rOSTER 
 
 THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 
 
Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2016 
 
 https://archive.org/details/continuationschoOOfost 
 
THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 
 
 BY 
 
 ISAAC OWEN FOSTER 
 
 B.S. University of Illinois, 1921 
 
 THESIS 
 
 SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS 
 FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN EDUCATION 
 IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF ILLINOIS, 1922 
 
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University of Illinois Library 
 Manuscript Theses 
 
 Unpublished theses submitted for the Master's 
 
 r deposited in the University 
 
 0 llinois Library are open for inspection, but are 
 to be used only with due regard to the rights of the 
 aut ors. Bibliographical references may be noted, 
 but passages may be copied only with permission of 
 the authors, and proper credit must be given in sub- 
 sequent written or published work. Extensive copy- 
 ing or publication of the thesis in whole or in part 
 
 consent of the Dean of the Graduate 
 School of the University ot Illinois. 
 
 This Thesis by . . - 
 
 has been used by the following persons, whose signa- 
 tures attest their acceptance of the above restric- 
 tions. 
 
 A Library which borrows this thesis for use bv 
 Its patrons is expected to secure the signature of 
 each user. 
 
 NAME AND ADDRESS 
 
 DATE 
 
TT?TTT-tTP 
 
 ) 92 ^ 
 
 Fell 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 
 
 THE GRADUATE SCHOOL 
 
 -192-2- 
 
 1 HEREBY RECOMMEND THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY 
 SUPERVISION BY Xsajic Owen j'oster 
 
 ENTITLED jUie^Gxmt-inuatio 21- School 
 
 BE ACCEPTED AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR 
 THE DEGREE OF^llas ter., oT Science in Education 
 
 Recommendation concurred in* 
 
 Committee 
 
 on 
 
 
 Final Examination* 
 
 Required for doctor’s degree but not for master’s 
 

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CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter Page 
 
 I. The Basis of The Study .... l 
 
 II. A Brief Survey of The Continuation School Movement 36 
 
 III. Some Factors in Organization and Administration 59 
 
 IV. Retrospect and Prospect .... 105 
 
 Appendix 
 
 I. Provisions of Part-Time Compulsory Education Laws 115 
 II. Funds Available under The Smith-Hughes Act . 116 
 
 List of Works Consulted: The Bibliography . . n? 
 

THE CONTINUATION SCHOOL 
 Chapter I 
 
 The Basis of The Study 
 
 Education an Evolutionary Process 
 
 Modern education is a labyrinth of serious problems 
 which are becoming constantly more complex and which are 
 continually increasing at a tremendous rate. Many of the 
 problems of yesterday are more difficult today, and many of 
 them have undergone such a change that the educator of a 
 century ago would hardly recognize them now. This crucial 
 situation is caused primarily by a more complex society which 
 needs larger and more thorough facilities for its accomodation, 
 and this need has been the chief factor in making the school 
 system of the United States much larger and more complicated 
 than it was a few decades ago. 
 
 Since society has made new and larger demands on 
 educational authorities many new problems gradually have been 
 added to the old mass of educational difficulties which are 
 the school man's heritage. One of these problems which is both 
 new and old is the continuation school, an institution some- 
 what aged in idea and experiment but new in possibilities, 
 as this thesis will endeavor to show in the following chapters. 
 
 Purposeful activity is a practical expression of the 
 motives and ideals of individuals either separately or 
 
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- 2 - 
 
 collectively, and the continuous change of problems in the 
 
 school is due largely to the change of these motives and 
 ideals which frequently themselves become modified in the light 
 of experiment and consideration from various angles. Evidence 
 of this appears in abundance if a careful study is made of 
 such somewhat supplementary factors of education as its aims 
 and its curricula as these have existed at various stages in 
 the history of the world. Hence, three illustrations are in- 
 corporated at this point to substantiate this contention: First, 
 the Spartan held the militaristic ideal of a perfect and 
 paramount state brought about by the physical efficiency of 
 the individuals who composed the state, and his education 
 included ball-playing, dancing, running, jumping, discus-hurling, 
 javelin-throwing, and wrestling, while little attention was 
 paid to intellectual training.^ Secondly, the Roman looked 
 upon the orator as being the ideal man of culture and refine- 
 ment for his state, and to accomplish this aim rhetorical 
 schools were established which included a very broad curriculim 
 and afforded training in those subjects that were believed to 
 be necessary for or accessory to the making of a man of 
 eloquence and power .^Thirdly, the aim of present-day education 
 has been expressed by Bagley and has been accepted by educators 
 as "social efficiency"* hence, in order to make the individual 
 socially efficient the curricula of the public schools include 
 vocational, social, physical, and aesthetic training, 
 
 1 Graves, Frank P., A Student's History of Education, 11-12. 
 
 2 Ibid., 38. 
 

- 3 - 
 
 These examples illustrate the truth that social evolution has 
 
 been going on in the educational phases of human endeavor by 
 being given expression in the purposes and curricula of the 
 school. Further, they are representative of a legion of others 
 which show equally well that education is an evolutionary 
 process, a series 6f activities, which constantly change in 
 terms of their purposes. 
 
 The Continuation School Idea 
 
 Out of this evolutionary process all phases of modern 
 education have emerged and they center in the public school as 
 the chief agency. For many years the public school has attempted 
 to educate the children of our republic. It has been criticized 
 often and severely; yet its good results never can be estimated. 
 Its defects which are many have been magnified as it has raced 
 with the development Of democracy. In order to remedy some of 
 its most striking: defects many reforms which were the results 
 of some more or less far-sighted ideas have been undertaken 
 and some of them have been successfully realized. One of these 
 evolutionary problems, however, that has not been completely 
 realized is the desire to place an education within the reach 
 of every individual regardless of his social or economic status. 
 Since this problem cannot be solved by the traditional public 
 school alone and since the continuation school, if properly 
 organized and administered, has many ‘ possibilities in this 
 direction the term, "continuation idea", has been selected to 
 denote the ideal of placing an education within the reach of 
 those people who have not been educated acceptably by the 
 regular public school and who have severed their student 
 
- 4 - 
 
 connections with this institution. 
 
 One of the important steps towards the realization of 
 the continuation idea was undertaken when an organized effort 
 was begun for the purpose of keeping children in school until 
 they were prepared for their particular work in life. As a 
 result compulsory attendance laws were enacted and more or 
 less enforced, but these did not prove to be a panacea for all 
 the evils of the illiterate and unprepared portion of the 
 people because the public school did not train for any particular 
 work in life and because the children were not required to 
 attend long enough to learn certain trades and professions. 
 Another step towards the realization of this ideal 
 was the movement against child labor which during the present 
 century swept over practically every section of the United 
 States. Both federal and local statutes were enacted and as a 
 result many children who were forced out of employment turned 
 back to the public school. Since that movement began, in some 
 states, such as Illinois, the standards have been raised in 
 order that the children might receive as much real schooling 
 as possible before entering industry, 
 
 A third movement toward the continuation idea was the 
 establishment of voluntary evening schools both for adults and 
 for minors. Through this agency an opportunity to obtain an 
 education was made possible for a large number of people who 
 previously had had no such opportunity offered to them. This 
 kind of continuation education is without the province of this 
 thesis except as is sheds light on the realization of the 
 continuation idea. 
 
I 
 
- 5 - 
 
 In the fourth place, the movement for continuation 
 education began to receive more and more stress in an effort to 
 reach those who were in employment and whom the compulsory 
 attendance and child labor laws did not affect. This movement 
 was an effort to realize the continuation idea, the offering of 
 educational facilities and advantages to all who oared to profit 
 by them. The carrying out of this idea began with the younger 
 members of society and is proceeding towards the older. When 
 the idea shall be realized fully the adult worker may receive 
 instruction in the public school at public expense at evenings 
 or during his leisure (and frequently, perhaps, during the 
 regular working day) . 
 
 But will the realization of the continuation idea make 
 everybody socially efficient? Certainly not, but it will open 
 the doors of opportunity to a large number of people who under 
 the present scheme lack such opportunities for educational 
 advancement. In this way Americans democracy will tend to be- 
 come more equitable in opportunity and its people will tend to 
 be more socially efficient. This work already has been begun. 
 
 An important link in the chain was forged when during the last 
 decade the Congress of the United States enacted the Smith— Hughes 
 Law, but before taking up the history of the movement the limits 
 of the term with which we deal are necessary: Hence, the dis- 
 cussion of the conception of the continuation school is now 
 in order. 
 
 The Continuation School Defined 
 
 Sneddon says that "a continuation school should be de- 
 fined to include only schools on which attendance is compulsory 
 for a minimum of a stated number of hours per week within the 
 
I 
 
ordinary working day of young persons employed gainfully." ^ The 
 chief objection to this definition is the compulsory require- 
 ment. Beyond question at the present time compulsory attendance 
 is necessary for the highest efficiency either in the traditional 
 elementary school or in the continuation school; however, either 
 would still remain a school without the compulsory requirement. 
 
 It would still serve those people who would take advantage of 
 its educational facilities. Hence, this idea is unnecessary in 
 the exact definition of the continuation school, 
 
 Taylor defines the continuation school as "a school for 
 persons engaged in useful employment, which gives instruction 
 supplementary to such employment. This statement is not 
 acceptable because it has only an industrial significance. The 
 industrial phase is very important; but it, alone, is too narrow. 
 It forms only a part of the truth and not the "whole truth."' 
 
 Cooley declares that the continuation school is any 
 institution that devotes itself to the further education of 
 "young people who have outgrown the elementary school." ^ Neither 
 this statement nor its context points out why the author of 
 it considers the transition to have taken place when the pupil 
 has outgrown the elementary school. According to this statement 
 the high school, the university, and any other school above 
 the eighth grade (or ninth grade in some few cases) would be 
 a continuation school. Then why not say that the elementary 
 school is a continuation school because it continues the de- 
 velopment of the pupil above the kindergarten? Why limit the 
 
 3 Sneddon, David, Vocational Education, 333, 
 
 4 Taylor, Joseph S., A Handbook for Vocational Education, 86-87. 
 
 5 Cooley, Edwin G., Vocational Education in Europe, 82. 
 

 
 
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conception of the terra to young people if the broadest sense 
 of the term is used? Of course, it is certainly true that in 
 the broadest sense every act is one of continuation training, 
 but such a conception is broader than the meaning given to the 
 particular institution with which this thesis deals. Hence, 
 this definition is rejected. 
 
 Hill says that continuation schools "are schools in 
 which the pupil receives some form of day school instruction at 
 the same time that he is employed in the shop."® A literal inter- 
 pretation of this statement would lead one to think that the 
 continuation school is designed for pupils who are engaged only 
 in shop work, but this is not so and to avoid confusion another 
 definition must be sought. The real meaning of the last phrase 
 seems to be, "in some occupation? 
 
 The Federal Board for Vocational Education has taken 
 a decided step in advance both in wording and in meaning by- 
 declaring that the continuation school is "any school conducted 
 for a limited number Of hours during the regular working day. 
 
 Such a school is open to minors and adults who are entered upon 
 employment". Since this statement is quite unwieldy and since 
 the institution which is commonly conceived as a continuation 
 school differs regarding the practice of receiving adults into 
 it, this statement also is temporarily unacceptable to the 
 writer. Certainly, students of the problem welcome the day when 
 every continuation school will admit adults as readily as minors. 
 
 6 Hill, David S., An Introduction to Vocational Education, 50. 
 
 7 Federal Board for Vocational Education, Bulletin No. 19, 1918 , 8. 
 
-H- 
 
 In its broadest sense the continuation school is a school 
 that continues the education of its pupils beyond the regular 
 day school but as it is used i n this thesis it means that 
 institution which prov id es during regular working hours education 
 for persons > usually minors, who are gainfully employed and who 
 are not attending the regular day school. A distinguishing 
 feature of this institution is that it is a part-time school. 
 
 The pupil works part of the time and attends the continuation 
 school part of the time, the major amount of the said time being 
 spent usually at his work. Hence, the name, part-time school , 
 is very frequently used instead of the term, continuation school. 
 
 The continuation school, as it is used in this discussion, 
 does not coincide with the continuation idea. The latter is 
 broader and more comprehensive than the former. It is an ideal 
 which stands before the educational world, while the former is 
 the substance of the institution which is gradually evolving 
 from the traditional public school towards the realization of 
 the continuation idea. The possible future progress of the 
 continuation school towards this end will be discussed in a 
 later chapter of this thesis. For the present, however, it is 
 better to concentrate on the social conditions underlying its 
 justification; then, the growth of the continuation idea ajid 
 the continuation school itself will be noticed; later, the 
 question of administration and organization will be dealt with; 
 and finally, a more detailed discussion of ideal conditions will 
 be appreciated to a fuller extent. 
 

» 9 <» 
 
 Arguments for The Continuation School 
 
 For a number of years many people have been interested in 
 the continuation idea and a start in the accomplishment of this 
 ideal has been made in the institution called the continuation 
 or part-time school or classes. Chapter II will show the gradiial 
 growth in this phase of educational evolution. The interest, 
 however, which has been manifested and which is still so intense 
 is the result of a complexity of situations: 
 
 „|^irst^ the prevalence of illiteracy is in itself a con- 
 dition of such moment as to convince the fair-minded individual 
 that a serious defect exists in the heart of America's 
 population and that as a result some remedy must be sought. Be- 
 fore the entrance of the United States into the Great War com- 
 paratively few people were aware of the amount of illiteracy 
 that existed within its confines; indeed, little attention wa:s 
 paid to this problem except by experts in the field of sociology 
 who recognized the dangers resultant from such widespread 
 illiteracy. The illiterate population according to Towne, in 
 1910 was over five and one-half million; this means that 
 approximately eight per cent of the people of the United States 
 could neither read nor write.® Ellwood pointed out the relation 
 of illiteracy to crime and suggested a remedy which fore- 
 shadowed the continuation school. He said, "^The prison census 
 for 1910 showed that 12.8 per cent of the prisoners were 
 illiterate, while only 8,2 per cent of the general population 
 fifteen years of age or over were illiterate; and of the major 
 offenders a still higher per cent were illiterate. The defects 
 
 8. Towne, E.T., Social Problems, 31. 
 
t 
 
-lo- 
 in our educational conditions which especially favor the de- 
 velopment of crime are chiefly: lack of facilities for industrial 
 education, lack of physical education, and lack of specific 
 moral instruction.*'® 
 
 The operation of the Selective Service Act during the 
 Great War brought forth many startling revelations, and one of 
 these was the fact that illiteracy was more prevalent than it 
 was thought to have been. Out of the first two million men 
 chosen about ten per cent of them were illiterates.^^ This dis- 
 covery of a cosmopolitan condition formed the core for the dis- 
 cussion of many sociological and educational bodies which were 
 concerned with the prevention of illiteracy. Really a great 
 deal was said but considerably less was done. 
 
 The percentage of illiteracy, however, is not constant in 
 the various states of the union. The male percentage reaches 
 from 1.7 in Iowa to 38 in Louisiana. Thirteen states have a per- 
 centage higher than 10. The female percentage extends from 1.4 
 in Oregon to 30,1 in Louisiana. Of the native whites who have 
 native parentage the numbers vary from .3 per cent in Wyoming, 
 Washington, South Dakota, and North Dakota to 15.5 per cent in 
 Nev/ Mexico; while of the native whites of foreign or mixed 
 parentage the figures begin at .3 per cent in Idaho and Washing- 
 ton and extend to 11,6 per cent in Texas, Of the foreign born 
 whites, however, the percentage varies from 4.8 in Washington 
 to 31.5 in Arizona. The State that has the lowest negro 
 illiteracy is again Washington with 4,3 per cent while the 
 
 9 Ellwood, C.A. , Sociology and Modern Social Problems, 338-339. 
 
 10 Literary Digest, (Editorial) January 11, 1919. 
 
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- 11 - 
 
 number rapidly advances to the alarming figure of 48.4 per cent 
 in Louisisuia. The percentage of illiterate males of voting age 
 in Washington and Nebraska is 3.4 while the percentage of the 
 same class in Louisiana reaches to 38.6.^^ What is the meaning 
 of this long array of statistics? It has several meanings, such 
 as that in some states and sections of the United States the 
 illiteracy is alarmingly high, that the traditional public school 
 is not preparing a vast nmber of citizens for social efficiency, 
 and that something must be done. In the further discussion of 
 the continuation school reference again will be made to its 
 effectiveness as an agent in improving conditions both at home 
 and abroad, 
 
 Seco ndJ^yy the public school as it is traditionally 
 organized and administered is unable to give to "all the children 
 of all the people" the fundamentals which educators agree they 
 should have. The foregoing statistics corroborate this point, 
 but further light may be thrown upon the situation (l) by 
 finding out what those fundamentals are and (3) by making a 
 more detailed study of the number of pupils who fall by the way- 
 side before these aims have been accomplished. 
 
 The Committee on The Reorganization of Secondary Education 
 of the National Ed^-cational Association summarized the objectives 
 of education in a very satisfactory manner, Inglis, Bobbitt, 
 and others have set up similar objectives, A consensus of 
 opinion seems to agree that the citizens of today should be 
 healthy, that they should have a command of the fundamental 
 
 11 Bureau of Domestic and Foreign Commerce, Statistical Abstract 
 of The United States, 1930, 69, 
 

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- 12 - 
 
 processes, that they should attain a worthy home membership, 
 that they should be vocationally efficient, that they should 
 have high ideals of the obligations and duties of citizenship, 
 that they should know how to use their leisure time in a profit- 
 able way, and that they should be of good moral character. 
 
 In 1913 Ayres called our attention to the fact that about 
 twenty-six per cent of all pupils entering school did not finish 
 the eighth grade and that about ninety-four per cent did not 
 finish high school. More recent investigations have revealed 
 the fact that elimination is still very high, even though pupils 
 tend to remain in school longer than formerly. The Commissioner 
 of Education about the middle of the last decade estimated that 
 of every one thousand pupils who entered the first grade in 
 1906-1907, about 11,7 per cent would graduate from high school 
 and 1,5 per cent would gradmte from college. The status of 
 elimination in different communities is not constant, but of 
 course this should be inferred from a knowledge of the status 
 of illiteracy which is partially caused by elimination. Naturally 
 pupils in Cleveland, Ohio, remain in school longer than pupils 
 in New Orleans, Louisiana. Bonner states that 17.8 per cent 
 of the pupils of school age are not enrolled in school and that 
 44 per cent of the entire school term in 1918 was wasted be- 
 cause of lack of attendance.^® 
 
 12 Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 35, 1918. 
 
 13 Ayres, Leonard P., Laggards in Otar Schools, 14 ff. 
 
 14 Hill, David S., An Introduction to Vocational Education, 74-76 
 
 15 Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 11, 1921, 6 et 15-18, 
 
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-13- 
 
 Why do so many pupils leave school at such an early age 
 with so little preparation for living? The answers to this 
 question are multitudinous and only a few of the most Important 
 reasons are incorporated in this discussion, (l) The limited 
 range of instruction offered in the higher grades of the 
 elementary school and in many of the secondary schools certainly 
 is a factor to be taken into consideration, in any argument for 
 more thorough education. The schools are gradually adjusting 
 themselves in this regard through such agencies as the junior 
 high school and the introduction of vocational studies. (3) The' 
 failure of some communities to provide suitable facilities for 
 the education of their children prevents many of them from 
 obtaining a more thorough education. Such communities existed 
 in abundance a few years ago but the number is gradually being 
 lessened through legislation and equalization of opportunity 
 and costs. Nevertheless many districts today contribute to 
 elimination by their failure to provide the necessary facilities 
 for their young people. (3) Aniother reason for much elimination 
 is the failure of the school to demonstrate its worth to the 
 pupil and to his parents when lucrative jobs are available. This 
 is especially true in an industrial community such as the 
 automobile manufacturing districts of Michigan. Obviously this 
 cause of elimination is inseparable from (4) the desire to 
 obtain spending money. The lure of the fruition of employment 
 very frequently draws the child from school into industry. In 
 many communities an instinctive appeal requires his work in 
 order that he may not be isolated socially from his fellows 
 
-14- 
 
 beoause they have spending money and he does not. (5) The 
 failure of a pupil in school oftentimes tends to antagonize 
 him against the institution. The repetition of the grade is 
 without interest. Tardiness and absence result and the latter 
 is likely to become perpetual, (6) Economic pressure either real 
 or imaginary is, perhaps, the greatest single cause of elimination , 
 Ayres found that about 20 per cent of the children who in the 
 elementary schools of six large cities left school did so be- 
 cause of this reason alone while over one-third of the children 
 who left the high schools of the same cities did so for the 
 sole purpose of going to work.^® Economic distress is a social 
 evil that cannot be eradicated. It always will remain a cause 
 for elimination unless legal relief can be obtained in such 
 sufficiency that the pupil and the people who are dependent 
 partially or wholly upon him will be able to live without his 
 support. 
 
 If the eliminated pupil is followed into industry his 
 short-comings cannot but be noticed. His needs show the import- 
 ance of the continuation school. Why not force him back into 
 the traditional school and compel him to remedy hie deficiencies? 
 Such an idea is absolutely preposterous. If he belongs to the 
 last group mentioned above, often he must either work, starve, 
 or become a public charge, and he can choose only the former. If 
 he belongs to one of the other groups his presence in school, 
 if he is forced to be there, is often a menace to the discipline 
 and progress of the school. Give him an alternative whose 
 function is to educate him while he works is the argument ad- 
 vanced by the exponents of the continuation school, 
 
 16 Ayres, Leonard P., Laggards in Our Schools, 100 ff. 
 

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-15- 
 
 Since the eliminated child has not been educated adequiately 
 he is unable to secure the most promising industrial positions. 
 Hence, he must accept whatever position he can get, a job which 
 the better trained have refused and which has little or no 
 possibilities for the future. He must bdgln at the bottom of 
 the great industrial ladder and must stay there unless further 
 education is provided for him. Very frequently he drifts about 
 from one "blind-alley "job to another and seldom attains his 
 dwarfed ambition. Hill made an investigation which is valuable 
 in this connection: 
 
 "Twenty-five cases selected by the writer at random from 
 
 among more than a thousand boys under fifteen years of age, 
 
 have records of from four or five jobs during the first year 
 
 out of school. These young boys stated the jobs they had already 
 
 tried and also their preference or 'ambition*. E,g., Bov A: 
 
 Errand boy, plumber's helper, office boy, in grocery, -ambit ion, 
 
 bookkeeper; Bov B : Wagon boy, office boy, clerk for soap company, 
 
 17 
 
 office boy, -ambition, civil engineer; Etc." 
 
 The oases cited above are representative of a legion of 
 others which show the hapless wanderings of children who ought 
 to be in school. Mays suggests that only about twenty-five in 
 every four thousand of these unprepared children hold one job 
 longer than two years.^® The great tragedy lies not so much in 
 their inability to progress but in the fact that there is not 
 
 r 
 
 sufficient opportunity given for them to learn how to progress 
 and become self-supporting so that they will become an asset 
 
 17 Hill, David, S., An Introduction to Vocational Education, 80-81. 
 
 18 Mays, A.B., Lecture on Continuation School Pupils. 
 
-16- 
 
 rather than a liability to the community in their later years. 
 
 In this work the continuation school can be of a great service, 
 Kerschensteiner showed that in Munich it really was of much 
 value in this capacity. He g'ave statistics showing that in 
 1890 about 1000 of the eighth class boys went into "blin^.-alley” 
 jobs, while in 1698 after the continuation school was in oper- 
 ation only 250 went the same road, and in 1908 only 50 entered 
 the "blind-alley” trades. 
 
 T hirdly, the prevalence of poverty and pauperism makes a 
 more urgent demand for better educational results not only in 
 America, but throughout the world as well. Towne says, "For the 
 country as a whole, and for years of average prosperity, probably 
 as fair an estimate as we can make is that about 15 per cent of 
 all the people are living in poverty. This would make the number 
 in the United States today about fifteen million, including of 
 course the five million dependent upon some form of public re- 
 lief." In speaking of the causes of poverty Ellwood correctly 
 asserts, "Defects in our educational system are certainly pro- 
 ductive of poverty. Ignorant and illiterate persons are much 
 more liable to become dependent. In particular the lack Of 
 industrial training in our public schools is a prolific cause 
 of dependence in our complex industrial civilization."’^^ 
 
 The continuation school offers abundant opportunity for 
 the education of the worker along industrial lines after he has 
 become engaged in industrial pursuits. It is an institution 
 limited to the education of this large group of people and it 
 
 19 Best, R.H., and Ogden, C.K., The Problem of The Continuation 
 School, 29-30, 
 
 20 Towne, E.T., Social Problems, 289. 
 
 21 Ellwood, C.A., Sociology and Modern Social Problems, 309. 
 
-17- 
 
 is peculiarly adapted to the performance of this vital work. 
 
 No claim is made that the continuation school will blot out 
 poverty and pauperism because many factors enter into the 
 production of these social evils. Many cases are purely patho- 
 logical and can be treated on no other basis; and such a case 
 is outside the province of the continuation school which is 
 an agency destined to contribute a large share to minimizing 
 these evils by assisting in destroying the causes for their 
 existence. 
 
 Fotirthly, the extent of poor health and physical in- 
 capacity shows that instruction in preventive and corrective 
 measures should not be limited to the elementary school but 
 that it should be continued even after the worker has entered 
 upon his vocation. The Selective Service Act operating in the 
 Great War revealed the fact that about fifty per cent of 
 Americans best manhood were unfit pnysically to serve their 
 coiintry,^^ Since a large part of these physical disabilities 
 could have been prevented if attempted in time the continuation 
 school has a function in this respect. It can educate along 
 preventive and remedial lines in regard to disease and accidents. 
 Inasmuch as the mortality rate of young children and adults 
 over forty-five years of age is so much higher than that of 
 those people who come under the provisions of the Selective 
 Service Act the findings of these results are likely to be too 
 low for the entire population of the United States. 
 
 22 U.S. Surgeon General's Office, Defects found in Drafted Men, 
 1920, 29 et 73. 
 
 23 Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Statistical Abstract 
 of The United States, 1920, 80-81. 
 

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-18- 
 
 The workers in industry should know how to avoid accidents 
 whose numbers are appallingly high. At least thirty-five thousand 
 workmen are killed and two million are injured in industrial 
 accidents annually. An estimate states that at least one-half of 
 these accidents can be avoided if proper instructions are given 
 to the laboring population.^"^ The experience of the writer in the 
 coal mining district of the Middle West shows that any instruction 
 as to dangerous parts of the mines, such as "old works"' that have 
 been bratticed off, is only casual. Explosions occur as a result 
 of gas ignition in such districts. The $62, 500,000 and the man 
 power that could be saved by such prevention would go far to- 
 wards financing the continuation schools which among other 
 agencies would teach prevention and employ corrective measures 
 wherever needed. 
 
 F lfthl a&i the inability of the common people to adjust them- 
 selves when a transfer of jobs is made is an argument for some 
 kind of specific instruction whereby the worker can learn the 
 job at the time when he is employed at it. This maladjustment of 
 workers is especially noticeable during a period of financial 
 and labor depression. The crisis of 1931 is highly illustrative 
 in this connection. Nearly every metropolitan newspaper spoke 
 often and at length of the serious condition and at the same time 
 printed advertisements of "HELP WANTED", Certainly none would 
 accuse the newspapers of inconsistency in their actions. The 
 trouble lies in the fact that industry is so highly specialized 
 that the task of transferring from one job to another is usually 
 very difficult and if the industrial concern does not teach its 
 
 24 Towns, E, T., Social Problems, -356. 
 
- 19 - 
 
 new employees, with few exceptions they must learn for them- 
 selves. Very frequently the joh or trade oannot be mastered alone; 
 or in a short time. Hence, the laborer who is idle cannot in 
 many oases even obtain the position. 
 
 Yet there exist a great many .jobs and trades which can 
 be learned in a short time if instruction is available while work 
 is being done. Various firms are too small to profitably main- 
 tain a training school for their employees and very frequently 
 they have vacancies which can be filled by many persons if some 
 way were provided for their learning how to perform the duties 
 of the particular job or trade. Again the continuation school 
 has an urgent duty to perform. It is valiiable in this respect 
 not only in periods of depression and in oases of seasonal 
 fluctuations in the demand for labor, but also in irregular 
 oases of emplpyment in sundry industries. It cannot eliminate 
 but it can lessen the great \inemployment evil, 
 
 ^xthly , the passage of the Lever Act and of the Sedition 
 Acts during the late struggle with the Central Powers was an 
 action which in ipso recognized the necessity of education for 
 democracy. Perhaps one of the principal reasons for the passage 
 of these laws as well as of some others was the enormous 
 immigration of the "newer type", which came is such large numbers 
 prior to the outbreak of the European conflict, and which is 
 coming again as fast as is permissible. These people most of 
 whom are uneducated collect in some sections of the large cities 
 and settle in communities in the smaller ones until nearly every 
 industrial center of importance has Its "’Italy", "'Austria? and 
 other communal epithets. If these people are to become American 
 
- 20 - 
 
 they must be taught Americanism, The continuation school can be 
 of vital assistance in this great movement for Americanization. 
 
 It is true that in its present form the continuation school 
 reaches the adults more indirectly than directly, but the reaching 
 of the young immigrants and of the immigrants' children who are 
 between the ages of fourteen and eighteen is notably worthwhile, 
 
 Americanization is not limited to immigrants alone: neither 
 should it be under present conditions. The continuation school 
 can be of service among many native-born Aflierioans, "Really to 
 
 Vs 
 
 Americanize America we must reach the native-born and the 
 immigrant, the adult and the child in school; and incidentally 
 our task of Americanizing the newcomer will be rendered com- 
 paratively easy if we can but succeed first in Americanizing 
 ourselves, The gradual extension of the suffrage implies a 
 wider use of it , No other agency, perhaps, will have a better 
 chance to teach the adolescent in industry his rights and duties 
 toward his neighbor, community, state, and nation than the con- 
 tinuation school, because it has an opportunity to reach a great 
 number of people who have not learned the fundamental principles 
 of democracy elsewhere. Indeed, civic instruction occupies an 
 important place in the curriculum of the continuation school, 
 
 Seveifthly, education for leisure time is a problem whose 
 importance is becoming widely recognized. Pound says, "Education 
 for leisure, under the conditions of automatic production, is 
 
 education for life What is the first requirement for the 
 
 right use of leisure 7 Self-restraint Need for self-restraint 
 
 increases in proportion to affluence ... .It follows that knowledge, 
 
 Mahoney, J.J., "Training Teachers for Americanization", Bureau 
 of Education Bulletin No. 12, 192Q,. 14. 
 
- 21 - 
 
 as the chief restraining influence in the youthful mind, is the 
 substitute that education must establish in place of the set of 
 controls which formerly resulted from the young man’s poverty 
 or fear of poverty,"'^® Pound proceeds to point out that the child 
 should be taught thrift, ideas of law, history, literature, 
 science, art, and music because they give a meaning to life and 
 an inspiration to leisure. ^Finally, there should be a complete 
 system of continuation schools wherein those who desire to use 
 their labor-bought leisure, by securing further instruction could 
 be accomodated on their own time. All graduates presumably will 
 have been so far inoculated with the intellectual virus that 
 th&j will go on improving their minds at lei sure « to some extent 
 thus demonstrating on a wide scale that education is not a matter 
 of youth, but of life,*^^ 
 
 Qonsiderable credit is due the public schools for what 
 they have done for the cultural growth ef America* but observation 
 shows that much still remains to be done* Many (people do not know 
 
 the joys of a life of intellectual appreciation^ they remain out- 
 side the realms of good music, literature, dramatics, painting 
 and sculpture. The "’jazz”, yellow literature, the public dance, 
 movies, gambling, chewing gum, and red lemonade have strong 
 attractions which should be eliminated or at least controlled. 
 
 This can be done only by means of a positive program. Since the 
 class of people to whom these lighter attractions most appeal 
 are those who have not learned self-restraint, several agencies 
 should be set to work to teach them to control their appetites, 
 passions, and desires. T^e children between the ages of fourteen 
 
 and eighteen who are forming ideals of conduct which are lasting, 
 
 26 Pound, Arthur, "The Iron Man", Atlantic Monthly, Oct . 1921. 438-A49* 
 
 27 Ibid., 441. * 
 

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- 22 - 
 
 should have positive programs placed before them. No agency is 
 better fitted to reach that part of these youngsters who have 
 severed relations with the regular day school and have entered 
 industry than the continuation school. The crusade must be begun 
 before long and the continuation school must be considered as 
 one of the agencies whose aid can be utilized. 
 
 S ightl y, the problem of the conservation of the natural 
 resources of the United States in the last few years has attained 
 a position of much prominence. The federal government has carried 
 through a magnificent program for the continuous conservation of 
 certain forests and timber reserves. It also has reclaimed vast 
 tracts of land by great irrigation projects and has made a wider 
 acreage possible by the drainage of certain marsh lands. Only the 
 beginning has been made; the federal and state governments must 
 go still further. They owe a duty to the future generations of 
 this great republic to conserve the other natural resources which 
 so abundantly bless its vast domain. The conservation of peat, 
 petroleum, natural gas, the metals, and their products is a more 
 difficult problem. If exploitations in these products should 
 continue at the same rate as at present for one hundred and fifty 
 years the supply would almost, if not completely, be exhausted.^® 
 Such luxuries as pleasure-riding, superfluous lighting, and waste 
 orf fuel, either directly or indirectly, should be checked by 
 volimtary action. The continuation school promises to have a 
 prominent part in this program due to the fact that it reaches a 
 class which does not have a knowledge of the consequences of such 
 waste and exploitation, or if they do who take the attitude of 
 Louis XV of France, "After us, the deluge."^ 
 
 28 Towns, E.T., Social Problems, 322. 
 
- 23 - 
 
 Ninethly, obedience to oommon social principles which have 
 been app'r^ed by society is an ideal which is fundamental to a 
 democracy as well as to any other social organization. If the 
 ethical is the Ideal aspect of behavior certainly public opinion 
 must be enlightened. The continuation school has a tremendous 
 advantage of many other institutions as an agency for inculc&ting 
 morality. It reaches a great multitude that hardly can be reached 
 in any other manner, some of whom belong either to the immoral 
 class or the unmoral class. Perhaps at the critical period of 
 life the right kind of moral instructions would save to society 
 many lives of usefulness as well as large economic returns and 
 money that as a result of law-breaking would be expended for re- 
 proof and reformation. 
 
 If the great hypothesis that moral development depends to 
 a large extent upon intellectual growth is true, it logically 
 follows that society must have the maximum of education in order 
 to possess the highest ethics, other things being equal or 
 approximately so. Then if intellectual growth and education are 
 synonymous the continuation school is justifiable on purely 
 intelleot\ial grounds because it can give to many adolescent 
 workers education that they will not get unless they get it in 
 the continuation school or in some substitute for it. The social 
 studies offer abundant opportunity for the teaching of obedience 
 both to civil and to moral laws, not as pure abstractions but as 
 real truths existing in a social environment. 
 
 No argument is advanced in this thesis that the primary 
 function of the continuation school is to teach religion, but 
 this institution can aid materially in giving proper ideals of 
 
24 - 
 
 conduct, be they either ethical or religious. Neither do the 
 promoters of the continuation school claim that it is a panacea 
 for the social evils that have been mentioned in the foregoing 
 pages, nor that it will cure any one of them. Nevertheless it is 
 peculiarly fitted to reach many people who hardly can be reached 
 throng any other source. As this institution exists today it 
 can do much to improve the efficiency of the social group. As it 
 should exist when it shall be fully grown, it will have an 
 opportunity to reach nearly every home in the land and to assist 
 the intellectual group as well as that group which it now serves 
 so successfully where it is established. 
 
 Arguments against The Continuation School Refuted 
 
 The opponents of the continuation school claim that its 
 existence will be an excuse for certain pupils* leaving the 
 traditional school sooner than they otherwise would do. Their 
 parents may be led to believe that their children oan profit 
 from the continuation school as much as from the older schools; 
 and therefore, they will encourage attendance at the continuation 
 school when, if it did not exist, they would not consent to their 
 children* s leaving school. Hence, instead of adding to the social 
 efficiency of the nation the continuation school would be de- 
 tracting from it. In order to test the validity of this argument 
 which, if true, would seriously handicap the growth of this 
 institution and lessen its efficiency the author made a rather 
 wide inquiry into this matter in Illinois, The results were sur- 
 prising because the principals in every case testified that no 
 
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- 25 - 
 
 such a case had ever oome to their knowledge in their respective 
 schools. On the other hand they stated that they knew of several 
 instances where the continuation school was the means that had 
 led a goodly number of pupils who had left the regular schools, 
 back into that institution which they had so willingly or re- 
 luctantly left not many days or months previously. 
 
 In the second place, the argument is advanced that the 
 continuation school will increase the tax rate materially. This 
 argument cannot wholly be refuted but it can be answered partially 
 in that the children between the ages of fourteen and eighteen 
 who are in industry are entitled to have as much money spent on 
 their education per capita in proportion to the restilts obtained 
 as the children who regularly or irregularly attend the elementary 
 or the high schools. Again, much of the work done by the pupils 
 can be placed on a production basis so that the returns of it 
 will be a means for the partial support of the institution. A part 
 of the seemingly high cost is eliminated frequently by the inaugur- 
 ation of certain continuation schools in the plants of industrial 
 concerns, as is done in the packing industry of Chicago. In such 
 cases usually the corporation furnishes the rooms, equipment, and 
 supplies while the local district is required to furnish a part 
 or all of the teaching corps (. and occasionally some or all of 
 the equipment and supplies) . As a safeguard in the interest of 
 the public the schools thus established are usually made a part 
 of the local school system subject to its inspection and direction. 
 
 The maintenance of both of the above objections at the 
 same time is inconsistent since the former presupposes that the 
 pupils are drawn from the regular school while the latter assumes 
 
1 
 
- 26 - 
 
 that very few are thus obtained or that the per capita cost in 
 the continuation school is far more than it is in the elementary 
 and high schools. It may be true that some pupils will be drawn 
 from the all-day schools as a result of the establishment of 
 continuation schools and it certainly is true that the expense 
 of the continuation schools must be met. However, the added ex- 
 pense will result more from the entrance of pupils who are not 
 in school at all than from those who transfer from the all-day 
 schools. If the opposite were the case, the continuation school 
 could not be justified. Some increase in expenses will result 
 and public taxation will be used in most oases to pay the bills, 
 even though the amount required for this purpose is considerably 
 less than that required to maintain the regular schools. This 
 is a practical situation. If the people want the continuation 
 school are they willing to pay for it? 
 
 In the third place an argument can well be advanced 
 that such a curriculum in the junior and senior high schools, 
 as some few of the advocates of this objection favor, would 
 accomplish the same results as the continuation school and at a 
 less expense. Such an innovation does not differ from the con- 
 tinuation school. Both have the same aims and employ like means 
 in accomplishing them. Since the organization of the continuation 
 school differs so widely in different cities the upshot of the 
 whole argument is that the opponents who advance this argument 
 are advancing the continuation school idea and are contending 
 
 for a principle that the author lays down in a following chapter.^ 
 
 K fourth argument against the continuation school is 
 
 that teachers who are properly qualified cannot be obtained. There 
 29 Infra, 106 ff . 
 
ft 
 
- 27 - 
 
 is some truth in this eirgument. At the present time the demand 
 for teachers with the requisites necessary for success in the 
 continuation school has not been created sufficiently. It is 
 axiomatic that such a supply will never exist until such a 
 demand has been made. A similar argument was advanced in 
 California against the bill which provided that a year of ad- 
 vanced work beyond the bachelor* s degree should be a requisite^ 
 for high school certification, but the bill became a law and 
 during the Great War when other states were needing high school 
 teachers, California was supplied pretty adequately. Two reasons 
 were primarily responsible for this situation; In the first 
 place teachers were imported from other states; and in the 
 second place more teaching timber was attracted because of the 
 resultant better conditions. Certainly the economic laws of 
 supply and demand must be taken into consideration in the dis- 
 cussion of this problem. Since the history of the continuation 
 school movement shows that its adoption has been gradual the 
 problem of teacher shortage is less acute than it would be if 
 the movement became instantly cosmopolitan. When all factors 
 are weighed and the balance is struck, if the fact is kept in 
 mind that our normal schools and universities can train men and 
 women who desire a career in this field, the problem becomes far 
 less serious. 
 
 Another argument which is advanced against the con- 
 tinuation school again refers to the teacher situation* A con- 
 tention is made that this institution will draw the best teachers- 
 from the elementary and high schools. This is true to a certain 
 extent and, perhaps, it should not be lamented as much as seems 
 

 
 
 
 
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- 28 - 
 
 to be the case. The adolescent in the continuation school needs 
 a superior type of teacher just as much as, if not more than, 
 the adolescent in the junior and senior high schools. The with- 
 drawal of some of the best teachers from the latter schools 
 will make a greater demand for more superior teachers in these 
 institutions. As a result better conditions are likely to follow 
 and this means that better timber will be attracted into the 
 common schools. Every teacher should work where she can do the 
 greatest service and it is the problem of the administration to 
 effect this condition. This objection seems to be so closely 
 connected with the preceding one that the remedy in the former 
 will apply equally well to the latter. 
 
 An argument which was expounded a few years ago but 
 which seems to have much less weight today is that the con- 
 tinuation school creates class distinctions and makes more 
 marked those classes which already have been created. The ex- 
 perience of Germany was cited as proof but little consideration 
 was given to the basic educational plan provided by that c'ountry. 
 The experience of the American system, on the contrary,, tends 
 to show that the pupil has really more liberty in the choice 
 of a vocation if he attend a continuation school than if he 
 pursue the regular course in the traditional schools. This is 
 true because the latter usually prepares for college while the 
 former prepares for an immediate vocational career as well as 
 for the responsibilities of citizenship. It tends to prevent 
 the pupil from falling into the "Iblind alley"' class and to 
 make out of him a citizen worthy of his community. 
 
-29- 
 
 Pttxhaps the greatest argument against the continuation 
 
 school is the fact that funds are not available at the present 
 
 time and that the legislators are afraid to take a stand for 
 
 any movement that can be construed as financially dangerous to 
 
 their constituents. This condition has been a great stumbling 
 
 block in the way of the progress of this institution. The lament- 
 
 30 
 
 able experience of Illinois bears witness to this fact. 
 
 Perhaps the best answer that has been given to this objection 
 is that taxation more nearly equalized would provide for the 
 support of the continuation school without material injury to 
 the other educational institutions or to the public. Except some 
 readjustment takes place it seems that the only hope for the 
 success of an universal acceptance of this institution lies 
 in the legislators of the various states whom only time and 
 experience must convince. 
 
 The Function of The Continuation School 
 
 In its broadest sense, the continuation school should 
 give the pupil whatever instruction he needs to make him socially 
 efficient. This much may have been inferred already from the 
 foregoing discussion of the needs that justify the existence of 
 this very important institution. It is an agency designed to 
 educate the pupils who attend it while they are employed and 
 at the same time to induce them to seek more education. 
 
 The problem of continuing the education of the pupil 
 is very closely related to the problem of making him socially 
 efficient. Few people are likely to deny the fact that the 
 juvenile worker who comes from the traditional public school 
 
 30 Infra, 51 et ff. 
 
1 
 
 I 
 
- 30 - 
 
 at the age of fourteen ought to have more education. Seldom 
 does he have a command of the fundamental principles that are 
 necessary for a complete life, because he has attained only a 
 part of those educational objectives which society deems 
 necessary for success. Hence, he is in need of further education 
 and it is the function of the continuation school to furnish it 
 to him in such substance and quantity as he most needs and 
 desires. It trains the worker to do his task better if his 
 interests lie in the field in which he is employed. Frequently, 
 it shows him that he has the ability to advance to a higher 
 position for which it continues to prepare him. In either cas«p 
 it has a specific function to perform by increasing his fund 
 of general knowledge. 
 
 This .modern educational institution intends to 
 educate the young workers in industry under public direction 
 and at public expense. The training usually being general as 
 well as specific does not produce a stereotyped product, a 
 worker who cannot transfer from one field to another, as does 
 that of the average privately owned schools which are con- 
 ducted solely by large industrial corporations. This assures 
 the pupil of an equal industrial opportunity in the sense that 
 his training will not make him wholly dependent on some great 
 industrial firm or set of corporations. 
 
 The continuation school is designed to give the youth 
 who has left school because of economic pressure further education. 
 Unless elimination which results from pecuniary necessity shall 
 be ended by legislation which shall provide for the family or 
 for at least the child and for those people who are dependent 
 

-31- 
 
 upon him for support and which shall provide a fund that will 
 sustain life during the time required for the completion of his 
 elementary and preferably his secondary school work some in- 
 stitution must be utilized which will enable him to earn a 
 livelihood and at the same time contribute to the support of 
 those persons who are dependent upon him during the time that 
 he is obtaining an acceptable education. In this respect the 
 continuation school serves a rather unique purpose. 
 
 Dewey thinks that one of the real values of any 
 education is the effect that it produces on the subject by causing 
 him to advance further into the educational realm. If this 
 is a true criterion of the value of an educatioml institution 
 certainly the continuation school must rank very high. In the 
 first place the pupils continue their educational advancement 
 in the continuation school which is not infinitely separated 
 from the school of life. Then pursuing the zeal which has been 
 developed further in their stay in the continuation school, 
 sometimes ohey enter the technical school, specialize in some 
 important line of work, and become citizens who are valuable 
 assets to their communities. A large mmber of these pupils are 
 shown the value of a liberal education and their own possibilities. 
 As a result, they often enter the full-day school with a better 
 knowledge of what industrial life is and with a determination 
 to prepare themselves for their station in society. Hence 
 through the agency of the continuation school many people re- 
 ceive an education much higher than they would have received had 
 
 31 Dewey, John, Democracy and Education, 62. 
 
 32 Supra, 25. 
 

- 32 « 
 
 it not been for their connection with this very valuable in- 
 st itution. 
 
 The specific functions which the continuation people 
 claim for their institution are: that the pupils are taught 
 how to better perform the tasks which they have to do in the 
 industrial world, if their positions are commensurate with their 
 abilities; that many are led into and prepared for higher 
 positions, if the ones in which they are employed are incommen- 
 surate with their abilities; that a large number of pupils are 
 led back into the full-time schools; and that all are better 
 prepared for their stations in this great democratic society. 
 
 Summary and Conclusion 
 
 All education is an evolutionary process which is 
 determined by the thoughts and feelings of society. A widespread 
 opinion has been current for a long time that everybody should 
 have an equalized educational opportunity. The desire to makie 
 this opportunity accessible to those people who have left the 
 school and entered into industry may be called the "continuation 
 idea.*” However, the realization of it is far in the future, but 
 the continuation school which generally is limited to juvenile 
 workers is one step in advance towards the realization of the 
 "continuation idea’,"' even though this school is embryotic in 
 form. This institution has been variouly defined; as it is 
 here used in a narrow sense it is a school that during working 
 hours provides education for persons, usually minors, who are 
 gainfully employed and who are not attending the regular day- 
 school. It is a part-time school. 
 
1 
 
- 33 - 
 
 The prevalence of illiteracy, the enormous elimination 
 from the traditional public schools, the large amount of poverty 
 and pauperism, the universal extent of ppor health and physical 
 incapacity, the general lack of efficiency among workers, the 
 widespread need of civic, and social education, the cosmopolitan 
 misuse of leisure time, the ecumenical need for conservation of 
 natural and human resources, the deficiency in the moral con- 
 duct of many citizens justify the existence of an institution 
 that will educate the industrial population along the lines of 
 right living and social efficiency. The continuation school is 
 peculiarly fitted to assist in the prevention and elimination 
 of many common social evils as well as to prepare for industrial 
 success, despite the attacks made upon it by its enemies who 
 argue that it would tend to increase elimination, that it would 
 materially increase the tax rate, that the functions claimed 
 for it can be accomplished as well in the schools that now exist, 
 that properly qualified teachers cannot be obtained, that the 
 now existing schools would be harmed by the transfer of their 
 best teachers to the continuation school, that it would promote 
 class distinctions and thereby be undemocratic, and that funds 
 for its maintenance are not available and cannot be obtained. 
 This long train of argument against the continuation school 
 seems to be partly refuted from theoretical considerations and 
 the experience of those communities that have inaugurated a 
 scheme of continuation education apparently throws the weight 
 of evidence on the side of this institution. 
 
-34- 
 
 Selected Bibliography. 
 
 XAYres, Leonard P., Laggards in Our Schools 
 
 Best, R. H. and Ogden, C,K.,The Problem of the Continuation School. 
 Briggs, Thomas H., The Junior High School 
 
 Bureau of Domestic and Foreign Commerce, Statistical Abstract 
 of The United States, 1920 (See United States, etc.) 
 
 Bureau of Education Bulletin No, 35, 1918, Cardinal Principles 
 of Secondary Education (See United States, etc.) 
 
 Bureau of Education Bulletin No, 5, 1921, Part-Time Education 
 of Various Types (See United States, etc.) 
 
 Cooley, Edwin G,, Public Continuation Schools, 
 
 /Cooley, Edwin G., Vocational Education in Europe 
 'f.Dewey, John, Democracy and Education 
 Editorial in Literary Digest, Jan. 11, 1919 "'What The Draft 
 Revealed" 
 
 Ellwood, C,A,, Sociology and Modern Social Problems 
 ■/Federal Board for Vocational Education, Bulletin No, 19, 1918, 
 Part-Time Trade and Industrial Education 
 Graves, Frank P,, A' Student’s History of Education 
 ^Hill, David S., An Introduction to Vocational Education 
 Lutz, R,R,, Wage Earning and Education 
 
 '‘Mahoney, J.J., Training Teacher for Americanization, Bureau of 
 Education Bulletin, No, 12, 1920 
 Mays, A,B,, Lectures on Continuation School Pupils^ 
 
 Miller, H.A, , The School and The Immigrant 
 
 Pound, Arthur, in Atlantic Monthly Oct., 1921, "The Iron Man" 
 

 
 . '■ 
 
 
 
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 i 
 
 
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 :n 
 
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 i. 
 
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- 35 - 
 
 ^ Sneddon, David, Vocational Education 
 i^Taylor, Joseph S., A Handbook for Vocational Education 
 Towne, E,T,, Social Problems 
 
 United States, Sxirgeon General *s Office, Defects Found in 
 Drafted Men. 
 
t 
 
Chapter II 
 
 A Brief Survey of The Continuation School Movement 
 
 The German Continuation School 
 
 The history of the continuation movement in Germany may 
 
 be traced back to the Sunday Schools of the sixteenth century,^ 
 
 In these institutions instruction in church catechism, reading, 
 
 and writing was given to pupils after they had left the elementary 
 
 schools as well as to those pupils who were unable to attend 
 
 o 
 
 the regular elementary schools.*^ Sunday gohool attendance be«> 
 came compulsory in V/urtemburg in 1739 and in Bavaria in 1803. 
 
 In the latter stats a certificate stating that the candidate 
 had completed his course in the Sunday School was a prerequisite 
 to marriage. Frequently education of this sort in this in- 
 stitution was all that a young man was able to obtain, because 
 of the fact that his domestic duties made attendance at the 
 week-day school impossible. However, due to the lack of school 
 facilities and properly trained teachers the laws were not 
 strictly enforced. In Saxony from 1835 to 1859 the enforcement 
 of compulsory attendance laws was fairly successful, but the 
 growing universality of elementary education put a temporary 
 end to this early form of continuation school.^ Some ten years 
 later, the movement was revived, "Under the terms of the »Regulat ior 
 of Industry*' of 1869, employers were compelled to allow their 
 
 1 Cooley, E.G., Vocational Education in Europe, 78. 
 
 2 Sadler, M.E., Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere, 520, 
 3. Ibid.., 521. 
 

 
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-37- 
 
 workmen under eighteen years of age to attend a recognised 
 continuation school, and the communes were empowered to 
 frame bye-laws making attendance at such schools obligatory 
 on all workmen under eighteen!T^ Under the influence of the 
 Society for The Extension of Popular Education schools were 
 quickly established; especially was this true in the larger 
 cities. So great was the movement that the success of Germany 
 in the Franco-Prussian wer was attributed to some extent to 
 
 5 
 
 the success of the new continuation schools of the Fatherland. 
 
 The continuance of the German Empire’s rapid growth seemed to 
 depend on its ability to keep pace with the industrial de- 
 velopment of England, but this result was accomplished largely 
 through the teaching of trades in the continuation schools. 
 
 The outcome made the continuation school a popular institution 
 and caused it to experience an unprecedented growth. By 1900 
 this institution was accepted as a matter of fact and was 
 permissibly legalized by imperial edict while under the leader- 
 ship of such men as Kerschensteiner the present system was 
 given form,® 
 
 Kerschensteiner took the position that the primary 
 schools could not effectively educate for citizenship since the 
 child*'s experiences were too limited at the time of his in- 
 struction there, that at the age of fourteen systematic education 
 stopped at the point where the moral control of the boy was most 
 difficult, and that the continuation school was the appropriate 
 
 4 Ibid, 523. 
 
 5 Ibid, 522 . 
 
 6 Sadler, M.E., Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere, 
 520-5241 Monroe, P., Cyclopedia of Education, ("See '"Continuation 
 Schools"). 
 

-38- 
 
 institution to bridge the gap between the time when the boy 
 left the primary school and the time when he entered military 
 
 7 
 
 service * 
 
 Since that time and largely through the efforts of 
 Kerschensteiner the continuation school in Germany has grown 
 to be a highly specialized institution*® A little reflective 
 thinking about the significance of the statistics contained 
 in the following quotation will give the reader some idea of 
 the enormous importance of the continuation school in Germany 
 some ten years ago: 
 
 "'A't the close of 1911 Germany possessed about 3,300 
 industrial continuation schools, of which nearly 3,000 were 
 under obligatory ordinance. The number of pupils was 
 approximately 550,000, The commercial continuation schools 
 not included in the foregoing totals numbered at the same 
 time 7,700 of which only 80 were not under obligatory regulations. 
 The number of pupils in the commercial schools was in round 
 nijmber .90;^ 000 boys and 12,000 girls. Agricultural continuation 
 schools are very numerous in Prussia, Bavaria, and Alsace- 
 Lorraine, For all Germany the number was 1,700 obligatory and 
 3,500 optional. They comprise together about 84,000 pupils. In 
 addition to the continuation schools having a vocational pur- 
 pose, there were in Germany at the close of 1911, 16,000 
 continuation schools for general instruction, attended by 
 350,000 boys and 250,000 girls. The foregoing statistics do not 
 include the continuation schools of an industrial character 
 for young women; since, as a rule, these have not been brought 
 
 7 Kerschensteiner, Georg, Education for Citizenship. 
 
 8 Henderson, E,..F,,A Short History of Germany, 535-541. 
 
-39- 
 
 under obligatory orders, it is difficult to secure exact sta- 
 tistics relating to them. The reports indicate, however, that 
 great interest is taken in the domestic training of young 
 women in the Grand Duchy of Baden and in Alsace-Lorraine. As 
 a general rule the continuation schools are supported by the 
 communes, with the aid of chambers of commerce, commercial 
 societies, trades unions, etc. The annual expenditure of the 
 schools of this order is estimated at 22,000,000 marks 
 ($5,236,000); of this total the communes supply 10,500,000 
 marks, the State 6,500,000, and the employers and pupils in 
 the way of fees 4,500,000. The balance is met by voluntary sub- 
 scriptions. The communes also furnish housing, light, heat, 
 etc., for the schools.”® 
 
 The Great War which changed the government of Germany 
 from a monarchy to a republic abolished class distinction so 
 far as nobility of birth was concerned. However, since the 
 aristocracy during the old regime had never attended the con- 
 tinuation schools and since this did not materially increase 
 the population of the lower classes, the burden on the school 
 was not appreciably augmented. In fact the assumption seems 
 to be justified that due to the decrease of the birth rate 
 during the war the number of people to be served in the present 
 decade will be no larger than the number served in the past 
 decade. But on the other hand, those people who are served 
 must be so well served that industrial Germany may be cpickly 
 reconstructed. Hence, this will mean that more industrial edu- 
 cation must be introduced to meet the needs of the people. 
 
 9 Report of The Commissioner of Education, 1913, I, 818. 
 
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- 40 - 
 
 Both handicrafts and mechanical arts must be taught. This will 
 mean, probably, that the work of the continuation schools will 
 become more highly specialized and that more general education 
 will be introduced as Germany becomes restored to a normal con- 
 dition, As the law stands at the present time all pupils who 
 leave the elementary school at the age of fourteen still have to 
 supplement their education in the part-time school. Hence, the 
 continuation school is one of the vital parts of Germany’s edu- 
 cat ion. 
 
 The Continuation School of England 
 
 The Sunday School movement in England may be mentioned as 
 one of the first steps towards the realization of the continuation 
 idea. Sadler divides the history of the ’’overlapping series of ef- 
 forts for further education” into four main divisions. 
 
 The period from about 1780 to 1833 when the first parlia- 
 mentary vote for the purpose of education was taken extends 
 through a very important part of the Industrial Revolution and 
 the fight for political reform. The idea was given expression 
 through charitable instruction in religion, and this phase was 
 soon followed by night instruction provided by certain benevo- 
 lent textile employers as well as by ministers of the Church 
 of England. Self-supporting schools were then established, and in 
 these such young men as George Stephenson, the pioneer in the 
 modern railway movement, learned how .to read about topics of 
 their own special interests. 
 
 10 Sandiford, Peter, ” E<iucation in New Germany”, Survey, Jan. 17. 
 1920, 436. 
 
 11 Sadler, M. E., Continuation Schools in England ard Elsewhere. 5. 
 
 12 Ibid., 5-9. 
 
1 
 
 
 ) 
 
 1 
 
 ) 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
-41- 
 
 The second period extends from about 1833 to the general 
 European revolutions of 1848. The Industrial Revolution had 
 started the grovrth df the"factory system", and more adults 
 were being employed in the factories. Hence, this period was 
 characterized by a widespread movement for the continued edu- 
 cation of adults. The initiative was private and the crystalli- 
 sation of opinion during this period did much to prepare for 
 the next era.^^ 
 
 The third period, from 1848 to the passage of the 
 
 general Elementary Education Act in 1870, saw the ideas of the 
 
 former period put into practice and improved by such men as 
 
 Frederick Denison Maurice who in 1854 founded the Working 
 
 Men*s College in London. The new improvement was expressed in 
 
 the founding of a number of universities with a civic scope 
 
 and in the writings of Carlyle, Ruskin, and Spencer. Carlyle 
 
 in his "Chartism" asked for social reform; Ruskin while a 
 
 teacher in the Working Men* s College assisted Maurice; and 
 
 Spencer taught the philosophy back of the movement and by 
 
 use of illustrations did not suffer such embryotic beginnings 
 
 as Pestalozzi undertook at Neuhof to go unnoticed. During this 
 
 period the state was more and more assuming an educational 
 
 interest, perhaps largely due to the activity Of the promoters 
 
 14 
 
 of the continuation idea. 
 
 The fourth period in this development began about 
 1870 and has continued into the present decade. "One result of 
 
 13 Ibid,, 9-10. 
 
 14 Ibid., 10-13. 
 

 
 
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-42- 
 
 the synthetic view of national education, which is the dis- 
 tinctive mark of the period, has been a convergence of thought 
 
 upon the problem of the continuation school" as the term is 
 
 15 
 
 used in this thesis. In England only a few years ago the 
 
 most widely known form of continuation education was the 
 
 Evening Continuation Schobl which functioned both in urban 
 
 centers and in rural communities,^® This institution, however, 
 
 seems to be a survival of practices from the time when the 
 
 working days were very long and when continued instruction 
 
 was given only at the close of the working day. 
 
 The continuation school as it is defined in this thesis 
 
 is of very recent date in England. The Education Bill of 1917 
 
 for England and Wales inaugurated a national ceunpaign for 
 
 part-time schools which were to be similar to the American 
 
 17 
 
 institution with which the writer is dealing. This is shown 
 
 by Mr. Fisher* s speech which was made at the time when he in- 
 troduced the bill into Parliament. He said, "The school attend- 
 ance provision amounts to this: That young persons who are not 
 undergoing full-time instruction will be liberated from in- 
 dustrial toil for the equivalent of three one-half days a 
 week during forty weeks* t’-vo half-days to be spent in school 
 while one will be half holiday. Under the terms of the bill 
 the local authorities are compelled to consult industrial and 
 other interests and to establish >a variety cf types of schools, 
 
 15 Ibid., 13. 
 
 16 Ibid., Chaps. II to VI. 
 
 17 Federal Board for Vocational Education Bulletin No. 19, 1918, 
 22 et 48-49. 
 

 
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-43- 
 
 The schools are to continue the general education on the 
 foundations of the public elementary schools, and to give it 
 an additional vocational bias with the aim to produce good 
 citizens. Are 8 hours a week for 4 weeks sufficient? Having 
 regard to the practical objections that it would be difficult 
 to provide teachers of ability, that it would require large 
 expenditures and a disturbance in the labor market, I came to 
 the conclusion that 8 hours per week would be the practical 
 starting point. At the same time I should not like it to go 
 abroad that I gave the period of 8 hours a week as an ideal. 
 
 Young people should be regarded as subjects of education and 
 not as parts of the industrial machine. The bill makes pro- 
 visions for the extension of hours at some later time. Industrial 
 efficiency will be increased and the employers will get their 
 return in the development of the character of the people. The 
 only objection to the bill came from one member who believed 
 that the proposals for raising the school age would not be 
 approved by the people who had to obey the law," 
 
 This bill afterwards was withdrawn, but a modified form 
 of it subsequently was introduced. It provided for compulsory 
 day attendance at continuation schools from the age of fourteen 
 to the age of eighteen, This was an endeavor to establish a 
 continuation school that would provide for general education, 
 that would provide for vocational and civic efficiency, that 
 would not consider the pupil as merely a cog in the great 
 industrial machine, that would be manned by teachers who were 
 
 18 London Times, Education Supplement, August 16, 1917. 
 
 19 Editorial, Journal of Education, London, Sept., 1917, 507. 
 
 Federal Board for Vocational Education Bulletin Ho. 19,1918,22. 
 

 
 
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-44- 
 
 well prepared to do their tasks in a manner suitable to the 
 
 state. The Continuation School Act was passed in 1918 and 
 
 21 
 
 it is gradually going into effect. Tt provides that all 
 
 children between the ages of fourteen and sixteen who do not 
 
 receive an equivalent education elsewhere must attend the 
 
 continuation school at least 280 hours per year. It requires 
 
 attendance during the day and the employers to arrange the 
 
 work of the pupils in a manner convenient for such attendance. 
 
 The act further provides for cumulative attendance in the fact 
 
 that by 1935 the maximum age limit will be eighteen and the 
 
 2 ^ 
 
 number of hours to be spent in school will be 320. The act 
 was not intended to go into effect simultaneously in every 
 city and hamlet of the kingdom. Mr. Fisher, as President of the 
 Board of Education, which was to put this measure into operation 
 :has been given considerable powers in initiating the en- 
 forcement of this law. He requires its enforcement in those 
 districts where existing means are sufficient in quantity to 
 provide for the school, while in those communities that have 
 no provision already made he will not enforce the law until 
 1925 at which time they will be compelled to vote taxes to 
 
 conduct the schools. In the meantime, however, he advises the 
 
 33 
 
 latter towns and counties to establish voluntary schools. ^ 
 
 recent report on the success of the continuation school of 
 
 Eiqgland shows that this institution is fulfilling an urgent 
 need in that country despite the local problems that continually 
 
 20 Federal Boaird for Vocational Education, Bulletin i!Jo .19,1918,23 
 
 21 Editorial, Journal of Education, London, Sept., 1918, 525. 
 
 22 Editorial in School and Society, Jan. 17, 1920; 89. 
 
 23 Editorial, "Voluntary Continuation Schools," Ibid., 166. 
 
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-45- 
 
 24 
 
 confront it. On the other hand, no information to the con- 
 trary has been found in the research done for this thesis. 
 
 The French System 
 
 In France a beginning towards the carrying out of the 
 continuation idea dates as far back as the sixteenth century, 
 but the very nature of the French government prevented its pro- 
 gress to any great extent. Two hundred years later Rosseau 
 voiced its philosophy and set such men as Turgot to thinking, 
 but the removal of this minister and the political upheavals of 
 the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries prs'vented the realization 
 of Turgot's ideas and Rosseau' s ideals. It seems that just when 
 conditions were settled enough for a plan to be formulated a 
 change in government dissipated all hopes for its success.^’® 
 
 Nevertheless, in 1875 H. Greard made public a plan for adult 
 classes. By 1884 the plan was made universal by legal statute. In 
 1905 nearly 500,000 pupils were attending the Fr^^nch form of the 
 continuation school which is somewhat different from the American 
 institution that is under consideration. Attendance was only 
 voluntary, but a movement for making it compulsory 'was begun. 
 
 The Cours d'Adultes or French Continuation School meets 
 usually in the evening, but compulsory attendance still is not 
 required because it has never been made statutory. Mixed classes 
 are found only in large towns. State, department, and town 
 subsidies are given for the support of these schools or classes. 
 
 24 Stewart, JT J., "The New Continuation School", Journal of 
 Education and The c^chool World, February, 1921. 
 
 25 Sadler, M. E., Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere, 576. 
 36 Ibid., 577. 
 
 27 Ibid., 579 et ff. 
 

 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 'i 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 T 
 
 
 
-46- 
 
 Anyone approved by the mayor, prefect, and academy inspector may 
 conduct classes in or open a Cours d*Adultes. 
 
 In 1918 M. Viviani introduced a bill into the Chamber 
 of Deputies to require attendance during working hours of ajLl 
 children below the age of seventeen who were employed. This 
 bill had the ^ roval and support of the minister of commerce 
 and the most influenced business interests of France, but the 
 time was not ripe probably because of the military pal ides 
 
 29 
 
 which the French adopted on account of the fear of the Germane* 
 
 Continuation Schools in Some Other European States 
 
 Switzerland has a decentralized system of continuation 
 education. The schools providing this education are of fairly 
 recent date, although preliminary experiments date back many 
 years. These schools are under the very democratic political 
 organization of the local units. Pressland says,*^the adminis- 
 trative talents of the nation are directed towards education 
 in the absence of large external interests.... Great progess. 
 is being made with the continuation school, and... the Swiss spare 
 neither money nor effort in perfecting them. In Switzerland the 
 deserving apprentice does not find his instruction left to the 
 chance events which modify a daily routine, for continuation 
 schools are always within reach. And for their maintenance and 
 success, he must thank the cooperation of the State, the 
 
 28 ibid., 517 et ff. 
 
 29 Federal Board for Vocational Education, '^Part-Time Trade and 
 Industrial Education, "Bulletin ho, 19, 1918, 23. 
 
 30 ^ Sadler, M.E., Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere, 
 648, et ff. 
 
':rv i ■ -liJ 'Iv-) -:r.:; I ;VO'! I . 
 
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- 47 - 
 
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 employer, the trade union and the teacher." Since the Swiss 
 
 systems of education differ so materially, this state has been 
 
 32 
 
 called aptly "the educational laborotory of Europe." 
 
 it is sufficient to say that the continuation school is accepted 
 
 33 
 
 very widely by this great democratic people. 
 
 Vajlous types of part-time schools are found also in 
 
 Italy, Holland, Austria, and Scandinavia^^ As a rule they resemble 
 the German system in such particulajs as organization, content, v 
 methods and aims, but since they have had little or no effect on 
 the American institution perhaps the greatest value that they 
 have for the United States is that they reflect the cosmopolitan 
 view of how other nations feel concerning the cont inuati oon school! 
 
 The American Mov e ment 
 
 The philanthropic spirit which expressed itself so 
 
 strongly across the Atlantic put the continuation idea before the 
 
 people of America at a very early date in colonial history. Its 
 
 expression, as in England and elsewhere, was voiced in the 
 
 Sunday School movement although the same idea had been expressed 
 
 partially by such other movements as that for apprenticeship 
 
 education in Virginia.^® The former, however, was more aggressive. 
 
 It undertook the publication and furnishing of various books at 
 
 a very low rate because it thought them necessary for effective 
 
 36 
 
 Sunday School Instruction. 
 
 31 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 
 36 
 
 ibid. , 575. 
 ibid. , 574. 
 ibid. , 574 . 
 
 Cooley E.G. , Vocational Education in Europe, 276-313> Sadler, 
 M.E., Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere, 483-513. 
 Leonard R.S., "One Promotional Aspect of The Smith-Hughes Act" 
 
 in Educational Administration and Supervision, Dec. 1920,492. 
 Graves, Frank P., A Student *s History of Education 
 
- 48 - 
 
 The development of the public school system to a large extent 
 made unnecessary the Sunday School as well as several other 
 philanthropic societies which were trying to bring into practice 
 their conceptions of the continuation idea* 
 
 A distinct step in the direction of the continuation 
 school was the Pestalozzi-Feiienburg system. It was introduced 
 into the United States during the third decade of the nineteenth 
 century in order to enable students to earn their way through 
 college. It enjoyed a prosperous growth in How England and the 
 Middle States. Under this system the increments from a student *8 
 manual labor were applied on his expenses while he was in college* 
 A plan somewhat similar to this was adopted in our own century in 
 1906 by the College of Engineering in the University of Cincinnati, 
 This indicates a movement in the working out of the continuation 
 idea even beyond the usual continuation school?® ^ 
 
 The American continuation school may be said to have been 
 born when in 1901 the Board of Education of the City of Chicago 
 established a continuation class for the education of apprentices 
 of the Mason’s and Bricklayer’s Associations* In 1902 at the re- 
 quest of the Bricklayer's Union and the Masons’ and Bricklayers’ 
 
 Association the School was continued and its attendance was 
 
 39 
 
 increased materially* 
 
 Other cities, such as Boston and Hew York, experienced 
 similar situations and established local continuation schools* 
 
 37 Graves, Frank P*, A history of Education in Modern Times, 160-16< 
 
 38 Jones, A.J., "The Continuation School in The United States" in 
 Bureau of Education Bulletin Ho* 1, 1907, 135-26i . 
 
 39 Ibid., 134-125. 
 
-49- 
 
 They were only experiments but they paved the way for the first 
 comprehensive state system in America. Hence, the history of 
 each experiment is of little importance for the purpose of 
 this study. 
 
 In 1909 Senator Fairchild introduced into the state 
 legislature of Wisconsin a joint resolution which created a 
 commission to investigate the basis of education in that state. 
 The commission was provided for and was ready to report to 
 the legislature in 1911, The result of its findings influenced 
 that body to pass a law which established a system of con- 
 tinuation schools, A State Board of Industrial Education for 
 the control of sts.te aid was provided for and placed under the 
 direction of the state superintendent. Local boards of education 
 in districts with a population of 5,000 or more were required 
 to appoint a board of education whose duty was to provide for 
 and maintain a system of continuation schools. This board was 
 
 to be composed of two employers, two employees, and the 
 
 40 
 
 superintendent of schools. All children between the ages of 
 fourteen and sixteen who were employed were required to attend 
 school for at least four hours per week In 1913 "Pennsylvania 
 enacted a law that required the attendance of all children 
 between 14 and 18" for eight hours per week if they were em- 
 ployed. Employment in this case was not construed to mean work 
 on the farm or domestic service in the house. Other states 
 
 40 Miles, H.E., "Wisconsin Legislation Governing Industrial 
 and Continuation Education," in Bulletin of Wisconsin 
 State Board of Indust iral Education# 8. 
 
 41 Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 55, 1920, 19. 
 
 42 Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 5, 1921, 21, 
 

 
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-50~ 
 
 quickly fell in line as soon as the Great War was over; at the 
 present time nearly half of the states of the Union have con- 
 tinuation school systems and compulsory attendance laws,^^ 
 
 In fact the Great War was instrumental in bringing about con- 
 tinuation legislation because it taught the states that pro- 
 blems really existed. As a result the Smith-Hughes Act was 
 
 44 
 
 passed which offered aid to the continuation school. During 
 1919 and 1920 seventeen states adopted state-wide continuation 
 
 school policies. The pace set in those years, however, was 
 
 not kept up probably for several reasons: In the first place 
 
 the continuation school systems that had been established had 
 
 not been able to do in one or two years what the traditional 
 
 schools had failed to do in a century; in the second place 
 
 as the states in time receded from the startling revelations 
 
 of the war they tended to forget the defects of their citizens; 
 
 and in the third place the objections discussed above"^^ v/ere 
 
 vital factors in retarding action. It may have been, too, that 
 
 some of the states were afraid of getting into the difficulty 
 
 that Illinois experienced in its endeavor to establish a 
 
 state-wide system of continuation education. A discussion of 
 
 this experience is included to show the difficulties that 
 
 beset legislation and to show by example how the continuation 
 
 school began in practically every state that has adopted a 
 
 system of continuation education.'^^ 
 
 43 Appendix I . 
 
 44 Federal Board for Vocational Education, Bulletin No. 19, 
 1918, 42-43. 
 
 45 Supra, 24 bt ff. 
 
 46 Impression gained by the author in his study of the origin 
 of this institution. 
 
-51- 
 
 The Experlenoe of Illinola 
 
 The continuation activities in Chicago in 1901 and 1302 
 have been referred to already, In the same city during the 
 next year a part-time class in carpentry was organized. The 
 results of the Chicago experiment and of the Wisconsin plan 
 were so successful that in 1912 Moline established a trade- 
 extension class. Just at that time the popularity of the 
 German continuation school was rather wide-spread and en- 
 deavors were made to attain similar results. These experiments 
 proved very successful and by 1918 Alton, Galesburg, Peoria, 
 Rockford, and Springfield had established part-time schools 
 
 or classes. 
 
 
 There were 2,516 pupils enrolled and the time of 
 
 48 
 
 46 teachers was required for their instruction. The agency 
 which materially furthered the growth Of the continuation 
 school in Illinois and in many other states was the federal 
 subsidy provided for by the Smith-Hughes Act.^^ Considerable 
 pressure was brought to bear on the legislature of 191 '5 when 
 the Cob ley bill was before that body. Due to the fact that 
 it provided for dual control and that it was thought to be 
 too German in character it was defeated after a bitter fight, 
 although speakers from Wisconsin and elsewhere were imported 
 to defend the movement and outside forces were brought to bear 
 upon the bill for its defeat, one. of which was the stand taken 
 by Superintendent Cary. He showed that the Wisconsin system 
 
 47 Supra, 48. 
 
 48 Proceedings of The High School Conference, Illinois, 1918, 
 95-96. 
 
 49 Infra, 88-90. 
 

 
 
 
 
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 was not like the one proposed in the Cooley hill and that the 
 
 same forces were at work in his state to replace the associate 
 
 50 
 
 control by dual control. The bill was defeated but the move- 
 ment for a system of continuation schools did not stop there. 
 
 A like result, 1917, was accomplished by the legislature’s tabling 
 the bill.^^ The next legislature, in 1919, passed the con- 
 tinuation school bill by a vote almost unanimous: 84 to 1 
 in the House and 35 to 0 in the Senate. The series of laws 
 which included and gave color to this law have been analyzed 
 in the following way:- 
 
 The first law accepted the provisions of the Federal 
 Vocational Education Act and created machinery to take ad- 
 vantage of it. The second important measure was embodied as 
 a part of the omnibus bill and appropriated from the state 
 treasury ^400,439.97 in order to match an equal amount pro- 
 vided for by the Smith-Hughes Act, The third enactment amended 
 the compulsory attendance law and provided that in districts 
 where continuation schools were established already, all 
 children in empl03mient between the ages of fourteen and sixteen 
 should attend these continuation schools for at least eight 
 hours per week. The final law which was important in this 
 connection provided that all districts that had twenty or 
 more minors between the ages of fourteen and sixteen who were 
 not in attendance in the full-time schools must establish 
 part-time schools. Attendance was made compulsory for at least 
 
 50 Educational Press Bulletin, June 1916, 2. 
 
 51 Journal of The House of Representatives, Illinois, 1917, 971, 
 
 52 Ibid., 1919, 770; Senate Journal, Illinois, See Index. 
 
-53- 
 
 eight hours per week and for at least thirty-six weeks annually. 
 The sessions had to be held between the hours of eight in the 
 morning and five in the afternoon, excepting Saturday after- 
 noons and Sundays, The age limits were to be changed in 1922 
 to include children between the ages of fourteen and seventeen, 
 and in 1923 to include the children between the ages of 
 fourteen and eighteen, if the children were not attending the 
 regular schools. 
 
 These laws seemed very good but the pressing question 
 of the hour was how was the local district, which was taxed to 
 its limit and which hardly could maintain its schools as they 
 were, going to meet the situation. The legislature appropriated 
 no funds for these local districts to provide additional 
 facilities to meet '.the situation and as a result the men 
 who most desired such a law had either to remain neutral, to 
 oppose it or to persuade the legislators to give them powers 
 to obtain the necessary funds. The legislators however failed 
 to provide means for the carrying out of this mammoth project. 
 Hence, the law was amended and this action practically killed 
 its effectiveness so far as its original purpose was concerned. 
 State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Blair, said of 
 this situation, "The group of earnest zealous persons who 
 formulated and fe,vored such a plan was forced to postpone the 
 compulsory establishment of these continuation schools for at 
 least nine months after its passage. During the last two years 
 the matter has been discussed up and down State. Boards of 
 53 University of Illinois Bulletin, XVII, 19-24. 
 

 
 
 
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-54- 
 
 education, city superintendents, and high school principals 
 saw that it was going to add considerably to the expenses of 
 operating their schools. In many oases the districts were 
 running behind their current revenues. Unless the Legislature 
 would give a greatly Increased distributive fund and a greatly 
 increased tax rate, these boards and school officers were un- 
 willing to take on an additional form of school work whose 
 cost they could not accurately forecast. 
 
 It is probably true that they greatly exaggerated 
 the addition to their budget which would be entailed by 
 establishing and maintaining these schools, but the fact that 
 they could see no way of getting any increase forced them to 
 seek further postponement of the compulsory continuation law. 
 
 At the beginning of the session it was hoped by all that 
 were interested in the welfare of boys and girls between the 
 ages of fourteen and sixteen who Sre now in employment, that 
 the amendment adopted would postpone the compulsory feature 
 Only two years. It was believed that by that time the increased 
 distributive fund and the increased tax rate would have con- 
 vinced the boards that they could undertake the work. It 
 appeared, however, that the districts were so much alarmed 
 over the possible increase in their expenses should they be 
 forced to establish continuation schools that their efforts 
 soon took the form of striking out of the present law every 
 word of its compulsory provisions. As the law now stands, any 
 district which desires to, may establish part-time continuation 
 schools. In such districts the children in employment between 
 
 the ages of fourteen and eighteen will be compelled to attend. 
 54 Educational Press Bulletin, July 1921, 4. 
 
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-55- 
 
 Nevertheless, the work in continuation education in 
 Illinois has been increasing from year to year. During the 
 year 1919-1920 there were four part-time trade extension 
 schools which enrolled 705 pupils and which employed thirteen 
 teachers and ten part-time general continuation schools which 
 enrolled 7,886 pupils and employed 71 teachers. During the 
 year 1920-1921 there were two part-time trade extension 
 schools in operation; they employed 16 teachers and enrolled 
 1,071 pupils. At the same time 14,094 pupils were in attendance 
 at 17 part-time general continuation schools in which 196 
 teachers were employed,^® 
 
 Teacher training cdarses were conducted in three 
 institutions of higher learning in the state. The Depatment 
 of Industrial Education of the University of Illinois con- 
 ducted extra~mural classes in a number of cities. While its 
 work was along the line of industrial education in general, 
 the continuation school received the major emphasis since the 
 classes were composed largely of actual or would-be continu- 
 ation teachers. 
 
 Summa ry 
 
 The continuation school is a result of efforts to 
 realize the continuation idea which began some centuries ago. 
 Its early endeavors were embodied in such philanthropic under- 
 takings as the Sunday School movement. This institution reached 
 a high degree of efficiency in Germany sooner than in any other 
 
 55 Board for Vocational Education, Illinois, Annual Report, 
 1920, 14-15. 
 
 56 Ibid., 1921, 18. 
 
-56- 
 
 country largely through the efforts of Kerschensteiner . The 
 English and French forms of continuation education differed 
 radically from that of Germany which was largely responsible 
 for the American agitation that led to its adoption on a 
 state wide basis in America. Other European states, however, 
 copied the German form very closely but such states as 
 Switzerland have gradually improved upon it in such ways as 
 make it more adaptibld to each local community. 
 
 The American continuation school as an institution be- 
 gan its work in the large cities about the beginning of the 
 present century. Some smaller cities followed suit and in 1911 
 Wisconsin adopted the first comprehensive state-wide con- 
 tinuation school system. Pennsylvania followed the example 
 set by Wisconsin and their success plus the pressure brought 
 about by bellum conditions led to the climax movement in 1919 
 and 1920. Since that time the city movement has kept on. At 
 the present time it seems that a great future awaits the city 
 movement which will eventually, perhaps, lead to the establish- 
 ment of a system of continuation instruction in every state 
 in the Union. During this period of Reconstruction quick 
 results along this line are not to be expected, but when 
 normalcy shall be restored it is likely that a brighter future 
 will lie in store for the continuation movement. 
 
Selected Bibliography . 
 
 Board for Vocational Education, Illinois, Annual Report, 1920 
 Board for Vocational Education, Illinois, Annual Report, 1921 
 Bureau of Education, Bulletin No, 55, 1920, "Compulsory Part- 
 Time School Attendance Laws", 
 
 Bureau of Education, Bulletin No, 5, 1921, "Part-Time Education 
 of Various Types" 
 
 Cooley, E.G,, Vocational Education in Europe 
 Educational Press Bulletin, June 1917 
 Educational Press Bulletin, July 1921 
 
 Federal Board for Vocational Education Bulletin No, 19, 1918, 
 "Part-Time Trade and Industrial Education" 
 
 Fisher, H,A.L., "The Minister of Education on Continuation 
 
 Schools" The Journal of Education, London, February, 1917 
 Graves, Frank P,, A History of Education in Modern Times 
 Graves, Frank P,, A Student’s History of Education 
 Henderson, E. F., A Short History of Germany 
 Jones, A,J., "The Continuation School in The United States" 
 Bulletin of the Bureau of Education, No, 1, 1907 
 Journal of Education, London, Sept., 1917 
 Journal of Education, London, Sept., 1918 
 Journal of The House of Representatives, Illinois, 1917 
 
 Journal of The House of Representatives, Illinois, 1919 
 
 Journal of The House of Representatives, Illinois, 1921 
 
 Kerschensteiner, Georg, Education for Citizenship 
 Leonard, R. S., "One Promotional Aspect of The Smith-Hughes Act" 
 Educational Administration and Supervision, Dec., 1920, 
 491-508 
 
■ / 
 
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-58- 
 
 London Times, Educational Supplement, August 16, 1917 
 Miles, H. E., "Wisconsin Legislation Governing Industrial and 
 Continuation Education" A Bulletin of The Wisconsin 
 State Board of Industrial Education, 
 
 Monroe, Paul, Cyclopedia of Education, 
 
 Proceedings of High School Conference, Illinois, 1918 
 Report of The Commissioner of Education, I, 1913 
 Sadler, M.E,, Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere 
 Sandiford, Peter, "Education in New Germany? Survey, January 
 17, 1920. 
 
 School and Society, January 17, 1920 
 Senate Journal, Illinois, 1919 
 Senate Journal, Illinois, 1921 
 
 Stewart, J.J., "The New Continuation School," Journal of 
 Education and The School World, February, 1921 
 University of Illinois Bulletin, Vol. XVII No. 2, 1919, 
 "Industrial Education" 
 
Chapter III 
 
 Some Factors in Organization and Administration 
 
 Types of Continuation Schools 
 
 At the present time in the United States at least three 
 forms of continuation education are generally accepted} Each 
 has a specific purpose to perform and is organized and administer- 
 ed as the local superintendent thinks best, being subject to what- 
 ever state regulations may exist. Since state control is very 
 lax, there exists a great lack of uniformity in any type of the 
 continuation school. 
 
 The first type to be mentioned is the general continu- 
 ation school. Due to the ease of establishing this kind of con- 
 tinuation work as well as to the ease of maintaining it, this 
 type of continuation school is most prevalent. Its specific 
 function is to continue the education of the pupil along general 
 lines. The instruction is intended to begin at the place where 
 the instruction in the all-day schools ends and to furnish the 
 pupils with solid foundations upon which can be built vocational 
 superstructures and lives of social usefulness. This school is 
 designed to continue the education of the pupils in such funda- 
 mental subjects as reading, arithmetic, writing, and citizenship 
 to whatever extent is necessary in order that they may pursue 
 their vocations and occupy positions which are acceptable and 
 
 1 Federal Board for Vocational Education, Bulletin No. 19, 1918, 
 33-24. 
 
- 60 - 
 
 profitable to society. ^ 
 
 The second type of continuation school is the trade 
 preparatory school. The function of this school is more highly 
 specialized than that of the general continuation school because 
 it is designed to prepare its pupils for Various trades or voca- 
 tions, It is the kind of institution that assists pupils to rise 
 from the "blind-alley job" to better positions by teaching them 
 how to do some work whose future is more inviting and more in ac- 
 cord with their natural abilities. In this type of school an 
 elevator boy may learn the machinis'fr’s trade or a paper carrier 
 may learn stenography or bookkeeping. Here most of the trades 
 may be taught and the chief limitations on the individual* s 
 learning any trade are that it may not be offered because of a 
 lack of a demand for it or that the individual may be incapable 
 of mx storing it . 
 
 The third type of continuation school is the trade 
 extension school. This school has the function of teaching the 
 pupils how to do more efficiently zhe work at which they are em- 
 ployed; it is designed to prepare them to advance to higher 
 positions in the vocations upon which they have entered. This 
 type of institution has been deemed so valuable to their interests 
 that many large industrial conoerns such as the iiational Cash 
 Register Company and the Western Electric Company conduct trade 
 extension schools. Some schools of this type are privately owned 
 and controlled while others are managed under the direct control 
 of the public school officials. Four of the seven continuation 
 schools of the city of Chicago are located in the plants of the 
 
-61- 
 
 great packing industries. This means that these particular 
 schools are teaching the children employed in their plants how 
 to do the various jobs of the packing industry. An objection that 
 is raised to the practice of carrying on continuation schools of 
 this type in the buildings of the great corporations is that the 
 respective industrial concerns dominate the schools and that as 
 a result the education given is of such a kind that it can be a- 
 dapted only to their own systems. Hence, the pupils can not orient 
 themselves into new situations in case they lose their jobs; thus 
 the purpose of the continuation school of this type is baffled. 
 
 On the other hand, other people argue that public supervision and 
 control certainly are able to take care of :lie situation and mini- 
 mize, if not eradicate, such dangers. Doubtless without public 
 oversight the argument of the former group is valid, but with 
 public supervision and administration the argument of the latter 
 group seems to be well founded. 
 
 The Continuation Class 
 
 One advance in continuation work is that of considering 
 the class, and not the school in every case, as a unit for this 
 kind of instruction. In fact, the term, continuation class, 
 should be used more often. Certain communities have possibilities 
 for the class, but when they think of a school as being made up of 
 a large n^jimber of clashes, the continuation school seems an im- 
 possibility. If a small district has a small number of children 
 in industry, a number large enough to justify a separate class in 
 the regular school, certainly the public school should maintain 
 
 2 Cooley, E. G., "Some Chicago Continuation Schools,” School Life, 
 January 15,1920, 15. 
 
-62- 
 
 a continuation school for them. The term, class, might not seem 
 impossible to the sraail-town board of education when perhaps the 
 term, school, might frighten them so much that they would give 
 little attention to the project. Only a few or just one subject 
 might be offered,- a subject that would pretty fully meet the 
 needs of the group of pupils. Some districts are maintaining 
 classes in only one or in just a few subjects.^ As a result of 
 this practice the terms, continuation school and continuation 
 class, are used often interchangeably. 
 
 \ 
 
 Its Relation to The Elementary School 
 
 In most cases the elementary school prepares the pupil 
 for his further education whether it be in the traditional secon- 
 dary or in the continuation school. For his entrance into the 
 traditional secondary school certain standards are held to very 
 religiously in may cases, but for his entrance into the continu- 
 ation school no scholastic minimum requirements have been estab- 
 lished definitely, gome pupils are found in the continuation 
 school who have had very little formal schooling while others 
 have attended school as much as eleven years. The determination 
 of entrance requirements along scholastic lines is a very diffi- 
 cult problem because one of the fundamental purposes of the in- 
 stitution is very likely to be defeated. A safer policy to pur- 
 sue is to adapt the instruction to the pupil in the continuation 
 school even though he may never have learned to read, write, or 
 even^ cipher, provided that the child is normal or approximately so. 
 
 3 Board for Vocational Hducat^on, Illinois, Bulletin No. 30, 1921, 
 

 
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-63- 
 
 The elementary school has the task of providing the 
 pupil with certain fundamentals which are largely tools for future 
 progress. Sometimes it fails to accomplish its purpose and the 
 pupils leave it; othertimes they leave when the school is not in 
 any way responsible for their going. They enter the great world 
 of industry and are required o adjust themselves to varied social 
 situations, but in doing thi^. many problems confront them and they 
 feel certain n.'eds. In such cases the continuation school under- 
 takes to accomplish what the elementary school has failed to do, 
 even though it may attack the problem in a different manner. 
 
 Inasmuch as the cont inusat ion school pupil is usually at 
 least fourteen years of age, he has attended school from six to 
 eleven years. This means then that most of the continuation 
 school pupils will have completed the sixth grade before they 
 enter this institution. In the state of Illinois the child can- 
 not obtain a working permit v/hich is a legal prerequisite for em- 
 ployment until he has "completed the fifth grade to add including 
 fractions.""^ In districts that follow the plan of the State 
 Course of Study this means practically the completion of the sixth 
 grade because fractions are not completed until in the eighth 
 
 5 
 
 month of the sixth year. 
 
 The advocates of the continuation shhool do not claim 
 that this institution is a substitute for the elementary school. 
 They are very gjjid to call it a supplementary institution whose 
 business is to perform the duty which the elementary sdhool has 
 
 4 Hurd, H. B., Revised Statutes, Illinois, 1919, 48,20d. 
 
 5 Course of Study for The Common Schools of Illinois, Sixth 
 General Revision, 163. 
 
r 
 
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-64- 
 
 fa iled to accomplish; conversely, the elementary school's part 
 in the program is to feed the continuation school as it does the 
 regular high school.® 
 
 Its Relation to Hhe High School 
 
 Under the present organization the continuation school 
 sometimes is not as closely related to the high school as it should 
 be, although both schools may be under the same administration, 
 in the same building, composed of pupils of the same physiological 
 maturity, and taught by the same teachers. In the large cities 
 the superintendent of schools usually has the power of administer- 
 ing both the regular schools and the continuation schools. In 
 most cases he delegates the administration of continuation work 
 to subordinates who are endowed with considerable authority and 
 who are made responsible for the success of the institutions which 
 they administer. Sometimes obstacles are present in the situation 
 v/here both regular secondary and continuation work are carried on 
 in the same building if the continuation work is not subject to 
 the delegated executive officer of the high'school. Discipline 
 may be maintained only with difficulty; lack of cooperation may 
 be evidenced: failure to respect the rirhts of the other party 
 may result; and the ill-feeling created may lead to inefficiency. 
 
 The plan used by the J. Sterling Morton Township High 
 School at Cicero, Illinois, is one that to a large extent elimi- 
 nates the possi’^'ilit ies of a serious complication. The principal 
 of the high school selects the principal of the continuation school 
 and the latter holds the office of assistant principal of the high 
 school. Such a plan is adaptable to districts that have only one 
 
 6 Bawden, W. T., "The Relation of The Elementary School to Subse- 
 quent Industrial Education," N. E: A. Proceedings, 1913, 912. 
 
- 65 - 
 
 continuation school. However, if this plan were applied to the 
 several continuation schools of a populous city, a supervisor of 
 these schools would be necessary to preserve unity of action. 
 
 Theoretically, in order to fulfill the purposes of edu- 
 cation the continuation school and the high school should accom- 
 plish similar results. The contents of the curricula should be 
 composed of considerably the same material. Certainly the high 
 school has a great deal more time than the continuation school 
 to accomplish its purpose; hence the former may teach a great 
 deal more than the latter. As a matter of fact the curricula of 
 these sc'-^ools differ very widely and high school credit is sel- 
 dom ffiven for the successful completion of the subjects of the 
 continuation school. For this practice several reasons may be 
 assigned; Attendance may be too infrequent; the nature of the 
 subject-matter may not be acceptable; the pupil may not have 
 reached the nineth grade before entering the continuation school; 
 pr the pupil may never request such credit. If pupils desire 
 credit and it is refused them when the work done in the continu- 
 ation school equals that done in the high shool, one of the pur- 
 poses of the continuation school is defeated. 
 
 In some cases the continuation school is removed to a 
 building remote from the high school. When such is the case, 
 the powerful stimulus of association with the regular hign school 
 pupils is remiOved. Again, the seme purpose for the existence of 
 the continuation school tends to be defeated. 
 
 Sometimes the pupil is in the junior high school or 
 even in the senior high school before he enters industry. Then 
 he finds himself in the continuation school. If this institution 
 
- 66 - 
 
 is not highly respected by the high school authorities he may feel 
 that he has taken a step backward and his academic interest may 
 wane. As a sister institution whose work is worthy of doing, the 
 continuation school ought to serve a better purpose; hence, it 
 should have the stahding that will best assist it to serve the 
 people. It is both a feeder and a receiver of the product of the 
 high schools. 
 
 Its Relation to Higher Institutions 
 
 At the present time the continuation school has little 
 connection with the institutions of higher learning. Nevertheless, 
 it is true that an indirect relation exists is some cases. If a 
 pupil in the continuation school learns some trade, such as that 
 of the machinist, and this kno’wledge gives him a desire to advance 
 further, he may enter the technical school and advance until he 
 becomes a specialist in some field. Sometimes entrance require- 
 ments must be made up and rather than do this the pupil aoce^ts 
 his lot in life at the end of his continuation sc’^ool career. 
 
 One of the hopes of the continuation school people is t'-at all 
 work of regular high school grc?,de will in the near future receive 
 high school credit and that unnecessary unit requirements for ad- 
 mission to institutions of higher learning will be abolished. 
 
 Then the work done in the continuation school will be propadeutic 
 in entrance value as well as in industrial method and social 
 contact , 
 
 The Usual Relationship 
 
 The usual relationship between the continuation school 
 and the traditional school system is shown in Illustration I. on 
 
1 
 
I 
 
 -67 
 
 Illustration I 
 
 
 
 i 
 
- 68 - 
 
 page 67 . The verical diagram at the left represents the tradition- 
 al public school with the 8-4 division, the upper section repre- 
 senting the college or university. The numbers at the left refer 
 to the grades of the public school system. The vertical figure on 
 the right represents the continuation school. The arrows connect- 
 ing the two schools show the flowing of pupils from one to the 
 other. Arrow "a” shows the pupil at the age of fourteen or over 
 who may be retarded three grades or more and who is entering the 
 continuation school. The other ariows have similar meanings. 
 
 The arrows pointing downward fiom the continuation school to the 
 high school show the return of the pupil to the high school f rr m 
 the continuation school with perhaps little or no credit given 
 by the former institution for v;ork successfully done in the latter. 
 
 Obviously, from the administrative point of view this 
 relationship is not the most desirable. In the first place, the 
 continuation school is distinctly a separate institution; and in 
 the second place, sometimes its work is n t recognized by the 
 regular high school to the extent that will best connote success 
 to the former and promote friendly relations between the t^. 
 
 Control 
 
 Three more or less distinct types of control of the 
 continuation school exist. In some cases the control is vested 
 in the. same officers as that of the regular all-day schools. The 
 same board of education is responsible to the people; the same 
 superintendent in turn is employed by arid is responsible to the 
 board of education. This ’’unit plan of control" does not prevent 
 the Superintendent from delegating any powers to his subordinates 
 as he sees fit. In theory, the system is a unit, the continuation 
 

 
 
 
 
-69- 
 
 school or class being an integral part of the public school system. 
 Some of the important arguments for this scheme will be considered 
 later. One of the most importa t arguments advanced against the 
 ”unit plan of control" is'*1ihat under this plan the continuation 
 school will be co bound by tradition that progressive action will 
 
 be impossible. 
 
 The "dual plan of controiy on the other hand, means 
 that the continuation schools or classes are under different admini- 
 strative authorities. A manufacturing plant might control the con- 
 tinuation school while a board of education having little or no con- 
 nection with that industrial concern might control the all-day 
 schools, or one board of education might control the former while 
 another board of education might control the latter. Theoretically, 
 this means that tv/o systems instead of one are created and that 
 they openate independently of each other so far as control is con- 
 cerned. The degree of independence, however, may vary; in fact, the 
 same persons may be members of both boards of education and employ 
 the same superintendent, in which case the policy pursued might be 
 just as much a unit as if the system were under the "unit plan of 
 control"; but such a case is only possible, not probable. 
 
 Some people contend that the "dual plan of control" is 
 
 g 
 
 most desirable. To them independence from the traditional system is 
 freedom to act without restraint and the ability to accomplish re- 
 sults for which they stand. Their ideals, sometimes, are thought 
 to be selfish, but the argument that independence from tradition 
 
 7 Infra, 106 et ff. 
 
 8 Supra, 51, 
 

 
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- 70 - 
 
 means the ability to move more freely and without deference to cus- 
 tom is worthy of consideration. Public school administrators do 
 respect tradition to such an extent that sometimes where the "unit 
 plan of control" exists, the supervisor of continuation education 
 may be unable to carry out his program because the traditional a- 
 mount of Latin or mathematics must be required whether the child 
 does or does not need it. This hostility to the work of the con- 
 tinuation school may come from the superintendent himself or from 
 other administrative officers with whom the director must deal. 
 
 If the principal of the high school in which the continuation 
 group is located is adverse to the continuation school, he may im- 
 pede its efficiency by not giving it permission to exercise its 
 rights, as in the use of certain rooms or equipment. Those who 
 favor the "unit plan of control" answer this argument by declaring 
 that any principal or other officer who will not cooperate ought to 
 be removed. They are answered in turn by being asked, "What would 
 be done if the superintendent were adverse to the continuation work 
 and if the board of education did not realize the proper relations 
 contended for?" The former reply that if such a case were to be 
 found an appeal to the people would be necessary, but that such a 
 case could hardly be found. If the argument is carried to the ex- 
 treme, it is evident that an injustice may exist, one that could 
 not be avoided under the "unit plan of control." 
 
 The "dual plan of control" is denounced on the grounds 
 that segregation of the two systems tends to destroy an important: 
 purpose of the continuation school, the leading of pupils back in- 
 to the all-day schools; that the great social advantage of asso- 
 ciation with the mass of pupils of all classes is denied: that un- 
 
I 
 
- 71 - 
 
 justifiable expenses are incurred in the erection of new buildings 
 and in obtaining equipment, much of which expense is a duplication; 
 and that the ”dual plan of control” does not always mean public 
 control which is considered more beneficial than private control. 
 
 The objection that seems to the author to be most valid is that a 
 separate control is no more justifiable for continuation work than 
 for eighth grade work, or for vocational stidies than for civic 
 studies. 
 
 The third plan of control is the "associate plan of con- 
 trol" which is in force in Wisconsin at the present time. This plan 
 provides for serai-independence, yet semi-dependence. The continu- 
 ation board of education is appointed by the local board of educa- 
 tion and must consist of two employers, two employees, and the local 
 superintendent of schools. Its advocates claim that under this 
 plan the board members have more interest in the work because of 
 their nearness to it, that they select better teachers, that they 
 are not bound by tradition, that dissatisfaction because of differ- 
 ent salaries in the different systems is eliminated, that the 
 
 Q 
 
 two systems are linked together by the same superintendent: These 
 
 arguments are answered in various ways by opponents from both 
 systems. Some say that the mere personnel of the board makes the 
 superintendent choose to vote -either wi^h the conservative or with 
 the radical group in nearly every case, thus causing embarrassing 
 relations because each class that is represented tends to look af- 
 ter class interests rather than public interests; that this plan 
 does not insure better teachers because the superintendent should 
 nominate all teachers and in doing so is likely to show no partial- 
 
 9 State Board of Industrial Educat:. on, Wisconsin, Biennial Reoort, 
 1914, 25^27. 
 

 
 
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- 72 - 
 
 ity, that in many particulars the superintendent should begin with 
 traditional work and proceed towards a more scientific basis, that 
 no cause for dissatisfaction exists if a salary schedule is ad- 
 hered to, and that the "associate plan of control" may not link 
 the school systems together since one is not bound by tradition 
 while the other is. Thns most of the arguments for this kind of 
 control suffer refutation as do the arguiments for the "dual system 
 of control." 
 
 The Inauguration of The Continuation School 
 
 For the establishment of the continuation school no 
 set of rules can be laid down that will be applicable to all com- 
 munities or to all situations. Nevertheless a few general state- 
 ments of activities which seem plausible in certain situations 
 are worthy of inclusion. A careful survey of the feeling of the 
 community should be made by the chief executive of the school 
 board or under his direction because the pulse of the community 
 is the best norm for measuring the probable success of any public 
 enterprise. Of course popular feeling ebbs and flows as situations 
 and general knowledge change. A community that is opposed to this 
 kind of institution might be converted by a strong and wise super- 
 intendent. Certainly the chances seem good if the industrial 
 environment has become extremely complex and if the need finds 
 expression from various local organizations. Before a continuation 
 school is established the board of education should know definitely 
 that a need exists and that the idea can be carried out or else 
 it should be confident that it will be able to arouse enough in- 
 terest to make a need felt. If opposition is too strong, the 
 
- 73 - 
 
 iDOvement probably should not be started unless the leaders are 
 people of ability who are willing to risk their positions on the 
 results of the outcome or else unless statutory provision may re- 
 quire such an action. 
 
 If the leaders are assured that a sufficient need 
 exists and if funds are available, the employment of a competent 
 campaign director is in order. Sometimes such a director can be 
 found in the local school system. Such a person should have both 
 business and social characteristics. He should be a person both 
 of experience and of skill in the management of popular campaigns. 
 He should study carefully the number of working permits, the re- 
 sults of the school census and of the f*ederal government census, 
 the industries of the district, and such other factors as races 
 living in the district, languages spoken by them, funds available 
 for the use of the continuation school, and its future possibili- 
 ties. The campaign should be launched by the campaign director 
 who will enlist the aid as far as possible of such loaal organi- 
 zations as employers' associations, labor unions, fraternities, 
 churches, and women's clubs. The needs of the community should 
 receive publicity and the part of the continuation school in reme- 
 dying those needs should be explained carefully. Every nationality 
 whose influence will affect the success of the campaign to any 
 material degree should be reached through such means as printed 
 material in the vernacular of each groi^^. If the state law re- 
 quires a popular vote for the establishment of the institution the 
 supporters should make sure that a greater number than a plurality 
 of votes be ca t for the measure so that its permanence will be 
 insured against any probable reaction on that part of the public 
 
- 74 - 
 
 who because of some dissatisfaction might add some weight to the 
 original negative vote in a new election. 
 
 Sometimes the campaign will be bitter; when such is 
 the case, the appointment of the campaign director as supervisor 
 of the continuation work likely would be very inexpedient. Also 
 it does not follow that a man of political ability would make a 
 good supervisor in this field. As soon as the establishment of 
 the continuation school has been decided upon, a supervisor of 
 this work should be sought, ne should be put ”on the job" at the 
 appropriate time so that little delay will be caused when the 
 auspicious moment for opening the school arrives. 
 
 The supervisor of continuation education should be 
 a man of superior ability, h© should have a good academic and 
 professional background as well as considerable industrial ex- 
 perience. A man with the right kind of education, training, and 
 experience can do much to heal maiiy of the wounds that usually 
 unavoidably come in the conduct of the popular campaign. In 
 case only one school is established, this supervisor should be 
 the delegated executive of it; if mors than one school is es- 
 tablished, he should have the power of consultation in the nomi- 
 nation of the principals and with their assistance the teachers 
 of all of the continuation schools. 
 
 The supervisor is an invaluable asset or liability in 
 the second campaign which is one of cooperation, jts success de- 
 pends largely upon him. It rfiUSt be begun wisely and waged tact- 
 fully in order that the opposing sentiment may turn and crystal- 
 lise in favor of the institution. He nor anyone else can not lay 
 down any specific set of rules that can bre applied successfully 
 
-7f - 
 
 to all situations, iDut every available source that is positivelj/" 
 beneficial must be enlisted. The ability of the supervisor to 
 handle men usually will become prominent when labor is solicited 
 to support the movement. Labor interests shonld by all means be 
 consulted because the ocintinuation school pupils come in the large 
 majority of oases from the homes of laborers who approve the con- 
 tinuation school when they understand it and when it is tactfully 
 conducted. Vaughn says that if labor has not been shown the value 
 of this institution, one of the first objections will be raised by 
 the labor unions whose numbers feel that the trade preparatory and 
 trade extension schools will prepare workers who will flood the in- 
 dustries in ‘Which they are engaged with such great numbers that 
 wages will be lowered thereby. In many German cities the labor 
 unions force their apprentices to attend the continuation schools 
 and in various cities of the United States they look upon the con- 
 tinuation school as an institution very favorable, to their inter- 
 ests.^^ This shows that the unions support the continuation school 
 with much vigor when tactfully handled. Adverse action by any 
 trade u'nion should be forestalled by a cultivation of mutual 
 friendship between their leaders and members on the one hand and 
 the continuation school authorities and advocates on the other. 
 
 Another important group ‘whom the continuation author- 
 ities must convince is the employers. In this action the super- 
 visor of the work stands in a position to render untold assistance. 
 Some of this class are usually opposed to the continuation school 
 because invariably their juvenile employees of compulsory age 
 
 10 Vaughn, S. J., Lectures on Vocational Education. 
 
 11 Federal Board for Vocational Education, Bulletin No. 19, 1318, 31. 
 

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- 76 - 
 
 will be required to leave their tasks during the time when usual- 
 ly they have been at work. Adverse employers must be convinced 
 that the school will add to t’re efficiency of the children whom 
 they employ. Where automatic or semi-automatic machines are be- 
 ing used, the task will be difficult perhaps. However, if the 
 employers can be induced to investigate what other employers who 
 have tried the continuation school think of it, they very likely 
 at least will give it a trial. Some such people become enthusi- 
 astic supporters of the plan when a thorough trial has been given. 
 Humanitarian ism, as a century ago, may be called into action and 
 become a potent force in inducing employers to support the move- 
 ment during the time when it is on trial. In order to accomplish 
 successful results it becomes imperative that the man at the helm 
 be a man of brains and action. 
 
 The support of civic, commercial, rotary, and Kiwanis 
 clubs was mentioned above in connection with the campaign. Their 
 aids still should be continued, because they can do much to in- 
 still the spirit of cooperative fellowship, especially among mem- 
 bers of their own orders. Fraternities, both sec'-et and non- 
 secret, oan render valua'^^'le aid in such a campaign. Churches by 
 means of their pastors and other leaders can add force to, and 
 instill a spirit of sympathy for this movement in many cases. 
 Organizations of influential ladies are a valuable asset in a cam- 
 paign for cooperation because they often have both the energy and 
 time that is necessary for the propagation of such movements. Of 
 course the local situations will determine just what organisations 
 should be enlisted in this work. If success io the goal to be 
 attained no organization whose influence might be a detriment 
 

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 I . 
 
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 1 
 
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 <• 
 
 i.'H 
 
 ■m 
 
- 77 - 
 
 should have an active part in the csjupaign for cooperation. One 
 hundred per cent efficiency hardly ever will be attained in such 
 a campaign; this movement , like most other great movements will 
 have some opposition. Hence, its limits are not clearly defined. 
 
 The preliminary survey that was made by the campaign 
 director usually should not be accepted as final, unless mjore 
 thorough work was done than was suggested above. But why was it 
 not made in sufficient detail in the first place? There is no 
 objection to this procedure so far as the writer is concerned; 
 in fact there would be some distinct advantages for the director 
 to have a complete survey made at the beginning, but on the other 
 ha- d the expense involved and the time required to do the work 
 would be so great that many administrators v/ould not justify it 
 when the reality of the school’s being established is a matter of 
 doubt. In some cases if enough time were taken for an absolutely 
 accurate survey at the beginning of the campaign, the most aus- 
 picious time fo:-’ its launching might pass before the survey could 
 be completed. Yet definite f cts to present in tre campaign might 
 in other cases help to make the campaign a success. 
 
 The facts obtained in this survey may differ from com- 
 munity to community. They include such items as the number of 
 children of continuation school age who are in emplo3'-ment , the 
 number of juvenile vacancies and positions in tl^ community, the 
 kinds of work at which th children are engaged, the age of t^^e 
 children, their appa ent interests, their home conditions, the 
 industries of their ov;n community and of adjacent communities, 
 and the probable future of such industries. From each list of 
 conditions which the supervisor has deter"- ined he will likely ob- 
 

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- 78 - 
 
 tain results that .vill aid materially in the conduct of this in- 
 stitution. All of the data that have been obtained in this sur- 
 vey should be tabulated carefully and preserved for future use. 
 
 If certain conditions have been discovered accurately in the first 
 survey, no need for duplication exists. All material should be 
 studied carefully because the conclusions dra'/m from it may render 
 invaluable aid in providing for the highes’t efficiency of the school 
 
 What Type of Class or School Should Be Established? 
 
 The ans7/er to this question should be derived from the 
 facts which the survey has furnished. If the survey shows that a 
 large number of prospective pupils are engaged in certain occupa- 
 tions which have a promising future and with 7/hich the abilities 
 of these pupils are commensurate with the work they are doing or 
 expect to do, a trade extension class or school should be started 
 which will provide instruction in those trades or occupations 
 where the demand is greatest, providing that other factors do not 
 make the plan inadvisable. If on the otheT hand, the survey ee- 
 veals that a large number of pupils are employed at jobs whose 
 future ')ffers little or no opportunity for advancement and ths-t 
 they are unprepared to do any other job of importance, a trade 
 preparatory class or school should be established to meet their 
 needs. If the survey shows that due to a lack of general educa- 
 tion several pupils are handicapped and unable to advance higher 
 in industry, a general continuation school or class shouH be start- 
 ed for them. 
 
 Hence, it is possible that all three types of continu- 
 ation education will be offered in the same building and under the 
 same management. If all three types are needed and funds are not 
 
PkS' 'V. i.' V. '..4. vS® 'a-*'* 
 
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- 79 - 
 
 available to conduct them, then the type :r t 3 »'pes must be chosen 
 which will serve the most pupils, othei factors being equal. One 
 of the greatest problems arises in the case where the survey re- 
 veals only a small number of pupils who are eligible to attend. 
 
 An illustration of a class which was orgcuiized not on 
 the basic principle of purpose is worth while at this point: The 
 
 class was composed of about "30 boys between fourteen and sixteen 
 years of age who were required to return to the school sight hours 
 each week. There were two cotton glove cutters, two cigsr fac- 
 tory workers, three machinist apprentices, four errand boys, and 
 six delivery boys, the remainder being occupied in twelve miscel- 
 laneous occupations. The technical instruction included two hours 
 of machine shop drawing, and two hours of machine shop mathematics, 
 while the four hours of academic instruction included English, 
 spelling, geography, history, and physical training. It was said 
 that the employers felt justified in giving the boys the time to 
 return to school, because the technical instruction made them 
 more efficient in their factory work. As a matter of fact, the 
 technical instruction was related to the work of but three of the 
 whole group, and even v/ith these, the lack of coordination be- 
 tween shop problems and school ins '.ruction, made the v/ork entirely 
 academic. The city was large enough so that youths with similar 
 
 needs could have been enrolled in separate classes, thus making 
 
 12 
 
 the instruction purposeful." If this city had not been large 
 enough for such a division, what logically should have been done? 
 Perhaps the entire time should have been spent in general continu- 
 
 12 Ibid., 27. 
 
f- 
 
-80- 
 
 ation work until the general needs of the pupils were satisfied, 
 if the survey showed that they needed more education of a general 
 type. No hard and fast rule can be determined because the indi- 
 vidual needs of each pupil are not known in the case just cited. 
 
 In some cases the establishment of a continuation 
 school is not advisable at all. If the sentiment of the community 
 is one of opposition, if sufficient funds cannot be obtained, if 
 adequate equipment cannot be procured, and if competent teachers 
 cannot be employed, the wisdom of its establishment is question- 
 able. If the enrollment is very small, perhaps the gene'’’al con- 
 tinuation class should be started first and the other types of 
 work can be added as necessity demands. 
 
 Where Should Continuation Classes Meet? 
 
 This is a disputed question but one which all adminis- 
 trators who establish continuation schools or classes are forced 
 to answer. In 1S18 the Federal Board for Vocational Education 
 issued the following statement: ’’Classes should be formed where- 
 
 ever most convenient, is school, store, factory, or shop, and 
 shall not be confined to educational buildings. In 1921 a re- 
 port of the Commission on The Reorganization of Secondary Education, 
 appointed by the National Educational Association contained, these 
 statements in its summary of recommendations: ’’That in cities 
 and towns having only one high school, the continuation group be 
 located in that high school” and ’’That in cities having more than 
 one high school, the continuation group be located in that school 
 or in those schools, whose location is favorable, instead of 
 
 13 Ibid., 27. 
 
-81- 
 
 establishing separate continuation schools. 
 
 The vievTpoint of the comiriiSLion meets with the ap- 
 proval of the author so far as the theoretical situation is con- 
 cerned, but when such conditions exist as an over-crowded con- 
 dition or a lack of neaessary funds’ in the high school, the estab- 
 lishment of continuation classes in the stores, factories, and 
 other places of employment is appropriate and their existence 
 there is warranted until a situation is brought about by which 
 
 the continu-ction classes or school may be incorporated into the 
 
 15 
 
 comprehensive high school. However, su di factors as the time 
 situation are important questions that must be taken into account 
 before the latter practice is determined upon. In considering 
 this question as well as the other policies of the continuation 
 school common sense must be the gtiide even though it contradict 
 some theoretical principle. 
 
 Types of Organization 
 
 How can the continuation school be organized so that 
 it will allow pupils to perform their tasks and yet attend school? 
 This is another question which every continuation school adminis- 
 trator should be able to answer and one which, if answered proper- 
 ly, will eliminate one of the common complaints against the con- 
 tinuation school: i, e. that it is not adapted to the employers' 
 convenience. Several types of organization have been tried and 
 have proved successful, a few of which have been included in this 
 discussion. Sometimes a combination of types is necessary to 
 accomodate all workers and employers. 
 
 14 Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 5, 1921, 19. 
 
 15 Infra, 106 et ff. 
 
* \ ■» ‘ 
 
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- 82 - 
 
 The ”off-tirae plan” has "been received with much satis- 
 faction by a number of industrial establishments. This plan al- 
 lows the pupils to take time from the regular working day to at- 
 tend the continuation school. Most of the employers in Spring- 
 field, Illinois, give the pupils not only the time to attend the 
 Qontinualion school eight hours per week, but they also pay them 
 for the time during which they are in attendance at this insti- 
 tution. As a rule whsreever such a plan is adopted, the daily 
 schedule of the pupils is adjusted so that the pupil may attend 
 at the time or the times which will least inconvenience the em- 
 ployer. ^For instance, let us assume that Monday morning and 
 Wednesday afternoon are times when little business is being done 
 in some industry where children are employed who are attending 
 the continuation school. If the pupils are required to attend 
 eight hours per week, the schedule is eo arranged that the pu- 
 pils from this particular concern can attend four of the eight 
 hours on Monday morning, doing half of their work then, and four 
 hours on Wednesday afternoon, doing the other half at that time. 
 Some industries find this plan most convenient because of the 
 fact that certain hours in their business are regularly dull. 
 
 But other industries do not have regular hours during which time 
 business is at a low stage, and they are unable to . spare the 
 children from the machines at any stated time. As typical of 
 this kind of industry attention is called to the textile industry 
 which is a means of earning a livelihood for thousands of child- 
 ren in the South. In order to keep the mills running and yet to 
 give the children a chance to improve themselves educationally 
 four methods are used for the instruction of the juvenile workers: 
 
■ 33 - 
 
 (l) A small number of "spare hands" are employed who 
 act as substitutes for the children during the time that they 
 are undergoing instruction. This means that the force of 
 juvenile workers must be increased by about one-sixth. Some em- 
 ployers object to this type of substitution because of the extra 
 expense, but if the working force is not increased out of pro- 
 portion and the children are not paid for the time during which 
 instruction is being given little additional expense is necessary. 
 
 (S) Some firms want to use the "flying squadron"' as 
 a substitution in order that their mills may keep running. These 
 firms employ extra hands who go from room to room to relieve 
 the workers for an hour or so each day or half-day. The time of 
 relief may be less than an hour. While each pupil is resting he 
 spends his time in the cont iniiat ion school if it is located in 
 the factory or adjacent to it. This method implies that the 
 process of manufacture is "speeded up"' to the maximum and that 
 the children are rushed to such an extent that rest periods are 
 necessary for the maintenance of the health of the workers, 
 
 (3) Another method used in the "Off-time Plan" is the 
 doubling up" method. This implies that the pupils have regular 
 times for instruction and that during these times other persons 
 do their work in addition to their own. A miller who normally 
 runs one sacking machine will be required to run that of his 
 neighbor also. If he is accustomed to run two machines he may 
 be required to run three; and thereby the employer suffers only 
 a small loss. Many industries, however, are organized in such a 
 way as to make this plan impracticable. 
 
-84- 
 
 (4) In some factories that employ child labor the "sur- 
 plus plan" is used. The several departments have more machines 
 than is necessary to keep the next department aioove supplied 
 with material. If these machines are run at full capacity a 
 surplus will accumulate. Then the children are required to 
 attend the continuation school until the department just above 
 has "caught up"' when they return to the factory and begin to 
 accumulate another surplus. The Unity Cotton Mills at Lagrange, 
 Georgia, uses this plan very successfully. 
 
 Another plan that has met with much approval is the 
 alternate plan. This plan of part-time continuation education 
 was made famous by the College of Engineering of the University 
 of Cincinnati. In such an arrangement the pupil works for a 
 definite period of time and then attends school for another 
 definite period which usually is equal in length to the former. 
 The period used in the University of Cincinnati was a week. 
 
 This experiment proved so successful that sich schools as the 
 Fichburg School in Massachusetts are using it at the present 
 time. At Spartanburg, South Carolina the textile industries 
 use this plan very successfully. A shorter period could be used 
 just as well. The Pacolet Manufacturing Company of New Holland, 
 Georgia is using the half-day period.^"^ 
 
 The "Cff-season or Shut-down Plan" is esjecially 
 adapted to certain industries and seasonal trades. The brick- 
 layers and masons of Chicago early showed the value of this 
 plan. They encouraged their apprentices to attend this school 
 during the time when they were unable to work steadily because 
 
 16 Federal Board for Vocational Education, Bullet in No. 30, 1919 
 
 17 Ibid., 38 
 
- 85 - 
 
 of climatic conditions. Coal miners could profitably require 
 their prentices to attend a continuation school during the 
 periodic striJces that occur at the expiration of their agree- 
 ments with the operators and during the frequent shut-downs 
 that occur for miscellaneous reasons. Establishments sometime i 
 are forced to close because of a multiplicity of reasons during 
 which periods a continuation school could be operated which 
 would fulfill the legal requirements and give valuable contin- 
 uation instruction en masse. 
 
 The "P reemployment or Vestibule School” is a school 
 usually located in the manufacturing plant or industrial estab- 
 lishment and its business is to teach the pupil how to do the 
 task for which he is hired. It performs this function before 
 the child is permitted to enter employment, or at least it pre- 
 pares him to do the job in a creditable manner before he is 
 allowed to attempt it. Under this plan an expert milling machine 
 operator teaches several students who expect to operate milling 
 machines until they become proficient in that work. John L. 
 Patterson, manager of the Rosemary manufacturing Company of 
 Roanoke Rapids, North Carolina, after having the vestibule 
 scheme in operation for quite a while, said, 
 
 "These teachers devote their time to showing the new 
 operatives assigned to them how to do the work properly. We of 
 course pay the teachers as much, in fact slightly more, for 
 doing this work than they were able to make before. The results 
 we are getting from this system are very gratifying and we 
 confidently believe that satisfactory operatives can be developed 
 in this way within half of the time, or possibly one-third of 
 
- 86 - 
 
 the time, that they can be if placed with weavers or spinners with 
 
 a full job on their hands, and no especial incentive *:o properly 
 
 teach the inexperienced ones." He had selected his teachers from 
 
 the best experts in his plant, and his corps consisted of "two 
 
 teachers from each of the three weave rooms, and one teacher each 
 
 from each of the three spinning rooms, making nine in all."^® 
 
 The administrator must familiarize himself thoroughly 
 
 with the types of organization that have been used successfully and 
 
 with any other that might be adaptable to his own situation. The 
 
 basis for his decision as to which plan or plans best suit his own 
 
 system will be the data obtained in the surveys and the information 
 
 which he obtains from consultation with the heads of the various 
 
 industrial establishments. The daily schedule will be relatively 
 
 easy to adjust under any of the above plans except the "Off-time" 
 
 plan which in one of its forms will likely be used for some of the 
 
 classes. Hence, the discussion of it is in order. 
 
 The Daily Schedule of The Qff-Time Plan 
 
 The schedule of classes is of considerable importance in 
 
 any school. No state makes full provisions regarding the program 
 
 but it may set the time limits per week and occasionally per class. 
 
 In general, state authorities provide a list of subjects which they 
 
 recommend to be taught, but the lists are usually elastic and 
 
 considerable freedom is allowed especially in the vocational 
 
 subjects. The Boston Continuation School has a flexible schedule 
 
 which in this particular meets the needs in that city.^^ The State 
 
 Supervisor of Industrial Education for Illinois advises the use 
 
 of the following schedule which is a modification of the one 
 
 18 Ibid., 33. 
 
 19 Vocational Summary, June, 1919, 36. 
 
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-87- 
 
 Evans used in Boston: 
 
 Time 
 
 Monday 
 
 Tuesday 
 
 Wednesday 
 
 I'hursdav 
 
 Friday 
 
 8:C0- 9:00 
 
 a 
 
 E 
 
 c 
 
 F 
 
 a 
 
 9:;00-10:00 
 
 b 
 
 d 
 
 b 
 
 10:00-11:00 
 
 c 
 
 F 
 
 b 
 
 E 
 
 0 
 
 11:00-1B:00 
 
 d 
 
 a 
 
 d 
 
 1:00-3 :00 
 2:00- 3:00 
 
 E 
 
 b 
 
 F 
 
 d 
 
 E 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 3:00- 4:00 
 4:00- 5:00 
 
 F 
 
 d 
 
 E 
 
 a 
 
 F 
 
 c 
 
 b 
 
 If in the above schedule a,b,c, and d represent courses 
 offered, such as general continuation or theoretical vocational 
 courses but not laboratory or shop subjects, the reader can see 
 that the pupil might attend school Monday morning at which time 
 he would study these subjects. If likewise E and F represent shop 
 or laborotory subjects it is evident too that the pupil might 
 supplement his work with these subjects on Monday afternoon, 
 Tuesday morning, Wednesday afternoon, Thursday morning, or Friday 
 afternoon. Since the above schedule is arranged for a school 
 having only one teacher it is clear that with two teachers and a 
 little readjustment of the schedule any half-day combination can 
 be made. With four teachers any two-hour arrangement can be 
 worked out and with more than four teachers a great number of 
 possibilities exists. The one teacher progrsm, however, is des- 
 igned to accomodate most of the practical situations that require 
 only one teacher. 
 
 If more than five teachers are employed in the con- 
 tinuation school and if the above schedule plan is used a bulky 
 arrangement results, because a separate schedule must be made for 
 each teacher. A single schedule cannot be made because of the 
 irregularity of the hours of attendance of any particular pupil. 
 
- 88 - 
 
 Hence, it is better to arrange for each day a schedule having a 
 separate program that differs from the one in use on Monday, A 
 schedule for Monday and Thursday is given below for a school that 
 has nine teachers. In this schedule the assumption is made that 
 each teacher teaches eight hours daily which should not be the case 
 
 Schedule for Monday and Thursday 
 
 Time 
 
 Mr, A 
 
 Miss B 
 
 ,Miss C 
 
 Mr ,i) 
 
 Mr. E 
 
 Mr 
 
 .F Miss G 
 
 MissH. 
 
 Myl 
 
 8: CO- 9:00, 
 
 a 
 
 c 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 T 
 
 ‘ i 
 
 1 
 
 1 e 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 “9":UD^1U:TO 
 
 a 
 
 d 
 
 c 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 f f 
 
 h 
 
 ii 
 
 10:C0-il:U0' 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 B 
 
 TN 
 
 
 H 
 
 1 e 
 
 J 
 
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 b 
 
 d 
 
 iJ 
 
 0 
 
 1 f 
 
 h 
 
 
 T:D0-”2TUU 
 
 a 
 
 d 
 
 A 
 
 ri 
 
 TP 
 
 
 j g 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■ t'' 
 
 ' 'J:0U- T:UU| 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 A 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 ^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 3:00- TiUU 
 
 a 
 
 d 
 
 B 
 
 
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 With such a schedule only from one to five programs are 
 necessary and they can be mimeographed easily on a single page. 
 
 In this respect this type of schedule is more convenient than the 
 one suggested for the one-teacher continuation school. 
 
 How The Continuation School Is Financed 
 
 In most European states the continuation school is not 
 wholly supported by public taxation, although some portion of its 
 cost may be defrayed by public taxes; in fact public taxation 
 raises only a small part of the funds which are regularly applied 
 to this kind of education. However, in the United States just the 
 opposite is true. Usually the entire school is supported by public 
 taxation either directly of indirectly. Until 1917 the local 
 districts of the American states that had authorized continuation 
 schools almost invariably levied taxes for the complete support 
 of these schools. In that year, however, the Smith-Hughes Act was 
 
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-89- 
 
 approved and since 1918 federal aid has been given annually for 
 that continuation education which meets the approval of the 
 Federal Board for Vocational Education in those states which 
 have accepted the provisions of the act. 
 
 The Smith-Hughes Act provided that definite appropriations 
 should be made as shown in Appendix II and required ”that at least 
 one-third of the sum appropriated to any state for salaries of 
 teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects shall, 
 if expended, be applied to part-time schools or classes for 
 workers over fourteen years of age who have entered upon employ- 
 ment,"^^ Any state had a right to accept this proffered aid pro- 
 viding that it matched the federal money dollar for dollar with 
 stats or local funds or with both. The act provided also for the 
 creation of machinery for its execution and for experiment along 
 lines for which it had planned appropriations. The final executive 
 power was vested in the Federal Board for Vocational Education, 
 but the state administration was delegated to state Boards for 
 Vocational Education. 
 
 This offer from the federal government gave a sudden im- 
 petus to the continuation school movement,, since in 1917-1918 
 ^188,666.67 were available from federal authorities for part-time 
 work. This siraount was to increase materially until in 1925-1926 
 and annually thereafter the amount given by the federal government 
 for this ’work alone would be $1,016,665.57, Since this sum must 
 be matched by state or local funds or by both, the minimum amount 
 available at that time will be $2,033,333.34. Some states 
 match the amount allot ed to them and make the combined fund 
 
 20 Smith-Hughes Act, Section 11. 
 
 21 See Appendix II, 
 
-90- 
 
 available to the local community providing that it matches dollar 
 for dollar the portion which it uses. This does not mean, however, 
 that only one-third of the amount allotted to the trade, home 
 economic, and industrial subjects shall be spent for part-time 
 work. In fact, ”it would be entirely permissible under the act 
 for much more than one-third of the fund to be used for part-time 
 t raining”’, 
 
 Federal aid is given only for purposes of instruction. 
 
 The local community or state must provide the buildings and equip- 
 ment. In order to do this a second method is sometimes used which 
 is met by public taxation, use of bonds. Direct taxation provides 
 the funds to match the stats and federal money, providing the 
 school is doing work under the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act. 
 In case the work is not in accordance with the Smith-Hughes pro- 
 visions the expense is usually met in its entirety by direct 
 taxation. Endowments and bequests are seldom given to continuation 
 schools at the present time, although in earlier days such in- 
 stitutions as the Williamson Free School for Mechanical Trades 
 began their work as a result of gifts of certain benevolent 
 persons who had deep interests in the younger generat ion,^^ 
 
 The Continuation School Pupil 
 
 Since the continuation school pupil in so many ways is 
 the secondary school pupil and since the latter has been dealt 
 with so fully by many prominent writers in the educational field, 
 only casual notice will be given this subject in an effort to 
 point out how the continuation school pupil differs from the pupil 
 
 22 Federal Board for Vocational Education Bulletin No, 19, 1918, 30 
 
 23 Hill, David S., Introduction to Vocationa. Education, 143 
 
^ . 
 
 I 
 
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 i 
 
- 91 - 
 
 of the Junior and senior high schools. 
 
 In the first place as a rule the pupil in the continuation 
 school has a less fortunate home environment than the pupil in 
 the latter institutions. Sometimes by his parents he is persuaded 
 to enter industryj at other times by force of economic circum- 
 stances he is required to leave the all-day school and enter in- 
 dustry. Premature persuasion or coercion naturally causes many 
 children to miss much of the school v7ork which society deems 
 fundamental to efficiency. Hence, the continuation school child 
 has a school education usually inferior to that of the all-day 
 school child of his own age. 
 
 In the second place the boy or girl who attends the part- 
 time school has missed much of the social experience which the 
 other boy or girl has gotten through constant contact with other 
 pupils in the all-day school. The training obtained from the meet- 
 ing of children of all classes, the results of matching minds 
 constantly for five days per week, and the influence which the 
 teachers have in this constant contact can be duplicated in very 
 few places. Much of this the child in the part-time school has 
 missed, but on the other hand he has obtained an industrial out- 
 look on life far superior to that which the child in the regular 
 schools has. He has met men and women of business capacity and in 
 dealing with them certainly a great deal of education has been 
 obtained. These experiences plus the hard life of many of the con- 
 tinuation school children give them a better appreciation of 
 industrial values to which the continuation school mast add enough 
 social contact as well as civic and vocational education to make 
 
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- 92 - 
 
 these children more socially efficient. While the teacher in the 
 continuation school will be unable to capitalize social experiences 
 to the same extent as the teacher in the all-day schools, she will 
 be able to use industrial situations to a much better advantage. 
 
 The Classification of Pupils 
 
 When the pupils enter the continuation school nothing some- 
 times is knov7n about their specific needs, interests, problems, 
 and capacities. Without a knowledge of these necessities classi- 
 fication hardly can be made with a high degree of accuracy. If 
 however, these things can be learned from conversation with the 
 public school authorities, parents, and employers, a tentative 
 classification can be made pending results obtained from that 
 arrangement. When results show that improper classification has 
 been made a change can be effected. Assuming, however, that no 
 knowledge of the pupils is at hand a very good method to follow 
 is outlined in the following discussion: 
 
 A class in general industries or what the Springfield, 
 Illinois, authorities call a ’’reservoir class” is formed. Every 
 pupil about whom information necessary for proper classification 
 is lacking or who is undecided as to the trade or occupation which 
 he expects to enter is put in this class. The purpose of this 
 class is to give general information about the different industries 
 and about the capacities that are necessary for making a success 
 in each. At the same time pupils are given the privilege of 
 visiting the different rooms where special vocations are being 
 taught. They are at liberty to try their hands at any of the 
 machines under the direction of the teachers of the school to v/hom 
 they have been assigned for this particular work. Their interests 
 
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- 93 - 
 
 are soon discernible by their desire to stay in the room and at 
 the work which especially interests them. Then, they are allowed 
 to enter the technical classes and receive instruction in those 
 vocations if their abilities physically and mentally tend to show 
 that they are capable of making a success in those lines of work. 
 Otherwise they are discouraged from entering those callings. Of 
 course pathological cases should not be under the jurisdiction 
 of the continuation school and when they are they must receive 
 special attention. 
 
 After the child has chosen his major vocation situations 
 are created to show him what general education is necessary for 
 the accomplishment of his aims. If he wants to be a carpenter and 
 needs to know long division a situation will be created in which 
 the knowledge of long division is absolutely necessary for the 
 accomplishment of ;his aims. All classes should be formed to meet 
 the needs of the pupils who should not be taught subject-matter 
 which they already know. Time does not permit and neither is such 
 an action a credit to an educational institution. 
 
 Another way used to classify pupils is by the "cycle method 
 By this plan every pupil with a few exceptions is required to spend 
 a certain time in a class which teaches him certain things about 
 every vocation that is offered in the particular school. He may 
 spend five days learning some fundamentals about auto-mechanics and 
 the same time learning about each of the other trades that are 
 taught. In one school in Illinois children between fourteen and 
 sixteen ^end all their time in just this kind of work and between 
 sixteen and eighteen they specialize in some particular trade. 
 
 If the first method is used, it becomes evident that 
 

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 classes necessarily must be small. In fact, certain classes may 
 have as lov7 as from one to three pupile in them. Eight or ten 
 pupils is supposed make a good sized class; it is thought to be 
 
 21 
 
 expedient that no class should have more than twenty pupile in it. 
 
 What use have intelligence tests in the classification of 
 continuation school pupils? They have the sa^^ie general use as in 
 the regular all-day schools. Such tests should be given for the 
 purpose of obtaining an index of the pupils* mental capacity in 
 order that they may be guided rightly and be pushed to the maximum 
 of their abilities. Some group test, such as the Otis, should be 
 given first, and this should be followed in doubtful cases by some 
 individual test or tests, such as the Stanford Revision of the 
 Binet-Simon Tests in order to check and balance the results of the 
 first test. 
 
 Educational achievement tests sometimes may be used to find 
 out whether the pupil has attained a high enough degree of pro- 
 ficiency to pursue his vocation without further education in the 
 general subjects, such as reading and arithmetic. Such tests as 
 Monroe* s Standardized Silent Reading Tests and the Courtis 
 Arithmetic Tests seem worthy of mention in this connection. Perhaps 
 before long certain very reliable standards will be available which 
 can be used as a minimum achievement requirement for the general 
 cont iniiation subjects. At present no such trustv;orthy data is 
 available but their determination would be a great contribution 
 to the educational field. 
 
 The Curriculum 
 
 Behavior depends considerably upon imitation. The fact is 
 
 21 Federal Board for Vocational Education, Illinois, Bulletin No. 13 
 1920,13, 
 
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- 95 ' 
 
 very noticeable in the ciirricula of the continuation school. 
 
 When a continuation school is first established the curriculum 
 of some other school is adopted usually in toto or in a some- 
 what modified form. Both federal and state boards for vocational 
 education give suggestive courses of study which frequently have 
 been taken from the existing schools of some cities and which 
 have come to the attention of these boards. In many instances 
 this practice is not to be cond.^mned because if the supervisor 
 of a system is not an expert curriculum builder certainly he 
 had better adopt a curriculum that has proved successful some- 
 where than to risk his ability to construct an absolutely new 
 curriculum. 
 
 When some curriculum is copied, however, trouble may be 
 brewing because it may have the same fallacies in it, that drove 
 the boy from the all-day school. In one school that the writer 
 visited he found a class in auto-mechanics busy tearing down 
 and assembling an old oar which could not be forced to run, the 
 only automobile in the shop. This activity, the teacher said 
 was the major problem of the course. As a result, a general 
 lack of interest pervaded the entire class. The class just re- 
 ferred to was in sharp contrast to another in the same subject 
 at another school which the writer visited. The problem was 
 making broken cars run, one of the same nature as the garage 
 man has to meet. Its solution was accomplished when the break 
 was adequately repaired. The work was on the project basis and 
 much interest pervaded the entire class. The positive classroom 
 activity of both pupils and teacher showed that the work was on 
 
 the right basis, the meeting of a need. In other the 
 

 
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-96- 
 
 ourriculum was constructed for the individual pupil to teach 
 him what he did not know. 
 
 WTry-Out Courses*^' 
 
 Obviously courses in every trade cannot be offered in 
 every community and the question arises as to what courses should 
 be offered. One way in which this has been answered in the small 
 communities of Wisconsin so satisfactorily that the Supervisor 
 of Industrial Education of Illinois recommended it for small 
 communities is by ”try-out courses. There seems to 'the author 
 to be no special limitations that confine the usefulness of 
 this method to the small school. In fact the availability of 
 more candidates for teachers and a larger number of trades ex- 
 isting in a larger community make this plan adaptable to it as 
 well as to the smaller. 
 
 This plan makes the first course in technical subjects 
 a trial course and does not require special equipment and the 
 hiring of a high-priced teacher at the beginning. Hence, little 
 risk is run of making such a failure in teaching the trade that 
 great criticism results because of the purchase of a 'great amount 
 of equipment that cannot be used again. If the course proves 
 satisfactory any equipment that is bought will be obtained 
 with the realisation that it is for a course that is actually 
 functioning. In other words after the'*try-out course”' has been 
 used the administration will know whether that particular course 
 is worth while in that particular system, providing that it 
 has been handled in a equitable manner. 
 
 The working of this plan is very simple. If in any 
 particular community there are a few boys of continuation school 
 22 Ibid., 17 
 

 
 
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- 97 - 
 
 age who think that they would like to become carpenters they 
 are placed under the instruction of a practical carpenter. If at 
 the end of a reasonably long period of time they are still of 
 the same mind, the carpenter is paid an annual salary to instruct 
 them. Such instruction is under the supervision of the continua- 
 tion school authorities and is for as many hours weekly as they 
 may determine. The carpenter in order to profit from the result 
 of this trial experience must make the work interesting and 
 profitable to the boys. 
 
 The great difficulty in the working out of the plan is 
 the finding of an artisan who is competent to teach the trade. 
 
 He may be a good carpenter and at the same time be a poor teacher. 
 As a result, the "^try-out course” in carpentry in one community 
 might be a total failure while in another community it might be 
 a success. Hence, it is clear that this method is not absolutely 
 satisfactory in determining every trade that should go into the 
 continuation school. 
 
 The Equipment of The Continuation School 
 
 The equipment that the continuation school should 
 possess depends upon the courses that are being offered. Each 
 course may contain phases that require tools which are peculiarly 
 fitted for particular jobts. Since different teachers may use 
 different tools for the accomplishment of the same result, the 
 administrator should solicit the advice of 'his teachers as to 
 what tools they need. The latter, however, will have a tendency 
 to request many tools that are not absolutely necessary for the 
 course. The budget system is recommended in order that each 
 

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- 98 - 
 
 department may spend its allotment most wisely. Tet some prac- 
 tical objections to the budget present themselves. In fact each 
 department feels that it must spend all of the funds that are 
 alloted to it when equipment is n'^eded to a greater extent in 
 other departments. This cannot be wholly eliminated but if the 
 supervisor keeps a firm hand on what is being done and uses a 
 flexible budget part of the difficulty will be obviated. 
 
 On the other hand if the administration is to hold every 
 teacher strictly responsible for the work that is being done 
 under his supervision, proper equipment must be furnished. The 
 ability to properly equip a continuation school should be con- 
 sidered well before its establishment. If working tools cannot 
 be supplied to the teachers, the wisdom of the establishment of 
 a continuation school is questionable. 
 
 Compulsory Attendance 
 
 The value of compulsory attendance at the continuation 
 school hardly can be questioned. Its arguments rest on much tie 
 same arguments as those for compulsory attendance at the regular 
 Q'dl^^s.y schools and like the traditional public school its en-~ 
 forcement is vital to the highest efficiency of the institution 
 because pupils, in general, cannot advance with their fellow- 
 pupils when their attendance is checkered, if they have no other 
 means of obtaining instruction. Since most fathers and mothers 
 are unable to instruct their children along technical lines 
 other than the one in which they have specialized, (provided that 
 they have specialized), attendance at the continuation school is 
 necessary for the continuation school pupil in order that he may 
 advance rapidly and regularly. 
 
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 The movement for compulsory continuation education was 
 early espoused hy certain German cities, and it gradually became 
 more widespread until by the middle of the last decade in about 
 four-fiffhs of the states attendance for boys v;as compulsory up 
 to the ages of sixteen, seventeen or eighteen, while for girls 
 attendance was compulsory up to the ages of fifteen or sixteen. 
 
 In the United States, however, no difference is made between the 
 sexes in compulsory requirements. Compulsory attendance in America 
 has been referred to already. At the present time a decided 
 movement is going on to establish a definite mlnimuirn age require- 
 ment which is to be uniform in .all the states. It seems that the 
 "■minimum number of hours of attendance in continuation classes 
 should be not less than eight hours a week for each week that 
 the high school is in session, or a requirement of not less than 
 330 hours per year distributed over a reasonably long period of 
 time during the year,"' according to a recent study. The same 
 commission recommended that the attendance be made compulsory 
 up to the age of eighteen unless the pupil has completed his 
 secondary school work. 
 
 Methods of Securing Attendance ^ 
 
 The methods of securing attendance that are in use in 
 the all-day schools may be used with excellent success in the 
 continuation school. The new methods of instruction per se 
 interest the pupils in what they are doing and the subject-matter 
 with which they deal is closely connected with the work that they 
 
 23 Sadler, M.E., Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere, 
 518-519, 
 
 24 Supra,50 et Appendix I . 
 
 25 Bureau of Education Bulletin No, 5, 1921, 19, 
 
- 100 - 
 
 are doing or expect to do in industry. The teachers are vital 
 instruments in giving the continuation school an especial interest 
 for the pupil. Their personal magnetism, example, and interest 
 in the lives of the pupil give the continuation school consider- 
 able prestige sunong the juvenile workers who are attending it. 
 
 The most important leverage on the compulsion of atten- 
 dance, perhaps, is the activity which should be connected with 
 every continuation school, of assisting the pupils to obtain 
 jobs and to advance them to better ones. Principals of continua- 
 tion schools almost universally agree that due to this one 
 activity they are able to win and hold the confidence of the 
 children who come under their influence. No other school has 
 such an opportunity coming at the critical period of the life 
 of its pupils and every pupil realizes that if he is to obtain 
 the best job he must be on the friendliest terms with the con- 
 tinuation school,. Various members of the faculty visit him at 
 his regular duties, find out how he is getting on, sympathize 
 with him in ^is adversities, encourage his good endeavors, and 
 have heart to heart talks with his employers. Such exertions 
 win his confidence and often he will show that he merits the 
 confidence and interest shown in his favor. 
 
 The oomp'alsory attendance law is always necessary when 
 the school goes into operation if results are expected soon, 
 but after it is running smoothly compulsory attendance will have 
 to be enforced in few cases. Failure to attend the continuation 
 school usually means for the pupil dismissal from his job, if 
 the employers cooperate loyally with the school authorities. It 
 means also the revocation of his working permit and the return 
 
-lo;- 
 
 to the all-day school in many oases, depending of course upon 
 statutory requirements. In addition it usually means the im- 
 position of a fine upon both the employer and the parent. This 
 has a tendency to insure attendance thereafter. 
 
 The Teaching Staff 
 
 Reference already has been made to the supervisor of 
 continuation education. The same type of person is needed for 
 principal where the continuation school is not a part of a com- 
 prehensive high school, but principals with experience less 
 broad may make successes if they are working \inder the firm hand 
 of a competent supervisor. 
 
 The teachers of the various subjects form the fountain 
 of the vitality of the school. In many cases the success of the 
 institution depends upon them more than upon any other single 
 f actor. The Federal Board for Vocational Education recommends 
 that ”If it is weaving that is to be taught the best weaver in 
 the mill should be sought for teaching purposes; if the subject 
 under consideration is loom fixing, the most expert loom fixer 
 should become the instructor, and similarly throughout the rnill?^® 
 It is reasonable to expect that educational authorities will 
 take exceptions to the fitbove quoted statements because the most 
 expert artisan is sometimes the poorest teacher. Vaughan says 
 that the carpenter instead of teaching the boys how to build the 
 house builds it for them. He contends that teachers who know 
 how to teach should learn the trades and jobs and become teachers 
 
 26 Supra, 74 et ff. 
 
 27 Federal Board for Vocational Education, Bulletin No .30, 1919, 16. 
 
 28 Ibid, 17. 
 
 29 Vaughn, S.J., Lectures on Vocational Education. 
 
, . 'At, 
 
 
 
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- 102 - 
 
 of them rather than have expert workmen become teachers. At the 
 present time, however, both plans are employed and excellent 
 teachers of both types are now found in the continuation school. 
 Some states have adopted tentative minimum requirements 
 for license to teach in the continuation school. The standards 
 set for teachers of general continuation subjects are usually 
 higher than those set for teachers of the trade extension or 
 trade preparatory subjects. This condition exists primarily be- 
 cause of the greater availability of teachers of the general 
 continuation subjects. Illinois requires at least graduation 
 from the eighth grade for the latter and two years of education 
 beyond the high school for the former?^ At the present time, 
 perhaps, these standards are too low, but exceptions to ideal 
 standards must be made when the supply of properly qualified 
 teachers is limited, as was the condition during the Great War 
 when the Stats Board for Vocational Education in Illinois made 
 its ruling. In many places the regular high school teachers con- 
 duct the major portion of the continuation work, although the 
 advisability of this practice is questioned by some school men. 
 Vocational Guidance 
 
 A necessary adjunct to the continuation school is the 
 
 Bureau of Vocational Guidance, At the head of this bureau usually 
 
 is the principal of the school or a teacher who seems to the 
 
 principal to be properly qioalified for this position. In the 
 
 largest continuation schools which are not operated by some 
 
 industry a director of vocational guidance may be found. The 
 
 duties of this officer in either case are to place the pupils in 
 
 30 Board for Vocational Education, Illinois, Bulletin No. 13. 1920 
 pp. 18-19. 
 
- 103 - 
 
 positions to which they are best adapted, to watch their work, 
 and if they deserve the honor to advise their promotion to better 
 positions when the opportunity presents itself. It is his duty 
 to give them some instruction which will lead them to the trades 
 that best suit their capacities and abilities. Perhaps, too 
 often, this officer has so many burdens placed upon him that he 
 cannot do justice to this particular office, and even when the 
 duties of vocational guidance become too heavy for him proper 
 assistance is not supplied. Perhaps here is one of the inefficient 
 parts of the continuation school as it exists today. 
 
 Summary 
 
 For the purpose of meeting different situations three 
 types of continuation schools or classes are used widely: general 
 continuation, trade preparatory, and trade extension. The relation 
 between these schools and the regular schools depends upon state 
 laws and local conditions. When a continuation school becomes a 
 reality in any community the daily schedule and other units of 
 organization should be arranged to best meet the needs of the 
 community. In order that this may be done, the federal government 
 has seen fit to aid the states in financing the continuation 
 school by means of subsidies provided by the Smith-Hughes Act. 
 
 Yet the major expense in most cases must be borne by the local 
 unit . Compulsory attendance laws have been enacted in order to 
 force the unwilling child to take advantage of this institution; 
 yet other agencies seem to be just as effective in many cases. 
 after the pupil has been in attendance for a short time. One of 
 the foremost of these agencies is the power exerted by the Bureau 
 for Vocational Guidance through its placement department. 
 
«* 
 
 l' 
 
 \ 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
-104- 
 
 Seleoted Biblio^rafthy 
 
 Bawden, William T., ”The Relation of The Elementary School to Sub- 
 sequent Industrial Education," National Educational Asso- 
 ciation Proceedings, 1912, 912 ff. 
 
 Board for Vocational Education, State of Illinois, Bulletin No. 
 
 13, 1920, "Day Continuation Schools " 
 
 Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 5, 1921, "Part-Time Education 
 of Various Types'.* (See United States, etc.) 
 
 Cooley, Edwin G., "Some Chicago Continuation Schools," School 
 Life, January 15, 1920. 
 
 Course of Study for The Common Schools of Illinois, Sixth General 
 Revision, Sixth Year Arithmetic 
 Federal Board for Vocational Education, Bulletin No, 30, 1919, 
 "Evening and Part-Time Schools in The Textile Industry 
 of The Southern States" 
 
 Federal Board for Vocational Education, Bulletin No. 19, 1918, 
 "Part-Time Trade and Industrial Education" 
 
 Hill, David S., Introduction to Vocational Education 
 
 Hurd, H. B., Revised Statutes, Illinois, 1919 
 
 Sadler, M. E., Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere 
 
 Smith-Hughes Law, Sections 3 and 11 
 
 Vaughn, S. J., Lectures on Vocational Education 
 
 Vocational Summary, June 1919. 
 
 Wisconsin, State Board for Vocational Education, Biennial Report, 
 1914, 25 ff. 
 

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Chapter IV 
 
 % 
 
 Retrospect and P’rospect 
 
 The American Social Situation Needs Improvement 
 
 "The prevalence of illiteracy, the elimination from the 
 traditional public schools, the large amount of poverty and 
 pauperism, the universal extent of poor health and physical 
 incapacity, the general lack of efficiency among workers, the 
 widespread need of civic and social education, the cosmopolitan 
 misuse of leisure time, and the ecumenical need for conservation 
 of natural and human resources" present a social problem that is 
 extremely complex and hard to remedy, Ko panacea ever has been 
 found for all of these evils. However, many agencies have been 
 tried and the positive conclusion that has been reached is that 
 only 31 aid has been found, Students of the problem point out 
 that every available agency should be sought for the purpose of 
 improving the social conditions of America, 
 
 Continuation Education Aids in This Movement 
 
 In this great movement to produce a better social 
 environment, old agencies are being brought into action and 
 new agencies are being created to meet the demand. One of 
 these agencies that may be of much value in this movement is 
 the continuation school which is especially adapted to reach 
 
 1 Supra, 33 . 
 
i-j 
 
 1 ■ 
 
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 I 
 
 
 r 
 
106 - 
 
 the boys and girls from fourteen to eighteen years of age who 
 have left the all-day schools and have begun careers in the 
 industrial world. At many points along the way, in the dis- 
 cussion of this institution various objections arise, but for 
 each objection there seems t:: be an opposing affirmative argu- 
 ment. Anong the strongest arguments for the continuation 
 school is the historical witness that this institution has 
 been tried repeatedly and has proved succe.-sful enough in 
 nearly every instance to be retained. This recommendation 
 shows that the part-time school is an institution that is 
 helping to meet the social situations that exist in various 
 communities. When all of the objections to the continua 13 on 
 school on the one hand and all of the arguments fo^^ the con- 
 ■feinuation school on the other hand have been summed up and a 
 tentative balance has been struck, it appears to the writer 
 that the verdict must be rendered in favor of this institution. 
 It is a means of partially securing the realization of a high 
 ideal, the equity of educational opportunity for all America. 
 
 Continuation Education in The Comprehensive High Rohool 
 
 Perhaps the greatest efficiency in continuation edu- 
 cation can be obtained. by substituting in many cases for the 
 continuation school, as it is herein portrayed, continuation 
 classes in the regular high schools. This conclusion has been 
 reached after a careful survey of the following conditions 
 and after a careful consideration of the following arguments: 
 First, the local high schools are usually equiciped 
 with the best educational facilities that the community can 
 
i 
 
 
 ,9 
 
 i 
 
 j 
 
 
 1 
 
 
-107- 
 
 afford. Usually the number of pupils vvho attend the continuation 
 school, where state-wide continuation school systems exist, is 
 not large enough to cause a duplication of all the expensive 
 equipment and buildings which are used only a fraction of the 
 regular day. Also under the present scheme some of the equip- 
 ment that has been purchased for the continuation schools is 
 idle part of the time. If these two institutions were brought 
 together, provision could be made to eliminate some of the 
 waste of time that occurs because of the fact that the building 
 and equipment are _ idle several minutes almost daily. Hence, the 
 cost to the community in making provision for buildings and 
 equipment would be lessened by making this combination. This 
 will hold true for the teaching staff also. An added advan- 
 tage that is worth mentioning is that the pupils who attend the 
 continuation school might feel that the school is worth more 
 because of its auperior advantages. This feeling would also 
 tend to affect the parents in the same manner. 
 
 Secondly, ”the sense of social solidarity and of 
 
 loyalty to the whole community will be developed among all 
 
 2 
 
 pupils of high school age." Certainly physically, mentally, 
 and chronologically continuation school pupils are not of 
 elementary school age.^ The social instinct is calling and 
 should be answered by the appropriate group, children of like 
 ages. Such an arrangement tends to give a social solidarity 
 
 2 Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 5, 1921, 17, 
 
 3 Inglis, Alexander, Principles of Secondary Education, Chapters 
 I-III. 
 

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- 108 - 
 
 to tile community and to eliminate the possible elements of class 
 education which the continuation school frequently has b=en ac- 
 cused of fostering. 
 
 Thirdly, "the varying needs of continuation school 
 pupils can be met more adequately in the larger organization 
 with its varied facilities."^ The interests, needs, and problems 
 of the pupil are of primary importance in effective teaching. 
 
 If these are not consulted, waste ensues and the educational 
 objectives are apt to be lost sight of. If a pupil’s chief 
 interest is in the field of salesmanship ^ the endeavor of school 
 authorities to teach him one of the mechanical trades will 
 likely be crowned with little or no success. Yet, the average 
 continuation school is rather limited in the scope of its 
 curriculum, and the pupil in many cases is forced to choose 
 a trade with which he at the beginning is dissatisfied. How- 
 ever if the continuation school were an integral part of the 
 regular high school, the money that could be saved and invested 
 in increased educational facilities would tend to eliminate this 
 condition to some degree, 
 
 Foiirthly, "the comprehensive high school will be stimu- 
 lated to serve the needs of all pupils of high school age" who 
 are now in industry. Under the present plan industrial edu- 
 cation may be slighted because the assumption is made that the 
 pupils who take advantage of it soon are to enter industry or 
 a special industrial school. Since nearly every city is in 
 more or less financial difficulties this condition is accepted 
 and sometimes little is done tj improve conditions, 
 
 4 Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 5, 1921 17 
 
 5 Ibid., 17. * * 
 
-109- 
 
 Fifthly, the incorporation cf the continuation school 
 as an integral part of the comprehensive hi^h school will react 
 favorably on both institutions in that it will make those people 
 whose children attend the continuation school more sympathetic 
 towards the needs of the high school. At the same time this 
 fusion will tend to cause other people who at the present stage 
 of evolution of this institution are skeptical towards it to 
 place their approval upon it because they are converted to the 
 high school idea. Hence, the "community will be stimulated 
 in gaining a broad conception of the function of the high school 
 and consequently will give it greater financial and moral sup- 
 port . 
 
 j 
 
 •X 
 
 Sixthly, the function of leading pupils back to the 
 regular schools can be realised better if the continuation 
 work is made a part of the comprehensive high school. The 
 association with the regular high school pupils exerts an 
 influence that tends to promote harmony between the two groups; 
 and conversely, the lack of association tends to create a gulf 
 between the two. As a result, the transfer is ^ accomplished 
 with some difficulty. Perhaps this is true in fewer cases 
 under the present arrangement than under the proposed plan. 
 
 The comir^unity of interests even beyond the social, that are 
 interrelated offers a means for a closer harmony between the 
 two groups. The giving of high school credit for acceptable 
 part-time work will be assured and the pupil will recognize 
 that his endeavors are being recognized. Hence, ne will 
 feel that his efforts are bringing him nearer to high school 
 
 graduation and perhaps to college entrance than under the 
 6 Ibid,, 17. 
 

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- 110 - 
 
 present plan. 
 
 In short, the contention is maintained that the continu- 
 ation school in many cases cease to exist as a separate institu- 
 tion as soon as is practicable and that trade preparatory, trade 
 extension, and general continuation courses be included in every 
 high school curriculum where a sufficient demand exists. The 
 accompanying diagram shows the proposed relation of the con- 
 tinuation school to the other work of the secondary school as 
 well as the relation of voluntary education to the life of the 
 
 adult in his social environment. When the plan shall have been 
 
 I 
 
 carried out successfully, the continuation idea will not be far 
 in advance of the then existing system of continuation education. 
 
 The Proposed Organization 
 
 The diagram on the following page is thus explained: 
 After the pupil completes the work of the elementary school he 
 regularly passes into the high school and not into a separate 
 continuation school even though he may enter industry. In case 
 he does enter industry during his six years in the elementary 
 school he automatically passes into the continuation department 
 of the regular high school. After he graduates from high school 
 he may continue his formal education by going on to college 
 but if he desires to pursue his chosen vocation he may continue 
 his eiucati on along general or technical lines at public expense, 
 provided that a demand sufficiently large exists to justify the 
 offering of the desired courses. Continuation education should 
 be compulsory through the high school or until the age of eight- 
 een has been attained. Thereafter it should be voluntary for the 
 
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-111- 
 
 Illustration II 
 
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 s: 
 
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 Suft'i 
 
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-113- 
 
 great mass of the populalion; but perhaps those people who are 
 not acquainted with American principles should be excepted 
 from this arbitrary rule which may change as the years go by 
 just as the compulsory age limits have done. 
 
 The Vocational Guidance Provision 
 
 "The success of the plans for part-time education 
 will depend to no small measure upon the inauguration of an 
 effective and comprehensive plan of vocational guidance,"'^ 
 Whether or not the plan suggested in this chapter is accepted, 
 it remains true that continuation school pupils have had little 
 or no vocational guidance} they have fallen into the jobs that 
 offer the highest initial pay and have taken little thought 
 for the future. If Miles's estimate that 87 per cent of the 
 children of continuation school age enter the "blind-alley" 
 jobs is correct, there is no doubt that these unfortunate 
 children need both educational and vocational guidance.® 
 
 In the comprehensive high school there should be in- 
 corporated a bureau of vocational guidance which may have 
 control of the educational guidance as well. A report of the 
 Commission os' The Reorganization of Secondary Education of The 
 National Educational Association outlines ^ pretty definite 
 program for such a department. It should assist the child to 
 guide himself through educational career amd tt should 
 place the worker of the Continuation Department in positions 
 to which he is adapted. 
 
 7 Ibid., 13. 
 
 8 Ibid., 13. 
 
- 113 - 
 
 The Service of The Future Continuation School 
 
 Since the continuation school exists in an evolutionary- 
 social environment that is constantly changing and since this 
 institution itself is a result of this evolution, further growth 
 may be expected. Perhaps the time will, come when every state in 
 the Union w'ill have a well organized system of continuation edu- 
 cation, schools at which working children will be compelled to 
 attend until they have become eighteen years of age or until they 
 haire graduated from high school. If such state-wide systems 
 shall be inaugurated universally, SQuity of educational oppor- 
 tunity will be materially furthered. Hence, it follows that the 
 younger generation will tend to becoime more socially efficient. 
 
 But this is only part of the story. The state owes a 
 duty to the adult who has been imable to obtain an education. 
 Through the enlargement of the conception of the continuation 
 school, as the term is here used, the continuation school may 
 fulfill tts obligation by offering to him that educational 
 opportunity which perhaps he has never had. It may do more 
 than this. It may give the college graduate a chance to con- 
 tinue his studies at home under state guidance at state expense. 
 When the child must continue his educational growth and the 
 adult may have the chance to continue his in an institution 
 provided oy the state, the realization of the continuation 
 idea will be accomplished. Then continuation education will be 
 
 in a better position to assist in improving the social conditions 
 of America. 
 

 » k 
 
 M '' 
 
 
 i 
 
-114- 
 
 Selected Bitoliog:raphy 
 Briggs, Thomas S., The Junior High School 
 
 Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 5, 1931, "Part-Time Education 
 of Various Types" (See United States) 
 
 Dewey, John, Democracy and Education 
 
 Inglis, Alexander, Principles of Secondary Education 
 
 Johnston, Charles Hughes and Others, The Modern High School 
 

 I 
 
 I 
 
 
 A 
 
 \ 
 
 ■I 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 } 
 
 I 
 
-115- 
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 Provisions of Part-Time Compulsory Education Laws* 
 
 State 
 
 Law 
 
 in 
 
 ef- 
 
 fect 
 
 Minimum 
 number of 
 minors re- 
 quired to 
 establish 
 classes 
 
 Age of 
 requir- 
 ed at- 
 tend- 
 ance 
 
 Hours 
 
 of re- 
 
 quirdd 
 
 attends 
 
 ance 
 
 per 
 
 week 
 
 1919 
 
 15 
 
 14-16 
 
 5 
 
 1920 
 
 12(1) 
 
 14-18 
 
 4 
 
 1921 
 
 
 14-18 
 
 8 
 
 1919 
 
 15 
 
 14-16 
 
 8 
 
 1920 
 
 200(2) 
 
 14-16 
 
 4 
 
 1921 
 
 50(3) 
 
 14-18 
 
 8 
 
 1919 
 
 25 
 
 14-16 
 
 4 
 
 1919 
 
 15 
 
 14-18 
 
 4 
 
 1919 
 
 15 
 
 14-16 
 
 8 
 
 1919 
 
 15 
 
 14-18 
 
 4 
 
 1920 
 
 20 
 
 14-16 
 
 6 
 
 1919 
 
 15 
 
 14-16 
 
 b 
 
 1920 
 
 20(4) 
 
 14-18 
 
 4^8 
 
 1919 
 
 20 
 
 16-18 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 1919 
 
 15(5) 
 
 14-18 
 
 5 
 
 1915 
 
 20 
 
 14-16 
 
 8 
 
 1919 
 
 15 
 
 14-18 
 
 4 
 
 1920 
 
 15(6) 
 
 14-18 
 
 4 
 
 1921 
 
 (4) 1 
 
 14-18 
 
 8-20 
 
 Length of the 
 school year 
 
 Arizona 
 
 California 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 New York 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Utah 
 
 Wash ington 
 Wisconsin 
 
 150 hours 
 As public 
 Do/ 
 
 Do . 
 
 Do . 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 144 hfeurs 
 As public 
 36 weeks 
 150 hours 
 As public 
 144 hours 
 As public 
 Do. 
 
 144 hours 
 As public 
 8 months 
 
 school 
 
 school 
 
 scho'l 
 
 school 
 
 school 
 
 Exrlana 
 
 *( 1 ) 
 
 ^11 
 
 (3 
 
 (4) 
 
 it ions: 
 
 High school districts having 50 or more puoils must es- 
 tablish part-time classss. 
 
 Referendum law adopted by all towns except one. 
 Establishment of schools is compulsory only in school 
 districts having a population of 5,000 or more. 
 Establishment required only in cities of over 5,000. 
 Attendance upon evening school may be substituted. 
 Districts may organize schools upon written requests of 
 twenty-five residents. 
 
 ♦ This table was taken by the author from Federal Board for Vo- 
 cational Education Bulletin No. 55, 1920, page 8; it has been 
 revised to June 1, 1922, so far as'material lould bfoMainlS 
 
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-116- 
 
 APPENDIX II 
 
 Minimun amount available from the State Board for Vocational Edu- 
 cation because of the Smith— Hughes Act, for part-time work for 
 workers over 14 years of age, by years * 
 
 Fiscal 
 year 
 ending 
 June 30- 
 
 Minimum amount available for partirtirae schools and 
 
 classes 
 
 Federal money: " 
 
 Total federal 
 and state or 
 local money 
 
 one-third of 
 appropriation 
 for trade, home 
 economics, and 
 industrial sub- 
 
 St e or local 
 money; to match 
 federal appro- 
 priation 
 
 1917- 18 
 
 1918- 19 
 
 1919- 20 
 
 1920- 21 
 
 1921- 22 
 
 1922- 23 
 
 1923- 24 
 
 1924- 25 
 
 1925- 26 
 
 1926 - on 
 
 1377,333.34 
 530, 666* 66 
 689,333.34 
 852,000.00 
 1, G16, 666, 66 
 
 1.181.333.34 
 
 1.346.000. 00 
 
 1.704.000. 00 
 
 2.033.333.34 
 2,033^333.34 
 
 jects 
 
 |1S8, 666. 67 
 
 265.333.33 
 
 344. 666. 67 
 
 426.000. 00 
 
 508.333.33 
 
 590.666.67 
 
 673.000. 00 
 
 852.000. 00 
 
 1.016. 666.67 
 
 1. 016.6 66.67 
 
 $188,666.67 
 
 265.333.33 
 
 344.666.67 
 
 426. 000. 00 
 
 508.333.33 
 
 590.666.67 
 
 673.000. 00 
 
 852.000. 00 
 
 1,016,666.67 
 1,016,366,37 
 
 T Board for Yo°3-tional Education Bulletin No. 19 
 
 i y I K ij ^ 
 
-117- 
 
 Works Consulted; The Bibliography 
 
 Ale'xandsr, W. M,, ”The Factory As A Continuation School,” Proceed- 
 ings of The New York Teachers' Association, 1909, Index 
 University of New York, Albany. ' 
 
 Alltucker, Margaret M., Coordination in Part-Time Education, Uni- 
 versity of California, Berkeley, 1921. 
 
 Alsberg, Elsa, "Education of The Imrrigrant," Proceedings of The 
 
 National Educational Association, 1916, 786-792, Washington. 
 
 Anderson, Lewis F., "Beginnings in Industrial Education," School 
 and Society, 13:1-9, January 1, 1921. 
 
 Ayres, Leonard P., Laggards in Our Schools, Charities Publication 
 Commission, New York, 1909. 
 
 Bagley, W. C., "The Unit versus The Dual System of Vocational Edu- 
 cation," Educational Bimonthly, 9:191-199, February, 1915. 
 
 Ball, F. B., "Industrial Training in Continuation Schools," Proceed- 
 ings of The Pennsylvania State Educational Association, 
 
 1910, Index, Pennsylvania State Journal, Lancaster. 
 
 Bazeley, E. T., "Two Experiments in Voluntary Continuation Education 
 Journal of Experimental Pedagogy, 6:20-26 and 82-89, March 
 and June, 1921, 
 
 Bawden, William T., "The Relation of The Elementary School to Sub- 
 sequent Industrial Education," Proceedings of The National 
 EducaHonal Association, 1912, 907-915, Washington. 
 
 Bawden, William T., Vocational Education, United States Bureau of 
 Education Bulletin No. 25, 1919, Government Printing 
 Office, Washington, 
 
 Beloit, Wisconsin, Annual Report of The Industrial, Continuation, 
 Commercial, and Evening Schools, 1912-13 and 1913-14 
 Board of Education. ^ 
 
 Bennett, Charles A., "The Boston Continuation School," Manual 
 Training Magazine, 21:329-333, June, 1920. 
 
 Best, R. H. , and Ogden, C. K., The Problem of The Continuation 
 School, King and Son, London, 1914. 
 
 Blair, Francis G., "Amendment to The Continuation School Law " 
 
 Educat ional Press Bulletin, July, 1921. 
 
 Blair, Francis G., "Part-Time Education," Educational Press Bul- 
 letin, June, 1922. 
 
-118- 
 
 Blewett, Ben, ’’The Education of The Adult Immigrant,” Proceedings 
 of The National Educational Association, 1915. 439-445 
 Washington. ' 
 
 Board for Vocational Education, Illinois, Annual Reports: 1920 and 
 1921, Springfield. 
 
 Board for Vocational Education, Illinois, Day Continuation Schools 
 Bulletin No. 13, 1920, Springfield. * 
 
 Bonner, H. R., Statistics of State School Systems, 1917-18 United 
 States Bureau of Education, Bulletin No. 11, 1920, Govern- 
 ment Printing Office, Washington. 
 
 Briggs, Thomas S., The Junior High School, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 
 
 Brown, John F., The American High School, Macmillan, New York, 1917. 
 
 Callahan, John, "Part-Time Vocational Education," Pr@ceedings of 
 
 The National Educational Association, 1019, 272-275 Wash- 
 ington. ' 
 
 Carris, Lewis H., "Administration of Compulsory Part-Time Laws " 
 Vocational Summary, 2:22-27, June, 1919. ' 
 
 Carris, Lewis H., "The Significance of A State-Wide Continuation 
 School Law," Proceedings of The National Society for The - 
 Promotion of Education, 1917, 118-120, New York. 
 
 Cary, C. ?., "Danger Ahead:-Unity of The Educational System Threat- 
 ened," Journal of Education, 85:120-121, February 1, 1917. 
 
 Case, M. Elizabeth, "An Adventure in Education," New Republic 13: 
 209-211, December 22, 1917. * 
 
 Clark, Ruth S., "The Continuation School," Survey, 45: 541-542 
 January 8, 1921. • ' 
 
 Cole, Carlos M., "The Denver Opportunity School," Chicago School 
 Journal, 3:'10-13, September, 1920. 
 
 Colgrove, F.P., "The Part-Time Continuation School," Proceedings 
 of The National Educational Association, 1919, 619-621 
 Washington. ' 
 
 Commercial Club of Chicago, Vocational Schools for Illinois, Com- 
 mercial Club, Chicago, 1915. 
 
 "Compulsory^ Continuation Schools in New York," School and Society 
 10:516-517, November 1, 1919. 
 
 Connelley, C. B., "The Place of The Corporation and The Continuation 
 
 Journal of The National Educational Association, 
 
 1:412-417, January, 1917. 
 

 
 <4J»i. 
 
 • '■»’%r. ' ■ j- 
 
 ri<?tfialu.1Hi/-i 
 
 ^' ' ''!"■( 
 
 IT '/a 
 
 '*..■' ^^it''X' ,5oiv"-^l7»^ff «A X-iU/tO ^ ^ ■ ’ *> '' t--, . i- 5d*.-. .^, 
 
 ' - ■"'■'f, , ,;,1, 
 
 i* ' ^ , l' 
 
 t ' ■ ’ ' * ' ' I 
 
 IX 
 
 . <V¥ 
 
 ■> J " 
 
 ,.^,.:t^o^;f-,-t:'; X>i4w 
 " w. , : ,JC^®I •'.. ..7^ 
 
 .. '■' As ' - ^ 
 
 t.r; ,ncJW^ox-*^ X^ttikin^a^ ta'i-ut-^oaj 
 
 - ' .’ v^-nfiUt':i^ .£X .d*: olUdIv 
 
 f ",a’: ' : >“ '■ ■'. ".v‘^' 'a-' ' ‘f, ' ' ' '\ 
 
 ,*■ ' 7 ’'i \ tf'f '■'■A^i’'l ■,-K,\ ' -,?5 
 
 i), ' .' Al ’^''V, ,.C*^V ''. ., .-.S;, c J^ ,1 , ■ ,: i*y" ..';'••<• ■• ■•• •; ,- ■’-■■' .^ **■ "* “/ ' ' 
 
 ■•i, .■,-') -, .V K‘ V.,.5*t»>: ' .' » •-''. . V ;t. I i •, ■' /! .. ; W ’ ■ ■» ; .;• ^ -* ■ 
 
 ^■■Jfirj V fa -A "' 5b>‘w^‘ii 0 ^'i X ” i . -I «^o,^ 
 
 ' .»d? XC:^^ X- ,.*^-**— «...•»'! V ^aT.‘ n,y*Jn!*. .1.^ 
 
 ■ -^ ^ * 
 
 t^aiooe ■ •b.it^ha «:$r*'W'' ^^.-.fi '•’ " ' ‘.j 
 
 , xX'^' '* ' *4. 4i"Xsi>^i4^, ^ . 'X*--v‘ii.;;>C ^ ^ti.-0':io '|K 
 
 . V :'■ ■"'■ \ , ' "V’ vc, :/v \'' >, A.* . y , 
 
 ' . ^ - " .'*;m X'nrfn.f.p^C ,£',SS-J^0i^ . % ^ 
 
 i - ", •, ,,^i . '^, '■ -1-, ' ™ r^ 
 
 'i* ,.♦ 'f/ *■ ' 
 
 fct- '■.a.Jt.v c.' 4o'!^ofii>rct^eM#'^l!>0'i■n^^ 
 
 1. " ' '■ ^' '> , :'\li-i >.:v ■ V,.-’ iiftO* ■^4 ’.iWC" 
 
 i li 
 
 i’ife '’l^ ■*- fiT'JlP' XJ I ft tr^ :’itoS'5 h 
 
 ■ *'!■* ■■ ; ■' .ei';-,.: ,I :A}■' 3a^'yo^'■ ,j-C^Ui 
 
 I '' . ' V"/ *' ”‘'v Ali- rf''' Ji'i "** ' ^ """' ' -'’. 
 
 ; ® ' •■ ' .•■" ^ 
 
 Vi '’ < 
 
 ' '^i ^ 
 
 wf ' 
 
 
 LT! ‘ fLr I 
 
-119- 
 
 "Continuation Schools in Denmark," The Times (London), Educational 
 Supplement, 421-432, August 21, 1919. 
 
 Cooley, Edwin G.,"The Continuation School," American School Board 
 Journal, 45:11-59, Aup'ust, 1912. 
 
 Cooley, Edwin G., VCont inuation Schools, " Proceedings of The Nation- 
 al Educational Association, 1915, 1203-1207, Washington. 
 
 Cooley, Edwin G., "The Need for Vocational Schools," Educational 
 Review, 44:433-450, December, 1912, 
 
 Cooley, Edwin G., "The Part-Time School," School and Society 3: 
 843-847, June 10, 1916. ^ 
 
 Cooley, Edwin G., "Public Continuation Schools," Journal of The 
 
 National Educational Association, 1912, 1203-1207, Washing- 
 ton . 
 
 Cooley, Edwin G. , "Some Chicago Continuation Schools," School Life 
 4:1, January 15, 1920. " 
 
 Cooley, Edwin G., Vocational Education in Europe, Commercial Club 
 of Chicago, 1912. 
 
 Cooley, R. L., "Apprenticeship and Continuation Schools of Milwau- 
 Proceedings of The National Educational association, 
 1914, 614-618, Washington. 
 
 Cooley, L , "The Problem of The Continuation School," Proceedings 
 of The National Educational Association, 1919 275-279 
 
 Washington. ' 
 
 Cooley, R. L., "Schools and Continuation Schools," Industrial Arts 
 Magazine, 2:49-54, August 1914. 
 
 Course of Study for The Common Schools of Illinois, Sixth General 
 Revision, C. M. Parker, Taylorville, 1916. 
 
 Cubberley, Ellwood P,, Public School Administration, Houghton Mif- 
 flin, Boston, 1916. 
 
 Dean, A. D., "State-Wide Compulsory Continuation Education," Pro- 
 ceedings of The National Society for The Promotion of In— 
 dustrial Education, 1913, 40-54, Manual Arts Press, Peoria. 
 
 Illinois. ' ' 
 
 Dewey, John, Democracy and Education, Macmillan, yew York, 1916. 
 
 Douglas, Paul H. American Apprenticeship and Industrial Education. 
 Columbia University, New York, 1921. 
 
 Douglas, Paul H., "Apprenticeship and fts Relation to Industrial 
 Education," Pedagogical Semiaary, 25:65-74, March, 1918. 
 
 Dyer, Walter A., "A Whole-Hearted Half-Tim.e School," World's Work 
 28:452-460, August, 1914. * 
 
>r 
 
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- 120 - 
 
 Educaticnal Press Bulletin, June, 1917. 
 
 Educational Section of The British Association for The Advancement 
 
 of Science, School and Society, 10:499-500, October 25, 1919. 
 
 Ellwood, C. A., Sociology and Modern Social Problems, American 
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 Ettinger, W. L., "Americanization,” School and Society. 9:29-33 
 February 1, 1919. * 
 
 Ettinger, W. L., "The Life Career Motive in Education," School and 
 Society, 8:131-135, August 3, 1918. 
 
 Evans, Owen D., "The Young Worker and The Part-Time School " 
 
 Manual Training Magazine, 2;275-280, April, 1919. 
 
 Ferguson, Reginald W., "The Work School and Its Place in Our Edu- 
 cational System," Journal of Education and The School 
 World, London) 51:453-454, July 1, 1919. 
 
 Field, W. Stanwood, "The Boston Continuation Schools," Industrial 
 Arts Magazine, 5:546-547, December, 1916. 
 
 Field, W. Stanwood, "Vocational Training through Trade and Continu- 
 at ion Schools and Its Relation to The Democracy of Education 
 School and Society, 3:871-878. 
 
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-124- 
 
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