence from all intoxicants was adopted. This widened the working basis so as to include all injurious bever- ages. The name of the first national society was changed to 'American Temperance Union,' which in 1865 gave way to the National Temperance Society and Publication House. Long before 1860, when the Civil War arrested temperance effort, the dominant note in this country was total abstinence through prohibition of the manu- facture and sale of alcoholic liquors, and in the United States and Canada no other remedy for the evils of drunkenness made substantial headway during the 19th century. In Great Britain and Ireland total abstinence, at first by means of the pledge and after- ward by prohibition, was likewise the central object of the move- ment. When in 1846 the first World's Temperance Convention was held in London, the reports from all parts of the United States, Great Britain, and the British colonies indicated that the move- ment had laid hold of earnest and thoughtful people. The 304 dele- gates to the convention included such men as the Rev. Dr. Lyman Beecher; Elihu Burritt, 'the learned blacksmith'; William Lloyd Garrison, and Frederick Douglass, the anti-slavery advo- cates; and prominent among the British workers, both in the press and on the platform, were Dr. F. R. Lees, James Silk Bucking- ham, James Teare, Thomas Whittaker, and John Cassell. A network of societies existed in this country, as well as in Great Brit- ain and Canada, the common aim of which was entire legal suppres- sion of the drink traffic. Their hope was intensified by the passing of a prohibitory liquor law in the state Oi Maine in 1851. (See Pro- hibition.) The United Kingdom Alliance, founded in 1853, was likewise prohibitory in aim, and mainly through its efforts Sunday- closing acts were passed in Scot- land, Ireland, and Wales; but the concerted action and great strength of the liquor interest in England, together with the conservative attitude of the upper classes, arrested the movement to which the Maine law had given encour- agement. Immediately after the Civil War, when the temperance forces t«hat had been dormant in this country were assembled for re- newed effort, there began to be a serious divergence in the views of American and British workers against the evils of the liquor traffic. The former continued to advocate chiefly prohibition, ex- tremists forming themselves into a Political party. (See Prohibition ARTY.) _ In England opinion became divided, and although a permissive prohibitory bill was introduced in Parliament in 1864, it never became law, and subsequent bills on the same sub- ject proved equally unsuccessful. (See Local Option.) In Canada and other British colonies the de- velopment of the temperance move- ment, in the main, followed that of the United States and England. The idea of compensating the liquor interest for suppression of its traffic never had any considerable support in the United States, but in Eng- land it was always a hindrance to effective legislation, although any attempt to provide compensation out of the public funds met with strong opposition. Moral considerations in favor of total abstinence have been generally supported by the teaching in public schools, by the rules of great corporations, especially the railway companies, against the use of intoxicants by their employees, and by the preference given by life insur- ance companies and benefit so- cieties to those who abstain from alcoholic beverages of all kinds. Great waves of enthusiasm, aris- ing from the labors of Father Mathew, John B. Gough, and others have also assisted the prog- ress of the movement, and the pohcy of Socialist and Labor organizations embodies in their respective principles and plat- forms decisive requirements in favor of temperance and total abstinence. In 1899 the Ameri- can Railway Association, con- trolling more than 1,000,000 workers, adopted a standard rule prohibiting the use of intoxicants by employees while on duty, and making t.heir habitual use, or the frequenting of places where they are sold, sufficient cause for dismissal. All the states now include among their education laws provision for +he compul- sory teaching of hygiene and temperance. Temperance so- cieties organized by the different religious denominations, and the influence of the Women's Chris- tian Temperance Union and similar women's organizations, strongly aid in the diffusion of knowledge on temperance subjects and the inculcation of temperance principles. Opposing views as to whether prohibition is best adapted to secure the complete triumph of temperance principles have led to different theories on scientific temperance reform and its popu- lar application. Broadly speak- ing, the repeal of several state prohibitory laws has turned the attention of many thoughtful temperance workers to a con- sideration of other methods, es- pecially to municipal control, as in the Gothenberg Svstem (cj.v.), and its various adapta- tions. (See Public-house Trusts.) Others propose a more extensive application of the principle of guardianship, such as is already applied to imbeciles, insane, and incompetents generally; and they would provide an adequately responsible person, or body of persons, who shall take the wages, income or property of all who are addicted to such inebriety as deprives the familj of its support and administer it in behalf of the parties concerned. In the United States high license, as in Massachusetts, and an adaptation of the Gothenberg plan, as in South Carolina, have given results which are variously interpreted, and the practice of prohibitory laws is questioned by writers who point out that such laws wrongly centre re- sponsibility upon the seller of intoxicants instead of fairly ap- portioning it between the seller and the purchaser. There is a ferment of opinion upon the whole subject, and in tne large cities suggestions have been made that some features of the English public-house trusts be imitated. Temperature as they provide for a combina- tion of permissible attractions, and an elimination of objection- able ones. Thus far it may be said that no plan or experience stands out with a universally convincing prominence; but the general trend is against hasten- ing the trial of expedients which are likely to react against indi- vidualism and political liberty. Judgment in accordance with the truth that, if we ought to bear one another's burdens, we must also bear our own, holds the drunkard guilty with the liquor seller, and will not allow either to escape; but for that reason it is cautious in applying legal restric- tions. See Valpy French's Nine- teen Centuries o) Drink (1891); The Temperance Histories, by Burns (1889-90), CouHng (1862), and Winskill (1890-2); Temperance of All Nations, edited by Sterns (Papers of World's Temperance Congress. 1893); Twelfth Annual Report of the United States Com- missioner oj Labor (1897); Cal- kins's Social Substitutes for the Saloon (1901); Billings's Physio- logical Aspects of the Liquor Prob- lem (1903); Koren's Economic Aspects of the Liquor Problem (1899); Wines and Koren's The Liquor Problem in Its Legislative Aspects (1897); Burns's Temper- ance in the Victorian Age (1897); Rowntree and Sherwell's The Temperance Problem and Social Reform (1900); Robinson Souttar's Alcohol, its Place and Power in Legislation (1904); F. R. Lee's Select Works (1884); B. W. Rich- ardson's The Action of Alcohol on the Mind (1878), and Recent Re- searches on Alcohol (1878); Nor- man Kerr's Inebriety (1888)* Sims Woodhead's Recent Researches on the Action of Alcohol (1903); Lacey's The Case for Total A bsti- nence (1890); Barrett's The Truth about Intoxicating Drinks (1899); W. N. Edwards's Proving Our Case (1905); T. P. Whittaker's The Economic Aspect of the Drink Problem; John Burns's Labor and Drink — the World's Temperance Congress Volume (1900); Tracts, Publications and files of papers of the National Temperance Society and Publication House, the Wom- en's Christian Temperance Union and other temperance societies. Temperature, in physics, is that quality of bodies which de- pends upon the quantity of heat concentrated in them. We are, in general, able to decide by sen- sation that one body is hotter or at a higher temperature than another, or by its shining more or less brightly when in the dark that it is at a very high tempera- ture. But in order to get more exact and quantitative ideas of temperature other changes in the properties of bodies must be stud- ied. Of these the change in size 664 is most commonly made use of — most substances, whether solid, liquid, or gas, expanding when heated- and in the case of a gas, expanding almost exactly propor- tionally to the temperature over a very wide range. The expan- sion of a liquid such as mercury, though not so closely propor- tional to temperature, is, how- ever, more convenient to apply, so that most thermometers depend on the measurement of the size of the particular quantity of this substance contained in them. The change of state of substances, as it takes place at definite tempera- tures, is also employed as a means of measurement. Thus the stand- ard unit of temperature com- monly employed is the range be- tween the melting-point of ice and the boiling-point of water, this unit being divided into 100° in the centigrade and 180° on the Fahrenheit scale. Changes on heating in the electrical resist- ance of conductors, of electromo- tive force at the junctions of dis- similar metals, and of the color and intensity of light emitted from a hot body, are also meas- ured to determine temperature. See Thermometer and Pyrom- eter- also Thermodynamics and Gases and Vapors. Temperature, in meteorology, refers to the condition of the at- mosphere in relation to heat and cold. Since practically all of our heat coines from the sun, we may expect the temperature of any locality to depend primarily upon the season of the year and distance from the equator. But modifying influences, such as altitude, the direction of the prevailing winds, and the extent, proximity, and relative position of areas of land and water, prevent a simple and regular distribution of tempera- ture in conforrnity with the lati- tude, and not infrequently bring to places several degrees apart climates equally mild or equally severe. It is of interest in this connection to compare the effect of the sun's rays upon land and water surfaces respectively. When the solar radiation falls upon soil, a substance of low specific heat, it is partly reflected, but is mostly absorbed near the surface, is dif- fused to somewhat greater depths only by slow conduction, and its heating effect, concentrated in the upper layers, quickly raises their temperature. At night the surface loses its heat quickly by radia- tion into space. In the case of the ocean, on the other hand, a large part of the incident radiation is reflected from the surface; the remainder penetrates to consider- able depths, and is still further diffused by waves and currents. To these conditions, tending to prevent any rapid change in tem- perature, must be added the high Temperature specific heat and feeble radiating power of water, the loss of heat by evaporation, and the convection currents that rise if the surface becomes colder than the water below. Therefore the sea is heated and cooled much less than the land in the same latitude, and shows a much smaller range of tempera- ture, either from day to night or from summer to winter. Land protected by vegetation is subject to less suddien changes than bare, sandy, or rocky surfaces. These are important factors in determining the temperature of any locality. Equability is the characteristic of an island climate; the interior of a continent shows greater extremes than its shores; and a windward coast, bathed in air that takes its temperature from a broad expanse of ocean, is cooler in summer and warmer in the cold months than a leeward coast in the same latitude. In proof of this we have but to com- pare Ireland with Labrador, France with Quebec, or northern , Spain with New England, since the prevailing winds in those lati- tudes are from the west. The difference between the eastern and western coasts of the United States is also a case in point. The theory once held, that the mild- ness of western Europe may be attributed to the Gulf Stream, is now recognized as untenable, since that current loses its iden- tity in the surrounding waters long before it has crossed the Atlantic. The range of temperature — i.e. the difference between the highest and lowest — is, as we might ex- pect, least in localities subject to oceanic influences, and greatest in the interior of continents, espe- cially in arid and plateau regions, whose clear, dry atmosphere is favorable to radiation. In the United States the annual absolute range is low on the Pacific coast, and is least (59°) at Key West, Fla., where the mercury has never risen above 100° nor dropped below 49°. Never to have had a temperature below the freezing- point is a distinction that Key West shares with but one other Weather Bureau station, San Diego, Cal., whose lowest mini- mum is just 32°. The absolute annual range in this country is high in portions of the upper Mis- souri valley, northwestern New England, and the lower Lake region, and is greatest (163°) at Havre, Montana. In considering the distribution of temperature as influenced by land and water, we have tacitly assumed that the air receives more heat from the surface on which it rests than from the direct rays of the sun. This is, indeed, the case, at least as regards the lower strata. Such part of the solai Temperature Chart of the World — July. Temperature 666 Templars radiation as is not lost into space by reflection, or absorbed by the atmosphere before it reaches the earth, heats the surface of the latter, and is again radiated, but now as heat of a different quality from the solar rays, for the most part of longer wave length, more readily absorbed by the atmos- phere, and hence of greater effect in raising its temperature. But a probably more important source of heat is by conduction from the hot soil to the air in contact with it. As the latter is heated it becomes specifically lighter and rises to give place to the colder layers above, being cooled adiabatically (that is, by virtue of its own expan- sion, apart from any heat it may lose in other ways) at the rate of 1.0° Fahrenheit for every 300 feet of ascent. The descending air is adiabatically warmed by com- pression at the same rate. These convection currents continue as long as the earth retains its excess of temperature, the ascending air rising until it has cooled to the tem- perature of its surroundings, and the heat taken from the soil may thus be diffused through a consid- erable mass of atmosphere. It follows, as a general rule, that the temperature decreases from the earth upward, but this de- crease is not equal to the adia- batic rate above given. The fol- lowing table shows the mean temperature at different heights above middle Europe, as deter- mined from a great number of balloon ascensions. The height is given in kilometers (1 km. equals 3,281 feet) and the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit. 1 2 3 4 5 41° 32.9° 24.8° 15.4° 4.3° ■ upper levels a stratum whose temperature remains nearly con- stant throughout the twenty-four hours. The highest temperature of official record in the United States is 122° in Death Valley, Cal., a figure that has been equalled or even a little exceeded at one or more points in Arabia, Algeria, Mesopotamia, India, Australia, and the Sahara. Read- ings not much lower are also re- ported from southwestern Arizona and the Colorado Desert. The extreme minimum in this country is 65° below zero in Montana (Jan., 1888), and Werchoiansk, in northeastern Siberia, with a tem- perature of about 90° below zero, doubtless breaks the world's vecord. The accompanying tempera- ture charts show conditions over the globe for January and July. Lines called isotherms, or Hnes of equal heat, are drawn through points whose temperature is the same. These lines are drawn for every ten degrees. It will be ob- served that they are much more sinuous over the northern hemi- sphere in middle and high lati- tudes than over the southern. This is due to the uneven manner in which land and water are dis- tributed and to the influence of the ocean currents. South of the equator there is comparatively little land, so that the conserving influence exerted by the ocean is strikingly apparent. On the other hand, in winter, the chilHng influence of radiation over the great land mass of the Eurasian continent is a marked feature, 6 7 8 9 10 km. •7.6° -20.2° -32.8° -45.8° -56.4° This average decrease is seldom found in any given instance. It is greater in summer than in win- ter. At still greater heights, from 11 to 14 kilometers, balloon ob- servations have shown that there is but httle change, or even a slight increase, in temperature. After sunset the rapid loss of heat by radiation brings the tem- perature of the ground below that of the superincumbent air, which is in turn cooled by conduction and radiation to .the earth. The convection currents of the day- time are now interrupted, since the strata nearest the earth are cooled the most quickly, and there is normally a gradual noc- turnal increase of temperature with altitude up to a moderate height; on the average for the year about 1,000 feet. The highest temperature of the day occurs about 3 p. M., the lowest about .sunrise. The differ- ence between the two, sometimes 40° or more at the earth's .surface, diminishes as we recede from its influence, until we find in the resulting in an exceedingly low temperature in eastern Siberia. See Henry's Climatology of the United States, U. S. Weather Bu- reau Bulletin Q (1906); Bar- tholomew's Physical Atlas, vol. 3, Atlas of Meteorology; Hann's Lehrbuch der Meteorologie (1908); Davis's Elementary Meteorology (1899); also many papers on Temperature in the Monthly Weather Review. See also Heat; Thermodynamics. Templars, a military order, founded in 1119, at the time of the crusades, by Hugues de Payen and Godfrey de Saint Ad- hemar, with seven other knights, taking on themselves the solemn vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, and undertaking the defence of pilgrims to the holy places from the attacks of the Saracens. By Baldwin ii., king of Jerusalem, they were granted quarters in his palace, built on the .site of the Temple; hence the name of the order. The rule of the order was severe and as- cetic. It was drawn up for them by Bernard of Clairvaux. All luxury and display, even in armor, were forbidden, and all worldly pleasures, even hunting, were prohibited. At first none but nobles or knights were ad- mitted, but subordinate mem- bers were allowed for the menial work as the order grew great and wealthy. It was governed by a grand master, who had his seat, first at Jerusalem and then suc- cessively at Antioch, Acre, the Pilgrim's Castle (near Acre), and lastly at Limasol in Cyprus. The various provinces of the order — Jerusalem, Tripoli, Anti- och, Portugal, Castile and Leon, Aragon, England, France, Aqui- taine, Provence, Germany, Italy, and Sicily — were ruled by mas- ters, grand priors, and com- manders. In 1172 the Templars \vere set free from the jurisdic- tion of the bishops and made de- pendent on the pope alone, and were allowed to confess to chap- lains of their own order. Their houses had the right of sanctuary, and their property was exempt from taxation and tithing, and in consequence their establish- ments were frequently used as treasuries. The active history of the Tem- plars is the history of the crusades. To them rather than to the miscellaneous hordes that peri- odically swarmed from Europe was due the long stay given to the infidel. Twenty thousand Templars perished in the attempt to hold the holy place of the Christian religion for Christen- dom, and most of their grand masters died on the field of honor or from wounds received in battle. They helped Richard Coeur de Lion to win the great victory at Arsuf in 1191, and from him they purchased the island of Cyprus. In the 13th century disaster fol- lowed disaster, till in 1291 Acre, after a memorable siege, was taken by the Saracens. At last the enemies whom their arrogance provoked were not slow to bring against them charges of licentiousness, of apostasy from the Christian faith, of treachery to the crusaders, of oppression, and of extortion. For many of these charges there was prob- ably some foundation in indi- vidual cases; but the order it- self remained Christian and or- thodox. Philip of France, being in an impoverished condition, cast greedy eyes on the treas- ures possessed by the Templars, and directed the pope, Clement v., to summon the grand master to appear before him. The grand master, Jacques de Molay, an- swered the summons, and on Oct. 16, 1307, he and 140 Templars were .seized, and were thrown into prison. Torture was freely used Temple KFP 667 Temple to establish evidence. Many Templars were burned to death. Their property was confiscated and handed over to their bitter enemies, the Hospitallers, with whom they had been at open war in Palestine. The most shame- less travesty of justice took place in France. In Spain, Por- tugal, and Germany the Tem- plars were found innocent ; and in England, where it required strong pressure from the pope to have them examined by torture, the charges broke down or were not pressed. In addition to its possessions in Syria and Asia Minor, the order owned numerous lordships in almost every country of Eu- rope — nine thousand manors, ac- cording to Matthew of Paris. Of these the memory still survives in many place-names incorporat- ing the word 'Temple.' The an- nual income drawn from Euro- pean sources alone is estimated to have been about six million pounds sterling. The Templars, moreover, possessed many privi- leges above ordinary Europeans. The manifest advantage of being a member of the order or one of its vassals soon led to abuses. Those who had no right to be so regarded fraudulently erected Temple crosses upon their build- ings, and claimed the Temple privileges. The recognition as Templars of men who were vm- der the ban of the church, or who had broken the laws of their country, must have tended great- ly to increase the disfavor with which the order came to be re- garded by all the nations of Europe, but the main cause of their overthrow was the danger- ous position which they occupied in the political life of Europe. The Knights Templars of Freemasonry, though a compar- atively modern institution, repre- sent a certain phase of the great historical organization, which was to some extent a secret fra- ternity. (See Freemasonry). The societies of modern abstain- ers calling themselves 'Good Templars' have no historical ba- sis. See Addison's Knights Tem- plars (3d ed. 1852) ; Secret So- cieties of the Middle Ages (1846); Templaria (1828-30); Froude's Templars (1886) ; and Schottmiiller's Der Untergang des Templar-Ordcns (2 vols. 1887). Temple, The, a former stronghold of the Knights Tem- plars in Paris, was built in 1212 on land granted by King Louis VII of France. When the order was suppressed in 1312 the for- tress was first used as a royal treasury and later as a prison. It was here that Louis xvi, Marie Antoinette, their two chil- dren, and Madame Elizabeth, the King's sister, were taken as pris- oners in August, 1792. The King went from the Temple to his death on the scaffold Jan. 21, 1793. The young Dauphin died here as the result of the brutal treatment of his jailer. The last traces of the grim structure were removed in 1871 ; its site is now occupied by the Marche du Tem- ple. Temple, The, a former lodge of the Knights Templars in Lon- don, dates from the close of the twelfth century. It is now rep- resented by Temple Church and the Inns of t,6urt, known as the Inner and Middle Temple, stand- ing on the ancient site of the original building. The property reverted to the crown when the order was suppressed but later passed to the Knights of St. John who leased it to law students. Temple. In the history of Israel three buildings of differ- ent eras bore the name Temple. (1.) Solomon's Temple was one of a group of buildings on Mount Moriah (or Zion), the modern Haram-es-Sherif . Its artificers were Tyrian workmen, and it was probably constructed after Phoenician or Syrian mod- els. Its various materials were dressed before they were brought to the site, Araunah's threshing floor. The main building was an oblong of sixty by twenty cubits, and thirty cubits in height (in- terior measure). Two-thirds of this space was separated from the remainder by a partition with curtained door : the former was the Holy Place, and contained the ten golden candlesticks and the altar of incense ; while the latter, a cube of twenty cubits, was the Holy of Holies, in which was the ark with the cherubim. At the eastern end, farthest from the Holy of Holies, was the porch or chief entrance, with two pillars, Jachin and Boaz, each twenty-three cubits high. This inner temple was encased by three tiers of chambers, above which were the windows of the main building, serving for ven- tilation rather than light. The ceiling of the large apartments was supported by pillars of ce- dar. The whole was surrounded by an inner court, containing the altar of burnt offering, the bra- zen sea, and the brazen lavers, and was bounded by a palisade of cedar beams upon a stone base, and by a great court which enclosed not only the temple but the other royal buildings. The temple was pillaged and burned at the siege of Jerusalem under Nebuchadnezzar (588 B.C.), hav- ing stood for some 418 years. (2.) The Temple of Zerubbabel was founded 534 b.c, then com- pulsorily abandoned ; resumed in 520, it was completed in 516. It stood on the site of the former, but was inferior both in magni- tude and in splendor. It had several courts, with cloisters or cells for the priests. Desecrated by Antiochus Epiphanes in 168 B.C., it was repaired by Judas Maccabaeus in 165. Pompey damaged it in 63 B.C., and Herod the Great inflicted further injury in 37 B.C. (3.) The Temple of Herod was begun about 20 b.c, and was built in one and a half years ; but the edifice and out- buildings seem to have been un- der the workmen's hands till about 64 A.D. (c/. John 2:20). Herod chose a site adjoining the older building, and used some of its materials. This is the tem- ple of the New Testament, asso- ciated with Jesus and His dis- ciples. It was destroyed by fire in the siege of Jerusalem in 70 A.D. A splendid Mohammedan mosque now occupies its place. Ezekiel's temple (Ezek. 40-43) is an ideal construction. There was also a temple of the Samari- tans on Mount Gerizum. See Josephus' Antiquities, xv, 11; Keil's Biblical Archaeology (trans. 1887) ; Benzinger's Heh. Archdologie (1894) ; Lewis' Holy Places of Jerusalem (1880); Edersheim's Temple (1874); Perrot and Chipiez's History of Art in Jiidea (1890) ; Schmidt's Solomon's Temple in the Light of Other Oriental Temples (1902). Temple, city, Texas, Bell county, on the Gulf, Colorado, and Santa Fe and the Missouri, Kansas and Texas railroads ; 69 miles N.N.E. of Austin. Shops of the Gulf, Colorado, and Santa Fe Railroad are situated here. There are cotton gins and com- presses, cottonseed-oil mills, flour mills, machine shops, a large cold storage plant, found- ries, and bottling works. It has a Carnegie library, the Gulf, Colorado, and Santa Fe Railroad Hospital, the King's Daughters' Hospital, Scott and White Hos- pital, and the McClosky General Hospital. Here is the Temple Army Air Port of about 1,000 acres, and Camp Hood of 165,- 000 acres. The first settlement was made in 1881 and the city was incorporated in 1884. Pop. (1930) 15,345 ; (1940) 15.344. Temple, Frederick (1821- 1902), archbishop of Canterbury, was born in the Ionian Is. At Oxford he took a 'double first,' and became fellow and tutor of Balliol College. Temple was appointed principal of Kneller Hall, Hounslow, and at the same time an inspector of schools. In 1858 he accepted the headmas- tership of Rugby, and during this period proved himseU an ardent partisan of Gladstone. In 1867 he roused fierce opposition Temple KFP 668 Tench by his essay, 'The Education of the World,' published in Essays and Reviews. In 1869 he became bishop of Exeter, and in 1885 was appointed bishop of London. Temple, in 1896, succeeded Ben- son as archbishop of Canterbury, and proved himself a forceful administrator. See Memoirs of Archbishop Temple, ed. by E. G. Sanford (2 vols. 1906). Temple, Sir Richard (1826- 1902), British Indian adminis- trator, entered the Bengal civil service (1846), and became resi- dent at Haidarabad, finance min- ister (1868), and governor-gen- eral of Bombay (1877-80). Es- pecially notable were his services in the famine of 1874 and dur- ing the Afghan War (1878-80). Temple, Richard Grenville, Earl (1711-79), British_ states- man, figuring in his time as 'Squire Gawkey,' was brother of George Grenville, and brother- in-law of the elder Pitt. First lord of the Admiralty (1756), he was (1757) dismissed by George II, who held him in aversion. He assisted Chatham financially, but quarrelled with him in 1766 over the Stamp Act. A patron of Wilkes, he has been held to be the author of Junius's Letters. Temple, William (1881- 1944), Archbishop of Canter- bury, was born in Exeter, the son of Frederick Temple (q. v.), also Archbishop of Canterbury (1896-1902), and was educated at Rugby and at Balliol College^^ Oxford. He became a deacon in 1908, priest in 1909. and was chaplain to the Archbishop of Canterbury 1910-21. His ad- vancement was steady and rapid, being Canon of Westminster, 1919-21 ; Bishop of Manchester, 1921-29; and Archbishop of York, 1929-42, in the latter year succeeding Cosmo Gordon Lang (q. v.) (Baron Lang of Lam- beth) as Archbishop of Canter- bury. His publications include Church and Nation (1915) ; Plato and Christianity (1916) ; Issues of Faith (1918) ; Fellow- ship with God (1920) ; The Uni- versality of Christ (1921) ; Christus Veritas (1924) ; Christ in His Church (1925) ; Essays in Christian Politics (1927) ; Christianity and the State (1928) ; Nature, Man and God (1934) ; and Readings in St. John's Gospel (1939). Temple, Sir William (1628- 99), British diplomatist, born at London ; became a member of the Irish Parliament in 1660. In 1665 he was appointed envoy at Brussels. His most famous work was the negotiation of the 'Triple Alliance' of 1668, between Eng- land, Holland, and Sweden, by which these states entered into a league for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands from France. Temple was afterwards appointed ambassador at The Hague, and, with the exception of the period (1671-4) of the Dutch War, remained there until 1679, during this time negotiat- ing the Treaty of Westminster, and the marriage of William of Orange with the Princess Mary. Temple passed the latter years of his life in retirement at Sheen and Moor Park, occupying his time with essay-writing and gar- dening. His essays were col- lected in two volumes of Mis- cellanea, the latter containing the famous essay on 'Ancient and Modern Learning.' He pub- lished also 2 vols of Memoirs. Temple Bar, the last of the old City of London barriers, was pulled down (1878) as an ob- struction to traffic, and replaced by a monument bearing a device giving rise to the nickname of the 'griffin.' Temple Bar was built by Wren (1670). The closing of its gates announced the sovereign's entry into the city. It was re-erected at Theo- bald's Park, near Waltham Cross, in 1888. Temple College, now univer- sity, an unsectarian institution in Philadelphia, Pa., opened in 1884 as a night school by Dr. Russell H. Conwell. In 1888 a college charter was secured, and in 1907 the college became a uni- versity. Schools of theology, law, medicine, pharmacy, den- tistry, chiropody, oral hygiene, commerce, music, and fine arts, and Garretson and Greatheart Hospitals, and Teachers College, were subsequently added. The institution is coeducational ; it has a student enrolment of over 13,000; and a library of 211,503 volumes. A notable building program has been carried out since 1925, including a sports stadium; Mitten Hall, a recrea- tion center ; and the Thomas D. Sullivan Memorial Library. Temps, Le, the leading organ of the moderate Republican party in France, was founded in 1861 by Auguste Nefiftzer, who con- ducted the journal until 1871. Liberal in politics, the paper opposed the second empire ; but it was suspected of Orleanist sympathies. On the fall of the empire it gave its support to the moderate Republican party, and under the direction of M. Hebrard (from 1871) Le Temps became one of the most influen- tial papers in France. Tempsford, village, England, Bedfordshire, 9 miles n.e. of Bedford. It was burned by the Danes in 1010 a.d. Near the Ouse is an ancient intrenchment. probably of Danish origin, and another, known as Gannock's Castle, near the Ivel. Ten, The Councu. of, a magistracy first appointed in 1310 by the Venetians to act as a more prompt and secret ex- ecutive in affairs of emergency than could the larger bodies al- ready constituted. It gradually absorbed all private and urgent executive business — foreign pol- icy, censorship of morals, and trial of state cases. Its mysteri- ous secrecy of procedure and its ruthless promptitude made it a terror to all offenders. It origi- nally consisted of seventeen members — ^the doge, his six coun- sellors, and ten annually elected members. In the 16th century a giunta of prominent members of the councils of state was added to it, and its jurisdiction in trea- son cases was delegated to three 'inquisitors of state.' Tenacity, in strength of ma- terials, is the least longitudinal pull which will cause a bar of unit section to rupture. It is commonly estimated in tons per square inch or kilograms per square centimeter. Its value varies much according to the ma- terial, and even in different speci- mens of the same material the tenacity has different values. This can be ascertained only by direct experiment. See Elas- ticity and Strength of Mate- rials. Tenafly, borough. New Jer- sey, Bergen county, on the Erie Railroad; 15 miles N. by e. of New York city, six miles from the George Washington Bridge. It is a residential place. Here is the Mary Fisher Home for in- firm professional people. Bor- ough limits include about 1 ^2 m. of the Palisades. Pop. (1930) 5,669; (1940) 8,215. Tenants in Common. Two or more persons owning definite undivided interests or shares in real of personal property. This form of tenancy always arises where two or more heirs inherit property. Under the early com- mon law a conveyance of two or more persons created a joint ten- ancy, which involved the doc- trine of survivorship, that is, when one died his interest passed to his co-tenants. However, by statute in many states, unless the conveyance expressly describes the estate created as a joint ten- ancy, it will be presumed to cre- ate a tenancy in common. Such tenants may bring partition at any time, and on the death of one his interest descends to his heirs, or he may devise it by will. Tenasserim, a division of Lower Burma, an elongated strip of land lying between the Indian Ocean and the mountains of the Siamese frontier. Area, 37,614 sq. miles. Pop. 1.872,666. Tench (Tincavulgaris), a fresh- water fish of the carp family, found all over Europe in stand- Tencln KFN 669 Ten Kate ing water, especially where the bottom is muddy. The scales are small and the skin thick; there is a pair of barbules ; the lateral line is complete, and the tail - fin is slightly emarginate. Tench always keep near the bot- tom, and bury themselves in the Tench. mud on the approach of winter. They are exceedingly prolific, and are sufficiently hardy to tolerate transport. Tench attain a weight of from four to five pounds. Tencin, Madame de, or more fully Claudine Alexandrine, Marquise de Tencin (1681 - 1749), French writer, was born at Grenoble, and early joined a religious community. Finding this not to her taste, she went to Paris in 1714, and speedily at- tracted attention by her personal fascination and wit. The regent and Cardinal Dubois were among her many lovers. Like other women of the day, she dabbled in politics. In 1726 she was in the Bastille, as the result of a scan- dal. She was the mother of D'Alembert. Her salon was very popular, and she was au- thoress of several romances {e.g. Memoires du Comte des^ Cum- minges, 1735, and Le Siege de Calais. 1739). Her Correspon- dance was published in 1790, and Lettres au Due de Richelieu in 1806, See Barthelemy, Me- moires Secrets de Madame de Tencin (1790). Tenda, Col de, Alpine pass (6,145 ft.), between the snowy Alps on the w. and the snowless Apennines on the e. It leads from Cuneo in Piedmont to Tenda at the head of the Roja Valley, and is traversed by a carriage road, while a railway tunnel is being pierced beneath it. Tender. In law, an offer by a person to pay a debt, or perform some obligation, as to convey property or deliver goods. The legal effect is to discharge the obligor from any of the conse- quences which might otherwise arise from non-payment or non- performance, although generally it does not terminate the obliga- tion. For example, if the amount of a debt is tendered to the credi- tor, and he refuses it^ he cannot afterward claim interest after the date of tender. Tender must be unconditional, or with proper conditions, and if in money, must be in coin or currency known as legal tender. Government notes are legal tender except for duties, etc., and interest on public debt; gold and silver certificates and national bank notes are legal ten- der with above exceptions. If the dehyery of property is ten- dered, it must conform to the contract. Tender of a sum de- manded in an action will stop costs after that date under most practice acts. Tendon of Achilles, the ten- don which connects the heel with the calf of the leg, and is the principal extensor of the foot. It is so called because, according to fable, the mother of Achilles, when she dipped him in the river Styx to make him invulnerable, held him by the heel, and thus the heel was the only part of him which remained vulnerable. Tendons, in anatomy, are white, glistening, non - elastic cords, or bands, composed of white fibrous tissue, the fibrils of which are parallel and firmly united together. They are almost devoid of blood • vessels and nerves, but are sometimes pro- vided with synovial sheaths. In certain tendons are developed sesamoid bones, of which the knee-cap is an example. Ten- dons serve as connecting bands between muscles and the struc- tures upon which the muscles act. They are liable to sprain, and are the seat of inflammatory affections. Tendril, the name given to leaf- stalks which are so modified as to form twisting threads whereby certain plants cling to other plants or to supports. In some plants, tendrils are formed by the abortion of the leaf-blades; in others, by the extension of the leaf-stalks beyond the blades; and in others, oy the modification of the leaf-blades themselves. Tenedos, island in the ^ge- an Sea, off coast of Troas in Asia Minor, under Turkish con- trol. It was the station of the Greek fleet during the siege of Troy. Tenement House Problem. See Housing of City Wage- earners. Tenerife, or Teneriffe, Peak or {Pico de Teyde), a dormant volcano, island of Tenerife, form- ing the highest summit (12,180 ft.) in the Canary Is. The sum- mit is snow clad. The last out- break was in 1798; and in the year following Humboldt and Bonpland made their famous as- cent. The island is treated under Canary Islands. See C. Piazzi Smyth's Teneriffe (1858). Teneriffe Wines. See Canary Wine. Tengri Khan. See Khan- Tengk-T. Tenlers, David, the elder (1582-1649), Flemish genre and landscape painter, was born at Antwerp, and studied under Rubens. His works, somewhat fantastic in tone, as suited the taste of the period, are to be found in the Vienna, Berlin, Dresden, and Darmstadt galler- ies, and two examples, A Dutch Kitchen and Temptation of Saint Anthony, are in the Metro- politan Museum, New York. Teniers, David, the younger (1610-90), the foremost Flemish genre painter of peasant I'fe. of the alehouse and the card-taole, son of David Teniers the elder (1582-1649), who was his first master. Influenced by Brouwer and Rubens, he married the latter's ward, daughter of Jan (Velvet) Breughel. He was ap- pointed painter to the Arch- duke Leopold - William, and in 1644 president of the Antwerp Guild of Painters. His paint- ings — delicately balanced, har- monious in color, humorous, mas- terly in technique — are well rep- resented in Buckingham Palace and the National Gallery. Sev- eral of his paintings are in the U. S. — a Marriage Festival and Judith are in the Metropolitan Museum, New York, while his Parable of the Laborer, Incanta- tion Scene, Village Fete, and several others are in the rooms of the New York Historical So- ciety. Tenison, Thomas (1636-1715), archbishop of Canterbury, was born at Cottenham. For some years a parish priest, Tenison be- came celebrated for his able re- ligious and political controver- sies, as well as for his powerful preaching. He became (1691) bishop of Lincoln, and four years later archbishop of Can- terbury. He enjoyed the marked favor of William and Mary. Ten Jurisdictions, League of the, the third and youngest of the Three Leagues of Rhaetia or the Grisons, Switzerland. It was formed (June 8, 1436) on the death of Frederick, last count of Toggenburg. Tenkasi, tn., Tinnevelly dist., Madras Presidency, India, 30 m. N.W. of Tinnevelly: possesses a temple of great sanctity. Ten Kate, Jan Jacob Lode- wijK (1819-89), Dutch man of letters, was born at The Hague. He became pastor at Middelburg and Amsterdam (1860). As a poet he produced some works remark- able for fancy and force. Among these are: De Schepping (1866, Eng. trans. The Creation, by Rev. D. van de Pelt, 1888); De Pla- neeten {The Planets, 1869); De Jaargetijden {The Seasons,lSll). He made felicitous translations of Tasso, Andersen, Dante, Schil- Tennant KFN 670 Tennent ler, Victor Hugo, Milton, Tenny- son, and Longfellow. He also translated the Gospel Hymns of Ira D. Sankey. His complete Tennemann, Wilhelm Gott- LTEB (1761-1819), German his- torian of philosophy, was born near Weimar. His principal work delphia Presbytery in 1725, and was ordained pastor at Bruns- wick, N. J., in 1726. He assisted George Whitefield in his evan- poetic works are published in 12 vols. (1890-1). Tennant, William (1784-1848), Scottish poet, was born a cripple at Anstruther, in Fifeshire. He became a clerk, and later school- master at Dunino, Lasswade, and Dollar. Tennant's knowl- edge of Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian gained for him the chair of Oriental languages at St. An- drews University in 1834. His Ansfer Fair introduced to Eng- land the form of verse used by some Italian poets. Among his other writings are Cardinal Bea- ton (1823) and The Thane of Fife (1822). Peak of Tenerife, is Geschichie der Philosophic, in 11 vols. (1798-1819), written from the Kantian standpoint. He lectured at Jena (from 1788), and was professor of philosophy at Marburg (1804). He trans- lated into (German the philo- sophical works of Locke and Hume. Tennent, Gilbert (1703-64), American clergyman, was born in Co. Armagh, Ireland, and emi- grated to America in 1818 with his father, William Tennent, after- ward president of the 'Log Col- lege' for ministerial candidates at Neshaminy, Pa. Gilbert was licensed to preach by the Phila- gelical labors in this country. In 1744 he was called to Philadelphia and raised funds for a large church, of which he was pastor until his death, being noted for his effective sermons, many of which were published. Tennent, Sir James Emerson (1804-69), Irish author and poH- tician, born at Belfast. In 1832 he was elected m.p. for Belfast, and was secretary to the Indian Board (1841-3), the Ceylon gov- ernment (1845-50), and the Board of Trade (1852-67). He wrote A Treatise on the Copy- right of Designs (1841), and Ceylon (1859; 5th ed. 1860). APPENDIX OF PRONUNCIATION TO NELSON'S ENCYCLOPEDIA. I. EXPLANATORY NOTE. In the vocabulary of this Appendix tiie correct pro- nunciation is indicated of all titles which present any difficulty in that respect. Titles are omitted when the pronunciation is indicated by the spelling (as abatement, Adams, Aiken, Bates, etc.), or by connection with titles given in the Appendix. A simple system of respelling is adopted based upon the usual values of the vowels and consonants in English; and such diacritical marks as are used are those in gen- eral use in school text-books. The values of the symbols used are given in the accompanying Key, with explana- tions of the way to pronounce correctly tlie few foreign sounds which are not fairly well represented by English sounds. Except as otherwise noted in the Key, the let- ters used in respelling are to be given their ordinary Eng- lish values. Further information as to the values of the letters in the alphabets of foreign languages will be found in the article on PRONUNCIATION in the Encyclopaedia. II. KEY. a as in fate, rebate. a aa in care, mare, or as ai in fair, or as e in there. a (unmarked) as in fat, am. a as in arm, father. k as in ask. a as in America. e as in me, evade. 6 (unmarked) as in met, end. e as in moment, maker. I as in ice, mine. i (unmarked) as in fit, it, 0 as in old, over, obey. 0 (unmarked) as in odd, not. 6 as in nor, or as a in fall, 01 as in boil, noise. Oo as in boot, fool, or as u in rude, db as in book, or as u in full, put. II as in mule, unite. u (unmarked) as in but, up. fi as in turn, burn, or as e in her, or as i in fir; also for French eu and for German 0. ii for French u and German 0. This sound may be imitated by pronouncing e as in Eng- lish me and at the same time firmly round- ing the lips as for pronouncing oo in fool. y as in yet. ch as in church. ch as in German ich. This is the front palatal continuant, and is pronounced with the blade of the tongue raised almost to the hard palate, producing a sound resembling a strong pronunciation of the h in hew, or the sound of k in key pronounced with- out complete stoppage of the breath. g as in eo, girl. h as in hit; also for Spanish g before e and i, and for other foreign sounds which are similar strong guttural fricatives. hw as wh in when. K as c/i in Scotch loch, and German ach, or as g in German tag, berg. This is the back pal- atal, or guttural, continuant, and is pro- nounced with the tongue raised almost to the palate, producing a sound somewhat resembling that made in clearing the throat, & is used to indicate a nasal pronunciation of the preceding vowel, as in French bon. The nasal vowels are pronounced some- what as if blended with the sound of nrj in song, pronounced without the complete closure for the g. th as in thick, though, TH as in then, thus, zh as z in azure, or as s in measure. An apostrophe ['], when used, denotes an almost complete elision of the vowel which it re- places or indicates a syllabic consonant, aa in ta'k'n (taken), spaz'm (spasm). Volume XL — Sayana to Tenneman. Sayana, sa'yo-na. Sayce, sas. Sayers, sarz. Sayreville, sar'vil. Scabies, ska'bi-gz. Scabious, ska'bi-us. Scaevola, eev'o-la. Sea Fell, sk6 fel. Scagliola, skal-yo'ia. Scala, ska'la. Scala Santa, aka'ia san'ta. Scalchi, skal'kg. Scaliger, skal'i-j^r. Scallop, skol'up. Scamander, Bko-man'der. Scammony, skam'O-ni. Scandalam Magnatum, skan'da-lum mag-na'- tum. Scanderbeg, skan'der-beg, Scanderoon, skan-de-roon'. Scandinavia, skan-di-na'- vi-a. Scania, ska'nl-a. Scaphoid Bones, skaf'oid. Scapula, skap'u-la. Scarab, skar'ab. Scarabaeus, skar-a-be'us. Scarborough, skar'bro or skar'bur-u, Scarlatti, skar-lat't5. Scarpa, skar'pa. Scarpanto skir'pan-to. Scarron, ska-r6ft'. Scartazzini, skar-tat-tse'- ne. Scattery, skat'g-ri. Scaup, sk6p, Scawfell, sk6-fel'. Scepticism, skep'ti-siz'm. Schadow, sha'do. Schadow-Godenhaus, go'- den-hous. Schafer, sha'fer. SchalF, shaf. Schaffhause n,shaf-hou'- zm. Schftffle, shef'le. Schalke, sbal'ke. Schall, shSJ Schamir, sha'mSr. Schandorph, shan'dorf, Scharf, sharf. Scharnhorst, sham'horst. Scharwenka, shar-veng'. ka. Schassburg, shes'bdbrjA. Schauffler, shouf'ler. Schaumburg-Lippe, shoum'boorch lip'e. Scheele, sha'le ; Eng. ptvn. shel. Scheffel, shef'el Schelfer, shef 'k'cj. Socialism, bO'sh«l-iz'm. Socinus, su-Hl'niis. Sociology, so-i>i-ol'o-ji. Socorro, so-kor'ro. Socotra, sO-ko'ira or sok'O- trrt. Socrates, sok'm-tsz. Sdderhamn, sud-er-hamn'. Sodium, so'di-um. Sodom, sod'um. Sodoma, il, el sO-dO'mjl. Sodom and Gomorrah sod'um, gO-mor'a. Sodor and Man, so'dur. Soest, zost. Sofala, so-fii'la. Soffit, sof'it. Sofia, so'fe-yii. Sogdiana, sog di-a'na. Sogne Fjord, sog'na fyor(d). Sohar, so-hiir'. Soignies, swa-nye'. Soissons, swa-son'. Sokoto, so'ko-to. Solanaceae, sol-a-na'si-e. Solan Goose, so'km. Solanum, so-la'num. Soldering, sod'er-ing. Solecism, sol'i-siz'm, Solen, !-o'len. Solenhofen Stone, so'leu- hO-fen. Solenoid, sol'i-uoid. Solent, so'leiit. Soleure, so-lur'. Sol-fa, sol-fa. Solfatara, sol-fii-ta'ra. Solfeggio, sol-fed'jo. Solferino, suJ-la-re'uo. Soli, SO' II. Solicitor, so-lis'i-tfr. Solidago, sol-i-dil'go. Solidus, sori-du8. Solingen, zo'iing-cn, Solis, f-o-iOs'. Solis y Ribadeneira, c rc- bii-Tna-na'ril. Solitaire, sol-i tar'. Solmization, sol-mi-za'- shun. Solmona, sOl-raO'na. Solomon, sd'o-mun, Solon, so'loii. Solonovka, so-lo-nOfkii. Solovetski, so-lo-vet'ski. Solstice, sol'stis. Solubility, sol-u-bil'i-ti. Soluble, solTi-b'l. Solutions, sO-lu'shnns. Solvay, sol'va. Solway Firth, sol'wa f firth. Solyman, sol'i-man, or Suleiman, soo la-miia'. Soma, so'ma. Somali, so-ma'li. Somaliland, -/and. Somatology, sO-ma-toro- ji- Sombrerete, sOm-bra-ra'- ta. Sombrero, som-bra'rO. Somers, sum'erz. Somerset, sum'er-sct. Somersworth, sum'erz- wurth. Somerville, sum'er-vil. Somme, som. Somnambulism, som- nam'bu-liz'm. Somnath, som-niit'. Somnus, som'nus. Sonata, so-na'ta. Sonchus, son'kus. Sonderbund "War, zon'- der-boont. Sondershausen, zon'd^rs- hou'Z^'D, Song-chin, song-chin'. Songhay, song-gi'. Song-koi, song-koi'. Sonmiani, son-me-a'ne. Sonnblick, zon'blik. Sonnenschein, son'en- shTn. Sonnino, son-ne'no. Sonora, so-no'ra. Sonpat, son'put. Sonson, son-son'. Sonsonate, son-so-na'ta. Sontag, zOn'taK. Sontai, son-tl'. Sonthals, sOn-talz'. Soochow, soo'chou'. Soot, soot 07' soot. Sophia, sO-fi'a. Sophists, sof'ists. Sophocles, sof'5-klez. Sophonisba, so-fo-niz'ba. Sophron, sO'fron. Soprano, sO-pra'no. ■ Sora, eo'ra. Sorata, so-ra'ta. Sorau, so'rou. Sorb, sorb. Sorbonne, sOr-bon'. Sorcery, s6r'ser-i. Sordello, sor-del'lo. Sordes, sOr'dcz. Sorel, so-rel'. Soresina, so-ra-se'na. Sorghum, eor'gum. Sori, so'ri. Soria, sO're-a. Soricidae, so-ris'i-de. Soro, sor'u'. Sorocaba, so-ro-ka'ba. Soroki, so-rO'ki. Soron, so-ron'. Sorrento, sor-ren'to. Sorsogon, s6r-s5-gOn'. Sortes Virgilianae, sor'tez vur-jil-i-a'ne. Soteriology, so te ri ol'o-ji. Sotheby's, suTu'(^-biz. Sothern, suTu'em. Sotteville-les-Rouen, eot- vdl'-lc-roo-afi'. Soubise, soo bcz'. Soudan, soo-diin'. Soufriere, soo-frc-ar'. Soul, Seoul, Hu-o?5l', or Han-Yang, han'yiing'. Soulary, soo-lA-rc'. Soule, sool. Soult, i^oolt. Sousa, soo'za. South Berwick, bur'wik. Southcott, soiith'kut. Southerne, suTH'^^rn. Southey, t^ouTii'i ; in Amer- ica often pron. suth'i. Southington, suxH'ing-t'n. South MacAlester, mak- al'is-ter. Southwark, suTn'rtrk. Southwell, south'wel. Southwold, soiitli'wold. Souvestre, soo-ves'ti'. Souza - Botelho, so'za-ho- tel'yo or soo-za'-bO-te-Jo'. Sovereign, suv'er-in. Sowerby, sou'er-bi. Soy, soi. Soyer, swa-ya'. Spa, sp;i. Spadix, spa'diks. Spagnoletto, spa-nyo-let'- to. Spahi, spa-hg'. Spahr, spar. Spalato, spa'la-to. Spalding, spol'ding. Spallanzani, spal-lan-dza'- ne. Spandau, shpan'dou. Sparaxis, spo-rak'sis. Sparta, spiir'ta. Spartacus, spar'ta-kus. Spartanburg, spiir'tan. burg. Spasmodic, spaz-mod'ik. Spathe, sptiTH. Spathic, spath'ik. Spectroheliograph, spek'- trO-he'li-O-gnif. Spectroscopic Binaries, spek-tro-skop'ik bl'ua- riz. Spectrum and Spectro- scope, spek'trum, spek'- trO-skOp. Speculum, spck'u-lum. Speculum Humanae Sal- vationis, bu-ma'ne sal- va'shi-O'nis. Speiss, spis. Spener, shpa'ner. Spennymoor, spen-i-moor'. Spermaceti, spur-m«-set'i or -se'ti. Spermatozoa, ?pur-ma-to- zo'a. Spermophyta, spur-mofi- ta. Sperrylite, pper'i-lit. 676 APPENDIX OF PRONUNCIATION. Speusippus, spu-sip'us. Spey, spa. Speyer, spir. Spezia, spet'si-ii. Sphaerosiderite, sfe-ro- sid'er-Tt. Sphagnum, sfag'num. Sphene, sfcn. Sphenodon, sfc'no-don. Sphenoid, s^fe'noid. Sphere, s^fer. Spherical Aberration, sfer'i-k«l ab-er-a'.shuu. Spherical Harmonics, hjir-nion'iks. Spheroid, sfo'ioid. Sphex, sfeks. Sphincter Muscles , sfing'- ter. Sphinx, sfiiisks. Sphygmograph, sfig'mo- graf. Spica, spi'ka. Spicheren, apich'er-en. Spiegel-eisen, spc'gel- i-zen. Spielberg, Klipol'bcrc/t. Spielhagen, ^'llpG^ha-gen. Spielmann, t*perman. Spigelia, spl-je'li-a. Spikenard, spik'nard. Spina Bifida, m'na bifi- da. Spinach, spin'ej. Spinazzola, spc-nat'sO-la. Spinello, spe-nel'lD. Spinet, spiii'et, Spinifex, spin'i-feks. Spinola, spe-no'lii. Spinoza, spi-no'za. Spinthariscope, spin- thar'i-ekop. Spiraea, spi-r5'«. Spiranthes, spT-ran'thez. Spirifer, spir'i-f^r. Spitalfields, spit'al-fcldz. Spitz, spits. Spitzbergen, spits-biir'gen. Spitzka, spiis'ka. Splenic Fever, splen'ik. Splugen, shplu'gen. Spoiford, spof'erd. Spohr, shpor. Spokane, spO-kan'. Spoleto, spo-la'to. Spondee, spon'de. Spondias, spon'di-as. Sponsors, spon'serz. Spontini, spon-tC'ne. Sporadic, spO-rad'ik, Sporer, shpu'rer. Sporozoa, spo-ro-zo'a. Spottiswoode, spot'is- wdbd. Spottsylvania, spot-sil- vfi'iii-a. Sprengel, ahprcng'd. Sprenger, shprcngVr. Spurgeon, spur'jun. Spurzheim, shpobrts'him. Sputum, spu'tum. Spuyten Duyvil, spi't'n dl'v']. Squadron, skwod'run. Squarcione, skwiir-cho'na. Squier, skwir. Squilla, skwil'a. Squire, skwir. Squirrel, skwfn'el. Srinagar, s^e-na-giir'. Srirangam, sre-rung'gnm. Srivillipatur, src'vil-i-pa- tuor'. Ssu-Mao, Boo'-moti'. Staal, stiil. Stabat Mater, eta'bat ma'- ter or i^ta'bat ma'ter. Stabiae, sta'bi-e. Stability, sta-bil'i-ti. Stachys, sta'kis o?' stak'is. Stade, shta'de. Stadholder, stiit'hol-der. Stadium, sta'di-um. Stael, stiil. StafFa, staf'ct. Stafford, staf'erd. Stagirus, sta-ji'rus. Stagnelius, stag-nri'lo-dbs. Stahl, .-lital. Stainer, shti'ner. Stalactites and Stalag- mites, sta-lak'tlts, sta- lag'inTts. Staley, sta'li. Stambul, stam-bool'. Stambulov, stam-boo'lof. Stamens, sta'menz. Stamford, stam'ferd. Stanhope, stan'up. Stanislau, stii'nis-lou, Stanislaus, stan'is-lOs. Stanley, stan'li. Stannaries, stan'a-riz. Stannic Acid, stan'ik. Stanyhurst, stan'i-hiirst, Stapfer, stap-fer', Staraya-Russa, sta'ra-yil- roos'sji. Stara-Zagora, sta'rii-za'- go-ra. Stargard, shtar'giirt. Starii-Krim, star'yi-krena'. Staro-Byelsk, sta'ro- byelsk'. Starodub, stii-ro-ddbp'. Starokonstantinov, stii'- ro-kou-stiin-tye'iiOf. Stas, stiis. Stassfurt, sbtas'fdbrt. Statice, stat'i-se. Statics, stat'iks. Statira, sta-tl'ra. Statistics, sta-tis'tiks. Statins, stii'shi-us. Statute, stil-too'to. Staubbach, shtoup'baK. Staunton, etiin'tiiii. Staurolite, stu'ro-lit. Stavanger, stil'vang-er. Stavesacre, stavz'a-kcr. Stavropol, stii'vro-pol-y'. Stawell, sto'el. Stearic Acid, ste-ar'ik. Stearin, stc-'a-rin. Steatite, ste'«-tit, Steatornis, stc-a-tor'nis. Stecchetti, stek-ket'tc. Steenstrup, stan'strdbp. Steenwijk, stan'vik. Stefan's Law, stef'«nz. Steinitz, shti'nits. Steinmetz, shtin'mets. Steinthal, shtin'tiil. Stellaland, stel'a-laud. Stellaria, ste-la'n-a. Stellenbosch, stelVn-bos. Stellerine, stel'er-in or -in. Stelvio Pass, stel'vi-O. Stenbock, stan'bok. Stendal, shten'dal. Stendhal, stiin-d&l'. Steno, Hta'nO. Stenson's Duet, sten'sunz. Stentor, steu'tor. Stephanome, stet'a-nom. Stephanotis, etef-a-no'tis. Stephanus, stef'a-nus. Stephens, ste'venz. Stepney, step'ni. Stepniak, step'niiak. Stercorarius, stur-ko-ni'- ri-us. Sterculiaceae, stfii-kuli- a'si-e. Stere, ster or star. Stereo-Chemistry, stc'ri-o- or ster'i-O-. Sterlitamak, styer-lye-ta- miik'. Sternberg, shtern'bcrcA. Sternberg, sturn'burg. Sterne, sturn. Sternhold, sturn'hold. Sterrett, ster'et. Stesichorus, ste-eik'O-rus. Stethoscope, steth'o-skop. Stetson, stet's'n. Stettin, sbte-ten'. Steuben, stu'ben ; Ger. pron. shtoi'bgn; (Co. N. y.) stu-ben'. Stewart, stu'art. Steyn, stm. Steyr, shtTr. Stieler, shte'kr. Stier, ster. Stigand, stlg'and. Stigmaria, stig-ma'ri-a. Stilicho, stil'i-ko. Stipa, sti'pa. Stirbey, ster'ba. Stjernhjelm, styern'yelm. Stobaeus, sto-be'us. Stockhausen, Ger.in-on. tshtok'hoii-zen; Fr.pron. stok-O-zan'. Stockholm, stok'holm. Stockmar, ehtok'miir. Stoddard, stod'ard. Stoddert, stod'ert. Stoicism, sto'i-siz'm. Stoke Poges, stok pogz or pog'is. Stolberg, slitOl'bercA. Stolp, slitolp. Stomata, sto'ma-ta or 8tom'a-ta. Stoneham, stnn'am. Stonington, ston'ing-t'n. Stonyhurst, ston'i-hurst. Stornoway, stor'no-wa. Storthing, stor'ting. Stothard, stoxii'ard. Stoughton, sto'tuu. Stour, stour or stoor. Strabismus, stra-biz'mus. Strabo, stra'bo. Strachan, strOn. Strachey, stra'chi. Stradella, stra-del'a. Stradivari, etra-de-va'r6. Strafford, strat'erd. Strahlegg Pass, shtra'leg. Stralsund, shtral'zdbnt. Stramonium, stra-mo'ui- nm. Strauahan, stran'a-han.^ Straparola, stril-pa-ro'la.* Strasburger, shtras'bdbr- gev. Strassburg, ehtnis'bdbrc/i. Stratford-on-Avon, a'von Strathaven, strath-a'vcn ; locally stra'v'n. Strathciyde, strath-klid'. Strathcona and Mount Royal, -ko'iia. Strathfieldsaye, strath- feld'sa. Strathmore, -mor'. Strathnairn, -nam'. Stratiotes, strat-i-o'tez. Stratigraphy, stra-tig'- r«-fi. Strato, stra'to. Stratton, stiat'un. , Stratum, stra'tum. Stratus, stra'tuB. Straubing, shtrou'bing. Strauss, shtrous. Streatham, strct'am. Streator, strc't^T. Strelitzia, stre-lit'si-a. Strelitz, shtra'lits. Strepsiptera, strep-sip'- tev-a. Streptocarpus, strep -to - kiir'pus. Striegau, shtrc'gou. Strindberg, strind'bar-y'. Strobel, strO'bel. Stromboli, strOm'bo-lS. Strombus, strom'bns. Stromness, strom-ness'. Stronsay, stron'sa. Strontianite,stron'shMi-lt. Strontium, stron'shi-um. Strophanthus, strO-fan'- thus. APPENDIX OP PRONUNCIATION. 677 Strossmaysr, shtros'ml-er. Strother, etniTH'^r. Strcnd. stroud. Struensee, sbtroo'^n-za. Struma, stroo'ma. Struve, slitroo've. Strychnine, strik'nin. Strychnos, strik'nos. Stuh] weissenburg, efitool- vi'sen-bdbrc^. Stukeley, stnk'li. Sturdza^ stwrd'zii. Sture, stoo're. Sturluson, ^tooi-'ldb-son. Sturm, shtoorm. Sturm und Drang-, o6nt driing. Sturt, sturt. Stuttgart, shtdbt'gart. Stuyvesant, stT've-s«nt. Stylites, sti-li'tez. Styptics, stip'tiks. Styria, stir'i-a. Styx, stiks. Suabia, swa'bi-a. Sualieli, swil-ha'le. Suakin, swii'ken. Suarez, swa'rath. Subahdar, soo'ba-dar. Subiaco, soo-bc-a'ko. Succinic Acid, suk-sin'ik. Succubae, f^uk'u-be. Su-ch.au, soo'chou'. Suchet, sii-sha', Sucre, soo'kra. Sudan, sdb-dan'. Sudd, Slid. Sudermann, zoo'der-man. Sudras, yhoo'droz. Sue, sii. Sueca, swa'kii. Suetonius, swe-to'ni-us. Suevi, swe'vi. Suez, soo-e//. Sufiism, soo'fi-iz'm. Suhl, zool. Suhni, Koom, Suidas, «u'i-das, Sui-fu, swc'foo'. Sui Juris, su'I joo'ris. Suir, shoor. Suite, swet. Suja, soo'ya. Sukkur, suk-kur . Sulairaan Hills, sdb-la'e- man. Suleiman Pasha, soo'la- man pa-Bhii'. Sulina, gob-lCnii. Suliotes, soo'li-ots. Sully-Prudhomme, sii-le'- prli-dom'. Sulphides, Bul'fTdz or -fidz. Sulphonal, sul'fo-nal. Sultan sul'tan. Sultanpur, sul'tan-pdbr. Sulu, sdb-loo'. Sulzer, zoolt'ser. Sumach, soo'mak or shoo'-. Sumarokoff, Koomii-rO'kOf . Sumatra, soo ma'tra. Sumbawa, sdbm-ba'wil. Sumbul sum'bnl. Sumir, soo'mcr. Sumy, soo'mc. Sunart, soo'nart. Sunbury. sim'be-ri. Sunda Islands, suii'd«. Sundarbans, soon'dar- biinz. Sundsvall, soons'vjil. Sungari, so^on-ga-rc'. Sungei Ujong, soong-ga'e- oo-jong'. Sunium, su'ni-um. Sunn, snn. Sunnites, pun'its. Suppe, poop'a. Surabaya, soo-ril-ba'ya. Surajah Dowlah, soo-rii'- ja don'lrt. Surakarta, soo'rii-kar'ta. Surat, soo-nit'. Surbiton, eur'bi-tun. Surette, su-ret'. Suricate, su'ri-kat. Surigao, soo-rc-gii'o. Surinam Toad,soo-rG-nam'. Surplice, sur'plie. Surtees, sur'tez. Surya, sdbr'ya. Suryasiddhanta, soor'ya- sed-han'tii. Sus {tn. Africa), sooe. Susa, soo'sa. Susquehanna, sus-kwo- h;m'a. Susten Pass, soos'ten. Sutlej, sut'lej. Sutras, soo'triiz. Suttee, sut'e. Sutures, su'turz. Suvoroff, sdb-vo'rof , or Su- varoff, sdb-va'rof. Suwalki, soo-viirko. Suwanee, su-w6'ne. Suzdal; sooz'dal-y'. Suzerain, su'ze-ran. Svastika, svas'ti-k«. Sveaborg, sva'a-bor-y'. Svearike, svii'k-re'ke. Svendborg, sven'bOriv. Svendsen, sven'srn. Sverdrup, svcr'droop. Svetchine, svech-en'. Swabia, swa'bi-ii. Swaheli, swii-ha'le. Swami, swii'mc. Swammerdam, swam'er- dam. Swanetia, swa-ne'shi-a. Swansea, swon'zi. Swanwick, swon'ik. Swastika, swils'ti-ka. Swatow, swil'tou. Swaziland; swii'zi-land. Swedenborg, swo'den- borg ; Siv. pron. sva'- den-bOr-y'. Swetchine, svoch-cn'. Swete, swgt. Sweyn, svan. Swilly, Lough, Iok swil'i. Swindon, swin'dun. Swinemunde, svo'ne- miin'de. Swithin, swiTii'in. Sybaris, sib'a-ris. Sybel, zc'bd. Sycophant, sik'o-fant. Sydenham, eid'm-am or sid'nam. Syene, sT-e'no. Syenite, si'en-it. Sylhet, sil-het'. Sylla, tsilVt. Syllogism, sil'O-jiz'm. Sylt, silt. Sylviidae, sil-vT'i-dc. Symbiosis, sim-bi-D'sis. Syme, sim. Symington, sim'ing-t'n. Symmachus, sim'a-kus. Symmes, simz. Symonds, sim'unz. Symons, sim'unz. Symphoricarpos, sim'fo- ri-kar'pus. Symplegades, sim-plcg'a- dez. Syncline, sing'klin. Syncope, sin'ko-pe. Syncretism, sin'kri- tiz'm. Synergism, sin'er-jiz'm. Synesius, si-iio'shl-us. Synthesis, sin'thi-sis. Syntonin, sin'to-nin. Syphax, si'faks. Syra, se'rii, ' Sjrracuse, sir'a-kus. Syr Daria, ser diir'ya. Syrinx, sir'ingks. Syrlin, ser'len. Syros, ei'ros. Syrtes, sur'tez. Syrus, sT'rus. Syssitia, si-sish'i-a. Syzigy, siz'i-ji. Syzran, siz-riin'y'. Szabadka, so'bot-ko. Szarvas, sor'vosh. Szatmar-Nemeti, sofmiir- na'nie-te. Sze-chuen, se-chwen'. Szegedin, segV-den. SzenteSi sen'tesh. Szolnok, sol'nok. Taalfe, ta'fe. Taal, till. Tabaco, ta-vJl'ko. Tabard, tab'ard. Tabari, ta-ba'ie. Tabashir, tab-a-shcr'. Tabes Dorsalis, ta'bez dor-ya'lis. Tableaux Vivants, ta- ble' ve-van'. Tabley, tab'li. Taboo, tA-boo'. Tabor, ta'b<;r. Tabora, tii-br/ra. Taborites, ta'ber-lts. Tabriz, ta brCz'. Tacca, tak'«. Tache, ta-sha'. Ta-chien-lu, ta'chen'loS*. Tachylite, tak'i-lit. Tacitus, tan'i-tus. Tacloban, tak'lo-bac. Tacna, tiik'nji. Tacoma, t«-ko'xna. Tacsonia, tak-so'ni-a. Tacubaya, ta-koo-ba'ya. Tadmor, tad'mor. Tael, tal. Taenia, te'ni-a. Tafilelt, taf-i-lelt'. Taganrog, tjig-an-roK'. Tagbilaian, tag-be-la- nin'. Tagliacozzo, tal'ya-kot'so. Taglioni, tal-yO'nc. Tagus, ta'gus. Tahiti, ta'he-te or ta- he'te. Tahlequah, ta-le-kwa'. Tahoe, ta'ho or ta'ho. Tailfer, tal'fer. Taillandier, tii-yan-dya', Taille, tl'y'. Taillefer, ta-y'-far'. Tainan, tl'nan'. Taiping Rebellion, ti'- ping'. Tai - yuan - fu, ti'yoo-an'- foo'. Tajiks, ta-zbcks'. Taj-Mahal, tazhma-hal'. Takahira, tii'ka-he'ra. Takla-makan-Desert, tak'la-ma-kan'. Takow, ta'kou'. Taku Forts, ta'koo'. Talamancans, tal-«-mang'- krtnz. Talavera de la Reina, ta-la-va'ra da la ra'e-na. Talbot, tol'but. Talca, tal'k«. Talcahuano, tal-ka-wa'nO. Talegalla, tal-i-gal'a. Tale-Sap, ta-ln'siip'. Talfourd, tol'ferd. Taliaferro, tol'i-vsr. Talienwan, ta-len'wan'. Taliesin, tal'i-sin. Tali-fu, ta-le'foo'. Talisman, tal'is mffn. Talladega, tal-a-de'ga. Tallahassee, tal-«-has'i. Tallapoosa, tal-a-poo'sa. Tallemant des Reaux, tai-miin' da rii-O'. Talleyrand de Perigord, ta-la-raii' de pa-re- gOr'. Tallien, ta-lyan'. 678 APPENDIX OF PRONUNCIATION Tallis, tal'is. Tallmadge, tal'mej. Talmud, tal'mud. Talma, tal-ma'. Talon, i&-lon'. Talos, ta'los. Talpidae. lal'pi-de. Taltal, tiil-tar. TaAUS, tii'lus. Tamaqua, tji-ma'kwa. Tamar, ta'nuir. Tamatave, ta-mii-til'va. Tamaulipas, ta-mou-lc'- piis. Tambobong, tam-bo'bont,'. Tambourine, tam-bdb- ren'. Tambov, tiim-bof. Tamerlane, tam'er-lan. Tamil, tii'mil. Tammerfors, ta'mer- fors. Tammuz, til'mooz. Tampico, tiim-pe'ltO. Tamsui, tiim'soo'e. Tamus, tri'mus. Tana, ta'na. Tanag-ers, tan'a-jerz. Tanagra, tan'a-gra. Tanais, t.m'a-is. Tanaland, ta'na-land. Tanana, ta-na-na'. Tananarivo, ta-na'nii-re'- vO. Tanauan, til-nou-an'. Tanda, tan'da. Tandy, tan'di. Taney, tO'ni. Tanga, tang'gji. Tangail, tan-gnl'. Tanganyika, tan'gan-yc'- ka. Tanghin, tang'gin. Tangier, tan-jei'. Tanguts, tiin-goote'. Tanis, til'nis. Tanjay, tiin-hi'. Tanjore, tan-jor'. Tannahill, tan'a-hil. Tannhauser, tau'hoi-zer. Tansa, tan'sii. Tansillo, tan-scrio. Tansy, tan'zi. Tantah, tan'ta. Tantallon, tan-tal'un. Tantalum. tan'ta-Uim. Tantalus, tan ta-las. TantraSj tan'triiz. Tantum Ergo, tan'tum frr'gO. Taoism, tii'o-iz'm. Tapajos, ta-pa-zhos'. Tapir, ta'per. Tappan, tap'an. Tappen, tap'en. Tapti, tiip'te. Tara Fern, til'ra, Tarai, ta-ri'. Taranaki, til'rii-Tiii'kg. Tarantism, tar'an-tiz'm. Taranto, tii-riin'to. Tarantula, ta-ran'tu-la. Tarapaca, til'ra-pii-ka', Tarare, ta-riir'. Tarascans, tii-ras'kanz. TaraSCOn, ta-ra-skou'. Tarashcha, la-riish'clia. Tarawera, til'ni-wa'ra. Taraxacum, ta-raks'a- kum. Tarazona, ta-ra-tho'na, Tarbagatai, tar-bii-ga-tl'. Tarbes, tiirb. Tardigrada, tar-di-gra'da. Tarentum, ta-ren'tum. Tarifa, ta-re'fa. Tarija, tii-re'ha. Tarik, tii'rek. Tarim, ta-rcm'. Tarkington; tjir'king-t'n. Tarlac, tar'laiv. Tarlatan, tiir'la-tun. Tarleton, taii'tun. Tarn-et-Garonne, tiirn'a- ga-ron'. Tarnopol, tiir-no'pOl-y'. Tarnow, tar'uof. Taro, ta'ro. Tarpaulin, tiir-po'Iin. Tarpeia, tiir-jie'ya. Tarquinii, tiir-kwin'i-i. Tarquins, tar'kwinz. Tarragona, tar-ra-gO'na. Tarrasa, tiir-rii'sa. Tarshish, tiir'shish. Tarsipes, tai'si-pez. Tartaric Acid, tar-tar'ik. Tartarus, tiir'ta-rus, Tartini, tar-t5'ne. Tarudant, til rdb-dant'. Taschereau, tash-rd'. Tasgaon, tiis-goun', Tashi-Lama, ta'she-Ul'mii. Tashkend, tiish-kent'. Tasman, tas'man, Tasmania, laz-ma'ni-a. Tasso, tiis'eo. Tassoni, tas-sO'nS. Tatar-Bazardjik, ta-tar'- ba-ziir-jek'. Tatian, ta'shan. Tatius, ta'shi-u8. Tatta, tiit'ta. Tattersall, iat'er-s61. Tau Beta Pi, ton bc'ta (or ba'rr/) pT. Tauchnitz, touK'nits. Tauern Alps, tou'ern. Tauler, tou'ler. Taung-ngu, toung'n'goo'. Taunton, tan'tim or ton- tun, Taunus Mtc, tou'noos. Taupo, tou'po. Tauranga, ton-rang'ga. Taurida, lo'ri-da, Taurus, tO'rus. Taussig, to'sig. Tautog, to'tog. Tavastehus, ta-v;is't72 in volume four. ^ If a nevv subject or iten of a person is added, the )a.^e nunbers will be added to for specification such is'pages 61, 6la, 6lb, 6lc, then 62. This happens because page 61 can no lon^r hold all of tha material that it one held. There are aaay sections In the twelve voluraes that grow in just this laanner. 3e careful when inserting pa^^es, that illustrations, colored plates and maps are saved from the old paces md olaced in their proper places among the new pages. The second pare of each s^^oup is a list of minor corrections to be written in the mrgin by pen and Lnk# This is tejmporary until new pages are sent to replace the superseded ones. Exaniple— In volurael, oape 16, appears an article on Abbot, Mathan, whose ieath occurred in 1941. '^e date of death is noted on the list of corrections for volune 1 and the reader aas but to turn to page indicated and write the correc tion on the mrran. The word "superseded*^ should be written or stamped and placed in tlie envelopes so marked. Also super-v-^.; - mtiS( "^^^ direction sheets in the same manner.