UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY AT URBANA -O ;A,WAIGN BOOKS I ACKS (J THE DABISTAN, MADAJME VEUVE DONDEY-DUPRE, Printer to the Asiatic Societies of London, Paris, and Calcutta, 46, rue St-Louis, Paris. THE DABISTAN, OR SCHOOL OF MANNERS, TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL PERSIAN, WITH NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, DAVID SHEA, OF THE ORIENTAL DEPARTMENT IN THE HONORABLE EAST INDIA COMPANY'S COLLEGE; ANTHONY TROYER, MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETIES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, OF CALCUTTA AND PARIS, AND OF THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF PARIS; EDITED, WITH A PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE, BY THE LATTER. VOLUME I. PARIS: PRINTED FOR THE ORIENTAL TRANSLATION FUND OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. SOLD BY BENJAMIN DUPRAT, BOOKSELLER TO THE BIBLIO I HEQLfi KOYALE, 7. RUE DU CLOITRE SAINT-BEVOIT. AND ALLEN AND CO., LEADENHALL-STP.EET, LONDON. 1843. TO JHemorg OF THE RIGHT HONORABLE Etc,, etc , etc. \M CONTENTS #/* the Preliminary Discourse. Page PART I. Introduction. Section I. How the Dabislan first became known its author the sources of his information. . . iii II. Discussion on the Dcsatir .................. xix PART II. Synopsis of the dynasties, religions, sects, and philosophic opi- nions treated of in the Dabistan. Section I. The first religion the dynasties of Mahabad, Abad Azar, Shai Abad, Shai Giliv, Shai Mah- bad, and Yasan ......................... hvi II. The Peshdadian, Kayanian, Ashkanian, and Sassanian dynasties their religious and political institutions ................... Ixxvii III. The religion of Zardusht, or Zoroaster ..... Ixxxiii IV. The religion of the Hindus ............. . cv V. Retrospect of the Persian and Indian religions cxx VI. The religion of the Tabitian (Tibetans) ...... cxxv VII. The religion of the Jews ............ . ..... ibid. VIII. The religion of the Christians ........... cxxvi IX. The religion of the Musclmans ............. cxxviii X. The religion of the Sadakiahs .............. cxli XL The religion of the Roshenians ............ cxlv XII. The religion of the Ilahiahs .............. cxlvii XIII. The religion of the Philosophers .......... cliii XIV. The religion of the Sufis ................ clxix XV. Recapitulation of the Contents of the Dabistan ibid. PART III. Conclusion. Section 1. General appreciation of the Dabistan and its author ................................ clxxix II. Notice concerning the printed edition, some manuscripts, and the translations of the Dabistan ............................. clxxxviii CONTENTS Of the Dabistdn (vol. I.) Page Introduction of the Author 1 CHAPTER I. Of the religion of the Parsian 4 Section I. Tenets and ceremonies observed by the Sipasian and Parsian 5 Description of the worship rendered to the seven pla- nets, according to the Sipasian faith 35 II. Description of the Sipasian sect 87 III. The laws of the Paiman-i-Farhang and the Hirbed Sar 147 Descriptions of the gradations of Paradise 150 Description of the infernal regions 152 IV. An account of the Jamshapian sect 193 V. The Samradian sect 195 VI. The tenets of the Khodaiyan 201 VII. The system of the Radian ibid. VIII. The Shidrangian creed 203 II. The Paikarian creed ibid. X. The Milanfan system 204 XL The system of the followers of Alar 206 XII. The Shfdanian faith 207 XIII. The system of the Akhshiyan sect. ibid. XIV. The followers of Zardusht 211 Account of the precepts given by Zardusht to the king and all mankind 260 The Sad-der, or " the hundred gates" of Zardusht 310 Enumeration of some advantages which arise from the enigmatical forms of the precepts of Zar- dusht's followers , . . 351 Summary of the contents of the Mah-zend 353 XV. An account of the tenets held by the followers of Mazdak 372 PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE. PART I. INTRODUCTION. I. How THE DABISTAN FIRST BECAME KNOWN ITS AUTHOR THE SOURCES OF HIS INFORMATION. . It is generally known that sir William Jones was the first who drew the attention of Orientalists to the Dabistan. This happened five years after the beginning of a new era in Oriental literature, the foundation of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta by that illustrious man. It rnay not appear inopportune here to revive the grateful remembrance ol one who acquired the uncontested merit of not only exciting in Asia and Europe a new ardor for Oriental stu- dies, but also of directing them to their great ob- jects MAN and NATURE ; and of endeavoring, by word and deed, to render the attainment of lan- guages conducive to the required knowledge equally easy and attractive. IV PKELIMINAKY DISCOURSE: Having, very early in life, gained an European reputation as a scholar and elegant writer, sir Wil- liam Jones embarked ' for the Indian shores with vast projects, embracing, with the extension of sci- ence, the general improvement of mankind. 2 Four months after his arrival in Calcutta, 3 he addressed as the first president of the Asiatic Society, a small but select assembly, in which he found minds responsive to his own noble sentiments. A rapid sketch of the first labors of their incomparable leader, may not be irrelevant to our immediate subject. In his second anniversary discourse, 4 he proposed a general plan for investigating Asiatic learning, history, and institutions. In his third discourse, he traced the line of investigation, which he faithfully followed, as long as he lived in India, in his annual public speeches : he determined to exhibit the pro- minent features of the five principal nations of Asia - the Indians, Arabs, Tartars, Persians, and Chi- nese. After having treated in the two following years of the Arabs and Tartars, he considered in his sixth discourse 5 the Persians, and declared that he 1 In April, 1783. 2 He landed at Calcutta in September, 1783. 3 In January, 1784. 4 Delivered in February, 1785. s In February, 1789. INTRODUCTION. had been induced by his earliest investigations to believe, and by his latest to conclude, that three primitive races of men must have migrated origi- nally from a central country, and that this country was Iran, commonly called Persia. -Examining with particular care the traces of the most ancient lan- guages and religions which had prevailed in this country, he rejoiced at " a fortunate discovery, for " which," he said, " he was first indebted to Mir '* Muhammed Hussain, one of the most intelligent " Muselmans in India, and which has at once dissi- ** pated the cloud, and cast a gleam of light on the " primeval history of Iran and of the human race, " of which he had long despaired, and which could " hardly have dawned from any other quarter;" this was, he declared, " the rare and interesting " tract on twelve different religions, entitled the Sir William Jones read the Dabistan for the first time in 1787. I cannot refrain from subjoining here the opinion upon this work, which he communi- cated in a private letter, dated June, 1787, to J. Shore, esq. (afterwards lord Teignmouth); he says: "The * ' greatest part of it would he very interesting to a " curious reader, but some of it cannot be translated. " It contains more recondite learning, more enter- 1 The works of sir William Jones, with the lite of the author, by lord Teignmouth, in 13 vols. Vol. 111. p. HO. 1807. VI PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE: ** taining history, more beautiful specimens of poetry, ** more ingenuity and wit, more indecency and blas- * ' phemy, than I ever saw collected in a single vo- ** lume; 1 the two last are not of the author's, but ' ' are introduced in the chapters on the heretics and ' " infidels of India. 2 On the whole, it is the most " amusing and instructive book I ever read in Per- " sian." 3 We may suppose it was upon the recommendation of sir William Jones, that Francis Gladwin, one of the most distinguished members of the new Society, translated the first chapter of The Dabistdn, or ' * School of Manners," which title has been preserved from due regard to the meritorious Orientalist, who first published the translation of a part of this work. The whole of it was printed in the year 1809, in Calcutta, and translations of some parts of it were published in The Asiatic Researches.* It is only at present, more than half a century after the first public notice of it by sir W. Jones, that the version 1 I shall hereafter give some explanations upon this subject. 2 There appears in the printed edition no positive ground for the opi- nion above expressed; we find, however, frequent repetitions of the same subject, such as are not likely to belong to the same author; we know, besides, that additions and interpolations are but too common in all Oriental manuscripts. 3 The Persian text, with the translation of the first chapter, appeared in the two first numbers of the New Asiatic Miscellany. Calcutta, 1789. This Knglish version was rendered into German by Dalberg, 1809. 4 These translations are mentioned in the notes of the present version. INTRODUCTION. Vll of the whole work appears, under the auspices and at the expense of the Oriental Translation Com- mittee of Great Britain and Ireland. Who was the author of the Dabistan? Sir Wil- liam Jones thought it was composed by a Muham- medan traveller, a native of Kachmir, named Moh- san, but distinguished by the assumed surname of Fdnij " the Perishable." Gladwin 1 calls him Shaikh Muhammed Mohsin, and says that, besides the Dabistan, he has left behind him a collection of poems, among which there is a moral essay, entitled Masdur ul asas, " the source of " signs;" he was of the philosophic sect of Sufis, and patronised by the imperial prince Dara Shikoh, whom he survived ; among his disciples in philo- sophy is reckoned Muhammed Tahir, surnamed Ghaw- n, whose poems are much admired in Hindostan. Mohsan's death is placed in the year of the Hejira 1081 (A. D. 1670). William Erskine, 2 in search of the true author of the Dabistan, discovered no other account of Mohsan Fani than that contained in the Gul-i-Rdana, ' ' charm- " ing rose," of Lachmi Naraydn, who flourished in Hyderabad about the end of the 18th or the begin- ning of the 19th century. This author informs us, under the article of Mohsan Fani, that ' * Mohsan, a 1 New Asiatic Misc., p. 87. 2 Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay, vol. II. p. 374. Vlll PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE: " native of Kachmir, was a learned man and a " respectable poet; a scholar oi ' Mulla Yakub, Sufi of " Kachmir; and that, after completing his studies, " he repaired to Delhi, to the court of the emperor " Shah Jehan, by whom, in consequence of his great *' reputation and high acquirements, he was appoin- " ted Sadder, * chief judge,' of Allahabad; that " there he became a disciple of Shaikh Mohib ulla, " an eminent doctor of that city, who wrote the " treatise entitled Teswich, ' the golden Mean. ' " Mohsan Fani enjoyed this honorable office till * ' Shah Jehan subdued Balkh ; at which time Nazer " Muhammed Khan, the Wall, ' prince,' of Balkh, " having effected his escape, all his property was *' plundered. It happened that in his library there *' was found a copy of Mohsan's Diwan, or ' poeti- " ' cal Collection,' which contained an ode in praise *' of the (fugitive) Wali. This gave such offence *' to the emperor, that the Sadder was disgraced and ** lost his office, but was generously allowed a pen- " sion. He retired (as Lachmi informs us) to his " native country, where he passed the rest of his " days without any public employment, happy and " respected. His house was frequented by the " most distinguished men of Kachmir, and among "the rest by the governors of the province. He " had lectures at his house, being accustomed to ' ' read to his audience the writings of certain authors INTRODUCTION. IX " of eminence, on which he delivered moral and ' ' philosophical comments. Several scholars of note, " among whom were Taher Ghawri (before men- " tioned) and Haji Aslem Salem, issued Irom his 44 school." He died on the before mentioned date. " It is to be observed that Lachmi does not mention " the Dabislan as a production of Mohsan Fani, " though, had he written it, it must have been his 4 ' most remarkable work . " Erskine goes on to recapitulate some particulars mentioned in the Dabistan of the author's life, and concludes that it seems very improbable that Mohsan Fani and the author of the Dabistan were the same person. In this conclusion, and upon the same grounds, he coincides with the learned Vans Ken- nedy. ' Erskine further quotes, 2 from a manuscript copy of the Dabistan which he saw in the possession of Mulla Firuz,in Bombay, the following marginal note annexed to the close of chapter XIV. : ** In the city ** of Daurse, a king of the Parsis, of the race of the " imperial Anushirvan, the Shet Dawer Huryar, " conversed with Amir Zulfikar Ali-al-Husaini (on " whom be the grace of God!), whose poetical " name was Mobed Shah. " This Zulfikar Ali, who- ever he was, the Mulla supposes to be the author of 1 Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay, vol. II. pp. 243-244. 2 Ibid., pp 37B-37A. X PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE: the Dabistan. Erskine judiciously subjoins: " On so " slight an authority, I would not willingly set up an ' ' unknown author as the compiler of that work ; but " it is to be remarked that many verses of Mobed's (t are quoted in the Dabistan, and there is certainly ' ' reason to suspect that the poetical Mobed, whoever " he may be, was the author of that compilation." '* To this let it be added, that the author of the " Dabistan, in his account of Mobed Serosh, says' "' that one Muhammed Mohsan, a man of learning, "told him that he had heard Mobed Serosh give "three hundred and sixty proofs of the existence 4 * of God . This at least makes Muhammed Mohsan , u whoever he may be, a different person from the " author of the Dabistan." I cannot omit adding the following notice annexed to the note quoted above: '* Between the printed " copy and Mulla Firuz's manuscript before alluded "to, a difference occurs in the very beginning of ** the work. After the poetical address to the " Deity and the praise of the prophet, with which '< the Dabislan, like most other Muselman works, " commences, the manuscript reads : ' Mohsan Fani " * says,' and two moral couplets succeed. In the " printed copy, the words ' Mohsan Fani says,' 1 See the present Transl., vol. I. pp. 113-114. A mistake is Here to be pointed out: at p. 114, 1. 11, the name of Kaivan has been substituted for that of Mobed Serosh. (t INTRODUCTION. XI which should occur between the last word ot the first page and the first word of the second are omitted. As no account of the author is given in the beginning of the book, as is usual with Muselman writers, Mulla Firuz conjectures that a ' ' careless or ignorant reader may have considered ** the words ' Mohsan Fani says' as forming the *' commencement of the volume, and as containing * ' the name of the author of the whole book ; whereas " they merely indicate the author of the couplets " that follow, and would rather show that Mohsan ** Fani was not the writer of the Dabistan. This " conjecture, I confess, appears to me at once * 4 extremely ingenious and very probable. A com- " parison of different manuscripts might throw " more light on the question." Concerning the opinion last stated, I can but re- mark, that in a manuscript copy of the Dabistan, which I procured from the library of the king of Oude, and caused to be transcribed for me, the very same words : " Mohsan Fani says," occur (as I have observed in vol. I. p. 6, note 3), preceding a rabad, or quatrain, which begins : "The world is a book full of knowledge and of justice," etc. etc. These lines seern well chosen as an introduction to the text itself, which begins by a summary of the whole work, exhibiting the titles of the twelve chap- ters of which it is composed. As the two copies XII PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE: mentioned (the one found in Bombay, the other in Lucknow) contain the same words, they can hardly be taken for an accidental addition of a copyist. I found no remark upon this point in Mr. Shea's translation, who had two manuscript copies to refer to. Whatever it be, it must still remain unde- cided, whether Mohsan Fani was there named only as the author of the next quatrain or of the whole book, although either hypothesis may not appear destitute of probability ; nor can it be considered strange to admit that the name of Mohsan Fani was borne by more than one individual. 1 shall be per- mitted to continue calling the author of the Dabistan by the presumed name of Mohsan Fani. Dropping this point, we shall now search for information upon his person, character, and know- ledge in the work itself. Is he really a native of Kachmir, as here before stated? Although in the course of his book he makes fre- quent mention of Kachmir, he never owns himself a native of that country. In one part of his narra- tive, he expressly alludes to another home. He begins the second chapter upon the religion of the Hindus (vol. II. p. 2) by these words: " As incon- " slant fortune had torn away the author from the " shores of Persia, and made him the associate of ** the believers in transmigration and those who " addressed their prayers to idols and images, and INTRODUCTION. " worshipped demons * V Now we know that Kachmir is considered as a very ancient seat, nay as the very cradle, of the doctrine of transmigration, and of Hinduism in general, with all its tenets, rites, and customs ; and that from the remotest limes to the present it was inhabited by numerous adhe- rents of this faith; how could the author, if a native of Kachmir, accuse inconstant fortune for having made him elsewhere an associate of these very reli- gionists with whom, from his birth, he must have been accustomed to live? The passage just quoted leaves scarce a doubt that the shores of Persia, from which he bewails having been torn, were really his native country. When was he born? He no where adduces the date of his birth ; the earliest period of his life which he mentions, is the year of the Hejira 1028 (A. D. 1618) : ' in this year the Mobed Hushi'ar brought the author to Balik Natha,a great adept in the Yoga, or ascetic devotion, to receive the blessing of that holy man, who pro- nounced these words over him: " This boy shall ''acquire the knowledge of God." It is not stated in what place this happened. The next earliest date is five years later, 1035 of the Hejira (A. D. 1623). a 1 See vol. II. p. 137. 2 See vol. II. p. 145. Xiv PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE : He says that, in his infancy, he came with his friends and relations from Patna to the capital Akbar-abad, and was carried in the arms of the Mobed Hushiar to Chatur Vapah, a famous ascetic of those days. The pious man rejoiced at it, arid bestowed his bless- ing on the future writer of the Dabistan ; he taught him the mantra, " prayer," of the sun, and appointed one of his disciples to remain with the boy until the age of manhood. We have here a positive state- ment: in the year 1623 A. D., he was c< in his " infancy," and carried " in the arms of his pro- " tector. " Giving the widest extension to these expressions, we can hardly think him to have been either much older or younger than seven or eight years : not much older, for being in some way car- ried in the arms of the Mobed ; nor much younger, having been taught a hymn to the sun, and he might have been a boy of three years when he received the first-mentioned blessing from Balik Natha. We may therefore suppose him to have been born about the year 1615 of our era, in the tenth year of the reign of the emperor Jehangir. We collect in his work fifty-three dates relative to himself between the year 1618 and 1653. From 1627 to 1643, we see him mostly in Kachmir and Lahore, travel- ling between these two places; in 1643, he was at the holy sepulchre, probably at Meshhad, which appears to be the furthermost town to the West INTRODUCTION. XV which he reached ; from 1654 to 1649, he dwelt in several towns of the Panjab and Guzerat; the next year he proceeded to Sikakul, the remotest town in the East which he says he has visited ; there he fell sick, and sojourned during 1655, at which epoch, it the year of his birth be correctly inferred, he had attained his thirty-eighth year. We have no other date of his death than that before stated : if he died in 1670, it was in the eleventh year of the reign of Aurengzeb, or Alemgir. Mohsan Fani would there- fore have passed his infancy, youth, and manhood mostly in India, under the reigns of the three empe- rors, Jehangi'r, Shah Jehan, and Aurengzeb.' It was the state of religion, prevailing in those days in Hindostan that he describes. From his earliest age he appears to have led an active life, frequently changing his residence. Such a mode of life belongs to a travelling merchant or philosopher, and in our author both qualities might have been united, as is often the case in Asia. Moh- san Fani, during his travels, collected the diversified and curious materials for the Dabistan ; he observed with his own eyes the manners and customs of dif- ferent nations and sects. He says himself at the conclusion of his work : " After having much fre- " quented the meetings of the followers of the five 1 Jehangir reigned from 1605 to 1628. Shah Jehan 16281659. Aurengzeb - 1659-1707. XVI PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE: " before-said religions," Magians, Hindus, Jews, Nazareans, and Muselmans, " the author wished " and undertook to write this book; and what- ' ' ever in this work, treating of the religions of dif- " ferent countries, is stated concerning the creed " of different sects, has been taken from their " books, and for the account of the persons belong- " ing to any particular sect, the author's informa- " tion was imparted to him by their adherents and " sincere iriends, and recorded literally, so that no ' * trace of partiality nor aversion might be perceived : ' ' in short, the writer of these pages performed no " more than the task of a translator." This decla- ration, even to a severe critic, may appear satisfac- tory. Sir William Jones called him' a learned and accurate, a candid and ingenious author. A fur- ther appreciation of Mohsan Fani's character is reserved for subsequent pages. We can, however, here state, that he sought the best means of infor- mation, and gives us what he had acquired not only from personal experience, which is always more or less confined ; not only from oral instruction, which is too often imperfectly given and received; but also from an attentive perusal of the best works which he could procure upon the subject of his investiga- tion. Of the latter authorities which the author produces, some are known in Europe, and we may 1 The Works of sir W. Jones, vol. IV. pp. 16 and 105. INTRODUCTION. XVH judge of the degree of accuracy and intelligence with which he has made use of them. Of others, nothing at all, or merely the name, is known. This is generally the case with works relative to the old Persian religion, which is the subject of the first chapter, divided into fifteen sections. The authorities which he adduces for this chapter are as follow : 1. The Amighistan (vol. I. pp. 15. 26. 42), without the name of its author. 2. TheDmfor(vol. I. pp. 20. 21. 44. 65), an heaven- bestowed book. 3. The Darai Sekander (vol. I. pp. 34. 360), com- posed by Dawir Haryar. 4. The Akhteristan, " region of the stars" (vol. I. pp. 35. 42). 5. The Jashen Sadah, *' the festival of Sadah"(the 16th night of January) (vol. I. pp. 72. 112). 6. The Sdrudi-mastan, " song of the intoxicated" (vol. I. p. 76. vol. II. p. 136): this and the preceding work composed by Mobed Hushiar. 7. The Jam-i-Kai Khusro, *' the cup of Kai Khusro, ' a commentary upon the poems of Azar Kaivan, composed by Mobed Khod Jai (vol. I. pp. 76. 84. 119. 8. The Sharistan-i-Danish wa Gulistan-i-birtish, " the " pavilion of knowledge and rose-garden of b XV1I1 PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE: 44 vision" (vol. I. p. 77. 89. 109), composed by Far/anah Bahrain. 9. The Zerdusht Afshar (vol. I. p. 77), work of the Mobed Serosh, who composed also: 10. Nosh Dam, "sweet medicine" (vol. I. p. 11 4); and 11. The Sagangubin, " dog's honey" (vol. I. p. 114). 12. The Bazm-gah-i-durvishan, " the banquetting- t( room of the durvishes" (vol. I. pp. 104. 108), without the name of the author. 13. The Arzhang Mam, ' ' the gallery of Mani ' ' (vol . 1 . p. 151). 14. The Tabrah-i-Mobedi, *' the sacerdotal keltio- " drum " (vol. I. p. 123), by Mobed Paristar. 15. The Dadistan Aursah (vol. I. p. 131). 16. The Amizesh-i-farhang (vol. I. p. 145), containing the institutes of the Abadiah durvishes. 17. The Mihin farush (vol. 1. p, 244). 18 The Testament of Jamshid toAbtin (vol. I. p. 195), compiled by Farhang Dostiir. 19. Razabad, composed by Shi'dab. 20. The Sdnydl, a book of the Sipasians (vol. II. p. 136), containing an account of a particular sort of devotion. 21. The Rama zastan of Zardusht (vol. I. p. 369 and vol. II. p. 136). 22. Huz al Hayat (vol. II. p. 137), composed by Ambaret Kant. 23. The Samrad Nameh, by Kamkar (vol. I. p, 201). DISCUSSION ON THE DESATIK. XIX Besides other writings oi'Zertusht, in great num- ber, which the author has seen. These works are most probably of a mystical nature, and belong to a particular sect, but may contain, however, some interesting traditions or facts of ancient history. Of the twenty- three books just enumerated, a part of the third only is known to us, namely, that of the Desatir. II. DISCUSSION ON THE DfiSATIR. This word was considered to be the Arabic plural of the original Persian word dostur, signifying " a " note-book, pillar, canon, model, learned man;" but, according to the Persian grammar, its plural would be dosturdn, or dosturha, and not desdtir. From this Arabic form of the word an inference was drawn against the originality and antiquity of the Desatir; but this of itself is not sufficient, as will be shown. Other readings of the title are Dastdnir, in one passage, ' and Wasdtir* in two other places of Glad- win's Persian text, and the last also in a passage of the printed edition . 3 The first is not easily accounted See note, vol. I. p. 20. 2 Ibid., p. 44. 3 Calcutta edition, p. 30, line 6. XX PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE : for, and is probably erroneous ; but ihe second is found in the index of the printed edition, ' under the letter j, -yaw, and explained : " the name of the book " of Mahabad ;" it cannot therefore be taken for a typographical error, and is the correct title of the book, as I now think, although I formerly 2 pre- ferred reading Desdtir. It is derivable from the Sansrcit root &*^ was, '* to sound, to call," and therefore in the form of wasdtis or wasdtir (the r and s being frequently substituted for the msarga} it sig- nifies " speech, oracle, precept, command." It is also in connection with the old Persian word wak- shur, " a prophet." Considering the frequent sub- stitution in kindred languages of ba for va, and ba for bha, it may also be referred to the root w bha- sha, " to speak," 3 which, with the prepositions part and saw, signifies " to explain, expound, discourse." Hence we read in the Commentary of the Desdtir the ancient Persian word basdtir* (not to be found in modern Persian vocabularies), which is there inter- preted by u speculations," in the following passage : See vol. I. p. 534. 2 j^y., p. 65. 3 M. Eugene Burnouf, to whose most valuable judgment I had the pleasure to submit the question, prefers the derivation from bha'sh, because this word in Zend would be wdsh, as the Zend w represents exactly the Sanscrit bh, which aspiration did not exist in the ancient idiom of Bactrian Asia. This sagacious philologer hinted at a comparison with the Persian usta, or awesta, upon which in a subsequent note. * See the Persian text of the Dasatir, p. 377. DISCUSSION ON THE DESAT1R. XXI " the speculations (basatir) which 1 have written on " the desdtir." I shall nevertheless keep, in the ensuing Dis- sertation, the tide Desatir, because it is generally adopted. Besides, in the Mahabadian texl, the van, j frequently occurs for the Persian ddl, > thus we find ,j 3 b wdden, for ^b, ddden, " to give;" and wdrem, pb , for ddrem, >jb, "I have;" but 1 am aware that the two letters, so similar in their form, may be easily confounded with each other by the copyist or printer. The extract from the Desatir contained in the Dabistan was thought worthy of the greatest atten- tion by sir William Jones, as before mentioned; nay, appeared to him " an unexceptionable authority," before a part of the Desatir itself was published in Bombay, in the year 1818, that is, twenty-four years after the death of that eminent man. The author of the Dabistan mentions the Desatir as a work well known among the Sipasians, that is, the adherents of the most ancient religion of Persia. According to his statement, the emperor Akbar conversed frequently with the fire-adorers of Guze- rat ; he also called from Persia a follower of Zer- dusht, named Ardeshir, and invited (ire-worshippers from Kirman to his court, and received their reli- gious books from that country ; we may suppose (he XX11 PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE: Desatir was among them. So much is positive, that it is quoted in the Sharistan chehar chemen, a work composed by a celebrated doctor who lived under the reigns of the emperors Akbar and Jehan- gir, and died A. D. 1624. The compiler of the Burhani Kati, a Persian Dictionary, to be compared to the Arabic Kamus, or " sea of language," quotes and explains a great number of obsolete words and philosophic terms upon the authority of the Desatir : this evidently proves the great esteem in which this work was held. Let it be considered that a dic- tionary is not destined for the use of a sect merely, but of the whole nation that speaks the language, and this is the Persian, considered, even by the Arabs, as the second language in the world and in paradise. ' It is to be regretted that Mohsan Fani did not relate where and how he himself became acquainted with the Desatir. I see no sufficient ground for the supposition of Silvestre de Sacy 2 and an anony- mous critic," that the author of the Dabistan never saw the Desatir. So much is certain, that the ac- count which he gives of the Mahabadian religion 1 Tableau de V Empire ottoman, by M. d'Ohson, t. II. p. 70. 2 Journal des Savons, ftvrier 1821, p. 74. The Persian passage which de Sacy quotes, and in which there is Destanir for Dasatir, is taken from the text published by Gladwin, and not from the printed Calcutta edition. 3 See Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British India and its Dependencies, vol. VIII., from July to Dec. 1819, p. 357. DISCUSSION OK THE DESATIK. XXJil coincides in every material point with that which is contained in that part of the sacred book which was edited in Bombay by Mulla Firuz Bin-i-Kaus. ' This editor says in his preface (p. vi) : " The " Desatir is known to have existed for many years, "' and has frequently been referred to by Persian " writers, though, as it was regarded as the sacred " volume of a particular sect, it seems to have been ** guarded with that jealous care and that incom- " municative spirit, that have particularly distin- " guished the religious sects of the East. We can '* only fairly expect, therefore, that the contents " should be known to the followers of the sect." Mulla Firuz employs here evidently the term sect with respect to the dominant religion of theMuham- medan conquerors, whose violent and powerful in- tolerance reduced the still faithful followers of the ancient national religion to undergo the fate of a persecuted sect. But we shall see that the doctrine of the Desatir is justly entitled to a much higher pretension than to be that of an obscure sect. Whatever it be, Mulla Firuz possessed the only 1 The Desatir, or sacred writings of the ancient Persian prophets in the original tongue; with the ancient Persian version, and commentary of the fifth Sasan ; published by Mulla Firuz Bin-i-Kaus. Bombay, 1818. Mulla Firuz is supposed to possess the only copy of the Desatir extant. He allowed sir John Malcolm to take a copy of it, which, by some acci- dent, was lost by Doctor I,eyden (See Transact, of the Lit. Soc. of Bom- bay, pp. 342 and 349). XXIV PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE: manuscript of the work then known in Bombay. It was purchased at Isfahan by his father Kaus, about the year 1778, from a bookseller, who sold it under the title of a Gueber book. Brought to Bombay, it attracted the particular attention of Mr. Duncan, then governor of Bombay, to such a degree, that he began an English translation of the work, which was inter- rupted by his return to England. The final comple- tion of the version was owing to the great encourage- ment which sir John Malcolm gave Mulla Firuz in consequence of the high opinion which sir William Jones had publicly expressed of the Dabistan, the author of which drew his account of the ancient Persian dynasties and religions chiefly from the Desatir. There is an interval of one hundred and thirty-three years 1 between the composition of the Dabistan and the fortuitous purchase of the manu- script copy of the Desatir, by Kaus in Isfahan ; as it would be assuming to much to suppose that the latter is the same from whichMohsan Fani drew his inform- ation, we can but admit that the agreement of both, in the most material points, affords a confirmation of each respective text. The great Orientalist Silvestre de Sacy, on re- viewing the Desatir, 2 says: " We are in a man- 1 Mohsan Fani marks the time of his composing the Dabislan (vol. II l. 50) to be the year of the Hejira 1055 (A. D. 1645). a See Journal des Savons, No. for January, 1821, p. 16. DISCUSSION ON THE DESAT1R. XXV 44 ner frightened by the multitude and gravity of " the questions which we shall have to solve, or at * * least to discuss ; for every thing is here a problem : * ' What is the age of the book ? Who is its author? 44 Is it the work of several persons ; or the divers ' ' parts of which it is composed, are they written by " one and the same author, although attributed to *' different individuals, who succeeded each other " at long intervals? The language in which it was " written, was it, at any epoch, that of the inhabi- 44 tants of Persia, or of any of the countries com- " prised in the empire of Iran? Or is it nothing ** but a factitious language, invented to support an ' ' imposture ? At what epoch were made the " Persian translation accompanying the original 44 text, and the commentary joined to this transla- " tion? Who is the author of the one and the 44 other? Are not this translation and this commen- 44 tary themseh r es pseudonymous and apocryphal " books; or may not the whole be the work of an " impostor of the latter centuries? All these ques- 44 tions present themselves in a crowd to my mind ; '* and if some of them appear to be easily answered. t6 others offer more than common difficulties." Well may a person, even with far greater pre- tensions than mine can be, hesitate to attempt the discussion of a subject which frightened the illustrious Silveslre de Sacy; but as the Desalir is one of the XXVI PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE: principal sources from which ihe author of the Dabistan drew his account of the Persian religion and its divers sects a considerable part of his work I cannot dispense with presenting the subject in the state in which the discussions hitherto published, by very respectable critics, have left it. If I venture to ofler a few remarks of my own upon it, it is only in the hope of provoking further elucidations by philologers who shall examine the Mahabadian text itself, and by arguments drawn from its fundamen- tals decide the important question whether we shall have one language more or less to count among the relics of antiquity? Instead of following the order in which the ques- tions are stated above, I will begin by that which appears to me the most important, namely: " the " language in which the Desatir is written, is it " nothing but a factitious language invented to sup- '* port an imposture?" The forgery of a language, so bold an imposture, renders any other fraud probable ; through a false medium no truth can be expected, nor even sought. But, in order to guard against the preconception of a forgery having taken place, a preconception the existence of which may, with too good a foundation, be apprehended, 1 shall first examine, as a general thesis, whether the invention of a language, by one individual or by a few individuals, is in itself pro- DISCUSSION ON THE DESATIR. XX VII bable and credible. I shall only adduce those prin- ciples which have received the sanction of great phi- lologers, among whom it may be sufficient to name baron William Humboldt, and claim the reader's indulgence, if, in endeavoring to be clear, I should not have sufficiently avoided trite observations. Tracing languages up to their first origin, it has been found that they are derived from sounds ex- pressive of feelings ; these are preserved in the roots, from which, in the progressive development of the faculty of speech, verbs, nouns, and the whole lan- guage, are formed. In every speech, even in the most simple one, the individual feeling has a con- nection with the common nature of mankind ; speech is not a work of reflection : it is an instinctive crea- tion. The infallible presence of the word required on every occasion is certainly not a mere act of memory ; no human memory would be capable of furnishing it, if man did not possess in himself instinctively the key, not only for the formation of words, but also for a continued process of asso- ciation : upon this the whole system of human language is founded. By entering into the very substance of existing languages, it appears evi- dent that they are intellectual creations, which do not at all pass from one individual to others, but can only emerge from the coexisting self-activity of all. XXVI11 PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE: " - That one the names of things contrived, " And that from him their knowledge all derived, " Tis fond to think." * As long as the language lives in the mouth of a nation, the words are a progressive production and reproduction of the faculty to form words. In this manner only can we explain, without having re- course to a supernatural cause, how millions of men can agree to use the same words for every object, the same locution for every feeling. Language in general is the sensible exterior vest- ment of thought ; it is the product of the intelli- gence, and the expression of the character of man- kind; in particular it may be considered as the exterior manifestation of the genius of nations : their language is their genius, and their genius is their language. We see of what use the investigation of idioms may be in tracing the affinities of na- tions. History and geography must be taken as guides in the researches upon tongues ; but these researches would be futile, if languages were the irregular product of hazard. No : profound feeling and immediate clearness of vivid intuition act with wonderful regularity, and follow an unerring ana- 1 Lucretius, book V., Transl. of Dr Creech: " putare aliqueni turn nomina distribuisse " Rebus, et inde homines didicisse vocabula prima " Desipere est." DISCUSSION ON THE DESATIR. XXIX logy. The genesis of languages may be assimilated to that of works of genius 1 mean, of that creative faculty which gives rules to an art. Thus is it the language which dictates the grammar. Moreover, the utmost perfection of which an idiom is suscep- tible is a line like that of beauty, which, once attain- ed, can never be surpassed. This was the case with some ancient tongues. Since that time, man- kind appear to have lost a faculty or a talent, inas- much as they are no more actuated by that urgency of keen feeling which was the very principle of the high perfection of those languages. Comparative philology, a new science, sprung up within the last thirty years, but already grown to an unforeseen perfection, has fixed the principles by which the affinities of languages may be known, even among the apparently irregular disparities which various circumstances and revolutions of the different nations have created. This would have been impossible, if there did not exist a fundamental philosophy of language, however concealed, and a certain consistency, even in the seemingly most irregular modification of dialect, for instance, in that of pronunciation. But, even the permutation of letters in different and the most rude dialects, has its rules, and follows, within its own compass, a spontaneous analogy, such as is indispensable lor the easy and common practice of a society more or XXX PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE! less numerous. Thus sounds, grammatical forms, and even graphical signs of language have been sub- jected to analysis and comparison ; the significant radical letters have been distinguished from the merely accidental letters, and a distinction has been established between what is fundamental, and what is merely historical and accidental. From these considerations I conclude : First That the forgery of a language is in itself highly improbable ; Secondly That, if it had been attempted, compara- tive philology is perfectly capable of detect- ing it. Taking a large historical view of this subject, we cannot suppress the following reflection : The forma- tion of mighty and civilized states being admitted, even by our strictest chronologers, to have taken place at least twenty-five centuries before our era, it can but appear extraordinary, even after taking in account violent revolutions, that of so multitudinous and great existences, only such scanty documents should have come down to us. But, strange to say, whenever a testimony has escaped the destruction of time, instead of being greeted with a benevolent although discerning curiosity, the unexpected stran- ger is approached with mistrustful scrutiny, his voice is stifled with severe rebukes, his credentials dis- DISCUSSION ON HIE DESATIR. XXXI carded with scorn, and by a predetermined and stubborn condemnation, resuscitating antiquity is repelled into the tomb of oblivion. I am aware that all dialectical arguments which have been or may be alleged against the proba- bility of forging a language, would be of no avail against well-proved facts, that languages have been forged, and that works, written in them, exist. We may remember the example adduced by Rich- ardson ' of a language, as he said, *' sufficiently " original, copious, and regular to impose upon " persons of very extensive learning," forged by Psalmanazar. This was the assumed name of a an individual, whom the eminent Orientalist calls a Jew, but who, born in 1679, in Languedoc or in Provence, of Christian parents, received a Chris- tian, nay theological education, as good as his first instructors, Franciscans, Jesuits, and Dominicans could bestow. This extraordinary person threw himself at a very early age into a career of adven- tures, in the course of which, at the age of seventeen years, he fell upon the wild project of passing for a native of the island of Formosa, first as one who had been converted to Christianity, then, as still a pagan, he let himself be baptized by a Scotch minis- ter, by whom he was recommended to an English bishop ; the latter, in his pious illusion, promoted 1 Richardson's Dictionary, preface, Ixvii. PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE : at once the interests of the convenor, and the fraud of the neophyte. l This adventurer who was bold enough, while on the continent, to set about in- venting a new character and language, a grammar, and a division of the year into twenty months, pub- lished in London, although not twenty years old, a translation of the catechism into his forged lan- guage of Formosa, and a history of the island with his own alphabetical writing, which read from right to left a gross fiction the temporary success of which evinces the then prevailing ignorance in his- tory, geography, and philology. But pious zeal and fanaticism had changed a scientific discussion into a religious quarrel, and for too long a lime rendered vain the objections of a few truly learned and clear- 1 This man, who never told his true name, was from the age of fifteen to seventeen a private teacher then passed for an Irishman -went to Rome as a pilgrim with a habit stolen from before an altar where it was lying as a votive offering of another pilgrim wandered about in Germany, Brabant, Flanders indolent, abject, shameless, covered with vermin and sores entered the military service of Holland, which he left to become waiter in a coffee-house in Aix-la-Chapelle enlisted in the troops of the elector of Cologne. He acted all these parts, with those above-mentioned, before be was baptised under the name of George, by a Scotch clergy- man, and, having learned English, passed over to England to be protected by Compton, the lord-bishop of London. At the expense of the latter, he studied at Oxford became a preceptor- chaplain of a regiment fell back into indolence, and lived upon alms. (See A New and General Dictionary, London, 1798, vol. XII ; and Vie de plusieurs Personnages ctlebres des Temps anciens et modernes, par C. A. Walckenaer, membre de Vlnittitut, tome II. 1830. ) DISCUSSION ON THE DESATIR. XX XI II sighted men ; until the impostor, either incapable of supporting longer his pretensions or urged by his conscience, avowed the deception, and at last became a truly learned good and estimable man. ' We see this example badly supports the cause of forged languages. In 1805, M. Rousseau, since consul-general of France at Aleppo, found in a private library at Bagh- dad a dictionary of a language which is designated by the name of Baldibalan, interpreted " he who " vivifies," and written in Arabic characters called Neshki; it was explained in Arabic, Persian, and Turkish. The unknown author of the dictionary composed it for the intelligence of mysterious and occult sciences, written in that language. The highly learned Silveslre de Sacy had scarce been informed of this discovery, when he sought and found in the Royal Library, at Paris, the same dic- tionary, and with his usual diligence and sagacity published a short but lucid Notice of it. 2 What he said therein was sufficient for giving an idea of the manner in which this language participates in the grammatical forms of Arabic, Persian, and Turkish. 1 This change took place in his thirty-second year he learned Hebrew and became an honest man, esteemed by Samuel Johnson ; he wrote eleven articles in a well-known work, the Universal History, and his own Life at the age of seventy-three years ; the latter work was published after his death, which happened in his eighty-fourth year, in 1763. a See JVof ices et Extraits des Manuscrit$, vol. IX. pp. 365-396. XXXIV PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE: Silvestre de Sacy, as well as M. Rousseau, have left it uncertain whether the language be dead or living ; by whom and at what period it was formed, and what authors have made use of it. The former adds, that some works written in Balaibalan are likely to be found in the hands of the Siifis of Persia. This language deserves perhaps a further exa- mination. All that is positive in the just-adduced statement of the two great Orientalists may be said of any other language, which is not original but com- posed, as for instance the English or the Dutch, of more than one idiom. We can but admit that, at all times an association of men for a particular purpose, a school of art, science, and profession may have, has, and even must have, a particular phraseology. Any modification of ancient, or production of new, ideas, will create a modified or a new language ; any powerful influence of particular circumstances will produce a similar effect ; this is a spontaneous repro- duction, and not the intentional forgery of a lan- guage. Such a forgery, even if it could remain undetected, which it cannot in our times, would but furnish a curious proof of human ingenuity, to which no bounds can be assigned ; but the true and sole object of a language could never be attained by it ; because, never would a great number of independent men be disposed, nor could they be forced, to adopt the DISCUSSION ON THE DESATIR. XXXV vocabulary, grammar, and locutions of a single man, and appropriate them to themselves for the perpe- tual expression of their inmost mind, and for the exchange of their mutual feelings and ideas. ' To effect this, is a miracle ascribed to the Divinity, and with justice ; being the evident result of the Heaven- bestowed faculty of speech, one of the perpetual miracles of the world. Of this a prophet must avail himself who an- nounces to the world the important intelligence of a heavenly revelation. The great purpose of his sacred mission implies the widest possible proclam- ation of his doctrine in a language generally intel- ligible, which a forged language never can be. If, as was surmised, 2 the Desatir be set up as a rival to the Koran, it must have been written in a na- tional language for a nation; the Persians owned as theirs the Maha badian religion, the identical one which history, although not under the same name, attributes to them in remote ages, as will result from an examination of the doctrine itself. Considering the knowledge required, and the difficulties to be overcome in forging a language in 1 I am here applying to the forger of a language what Lucretius, in continuation of his above quoted verses (p. xxx), urges against the belief that a single individual could ever have been the inventor of human speech. 2 By Norris, Asiatic Journal, vol. IX., November, 1820, p. 430. XXXVI PKELIMINAKY DISCOURSE I such a manner as to impose, even for a time, upon the credulity of others, we shall conclude lhat nothing less than direct proof is requisite for establishing such a forgery as a real fact. Now, what arguments have been set forth for declaring the language of the Desatir to be nothing else than " an artificial idiom " invented to support an imposture?" Silvestre de Sacy says: 1 *' It is difficult indeed, " not to perceive that the multiplied relations which " exist between the Asmdni, heavenly,' and Per- 44 sian languages are the result of a systematic 44 operation, and not the effect of hazard, nor that of " time, which proceeds with less regularity in thealtera- " lions to which language is subjected." I must apologise for here interrupting this cele- brated author, for the purpose of referring to what nobody better than himself has established as a per- emptory condition of existence for any language, and what he certainly never meant to deny, but may per- haps here be supposed to forget namely, lhat a lan- guage is not ' 4 the effect of hazard, " and although 4 ' not the result of systematic combination," yet, as an instinctive creation, shows surprising regularity, and that an evident rule predominates in the altera- tions which time produces in languages. Silvestre de Sacy proceeds : " The grammar of 4< the Mahabadian language is evidently, for the 1 Journal des Savons, February, 1821, pp. 69-70. DISCUSSION ON THE DBS ATI II. XXXVH *' whole etymological part, and even (which is sin- " gularly striking) in what concerns the anomalous ** verbs, tracked from (calqude sur) the Persian gram- " mar, and as to the radical words, if there lye ** many of them the origin of which is unknown, " there is also a great number of them in which *' the Persian root, more or less altered, may be " recognised without any effort." Erskine examined, without the least communica- tion with the French critic, the Mahabadian lan- guage, and says : l "In its grammar it approaches '* very nearly to the modern Persian, as well in the " inflection of the nouns and verbs, as in its syn- " tax." Norris- takes the very same view of it. These highly respectable critics published their judgment upon the Mahabadian language before the comparison of several languages with the Sanscrit and between each other had been made by able philologers, creators of the new science of compara- tive philology. According to the latter, the proofs of the real affinity of language, that is, the proofs that two languages belong to the same family, are to be principally and can be properly deduced, from their 1 See Transact, of the Lit. Soc. of Bombay, vol. II. : " On the Authen- " ticity of the Desatir, with remarks on the Account of the Mahabadi " Religion contained in the Dabistan," by William Erskine, esq., p. 360. 2 The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British India and its Dependencies, Novemb. 1820, p. -421 et seq. XXXVlii PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE: grammatical system. Thus, for instance, the forms of the Greek and Latin languages are in several parts nearly identical with the Sanscrit, the first bear- ing a greater resemblance in one respect, the latter in another ; the Greek verbs in mi, the Latin declen- sion of some nouns appear, to use the expression of the illustrious author, " traced from each other " (caiques I'un sur I'autre)." These two languages seem to have divided between them ihe whole sys- tem of the ancient grammar, which is most per- fectly preserved in the Sanscrit. This language itself is probably, with the two mentioned, derived from a more ancient language ; we meet in them three sisters recognised by their striking likeness. This, although more or less weakened and even obliterated in some features, remains upon the whole still perceptible in a long series of their relations : I mean in all those languages which are distinguished by the name of Indo-yermanic, to which the Persian belongs. But, in deciding upon the affinity of languages, not only the grammatical forms are to be examined, but also the system of sounds is to be studied, and the words must be considered in their roots and deri- vations. The three critics mentioned agree that the language of the Desatir is very similar to the Persian or Deri, not only in grammar, but also in etymo- logy ; a great number of the verbal and nominal DISCUSSION ON THE DESA.TIR. XXXJX roots are the same in both. This similarity would, according to comparative philology, lead to the con- clusion that either the one is derived from the other, or that both proceed from a common parent; but nothing hitherto here alleged can justify the suppo- sition of invention, forgery, or fabrication of the so- called Mahabadian language. We continue to quote the strictures of Silvestre de Sacy : " There is however a yet stronger proof of " the systematic operation which produced the " factitious idiom. This proof I derive from the " perfect and constant identity which prevails be- " tween the Persian phraseology and that of the '* Mahabadian idiom. The one and the other are, " whenever the translation does not degenerate into " paraphrase or commentary, which frequently " happens, traced from each other (caiques Yun sur " Vautre] in such a manner that each phrase, in both, 44 has always the same number of words, and these " words are always arranged in the same order. " For producing such a result, we must admit two " idioms, the grammar of which should be perfectly ** alike, as weil with respect to the etymological " part as to the syntax, and their respective dic- " tionaries offering precisely the same number of " words, whether nouns, verbs, or particles: which " would suppose two nations, having precisely the 4< same number of ideas, whether absolute or rela- PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE: " tive r and conceiving but the same kind and the " same number of relations." If what we have already stated be not unfounded, the last quoted paragraph, which the author calls " a yet stronger proof of the systematic operations " which produced the factitious idiom" must be acknowledged not to have the weight which he would attribute to it. If the Mahabadian and Per- sian be languages related to each other, " a perfect " and constant identity of phraseology between " them both," if even so great as it is said to be, is not only possible, but may be fairly expected in the avowed translation of theDesatir into Persian. Such identity is most religiously aimed at in versions of a sacred text. Need I adduce modern examples of translations which, in point of phraseological con- formity with their original, may vie with the Persian version of the Mahabadian text? The supposition that two nations have the same number of ideas, absolute or relative, is far from being absurd : it is really the fact with all nations who are upon the same level of civilisation ; but the present question is of the writings of the same nation, which, pos- sessing at all times a sort of government and reli- gion fundamentally the same, might easily count an obsolete language of its own among the monuments of its antiquity. On that account, we cannot see what the former DISCUSSION ON THE DESAT1R. Xl arguments of the critic gain in strength by the addi- tion : "that the perfect identity of conception falls " in a very great part upon abstract and metaphysi- " cal ideas, in which such a coincidence is infinitely " more difficult than when the question is only " of objects and relations perceptible to the senses." A great similarity is remarked in all forms of thinking. Little chance of being contradicted can be incurred in saying, that the fundamental ideas of metaphysics are common to all mankind, and inherent in human reason. The encyclopedian contents of the Dabistan, concerning the opinions of so many nations, would furnish a new proof of it, were this generally acknowledged fact in need of any further support. Silvestre de Sacy acknowledges that the Asmani language contains a great number of radical words, the origin of which is not known. Erskine says : ' " It is certainly singular that the language in which " theDesatir is written, like that in which the Zend- *' A vesta is composed, is nowhere else to be met " with. It is not derived from the Zend, the Peh- ** levi, the Sanscrit, Arabic, Turkish. Persian, or " any other known language." ****** ** The basis of the language, and the great majority " of words in it, belong to no known tongue. It ** is a mixture of Persian and Indian words. A 1 The work quoted, p. 360. Xlii PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE: " few Arabic words occur." Norris 1 also found lhat a great part of the language appears to have little resemblance to any other that was ever spoken. A judgment, so expressed, might induce an impar- tial mind to ascribe originality to at least a part of the Asmani language ; which would naturally render the other part less liable to suspicion, inasmuch as it would have been not less difficult to execute, but less easy to conceal, a partial than a total forgery. Nevertheless it so happens that the dissimilarity from any other, as well as the similarity to one par- ticular idiom, are both equally turned against the genuineness of the language in question : where dis- similarity exists, there is absolute forgery where similarity, an awkward disguise ! Erskine continues: " The Persian system it is " unnecessary to particularise; but it is worthy of " attention that, among the words of Indian origin, *' not only are many Sanscrit, which might happen " in a work of a remote age, but several belong to- " the colloquial language of Hindustan : this is sus- " picious, and seems to mark a much more recent ** origin. Many words indeed occur in the Desatir * * that are common to the Sanscrit and to ihe vulgar Indian languages (the author quotes thirty-four of them); many others might be pointed out. Bui the most remarkable class of words is that which The Asiatic Journal, November, 1820, p. 421 el seq. t( DISCUSSION ON THE DESATIR. " belongs to the pure Hindi ; such 1 imagine are the ' ' word shet, ' respectable, ' prefixed to the names *' of prophets and others (twenty-four are adduced). ' ' Whatever may be thought of the words of Persian " descent, it is not probable that those from the '* Hindustani are of a very remote age; they may ' ' perhaps be regarded as considerably posterior to 4< the settlement of the Muselmans in India." Strongly supported by the opinion of respectable philologers, I do not hesitate to draw a quite con- trary conclusion from the facts slated by Erskine. It should be remembered that, in the popular or vulgar dialects are often found remains of ancient tongues, namely, roots of words, locutions, nay rules of grammar which have become obsolete, or disappeared in the cultivated idioms derived from the same original language. It was not without reason that the illustrious William Humboldt recom- mended to the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Bri- tain and Ireland, l to examine, on behalf of general Oriental philology, the different provincial dialects of India. Even the gibberish of gypsies is not to be neglected for that purpose. 2 Thus, if we are not greatly mistaken, the very 1 An Essay on the best means of ascertaining the affinities of Oriental languages, by baron W. Humboldt, in the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. II. part I. p. 213. 2 Colonel Harriot on the Oriental Origin of the Gypsies. Ibid., 518. xlJV PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE : arguments alleged to show that the Mahabadian language is an invention or forgery, lead rather to a contrary conclusion. Duly sensible of the great weight of authority which opposes the result of my inquiry, I sought an explanation of the severe judgment passed upon the Desatir, and venture to surmise that it was occasioned by the certainly extra- vagant claim to a heavenly origin and incredible anti- quity which has been attached to this work. Such pretensions, taken in too serious a light, can but hurt a fixed, if not religious, belief. Every nation acknowledges but one heavenly book, and rejects every other. Hence arises a very natural, and even respectable pre-conception against all that appears without the limits traced by religion, or mere early habit and adopted system. Thus a severe censure is provoked. To annihilate at once the impertinent pretension to a divine origin, all that ingenuity can suggest is brought forward to prove the book to be a fraudulent forgery ; to strip it of the awful dignity of antiquity, it must by any means be represented as the work of yesterday. But error is not fraud, and may be as ancient as mankind itself; because credulous, a man is not the forger of a document. If the Mahabadian language is not that primitive idiom from which the Sanscrit, the Zend, and other lan- guages are derived, it does not follow that it is " a V mere jargon, fabricated with no great address to DISCUSSION ON THE DESATIH. xlv " support a religious or philosophical imposture ;"' if it was not spoken in Iran long before the esta- blishment of the Peshdadian monarchy, it does not follow " that it has at no time belonged to any ** tribe or nation on the face of the earth." However I may appear inclined in favor of the Desatir, I shall avoid incurring the blame of unfair concealment by adding to the names of the great critics above quoted, adverse to this work, the great one of William von Schlegel. I must avow it; the celebrated author declares the Desatir, 2 inti- mately connected with the Dabistan, to be * * a forgery *' still more refined (than that of the Brahman who " deceived Wilford), 3 and written in a pretended " ancient language, but fabricated at pleasure." As he, however, presents no arguments of his own, but only appeals in a note to the articles written by Sil- vestre de Sacy and Erskine, there is no occasion here for a further observation concerning this question. As to von Schlegel's opinion upon the Dabistan, I reserve some remarks upon it for another place. General arguments, opposed to general objec- tions, may produce persuasion, but are not sufficient for establishing the positive truth concerning a sub- 1 Erskine, loco cit., p. 372. 2 See Reflexions sur I'Etude de$ Langues asiatiques, adressdes a *tr James Mackintosh. Bonn, 1832, pp. 51-52. * 3 See Asiatic Researches, vol. VIII. Lond. ed. 8. p. 254. PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE : ject in question. It is necessary to dive into the Mahabadian language itself for adequate proofs of its genuineness. I might have justly hesitated to undertake this task, but found it already most ably achieved by baron von Hammer, ! in whom we do not know which we ought to admire most, his vast store of Oriental erudition, or the indefatigable ac- tivity, with which he diffuses, in an unceasing series of useful works, the various information derived not only from the study of the dead letter in books, but also from converse with the living spirit of the actual Eastern world. This sagacious reviewer of the Desatir, examining its language, finds proofs of its authenticity in the nature of its structure and the syllables of its formation, which, when compared to the modern pure Persian or Deri, have the same rela- tion to it as the Gothic to the English; the old Per- sian and the old Germanic idioms exhibit in the progress of improvement such a wonderful concor- dance and analogy as can by no means be the result of an ingenious combination, nor that of a lucky accidental coincidence. Thus, the language of the Desatir has syllables of declension affixed to pro- nouns, which coincide with those of the Gothic and Low German, but are not recognisable in the modern form of the Persian pronouns. This is 1 See Heidelberger Jahrbiicher der Literatar Vom Janner te Juni 1823, N s 6. 12. 13. 18. 20. DISCUSSION ON THE DESATIR. also the case with some forms of numerical and other words. The Mahabadian language contains also a good number of Germanic radicals which cannot be attributed to the well-known affinity of the German and the modern Persian, because they are no more to be found in the latter, but solely in the Desatir. This has besides many English, Greek, and Latin words, a series of which baron von Ham- mer exhibits, and -which ought to be duly noticed a considerable number of Mahabadian words, belonging also to the languages enumerated, are sought in vain in any Persian dictionary of our days ! Surely, an accidental coincidence of an in- vented factitious language, with Greek, Latin, and Germanic forms would be by far a greater and more inexplicable miracle, than the great regularity of this ancient sacred idiom of Persia, and its con- formity with the modern Deri. It is nevertheless from the latter that the forgery is chiefly inferred. Moreover, the acute philologer, analysing the Mahabadian language by itself, points out its essen- tial elements and component parts, that is, sylla- bles of derivation, formation, and inflexion. Thus he adduces as syllables of derivation certain vowels, or consonants preceded by certain vowels ; he shows certain recurring terminations to be syllables of formation for substantives, adjectives, and verbs; he sets forth particular forms of verbs, and remark- PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE: able expressions. All this he supports by numerous examples taken from the text of the Desatir. Such a process enabled him to rectify in some places the Persian translation of the Mahabadian text. I can but repeal that my only object here is to present the question in the same state that I found it ; and am far from contesting, nay, readily admit, the possibility of arguments which may- lead to a contrary conclusion. Until such are produced, al- though not presuming to decide, I may be permit- ted to believe that the language of the Desatir is no forgery ; I may range myself on the side of the celebrated Orientalist mentioned, who, ten years after the date of his review of the Desatir (ten years which, with him, are a luminous path of ever- increasing knowledge), had not changed his opinion upon the language of the Desatir, and assigns to it 1 a place among the Asiatic dialects; according to him, as it is more nearly related to the new Persian than to the Zand and the Pehlevi, it may be considered as a new intermediate ring in the hermetic chain which connects the Germanic idioms with the old Asiatic languages ; it is perhaps the most ancient dialect of the Deri, 2 spoken, if not in Pars, yet in 1 See Journal asiatique, tome XII. juillet 1833, pp. 24-26. 2 Ibidem, pp. 20-21. Deri was spoken on the other side of the Oxus, and at the foot of the Paropamisus in Balkh, Meru, in the Badakhshan, in Bokhara and Bamian. The Pehlevi was used in Media proper, in the DISCUSSION ON THE DESATIR. \lix the north-eastern countries of the Persian empire, to wit, in Sogd and Bamian. When it ceased to be spoken, like several other languages of by-gone ages, the Mahabadian was preserved perhaps in a single book, or fragment of a book, similar in its solitude to the Hebrew Bible, or the Persian Zend-Avesta. At what epoch was the Desatir written? The epoch assigned to it, according to different views, is the sixth 1 or the seventh 2 century of our era, even the later time of the Seljucides, who reigned from A. D. 1057 to 1195. The latter epoch is adop- ted as the earliest assignable, by Silvestre de Sacy, who alleges two reasons for his opinion : the one is his belief that the new Persian language, in which the Desatir was translated and commented by the fabricator of the original or Mahabadian text did not exist earlier ; the second reason refers to some parts of the contents of the Desatir. I shall touch upon both these questions. It is useless to discuss what can never be ascer- tained, who the author of the Desatir was. But this work would be unintelligible without the Per- sian translation and commentary. Silvestre de Sacy towns of Rai, Harnadan, Ispahan, Nehawend, and Tabriz, the capital of Azar bijan. Beside the Deri and Pehlevi, Persian dictionaries reckon five other dialects, altogether twelve dialects, of ancient and modern Persian. 1 Tfioluck. Sufitmus, sive Theosophia Pantheistica, p. HI. a Norris, Asiatic Journal, November, 1820, p. 430. d 1 PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE I asks: " Are not this translation and this com- '* mentary, themselves pseudonymous and apo- " cryphal books, and is not the whole, perhaps, " the work of an impostor of the last century?" In answering this, I shall be guided by the baron von Hammer, who wrote his review of the Desatir before he had seen that of the Journal des Savans, but, after having perused the latter, declared that he had nothing to change in his opinion. Although the commentator, to whom the honor of being the inventor of the Mahabadian language is ascribed, follows in the main the ancient text word for word, and substitutes commonly a new for the obsolete form of the term, yet frequent instances occur (some of which baron von Hammer adduces) which prove that the interpreter did not clearly understand the old text, but in place of the true meaning gave his own arbitrary interpretation. The proper names even are not always the same. Besides and this is most important the doctrines contained in the Desatir and in the Commentary differ from each other. In the books of the first Mahabadian kings we find the fundamental ideas of the Oriental philo- sophy, such as it was before its migration from Asia to Europe; but in the commentary we perceive the development of the Aristotelian scholastic, such as it formed itself among the Asiatics, when they had, by means of translations, become acquainted with the DISCUSSION ON THE DESATIR. li Stagirite. We shall revert to this subject hereafter. Whatever it be the discrepancies between the ori- ginal text and the interpretation, as they would certainly have been avoided by the author of both , prove that they are the works of two different per- sons, probably with the interval of a few centuries between them. The Persian translator and commentator is said to be the fifth Sassan, who lived in the time of the Persian king Khusro-Parviz, a contemporary of the Roman emperor Heraclius, and died only nine years before the destruction of the ancient Persian mo- narchy, or in the year 643 of our era. It must be presumed that the five Sassans, the first of whom was a contemporary of Alexander, 525 years before Christ, were not held to be immediate successors to each other, but only in the same line of descent ; otherwise an interval of 946 years, from Alexander to Parviz, comprehending the reign of thirty-one Arsacides and twenty-two Sassanian princes, would be given to no more than five individuals, which absurdity ought not to be attributed to the commen- tary of the Desatir. In general, so common is it with Asiatics to deal with names of celebrity as if they were generic names, that it is very frequently impossible to be positive about the true author of a work. There appears in the present case nothing to prevent us from placing the translator and com- Ill PRELIMINARY DISCUSSION. mentator of tbe Desatir (whether a Sassan or not) in the seventh century of our era. The translation and commentary of the Desatir are written in what the best judges consider as very pure Persian, though ancient, without any mixture whatever of words of Arabic or Chaldean origin, and conformable to the grammatical system of modern Persian. But when was the latter, formed? As the opinion upon this epoch involves that upon the age of the composition itself, I shall be permitted to take a rather extensive historical view of this part of the question. Setting aside the Mahabadian kings mentioned in the Desatir and Dabistan, we know that Gil- shah, Hoshang, Jamshid (true Persian names) are proclaimed by all Orientalists as founders of the Persian empire and builders of renowned cities in very remote times. This empire comprised in its vast extent different nations, speaking three princi- pal languages, the Zand, Pehlevi, and Parsi. Among these nations were the Perm, " Persians," properly and distinctively so called. We are informed by Herodotus' that there were different races of Persae, of whom he enumerates eleven. Those who inha- bited originally Fars, Fanistan, Penis,' 2 a country Clio, lib. I. 2 In the Bible it is called Paras, or Faras, and reckoned as extensive as Great and Little Armenia, or as Hungary, Transylvania, Slavonia, DISCUSSION ON THE DESATIH. III! double the extent of England, and gave their name to the whole empire, certainly spoke their own idiom, the Parsi or Farsi. A national language may vary in its forms, but never can be destroyed as long as any part of the nation exits ; can we doubt that the Persians who, once the masters of Asia, although afterwards shorn of their power, never ceased to be independent and formidable, preserved their language to our days? We may consider as remains of the oldest Persian language, the proper and other names of persons, places and things mentioned by the most ancient historians ; now, a number of such words, which occur in the Hebrew Bible, ' in Herodotus, and other Greek authors, are much better explained from modern Persian than from Zand and Pehlevi. In the Armenian language exist words common to the Persian, none common to the Pehlevi; 2 therefore, in very remote times Persian and not Pehlevi was the dominant idiom of the Iranian nations with whom the Armenians were in relation. More posi- tive information is reserved for posterity, when the cuneiform inscriptions upon the monumental Croatia, and Dalmatia together.- (See Gatlerer's Weltgeschichle Il ter Theil, Seite 9. ) 1 In the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther. 2 See Observations sur les Monumem historiques de I'ancienne Perse, par Etienne Quatremere. Journal des Savons, juin et juillet 1840, pp 347-348. llV PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE I rocks and ruins, to be found in all directions within the greatest part of Asia, shall be deciphered by future philologers, not perhaps possessing greater talent, but better means of information from all- revealing time than those of our days, who have already successfully begun the great work Grote- fend, Rask, St. Martin, Burnouf, Lassen, etc. Let us now take a hasty review of a few principal epochs of the Persian empire, with respect to lan- guage, beginning only from that nearest the time, in which Persia was seen and described by Herodotus, Ctesias, and Xenophon, not without reference to the then existing national historical records. Khosru (Cyrus) the Persian King, placed by the Occidentals in the seventh century before our era, 1 having wrested the sceptre from the hands of the Medes, who spoke Pehlevi, naturally produced the ascendancy of his national idiom. This did not sink under his imme- diate successors, Lohrasp and Gushlasp. Although under the reign of the latter, who received Zardusht at his court in the sixth century B. G., 2 the Zand might have had great currency, yet it certainly declined after Gushtasp, as his grandson Bali man. 1 The Orientals place him in the tenth century B. C. 2 According to Richardson (see the preface of his Diet., p. vi ), the Farsi was peculiarly cultivated by the great and learned, above 1200 years before the Mu hammed an era, i. e. above 600 years R. (!.. which epoch is commonly assigned to (iushtasp's reign. DISCUSSION ON THE DESATIR. Iv the son of Isfendiar, favored the cultivation of the Parsi. ' This language was perfected in Baktria ( the original name of which country is Bdkhter, " East," an old Persian word) and in the neigh- boring Transoxiana ; there the towns Bamian, the Thebes of the East, and Balkh, built by Lohrasp and sanctified by Gushtasp's famous Pyraeum, besides Merv and Bokhara, were great seats of Persian arts and sciences. The Parsi, thus refined, was dominant in all the royal residences, which changed according to seasons and circumstances; it was spoken at the court of the Second Dara (Darius Codomanus), and sounds in his own name and that of his daughters SiJdra(Statira), "star, "and /?os/tawa(Roxana),' < splen- *' dor," whom the unfortunate king resigned with his empire to Alexander.* This conqueror, intoxi- cated with power, endeavored to exterminate the Mobeds, the guardians of the national religion and science ; he slew many, but dispersed only the majority. From the death of Alexander (325 B. C.) to the reign of Ardeshir Babegan (Artaxerxes), the founder of the Sassanian dynasty (200 A. D.), a 1 See Hammer's Schone Redekunste Persiens, Seite 3 et seq. 2 Strabo, who flourished in the beginning of the Christian era. and drew his information mostly from the historians of Alexander, refers probably to the time of the Macedonian conquest, when he says (xv. 2, ** 8, fol. 724, edit. Gas.) : that the Medians, Persians, Arians, Baktrians, and Sogdians spoke almost the same language. This probaMy was that of the (hen leading nation, the Persian. Ivi PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE I period of more than five centuries is almost a blank in the Persian history ; but when the last-mentioned king, the regenerator of the ancient Iranian mo- narchy, wishing to restore ils laws and literature, convoked the Mobeds, he found forty thousand of them before the gate of the fire-temple of Barpa. ' Ammianus Marcellinus, in the fourth century of our era attests, that the title of king was in Deri, " court- " language," yet the Pehlevi was spoken concur- rently with it during the reigns of the first twelve Sassanian princes, until it was proscribed by a for- mal edict of the thirteenth of them, Bahrain gor, in our fifth century. Nushirvan and Parviz, in the sixth century, were both celebrated for the pro- tection which they granted to arts and sciences. We have on record a school of physic, poetry, rhe- toric, dialectics, and abstract sciences, flourishing at Gandi sapor, a town in Khorasan : the Persian must have then been highly cultivated. We are now in the times of Muhammed; were they not Persian, those Tales, the charm of which, whether in the original or in the translation, was such, that the Arabian legislator, to counteract it, summoned up the power of his high-sounding heaven-inspired eloquence, and wrote a part of the Koran against them? If he himself had not named the Deri as the purest dialect of the Persian, what other Jan- 1 Hammer, loc. cit , p. 7. DISCUSSION ON THE DESAT1R. Ivii guage could we believe he admired for its extreme softness so much as to say, that the Almighty used it when he wished to address the angels in a tone of mildness and beneficence, whilst he reserved the Arabic for command? 1 Such a fact, or such a tra- dition, presupposes a refined, and therefore long- spoken language. After Muhammed's death, his fanatic successors attempted to bury under the ruins of the Persian empire even the memory of its an- cient religion and language but they did not suc- ceed : the sacred fire was saved and preserved beyond the Oxus ; it was rekindled in Baktria, that ancient hearth of Persian splendor ; there poetry and elo- quence revived, but could not raise their voices until princes of Persian origin became lieutenants of the Muhammedan khalifs. It was under Nasr, son of Ahmed the Samanian, in the beginning of our tenth century, that RUDIGI rose, the first celebrated new Persian poet, but he found, he did not create the language, more than Homer created Greek, Dante Italian, or Spenser English. A great author, in whom the genius of his nation is concentrated, does no more than aptly collect into a whole the idiom which exists every where in parts, and elicit its pre-existing resources. Thus under his pen the language can appear to spring up with all its beau- 1 Works of sir \V. Jones, vol. V. p. 426, Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay, vol. II. p. 297. PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE: ties as Minerva, equipped in armour, sprung forth from the head of Jupiter. Such being the historical indications relative to the Persian language, we cannot participate in the doubts of Silvestre de Sacy, nor find Erskine 1 just in disdaining even to make a comment upon the credi- bility of the hypothesis " that the Persian language " was completely formed in the age of the latter " Sassanians. " It would be rather a matter of wonder that the Par si, related to the most ancient and most cultivated language in the world, should not have been much sooner fitted for the harmonious lays of Ferdusi ! a matter of wonder indeed, that the Persians, who taught the Arabs so much of their religion heaven and hell, should have re- mained behind them in the refinement of their idiom ! that they, who could scoff at the Tazis as eaters of lizards, should not have possessed, in the seventh century, a language to contend with that people, who themselves possessed celebrated poets long before Muhammed ! 2 1 Loco cit., p. 363. 2 See the preface to the most valuable work Le Divan d'Amro 'Ikais, par le baron Mac Guckin de Slane, Paris, 1837, pp. viii and ix. The learned author confirms that celebrated Arabian poems existed before the introduction of the Muhammedan religion, which, for a certain time, averted the Arabs from the cultivation of poetry and history. We shall here add (which would have been more appropriately placed in the note upon Amro 'I Kais, in vol. Ill p. 65, and will correct the same) that (hi? DISCUSSION ON THE DESATIR. IJX It is for ever regrettable that overpowering Mu- hammedism should have spoiled the original admir- able simplicity of one of the softest languages in the world, by the intrusion of the sonorous but harsher words of Arabic, and imposed upon us the heavy tax of learning two languages for understanding one ; but, as the translation of the Desatir is free from words of an Arabic or Chaldean origin, should we not fairly conclude, that it was executed before the Muhammedan conquest of Persia ? So did Nor- ris, and so Erskine I can but think would have done, if his judgment and penetration, usually so right and acute, had not been prepossessed by the idea of an imposture, which he had assumed as proved or self-evident, whilst this was the very point of contestation. Thus, " the very freedom from 4 * words of foreign growth, which the learned natives " consider as a mark of authenticity, appeared to (i him the proof of an artificial aud fabricated style." If even there are some Arabic words to be found in the text and the translation of the Desatir, this affords no fair inference that these works had not been composed before the Arabs conquered Persia, because those words might have come from Pehlevi, in which there is a mixture of Arabic, and there are also Persian words in the Koran ; most naturally, poet (see loc. cit., p. xvi et seq. ) flourished at an epoch anterior to Mo- hammed, and died probably before the birth of that extraordinary man. Ix PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE: as there subsisted from times immemorial relations between Persia and Arabia. What I have said will, if I am not mistaken, suffi- ciently justify the conclusion, that the Persian idiom could in the seventh century have attained the re- gularity and form of the present Persian, such at least, as it appears in the Commentary of the Desatir, not without a very perceptible tincture of obso- leteness. I need scarce remark that the title asmdni, ' ' hea- "venly," belongs exclusively to the* superstitious ad- miration with which the Desalir is viewed. Nor are its fifteen books to be taken for sacred works of so many prophets who succeeded each other after such long intervals of time ; yet nothing prevents us, as I hope to show, from believing some parts of them very ancient. Neither are these of the same anti- quity. Thus, prophecies which are certainly inter- polations made after the events, occur in them, not otherwise than in the Indian Puranas, the funda- mental parts of which are nevertheless now ad- mitted to be as ancient as the Vedas themselves. We find in the two last books of the Desatir are mentioned : the contest between the Abbasides and the descendants of Ali ; the adoption of Muham- medism by almost the totality of Iran ; inimical sects, and the power of the Turcomans super- seding that of the Arabs; the latter parts must cer- DISCUSSION ON THE DESATIR. hi tainly have been composed after the taking of Bag- dad by Hulogu in 1258 of our era. The fifteenth book of the Desatir is probably apocryphal. As to the doctrine of the Desatir, Erskine says : ' " I consider that the whole of the peculiar doc- " trines, ascribed to Mahabad and Hoshang, is bor- " rowed from the mystical doctrines of the Persian ' ' Siifis, and from the ascetic tenets and practices of " the Yogis and Sanyasis, of India who drew many " of their opinions from the Vedanta-school." But this involves the great historical question, concern- ing the origin of Siifism and the whole Indian phi- losophy, which is by some (not without foundation) believed to have been spread throughout a great part of Asia. It is quite gratuitous, I may say, to regard them " as having had no existence before the time " of Azar Kaivan 2 and his disciples in the reigns of " Akbar and Jehanguir, and as having beende- ' ' vised and reduced into form between 200 and 300 "years ago in the school of Sipasi-philosophers." Nor can I admit as better founded the following in- sinuations of the same ingenious critic : *' Nor shall " I inquire whether many of the acute metaphysical te remarks that abound in the commentary and the " general style of argument which it employs have " not rather proceeded from the schoolmen of the 1 Loco citato, p. 372. * See vol. I. pp. 87 et seq. Ixii PRELIMINARY DIRCOURSE : " West, than directly from the Oriental or Aristo- *' telian philosophy." To this may be answered : It is highly problematic, whether the translator of the Desatir ever knew any schoolman of the West, but it is certain that he, as an Asiatic and a Persian, knew the Oriental philosophy, the fundamentals of which were preserved in the first books of the De- satir, as we have already said; but the commentator could but participate in the modification, which the ancient doctrine had undergone in his age, after its. return from the West to the East, in translations of Greek philosophical works into Asiatic languages. Thus, in the Desatir and its commentary I borrow the words of baron von Hammer: " We see '* already germinating the double seed of reason and " light, from which sprung up the double tree of 4< rational and ideal philosophy," which spread its ramifications over the whole world, and lives and flourishes even in our times. The commentator was no ordinary man: living, as we may believe, in the first half of the seventh century, he possessed the sciences of his learned age ; flourishing under the reign of king Khosru Parviz, who professed the ancient Persian religion in his letter to a Roman emperor of the East, 2 and 1 Heidelberger Jahrbiicher, loc. cit. Seite 313. 2 The Dabistan (see Pers. text, Calcutta edit., p. 69, and English transl., vol. I. p. 145) quotes verses containing this profession, addressed by DISCUSSION ON THE DESATIH. tore to pieces Muhammed's written invitation to adopt Islam'; in this yet unshaken state of national independence, the fifth Sassan preserved pure his creed and style from the influence of the Arabian prophet. The translator and commentator of.the Desatir says of himself: 2 "I loo have written a '*' celebrated book under the name of Do giti, ' the " 'two worlds', full of admirable wisdom, which * 4 1 have derived from the most exalted intelligence, " and in the eminent book of the famous prophet, " the King of Kings, Jemshid, there is a great deal, " concerning the unity which only distinguished " Ascetics (Hertasp) can comprehend, and on the ** subject of this transcendant knowledge I have " also composed a great volume Pertu estdn, ' the " ( mansion of light,' which 1 have adorned by Khosru Parviz to a Roman emperor, whose name, however, is not men- tioned. During the reign of this Persian king, two emperors ruled in the East, namely, Mauritius, whose daughter Parviz married, and Hera- clius, by whom he was defeated towards the end of his life. I found it probable, but had no authority to assert (see vol. I. p. 145, note 2), that the above-stated profession was made to Mauritius ; but those verses by themselves deserve attention, as they establish the adherence of Parviz to the religion of Hoshang, in contradiction to several historians, according to whom he adopted Christianity: this assertion seems founded upon his great attachment to the celebrated Mary, or Chin'n, his Christian wife, and daughter of a Christian emperor, the said Mauritius . 2 Muhammed, when informed of the ignominious reception which the Persian king gave to his letter and ambassador, said : " God will tear his " empire, as he tore my letter, to pieces." (Herbelot. ) 3 The Desatir, p. 99. PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE I '* evidence deduced from reason, and by texts from " the Desdtir and Avesta, so that the soul of every man " may derive pleasure from it. And it is one of the " books of the secrets of the great God." This is a most important declaration. The com- mentator considered the Desatir and the Avesta as sources of delight TO ALL MEN. And he was right. The doctrine of the former work now under con- sideration is found every where, not denied either by the ancients or moderns; it is the property of mankind. As such, ' ' it does not belong to any particular. " tribe or nation :" in which point, although in quite another sense, we agree with Erskine, but we may dissent from the learned author, when he taxes it to be (C a religious or philosophical imposture, which " needed the support ofa fabricated language." After careful examination, I must conscientiously declare, I discover no imposture aimed at by any artifice; there was no secret to be concealed ; nothing to be disguised ; the Mahabadian religion is as open as its temple, the vault of heaven, and as clear as the lights, flaming in their ethereal attitudes; its book is a sort of catechism of Asiatic religion ; its prayer a litany of Oriental devotion, in which any man may join his voice. Thus have I endeavored, to the best of my power, to exhibit faithfully what has hitherto been alleged for and against the authenticity of the book, DISCUSSION ON THE DESATIR. IxV which is one of the principal authorities of the Dabistan. If the author of this latter work was, as the often-quoted ingenuous author supposes, " in strict intimacy with the sects of enthusiasts " by whom the Desatir was venerated, and whose " rule it was," we may so much the more rely upon the truth of his account concerning such a reli- gious association. If he professed the new religion, which the emperor Akbar had endeavored to found, as this was a revival of the ancient Persian religion, we may reasonably presume, that he would have searched, and brought to light writings concerning it which were concealed, neglected, or little known; he would have cautiously scrutinized the authenticity of the documents, and conscien- tiously respected the sacred sources of that faith, which, after a careful examination of all others, deserved his preference; nothing justifies the sup- position, that he would forge any thing himself, or countenance, or not be able to detect, the forgery of others. However this be, Mohsan Fani's charac- ter will be best known by the perusal of his work; after a rapid synopsis of its contents, to which 1 will now proceed, I shall be permitted to point out, as briefly as possible, some of the merits and defects conspicuous in his composition. PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE : PART II. SYNOPSIS OF THE DYNASTIES, RELIGIONS, SECTS, AND PHILOSOPHIC OPINIONS, TREATED OF IN THE DABISTAN. I. THE FIRST RELIGION THE DYNASTIES OF MAHABAD, ABAD AZAR, SHAI ABAD, SHAI GILIV, SHAI MAHBUL, AND YASAN. Mohsan Fani exhibits the remarkable notions, dogmas, customs, and ceremonies of twelvereligions, and their various sects, without giving more of their origin and genesis than the names of their founders. The very first principle of all religion is referred, by some, to a primitive Divine revelation; by others, to a natural propensity of the human mind to super- stition. However this may be, history confirms the suggestions of psychology, that admiration was one of the principal sources of religious feelings ; how should man not be struck with the glories of the sky? Therefore, the adoration of stars was one of the most ancient religions. It needed no prophet : it is ** the poetry of heaven," imprinted in eternal charac- ters of fire upon the ethereal expanse. Prometheus, SYNOPSIS OF THE DABISTAN. Ixvii enumerating the benefits which he bestowed upon untutored barbarians, says : ' " At random all their works " Till I instructed them to mark the stars, " Their rising, and, a harder science yet, " Their setting. 2 According to all traditions, astronomy was one of the first sciences cultivated by men. 3 The stars not only occasioned the institution, but also served to announce the regular return, of religious feasts ; thus they became, as called by Plato, " the instru- " ments of time," men were at once induced and taught by religion to count months and years. As- tronomy, in her feast-calendars, consecrated upon an altar the first fruits of her labors. Upon the star-paved path of heaven man was conducted to the sanctuary of the supreme Being. In general, the first feeling of" the Divine (ro Sstov)," seizing the human mind with its own supernatural power, elevated it at once above the material con- Eirpaudov, e's ft =k.-3 .11*31 B _\J w\J.~o . A. T. 11 have found out some few effects of the influence of the seven planets, but are ignorant of the natures and influences of the slow-moving or fixed stars. The possessors of Farddt and Far lab, or those who are directed by inspiration and revelation, have laid down that every star, whether fixed or planetary, is regent during certain periods of several thousand years : one thousand years being assigned to each star, without the association of any other : on the termination of which, in the subsequent millennia, both the fixed and planetary stars are successively associated with it that is, in commencing the series with a fixed star, we call the fixed star which is Lord of the Cycle, the First King ; on the termination of the millennium appropriated to him, another fixed star becomes partner with the First King, which partner we style First Minister : but the supremacy and dominion of the period belong exclusively to the First King : on the termination of the second mil- lennium, the period of office assigned to the First Minister expires, and another star is associated with the First King; and so on, until the fixed stars are all gone through : on which Saturn becomes asso- ciated with the First King, and continues so during a thousand years, and so with the other planets, until the period of association with the moon arrives: then terminates the supremacy of the fixed star, named the First King, and his authority expires. li After the First King, the star associated with him in the second millennium, and which was called the First Minister, now attains the supremacy and be- comes Lord of the Cycle, during which cycle of sovereignty we style him the Second King, with a thousand years appropriated to his special rule as before stated . In the following millennium another fixed star becomes his associate, as above mentioned, and goes through a similar course. When the period of the moon's association arrives, the moon remains joined with the Second King during a millennium, on the completion of which, that fixed star, the term of whose sovereignty has passed away, and who commenced the cycle, under the style of First King, is associated with the Lord of the Cycle, styled the Second King ; after which, the empire of the Second King's star also terminates and becomes transferred to another : thus all the fixed stars in succession become kings, until they are all gone through, on which the principality and supremacy come to Shat Kaivan, or * the Lord Saturn,' with whom in like manner the fixed stars and planets are associated for their respective millennia, when the dominion comes to the Shat Mdh, or ' Lunar Lord,' his period is ended as before stated, the cycle completed, and one great circle or revolution has been described. On the expiration of this great period, the sove- reignty reverts to the First King ; the state of the 15 revolving world recommences ; this world of forma- tion and evanescence is renovated ; the human be- ings, animals, vegetable and mineral productions which existed during the first cycle, are restored to their former language, acts, dispositions, species and appearance, with the same designations and dis- tinctions ; the successive regenerations continually proceeding on in the same manner. The prince of physicians, Abu Alt (whose spirit may God sanc- tify ! ) expresses himself to this purport : " Every form and image, which seems at present effaced, " Is securely stored up in the treasury of time - " When the same position of the heavens again recurs, " The Almighty reproduces each from behind the mysterious veil." It is here necessary to remark, that their meaning is not, that the identical spirits of Abad, Kaiomors, Sidymakand Hushang shall be imparted to the iden- tical material bodies long since abandoned, or that the scattered members of the body shall be reassem- bled and reunited: such sentiments, according to them , are absurd and extravagant : their real belief is this, that forms similar to those which have passed away, and bodies resembling the primitive ones, their counterpart in figure, property and shape, shall appear, speaking and acting exactly in the same man- ner. How could the exalted spirits of the perfect, which are united with angels, return back? They also maintain that men do not arise from their own species, without father or mother : but they affirm 14 that, as a man and woman were left at the com- mencement of the past cycle, so there shall two remain in the present cycle, for the continuance of the human race. For although the heavens are the sires of the three natural kingdoms or pro- ductive principles, and the elements their mother, yet this much only has been imparted to us, that man is born of man, and is not produced after any other fashion. The followers of the ancient faith call one revolu- tion of the regent Saturn, a day; thirty such days, one month ; twelve such months, one year ; a mil- lion of such years, one fard; ' a million fard, one vard; a million vard, one mard; a million mard, one jdd; three thousand jdd, one vdd; and two thousand vdd, one zdd. * According to this mode of compu- tation, the happiness and splendor of the Mahaba- dian dynasty lasted one hundred zad of years. They believe it impossible to ascertain the commencement 1 According to Gladwin, after g.lj once followed in a series by . ka the same word is to be always understood thus i^j3 S,'j . 1 Vft <^t\3 is not a thousand fard, but one million fard This word is not in the Bur han : I have therefore followed Gladwin's authority. But in the Desa- tir, or " Sacred Writings of the ancient Persian Prophets in the original tongue," published at Bombay in 1818, the following passage occurs in the commentary of the Vth Sasan ( English transl. p. 36) : " They call a thousand times a thousand years a ferd; and a thousand ferds, a werd; and a thousand werds, a merd ; and a thousand merds, a jad; and three thousand ja ds,awa'd; and two thousand ttYtd*, a2o'd;"etc D. S. 15 of human existence ; and that it is not to be compre- hended by human science : because there is no epoch of identical persons, so that it is absolutely impos- sible to form any definite ideas on the subject, which resembles an arithmetical infinite series. Such a belief also agrees with the philosophy and opinions of the Grecian sages. From the authority of esteemed works, they ac- count Mdhdbdd the first of the present cycle ; as in reality he and his wife were the survivors of the great period, and the bounteous Lord had bestowed on them so immense a progeny, that from their numbers, the very clefts of the mountains were filled. The author of the Amighistan relates, that they were acquainted only to a trifling degree with the viands, drinks and clothing which through the bounty of God are now met with : besides, in that cycle there existed no organization of cities, systems of policy, conditions of supremacy, rules of authority and power, principles of Nushdd or law, nor instruc- tion in science and philosophy, until through the aid of celestial grace, joined to the manifold favors and bounties of God, the uncontrolled authority of Mdhdbdd pervaded alike the cultivated region and the wild waste; the wide expanse of land and sea. Through divine illumination, in conjunction with his spiritual nature, the assistance of his guiding angel and the eyes of discernment ; and also what 16 he had seen and heard in the past cycle, he medi- tated on the creation of the world : he then clearly perceived that the nine superior divisions, and the four lower elements, the subjects of existence, are blended and associated with distinct essences and accidents, so as to combine together opposing move- men Is with contrary dispositions and natures : and that the aggregate of this whole indispensably re- quires a supreme bestower of connection, a blender and creator : also that whatever this bestower of relation wills, and this all perfect in wisdom does, cannot be destitute of utility and wisdom : Mahabad therefore dispatched persons to all quarters and regions of the world, to select from land and water all productions and medicinal plants held in esteem for their various properties ; these he planted in a proper site, so that by the aid of the terrene and aqueous particles, the influence of atmospheric temperature, in conjunction with the sidereal ener- gies, their powers of vegetation, nutritious qualities, and properties might be ascertained. At the time of promulgating this excellent purpose, the sove- reign of the starry host entered in glory the mansion of Aries ; and the rapidly-sketching painter of des- tiny drew forth the faces of the brides of the gar- dens (blossoms and flowers): then, through the efficacy of command, experiment, and examination, Mahabad extracted from the various flowers, fruits, leaves and fibres, the different alimentary substances, medicinal compounds, viands and beverages. He next commanded all sorts of ores to be fetched from the mines and liquified in the furnace, so that the different metals concealed in them became visible. Out of iron, which combines hardness and sharp- ness, he formed warlike weapons for the brave ; jewels, gold, silver, rubies, sapphires, diamonds, and chrysolithes, in which he observed smoothness and capability of polish, he assigned as decora- tions for kings, military chieftains, and matrons. He also ordered persons to descend into the deep waters and bring forth the shells, pearls, corals, etc. People were commanded to shear the fleece of sheep and other animals : by him also were invented the arts of spinning, weaving, cutting up, sewing and clothing. He next organized cities, villages, and streets ; erected palaces and colonnades ; introduced trade and commerce ; and divided mankind into four classes. The first was composed of Hirbeds, Mobeds, ' 1 A> xB) " Hirbed" (see Thomas Hyde, Vetcrum Persarum et Partho- rum et Medorum Religionis Uistoria, Oxonii,i f l60, p. 369-372) was called a priest of the fire-worship ; according to oriental authors, a priest of the ancient Persians was in general, called formerly \ amwz), " to teach, to learn;" the second nisarian is the same with f.U*^ nisari, the common Persian word for a war- rior; the third, nasudi, is a Pehlevi noun (see Hyde, p. 437); the fourth, Ahnukhu'shi, appears composed of _*** ', ahnu, "provisions, meat" (to be traced to yifsjch, ahnika, " daily work, food"j, and of ~^,*^, khushi, " good, content," or from Jl^locL, kha'stan, " to ask." Upon the four classes of the people see also History of the early kings of Persia, translated from the Persian of Mirkhond, entitled the Rauzu- " us-safa" by David Shea," p. 108-113. A. T. 1 The text of Gladwin has ~jll^,,> 7 destdrur, the edition of Calcutta and the manuscript of Oude have Dasa'tir. The single volume published under that name at Bombay (see note page 14), if genuine at all, can be 21 in which are formed all languages and sciences. This work consisted of several volumes, containing a certain number for each dialect. In it was also the language called Asmdni, or the Celestial, not a trace of which has remained in any of the languages spoken by the inhabitants of this lower world. Abdd also assigned a language to every nation, and settled each in a suitable place : and thus were pro- duced the Parsi, Hindi, Greek and such like. According to this sect, authentic revelation is only obtained by the world of ecstacy or similitude, called Mdnistdn; but from the time of Mdhdbdd,a\\ the pro- phets who were sent were in accordance with his faith ; not one of them being opposed to his law. MlerMdhdbdd, appeared thirteen apostles who, with him, were styled the fourteen Mdhdbdds : they were called by the common name of Abdd, and acted on every occasion in conformity to their ancestor and his Celestial Code : and whatever revelation was made to them tended to corroborate the faith of iMdhdbdd. ' After them, their sons in due succession obtained sovereign power, after their fathers, and devoted themselves to j ustice. The followers of this considered but as a very small part of the great work, said to comprehend all languages and sciences. A. T. 1 This faith is also called Fersenda'j, and the great A'bad himself Ferza'ba'd, and Bu'zu'ga'bad, (Dasal., Engl. Transl., p. 27, 58, 187). -A.T. sect also believe that all ihe prophets and kings were selected from the heads of the most distinguished families. Next to this dynasty, known as the Mahabadian, comes Abad Azdd, who withdrew from temporal power and walked in the path of devotion and seclu- sion. It is recorded, that in their time, the realm was highly cultivated; treasures were abundant ; lofty palaces, ornamented with paintings and exciting admiration ; colonnades attracting the heart ; the Mobeds celebrated, profoundly learned, worshippers of God, undefiled, equally eminent in good words and deeds ; soldiers, well-appointed and disciplined, with corresponding trains of attendants and officers; mountain-resembling elephants ; chargers like frag- ments of Alburz, ' rapid in their course ; swift-paced animals for riding ; numerous camels and dro- medaries ; well-trained cavalry and infantry, and leaders who had experience in the world ; precious stuffs ; vases of gold and silver ; thrones and crowns of great price ; heart-delighting tapestries and gar- dens with other such objects, the like of which exists not at present, and were not recorded as being in 1 Burz, with the Arabic article Al-burz, is a mountain in Jebal or Irak Ajemi, not far distant from, and to the north of, the town Yezd in the province of Pars, where, from very remote times to our days, a great number of fire-temples existed. Alburz belongs to a fabulous region ; this name is given to several mountains, among which tin- great Caucasus is distinguished from the tirah, or " little," Alburz. A. T. existence in the treasures or reigns of the Gilsftdidu monarchs. However, on the mere abandonment of the crown by Abad Azdd, every thing went to ruin ; so much blood was shed that the mills were turned by streams of gore ; all that had been accomplished by the inven- tions and discoveries of this fortunate race was for- gotten ; men became like savage and ferocious beasts, and as in former times resumed their abodes in the mountain-clefts and gloomy caverns ; those superior in strength overpowered and oppressed the weaker. At last some of the sages eminent for praise-worthy language and deeds, and who possessed the volume of Mahabad, assembled and went into the presence of Jai Afrdm, the son of Abad, who, next his sire was the most undefiled and intelligent of men, and became one of the great Apostles : he passed his time in a mountain cave, far removed from inter- course with the world, and was styled Jai on account of his purity, as in the Abddi or Azdri language, a holy person is called Jai : ' the assembled sages with one voice implored his justice, saying : " We know " of no remedy for preserving the world from ruin, " excepting the intercourse of thy noble nature with " mankind." They afterwards recited to him the 1 This word reminds of flrr, jina, or jrrr, jama, from f^", jf, ' to conquer' or ' excel,' a generic name of distinguished persons, belonging (o the Jaiua sect of Hindus. A. T. 24 counsels, testamentary precepts, traditions and me- morials of the Abddidn princes on the great merit of this undertaking. He did not however assent, until a divine command had reached him, when through the influence of revelation and the presence of the decree-bearing angel, Gabriel, he arose and assumed the high dignity, The realm once more flourished, and the institutes of Abdd resumed their former vigor. The last of the fortunate monarchs of the Jai dynasty was Jai Atdd, who also retired from mankind ; when the dominion had remained in this family during one aspdr of years. It is written in hooks of high authority that Jai Afrdm was called the son of Abdd Azdd, because next to his noble ancestor no individual possessed such great perfec- tions : but in reality many generations intervened between them : besides, Jai Afrdm was descended from the sons of Abdd Azdd, so that there is a wide interval between Shdi Giliv and Jai Abdd: in like manner between Shdi Mahbul and Ydsdn, and be- tween Ydsdn and Gilshdhi there must have elapsed multiplied and numerous generations. Those who would understand the doctrines of this faith must know, the process of numeration among this profoundly-thinking sect is as follows ; by tens, hundreds and thousands : one saldm equal to one hundred thousand; one hundred salim,one sliamdr; one hundred shdmar, one aspdr; one hundred aspdr, 25 one rddah; one hundred rddah, one arddah; a hun- dred arddah, one rdz ; a hundred rdz, one ardz ; and a hundred ardz, one bidraz. Now that their system of computation has been explained, I shall proceed with their history. They say that when his attendants found not the auspi- cious monarch Jai Aldd, neither amongst his cour- tiers, nor in the royal apartments, or harem, nor in the house of praise, or place of prayer, the affairs of the human race fell once more into disorder : at length the sages and holy men went and represented the state of affairs to the praise- worthy apostle Shdi Giliv, son of Jdi Aldd, who was then engaged in the worship of the Almighty. This prince, from his great devotion and unceasing adoration rendered to God, was called Shdi and Shdyi, that is a god and a God-worshipper : his sons were therefore styled Shdyidn. When the sages had stated the case, the first Shdyidn prince, Shdi Giliv, having reflected on the cruelty practised towards the animal creation, arose, through the influence of a celestial revelation and Divine light, and sat in his illustrious father's throne. After this happy dynasty came Shdi Mah- 6ii/,when the Shdiydn empire had lasted one shamdr of years. After these came the Ydsdnidn, so called from Ydsdn, the son of Shdi Mahbul : this prince was exceeding wise, intelligent, holy and celebrated ; the 26 apostle of the age : and being in every respect worthy of supreme power, was therefore called Ydsdn, or the meritorious and justly exalted. ' His mighty sire having withdrawn from mankind, retired into seclu- sion, and there giving himself entirely up to the worship of God, the affairs of the human race again relapsed into disorder. Tradition informs us, that when these auspicious prophets and their successors beheld evil to prevail amongst mankind, they inva- riably withdrew from among them as they could not endure to behold or hear wickedness; and sin had no admission to their breasts. When the chain of worldly repose had been rent asunder, Yasan, in obedience to a Divine revelation, seated himself on the throne of sovereignty, and overthrew evil. Of this happy dynasty the last was Ydsdn Ajdm, when this admirable family had graced the throne during ninety and nine saldm of years. The author of the Amiyhistdn says : ' * The years which I have men- tioned are farsdls of Saturn : one revolution of the regent Saturn, which is allowed to be thirty years, they call one day ; thirty such days, one month ; and twelve such months, one year." This is the rule observed by the Yezddnidn, who write down the various years of the seven planets after this manner : 1 This is evidently the Sanskrit word dUiy, yas'as, " fame, glory, celebrity, splendor," and yaKcu-J, yas'asvan, " famous, celebrated." -A. T. 27 such is the amount of the saturnian farsdl. This same system of computation is applied to thefarsdls of Mars, Venus, Mercury and the moon, a day of each being the time of their respective revolutions : they at the same time retain the use of the ordinary lunar and solar months. It is also to be observed that, according to them, the year is of two kinds; one the farsdl, which is after this manner: when the planet has traversed the twelve mansions of the zodiac, they call it one day; thirty such days, one month; and twelve such months, one year ; as we have before explained under Saturn. Similar years constitute thefarsdls of the other planets, which they thus enumerate ; the far- sals of Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the sun, Venus, Mer- cury, and the moon : the months of the farsdl they csAlfarmdh; the days of the farmah, farroz. The second kind of years is, when Saturn in the period of thirty years traverses the twelve mansions, which they call a saturnian karsdl; the karmdh is his re- maining two years and a half in each mansion, Jupiter describes his period in twelve common years; this time they call the hormuzi karsdl ; and the hor- muzi karmdh is his remaining one year in each man- sion : and so with regard to the others. However, when we speak of years or months in the accounts given of the Gilshdiydn princes, solar and lunar years and months are always meant; day implies the 28 acknowledged day ; and by month is meant the resi- dence of the Great Light in one of the zodiacal man- sions ; and by year, his passing through the zodiac ; a lunar month is its complete revolution, and tra- versing all the signs, which year and month are also called Timiir. ' When Yasan Asam had abandoned this elemen- tary body and passed away from this abode of wickedness, the state of mankind fell into utter ruin, as his son Gitshdh, who was enlightened in spirit, intelligent in nature, adorned by good deeds, feeling no wish for sovereign power, had given himself so entirely up to the service of God, that no one knew the retreat of this holy personage. Men therefore, shutting up the eyes of social inter- course, extended the arm of oppression against each other ; at once the lofty battlements and noble edi- fices were levelled to the ground ; the deep fosses filled up ; mankind being left destitute of a head, the bonds of society were broken; slaughter was car- ried to such excess, that numerous rivers flowed with currents of blood, streaming from the bodies of the slain : in a short time not a trace was left of the countless treasures and the boundless stores, the amount of which defied the computations of imagin- ation. Matters even came to such an extremity, that 1 (, lad win has i^J, nimur ; the edition of Calcutta and the manu- script of Oude have **> timur. A. T. men threw off the institutes of humanity, and were no longer capable of distinguishing the relative values of precious stones, wares and commodities : they left not a vestige remaining of palaces and cities; but like ferocious and savage beasts, look up their dwell- ing in the mountain caverns- Besides this, they fought against each other, so that the multitudes of the human race were reduced to a scanty remnant. On this, Gilshdh 1 of exalted nature, in obedience to a revelation from heaven, and to the command of the ruler of the universe, became the sovereign of man- kind : he restored the institutes of justice, and reas- sembled the members of his family, who, during his seclusion, had totally dispersed : on this account he was styled Abu-l-Bashr, or " the Father of the hu- man race," because with the exception of his family, the great majority of the others having fallen in their mutual contests, the survivors had adopted the pur- suits and habitudes of demons and of wild beasts : Kaiomors, or Gilshdh, with his sons, then proceeded to give battle to the vile race, and disabled their 1 Gil-shah, " Earth-King, "also " the King formed of clay." According to the Mojmil-al-Tavarikh (see Extracts from this work by Julius Mohl, Esq. , Journ. Asiat., February 1841, p. 146), he was so called, because he go- verned the then not inhabited earth. Gil-shah is one of the names given to the first man or King; in the Desa'tir (pp. 70, 131) he is called Gio- mert, Gilshadeng; by others Kaiomars (see also Rauzat-us-Safa of Mirk- hond, translated by D. Shea, p. 50). A. T. 50 hands from inflicting cruelly on the harmless ani- mals : all that we find in Histories of Kaiomors, and his sons fighting against demons, refers to this cir- cumstance, and the systems of faith which sanction the slaughter of animals were all invented by this demon-like race. In short, the only true Ruler of the world transmitted a celestial volume to Kaio- mors, and also selected for the prophetic oifice among his illustrious descendants, Siydmak, Hii- shany, Tahmuras, Jems hid, Faridun, Minucheher, Kai Khusro, Zaratusht, Azdr Sdsdn the first, and Azdr Sdsdn the fifth, enjoining them to walk in con- formity with the doctrines of Mahabad and Kaio- mors 5 so that the celestial volumes which he be- stowed on those happy princes, all their writings and records were in perfect accord with the code of Mdhdbdd : with the exception of Zaratusht, not one of this race uttered a single word against the book of Abad : and even Zaratiisht's words were, by the glosses of the Yezddnidns, made to conform to the Mdhdbddian code they therefore style Zaratusht, " Waklishur-i-Simbari," or the parable-speaking prophet. The Gilshaian monarchs constitute four races ; namely, the Peshdddian, Kaidnidn, Ashkdnidn, and Sdsdnidn : the last of these kings is Yezdejird, the son ofSheriar: the empire of these auspicious sovereigns lasted six thousand and twenty-four years and five 31 months. ' During their existence, the world was arrayed in beauty : Kaiomors,* Siyamak,* Htishatuj* named the Peshdddidn, Tahmuras/ surnamed the Enslaver of Demons, and Jemslud, 6 through celestial 1 This number differs considerably from the chronology of other Asia- tics. Here follow the periods enumerated in the Epitome of the ancient History of Persia, extracted and translated from the Jehan Ara, by Sir Wil. Ouseley ( p. 71-74). The Pcshdadian ruled ( the mean of 4 different data ) . . 2531 years. Kaianian ( 4 ) . . 704 Ashkanian ( 11 ) . . 352 Sasanian ( 7 ) . . 500 TOTAL 4087 years. As Yezdejird's reign terminated 651 or 653 years of our era, the begin- ning of the Peshdadfan, according to the Dabistan, is placed 6024651 =5373 years before J. C. A. T. a Adopting the just computed period of 4087 years between Yczdegird and the 1st of the Pfehdadian, Kaiomars would have begun to reign 3436 years before Christ; according to the Shahnamah, it was 3529 years before our era ; Sir W. Jones places him 890 years B. C. (see his Works, vol. XII, Svoedit. p. 399). 3 Siyamak the son of Gilshah or Kaiomors, was killed in a battle agains t the Divs. ACCORDING TO FERDUSI : ACCORDING TO SIR W. JONES : * Hushang began to reign 3499 years B. C. ; 865 years B. C. r ' Tehmiiras 3469 ; 835 G Jemshid 3429 ; 800 Jemshid, also called Jermshar in the Desa'tir (pp. 88, 89), according to Ferdusi the son of Tehmuras, according to the Zend-Avesta the son of Vivergham, brother or son of Tahmuras. He, or rather his dynasty, ruled 700 years the Persian empire. He is believed to have been the first who amongst the Persians regulated the solar year, the commencement of which he fixed at the vernal equinox, about the 5th of April (see Zend- Avesta, by Anquetil du Perron, vol. II, p. 82). He is also distinguished revelations, Divine assistance, the instruction of Almighty God, unerring prudence, and just views, having followed in all things what we have recorded concerning Mahabad and his illustrious children, introduced the rules of Divine worship, the know- ledge of God, virtuous deeds, purity of conduct, modes of diet, clothing, the rites of marriage, the observance of continence, with all kinds of science, letters, books, professions, solemn festivals, ban- quets, wind and stringed musical instruments, cities, gardens, palaces, ornaments, arms, gradations of office, the distinctions of the two sexes with respect to exposure and privacy, the diffusion of equity, jus- tice, and all that was praiseworthy. After these, the Gilshaiyan ruled, through divine inspiration and the communication of the Almighty added to their intelligence, so that the greater part of the splendor, pomp, and beauty we now behold in the world is to be attributed to this happy race : many however of the excellent institutions of this happy dynasty have fallen into disuse and a few only remain. The following is the sum of the Sipdsidn creed : from the commencement of Mdftdbdd's empire to the by the epithet Sad-wakhshur, which signifies " hundred prophets;" to him is ascribed the book Javedan Ehirad, " eternal intelligence," which is said to have been translated into Greek, with other books, by order of Alexander (see Desa'tir, English transl. pp. 79, 153, 163). A. T. 53 end of Yezdejird's reign, the great majority, nay all the individuals of this chosen race, with the excep- tion of Zokah, ' were models of equity, character- ized by justice and piety, perfect in words and deeds. In this holy family, some were prophets, all were saints, righteous and God-fearing persons, with realms and armies maintained in the highest order. They also acknowledge the apostles and princes prior to Gils hah, from Mdhdbdd to Ydsdn A jam, as so eminently pious, that in no degree whatever did wick- edness enter into their conversation or actions : nor did they at any time deviate from the Paymdn-i-Far- hang, or " Excellent Covenant," which is the code of Mahabad, nor omit the performance of any duty; they also held that the stars are exceedingly exalted, and constitute the Kiblah 2 of the inhabitants of this lower world. 1 Zohak, the son of a sister of Jemshid, usurped the throne of his uncle and sovereign, according to Ferdusi, 2729 years B. C. ; according to Hel- vicus, 2248; according to Jackson, 1964 ; but only 780 years B. C., accord- ing to Sir W. Jones who, in general, fixes the ancient Persian reigns much lower than other chronologers. Zohak is also called Pivar-asp, or Bivar- asp, from the circumstance of his always keeping ten thousand Arabian horses in his stables, for Bivar, says Ferdusi, from the Pehlevi, in counting means in the Dari tongue, ten thousand (see Rauzat-us-safa, Translat., p. 123 ; and also Mojmel-al-Tavarikh). The empire which Zokah founded is identified by some historians with the Assyrian monarchy of Semiramis, or with a Semitic domination in general. It lasted, according to the Orientals, 1000 years ; according to Ctesias, Diodorus Siculus, Justin and Syncellus 13 or 1400, according to Herodotus only 520. years. A. T. 2 Kiblah signifies that part to which people direct their face in prayer, 3 34 In the lime of Ddwir Hdrydr (the author ofDarai Sekander), who was of the Kaidnian race and a fol- lower of the Yezdanian faith, some one said: " The " prophets and faith are higher in dignity than the sun." Dawir replied : " Where are now the forms " and bodies of that description of men?'* On which that person having stated the names of the ci- ties and burial places of the prophets, Dawir rejoined: " During their whole lifetime, the form of no pro- " phet or saint ever emitted light, even the distance " of one day's journey, and since they have been " committed to the earth, not a single ray has been " shed from their graves : and they are now so ' ' blended with the dust that not a trace of them is " left!" The person then said : "the spirits of the " prophets and saints are exceedingly resplendent." Dawir retorted : " Behold what amount of light is 4 ' diffused by the solar globe ! whereas the bodies of " your saints are destitute of splendor ; therefore " rest assured that his spirit is more resplendent " than theirs. Know besides, that the sun is the " heart of the heavens : if he existed not, this world ' ' of formation and dissolution could not continue : " he brings forth the seasons and the productive " energies of nature ; moreover, the prophets were '* not in the beginning, nor are they in existence the temple of Mecca to the devout Muhammedans : in a general sense, it means the object of our views or wishes. A. T. , 35 ' '* now : but the world endures, the seasons rejoice, * ' and the people are gladdened : this much how- " ever may be conceded, that the prophets and 4 ' saints are more exalted than the remainder of the ** human race." On hearing this, that person was silenced. Lastly, it is stated in the Akhtaristdn, that the Sipasian tenets were, that the stars and the heavens are the shadows of the incorporeal effulgences ; on this account they erected the tem- ples of the seven planets, and had talismans formed of metal or stone, suitable to each star: all which talismans were placed in their proper abode, under a suitable aspect : they also set apart a portion of time for their worship and handed down the mode of serving them. When they performed the rites to these holy statues, they burned before them the suitable incense at the appointed season, and held their power in high veneration. Their tem- ples were called Paikaristan, or " image-temples," and Shidistdn,or" the abodes of the forms of the lu- minous bodies." DESCRIPTION OF THE WORSHIP RENDERED TO THE SEVEN PLANETS ACCORDING TO THE SlPASIAN FAITH. It IS Stated in the Akhtaristan, that the image of the regent Saturn was cut out of black stone, in a human shape, with an ape-like head ; his body like a man's, with a hog's tail, and a crown on his head; in the right 36 hand a sieve ; in the left a serpent. His temple was also of black stone, and his ofticiating ministers were negroes, Abyssinians and persons of black com- plexions : they wore blue garments, and on their fingers rings of iron : they offered up storax and such like perfumes, and generally dressed and offered up pungent viands; they administered myrobalam, also similar gums and drugs. Villagers and hus- bandmen who had left their abodes, nobles, doc- tors, anchorites, mathematicians, enchanters, sooth- sayers and persons of that description lived in the vicinity of this temple, where these sciences were taught, and their maintenance allowed them : they first paid adoration in the temple and afterwards waited onthe king. All persons ranked among the servants of the regent Saturn were presented to the king through the medium of the chiefs and officers of this temple, who were always selected from the greatest families in Iran. The words Shat and Tim- sar are appellations of honor, signifying dignity, just as Sri in Hindi, and Hazrat in Arabic. Theimage of the regent/formtudfJupiter) was of an earthy color, in the shape of a man, with a vulture's ' face : on his head a crown , on which were the faces of a cock and a dragon ; in the right hand a turban ; in the left a crystal ewer. The ministers of this temple 1 The text has -o ', Herges, a bird, feeding on carcasses, and living one hundred years. A. T. 37 were of a terrene hue, dressed in yellow and white ; they wore rings of silver and signets of cornelian ; the incense consisted of laurel-berries and such like ; the viands prepared by them were sweet. Learned men, judges, imans, eminent vizirs, distinguished men, nobles, magistrates and scribes dwelt in the street attached to this temple, where they devoted themselves to their peculiar pursuits, but principally giving themselves up to the science of theology. The temple of the regent Bahram l (Mars) and his image were of red stone : he was represented in a human form, wearing on his head a red crown : his right hand was of the same color and hanging down; his left, yellow and raised up : in the right was a blood-stained sword, and an iron verge in the left. The ministers of this temple were dressed in red garmenls ; his attendants were Turks with rings of copper on their hands ; the fumigations made before him consisted of sandaracha and such like ; the viands used here were bitter. Princes, champions, soldiers, military men, and Turks dwelt in his street. Persons of this description, through the agency of the directors of the temple, were admitted to the king's presence. The bestowers of charity dwelt in the vicinity of this temple ; capital punishments were here inflicted, and the prison for criminals was also in that street. 1 Bahram is also called Ifanishram (Desatir, Engl. transl. p. 79). 38 The image of the world-enlightening solar regent was the largest of the idols ; his dome was built of gold-plated bricks : the interior inlaid with rubies, diamonds, cornelian and such like. The image of the Great Light was formed of burnished gold, in the likeness of a man with two heads, on each of which was a precious crown set with rubies ; and in each diadem were seven sdrun or peaks. He was seated on a powerful steed ; his lace resembling that of a man, but he had a dragon's tail ; in the right hand a rod of gold, a collar of diamonds around his neck. The ministers of this temple were dressed in yellow robes of gold tissue, and a girdle set with rubies, diamonds, and other solar stones : the fumi- gations consisted of sandal wood and such like : they generally served up acid viands. In his quarter were the families of kings and emperors, chiefs, men of might, nobles, chieftains, governors, rulers of countries, and men of science : visitors of this description were introduced to the king by the chiefs of the temple. The exterior of Wahid's 1 (Venus) temple was of white marble and the interior of crystal : the form of the idol was that of a red man, wearing a seven- peaked crown on the head : in the right hand a flask of oil, and in the left a comb: before him was burnt saffron and such like ; his ministers were clad in 1 Nahid appears also under the name of Ferehengt'ram (ibid., p. 90). 39 white, iine robes, and wore pearl-studded crowns, and diamond rings on their fingers. Men were not permitted to enter this temple at night. Matrons and their daughters performed the necessary offices and service, except on the night of the king's going there, as then no females approached, but men only had access to it. Here the ministering attendants served up rich viands. Ladies of the highest rank, practising austerities, worshippers of God, belong- ing to the place or who came from a distance, gold- smiths, painters and musicians dwelt around this temple, through the 'chiefs and directors of which they were presented to the king : but the women and ladies of rank were introduced to the queen by the female directresses of the temple. The dome and image of the regent Tir* (Mercury) was of blue stone; his body that of a fish, with a boar's face : one arm black, the other white ; on his head a crown : he had a tail like that of a fish ; in his right hand a pen, and in the left an inkhorn. The substances burnt in this temple were gum mas- tic and the like, tts ministers were clad in blue, wearing on their fingers rings of gold. At their feasts they served up acidulous viands. Vizirs, phi- losophers, astrologers, physicians, farriers, account- ants, revenue-collectors, ministers, secretaries, mer- chants, architects, tailors, fine writers and such like, 3 Tir, also Temira'm (ibid., p. I02\ A. T. 40 were stationed there, and through the agency of the directors of the temple, had access to the king : the knowledge requisite for such sciences and pursuits was also communicated there. The temple of the regent Mah (the moon) was of a green stone ; his image that of a man seated on a white ox : on his head a diadem in the front of which were three peaks : on the hands were brace- lets, and a collar around the neck. In his right hand an amulet of rubies, and in the left a branch of sweet basil : his ministers were clad in green and while, and wore rings of silver. The substances burnt before this image were gum arabic and such like drugs. His attendants served up salted viands. Spies, ambassadors, couriers, news-reporters, voy- agers, and the generality of travellers, and such like persons resided in his street, and were presented to the king through the directors of the temple. Be- sides the peculiar ministers and attendants, there were attached to each temple several royal commis- sioners and officers, engaged in the execution of the king's orders; and in such matters as were con- nected with the image in that temple. In the Khu- ristar or " refectory of each temple," the board was spread the whole day with various kinds of viands and beverages always ready. No one was repulsed, so that whoever chose partook of them. In like manner, in the quarter adjacent to each temple, was 41 an hospital, where the sick under the idol's protec- tion were attended by the physician of that hospi- tal. Thus there were also places provided for tra- vellers, who on their arrival in the city repaired to the quarter appropriated to the temple to which they belonged. l It is to be observed, that although the planets are simple bodies of a spherical form, yet the reason why the above-mentioned images have been thus formed, is that the planetary spirits have appeared in the world of imagination to certain prophets, saints, and holy sages under such forms; and under which they are also connected with certain influ- ences ; and as they have appeared under forms dif- ferent from these to other persons, their images have also been made after that fashion. 1 It was from time immemorial to our days the practice of the Asiatics to refer the common affairs of life to the stars, to which they attribute a constant and powerful influence over the nether world. Thus Hnmaiun the son of Baber, emperor of India (see the History of Ferishta, translated by general John Briggs, vol. II, p. 71) " caused seven halls of audience to be " built, in which he received persons according to their rank. The first, *' called the palace of the Moon, was set apart for ambassadors, messen- '' gers and travellers. In the second, called the palace of Vtarid (Venus), " civil officers, and persons of that description, were received ; and there " were five other palaces for the remaining five planets. In each of these " buildings he gave public audience, according to the planet of the day. " The furniture and paintings of each, as also the dresses of the house- " hold attendants, bore some symbol emblematical of the planet. In " each of these palaces he transacted business one day in the week." -A.T 42 When the great king, his nobles, retinue and the other Yezdanian went to the temple of Saturn, they were arrayed in robes of blue and black hues ; ex- pressed themselves with humility, moving with a slow pace, their hands folded on the breast. In the temple of Hormuzd (Jupiter), they were dressed in his colors, as learned men and judges. In that of Baliram (Mars) they were clad in the robes peculiar to him, and expressed themselves in an arrogant manner but in the temple of the Sun, in language suitable to kings and holy persons ; in that of Yenus, they appeared cheerful and smiling ; in the temple of Mercury they spoke after the manner of sages and orators ; and in the moon's, like young children and inferior officers. In every private house there were besides images of the stars, a minute description of which is given in the Akhtaristan. They had also, in every tem- ple, the spherical or true forms of the several planets. There was a city called the royal abode or sardi, lacing which were seven temples. On each day of the week, in the dress appropriated to each planet, the king exhibited himself from an elevated tabsar or window, fronting the temple of the planet, whilst the people, in due order and arrangement, offered up their prayers. For example, on Sunday or Yakshambalt, he shewed himself clad in a yellow kaba or tunic of gold tissue, wearing a crown of the same metal, set with rubies and diamonds, covered with many ornaments of gold from the tabsar, the circumference of which was embossed with similar stones : under this window, the several ranks of the military were drawn out in due gradation, until the last line took post in the kashudzdr or ample aren, in which were posted soldiers of the lowest order. When the king issued forth, like the sun, from the orient of the tabsar, all the people prostrated them - selves in adoration, and the monarch devoted him- self to the concerns of mankind. The Tdbsdr is a place of observation in a lofty pavilion, which the princes of Hindustan call ajahrokah or lattice win- dow : on the other days, the king appeared with simi- lar brilliancy from the other Tabsars. In like man- ner the king, on their great festivals, went in choice garments to the temples of the several images : and on his return seated himself in the Tabsar, facing the image of the planet, or, having gone to the Rozis- tdn or Dddistdn, devoted himself to the affairs of state. This Rozistan was a place which had no tabsar, where the king seated himself on the throne, his ministers standing around in due gradation. The Dddistdn was the hall of justice, where, when the king was seated, no one was prevented from having access to him : so that the king first came to the Tabsar, then to the rdzislan, and lastly to the Dadistan. Also on whatever day a planet moved out of one celestial house to another, and on all great festival days, the king went to the temple appro- priate to the occasion. Each of the planetary forms had also its peculiar Tabsar, in the same manner as we have before stated concerning the royal Tabsar ; and on a happy day, or festival, they brought the image to its Tabsar , The king went first and offered up prayer, standing in the Tabsar of the image, the nobles placed around according to their gradations, whilst the people were assembled in great multitudes in the Kashudzdr, offering up prayers to the planet. According to what is stated in the Timsdr Da- sdtir, 1 that is, in the " Venerable Desatir," the Al- mighty Creator has so formed the celestial bodies, that from their motions there result certain effects in this lower world, and, without doubt, all events here depend on the movements of these elevated bodies ; so that every star has relation to some event, and every mansion possesses its peculiar nature : nay, every degree of each sign is endued with a dis- tinct influence : therefore the prophets of the Lord, in conformity to his orders, and by great experience, 1 Gladwin has ^yU^ kt** > timar Vasatir, the manuscript of Oude jju.v~O il^y, tima'r dasya'tir, the edition of Calcutta j-A-O J^VJ'j ti'msa'r dasatir, which is the right reading, as the word " timsar" is ex- plained in the index of obsolete or little known terms by these words : Jax) dsjJo, " a word expressing respect." - A. T. have ascertained the properties inherent in the de- grees of each celestial mansion , and the influences of the stars. It is certain that whenever the agent does not agree with the passive, the result of the affair will not be fortunate ; consequently, when the prophets and sages desired that the agency of the planet should be manifested advantageously in the world, they carefully noted the moment of the star's entering the degree most suitable to the desired event : and also to have at a distance from that point, whatever stars were unfavorable to the issue. When all had been thus arranged, whatever was connected with the productive cause was then completed : they then bring together whatever is connected with caus- ation in the lower world : thus all the viands, per- fumes, colors, forms, and all things relating to the star, being associated, they enter on the undertaking with firm faith and sure reliance : and whereas the spirits possess complete influence over the events which occur in the lower world, when therefore the celestial, terrestrial, corporeal and spiritual causes are all united, the business is then accomplished. But whosoever desires to be master of these powers, must be well skilled in metaphysics ; in the secrets of nature; and having his mind well stored with the knowledge of the planetary influences, and ren- dered intelligent by much experience. As the union of such qualifications is rarely or never found, the 46 trulh of this science is consequently hidden from men. The Abadidn moreover say, that the prophets of the early faith, or the kings of Farsistdn and the Yezddnidn, held the stars to be the Kiblah of prayer, and always paid them adoration, especially when a star was in its own house or in its ascendant, free from evil aspects ; they then collected whatever bore relation to that planet, and engaged in worship, seating themselves in a suitable place, and suffering no one to come near them : they practised austeri- ties ; and on the completion of their undertaking, ex- hibited kindness to the animal creation. In the year 1061 of the Hegira (A. D. 1651) the author, then in Sikakul of Kalany, ' was attacked by a disease which no application could alleviate. An astrologer pronounced, that " the cause of this '* malady arises from the overpowering force of the regent Mars;" on which, several distinguished Brahmins assembled on the fourth of Zikadah (the 9th October) the same year, and having set out the image of Bahrain and collected the suitable per- fumes, with all other things fit for the operation, employed themselves in reading prayers and re- citing names ; at last, their chief, taking up with great reverence the image of Mars, thus entreated: 1 Cicacole, a town in the northern districts of the Coromandel coast, anciently named Kalinga, the ancient capital of an extensive district of the same name, lat. 18 21' N., long. 83 37 'E. A. T. 47 " O illustrious angel and celestial leader! moderate '* thy heat, and be not wrathful : but be merciful lo " such a one" (pointing to me). He then plunged the image into perfumed water ; immediately on the immersion of the image, the pain was removed. In front of each temple was a large fire-temple, so that there were seven in all : namely, the Kaiwan- dzar, Hormuz-dzar, Bahrdm-dzar, Hdr-dzar, JNahid- dzar, Tir-dzar, and Mdh-dzar, so that each fire- temple was dedicated to one of the seven planets, and in these they burnt the proper perfumes. They assert that, during the flourishing empire of the early monarchs, several sacred structures, such as those of the Kabah and the holy temple of Mecca ; ! Jeru- salem ; the burial-place of Muhammed ; the asylum of prophecy, in Medina; the place of repose of Ah', 2 the prince of the faithful in Najf ; the sepul- chre of Imam Husain in Kerbela ; 3 the tomb of Imam 1 The Muhatnmedans distinguish particularly two temples, or mosques : the first, the principal object of their veneration, is the Masjed al Haram, or " the Sacred mosque," that is to say, the temple of Mecca, where is also the Kdbah, or " the Square-edifice," built, as they say, by Abraham and his son Ismael. The second of the temples is the Masjed al Nabi, " the mosque of the Prophet," who preached and is buried in it. (Berbelot.)A.. T. 2 AH, the son of Abu Taleb, the cousin and son in law of Muhammed. Ali was assassinated in the mosque of Kufa, and buried near this town, in the province of Irak, the Babylonian, on the right bank of the Eu- phrates. A. T. 3 Kerbela is a district of Irak, the Babylonian, or of Chaldaea, not far 48 Musa 4 in Baghdad ; ' the mausoleum of Imam Reza in Sanabad of Tiis; and the sanctuary of Ali in Balkh, 7 were all in former times idol and fire-tem- ples. They say .that Mahabad after having built a fire temple, called Hqftsur or seven ramparts, in Is- takhar of Persia, 8 erected a house to which he gave the name of Abdd, and which is at present called the Kdbah: and which the inhabitants of that country werecommanded to hold in reverence : among the images of the Kdbah was one of the moon, exceed- ingly beautiful, wherefore the temple was called Mdhydh (Moon's place) which the Arabs generally changed into Mekka. They also say that among the images and statues left in the Kabah by Mahabad and from Kufa, and west of the town called Kaser Ben Hobeirah It is famous on account of the death and sepulchre of Hossain, the son of Ali, who was killed there, fighting against the troops of Yezid, son of M on via, who disputed the khalifat with him.- A. T. 4 Musa was the seventh of the twelve Imams whom the Shiites revere. He was born in the year of the Hegira 128 (745 A. D. ), and died in 183 (799 A. D.).-A. T. 5 Baghdad, a town in the province Irak Arabi. 6 The Imam Reza was the eighth Imam of the race of Ali ; he was called Ali Ben Mussa al Kadhem, before he received the title Reza or Redha (one n whom God is pleased ) from the Khalif Almamum, when the latter appointed him his successor, but survived the Imam, who died A. D. 818. -A.T. 7 Balkh, a town in Khorasan, situated towards the head of the river Oxus, in lat. N. 36 28'; long. 65 16'. * Persepolis, in Persia proper. 49 his renowned successors, one is the black stone, ' the emblem of Saturn. They also say that the pro- phet of Arabia worshipped the seven planets, and he therefore left undisturbed the black stone or Sa- turn's emblem, which had remained since the time of the Abadian dynasty ; but that he broke or car- ried away the other figures introduced by the Ko- reish, and which were not formed according to the images of the stars. In most of the ancient temples of Persia they had formed the symbol of Venus in the figure of a Mihrab, or arch, like the altar of the mosques : consequently the present Mihrab, or altar, is that identical symbol : which assertion is also proved by the respect paid to Friday or the day of Venus. Ibrahim (Abraham), the friend of God, pursued the same conduct; that is, he rejected the idols 1 For the black stone, consult Dart's Antiquities of Westminster, vol. II, p. 12; Matthew of Westminster, p. 430. D. S. Stones, especially when distinguished by some particular form* or colour,, were in the most ancient times venerated as the only then pos- sible monuments, consecrated to some respected person, or to some Di- vinity. Thus the ancient Arabians venerated a square stone as sacred (see Selden de Dls Syris, p. 291, 292). It is known that the Muhamme- dans bestow a particular veneration upon a black stone, which is attached to the gate of their mosque at Mecca (Herbelot, Bibl. orient, sub voce). It is evident that the followers of Muhammed, who is the prophet of a comparatively recent religion, appropriated to themselves more than one object and place of the most ancient veneration by merely changing its name, and attaching to it a legend in accordance to their own belief. -A. T. 50 which were not of ihe planetary forms : and the reverence paid by him to the black stone, according to ancient tradition, seems to prove that point. Isfendiar , the son of king Gushlasp ' conformed also to this practice ; nay Socrates the Sage, in like man- ner, forbad the people to worship any other forms except those of the planets, and commanded the statues of the kings to be removed. Moreover, the holy temple of Jerusalem, or Kundizh-huhkt* was erected by Zohak, and Faridun 2 kindled in it the holy fire. But long before Zohak's time, there were several idol and fire temples in that place. In the same manner, they say, that when Faridoon turned his attention to the overthrow of Zohak, during his journey his brethren having hurled a rock at him, this revered prince, who was skilled and mighty in 1 According to Ferdusi in his Shah-namah, Gushtasp (Darius, son of Hystaspcs, 519 B.C.) was induced by Zcrdusht to adopt a reformed doc- trine which prescribed the adoration of fire, and was probably a purer sort of Sabaeism, as practised by the most enlightened magi of very an- cient times. Isfendiar, Gushtasp's son, a zealous promoter of this reli- gion, erected fire-temples in all parts of his empire ( see also Rauzat-us- safa, Shea's transl., p. 285). A. T. * The Persian text of Gladwin reads: v.xCJLS' " Gangdezh." 2 Faridun, the son of Abtin, restored the power of the Pe'shdadian according to Ferdusi, 1729 years B. C.; according to Sir W. Jones and other chronologers, 750 years before our era. Faridun, or rather his dynasty, reigned 500 years; according to the Boundehesh and theMujmel- ul-tavarikh during the 500 years of Feridun, twelve generations inter- vened between Faridun, and Manutcheher, his grandson. A. T, 51 all the extraordinary sciences, manifested a won- derous deed : he prayed to the Almighty that it might remain suspended in the air, so that the stone even to this day is known as Kuds KhaliL They also say that in Medina, ' the burial place of the pro- phet, there was formerly an image of the moon : the temple in which it was, they called Mahdinah, or the " Moon of Religion," as religion is the moon of truth, from which the Arabs formed Medinah. They in like manner relate, that in the most noble Najf, where now is the shrine of Ali, the prince of the faithful, there was formerly a fire-temple called Faroyh pirdi (the decoration of splendor), and also "Nakqf,"oTNa akaft(uo injury),whichis at present denominated Najf. Also at Karbald, the place where the Imam Husain reposes, there was formerly a fire- temple called Mahydrsur Urn* and Kar bala (sublime agency), at present called Karbela. Also in Baghdad, where the Imam Musa reposes, was a fire-temple called Shet Pirdyi (decoration): and in the place where rest the remains of the great Jmam Abu Hanifah, of Kufah, was a temple called Huryar (sun's friend) : also in Kufah, on the site of the 1 Medina signifies a town in general, but in particular that of Jatreb, in Arabia, in the province of Hajiaz, to which town Muhammed fled when obliged to abandon Mecca, on the 16th July, 622 of our era, which is the first year of the Hejira, " flight." A. T. * The text of Gladwin reads. Jic. \j~\\Jiut " Mahlarsu'z Urn" 52 mosque, was a fire-temple called Roz-Azar (the day of fire) : and in the region of Tiis, on the site oflmam Resa's shrine, was a fire-temple called Azar Khirad (the fire of intellect) it was also known by many other appellations, and owes its erection to Fari- diin. Also when Tus, the son of Ndzar, 1 came to visit Azar-i- Khirad, he laid near it the foundation of a city which was called after his name. 2 In Balkh, where is now the sanctuary of the Imam, formerly stood a temple called Mahin Azar (great fire), now known under the name of Nobahdr. In Ardebil, 3 the ancient Dizh-i-Bahman* (Rahman's fort), Kai Khosrii, on reducing the citadel, constructed there a fire- temple called Azari-Kdus, 5 which now serves as the burial place of the shaikh Sufi Ud-Din, the ancestor of the Safavean princes : 6 they also assert 1 Nazar is the eighth king of the Pe"shdadian, placed by Ferdusi 1109 years B. C. ; by the modern chronologcrs 715-708 B. C. He had two sons, Tiis and Gustaham. 2 The foundation of the town Tus, in Khorasan, is also attributed to Jemshid. 3 Ardebil, a town in the province called Azerbijan, which is a part of the ancient Media. 4 Bahman, son of Isfendiar. 5 Kaus, the second king of the Kaian dynasty, whose reign began, according to Ferdusi, 955 years B. C. ; he is supposed by western histo- rians, to be Darius, the Mede, of the Greeks, and placed by them 600, 634-594 years B. C. A. T. 6 The Safavean dynasty began in 1499 A. D. by Shah-Ismail, who derives his origin from Musa, already mentioned as the seventh imam of the Muselmans. All his ancestors were considered as pious men and 55 that there were fire-temples in several parts of In- dia : as in Dwaraka, ' was the temple of Saturn, called Dizh-i-Kaiv an ( Saturn's fort), which the Hin- doos turned into Dwaraka: and in Gya also was an idol temple, called Gah-i-Kaivan, or " Saturn's resi- dence," which was turned into Gya. * In Mahtra also was an idol temple of Saturn, the name of which was Mahetar, that is the chiefs or mahetar resorted thither; which word hy degrees became Mahtra. ** In like manner several places among some as saints. The first of this family who gained a great reputation was Shaik Sufi Ud-din, from whom this dynasty takes the name of Sufa- viah. His son was Sudder Ud-din. The monarchs of that time used to visit his cell. Timur asked him what favour he could bestow on him. The saint answered: " Set free all the prisoners whom thou hast brought " from Turkey." The conqueror granted this request, and the grateful tribes declared themselves the disciples of the man to whom they owed their liberty. Their children preserved the sacred obligation of their ancestors, and placed the son of the pious Eremite upon the throne of Persia. (Malcolm's Hist, of Persia. ) A. T. 1 Dwaraka, an ancient town, built by Krichna, destroyed by a revolu- tion of nature ; actually exists a town and celebrated temple of that name, in the province of Guzrat, situated at the S. W. extremity of the penin- sula, lat. 22 21' N. ; long. 69 15' E. * The true name is Ga'ya, a town in the province of Bahar, 53 miles south from Patna, lat. 24 49' N. ; long. 85 5' E. It is one of the holy places of the Hindus, to which pilgrimages are performed. It was made holy by the benediction of Vichnu, who granted its sanctity to the piety of Gaya the Rajarchi ; or according to another legend, to Gaya, the Asura, who was overwhelmed here by the deities, with rocks. This place is also considered by some Hindus either as the birthplace or as the residence of Buddha, from which circumstance it is usually termed Buddha-Gaya (Hamilt. E. I. Gazetteer. Wilson's Diet, sub voce). A. T. "* Mathura, a town in the province of Agra, situated on the east side of 54 the Christians and other nations bore names which show them to have been idol-temples. When the Abadian come to such places, they visit them with the accustomed reverence, as, according to them holy places are never liable to abomination or pol- lution, as they still remain places of worship and adoration : both friends and foes regarding them as a Kiblah, and sinners, notwithstanding all their perverseness, pray in those sacred edifices. Rai Gopi Nath ' thus expresses himself: Shaikh ! behold the dignity of my idol-house ; Even when destroyed, it remains the house of God! There is not on record a single word repugnant to reason from the time of Mahabad to that of Yasan Ajam ; and if they have recourse to allegory, they then express its figurative nature. From these princes to the Gilshaiyan there are many figurative expressions, all of which they interpret. For ex- ample, they say that the tradition of Siamak being slain by the hand of a demon implies, that in suc- cessive battles, through ignorance of himself and God, he unwittingly destroyed this elementary body ; thus, wherever, in the language of this sect, mention the Jumna, 30 miles N. E. by N. from the city of Agra, lat. 27 32'; long. 77 37 'E. This place is much celebrated and venerated by the Hindus, as the scene of the birth and early adventures of Krichna ( Ha- milt. Gazet.). A. T. 1 This is an entirely Indian name : Gopinath, " the lord of the cow- " herds' wives," a name of Krichna. A. T. 55 is made of a demon, they always understand a man of that description, as has been explained in the Paiman-i-ferhancf, or * * Excellent Code. " They also maintain that, in some passages, the rendering the demons obedient, and slaying them, is a figurative mode of expressing a victory gained over the plea- sures of sense, and the extirpation of evil propensi- ties : in like manner, whatever is related about the appearance of angels to virtuous and holy persons, is the revelation and vision of good spirits, whilst in a state of sleep, transport, recovery from excess, or abstraction from the body ; which states are truly explained in this work. They say that Zohak's two serpents, do-mar, and ten fires (vices) or deh ak, imply irascibility and sensuality: the devil, his car- nal soul, and in some places his disposition the two pieces of flesh which broke out on Zohak's shoulders in consequence of his evil deeds, appeared to the human race like serpents, the pain caused by which could only be alleviated by the application of human brains. They also say that the celebrated Simuryh 1 (griflin) was a sage, who had retired from the world and taken up his peaceful abode in the 1 According to oriental Romance, the Si-murgh, or Enka, is endowed \vith reason. He acts a considerable part in the Shah-namah, as tutor to Zal, the father of Rustam. In the Kaherman Namah, this bird in a conversation with Kaherman, the hero, states that it has existed during many revolutions of ages and beings prior to the creation of Adam. It is called Si-murgh, as being equal in magnitude to thirty birds. A. T. 56 mountains : he was therefore called by this name, and. was the instructor of Dastan, the son of Sam ; so that Zal, through his instruction, attained the knowledge of the occult sciences. As to the current tradition about Kai-Kaus attempting to ascend to Heaven, and his downfall, this occurred, according to them, during his sleep, and not when he was awake. Kai Nishin, his brother, who had retired from all intercourse with mankind, thus interprets the adventure of Kaus : " The four eagles are the " four elements; the throne, the predominating " passions; the lance, their energy and impetuosity " in the desire of sensual gratifications; the thighs "of flesh, their various pursuits of anger, passion, ' ' lust, and envy ; their ascent implies that they may " be subdued by religious austerities, and by the aid ' ' of their energy be made the means of ascending " to the world on high and the supreme Heaven ; " their fall, instead of reaching Heaven's eternal " mansions, intimates that if, even for a short pe- " riod, we become careless about repressing evil ' ' propensities, and desist from the practice of mor- " tification, the passions will return back to their " nature, or wander from the eternal paradise, the " natural abode of souls:" the hemistich, " during " one moment I was heedless, and he was removed "from me a journey of a hundred years " is applic- able to such a state. 57 I ! us t ;un 's ' bringing back Kai Kaus lo his throne from the forest into which he had fallen, means, his bringing back intelligence into the king's soul, and turning him back from the desert (lit. meadow), of natural infirmity : Kai Kaus therefore, by direction of Kai Nishin, his younger brother, but his elder in purity of faith and good works, remained forty days in retirement, until in the state of sleep, through the awakening of his heart, he beheld this heavenly vision. They also assert, whatever mo- dern writers have declared, relative to Khizr 2 and Iskander, having penetrated into the regions of dark- ness, where the former discovered the fountain of life immortal, means, that the Iskander, or the intel- lectual soul, through the energy of the Khizr, or 1 Rustam appears to be a personification of the heroic times of the Persians, the Medes and the Scythes. He was born under the reign of Manucheher, after the year 1299 B. C., and died under that of Gustasp, after the year 625 before our era ; his existence comprises therefore 604 years. He was the lord of Sejestan, and extended his domination over Zabulistan and Kabul ; but the circle of his actions comprehends a great part of Asia between the Indus, the Indian and the Caspian seas. 2 Khizar is confounded by many with the prophet Elias, who is sup- posed to dwell in the Terrestrial Paradise, in the enjoyment of immor- tality. According to Eastern traditions, Khizr was the companion, vizir or general of the ancient monarch, named Zu-al-Kurnain, or " the Two- horned;" a title which was also assumed by Alexander the Great. Accord- ing to the Tarikh Muntakhab, this prophet was Abraham's nephew, and served as guide to Moses and the children of Israel, in their passage of the Red sea and the desert. The same author tells us, that Khizr lived in the time of Kai Kobad, at which time he discovered the fountain of life. (Herbelot). A. T. 58 reason, discovered, whilst in the stale of human darkness, the water of life, or the knowledge of the rational sciences, or the science which forms the proper object of intellect as to what they say about Iskander's returning back empty-handed, by that is meant, that to expect eternal duration in this eva- nescent abode being altogether absurd, he conse- quently could not attain that object, and therefore departed to the next world. What they record about Khizr 's drinking of that water, means, that the perfection of intellect exists not through the medium of body, and that reason has no need of body, or any thing corporeal, either as essence or attribute. In some passages they interpret the tradition after this manner ; by Khizr is meant the intellectual soul, or rational faculty, and by Iskander the animal soul, or natural instinct; the Khizr of the intellec- tual soul, associated with the Iskander of the animal soul, and the host (of perceptions) arrived at the fountain-head of understanding, and obtained im- mortality, whilst the Iskander of the animal soul re- turned back empty-handed. ' It must be remarked, 1 Ferdusi in his Shah-namah narrates that: Secander was in search of the water of life, accompanied by Khizr. The prophet attained his pur- pose, but the king lost his way in the dark. The troops of the latter followed a mare running after her foal, until they found themselves in a place full of pebbles sounding beneath their feet, and heard a voice from heaven, saying: " Take, or leave, the stones; sorrow of the heart 59 lhat this sect explain after this manner, whatever transgresses the rules of probability, or cannot be weighed in the balance of comprehension ; in short, all that is contrary to reason. They also say purifi- cation is of two kinds ; the amiyhi or true, and the ashkari or apparent : the first consists in not defil- ing the heart with any thing ; in not attaching it to the concerns of this treacherous world, emanci- pating it from all ties and prejudice, maintaining no connection with any object whatever, and wash- ing away all bias from the soul. The Ashkari, or apparent, consists in removing to a distance what- ever appears unclean ; consequently this purifica- tion is effected with water which has undergone no change of color, smell, or taste: that is, which is free from bad color, smell, or taste; if otherwise, rose-water and suchlike are more to be commended. Ablution requires a kur, or a measure of lustral water ; that is, according to them, the measure for a man, is that quantity into which he can immerge his head ; for an elephant, a quantity proportioned to his bulk ; and for a gnat, a single drop of water. They reckon it meritorious to recite the prayers and texts of the Shat Dasdlir, relative to the unity of the " awaits you in any case." And so it happened. At day-break, the stones picked up were found to be precious rubies ; all were grieved : the one for not having taken more, the others for not having taken any, of them. A. T. 60 self-existent Creator, the great dignity of intelligence and souls, with the pains of the superior and infe- rior bodies ; after which they repeat the benedictions of the seven planets, particularly on their days, and offer up the appropriate incense. The worshipper after this recites the praises of the guardian of the month, and those of the days of the month ; for ex- ample, if it be the month of Farvardin, l the believer repeats benedictions on that angel, and then on each of the regents of the days of that month : particu- larly the regent of that day called by the same name as the month : which day is also regarded as a festi- val. 2 For instance, in the month of Farvardin, he utters benedictions on the angel Farvardin, who is one of the cherubim on whom that month is depen- dent ; if it be the first day of the month, called the 1 Farvardin presides over the 19th day of the month, and over the first month of the year (Zend-Avesta, by Anquetil du Perron, II, p. 320-337). Hyde (p. 239) says: the first month, March, in theJelali-year(or the new Persian era of Jelaluddin) which first month was July in the old year, is called Farvardin, and he endeavours to derive this word from the mo- dern Persian. Anquetil du Perron (I, l re part. p. 493) rejects Hyde's etymology, and says that Farvardin signifies in Zend " the Fervers (the souls) of the law." Hyde himself seems to enter into this sense, in saying (p. 240) : " Iste Angelus (Farvardin ) creditur praeesse Animabus quae in Paradiso" (this angel is believed to preside over the souls who are in Paradise). A. T. 2 The Calcutta manuscript, translated by Gladwin, differs in this pas- sage from the printed copy of Calcutta, 1224 of the Hejirah, A.D. 1809, and also from two excellent manuscripts : the Calcutta copy has been followed. -D. S. 61 day of Hormuz (the angel who superintends the first day of the month), the believers address their bene- dictions to Hormuz; and act in a similar manner on the other months and their respective days. Accord- ing to them, the names of the months are called after the names of their lords ; and the appellations of the days are according to the names of their respective regents : consequently, as we have said, the believer adores the lord of the month, and on festivals, pays adoration to the angel who is the lord of the month and the day. 1 According to the Abadian, although 1 The most ancient year of the Persians (Hyde, p. 188, 189) appears to have been vague or erratic, its commencement varying through all the different seasons, or at least soon gave room to the vague Persian- Median civil year, to which was joined afterwards the fixed ecclesiastic year of Jemshed. Both these years lasted to the time of Yezdejerd, who made some considerable changes in the Persian calendar. This king being killed, after an interval of time, the fixed solar year, beginning in the middle of " pisces," was introduced into Persia. The names of the ancient months and days appear to have come from the Medes, with their denomination, to the Persians ; and even those invented by Yezde- jerd were of Median origin. Here follows the order of months called Jelali (Hyde, p. 180). I. Farvardin March. VII. Miher September. II. Ardibehist April. VIII. Aban October. III. Khordad May. IX. Azar November. IV. Tir June. X. Dai December. V. Mardad (Amardad. XI. Bahman January. Anquetildu Perron) July. XII Isfandarmend. February. VI. Shahrlvar August. The old Persian month was not divided into weeks, but every day had its particular name from the angel who presided over that day. Here follows the order of their names, according to Olugh Beigh (Hyde, p. 190) : ill a month, the name of the month and of the day be the same, this coincidence makes not that day dependant on the month, but on the regent who bears the same name with him, consequently it is necessary to celebrate a festival. In the same man- ner, on the other days of every month, salutations are paid every morning to the regent of the day : also during the Sudbar, or the intercalary days, they offer up praises to their angels. They also regard the angels of the days as the ministers to the angels of the months, all of whom are subject to the ma- jesty of the Great Light in like manner the other stars (planets) have also angels dependent on them : they also believe that the angels dependent on each / I. Hormuzd. XI. Khur. XXI. Ram. II. Bahman. XII. Mah. XXII. Bad. III. Ardibehist. XIII. Tir. XXIII. Daibadin. IV. Shahrivar. XI V. Jiish or Gush . XXIV. Din. V. Isfandarmend. XV. Daibamiher. XXV. Ird, or Ard. VI. Khurdad. XVI. Miher. XXVI. Ashtad. VII. Murdad. XVII. Sunish. XXVII. Asaman. VIII. DaJbader. XVIII. Resh. XXVIII. Zamlad. IX. Azur. XIX. Farvardin. XXIX. Marasfand. X. Aban. XX. Bahrain. XXX. Aniran. The names of the five additional days were as follows: I. Ahnud-jah. II. Ashnud-jah. III. Isfandamaz-jah. IV. Akhshater-jah. V. Vahashtusht-jah. Room is wanted for entering into further developments of this exten- sive subject. A. T. - 63 star (planet) are beyond all number : and finally, that the angelic host belonging to the solar majesty are reckoned the highest order. Besides, on the period at which any of the seven planets passes from one zodiacal mansion to another, they make an enter- tainment on the first day, which they regard as a festival, and call it Shadbar* or "replete with joy." Every month also, on the completion of the lunar revolution, on ascertaining its reappearance from astronomical calculation, they make great rejoic- ings on the first day : there is in like manner a great festival when any star has completed its revolution, which day they call Dddram, 1 or " banquet deck- ing." Thus, although there is a festival every day of the week in some idol-temple or other, as has been before stated, relative to the day of Nahid, or Friday, in the temple of this idol : yet on the day of the Sun, or Yakshambah (the first day of the week), there was a solemn festival at which all the people assembled. In like manner they made a feast when- ever a star returned to its mansion or was in its zenith. * The text of Glachvin has j.^ which has the same meaning. - A. T. 1 The text of Gladwin has \\ Ora'm. The name is properly Ura- man, a peculiar manner of chanting or reading Pahlavi poetry, which derives its name from a village in the dependencies of Kushgun, where its inventor lived. D. S. 64 They believe it wrong to hold any faith or reli- gious system in abhorrence, as according to them, we may draw near to God in every faith : also that no faith has been abolished by divine authority they hold that, on this account, there have been so many prophets,in order to shew the various ways which lead to God. Those who carefully investi- gate well know, that the ways which lead to heaven are many ; nay more than come within the compass of numbers. It is well understood, that access to a great sovereign is more easily attained through the aid of his numerous ministers ; although one of the prince's commanders be on bad terms with his con- fidential advisers, or even should all the chiefs not co-operate with each other ; yet they can promote the interest of their inferiors : therefore it is not proper to say that we can get to the God of all exist- ence by one road only. But the insurmountable barrier in the road of approaching God is the slaugh- ter of the Zindibar, that is, those animals which inflict no injury on any person, and slay not other living creatures, such as the cow, the sheep, the camel, and the horse : there is assuredly no salva- tion to the author of cruelty towards such, nor can he obtain final deliverance by austerities or devo- tions of any description. Should we even behold many miraculous works performed by the slayer of harmless animals, we are not even then to regard 65 him as one redeemed ; the works witnessed in him are only the reward of his devotions, and the result of his perseverance in the practice of religious aus- terities in this world : and as he commits evil, he cannot be perfect in his devout exercises, so that nothing but suffering can await him in another generation (when born again) : such an instance of an ascetic endued with miraculous powers is likened in the Shat Dasatir 1 to a vase externally covered with choice perfumes, but filled internally with im- purities. They also maintain that in no system of faith is cruelty to innoxious animals sanctioned : and all human sanction for such acts proceeds from their attending to the apparent import of words, without having recourse to profound or earnest considera- tion for example, by putting a horse or cow to death is meant, the removal or banishing from one's 1 Gladwin and Shea read Wasatir, but I cannot forbear from thinking, the right reading is dasatir ; the j and the 3 being easily confounded with each other. The simile above quoted is not to be found in the Bombay edi- tion of the Desatir, although the same precepts are stated therein (pp. 12, 13, 14). Here follows the passage ( English transl. Comment, p. 45 ) about the Desatir itself: " There are two books of Yezdan. The name of the " first is Ddgt'ti, ' two worlds,' and this they call the ' Great Book,' " or in the language of Heaven Ferz-Desatir, or the ' Great Desatir,' " which is the great volume of Yezdan. And the other book is called " Desatir, the doctrines of which Mahabad, and the other prophets from " Mahabad down to me, have revealed. " * And in the heavenly " tongue this is called Derick Desalir? ' the Little Desatir,' as being ihe "Little Book of God." A. T. 66 self animal propensities, and not the slaughtering or devouring of innoxious creatures. They state the later historians to have recorded without due discrimination that Rustam, the son of Dastan (who was one of the perfect saints), used to slay such ani- mals : whereas tradition informs us, that the mighty champion pursued in the chase noxious animals only : what they write about his hunting the wild ass, implies that the elephant-bodied hero called the lion a wild ass ; or " that a lion is no more than a *' wild ass when compared to my force." In the several passages where he is recorded to have slaugh- tered harmless wild asses and oppressed innoxious creatures, and where similar actions are ascribed to some of the Gilshaiyan princes, there is only implied the banishment of animal propensities and passions : thus the illustrious Shaikh Farideddin at'ar declares, In the heart of each are found a hundred swine; You must slay the hog or bind on the Zanar." l They hold that, from the commencement to the very end, the chiefs of the Persian Sipasian, far from slaughtering these harmless creatures, regarded as an incumbent duty to avoid and shun, by every pre- caution, the practice of oppression or destruction towards them : nay, they inflicted punishment on the perpetrators of such deeds. Although they es- 1 Zanar is called in India the brahminical, or in general, a religious thread; here is meant the mark of any unbeliever. A. T. 67 teem the Gilshaiyan prophets, pontiffs, and princes, exceedingly holy personages, yet in their opinion, they come not up in perfect wisdom and works to the preceding apostles and sovereigns, who ap- peared from the Yassanian to the end of the Maha- badian race. They assert that some innoxious animals suffer oppression in this generation by way of retribution : for instance, an ox or a horse, which in times long past had, through heedlessness, wantonness, or without necessity, destroyed a man : as these crea- tures understand nothing but how to eat and drink, consequently when they obtain a new birth, they carry burdens, which is by no means to be regarded as an act of oppression, but as a retribution or retali- ation for their previous misconduct. They are not put to death, as they are not naturally destructive and sanguinary : their harmless nature proves that they cannot be reckoned among the destroyers of animal life : so that putting them to death is the same as destroying an ignorant harmless man : therefore their slayer, though he may not receive in this world the merited punishment from the actual ruler or governor, appears in the next generation under the form of a ferocious beast, and meets his deserts. A great man says on this subject : " In every evil deed committed by thee, think not that it " Is passed over in Heaven or neglected in the revolutions of time ; 68 " Thy evil deeds are a debt, ever in the presence of fortune, " Which must be repaid, in whatever age she makes the demand." They also hold the eternal paradise to be the Hea- vens ; and regard the solar majesty as lord of the empyrean ; and the other stars, fixed or planetary, as his ministers : thus a person who, through reli- gious mortifications and purity of life, attains righte- ousness in words and deeds, is united with the sun and becomes an empyreal sovereign : but if the pro- portion of his good works bear a closer affinity to any other star, he becomes lord of the place assigned to that star : whilst others are joined to the firma- ment on high : the perfect man passes on still far- ther, arriving at the aethereal sphere, or the region of pure spirits; such men attain the beatific vision of the light of lights and the cherubinic hosts of the Supreme Lord. Should he be a prince during whose reign no harmless animals were slaughtered in his realms ; and who, if any were guilty of these acts, inflicted punishment on the perpetrators of the crimes, so that no such characters departed this world without due retribution ; he is esteemed a wise, beneficent, and virtuous king : and immedi- ately on being separated from the elements of body, he is united with the sun : his spirit is identified with that of the majesty of the great light and he becomes an aBthereal sovereign. Prince Siamak, the son of Kaiomors declares : " I beheld from first 69 '* to last all the Abadian, Jyanian, Shaiyan, and " Yassanian monarchs : some were cherubim in the ' ' presence of the Supreme Lord ; others absorbed " in the contemplation of the Light of Lights : but *' I found none lower than the sphere of the sun, " the vicegerent of God." On my asking them con- cerning the means of attaining these high degrees, they said: " The great means of acquiring this dig- " nity consist in the protection of harmless animals, " and inflicting punishment on evil doers." According to this sect, labouring under insanity, suffering distress on account of one's children, being assailed by diseases, the visitations of providence, these calamities are the retribution of actions in a former state of existence. If a person should fall down or stumble when running, even this is re- garded as the retribution of past deeds : as are also the maladies of new-born babes. But whatever happens to a just man, which is evidently unmerited, this is not to be looked on as retribution, but as pro- ceeding from the oppression of the temporal ruler, from whom, in a future generation, the Supreme Ruler will demand an account. According to their tenets, the drinking of wine or strong liquors to excess, or partaking of things which impair the understanding^ by no means to be toler- ated : which may be proved by this reflexion, that the perfection of man is understanding, and that in- 70 toxicating beverages reduce human nature, whilst in that state, to a level with the brute creation. If a person drink strong liquors to excess, he is brought before the judge to receive due castigation ; and should he, during that state, do injury to another, he is held accountable for it, and is punished also as a malefactor. Among this sect it is permitted to kill those ani- mals which oppress others, such as lions, fowls, and hawks, which prey on living creatures : but whatever animals, whether noxious or innoxious, suffer violence from the noxious, duly receive it by way of retribution : when they slay the former, or noxious animals, that is regarded as a retribution, because in a former existence they were oppressive and sanguinary creatures : and in this generation the Almighty has given them over to other more san- guinary animals, that they might shed the blood of the sanguinary bloodshedder : so that when noxious creatures are slain, it is by way of retribution for having shed blood : the very act of shedding their blood proves them to have been formerly shedders of blood : it is not however allowed to put them to death until they become hurtful: for example, a young sparrow cannot, whilst in that state, commit an injury ; but, when able to fly, it injures the insects of the earth ; and, although this happens to the in- sects by way of retributive justice, yet their slayers 71 become also deserving of being slain, as in a former generation they have been shedders of blood. For instance, a person has unwittingly slain another, for which crime he has been thrown into prison ; on which they summons one of the other prisoners to behead the murderer: after which the judge com- mands one of his officers to put the executioner to death, as, previous to this act, he had before shed blood unjustly. But if a man slay a noxious animal, he is not to be put to death, because that person taking into consideration the noxious ani- mal's oppression, has inflicted retribution on it: but if a brave champion or any other be slain in fighting with a noxious creature ; this was his me- rited retribution ; and it is the same if an innoxious animal be slain in lighting with a noxious crea- ture : for example, in a past generation the ox was a man endued with many brutal propensities, who with violence and insolence forced people into his service and imposed heavy burdens on them, until he deprived some of them of life : therefore in this generation, on account of his ruling propensities, he comes in the form of an ox, that he may receive the retribution due to his former deeds, and in return for his having shed blood, should be himself slain by a lion or some such creature. But mankind are not permitted to kill the harmless animals, and these are not shedders of blood : and if such an act should .72 be inadvertently perpetrated by any individuals, de- structive animals are then appointed to retaliate on them, as we have explained under the head of the ox. The best mode to be adopted by merciful men for putting to death destructive creatures, such as fowls, sparrows, and the like, is the following : let them open a vein, so that it may die from the effusion of blood : there are many precepts of this kind re- corded in the Jashen Sudah of the Mobed Hoshydr : but philosophers, eminent doctors, and durveshes who abandon the world, never commit such acts : it is however indispensably necessary that a king, in the course of government, should inflict on the evil- doer the retaliation due to his conduct. The Mo- bed Hoshydr relates, in the Sarud-i-Mastdn, that in the time of Kaiomors and Siamak, no animal of any kind was slain, as they were all obedient to the commands of these princes. So that one of the Far- jud, or miraculous powers possessed by the Yezda- nian chiefs of Iran, from Kaiomors to Jemshid, was their appointing a certain class of officers to watch over the animal creation, so that they should not attack each other. For instance, a lion was not permitted to destroy any animal, and if he killed one in the chase, he met with due punishment ; conse- quently no creature was slain or destroyed, and car- nage iell into such disuse among noxious animals, that they were all reckoned among the innoxious. 75 However, the skins of animals which had died a natural death were taken off, and in the beginning used as clothing by Kaiomors and his subjects : but they were latterly satisfied with the leaves of trees. Those who embrace the tenets of this holy race attri- bute this result to the miraculous powers of these monarchs, and some profound thinkers regard it as effected by a tails man, ; whilst manyskilled in interpre- tation hold it to be an enigmatical mode of expression: thus, the animal creation submitting to government implies, the justice of the sovereigns ; their vigilance in extirpating corruption and evil, and producing good. In short, when in the course of succession the Gilshaiyan crown came to Hiishang, he enjoined the people to eat the superabundant eggs of ducks, domestic fowls, and such like, but not to such a degree that, through their partaking of such food, the race of these creatures should become extinct. When the throne of sovereignty was adorned by the presence of Tahmiiras, he said, " It is lawful for " carnivorous and noxious creatures to eat dead " bodies :" that is, if a lion find a lifeless stag, or a sparrow a dead worm, they may partake of them. In the same manner, when Jemshid assumed the crown , he enacted : ' ' If men of low caste eat the flesh " of animals which die a natural death, they com- " mil no sin." The reason why people do not at present eat of animals which died in the course of 74 nature, is, that their flesh engenders disease, as the animal died of some distemper : otherwise there is no sin attached to the eating of it. When Jemshid departed to the mansions of eternity, Deh Ak, l the Arab, slew and partook of all animals indifferently, whether destructive or harmless, so that the detest- able practice became general. When Faridiin had purged the earth from the pollution of Zohak's tyranny, he saw that some creatures, hawks, lions, wolves, and others of the destructive kind, gave themselves up to the chase in violation of the origi- nal covenant : he therefore enjoined the slaughter of these classes. After this, Jraj permitted men of low caste, that is the mass of the people, to partake of destructive creatures, such as domestic fowls (which prey upon worms), also sparrows and such like, in killing which no sin is incurred : but the holy Yezdanians never polluted their mouths with flesh, or killed savage animals for themselves, al- though they slew them for others of the same class. For example, the hawk, lion, and other rapacious animals of prey were kept in the houses of the great, for the purpose of inflicting punishment on other destructive animals, and not that men should partake of them : for eating flesh is not an innate quality in men, as whenever they slay animals lor food, ferocity settles in their nature, and that aliment introduces ' Zohak. 75 habits of rapacity : whereas the true meaning of put- ting destructive animals to death, is the extirpation of wickedness. The Yezdanians also have certain viands, which people at present confound with ani- mals and flesh : for instance, they give the name of barah, " lamb," to a dish composed of the zingu, or egg-mushroom ; gaur, or *' onager" is a dish made out of cheese : with many others of the same kind. Although they kill destructive animals in the chase, they never eat of them ; and if in their houses they kill one destructive animal for the food of another, such as a sparrow for a hawk, it is done by a man styled Dazhkim, or executioner, who is lower than a Milar, called in Hindi, Juharah or " sweeper," and in modern language Halldl Khtir, or one to whom all food is lawful. But the dynasty preceding Gil- shah, from whom the Yezdanians derive their tenets, afforded no protection whatever to destructive ani- mals, as they esteemed the protection of the oppres- sor most reprehensible. In the time of the Gilshaiyan princes, they nourished hawks and such like, for the purpose of retaliating on destructive animals ; for example, they let loose the hawk on the sparrow, which is the emblem of Ahriman ; and when the hawk grew old, they cut off his head and killed him for his former evil deeds. The first race never kept any destructive creatures, as they esteemed it crimi- nal to afford them protection ; and even their de- 76 struction never took place in the abodes of righte- ous and holy persons. Among the Sipasi'yan sect were many exemplary and piouspersonages, the performers of praise- worthy discipline : with them, however, voluntary austerity implies " religious practices" or Saluk, and consists not in extreme suffering, which they hold to be an evil, and a retribution inflicted for previous wicked deeds. According to this sect, the modes of walking in the paths of God are ma- nifold : such as seeking God ; the society of the wise ; retirement and seclusion from the world ; purity of conduct; universal kindness ; benevolence; reliance on God ; patience ; endurance ; content- edness ; resignation ; and many such like quali- ties as thus recorded in the Sarud-i-Mustdn of the Mobed Hushyar. The Mobed Khodd Jdi, in the *' Cup of Kdi Khusro," a commentary on the text of the poem of the venerable Azar Kaivan, thus re- lates: " He who devotes himself to walking in the " path of God, must be well-skilled in the medical " sciences, so that he may rectify whatever predo- 44 inmates or exceeds in the bodily humours: in the 44 next place, he must banish from his mind all 44 articles of faith, systems, opinions, ceremonials, 4 ' and be at peace with all : he is to seat himself in 44 a small and dark cell, and gradually diminish the 44 quantity of his food." The rules for the diminu- 77 lion of food are thus laid down in the Sharistan of the holy doctor Ferzanah Bahrain, the son of Far had: " From his usual food, the pious recluse " is every day to subtract three direms, until he " reduces it to ten direms weight: he is to sit in " perfect solitude, and give himself up to medita- tion." Many of this sect have brought themselves to one direm weight of food : their principal devo- tional practice turning on these five points: namely, fasting, silence, waking, solitude, and meditation on God. Their modes of invoking God are manifold, but the one most generally adopted by them is that of the Muk Zhup : now in the Azanan or Pehlevi, Muff signifies " four," and Zhup " a blow;" this state of meditation is also called Char Sang, " the " four weights," and Char Kub, " the four blows." The next in importance is the siyd zhup, " the three weights" or " three blows." The sitting postures among these devotees are numerous ; but the more approved and choice are limited to eighty-four; out of these they have selected fourteen ; from the four- teen they have taken five ; and out of the five two are chosen by way of eminence : with respect to these positions, many have been described by the Mobud Sarush in the Zerdiisht Afshdr: of these two, the choice position is the following : The devotee sits on his hams, cross-legged, passing the outside of the right foot over the left thigh, and that of the left 78 foot over the right thigh; he then passes his hands behind his back, and holds in his left hand the great toe of the right foot, and in the right hand the great toe of the left foot, fixing his eyes intently on the point of the nose : this position they call Farnishin, " the splendid seat," but by the Hindi logics it is named the Padma dsan, 1 or " Lotus seat." If he then repeat iheZekr-i-Mukzhub, he either lays hold of the great toes with his hands, or if he prefer, removes his feet off the thighs, seating himself in the ordinary position, which is quite sufficient then, with closed eyes, the hands placed on the thighs, the armpits open, the back erect, the head thrown forward, and fetching up from the navel with all his force the word Nist, he raises his head up : next, in reciting the word Hesti, he inclines the head towards the right breast ; on reciting the word Ma- gar, he holds the head erect ; after which he utters Yezdan, bowing the head to the left breast, the seat of the heart. The devotee makes no pause between the words thus recited ; nay, if possible, he utters several formularies in one breath, gradually increas- ing their number. The words of the formulary (Nist hesti magar yezdan, " there is no existence " save God") are thus set forth: " Nothing exists " but God; or, " There is no God, but God;" or, 79 ' ' There is no adoration except Cor what is adorable ; " or this, " He to whom worship is due is pure and " necessarily existent ;" or, " He who is without '* equal, form, color, or model." It is permitted to use this formulary publicly, but the inward medi- tation is most generally adopted by priests and holy persons ; as the senses' become disturbed by exclam- ations and clamors, and the object of retirement is to keep them collected. In the inward meditation, the worshipper regards three objects as present : " God, the heart, and the spirit of his Teacher;" whilst he revolves in his heart the purport of this formulary : " There is nothing in existence but " God." But if he proceeds to the suppression of breath, which is called the " knowledge of Dam " and Stafwtf," or the science of breath and ima- gination, he closes not the eyes, but directs them to the tip of the nose, as we have before explained under the first mode of sitting : this institute has also been recorded in the Surud-i-Mastan, but the present does not include all the minute details. * 1 These practices are evidently the same as those used among the Hindu devotees. The chapter upon the Hindus, which follows, will set forth the great conformity, nay, identity of Indian religions with the tenets and customs here ascribed to Persian sects. In the Desatir (English transl. Comment, pp. 66, 67) is a curious account of the postures to be taken standing, or lying, or sitting, on the ground before any thing that burns, and reciting the Ferz-zemiar, " great prayer," to Yezdan, or another to Shesh-kdkh, that is to say, to the stars and to the fire which yield light." -A. T. It is thus recorded in the Zerdusht Afshdr; the worshipper having closed the right nostril, enume- rates the names of God from once to sixteen times, and whilst counting draws his breath upwards ; after which he repeats it twenty-two limes, and lets the breath escape out of the right nostril, and whilst counting propels the breath aloft; thus passing from the six Khans or stages to the seventh ; until from the intensity of imagination he arrives to a state in which he thinks that his soul and breath bound like the jet of a fountain to the crown of the head : they enumerate the seven stages, or the seven degrees, in this order : 1st, the position of sitting ; 2d, the hips ; 3d, the navel ; 4th, the pine-heart ; 5th, the windpipe; 6th, the space between the eyebrows; and 7th, the crown of the head. As causing the breath to mount to the crown of the head is a power peculiar to the most eminent persons; so, whoever can convey his breath and soul together to that part, becomes the vicegerent of God. According to an- other institute, the worshipper withdraws from all senseless pursuits, sits down in retirement, giving up his heart to his original world on high, and with- out moving the tongue, repeats in his heart Yez- dan ! Yezdan ! or God ! God ! which address to the Lord may be made in any language, as Hindi, Ara- bic, etc. Another rule is, the idea of the Instructor : the worshipper imagines him to be present and is 81 never separated from lhat thought, until he attains to such a degree, that the image of his spiritual guide is never absent from the mind's eye, and he then turns to contemplate his heart : or he has a mirror before his sight, and beholds his own form, until, from long practice, it is never more separated from the heart, to which he then directs himself : or he sits down to contemplate his heart, and re- flects on it as being in continual movement. In all these cases he regards the practices of the suppres- sion of the breath as profitable for the abstraction of thought : an object which may also be effected without having recourse to it. Another rule is, what they call dzdd dwd, or the ' * free voice ; " in Hindi A nahid / and in Arabic Sdut Mutluk, or " the absolute sound." Some of the followers of Mohammed relate, that it is re- corded in the traditions, that a revelation came to the venerable prophet of Arabia resembling " the " tones of a bell," which means the *' Saut Mul- luk: ' which Hafiz of Shiraz expresses thus : " No person knows where my beloved dwells; " This much only is known, that the sound of the bell approaches." The mode of hearing it is after this manner : the devotees direct the hearing and understanding to the brain, and whether in the gloom of night, in the house, or in the desert, hear this voice, which they 82 esteem as their Zikker,w ' ' address to God. " Azizi ' thus expresses himself: " I recognise that playful sportiveness, " And well know that amount of blandishment: " The sound of footsteps comes to my ear at night; " It was thyself; I recognise the hallowed voice!" Then having opened the eyes and looking be- tween the eyebrows, a form appears. Some of those who walk in the path of religious poverty among the followers of Mohammed (on whom be benedic- tions!) assert that the expression Kab Kausain, " 1 " was near two bows' length," alludes to this vision. Finally, if they prefer it, having closed the eyes for some time, they reflect on the form which appeared to them on looking between the eyebrows ; after which they meditate on the heart ; or without contemplating the form, they commence by look- ing into the heart ; and closing both eyes and ears, give themselves up entirely to meditation on the heart, abandoning the external for the internal : 1 V>V& A.zizi is supposed, by Mr. Tholuck (Sufismus, sive Theoso- phia Persarum Pantheistica) to be the name of the so long unknown author of Gulshen-raz, " the rose-bower of mystery." Silvestre de Sacy (see Journal des Savants, de'cembre 1821, p. 719, 720), without abso- lutely rejecting this supposition, explains the word azizf by " homme vertueux" in the verse upon which Mr. Tholuck founded his opinion. The true author of Gulshen-raz is now known to be Mahmud Shabisterf. See the Persian text with a German metrical translation of this poem, published in 1838 by the baron Hammer-Purgstall. A. T, whoever can thus contemplate obtains all that he wants; but " The anguish of my friend strikes at the portal of the heart; " Command them, 0, Shani ! to purify the dwelling of the heart." Finally the searcher after the Being who is with- out equal or form, without color or pattern, whom they know and comprehend in the Parsi under the name of " had," in Arabic by the blessed name of " Allah," and. in Hindi as "ParaBrahmaNdrdyaria" 1 contemplates him without the intervention of Ara- bic, Persian, Hindi, or any other language, keeping the heart in his presence, until he, bei ngrescued from the shadows of doubt, is identified with God. The venerable Maulavi Jami says on this head : " Thou art but an atom, He, the great whole ; but if for a few days " Thou meditate with care on the whole, thou becomest one with it." They hold that reunion with the first principle, which the Sufees interpret by evanescence and permanence, means not, according to the distin- guished Ishrakian 2 or Platonists of Persia, that the beings of accident or creation are blended with him whose existence is necessary, or that created beings cease to exist ; but that when the sun of the first cause manifests himself, then apparently all created beings, like the stars in the sun's light, are 2 For Ishrakian, see pages 31 and 86 ad rcfutationem Alcorani. D. S. 84 absorbed in his divine effulgence ; and if the searcher after God should continue in this state, he will com- prehend how they become shrouded through the sun's overpowering splendor, or like the ecstatic Sufees he will regard them as annihilated : but the number of Sufi's who attain to this state is exceed- ingly small, and the individuals themselves are but little known to fame. This volume would not be sufficient to enumerate the amount of those lights (precepts) which direct the pilgrim on his course, but the venerable Azur Kaivdn has treated at large on this head in the Jdm-i-Kai Khusro. It is, however, necessary to mention that there are four states of vision ; the first, Nuniar, l or that which is seen during sleep : by sleepis meant that state when the subtile fumes arising from the food taken into the stomach mounting up to the brain, overpower external perceptions at the time of re- pose ^ whatever is then beheld is called in Farsi Tindb, in Arabic /frh/a, and in Hindi Svapna. 2 The state beyond this dignity is Susvapna, 3 in Arabic Ghaib or '* mysterious," and in the popular lan- 1 In Gladwin's Persian text, it is .l^Vj Tutiar; in the manuscripts consulted by Shea, in the edition of Calcutta, and in the manuscript of Oude jU^v> nnfor. 2 *cnr, , " good sleep." 85 guage of the Hindoos Sukhasvada ' or Samddhi a (sus- pending the connexion between soul and body), which is as follows : when divine grace is communi- cated from the worlds on high, and the transport arising from that grace locks up external percep- tions, whatever is beheld during that state is called Binab or " revelation:" but that state into which the senses enter, or Hoshwdzhen, *' a trance," which is expressed in Arabic by Salm or ** recovering from ebriety," and in Hindi byJagrai, 3 " awaking," undPratyaya ' 'evidence," 4 means that state in which divine grace being communicated, without the senses being overpowered, it transports the person for the time being to the world of reality : whatever he be- holds in this state is called Bindb or Mdainah " re- ality." The state higher than this is the power of the soul to quit the body and to return to it, which is called in YarsiNivah-i-chaminafi, in Arabic Melkdt Khald-baden, and in Hindu prapura paroksha. 5 They affirm that the bodies occupied by some souls resemble a loose garment, which may be put off at pleasure ; so that they can ascend to the world 1 1 Arang ; in the Desatir we find Lareng for the name of a divinity. A. T. 87 is that of man or of human beings : but in some Parsi treatises they term these seven regions the seven true realities : however, if the author were to describe minutely the articles and ceremonies of this sect, their details would require so many volumes, that contenting himself with what has been stated, he now proceeds to describe some of their most distinguished followers of later times. SECTION II. DESCRIPTION OF THE SIPASIAN SECT. Among the moderns, the chief of the Abadian and Azurlmshangidn sects was Azar Kaivdn, whose lineage is as follows : Azar Kaivan, the son of Azar Zerdusht, the son of Azar Barzin, the son of Azar Khurin, the son of Azar Ayin, the son of Azar Pah- ram, the son of Azar Nosh, the son of Azar Mihlar t the younger son of Azar Sdsdn, styled the tifth Sd- sdn, the elder son of Azar Sdsdn, the fourth of that name, the younger son of Azar Sdsdn, the third of that name, the eldest son of Azar Sdsdn, or the second Sdsdn, the mighty son of Azar Sdsdn, or the first Sdsdn, the son of Darab the less, the son of Darab the great, the son of Bahmdn, the son of 88 Isfendiar, the son of Gushtasp, the son of Lohrasp, the son of Arvand, the son of Kai Nishin, the son of Kai Kobad, the son of Za6, the son of Nauder, the son ofMinuchehr, the son of Iraj, who was of the lineage of Feridun, the son of Ablin, who was of the lineage of Jamshid, the son of Tahmuras, the son of Htisheng, the son of Siamak, the son of Kaiomors, the son of Ydsdn Ajam, of the lineage of Ydsdn, the son of Skai Mohbul, of the lineage Shai Giliv, the son of Jai Alad y of the lineage of Jai Afram, the son of Abdd Azdd, of the lineage of Mah Abdd, who appeared with splendor in the beginning of the great cycle. The mother of Kaivdn was named Shirln, a fortunate and illustrious dame descended from the lineage of the just monarch Nushirvan. Through eternal aid and almighty grace Azar Kai- vdn, from his fifth year, devoted himself to great abstinence in food, and watching by night. Salim thus expresses himself: " Innate essence has no need of instruction; " How could an artist produce the image in the mirror?" In the progress of his admirable voluntary mor- tification, the quantity of his daily food was reduced to one direm weight. On this point, the divine sage Sunai observes : " Ifthou eat to excess, thou becomest an unwieldy elephant; " But if with moderation, thou becomest another Gabriel ; " If any person should give way to-xcess in eating, " Rest assured that he is also vile to excess." 89 He abode in Khum during twenty-eight years, but removed in his latter days from the land of Iran into India : he remained some time in Palna, where, in the year of the Hegira 1027 (A. D. 1673), he took his flight from this lower elementary abode to the sphere of the mansions on high. Azizi ob- serves : " Whoever is wise, esteems this mortal coil the obstacle to union with "God: 11 This life is the death of Durvishes: look on ( the world of) reality as a " friend. ~ He continued eighty-live years united to the ele- ments of body, during which lime he never desisted from the practice of austerities. On this subject Hafiz of Shiraz observes : " ! my heart, if thou once become acquainted with the lustre of " austerity, " Like those who strike the smiling taper, thou canst give up thy head " But thou longest after thy beloved and sparkling Mine-bowl : " Abstain from such desire, for thou canst accomplish better things." Farzdnah Bahrdm relates in the Sharistan, that from the very commencement of his religious career, AzarKaivan, having resolved on learning thoroughly the science and systems of the eminent sages of anti- quity, on this, the distinguished philosophers of Hindustan, Greece, and Persia, having appeared to him in a vision, communicated all kinds of know- ledge. He went one day to a college, where he answered every question that was proposed, and 90 gave the solution of every difficulty : he was therefore entitled Zu-l -ulum, or " the Master of Sciences." Ali Sani Amir Saiyid Ali of Hainadan observes : ' If thou advance even one step from this abode of vain desire, ' Thou mayest repose in the sanctuary of omnipotence; ' And if thou perform ablution with the water of religious austerity, 4 Thou canst convert all the uncleanness of thy heart into purity ; ' This path however is only traversed by the active pilgrim, ' How canst thou, the world's idol, perform such a task ?" It is reported that Saiyid Hasan of Shiraz, who was styled " the sage, the embellishment of pure " faith and works," one day said thus : " On a cer- " tain day, two followers of the Sufis came into " the presence of Azar Kaivan, and pursuing the ** path of opposition to the Master of Sciences, '* treated him not as one possessed of perfection. *' Their teacher, a man equally eminent in theoreti- " cal and practical science, who by dominion over ** the external world had established the relation 4 * of spiritual intercourse with the holy prophet, fell " one night into a state of ecstasy, and beheld in his " trance the effulgent perfection of the prophet, " who said to him : My son! tell thy disciples * 4 * that through the assistance of the Only Wise ** * and the Omnipotent, who is independent of all, " 'Ali Kaivan is a completely perfect man, who has " * attained to the different degrees of spiritual do- " ' minion, by the practice of the seven cordial " ' ejaculations, and varied mysterious illumina- 91 ' tions, visions, revelations, spiritual realities in his 4 acts and attributes : moreover his evanescent ' existence, through grace predestined from eter- 4 nity, has received the boon of divine nature -, * equally versed in special and general providence ; ' unique in the true knowledge of things from ' inspection, not contented with the illumination 4 of tradition ; the most perfect master of the ' seekers after truth in matters of worship, seclu- ' sion, social intercourse, and whatever is meet ' and suitable to their state in all kinds of insti- * tutes and religious austerities. He is the true ' philosopher ; the physician of the human race; * the discipline of religion ; the institute of the ' devout; the interpreter of events; the instructor ' of worship ; the director of those who seek God, ' labouring diligently in the purification of souls ; l . co-operating in the cleansing of hearts ; the spi- * ritual champion of the law ; fighting the good * fight of faith ; the principle of truth ; confirmed ' in the knowledge, source, and evidence of cer- ' tainty ; supported by divine aid in the funda- * mental points and collateral inductions. Let * not thy disciples calumniate him, but esteem ' him a holy personage, and regard attendance on ' him as pregnant with happiness : do thou also * approach his presence, and use every effort to * conciliate his affection. 1 The teacher having 92 44 during his ecstacy repeated this panegyric seve- " ral times, 1 committed the words to writing, and ** on the holy man's arising from his ecstatic trance, 44 he summoned me and said: ' Who in this city " ' is Azar Kaivan? The prophet hath praised him " * exceedingly, and ordered me to go into his pre- " * sence.' I answered : * He has lately come hi- " ' ther from the direction of Istakhar :' on which " he replied : ' Conduct me near him.' I therefore " accompanied him, but was ignorant of Kaivan's 44 residence. When we had proceeded some time, " one of Kaivan's disciples, by name Farhad, came 44 near him and said : * The master (that is Kaivan) 44 ' invites you, and has sent me to be your guide.' " When we came into his presence, my teacher had 44 determined in his mind to salute him first, but ' ' was unable to obtain the priority, as Azar Kaivan 44 had much sooner anticipated him in salutations 44 in the Persian language, and afterwards addressed 44 him in Arabic. We were struck with astonish - " ment. My teacher then repeated what he had 4i communicated to me concerning the vision, on 44 which Kaivan commanded him * not to remove " 4 the veil of this mystery.' ' The teacher, on his return, having called before him his two misguided disciples, recounted the perfections of Kaivan, and enjoined them to abstain from censuring the holy man. For as Sadi says : 95 " Respecting the thicket, imagine it not unoccupied, " A tiger may probably be couched there. Azar Kaivan mixed little with the people of the world ; he shunned with horror all public admirers; and seldom gave audience to any but his disciples and the searchers after truth ; never exposing him- self to the public gaze. According to Shaikh Baha Uddin Muhammad of Amil, " If thou have not guards in front and rear to keep off the crowd, " Aversion to mixing with crowds will be a sufficient safeguard to thee." Farzanah Bahrain- relates in the Sharistan, that Kai- van expressed himself after this manner : " The con- " nexion of my spirit with this body, formed of the " elements, resembles the relation of the body to a ** loose robe; whenever I wish I can separate my- ' ' self from it, and resume it at my desire. " The same author also thus relates of him, in the text of the Jam-i-Kai Khusro, wherein are recounted some of his revelations and spiritual communications : " When I passed in rapid flight from material bodies, " I drew near a pure and happy spirit ; " With the eye of spirit I beheld spirits : " My spirit was moving amidst kindred spirits: " In every sphere and star I beheld a spirit; " Each sphere and star possessed its peculiar spirit; " Thus in the three kingdoms of nature I beheld a common spirit, " As their spirit was mutually communicated to each other. " I attained the knowledge of all existences, " And was associated with the great Ser6sh Ramah. 1 But when I reached a great elevation, 1 Edit, of Calcutta : flM* ^>f^ o~*> .^ j y. In one 9-4 " Splendor from the Almighty gave me light; " As the radiance increased this individuality departed; 1 " Even ihe angelic nature and the principle of evil disappeared : " God only existed, there was no sign of me " (or of my individual existence): 2 " I no longer retained intellect or recollection of spirit: 3 I discovered all my secrets to be but shadows; " I then returned to the angelic intelligences, " And from these intelligences 1 came back to the spirit; ' And thus at last to bodies also summoning me. " In this manner I became powerful, wise, and sublime, " Until I descended from that high degree " Upon the road by which I had gone up, I returned to my body " With a hundred divine favours 4 deriving splendor from that assemblage ; " The dignity of the Supreme Lord is too exalted " For intercourse with his servants to be worthy of him. " By his effulgence intellect becomes (illumined) like the earth or sun; " He is elevated too high for his servants to hold intercourse with him: " If the spirit receives illumination from him, " It becomes beside itself, and its speech is ' I am without intellect' manuscript: *^_3b C..15..J o-** 3 i/i?-?-.?' In the manuscript of Oude : ^ Jji e~~i a. ^- The first is best ' JL9j 1 Edit, of Calcutta and the manuscript of Oude have : JLV.J jJ J*. ^ ~xv&i. Two other manuscripts : ^Js! . Jolxi ^L^ The t_> ^ O -/-' ' O ~>J latter seems to be the better reading. 2 Edit, of Calcutta and the manuscript of Oude: . ***\3 ; two other manuscripts, /< I w the better reading by far. Calcutta and the manuscript of Oude have 4 The text has : and * the edit, of Izedi means any thing given for God's sake, or as one's due; here it seems 95 " The world is a drop which proceeds from the ocean of his existence ;* " What is the dropping dew ? it is Himself (God); " Thou art not the dropping dew, but only a drop among the drops of it. " I know not what to say, as the result of all is deficiency : " Through love he confers bounties on his servants; " As it is proper to raise up the down-fallen " His love renders the mendicant a man of power. " The world is but a ray emanating from the sun of his face: " The just Creator addressed me in kind words, " And conferred on me the splendor of an Ized ; " None but He can duly praise Himself, " As He cannot become the object of speech or hearing." Kaivan was master of noble demonstrations and subtile distinctions : one of the Moslem lawyers hav- ing asked him: " Why dost thou forbid thy follow- " ers from eating flesh, slaying animals, and injuring " living creatures?" He thus replied : " The seek- " ers of God are named the peculiar people of the to signify a divine gift. J^j , y^\ , ized, also ,jb^ r , yezdan, is the name of God, and may be derived from ^2T, t'*a, " to possess power," JGT, t'*Ao, " to give," ^cr, isha, to wish, or according to Hyde (p. 159), from .JwJ, ishten, supplicare, intercedere." Ized is also light, purity; it is the name of good spirits, created for the good of the world, and appointed to protect individuals. A. T. ' In the Gulshen raz, a poem quoted in our note p. 82, this idea is expressed in several verses, of which the following: s j Utj jb 6^89 " The world, which is composed of intellect, soul, heavens, and bodies, " Know them to be as a drop from beginning to end." Room is wanted for quoting, as a curious coincidence with this image, four beautiful strophes of Klopstock, from his ode " Die FmhUngs feyer," the Festivity of Spring. A. T. 96 " heart ; and the heart itself, the true Kaabah : ' ' therefore, what is an abomination in the sanctuary " formed of water and clay cannot ajortiori be suit- " able to the true Kaabah: that is, the eating of " animals and the slaughter of living creatures. A ' ' great man says : " I have heard that a sheep once thus addressed the butcher, " At the moment he prepared to cut off her head with his sword : " ' I now behold the retribution of every bush and bramble of which I " ' tasted; " ' What then shall that person not experience who eats my fatted " ' loin?'" Kaivan also said : " If you think proper, keep your " tenets secret wherever you happen to be, conceal- " ing them even from your brethren in the faith; " as they, for the confirmation of their system, will *' make you publicly known." Azizi also says : " As long as thou canst, communicate not thy secret to thy friend ; " For that friend has another ; beware therefore of thy friend's friend?" Some one asked him : " In the schism of Abad " Ansari, which faith shall I adopt, and whose " arguments must I regard as true?" Azar Kaivan replied: " Remain in the same faith that, until the ** present time, God doeth as seemeth good to him; * * and for the time to come he will do whatever he " thinks proper." Urfi of Shiraz says, l Thy essence is able to call into being all that is impossible, " Except to create one like thyself!" ' This verse has already been quoted, page 6. 97 He once said to a holy man : " The knowledge of ** evanescent objects is not properly knowledge, but 4 ' bears the same relation to reality as the mirage * ' of the desert to water : the searcher after which 1 * obtains nothing but an increase of thirst. Shah * ' Subhan says : ' Men favoured by fortune drink the wine of true knowledge; " They do not, like fools, quaff the dregs of infidelity; 41 The science acquired in colleges and by human capacity " Is like water drawn out of the well by a sieve." They once observed to Kaivan : ' ' Notwithstanding ' the great exertions made by his highness the sin- " cere and faithful Akbar, and the grand justiciary, " the caliph Omar, and the possessor of the two ' lights, Os man, in the way of the faith proved by " miracles, and their mighty labors in diffusing its " institutes, the Shee-ites are opposed to these " great personages?" He replied : *' The mass of " mankind are acted upon by time and place, in " opposition to the seekers after truth. It is also ' to be observed that the people of Iran have adopted " the Shee-ite faith; and as the above-mentioned kt great personages destroyed the fire-temples of 44 that nation, and overturned their ancient religion, " therefore rebellion and envy have remained in " their hearts." Two learned men having a dispute concerning the superiority of the chosen Ah', " the Elect" (whose 7 98 face may God honor), over the two Shaikhs and the Lord of the two lights (Osmar), (upon all of whom be the mercy of the Almighty) having referred the dispute to Kaivan, he observed: " All four are the four perfections of the prophetic edifice; " All four are the four elements of the prophets' souls." 44 The distinction between the two exalted parties 44 is difficult, as two of them claim supremacy on the " celebrity (drum) of being fathers-in-law to the * * Arab founder of religion ; and the other two are " fitted for dignity, by being sons-in-law to the 44 apostle of the Arabs. But whereas all things are 4 ' objects of the Almighty's regard, the excellent 44 Ali, * the Lion of God,' was esteemed so pre-emi- 4 ' nent an object of divine favor among the Moslems, 44 that want of faith and ignorance induced many " to worship him as the true God, until this great 44 personage openly disclaimed such a pretension. * ' Also during the pontificate and caliphat of Sadik, ' 4 ' the faithful witness,' the powerful Abubeker, " 4 the separator,' the grand Omar, and that of Zu- " l-Narain, l the Lord of the two Lights,' error 44 misled many to such a degree, that they denied 14 their authority, until these legitimate directors 44 asserted their claims to that dignity." l 1 Allusion is here made to the four immediate successors of Moham- med; these were Abubeker, Omar, Osman, and Alt'. The first who took the title of khalif, that is " lieutenant of the Pro- 99 He returned an answer of a similar description in a dispute between a Jew, a Christian, and a Musel- man, who were arguing about the superiority of their " phet," was Abdallah, better known by the name of Jo y }, Abubeker, " Father of the Virgin," so called because Aisha, his daughter, was the only one of Mohammed's wives who had not been before married to an- other man. He was also distinguished by the title of . JJjJUo sadik, or ' the faithful witness," given to him because he, the first Muselman after Mohammed's preaching, attested the miracle of the Prophet's ascension to heaven. It was he who collected the verses of the Koran, which were written upon separate leaves, into one volume, called Al- moihaf, " the book by excellence," the original text of which was deposited in the hands of Hafsat, daughter of Omar and widow of Mohammed. After a reign of two years and three months, he died in the year 13 of the Hejira, 634 A.D., not without having named his successor. This was Omar Ben al-Khetab, known under the title of . a. Aj fa'ru'k', " the separator," so called by Mohammed, because he had separated the head from the body of a Muselman who, not satisfied with the decision which the Prophet had given in a law-suit, came to submit the case to Omar's revision. Under Abubeker's khalifat, Omar acted as chief of justice, or chancellor. As khalif he was the first A who took the title of ^jjusj^l j^>\, Emir al-Mu'ment'm, " prince or " commander of the faithful," which title devolved to all his successors. He conquered Syria, Chaldaea, Mesopotamia, Persia, and Egypt, and built the town of Bassora at the mouth of the Tigris, in order to prevent the Persians from taking the route to India by the gulph of Persia. After a reign of ten years he was killed by the hand of a Persian slave, who, having complained of his master's cruelty to him, did not receive the expected redress. Omar, a judge cruel but just, would not fix the right of succession upon his son, but wishing to keep the khalifat elective, named six persons, called .CijiJj J-t, Q hel al-shurah, " people of council," who should choose a khalif among themselves. Among these were Osman and Alt. After a hard contest between 100 respective prophets ; some acknowledging Jesus as God, the others as the Son of God. One day as a Christian and Muselman were disputing with each these two competitors, the former, supported by his four colleagues, was proclaimed khalifat the end of the year 23, or the beginning of 24 of the Hejira, 643 or 644 A. D. Osman Ben Affan was called by his partisans ,.*> vj-v! j3, no ul nardin, *' the possessor of two lights," because he had married Rakiah and Omm al Kachum, both daughters of Moham- med, whose prophecy was supposed to be the source of light diffused over his whole posterity. Osman published the Koran such as it was in the original text, deposited (as was before said) in the hands of Hafsat, one of Mohammed's widows, and he caused all copies, differing from this one, to be suppressed. The domination of the Mohammedans was established and extended, to the east, in Khorassen and in Upper Asia: to the west, over the whole northern coast of Africa and even a part of Spain, during thisk halif's reign, which, after eleven years, termin- ated by his violent death in an insurrection which took place against him in Egypt, The Egyptians offered the government to AH As before mentioned, he was one of the six persons named by Omar as fit for the khalifat, which AH claimed as his right, being the cousin-german and son-in-law (husband of Fatima, the eldest daughter) of Mohammed, and thus the head of the family of the Hashemites, who were distinguished by the name of " the house of the Prophet." After Osman's death, AH was by his party proclaimed the head of the Muselmans. His title was juJ v Jladl &lM, as sad allah al-ghaleb," the lion of God, the victorious." Possessed of great learning, he composed several celebrated works in prose and in verse, although he had to sustain a continual struggle with the adverse party. He was assassinated in Kufa, in the year 40 of the Hejira, 660 A. D. After him, his sons Hassan and Hossain (see note 3, pp. 47-48) fell victims to Moavia, a relation of Osman, and the mortal enemy of the whole race of AH. The contest between these two parties Mas, after the death of their chiefs, carried on by their numerous adherents, and, connected as it is with some difference in their religious opinions and rites, continues to our days. Ali is acknowledged the head of the 101 other, the former allowing the death of Jesus, and the latter believing him to be alive, Azar Kaivan said: " If a person who knew not the direction of '* a road which formed his destination, should in ' ' the course of his journey come to a dead body 44 lying down, and a living person seated, from " which of the two ought he to inquire his way?" As the disputants both replied, " from the living 41 person;" he then said to the Muselman: 4< Adopt 4 thou the faith of Jesus, as according to thy belief ' he is living." He then added : * ' By life is meant 1 the life of the rational soul : in this Mohammed ' and Jesus are on an equality ; call your prophets * 4 the ' eternal living :' for life means not the per- 44 petuity of this body fashioned out of the elements, * ; which cannot accompany us beyond a hundred " or a hundred and twenty natural stages (years)." Azizi says: " If the domestic fowl should lly along with the fowls of the air, " It could not proceed in flight beyond the summit of the wall." A hermit once came into Zu-l-Ulum's ' presence; i Shidts, which word means in general " a troop, a party," but is particularly applied to those who believe that the Imamat, or the supreme dignity over the .Muselmans, belongs by right to AH and his descendants, who call themselves Alddiliats, or " the party of the just." Opposed to them are the Sonnites, so called from the Arabic word sonnat, which signifies " precept, rule," or the orthodox faith of Muselmans, com- prehending the traditional laws relative to whatever has not been written by the great legislator (see Ilerbelot, sub toe.). A. T. 1 Zu-1-Ulum, " master of sciences," was a title of Kaivan. 102 he pronounced a panegyric on the opposition to sensual passions exhibited by pious Moslem believers: and then added : ' * There is no limit to the opposi- * ' tion to these passions : even the unbeliever through " the practice of austerities finally becomes a Mos- " lem." He also added: " An exemplary unbe- ' ' liever had become able to work miracles : a Shaikh *' went to him one day and asked : * By what route ' ' * hast thou attained to this dignity?' He replied, " * By opposing the suggestions of the passions.' ' * On which the Shaikh answered : * Now turn to " * Islamism, as thy soul has admitted infidelity.' " On hearing which the unbeliever became a fol- " lower of Islamism." Kaivan observed : " The " Shaikh must have been an infidel, as his soul was ** slill seeking after Islamism, or the true religion." Urfi says: Lay aside the recollection of (these words) belief and unbelief, as they " excite great disputes; " For according to our (supposed) bad doctrines, all persons think " aright." A person once came to Zu-1-Ulum, and said : " I " propose embracing the profession of a durvesh, " and breaking asunder the chains which bind me " to the world." Kaivan replied, " It is well." Some days after, he returned to Kaivan, and said: " I am at present engaged in procuring the patched " tunic, cap, wallet, and other things necessary for 105 " my profession." Zu-1-Ulum observed : " The ' * profession of a durvesh consists in resigning every " thing and abandoning all manner of preparations, " and not in accumulation of any kind." A merchant through penury having assumed the dress of hypocrisy, appeared in a Shaikh's garb, and many persons devoutly regarded him as a holy man. He one day came before Kaivan and said : ' ' Often have wretches plundered me on the road : 11 it was however for a good purpose, in order that " by embracing the life of a durvesh I might attain *' the great object of salvation." Azar Kaivan re- plied : * ' Be not grieved, as thou art now plundering *' mankind by way of retaliation." " The society of Urfi pleases not the superior of our monastery ; " Because the superior is a foe to the intelligent and UrQ to the stupid." At present some of Kaivan's disciples, as far as the author's acquaintance extends, are about to be enumerated. Farzanah Kharrdd, of the family of Mahbud, who had been the khan salar (royal table-decker or taster) to the equitable monarch Nushirvan, l and put to 1 Nushirvan, called by the Arabs Kesra, by the Persians Khosru, is reckoned by some authors the 19th (by others the 20th) Persian king of the Sassanian dynasty, which, according to different opinions, was com- posed of 31, 30, or 29 princes, and lasted 527, 500, or 431 years. Nushirvan reigned from 531 to 579 after J C. He was called " the " just:" from the outside of his palace to his room was drawn a chain, by the motion of which he could have notice of any complainant who 104 death through the sorcery of a Jew and the calum- nies of a chamberlain, as recorded in the Shah Namah of the king of poets, Ferdiisi, and in other histories : Kharrad joined himself to Kaivan in the bazar of Shiraz, and practised religious austerities for many years. Farzanah Khushi has often men- tioned in conversation, and has also frequently repeated in the Bazm-gah-i-Durveshdn, " the Dur- '* vesh's banquet ling-room," the following circum- stance: " I one day beheld Kharrad and Ardeshir " (a descendant of Ardeshir Babegan, 1 and one of ** Kaivan's disciples), standing face to face and mu- ' * tually opposing each other : whenever Ardeshir wanted redress. He was victorious .in the east and west of Asia ; he destroyed the prophet Mazdak ( of whom see hereafter, section XV ) ; he brought from India to Persia the fables of Pilpay, called Anvari Sohili , " the Canopian lights," and a game similar to chess. During his reign Mohammed was born. Nushirvan's favorite minister, Buzerg-Mihr, called also Bvzer-Jmihr, was famous for virtue and wisdom; about both these personages a great number of marvellous and fabulous accounts forms the matter of favorite poems in the East. A. T. 1 Ardeshir Babegan was the first king, and founder of the IVth dynasty of Persian kings, called the Sasssa'm'dns, or the Khosroes. His father was .S'assan, a descendant of another Sassan, the son of Bahman Isfen- diar, the 6th king of the lid Persian dynasty, called the Kaya'ni a n. The latter Sassan was reduced to a low station, having become the shep- herd of Babek, a wealthy man, whose daughter he married ; he had by her a son named Ardeshir, who took the name of his maternal grand- father (which is to be noted as an Indian custom): hence he was called Babegan. He is identified with the Artaxerxes of the Greeks, a contem- porary of the Roman emperor Commodus ( A. D. 180-193 ). The epoch of his reign is one of the most uncertain points of Persian history. It may be Qxed from the year 200 to 240 of the Christian era. -A. T. 105 " wished to smite Kharrad with a sword, he ap- " peared like a stone, so that when the sword came ' ' into contact with his body, it was instantly broken